The Yield: Basic Stress A Metal

1141
On the Basic Yield Stress Curve for a Metal

By A. B. Watts, B.Sc. (Eng.), Ph.D. (Graduate)*, and Professor Hugh Ford, D.Sc. (Eng.), Ph.D.,
Wh.Sc. (Mmber).f.
In a previous paper (Watts and Ford 1952)$, it was shown that the true yield stress in plane strain
could be derived by compression between smooth parallel dies. In this paper the use of the method to
determine yield stress-strain curves of strip material is investigated. The various factors involved
are studied, and it is shown that the results can be correlated with those of simple tension and
compression.
The test forms a practical means for accurately determining the yield stress-compressive strain
curve for strip materials in the cold rolling process, and the optimum test conditions are established.
The anomalous results found in rolling relatively thick material are demonstrated.
INTRODUCTION sponding tensile value (1.32 to 1.12) while theory predicts a

In a previous paper (Watts and Ford 1952), it was shown that constant value (= 2 / 4 3 ) if the material is isotropic.
the true yield stress in plane strain could be derived by com- The method of testing and plotting the results along the strain
pression between smooth parallel dies. In this paper the use of abscissa described above may be open to question, and further
the method to determine yield stress-strain curves of strip ma- experiment was needed before the method could be put forward
terial is investigated. The method has the advantage that in plane as completely satisfactory for determining basic yield stress
strain exact solutions of plasticity problems can be frequently ob- curves.
tained using the theory of the slip line field. There are a number
of processes which approximate to plane strain; for example, hot REVIEW OF EXPERIMENTAL METHODS OF DETERMINING
and cold rolling of sheet and strip, plate flanging, etc. I n par- Y I E L D STRESS-STRAIN CURVES
ticular, plane strain is almost exactly realized in cold rolling,
because the elastic material adjacent to the plastic prevents Many of the tests commonly used in the study of engineering
lateral movement. If the deformation in plane compression can materials are based on plastic behaviour, but the fundamental
be exactly specified then it should be possible to derive a basic nature of plastic behaviour has not been generally recognized,
yield stress curve; it should be capable of being related to that and such terms as ‘overstrain’, ‘ultimate strength’, ‘pressure of
obtained in simple compression of a cylinder, or cold rolling, etc. fluidity’, ‘mean deformation pressure’, etc., indicate this.
With these questions in mind the work described here was The tensile test has been used for determining yield stress
started. curves but lack of suitable apparatus for measuring strains
accurately beyond about 5 per cent extension, and the formation
of a neck at comparatively small deformations, limits its practical
value in establishing yield stress curves. Siebel (1925) and
Bridgman (1944) have discussed the measurement of true stress
and strain from the point of inflexion in the neck and have given
correction factors which compensate for the triaxial stress
system present; but there are practical difficulties particularly
with strip materials.
The problems are different in simple compression (sometimes
referred to as ‘uniaxial compression’). The strain is not usually
measured on the specimen itself under load, but on the move-
ment of the compressing platens; friction, and the associated
non-homogeneity of deformation indicated by ‘barrelling’, are
the main difficulties encountered. Coupled with them is the
effect of the progressively increasing stressed area, necessitating
accurate load measurement over a wide range if large deforma-
tions are desired. The extrapolation method first proposed by
Sachs (1924) and examined by Cook and Larke (1945) overcomes
some of the difficulties and has been used in modified form in
Fig. 1. Deformation in Compression the present work.
Torsion of a thin-walled tube has also been used as a means of
determining the basic yield stress curve (Taylor and Quinney
The plane compression test is shown in essence by Fig. 1. It 1931). This test, while it gives accurate results, requires specially
was used originally (Ford 1948) to determine the plastic stress prepared specimens of great accuracy, and can be used only on
against strain curves of copper and mild steel. The resulting material sufficiently thick to allow test pieces of reasonably large
curves were compared with those obtained on identical strips diameter to be cut out. The deformation attainable is apparently
after varying amounts of cold rolling, the compression tests being limited by stability considerations.
made on the strip at each stage. The envelope of all the curves All these methods have practical limitations or disadvantages
was taken as the yield stress curve. The rolled material was also in determining yield stress curves for an extended range of strain
tested in tension in the rolling direction; the yield stress from such as in metal working processes. The question of accuracy
the plane compression test bore a varying ratio to the corre- also arises : for example, exceptional precautions have to be taken
The hS. of this paper was received at the Institution on 2nd in the tensile test if accurate stress and strain measurements are
December 1954. to be made beyond 10 per cent elongation.
* Research Engineer, British Aluminium Co., Ltd. The requirements of a test are :
-/ Professor of Applied Mechanics, Imperial College of Science and
Technology, University of London. (1) plastic strain must be produced, uniform over a given
$. An alphabetical list of references is given in the Appendix. gauge length;
Downloaded from pme.sagepub.com at UNIV CALIFORNIA DAVIS on January 30, 2015

1142 ON THE BASIC YIELD STRESS CURVE FOR A METAL
(2) the strain must be accurately measured; mode were carried out in the y direction relative to the strips
(3) the stress must be definable ; for plane compression and rolling.
(4) these conditions must hold over an extended strain
range j
APPARATUS
(5) for practical reasons, the test should be easily performed
on material in readily available forms; The same compression subpress was used for plane com-
(6) since anisotropy will inevitably intrude at some stage, pression as in the previous work (Watts and Ford 1952). This
the anisotropy developed by the test should be assessable, was specially designed for extreme rigidity and accuracy of
preferably by the test itself. alignment of the dies which were removable so that all die
breadths up to $ inch could be inserted. Greatest care was taken
The plane compression test fulfils these requirements in grinding and polishing the die surfaces. A simiIar subpress
adequatdy and particularly (4), (5), and (6). I n addition there was used for the simple compression tests. Load was applied
are two important factors which commend it : by a Denison 50-ton four-range machine, regularly calibrated
by dead weight testing and by a standardized proving ring.
(i) the stressed area is virtually constant and nominal (or
conventional) stress differs from true by only a small amount
during the test j E X P E R I M E N T A L TECHNIQUE I N T H E P L A N E
(ii) for the same percentage reduction as in simple com- COMPRESSION TEST
pression the effect of friction is less marked. In compression testing or in metal-forming processes in which
compressive forces are active, the two main difficulties are
friction and non-uniform deformation. The latter may be a
M A T E R I A L FOR T H E T E S T S result of the former (for example, barrelling) or of the geometry
No material is likely to meet all the requirements of the ideal of the containing surfaces, or of instability (for example,
work-hardening material for plasticity experiments, but high- buckling). In the plane compression test, the plastic material is
conductivity copper goes a long way to meeting them. It has a not free to ‘barrel’ as in simple compression because of the
reliable and repeatable stress against strain curve, and although surrounding rigid material, The deformation produced by a pair
investigators disagree about its shape for verv large strains its of dies is not uniform; but it is definable, because, although in
behaviour otherwise is very good. both the plane and simple compression tests the coefficient of
The strip used was rolled from a slab to thicknesses of 3, a, Q, friction modifies the yield pressure as measured on the platens,
and & inch. Some was left in the hot-rolled condition 24 inches in plane compression it does not modify the flow pattern
thick. It was high-conductivity copper, Ontario refined, with appreciably, unless the friction is so large as to cause ‘sticking’.
percentage analysis : copper 99.95, oxygen 0.04, iron 0.001- A moderate coefficient of friction (0.1) is enough to cause con-
0.002, nickel 0.001, silver 0.004, and lead a trace. siderable modification in simple compression.
Because the tests involved machining and cold rolling, all the The following principles were established in a previous paper
material was re-annealed so that it started in the same condition (Watts and Ford 1952) :
with a Vickers pyramid number hardness of average 45. Anneal- (1) the plane compression test fixes the flow pattern (being
ing was carried out at about 800 deg. C . (1,472 deg. F.) in an only affected by the rate of work-hardening), once the ratio
electric furnace, and the material was afterwards descaled and of die breadth b to strip thickness t has been chosen;
polished. Since there was inevitably some anisotropy in the (2) incremental loading or deformation should be used
thinner strips, pieces were machined from the slab 24 inches because the friction does not reach its full value until the
thick when particularly uniform initial conditions were needed. deforming surface has made a finite movement relative to the
rigid. Incremental deformation also allows the test strip to be
Initial Degree of Anisotropy in Strip. AS all strips for com- completely removed from the subpress for re-lubrication
parative tests were machined from a hot rolled slab, tests on one between increments. (Taylor and Quinney (1934) used this
representative strip were considered adequate to determine the technique in the simple compression test, but the strain
initial condition of all the material. A strip 0.71 inch thick was increment used was fairly large, and the full advantage would
chosen and small compression cylinders were machined from not be obtained) ;
it with their axes in the three principal directions. Using the axis (3) extrapolation to zero strain. By making several incre-
convention : normal to strip x, longitudinal y, and transverse z. ments in the same impression and plotting the stress values
The strain ratios were : to a strain base, extrapolation to zero strain gives the true yield
stress at the initial configuration.
x direction 1 1
y direction z direction
Three other advantages arise from incremental loading :
firstly, the deformation can be measured each time the specimen
is removed from the subpress for re-lubrication thus avoiding the
difficulties encountered in the continuous test. Secondly,
measurement under zero load avoids the need for correction for
elastic strains in the material or the apparatus. Thirdly, the
effect of creep during measurements is avoided, the load being
Since the stress against strain curves obtained from the three held at the desired value for a given time.
cylinders were indistinguishable within the range of compression
(up to 15 per cent), the initial anisotropy may be said to be Lubricants. A mixture of graphite and mineral oil was used,
small. the graphite being applied by rubbing the strip with a graphite
Critical examination of these values reveals that the normal pencil. This method is clean and simple and ensures that the
form of rolling anisotropy is not being followed. The reason is graphite flakes are smeared parallel to the strip surface. A very
that the ‘length‘ of the hot-rolled slab is in the lateral direction in thin layer of oil or grease is then spread over the graphite. The
the strips used in the tests, so that y and z have become inter- critical factor is the ratio of graphite to oil. Excess oil is squeezed
changed in the new working axes. Accordingly, the test in the out under load, carrying the graphite with it, while graphite
cross-direction gave a strain ratio of very nearly unity (0.98). It alone does not give such low friction, and it tends to become
is interesting to note that for these tests E“ x E.x 2 = 1.12 not embedded in the deforming material. In the ideal case, the
€2 G cy lubricant is present as a film covering the contact area after
unity, as postulated by Hill (1950). However, the agreement is deformation.
reasonable in view of the possible inaccuracies of measurement Two other forms of graphite were tried: flake graphite did
of small diametral changes during the compression tests. The not prove satisfactory, but a thick paste of fine-powder graphite
simple compression tests for the basic curves in this deformation and grease gave very good results.

