EFI 02-89-Rev

hep-ph/0206176
January 2003
Resource Letter SM-1: The Standard Model and Beyond
Jonathan L. Rosner
Enrico Fermi Institute and Department of Physics
University of Chicago, 5640 South Ellis Avenue, Chicago IL 60637, USA
arXiv:hep-ph/0206176v5 9 Jan 2003

This Resource Letter provides a guide to literature on the Standard Model

of elementary particles and possible extensions. In the successful theory
of quarks and leptons and their interactions, important questions remain,
such as the mechanism of electroweak symmetry breaking, the origin of
quark and lepton masses, the source of the baryon asymmetry of the Uni-
verse, and the makeup of its matter and energy density. References are
cited for quarks and leptons, gauge theories, color and chromodynam-
ics, weak interactions, electroweak unification, CP violation, dynamics of
heavy quarks, Higgs bosons, precision electroweak measurements, super-
symmetry, dynamical electroweak symmetry breaking, composite quarks
and leptons, grand unification and extended gauge groups, string the-
ories, large extra dimensions, neutrino masses, cosmic microwave back-
ground radiation, dark matter, dark energy, accelerator facilities, and
non-accelerator experiments.

I. INTRODUCTION

The “Standard Model” of elementary particle physics encompasses the progress

of the past half-century in understanding the weak, electromagnetic, and strong in-
teractions. During this period tremendous strides were made in bringing quantum
field theory to bear upon a wide variety of phenomena.
The arsenal of techniques for understanding the strong interactions in the 1960s
included principles based on analyticity, unitarity, and symmetry. The successes of the
emerging quark model often seemed mysterious. The ensuing decade yielded a theory
of strong interactions, quantum chromodynamics (QCD), permitting calculations of
a wide range of properties of the hadrons, or strongly interacting particles, and has
been validated by the discovery of its force-carrier, the gluon.
In the 1960s the weak interactions were represented by a phenomenological four-
fermion theory of no use for higher-order calculations. Attempts to describe weak
interactions with heavy boson exchange bore fruit when these interactions were unified
with electromagnetism and a suitable mechanism for generation of heavy boson mass
was found. This electroweak theory has been spectacularly successful, leading to the
prediction and observation of the W and Z bosons and to precision tests confirming
the theory’s validity in higher-order calculations.
This Resource Letter begins with sections devoted to the resources available for
study of the Standard Model of particle physics and its extensions: periodicals (II),

1
conference proceedings (III), texts and reviews (IV), historical references (V), popular
literature (VI), Internet resources (VII), and a guide to Nobel prizes related to the
subject (VIII).
A description of Standard Model research literature follows. In Section IX, based
in part on [1], the ingredients of the standard model — the quarks and leptons and
their interactions – are introduced, and QCD is discussed briefly. The unified theory of
weak and electromagnetic interactions is described, its role in explaining CP violation
is explained, and its missing piece – the Higgs boson – is mentioned.
Important questions remain that are not addressed in the Standard Model. These
include the unification of the electroweak and strong interactions (possibly including
gravity), the origin of quark and lepton masses, the source of the baryon asymmetry
of the Universe, and the nature of its unseen matter and energy density. Some
proposed Standard Model extensions devoted to these problems are noted in Section
X. Concrete evidence for physics beyond the Standard Model, including neutrino
masses, cosmic microwave background radiation, dark matter, and “dark energy,”
is described in Section XI. A variety of experimental methods are appropriate for
probing these phenomena (Section XII). A brief summary (Section XIII) concludes.

1. “The Standard Model in 2001,” J. L. Rosner, based on five lectures at the

55th Scottish Universities’ Summer School in Particle Physics, St. Andrews,
Scotland, August 7–23, 2001. Published in Heavy Flavour Physics (Theory
and Experimental Results on Heavy Quark Physics and CP Viola-
tion), edited by C. T. H. Davies and S. M. Playfer (Institute of Physics, Bristol
and Philadelphia, 2002), pp. 1–56. (I)

II. PERIODICALS

The literature on the Standard Model of particle physics and its extensions is
extensive and international, but a good sense of the field can be gained by perusing
about a dozen main journals. Subsequent sections are devoted to other means of
gaining information about this rapidly changing subject.

Instrumentation journals with some articles on elementary particle physics:

IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science
Nuclear Instruments and Methods A
Review of Scientific Instruments
Journals devoted primarily or largely to elementary particle physics:
European Journal of Physics C
Fizika Elementarnykh Chastits i Atomnogo Yadra (Soviet Journal of Particles and
Nuclei)
International Journal of Modern Physics A
Journal of High Energy Physics (“JHEP”; electronic)
Journal of Physics G
Modern Physics Letters A
Nuclear Physics B

2
 Nuovo Cimento A
Physical Review D
Physics Letters B
Progress of Theoretical Physics (Kyoto)
Yadernaya Fizika (Soviet Journal of Nuclear Physics –1992; Physics of Atomic
Nuclei 1993–).
Zeitschrift für Physik C, now absorbed into European Journal of Physics C
Zhurnal Eksperimental’nyi i Teoreticheskii Fizika (Soviet Physics - JETP)
Laboratory newsletters:
CERN Courier (European Center for Nuclear Research); web address:
http://www.cerncourier.com/
FermiNews (Fermilab, USA); web address:
http://www.fnal.gov/pub/ferminews/
SLAC Beam Line (Stanford Linear Accelerator Center); web address:
http://www.slac.stanford.edu/pubs/beamline/
Rapid publication journals with section devoted to particle physics:
Chinese Physics Letters
Europhysics Letters
Physical Review Letters
Pis’ma v Zhurnal Eksperimental’nyi i Teoreticheskii Fizika (JETP Letters)
Review journals:
Annals of Physics (N.Y.)
Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science
Physics Reports
Reports on Progress in Physics
Reviews of Modern Physics
Other journals with frequent articles on particle physics or related subjects:
Acta Physica Polonica
American Journal of Physics
Astroparticle Physics
Astrophysical Journal
Nature
New Scientist
Physics Today (AIP)
Physics World (IOP)
Progress of Theoretical Physics (Japan)
Science
Science News
Scientific American

III. CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS

The latest biennial “Rochester” Conference in High Energy Physics was held in
Amsterdam in July 2002; the previous one was in Osaka in 2000 [2]. In odd-numbered

3
years there occur both the International Symposium on Lepton and Photon Interac-
tions at High Energies, of which the most recent was in Rome [3], and the International
Europhysics Conference on High Energy Physics, most recently held in Budapest [4].
The locations of each of these conferences since 1990 are summarized in Table 1. A
search of the SPIRES listing at the SLAC Library (see Sec. VII) is the easiest way to
find the corresponding Proceedings.

Table 1: Locales of major high energy physics conferences since 1990. (1) Interna-
tional Conference on High Energy Physics (“Rochester” Conference); (2) Interna-
tional Symposium on Lepton and Photon Interactions at High Energies; (3) Interna-
tional Europhysics Conference on High Energy Physics.

(1) (2) (3)

Year Location Year Location Year Location
1990 Singapore 1991 Geneva 1991 Geneva
1992 Dallas, TX 1993 Ithaca, NY 1993 Marseille
1994 Glasgow 1995 Beijing 1995 Brussels
1996 Warsaw 1997 Hamburg 1997 Jerusalem
1998 Vancouver 1999 Stanford 1999 Tampere, Finl.
2000 Osaka 2001 Rome 2001 Budapest
2002 Amsterdam 2003 Fermilab 2003 Aachen

2. XXX International Conference on High Energy Physics (ICHEP

2000), Osaka, Japan, 27 Jul - 2 Aug 2000, edited by C. S. Lim and T. Ya-
manaka (World Scientific, Singapore, 2001). (I)

3. 20th International Symposium on Lepton and Photon Interactions at

High Energies (Lepton Photon 01), Rome, Italy, 23–28 July 2001, edited
by J. Lee-Franzini, P. Franzini, and F. Bossi (World Scientific, Singapore, 2002).
(I)

4. International Europhysics Conference on High Energy Physics (High

Energy Physics 2001: Proceedings), Budapest, Hungary, July 2001 edited
by D. Horvath, P. Levai, and A. Patkos (JHEP, 2001). (I)

IV. TEXTBOOKS, EXPOSITIONS, AND REVIEW ARTICLES

This section indicates textbooks and articles at the intermediate or advanced level.
For popularizations at the non-specialist’s level, see Section VI.

A. Textbooks

1. Quantum field theory:

4
5. Quantum Field Theory, C. Itzykson and J. B. Zuber (McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1980). (A)

6. Gauge Theory of Elementary Particle Physics, T. P. Cheng and L. F. Li

(Clarendon, Oxford, 1984). (A)

7. Field Theory: A Modern Primer, 2nd Edition, P. Ramond, Frontiers of

Physics 74, 1–329 (1989). (A)

8. Quantum Field Theory, L. S. Brown (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992). (A)

9. Quantum Field Theory, F. Mandl and G. Shaw, Revised Edition (Wiley-

Interscience, Chichester, UK, 1993). (I)

10. An Introduction to Quantum Field Theory, M. E. Peskin and D. V.

Schroeder (Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1995). (A)

11. The Quantum Theory of Fields. Vol. 1: Foundations, S. Weinberg (Cam-

bridge Univ. Press, 1995). (A)

12. The Quantum Theory of Fields. Vol. 2: Modern Applications, S. Wein-

berg (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996). (A)

13. Quantum Field Theory, 2nd Edition, L. H. Ryder (Cambridge Univ. Press,
1996). (I)

2. Standard model (electroweak and strong interactions):

14. Leptons and Quarks, L. B. Okun’ (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1982). (I)

15. Quarks and Leptons: An Introductory Course in Modern Particle

Physics, F. Halzen and A. D. Martin (Wiley, New York, 1984). (I)

16. Weak Interactions and Modern Particle Theory, H. Georgi (Ben-

jamin/Cummings, Menlo Park, CA, 1985). (I)

17. Dynamics of the Standard Model, J. F. Donoghue, E. Golowich, and B. R.

Holstein, Cambridge Monogr. Part. Phys. Nucl. Phys. Cosmol. 2, 1–540 (1992).
(I)

18. Gauge Theories of the Strong, Weak, and Electromagnetic Interac-

tions, C. Quigg, (Addison-Wesley, 1997). (I)

19. An Introduction to the Standard Model of Particle Physics, W. N.

Cottingham and D. A. Greenwood (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1998). (I)

3. CP violation:

20. CP Violation, edited by C. Jarlskog (World Scientific, Singapore, 1989). (I)

5
21. CP Violation, I. I. Y. Bigi and A. I. Sanda, Cambridge Monogr. Part. Phys.
Nucl. Phys. Cosmol. 9, 1–382 (2000). (I)

22. CP Violation, G. C. Branco, L. Lavoura, and J. P. Silva (Clarendon Press,

Oxford, 1999). (I)

4. Elementary particle phenomenology:

23. An Introduction to Quarks and Partons, F. E. Close (Academic Press,

London, 1979). (I)

24. Concepts of Particle Physics, K. Gottfried and V. F. Weisskopf (Oxford

Univ. Press, 1984 [Vol. 1]; 1986 [Vol. 2]). (I)

25. The Experimental Foundations of Particle Physics, R. N. Cahn and G.

Goldhaber (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1989). (I)

26. Collider Physics, V. D. Barger and R. J. N. Phillips, updated edition

(Addison-Wesley, Redwood City, CA, 1997). (I)

27. Introduction to High-Energy Physics, 4th Edition, D. H. Perkins (Cam-

bridge Univ. Press, 2000). (I)

5. Symmetries:

28. The Eightfold Way, M. Gell-Mann and Y. Ne’eman (New York, Benjamin,
1964). (I)

29. Lie Groups, Lie Algebras, and Some of Their Applications, R. Gilmore
(Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1974). (I)

30. Semi-Simple Lie Algebras and Their Representations, R. N. Cahn (Ben-

jamin/Cummings, 1984). (I) See also:
http://phyweb.lbl.gov/~rncahn/www/liealgebras/book.html.

