CE 408 TN-1 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Chapter1 Introduction to Transportation Systems

CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION TO TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS

1. GENERAL
a. The importance of transportation in world development is
multidimensional. For example, one of the basic functions of
transportation is to link residence with employment and producers of
goods with their users. From a wider viewpoint, transportation facilities
provide the options for work, shopping, and recreation, and give access
to health, education, and other amenities.
b. Almost everyone will have had several years of personal experience as a
user of the transportation system, such as a car driver, a bus passenger,
an elevator user, a frequent flyer, or just a sidewalk user. A very small
fraction of readers may be involved in providing transportation services,
such as a student who partially earns her livelihood by driving the
morning express bus for the local transit company. Naturally, almost
every person will tend to acquire his or her own personal viewpoint. No
two persons can expect to come to the same conclusion about a problem
confronting transportation even though they are each known to be
highly objective and rational. Try as hard as you can to approach the
field of transportation and its myriad problems with an open mind, free
of presumptions and prejudice. Like food, shelter, clothing, and security,
transportation is an integral part of human culture. Movement in a
broad sense offers inherent joy and pleasure as well as pain, suffering,
and frustration. These factors will assume even greater importance in
the years ahead.
c. Everybody is involved with transportation in so great a variety of ways
that a mere listing of these ways would take us by surprise. Ultimately,
all human beings are interacting over distance and time, and this
interaction in itself creates involvement. In USA the transportation
system includes about 200 million automobiles, vans, and trucks oper-
ating on about 4 million miles of streets and highways; over 100,000
transit vehicles operating on those streets, as well as more than 7,000
miles of subways, street car lines, and commuter railroads; 275,000
airplanes operating in and out of 17,000 airports; 18,000 locomotives
and 1.20 million cars operating over 113,000 miles of railroads; 20
million recreational boats, 31,000 barges, and over 8,000 ships, tugs,
and other commercial vessels operating on 26,000 miles of waterways;
and 1.50 million miles of intercity pipelines.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Chapter1 Introduction to Transportation Systems

2. PROGRESS IN TRANSPORTATION

a. The principles of transportation engineering have been evolving over

many millennia. Human beings are known to have laid out and used
convenient routes as early as 30,000 BC although it was traders and
migrants who opened up most major routes of communication, the
military has generally been responsible for improving the status of early
routes built by civilians. The first wheeled military vehicles were
developed around 2500 B.C., and since then, significant resources have
been devoted by rulers and their builders to constructing and
maintaining communication routes in the form of roads.
b. Before bicycles and motor vehicles came into fashion, vehicle speeds
seldom exceeded 10 miles per hour (mph). Naturally, a surface of
compacted broken stone made an ideal pavement surface, even for the
solid iron wheels then in use. Today, the American highway system
consists of about 4 million miles of high-class streets and highways,
classified by function, into a series of interconnected networks, which
translates to 1 mile of road for every square mile of land. Vehicles have
been in use since human beings learned to walk. People who traveled on
foot could manage between 10 and 25 miles per day. It is claimed that
the Incas were able to transmit messages at the rate of 250 miles per
day by using fast runners over short stretches, thus achieving speeds of
about 10 mph. Horses, on the other hand, could make almost 40 miles
per day.
c. By the late 1840s, the horse-drawn street car appeared in a number of
cities, operating at an average speed of about 4 mph. It was not until the
1880s that electrically propelled transportation was introduced. By the
beginning of World War I, the electric street car had already had a major
impact on the growth and structure of the city.
d. The entire picture for transportation changed in 1885 with Daimler and
Benz's introduction of the gasoline-powered internal-combustion engine.
Within the last 100 years, the motor vehicle has revolutionized private
transportation all over the world. Before the appearance of the motor
vehicle, vehicle speeds seldom exceeded 10 mph. The car soon changed
the situation, and for purposes of safety and efficiency, traffic signals
were introduced at intersections.
e. Some of the most outstanding technological developments in
transportation have occurred in the preceding 200 years:
i. The first pipelines in the United States were introduced in 1825.
ii. First railroad opened in 1825.
iii. The internal-combustion engine was invented in 1866.
iv. The first automobile was produced in 1886 (by Daimler and Benz).
v. The WrIght brothers flew the first heavier-than-air machine in 1903.
vi. The first diesel electric locomotive was introduced in 1921.
vii. Lindbergh flew over the Atlantic Ocean to Europe in 1927.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Chapter1 Introduction to Transportation Systems

viii. The first diesel engine buses were used in 1938.

ix. The first limited-access highway in the United States (the
Pennsylvania Turn-pike) opened in 1940.
x. The Interstate Highway system was initiated in 1950.
xi. The first commercial jet appeared in 1958.
xii. Astronauts landed on the moon in 1969:
xiii. The use of computers and automation in transportation grew
dramatically through the 1960s and 1970s and continues to grow
unabated.
xiv. Microcomputers have revolutionized our capabilities to run programs
since the 1980s and such capabilities have helped us to examine
alternatives quickly and efficiently.

3. OVERVIEW OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

a. Transportation engineering is a multidisciplinary area of study and a
'comparatively new profession that has acquired theoretical
underpinnings, methodological tools and a vast area of public and
private involvement. The profession carries a distinct societal
responsibility.
b. Because of the multidisciplinary content of transportation engineering,
we find that concepts drawn from the fields of economics, geography,
operations research, regional planning, sociology. Psychology,
probability, and statistics, together with the customary analytical tools
of engineering, are all used in training transportation engineers and
planners.
c. Figure illustrates, in a general way, the interdisciplinary breadth and the
depth of involvement of transportation engineering. The upper-left part
of this figure traditionally represents the "soft" side of transportation
engineering, and the lower-right side, representing pavement design,
bridge engineering, and drainage may be looked on as the "hard" side of
transportation. However, there is no definite demarcation between the
two.

d. The desires of people to move and their need for goods create the
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE 408 TN-1 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Chapter1 Introduction to Transportation Systems

demand for transportation. People's preferences in terms of time, money,

comfort, and convenience prescribe the mode of transportation used,
provided of course that such a mode is available to the user. The
Institute of Transportation Engineers (1987) defines transportation engi-
neering as "the application of technological and scientific principles to
the planning, functional design, operation, and management of facilities
for any mode of transportation in order to provide for the safe, rapid,
comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible
movement of people and goods." Traffic engineering, a branch of
transportation engineering, is described as "that phase of transportation
engineering which deals with planning, geometric design, and traffic
operations of roads, streets, and highways, their networks, terminals,
abutting lands, and relationships with other modes of transportation."

4. TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS AND CHARACTERISTICS

a. Most transportation systems consists of four basic elements:
i. Links: the roadways or tracks connecting two or more points. Pipes,
beltways, sea-lanes, and airways can also be considered as links.
ii. Vehicles: the means of moving people and goods from one node to
another along a link. Motorcars, buses, ships, airplanes, belts and
cables are examples.
iii. Terminals: the nodes where travel and shipment begins or ends.
Parking garages, off-street parking lots, loading docks, bus stops,
airports, and bus terminals are examples.
iv. Management and labor: The people, who construct, operate,
manage, and maintain the links, vehicles, and terminals.
b. These four elements interact with human beings, as users or nonusers
of the system and also with the environment. The behavior of the
physical, human, and environmental subsystems is highly complex
because it involves interaction of people as drivers, riders, and
nonriders, using vehicles of differing character and performance on links
with diverse physical characteristics in a myriad of environmental
conditions.
c. Individual differences among the population that use and provide
transportation should also be considered. These dimensions include age,
ethnicity, income, car ownership, economic status, health, and skills.
Also, some of the basic ingredients that are embraced by transportation
designs are as follows (Khisty, 1983): safety, security, convenience,
continuity, comfort, system coherence, and attractiveness. The variables
contained in these lists and figures may appear overwhelming, but they
do set forth a systems approach to the interconnection between
transportation and human behavior.
d. Transportation systems can be evaluated in terms of three basic
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE 408 TN-1 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Chapter1 Introduction to Transportation Systems

attributes:
i. Ubiquity: the amount of accessibility to the system, directness of
routing between access points, and the system's flexibility to handle
a variety of traffic conditions. Highways are very ubiquitous
compared to railroads, the latter having limited ubiquity as a result
of their large investments and inflexibility. However, within the
highway mode, freeways are far less ubiquitous than local roads and
streets.
ii. Mobility: the quantity of travel that can be handled. The capacity of
a system to handle traffic and speed are two variables connected
with mobility. Here again, a freeway as high mobility, whereas a
local road has low mobility. Water transport may have comparatively
low speed, but the capacity per vehicle is high. On the other hand, a
rail system could possibly have high speed and high capacity.
iii. Efficiency: the relationship between the cost of transportation and
the productivity of the system. Direct costs of a system are
composed of capital and operating costs, and indirect costs comprise
adverse impacts and unquantifiable costs, such as safety. Each
mode is efficient in some aspects and inefficient in others.
iv. Table summarizes the basic characteristics of transportation
systems.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Chapter1 Introduction to Transportation Systems

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Chapter1 Introduction to Transportation Systems

5. TRANSPORTATION-RELATED PROBLEMS
a. Transportation problems are being confronted by developed and
developing countries. Urban and rural transportation affects the
economic and social efficiencies of regions and cities, and because
almost everyone makes use of some form of transport, the operation of
transportation systems is a major topic on the agenda of politicians and
managers. Solving transportation problems has become one of the chief
tasks confronting city and state governments in this country and
abroad. Today's transportation problems have arisen despite enormous
annual expenditures on various transportation facilities and systems.
b. Thomson (1977) offers this explanation: "If there is one inescapable
conclusion from a study of the world's major cities, it is that people
everywhere are dissatisfied, often to the point of public protest, with
their transport, with the way it is developing and the effects it is having
on their cities."
c. These problems include:
i. Congestion problems with traffic movement, particularly during peak
hours, which cause millions of hours of total delay to the system's
users.
ii. Fatal accidents, injuries, and property damage are on the rise
everywhere, although there seems to be little that is really accidental
in most accidents.
iii. Public transportation usage is on the decline. Infrequent service,
unreliable schedules, and rising fares do little to popularize public
transport.
iv. Pedestrians and bicyclists constantly complain of being treated as
second-class citizens. Crime on the open street does not encourage
even health-conscious pedestrians and bicyclists to continue their
mode of transportation.
v. Neighborhood groups complain bitterly about the ambient noise and
pollution of the atmosphere because of automobile traffic.
vi. There are the constant complaints regarding curtailment of existing
parking in downtown and commercial areas.
vii. Poor generally feel that public moneys are spent on providing the
maximum benefits to the rich at the expense of the poor. Problems
in transportation are often solved on a purely economic basis.
viii. Energy prices seem to be constantly on the rise and the public
appears to blame the government for not intervening in curbing au-
tomobile ownership.
d. Owen (1976) suggests that whatever policymakers do in future, they will
have to keep the following points in mind:
i. The tremendous dependence on the automobile and relation of this
dependency to urban form and the location of people and their jobs
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE 408 TN-1 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Chapter1 Introduction to Transportation Systems

ii. The evolution of a public transportation system capable of serving

the entire urban area effectively
iii. The capability of government and its policies to provide a
transportation system that is equitable to both car owners and the
car-less.
iv. The combination of new technologies and effort to design a more
satisfying urban environment in the long run
v. Complexities of new problems due to the uncertainty of energy
supplies and costs.
vi. Solving urban transportation problems through the public and
private sectors; and the cost implications of alternative federal
policies.

6. EMERGING TRANSPORTATION TECHNOLOGIES

a. During the last decade, a broad spectrum of advanced technology, ranging
from in vehicle components to advanced traffic management systems, has
come together and is called Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). Although
many of these technologies are currently in the experimental or limited real-
world application stage, the U.S. DOT intends to deploy ITS technology across
the United States in 75 of the largest metropolitan areas within the next 10
years.
b. The urgency for using ITS technology stems from the fact that in the past 10
years, there has been a 30% increase in traffic, resulting in Americans losing 2
billion hours a year to gridlock (equivalent to losing $20 billion a year). It has
also been estimated that businesses lose $40 billion a year to traffic
congestion. It is envisaged that ITS technology will reduce the congestion
problem considerably.
c. There are at least nine components of ITS; a short description of each follows.
i. Smart traffic signal control systems sense heavy traffic flows at road
intersections and adjust the timing of signals automatically to
accommodate the flows.
ii. Freeway management systems meter vehicles entering freeways with
signals on on-ramps. Although this technology has been in use for a
long time, the system is being refined by linking it with other
detection systems-for example, accident surveillance systems.
iii. Transit management systems help managers to control and monitor
the movements of transit vehicles and adjust schedules accordingly.
iv. Incident management systems (IMS) detect and manage non-
recurrent traffic congestion caused by random unpredictable
incidents, such as traffic accidents, lane blockages, and hazardous
material spills resulting in major traffic congestion for considerable
time periods. IMS has been in practice for quite some time.
v. Electronic toll collection on bridges and roads has been in operation
on over a dozen sites.
vi. Electronic fare payment systems have also been in practice for a long
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE 408 TN-1 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Chapter1 Introduction to Transportation Systems

time but have to be refined further.

vii. Emergency response allows emergency vehicles to control traffic
lights at intersections. The emergency vehicle driver can hold the
green phase until the intersection is cleared.
viii. Travel information systems provide traffic information to users so
that they can adjust their travel plans based on what they learn.
ix. Route guidance systems are based on Global Positioning System
(Satellite) technology and assist motorists with distance and
direction information to selected destinations.

7. SALIENT FEATURES
a. Transportation engineering is a very diverse field. It embraces planning, func-
tional design, operation, and the management of facilities for different modes of
transportation.
b. Good transportation provides for the safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient,
economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people and goods.
c. Transportation engineering is practiced by policymakers, managers, planners,
designers and engineers, operating and maintenance specialists, and
evaluators.
d. Transportation engineering is a multidisciplinary field drawing on more estab-
lished disciplines to provide its basic framework, such as economics,
geography, and statistics.
e. The system approach as a problem-solving philosophy has been applied suc-
cessfully in transportation engineering.
f. The reason why, when, and how people and goods move is a complex issue.
g. Land use is one of the prime determinants of movement and activity. A cyclical
process connecting transportation and land-use activities provides
fundamental answers to land-use patterns and transportation needs over time.
h. The physical plant of most transportation systems consists of basic elements:
links, vehicles, and terminals.
i. There is an interconnection between human behavior and transportation. Sev-
eral properties of the physical environment, such as spatial organization and
physical ambience, have a direct impact on human behavior.
j. At least three basic attributes of transportation systems can be used for pur-
poses of evaluation: ubiquity or accessibility, mobility, and efficiency.
k. Although transportation systems can be classified in different ways, the emer-
gence of functional classification is useful for engineers.
l. There is ample evidence to show that people choose a mode of transportation
not purely on the basis of cost, but also on the basis of time. This phenomenon
has produced the pronounced transportation gaps we notice in developed
countries.
m. The connection between transportation and sustainability is recognized
worldwide.
n. Emerging advanced technologies are gaining ground.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Chapter1 Introduction to Transportation Systems

8. STATISTICS OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS IN PAKISTAN

An efficient transportation system plays a vital role in the economic development of a

country Massive investment and development of infrastructure is essential for
sustainable economic growth.
Pakistan has a natural geo-strategic location at the peripheral of South Asia and
Central Asia. In the south, the Arabian Sea forms a gateway to the vast Eurasia
hinterland and makes Pakistan a shortest route for transit trade to the Central Asian
Republics (CARs). Indian trade to the region, in an economical/convenient manner, is
also dependent on the availability of passage through Pakistan. Road transportation
has gained a meaningful edge over Railways due to a priority change by the
Government in favor of Roads. Continuous improvement and rehabilitation of road
structures reflects the government’s enhanced focus on infrastructure with specific
preference to road. While visible progress has been made, key issues and challenges
remain to be addressed.
In Pakistan transportation is being dealt with by various ministries at the Federal
level. Highways, ports and shipping are with Ministry of Communication. Civil Aviation
is with the Ministry of Defense. Railways have their own Ministry and pipelines are
controlled by the Ministry of Fuel.
Some of the facts and figures related to Pakistani Transportation Systems are as
follow:

Airports country comparison to the world: 148

With paved Runways
total: 101
over 3,047 m: 15
2,438 to 3,047 m: 20
1,524 to 2,437 m: 39
914 to 1,523 m: 18
under 914 m: 9 (2010)
Without paved Runways
total: 47
1,524 to 2,437 m: 11
914 to 1,523 m: 11
under 914 m: 25 (2010)
Railways total: 7,791 km
country comparison to the world: 28
broad gauge: 7,479 km 1.676-m gauge (293 km electrified)
narrow gauge: 312 km 1.000-m gauge (2007)
Highways total: 259,197 km
country comparison to the world: 20
paved: 172,827 km (includes 711 km of expressways)
unpaved: 86,370 km (2007)
Ports and terminals Karachi, Port Muhammad Bin Qasim
Pipe lines gas 10,402 km; oil 2,011 km; refined products 787 km (2009)
* Source: Central Intelligence Agency (www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-
factbook/geos/pk.html)
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE 408 TN-1 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Chapter1 Introduction to Transportation Systems

Figure: 1 Map of National Highways of Pakistan

Figure: 2 Location Map of Ports within Pakistan

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Chapter1 Introduction to Transportation Systems

Figure: 3 Location Map of Pakistan Railways

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Chapter1 Introduction to Transportation Systems

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Chapter1 Introduction to Transportation Systems

9. Budget allocated

In 2009-2010
• Rs.335 million for Ports and Shipping Division.
• Rs. 40.2 billion for National Highway Authority.
• Rs. 206 million for Communication Division (other than NHA).
• Rs.12.7 billion for Railways Division.

In 2010-2011
• Rs.518.6 million for Ports and Shipping Division.
• Rs. 44637 million for National Highway Authority — Rs.10523.5 million for Azad Jammu and
Kashmir (Block and other projects)
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE 408 TN-1 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Chapter1 Introduction to Transportation Systems

• Rs.149.1 million for Communication Division (other than NHA).

• Rs.13629.6 million for Railways Division.

10. RELATED ORGANIZATIONS AND THEIR ROLE

a. National Highway Authority (NHA): Function of the organization is to Plan,

Promote, Organize and Implement Programs for Construction, Development,
Operation, Repairs and Maintenance of National Highways/ Motorways and
Strategic Roads.

Powers & Duties of NHA
• Advise the Federal Government on matters relating to National Highways and
Strategic Roads.
• Frame a scheme or schemes for matters such as construction, expansion,
operation and development of National Highways and Strategic Roads and
undertake work/incur expenditure on such scheme(s).
• Acquire any land in accordance with legal procedure and obtain and dispose of
moveable and immovable property of interests therein.
• Research and development in the field of Highways.
• Procure plant, machinery, instruments and materials required for its use.
• Enter into and perform all such contracts as it may consider necessary.
• Levy, collect or cause to be collected tolls on National Highways, Strategic
Roads and such other roads as may be entrusted to it and bridges thereon.
• License facilities on roads under its control on such terms as it deems fit.
• Determine a building line between which and the RoW it shall not be lawful
without the consent of the Authority to construct or maintain any structure or
make any excavation.
• Cause studies, surveys, experiments and technical researches to be made or
contribute towards the cost of such studies, surveys, experiments or technical
researches made by any other agency.

b. Civil Aviation Authority Pakistan (CAA): Civil Aviation Authority is a Public sector
autonomous body working under the Federal Government of Pakistan through the Ministry of
Defence. It was established on 7th December, 1982 as an autonomous body.

Duties of CAA
• Strengthening its safety and security oversight role as per International Civil
Aviation Organization requirements and standards.
• To facilitate growth of the infrastructure development (Airports and Airport
Cities) on a fast-track basis. Private sector participation in the process is also
being encouraged.
• Enhanced Regulatory and air space management capabilities. Moreover,
emphasis is being laid on commercialization of its assets and land with
improved customer / passenger service standards, benchmarked with top
performing international airports.
• Development of a New Aviation Policy for the country in consultation with the
Ministry of Defence, Planning Commission, World bank, Airlines, and Aviation
Experts (Expected to be considered by the Cabinet for approval shortly).

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING Chapter1 Introduction to Transportation Systems

• Investing in Human resource development through structured approach with

particular focus on quality of people and enhancing their professional
capability.

c. Pakistan Railway Advisory and Consultancy Services, (PRACS): It provides

consultancy and advisory services for the planning, design and management of
projects in all disciplines of railways.

d. Railway Constructions Pakistan Limited (RAILCOP)

Duties of RAILCOP
• To survey, plan, construct, renew and maintain railway lines, yards, stations,
colonies, factories including signalling and telecommunication works,
electrification and water supply etc.
• To manufacture, buy, sell and repair all types of rolling stock, plant, machinery
tools etc.
• To undertake engineering projects other than above including construction of
steel/concrete bridges, flyovers, overheads, underground mass transit
railways.
• To carry on other business related to the foregoing including dealing in
property, negotiable instruments etc.

e. Karachi Shipyard and Engineering Works (KSEW):It was established in

1957 and employs a staff of over 3,500. Principal activities of KSEW are
shipbuilding, ship repair, submarine & warship construction and general
engineering.

f. Port Qasim Authority: Port Bin Qasim is managed by Port Qasim Authority. It is
Pakistan's second busiest port, handling about 40% of the nation's cargo (17
million tons per annum). Their duties to develop Port Qasim into Pakistan’s
premier Port with integrated industrial and commercial facilities by being customer
services oriented and financially healthy oraginzation operating under landlord
concept".

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Ports and Harbours

CHAPTER 1

PORTS AND HARBOURS

INTRODUCTION
1. General
a. Since ancient times, water transportation has broadened humanity's
horizons and has influenced profoundly the growth and development of
civilization. Historians report that as early as 6000 BC, Egyptians had
ships with masts and sails and galleys were used in Nile River as early
as 3000 BC.
b. Early riverboats in USA were flat-bottomed
(boxlike) and were propelled by sails and
oars. These were one-way vessels,
dependent entirely upon currents for
propulsion, with only occasional guidance
from their handlers. At the end of the
journey, these were usually broken up and
timber was sold out.
c. The keelboat began to appear on the rivers
at about the turn of the nineteenth century. It was a long narrow vessel,
built to withstand many trips downstream and upstream. Keelboats
were floated downstream with the currents
under careful guidance. These were pulled
upstream while walking along the bank or
were literally pushed upstream with iron-
tipped poles, which extended to the bottom
of the river.
d. The steamboat was invented in
1807.Colonel John Stevens demonstrated
the feasibility of steamboat travel in the
open sea in 1809. However sailing vessels continued to dominate sea
transport until shortly before the American Civil War. Now a day, ships
use diesel fuel and bulk of world trade is dependent on sea
transportation.
e. Water transportation possesses the most obvious merit of transporting
bulky and heavy consignments cheaply. However it is very slow. River
transportation in Pakistan is disorganized, very limited and localized
without much government support. River Indus has the potential to be
used as a means of mass transportation and feasibility exists thereto
but no progress has been made in this regards. In Pakistan 93% of
international goods traffic is carried by sea through congested ports and
rest 7% by air and roads.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Ports and Harbours

2. Comparison with Other Modes

a. Other modes of transportation i.e. road, rail and air have developed
tremendously in the last century but sea transportation has
experienced some setback. However it’s important in no case can be
reduced because of certain inherent advantages: -
(1) Unlike railways and roads, no special track is required to be built.
(2) Little motive power per unit load transportation is required.
(3) Possesses high load carrying capacity.
(4) Most economical mode for foreign trade.
(5) Provides powerful means of defense of coastline.
(6) Assist in industrialization and development of nations.
b. The limitations are: -
(1) Slow means of transportation.
(2) Subject to storms and hurricanes.
(3) Waves and tides hinder loading and unloading of ships.
(4) Fluctuations of water level causing rubbing of ship against berths.
3. Terms in Connection with Ships
a. Load Line or Plimsoll mark. A marking
indicated on outside the merchant ship
showing the water level up to which it can
be loaded.
b. Displacement Light. It is the weight of the
ship without cargo, fuel and stores.
c. Displacement Load. It is the weight of fully
loaded ship with all contents and cargo up
to plimsoll mark.
d. Dead Wight Tonnage (DWT). It is the
difference between displacement load and
displacement light.
e. Gross Tonnage. It is the capacity of the
ship expressed in volume measurement.
Registration of ships is normally done in terms of units of 100 Cu M.
f. Net Tonnage. It is the difference between the gross tonnage in volume
measurement and space provided for crew and machinery.
g. Cargo Tonnage. It is measured in volume or tonnage, which forms the
basis of freight charges.
h. Beam. It is the width of vessel. Vessel is the general term for all sorts of
ships and boats
i. Draft. It is the depth of keel of the ship below water level.
j. Ballast. It is the weight added to increase draft of the ship after
discharge of load.
4. Terms in Connection with Ports and Harbours
a. Harbour. It is partly enclosed, protected water area providing
accommodation for vessels.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Ports and Harbours

b. Port. Port is that portion of a harbour which serves as base of

commercial activity. Port is provided with marine terminal facilities
such as landing of passengers, cargo storing.
c. Marine Terminal. It is that part of port which provides docking/
berthing, cargo handling and storage facilities.
d. Passenger Terminal. It is a place on a port where only passengers with
luggage and miscellaneous small cargo is handled.
e. Freight or Cargo Terminal. It is a place on a port where bulk cargo is
handled.
f. Anchorage Area. It is a place within harbour where ships may be held in
quarantine waiting for fair weather or docking/ berthing space etc.
g. Turning Basin. It is water area inside a harbour to permit turning of
ships, aided by tugs or free turning. Radius is generally twice the length
of ships. At restricted space, ships may be turned using wrapping
around technique.
h. Fairway. It is open water with navigable depth.