ON THE BASIC YIELD STRESS CURVE FOR A METAL 1143
T H E Y I E L D STRESS CURVE I N PLANE C O M P R E S S I O N (b) Friction. The above results show that friction is not such
Several factors might be expected to influence the resistance a dominant factor in plane compression as in simple compression,
to progressive deformation offered by the strip material between and the yield stress curve shown in Fig. 2, which was not
the dies, such as : obtained with repeated lubrication, shows little effect until
75 per cent reduction is reached. However, specific tests were
( a ) the width of the strip w, compared with its thickness t made to determine the amount by which friction raises the mean
and the die breadth b. A narrow strip might be expected to contact stress above that for frictionless conditions, for the case
spread laterally more than a wide one, and the deformation to = b, where to = initial strip thickness.
would not be plane; 40
(b) friction between the dies and strip;
(c) the die breadth b compared with the strip thickness t.
These factors determine the deformation pattern and were -2 30
examined in the previous paper (Watts and Ford 1952); $
( d ) the thickness of the strip for a given grain size. z 20
0
(a) Effect of Strip Width. Tests were made to determine L

,
l
z
how the width of the strip w, relative to the thickness t and the 2I’ 10
die breadth b, affects the spread and the deviation of the yield m
v)
stress from that in true plane strain. w
o(
In the first series of tests, six strips, 3 inch to 3 inches wide, k 0

were cut from material 4 inch thick. Dies inch wide were used
to produce total compressions from 2 to 90 per cent at successive
-I 0
points along the strips without lubricant. Curves were plotted 0 I0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
of nominal contact stress f against percentage reduction for each REDUCTION-PER CENT
strip and, by extrapolating to infinite width at specific values of
strain, a new curve was derived for w / b = 00. At the same time Fig. 2. Yield Stress Curves
true contact stresses were calculated by measuring the spread ---- w p = m.
at each impression on the strips. Fig. 2 shows the w/b = 00 + wlb = 2.
yield stress curve together with the percentage deviationsfor finite w/b = 3.
widths. In the early part the yield stress values for w/b = 2 and 3 o wlb = 12.
lie below the ideal, as would be expected because of the relatively
large spread; at higher reductions these curves rise above the A strip, initially 3 inch thick, was cold rolled to 0.230 inch, and
ideal, showing that although there is still a loss of plane strain tested between dies of 0.230 inch breadth in two ways : (1) ‘total’
conditions as measured by spread, frictional and other effects deformation at a number of separate points along the strip,
more than compensate for this. At wlb = 12, the curve is within without lubricant and (2) ‘incremental’deformation with lubrica-
2 per cent of the ideal up to 85 per cent reduction. From these tion. Fig. 3 shows that the points lie on straight lines, which, if
results and those for other w / b values it was concluded that, extrapolated to zero deformation, meet in a common point.
provided true contact stress is plotted, the ratio of w/b need not Hence, although the friction increases with continuous deforma-
be greater than 6 to approximate closely to the ideal plane strain tion for the condition to = b the true contact stress is always
curve over the large part of the reduction range. It is, of course, given on extrapolating to zero deformation. This is not true for
desirable to use the maximum practicable ratio of w/b. values of t<b.
Additional tests were made with varying strip widths in the
work-hardened condition, using the incremental compression
technique with repeated lubrication and extrapolating to zero
strain. For tests with t = b and w / b = 1 , 2, and 5 a fall of only
2 per cent was found between the ideal condition and the
narrowest strip (w/b = 1). Measurement of the spread in each
of these cases enabled the yield stress to be checked. Inserting
the strain values in the Levy-Mises stress-strain relations, the
following values of P in terms of the uniaxial yield stress Sowere
obtained :
w/b(t = b)
-I P/So
2 1.120
”)
d3
REDUCTION-PER CENT
Fig. 3. Extrapolations for to = b Showing Effect of Friction
While these values show a larger drop in P (that is, about 6 per b = t o ; w = 12b.
cent compared with 2 per cent above), they confirm that a Total, no lubrication.
relatively low value of w/b = 5 approaches the ideal plane strain 0 Incremental, with lubrication.
condition very closely. It is important to note that these findings
apply only to t = b (that is, die breadth = strip thickness), The A further test was made to confirm the effectiveness of incre-
slip lines are then a 45 deg. criss-cross, baunded on the outside
by non-plastic material, and on the inner by material adjacent
+
mental loading. An annealed strip inch thick and 3 inches wide
was compressed between +-inch dies in three ways: (1) total
to the dies which is incipiently plastic but under ideal conditions deformation (no intermediate release of load) to various per-
moves as a rigid whole. A greater fall-off in plane strain con- centage reductions at different points along the strip, (2) incre-
ditions occurs when b> t, because, with lubrication, the plastic mental loading in 2 per cent reductions successively in the same
material is mainly restrained by the adjacent non-plastic. impression, and (3) the same as (2) but in 1 per cent reductions.
I n general, the width effect is not as marked as might be In all these tests the strip was kept clean and dry by using a
expected, and high ratios of w/b are not required to secure yield solvent. The nominal contact stress is plotted against reduction
stress values near the ideal, both in static tests and progressive in Fig. 4, together with comparable results for incremental
tests for determining yield stress curves. loading with lubrication. Lower stresses were found for the

1144 ON THE BASIC YIELD STRESS CURVE FOR A ME.TAL
incremental loading technique than for total deformation, so
that, even when the lubricant is removed, the friction is low if
the relative movement is small, and the smaller the increment,
the lower the stress. The curve for the fully lubricated incre-
mental loading test was only slightly below that for the 1 per cent
increments.
aP
+/
(c) The Ratio of Die Breadth to Strip Thickness.This variable
was fully examined in the previous paper (Watts and Ford 1952),
where it was shown that the yield stress was only slightly (less
I
5 10 1'5
REDUCTION-PER CENT 1
IS
Fig. 4. EBect of Incremental Loading on Deformation REDUCTION-PER CENT
t o = b = 4 inch; w = 3 inches. Fig. 5. Compression of Strip of Various Thicknesses Between
o Total deformation. Dies Giving b = to, Lubricated and Incremental
2 per cent incrernents.)Non-lubricated.
-I- 1 per cent increments.J w = 3 inches.
---- Mean curve of b = tofor lubricated dies.
0 b = 0.075 inch. a b = 0.300 inch.
+ b = 0.150 inch. A b = 0.350 inch.
than 1Q per cent) increased above the true value if the die breadth 0 b = 0-200 inch. A b = 0.500 inch.
was more than twice the strip thickness. However, for b>4r x b = 0.250 inch. 8 b = 0.730 inch.
friction begins to raise the contact stress. The true yield stress
should be given with incremental loading and good lubrication
when b = t , Zt, 3r, etc., but, owing to the finite width of the shear
lines, b requires to be slightly greater than r, 2t, etc. With a work- D E T E R M I N A T I O N OF THE B A S I C S T R E S S - S T R A I N
hardening material continuous deformation smooths out the CURVE
maxima and minima in the curve of contact stress against b / r
ratio. Although no tests were made specificallyto investigate the The tests described in the previous section pointed out the
influence of work-hardening, it is clear from studying a11 the methods to be adopted in using the plane compression test to
results that the rate of work-hardening is greatest near b = t , 2t, determine a basic yield stress curve :
etc., where the mean contact stress is least, and least at b = 1/2t, ( a ) Incremental loading, with repeated lubrication.
<6t, etc., where the mean contact stress is greatest. Moreover, (b) Highly polished dies, with breadth successivelyadjusted
with successivedeformation at one station on the strip, the regions so that b lies between 2t and 4t.
which suffer the greatest non-uniform strain are extruded from (c) Width greater than 5b.
beneath the dies, and this is another advantage of the plane
compression test. To establish the full basic curve up to 90 per cent reduction
certain of the strips from the previous investigation were com-
(d) The Thickness of the Strip. Preliminary rolling rests on pressed incrementally from the annealed state; with a view to
strips of different thicknesses but approximately the same grain reducing the time taken, others were given total deformations of,
size and degree of anisotropy showed different yield stress curves. say, 15 per cent then tested incrementally, the die breadth being
To determine whether this was an inherent size effect or was always appropriately adjusted. The values of true contact sfress
caused by the rolling process, strips were machined from the are plotted against reduction, for all the tests, in Fig. 6. The
same hot-rolled slab to several thicknesses between 0.1 and 0.35 values lie closely about a single curve, except between 20 and
inch. In this way, the strips were of the same grain size (about 40 per cent reduction, where there is some scatter, the upper
0.06 mm.). They were compressed incrementally with dies and lower limits of which are formed by two sets of results for
having b = to (that is, die breadth = initial thickness) and strips of 0.100 inch. The curve for b = to from the previous
curves of true contact stress against percentage reduction were test is shown, and a similar scatter exists. The curve is higher,
plotted. The points are near to a single curve below 20 per cent particularly at lower reductions for reasons previously discussed,
reduction (Fig. 5) ;beyond this, although there was some scatter, and some evidence of cyclical variation is apparent at higher
there was no consistent thickness effect. Apparently, therefore, reductions, associated with the varying tlb ratio.
the ratio of grain size to strip thickness is not in itself a con- The lower bound line will be taken for the basic plane com-
trolling factor in the shape of the stress against strain curve. pression curve between 20 and 40 per cent.