31. Lie Algebras in Particle Physics, 2nd Edition, H. Georgi (Perseus Books,
1999). (I)

6. Higgs boson(s):

32. The Higgs Hunter’s Guide, J. F. Gunion, H. E. Haber, G. Kane, and S.

Dawson (Addison-Wesley, Redwood City, CA, 1990). (I)

33. Perspectives on Higgs Physics, edited by G. L. Kane (World Scientific,

Singapore, 1993). (I)

34. Perspectives on Higgs Physics II, edited by G. L. Kane (World Scientific,

Singapore, 1997). (I)

6
7. Neutrinos:

35. Solar Neutrinos: The First Thirty Years, edited by J. N. Bahcall et

al. (Frontiers in Physics, 2002). (I)

8. Supersymmetry:

36. Supersymmetry and Supergravity, 2nd Edition, J. Wess and J. Bagger

(Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ, 1992). (A)

37. Perspectives on Supersymmetry, edited by G. L. Kane (World Scientific,

Singapore, 1998). (I)

38. The Quantum Theory of Fields. Vol. 3: Supersymmetry, S. Weinberg

(Cambridge Univ. Press, 2000). (A)

9. Beyond the Standard Model:

39. Electroweak Symmetry Breaking and New Physics at the TeV Scale,
edited by T. Barklow et al. (World Scientific, Singapore, 1996). (A)

40. Journeys beyond the Standard Model, P. Ramond (Perseus Books, Read-
ing, Mass., 1999). (I)

10. String theory:

41. Superstring Theory. Vol. 1: Introduction, M. B. Green, J. H. Schwarz,

and E. Witten (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1987). (A)

42. Superstring Theory. Vol. 2: Loop Amplitudes, Anomalies, and Phe-

nomenology, M. B. Green, J. H. Schwarz, and E. Witten (Cambridge Univ.
Press, 1987). (A)

43. String Theory. Vol. 1: An Introduction to the Bosonic String, J.

Polchinski (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1998). (A)

44. String Theory. Vol. 2: Superstring Theory and Beyond, J. Polchinski

(Cambridge Univ. Press, 1998). (A)

B. Expositions (summer school lectures, collections of articles)

A conference on kaon physics was held at the University of Chicago in 1999 as

part of a series. A volume of articles based on the conference gives an overview of
the field [45].
Regular summer schools in particle physics are organized in several locales, in-
cluding Boulder (Colorado), Cargèse (Corsica), CERN, Erice (Sicily), and SLAC

7
(Stanford). The topics typically vary from year to year but there are frequently lec-
tures on various aspects of the Standard Model (see, e.g., the lectures on CP violation
by Nir [46] and the overview by Rosner [1]).
The Theoretical Advanced Study Institute (TASI) at the University of Colorado
was devoted in June of 2000 to flavor physics, a major aspect of the Standard Model,
and the proceedings also contain various aspects of proposed physics beyond the
Standard Model [47]. For specific reviews given at summer schools, see the subsection
on Reviews, below.

45. Kaon Physics, edited by J. L. Rosner and B. Winstein (University of Chicago

Press, 2001). (I)

46. “CP violation in and Beyond the Standard Model,” Y. Nir, Lectures given at
27th SLAC Summer Institute on Particle Physics: CP Violation in and Beyond
the Standard Model (SSI 99), Stanford, California, 7–16 July 1999, Institute
for Advanced Study report IASSNS-HEP-99-96, hep-ph/9911321. (A)

47. TASI-2000: Flavor Physics for the Millennium, edited by J. L. Rosner

(World Scientific, Singapore, 2001). (I)

C. Review Articles

A number of review articles will be referred to in the narrative of the Standard

Model and its extensions (Secs. X–XIII). These include the following:
1. Gauge theories:

48. “Gauge Theories,” E. S. Abers and B. W. Lee, Phys. Rep. 9, 1–141 (1973). (I)

2. Standard Model: In addition to Rosner (2001) [1], see:

49. “The Electroweak Theory,” C. Quigg, in [47], pp. 3–67.

3. Hadron spectra and quarks:

50. “Charm and Beyond,” T. Appelquist, R. M. Barnett, and K. D. Lane, Ann.

Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 28, 387 (1978). (I)

51. “Charmonium and Gluons: Basic Experimental Facts and Theoretical Intro-
duction,” V. A. Novikov et al., Phys. Rep. 41, 1–133 (1978). (I)

52. “Hadron Spectra and Quarks,” S. Gasiorowicz and J. L. Rosner, Am. J. Phys.
49, 954–984 (1981). (I)

53. “Heavy Quark Systems,” W. Kwong, C. Quigg, and J. L. Rosner, Ann. Rev.
Nucl. Part. Sci. 37, 325–382 (1987). (I)

54. “Upsilon Spectroscopy,” W. Buchmüller and S. Cooper, Adv. Ser. Direct. High
Energy Phys. 1, 412–487 (1988). (I)

8
55. “Heavy Quark Symmetry,” N. Isgur and M. B. Wise, Adv. Ser. Direct. High
Energy Phys. 10, 549–572 (1992). (I)

4. Group theory:

56. “Group Theory for Unified Model Building,” R. Slansky, Phys. Rep. 79, 1–128
(1981). (I)

5. Neutrino physics:

Massive neutrinos and neutrino oscillations:

57. “Massive Neutrinos and Neutrino Oscillations,” S. M. Bilenky and S. T. Petcov,

Rev. Mod. Phys. 59, 671–754 (1987). (I)

58. “Neutrino Mass, Mixing, and Oscillation,” B. Kayser, in [47], pp. 625–650;
“Neutrino Mass, Mixing, and Flavor Change,” B. Kayser, hep-ph/0211134, to
appear in Neutrino Mass, edited by G. Altarelli and K. Winter (Springer
Tracts in Modern Physics, 2002). (I)

59. “Oscillations of Atmospheric Neutrinos,” C. K. Jung, T. Kajita, T. Mann, and

C. McGrew, Ann. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 51, 451–488 (2001). (I)

60. See the web page of John N. Bahcall: http://www.sns.ias.edu/~jnb/ for

a list of review articles as well as up-to-the-minute information on neutrino
oscillation parameters.

Precision electroweak measurements using neutrinos:

61. “Precision Measurements with High Energy Neutrino Beams,” J. M. Conrad,

M. H. Shaevitz, and T. Bolton, Rev. Mod. Phys. 70, 1341–1392 (1998). (I)

6. Supersymmetry:

62. “A Supersymmetry Primer,” S. P. Martin, in Perspectives on Su-

persymmetry II, edited by G. L. Kane (World Scientific, Singa-
pore, 1997), pp. 1–98. (I) A current version may be found at
http://zippy.physics.niu.edu/primer.shtml .

63. “Report of the Beyond the MSSM Subgroup for the Tevatron Run II SUSY
/ Higgs Workshop,” to be published in the proceedings of Physics at Run II:
Workshop on Supersymmetry / Higgs (Summary Meeting, Batavia, IL, 19–21
Nov. 1998), preprint hep-ph/0006162 (unpublished). (A)

64. “Report of the SUGRA Working Group for Run II of the Tevatron,” S. Abel
et al., to be published in the proceedings of Physics at Run II: Workshop on
Supersymmetry / Higgs (Summary Meeting, Batavia, IL, 19–21 Nov. 1998),
preprint hep-ph/0003154 (unpublished). (A)

9
65. “Low-Scale and Gauge-Mediated Supersymmetry Breaking at the Fermilab
Tevatron Run II,” R. Culbertson et al., Fermilab report FERMILAB-PUB-
00-251-T, hep-ph/0008070 (unpublished). (A)

66. “The Snowmass Points and Slopes: Benchmarks for SUSY Searches,” B. C.
Allanach et al., presented at APS/DPF/DPB Summer Study on the Future of
Particle Physics (Snowmass 2001), Snowmass, Colorado, 30 June - 21 July 2001,
Eur. Phys. J. C 25, 113-123 (2002). (A)

67. “TASI Lectures: Weak Scale Supersymmetry – a Top-Motivated Bottom-Up

Approach,” G. L. Kane, preprint hep-ph/0202185 (unpublished). (I)

68. “Supersymmetry, Supergravity, and Particle Physics,” H. P. Nilles, Phys. Rep.

110, 1–162 (1984). (I)

69. “The Search for Supersymmetry: Probing Physics Beyond the Standard
Model,” H. E. Haber and G. L. Kane, Phys. Rep. 117, 75–263 (1985). (I)

70. “Introducing Supersymmetry,” M. F. Sohnius, Phys. Rep. 128, 39–204 (1986).

(I)

7. Extended gauge theories:

71. “Low-Energy Phenomenology of Superstring Inspired E6 Models,” J. L. Hewett

and T. G. Rizzo, Phys. Rep. 183, 193–381 (1989). (A)

8. Atomic parity violation:

72. “A Bibliography of Atomic Parity Violation and Electric Dipole Moment Ex-
periments,” C. E. Wieman, in [47], pp. 373–375. (I)

9. Particle properties and general lore:

A wide variety of mini-reviews of various aspects of the Standard Model may be found
in the Review of Particle Physics published by the Particle Data Group:

73. “Review of Particle Physics,” K. Hagiwara et al. (Particle Data Group), Phys.
Rev. D 66, 010001 (2002). (I)

D. Other Resource Letters

74. “Resource Letter WI-1: Weak Interactions,” B. R. Holstein, Am. J. Phys. 45,
1033–1039 (1977). (E–A)

75. “Resource Letter NP-1: New Particles,” Jonathan L. Rosner, Am. J. Phys. 48,
90–103 (1980). (Particles with charmed and beauty quarks.) (E–A)

76. “Resource Letter SP-2: Symmetry and Group Theory in Physics,” J. Rosen,
Am. J. Phys. 49, 304–319 (1981). (E–A)

10
77. “Resource Letter Q-1: Quarks,” O. W. Greenberg, Am. J. Phys. 50, 1074–1089
(1982). (E–A)

78. “Resource Letter CPP-1: Cosmology and Particle Physics,” D. Lindley, E. W.

Kolb, and D. N. Schramm, Am. J. Phys. 56, 492–501 (1988). (E–A)

79. “Resource Letter GI-1: Gauge Invariance,” T. P. Cheng and L. F. Li, Am. J.
Phys. 56, 586–600 (1988). (E–A)

80. “Resource Letter HEPP-1: History of Elementary Particle Physics,” R. C. Hovis

and H. Kragh, Am. J. Phys. 59, 779–807 (1991). (E–A)

81. “Quantum Chromodynamics,” A. S. Kronfeld and C. Quigg, in preparation.

(E–A)

V. HISTORICAL REFERENCES

A symposium on the history of Symmetries in Physics from 1600 to 1980 [82] con-
tains many informative articles. For a series of conferences on the history of particle
physics, culminating in the rise of the Standard Model, see [83, 84, 85]. The history of
quantum electrodynamics is detailed in [86], while Pais [87] has chronicled the devel-
opment of particle physics with particular emphasis on its earlier aspects. A review
of some later developments is given in [88]. Personal memoirs include those of a the-
orist with close ties to experiment (Sam B. Treiman [89]) and a Nobel-prize-winning
experimentalist (Jack Steinberger [90]). A collection of articles on supersymmetry
with a historical flavor is based on a recent symposium [91]. Two excellent accounts
of experimental high energy physics by P. Galison are [92] and [93].

82. First International Meeting on the History of Scientific Ideas, St. Feliu
de Guixols, Catalonia, Spain, Sept. 20–26, 1983, edited by M. G. Doncel, A.
Hermann, L. Michel, and A. Pais (Barcelona, Autonoma Univ., Phys. Dept.
1987). (I)

83. The Birth of Particle Physics. Proceedings, International Symposium,

Batavia, USA, May 28–31, 1980, edited by L. M. Brown and L. Hoddeson
(Cambridge Univ. Press, 1983). (I)

84. Pions to Quarks: Particle Physics in the 1950s. Proceedings, 2nd

International Symposium on the History of Particle Physics, Batavia,
USA, May 1–4, 1985, edited by L. M. Brown, L. Hoddeson, and M. Dresden
(Cambridge Univ. Press, 1989). (I)

85. The Rise of the Standard Model: Particle Physics in the 1960s and
1970s, edited by L. Hoddeson, L. Brown, M. Riordan, and M. Dresden, based
on 3rd International Symposium on the History of Particle Physics: The Rise of
the Standard Model, Stanford, CA, 24–27 June 1992 (Cambridge Univ. Press,
1997). (I)

11
86. QED and the Men Who Made It: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and
Tomonaga, S. S. Schweber (Princeton University Press, 1994). (I)

87. Inward Bound, A. Pais (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1986). (I)

88. “Elementary Particle Physics in the Second Half of the 20th Century,” V. L.
Fitch and J. L. Rosner, in Twentieth Century Physics, edited by L. M.
Brown, A. Pais, and B. Pippard, Vol. 2, pp. 635–794 (IOP, Philadelphia, 1994).
(I)

89. “A Life in Particle Physics,” S. Treiman, Ann. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 46, 1–30
(1996). (E)

90. “Early Particles,” J. Steinberger, Ann. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 47, xiii–xlii (1997).
(E)

91. The Supersymmetric World: The Beginning of the Theory, edited by

G. L. Kane and M. Shifman (World Scientific, Singapore, 2000). (A)

92. How Experiments End, P. Galison (Univ. of Chicago Press, 1987). (I)

93. Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics, P. Galison (Univ.

of Chicago Press, 1997). (I)

VI. POPULAR LITERATURE

A. Books

For descriptions of particle theory in a cosmological context see [94, 95]. A well-
written account of the experiments that led to the idea of quarks being taken seriously
is given in [96]. The goals of particle theory are described in [97, 98, 99], while
[100, 101] give the case for a fully unified theory. The ongoing search for the Higgs
particle and many other efforts in particle physics are treated by [102]. Gordon Fraser,
the former editor of the CERN Courier, has written or edited several fine books on
particle physics aimed at general audiences [103, 104, 105, 106]. One recent popular
book on quantum mechanics has been written by Sam Treiman [107]. Many fine
popularizations have been written by Richard P. Feynman, including his book on
quantum electrodynamics [108] and his Dirac Memorial Lecture, jointly in a volume
with that by Steven Weinberg [109].