PORTS, HARBOURS AND SHIPYARDS OF PAKISTAN

5. General
a. Pakistan shares a 1,200 kilometres long coast line with the Arabian Sea
- a mid sea which joins the the strategic oil line of Persian Gulf with the
Indian Ocean. However, owing to the growing needs of the country,
there was a need to develop other smaller coastal ports into major cargo
handling ports. Beside Karachi, Pasni, Jiwani, Gadani, Ormara and
Gwadar are other ports which are being developed into world class ship
handling centres. Of these Gwadar is the latest development.
b. Pakistan has two operational seaports, Karachi Port and Port
Muhammad Bin Qasim. One deep-water seaport is under construction
at Gawadar. There are three large fish harbours which are located at
Karachi, Korangi and Gawadar. Other smaller fishing harbours are
Pasni, Ormara, and Jeewani.
c. Karachi Shipyard & Engineering Works and a few small private
companies undertake limited ship building in Pakistan. Role of private
companies is very limited. Pakistan Navy Dockyard builds repair and
maintain ships exclusively for Pakistan Navy which is comparatively a
smaller that can build warships of up to 5000 DWT.
6. Karachi Port
a. History
(1) Karachi due to its geographical and strategic location is known as
the gateway to Asia. Considered as a safe harbour since time
immemorial, Karachi was a small fishing village in early 19th
Century. Historians identify it with its proximity to a place from
where a part of Alexander’s Army, boarded the Greek Flotilla in 326
B.C. It is also significant to mention that the first Muslim Conqueror
of India, Mohammad Bin Qasim, landed at Daibal, in vicinity of

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Ports and Harbours

Karachi in 711 A.D. Karachi Port is the hub of Pakistan's entire

economic activities as 98 per cent of the entire foreign trade is
conducted through this port.
(2) The existing Port started taking shape in 1854. Five years later,
Manora Breakwater, Keamari Groin, Napier Mole Bridge, Native
Jetty and the Chinna Creek were started which gave initial shape to
the port.
(3) In 1882 construction of wharves was started. By 1914 the East
Wharf and the Napier Mole Boat Wharf had been completed. During
the period between 1927 and 1944, the West wharves of the Port,
berths and the ship-repairing berths were constructed. Most of
these facilities were obsolete by the time Pakistan came into
existence in 1947. Since then, the port administration has
embarked on extension of the port on modern lines.
b. Port Features
(1) General Karachi Port has 11 km long approach channel with buoys
for providing safe navigation of 75,000 DWT tankers, container
vessels, bulk carriers and general cargo ships. The port has 28 dry
cargo and 3 liquid cargo-handling berths. Tidal range is 12.7 ft.
(2) Cargo Handling. In 1947, handling capacity was about 1.5 and 1.0
million tons of dry and liquid cargo respectively per annum. Now
over 12 and 14 million tons of dry and liquid cargo are being
handled against 30 million tons capacity that caters for over 75% of
country’s requirements.
(3) Repair Facilities. Repairs can be carried out at the anchorage,
except in the monsoon season.
(4) Karachi Port Trust (KPT). Board of Trustees, comprising Chairman
and 10 Trustees, administers the Karachi Port.
7. Port Muhammad Bin (PQA)
a. History. Construction work on Port Qasim started in 1976. The port is
located 50 kms from city of Karachi. It is designed to provide integrated
port facilities to adjacent industrial and commercial establishment and
is administered by Port Qasim Authority (PQA). The port was developed
close to the Pakistan Steel Mills complex near the Indus River delta.
Port Qasim is Pakistan's second busiest port, handling about 35% of
the nation's cargo (17 million tons per annum). It is located in an old
channel of the Indus River at a distance of 35 kilometres east of Karachi
city centre. The total area of the port comprises 1,000 acres (4 km²)
with an adjacent 11,000 acre (45 km²) industrial estate. The
geographic position of the Port places it in close proximity to major
shipping routes. One of its major advantages is the proximity to
national transport facilities - 15 kilometres from the Pakistan National
Highway, 14 kilometres from the National Railway network through six
railway tracks located immediately behind the berths and 22 kilometres
from Jinnah International Airport.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Ports and Harbours

b. Port Features
(1) General. Ships up to 50,000 DWT can be berthed. However,
further deepening and widening of the navigational channel is
planned to facilitate transit of 75,000 DWT vessels.
(2) Specialized Facilities
(a) Iron Ore Berth and Coal Berth exclusively for Pakistan Steel
with design capacity is 3.36 million tons annually.
(b) Fauji Oil Terminal has a capacity of handling 9 million tons of
furnace oil, crude oil and oil products annually.
(c) International Container Terminal has a quay length of 600M.
The terminal is equipped with rail mounted ship-to-shore gantry
cranes and back-up infrastructure and equipment to handle
35,000 DWT gearless container vessels.
(d) Liquid Chemicals Terminal possesses the facility to handle
75,000 DWT tankers and Storage Farm has storage of 4 million
tons chemical.
(e) Planned terminals include a fertilizer terminal, LPG terminal,
edible oil terminal and cement terminal for export of cement.
(f) Enhanced repair and maintenance facilities are to be developed
by the private sector in near future.
8. Gawadar Deep Sea Port. Gawadar is situated at about 290 nautical miles
via sea west of Karachi on Mekran Coast. As a full-fledged deep-water port
it will become a regional hub, an alternate to the Gulf ports and a vital link
to the CAS while serving as trans-shipment/transit port. The port is
connected with the airport road by a 5-km long road. Once complete, will
eventually handle dry cargo vessels of 100,000 DWT and oil tankers of
200,000 DWT.
9. Ormara
Ormara is a small port located on the Makran coastline along the Arabian
Sea in Balochistan province of Pakistan. It is located 450 kilometres west of
Karachi, and east of coastal village Pasni. Before independence, it was part
of the state of Las Bela and afterward it became part of Makran Division.
Being an isolated town, it remained undeveloped, however with the naval
presence around, life has taken a positive change for the locals with many
local industries and the resultant increase in jobs available for the locals.
Most residents make their livelihood from fishing; a few of them also work
in Middle Eastern countries. Ormara has witnessed considerable growth in
recent years especially with the foundation of the Makran coastal highway,
which integrated the area more with the mainstream Pakistani economy
and major urban centres allowing for easier transport of goods, commerce
and people.
10. Pasni
Pasni is a medium-sized town and a fishing port in along the Makran
coastline Balochistan, Pakistan. It is located about 300 km from Karachi.
The town houses a modern fish harbour and Port of Pasni, with fishing

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Ports and Harbours

being the main occupation of the town dwellers. Frozen catch is also sent to
Turbat and Karachi for sale in the larger markets. A joint-user airfield is
shared by Pakistan Air Force (PAF), Pakistan Navy and civil aviation.
11. Jiwani
Jiwani - a small fishing harbour, holds strategic importance in the region,
located immediately adjacent to the shipping lanes to and from the Persian
Gulf. Jiwani is located at the eastern end of Gwadar Bay, which is shared
between Iran and Pakistan. Jiwani has a small airport located 10 km away
from the city centre. Jiwani has been used World War II as allied base and
remains of same base are available.
12. Fishing Harbours and Ports
a. General. Pakistan’s fleet of marine fishing vessels consists of 3080
mechanized boats, which comprise of about 1,900 trawlers and 1,200
gill-netters. In addition there are about 6,500 mechanized cum sail
driven boats. Annual increase in vessels during last three years is 5-6
%. Over 80 % of the fishing boats bring their catch at Karachi Fish
Harbour and the rest at Korangi, Gawadar and Pasni Fish Harbours.
b. Gawadar. Gawadar is planned to be developed as mini fish port.
13. Karachi Shipyard and Engineering Works (KSEW)
a. It was established in 1957 and employs a staff of over 3,500. Principal
activities of KSEW are shipbuilding, ship repair, submarine & warship
construction and general engineering.
b. KSEW is equipped to build passenger vessels, cargo vessels, oil carriers,
bulk carriers, tugs, dredgers, hopper barges, ferries, fishing trawlers,
launches, buoy lifting vessels, and other special purpose crafts of up to
26,000 DWT.

PORTS

14. Definition. Port is a harbour with marine terminal facilities such as

landing of passengers, cargo handling and storing. Port is portion of a
harbour which serves as base of commercial activity. Harbour and port are
complementary. A structure on landward side i.e. slips or wharves are
included in the port complex whereas harbour consists of waterways and
channels up to pier headline.
15. Requirements of a Good Port. A good port should: -
a. Afford shelter, allied facilities and repairs for visiting ships.
b. Have a hard surface coastline to avoid frequent repairs to docks and
buildings etc.
c. Have adequate area for future expansion.
d. Have communication links specially railway links.
e. Have entrance channel providing easy entrance and exit.
f. Have suitable turning basin.
g. Be located centrally with respect to hinterland.
h. Be strategically located to guard against aggression.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Ports and Harbours

i. Be capable of handling good tonnage of cargo.

j. Be in area having advanced culture, trade and industry.

16. Port Design

Following features should be considered
a. Entrance channel should provide easy entrance and exit.
b. Suitable turning basin
c. To have sufficient width behind the quay to deal with goods
d. Loading and unloading of cargo is facilitated if enough provision for
railway track exists
17. Challenges for Ports. The main challenges for existing ports are to
readjust themselves to developments in shipping. The challenges are due
to: -
a. Growth of Sea Borne Trade. This has increased demand for handling of
cargo. To meet, quantitative approach is adding more docks, quays,
berths, etc. and qualitative approach is to increase of productivity of
existing facilities. Both should go together.
b. Increase in Ship Size. Leads to increase in ship draft and cargo volume.
This necessitated deepening of berths and approaches and increasing
length of berths, loading/discharging facilities and efficiency of
equipment.
c. New Transport Systems, LO/LO, RO/RO and barge (Lash) transport
require reduced time in port due to high service speed but increased
capital investment. The response is new specialized terminal facilities
with greater water depths, container bridges of high capacity and large
spaces for the container boxes.
d. New Special Trades. Liquefied gas, vehicles, livestock, etc., require
special terminals to handle the complicated and troublesome cargo.
Initial investments are very large compared to the percentage of special
cargo.
e. Increased Sailing Speed. More capital-intensive vessels and require
"speedy ports" with unavoidable increases in risk of economic losses of
the port.
f. Regularity of Call in Port. Offering the inbound vessels all the needed
services without any delay is prime most for higher profits. Fluctuations
because of seasonal demands, political or policies changes cannot be
foreseen and is a real problem.
g. Technological Development in Shipping. The pace of advancement in
ships in general asks for facilities, which will seldom guarantee a
regular use. It is almost impossible to perfectly predict the impact of
new shipping technology by choosing rational equipment and facilities
in port at the right time. Particular problems arise in developing
countries with few and obsolete ports, limited financial resources, and
little knowledge of modern shipping.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Ports and Harbours

18. Ship and Cargo Characteristics affecting Port Facilities. The planning
and design of port and harbour facilities is strongly dependent on the
characteristics of the ships to be served and the types of cargo to be
handled. The relevant characteristics of ships and cargo and the port
characteristics they influence are: -
a. Length of Ship. It governs the length and layout of single-berth
terminals, length of stretches of quay and location of transit sheds. It
also influences the width and bends of channels and the size of port
basins.
b. Beam of Ship. It governs the reach of cargo-handling equipment and
influences the width of channels and basins.
c. Draft of Ship. It governs the water depth along berths, in channels and
port basins.
d. Cargo-Carrying Capacity of Ships. It governs the storage requirements
and influences handling rate for loading/unloading equipment/
installations.
e. Cargo-Handling Gear of Ships. Cranes and pumps govern cargo-
handling rates in particular for liquid bulk cargo and influence the need
for port equipment, such as quay cranes.
f. Types of Cargo Carried by Ships. Bulk cargo, containers, and pallets
determine requirements of type handling equipment and requisite
storage facilities.
g. Size, Shape and Strength of Hull and Superstructure of Ships. These
influence berth, mooring and fender system layout. Superstructure
configuration influences positioning and design of cargo handling
equipment.
h. Maneuverability of Ship at low Speed. It influences channel, port
entrance, and basin layout as well as the need for harbour tugs.
HARBOURS
19. Harbour
a. It is a water area partially enclosed and protected naturally and
artificially from storm and huge destructive wave activity providing safe
and simple accommodation for vessels seeking refuge, supplies,
refuelling, repairs and transfer of cargo.
b. The facilities provided include protection by breakwaters, off-shore
moorings, berthing and mooring structures within the harbour, general
and bulk cargo handling facilities and allied supplementary services.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Ports and Harbours

20. Harbours Classification These may be broadly classified as: -

a. Natural Harbour. It is an inlet or water area protected from storm and

distinctive wave activity by the natural configuration of land, rocky out
crops, islands or other physical features. Its entrances is so formed and
located as to facilitate the movement of ships while ensuring
comparative quiet within the harbour. Natural harbours are located at
bays, creeks and river mouths. To make them more useful to
commercial vessels additional constructions take place. Well-known
natural harbours are New York, San Francisco and Rie-de Janeiro. Port
Qasim is situated at Phitti and Gharo creeks in Pakistan. Okaha and
Bombay are natural ports protected by Islands.
b. Semi Natural Harbour. Semi-natural harbour is an inlet or water area,
sheltered on two sides by the headland and requiring artificial
protection only at the entrance. Next to the purely natural harbour, it
forms the most desirable harbour site. Plymouth, Cherbourg,
Vishakhapatnan take the advantage of the natural location, to become
well-protected harbours by the addition of detached breakwaters at
entrances. Karachi harbour is also a semi-natural, protected at the
entrance by Manora breakwater.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Ports and Harbours

c. Artificial Harbour. An artificial harbour is the one, which is protected

from the effect of destructive wave activities by means of extensive civil
works in the form of breakwaters etc. Extensive maintenance dredging
may be necessitated. Examples are Chennai in India Hamburg in
Germany.

ENTRANCE APPROACH
CHANNEL

TURNING ANCHORAGE AREA

BASIN

BREAKWATER BREAKWATER

BERTH

SEA

QUAY BOAT
DRY DOCK BASIN SHORE
FERTILIZER PIER

TYPICAL LAYOUT OF AN ARTIFICAL HARBOUR

There are eight major types of harbors:

a. Coastal natural. Represents a sheltered site the outcome of a natural

profile of the coast, creating a natural barrier such as a cape, a reef or
an island. The above image depicts the harbor of Kingston, Jamaica.
About 2,100 (46.0%) ports are in this category, underlining that the
selection of a port site is dominantly influenced by the quality of the
harbor.
b. Coastal breakwater. An harbor lying behind an artificial breakwater
construction, built from scratch or built to add to an existing natural
shelter. It is particularly the case for harbors exposed to dominant
winds, waves or the sea currents. Sherbourg, France is here depicted.
About 810 ports (17.6%) are in this category.
c. Coastal tide gates. An harbor behind a set of locks or other mechanical
devices built to insure sufficient water levels in the harbor for all tide
levels. In many cases ships can enter or exit the port only at certain
times of the day when water levels are adequate. Only 39 (0.8%) such
ports exist, such as Mumbai, India depicted above.
d. River natural. An harbor located along a river where water is not
retained in any artificial means. The harbor often consists of quays or

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Ports and Harbours

wharves parallel to the river banks. Piers may also extend into the river.
About 850 (18.5%) such ports exist, such as Jacksonville, Florida.
e. River basins. A river harbor where basins have been excavated to
accommodate ships, often parallel to the flow of the river. This confers
the advantage of additional berth space without impeding fluvial
navigation. 77 (1.6%) such ports exist, including Bremen, Germany.
f. River tide gates. A river harbor behind a set of locks or other
mechanical devices built to insure sufficient water levels in the harbor
for all tide levels. Such harbors tend to be located close to the ocean,
such as in a river delta or estuary for the case of Bremenhaven,
Germany (estuary of the river Weser). Only 47 (1.0%) such ports exist.
g. Canal or lake. A harbor located along an artificial canal or by a river
accessible through a navigable waterway. 67 (1.4%) such ports exist,
including Brugge, Belgium.
h. Open roadstead. An harbor with no natural or artificial protection. They
are often built to accommodate very large ships (such as oil tankers) or
are in a setting where there are limited tides, implying that sheltering
infrastructure are much less required (Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Gulf of
Mexico). 580 (12.5%) ports are in this category, including Ra's at
Tannurah, Saudi Arabia, a major oil port in the Persian Gulf.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Ports and Harbours

17 Classification of Harbours based on Utility

a. Commercial Harbour. It is one in which docks are provided with the

necessary facilities for loading and discharging cargo. Dry docks are
provided sometimes for ship repairs either as a part of a bigger harbour
complex or independently as a unit. Some times, single commodity pier
or terminal is provided such as oil terminal, iron & coal pier etc. Port
Qasim is an example of large commercial harbour in Pakistan.
b. Refuge Harbour
(1) It is a sheltered area that may be used as heaven for ships in storm
or emergency. It should be accessible during any condition of
weather and state of tide. It should provide safe and commodious
anchorage system and facilities for repairs and supplies as well. It
may be a part of commercial harbour. An example of refuge harbour
is sandy bay at the mouth of Delaware (USA).
(2) Sometimes an outer harbour is constructed which serves as the
anchorage while the basin within the inner breakwater constitutes
the commercial harbour and refuge harbour. A fine example of
combined commercial harbour and refuge harbour is Dover in
England. These also serve as naval bases during the war and
therefore equipped with adequate means of defence.
c. Fishery Harbour. A fishery harbour is solely for the operation of small
fishing boats, fishing trawlers and vessels. This may be naturally or
artificially protected. This harbour must have adequate number of
refrigerated storage. A fishery harbour is sometimes a part of large port
complex or a commercial harbour. Examples are Karachi and Gwadar
fish harbours in Pakistan. Rohri is a fish harbour located in Sind.
d. Military Harbours. It is a harbour providing naval base for
accommodation of vessels, submarines, gunboats etc for defence of the
country. Pearl Harbour in Hawaii and Guantanama in Cuba are
examples.
2. Classification of Harbour based on Location. The layout of the harbour
and particular configuration of the entrance is greatly determined by its
location. Based on location, harbour can be classified as:-
a. Sea or ocean harbour.
b. River or Estuary harbour.
c. Canal harbour.
d. Lake harbour.
3. Requirements of a Good Harbour. A good sea harbour should: -
a. Have easily identifiable approach from the open sea with full draft of the
vessel and clearance below it due to squat, trim, density change,
pitching, rolling etc.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Ports and Harbours

b. Provide quick, easy and safe access for all ships, in all stages of tides,
throughout the year. Approach channel should be free from curves and
bends.
c. Have an entrance, which should neither be too narrow nor too wide. If
narrow, chances of clashes of ships in storms will increase. If wide,
more turbulence is likely to enter harbour basin making berthing of
ships difficult and hazardous.
d. Have an entrance whose width should widen very rapidly inside the
harbour to reduce effects of waves, which enter the harbour basin. One
of the pier head may project ahead of others to protect from sea waves.
e. Ensure safe accommodation for ships by providing safe anchorage and
adequate draft depth. Soil conditions should be suitable so that silting
is less. Biggest ship in harbour should get enough draft to reach the
berths.
f. Be capable of accommodating and handling required number of ships
thus avoiding delays in getting berths.
g. Should provide safe mooring and berthing with minor wave and current
action. Penetration of damaging wind waves should be eliminated by
structures like breakwater etc.
h. Should provide adequate facilities specially fuel supply, inspection and
repair facilities.
4. Harbour Planning
a. Initial Considerations. These comprise of: -
(1) Cost of development of a harbour is tremendous. Need for a harbour
should be well thought and carefully evaluated technically.
(2) Construction of a harbour should be economically justifiable.
(3) Foreseeing future expected volume of sea borne commerce.
(4) Availability of inland communications by land and water.
(5) Impact of harbour construction.
b. Provisional Selection of Site. Requirements of port authorities are
considered and technical studied are conducted. These are followed by
selecting a suitable site provisionally. Forecasted arrival of ships will
mainly govern the requirements of a harbour in respect of its
accessibility, size, shape, and salient features like turning basin
berthing basin, wharves, jetties, docks, spillway, breakwater, transit
sheds etc.
c. Information required for Design
(1) Detailed survey of the proposed site.
(2) Nature of coastline and if any protection is provided. Consider past
trends and changes in coastline.
(3) Depth of water is considered for suitable draft. Deeper site is
preferred so that dredging cost reduces.
(4) Soil information by boring inside the water to determine suitability
for anchorage & deepening.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE 408 TN-1 COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Ports and Harbours

(5) Soil information by boring on the shore land, which helps in

designing and construction of wharves, sheds, railway lines, lifts,
cranes etc.
(6) Presence or otherwise of sea insects.
(7) Hydraulic information to include
(a) Frequency of storms.
(b) Direction & intensity of winds.
(c) Tidal range.
(d) Height of waves and force exerted.
d. Final Selection. Final selection of site will be governed by:-
(1) Technical suitability.
(2) Cost of construction and maintenance of marine structures.
(3) Initial dredging cost.
(4) Recurrent dredging cost for maintenance of design depth.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)



 






 




 





























 

 

 
   
 
 
  
 
 



   
 
 












   

 
     
 


 
     
 
  
 
 
 


  
 




  
 

    
 
    
 




 
 
 
!





 






 





  
  
 


  


  
  
 


  

  
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
  

    


 

 
 
 

  
   
 
 

  
    

 


 


 
 




    

  
 


 
  

 
 



 
  


 
 






 






 


  

 
 
 

  

 
 
 








 

 




     


    





 






 


 



 



 



 




 
  
  

 
  

 

  
 

  !!!  "
  

  
   



 



 









  '  
  ( 

  
 
    
  #


  
 

)








 
  





 
  
 





 
  
 


 
 
   
 

 
 
   
 

  



  




 $


 
  
 






 
  
 






 
  
 





 
  
  





 
  
  




%
&


&



   
 





   
 



  

   
 

  

   
 







 
 
 
!






 





 

 





 



 
*
 
 
 
       



 
    
 )  
 
   
 
  



 
 



+
,
  

 
    

 


 



-


 .
 -  
 #! 
     
 

  
 
 
 
 




 ( 



 - 
#


/0

 
 



 
    


 
     

 


  
  
 

 
 

 

 
1 



 
   


 


 
 2

 




 
  
     3  


 



 
  
 
 
  


 
 
 
 


 

 




&

  

 


 


  


 



  -  
 #! 
   


 

  

 
 
    
 

 
 
  
   
   

   

 

  

   

  4

 


   
( 


 
 #!
  
4
 

 

 
 



 

   
 

/

.


 
%
4
$
'


 





 
5$
'






+
'
4




%6
 
-
'
5$


%6
 




 
 
 
!






 




#
'
 &
 5 


 
  
    
 



 
  
 



 
  



 





 
 

   


  
 


  
'

   

 
 

   

7 

 


   
"
"
 
  
8
 

 

 
 
 
 "

 
  


  
 9


 +!: -!:
 


 ;

 5
 
   <




 



% 2:
"
 




 




 
 

 
 

     
 

 
 
  




 





$




 
 ; 
 "  


" 
 
%=#+ ">  
    
  

    

 
"

 ? 


    

 
 
 


 


5

 
@ 

 
5



 
" 

.






 
 
 
 

  

   

 

  
A 
@
 

 
 
  
 
 

.
   

    
  

 


     

    

 
  

   

  





 
  




  4

 

  ?
 ,
  

   
 




  
 
 
 
" 



& 
" 
 
 

   
 
   
 
 

  
 
 
 
 




 
  

$
     

  
 
 
 
  
"




 
  &
 





   
"  
 

 

    
 
 

 



  
 

 










   
 

  


 
 
?
 
  

 
 
   
  
 

   
  
 


 
 

 
  



-
 


B
 $
 
   

    
 




  

   
" 

  
 

  
    /
 $
"  
 
"   




   $
 
 
  
  
 





 
 
 
!





 






 




 
  
 
 
 
   $
  


   
  

   
   

$


$
 


 
"
   
    
 

 
 



   

    
 

  8 8
 


"
 


B

$
$

B

$
$
 $
 




$
 





(  





 


(  





 








 
@
 


 
 
@
 


   
  


 



9



 



9


 

 


 

 



 
    
 
 

 $
  



   


 
 C
 
 C
  

 





 


 





 


 
   

&    
 
  
 



   

 
" 

 




 
 C C & & 
 


    "
  
   
 

  


.
 
    
  C
C  
  

 
 
 
  

 


 
    
   
 
  5


    
 
 
 
 

   


 
 

'  




 

 
@
 
'  




 

 
@
  
 

 

/

 
@

  $

$
 
 
 

 
 


 
  


 



  



 




 


   
   

 


  $
 






 
 
 
!






 











 

 
  

   

  
 

 

  


  

/ A

 $
 


  

 
 
 
 
  $
 


 
   
 
   
 
 

   
    





 
  


$
 '




 
 &    
  
 
 

 
 

 
 

  
 
 
 


 
 



 












     
  
   
 
  



 









 
  

  

 
)
 

 
  

  
 

   
 




 


  
     

  



 

 
 
 



   


 

 

 
 1! 
 



 

   
 

  
     



  






 
  
  
 
   

    

 
 

    


 




 
 
 
 


 
     




"


*
 & /

     
  

 

  
 
  
 

 
 
  

 
 
 


 
 

 
 
    
 
%
&

 
 
 
 

  



 C
  C     
 


 
 
  
 C

C  
  
 
   
  



 
 
 
!










 




 
,

         
 

" 

 
  

 

  
  
 
 
,

 

  


   


+



 
 
 
!



CE408 TN-I COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 3Ports and Harbour Structures

CHAPTER 3

PORT AND HARBOUR STRUCTURES

GENERAL
1. Harbour works are designed to withstand wave action. The source of
dynamic wave action lies in the inertia of moving particles. When a non-
breaking wave hits against a structure, the reflected wave reinforces the
next coming wave. This causes water in the region to slash back and forth.
This effect is mostly hydrostatic and little dynamic (impulsive). On the
other hand, a breaking wave hurls a mass of water on any obstruction
forces, which are mostly dynamic.
2. The wave action is the major consideration for designing structures in
water or offshore in addition to the required considerations for land
structures. Breakwaters are huge structures, which provide comparatively
calm water within the harbour and provide protection to other structures.
Breakwater has been discussed at length.