ON T H E B A S I C Y I E L D STRESS CURVE FOR A M E T A L 1145
Fig. 6. Basic Plane Compression Curve

---- b = 20.
+ b = 0.100inch.
A b = 0.125 inch.
0 b = 0.150 inch.
b = 0.200 inch.
x b = 0.350 inch.
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE PLANE COMPRESSION YIELD of cylinderlheight of cylinder) for the various cylinders at a given
S T R E S S C U R V E A N D THAT F O R H O M O G E N E O U S D E F O R - percentage cornpression.
MATION Extrapolating to zero (that is, to infinite height) gives the true
Within the limitations of the simple tensile and compression yield stress. The calculation and plotting of the several stress
tests it should be possible to check whether the plane compres- against strain curves is somewhat lengthy and the extrapolation
sion test gives the correct yield stress curve by comparing it, on a is not always easily made j it was found simpler and more accurate
basis of equivalent stress and equivalent strain, with the results to extrapolate on a basis of equal load instead of equal percentage
of these tests. reduction. If cylinders of different heights, but of the same
initial diameter, are compressed, then the taller the cylinder, the
(a) Tensile Test. A test piece of about 1 inch diameter was more will it deform for a given load. The advantages are :
machined from the slab and an accurate load-extension test was (1) the incremental loading and lubrication technique can be
made, using an extensometer for the first 3 t per cent extension applied j
and a travelling microscope thereafter. The exact distance (2) the cylinder height can be measured exactly, by
between two fine lines scribed around the test piece, 5+ cm. removing it from the testing machine, without corrections
apart, was measured progressively during the test, the travelling having to be made for elastic strains in the apparatus, as in
microscope being mounted on the crosshead of the testing the Cook and Larke method;
machine (estimated error rt0.002 cm.). The agreement between (3) extrapolation gives the percentage reduction which
the extensometer and travelling microscope readings was within would have occurred with an infinitely long test-piece,
0.01 per cent strain at the point of changeover.
When the elongation reached 39 per cent, appreciable
variation in diameter along the gauge length was observed. The
specimen was remachined, and the test continued until at 48 per
cent elongation a long shallow neck began to form. Diametral
measurements were made at the root of the neck thereafter,
the neck being shalIow, the correction involved in taking the
root area was negligible. The test was continued to an equiva-
lent elongation of 78 per cent.
The material was not completely isotropic, major and minor
transverse strains at 90 deg. being in the constant ratio 1.03
before and 1.025 after machining. The curve is plotted to a base
of percentage reduction in cross-sectional area in Fig. 7.
(b) Simple Compression. Modifications of the simple com-
pression test have been described by Rummel (1919), Sachs
(1924), Meyer and Nehl(1926), Siebel and Pomp (1927), Taylor REDUCTION-PER CENT
and Quinney (1934), Cook and Larke (1949, and Polakowski
(1949). The extrapolation method of Sachs, and Cook and Larke Fig. 7. Curves of Simple Tension and Compression Plotted to
was found the most satisfactory. The method consists in com- a Common Strain Base Using Equivalence of Logarithmic
pressing cylinders of equal diameter but varying heights, calculat- Strain
ing the mean stress which is plotted against the ratio (diameter Simple tension. ----
Simple compression.
rcuucuuu, u s unIuuuutj LVI-LVIIO UI- IY.. Lvcll w-..-- ..----,

1146 ON T H E B A S I C Y I E L D STRESS CURVE F O R A METAL
consequently, one calculation of cross-sectional area for this mineral oil. Homogeneous deformation is more nearly realized
value gives the true stress. with hld = 1 than hld = 2, because of buckling when the
friction is low. The cylinder was remachined to keep the ratio
Fig. 8 illustrates this method, the load/original area values around unity.
being set off at the appropriate dfl/hflratios (ranging from 2 This method was exceptionally lengthy and two modifications
to 3) and extrapolated to zero do/hoat the abscissa. were used to cut down the work :
Cook and Larke, who recommend rough platens to give
greater ‘spread’ between the nominal stress-strain curves, obtain +
(1) Three stress values were determined at about per cent
a basic curve which flattens too rapidly above 40 per cent strain increments, followed by several larger increments to
reduction, compared with most other methods. This was con- produce about 15 per cent compressive strain. No measure-
0 1 2 3 REDUCTION-PER CENT
do/%
a Cook and Larke. b Alternative method.
Fig. 8. Extrapolation Methods of Compression Testing
REDUCTION-PER CENT
firmed by the present technique, and the cause is shown to lie Fig. 9. Lines of Constant Load for Compression Cylinders
in the extrapolation with high friction (Fig. 9). The true extra- of Same Diameter do but Different Heights ho
polation gives 55.8 per cent as the reduction for zero friction,
where extrapolation of the high friction curve (1) would (1)-(5) Curves for different values of p.
erroneously indicate over 60 per cent. There would seem no (1) Rough-turned platens, no lubrication.
(Z), (3), (4) Ground platens, no lubrication (slightly different
good reason for deliberately producing inhomogeneous flow finishes).
when ideal homogeneous flow is sought. The advantage of the (5) Ground platens, repeated lubrication and small load
present technique is also shown in that a common value of increments,
reduction is given for a range of finish and lubrication; only
for high frictional conditions (1) do the points fail to extrapolate ments were made in the larger steps, their purpose being only
to the same value. Curves (4) and (3,Fig. 10, were obtained to deform, the yield stress curve being fixed by the three small
without repeated lubrication and exhibit the inaccurate values increments at about 15 per cent intervals. This method was
obtained when the do& curves suffer inflexion. Curve (5) is used for reductions beyond 30 per cent and forms the lower
affected at lower reductions than curve (4) and to a greater extent. bound of the hatched zone (3) in Fig. 10. Up to 30 per cent,
An extension of the method of Taylor and Quinney (1934) the deformation was made throughout in 3 per cent incre-
was also investigated. It was found that, with incremental ments. This lower bound is used as the basic simple com-
loading in 3 per cent reductions per increment on a cylinder in pression curve (Fig. 7) as being the most accurate.
which h / d is maintained at about unity, barrelling was not visible (2) The straining and stress measurement functions were
to the naked eye up to 25 per cent reduction. The platens were separated completely. It is easier to compress short cylinders
polished and the specimen was lubricated with graphite and than long ones without buckling, but the latter should give
Fig. 10. Simple Compression Curves, for High-conductivity Copper (99.9 per cent), from Different Sources
(1) Cook and Larke.
(2) Polakowski.
(3) Present work (incremental).
(4), (5) Extrapolations. (4) Smooth platens. (5 Rough platens.

ON THE BASIC Y I E L D STRESS CURVE FOR A METAL 1147
the yield stress more accurately. Accordingly, a number of retained because the logarithmic base gives ZII extremely
relatively short cylinders were deformed incrementally to extended scale at large reductions. I n Fig. 12, the simple
differing degrees, but without measurements of load; from the compression curve is shown both on its true base and converted
deformed cylinders smaller ones with h / d somewhat over to the plane compression base (curve B). The basic curve for
unity were machined and tested in small increments, using the plane compression A has been replotted from Fig. 6, together
'extrapolation-to-zero' technique (p. 1143). I n Fig. 10 the with the to = b curve.
curve obtained by this method forms the upper bound line If now the material is isotropic, the ratio of the ordinates of
of the hatched zone (3). curves A and B should be 2 / 4 3 ; the actual ratio has been
calculated and plotted in the figure. The values fall approximately
(c) Discussion and Comparison of Homogeneous and Plane-strain linearly with increasing deformation for the first 30 per cent
Yield Stress Curves. The tension curve rises progressively reduction, and extrapolation to zero deformation gives the ratio
above that for compression beyond 20 per cent (Fig. 7), this almost exactly at 2/.\/3. The value would be expected to fall
discrepancy arises partly from measuring the minimum diameter owing to the development of anisotropy but the limiting value
of the shallow neck, and partly from anisotropy. Similar effects gives strong support to the accuracy of the testing techniques.
were found by Ludwik and Scheu (1925) and Siebel and Pomp
(1927), but the curves are not inherently different.
The simplest conception of a generalized work-hardening THE Y I E L D STRESS CURVE I N COLD R O L L I N G
stress against strain law is that in which the equivalent stress is The yield stress curve in cold rolling is a modification of that
a function of equivalent strain. (For a Levy-Mises material, this for plane compression, the difference being in the additional
is the same as saying that the equivalent stress is a function of shear strain (redundant work) which occurs as the material
total plastic work.) On this basis, plane compression and simple passes between the rolls. Theory predicts that all such additional
compression can be compared. Thus, if E = principle strain strain will work-harden the material to a greater extent than
producing deformation Zp = equivalent strain, then 'Zp = E for uniform plane compression because the total plastic work is
simple compression and Zp = --E2 for plane compression. greater. A large number of small passes should therefore raise
the yield stress more than a single pass to the same total reduc-
43
Fig. 11enables simple compression to be converted to percentage tion (Ford 1948, p. 119).
reduction in plane compression, percentage reduction being In the present work, the first series of rolling tests were
conducted on four thicknesses of strip machined from the same
67 I I I I 1 I I I I 1 slab and each 3 inches wide, reduced as in Table 1.
- -
v
w 5
$0
trr4
22 Initial thickness Number of Total Average
Lt-
UI" (annealed state), passes reduction
*3 inch inch per cent per pass,
22 inch
t-
$22
"0
2 + 0.1257 7 0.0157 873 0.0157
y. 0.2545 12 0.0275 89.2 0.0189
5 1 0.4955 21 0.0263 94.75 0.0225
0.7130 30 0.0460 93.55 0.0222
I I
Direction of rolling the same throughout.