94. The First Three Minutes: a Modern View of the Origin of the Uni-
verse, S. Weinberg (Basic Books, New York, 1977). (I)

95. The Cosmic Code: Quantum Physics as the Language of Nature, H.

R. Pagels (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1982). (E)

96. The Hunting of the Quark: A True Story of Modern Physics, Michael
Riordan (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1987). (E)

12
97. Longing for the Harmonies: Themes and Variations from Modern
Physics, F. Wilczek and B. Devine (Norton, New York, 1988). (E)

98. The Particle Garden, G. Kane (Addison-Wesley, Helix Books, New York,
1995). (E)

99. In Search of the Ultimate Building Blocks, G. ’t Hooft (Cambridge Univ.

Press, 1997). (E)

100. The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the

Quest of the Ultimate Theory, B. R. Greene (Norton, New York, 1999).
(E)

101. Dreams of a Final Theory: The Search for the Fundamental Laws of
Nature, S. Weinberg (Pantheon Books, New York, 1992). (E)

102. The God Particle: If the Universe is the Answer, What is the Ques-
tion?, L. M. Lederman and D. Teresi (Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA, 1993).
(E)

103. The Search for Infinity: Solving the Mysteries of the Universe, G.
Fraser, E. Lillestøl, and I. Sellevåg (Facts on File, New York, 1995). (E)

104. The Quark Machines: How Europe Fought the Particle Physics War,
G. Fraser (Institute of Physics, Bristol and Philadelphia, 1997). (E)

105. The Particle Century, edited by G. Fraser (Institute of Physics, Bristol and
Philadelphia, 1998). (E)

106. Antimatter: The Ultimate Mirror, G. Fraser (Cambridge Univ. Press,

2000). (E)

107. The Odd Quantum, S. Treiman (Princeton Univ. Press, 1999). (E)

108. QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter, R. P. Feynman (Prince-
ton Univ. Press, 1985). (E)

109. Elementary Particles and the Laws of Physics: The 1986 P. A. M.

Dirac Memorial Lectures, R. P. Feynman and S. Weinberg (Cambridge Univ.
Press, 1987). (I)

B. Articles

Instructive popular articles (in more or less chronological order) include ones by
Lederman on the discovery of the Upsilon particle (the first evidence for the b quark)
[110], ’t Hooft on gauge theories [111], Wilczek [112] and Quinn and Witherell [113]
on matter-antimatter asymmetry, Georgi on quark-lepton and strong-electroweak uni-
fication [114], Weinberg [115], Losecco et al. [116], and Langacker [117] on proton

13
decay, Quigg on elementary particles and forces [118], Haber and Kane on supersym-
metry [119], Veltman on the Higgs boson [120], Krauss on dark matter in the Universe
[121], Green [122] and Duff [123] on string theory, Rees on the Stanford Linear Col-
lider [124], Bahcall on the solar neutrino problem [125], Myers and Picasso on the
LEP Collider at CERN [126], Lederman on the Fermilab Tevatron [127], Feldman
and Steinberger on measurements at LEP and SLC suggesting the existence of three
families of quarks and leptons [128], Liss and Tipton on the discovery of the top quark
[129], Hogan et al. on supernova surveys and the accelerating Universe [130], Kearns
et al. on detecting massive neutrinos [131], Weinberg on the goal of a truly unified
theory [132] (see below for an Internet link on this article), Llewellyn Smith on the
Large Hadron Collider [133], Caldwell and Kamionkowski [134] and Gibbs [135] on the
cosmic microwave background radiation, Ostriker and Steinhardt on “dark energy”
[136], and Arkani-Hamed et al. [137, 138] on large extra dimensions. The Economist
carries frequent and well-informed articles on progress in high energy physics (see,
e.g., [139]). Shorter news articles appear regularly in Nature, Science, and Scientific
American.

110. “The Upsilon Particle,” L. M. Lederman, Sci. Am. 239 (4), 72–80 (1978). (E)

111. “Gauge Theories of the Forces Between Elementary Particles,” G. ’t Hooft, Sci.
Am. 242 (6), 104–138 (1980). (E)

112. “The Cosmic Asymmetry Between Matter and Antimatter,” F. Wilczek, Sci.
Am. 243 (6), 82–90 (1980). (E)

113. “The Asymmetry Between Matter and Antimatter,” H. R. Quinn and M. S.

Witherell, Sci. Am. 279 (4), 76–81 (1998). (E)

114. “A Unified Theory of Elementary Particles and Forces,” H. Georgi, Sci. Am.
244 (4), 48–63 (1981). (E)

115. “The Decay of the Proton,” S. Weinberg, Sci. Am. 244 (6), 64–75 (1981). (E)

116. “The Search for Proton Decay,” J. M. Losecco, F. Reines, and D. Sinclair, Sci.
Am. 252 (6), 54–62 (1985).

117. “Proton Decay,” P. Langacker, in Proceedings: In celebration of the dis-

covery of the neutrino (Benjamin Franklin Symposium, 29 Apr - 1 May 1992,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), edited by C. E. Lane and R. I. Steinberg (World
Scientific, River Edge, NJ, 1993), pp. 129–150. (I)

118. “Elementary Particles and Forces,” C. Quigg, Sci. Am. 252 (4) 84–95 (1985).
(E)

119. “Is Nature Supersymmetric?”, H. E. Haber and G. L. Kane, Sci. Am. 254 (6),
52–60 (1986). (E)

120. “The Higgs Boson,” M. J. G. Veltman, Sci. Am. 255 (5), 76–84 (1986). (E)

14
121. “Dark Matter in the Universe,” L. M. Krauss, Sci. Am. 255 (6), 58–68 (1986).
(E)

122. “Superstrings,” M. B. Green, Sci. Am. 255 (3), 48–60 (1986). (E)

123. “The Theory Formerly Known as Strings,” M. J. Duff, Sci. Am. 278 (2) 64–69
(1998). (E)

124. “The Stanford Linear Collider,” J. R. Rees, Sci. Am. 261 (4), 58–65 (1989). (E)

125. “The Solar Neutrino Problem,” J. N. Bahcall, Sci. Am. 262 (5), 54–61 (1990).
(E)

126. “The LEP Collider,” S. Myers and E. Picasso, Sci. Am. 263 (1), 54–61 (1990).
(E)

127. “The Tevatron,” L. M. Lederman, Sci. Am. 264 (3), 48–55 (1991). (E)

128. “The Number of Families of Matter,” G. Feldman and J. Steinberger, Sci. Am.
264 (2), 70–75 (1991). (E)

129. “The Discovery of the Top Quark,” T. M. Liss and P. L. Tipton, Sci. Am. 277
(3), 54–59 (1997). (E)

130. “Surveying Space-Time with Supernovae,” C. J. Hogan , R. P. Kirshner, and

N. B. Suntzeff, Sci. Am. 280 (1) 28–33 (1999). (E)

131. “Detecting Massive Neutrinos,” E. Kearns, T. Kajita, and Y. Totsuka, Sci. Am.
281 (2), 64–71 (1999). (E)

132. “A Unified Physics by 2050?,” S. Weinberg, Sci. Am. 281 (6), 68–75 (1999).
(E)

133. “The Large Hadron Collider,” C. H. Llewellyn Smith, Sci. Am. 283 (1), 70–77
(2000). (E)

134. “Echoes from the Big Bang,” R. R. Caldwell and M. Kamionkowski, Sci. Am.
284 (1), 38–43 (2001). (E)

135. “Ripples in Space-Time,” W. W. Gibbs, Sci. Am. 286 (4), 62–71 (2002). (E)

136. “The Quintessential Universe,” J. P. Ostriker and P. J. Steinhardt, Sci. Am.

284 (1) 46–53 (2001). (E)

137. “The Universe’s Unseen Dimensions,” N. Arkani-Hamed, S. Dimopoulos, and

G. R. Dvali, Sci. Am. 283 (2) 62–69 (2000). (E)

138. “Large Extra Dimensions: A New Arena for Particle Physics,” N. Arkani-
Hamed, S. Dimopoulos, and G. R. Dvali, Physics Today 55 (2), 35–40 (2002).
(I)

15
139. The Economist 362 (8254), January 5, 2002: “With All Thy Getting, Get
Understanding,” p. 12; “A Survey of the Universe,” pp. 47–58.

VII. INTERNET RESOURCES

A. Preprints

A comprehensive repository of preprints on experimental and theoretical parti-

cle physics may be found at http://arXiv.org/, including experimental papers at
http://arXiv.org/archive/hep-ex, phenomenological papers (theory papers deal-
ing with experiment) at http://arXiv.org/archive/hep-ph, and more abstract
theoretical papers at http://arXiv.org/archive/hep-th. The SPIRES system at
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center: http://www.slac.stanford.edu/spires/ lists
a number of different categories, including books, conferences, experiments, preprints
(SPIRES HEP), and even names and e-mail addresses of particle physicists.

B. Laboratories and accelerators

National and international high energy physics maintain extensive web pages with
vast links to useful information. For a comprehensive listing, see
http://www.nevis.columbia.edu/~quarknet/high energy physics links.htm.
Some examples are given in Tables 2 and 3.

Table 2: Major accelerator-based HEP laboratories and their public web pages.

Laboratory Location Web address

Brookhaven Upton, New York, USA http://www.bnl.gov/world/
Budker Inst. Novosibirsk, Russia http://www.inp.nsk.su/index.en.shtml
CERN Geneva, Switz. http://public.web.cern.ch/Public/
Cornell Ithaca, New York, USA http://www.lns.cornell.edu
DESY Hamburg, Germany http://www.desy.de/html/home/
Fermilab Batavia, IL, USA http://www.fnal.gov/
Frascati Frascati, Italy http://www.lnf.infn.it/
IHEP Beijing, China http://www.ihep.ac.cn/
IHEP Protvino, Russia http://www.ihep.su/
KEK Tsukuba, Japan http://www.kek.jp/intra.html
SLAC Stanford, Calif., USA http://www.slac.stanford.edu
TJNAF Newport News, VA, USA http://www.jlab.org/

The site http://physics.web.cern.ch/Physics/HEPWebSites.html contains a

number of links to further web pages, including the CERN Large Hadron Collider at
http://lhc-new-homepage.web.cern.ch/lhc-new-homepage/, the “Particle Adven-
ture” site http://particleadventure.org/particleadventure of the Particle Data

16
 Table 3: Major non-accelerator laboratories and their public web pages.

Laboratory Location Web address

Gran Sasso Central Italy http://www.lngs.infn.it/
Kamioka Western Japan http://www-sk.icrr.u-tokyo.ac.jp/
Soudan Northern Minn. http://www.hep.umn.edu/soudan/
Sudbury ν Obs. Ontario http://www.sno.phy.queensu.ca/

Group at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, and Quarknet, a network for high
school science teachers to involve them and their students in cutting-edge research
in particle physics at http://quarknet.fnal.gov/. The IHEP laboratory in Russia
hosts a chronology of particle physics discoveries:
http://ontil.ihep.su/~ppds/discovery.html.

C. Popular article with extensive links

The Scientific American article on the future of particle physics by Steven

Weinberg [132] appears on the web with a variety of links to other literature:
http://www.sciam.com/issue.cfm?issueDate=Dec-99.

VIII. NOBEL PRIZES RELATED TO THE STANDARD MODEL

Some contributions in the past 45 years related to the formulation of the Standard
Model that have been recognized by Nobel Prizes in Physics are summarized in Table
4. More information may be found on the web sites http://www.slac.stanford.edu/
library/nobel.html and http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates. Many addi-
tional prizes were awarded for instrumentation or discoveries crucial to our present
understanding of the Standard Model.

IX. SNAPSHOT OF THE STANDARD MODEL

A. Quarks and leptons

The major ingredients of the Standard Model have been in place for some time, and
can be gleaned from the popular article by Quigg [118]. The known building blocks of
strongly interacting particles, the quarks [140, 141, 142], and the fundamental fermions
lacking strong interactions, the leptons, are summarized in Table 5. The quark masses
quoted there [73] are those for quarks probed at distances short compared with the
characteristic size of strongly interacting particles. When regarded as constituents
of strongly interacting particles, however, the u and d quarks act as quasi-particles
with masses of about 0.3 GeV. The corresponding “constituent-quark” masses of
s, c, and b are about 0.5, 1.5, and 4.9 GeV, respectively [52]. (For reviews of the
spectroscopy of hadrons containing the heavy quarks c and b, see [50, 51, 53, 54].) The

17
 Table 4: Nobel prizes in physics since 1957 related to the Standard Model.

Year Recipient(s) Subject

1957 T. D. Lee and C. N. Yang Parity violation
1960 D. A. Glaser Bubble chamber
1965 R. P. Feynman, J. S. Schwinger,
and S. I. Tomonaga Quantum electrodynamics
1968 L. W. Alvarez Discovery of resonances
1969 M. Gell-Mann Particle classification
1976 B. Richter and S. C. C. Ting J/ψ discovery
1979 S. L. Glashow, A. Salam,
and S. Weinberg Electroweak unification
1980 J. W. Cronin and V. L. Fitch CP violation
1982 K. G. Wilson Critical phenomena
1984 C. Rubbia and W and Z discovery via
S. Van Der Meer Sp̄pS collider
1988 L. M. Lederman, M. Schwartz, Discovery that
and J. Steinberger νµ 6= νe
1990 J. I. Friedman, H. W. Kendall, Deep inelastic electron
and R. E. Taylor scattering
1992 G. Charpak Particle detectors
1995 M. L. Perl τ lepton
F. Reines Neutrino detection
1999 G. ’t Hooft and
M. J. G. Veltman Electroweak interactions
2002 R. Davis and M. Koshiba Cosmic neutrinos
R. Giacconi Cosmic X-rays

pattern of charge-changing weak transitions between quarks with charges Q = 2/3 and
those with charges Q = −1/3 is described by the 3 × 3 Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa
[143, 144], or CKM matrix; for a review of its properties, see [145].
The quarks and leptons in Table 5 fall into three “families.” For evidence that
all the existing families (at least those containing light neutrinos) may have been
discovered, see [128].

