UXO Risk Education

Needs Assessment
Lao PDR, October 2006

1
Lao Youth Union
Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the national team leader, Dr. Vanphanom Sychareun and the
research team for all their hard work and as well as all the Mines Advisory Group (MAG) staff
who assisted in the assessment. We would also like to particularly thank the Lao Youth Union
for their invaluable logistical support, guidance and assistance in ensuring the success of the
assessment.

This UXO (Unexploded Ordnance) risk education needs assessment was conducted by
conducted by the MAG and Lao Youth Union. The report was written by Lisa Ognjanovic and
Jo Durham from the Mines Advisory Group. The assessment was supported by the United
Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID)
and the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

Cover picture: Young girl using a metal detector/ Sean Sutton/MAG. The child’s face in this
picture has been blurred to protect her identity. This same technique has been used
throughout the document to protect children’s identities.

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GLOSSARY 5
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 6
1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 6
1.2 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................. 7
1.2.1 Literature Review .............................................................................................................. 7
1.2.2 KAP Questionnaire............................................................................................................ 7
1.2.3 Qualitative Assessment ..................................................................................................... 7
1.3 FINDINGS ........................................................................................................... 7
1.4 RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................... 11
2. INTRODUCTION 11
3. LITERATURE REVIEW 15
3.1 HUMANITARIAN MINE ACTION ............................................................................ 15
3.2 HEALTH AND SAFETY PROMOTION AND MINE RISK EDUCATION ........................... 16
3.3 WHAT MAKES HEALTH AND SAFETY PROMOTION PROGRAMMES WORK............... 18
4. METHODOLOGY 19
4.1 SAMPLING ........................................................................................................ 19
4.2 DATA ANALYSIS ................................................................................................ 20
4.3 LOCATION ........................................................................................................ 20
4.4 ETHICS ............................................................................................................ 21
4.5 TRAINING OF DATA-GATHERERS ........................................................................ 21
4.6 QUALITY CONTROL ........................................................................................... 21
4.7 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE PARTICIPATION OF CHILDREN ...................... 21
4.8 STAKEHOLDER MEETING ................................................................................... 22
4.9 LIMITATIONS ..................................................................................................... 22
5. FINDINGS 22
5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS .................................................................................... 22
5.1.1 UXO Mortality and Morbidity............................................................................................ 22
5.1.2 Cause of UXO Accidents................................................................................................. 24
5.1.3 UXO Risk in the Lao PDR ............................................................................................... 25
5.1.4 Communication Channels ............................................................................................... 30
5.2 GENERAL FINDINGS .......................................................................................... 31
5.2.1 General Findings – Adults ............................................................................................... 31
5.2.2 General Findings – Children............................................................................................ 38
6. HIGH RISK GROUPS 41
6.1 RISK TAKING BEHAVIOURS ................................................................................ 41
6.2 RISK FACTORS: PREDISPOSING, ENABLING AND REINFORCING ........................... 42
6.3 HIGH RISK GROUPS.......................................................................................... 43
6.3.1 Scrap Metal Collection .................................................................................................... 43
6.3.2 Farmers Who Move UXO to Farm Land .......................................................................... 49
6.3.3 Scrap Metal Dealers........................................................................................................ 51
6.3.4 Adults who Dismantle UXO to Collect Scrap Metal.......................................................... 54
6.3.5 Children Who Play or Tamper with UXO ......................................................................... 55
6.3.6 Children Who Collect Scrap Metal................................................................................... 56
6.3.7 Children Aged 0-8 years of Age ...................................................................................... 60
6.3.8 Adults and Children Working in Agricultural Land............................................................ 61
6.4 CONCLUSIONS.................................................................................................. 61

