ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER,

AND GENERAL ENERGY

ANALYSIS
 FORMS OF ENERGY
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic,
potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum
constitutes the total energy, E of a system.
• Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy.
• Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a whole
with respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential
energies.
• Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular structure of
a system and the degree of the molecular activity.
• Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.
• Kinetic energy, KE: The energy that
a system possesses as a result of its
motion relative to some reference
frame.
• Potential energy, PE: The energy
that a system possesses as a result The macroscopic energy of
of its elevation in a gravitational field. an object changes with 2
velocity and elevation.
 Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy
per unit mass

Mass flow rate

Potential energy

Potential energy
per unit mass Energy flow rate

Total energy
of a system

Energy of a system
per unit mass

Total energy
per unit mass 3
Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy
Sensible energy: The portion
of the internal energy of a
system associated with the
kinetic energies of the
molecules.
Latent energy: The internal
energy associated with the
phase of a system.
Chemical energy: The internal
energy associated with the
atomic bonds in a molecule.
Nuclear energy: The
tremendous amount of energy
associated with the strong
The internal energy of a
system is the sum of all forms
bonds within the nucleus of the
of the microscopic energies. atom itself.
The various forms of
microscopic Thermal = Sensible + Latent
energies that make Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear
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up sensible energy.
• The total energy of a system, can
be contained or stored in a system,
and thus can be viewed as the
static forms of energy.
• The forms of energy not stored in a
system can be viewed as the
dynamic forms of energy or as
energy interactions.
• The dynamic forms of energy are
recognized at the system boundary
as they cross it, and they represent
the energy gained or lost by a
system during a process.
• The only two forms of energy
interactions associated with a
closed system are heat transfer
and work.
• The difference between heat transfer and work: An energy interaction is
heat transfer if its driving force is a temperature difference. Otherwise it is
work. 5
ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Heat: The form of energy that is
transferred between two
systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature difference.

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Heat transfer
per unit mass
Amount of heat transfer
when heat transfer rate
is constant
Amount of heat transfer
when heat transfer rate
changes with time

Energy is
recognized
as heat
transfer only
as it crosses
the system
boundary.

During an adiabatic process, a system

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exchanges no heat with its surroundings.
 Historical Background on Heat
• Kinetic theory: Treats molecules as
tiny balls that are in motion and thus
possess kinetic energy.
• Heat: The energy associated with the
random motion of atoms and
molecules.
Heat transfer mechanisms:
• Conduction: The transfer of energy
from the more energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interaction
between particles.
• Convection: The transfer of energy
between a solid surface and the
adjacent fluid that is in motion, and it
involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
• Radiation: The transfer of energy due
to the emission of electromagnetic
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waves (or photons).
ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
• Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
 A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the
system boundaries are all associated with work interactions
• Formal sign convention: Heat transfer to a system and work done by a
system are positive; heat transfer from a system and work done on a system
are negative.
• Alternative to sign convention is to use the subscripts in and out to indicate
direction. This is the primary approach in this text.
Work done
per unit mass

Power is the
work done per Specifying the directions
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unit time (kW) of heat and work.
Heat vs. Work
• Both are recognized at the boundaries of
a system as they cross the boundaries.
That is, both heat and work are boundary
phenomena.
• Systems possess energy, but not heat or
work.
• Both are associated with a process, not a
state.
• Unlike properties, heat or work has no
meaning at a state.
• Both are path functions (i.e., their
magnitudes depend on the path followed
during a process as well as the end
states).
Properties are point functions
have exact differentials (d ).
Path functions
have inexact
differentials ( ) 10
Electrical Work
Electrical work

Electrical power

When potential difference

and current change with time

When potential difference

and current remain constant

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MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK
• There are two requirements for a work interaction between a
system and its surroundings to exist:
 there must be a force acting on the boundary.
 the boundary must move.