140. “A Schematic Model of Baryons and Mesons,” M. Gell-Mann, Phys. Lett. 8,

214–215 (1964). (I)

141. “An SU(3) Model for Strong Interaction Symmetry and its Breaking: 1,” G.
Zweig, CERN report 8182/TH 401, 1964 (unpublished). Reprinted in Devel-
opments in the Quark Theory of Hadrons, edited by D. B. Lichtenberg
and S. P. Rosen (Hadronic Press, Nonantum, MA, 1981), v. 1, pp. 22–101. (I)
142. “An SU(3) Model for Strong Interaction Symmetry and its Breaking: 2,” G.

18
Table 5: The known quarks and leptons. Masses in GeV except where indicated
otherwise. Here and elsewhere c = 1.

Quarks Leptons
Charge 2/3 Charge −1/3 Charge −1 Charge 0
Mass Mass Mass Mass
u 0.0015–0.0045 d 0.005–0.0085 e 0.000511 νe < 3 eV
c 1.0–1.4 s 0.085–0.155 µ 0.106 νµ < 190 keV
t 174.3 ± 5.1 b 4.0–4.5 τ 1.777 ντ < 18.2 MeV

Zweig, CERN report 8419/TH 412, 1964 (unpublished). Reprinted in Devel-

opments in the Quark Theory of Hadrons, edited by D. B. Lichtenberg
and S. P. Rosen (Hadronic Press, Nonantum, MA, 1980), v. 1, pp. 22–101. (I)

143. “Unitary Symmetry and Leptonic Decays,” N. Cabibbo, Phys. Rev. Lett. 10,
531–532 (1963). (I)

144. “CP Violation in the Renormalizable Theory of Weak Interaction,” M.

Kobayashi and T. Maskawa, Prog. Theor. Phys. 49, 652–657 (1973). (I)

145. “The Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa Quark-Mixing Matrix,” F. J. Gilman, K.

Kleinknecht, and B. Renk, in Review of Particle Physics, K. Hagiwara et
al. [73], pp. 113–119.

B. Gauge theories

A theory of particles and their interactions permitting arbitrary changes of phase

in the particle’s quantum mechanical state is an Abelian local gauge theory such as
electromagnetism. The term “Abelian” indicates that gauge (phase) transformations
at a given space-time point commute with one another, while “local” stands for the
freedom to make separate gauge transformations at each space-time point. The name
“gauge” originated with Hermann Weyl [146].
Gauge transformations may be generalized to those that do not commute with
one another at a given space-time point. The first such non-Abelian gauge theory
was proposed by C. N. Yang and R. L. Mills [147], who used it to describe the strong
interactions through self-interacting mesons of spin 1 carrying isosopic spin.
The review by Abers and Lee [48] helped a generation of physicists to apply gauge
theories to the electroweak and strong interactions. An excellent introduction to the
subject at the intermediate graduate level is given by Quigg [18]. An article addressed
to the lay reader has been written by ’t Hooft [111]. A recent text [148] provides a
further introduction to the subject.

146. “Electron and Gravitation [in German],” H. Weyl, Z. Phys. 56, 330–352 (1929),
partially reprinted in Surveys in High Energy Phys. 5, 261–267 (1986). (A)

19
147. “Conservation of Isotopic Spin and Isotopic Gauge Invariance,” C. N. Yang and
R. L. Mills, Phys. Rev. 96, 191–195 (1954). (A) See also Cambridge University
Dissertation, R. Shaw, 1954 (unpublished).
148. The Dawning of Gauge Theory, L. O’Raifeartaigh (Princeton University
Press, 1997). (I)

C. Color and quantum chromodynamics

The quarks are distinguished from the leptons by possessing a three-fold charge
known as “color” that enables them to interact strongly with one another [149, 150,
151]. We also speak of quark and lepton “flavor” when distinguishing the particles in
Table 5 from one another. The evidence for color comes from several quarters.
1. Quark statistics. The ∆++ , a low-lying excited state of the nucleon, can be
represented in the quark model as uuu, so it is totally symmetric in flavor. It has
spin J = 3/2, a totally symmetric combination of the three J = 1/2 quark spins.
As a ground state, its spatial wave function should be symmetric as well. While a
state composed of fermions should be totally antisymmetric under the interchange of
any two fermions, the state described so far is totally symmetric under the product of
flavor, spin, and space interchanges. Color introduces an additional degree of freedom
under which the interchange of two quarks can produce a minus sign.
2. Electron-positron annihilation to hadrons. The charges of all quarks that can
be produced in pairs at a given center-of-mass energy is measured by the ratio R ≡
P
σ(e+ e− → hadrons)/σ(e+ e− → µ+ µ− ) = i Q2i , where Qi is the charge of quark
i in units of |e|. Measurements [73] indicate values of R in various energy ranges
consistent with Nc = 3 (with a small positive correction associated with the strong
interactions of the quarks).
3. Neutral pion decay. The π 0 decay rate is governed by a quark √ loop diagram in
0 ¯
which two photons are radiated by the quarks in π = (uū − dd)/ 2. The predicted
rate is Γ(π 0 → γγ) = 7.6S 2 eV, where S = Nc (Q2u − Q2d ) = Nc /3. The experimental
rate is 7.8 ± 0.6 eV, in accord with experiment if S = 1 and Nc = 3.
4. Triality. Quark composites appear only in multiples of three. Baryons are
composed of qqq, while mesons are q q̄ (with total quark number zero). This is com-
patible with our current understanding of QCD, in which only color-singlet states can
appear in the spectrum.
A crucial feature of the QCD theory of strong interactions is its “asymptotic
freedom,” a weakening interaction strength at short distances permitting the inter-
pretation of deep inelastic scattering experiments [96, 152, 153] in terms of quarks.
This property was found to be characteristic of non-Abelian gauge theories such as
color SU(3) by Gross and Wilczek [154, 155, 156] and by Politzer [157, 158]. The
result was obtained earlier for the gauge group SU(2) by Khriplovich [159] (see also
[160]), but its significance for a strong-interaction theory was not realized then.
Direct evidence for the quanta of QCD, the gluons, was first presented in 1979
on the basis of extra “jets” of particles produced in electron-positron annihilations to
hadrons. Normally one sees two clusters of energy associated with the fragmentation
of each quark in e+ e− → q q̄ into hadrons. However, in some fraction of events an

20
extra jet was seen, corresponding to the radiation of a gluon by one of the quarks.
For a popular history of this discovery, containing further references, see [96].
The transformations that take one color of quark into another are those of the
group SU(3). This group is called SU(3)color to distinguish it from the SU(3)flavor
associated with the quarks u, d, and s.

149. “Spin and Unitary Spin Independence in a Paraquark Model of Baryons and
Mesons,” O. W. Greenberg, Phys. Rev. Lett. 13, 598–602 (1964). (I)

150. Y. Nambu, “A Systematics of Hadrons in Subnuclear Physics,” in Preludes in

Theoretical Physics in Honor of V. F. Weisskopf, edited by A. De-Shalit,
H. Feshbach, and L. Van Hove (North-Holland, Amsterdam and Wiley, New
York, 1966), pp. 133–42. (A)

151. “Advantages of the Color Octet Gluon Picture,” H. Fritzsch, M. Gell-Mann,

and H. Leutwyler, Phys. Lett. 47B, 365–368 (1973). (I)

152. “High-Energy Inelastic ep Scattering at 6◦ and 10◦ ,” E. D. Bloom et al., Phys.

Rev. Lett. 23, 930–934 (1969). (I)

153. “Observed Behavior of Highly Inelastic Electron–Proton Scattering,” M. Brei-

denbach et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 23, 935–939 (1969). (I)

154. “Ultraviolet Behavior of Non-Abelian Gauge Theories,” D. J. Gross and F.

Wilczek, Phys. Rev. Lett. 30, 1343–1346 (1973). (A)

155. “Asymptotically Free Gauge Theories. I,” D. J. Gross and F. Wilczek, Phys.
Rev. D 8, 3633–3652 (1973). (A)

156. “Asymptotically Free Gauge Theories. 2,” D. J. Gross and F. Wilczek, Phys.
Rev. D 9, 980–993 (1974). (A)

157. “Reliable Perturbative Results for Strong Interactions?,” H. David Politzer,

Phys. Rev. Lett. 30, 1346–1349 (1973). (A)

158. “Asymptotic Freedom: An Approach to Strong Interactions,” H. David Politzer,

Phys. Rep. 14, 129–180 (1974). (A)

159. “Green’s Functions in Theories with Non-Abelian Gauge Group,” I. B.

Khriplovich, Yad. Fiz. 10, 409–424 (1969) [Sov. J. Nucl. Phys. 10, 235–242
(1969)]. (A)

160. “Renormalization of Gauge Theories,” G. ’t Hooft, in [85], pp. 179–198. (A)

D. Weak interactions

The electromagnetic interaction is described in terms of photon exchange. The

quantum electrodynamics of photons and electrons initially encountered divergent
quantities tamed in the 1940s through renormalization, leading to successful estimates

21
of the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron and the Lamb shift in hydrogen
[86]. By contrast, the weak interactions as formulated up to the mid-1960s involved
the pointlike interactions of two currents. This interaction is very singular and cannot
be renormalized. The weak currents in this theory were purely charge-changing. As
a result of work by Gershtein and Zel’dovich (who suggested that the weak vector
current is of universal strength) [161], Lee and Yang [162, 163, 164], Feynman and
Gell-Mann [165], and Sudarshan and Marshak [166], the weak currents were identified
as having (vector)–(axial) or “V − A” form.

161. “Meson Corrections in the Theory of Beta Decay,” S. S. Gershtein and Ia. B.
Zel’dovich, Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 29, 698–699 (1955) [Sov. Phys. - JETP 2, 576–
578 (1956)]. (A)

162. “Question of Parity Conservation in Weak Interactions,” T. D. Lee and C. N.

Yang, Phys. Rev. 104, 254–258 (1956). (A)

163. “Parity Nonconservation and a Two Component Theory of the Neutrino,” T.

D. Lee and C. N. Yang, Phys. Rev. 105, 1671–1675 (1957). (A)

164. “Remarks on Possible Noninvariance Under Time Reversal and Charge Conju-
gation,” T. D. Lee, R. Oehme, and C. N. Yang, Phys. Rev. 106, 340–345 (1957).
(A)

165. “Theory of the Fermi Interaction,” R. P. Feynman and M. Gell-Mann, Phys.

Rev. 109, 193–198 (1958). (I)

166. “Chirality Invariance and the Universal Fermi Interaction,” E. C. G. Sudarshan

and R. E. Marshak, Phys. Rev. 109, 1860–1862 (1958). (A)

E. Electroweak unification

Yukawa [167] and Klein [168] proposed early boson-exchange models for the charge-
changing weak interactions. Klein’s model had self-interacting bosons, thus anticipat-
ing the theory of Yang and Mills [147]. Schwinger and others studied such models in
the 1950s, but Glashow [169] realized that a new neutral heavy boson Z, in addition
to the massless photon and massive charged bosons, was needed to successfully unify
the weak and electromagnetic interactions. The use of the Higgs [170, 171, 172, 173]
mechanism to break the electroweak symmetry by Weinberg [174] and Salam [175]
converted this phenomenological theory into one suitable for higher-order calculations.
The charge-changing weak currents could be viewed as members of an SU(2) alge-
bra [176, 143]. However, the neutral member of this multiplet could not be identified
with electric charge. Charged W ± bosons couple only to left-handed fermions, while
the photon couples to both left and right-handed fermions. Moreover, a theory with
only photons and charged weak bosons leads to unacceptable divergences in higher-
order processes [18]. The neutral heavy Z boson can be arranged to cancel these
divergences. It leads to neutral current interactions, in which (for example) an inci-
dent neutrino scatters inelastically on a hadronic target without changing its charge.

22
The discovery of neutral-current interactions of neutrinos [177, 178, 179, 180] and
other manifestations of the Z strikingly confirmed the new theory.
A key stumbling block to the construction of an electroweak theory applying to
the quarks known at the time (u, d, and s) was the presence of flavor-changing neutral
currents. The hypothesis of a fourth “charmed” quark c was an elegant way to avoid
this problem [181]. The charmed quark also was crucial in avoiding “anomalies,”
effects due to triangle diagrams involving internal fermions and three external gauge
bosons [182, 183, 184]. Evidence for charm was first found in 1974 in the form of
the J/ψ particle [185, 186], a bound state of c and c̄. An earlier Resource Letter [75]
deals with events leading up to this discovery, as well as early evidence for the fifth
(b) quark to be mentioned below. The whole topic of electroweak unification is dealt
with at an intermediate level in several references mentioned earlier (e.g., [14, 18, 24]).