Fig. 11. Conversion Curve for Simple to Plane Compression
Plane compression tests were made after most passes, using
I I 1 I 1 I I I I die breadths as near as possible to b = t , 2t, or 3t. Where this
was not possible the P/2k against t / b curve was used to correct
the extrapolated value of yield stress. Fig. 13 shows the yield
stress points as obtained by extrapolation. They have been joined
by smooth curves, although they are not points on a continuous
deformation curve. The basic plane compression curve is added
for comparison.
The smaller percentage passes (that is, the thicker strips) give
higher yield stress curves initially, but above about 30 per cent
reduction the position is reversed and the curves are lower even
than the basic plane compression curve. At about 90 per cent,
however, a common limiting value (just below 31 tons per sq. in.)
is reached. The curve for the thinnest strip (+ inch) is almost
coincident with the plane compression curve over most of its
length. As all the rolling curves start above the basic curve, there
is no reason why they should later fall below unless there is some
softening action. This would need not only to eliminate the rise
in yield stress from the redundant plastic work but also to lower
the effective rate of work-hardening below that of the plane
compression test.
D I S C U S S I O N O F T H E RESULTS OF THE C O L D R O L L I N G
oi ,b L 3!0 f l o 20
REDUCTION-PER CENT
/o L )
w
TESTS
The results in Fig. 13 show a thickness effect which was not
Fig. 12. Yield Stress Curves for High-conductivity Copper found in the plane compression test, and suggest that the material
o Inhibited spread factor, ratio AIB. does not have a basic yield stress culye but that it depends upon
--_I Plane compression b = to. the nature of the deformation. For the first 30 or 40 per cent
A Basic plane compression. reduction, the hardening follows the law of total plastic work,
B Simple compression, converted, in that, in cold rolling, the additional plastic work over that of
Simple compression. the plane compression test raises the yield stress for the same

1148 O N THE B A S I C YIELD S T R E S S CURVE F O R A METAL
Fig. 13. Yield Stress Curves for Rolled Strip of Various Thicknesses, to
The numbers are pass numbers.
-- - - Basic curve for plane compression.
x to = 0.125 inch. o ro = 0.500 inch.
+ to = 0.255 inch. to = 0.713 inch.
reduction in thickness. (A certain amount of redundant shearing The temperature rise in rolling might cause softening of the
occurs in all forming processes in which material passes between strip, but in no case was there an appreciable temperature change
convergent surfaces.) A large number of passes through the in the tests, except when the strips became thin. This therefore
rolls for the same overall reduction from the annealed state acts in the wrong direction: the thinner strip should show the
causes a greater redundant work and a higher yield stress than a softening effect, whereas the actual result is the reverse.
single or few passes. Polakowski (1951) has postulated ‘work-softening’ to explain
Beyond 40 per cent reduction, the yield stress for the cold these differences between yield stress curves, particularly
rolled strips falls below the basic plane compression curve, the material rolled in alternate directions. ‘Work-softening’ is
fall being greater the thicker the strip. The work hardening rate associated with small reversals of strain, which are very similar
decreases and does not therefore follow the plastic work increase to the reversals which occur in the redundant shearing in the
until 60-70 per cent reduction, when a rapid work-hardening passage of material through the roll gap. At entry the strip
takes place, and all the curves become asymptotic at about crosses the slip-line bounding the plastic zone and suffers a
90 per cent. The same limiting value of 31 tons per sq. in. is sudden shear strain, the amount depending on the angle of
reached. contact between strip and roll and the position within the strip.
The thinnest strip (Q inch) does not show the ‘dip’ and follows Much of this shear strain is cancelled in the reversal which occurs
exactly the basic plane compression curve after the first 25 per
cent.
The rolling mill used had rolls 4 inches in diameter, and the
thicker strips represented unusual cold-rolling conditions.
Other tests (Whitton and Ford 1954) employing the technique
described, do not show the ‘dip’ and, indeed, remain slightly
above the basic curve : these strips were even thinner (& inch)
and were rolled in the same mill. It would, therefore, appear
that the behaviour of the thick copper strips is related to the
grain size and the length of the arc of contact relative to strip
thickness as affecting the amount of redundant work.
That grain size influences the results appears from Fig. 14,
where two strips of very Merent grain size, but otherwise
identical characteristics, show the effect. However, the effect was
not apparent in similar tests with the plane compression
apparatus, so that while it may be a contributory cause, it is not
the main one. Moreover, curve A (small grain size) still shows
the ‘dip’.
The a e c t of a small roll diameter and light passes on thick
stock is comparable with that of a n m w die indenting a very
thick slab (Hill 1950, p. 254). The deformation through the slab
is non-uniform although overall reduction in thickness is used Fig. 14..Yield Stress Curves for Rolled Strips Having Different
as a measure of it. Later, when the slab brcomes thinner, the Grain Sizes but the Same in All Other Respects
deformation becomes more uniform through the thickness and
then the hardening proceeds rapidly to reach the limiting stress to = 0.290 inch.
Curve around 90 per cent reduction. o Small grain size. Large grain size.

O N THE B A S I C Y I E L D S T R E S S C U R V E FOR A METAL 1149
later in the roll gap. Each pass may therefore be regarded as a hardening over that in plane compression. The rolling curve,
uniform compression with a shear reversal superimposed. (As for the same overall thickness reduction, is above the basic plane
the deformation is plane, all strains are represented by shear compression curve in the practical range of the ratio (length of
strains, so that the resultant effect is that the direction of contact arclthickness of strip).
principal shear strain changes with respect to the material axis.) With thick material, rolled between rolls of small diameter,
The mechanism by which these reversals lower the rate of work- there is no correlation between the cold rolling and basic plane
hardening is not clear. At least two basically different modes of compression curves. The laws of work-hardening, which assume
deformation have been traced in high-conductivity copper that all plastic deformation causes a rise in the yield stress,
(Cook and Richards 1940) : appear to break down, and the shape of the stress reduction
(1) that from the annealed state is by slip within the curve depends upon the geometry of the system and the grain
crystals, and here the strain reversals are additive in their size in a complicated way, which is not understood at present.
work-hardening effect and follow the law of plastic work or While the results were obtained from high-conductivity
equivalent strain j copper, there is reason to suppose that they apply to other
(2) that at a later stage by progressive break-up of the materials.
crystals on planes determined largely by the directions of ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
maximum shear stress in the material as a whole. It is in the
secondary type of deformation that the retardation in the rate The strip used for the tests was supplied by I.C.I. Metals
of work-hardening occurs. The fact that all rolling curves Division and the authors wish to thank Dr. M. Cook, Dr. T. L1.
reach the same Iimiting yield stress ultimately and that this Richards, and Mr. E. C. Larke for their help in this matter.
is the same as in plane compression, shows that a deformation They also wish to thank the British Iron and Steel Research
level is finally reached at which the strain reversals cease to Association for financial assistance.
affect the yield stress. Whether ‘work-softening’ can explain
behaviour of this sort is yet to be established. Clearly, it must
be shown that the effect is increased when the ratio strip-
thickness/length-of-contact-arcincreases. For a given pass
reduction a roll of small diameter has a larger angle of contact
and the redundant shearing (and hence ‘work-softening’) APPENDIX
would be greater. The effect should be most marked when,
with a given mill, identical slabs of material are reduced in a REFERENCES
few large, or in many small, passes. But it is possible that an BRIDGMAN,~. W. 1944 Trans. Am. SOC.Metals,vol. 32, p. 553,
alternative explanation could be sought in the stage at which ‘The Stress Distribution at the Neck of a Tension
the secondary type of deformation sets in, and further experi- Specimen’.
ments are needed before the cause of the phenomenon can be COOK,M., and LARKE, E. C. 1945 31. Inst. Metals, vol. 71,
established. p. 371, ‘Resistance of Copper and Copper Alloys to
The yield stress curve for the usual passes made in cold Homogeneous Deformation in Compression’.
rolling is not affected in this way, since it lies either wholly COOK,M., and RICHARDS,T. LL. 1940 JI. Inst. Metals,
above, or is coincident with, the basic plane compression vol. 66, p. 1, ‘Structural Changes in Copper Effected by
curve. It is possible that ‘cluster’ mills, having very small rolls Cold Rolling and Annealing’.
and rolling relatively thick strip, might exhibit the effect, and FORD,H. 1948 Proc. I.Mech.E., vol. 159, p. 115, ‘Researches
in this case basic yield stress curves might require modifica- into the Deformation of Metals by Cold Rolling’.
tion. HILL, R. 1950 ‘The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity’
(Clarendon Press, Oxford).
CONCLUSIONS LUDWIK, P., and SCKEU, R. 1925 Stahl und Eisen, vol. 45,
The investigation has shown that the plane compression test, p. 373.
using two parallel smooth dies, is an accurate means to determine MEYER,H., and NE%, F. 1926 Stahl und Eisen, vol. 46, p.
the yield stress curve of a material and has distinct advantages 196.
over other methods for large deformations.The technique of the POLAXOWSKI, N. H. 1949 Jl. Iron and Steel Inst., vol. 163,
test must be strictly applied for repeatable and accurate results : p. 55, ‘The Compression Test in Relation to Cold
Rolling’.
(1) Incremental loading in the same indentation, with 1951 J1. Iron and Steel Inst., vol. 169, p. 337, ‘Softening of
lubrication and measurement of the strain at each increment. Metals During Cold Working’.
The increment to be +2 per cent, or sufficient to ensure the RUMMEL, K. 1919 Stahl und Eisen, vol. 39, p. 237.
material is fully plastic. SACHS,G. 1924 Zeits. fur Metallkunde, vol. 16, p. 55.
(2) The ratio die-breath/strip-thicknessto be maintained SIEBEL,E. 1925 Bericht des Fachausschusses des Vereins
between 2 and 4, the dies being changed appropriately during deutscher Eisenhutten Werkstatt, vol. 71, Nov. 5.
the test. SIEBEL,E., and POMP,A. 1927 Mittelungen Kaiser-Wilhelm
( 3 ) To reduce the time taken, deformations of 10-15 per Inst. fur Eisenforschung, vol. 9, p. 157.
cent reduction can be made by a continuous application of TAYLOR, G. I., and QUINNEY, H. 1931 Phil. Trans. Roy. SOC.,
load, but the stress and strain measurements must be made vol. A230, p. 323, ‘Plastic Distortion of Metals’.
by incremental technique between each major deformation. 1934 Proc. Roy. SOC.A, voI. 143, p. 307.
(4) The width of the strip to be at least six times the die WATTS,A. B., and FORD, H. 1952-53 Proc. 1.Mech.E. (B),
breadth, preferably more. vol. lB, p. 448, ‘An Experimental Investigation of the
The plane compression yield stress curve, can be correlated Yielding of Strip Between Smooth Dies’.
with the simple (uniaxial) compression curve if allowance is made WHITTON,P. W., and FORD,H. 1955 Proc. I.Mech.E., vol,
for the differing anisotropy developed in the tests. 169, p. 123, ‘Surface Friction and Lubrication in Cold
Redundant shearing in cold rolling causes additional work- Strip Rolling’.