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7. RECOMMENDATIONS 62
7.1 ESTABLISH A PROCESS FOR ENGAGING STAKEHOLDERS .................................... 63
7.2 IMPROVE TARGETING AND DEPLOYMENT OF UXO CLEARANCE ASSETS............... 64
7.3 REVIEW LEGISLATION AND REGULATORY CONTROLS .......................................... 65
7.4 REVIEW AND REVISE CURRENT MRE MESSAGES AND STRATEGIES .................... 66
7.5 REVIEW AND REVISE CURRENT INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS ............... 69
7.6 STRATEGIES TO REDUCE THE RISK TO CHILDREN ............................................... 69
7.7 STRATEGIES TARGETING ADULTS AND CHILDREN WHO COLLECT SCRAP METAL .. 71
7.8 STRATEGIES TO REDUCE THE RISK TO PEOPLE WHO DISMANTLE UXO................ 71
7.9 STRATEGIES TO REDUCE THE RISK TO FARMERS WORKING IN FIELDS ................. 72
ANNEXES 73
1. PREDISPOSING, ENABLING, REINFORCING FACTORS.............................. 73
2. REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 81
3. MRE NEEDS ASSESSMENTS ......................................................................... 83
4. LIST OF PEOPLE INTERVIEWED .................................................................... 97

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Glossary
AusAID Australian Agency for International Development
CA Community Awareness

CDC Centres for Disease Control and Prevention

GICHD Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining

HIB Handicap International Belgium

HMA Humanitarian Mine Action

IMAS International Mine Action Standards

IMSMA Information Management Systems for Mine Action

KAP Knowledge, Attitude, Practice

LYU Lao Youth Union

MAG Mines Advisory Group

MRE Mine Risk Education

NGO Non Government Organisations

NRA National Regulatory Authority for the UXO sector in Lao PDR
PPS Probability Proportional to Size

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNDAF United Nations Development Assistance Framework

UXO Unexploded Ordnance

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1. Executive Summary
1.1 Introduction
As a result of intense ground battles and extensive bombing during the Indo-China War,
especially during the years 1964 – 1973, Lao PDR has the distinction of being, per capita, the
most heavily bombed nation in the world. The war left widespread unexploded ordnance (UXO)
contamination, which thirty years on continues to act as a barrier to socio economic
development causing death and injury to adults and children. UXO injury, especially in a
country such as Lao PDR where access to adequate health services is limited, can result in
long-term medical and psychological sequelae (Handicap International, 2004) as well as a
huge financial burden to affected individuals, families, their communities and health services.
Often, those who suffer a landmine/UXO injury are aware of the risk (International Campaign
to Ban Landmines, 2000; Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining, 2003).

In the Lao PDR as a response to the continuing UXO threat, the Government, with assistance
from United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and UNICEF established the Lao PDR
Trust Fund for UXO in 1995 to finance a national programme of clearance and education. In
common with most other mine action programmes, the Lao national UXO programme (1996-
ongoing), aims to reduce risk through survey, marking, surface and sub-surface
landmine/UXO clearance and mine risk education (MRE). MRE aims to promote safety in
UXO contaminated communities and in the Lao PDR has been primarily underpinned by
psychological theories of behaviour change, such as the Health Belief Model (Rosenstock
1974). More specifically, UNICEF has supported MRE for children in several at risk
communities in 12 of the most heavily contaminated provinces. Since 2002, this support was
concentrated on implementation of two projects: the introduction of UXO awareness as an
extra curricular activity within the primary school system, implemented by World Education
Consortium with the Ministry of Education and ‘Sport in the Box’ safe play activities
implemented by the Lao Youth Union (LYU).

Since the outset, UNICEF has supported continuous monitoring and evaluation, including
UNICEF funded evaluations in 2000 (Delneuville, A.) and 2005 (GICHD). In 2001 UXO LAO
also undertook a Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) study in 3 provinces followed by a
more in depth qualitative study in one province to try and understand the contributing factors
to UXO risk behaviour and injury (UXO LAO, Sisawath, B and Durham, J. 2001 and Sisawath,
B. and Durham, J. 2002). In 2005 UNICEF also commissioned a study into the Scrap Metal
Trade in the Lao PDR (GICHD, 2005).