167. “On the Interaction of Elementary Particles,” H. Yukawa, Proc. Phys. Math.
Soc. Japan 17, 48–57 (1935). (A)

168. “Sur la Théorie des Champs Associés à des Particules Chargées,” O. Klein,
in Les Nouvelles Théories de la Physique, Paris, Inst. de Coöperation
Intellectuelle (1939), pp. 81–98, translation “On the Theory of Charged Fields,”
reprinted in Oskar Klein Memorial Lectures vol. 1, edited by G. Ekspong
(World Scientific, Singapore, 1991), and in Surveys in High Energy Phys. 5,
269–285 (1986). (A)

169. “Partial Symmetries of Weak Interactions,” S. L. Glashow, Nucl. Phys. 22,

579–588 (1961). (A)

170. “Broken Symmetries, Massless Particles, and Gauge Fields,” P. W. Higgs, Phys.
Lett. 12, 132–133 (1964). (A)

171. “Broken Symmetries and the Masses of Gauge Bosons,” P. W. Higgs, Phys.
Rev. Lett. 13, 508–509 (1964). (A)

172. “Broken Symmetry and the Mass of Gauge Vector Mesons,” F. Englert and R.
Brout, Phys. Rev. Lett. 13, 321–322 (1964). (A)

173. “Global Conservation Laws and Massless Particles,” G. S. Guralnik, C. R. Ha-

gen, and T. W. B. Kibble, Phys. Rev. Lett. 13, 585–587 (1964). (A)

174. “A Model of Leptons,” S. Weinberg, Phys. Rev. Lett. 19, 1264–1266 (1967).
(A)

175. “Weak and Electromagnetic Interactions,” A. Salam, in Proceedings of the

Eighth Nobel Symposium, edited by N. Svartholm (Almqvist and Wiksell,
Stockholm, 1968; Wiley, New York, 1978), pp. 367–377. (A)

176. “The Axial Vector Current in Beta Decay,” M. Gell-Mann and M. Lévy, Nuovo
Cim. 16, 705–726 (1960). (I)

23
177. “Search for Elastic Muon Neutrino Electron Scattering,” F. J. Hasert et al.,
Phys. Lett. B 46B, 121–124 (1973). (I)

178. “Observation of Neutrino-Like Interactions Without Muon or Electron in the

Gargamelle Neutrino Experiment,” F. J. Hasert et al., Phys. Lett. 46B, 138–140
(1973). (I)

179. “Observation of Neutrino-Like Interactions Without Muon or Electron in the

Gargamelle Neutrino Experiment,” F. J. Hasert et al., Nucl. Phys. B73, 1–22
(1974). (I)

180. “Observation of Muonless Neutrino Induced Inelastic Interactions,” A. C. Ben-

venuti et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 32, 800–803 (1974). (I)

181. “Weak Interactions with Lepton-Hadron Symmetry,” S. L. Glashow, J. Ilipou-

los, and L. Maiani, Phys. Rev. D 2, 1285–1292 (1970). (I)

182. “An Anomaly Free Version of Weinberg’s Model,” C. Bouchiat, J. Iliopoulos,

and P. Meyer, Phys. Lett. 38B, 519–523 (1972). (I)

183. “Gauge Theories Without Anomalies,” H. Georgi and S. L. Glashow, Phys. Rev.
D 6, 429–431 (1972). (I)

184. “Effect of Anomalies on Quasi-Renormalizable Theories,” D. J. Gross and R.

Jackiw, Phys. Rev. D 6, 477–493 (1972). (A)

185. “Experimental Observation of a Heavy Particle J,” J. J. Aubert et al., Phys.

Rev. Lett. 33, 1404–1406 (1974). (I)

186. “Discovery of a Narrow Resonance in e+ e− Annihilation,” J. E. Augustin et al.,

Phys. Rev. Lett. 33, 1406–1408 (1974). (I)

F. CP violation

The symmetries of time reversal (T), charge conjugation (C), and space inversion
or parity (P) have provided both clues and puzzles in our understanding of the fun-
damental interactions. The realization that the charge-changing weak interactions
violated P and C maximally was central to the formulation of the V − A theory.
The theory was constructed in 1957 to conserve the product CP, but the discov-
ery in 1964 of the long-lived neutral kaon’s decay to two pions (KL → ππ) [187]
showed that even CP was not conserved. In 1973, Kobayashi and Maskawa (KM)
[144] proposed that CP violation in the neutral kaon system could be explained in
a model with three families of quarks. The quarks of the third family, now denoted
by b for bottom and t for top, were subsequently discovered in 1977 [188, 189] and
1994 [190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195], respectively. Popular articles on these discoveries
include one by Lederman [110] and Liss and Tipton [129].
An alternative theory of CP violation in the kaon system, proposed by Wolfenstein
[196], involved a “superweak” CP-violating interaction mixing K 0 and K̄ 0 , which

24
would lead to identical CP violation in KL → π + π − and KL → π 0 π 0 . The discovery
that this was not so (see [197, 198] for the most recent published results, which
are continually being updated in conference reports) disproved the superweak theory
and displayed a “direct” form of CP violation with magnitude consistent with that
predicted by the KM theory.
Decays of hadrons containing b quarks are further ground for testing the KM
hypothesis and for displaying evidence for new physics beyond this “standard model”
of CP violation. A meson containing a b̄ quark will be known generically as a B
meson. Electron-positron colliders have been constructed at SLAC (Stanford, CA)
[199] and KEK (Tsukuba, Japan) [200] expressly to study B mesons; others at DESY
(Hamburg, Germany) and Cornell (Ithaca, NY) [201] were fortunate in having just
the right energy to produce B mesons in pairs. The BaBar detector at SLAC and the
Belle detector at KEK have already produced a series of major results on B decays
and CP violation [202, 203]. Studies of particles containing b quarks also are expected
to be an important part of the physics program at the Fermilab Tevatron [204] and
the CERN Large Hadron Collider (LHC) [205].

187. “Evidence for the 2π Decay of the K20 Meson,” J. H. Christenson, J. W. Cronin,
V. L. Fitch, and R. Turlay, Phys. Rev. Lett. 13, 138–140 (1964). (I)

188. “Observation of a Dimuon Resonance at 9.5 GeV in 400-GeV Proton–Nucleus

Collisions,” S. W. Herb et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 39, 252–255 (1977). (I)

189. “Observation of Structure in the Υ Region,” W. R. Innes et al., Phys. Rev.

Lett. 39, 1240–1242, 1640(E) (1977). (I)
√
190. “Evidence for Top Quark Production in p̄p Collisions at s = 1.8 TeV,” CDF
Collaboration, F. Abe et al., Phys. Rev. D 50, 2966–3026 (1994). (I)
√
191. “Evidence for Top Quark Production in p̄p Collisions at s = 1.8 TeV,” CDF
Collaboration, F. Abe et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 73, 225–231 (1994). (I)

192. “Observation of Top Quark Production in p̄p Collisions,” CDF Collaboration,

F. Abe et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 74, 2626–2631 (1995). (I)
√
193. “Search for the Top Quark in pp̄ Collisions at s = 1.8 TeV,” D0 Collaboration,
S. Abachi et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 72, 2138–2142 (1994). (I)
√
194. “Search for High Mass Top Quark Production in pp̄ Collisions at s = 1.8 TeV,”
D0 Collaboration, S. Abachi et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 74, 2422–2426 (1995). (I)

195. “Observation of the Top Quark,” D0 Collaboration, S. Abachi et al., Phys. Rev.
Lett. 74, 2632–2637 (1995). (I)

196. “Violation of CP Invariance and the Possibility of Very Weak Interactions,” L.

Wolfenstein, Phys. Rev. Lett. 13, 562–564 (1964). (I)

25
197. “Observation of Direct CP Violation in KS,L → ππ Decays,” Fermilab KTeV
Collaboration, A. Alavi-Harati et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 83, 22–27 (1999). (I)
For a more recent reference see “Measurements of Direct CP Violation, CPT
Symmetry, and Other Parameters in the Neutral Kaon System,” A. Alavi-Harati
et al., preprint hep-ex/0208007, submitted to Phys. Rev. D. (I)

198. “A Precise Measurement of the Direct CP Violation Parameter Re (ǫ′ /ǫ),”

CERN NA48 Collaboration, A. Lai et al., Eur. Phys. J. C 22, 231–254 (2001).
(I) For a more recent reference see “A Precision Measurement of Direct CP
Violation in the Decay of Neutral Kaons Into Two Pions,” J. R. Batley et al.,
Phys. Lett. B 544, 97–112 (2002). (I)

199. “The First Year of the BaBar Experiment at PEP-II,” BaBar Collaboration, B.
Aubert et al., SLAC report SLAC-PUB-8539, contributed to 30th International
Conference on High-Energy Physics (ICHEP 2000), Osaka, Japan, 27 Jul - 2
Aug 2000, e-Print Archive: hep-ex/0012042. (I)

200. “KEKB Performance,” Belle Collaboration, presented by A. E. Bondar at

Beauty-2000: 7th International Conference on B-Physics at Hadron Machines,
Sea of Galilee, Kibbutz Maagan, Israel, 13–18 Sept. 2000, Nucl. Instr. Meth. A
462, 139–145 (2001). (I)

201. “Review of Results from CESR and DORIS,” E. I. Shibata, in Beyond the
Standard Model: Proceedings, Ames, IA, Nov. 18–22, 1988, edited by B.-L.
Young (World Scientific, Singapore, 1988), pp. 38–59. (I)

202. “Measurement of the CP-violating Asymmetry Amplitude sin(2β),” BaBar Col-

laboration, B. Aubert et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 89, 201802 (2002). (I)

203. “An Improved Measurement of Mixing-Induced CP Violation in the Neutral B

Meson System,” Belle Collaboration, K. Abe et al., Phys. Rev. D 66, 071102(R)
(2002). (I)

204. “B physics at the Tevatron: Run II and Beyond,” K. Anikeev et al., proceedings
of workshops at Fermilab, 23–25 Sept. 1999 and 24–26 Feb. 2000, Fermilab
preprint FERMILAB-PUB-01-197, hep-ph/0201071 (unpublished). (I)

205. “The LHCb Project,” A. Schopper, Acta Phys. Polon. B32, 1769–1775 (2001).
(I) ”

G. Dynamics of heavy quarks

With the discovery of the charmed (Sec. IX E) and beauty (Sec. IX F) quarks, a
whole new laboratory emerged for the study of QCD. A bound state of a heavy quark
and its antiquark, cc̄ or bb̄, is known as quarkonium, in analogy with positronium,
the bound state of a positron and an electron. (The top quark lives too short a
time for tt̄ bound states to be of much interest, though one can study some effects
of the binding.) Quarkonium states have been extensively studied, [50, 51, 53, 54],

26
with their spectroscopy and decays providing useful information on QCD at various
distance scales.
The states of light quarks bound to a single heavy quark have their own regulari-
ties. They are analogous to atoms in which the light quarks and gluons represent the
“electronic” degrees of freedom, while the heavy quarks represent the nuclei. Thus,
certain properties of these states are related in the same way that, for example, prop-
erties of hydrogen and deuterium are related. This “heavy quark symmetry” [55] has
provided very useful guides to the properties of hadrons containing charm and beauty
quarks, and permits more precise determinations of underlying weak couplings (such
as elements of the Cabibbo-Koyayashi-Maskawa [CKM] matrix).

H. Higgs boson(s)

An unbroken SU(2) ⊗ U(1) theory involving the photon would require all fields
to have zero mass, whereas the W ± and Z are massive. The symmetry-breaking that
generates W and Z masses must not destroy the renormalizability of the theory. The
Higgs mechanism achieves this goal at the price of introducing an additional degree of
freedom correponding to a physical particle, the Higgs particle, which is the subject
of intense searches [32, 120, 206, 207]. Current 95% c.l. limits on a standard-model
Higgs boson are MH > 114 GeV/c2 via direct searches [208] and MH < 193 GeV/c2
from fits to precise electroweak data [209].
Discovering the nature of the Higgs boson is a key to further progress in under-
standing what may lie beyond the Standard Model. There may exist one Higgs boson
or more than one. There may exist other particles in the spectrum related to it. The
Higgs boson may be elementary or composite. If composite, it points to a new level
of substructure of the elementary particles.

I. Precision electroweak measurements

Precision electroweak measurements can yield information on many new-physics

possibilities in addition to the Higgs boson. The seminal paper of Veltman [210]
showed how the ratio of W and Z masses could shed light on the top quark’s mass. A
systematic study of electroweak radiative corrections within the Standard Model was
performed by Marciano and Sirlin [211] and used to analyze a wide variety of elec-
troweak data, initially in [212] and most recently in [209]. Widely-used parametriza-
tions of deviations from Standard-Model predictions [213, 214, 215] have been used
to constrain new particles in higher-order loop diagrams associated with W , Z, and
photon self-energies. Some reviews include Refs. [216, 217, 218, 219].

206. “Report of the Tevatron Higgs Working Group,” M. Carena et al., Fermilab
report FERMILAB-CONF-00-279-T, hep-ph/0010338 (unpublished). (A)

207. “The Higgs Working Group: Summary Report,” D. Cavalli et al., in Proceedings
of Workshop on Physics at TeV Colliders, Les Houches, France, 21 May – 1 June
2001, edited by P. Aurenche et al. (Paris, IN2P3, 2001), pp. 1–120. (A)

27
208. LEP Higgs Working Group, results quoted in web page of LEP Electroweak
Working Group, http://lepewwg.web.cern.ch/LEPEWWG/. (I)

209. LEP Electroweak Working Group, http://lepewwg.web.cern.ch/LEPEWWG/.

(I)

210. “Limit on Mass Differences in the Weinberg Model,” M. Veltman, Nucl. Phys.
B123, 89 (1977). (A)

211. “Radiative Corrections to Neutrino Induced Neutral Current Phenomena in the

SU(2)L × U(1) Theory,” W. J. Marciano and A. Sirlin, Phys. Rev. D 22, 2695
(1980); 31, 213 (1985). (A)

212. “A Comprehensive Analysis of Data Pertaining to the Weak Neutral Current

and the Intermediate Vector Boson Masses,” U. Amaldi et al., Phys. Rev. D
36, 1385 (1987). (I)

213. “A New Constraint on a Strongly Interacting Higgs Sector,” M. E. Peskin and

T. Takeuchi, Phys. Rev. Lett. 65, 964–967 (1990). (A)

214. “Estimation of Oblique Electroweak Corrections,” M. E. Peskin and T.