1150
Communications
Dr. D. S. DUGDALE (East Kilbride) wrote that the degree of their materials in all circumstances to behave as well as
anisotropy was conveniently assessed by means of compression high-conductivity copper under relatively simple loading.
tests carried out on small cylinders cut with their axes lying along Redundant shearing was bound to cause some difficulty in many
each of the three principal directions of the strip. The authors instances. A similar comment might be applied to the authors’
had mentioned that the product of the three strain ratios statements on initial anisotropy.
obtained for hot-rolled copper strip was not equal to unity, the Stress-strain relations of great generality were required to fit
value which might be expected from Hill’s theory of plastic all available physical evidence, the more complicated the loading
anisotropy. The results given in Table 2 he had obtained, at path the more elaborate the required ‘law’. A general philo-
sophical basis underlying the relation between stress and strain
TABLE
2 in the plastic range had been described by himself (Drucker
1951), and some rather interesting and useful special forms had
Direction . . . been given by Professor Prager in his Clayton lecture (Prager
1955)s.
Strain ratio . . cx Product
Mr. M. J. HILLIER, B.Sc. (Eng.) (Graduate), wrote that he
SetA
SetB
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. 1 1.08
1.16 1 0.58
0.67 1 1 1.54
1.35
0.96
1.05
noted that in Fig. 12 the ratio of the yield stress in plane
compression to that in simple compression, A / B , dropped from
1.1547 to about 1.08 as the reduction increased to about 90 per
cent. Part of that drop was due to the anisotropy developed.
Assuming rotational symmetry of the yield stress about an
Bristol University, from copper cylinders cut from a slab of axis transverse to the rolling direction, and Hill’s theory of
section 5 x I+ inches which had been reduced about 25 per anisotropy, the drop in apparent yield stress in plane compres-
cent by cold rolling. sion could be estimated. For example, if the transverse yield
One diametral strain had been plotted against the other for stress was 10 per cent higher than that for simple compression
each specimen, up to an average value (logarithmic) of 0.1. A in the through-thickness direction, the theory gave a value of
straight line drawn through the points gave the average strain A / B = 1.123. The experimental values dropped below that
ratio. The axis convention was the same as that used by the figure after about 40 per cent reduction. In fact after 30 per
authors. cent reduction the difference ( A - B ) appeared to be constant
The wide variation of values for corresponding specimens at about 3 tons per sq. in.
showed that it was a matter of chance whether the ratios for any It seemed plausible then, to assume that deformation by
single set should multiply to a value of unity. While further plane compression produced a hardening lower than that in
systematic work of that kind would be useful, it seemed that simple compression. In making a finite indentation the most
several sets of specimens must be tested, to give reliable average severely sheared material was probably that passing out from
values, before any definite conclusions could be drawn. under the dies, and that did not take part in a subsequent yield
stress test. The rate of hardening of the material in the test area
Professor D.. C. DRUCKER wade Island) wrote that he had was then quite possibly lower than that occurring in simple
little reason to comment on the paper except for a semantic compression.
difficultywhich might arise from the use of such terminology as I n rolling, on the other hand, the most highly strained
‘the laws of work-hardening’. material remained within the subsequent test area. It would
The simplest incremental theories of plasticity were, indeed, therefore be expected that the curve for rolling would, on the
of the type for which the work dissipated was path independent. whole, lie above that for plane compression. That was in fact
More complicated stress-strain relations of the smooth type so, as Fig. 13 showed.
(Drucker 1951)* One factor in the success of the plane compression test as
applied to cold rolling was the fact that, although the deforma-
tion under the dies was known to be inhomogeneous, the
deformation pattern involved was probably very similar to that
would also have that path independence iff was a homogeneous obtained in rolling. That statement was qualified by considera-
fuiction of stress and G was a function off. Such mathematical tions of the roll geometry involved, as the authors had indicated
restrictions were very convenient but such convenience need not in their discussion.
be taken as evidence of physical validity. Quite the contrary, it It was interesting to note the similarity between the well-
was known that most materials exhibited a strong dependence known solutions of the theory of plasticity for some indentation
on strain history which made the work strongly dependent upon and sheet-drawing problems. He believed that the solution for
the path of loading (Stockton and Drucker 1950)t. Bauschinger the cold rolling problem maintained that similarity, modified
effects (or work-softening) and cross effects which were shown by the existence of the curved boundary.
by most materials might be interpreted as meaning that f and G
were functions of strain and strain history as well as of stress Mr. T. MCLEANJASPER,M.Sc. (Member), wrote that the
(Edelman and Drucker 1951)$. paper indicated a most unusual method for testing a metal. T o
All that he had said should not be interpreted in any way as obtain the compressive yield point was not a simple matter. The
a criticism of the authors’ results or of their approach. He wished tests made by the authors should be of value in the cold rolling
only to warn new experimenters that they should not expect all of metals. He had been very interested in that problem to the
* DRUCKER, D. C. 1951 First United States National Congress of point of discovering the percentage reduction in thickness that
Applied Mech., p. 487, ‘A More Fundamental Approach to Plastic could be obtained at various temperatures in metal before
Stress-Strain Relations’ (Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago). reheating would be necessary to avoid undesired damage to its
t STOCKTON, F. D., and DRUCXER, D. C. 1950 Jl. Colloid Sciences, metallurgical structure.
vol. 5, p. 239, ‘Fitting Mathematical Theories of Plasticity to Experi- The failure of a metal by separation of its parts was by tension
mental~Results’. ~
or shear. No metal ever had its structure separated in pure
$EDELMAN, F., and DRUCKER, D. C. 1951 JI. of the Franklin
Institute. vol. 251.- v- . 581. ‘Some Extensions of Elementary Plasticity § PRAGER, W. 1955 Proc. I.Mech.E., vol. 169, p. 41, ‘The Theory of
Theory’. Plasticity: A Survey of Recent Achievements’.