BREAKWATERS
3. General
a. These are structures that reflect and
dissipate the forces of wind-generated waves.
They act as protective barriers to enclose
harbours and to keep harbour water
undisturbed for safe anchorage and loading/
unloading in comparatively calm water.
b. It can be made of masonry on top of rubble

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 3Ports and Harbour Structures

mound or concrete or coursed stones throughout or in deeper zones

where wave effects are insignificant, rubble can be replaced by sand
fill.
c. Height depends upon purpose, generally 1.2 to 1.25 times the height
of waves expected.
4. Considerations in Design of
Breakwaters. Breakwater should be so
planned and designed that: -
a. Waves should not break on the
wall, instead these should reflect
the waves and dissipate most of
energy by rise of its water column.
b. Reflected waves are not directed
towards other marine structures.
c. It should withstand dynamic
forces of waves and winds on
submerged and exposed portions
respectively.
d. It should withstand self-weight.
e. It should withstand hydrostatic
pressures.
f. It should have the resultant of
self-weight and net wave force
within the middle third of the
base.
g. It should utilize suitable and
cheaply available material.
5. Types of Breakwaters
a. Rubble Mound Breakwater
(1) Constructed by material like natural rock, concrete blocks of
various shapes or combination.
(2) Simple, easy to construct and cheap
where material is available.
(3) Preferred when stone is available in
large quantity, bed material is soft and
water depth is more (50 to 60 ft).
These require comparatively more material and considerable
maintenance.
(4) Stones of exposed side are bigger compared to calm side.
b. Composite Breakwater
(1) Solid super structure on a mound
founded at low water level. This also
provides platform for handling of cargo.
The sea face is protected with heavy
concrete blocks.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 3Ports and Harbour Structures

(2) Reduces the mass rubble requirement.

c. Vertical Wall Breakwaters
(1) These are of types as
concrete blocks
(weighing up to 200
tons) gravity walls, rock
filled sheet pile cells,
rock-filled timber cribs,
concrete or steel sheet
pile walls.
(2) Suited to protected
waters and not reliable
for heavy seas. Should not be constructed where erosion of

seabed is excessive. Uneven material may be removed by

dredging before placing foundation.
(3) Foundations should be free from uneven settlement.
6. Construction of Rubble Mounds Breakwaters
a. By Barges
(1) This method utilizes flat bottom barges, which have hoppers
with vertical sides and doors at the bottom opening outwards.

Hoppers are loaded with rubble and barge is adjusted and

aligned in position along the line of construction. Later the
load is allowed to be discharged by opening the hooper door.
Divers trim the layers.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 3Ports and Harbour Structures

(2) Deck barges are employed when the mound rises up

sufficiently so that hopper barges cannot be utilized. These are
brought to site; side compartments on one side are flooded.
This process causes a tilt, which dislodges the material.
b. By Staging
(1) Staging is erected by driving piles, which are connected, by
longitudinal runners, struts and braces. This forms a number
of parallel tracks on which rails are placed for tipping wagons.
This should be well above sea level.
(2) It can be dismantled and placed somewhere else.
c. Low-level System
(1) Work is done gradually starting from the coastline. The
completed portion is used for the transferring of material.
(2) This also consolidates the mound formed. However work
cannot be done simultaneously at different portions.

OTHER HARBOUR STRUCTURES

7. Wharves
a. General. These are platforms or
constructions meant for loading and
unloading of cargo and passengers.
Built into or onto water. Length is
determined by the type of ships to be
accommodated.
(1) Quay. Wharf is classified as
‘Quay’ when parallel to shore.
(2) Pier. Piers are wharves built
at an angle to the shore
usually at 90 degrees. Berths
are provided on both sides of
the pier.
(3) Wharf. When berths are
provided on one side only,
then it is called wharf.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 3Ports and Harbour Structures

b. Classification of Wharves

(1)Open type. These are built over open water on exposed timber
or concrete piles and decked with concrete or timber. These
are used where minimum restriction of current is specified.
These are of narrow construction and thus economical.
(2) Solid Type. These are constructed of materials like earth or
stone. Materials are partially confined by some sort of
bulkhead. These are more stable and economical than open
piers.
8. Jetty or Pier
a. This is a narrow piled projection, which juts out from shore to berth
vessels alongside or at the end. It acts as a dock which projects into
water. When built in combination of breakwater it is known as
‘breakwater pier’. Vessels may use jetty for docking on both sides
where as wharf is used on one side only. It is also known as pier
(Wharf)
b. In USA jetty word is used for structure, which has characteristics of a
breakwater and a training wall.
c. In case of T or L shaped piers, a pier more or less parallel to the
shore is connected to shore by ‘Mole’ or ‘Trestle’.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 3Ports and Harbour Structures

(1) Trestle. These are lighter structures extending out from shore,
not designed to take ships docking and mooring forces.
(2) Mole. A fill usually rock extending out from shore, leading to
pier serving utilities, rail, roadway etc.
(3) Catwalks Structures providing access to and between
dolphins.
9. Dock Fenders
a. A fender is the form of a cushion provided on a
pier face for ships to come in contact. Fenders
absorb impact and protect them from damage.
Fenders also protect ship paint fro m being
damaged because of relative motion between
ships and dock caused by wind and waves.
b. Fenders can be classified as horizontal Wood
Members, Vertical Wood Members and Rubbing
Strips.

10. Dolphins. These are marine structures for mooring of vessels. These are
commonly used in combinations with wharves to shorten the length of
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 3Ports and Harbour Structures

these structures. Dolphins are used for tying up of ships and for
transferring cargo between ships moored along both sides of dolphins.
a. Breasting Dolphins. Designed to take impact of ship when docking.
Provided with mooring posts as bollards to take springing lines for
moving a ship along dock or holding it against current.
b. Mooring Dolphins. Provided to hold ship against wind blowing away
from the face of the dock. These are provided with mooring posts and
with capstans when heavy lines are to be handled.

NAVIGATIONAL AIDS

11. General. Once an aircraft approaches the runway, it requires terminal

guidance; similarly captain of the ship is to be guided once harbour is
approached. Various navigational aids include fixed navigational structure
and floating navigational aids.
12. Fixed navigational Structures
a. Navigational Lights on Piers, Wharves, Dolphins etc. These are
generally fixed white lights fixed on structures and powered by shore
electric current.
b. Light House A light signalling tower erected on the
land. The purpose is to guide a ship of the port
approach. This may be multi storied made of stone
masonry, concrete or steel. These guide vessels to
the nearby port.
c. Beacon Lights. These lanterns may be fixed, flashing
or coloured and are mounted on metal-framed
towers on appropriate height. These may be powered
by shore electric current or electric storage batteries. These are used
for means of alignment or for indicating change in direction.
13. Floating Navigational Aids
a. Buoy System
(1) These are floating signals
fabricated from steel iron plates
into hollow structures and are
of 2 to 3 m diameter generally.
These are in two sections; if one
is leaked the buoy remains
afloat. These are moored or
kept in position with heavy
chains.
(2) The greatest distance between two buoys varies from about
1500 m in case of estuaries and 150 m to 300 m in case of
narrow channels. These demarcate approach channel
boundaries and entrances in addition to wreck areas.
(3) These are designated according to their shape size, colour,
purpose and weight and whether light provide or otherwise.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 3Ports and Harbour Structures

(4) There are mooring buoys for anchoring the ship down ships.
(5) Sound signal mechanisms are also
erected at places where fog is
anticipated or in emergency. These may
be installed with other structures or
buoys and may be of electric oscillators,
bells sirens or explosive.
b. Light Ships. The purpose of the lightship is to guide the mariner
along the turn of the route. These are normally
provided where it is not possible to build a
lighthouse. These must be property moored
painted red and may be manned or unmanned.
A steel tower about 30’high is erected with a
light on the lightship.

DOCKS
14. General. Dock is an artificial enclosure (basin) providing shelter for
berthing of ships. Water in docks may be kept more or less at the same
level for ease of operations. If it is used for loading/ unloading of
passengers and cargo, it is known as a Harbour Dock or Wet Dock. If it is
used for repairs, it is called Repair Dock or Dry Dock.
15. Harbour Docks (Wet Docks)
a. These may be completely or partially enclosed. Harbour dock that is
completely enclosed is provided with ‘Lock and Gates’ to keep water
at fairly constant level. The gates are closed during low tide thus
maintaining a uniform depth.
b. Harbour docks are required under three circumstances: -
(1) Tidal range is sufficiently high; more than 5 M.
(2) Silting is excessive and draft of entry to dock is reduced.
(3) Draft of an old port is to be increased for modern ships.
c. Rectilinear docks are preferable over curvilinear because of ease of
‘berthing’. It may have any regular geometric figure like rectangular,
diamond or inclined quay.
d. There should be separate docks for handling various commodities.
e. Sides and bottom of completely enclosed docks should be impervious
and arrangements should be there to replenish water if it is not so.
f. Dock walls are constructed of masonry, concrete, brickwork or a
combination their of. Walls are designed as gravity retaining
structures and should : -
(1) Withstand backfill pressure when dock is empty.
(2) Withstand internal pressure when dock is full with no backfill.
(3) Withstand shock when ships contact with dock walls.
(4) Withstand concentrated loads of crane foundations, bollard
fixtures for mooring of ships.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 3Ports and Harbour Structures

(5)
Withstand loaded vehicles and train surcharge adjacent to
wall.
(6) Have leak proof bottom and sides.
(7) In order to allow ships to stand very close to face of the wall,
the front face should have little or no batter.
16. Repair Docks (Dry Docks)
a. Inspection and repair facilities are needed for ships in every harbour.
Repairs have to be carried when the ship is
fully out of water.
b. A simple way to repair small vessels is that
during high tide vessel is pushed up the and
left beached on hard bottom when the tide
recedes. Repair is carried out before next high
tide, which enable the vessel to be moved back.
Repair docks are broadly classified as Lift docks, Slip Docks, Floating
Docks and Graving Docks.
c. Lift Docks. These are platforms, lowered into and raised out from
water with hydraulic power. With increase in size and tonnage of
vessels, lift docks have become obsolete.
d. Slip Docks. These are inclined slips or ways extending out some
distance into and under the water. They run
up a sufficient distance on foreshore so that
the vessel when hauled out will entirely be
clear of water. Generally a cradle or nest of
rollers is mounted on these ways and chains
pull out the cradle with the ship. To prevent
slipping back, racking is generally provided.
These are used for repair of small ships of
5000 tons maximum.
e. Floating Docks. A floating dock can lift the
ship out of water by its own buoyancy. It is a
hollow structure of timber, steel, concrete or a
combination consisting of two walls and floor
with ends open. It is capable of being
submerged by admission of water in interior
compartments. When a ship is to be inspected or repaired, the dock
is taken near the ship or vice versa and water is filled in the
compartments. Then the ship is floated into position. Once ship is
seated over the dock, water is pumped out and the dock buoys up. It
can be used for quick repairs. There is a restriction of weight
depending on the lifting (buoying) capacity of the dock.
f. Graving Docks. These are also known as ‘dry docks’ and are used for
major repairs needing longer duration or minor repairs depending
upon design. The dock is usually rectangular is shape having a
seaside opening. It is actually an excavated chamber having
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 3Ports and Harbour Structures

watertight walls and the floor. The floor base should be strong to
accommodate heavy ships. Walls may be of stone masonry; cement
concrete etc. Typical size may be 300 M x 30 M.
g. Comparison of Graving Docks and Floating Docks
(1) Graving dock is stationery while floating dock is mobile.
(2) Initial cost of graving dock is much more than floating dock.
(3) Maintenance of graving dock is less and of floating dock is
more.
(4) Graving dock has a limitation of size while in floating dock has
limitation of weight.
(5) Graving dock is for major repairs while floating dock is used
for minor repairs.
17. Lock and Gates Arrangements. Gates are known as caissons. Caissons
are box or ship shaped structures, which are flooded as sunk in place at
the seat. These may be sliding with rollers, rails or keels across the recess.
Caissons are opened and the ship enters the dock. Water is pumped out
leaving ship soiled. Same procedure is reversed to make the ship afloat.

TRANSIT SHEDS AND WARE HOUSES

18. General
a. Various port buildings comprise of general offices for port
administration, transit sheds, ware houses, cold storage buildings,
customs guard and police buildings, grain elevators, bulk storage
tanks, power houses, fire houses and miscellaneous facilities.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 3Ports and Harbour Structures

b.
The main function of a port is transaction of cargo. It becomes
necessary that provisions of storing the wares for varying durations
should be made. Transit sheds and warehouses serve the same
purpose but the difference is the duration for which goods can be
stored. This affects the location.
19. Transit Sheds
a. These are provided on general cargo docks for storing the cargo for
short duration; the cargo awaiting export formalities or custom
clearance after being discharged from vessels. These should not be
used for long time storage because space alongside the berth is
usually limited.
c. Apron is the space just in front of the berth. Its width is generally
from 10 m to 25 m depending upon cargo and need for immediate
stacking. Trucks, railway and crane etc work over apron. Transit

sheds are built alongside the apron and should have folding or
sliding doors on opposite side for ease of transferring goods.
d. These should have adequate storage space; have lighter structure
and greater aisle space to facilitate rapid handling using mobile
equipment. Adequate natural light, illumination, fire fighting and
security arrangements are required in the sheds.
20. Warehouses
b. The incoming and outgoing cargo may require custom clearance and
such cargo is placed in bonded warehouses and not the transit
sheds. Some cargo requires storage facilities for comparatively longer
durations and warehouses are more suitable.
c. Cold storage is provided in ware houses for perishable items.
d. These should have adequate storage space; have lighter structure
and greater aisle space to facilitate rapid handling using mobile
equipment. Adequate natural light, illumination, fire fighting and
security arrangements are required in the sheds.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Protection, Maintenance and Modernization

CHAPTER 4

PROTECTION, MAINTENANCE AND MODERANIZATION

COASTAL PROTECTION

1. Groins
a. General. A groin is a structure that is constructed approximately
perpendicular to the shore in order to retard
erosion of an existing beach or to build up the
beach by trapping littoral drift. The groin serves
as a partial dam that causes material to
accumulate on the up drift or windward side.
The decrease in the supply of material on the
down drift side causes the down drift shore to
recede.
b. Classes
(1) Permeable groins permit the passage of appreciable quantities
of littoral drift through the structure.
(2) Impermeable groins, the most common type, serve as a virtual
barrier to the passage of littoral drift.
c. Type and Material. A wide variety of groins have been constructed,
utilizing timber, steel, concrete, stone cellular steel sheet-pile,
prestressed concrete sheet-pile and rubble. The selection of the type
will depend on
(1) Availability of materials.
(2) Foundation conditions.
(3) Presence or absence of marine borers.
(4) Topography of the beach and uplands.
d. Hydraulic Behavior. Exceedingly complex,
performance will be influenced by: -
(1) The specific weight, shape, and size of the
particles of littoral drift.
(2) The height, period, and angle of attack of
approaching waves.
(3) The range of the tide and the magnitude
and direction of tidal currents.
e. Design Features
(1) Groin System is usually built in a straight line and all groins
are approximately normal to the shoreline.
(2) Little advantage to the use of curved structures or T or L
shaped.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Protection, Maintenance and Modernization

(3)The length of groin system will depend on the nature and

extent of the prevailing erosion and the desired shape and
location of the stabilized shoreline.
(4) The spacing of groins in a groin system depends on the groin
length and the desired alignment and location of the stabilized
shoreline
(5) The height will depend on elevation of the crest of a groin will
determine to some extent the amount of sand to be trapped by
the groin or to maintain a supply of sand on the leeward side.
2. Seawalls, Revetments, and Bulkheads
a. General
(1) These structures are placed parallel to the shoreline to
separate the land from the water. Though the
purpose is common yet there are significant
differences in specific function and design.
(2) The choices of the location and length of
structures with relation to the shoreline
generally will coincide with the line of defence
against further erosion and encroachment of
the sea and how much shoreline is to be
separated from the water or protected from
the sea.
(3) Basic approaches to determine height are: -
(a) Preventing wave overtopping, which might damage the
structure on the landward side, and possibly endanger
human lives.
(b) Ensuring that no wave overtopping will ever occur.
b. Seawalls. These are massive gravity structures that are subjected to
the forces of waves on the seaward side and the active earth pressure
on the shoreward side to resist the force of waves.
(1) Sloping wall. Offer
the least resistance
to wave
overtopping. The
amount of wave
overtopping can be
decreased
substantially by the
use of an armour
block facing, such
as tetra-pods.
(2) Stepped-face wall.
Used under
moderate wave
conditions; may
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Protection, Maintenance and Modernization

experience objectionable wave overtopping under most severe

wave conditions. Massive curved seawalls are used most
frequently. As a precautionary measure to prevent scour, large
rocks may be piled at the toe of the structure.
(3) Curved wall. Wall face may be either the no re-entrant type,
which is essentially a vertical wall, or a re-entrant type, which
turns the wave back upon itself.

c. Revetment. Used to protect the shore from the erosive action of

waves. Protective pavement that is supported by an earth slope.
Broad classes of revetments are: -
(1) Rigid type of revetment consists of a series of cast-in-place
concrete slabs. In essence, this type of revetment is a small
sloping seawall.
(2) Flexible or articulated armour-type revetments are
constructed of riprap or interlocking concrete blocks that cover
the shore slope.
d. Bulkhead. Not intended to resist heavy waves but simply to serve as
a retaining wall to prevent existing earth or fill from sliding into the

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Protection, Maintenance and Modernization

sea. Bulkhead is supported in a cantilever fashion by the soil into

which it is driven. Additional support for a bulkhead may be provided
by tie rods connected to vertical piles, which are driven some
distance shoreward.

DREDGING AND SLUICING

3. General. These are commonly employed in sea harbours. Silting reduces
depth of the port and dredging and sluicing must be resorted to. Dredging
is a technique of removing materials from sea-bed (or bed of other water
bodies) on to the shore.
4. Dredging
a. Dredging can be classified as: -
(1) Capital dredging which is the initial removal of material.
(2) Maintenance Dredging is carried out periodically to maintain
the required water depth by removing siltation.
(3) Improvement Dredging is carried out to improve the existing
depths to allow the access of larger ships.
(4) Sundry dredging is carried out to serve new purpose like
realization of new works, extraction of materials for
reclamations and sanitation purposes.
b. Dredgers can be divided in two broad categories: -
(1) Mechanical Dredgers remove hard, firm, rocky and heavy work
or a combination loose small material.
(2) Hydraulic Suction Dredgers can remove loose, small material
by suction
5. Sluicing. It is resorted for the places near quay where ships are anchored
and dredging becomes difficult. Sluicing basins are built which store water
during high tides. Small holes at the bottom are provided. At low tide
water is made to rush out thus removing silting.

DETERIORATION AND TREATMENT OF MARINE STRUCTURES

6. General. Port and harbour structures must withstand some of the most
destructive environmental conditions found in the world. This is especially
true of piles and other elements of substructures that are subject to
attack by marine life as well as the corrosive effects of salt and sea.
Generally these destructive effects are most pronounced in a seawater
environment, and some of the destructive agents, such as certain species
of marine borers, are not found in freshwaters.
7. Wooden Structures. Three forms of attack may damage timber used in
coastal structures; decay, insects (termites and wharf borers), and marine
borers. The decay and insects tend to damage structures above the water
level, while marine borers attack below the water level.
a. Decay. Certain low forms of plant life
called ‘fungi’ consume certain
substances in the wood, causing it to
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Protection, Maintenance and Modernization

disintegrate. The species of fungi require food, air, adequate

moisture, and a favourable temperature. Poisoning the food supply
by impregnating the timber with a suitable preservative can
preventing decay.
b. Termites. Most species of timber are subject to the attack of termites.
It is therefore necessary, to prevent termite damage by using
commercial timbers that have been properly treated or to insulating
all wood from the ground so that the termites cannot attack it.
However, insulation will not prevent attack by dry wood termites.
c. Wharf Borers. The young of the winged beetle
damage wooden structures more commonly in
timber that is wet by salt spray at times.
d. Marine Borers
(1) Oyster and clam, enters the timber
through tiny holes, and the animals grow as they destroy the
interior of the timber. Difficult to detect. Lobster and crab
destroys the timber from outside.
(2) Covering the timber with metal sheathings or encasing it in

OYSTER CLAM CRAB LOBSTER

concrete, cast iron, or vitrified pipe was not proved that

successful. Impregnation of the timber with a toxic such as
coal tar creosote gave satisfactory results. This also protects
wood from decay, termites, and wharf borers.
8. Concrete Structures
a. Concrete piles that are entirely embedded in earth generally are not
subject to significant deterioration. However, in isolated instances,
concrete piles may be damaged by the percolation of groundwater
that contains destructive chemicals from industrial wastes, leaky
sewers etc.
b. Reinforced concrete piles above the ground surface may be damaged
by chemical action of polluted waters, oyster and clams, abrasion by
floating objects or frost action.
c. A good mix, the quality of the aggregates, cover over the steel and the
workmanship in mixing and placing the increases durability of the
concrete piles.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Protection, Maintenance and Modernization

9. Steel Structures
a. Steel piles entirely embedded in relatively impervious earth receive
little damage from corrosion; however, those completely embedded
may deteriorate if the surrounding earth or groundwater contains
corrosive compounds.
b. Steel piles protruding from the ground into open water are subjected
to severe deterioration in a saltwater environment. Deterioration may
be worse because of the abrasive action of water borne sand agitated
by waves and currents. It may be protected by some form of
encasement.
c. Above the mud line, corrosion is usually more active near the water
surface where the oxygen content of the water is greatest. It tends to
be more severe in regions exposed to wetting and drying or to
saltwater spray. In these areas, various coatings and paints may
reduce corrosion.

MODERNIZATION
10. Roll on Roll of Facilities on Ports
a. Alongside conventional lift-on/lift-off (LO/LO) cargo handling
facilities, many ports have developed roll-on/roll-off (RO/RO) cargo
handling. Three basic methods are: -
(1) The tractor and trailer unit drives on, remains on the ship
during its voyage, and drives off
at the destination port. Suitable
for short trips.
(2) The tractor unit tows the
container from the storage area
onto the ship and drives off,
leaving only the trailer and
container for the sea journey.
Another tractor will be required at destination port.
(3) A tractor unit tows the trailer and container onto the ship
where a ship crane lifts it off. Only the container remains on
the ship during the sea trip. The process is reversed at the
destination port.
b. Loading ramps may be provided in the bow, stern, or side of the ship.
Special mooring devices may be required to hold the ship properly in
place. Adjustable ramps may be required on the wharf to
accommodate variation in ship design and tide. A large service area
will be required for the processing of the freight.
11. Lighter-aboard-Ship. In this system, cargo
is loaded onto large barges called lighters,
which are placed aboard a specially designed
mother ship for the sea journey. At
destination harbour the barges are unloaded
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I COASTAL ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Protection, Maintenance and Modernization

and moved to a port facility where the cargo is unloaded from the barges
.The mother ship may not need a land berth. However, some of the lighter-
carrying ships are designed to transport both lighters and containers and
therefore must have access to a container port.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Introduction

CHAPTER 1

PAKISTAN RAILWAYS

1. GENERAL
a. Pakistan Railways forms the life line of the country by catering to its
needs for large scale movement of freight as well as passenger traffic.
It not only contributes to its economic growth but also promotes
national integration.
b. Pakistan Railways provides an important mode of transportation in
the farthest corners of the country and brings them closer for
business; sight seeing, pilgrimage and education etc. No one can
deny the contribution of Pakistan Railways in timely movement of
forces during wars and escalation in 2002.

2. HISTORY
a. The possibility of Karachi as a sea port was first noticed in the
middle of 19th century and Sir Henry Edward Frere, Commissioner
of Sindh sought permission from Lord Dalhousie to begin survey of
sea port. He also initiated the survey for railway line in 1858. It was
proposed that a railway line from Karachi City to Kotri, steam
navigation up the Indus /Chenab up to Multan and from there
another railway line to Lahore and beyond be constructed.
b. It was on 13th May, 1861 that first railway line was opened for
public traffic between Karachi City and Kotri, the distance of 105
miles. The line between Karachi City and Kemari was opened on 16
June 1889. By 1897 the line from Kemari to Kotri was doubled.
Different sections on existing main line from Peshawar to Lahore and
Multan and branch lines were constructed in the last quarter of 19th
century and early years of 20th century.
c. Four sections namely, Sindh Railways, Indian Flotilla Company,
Punjab Railway and Delhi Railways working were amalgamated into
Sindh, Punjab & Delhi Railways Company. The Company was
purchased by the Secretary of State for India in 1885 and in
January, 1886 it was named North Western State Railways which
was later on renamed as North Western Railways.
d. At the time of partition, North Western Railway's 1847 route mile
was transferred to India leaving route miles 5048 to Pakistan. In
1954 the railway line was extended to Mardan and Charsada section
and in 1956 Jacababad-Kashmore 2'-6" line was converted into
broad gauge. Kat Adu-Kashmore line was constructed from 1969 to
1973 providing an alternate route from Karachi to up country.

3. FUNCTIONING
a. Pakistan Railway functions under the guidance of Ministry of
Railways. The Railway Board comprises the Chairman and four
Members. The Chairman of the Board is ex-officio Secretary to the
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Introduction

Government of Pakistan. The four member of the board, namely

Member Traffic, Member Mechanical Engineering, Member Civil
Engineering and Member Finance are ex-officio Additional Secretary
to the Government of Pakistan. The Railway Board functions as a
policy, planning and review Board.
b. In order to make Pakistan Railway a more efficient and viable
organization by following business led approach, a setup of Pakistan
Railway has been developed and wide powers are vested in the Board
of effectively supervise the running of the six functional units as
follows:
(1) Railways Operational Unit.
(2) Production Unit-I (Carriage factory Islamabad, Automatic Vehicle
Launching Bride Section, Steel Shops etc)
(3) Production Unit-II (Locomotive Factory Risalpur, Locomotive
Rehabilitation Project)
(4) Production Unit-III (Concrete Sleeper Factories, Flash butt
Welding Plant Sukkur, etc.)
(5) RAILCOP (Railway Construction Company, Pakistan Ltd)
(6) PRACS (Pakistan Railway Advisory and Constancy Services Ltd)
c. General Manager heads the Railway Operation unit. The remaining
five units are headed by the Managing Directors who have full
autonomy for the running of their respective units. All Functional
units are accountable to the Railway Board.
d. Maintenance is provided by three major locomotive workshops and
thirty-five smaller workshops. Signalling facilities at important
stations are track circulated within interlocking limits. Most routes
have VHF radio coverage for communication between train
dispatchers and trains. Telephone Communication is over wire lines
and microwave.