Takeuchi, Phys. Rev. D 46, 381–409 (1992). (A)

215. “Vacuum Polarization Effects of New Physics on Electroweak Processes,” G.

Altarelli and R. Barbieri, Phys. Lett. B 253, 161–167 (1991). (A)

216. “Electroweak Theory. Framework of On-Shell Renormalization and Study of

Higher-Order Effects,” K. I. Aoki et al., Prog. Theor. Phys. Suppl. 73, 1–225
(1982). (A)

217. “Electroweak Radiative Corrections, MZ , MW , and the Heavy Top,” W. Hollik,

Adv. Ser. Direct. High Energy Phys. 10, 1–57 (1992). (A)

218. The Standard Model in the Making: Precision Study of the Elec-
troweak Interactions, D. Yu. Bardin and G. Passarino (Clarendon Press,
Oxford, 1999). (A)

219. “Radiative Corrections in Gauge Theories,” H. Anlauf, lectures at Adriatic

School on Particle Physics and Physics Informatics, September 11–21, 2001,
http://heplix.ikp.physik.tu-darmstadt.de/~anlauf/ha-lectures.html.
(A)

X. PROPOSED EXTENSIONS

A. Supersymmetry

Unification of the electroweak and strong interactions at a high mass scale leads
to the hierarchy problem, in which this scale contributes through loop diagrams to the
Higgs boson mass and requires it to be fine-tuned at each order of perturbation theory.

28
A similar problem is present whenever there is a large gap between the electroweak
scale and any higher mass scale contributing to the Higgs boson mass. Supersymmetry
solves this problem by introducing for each particle of spin J a superpartner of spin
J ± 1/2 whose contribution to such loop diagrams cancels the original one in the limit
of degenerate masses. Recent reviews of supersymmetry and its likely experimental
signatures include [40, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67], while earlier discussions are given by
[68], [69], and [70]. For an article at the popular level see [119].

B. Dynamical electroweak symmetry breaking

If the Higgs boson is not fundamental but arises as the result of a new super-
strong force which, in analogy with color, causes the dynamical generation of one or
more scalar particles, the hierarchy problem can be avoided. This scheme, sometimes
called “technicolor,” was proposed in the 1970s [220, 221, 222]. For recent reviews,
see. e.g., [223, 224, 225].

220. “Implications of Dynamical Symmetry Breaking,” S. Weinberg, Phys. Rev. D

13, 974–996 (1976). (A)

221. “Implications of Dynamical Symmetry Breaking: An Addendum,” S. Weinberg,

Phys. Rev. D 19, 1277–1280 (1979). (A)

222. “Dynamics of Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking in the Weinberg-Salam The-

ory,” L. Susskind, Phys. Rev. D 20, 2619–2625 (1979). (A)

223. “Lectures on Technicolor and Compositeness,” R. S. Chivukula, in [47], pp.

731–772. (A)

224. “Two Lectures on Technicolor,” K. Lane, Fermilab report FERMILAB-PUB-

02-040-T, preprint hep-ph/0202255 (unpublished). (A)

225. “Strong dynamics and electroweak symmetry breaking,” C. T. Hill and

E. H. Simmons, Fermilab report FERMILAB-PUB-02-045-T, preprint
hep-ph/0203079, submitted to Physics Reports. (A)

C. Fermion mass and mixing patterns

The transitions between the (u, c, t) and (d, s, b) quarks owing to virtual W emis-
sion or absorption are described by the Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa (CKM) matrix
mentioned in Sec. IX A. (For one parametrization of this matrix see [226].) The CKM
matrix arises because the matrices that diagonalize the mass matrices of (u, c, t) and
of (d, s, b) are not the same. A theory of quark masses would thus entail a specific form
of the CKM matrix. For the corresponding matrix for leptons, see [227, 228, 229].
While a theory of quark and lepton masses still eludes us, attempts have been made
to guess some of its general features [230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235].

29
226. “Parametrization of the Kobayashi-Maskawa Matrix,” L. Wolfenstein, Phys.
Rev. Lett. 51, 1945–1947 (1983). (I)

227. “Remarks on the Unified Model of Elementary Particles,” Z. Maki, M. Naka-

gawa, and S. Sakata, Prog. Theor. Phys. 28, 870–880 (1962). (A)

228. “Muon and Electron Number Nonconservation in a V − A Gauge Model,” B.

W. Lee, S. Pakvasa, R. Shrock, and H. Sugawara, Phys. Rev. Lett. 38, 937–939
(1977). (A)

229. “Natural Suppression of Symmetry Violation in Gauge Theories: Muon-Lepton

and Electron-Lepton Number Nonconservation,” B. W. Lee and R. E. Shrock,
Phys. Rev. D 16, 1444–1473 (1977). (A)

230. “Weak Interaction Mixing in the Six-Quark Theory,” H. Fritzsch, Phys. Lett.
B73, 317–322 (1978). (I)

231. “Hierarchy of Quark Masses, Cabibbo Angles, and CP Violation,” C. D. Frog-

gatt and H. B. Nielsen, Nucl. Phys. B147, 277–298 (1979). (A)

232. “Unified Theories With U(2) Flavor Symmetry,” R. Barbieri, L. J. Hall, S.

Raby, and A. Romanino, Nucl. Phys. B493, 3–26 (1997). (A)

233. “A model for Fermion Mass Hierarchies and Mixings,” P. Ramond, in Par-
ticles, Strings, and Cosmology (PASCOS 98), Proceedings of the 6th
International Symposium on Particles, Strings and Cosmology, Boston, MA,
22–27 Mar. 1998, edited by P. Nath (World Scientific, Singapore, 1999), pp.
567–577. (A)

234. “Mass and flavor mixing schemes of quarks and leptons,” H. Fritzsch and Z.-z.
Xing, Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys. 45, 1–81 (2000). (A)

235. “GUT model predictions for neutrino oscillation parameters compatible with
the large mixing angle MSW solution,” C. H. Albright and S. Geer, Phys. Rev.
D 65, 073004 (2002), and Refs. [11] and [15] therein. (A)

D. Composite quarks and leptons

Families of quarks and leptons appear to be replicas of one another (see Table 5),
aside from their differing masses and weak couplings. Attempts have been made to
explain this regularity in terms of a composite structure, much as the periodic table
of the elements reflects their underlying atomic structure. A set of guidelines for this
program was laid down by ’t Hooft [236]. For an example of a recent effort, see [237].

236. “Naturalness, chiral symmetry, and spontaneous chiral symmetry breaking,” G.

’t Hooft, in Recent Developments in Gauge Theories (Cargèse Summer
Institute, Aug. 26 - Sept. 8, 1979), edited by G. ’t Hooft et al. (Plenum, New
York, 1980), pp. 135–157. (A)

30
237. “Composite quarks and leptons from dynamical supersymmetry breaking with-
out messengers,” N. Arkani-Hamed, M. A. Luty, and J. Terning, Phys. Rev. D
58, 015004 (1998). (A)

E. Grand unification and extended gauge groups

An early point in favor of quark–lepton unification was the anomaly cancellation

[182, 183, 184] mentioned in Sec. IX E. The idea that lepton number could be regarded
as a fourth “color,” leading to an extended gauge group embracing both electroweak
and strong interactions, was proposed by Pati and Salam [238].
The strong and electroweak coupling constants are expected to approach one an-
other at very small distance (large momentum) scales [239], suggesting grand unified
theories based on symmetry groups such as SU(5) [240], SO(10) [241], and E6 [242].
(For an early popular article on this program see [114].) These theories typically
predict that the proton will decay [115, 116, 117], and some of them entail additional
observable gauge bosons besides those of the SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1) Standard Model
[71]. Some useful group-theoretic techniques for model-building are described in [56].

238. “Unified Lepton–Hadron Symmetry and a Gauge Theory of the Basic Interac-
tions,” J. C. Pati and A. Salam, Phys. Rev. D 8, 1240–1251 (1973). See also
“Is Baryon Number Conserved?”, J. C. Pati and A. Salam, Phys. Rev. Lett.
31, 661–664 (1973); “Lepton Number as the Fourth Color,” J. C. Pati and A.
Salam, Phys. Rev. D 10, 275–289 (1974). (A)

239. “Hierarchy of Interactions in Unified Gauge Theories,” H. Georgi, H. R. Quinn,

and S. Weinberg, Phys. Rev. Lett. 33, 451–454 (1974). (I)

240. “Unity of All Elementary Particle Forces,” H. Georgi and S. L. Glashow, Phys.
Rev. Lett. 32, 438–441 (1974). (I)

241. “The State of the Art — Gauge Theories,” H. Georgi, in Particles and Fields
— 1974, Proceedings of the Williamsburg Meeting, Sept. 5–7, 1974, edited by
C. E. Carlson (AIP Conf. Proc. No. 23) (AIP, New York, 1975), pp. 575–582.
(A)

242. “A Universal Gauge Theory Model Based on E6 ,” F. Gürsey, P. Ramond, and

P. Sikivie, Phys. Lett. 60B, 177–180 (1976). (A)

F. Strong CP problem and axions

In a non-abelian gauge theory such as SU(3) there can arise non-trivial gauge
configurations that prevent terms in the Lagrangian proportional to Tr (Gµν G̃µν ) from
being ignored as pure divergences. Such terms can lead to strong CP violation. Their
coefficient, a parameter conventionally called θ, must be of order 10−10 or smaller in
order not to conflict with limits on the electric dipole moment of the neutron [243].
Several proposals have been advanced for why θ is so small [40, 244]. In one of the
most interesting, θ is promoted to the status of a dynamical variable that can relax

31
to a natural value of zero. As a consequence, there arises a nearly massless particle
known as the axion, whose properties (and the search for which) are well-described
in [40, 244].

243. “New Experimental Limit on the Electric Dipole Moment of the Neutron,” P.
G. Harris et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 82, 904–907 (1999). (I)

244. “The Strong CP Problem,” M. Dine, in [47], pp. 349–369.

G. String theory

A truly unified theory of interactions must include gravity. The leading candidate
for such a theory is string theory, which originated in pre-QCD attempts to explain the
strong interactions [245, 246, 247, 248] by replacing the space-time points of quantum
field theories with extended objects (“strings”). In 1974 it was realized that string
theories necessarily entailed a massless spin-2 particle, for which the graviton was
an ideal candidate [249]. While it appeared that such theories required space-time
to be 26-dimensional (or 10-dimensional in the presence of supersymmetry), these
extra dimensions were interpreted in the 1980s as a source of the internal degrees
of freedom characterizing particle quantum numbers (see. e.g., [250, 251, 252]). A
typical scenario whereby string theory might yield predictions for the quark and lepton
spectrum is described in [253].
Early results on string theory are described in the textbook by Green, Schwarz,
and Witten [41, 42]. Later texts are [43, 44]. Descriptions for the non-specialist are
given by Green [122], Duff [123], Greene [100] and Weinberg [132].

245. Y. Nambu, “Quark Model and the Factorization of the Veneziano Amplitude,”
in Symmetries and Quark Models: Proceedings (International Conference
on Symmetries and Quark Models, Detroit, Mich., June 1969), edited by R.
Chand (Gordon and Breach, New York, 1970), pp. 269–277. (A)

246. “A General Treatment of Factorization in Dual Resonance Models,” S. Fubini,

D. Gordon, and G. Veneziano, Phys. Lett. 29B, 670–682 (1969). (A)

247. “Dual Symmetric Theory of Hadrons. 1,” L. Susskind, Nuovo Cim. A69, 457–
496 (1970). (A)

248. “Strings, Monopoles, and Gauge Fields,” Y. Nambu, Phys. Rev. D 10, 4262–
4268 (1974). (A)

249. “Dual Models for Nonhadrons,” J. Scherk and J. H. Schwarz, Nucl. Phys. B81,
118–144 (1974). (A)

250. “The Heterotic String,” D. J. Gross, J. A. Harvey, E. Martinec, and R. Rohm,

Phys. Rev. Lett. 54, 502–505 (1985). (A)

251. “Heterotic String Theory. 1. The Free Heterotic String,” D. J. Gross, J. A.

Harvey, E. Martinec, and R. Rohm, Nucl. Phys. B256, 253–284 (1985). (A)

32
252. “Heterotic String Theory. 2. The Interacting Heterotic String,” D. J. Gross, J.
A. Harvey, E. Martinec, and R. Rohm, Nucl. Phys. B267, 75–124 (1986). (A)

253. “Vacuum Configurations for Superstrings,” P. Candelas, G. T. Horowitz, A.

Strominger, and E. Witten, Nucl. Phys. B258, 46–74 (1985). (A)

H. Large extra dimensions

Although the usual superstring scenario envisions the six extra dimensions in such
theories as having spatial extent of the order of the Planck scale, (GN h̄/c3 )1/2 ≃ 10−33
cm, theories have been proposed in which some of the extra dimensions are larger,
leading to observable effects at accelerators or in precise tests of Newton’s universal
inverse square law of gravitation [254, 255, 256, 257, 258]. Reviews for the non-
specialist have appeared in Scientific American [137] and Physics Today [138].