COMMUNICATIONS ON THE BASIC YIELD STRESS CURVE FOR A METAL 1151
compression. In regard to the effect of cold compression of low In attempting to establish the method on a practical basis in
carbon steel on the complete reversal endurance limits, in the B.I.S.R.A. rolling mill laboratories, it had been recognized
compression between platens up to 6 per cent set of steel bars at once that the slip-line field between the tools at large strains
the endurance limits of the steel had, by any experimental would be complex, and that there was no established theoretical
measurement method, been found not to be impaired. relation between the mean strain in the specimen between the
The very deep oil and gas wells were over 20,000 feet deep. At tools and the yield stress as measured from the average pressure
that depth the pressure on the outside of casing could be very exerted on the tool faces. It had been decided, therefore, to
great if the level of the liquid or pressure of the gas on the inside establish the method as the authors had established it, by direct
of the tube was low. A high yield point in compression in the comparison between yield stress against strain curves up to 80
casing reduced the required thickness which, in turn, reduced or 90 per cent reduction with the values obtained by tensile
the load to be carried by the supporting construction at the tests. I n order t u make that comparison the tensile test had been
surface. converted to plane strain by means of the equivalence of total
I n the matter of tubular collapse, the point of unstable plastic work.
equilibrium might be very much below the compressive yield That method of comparison had two obvious objections : the
of the metal in the tubes. By precompressing tubes up to about slip-line field between the tools might give a pattern of strain
6 per cent, the collapse point of such tubes had been increased hardening which would make the mean yield stress of the
between 30 and 40 per cent. Tubes under compressive outside specimen completely different from the mean yield stress given
pressure responded in a similar manner to columns under load. by homogeneous deformation ;the other objection was that the
The Euler curve for the column was similar to another curve for material might not obey the Levy-Mises criterion of yielding
tubes under collapse. T o the left of those curves the increase in and therefore the basis of the comparison would become invalid.
compressive yield of resisting metal could have a great effect on The results found in the B.I.S.R.A. investigation supported
the strength or the economic values of the construction. Test the authors’ conclusions that the indentation test on copper and
results on the above statement were given in Jasper and Sullivan mild steel gave a close approximation to the true yield stress
(1931)*. against strain curve in plane deformation, and it also indicated
that it was true for a great number of metals possessing a cubic
Mr. A. SHELTON,B.Sc. (Eng.) (Graduate), wrote that the structure, amongst them steels of up to 0.8 per cent carbon,
authors were to be congratulated on the careful way in which aluminium alloys, brasses, and nickel alloys. Large discrepancies,
the experimental work had been carried out, and their meticulous up to 10 per cent, had been found, however, with some materials
attention to detail. The paper adequately illustrated the observa- of complex structure, particularly the highly alloyed steels such
tion made in their review, that previous attempts to determine as the 1 per cent carbon steels, the high silicon steels and the
yield stress against strain curves for a metal had been of limited range of austenitic stainless steels.
range or alternatively had suffered from other practical diffi- No explanation had been found for that discrepancy, but
culties. clearly one should be found if the method was to become
He would, however, like to have their comments on one established as a standard for determination of the yield stress
aspect of their work. In assessing the degree of initial anisotropy, against strain curve for all metals which were capable of being
neither the diameter of the compression cylinder nor the method rolled or were capable of mechanical working. An explanation
of measuring the lateral strain, had been mentioned. It had been had not been found within the B.I.S.R.A. laboratories, but
stated that the range of compression was up to 15 per cent, in rolling tests designed to minimize the effect of friction on the
which case (assuming constancy of volume) lateral strains of up roll load and torque had indicated that the indentation test pro-
to 7 5 per cent were experienced, so that provided the diameter vided a closer approximation to the roll loads and torques than
of the compression specimens was sufficiently large it was no calculations based on the yield stress against strain curve derived
doubt possible to measure the diametral changes by means of a from tensile tests. As mentioned above the explanation might be
micrometer. That, however, would not be true for much smaller either that highly alloyed steels did not obey the Levy-Mises
strains and he would be interested to know whether the strain criterion, or that the work-hardening in the slip-line fields was
ratios remained constant. far greater than with normal pure materials and that led to
errors in the actual measuring process. He would like to ask
Mr. R. B. SIMS,B.Sc. (Member), wrote that the work dis- the authors, therefore, whether they had an explanation for that
cussed in the paper formed an important contribution to the phenomenon, and whether they intended to carry out further
general acceptance of the rolling theories in practical rolling- work in establishing the tests for all materials.
mill design calculations. When an inquiry was received for a
new mill it was important to have available quickly the yield Dr. C. E. TURNER, B.Sc. (Eng.) (Graduate), wrote that from
stress against strain curves of the metals which it was proposed the discussion of initial anisotropy several questions arose. He
to roll in the mill. Whilst samples of material were usually would ask whether the strain ratios had been quoted for a
available, the derivation of the yield stress against strain curve particular value of strain or whether they had been sensibly
had not been quite so easy. constant throughout the tests, as mentioned in the later tension
The indentation method described had been first put to test result. The ratio 1.03 quoted for the tension test, which
practical use by Professor Ford when he had been Head of the presumably corresponds to e,/ez, led to the remark that the
B.I.S.R.A. rolling mill laboratories, and it had been developed ‘material was not completely isotropic’, whereas the evidence
in those laboratories over the period 1949-52. A number of of ratios between 0.91 and 1.26 had apparently been neglected
yield stress against strain curves had been determined by it and in favour of a comparison of stress-strain curves, leading to the
had since been published. The method was quick and repro- conclusion that ‘initial anisotropy may be said to be small’. He
ducible under normal laboratory conditions, but the prime asked whether it was not rather that on that evidence, a com-
difficulty was to establish that the method in fact always provided parison of stress-strain curves did not seem to be a critical test
the true yield stress against strain curve in plane compression. of isotropy. If that was so then, since the main work under
In their earlier paper (Watts and Ford 1952-53) the authors discussion was in fact a comparison of stress-strain curves, the
had established that the indentation test would give an accurate authors’ general argument, that an isotropy was there not
value of the plane yield compression provided that certain important, might be valid, though it would be based on rather
geometrical conditions were observed in the specimen and tool different grounds.
sizes. It was quite another matter, however, to proceed from In the discussion of results little mention had been made of
those earlier results to the results given in the present paper, possible time effects. If it was accepted that the dynamic stress-
where a succession of indentations on the same specimen had strain curve lay above the static one (Nadai and Manjoine 1941)t
been used tu establish the yield stress against strain curve from then for a given strain the work done on the material was greater
the annealed condition up to a very high strain. in rolling than in static deformation. If the work-hardening were
* JASPER, T. M., and SULLIVAN, J. W. W. 1931 Trans. A.S.M.E., a function of the work done then he would ask whether the yield
APM-53-17b, vol. 53, p. 219, ‘The Collapsing Strength of Steel
Tubes’.
t NADAI,A., and WJOINJ?, M. J. 1941 JI. Applied Mech.,
vol. 8, p. A??.

1152 C O M M U N I C A T I O N S O N THE BASIC Y ~ E L DSTRESS C U R V E FOR A M E T A L
stress would not be raised for a subsequent static test. Since for plane Compression and that under uniaxial stress, and so
heavy reductions at a given rolling speed the strain rates were provided a basis for examining the validity of the theoretical
greater, a few heavy passes would involve more work-hardening plasticity relations. It was mainly from that standpoint that the
than many light passes. Such an effect would act in opposition following comments were offered.
to the redundant work mechanism discussed by the authors. The authors’ data for simple compression and plane com-
Other evidence (Ford 1947)* pointed to an apparent lowering pression were reproduced in Fig. 15, after converting percentage
of the yield stress with increase in rolling speeds, although later reduction to logarithmic strain. The points on the plane com-
work (Sims and Arthur 1952)t sought to explain the apparent pression curve had been read as accurately as possible from
decrease in terms of roll friction effects. Fig. 6, whereas those on the simple compression curve had been
Whichever evidence was taken there could be no doubt that supplied through the courtesy of Dr. Watts. They corresponded
speed effects were present (even if sometimes masked) in the closely with the lower boundary of the hatched band in Fig. 10.
deformation of pure copper, and if the work done according to Dr. Watts had also provided the data for the tensile curve which
the dynamic yield stress curve was not to be taken as determin- was included in Fig. 15, and which followed that in Fig. 7. The
ing the subsequent static yield stress, then the idea of equivalent curves themselves had all been drawn in accordance with the
stress and strain was oversimplified. The magnitude of such exponential strain-hardening function (Voce 1948, 1955)$ from
speed effects was, of course, open to question, but the authors’ the constants given in Table 3 . The fit was clearly satisfactory.
views on those points would be of great interest.
Finally, he asked whether there was any relation between TABLE 3. ANALYSIS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL CURVES
Polakowski’s postulated work-softening mechanism and the Stresses in tons per sq. in.; strains in logarithmic units.
Bauschinger effect.
Dr. E. VOCE,M.Sc. (London), wrote that the data presented Constants of exponential function1 Simple I Plane 1 Tension
in the paper would rank among the most valuable yet recorded
on stress-strain relations, and the information formed a sound --
basis for critical discussion.
It could hardly be denied that the simplest and most natural
First rkgime
Threshold stress, SO .
I- 2.6
mode of deformation was that under uniaxial stress. T o achieve Asymptotic stress, SW 21.6
I
any other mode, such as plane strain, constraint must be applied Characteristic strain, qc 0.19
in one, at least, of the two lateral directions. The various modes Second rCgime
were interconnected by plasticity relations the validity of which Threshold stress, So’ . 12.1 15.9 11.0
had not been fully established, and which, indeed, the results Asymptotic stress, SW’ 28.3 31.0 32.5
recorded in the paper showed to be no more than partially true. Characteristic strain, qc’ 0.80 0.80 0.80
It seemed, therefore, fundamentally wrong to attempt to deter-
Transition point
Transition stress, S, .
Transition strain, qr .
17.7
0.339 i 2t:3246
18.16
0.325
In the first regime the constants for plane compression were