4. SALIENT DATA
a.
PLANT &
UNIT 2004-2005 2005-2006
EQUIPMENT
Route - Kilometres Kms. 7,791 7,791
Track - Kilometres Kms 11,515 11,515
Locomotives No. 557 544
Coaching Vehicles No. 1,604 1,663
Other Coaching
No. 214 241
Vehicles
Freight Wagons No. 21,556 20,809
Railway Stations No. 626 626

Volume of Traffic UNIT 2004-2005 2005-2006

Passengers Carried Thousand 78,179 81,428
Passengers Thousand 24,237,796 25,621,228

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Introduction

kilometres
Tonnes of Freight
Thousand 6410 60,27
Carried

5. PAKISTAN LOCOMOTIVE FACTORY, RISALPUR

a. It was put into service in 1993 with the collaboration of Government
of Japan. The rated out part of the factory 2 Diesel Electric
Locomotives per month on single shift basis which can be doubled
by introducing 2nd shift working. The factory is equipped with the
state of the art equipment which can be employed in building of D.E.
Locomotives and Electric Locomotives with minor adjustments.
From 1993 to 2001, twenty three PHA -20 type D.E. Locomotives of
2000 H.P have been rolled out of the factory
b. The ongoing project of AGE-30 D.E. Locomotives of 3000 H.P. is at
the verge of its completion, which is a milestone in the history of the
factory. Apart from The factory has also manufactured various
spares/components for Railways Maintenance Divisions and
Rehabilitation Project.

6. MODERNIZATION ACTIVITIES
a. The major emphasis of Pakistan Railway has been on the
replacement of overage assets.
b. It has been decided to manufacture only lower class air-conditioned
coaches in future and all second class coaches are being provided
with cushioned seats.
c. Reservation work has been computerized on modern lines.
d. Closed circuit televisions and modern public address system have
been introduced at major railway stations and certain trains.
e. Up gradation of approach roads is being carried out.
f. Private Sector is being encouraged and mobilized to participate.
g. Feasibility study for a high-speed track is in hand.

7. DEVELOPMENT SCHEMES
a. Pakistan Railways has proposed major replacement and
rehabilitation schemes for the forthcoming five year plan. An
amount of Rs. 40 billion has been allocated for ongoing and new
works.
b. The major physical components which would be completed during
the includes doubling of 800 Km track from Lodhran to Peshawar
manufacture and rehabilitation of locomotives, procurement of high
capacity wagons, introduction of management information system,
improvement and rehabilitation of track for high speed and
enhancing telecommunication and signalling network.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 2Track, Rail gauges, Rail and Rail Fastenings

CHAPTER 2

TRACK, RAIL GAUGES, RAIL AND RAIL FASTENINGS

PERMANENT WAY / TRACK

1. GENERAL
a. Permanent Land. It is the land strip acquired to construct permanent
way keeping in view the immediate and future needs. The strip width
depends upon gauge of track, single or double track, formation width
and drainage structures requirements etc.
b. Temporary Land. Adjoining and nearby land strips temporarily
acquired along the permanent land with excavation and disposal
rights for the time of the construction project.

RAILS

SLEEPERS

BALLAST

FIG 2-1 PERMANENT WAY

2. PERMANENT WAY

RAILS
SLEEPER
BALLAST

FORMATION LEVEL
FIG 2-2 TYPICAL X-SECTION OF PERMANENT WAY

a. General. Finished or completed railway track is called permanent

way. Commonly referred as railway track as well. “Formation” is top
of embankment or floor of cutting prepared to support the railway
track.
b. Components
(1) Rails. Steel girders providing suitable surface and support for
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 2Track, Rail gauges, Rail and Rail Fastenings

safe and efficient rolling of wheels of a train.

(2) Sleepers. Support elements of suitable material laid below
rails to hold rails in position and transferring load.
(3) Ballast. Foundation of suitable material provided below sleepers.
c. Requirements of an Ideal Permanent Way
(1) Gauge which is the minimum distance between running faces of
the rails should be uniform.
(2) There should be minimum friction between wheels of the train
and rails.
(3) Repairs and renewals should be economical.
(4) Train load should be distributed uniformly without exceeding the
strength of any of the components.
(5) It should have sufficient elasticity to prevent collapse or damage
under shock or impact.
(6) The gradient should be uniform and sustainable for convenient
negotiation by trains.
(7) Curves should be suitably designed keeping in view the
requirements of safety and speed.

3. RAIL GAUGE
a. General. The minimum GAUGE
distance between
running faces of two
rails of a railway track is
termed as gauge. When
adopting a gauge it RAILS
should be kept in mind FIG 2-3 GAUGE OF RAILWAY TRACK
that larger the gauge,
larger will be the size of wagons and locomotive and more economical
will be the operating cost. However the construction cost increases
with the gauge. So it is of immense importance that the decision of
adoption of a particular gauge should be based upon financial and
economic evaluation.
b. Gauge Classification. Different gauges classifications are in use in
the world. These are Broad Gauge (BG), Standard Gauge, Meter
Gauge (MG), Narrow Gauge (NG) and Cape Gauge etc. In each
classification there are more than one gauge measures.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 2Track, Rail gauges, Rail and Rail Fastenings

Broad gauge (India/Pakistan): 1676 mm 5' 6"

5' 5
Broad gauge (Portugal): 1665 mm
11/20th"
Broad gauge (Ireland): 1600 mm 5' 3"
Broad gauge (Finland): 1524 mm 5' exactly
Broad gauge (former USSR): 1520 mm 5'
Broad gauge (Spain): 1674 mm 5' 5 9/10th"
Standard gauge: 1435 mm 4' 8 1/2"
Cape gauge: 1067 mm 3' 6"
Meter gauge 1000 mm 3' 3 37/100"
Narrow gauge (US narrow): 914 mm 3' 0"
Narrow gauge (Pakistan) 760 mm 2’ 6”

c. The areas which form part of Pakistan today, NG was abandoned in

1995 and MG which was not in real use has been changed with BG
before opening of border with India at Khokhrapar (Sind).
d. Choice of a Gauge. Decision for choice of a gauge, whenever it is to
be made, is the most difficult aspect of railway engineering. It should
be kept in mind that conversion from one gauge to other at a later
stage will be much more uneconomical. Factors which may influence
are: -
(1) Forecasted travel demand and movement of goods by train will
affect the selection of gauge which should be economical for
construction and subsequent operation.
(2) Sometimes forecasted travel demand does not justify laying of a
railway track. Even then it may be laid with a view to open up
the areas for development, provide jobs to people during and
after construction and for political reasons as well.
(3) Laying of a railway track and provision of allied facilities en route
are very costly. The project cost increases tremendously with
increase in gauge. So the initial estimate of the cost of the project
will influence selection of the gauge.
(4) Geometric standards are different for different gauges. Difficult
terrain e.g. hilly, broken, restricted or marshy, poses much more
problems in achieving these standards. These problems
aggravate with increase in gauge. So sometimes terrain
difficulties may suggest adoption of a particular gauge.
(5) National security requirements, area exploration and such like
specific needs may dictate laying of a particular gauge track.
e. Non Uniformity in Gauges. We do not face this problem for the time
being but whenever links are developed with neighboring states
using different gauges, the difficulties are:-
(1) Passengers need to change platform. Moving across to another
platform along with the accompanied baggage causes
inconvenience, especially for old and sick. It also adds to
unwanted delays and cost.
(2) Goods are required to unloaded, moved to other platform and
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 2Track, Rail gauges, Rail and Rail Fastenings

loaded again. This increases cost of transportation, chances of

theft, pilferage, misplacement and damage. In turn product cost
increases. In addition extra space is required in yards. The
problem further aggravates if labour go on strike and perishable
items are being handled.
(3) Rolling stock of one gauge cannot be utilised on the other gauge.
(4) Even with best planned handling arrangements, rolling stock at
one gauge may remain idle which is not warranted.
(5) Urgency of transportation is much more in case of war. Dual
gauge problem may lead to serious consequences in addition to
delays.
(6) A station with two gauges requires two sets of station equipment
and facilities. It leads to additional initial construction,
subsequent maintenance and operation cost.
(7) Conservation of existing gauge to another is difficult and
uneconomical. It is more economical to lay a fresh gauge rather
than to convert an existing one.

RAILS

4. GENERAL
a. Rails are continuous steel girders which carry the axle loads of
locomotives and rolling stock (wagons and coaches etc). Loads are
transmitted to the formation through sleepers and ballast. Quality
control must be ensured during manufacture so that the rails
perform the desired functions satisfactorily. This would reduce
maintenance cost frequent premature replacements.
b. It is not only the chemical composition but the process of
manufacture which decides the use of steel for rails. Normally
medium carbon steel is used for rails. Alloy steel rails i.e. high/
medium manganese or chromium steel are specifically used for
places of high traffic intensity, sharp curves etc.

5. TYPES OF RAILS
a. Double Headed Rails.
These were of wrought
iron and were used in
the beginning. A rail had
upper table, lower table
and web. Length was 20
to 24 feet. Due to the
shape these were seated
in special fittings called
chairs. It was
anticipated that by FIG 2-4 TYPES OF RAILS
reversing in chairs,
useable life will be doubled. However, it failed because of long
contact with chairs which made lower table rough dented and
unusable.
b. Bull Headed Rails. The head is larger than the foot. Rails are of steel
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 2Track, Rail gauges, Rail and Rail Fastenings

and made in lengths 30 to 50 feet and 60 to 100 lbs/ yd. Foot is

shaped to hold the two wooden keys with which a rail is secured to a
cast iron chair on a sleeper. Heavier rails are in use on certain
sections in England and other European countries. Provision of
chairs result in heavy construction and maintenance cost.
c. Flat Footed Rails. These were invented by Charles Vignoles in 1836.
The foot is spread to form a base. These rails are in use on 90% of
the system in the world. Salient features are: -
(1) Better rigidity and stiffness to resist vertical and lateral forces for
the same weight section.
(2) Simpler fittings as no chairs or keys are required. Leads to lesser
initial and maintenance cost.
(3) Better performance during design life.
(4) Replacement poses problems because of need of dog spikes.

6. REQUIREMENTS OF RAILS. Rails should:-

a. Have adequate height to bear vertical shear.
b. Bear lateral breaking and thermal stresses.
c. Provide minimum friction between wheels and rails.
d. Have adequate contact surface with wheel flange.
e. Have minimum and economical cross section area
f. Be jointed conveniently and satisfactorily.
g. Not pose handling and transportation problems.
h. Meet laid down specifications.

7. DESIGNATION OF RAILS. Rail sections are designated by the weight

per unit length. Heavier rails are costly but possess higher load carrying
capacity. In Pakistan 60 to 100 lb rails have been in use. More than half
of the BG track has been converted to 100 lb rail track till year 2004.
Heavier Rails. Are preferred over light rails because of: -
a. Speed is on the increase with introduction of diesel and electric
traction which necessitates heavier rails.
b. It is economical to have heavy rails supported over less sleepers
rather than light rails over more sleepers.
c. Locomotive power is wasted over light rails which are depressed
comparatively more and leads to wheels dragging.
d. Less number of sleepers are utilized which also reduces maintenance
cost.
e. Permissible wear of rails for a particular track depending upon the
importance of a track.

8. LENGTH OF RAILS. Longer rails have less joints which reduce

construction and maintenance cost. Use of longer rails provides smooth
running and travel comfort to passengers. In Pakistan rail lengths
varying from 18 to 42 feet are in use. However for BG is 42 feet length is
standardized. However, manufacturing length is governed by:-
a. Manufacture at reasonable cost.
b. Ease of transportation in wagons.
c. Ease of lifting and handling.

9. SELECTION OF RAILS. Selection of rails to be adopted depends upon:

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 2Track, Rail gauges, Rail and Rail Fastenings

a. Gauge of track i.e. larger gauge requires heavier rails.

b. Axle load and nature of traffic i.e. Operation of heavier locomotives
pulling larger trains require heavier rails.
c. Speed of train i.e. higher speeds can be achieved with heavier rails.
d. Spacing of sleepers i.e. heavier rails on lesser sleepers and lighter
rails on more sleepers if similar performance is required.
e. Availability of standard section at a particular place and time.

10. CORRUGATION OF RAILS

a. General
(1) Sometimes heads of rails develop wavy surface which gives
roaring sound whenever a train passes over it. Such rails are
known as corrugated or roaring rails.
(2) Rail corrugations result in overall deterioration of the track. It
loosens rail fastenings, fittings and anti-creep devices.
(3) The remedy is grinding with machines. In modem countries,
grinding trains are run over affected sections.
b. Probable Causes. Examination of tracks where such defects have
developed show that the following may the probable causes of rail
corrugation: -
(1) Humidity, especially in long tunnels.
(2) High speeds, especially at electrified sections.
(3) Slipping of engine wheels, because of accelerating and braking
actions especially at steep gradients.
(4) Locations of rigid track, soft ballast and yielding formations.
(5) Non uniformity of diameter of engine wheels and coning.
(6) Use of light wagons and coaches.
(7) Use of rails having high tensile strength.
(8) There is no single specific reason leading to corrugated rails.
c. Peculiarities. Following are the peculiarities about corrugation of
rails:-
(1) It is not must that presence of one or more of the causes results
in corrugated rails.
(2) If corrugations develop in anyone part of the rail, it quickly
spreads.
(3) If corrugated rails are removed and used elsewhere, sometimes
these smoothen out.
(4) New rails if laid in place quickly get corrugated.

11. CORROSION OF RAILS

a. Presence of damp conditions causes corrosion of rails. This effect is
particularly seen in tunnels and near the industrial areas. As a
result strength reduces because of reduction in effective x-sectional
area. If not treated timely, may lead to failure of rails.
b. Specially fabricated rails from special steel alloy are used to reduce
corrosion. Alternatively, coating with non-corrosive material is
carried out. Three coats of bituminous emulsion over one coat of
zinc chromate over red oxide priming coat serves the purpose.

12. HOGGING OF RAILS

a. The battering action of wheels over the end of rails results getting
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 2Track, Rail gauges, Rail and Rail Fastenings

bent and deflected at the ends. Loose packing under the joints and
loose fish plates are primarily responsible for development of this
defect.
b. One of the following methods can be utilised: -
(1) Hogged rails are transferred to unimportant lines.
(2) End portions cut and removed by power saws at site or in the
workshop. Fresh holes are drilled and rails re-laid. This is also a
cumbersome method.
(3) Improving the worn ends of the rails by welding.
(4) Dehogging machine is used to rectify.

13. BUCKLING OF RAILS

a. Track goes out of alignment especially at curves where expansion
prevented either because of insufficient expansion gap or excessive
tightness of joint. Sometimes this results in derailment.
b. Remedial measures are: -
(1) Sufficient expansion gap should be provided.
(2) Joint should not be tightened to the extent which may prevent
expansion and contraction of rails.
(3) Contact surface between rails and fishplates should be
lubricated.
(4) If welded rails are to be utilized then either steel sleepers should
be provided or rails should be properly anchored

14. FAILURE OF RAILS

a. Strict quality control ensures that rail failures should not occur.
However whenever a rail fails the main cause is found to be ‘defect in
manufacture’. The rails may also get damaged due to:-
(1) Improper packing of ballast.
(2) Improper fixing to sleepers.
(3) Improper tightening of bolts/ nuts and fixtures.
(4) Overloading of wagons.
(5) Bad application of breaks.
(6) Excessive fatigue.
b. Types
(1) Crushed head. The head gets sagged or flattened due to
Skidding/ slipping of wheels and weak end support because of
loose fish plate.
(2) Split head. A crack is apparent on the top some distance along
the rail head. It is a manufacturing defect and when crack is
opened it is smooth and dark in colour.
(3) Flow of Metal in Heads. The metal is forced out and the head gets
widened.
(4) Split Web. It is a horizontal crack between the bolt holes and may
commence from the strained bolt hole.
(5) Horizontal Crack. This defect occurs at rail ends, when worn fish
plates are used or ballast is not properly packed.
(6) Horizontal Fissure. It is a horizontal crack which is caused due
to defective rail head.
(7) Transverse Fissure. This is a manufacturing defect and starts
from centre of the head and spreads around. The broken surface
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 2Track, Rail gauges, Rail and Rail Fastenings

has a round or oval bright spot. It is dangerous as the rail breaks

before the defect becomes visible.
(8) Square or Angular Break. Sometimes rail breaks through
vertical plane that is known as square or angular break.
TRANSVERSE FISSURE CRUSHED HEAD SQUARE BREAK

SPLIT HEAD

HORIZONTAL FISSURE

SPLIT WEB

HORIZONTAL CRACK

FIG 2-5 VARIOUS FAILURES OF RAILS

15. WEAR OF RAILS

a. A rail section may wear out from the exposed portions i.e. on rail
ends, top of rail head or sides of rail head. It is caused by moving of
wheels on rails and becomes abnormal because of poor construction
and maintenance.
b. Wear on Rail Ends. The main cause is the impact of blows once
wheels jump across the joint. These successive blows make the rail
ends battered and results in: -
(1) Settlement of ballast.
(2) Wearing out of sleepers.
(3) Loosening of fish plates.
c. Wear on Top of Rail Head. Top surface of rails get direct impact of
the rolling wheels and causes wear. This is further aggravated
because of: -
(1) Heavy wheels concentrated over small area cause metal to flow
towards gauge side; known as blur.
(2) Abrasion action of rolling wheels on rails.
(3) Impact of heavy loads.
(4) Grinding of small soil particles between rails and wheels.
(5) Corrosion of exposed portions in certain humid areas.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

 CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 2Track, Rail gauges, Rail and Rail Fastenings

(6) Burning of metal once wheels slip, at starting or breaking.

WEAR ON TOP
BLURR
CHECK RAIL

GAUGE
INNER OUTER

WEAR AT ENDS

WEAR ON TOP WEAR ON SIDE

GAUGE
RAIL RAIL

INNER OUTER
EXPANSION GAP
FIG 2-6 TYPICAL X-SECTION PERMANENT WAY
d. Wear on sides of Rail Head. This type of wear takes place along the
curved track.
(1) While negotiating the curve, vehicle does not bend to the shape of
curvature. Flange of outer wheels rub against the side of outer
rail head causing wear of side of head.
(2) Two wheels of the vehicle are rigidly connected. At curves outer
wheel roles a comparatively larger distance. On the contrary;
slipping action takes place on top of inner side of inner rail
because of lesser distance to be covered by inner wheel.
e. Methods to Reduce Wear
(1) Special alloy steel is utilized to manufacture rails which have
proved better against wear.
(2) Good maintenance includes proper tightening of fish bolts at the
joint. Rail gap should be just adequate as less may lead to
derailment because of the affect on gauge and more would lead to
excessive wear.
(3) Exchange of rails on curves so that 'outer' having 'wear' on head
side is replaced with the 'inner' having 'wear' on head top. This
would increase the life of both
(4) Introducing checkrail which is laid with inner side of inner rail at
specified gap according to the gauge(1 3/4 inches for BG) and
curves sharper than specified (80) Check rails are provided from
worn out rail sections.
(5) Use of lubricating oil by special mechanical equipment attached
to locomotives. This reduces wear especially on inner rail.
(6) Coning of wheels has been discussed under different heading. It
also helps in reducing wear.
(7) Appropriate super elevation reduces undue stresses on rails at
curves thus reducing wear.
(8) Measuring Wear. There are two methods in use. In first method
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 2Track, Rail gauges, Rail and Rail Fastenings

worn out rail are weighed and compared to the standard. In the
second method a profile is drawn and compared to the standard
profile. First is more reliable and assessment is simple and quick.
Max 5% wear by weight is permitted on main lines and not more
than 10% is allowed on branch lines.

16. RENEWAL OF RAILS

a. It means replacing rails on a section after useful life. It is generally
60 years but sometimes necessitated before the specified period.
b. The reasons are: -
c. Wear of rails which may necessitate rails to be transferred on branch
lines.
d. Use of heavier locomotives may reduce specified life necessitating
replacement.
e. Construction of branch lines is planned and new rails instead of
being used on branch line. Hence, rails are replaced with main line
rails.
f. Bent, damaged or faulty rails may be replaced prematurely.

17. RAIL CREEP

a. General. Longitudinal movement of rails in a track in the direction of
motion is called rail creep. It varies from negligible length to few
centimetres. The rail may either move with respect to sleepers or
sleepers may move along with rails. First is possible if the toe load of
the fastening on the rail is less than force due to creep. Second
occurs when the resistance of ballast is less than the creeping force.
The forces of creep under static and dynamic conditions are different
as resistance gets reduced considerably because of high frequency
vibrations caused by high speed.
b. Vital Contributing Factors. Theories regarding vital contributing
factors are: -
(1) Wave Theory. As rail gets depressed under the rolling wheel, a
vertical reverse curve is formed. The wheels have a tendency to
push the rail in the direction of traffic. With the successive
forward motion of the wheel, creep is carried forward.
(2) Percussion Theory. Rail end ahead of joint gets battered. Impact
of wagon wheel tends to push forward the rail giving rise to
creep. When wheel crosses over the joint, force acts normal to the
contact surface. It's horizontal component causes creep whereas
vertical component causes battering of rail end.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 2Track, Rail gauges, Rail and Rail Fastenings

PERCUSSION THEORY

TRAILING RAIL FACING RAIL

V R

WAVE THEORY

HORIZONTAL RAIL LEVEL

VERTICAL REVERSE CURVE

FIG 2.7 THEORIES OF CREEP

(3) Drag Theory. According to this theory rails are pushed

backwards by driving wheel of locomotive. Whereas other wheel
of locomotive and wagons push he rains in the direction of
motion. As a result of this, creep takes place in the direction of
motion.
c. Other Contributing Factors. These are: -
(1) Range of temperature variation and hot weather.
(2) Starting/ stopping and acceleration/ deceleration of trains.
(3) Unequal expansion and contraction of rails.
(4) Bad quality sleepers, not ensuring firm grip in ballast.
(5) Rails improperly and loosely fixed with sleepers.
(6) Poor drainage leading to unsuitable ballast performance.
(7) Improper compaction of rail bed soil, ballast sinking in.
(8) Incorrect super elevation of outer rail.
(9) Tight or slack maintenance of gauge.
(10) Light rails under heavy traffic.
(11) Poor maintenance of rail joints.
(12) Incorrect expansion allowance of rails.
d. Factors Determining Magnitude. Creep is peculiar nature. It is not
uniform and unpredictable. Two rails on a track may not have same
amount of creep. However factors having some effect on magnitude
are:-
(1) Creep is greater on curves compared to straight track.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 2Track, Rail gauges, Rail and Rail Fastenings

(2) Creep generally develops down gradient but development of creep

upgrade cannot be ruled out.
(3) Creep is more prominent in the predominant direction of motion.
(4) Direction of motion of heavily loaded trains show more creep.
e. Results of Creep. These are very serious in nature. Great care should
be taken to deduct and correct creep. Some of the undesirable
results are: -
(1) Sleepers move from position, disturbs gauge and mutual level
rails.
(2) Widening of gaps takes place at some locations and elsewhere.
(3) Position of points and crossings get disturbed.
(4) Difficult to re-fix rails with creep. These become either too short
or too long.
(5) Interlocking mechanism of signals gets disturbed.
f. Measurement of Creep. Creep Posts are erected at specified mileage
on either side of the track. A chisel mark is made at the foot of the
rail. A wire is stretched across under the rails passing exactly at the
chisel mark. The top or the post is in level with sleeper top. At any
time creep is measured by the displacement of the chisel mark.
g. Methods of Correcting Creep.
There are two methods: -
(1) Pulling Back Method.
Sleeper fittings are made
loose, fish bolts at one
end removed and on the
other loosened. Rail is
pulled or pushed
manually or with the
help of jacks. Proper re- FIG 2-8 CREEP ANCHOR
packing of ballast is
done. To keep the track
open, small rail pieces
are kept handy and
lesser hindrance to
traffic is ensured. After correcting creep, fishplates are removed,
cleaned, oiled and re-fixed. Rail anchors may also be fixed during
process if so planned.
(2) Fixing Creep Anchors. Anchors are cast iron pieces placed to grip
rails. If creep takes place, sleepers will move along with rails. To
reduce cost of correcting creep, these are placed behind every
third or fourth— sleeper and may not be regular. Other salient
points are:
(a) Creep anchors should be strong to resist stresses.
(b) Number of anchors depends upon expected intensity of creep.
(c) Placed at originating points and not where the creep is
observed.
(d) Not placed on bridges. More should be provided on either side
of the bridge.
(e) Additional creep anchors to be placed on railway stations and
level crossings.
(f) Defective creep anchors should be replaced when observed
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 2Track, Rail gauges, Rail and Rail Fastenings

and accumulation of creep should be prevented.

18. CONING OF WHEELS AND TILTING OF RAILS

a. General
(1) Wheels of train have flanges on inner side of rims to keep it on
track. The
distance
between inner
sides of wheel
flanges is kept
slightly less
than gauge of
permanent way.
The reason is to FIG 2-10 CONING OF WHEELS
avoid rubbing of
inner side of
flanges with
rails.
(2) If the rim of the wheels rests flat on rails there would be lateral
movement resulting in damage to inside edge of rails. To avoid
this damage wheel rim is sloped inwards in shape of cone with 1
:20 slope. It helps keeping vehicle in central position with respect
to track. Without coning, flanges cause shock to the insides of
the rails.
b. Disadvantages. Disadvantages of coning are: -
(1) Though ride is smoother yet there are more tendencies to wear at
inner edges because of extra pressure.
(2) Gauge tends to widen out.
(3) If no base plates are provided, sleepers under outer edge get
damaged.
c. Tilting of Rails. To reduce the damaging effects, rails are tilted
inwards with 1:20 slope. Sleepers are cut inwards to achieve tilt of
rails, and this is called 'adzing' of wooden sleepers. The advantages
are: -
(1) Gauge remains maintained.
(2) Wear of head is uniform.
(3) Increased life of sleepers and rails.