When force is not constant

Work = Force  Distance

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 A force F acting through
Shaft a moment arm r
generates a torque T
Work
This force acts through a distance s

Shaft
work
The power transmitted through the shaft
is the shaft work done per unit time

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When the length of the spring changes by Spring Work
a differential amount dx under the influence
of a force F, the work done is Substituting and integrating yield

For linear elastic springs, the displacement x1 and x2: the initial and the final
x is proportional to the force applied displacements

k: spring constant (kN/m)

Elongation
of a spring
under the
influence of
a force.

The
displacement
of a linear
spring doubles
when the force
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is doubled.
Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars

Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film

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Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body
1. The work transfer needed to raise a body is equal to
the change in the potential energy of the body.
2. The work transfer needed to accelerate a body is
equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the body.

Nonmechanical Forms of Work

Electrical work: The generalized force is
the voltage (the electrical potential) and the
generalized displacement is the electrical
charge.
Magnetic work: The generalized force is
the magnetic field strength and the
generalized displacement is the total
magnetic dipole moment.
Electrical polarization work: The
generalized force is the electric field
strength and the generalized displacement
is the polarization of the medium.
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 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• The first law of thermodynamics (the conservation of energy principle)
provides a sound basis for studying the relationships among the various forms
of energy and energy interactions.
• The first law states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed during
a process; it can only change forms.
• The First Law: For all adiabatic processes between two specified states of a
closed system, the net work done is the same regardless of the nature of the
closed system and the details of the process.

Energy cannot
be created or
destroyed; it
can only
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change forms.
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Energy The net change (increase or decrease) in the total
energy of the system during a process is equal to the
difference between the total energy entering and the total
Balance energy leaving the system during that process.

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Energy Change of a System, Esystem

Internal, kinetic, and

potential energy changes

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 Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout
• Heat transfer
• Work transfer
• Mass flow (kJ)

A closed mass
involves only
heat transfer
and work.

For a cycle ∆E = 0,
thus Q = W.

The energy
content of a
control volume
can be changed
by mass flow as
well as heat and
work interactions. 21
Sample Problems
Sample Problem 1
A 14 grams aluminum beer contains 375 mL of beer. How much ice at
0°C will have to melt in order to cool 24 full cans from 25°C to 2°C? The
specific heats of beer and aluminum are 4.0 and 0.88 kJ/kg-C°,
respectively, and the relative density of the beer is 0.985.

Sample Problem 2
Air and fuel enters a furnace used for home heating. The air has an
enthalpy of 302 kJ/kg and fuel an enthalpy of 43,027kJ/kg. The gases
leaving the furnace have an enthalpy of 616kJ/kg. There is 17 kgair/
kgfuel. Water circulates through the furnace wall receiving heat. The
house requires 17.6 kW of heat. What is the fuel consumption per day?

Sample Problem 3
Five pounds per second of fluid enter a steady flow system with P1=100
psia, ρ1=0.2 lb/cu.ft., v1=100 fps, u1=800 BTU/lb. and leave with P2 = 20
psia, ρ2=0.05 lb/cu.ft, v2=500 fps, and u2=780 BTU/lb. During passage
through the open system, each pound rejects 10 BTU of heat. Find the
work in horsepower. 22
Sample Problems
Sample Problem 4
An elastic sphere of 0.5 m diameter contains a gas at 115 kPa. Heating
of the sphere causes it to increase to 0.62m and during this process the
pressure is proportional to the sphere diameter. Determine the work
done by the gas.

Sample Problem 5
A fluid enters a steady flow system with an initial pressure of 690 kPa,
density of 3.2 kg/m3 and internal energy of 2000 kJ/kg. It leaves at 172
kPa, ρ = 0.64 kg/m3 and u = 1950 kJ/kg. The heat loss and work done
to the system are 18.6kJ/kg and 32.725kJ/kg, respectively. Determine
the initial and exit velocity if the exit velocity is 40 m/s more than twice
the initial velocity.

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