254. “A Possible New Dimension at a Few TeV,” I. Antoniadis, Phys. Lett. B 246,
377–384 (1990). (A)

255. “Weak Scale Superstrings,” J. D. Lykken, Phys. Rev. D 54, R3693–R3697

(1996). (A)

256. “The Hierarchy Problem and New Dimensions at a Millimeter,” N. Arkani-

Hamed, S. Dimopoulos, and G. R. Dvali, Phys. Lett. B 429, 263–272 (1998).
(A)

257. “New Dimensions at a Millimeter to a Fermi and Superstrings at a TeV,” I.

Antoniadis, N. Arkani-Hamed, S. Dimopoulos, and G. R. Dvali, Phys. Lett. B
436, 257–263 (1998). (A)

258. “Phenomenology, Astrophysics and Cosmology of Theories with Sub-Millimeter

Dimensions and TeV Scale Quantum Gravity,” N. Arkani-Hamed, S. Dimopou-
los, and and G. R. Dvali, Phys. Rev. D 59, 086004 (1999). (A)

XI. HINTS OF NEW PHYSICS

A. Neutrino masses

The ability of neutrinos of one species to undergo oscillations into another is an

indication of non-zero and non-degenerate neutrino masses [57, 58]. Several experi-
ments find evidence for such oscillations. Reviews have appeared in [59, 61, 131]; the
second of these also deals with precision electroweak tests using neutrinos.
1. Solar neutrinos:
Since the earliest attempts to detect neutrinos originating from the Sun in the
mid-1960s, the flux has been less than predicted in the standard solar model [125].
Recent experiments at the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) in Ontario [259, 260]
and the KamLAND experiment in Japan [261] strongly suggest that this deficit is due
to oscillations of the electron neutrinos produced in the Sun into other species, most

33
likely a combination of muon and tau neutrinos, induced by interaction with the Sun
in a manner (now known as the MSW effect) first proposed by Mikheev and Smirnov
[262] and Wolfenstein [263]. For reviews, see [35, 60].
2. Atmospheric neutrinos:
Neutrinos produced by the interactions of cosmic rays in the atmosphere are ex-
pected to be in the ratio νµ : νe = 2 : 1 (summing over neutrinos and antineutrinos)
[264]. Instead, a ratio more like 1:1 is observed. This phenomenon has been traced
to oscillations that are most likely νµ → ντ , as a result of definitive experiments
performed by the Super-Kamiokande Collaboration in Japan [265, 266]. The mixing
appears to be close to maximal, in contrast to the small mixings of quarks described
by off-diagonal elements of the CKM matrix.
3. Indications in an accelerator experiment:
An experiment performed at Los Alamos National Laboratory [267] in the Liquid
Scintillator Neutrino Detector (LSND) finds evidence for ν̄µ → ν̄e oscillations. An
experiment known as MiniBooNE which has begun to operate at Fermilab will check
this possibility [268].

259. “Measurement of the Charged Current Interactions Produced by 8 B Solar Neu-

trinos at the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory,” SNO Collab., Q. R. Ahmad et
al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 87, 071301 (2001). (I)

260. “Direct Evidence for Neutrino Flavor Transformation from Neutral-Current In-
teractions in the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory,” SNO Collab., Q. R. Ahmad
et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 89, 011301 (2002); “Measurement of Day and Night
Neutrino Energy Spectra at SNO and Constraints on Neutrino Mixing Param-
eters,” SNO Collab., Q. R. Ahmad et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 89, 011302 (2002).
(I)

261. “First Results from KamLAND: Evidence for Reactor Anti-Aeutrino Disappear-
ance,” KamLAND Collaboration, K. Eguchi et al., preprint hep-ex/0212021,
submitted to Phys. Rev. Letters. (I)

262. “Resonance Enhancement of Oscillations in Matter and Solar Neutrino Spec-

troscopy,” S. P. Mikheev and A. Yu. Smirnov, Yad. Fiz. 42, 1441–1448 (1985)
[Sov. J. Nucl. Phys. 42, 913–917 (1985)]. (I)

263. “Neutrino Oscillations in Matter,” L. Wolfenstein, Phys. Rev. D 17, 2369–2374

(1978). (I)

264. “Flux of Atmospheric Neutrinos,” T. K. Gaisser and M. Honda, preprint

hep-ph/0203272, to appear in Ann. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 52, (2002).

265. “Evidence for Oscillation of Atmospheric Neutrinos,” Super-Kamiokande Col-

laboration, Y. Fukuda et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 81, 1562–1567 (1998). (I)

34
266. “τ Neutrinos Favored Over Sterile Neutrinos in Atmospheric Muon Neutrino
Oscillations,” Super-Kamiokande Collaboration, S. Fukuda et al., Phys. Rev.
Lett. 85, 3999–4003 (2000). (I)
267. “Evidence for Neutrino Oscillations from the Observation of ν̄e Appearance in
a ν̄µ Beam,” LSND Collaboration, A. Aguilar et al., Phys. Rev. D 64, 112007
(2001). (I)
268. “The Status of MiniBooNE,” E. A. Hawker, Int. J. Mod. Phys.
A 16 (S1B), 755–757 (2001). (I) For an up-to-date web page see:
http://www-boone.fnal.gov/ .

B. Cosmic microwave background radiation

The 2.7 K radiation left over from the Big Bang contains a wealth of information
about both the early Universe and particle physics. In particular, the spatial pattern
of its fluctuations indicates that the Universe is exactly on the border between open
and closed, and strongly supports the idea that the Universe underwent a period of
exponential inflation early in its history [134, 135, 269, 270, 271]. For a review of the
cosmological parameters, see [272].

269. “Big-Bang Cosmology,” K. A. Olive and J. A. Peacock, in Review of Particle

Physics, K. Hagiwara et al. [73], pp. 152–161. (I)
270. “Global Cosmological Parameters: H0 , ΩM , and Λ,” M. Fukugita and C. J.
Hogan, in Review of Particle Physics, K. Hagiwara et al. [73], pp. 166–172.
(I)
271. “Cosmic Background Radiation,” G. F. Smoot and D. Scott, in Review of
Particle Physics, K. Hagiwara et al. [73], pp. 177–181. (I)
272. “The Cosmic Triangle: Revealing the State of the Universe,” N. Bahcall, J. P.
Ostriker, S. Perlmutter, and P. J. Steinhardt, Science 284, 1481–1488 (1999).
(I)

C. Baryon asymmetry of the Universe

To explain why the visible Universe seems to contain so many more baryons than
antibaryons, Sakharov [273] proposed shortly after the discovery of CP violation that
three ingredients were needed: (1) CP (and C) violation; (2) baryon number violation,
and (3) a period in which the Universe is not in thermal equilibrium. All of these
conditions are expected to be satisfied in a wide range of theories, such as grand unified
theories (Sec. XI.E) in which quarks and leptons, and the electroweak and strong
interactions, are unified with one another [274]. However, details of the mechanism
are not clear [112, 113]. In some versions of the theory, for example, it is lepton
number that is violated in the early stages of the Universe, giving rise to a lepton
asymmetry that is then converted to a mixture of lepton and baryon asymmetry when
the Universe has evolved further. For a recent review of this suggestion, see [275].

35
273. “Violation of CP Invariance, C Asymmetry, and Baryon Asymmetry of the
Universe,” A. D. Sakharov, Pis’ma Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 5, 32–35 (1967) [JETP
Lett. 5, 24–27 (1967)]. (I)
274. “Grand Unified Theories and the Origin of the Baryon Asymmetry,” E. W. Kolb
and M. S. Turner, Ann. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci. 33, 645–696 (1983). (I)
275. “Neutrino Masses and the Baryon Asymmetry,” W. Buchmüller and M.
Plumacher, Int. J. Mod. Phys. A 15, 5047–5086 (2000). (I)

D. Dark matter

Only a small fraction of the matter in the Universe can be accounted for by
baryons, leaving the remainder to consist of as-yet-unidentified matter or energy
density [121]. Candidates for this dark matter are discussed in the Review of Particle
Physics [276]. One class of candidates consists of the lightest supersymmetric particle
(LSP), which may be stable; these suggestions are reviewed in [277].

276. “Dark Matter,” M. Srednicki and N. J. C. Spooner, in Review of Particle

Physics, K. Hagiwara et al. [73], pp. 173–176. (I)
277. “Supersymmetric Dark Matter,” G. Jungman, M. Kamionkowski, and K. Griest,
Phys. Rep. 267, 195–373 (1996). (I)

E. Dark energy

The Universe appears not only to be expanding, but its expansion appears to be
speeding up. Evidence for this behavior comes from the study of distant supernovae,
which furnish “standard candles” for a cosmological distance scale [130, 272]. One
interpretation is that a cosmological constant Λ (first proposed by Einstein shortly
after he formulated the general theory of relativity) accounts for about 65% of the
energy density of the Universe. This contribution is sometimes referred to as “dark
energy,” to distinguish it from the “dark matter” accounting for nearly all of the
remaining energy density aside from a few-percent contribution from baryons [269,
270]. An alternative suggestion is that the “dark energy” is due to a new field, dubbed
“quintessence” [136]. For recent accounts of “dark energy” see [278] and [279].

278. “The Extravagant Universe,” R. P. Kirshner (Princeton University Press, 2002).

(E)
279. “The Cosmological Constant and Dark Energy,” P. J. E. Peebles and B. Ratra,
preprint astro-ph/0207347, to appear in Rev. Mod. Phys. (I)

XII. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACHES

The rise of the Standard Model would not have been possible without a variety of
experimental facilities, including accelerators, detectors, and non-accelerator experi-
ments. What follows is a brief description of some currently operating laboratories

36
and experiments. Fuller descriptions may be found through laboratory web sites,
listed in Sec. VII.B, and through web sites of specific collaborations. Some references
to recent experiments are given in this Section.

A. High energy accelerator facilities

1. Beijing Electron-Positron Collider (China)

This electron-positron collider with center-of-mass energy 2–5 GeV recently re-
ported an improved measurement of R (see Sec. II.C) in this energy range [280]. It
has made important contributions to the study of τ leptons, charmed particles, and
cc̄ bound states.
2. Brookhaven National Laboratory (U.S.A.)
The Alternating-Gradient Synchrotron (AGS) is a fixed-target proton accelerator
with maximum energy of about 30 GeV. The first neutrino beam constructed at an
accelerator was used at the AGS to show that the muon and electron neutrino are
distinct from one another [281]. One of its most spectacular discoveries was the J/ψ
particle, a bound state of a charmed quark and a charmed antiquark [185]. Recent
experiments include the detection of the rare process K + → π + ν ν̄ [282] and a precise
measurement of the muon anomalous magnetic moment [283]. It serves as an injector
to the Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collider (RHIC), whose maximum energy of about 200
GeV per nucleon permits studies of the quark-gluon plasma and other aspects of
hadron physics at high densities.
3. CERN (Switzerland and France)
CERN’s 28-GeV Proton Synchrotron (PS) began operation in 1959. It served as
a source of protons for the Intersecting Storage Rings (ISR), which began operation
in the early 1970s and achieved a maximum center-of-mass energy of 62 GeV. Its
protons were used to produce neutrinos which provided the first evidence for neutral
currents in 1973 [177, 178]. The Super-Proton-Synchrotron (SPS), a 400-GeV fixed-
target machine built in the mid-1970s, was converted to a proton-antiproton collider
(the “Sp̄pS”) early in the 1980s, leading to the discovery of the W and Z bosons in
1983 [284, 285]. The Large Electron-Positron (LEP) Collider [126] was commisioned
in 1989, making a series of precise measurements at the center-of-mass energy of the
Z boson (91.2 GeV) (an early measurement of the Z width pointed to three families
of quarks and leptons [128]) before moving up in energy to nearly 210 GeV and ending
its program in 2000 [286]. Its magnets have been removed, making way for the Large
Hadron Collider (LHC), a proton-proton collider that will have a c.m. energy of 14
TeV [133, 287].

4. CLEO/CESR at Cornell (U.S.A.)

The Wilson Synchrotron at Cornell, a circular electron accelerator built in 1967,
was converted in 1979 to an electron-positron collider, the Cornell Electron Storage
Ring (CESR), with maximum energy 8 GeV per beam [288]. It arrived on the scene
just in time to study the Υ(1S) bb̄ resonance and its excited states, including the
Υ(4S) which decays to a B B̄ meson pair. Studies of B mesons have dominated
the program of the CLEO detector at CESR until recently. For the next year or

37
two, CLEO will return to the Υ(1S, 2S, 3S) resonances, after which it is planned
to optimize CESR to run at the lower energies appropriate for charm production
[289]. This will permit a return to many interesting questions with a vastly improved
detector and statistical sample.

5. DESY (Germany)
A circular electron accelerator at the Deutsches Elektronen Synchrotron (DESY)
laboratory was converted to an electron-positron collider (DORIS) whose experimen-
tal program paralleled that of CESR/CLEO for a number of years, yielding impor-
tant information about Υ spectroscopy and B mesons, for example through work
of the ARGUS Collaboration. Subsequent machines included the larger e+ e− col-
lider PETRA (maximum c.m. energy 46 GeV) and the currently operating HERA
lepton-proton collider, which has studied both e− p and e+ p interactions. HERA has
extended information on deep inelastic lepton scattering to new kinematic regimes
and provided important information on the gluon structure of the proton.