RAIL JOINTS, WELDING AND FASTENINGS

19. RAIL JOINTS

a. General. A rail joint is made between two rails and this incidentally
forms the weakest link in the rail track. Even the best joint has 50%
of the rail strength.
b. Characteristics of an Ideal Rail Joint. A rail joint: -
(1) Should hold two ends closer, at level and in line so that gauge is
not disturbed.
(2) Should have strength of rail sections which it joins.
(3) Should provide sufficient elasticity so that shocks and vibrations
caused by roIling loads are absorbed.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 2Track, Rail gauges, Rail and Rail Fastenings

(4) Should provide space for expansion and contraction of rails due
to temperature.
(5) Should provide
resistance to
lateral forces RAIL RAIL
which are
responsible for
cause creep.
(6) Should be SLEEPERS
capable of
retarding wear SUPPORTED RAIL JOINT
and adjusting the
changes at
contact surface of
rails and
fishplates.
(7) Should be easily RAIL RAIL
fixed and
removed for
repairs without
disturbing the SLEEPERS
whole track.
(8) Should have SUSPENDED RAIL JOINT
fittings which can
be fixed with no
regard to type of
sleeper i.e.
universal type.
(9) Should have METAL PLATE
fittings which RAIL RAIL
reduce chances of
sabotage
activities.
(10) Should be cheap SLEEPERS
in initial cost and
subsequent BRIDGE RAIL JOINT
maintenance.
FIG 2-11 RAIL JOINTS
c. Types of Rail Joints
(Position of Joints)
(1) Square. Joints are exactly opposite to each other. Normally used
on straight tracks. Presently not favoured.
(2) Staggered. Joints are exactly opposite to centre of parallel rail
length or may be short staggered. Advantages are: -
(a) At curves, tendency of centrifugal force is to push the track
out. If joints are not opposite to each other, this force has
lesser effect.
(b) More uniform vertical continuity is achieved.
(c) Smooth running.
(3) Types of Joints (Position of Sleepers)
(a) Suspended. More commonly used joint where rail ends are
joined at mid distance sleepers. By the time distributed.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 2Track, Rail gauges, Rail and Rail Fastenings

(b) Supported. Rail ends rest exactly on centre of sleepers.

Appears having good support but not so. Not good for heavy
loads. If hard packed, performance not good and joint has a
tendency to become tight.
(c) Bridge. In this type of joints, sleepers do not work as
unyielding fixed supports. Construction is similar to
suspended joints but a length of metal may be straight or
curved is used to connect ends of two rails so that the joint
acts partly suspended and partly supported. To adjust metal
plates wooden sleepers are notched.

20. WELDING OF RAILS

a. General
(1) Length of rails is limited because of rolling difficulties in the
factory and transportation hardships and hazards. Length of
rails can be considerably increased by welding the rail joint. The
fear that the longer rail joint would have larger gaps was not
justified 'by the results on ground.
(2) A 42 feet rail may require 1/3 inches gap where as continuously
welded rails of 1.3 kilometres may not require any gap. Anomaly
lies in the fact that length of expansion gap applies to unstrained
rail where as in actual movement is restrained because of as rails
are secured to sleepers and sleepers are embedded in ballast.
(3) With conventional rail I fastenings, it is seen that the resistance
offered by approximately 100 sleepers balances the forces
generated in rails because of temperature variations. The rest of
the rail length remains theoretically clammed with no movement
under temperature variation. Two end lengths of 100 sleepers
either side are breathing lengths, which may vary depending on
temperature variation.
b. Purpose
(1) To reduce number of joints and joint fillings thus affecting saving
in maintenance cost.
(2) To restore worn out and damaged mil section.
(3) To repair worn out or damaged points and rails along the curves.
(4) To restore burnt sections of head of rails or to repair any other
defect.
c. Advantages
(1) Lesser joints resulting in reduction of construction and
maintenance cost.
(2) Increase in life of rails due to reduction in wear at the end.
(3) Increase in travelling comfort due to reduction in joints.
(4) Reduction in creep.
(5) Increase in carrying capacity of track.
(6) Saving in fuel due to reduction in traction effort.
(7) Reduction in theft and sabotage.
(8) Increase in stability and stiffness of track.
(9) Methods. Electric Arc and Oxy-Acetylene welding methods are
not in use for welding of rails. Flash Butt technology and
Chemical (Thermit) welding methods are adopted. For details one
may refer to other books.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 2Track, Rail gauges, Rail and Rail Fastenings

21. FASTENING OF RAILS

a. Fish Plates and Fish Bolts
(1) Purpose and Usage. Fishplates join two rails inline and in level.
Four holes arc drilled through fishplates. One each is placed on
either side of two rails being joined. There are two holes in each
of the rails. Fish Bolts are passed through the holes and
tightened using nuts. Theoretically the fishplates have the same
strength achieved by increase section or high quality material.

FIG 2-12 FISH PLATE

(2) Details. Length 18”, elongated holes for ease of fittings and
expansion of rails due to temperature variation, shaped so that
fish plates do not touch web, helps that wear is easily adjustable.
(3) Failure of Fish Plates.
(a) Top surface wears out due to abrasion. If long, reversal of
stresses cause crack from top.
(b) Crack may be from bottom to bolt hole.
(c) May develop to complete break.
b. Spikes
(1) Purpose. A good spike should hold rail in position with the
sleeper, provide enough resistance to motion and should be
easily fixed or removed. Some of the different types of spikes are
described.
(2) Dog Spike. Lugs in head for ease of extraction, square section
and lower end blunt/ pointed or chisel shaped. Salient points
are:-
(a) Staggered driving otherwise splitting will take place.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 2Track, Rail gauges, Rail and Rail Fastenings

FIG 2-13 SPIKES & BOLTS

(b) Centric and regular blows, large holes reduce holding power.
(c) Bored holes with ½” auger are preferred which reduces fiber
crushing.
(d) Generally 2/ rail joint, 3 to 4 for heavily trafficked tracks and
4/ joint on bridges.
(e) Holes are bored right through, reduce decay.
(3) Screw Spike.
(a) Holding power is double than that of dog spike.
(b) Circular head and square projection.
(c) Tapered sides provided with threads.
(d) Resistance against batter.
(e) Comparatively costly.
(4) Round Spike. Used for fixing of CI chairs to wooden sleepers and
in switch fittings.
c. Hook Bolts. These are used to fix sleepers to girder of bridge. Head of
hook bolt grips flange of
girders.
d. Chairs and Keys. These were
in use with double headed
and bull headed rails to keep
rails in fixed position with
insertion of keys/ wooden
wedges. No more in use.
e. Bearing Plates. Flat foot rails
may be laid without bearing FIG 2-14
plates on tracks where traffic
is less and light. These are
used as chairs for flat footed rails on high speed tracks. These are of
cast iron or steel. These are either flat for use at turnouts only or
canted to provide 1:20 slope to rails on rest of the track. Advantages
are: -
(1) Reduction in loading intensity.
(2) Rail cutting is prevented.
(3) Overturning tendency of outer rails reduce.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 2Track, Rail gauges, Rail and Rail Fastenings

(4) Stability increases by mutual support of spikes.

(5) Less wear of spikes as pass from holes.
(6) Gauge can be maintained easily.
(7) Reduced maintenance compared to cost of pates.
(8) Increased life of sleepers and smooth running.

FIG 2-15 BEARING PLATES

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 3 Sleepers, Ballast and Formation

CHAPTER 3

SLEEPERS, BALLAST AND FORMATION

SLEEPERS

1. GENERAL
a. Earlier types of sleepers were of stone or wood and were laid
underneath the rails through and through. Cross pieces were fixed
at some distance to maintain proper gauge. On one hand these did
not provide smooth running and on the other produced more noise.
These proved costly as well. These are no more in use.
b. Now days only transverse/ cross sleepers are in use which were
introduced in 1835.

2. REQUIREMENT OF AN IDEAL SLEEPER. A sleeper should:-

a. Have adequate strength to bear heavy stresses.
b. Provide adequate bearing area for rails.
c. Support rails firmly and evenly.
d. Maintain gauge and alignment correctly.
e. Have adequate area of contact with ballast and distribute the load
uniformly.
f. Act as elastic medium between rails and ballast and absorb
vibrations due to heavy rolling loads.
g. Have sufficient weight for stability but should not pose handling and
transportation problem.
h. Provide for easy replacements of rail fastenings.
i. Insulate rails when track circuiting is required.
j. Not be damaged by packing of ballast.

3. SLEEPER DENSITY
a. Sleeper spacing provided on a particular railway line, depends
upon:-
(1) Strength of the rail.
(2) Type and design of sleeper.
(3) Depth of ballast cushion.
(4) Bearing capacity of the formation.
(5) Axle loads, volume and speed of traffic.
(6) Volume of traffic and the maximum permissible speed.
(7) Suitable space for working of track maintenance tools.
b. Sleeper density is described as “n + x” where “n” is the number of
yards in a rail length and “x” is a number dependent on factors listed
above. In Pakistan it is “n + 4” or “n + 5”.

4. TYPES OF SLEEPERS
a. Timber Sleepers
(1) Description
(a) Timber obtained from broad leaved trees (teak and sal) is
generally hard, while that obtained from needle-shaped
leaved trees (pine and chir), and is usually soft. Softwood
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 3 Sleepers, Ballast and Formation

sleepers become unserviceable earlier than hardwood

sleepers.
(b) Size of Wooden Sleepers for BG is 9’x10”x5”. The life of the
wooden sleeper depends upon its ability to:-
(i) Resist wear from the rail and rail to sleeper fastenings.
(ii) Wear caused by the track maintenance tools.
(iii) Decay and attack by vermin.
(2) Salient Points
(a) It has good vibration absorption capacity which helps in
obtaining longer retention of packing.
(b) Fastening system is simple and easy to maintain.
(c) Track circuiting can be done.
(d) Adaptability at special locations such as bridges, points and
crossings, etc.
(e) Gauge widening is possible with wooden sleepers.
(f) With large bearing area, suitable over yielding formations.
(g) Damage is less during derailments.
(h) Have a comparatively short life.
(i) Gets worn out faster under beater packing.
(j) Needs special treatment for fire protection.
(k) Less scrap value.
(l) Useful life of treated sleepers is 15 to 22 years.
b. Steel Sleepers
(1) Description. Consist of rolled steel plate of about 12 mm thick
formed into trough shape with rail seat canted to 1:20. In order
to retain ballast, ends are flattened out. In order to fix rails, lugs
are provided and rails are fixed with keys. Lately holes are
punched to accommodate fixing with the help of bolts.
(2) Salient Points

FIG 2-16

FIG 2-16
(a) Useful life is 25 to 30 years.
(b) Liable to corroding, no vermin attacks and not susceptible to
fire.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 3 Sleepers, Ballast and Formation

(c) Maintains gauge and level more satisfactorily.

(d) Manufacture is simple.
(e) Not suitable to be used in track circuited sections.
c. Cast Iron Sleepers

FIG 2-17
(1) Description. These are in the form of Boxes, Pots, Plates or a
combination of these. Generally consists of two plate or inverted
bowls with rail seat and jaw. Each type has its own fitting and
fixtures. One of the types consists of two cast iron rectangular
plates with projecting rib under the plate for lateral stability. A
tie bar connects these which extend beyond the outer edges of
plates.
(2) Salient Points
(a) Corrosion problem is less.
(b) More scrap value, can be melted and reused.
(c) Can be broken by mishandling.
(d) Large numbers of fittings are required.
(e) Lateral stability is less, difficult to maintain gauge.
(f) Provide smooth and comfortable ride.
d. Concrete Sleepers
(1) Description
(a) Its use has increased tremendously because of the
introduction of heavy rails and welding. Earlier type was
mono block RCC sleeper similar to wooden sleeper. Later RCC
blocks connected by steel tie bar were introduced. A further
development was introduction of pre-stressed technology.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 3 Sleepers, Ballast and Formation

(b) Mono block sleeper weigh 250 kgs and cant is provided to
give 1:20 slope to the rails. Two block sleeper consists of two
RCC blocks each weighing 90 kgs.
(2) Salient Points

FIG 2-18

(a) Durable 40 to 50 years life.

(b) Maintain gauge very satisfactorily.
(c) Free from fire hazard.
(d) More stability due to heavy weight.
(e) More suitable for welded rail track. Multiple fastening
mechanisms are utilized ensuring firm hold to resist creep of
rails.
(f) Mass production technologies are in use to keep the cost low.
(g) Considerable saving in maintenance cost.
(h) Handling and transportation is difficult.

BALLAST

5. GENERAL
a. A layer of broken stones, gravel or any other gritty material packed
below and around the sleepers so that the load from the sleepers
may be transmitted to formation is called ballast. It serves as
foundation of railway track. It is an important component of a
railway track and has a strong influence on the riding quality.
b. “Broken Stones” is an ideal ballast material. Other materials include
Gravel Sand, Ashes, Moorum (Decomposed red/ yellow latterite), and
Selected Earth. Broken stone size varies from ¾” to 2” with
reasonable percentage of intermediate sizes. Hammering action of
passing trains powders the ballast and screening is carried out to
maintain
c. Ballast under the sleepers is thoroughly compacted is called
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 3 Sleepers, Ballast and Formation

"Packing". The portion beyond the sleepers is comparatively loosely

filled, prevents lateral and longitudinal movement and is termed as
"Boxing".

6. PROFILE OF BALLAST
a. It is mainly determined by ballast cushion, shoulder ballast, crib
ballast and side slope of ballast.
b. Deeper ballast cushion ensures better distribution of load on to the
formation and reduces the danger of heaving up of the soil in
between the sleeper cribs as explained earlier.
c. The main purpose of shoulder ballast is to restrain the lateral
movement of track. Crib ballast gives resistance to the longitudinal
movement of track. To retain the ballast, to a certain section, it is
essential to provide some stable side slopes. Ballast profiles for
various track gauges and the types of sleepers have been
standardized.
d. On curves, extra ballast on the outer shoulder provides assistance to
track structure in coping with the centrifugal forces generated by the
moving vehicles.

7. REQUIREMENTS OF IDEAL BALLAST MATERIAL

a. Should provide hard and level bed, which should be elastic and not
too rigid.
b. Should hold sleepers in place and provide sufficient grip over
sleepers to prevent horizontal shift.
c. Should distribute load uniformly and evenly to formation and protect
formation surface as well.
d. Should maintain the track alignment. Should maintain required
depth of material.
e. Should maintain track level without disturbing rail bed soil.\
f. Should be non-absorbing and well drained so tl1nt sleepers remain
in dry condition.
g. Should discourage growth or weeds.

FORMATION

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 3 Sleepers, Ballast and Formation

FORMATION WIDTH 35’

11’

5’ 6”
9’ SIDE DRAIN

1..5 TO 1

PERMANENT LAND

FIG 2-19 TYPICAL X-SEC DOUBLE TRACK (BG) ON EMBANKMENT

PERMANENT LAND
SPOIL BANK
FORMATION WIDTH 35’
11’
5’ 6”
9’

SIDE DRAIN 1.5 TO 1

FIG 2-20 TYPICAL X-SEC DOUBLE TRACK (BG) IN CUT

8. DEFINITIONS
a. The formation is the prepared surface on which the ballast is laid. It
is also known as the "road bed".
b. The formation level is the level of the prepared surface on its centre
line.
c. The formation width is the distance between the edges of the
prepared surface.
d. The ‘cess’ is that part of the formation lying between the toe of the
ballast and the edge of the formation.
e. The side slope is the inclined surface of an embankment or cutting.

9. PURPOSE. The formation is required to serve the following purposes:-

a. To distribute the weight of the train, the track and the ballast over a
wide area of natural ground.
b. To facilitate good drainage.
c. To provide a smooth and regular surface on which the ballast and
track can be laid.

10. GENERAL POINTS FOR FORMATION PREPARATION

a. For embankments and cuttings in soils other than good, it may be
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 3 Sleepers, Ballast and Formation

necessary to provide flatter side slopes depending upon the shear

properties of the soil, for prevention of slope or base failure.
b. The side slopes of the embankments and cuttings may have to be
protected to prevent erosion.
c. It will be necessary to keep the borrow pits sufficiently away from the
toe of the embankments, to prevent base failures due to lateral
escapement of the soil.
d. In the case of embankments in highly expansive or clayey soils;
special treatment may be necessary to ensure stable formation.

11. TROUBLESOME FORMATIONS AND TREATMENT

a. Problems. Problems caused by troublesome formations are:
(1) Variation in track levels particularly during extreme hot or wet
season, causing the need for speed restriction or increased
maintenance.
(2) Loss of ballast which sinks into the formation.
(3) Instability of bank slopes resulting in slips and consequent
disruption of traffic.
b. Treatments
(1) To get rid of the formation troubles, the first course of action
should always be to have deep screening of ballast, with full
ballast recoupment, cut the cess to proper level and ensure
proper drainage.
(2) When the above action does not give the desired results, it is
advisable to have detailed investigation carried out by soil
mechanics expert for correct diagnosis of the trouble and its
remedial measures.
(3) If desired results are not achieved, formation treatment methods
usually recommended are
(a) Provision of 20- 30 cm deep well compacted "blanket layer".
(b) Bitumen impregnation below ballast.
(c) Lime treatment & piling.
(d) Sand piling.
(e) Wooden piling.
(f) Cement sand grouting.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 3 Sleepers, Ballast and Formation

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 4Creep and Rail bed Soil

CHAPTER 4

CREEP AND RAIL BED SOIL

GENERAL RELIEF
a. Every major railway in PLATFORM DOWN
the world is confronted
with so arranging UP MAIN LINE
running of trains of RELIEF
widely different
character that services
as a whole work PLATFORM
smoothly .It depends
upon well laid out lines
and yards and well UP RUNNING LOOP DOWN
thought out lime table.
b. To allow express train PLATFORM
to pass unchecked,
relief/ back shunt
sidings are provided at
convenient intervals
along main line. Slow ISLAND PLATFORM
trains are admitted to
relief siding allowing
express trains to pass
SYMMETRICAL SPLIT
and then drawn out to
proceed to main line.
Alternatively siding Figure 4-1 PROVIDING CROSSING FOR OPPOSITE
takes the form of a OR SLOW TRAINS
running loop and no
back shunting is required. Trains run into loop at one end and out at
the other. Some times island platform is provided with running lines
on both sides. This has convenience and economy of arrangements.
However, approach to platform and necessity of slowing down of all
trains is the disadvantages not justifying the decision of island
platform.

2. RAILWAY STATION AND CLASSIFICATIONS

a. Railway Station. Any place on railway line where traffic is booked
and dealt with. It includes the place where authority to proceed is
given under system or working other than by automatic signals. The
place may be demarcated by a level piece of ground or a platform
alongside the railway line for convenience of traveling public.
b. Classification (Operational Performance)
(1) The track is divided in number of segments called blocks for
operational requirements. No train can enter or leave block
without permission. Stations are located at the ends of the
blocks. Different types of signals demarcate the boundaries of a
station as well as control the movement of trains. This is
c1assitlcation based upon importance of stations. Also note that
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 4Creep and Rail bed Soil

there place between two block stations which do not fall in the
boundary of any block station.
(2) Block Stations
(a) Class A. Permission to approaching train is given after the
STATION SECTION
BLOCK SECTION
1/4 MILES

WARNER OUTER HOME STARTER

Figure 4- 2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF RAILWAY STATIONS

line is cleared for a distance of at least ¼ miles beyond home

signal or up to starting signal.
(b) Class B. Permission to approaching train is given before line
has been cleared for the reception with in station section or
limits.
(c) Class C. Simple block huts where trains do not stop.
(3) NO Block Station. (Class D). These are stopping places situated
between two consecutive block stations but do not form
boundary of any block stations.
(a) Key siding station. Where siding is provided.
(b) Flag Station. Where no siding is provided.
(4) Special Station. Those not working in Class A, B, C or D.
c. Classification (Functional Utility)
(1) Halt Station. Server
underdeveloped
traffic area generally
on branch lines and
slow trains may stop
here.
(2) Wayside Station. On
this arrangement is
made to cross over a
slower train by
Fig 4-3
express train or up
and down trains.
(3) Junction Station. Here branch line meets the main line so
arrangement should be made to interchange traffic between main
and branch lines and clean/ repair of vehicles which terminate at
junction stations.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 4Creep and Rail bed Soil

Figure 4-4

(4) Terminal Station. The

station at which a
railway line or one of its
branches terminates or
ends is called terminal
station or terminal
junction. Additional
arrangements include
reversing of engine
(Turntable or Triangle)
siding for various
purposes are needed. Figure
4-5
3. SELECTION OF SITE FOR
RAILWAY STATION.
a. Public should have suitable and shorter approach to the railway
station
b. It should not add to pollution to city/ town life.
c. Area should be fairly level and well drained .Slope should be 1:1000
but in no case should be steeper than 1:400 .Permissible gradients
obtainable without much difficulty.
d. Proposed station should have a straight in approach i.e. should not
be located near curves; specially station yards.
e. Adequate area should be available for station, staff building,
platforms additional tracks, yards, siding and loco sheds etc meeting
the immediate requirements and future extension on both sides.
f. Services i.e. plentiful water, electricity sewerage gas etc; should
either be available in near vicinity or making these available should
be cost effective.

4. REQUIREMENTS OF RAILWAY STATION

a. General. Efficient functioning of a railway station demands that
certain minimum requirements/ amenities and luxurious facilities
should be provided. It is difficult to demarcate between both;
however with ever increasing awareness of public, public demand of
luxurious facilities is on an increase. Some are listed below.
b. Public Requirement. Booking office, platform with overhead cover,
drinking water, light, sanitation, inquiry office, comfortable waiting
rooms, refreshments, guiding arrangements, telephones, public
address systems and station name board etc.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 4Creep and Rail bed Soil

c. Traffic Requirement. Ticketing and booking, controlling & recording

train movements by signals, sidings for overtaking and crossing of
train, sidings for handling of goods trains, suitable plate form for
loading and unloading of goods and office/working accommodation
for traffic staff.
d. Locomotive Department Requirement. Fuel supply, cleaning/
examining of locomotives, inspection and repair arrangements of
vehicles and office/working accommodation for department staff.
e. General Requirements. Suitable access road system, clock displaying
and collies/ carts.

5. SIDINGS
a. Definition. Sidings are places which allow vehicles to be left
alongside a transhipment platform, permit trains to cross or bypass
each other, and allow stabling of empty vehicles.
b. Types
(1) Working Siding. Loops at single line stations to stable trains and
permit other trains to bypass of cross it. Dead-end sidings at
smaller stations are also working sidings.
(2) Lay By Siding. It is provided to stable surplus vehicles.
(3) Dead-End Siding. It is provided at small stations to serve goods
platforms and sheds.
(4) Catch Siding. This is provided above a station approached by
falling grade 1:200 or steeper to protect from runaway vehicles.

DEAD END FALLING GRADE 1:200 OR >

CATCH SIDING SANDED PORTION

DOWN MAIN LINE UP

STATION

FALLING GRADE 1:200 OR >

SLIP SIDING
SANDED PORTION

DOWN UP

STATION

Figure 4-6 CATCH AND SLIP SIDINGS

Points are always set for catch siding. A fixed signal is provided
at the points and kept ‘on’ till the time train comes to dead stop
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 4Creep and Rail bed Soil

about 50 yards from points. Signal comes ‘off’ once the points are
set for the running line.
(5) Slip Siding. This is provided below a station on grade 1:200 or
steeper to prevent vehicle escaping from station yards. Points are
normally locked for the slip siding and unlocked when the trains
are to be dispatched or received. When a train is to be received,
the points are taken off and reset for the slip siding as soon as
the last vehicle has passed over them.
(6) Sand Dead Ends. These are provided in station yards to isolate
run through lines from loops.
(7) Isolation Siding. It is provided with a trap point. Any vehicle
moving on the first loop derails at the trap point. To take out a
vehicle from isolation siding, derailing switch is closed.

6. YARDS
a. Definition. Yard is system of tracks laid within definite limits for
various purposes such as storing of vehicles, making of train etc. In
yards movements do not follow any time table but certain prescribe
rules regulations and signals are followed.
b. Types of Yards
(1) Passenger Yards. Its function is to provide facilities for safe
movements of passenger. Passenger platforms are also passenger
yards. Separate sidings are provided at junction to accommodate
passenger trains during idle period.
(2) Goods Yards. These are provided for loading and unloading of
goods. Goods platforms are goods yards. Good cannot be loaded
and unloaded at all places on the railway line. Peculiar
characteristics of goods and goods traffic necessitate provision of
goods yards at number of places along railway track.
(3) Marshalling Yards. The main purpose is to isolate, hold and
dispatch wagons to various destinations. Also holds empty
wagons and acts as distributing centre.
(4) Locomotive Yards. Provided for cleaning repairing, servicing,
watering and oiling etc of locomotives.
c. Design of Marshalling Yard. Important points to be considered in
designing of marshalling yards are as follows:-
(1) Shutting operating should not disturb the timetable of regular
trains.
(2) Sorting capacity is the efficiency and not the storing capacity.
(3) Wagons should be dispatched in given period rather than stored.
(4) Wagons should move in one direction only, both direction
movements will result in non economy and delays
(5) Should cater for future extension.
(6) Should preferably be parallel to running lines.
(7) Should be provided on all major railway stations, specially
converging railway lines.
(8) Repair facilities should be provided on one or more sidings.
d. Layout of Marshalling Yard. An ideal layout should consists:-

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 4Creep and Rail bed Soil

Fig 4-7

(1) Reception Siding. These receive incoming trains. Generally laid in

the form of a grid, the Sidings being of equal length. Incoming
trains wait here for their turn in shunting operation.
(2) Sorting Siding. These are used during shunting operations and
each siding is allocated to wagons bound for different
destinations. Generally laid in the form of a balloon. The number
depends upon the number of destinations for which traffic is
sorted out.
(3) Departure Siding. These are similar to reception sidings and may
be omitted where main lines are not busy and there are large
intervals between departures of successive goods trains.
e. Types of Marshalling Yards
(1) Flat Yard. Sorting work is done by locomotives. Suitable for
limited space but leads to more power consumption.
(2) Gravitational Yard. Topography of area leads to the decision as
tracks are so laid that gravitational force is used on down grade.
Wagon brakes are used to control movement of vehicles. Moving
upgrade requires use of locomotives.
(3) Hump Yard. Wagons are pushed to top of hump by locomotives.
Then the wagons are allowed to go down the slope by gravity.
Modern trend is to
adopt such
marshalling yards as
shunting operations
are quicker and
economical. Fig 4-8

7. PLATFORMS AT RAILWAY STATION

a. Passenger Platform. These are provided for entraining and
detraining of passengers. It should be longer than the longest train
expected. Generally 60 to 300 metres in length. A portion of it must
be covered depending upon the impotence of railway station and
passenger volume. Should be sloping for case of draining. End ramps
are also provided for ease of trolley operations. Paved length and
overhead cover depends upon the importance of railway station.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 4Creep and Rail bed Soil

b. Goods Platform. It may be

PCC/AC paved or graveled. There
should be suitable transit shed
with weigh machine or weigh
bridge. Platforms are higher than
the passenger platforms for ease Fig 4-9
of loading of goods.