those which would be predicted by plastic theory from the basic
curve under simple compression. The threshold stress and
asymptotic stress were each increased by a factor of 2 / 4 3 ,
while the characteristic strain was diminished by a factor of
.\/3/2. Throughout the first regime, theory and experiment
were in good accord.
For the second regime, on the other hand, the expected
constants for plane compression would be So’= 14.0 tons per
sq. in., S,‘ = 32.6 tons per sq. in., and qc‘ = 0.69 logarithmic
units, giving the uppermost curve in the diagram. That was
entirely different from the experimental curve, showing clearly
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 28 3.0 that the normal plasticity relations did not apply in the second
LOGARITHMIC STRAIN rkgime. Why that should be so was obscure, but experience
Fig. 15. True Stress Against Logarithmic Strain gained in the analysis of several hundred published curves for a
Plane compression expected. great variety of materials had indicated that the second regime
o Plane compression found. was much influenced by the experimental conditions. Time was
o Simple compression. possibly an important factor, perhaps in the guise of any
+ Tension. acceleration which might be, inadvertently or otherwise, applied
to the speed of deformation.
mine the ‘basic yield against stress curve for a metal’ from The same characteristic strain, namely, 0.80 logarithmic units,
tests under plane compression. In extenuation it must be gave a satisfactory fit for the second regimes of both the simple
admitted that the authors were particularly interested in cold and plane compression tests. It followed that the second regime
rolling, which pertained to plane strain rather than to uniaxial curves could be brought into coincidence with each other by a
deformation. Nevertheless, the ‘basic’curve was surely that under combined lateral and vertical shift relative to the axes of
uniaxial stress, either tensile or compressive, as shown in Figs. 7 reference. A vertical movement of the curve was tantamount to
and 10. the application of an inoperative ‘hydrostatic’ (uniform triaxial)
For such reasons it seemed questionable whether the effort component of stress, while a lateral movement might be
directed towards the establishment of the plane compression interpreted as a latent strain, which might be either positive or
test had been altogether worth while. The test itself appeared negative. From the recorded constants, the second regime curve
laborious to operate, necessitating frequent removal of the for plane compression could be derived from the basic curve for
specimen from the machine for lubrication and a recurrent simple compression by the addition of a uniform triaxial stress of
change of the dies to suit the diminishing thickness of the 2.7 tons per sq. in., and the subtraction of a latent strain of
specimen. It was essentially a test for experts, and was unlikely 0-056 logarithmic units.
to prove popular in ordinary test houses. On the other hand, it The first regime for tension differed appreciably, but not
enabled a comparison to be made between the yield stress under
VOCE,E. 1948 JI. Inst. Metals, vol. 74, p. 537, ‘The Relationship
* FORD,H. 1947 31. Iron and Steel Inst., vol. 156, p. 380. Between Stress and Strain for Homogeneous Deformation’.
t SIMS,R., and ARTHUR,D. J. 1952 J1. Iron and Steel Inst., vol. 172, 1955 Metullurgiu, vol. 51, p. 219, ‘A Practical Strain Hardening
p . 285. Function’.

COMMUNICATIONS ON THE BASIC Y I E L D STRESS CURVE FOR A METAL 1153
unreasonably, from that for simple compression. Each should yield stress, because virtually no elongation occurred in the
be regarded as the basic curve for its particular mode of deforma- tensile test before the maximum load was reached (Voce 1948)t.
tion. The data for the second regime in tension extended over No definite conclusion concerning the effect of pass severity
too short a range for precise analysis, but could be represented should be drawn from the results given in the paper, for the tests
by a curve having the same characteristic strain as for the two with light and heavy passes (Table 1 and Fig. 13) had been
compression curves. It could therefore be brought into coinci- conducted on strip of different thicknesses. It was well known
dence with either of them by a shift relative to the axes of that light reductions, especially on thick material, tended to
reference. The close similarity of the three second-regime curves strain-harden the surface layers more than the interior (Cook
might be no more than a coincidence, though it could hardly be and Duddridge 1939; Hundy and Singer 1955)$, a fact which
ignored. might account, in part at least, for the curious aberrations
The authors’ view that multiple light reductions caused more revealed by Fig. 13. Moreover, an analysis of the curves in
strain hardening than fewer heavy reductions should be regarded Fig. 13 showed that less, not more, work was expended in
with the utmost caution. The classical experiments of Alkins reaching 90 per cent reduction under light than under heavy
(1931)* on wire drawing showed exactly the reverse to be true. passes, or, perhaps more properly, for the thick than for the thin
For a total reduction of 52.5 per cent under nine light drafts he material.
had found the tensile strength of copper wire to be 23 tons per
sq. in., whereas after a single heavy reduction it had reached t VOCE,E. 1948 Metal Treatment, vol. 15, p. 53, ‘True Stress-Strain
25 tons per sq. in. For material cold worked to that degree, the Curves and Their Application to Cold-working Processes’.
ordinary tensile strength was a good indication of the effective $ COOK, M., and DUDDRIDGE, G. K. 1939 J1. Inst. Metals, vol. 64,
p. 311, ‘The Effect of Drawing on the Hardness and Tensile Strength
of Brass Rod’.
* ALKINS,W. E. 1931 Jl. Inst. Metals, vol. 46, p. 304, ‘Experiments HUNDY, B. B., and SINGER, A. R. E. 1955 Jl. Inst. Metals, vol. 83,
in Wire Drawing’. p. 401, ‘Inhomogeneous Deformation in Rolling and Wire-drawing’.

1154
Authors’ Reply
Dr. A. B. WATTS and Professor HUGHFORD wrote, in reply strain rate had little influence on yield stress, the roll force
to the communications, that Dr. Dugdale had pointed out that rising negligibly over the usual range experienced in cold rolling.
there could be significant variation in the values of the trans- The speed effects referred to by Dr. Turner had nothing to do
verse plastic ratios from three compression cylinders used to with strain rate, but with external effects of one kind or another.
assess the state of anisotropy. The results he had quoted, namely, Dr. Turner’s main point regarding the law of total plastic work
from tests on a cold-rolled slab of copper 5 inches by l+inches was best answered by agreeing that the final yield stress would
in section could not be taken as truly representative of plane be higher if the rate of deformation was higher, provided that
strain conditions. The material for their own tests had been the test was carried out at the same rate as the deformation.
prepared from a slab 24 inches by 2 inches in section, which The authors did not believe that rate of deformation had any
would have given more constant properties both across and bearing on their tests. They believed that reversible strains in
through the slab. While they agreed with Dr. Dugdale that the any forming process were much more important in determining
product of the three strain ratios could be above or below unity, the degree of hardening than the rate of deformation, provided
they would not attribute that finding entirely to experimental the deformation could reasonably be termed ‘cold’. There were
variations. In that connexion, the variation in the strain ratios certain processes, notably ‘cold’ extrusion, which relied on a
found by themselves in their tests obtained after varying amounts sufficiently high strain rate to raise the temperature of the metal
of cold rolling were of interest. The 0.713-inch material used to that of recrystallization.
in the tests had been tested in that way with the results given With reference to the relationship between the Bauschinger
in Table 4. effect and ‘work softening’ Dr. Turner would find the paper
by Woolley (1953)* of interest. Since their own paper had
TABLE
4 been written, Dr. Watts had had the opportunity of examining
, the behaviour of annealed aluminium when cold-rolled with
1 1 1 1
I I
Percentage reduc- Product different pass intensities. One series of testst had been carried
tion in cold rolling out on 0450-inch ‘super-purity’ aluminium (99.99 per cent)
rolled in pass reductions of 0~090,0~035,0~0045, and 0.001 inch.
0 0.91 0.98 1.26 1.12 The grain size of the material had been 0.5 mm. and it had
9.3 0.96 0.83 1.31 1.04 been hot-rolled to the thickness of 0.450 inch. The strips used
19.3 1.06 0.66 1.39 0.97 for the tests had been 2+ inches wide and had been cut from a
32.9 1.35 0.50 1.53 1.03 blank 24 inches wide. The rolling had been carried out on a
4443 1.68 0.42 1.60 1.13 14-inch diameter two-high mill at a speed of about 50 ft. per
58.0 2.00 0.36 1-64 1.18
min. The strips had been tested after certain total reductions
68.0 2.10 0.33 1.65 1.15
I
by plane compression tools. Fig. 16 showed the curves obtained.
It appeared from those results that some pattern in the value of z