6. Fermilab (U.S.A.)
The Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Batavia, Illinois, U.S.A., began
operation in 1972 as a proton accelerator with initial energy 200 GeV, rising to 400
GeV within a year. With the addition of a ring of superconducting magnets in 1983 it
was converted to an energy of 800 GeV capable of providing protons to fixed targets
and proton-antiproton collisions with a center-of-mass energy of 1.8 TeV [127, 290].
Its energy has recently been upgraded to nearly 1 TeV per beam with the addition
of a new 150-GeV proton ring called the Main Injector. Outstanding discoveries at
Fermilab include those of the bottom quark in 1977 [188, 189], the top quark in 1994
[190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195], and the tau neutrino in 2000 [291].

7. Frascati (Italy)
A major pioneer in the study of electron-positron collisions has been the Laboratori
Nazionali di Frascati (INFN) near Rome, Italy. Starting in the early 1960s with
the ADA collider and continuing through the ADONE storage ring, which begain
operation in the late 1960s, the laboratory has now begun to operate a machine
called DAΦNE (DAFNE), which seeks to produce kaons and other particles through
the reaction e+ e− → φ → . . . at a center-of-mass energy of 1.02 GeV.

8. KEK (Japan)
In the early 1970s, a 12-GeV proton synchrotron was constructed in Japan near
Tokyo at the National Laboratory for High Energy Physics, for which KEK (Ko-
Energi-Kenkyujo) is the acronym in Japanese. The next major project at KEK, the
TRISTAN e+ e− collider, attained a center-of-mass energy in excess of 60 GeV, the
highest in the world for such a machine at its debut in 1986. Among the topics stud-
ied by TRISTAN included weak–electromagnetic interference through the processes
e+ e− → (γ ∗ , Z ∗ ) → . . ., where the asterisk denotes a virtual photon or Z. The lat-
est project at KEK is the KEK-B e+ e− collider, a lower-energy machine built in the
TRISTAN tunnel, which is designed to produce pairs of B mesons with net motion on
their center-of-mass by using unequal electron and positron energies. In this way the

38
positions at which the B mesons decay can be spread out longitudinally, permitting
easier study of time-dependences that are of particular interest in CP-violating pro-
cesses. The Belle detector operating at KEK-B [200] is producing significant results
on B decays, as mentioned above [203]), as is the BaBar detector operating at PEP-II
(see the description of SLAC, below).

9. Novosibirsk (Russia)
A series of e+ e− colliders has operated at the Budker Institute for High Energy
Physics in Novosibirsk for a number of years. Indeed, work at this laboratory helped
to pioneer the study of beam dynamics essential for achieving such collisions. These
colliders performed important measurements at the center-of-mass energies of the
Υ(9.46) and φ(1.02) resonances, where the numbers denote the mass in GeV/c2 .

10. Protvino (Russia)

The largest accelerator at present in Russia is a 76-GeV proton synchrotron at
Serphukhov (Protvino), which began operation in the early 1970s. It was the first to
detect rising meson-baryon cross sections [292], followed soon by the observation of a
similar effect in proton-proton collisions at the CERN ISR (see above).

11. SLAC (U.S.A.)

The early program of the 30-GeV 2-mile-long linear electron accelerator at the
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) included the discovery of pointlike con-
stituents inside the proton through deep inelastic scattering [96, 152, 153]. In the
early 1970s the SPEAR electron-positron storage ring was constructed with maxi-
mum center-of-mass energy equal to 7.4 GeV. Late in 1973 this machine confirmed
a surprising enhancement of the e+ e− annihilation cross section starting at a c.m.
energy of 4 GeV seen earlier at the Cambridge Electron Accelerator (CEA), and in
1974 was one of two sources of the discovery of the J/ψ particle [186], the other being
a fixed-target experiment at Brookhaven National Laboratory [185] (see above). In
the mid-1970s construction was begun on PEP, an electron-positron collider with c.m.
energy of about 30 GeV, which performed studies of the elctroweak theory and was
the first to measure the b quark lifetime. The energy of the LINAC was then raised
to 50 GeV, both electrons and positrons were accelerated, and these were then bent
in arcs to collide with one another at energies equal to or greater than the mass of
the Z boson. This machine, the Stanford Linear Collider (SLC) [124], pioneered in
precision studies of the Z boson through its Mark II and SLD detectors; its early
measurement of the Z width was a piece of evidence for three families of quarks and
leptons [128]. The latest SLAC project, the PEP-II asymmetric e+ e− collider, has
seen evidence for CP violation in B decays in its BaBar detector [199, 202] (see also
KEK-B and Belle, above), and has achieved record luminosity for any collider. By the
middle of this decade both BaBar and Belle expect to have produced and recorded
several hundred million B B̄ pairs.

12. Thomas Jefferson National Laboratory (U.S.A.)

A moderate-energy (5.7-GeV) electron accelerator, this machine studies interac-
tions with nuclei and the photoproduction and electroproduction of resonances con-

39
taining light quarks (u, d, s), with an eye to seeing those that cannot be explained
purely as q q̄ mesons or qqq baryons. An upgrade to 12 GeV is under discussion.

280. “Measurements of the Cross Section for e+ e− → hadrons at Center-of-Mass

Energies from 2 GeV to 5 GeV,” BES Collaboration, J. Z. Bai et al., Phys.
Rev. Lett. 88, 101802 (2002). (I)
281. “Observation of High-Energy Neutrino Reactions and the Existence of Two
Kinds of Neutrinos,” G. Danby et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 9, 36–44 (1962).
282. “Further Evidence for the Decay K + → π + ν ν̄,” BNL E787 Collaboration, S.
Adler et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 88, 041803 (2002). (I)
283. “Precise Measurement of the Positive Muon Anomalous Magnetic Moment,”
BNL E821 Collaboration, H. N. Brown et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 86, 2227–2231
(2001). (I) An updated version of this result has appeared recently with roughly
half the experimental error: “Measurement of the Positive Muon Anoma-
lous Magnetic Moment to 0.7 ppm,” BNL E821 Collaboration, G. W. Ben-
nett et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 89, 101804 (2002); 89, 129903(E) (2002). See
http://phyppro1.phy.bnl.gov/g2muon/index.shtml for latest details.
284. “Experimental Observation of the Intermediate Vector Bosons
+ − 0
W , W , and Z , C. Rubbia, 1984 Nobel Lecture, available at
http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1984/rubbia-lecture.html.
(I)
285. “Stochastic Cooling and the Accumulation of Antipro-
tons,” S. Van Der Meer, 1984 Nobel Lecture, available at
http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1984/meer-lecture.html.
(I)
286. “Review of final LEP Results or a Tribute to LEP,” J. Drees, in Proceedings
of 20th International Symposium on Lepton and Photon Interactions
at High Energies (Lepton Photon 01) (Ref. [3]), pp. 349–373. (I)
287. “From LEP to LHC, a Review of Results and a Look to the Future,” L. Foà,
Nucl. Phys. Proc. Suppl. 75A, 28–36 (1999). (I)
288. “A Personal History of CESR and CLEO,” K. Berkelman, Cornell University
report CLNS 02/1784 (unpublished). (I)
289. “CLEO-c and CESR-c: A New Frontier in Weak and Strong Interactions,”
I. Shipsey, in Proceedings of 9th International Symposium on Heavy Flavor
Physics, Pasadena, California, 10–13 Sept. 2001, AIP Conf. Proc. 618, 427–437
(2002). (I)
290. “The First Large-Scale Application of Superconductivity: The Fermilab En-
ergy Doubler, 1972–1983,” L. Hoddeson, Historical Studies in the Physical and
Biological Sciences 18, 25–54 (1987).

40
291. “Observation of ντ Interactions,” DONUT Collaboration, K. Kodama et al.,
Phys. Lett. B 504, 218–224 (2001). (I)

292. “Total Cross-Sections of π + , K + and p on Protons and Deuterons in the Mo-

mentum Range 15-GeV/c to 60-GeV/c,” S. P. Denisov et al., Phys. Lett. 36B,
415–421 (1971). (I)

B. Non-accelerator experiments

1. Underground or underwater laboratories

The ability to perform experiments in a low-background environment is greatly

increased by going deep underground, where cosmic ray interactions are less frequent.
A number of major laboratories now are operating underground, including ones at
the Kamioka mine (Japan) [293], Gran Sasso (Italy) [294], and Soudan (Minnesota,
U.S.A.) [295]. Whereas the focus of several laboratories initially had been the search
for proton decay, it has now broadened to include the study of interactions of neutrinos
from atmospheric cosmic rays, the Sun, and even supernovae, and the search for effects
of dark matter.
The next stage of operation of detectors in the laboratories mentioned above
includes the study of artificially produced neutrinos. The Fermilab accelerator will
send neutrinos to the MINOS detector [296] in Soudan. The proton synchrotron at
KEK in the K2K experiment [293], and later a machine known as the Japan Hadron
Facility [297], will direct neutrinos to the SuperKamiokande detector in Kamioka.
Finally, a detector known as KamLAND [298], also in the Kamioka mine, will be
sensitive to neutrinos from reactors over a large portion of Japan, and has already
reported its first results [261].
Some current and forthcoming detectors will also be sensitive to naturally occur-
ring neutrinos. These include the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory in Ontario [299], the
Borexino experiment [300] in Gran Sasso, and the SuperKamiokande detector men-
tioned above. At the South Pole a number of phototubes have been sunk deep into the
ice in the AMANDA experiment [301], which is envisioned in the IceCube experiment
[302] to expand to an effective volume of a cubic kilometer. The RICE experiment
[303] seeks to study the low-frequency tail (at several hundred MHz) of Čerenkov
emission by electrons produced by neutrinos, also in South Polar ice. A number of
neutrino detectors are also deployed or planned deep underwater, e.g., in Lake Baikal
[304] and the Mediterranean Sea (ANTARES [305], NEMO [306], NESTOR [307]).

2. Atomic physics

A large accelerator is not always needed to study fundamental particle physics

beyond the Standard Model. An example is the window on non-standard physics
provided by atomic parity violation. (See the bibliography in [72].) Studies of weak-
electromagnetic interfence in atoms such as Cs, Tl, and Pb are in principle sensitive
to new interactions and extended gauge theories, particlarly if the effects of atomic
physics can be separated from more fundamental effects.

41
3. Electric and magnetic dipole moments

The electric dipole moment of the neutron is an excellent probe of physics beyond
the Standard Model, which predicts it to be orders of magnitude smaller than its
current upper bound [243] of |dn | < 6×10−26 e· cm. For a bibliography of experimental
literature on electric dipole moments and atomic parity violation, see [72].
The magnetic dipole moments of particles also provide important constraints on
the Standard Model. The anomalous magnetic moment of the muon, in particular, is
sensitive to new-physics effects such as those that arise in some versions of supersym-
metry [308]. The current status of measurements of this quantity indicates a possible
deviation from standard-model predictions, but at a level which is not yet statistically
compelling [283].

293. See the web page http://www-sk.icrr.u-tokyo.ac.jp/.

294. See the web page http://www.lngs.infn.it/.

295. See the web page http://www.hep.umn.edu/soudan/.

296. See the web page http://www-numi.fnal.gov/.

297. See the web page http://jkj.tokai.jaeri.go.jp/.

298. See the web page http://www.awa.tohoku.ac.jp/html/KamLAND/.

299. See the web page http://www.sno.phy.queensu.ca/.

300. See the web page http://pupgg.princeton.edu/~borexino/.

301. See the web page http://amanda.berkeley.edu/amanda/.

302. See the web page http://icecube.wisc.edu/.

303. See the web page http://kuhep4.phsx.ukans.edu/~iceman/.

304. See the web page http://www-zeuthen.desy.de/baikal/

or http://thalia.ifh.de/baikal/.

305. See the web page http://antares.in2p3.fr/.

306. See the web page http://nemoweb.lns.infn.it/.

307. See the web page http://www.nestor.org.gr/.

308. “The Muon Anomalous Magnetic Moment: A Harbinger for ‘New Physics’,” A.
Czarnecki and W. J. Marciano, Phys. Rev. D 64, 013104 (2001). (A)

42
C. Plans for future facilities

The particle physics community is developing a number of options to probe further

beyond the Standard Model. These include a large linear e+ e− collider, intense sources
of neutrinos (“neutrino factories”), a muon collider, and a Very Large Hadron Collider
(VLHC) with energy significantly greater than the LHC. Descriptions of all of these
options may be found in the Proceedings of the 2001 Snowmass Workshop [309].

309. Proceedings of the APS / DPF / DPB Summer Study on the Future of Particle
Physics (Snowmass 2001), Snowmass, Colorado, 30 June - 21 July 2001, eConf
C010630 (2001).

XIII. SUMMARY

The Standard Model of electroweak and strong interactions has been in place for
nearly thirty years, but precise tests have entered a phase that permits glimpses of
physics beyond this impressive structure, most likely associated with the yet-to-be
discovered Higgs boson and certainly associated with new scales for neutrino masses.
Studies of CP violation in decays of neutral kaons or B mesons are attaining impres-
sive accuracy as well, and could yield cracks in the Standard Model at any time. It
is time to ask what lies behind the pattern of fermion masses and mixings. This is
an input to the Standard Model, characterized by many free parameters all of which
await explanation.
Many avenues exist for exploration beyond the Standard Model, both theoretical
and experimental. A lively dialogue between the two approaches must be maintained,
with adequate support for each, if we are to take the next step in this exciting ad-
venture.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank T. André, T. Appelquist, R. Cahn, Z. Luo, C. Quigg, G. Passarino,

R. Shrock, R. Stuewer, O. L. Weaver, and B. Winstein for constructive comments on
the manuscript, and the Theory Group at Fermilab for hospitality. This work was
supported in part by the United States Department of Energy through Grant No. DE
FG02 90ER40560.

43