8. STATION MACHINERY. Some of the machinery/ equipment found at

stations/ yards have been described in subsequent paragraphs.
a. Turn Table. At important stations where sufficient space is not
available to provide triangle, Turn Table is provided which consist of
a track on a platform. The platform is supported on a pair of girders,
which in turn is supported on pivot.

Figure 4-10 Turn Table

b. Triangle. Engine face is turned using triangle consisting of two
simple turnouts and one symmetrical split. Constructed on
unimportant railway stations where sufficient land is also available.
D A

E B

Figure 4-11 Triangle

C
Train is standing at ‘A’ facing’ AD to turn face to DA train moves
along, ABC’ and CED’ in reverse.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 4Creep and Rail bed Soil

c. Loading Gauge. When loaded train

passes on bridges, in tunnels or
signal posts, it is necessary that a
minimum clearance from the loaded
top or sides of vehicles is maintained.
Minimum clearance is specified. A
check on loaded dimension is made
by creating Loading Gauge. If any
part of loaded wagon touches profile
of the loading gauge, the train is not
permitted to proceed without
readjusting the load.
d. Cranes. These are used to load and
Figure 4-12
unload the vehicles. Types in
common use are:-
(1) Fixed Jib Crane. Fixed at suitable place on goods plat form.
(2) Mobile Crane. Mounted on vehicle and can be moved where ever
required.
(3) Gantry Crane. Consists of two parallel beams which are
supported on two vertical supports. Hoisting machinery is put up
on the platform which travels on the parallel beams.
e. Buffer Stop. These are provided at dead ends of sidings to prevent
the escape of vehicles. A baffling beam is held in position by vertical
posts. It may be of timber or rail piece. Provided at level of baffles. It
should be visible from a distance and should be strong enough to
take impact of rolling vehicles. Sometimes heap of earth is provided
for additional safety. In case of important sidings, buffer discs with
cross sleeper painted red are provided.

Figure 4-13

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 5Construction and maintenance

CHAPTER 5

CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE

SIGNALLING

1. GENERAL
a. The first railway signal was used as a protective measure. The main
purpose was to indicate, Danger- Stop and ‘All Clear –Proceed Today
faster and reliable handing of trains is also important in addition to
the all times safety requirements.
b. The passenger may not realize the integrated fast and flexible
intelligence system which is the basis of swift and protective
signalling system. This is time tested and possesses a high degree of
reliability. Modern means are being super imposed making it more
and more authentic and splendid.
c. Signaling refers to the design, construction, installation, operation
and maintenance of signals and their requisite appliances.

2. OBJECTIVES
a. To prevent running train from coming into contact with obstruction
or other train thus providing safety to passenger, staff and rolling
stock.
b. To maintain safe distance between trains running on the same line
in the same direction facilitating flow thus increasing capacity.
c. To provide protection at converging junctions and directional
indication at diverging junction.
d. To provide facilities for carrying out shunting operations safely and
efficiently.

3. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FUNCTION

a. Semaphore Signals. These are
permanently fixed at definite
locations for giving instruction to
drivers affecting the movements of
trains at or beyond the signals
location indicating ‘danger’ (on/
horizontal) or ‘clear’ (inclined/ off).
Also called ‘Stop Signals’. The
requirement is that if anything goes
wrong with apparatus/ system,
signal should show ‘on’ and train
Figure 5-1

Semaphore Signal
stops. It is operated by wire from signal cabin. For night, red or
green light is visible from spectacles. The arm is painted red with
vertical white band which projects towards the track. Backside is
painted white with black band.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

 CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 5Construction and maintenance

b. Warner Signals. Similar to semaphore

signal but with V notch.
c. Ground Signals. These are miniatures
signals of various types used for
controlling of shunting operation
where movement is slow. Disc signal is
with red band on white background
which rotates. Position of band and Figure 5-
coloured lights indicate whether to 2
proceed or stop.
d. Coloured Light Signals. Three electric
lights are placed on vertical posts which
operate automatically. Standard light
convention is used i.e., red (stop) amber
(proceed with caution), green (proceed).
Installed on heavy trafficked tracks,
remains in proceed (off) position
contrary to signal and changes to red as
a train enters the section and occupies
it.
e. Hand Banners and Flag Signals. These
take form of flags and lamp light or Figurer 5-3
banner stretched across the track,
controlling particular movements of
trains or certain shunting operations.
f. Fog Signals or Detonators. These are
appliances fixed on rails so as to explode
when train passes over it to attract
attention of traffic staff and driver.

4. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO
LOCATION. Numerous signals are seen at a
railway station. A typical set of signal for
Figurer 5-4

STATION SECTION ½ MILES

SIDING

PLATFORM

UP WARNER UP OUTER UP HOME UP STARTER UP ADVANCE

STARTER

PLATFORM

DN ADVANCE DN STARTER DN HOME DN WARNER

DN OUTER
STARTER

Figure 5-5 TYPICAL SIGNALS LAYOUT

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 5Construction and maintenance

‘Up’ or ‘Down’ trains is explained.

a. Warner Signal. It is placed ahead of outer signal or with the post
carrying outer signal with a view to warn driver. Driver can proceed
beyond this even if it is in ‘on position’ but with caution. If in ‘off
position’ it indicates that outer signal is also in ‘off position’.
b. Outer Signal. It is the first stop signal and is located at an adequate
distance ahead of station limits. The distance is generally ¼ miles
and is fixed after considering speed, gradient and power of
locomotives in use. The signal indicates to driver that train must be
brought under control so that it can be brought to stand still at
home signal if in ‘on position’.
c. Home Signal. Provided exactly at start of station limits and
permission to the driver is given to enter platform by bringing it in
“off position’.
d. Starter Signal. Placed at forward end of platform and is the only
signal which controls movement of train as it leaves railway station.
e. Advance Starter Signal. If there are two or more signals for train
leaving a railway station then the last one is called Advance Starter
Signal. It should be noted that for shunting operation generally disc
or light signals are used. There should be sufficient space between
signals and crossovers considering length of trains to be
accommodated.

5. SPECIAL SIGNALS
a. Routing Signals. Various signals for main and branch lines placed
bracketed on same vertical post. The aim is to indicate to the driver
as to which of the diverging lines is made for him.
b. Calling on Signals. Small and short arms fixed on same post carrying
signals explained above. Permits train to proceed cautiously once
brought to stop by operation of main signal. Helpful when repair
works are going on the track.
c. Co-acting Signals. A duplicate signal placed on same post and at a
lower level once main signal is obstructed due to some structures.
d. Repeating Signals. Repeats information of a certain signal once view
is obstructed due to some structures especially on curves near
station. Repeating signal is placed on a different post.
e. Miscellaneous Signals. Signal arms are distinguished by indications
on the arms. ‘ L’ for loco line ‘D’ for dock line ‘S’ for goods siding and
two cross bars on the signal indicating ‘ under repair’.

R
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CALLING ON CO-ACTING REPEATING
ROUTING
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 5Construction and maintenance

6. TYPICAL LAYOUTS

ROUTING
MAIN
OUTER

BRANCH
MAIN

DIVERGING JUNCTION
BRANCH

HOME OUTER
MAIN

HOME
FOULING POINT

CONVERGING JUNCTION BRANCH

OUTER

Figure SIGNALLING AT CONVERGING AND DIVERGING JUNCTIONS

7. CONTROL OF MOVEMENTS OF TRAINS

a. Absolute Block System
(1) General. Track is divided into block
sections (Distance between two
stations) with the provision of
‘block station’ for each ‘block
section’ at which authority to
proceed is given. Two Block
Instruments are installed on each
station and each of the two
instruments is electrically
connected to the corresponding
instrument at the station on either
side. A set of two instruments are
under dual control and ensure that Figure 5-8 Block Instrument
one train occupies one block
section at a time with the authority
of stationmaster. Line is assumes to be blocked till block
instruments release token/ ball or staff as authority for move or
convey suitable information. In Pakistan Neal’s Token
instruments are used.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 5Construction and maintenance

(2) Single Line. On a single line track the manipulation of ‘token

instrument’ under dual control releases a small ball of golf ball
size. It is placed in a small leather jacket secured to a steel ring
for safety and ease of handling. This is then handed over to the
train driver as an authority to move to next block station where it
is handed over to the station master. He removes the ball from
the leather jacket and inserts in the ball in the ‘token
instrument’. Instruments are so designed that no more than one
token can be released at one time by either of the station
masters. It ensures that only one train is admitted on a block
section at one time.
(3) Double Line. One a double line track, these instruments do not
contain tokens but have indications in the form of miniature
signals or pointers to indicate appropriate legends. The positions
of these indications are under dual controls and show whether
the station ahead is clear or blocked. After permission to
dispatch a train has been obtained from next block station, the
station master has the aspect of visual signal changed. It is the
authority for driver to move to next block station. Once the train
enters the receiving station, the signal aspect is changed again
from linked instrument at receiving station.
b. Lightly Trafficked Lines. After obtaining clearance on telephone or
telegraph from the station master to which train is heading, driver is
provided with the written authority to proceed.
c. Automatic Signalling. Trains themselves operate signals. When train
occupies a particular track, electric current is conveyed and signal is
put at dangerous position until the train had gone far ahead and no
protection is required. Capacity of track increases but in case of
electric failure, all signals return to dangerous position bringing all
trains to halt causing some delay and inconvenience. Its use is on an
increase in spite of initial cost because fewer signalmen and
locomotives to handle traffic are required which reduce operating
cost.
d. Following Trains System. This was an earlier system, wherein fixed
time interval (headway) was maintained between two train
departures on the same track. Now days this system is followed in
emergency where prevalent communication or other system has
failed.
e. Pilot Guard System. This system is used under certain
circumstances such as breakdown of telephone and telegraph or one
of the two lines on double track is out of order. A pilot proceeds by
one train to the station ahead and brings back another train from
the opposite direction. No train on the section moves without pilot
guard.
f. One Engine Only System. When trains are worked on this system,
one or more engines/ trains are coupled together and allowed on the
line at one and the same time. Usually used on short single line
branches.

8. TRACK CAPACITY
a. General. Defined as number of trains that can run on a given track
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 5Construction and maintenance

per hour. Depends on the maximum time interval between two

successive trains in any section. Maximum time interval is the time
taken by the slowest train in the longest section.
b. Suggested Measures. To increase track capacity certain measures
are listed. However all are not practically possible.
(1) All trains should be made to run practically at the same speed.
(2) All sections should be made of nearly the same length.
(3) Modern signaling system so driver does not have to reduce speed.
(4) Improvement in track conditions.
(5) Reduction in length of sections by providing additional crossing
stations.
(6) Length of crossing loops should be increased to enable longer
goods trains to run.
(7) Yard facilities should be improved.
(8) Important yards and sections should be interlocked and
standard increased.
(9) Superior, secure and trustworthy telecommunication system
should be in place.

INTERLOCKING

9. GENERAL
a. Definition. It is defined as the mechanical relationships established
between the various leavers operating the signals and points such
that contrary effects are not at all possible in the working of signal
mechanism.
b. Interlocking is an arrangement of switch, lock and signal appliances
so interconnected that their movement follow each other in
predetermined order, thereby making it impossible for leaver man to
arrange routes and clear signals simultaneously for opposing or
conflicting routes.

10. ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERLOCKING

a. It shall be impossible to lower a signal for an approaching train
unless the line to which it relates is properly set and locked and
conversely, when the signal is lowered it shall be impossible to
unlock and conversely when the signal is lowered, it shall be
impossible to unlock or reverse the points.
b. It shall be impossible for loose wagons from any part of the yard to
obstruct the line which is prepared for an expected train after the
signals relating to that line have been lowered.
c. It shall be impossible to lower the signals for admission of train from
opposite or converging direction to same line at same time.

11. ILLUSTRATION OF THE PRINCIPLES

a. Routing signal should be so interlocked with facing points that loop
signal cannot be lowered when point are set for main line and
conversely it will be so interlocked with the facing points that main
signal cannot be lowered when the points are set for loop line.
b. The down outer signal will be so interlocked with the routing signal
that it cannot be lowered until one of them is first lowered.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 5Construction and maintenance

c. When the facing point is set for main line and home and outer
signals are lowered the warner signal cannot be lowered unless the
trailing points are also set and locked for the main line.
d. The trap points are set against the dead end when signals are
lowered for the approaching train either to the main or loop line.
e. The up and down- home signals will be so interlocked that when one
of them is lowered, the other cannot be lowered.
f. Corresponding conditions for up trains have to be satisfied.

12. METHODS OF INTERLOCKING

a. General. Signals and points are operated by levers. These may be
situated at ground level or elevated Signal Cabins. Leavers are
grouped and colour coded. Leavers are connected to signals ad
points through wires and chains and run over/ under pullys. There
are two methods.
b. Tappets and Lock System. This method is used when leavers are to
be interlocked so as to prevent conflicting movements. Steel tappets
(1.5” x 5/8”) have recess/ notches for steel locks. Locks move at
right angle to tappets and are suitably sized to fit in recesses. These
ensure that a particular leaver should only function after operation
of another leaver or a particular leaver should not be function before
another leaver. That ensures safe handling of trains by systematic
control of points and signals through leavers.
c. Key System. It is the simplest method of interlocking also called

Figure 5-9

indirect interlocking. Key system can be effectively used in crossings,

level crossing gates signals etc. keys are kept in station master’s
office and are interlocked with one another in such a manner that
keys relating to conflicting signals cannot be withdrawn at the same
time. Two examples have been illustrated below.
(1) Single Lock and Key. Two lock are provided which operate with
single key. Withdrawal of key is only possible after locking.
Withdrawal of key locks the signal in horizontal position and
points are normally set for mainline. To lower the signal key is
operated signal is downed. Key cannot be removed till signal is
down, thus point setting cannot be changed as key is locked in
with the signal. This provides complete safety to train.
(2) Double Lock and Key System. This can be better understood by
an example. Requirement is to interlock Main Signal at B, Points
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 5Construction and maintenance

at A and Trap Points at C. Normal setting of Main Signal is

‘horizontal’, Points setting is for ‘main line’ and Trap ‘open’. B
and C are provided with locks whereas A has double lock. To
lower signal B, K1 is inserted, rotated and signal is ‘downed’.
Points are set for main line, trap point at C cannot be closed at
this stage providing safety. This will be possible only once signal
is again horizontal, k1 is taken out and inserted in B enabling K2
to be removed from B and placed in C to close ‘Trap Points’ at C.

MAIN LINE
B

A SIDING

SINGLE LOCK AND KEY SYSTEM

MAIN LINE
B

B A SIDING
K1 C
DOUBLE LOCK AND KEY SYSTEM
C

Figure 1 KEY SYSTEM INTERLOCKING K2

MAINTENANCE

13. GENERAL
a. Newly laid tracks settle down slowly and hence special gangs are to
be employed to bring the embankment to proper formation level.
Railway tracks being constantly under use require treatment to
remain in useful conditions. This is achieved by providing
maintenance gangs all along the railway track. Track is divided into
suitable sections of three to four km length and one gang is deputed
to each section.
b. The number of persons in gangs depends upon volume of traffic,
nature of soil and strength of permanent way. Generally it is one to
two men per mils.
c. Advantages
(1) Saving in operation and maintenance cost. For example loosened
bolts if not timely tightened may lead to derailment.
(2) Defect free track ensures smooth ride and safe travel.
(3) Increase in life of track and rolling stock.
d. Types Of Maintenance
(1) Daily Maintenance. Track is divided into sections and gangs are
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 5Construction and maintenance

employed. A gang carries out general inspection, checks

fastening and fixtures, tighten bolts where required, maintain
embankment slopes and drainage and reports unusual
occurrence.
(2) Periodic Maintenance. After being maintained for two to three
years, a detailed inspection becomes necessary. The reason is to
detect defects which may not have been noticed in routine checks
and daily maintenance. A schedule is formulated for the entire
track and is followed vigorously.

14. SALIENT POINTS FOR MAINTENANCE. Maintenance briefly described

in succeeding paragraphs fall under periodic maintenance.
a. Maintaining Track in General
(1) Maintaining track in good running condition by keeping in
correct gauge, alignment and level.
(2) Joints, fastening, points and crossings should be periodically
checked.
(3) Sliding switches, fishplates and bolts be cleaned and oiled.
Ballast removed from in between rails so switches work freely.
(4) Creep should be corrected. Record of wear of rails to be
maintained. Worn out and damaged rails be replaced.
(5) Ballast should be kept to level, that track kept elastic. Soft
formations should be strengthened.
(6) Geometric standards should be improved.
b. Maintaining Track Alignment
(1) Even the best aligned track gets disturbed because of:-
(a) Hammering action because of jumping of wheels across
joints.
(b) Mud pumping or heaving of track because of poor drainage.
(c) Inadequate or loose ballast causes lateral or horizontal shift
in rails.
(d) Temperature stresses.
(e) Centrifugal force on curves tries to push the rails out
(2) If defects are timely deducted will lead to serious consequences.
Maintenance includes:-
(a) Track can be realigned using crowbars but more labour will
be required.
(b) Track liners may be use; this will require less labour.
(c) Curves require theodolite and levels to realign the track.
c. Maintaining drainage
(1) Side drains should be cleaned, weeds removed and maintained to
x-sectional area for proper flow of water
(2) Ballast should be cleaned to eliminate weed growth.
(3) Erosion should be prevented e.g. stone pitching.
d. Maintaining Railway Bridge
(1) Deduct sours near abutments and piers by sounding and rectify.
(2) Rivets should be checked and worn-out replaced timely.
(3) Girders should be red lead painted. Bearings should be oiled.
e. Maintaining Track Components
(1) Cleaning/ oiling of fishplates, fish bolts and sliding switches of
points and crossing should be carrieCracked and excessively
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I RAILWAY ENGINEERING Chapter 5Construction and maintenance

worn out rails are replaced.

(2) Waste oil is used if rust is observed on rails and iron/ steel
fittings in storage.
(3) Wooden or CI sleepers should be timely replaced.
f. Maintaining Points and Crossing
(1) Bent tongue rails should be straightened. Worn-out/ damaged
stock rails should be replaced.
(2) Anti creep devices should be provided behind heels.
(3) Clearance should be maintained.
(4) Interlocking connection should be cleaned of ballast.
(5) Creep if any should be removed.
(6) Anti creep bracket be provided behind the heel and wing rails of
crossing.
(7) Sleepers should be correctly spaced if these had moved.
(8) Loose bolts should be tightened.
(9) Proper drainage arrangements should be maintained specially at
points and crossing area.
(10) Screening of ballast should be carried out regularly.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Introduction

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL

1. History
a. On 17 December 1903, first controlled sustained, power driven and
heavier than air machine was flown by Oliver Wright at Devil Hill, Kitty
Hawk, North California, USA. It was 10 horse power chain driven machine
that remained in air for 10 seconds, travelled a distance of 120 feet at a
speed of 48 kmph and attained an altitude of 10 to 12 feet.
b. 10 Aug 1910 saw the first civilian commercial flight in Britain, which was
an experimental mail flight from Blackpool. KLM Royal Dutch Airline was
founded on 17 Oct 1919, the first scheduled airline in the world.
c. No one at that time would have imagined the air transport and its impact
on society as it is today. B-747-400 has a seating capacity of 516
passengers and Concord had a speed of 2.2 mach, probably a birth much
before time. Altitudes reach to 45000 ft and scheduled nonstop flight from
Los Angeles to Sydney takes 15 hours.
2. Concern of Civil Engineer. Civil engineers are concerned with airports and
allied facilities right from feasibility study to maintenance renovation and
extension.
3. Concern of Transportation Engineer. His concern is much more. He should
also possess sufficient knowledge of air traffic and airport elements to which it
affects.
4. International Aviation Organizations
a. International Civil Aviation Organization (lCAO)
(1) Objectives
(a) To develop principles and technique~ of international air
transportation.
(b) Publishing "aerodromes Annex 14 to convention on
international civil aviation" containing design standards and
recommended practices
b. International Air Transport Association (lATA)
c. International Civil Airports Association (ICAA)
5. USA Federal Government Agencies
a. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
b. Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB)
c. National Transport Safety Board (NTSB)

CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY (CAA)

6. History

a. Aviation matters were handled by Civil Aviation Department since

independence till an autonomous and regulatory body created in
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Introduction

December 1982 to handle all matters related to civil aviation in Pakistan.

CAA ensures conformity to the standards laid down by the international
civil aviation organization (lCAO). Aviation policy 2000 has been issued.
b. CAA has endeavoured to improve the aviation facilities in' Pakistan. The
number of airports has risen from 23 to 42 in 1982. Besides new airports,
11 new terminal buildings, 3 new runways, and two new hajj lounges
were constructed by the CAA.
c. CAA has been a financially viable organization. it has contributed to the
national exchequer billions of rupees in taxes, one of the few public sector
organizations to do so
7. Mission. To provide for the promotion and regulation of civil aviation activities
and to develop an infrastructure for safe, efficient, adequate, economical and
properly coordinated civil air transport service in Pakistan
8. Functions
a. Plans and develops airport infrastructure ahead of demand.
b. Enforces high performance standards for efficiency and service in airport
operations.
c. Promotes and facilitates the development of air cargo industries.
d. Promotes safe and efficient - commercial aviation, in a competitive
environment.
e. Regulates and promotes the development of air transport and facilitates,
negotiates on air services agreements.
f. Promotes trade and economic growth.
g. Develops services and aviation infrastructure.
h. Provides air traffic control service to ensure a safe, orderly and
expeditious flow of aircraft movements within the Pakistan flight
information regions.
i. Provides search and rescue service.
j. Maximizes airspace capacity in cooperation with lCAO, lATA and other
user groups.
k. Regulate the operations of Pakistan registered aircraft.
l. Ensure the certification and surveillance activities of all Pakistani
operators.
m. Certification of aviation training centres.
n. Regulates / monitor the operations of leased aircraft.
o. Regulates / monitor general aviation activities.
p. Ensure airworthiness of all civil aircrafts, certification and surveillance of
aircraft engineering activities.
q. Regulates the operation of aerospace industries.
r. Ensures medical fitness of al operational personnel.
s. Advises the government on matters related civil aviation authority
9. Management
a. Secretary General Defence (Chairman)
b. Secretary Ministry of Finance
c. Secretary Planning Division
d. Secretary Aviation
e. Managing Director PIAC
f. Chairman Pakistan Banking Council
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Introduction

g. Director General CAA

AVIATION POLICY

10. Current Status

a. Aviation is currently under the Ministry of Defence.
b. All airports and related ground infrastructure are in the public sector.
Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) is responsible for the following:
(1) Planning, Construction, maintenance and operation of airports and
aerodromes
(2) Air traffic control and Communication Services.
(3) Regulation and control of all Civil Aviation activities
(4) Regulation of maintenance and operation of aircraft.
(5) Accident Investigation
c. While PIAC is entirely a public sector concern, recently a few airlines have
also been established in the private sector.
11. Policy Recommendations for Air Transport (Airlines)
a. Aviation should be classified as an industry to encourage private sector
participation.
b. All Pakistan registered and foreign registered carriers be offered equal
opportunity to conduct business.
c. Competition between Pakistani air carriers on international routes should
be avoided.
d. Foreign air carriers be encouraged to fly through the national airspace by
the most direct route
e. The protection available to PIA be reviewed keeping in mind the
requirements of open skies policy.
f. Traffic to and from third countries be permitted conditionally.
g. Induction of private airlines should be left to the market forces.
h. General aviation should be encouraged to cater for charters, tourism,
aerial survey/photography, ambulance/ evacuation services in
emergencies and training.
i. Domestic air transport should be completely de regulated to allow market
forces to determine the fares.
j. Accident investigation should be separated and placed directly under the
minister in charge of transport.
12. Policy Recommendation for Airports & Ground Facilities
a. Existing airports be improved.
b. Construction of new airports may be undertaken
c. The five major airports should have adequate fuel supply storage and
distribution, system to ensure uninterrupted aircraft operations.
d. Aviation charges and fuel cost be rationalised to make them competitive
with airports in the region. .
e. Aircraft handling charges should be controlled by the airport.
f. Cargo handling facilities be developed at all the major airports.
g. Airport management should be vested with powers to ensure
commercialisation of the terminal & the Aviation Security.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Introduction

h. Aviation portion of meteorological department be placed under the

Transport Ministry.
i. Airports may be privatised or alternately they may be handed over to the
Provincial Governments with the Federal Government only looking into
the safely aspects of the airport layout.
j. ATC service and communications may either be made a separate
autonomous body, integrated with the ministry, or private sed.
k. Aviation Security Practice should not be detrimental to uninterrupted
airport operation and optimum commercialisation.
l. Duties and Taxes on related equipment, aids, systems etc should be
reduced.