the product was being followed as deformation proceeded.
Regarding the measurement of strain ratio, Mr. Shelton was
right in assuming that a micrometer had been used to measure
diametral changes of the compression test pieces. The cylinders
had been about 4 inch in diameter and 3 inch in height initially.
No transverse strains had been measured below 2 per cent
reduction in height, and in that case the strain ratios had
remained constant up to 15 per cent reduction in height. When
appreciably cold-worked, however, the material had shown
significant variations in the ratios below about 4 per cent reduc-
tion in the compression tests. Above that value, there had been F REDUCTION IN COLD ROLLING-PER CENl
a much steadier condition, with only slight progressive drop in
the ratio E ~ / E ~ .
Dr. Turner had also referred to the question of anisotropy. Fig. 16. Yield Stress Curves for 0.45 inch thick S.P. (99.99
The statement about the tension test piece (and it also applied per cent) Aluminium Rolled with Various Pass Intensities
to the simple compression test pieces), namely, that it was ‘not
completely isotropic’, was perhaps loose in its meaning. A better It could be seen that there was a large difference between
phrase would have been ‘rotational symmetry of flow with respect the four curves. As many variables as possible had been
to the direction of test’. The important point was that the cross- eliminated from the tests, and the differences in hardening
section had remained substantially circular during the test. could be attributed only to the different pass intensities.
Investigators would find themselves in difficulties because it A further set of tests had been carried out using +-inch thick
seemed that the modified Levy-Mises equations proposed by strips, which could be taken as more representative of practical
Hill in his theory of anisotropy were not in agreement with cold-rolling conditions. After rolling, the strips had been tested
experiment. At present, there was no other theory on which to in tension in the rolling direction; only the ultimate strength
base tests ;the dilemma was whether to place greater reliance had been measured, that quantity had been probably close to
on the results of strain ratios or on yield stress tests. They had the yield stress in view of the work-hardened state of the strip
taken every precaution to minimize the effects of anisotropic in most of the tests. The materials tested had been super-purity
material as far as it was possible, in their tests, and the important aluminium, and the aluminium alloys N.S.3 (1.2 per cent
point was to arrange the anisotropy as advantageouslyas possible. magnesium) and N.S.4 (2.25 per cent magnesium, 0.4 per cent
The strain ratios seemed to be very sensitive whereas the stress manganese). Each material had been rolled in two pass schedules,
values were far less affected. one having the greatest reductions possible, and the other small
In regard to Dr. Turner’s reference to time effects, it was reductions not exceeding 0,001 inch. The rolling conditions
difficult to reconcile tests made under ‘impact-tension’or ‘impact
compression’ conditions with the pseudo-steady state conditions * WOOLLEY, R. L. 1953 Phil. Mag., series 7,vol. 44, p. 597.
in cold rolling. A study of the reported work on strip rolling, t The authors are indebted to the British A l d - CO., L t d - ~for
where the strip was of reasonable thickness, showed that the permission to make use of these results here.

AUTHORS’ REPLY ON THE BASIC Y I E L D STRESS CURVE FOR A METAL 1155
had been otherwise as for the previous tests on 0.450-inch with the simple compression curve in monotonous deformation
material. in Fig. 18. There had been a large and progressive divergence
Fig. 17 showed the curves obtained. The pure metal had been between the curves, with the cube showing far less hardening,
most affected by the pass differences, the more alloyed material and by reducing the strain steps it had been possible to suppress
having been affected the least. The latter, had, in fact, followed the hardening altogether. Unidirectional compression after that
the theoretically expected pattern of more hardening for a large deformation, nevertheless, had produced hardening at a rate
number of small passes. That result suggested that such factors equal to the rate at the corresponding stress point on the simple
as rate of deformation could be ruled out as the important factor compression curve; on re-machining into a cube, the rate of
in modifying the yield stress curve in cold rolling. hardening had once more effectively reduced to zero.
Effects such as those they considered took place in multi-pass
cold rolling on relatively thick material. The behaviour of a
metal in that respect would therefore be governed by the
magnitude of the Bauschinger effect. They illustrated, as
Professor Drucker had said, that the experimenter must be
careful in interpreting his results in mathematical terms ; they
felt that even more, should the mathematician guard against
confirming his theories by experimental results, confirmation
which was frequently fortuitous. But they would suggest that
the limitations at present were more in the mathematical theory
than in the possibilities of making informative experiments.
They had been well aware of the difficulties and had deliberately
avoided the usual test programmes which attempted to check the
basic laws of plasticity theory. They would again emphasize that
the advantage of the plane strain compression tests was that it
did not cause a strain reversal.
Mr. Hillier had commented on the ratio of the curves of
plane and simple compression in Fig. 12. T o apply his argu-
ments strictly, it would be necessary to compare the plane
compression yield stress curve with that of the normal or
‘through-thickness’ yield for the same mode of deformation.
They had made longitudinal tensile tests on strip specimens
with a central plane compression indentation. However, doubt
Fig. 17. Ultimate Tensile Strength Against Rolling Reduction had been cast on whether the uniaxial yield stress was given by
Curves for Aluminium and Two Alloys such a test, because of the transverse constraint on the zone
1. N.S.4. 2. N.S.3. 3. S.P. Al. under test.
e Small passes. o Large passes. Mr. Hillier had suggested that plane compression between
dies could give less hardening than simple compression because
One further test made by Dr. Watts showed the effect of the more heavily strained material was extruded from beneath
reversed strains on the deformation of copper. A 1-inch cube the dies. It was possible that that might be so if the die breadth/
had been accurately machined from a hot-rolled slab, and sub- thickness ratio were near unity, but if the ratio were adjusted
jected to repeated simple compression across each of its three during the test to maintain it between two and four times the
pairs of faces in rotation, the strains having been of the order current thickness, then there was good evidence that the
of 2-3 per cent. A curve had thus been obtained of the yield resulting yield stress curve was very near to the ideal and more
stress against total plastic strain, and that had been compared probably above it than below it.
Fig. 18. Comparison Between Reversed Compression of a Tube and Simple Compression for High-conductivity Copper
o Strain measurements 0,024.03. 0 Strain increments 0.005-0.015.

1156 A U T H O R S ’ R E P L Y O N THE B A S I C Y I E L D STRESS C U R V E F O R A M E T A L
Mr. Hillier’s reading of Fig. 13 differed somewhat from their TABLE 5
own; he had taken it to show that the curve for rolling lay above
that for plane compression. That was only so below about
35 per cent reduction; over the greater part of the curve the
reverse was true.
Strains simple
tension
1
Plane
tension
Plane 1 1 I
simple
compression compression
~
Mr. McLean Jasper had drawn attention to an important

feature of metal-working processes : the superposition of a
sufficiently high hydrostatic compression to avoid tensile stresses
which would cause rupture in heavily worked metal, so allowing
much larger strains than were possible in predominantly tensile
deformation.
There might be several explanations to the question raised mentally. A simple tensile test was inherently an unstable one,
by Mr. Sims as to the harder, highly alloyed steels, and the and non-uniform deformation was the result, such phenomena
discrepancies which had been found in tests at Sheffield. Great as Liiders bands in certain materials and the ‘necking’ found
rigidity in the subpress holding the dies was a necessity, and with all ductile materials being illustrations of that. Moreover,
slight sideways displacement would cause serious variations ; it inevitably involved not only the yield stress characteristic of
friction in the slideways was also a variable. Recent tests at the material tested but also the fracture mechanism; yet the
Imperial College had shown that the surface finish of dies and yield stress curve was surely to be defined in terms of the shear
strip was critical, and if that changed for any reason, for example, properties only. No alternative form of tensile test to avoid
because of progressive plastic deformation, scatter would result, those inherent difficulties was known to, or considered possible
being worse the greater the stresses involved. Work on the test by themselves, especially for any extended strain range which
was being continued at Imperial College. was a necessary condition and, accordingly, they could not agree
They found it difficult to comment on Dr. Voce’s contributions with Dr. Voce that the development of the plane compression
because they differed from his viewpoint from the start. They test was not worth while. If a test house, or any other laboratory,
could not agree that a uniaxial stress was any more ‘natural needed to know the yield stress-strain characteristics of a metal
than plane strain or any other exactly definable mode of stress beyond the limited strain range of the tensile test they wondered
and strain. They had clearly defined what they had meant by a how Dr. Voce would recommend it should be done and what
basic yield stress curve (second section of paper). The curve means he would advocate for strip metal.
was certainly a basic one so far as plane deformation was con- The apparatus was simple and cheap, and less laborious to
cerned, for it was capable of modification in a plane deformation operate than that required for the accurate measurement of the
process by geometrical factors. Further, most theoretical and reduction in area of the neck in a tensile test piece. They had
experimental work in plasticity had been done on plane and found no difficulty in explaining to their colleagues in a few
axi-symmetric problems for which k, the shear yield stress, was minutes the method of carrying out the test and they knew of
appropriate as the unit of yield strength, and that gave the plane at least four industrial laboratories where it was already in use.
strain compression curve an equal status with the simple or They would emphasize that all the tests developed some
uniaxial stress curve. The full range of strain patterns would degree of anisotropy, the uniaxial tests being no exception to
appear to be as in Table 5. that. Bearing that in mind, it was their contention that Fig. 12
They supposed that Dr. Voce had been thinking in terms of was strong evidence of the interrelationship between the various
stress only, for they could not agree that columns 2 and 5 deformation modes, when plotted on the basis of equivalent
represented any ‘more basic’ form of test than that in columns 3 stress and strain, and they saw no reason for changing that view.
and 4. Plane tension and compression could be regarded as the Regarding the analyses of their results, which Dr. Voce had
same flow pattern with the axes and e2 interchanged. They carried out, they were interested to see that the curves could be
were also the same state as pure shear, which fact gave the plane represented by a two-regime function ;that agreed with the view
deformation curve a particular claim as the basic one for a metal. put forward in the paper, namely that deformation was occurring
A uniaxial tension curve was very difficult to establish experi- by a two-stage process.

The Yield: Basic Stress A Metal

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The Yield: Basic Stress A Metal

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1141

On the Basic Yield Stress Curve for a Metal

INTRODUCTION sponding tensile value (1.32 to 1.12) while theory predicts a

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(a) Effect of Strip Width. Tests were made to determine L

In the first series of tests, six strips, 3 inch to 3 inches wide, k 0

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Fig. 6. Basic Plane Compression Curve

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rcuucuuu, u s unIuuuutj LVI-LVIIO UI- IY.. Lvcll w-..-- ..----,

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Direction of rolling the same throughout.

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In the first regime the constants for plane compression were

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It appeared from those results that some pattern in the value of z

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Mr. McLean Jasper had drawn attention to an important

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