DEFINITIONS

13. Aerodrome. A defined area on land or water (including any building,

installations, and equipment) intended to be used either wholly or in part for
the arrival, departure and surface movement of aircraft.
14. Aeroplane Reference Field Length. The minimum field length required for
takeoff at maximum certified takeoff mass, sea level, standard atmospheric
conditions, still air and zero runway slope, as shown in appropriate aeroplane
flight manual.
15. Aircraft Stand. A designated area on an apron intended to be used for parking
of an aircraft.
16. Apron. A defined area, on a land aerodrome, intended to accommodate aircraft
for purpose of loading or unloading passengers, mail or cargo, fuelling, parking
or maintenance.
17. Clearway. A defined rectangular area on ground or water under the control of
appropriate authority selected or prepared as a suitable area over which an
aeroplane may make a portion of its initial climb to a specified height.
18. Landing Area. The part of a movement area intended for the landing or takeoff
of an aircraft.
19. Primary Runway. Runway or runways used in preference to others whenever
conditions permit.
20. Runway. A defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for a
landing and takeoff of an aircraft.
21. Runway Strip. A defined area including the runway and stop way if provided
intended to reduce the risk of damage to aircraft running off a runway and to
protect once flying over it during landing or takeoff.
22. Taxiway. A defined path on a land aerodrome established for taxiing of aircraft
and intended to provide a link between one part of an aerodrome to another.
23. Taxiway Strip. An area including a taxiway intended to protect an aircraft
operating on a taxiway and to reduce the risk of damage to an aircraft
accidentally running off the taxiway.
24. Threshold. The beginning of that portion of runway useable for landing.
25. Touchdown Zone. The portion of runway beyond the threshold where it is
intended landing aeroplanes first contact the runway.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Introduction

AERODROME DATA

26. General. Aerodrome related aeronautical data is determined and reported to

Aeronautical information Services Authority. In Pakistan it is managed and
communicated by CAA. This is discussed in following paragraphs:-
27. Location. Referred as place where an airport is located.
28. Aerodrome Reference Point. The designated geographical location of an
aerodrome is called Aerodrome Reference Point. It is located near initial or
planned geometric centre and shall normally remain where initially
established. It is mentioned in degrees, minutes and seconds in world geodetic
system.
29. Aerodrome Elevation. It is the elevation of the highest point of the landing
area with reference to mean sea level. Elevation and geodetic undulations,
runway thresholds and sufficiently high and low intermediate points on
runway depending upon type of approach are also measured for aerodrome
Elevation.
30. Aerodrome Reference Temperature. It is mentioned in degrees Celsius i.e. CO
which is the monthly mean of daily maximum temperatures for the hottest
month (month having the highest monthly mean temperature) of the year,
averaged over a period of many years.
31. Aerodrome Dimensions and Related Information. This is regarding facilities
which may be best shown on a chart: -
a. Runway true bearing, designation, length, width, .numbers, obstacle free
zones, end safety areas etc
b. Taxiway designations, routes, width and surface type.
c. Apron surface type and aircraft stands.
d. Clearway and stop way available.
e. Land aids, facilities and systems.
f. Geographical coordinates of aircraft stands and various points on taxiway
and runway.
32. Strength of Pavements
a. General. Standard procedures are in use to determine Aircraft
Classification Number (ACN) and Pavement Classification Number (PCN)
and are laid down in ICAO design manuals. The ACN/PCN method only
deals with aircraft weighting in excess of 5.700 kg ( 12,566 lb.) as the
airports with pavement for smaller size aircraft need only report the
maximum allowable mass and the maximum allowable tire pressure if
applicable. The ACN/PCN system ensures that both aircraft and
pavement can be utilised to their maximum extend without detrimental
effects. An aircraft with an ACN equal to or less than PCN can operate on
airport pavement with maximum takeoff weight. There may be different
PCNs if strength of pavement is subject to significant seasonal variation.
Other variations may be specifically reported.
b. PCN. The Pavement Classification Number (PCN) is an International Civil
Aviation Organization standard used in combination with the Aircraft
Classification Number (ACN) to indicate the strength of a runway, taxiway
or airport ramp (or apron). This helps to ensure that the airport ramp is
not subjected to excessive wear and tear and thus lengthen its life.A
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Introduction

number expressing the bearing strength of a pavement for un restricted

operations.

(1) Example-I. PCN 80/RIB/W/T means bearing strength of the rigid

pavement resting on a medium strength sub grade has been
assessed by technical evaluation to be PCN 80 and there is no tyre
pressure limitation.
(2) Example-2. PCN 40/F/B/0.08 MPa/T means bearing strength of
flexible pavement, resting on a medium strength sub grade, has been
assessed by technical evaluation to be PCN 40 and maximum
allowable tyre pressure is 0.80MPa. ( conversion mega Pascal to
pound-force per square inch 145.038 and newton to pounds-force is
0.224809)
c. ACN: The ACN is a single unique number expressing the relative effect of
an aircraft on a pavement for a specified subgrade strength specifying a
particular pavement thickness. It consists of a number on a continuous
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Introduction

scale, ranging from 0 on the lower end and with no upper limit, that is
computed between two pavement types (rigid or flexible), and the
subgrade support strength category. ACN values for civil aircraft have
been published in ICAO’s Aerodrome Design Manual and in FAA Circular
150/5335-5.ACN number expressing the relative effect of an aircraft on a
pavement for a specified standard sub grade category.

33. Declared Distances

a. Takeoff Run Available (TORA). The length of the runway declared available
and suitable for ground run of an aeroplane taking off.
b. Taking off Distance Available (TODA). The distance of TORA plus the
clearway provided.
c. Accelerate -Stop Distance Available (ASDA). The length of TORA plus the
length of stop way if provided.
d. Landing Distance Available (LDA). The length of runway which is declared
available and suitable for the ground runs of aeroplane landing.
34. Other Information. Information regarding pre flight altimeter check location,
condition of movement area and related facilities, water on runway, disabled
aircraft removal, rescue and fire fighting arrangements and visual approach
slope indicators etc. (Details not of much concern at this level)

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Introduction

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 1 Introduction

INTERNATIONAL RUNWAYS AIRCRAFT PARKING &

AIRPORTS TAXIWAYS
Jinnah International There are 2 runways at Taxiways - 12.
Airport (JIAP) JIAP Parking area - 266,000
Runway 25R/07L - 3,200 sq Meters.
meters long, 46 meters Parking Stands for
wide. aircraft - 42.
Runway 25L/07R - 3,400 Remote Parking bays -
meters long, 46 meters 30
wide.
Flight capacity 15
flights/hour
Characteristics Concrete.
Runway 25R/07L - PCN
68/R/C/X/U
Allama Iqbal There are 2 runways at Taxiways – 15 (including
International Airport AIIAP at old apron)
(AIIAP) Runway 36R/18L: 3,310
meters long, 46 meters Parking area 220678-
wide. 31672 - 189006 sq M.
Runway 36L/18R: 2,900 Parking stands for
meters long, 46 meters aircraft - 30.
wide. Remote parking bays -
Characteristics Concrete. 23.
Runway 36R/18L concrete
PCN 76/F/C/X/T.
Runway 36L/18R asphalt
PCN 55/F/C/X/T.
Benazir Bhutto Runways 30 – 12 Taxiways
International Airport 10800’ X150’ PCN 77
(BBIA) A 1600’ X75’ PCN 77
B 1950’ X75’ UPTO F-27

Total Bays
Eleven
Bay 1-5 UPTO B - 73
Bay 7-10 UPTO B -
747
Bay 6 & 11 UPTO A –
300

GENERAL AVIATION
AREA Five Light
Aircraft.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 2 Aircraft Characteristics and Computation of Runway Length

CHAPTER 2

AIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTICS AND COMPUTATION OF RUNWAY

LENGTH

GENERAL

1. Advances in the technology and economic prosperity are the major factors
in growth of air travel in the world. In Pakistan with the economic boom in
view, we might witness a tremendous increase in domestic and
international air travel. This necessitates realistic forecasting, technical
know-how and vision to meet the future demands economically.
2. Aircrafts and Airports are interdependent for providing efficient service to
the passengers. Aircraft manufacturers strive for comfort, speed, safety and
economy in operations. At the same time they want to see their aircrafts
being utilized on most of the airports. On the other hand airport authorities
have to meet the demands enforced by the new aircrafts coming in service
otherwise business may be lost. The problems are much more for
developing countries which have limited air travel demand and may have to
spend much more on airports compared to others modes of travel.
3. There had been gradual increase in speed and passenger capacity of
aircrafts till early fifties of last century. The introduction of turbojets and
turbofans revolutionized air travel and there after it was a sharp increase
in speed and passenger capacity. Supersonic Concorde, said to be a birth
before time, saw a tremendous increase in speed.
4. Introduction of huge aircrafts in service did not increase the takeoff
distance, fuselage length and wing span correspondingly because of the
technology advancement and improvement in aerodynamics. Hence the
airport authorities were not taxed beyond economically viable expansions
on airports. Now air travel has been revolutionized to the extent that
Boeing 747 has the productivity (ton- miles / hour) more than large ocean
liner.

AIRCRAFT GROUPING AND PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS

5. Grouping
COMPARISON Principal Airlines Aircrafts Commuters/ Small General Aviation
Corporate
Max Take Off Weight 73,000 lbs to 800,000 lbs 66,000 lbs to 100,000 1,600 lbs to 5,500 lbs
lbs
Passengers 80 to >600 <10 to 130 2 to 6
Runway Length 5000’ to 12000’ 5000’ 2000’
Aircrafts B737, B747, DC10-10. Fair child, Fokker, Cessna, Piper
L1011, A-300 ATR

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 2 Aircraft Characteristics and Computation of Runway Length

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 2 Aircraft Characteristics and Computation of Runway Length

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 2 Aircraft Characteristics and Computation of Runway Length

Principal Characteristics. A general knowledge of aircrafts is essential in

planning facilities for their use. Principal aircraft characteristics essential for
planning and design of airports are: -
a. Weight. It has a bearing on thickness of runway, taxiway and apron
pavements. It also affects the length of runway but it is not valid to
assume large aircraft weights require longer runway length. Runway
length also depends on trip length and propulsion etc.
b. Wing Span and Fuselage Length. It is a general function of aircraft
weight. It has a bearing on gate size in aircraft stand, configuration of
terminal building, width of taxiways and runways, distance between
traffic ways, turning radius on curves etc. Instead of increase in
fuselage length, multi deck are being preferred so as the present
aircrafts continue serving.
c. Passenger Capacity. This has a direct bearing on facilities to be
provided on land and air side on airports.
d. Length of runway. It increases the area to be acquired if not already
done in initial stages. The increase is not in runway length only but in
all allied requirements and linked structures.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT

6. General. These characteristics are specific to the large aircrafts which are
being used by the principal airlines.
7. Engine type and Thrust
a. Turbo-propeller refers to propeller driven aircrafts powered by turbine
engines of earlier aircrafts. Turbojet engines are not dependent on
propellers for thrust but obtain thrust directly from turbine. These
have been discarded in favour of turbofans which are more
economical.
b. Turbofan is turbo jet with blades (fans). Fans can be Single or Multi
stage, wet or dry. Use of water increases thrust at takeoff whereas
cruising is at ¼ to 1/5 of thrust. By pass ratio is the ratio of mass
airflow through fan to core of engine. High bypass ratio engines derive
60 to 70% of thrust from fans.
c. Affect run way length, noise or location of facilities.
8. Noise
a. Primary jet noise is more at take off whereas machinery noise is more
at landing. If not
considered in
designing, aircraft
may not be able to
serve at some
airports.
b. Considerable
reduction because
of awareness. Acoustic lining of air inlets and ducts and noise
suppressors (fixed near nose) have been developed to reduce noise.
9. Performance
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 2 Aircraft Characteristics and Computation of Runway Length

a. Engine performance is measured in Specific Fuel Consumption (lb/

hour/ lb) i.e. fuel weight consumed per hour per pound of thrust.
Volume unit is not used being variable with altitude.
b. Consumption depends upon speed, weight, altitude etc. Practically it
is different for taxi, takeoff, climb, cruise and land.
10. Operating Cost
a. Distributed in fuel, crew, maintenance, investment and indirect cost.
Fuel cost affected in air travel cost a great deal in 1980s. Nowadays
air travel cost is on the increase with increase in fuel cost.
b. It makes a particular aircraft suitable for a specific market. Leads to
which aircrafts are due to serve on a particular airport. Boeing 737 is
short haul low density and Boeing 747 is long haul high density
aircraft.
11. Turning Radii
a. It is a function of nose gear steering angle. 60 to 80 degrees available
but more than 50 degrees is not recommended because of excessive
wear of tires.
b. Knowledge is necessary to determine aircraft position near the
terminal building and geometry of movement paths else where.
12. Static Weight on Main and Nose Gear
a. This depends on type of aircraft and location of centre of gravity which
is also variable because of loading and continuous changes in fuel.
Hence the distribution is not constant.
b. 5% is considered on nose gear and rest equally distributed on all tyres
of landing gear. Weight is utilized in pavement and drainage
structures design.
13. Wing Tip Vortices (Wake Turbulence / wake vortex)
a. These are made up of two counter rotating cylindrical air masses,
wing span apart, hazardous to aircrafts encountering especially
lighter.
b. Tangential velocity is
proportional to weight of
aircraft and inversely
proportional to speed.
These move down and in
direction of wind and settle
more quickly for heavier
aircrafts. Levels of at about
1000’ below the flight
path.
c. Distance between parallel
runways is designed
keeping this in view as
well. It affects the capacity
and strategy of operations.
Smaller aircraft landing
path is above larger aircraft to eliminate the effect of wing tip vortices.
14. Components of Aircraft Weight
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 2 Aircraft Characteristics and Computation of Runway Length

a. One must understand the basic components which make up the

weight of the aircraft while landing and take off. It is one of the major
factors which govern the runway length.

OPERATING EMPTY ZERO FUEL

MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL LANDING

WEIGHT (OEW) includes WEIGHT

MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL TAKE OFF

WEIGHT (MSTOW) Weight at brake
aircraft, crew and (ZFW), weight

capability of aircraft at landing.

MAXIMUM RAMP WEIGHT(MRW) maximum
necessary gear weights. above which

weight authorized for ground manoeuvres

WEIGHT(MSLW), structural
(Not constant and may all is weight

release authorized at takeoff

vary with seating of fuel
configuration)
PAY LOAD (PL) is revenue
producing load and
includes weight of mail
cargo and passengers.
Less than MAXIMUM
STRUCTURAL PAY LOAD
(MSPL), the load aircraft is
certified to carry
FUEL WEIGHT RESERVE
TRIP
TAXIING

b.Gear is designed for MSLW as more shocks have to be absorbed. This

has more capability at takeoff and caters for additional fuel weight at
that time.
c. Trip fuel depends on distance, speed, metrological conditions, altitude
and payload. Reserve fuel depends upon distance to alternate airport,
specified waiting time on land, and for international flights the trip
length.
d. Taxiing fuel is consumed for the distance to the threshold and
generally taken as 1000 lbs.
e. Thus the aircraft weight at takeoff is composed of operating
15. Pay load and Range
a. Distance to which aircraft can fly is referred as range. Main factor
influencing range is pay load; revenue producing load. Other factors
are route, altitude, speed, wind, reserve fuel. Normally the range is
increased pay load is to be decreased with the weight trade off
occurring between the fuel to fly to destination and the payload which
can be carried. Relationship is illustrated.
b. Point A represents the range Ra to which an aircraft can fly with
maximum payload Pa. Aircraft takes off at MSTOW and fuel tanks are
not filled fully.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 2 Aircraft Characteristics and Computation of Runway Length

c. Point B represents the maximum range Rb to which an aircraft can fly

but pay load is to be reduced to Pb so that the aircraft takes off at
MSTOW.

OEW A OEW B OEW C

MSPL
PL

RAMP RES ROUTE RAMP RES ROUTE RAMP RES ROUTE

OEW
OEW OEW

MSPL
PL

RAMP RES ROUTE RAMP RES ROUTE RAMP RES ROUTE

d. Therefore to extend the distance of travel from Ra to Rb the payload

has to be reduced in favour of adding more fuel. Point C represents

the maximum distance that an aircraft can fly without any payload.
Sometimes this is referred to as the ferry range, and it is used, if
necessary, for delivery of aircraft. To travel this distance Rc the
maximum amount of fuel is necessary, but since there is no payload,
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 2 Aircraft Characteristics and Computation of Runway Length

the takeoff weight is less than maximum. In some cases the maximum
structural landing weight may dictate how long an aircraft can fly with
a maximum structural payload. If this is the case, line DE represents
the trade off between payload and range; curve would then follow line
DEBC instead of ABC.(No more discussion )
e. Payload versus range depends on a number of factors such as
meteorological conditions en route, flight altitude, speed, fuel, wind,
and amount of reserve fuel. For performance comparison of different
aircraft in an approximate way, the payload range curves are usually
shown for standard day, no wind, and long-range cruise.
f. The actual payload, particularly in passenger aircraft, is normally less
than the maximum structural payload even when the aircraft is
completely full. This is due to the limitation in the use of space when
passengers are carried. For computing payload, passengers and their
baggage are normally considered as 200-lb units.
g. The aircraft manufacturers publish payload-versus-range diagrams in
aircraft characteristics manuals for each aircraft which may be used
for airport planning purposes. These diagrams are most useful in
airport planning for determining the most probable weight
characteristics of aircraft flying particular stage lengths between
airports.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 2 Aircraft Characteristics and Computation of Runway Length

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 2 Aircraft Characteristics and Computation of Runway Length

COMPUTATION OF RUNWAY LENGTH

A REAL PROBLEM
16. It is probably the most demanding part of airport planning because of the
increase in dimensions of the area with each foot of length, colossal cost
and variables involved in making the decision meeting technical and
administrative compulsions. Once we refer to the runway length, one is
that which is available on ground and its components are reported as
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 2 Aircraft Characteristics and Computation of Runway Length

declared distances defined in Chapter 1 and the other is the one required
by an aircraft depending on type, environments, haul distance and payload
being carried.
17. Forecasting and timely planning are of paramount importance as an
airport may be knocked out of the service because of the technological
advancements in aircraft industry. This problem is of serious consequences
for the developing nations which mat have to divert the finances from
development of other modes of transport.
18. The factors which have a bearing on runway are grouped as: -
a. Performance Requirements of Aircrafts. These have been imposed on
aircraft manufacturers and operators in USA. These are more specific
compared to the requirements of ICAO and have been described in
detail.
b. Environs at the Airport. These have a bearing on the performance of
an aircraft. Those which are of temporary nature like wind may not
have considerable effect on length but on orientation. Other environs
like altitude, temperature etc have been discussed in relation to
runway length. ICAO has a procedure to establish runway length for
specific environs.
c. Items Establishing Takeoff and Landing Weights. These are different
for different aircrafts and assist determining the runway length
required for a specific aircraft, which may or may not be critical
aircraft and for a critical aircraft for design in relation to other airports
in the region. Note that ICAO does not specify that available distances
must be for critical aircraft.
19. In spite of the different documents available it is difficult to specify the
runway length for a specific airport because of involved factors; more
important being performance characteristics, trip length, altitude and
temperature. Length can be obtained from: -
a. Approximate runway lengths are 12000’ for large airplanes with trip
length 6000 m and 9000’ to 10000’ for trip length 3000 m.
b. Flight manual (corrected for wind and gradient as well)
c. Publications by aircraft manufacturers containing runway length
diagrams for runway planning and design.
d. Performance curves by FAA are utilized. Two types of procedures are
available: one is based upon aircraft performance curves and other on
aircraft performance charts. Data required includes:-
(1) Critical aircraft?
(2) Longest non-stop route distance?
(3) T/O and Landing weights?
(4) Airport elevation?
(5) Mean daily maximum temperatures for the hottest month?
(6) Max elevation difference of runway centreline.

PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS OF AIRCRAFTS

20. General. The Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) promulgated in

coordination with industry consider three general cases in establishing the
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 2 Aircraft Characteristics and Computation of Runway Length

length of a runway necessary for safe operations of turbine engines

transport aircrafts: -
a. Landing in which sufficient runway is required to allow for normal
variation in landing technique, overshoots, poor approaches etc.
b. A normal takeoff in which all engines are available and sufficient
runway is required to accommodate variations in lift off techniques
and the distinctive performance characteristics of these aircraft.
c. Takeoff involving an engine failure in which sufficient runway is
required to allow aircraft to continue the takeoff despite the loss of
power or else to brake to a stop.
21. Field Length (FL) Components
a. Abbreviations
(1) Stop distance (SD)
(2) Landing distance (LD)
(3) Lift off distance (LOD)
(4) Distance to height of 35’ (D35)
(5) Takeoff distance (TOD)
(6) Takeoff run (TOR)
(7) Accelerate-stop distance (ASD)

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 2 Aircraft Characteristics and Computation of Runway Length

b. Components. Operations are generally both sided. FL is made-up of

three components: -
(1) Full-strength (FS) Pavement
(2) Stop way (SW) or Partial-strength Pavement. It is that part of the
ASD beyond the TOR, not less wide than the width of the runway,
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 2 Aircraft Characteristics and Computation of Runway Length

centrally located about the extended centreline of the runway,

and designated for use in decelerating the aircraft during an
aborted takeoff. It must be capable of supporting the aircraft
without inducing structural damage to the aircraft.
(3) Clearway (CL). It is a rectangular area beyond the runway not
less than 500 ft wide and not longer than 1000 ft, centrally
located about the extended centre line of the runway and under
the control of the airport authorities, with an upward slope not >
1.25 percent above which no object nor any portion of the terrain
protrudes, except that threshold lights not greater than 26” above
the end of the runway.
22. Runway Length. For turbine engine aircrafts runway length is established
by one of the three cases whichever yields the longest length. For piston
engine aircrafts criteria is slightly different.
a. Landing Case. LD must be sufficient to permit the aircraft to come to
a full stop within 60 percent of this distance called SD; assuming that
the pilot makes an approach at the proper speed and crosses the
threshold at a height of 50 ft. LD must be FS. (Same for piston engine
aircraft)
b. Normal Take off Case. TOD must be 115% of D35; not all of this
distance will be FS. Half the difference between TOD and 115% LOD
may be CL. The remainder of TOD must be FS and identified as TOR
(not applicable to piston engine aircrafts because failure is
comparatively frequent)
c. Engine-failure Case
(1) Take Off Case. TOD is equal to D35. This recognizes the rarity of
engine failure. CL is permitted up to one-half the difference
between LOD and TOD with the remainder being FS. (For piston-
engine aircraft FS for entire TOD)
(2) Aborted case. ASD can have SW beyond FS required under other
rules. For piston-engine aircraft FS will normally be used for
entire runway length.

ENVIRONS AT THE AIRPORT

23. Temperature. Higher the temperature, the longer the runway required
because of lower air densities resulting in lower out-put of thrust.
Relationship is non linear. The rate of increase is greater at higher
temperatures. The increase can be specified in terms of the % of runway
length at 59°F (Standard Temperature). For 59 to 90°F increase in
temperature is 0.42 to 0.65 %.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 2 Aircraft Characteristics and Computation of Runway Length

24. Surface Wind. Greater the headwind, shorter will be the runway. For
computing of take off weight, regulations allow to use 0.5 times the
reported headwind and 1.5 times the reported tailwind (max 10 knots). A 5-
knot headwind reduces the take off runway length by 3%, whereas a 5-
knot tailwind increases this length by about 7 %. No wind is considered for
airport planning purposes.
25. Runway Gradient. An uphill gradient requires more runway length than a
level or downhill gradient, the specific amount depending on the elevation
airport and the temperature. Relationship is nearly linear. For turbine-
powered aircrafts it amounts to 7 to 10 % for each 1 % of uniform gradient
(max 1.5 %). Not much difference between average uniform gradient
(straight line joining the ends of the runway, as long as no intervening
point lies more than 5 ft above or below used by aircraft industry) and
effective gradient (the difference in elevation between the highest and
lowest points on the actual runway profile divided by the length).
26. Altitude. All other things being equal, the higher the altitude of the airport,
the longer the runway required. This increase is not linear but varies with
weight and temperature. At high altitudes the rate of increase is higher
than at low altitudes. For planning purposes an increase from sea level of 7
percent per 1000 ft of altitude will suffice for most airport sites except
those that experience very hot temperatures or are located at high
altitudes. Then the rate of increase can be as much as 10 percent.
27. Condition of Runway Surface. Slush, wet snow or standing water makes
braking extremely poor and causes a significant retarding force, especially
on takeoff to the extent that takeoff may not takes place. Jet operations are
limited to no more than 0.5 in of slush or water. Between 0.25 and 0.5 in,
the takeoff weight must be reduced. Adequate drainage required.
Hydroplaning is a phenomenon of tires riding on surface of slush or water.
It is primarily a function of tire inflation pressure and to some extent the
condition and type of grooves in the tires. Speed in miles per hour where
hydroplaning develops = 10 x (tire inflation pressure in lb/in2) 0.5 .The range
of inflation pressures are 120 to over 200 lb/in2. Therefore the
hydroplaning speeds would range from 110 to 140 mph or more. The
landing speeds are in the same range. Therefore hydroplaning can be a
hazard to jet operations. It can occur when the depth of water or slush is
on the order of 0.2 in or less. To reduce the hazard of hydroplaning,
runway pavements have been grooved in a transverse direction. The
grooves normally were 0.25 in wide and deep and were spaced 1 in apart.
28. ICAO Corrections. Knowing basic runway length, ICAO specifies
corrections to be applied to determine the runway length for planning
purposes: -
a. 7% for each 1000’ above MSL.
b. 1% for 10 C airport reference temperature (ART) exceeds temperature
of standard atmosphere (TSA)
(1) ART is mentioned in degrees Celsius i.e. CO which is the monthly
mean of daily maximum temperatures for the hottest month
(month having the highest monthly mean temperature) of the
year, averaged over a period of many years.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 2 Aircraft Characteristics and Computation of Runway Length

TSA is 150 C at MSL decreasing by 1.9810 C for each 1000’

(2)
increase in elevation).
c. 10% for each 1% of effective gradient.
ITEMS ESTABLISHING TAKEOFF AND LANDING WEIGHTS

29. General .The runway length at a particular airport site is based upon the
critical aircraft flying the longest non-stop flight segment regularly serviced
at the airport, at least 250 times a year.
30. Steps Required. To compute the runway length, the following steps are
required: -
a. Obtain OEW.
b. Ascertain payload.
c. Determine fuel reserve.
d. Compute landing weight; not > MSLW
e. Trip fuel requirements for climb, cruise, and descent are computed.
f. Compute T/O weight; not > MSTOW
g. Determine temperature, surface wind, runway gradient, and altitude
at the origination airport.
h. By using the takeoff weight of the aircraft with the origination airport
temperature, surface wind, runway gradient, and elevation, the
approved flight manual for the specific aircraft is utilized to determine
the runway length requirements.

IMPORTANT AERONAUTICAL TERMS

31. Standard Atmosphere

a. Standard atmosphere is a fictitious atmosphere, which represents the
average conditions found in the actual atmosphere in a particular
geographic region. Most commonly used is the one proposed by ICAO.
It is assumed that from sea level to an altitude of about 36,000 ft
(Troposphere) the temperature decreases linearly. Above 36,000 ft to
about 65,000 ft, the temperature remains constant and above 65,000
ft (Stratosphere), the temperature rises. However jet aircrafts fly from
36000’ to 40000 Ft. Standard Atmosphere is: -
(1) The temperature at sea level is 59°F.
(2) The pressure at sea level is 29.92126 in Hg.
(3) The temperature gradient from sea level to the altitude at which
the temperature becomes - 69.7°F is 0.003566°F/ft and 0 above.
(4) A relationship exists between pressures and temperature.
b. It is common to refer to standard conditions or standard day. A
standard condition is one in which the actual temperature and
pressure correspond to the standard temperature and pressure at a
particular altitude. When reference is made to the temperature being
"above standard," it means that the temperature is higher than the
standard temperature.
32. Pressure Altitude. Aircraft Takeoff Performance Data is related to the
pressure altitude because it is dependent on the density of the air. When
the atmospheric pressure drops, the air becomes thin, requiring a longer
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-1AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 2 Aircraft Characteristics and Computation of Runway Length

run. Pressure altitude is the altitude corresponding to the pressure of the

standard atmosphere. Thus if the atmospheric pressure is 29.92 inches of
Hg, the pressure altitude is zero. If the atmospheric pressure drops to
28.86 inches of Hg, the pressure altitude is 1000 ft. If lower pressure
occurred at a sea-level airport, the geographic altitude would be zero but
the pressure altitude would be 1000 ft. For airport planning purposes, it is
satisfactory to assume that the geographic and pressure altitudes are equal
unless the barometric pressures at a particular site are unusually low a
great deal of the time.
33. Aircraft Speed. A nautical mile is 6080 ft and is equal to 1 minute of arc of
the earth's circumference. 1 knot is 1 nmi/h; a nautical mile is
approximately 1.15 statute miles. The ground speed is the speed of the
aircraft relative to the ground. True airspeed is the speed of an aircraft
relative to the medium in which it is travelling. Reference is made to two
airspeeds, namely, True Air Speed (TAS) and Indicated Air Speed (IAS). The
pilot obtains the speed from an airspeed indicator, which works by
comparing the dynamic air pressure due to the forward motion of the
aircraft with the static atmospheric pressure having specific density. At
high altitudes the density becomes smaller, and thus the IAS is less than
the TAS. As a very rough guide, one can add 2 percent to the IAS for each
1000’ above sea level to obtain TAS. With the introduction of jet transports
the reference datum for speed is often the speed of sound. The speed of
sound is defined as mach. Speed of an aircraft is quoted as in terms of
TAS.
34. Crosswind, Track, Crab angle and Heading. As an aircraft approaches a
runway, its Heading (direction in which the nose is pointing) is dependent
on the strength of the component of wind blowing across the path of the
aircraft (crosswind). The approach flight path to the runway is an extension
of the centreline of the runway, and it is referred to as the Track. An
aircraft must fly along the track to safely reach the runway. In order not to
be blown laterally off the track by the wind, the aircraft must fly at an
angle x from the track known as crab angle). The relationship is illustrated
below. Magnitude of Crab Angle x is Sin -1 (Vc / Vh). Here Vc is cross wind
and Vh is true air speed.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-1 AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 3 Airport Configuration

CHAPTER 3

AIRPORT CONFIGURATION
GENERAL
1. Airport Configuration. It means number and orientation of runways and
location of terminal area relative to runways. Terminal area is located
relative to runways with a view to: -
a. Provide easy and timely access to runways.
b. Provide shortest taxiing distance from terminal area to takeoff ends of
runway.
c. Provide shorter taxiing distance for landing aircraft as much as
possible.
2. Runway Configuration. It is number and orientation of runways. Number
of runways depends upon volume of traffic and orientation on prevailing
wind pattern, land use, size/ shape of the area and air space restrictions.
ICAO recommends that the "usability factor of an aerodrome is not less than
95% for the aeroplanes that the aerodrome is intended to serve"
3. Runways. Should be arranged so as to: -
a. Adequate separation in air traffic pattern.
b. Cause least interference and delays in operations.
c. Provide shortest taxing distance from terminal area to runway ends.
4. Taxiways. Provide access from runways to terminal area and service
hangers. Exit Taxiways (turnoffs) are used by landing aircrafts and
Entrance Taxiways by the aircrafts which are due to takeoff. Parallel
taxiways are with reference to runways. Salient points are: -
a. Taxiways should be so arranged that landing aircrafts do not interfere
with takeoffs.
b. One-way parallel taxiways should be provided when movement is
expected in both directions.
c. Shortest possible route from terminal area to takeoff end of the
runway should be selected.
d. Whenever possible taxiways to be routed to avoid crossing of runways.
e. Exit taxiways should be located at various points along runways to
enable landing aircraft to clear runways for other operation.
f. To increase capacity, high-speed exits (less than 90°) should be
provided.
5. Holding Bays. Also known as run up/warm up pads. Necessary at near
runway end for final checks prior to takeoff for piston engine aircrafts and
wait for takeoff clearance for all aircrafts. Some time a bypass taxiway is
provided. Size depends upon the volume of traffic. Salient are:-
a. Large enough to allow aircrafts to bypass.
b. Accommodates 2 - 4 large aircrafts.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-1 AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 3 Airport Configuration
c. Permits departing aircraft to enter runway < 90° and as close as
possible to the end of runway to have least interference for landing
aircraft.
d. Held aircrafts should be outside the bypass route to prevent blast
effect.
6. Holding Aprons
a. Small aprons, at convenient location for temporary storage of aircrafts
waiting for a gate.
b. ATC is responsible for directing to holding bays.
c. Not required once capacity matches the demand.
d. Good measure to cater for future saturation capacity conditions.

INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS

7. Airways. Two factors underlying the need for air traffic control are safety
and efficiency. Aircrafts fly from one airport to other following designated
routes called airways. Airways have been established with altitudes and
magnetic bearing. These are Victor Airways, Jet Routes and Area
Navigation.
8. Airport Traffic Control Tower (ATCT)
a. Air traffic is controlled on ground and in air space with a view: -
(1) To prevent collision between aircrafts and on the manoeuvring
area between aircraft and obstructions.
(2) To expedite and maintain orderly flow of air traffic.
b. ATCT supervises, directs and monitors the arrival and departure
traffic at the airport and in the immediate air space within about 5
miles of the airport. Issues clearance to departing aircrafts, provides
information to pilots regarding wind, temperature and pressure etc.
Controls aircrafts on ground except in ramp area (close to gates).
9. Flight Rules
a. Visual Flight Rules (VFR). These rules are in effect when Visual
Metrological Conditions (VMC) prevail, that is, cloud ceiling is at least
1000' AGL and visibility is at least three miles. Under such conditions
aircrafts maintain safe separation by visual means; responsibility is of
the pilots. ATC possess passive control, monitors and intervenes only
when conflicts are apparent.
b. Instrument Flight Rules (IFR). These rules are in effect when
Instrument Metrological Conditions (IMC) prevail, that is clouds
ceiling is at least 500’ to less than 1000' and/ or visibility is one mile
but less than three miles. Under such conditions ATC possess positive
control. IFR also applies in certain parts of airport regardless of
weather conditions.
10. Navigational Aids. Classified as External and Internal aids. Some are used
enroute, specific to on land flight and some are specific to on water flights
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-1 AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 3 Airport Configuration
and some are used closer to airport terminal area. External overland
terminal aids includes, Instrumental
Instrumental Landing System (ILS), Microwave
Landing System (MLS), Visual
Visual Approach Slope Indicators (VASI),
(V Precision
Approach Path Indicators (PAPI) and Approach Lighting System (ALS) etc.
11. Demand and Capacity.
Capacity. Capacity of an airport system is the same as of an
element
ent which has minimum capacity in the system. If demand exceeds
capacity then congestion occurs and indicates the authorities that capacity
is to be increased.
a. Annual Service Volume (ASV). A reasonable estimate of airport's
annual capacity. Accounts for differences
differences in runway use, aircraft mix
and weather conditions etc.
b. Runway Capacity
Capacity.. Max number of aircraft operations on runway
component of the airport in an hour. Number of operations is different
for IFR and VFR. Operations reduce with increase in mix index. in
Generally hourly capacity is mentioned in a broad range of number of
operations o mix of aircrafts. For purposes of capacity and ATC, single
direction runways are more desirable
c. Aircraft Classes for Mix Index
(1) ‘A’ small single engine ≤ 12500 lb takeoff weight
(2) ‘B’ small twin engine ≤ 12500 lb
(3) ‘C’ large aircrafts of 12500 to 300,000 lb
(4) ‘D’ heavy aircrafts of more than 300,000 1b
d. Mix Index = (%of 'C' in total) + (% of'D' in total x 3)

RUNWAY
UNWAY CONFIGURATIONS

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-1 AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 3 Airport Configuration

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-1 AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 3 Airport Configuration
RELATION OF TERMINAL AREA TO RUNWAY

RUNWAY ORIENTATION

12. Crosswind
a. Runways are oriented in the direction of prevailing winds to minimize
the effect of crosswind. Excessive crosswind component creates
problems and aircraft operations may have to be stopped.
b. Maximum permissible crosswind component depends upon: -
(1) Size of aircraft i.e. large aircrafts requiring more runway length
can manoeuvre in comparatively more crosswind component.
(2) Wing configuration of certain aircrafts reduces the effect 'of
crosswind.
(3) Pavement condition i.e. dry or wet as it affects the runway length
being utilized.
c. According to lCAO, for planning purposes, 95% of the time crosswind
component should not be greater than the listed specifications.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-1 AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 3 Airport Configuration
Runway ≥ 1500 M Runway 1200 – 1500 M Runway < 1200 M
20 knot 13 knot 10 knot
d. Once maximum cross wind component for a proposed airport is
selected, the desirable direction of primary runway can be determined
by examining the wind characteristics in entirety and under VMC and
IMC as well.
13. Runway Designation.
a. Wind data is available in 16 segments of 22.5°. Now in USA it is
available in 10 and FAA has developed a computer programme for the
same.
b. Wind data is recorded with reference to true north whereas runways
are designated/ numbered with reference to magnetic north. Once
orientation has been determined necessary correction is made before
designating the runway as magnetic bearing is utilized by the pilots to
approach a runway.
14. Wind Rose Method

a. Definition. It is a graphical vector analysis method to determine best

runway orientation. Standard wind rose consists of concentric circles
cut by radial lines on polar coordinate. Drawn to the scale, area
between successive radial lines is centred on wind direction.
b. Procedure
(1) Available wind data is arranged according to velocity, direction
and frequency in % of time.
(2) Concentric circles are drawn to the scale indicating wind speed
ranges.
(3) Directions are centred in between successive radials.
(4) Data is transferred in respective segments thus representing
graphically (wind rose).
(5) A transparent template with three parallel lines to the same scale
is prepared. Centre line indicates runway centre line and outer
lines indicate permissible crosswind.
(6) Template is placed on wind rose ensuring centreline passes from
the centre of circles.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-1 AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 3 Airport Configuration
(7) Template is rotated so that added % between two outer lines is
maximum. % is approximated when outer line crosses segmented
area indicating magnitude.
(8) True bearing is read and converted to magnetic bearing for record
and designation purposes. This will be the runway. orientation.
(9) Similar procedure is used for VMC and IMC wind data. Finally
the % is assessed which should be minimum 95%. If not so then
orientation of another runway is determined in similar fashion
i.e. finding next maximum %.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-1 AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 3 Airport Configuration
c. Example Runway Length (1400 m) and Orientation to Computer
Program knots
3.5-13 13-17 17-22 22-30

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Geometric Standards and Obstruction Clearance Criteria

CHAPTER 4

GEOMETRIC STANDARDS AND OBSTRUCTION

CLEARANCE CRITERIA

GENERAL
1. Definitions
a. Independent Parallel Approaches. Simultaneous approaches to
parallel or near parallel instrument runways where minimum radar
separation between aircrafts approaching for landing is not
prescribed.
b. Independent Parallel Departures. Simultaneous departures from
parallel or near parallel instrument runways. Instrument runway.
One of the following types of runways intended for the operation of
aircraft using instrument approach procedures.
c. Non-precision Approach Runway. Served by visual aids and a non-
visual aid providing at least directional guidance adequate for a
straight-in approach.
d. Precision Approach Runway Category I. An instrument runway served
by ILS and/or MLS and visual aid intended for operations with a
decision height not lower than 60 m and either a visibility not less
than 800 m or a runway visual range not less than 550 m.
e. Precision Approach Runway, Category II. An instrument runway
served by ILS and/or MLS and visual aids intended for operations
with a decision height lower than 60 m but not lower than 30 m and a
runway visual range not less than 350 m.
f. Precision Approach Runway Category III. Further categorized as A, B,
C depending upon reducing decision height and visual range to less
than category II and to zero.
g. Threshold. The beginning of that portion of the runway usable for
landing.
2. Aerodrome Reference Code (ICAO)
a. ICAO strives for uniformity and safety at international level. The aim
of Reference Code (Annex 14, Volume I) is to provide a simple method
for interrelating the numerous specifications concerning the
characteristics of aerodromes so as to provide a series of aerodrome
facilities that are suitable for the aeroplanes that are intended to
operate at the aerodrome. The code is not for determining runway
length or pavement strength requirements.
b. The code is composed of two elements, which are related to the
aeroplane performance characteristics and dimensions. Element I is a
code number (1 to 4) based on the aeroplane reference field length
(includes stop way and clearway if present. This is the actual runway
takeoff length converted to equivalent at MSL, 0% gradient and 150 C)
and element 2 is a letter (A to F) based on the aeroplane wingspan and
outer main gear wheel span.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Geometric Standards and Obstruction Clearance Criteria

c. A particular specification is related to the more appropriate of the two

elements of the code or to an appropriate combination of the two code

TABLE 4-1

elements.
RUNWAY SYSTEM
3. Components
a. Structural Pavement. Supports the aircraft with respect to structural
load, manoeuvrability, control, stability and other operational and
dimensional criteria.
b. Shoulders. Resist jet blast erosion and accommodates
maintenance and emergency equipment. Shoulders should be capable
of supporting aircrafts running of the runway without causing
structural damage.
c. Runway Strip. Runway, shoulders and associated stop way are
included in a strip. Width is measured astride centre line and length
from end of runway or threshold as the case may be. Blast pads are
provided up to 30 m to protect surface from blast erosion. Stop way if
provided serves the same purpose.
d. Graded Area of Strip. This area either equals to width of runway strip
or slightly less under certain circumstances. Purpose is to provide
safety in the event of aircraft running off the runway.
e. Object Free Area. For instrument runways having different approach
categories object free area is specified. There should be no fixed
objects installed except that required for landing and not higher than
specified height except on fragile fixtures.
f. End Safety Area. There should be no object, which can endanger an
aircraft, which gets off a runway. This area should extend beyond
runway strip and should be of width equal to graded area.

4. Sketch

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

 CE408 TN-I AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Geometric Standards and Obstruction Clearance Criteria

Full strength pavement FIG 6.1

Object free area

Shoulder Graded area of strip

Runway strip

SW

Blast pad

Clearway (dashed lines)

End safety area

FIG 4.2

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Geometric Standards and Obstruction Clearance Criteria

5. Specifications

TABLE 4.2
PARALLEL RUNWAY CENTRELINE SEPARATION CRITERIA (M)
Simultaneous VFR operations
Aerodrome code 1 120
Aerodrome code 2 150
Aerodrome code 3 or 4 210
Simultaneous IFR operations
Segregated operations 760 Note: 1
Independent departures 760
Dependent arrivals 915
Independent arrivals 1035
Note: 1 If the runway thresholds are staggered and approach is to the near

threshold, reduce by 30 m for each 150 m of stagger to a minimum

separation of 300 m. If the runway thresholds are staggered and approach is
to the far end threshold, increase by 30 m for each 150 m of stagger.

TABLE 4.3
RUNWAY AND SHOULDERS DIMENSIONAL STANDARDS (M)
Aerodrome code → A B C D E F
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Geometric Standards and Obstruction Clearance Criteria

Pavement width
Aerodrome code 1 Note: 1 18 18 23
Aerodrome code 2 Note: 1 23 23 30
Aerodrome code 3 30 30 30 45
Aerodrome code 4 45 45 45 60
Pavement and shoulder width Note: 2 60 60 60 75
Note: 1 The width of precision instrument approach runway should not be less
than 30 m.
Note: 2 Symmetrical about runway centre line.

TABLE 4.4
RUNWAY STRIP & GRADED AREA DIMENSIONAL STANDARDS(M)
Aerodrome code → 1 2 3 4
Runway strip length (m) Note: 1 30 60 60 60
Runway strip width Note: 2
Instrumental approach 150 150 300 300
Visual approach 60 80 150 150
Graded area width Note: 2
Instrumental approach 80 80 150 Note: 150 Note: 3
3

Visual approach 60 80 150 150

Note: 1 Minimum 60 m in case of instrumental approach. Length measured
from threshold.
Note: 2 Symmetrical about runway centre line.
Note: 3 It is recommended that this be provided for first 150 m from each end

of the runway and that it be increased linearly from this point to a width of
2310 m at a point 300 m from each end of the runway and remain at this
width for the remainder of the runway.

TABLE 4.5
RUNWAY OBJECT FREE AREA DIMENSIONAL STANDARDS (M)
Precision approach category I Aerodrome code 1 or 2 90
Precision approach category I, II or III Aerodrome code 3 or 4 120
Precision approach category I, II or III Aerodrome code 4 and F 155
Symmetrical about runway centre line.

TABLE 4.6
RUNWAY END SAFETY AREA DIMENSIONAL STANDARDS (M)
Aerodrome code → 1 2 3 4
Length from end of runway strip 120 120 240 240
Width equal to clear and graded area

TABLE 4.7
CLEARWAY AND STOP WAY DIMENSIONAL STANDARDS (M)
Clearway Width 150 m symmetrical about Length has been
runway centre line extended discussed in Chapter 3
Stop way Width should be the same as that of
associated runway

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Geometric Standards and Obstruction Clearance Criteria

TABLE 4.8
RUNWAY SURFACE GRADIENT STANDARDS
Aerodrome code 1 2 3 4
Runway longitudinal gradient (%)
Maximum Note: 1 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.25
Maximum change 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5
Maximum effective Note: 2 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0
Minimum length of vertical curve (m) Note: 3 75 75 150 300
Distance between slope changes criteria 50 50 150 300
Note: 4

Runway strip gradient (%)

Maximum longitudinal 2.0 2.0 1.75 1.5
Maximum transverse 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5

Aerodrome code A B C D E F
Sight distance criteria(m) Note: 1.5 2.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
5

Runway transverse gradient (%)

Maximum 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Minimum Note:6 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Shoulder transverse gradient maximum 2.5%
Note: 1 May not exceed 0.8% in the first and last quarters of runway for

aerodrome code 4 or for a category II or III precision instrument runway for

aerodrome code 3.
Note: 2 Difference in elevation between high and low points divided by runway

length.
Note: 3 For each 1% change in grade.
Note: 4 Sum of absolute grade change in % is multiplied by corresponding

value to obtain the distance between slope changes, minimum is 45 m.

Note: 5 There should be unobstructed line of sight available from a point at a

specified height to all the points at the same height for at least half the
length of runway.
Note: 6 Flatter slopes acceptable with taxiway intersection only.

TAXIWAY SYSTEM
6. General. Criteria are different from runways because of the low speed. In
Annex 14 the specifications are laid down in the similar fashion so it is not
being included. However certain aspects of the taxiway system are
included.
7. Taxiway. A defined path on a land aerodrome (airport) established for the
taxiing of aircraft and intended to provide a link between one part of the
aerodrome and another. Parallel, entrance and exit Taxiways have already
been mentioned. Certain other terminologies include aircraft stand taxi
lane, apron taxiway and rapid exit taxiway.
a. Taxiway strip. An area including a taxiway intended to protect an
aircraft operating on the taxiway and to reduce the risk of damage to
an aircraft accidentally running off the taxiway.
b. Aircraft Stand Taxi Lane. A portion of an apron designated as a
taxiway and intended to provide access to aircraft stands only.
c. Apron Taxiway. A portion of a taxiway system located on an apron and
intended to provide a through taxi route across the apron.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Geometric Standards and Obstruction Clearance Criteria

d. Rapid Exit Taxiway. A taxiway connected to a runway at an acute

angle and designed to allow landing aeroplanes to turn off at higher
speeds than are achieved on other exit taxiways thereby minimizing
runway occupancy times.
8. Location of Exit Taxiways. Exit taxiways whether high speed or otherwise
are required to be located at most appropriate points on the runway. The
sole purpose is to reduce runway occupancy time. The location depends
upon: -
a. Mix of aircrafts intended to be served at an airport.
b. Approach; touch down speeds and points of touchdown of the aircraft
mix.
c. Varying rates of deceleration of aircrafts and surface condition
expected because of climatic conditions.
d. Number of exits being provided or to be provided in subsequent
phases of construction.
e. Pilot’s variability in aircraft handling.
f. Aircraft processing capability of ATCT.
g. Location of exit taxiways with respect to terminal area.

OBSTACLES LIMITATIONS SURFACES

9. General. Airspace around the aerodrome is to be maintained free from
obstacles so as aircraft operations are conducted safely and efficiently. The
requirements of obstacle limitation surfaces are specified on the basis of
intended runway use i.e. takeoff or landing and type of approach. If
operations are to be conducted to and from both directions, the function of
certain surfaces may be nullified because of more stringer requirements.
These specifications lay down certain imaginary surfaces in which no
object should protrude. If it so happens there may be certain adjustments
in approach height as in all cases it may not be possible to remove the
obstacles.
10. Approach Runways. Some of the obstacle limitation surfaces are as
follows.
a. Outer Horizontal Surface. x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x
b. Inner Horizontal Surface. The shape is generally circular but need not
be in all cases. Specified by the radius and height from Reference
Point and Elevation Datum specified for this purpose.
c. Conical Surface. It slopes upward and outward from periphery of
Inner horizontal Surface and is specified by slope and height above
Inner Horizontal Surface Level.
d. Approach Surface. Inclined plane or a combination of planes
preceding the threshold: -
(1) Inner edge perpendicular to the centre line of runway, of a
specified length, at a specified distance from threshold and at the
elevation of mid point of threshold.
(2) Two sides originating from ends of inner edge and diverging at a
specified rate from extended centreline of runway, mentioned in
%.
(3) Outer edge parallel to the inner edge.
(4) Inclined plane specified by horizontal length and slope in % from
inner edge.
(5) Additional specifications for curved approaches etc and for more
than one section are not included.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)
CE408 TN-I AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Geometric Standards and Obstruction Clearance Criteria

e. Transitional Surface. A surface along the sides of runway strip and

part of the sides of approach surface sloping upward and outward to
the inner horizontal surface.
(1) Lower edge begins at the intersection of approach surface with
horizontal surface, following sides of approach surface to the
inner edge and then along the length of strip parallel to runway
centre line having the same elevation as of runway centre line.
(2) Upper edge in the plane of horizontal surface.
(3) Specified by slope in % in vertical plane at right angle to centre
line of runway.
f. Inner Approach Surface. x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x
g. Inner Transitional surface. x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x
h. Balked Landing Surface. x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x
11. Takeoff Runway. A runway intended for take-off only. Takeoff runway
surface starts from end of clearway if clearway extends a specified distance.
It is specified by the length of inner edge (across the centre line of runway),
distance from runway end, divergence each side in %, final width,
horizontal length and slope in %.
12. Note. Keeping in view the basic purposes i.e. acquaint with some of the
specifications, interpretation techniques and visualization of three-
dimensional surfaces only some of the specifications of obstacle limitation
surfaces have been discussed. In all numerical problems, though not
practically possible, it will be presumed that: -
a. Runway has same elevation throughout.
b. Airport reference point is in the centre of runway.
c. Numerical problems will encompass non-instrument runways only.
d. There are no displaced thresholds and clearway.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Geometric Standards and Obstruction Clearance Criteria

FIG 4.3

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Geometric Standards and Obstruction Clearance Criteria

TABLE 4.9

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Geometric Standards and Obstruction Clearance Criteria

TABLE 4.10

FIG 4.4

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)

CE408 TN-I AIR PORT ENGINEERING Chapter 4 Geometric Standards and Obstruction Clearance Criteria

FIG 4.5

TABLE 4.11
DIMENSIONS AND SLOPES OF OBSTACLE LIMITATION SURFACES
APPROACH RUNWAYS
Non instrument code numbers
Surface dimensions
1 2 3 4
Conical
Slope 5% 5% 5% 5%
Height 35 55 75 100
Inner horizontal
Height 45 45 45 45
Radius 2000 2500 4000 4000
Approach
Length of inner edge 60 80 150 150
Distance from threshold 30 60 60 60
Divergence 10% 10% 10% 10%
Length 1600 2500 3000 3000
Slope 5% 4% 3.33% 2.5%
Transitional slope 20% 20% 14.3% 14.3%
All dimensions are measured horizontally in meters unless specified

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION (NIT)