An evaluation of UNICEF MRE activities was also commissioned by UNICEF in 2005 and
recommended that in preparation for the next 5 year strategy, a MRE assessment be
undertaken to ascertain who is currently at risk, why and what can be done to mitigate the risk.
As a result of the evaluation recommendations, this assessment aims to answer these
questions. More specifically the main objectives of the assessment were:

1. To collect and analyse quantitative and qualitative data to identify who is at risk of
UXO accidents, why and what can be done about it

2. To involve a range of stakeholders in the assessment

3. To provide a report based on the above which can be used to underpin the MRE
strategy for the Lao PDR and for UNICEF specifically and can be used to develop
measurable impact and outcome objectives and indicators

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 4. To provide recommendations on appropriate UXO messages and risk reduction
strategies

1.2 Methodology

The assessment took an eclectic approach and consisted of three components:

− Literature review

− Development and administration of a quantitative KAP questionnaire

− A qualitative assessment
1.2.1 Literature Review

The literature review was used to inform the assessment and provided an overview of
humanitarian mine action (HMA) and MRE to show a more global and historical context to the
assessment.
1.2.2 KAP Questionnaire

After field testing, the KAP was administered in the 5 provinces of Houaphan, Xieng Khouang,
Saravan, Savanakhet and Attapeu. Participants were randomly chosen totalling 1312 adults,
54% of which were men and 46% were women. Seven hundred and twenty children between
the ages of 8-18 (69% were boys and 31% were girls) also completed a children’s KAP
questionnaire.

1.2.3 Qualitative Assessment

Following an analysis of the KAP to identify key trends and areas for further exploration, the
qualitative phase was undertaken in three provinces: Saravan, Khammouane and Xieng
Khouang. The qualitative phase of the assessment used focus group, semi-structured and key
informant interviews. Focus group discussions were held with 14 groups of men and 12
groups of women. Eighteen focus group discussions were also held with children. In
interviewing children, UNICEF ethical guidelines were used.

Triangulation was ensured through using a range of tools and informants and the multi
disciplinary nature of the research team. Neither the quantitative nor qualitative data collection
tools required participants to be able to read or write as in line with International Mine Action
Standards (IMAS) Mine Risk Education Best Practice Guidebook 2, Data Collection and
Needs Assessment for MRE as well as the IMAS for MRE Best Practice Guidebooks.

1.3 Findings

The assessment largely confirmed the earlier 2002 UXO LAO assessment and the UNICEF
Scrap Metal Study conducted by GICHD and shows that UXO risk is usually underpinned by a
complex set of socio-economic factors and will require a multi faceted and multi level
response.
The assessment found overall a high level of awareness and understanding among both
adults and children and the risks associated with coming into contact with UXO. For example,
82% of the adult respondents indicated that no UXO is safe. The following were given as
some of the most common events that cause a UXO to detonate: impact from a strong force,
touching / moving the UXO, high temperatures from a fire, vibration from movement and
tampering. Of the children, 99.6% considered UXO to be dangerous and 97% reported being
afraid of UXO.

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The children identified that accidents could happen by touching, hitting, playing, throwing or
burning farmland. Nevertheless, despite these known risks many people, including women
and children, on an almost daily basis, continue to interact with live or potentially live ordnance.
This apparent inconsistency can be rationally defended by risk takers even though this
perception is not based on scientific risk estimates or ‘expert’ views of safe behaviour in a
UXO environment. Particularly high risk groups were identified as:
− Adults who actively collect scrap metal

− Adults who move UXO out of farming land

− Scrap metal dealers

− Adults who deliberately dismantle UXO

− Children who opportunistically and actively collect scrap metal

− Children who play or tamper with UXO

− Adults and children who work on agricultural land

− Out of school youth and young children

The assessment found that the general categories often used to characterize at risk
populations, that is, the uniformed, the unaware, the reckless and the intentional, were less
relevant to the context of the Lao PDR and has categorized UXO exposure as either
voluntary/intentional or involuntary. The assessment also found that voluntary exposure to
UXO was rarely perceived by communities or individuals as the only option. More commonly
intentional UXO risk taking was found to be based on a rational decision making process
involving the weighing up of the potential costs and benefits of a range of available livelihood
options.

From the sample, voluntary, intentional exposure is by far the most common form of
engagement and is generally a pragmatic, rational and habitual response to UXO
contamination. Voluntary exposure may include, for example, moving items of UXO from
agricultural land and moving UXO from areas where children undertake daily activities. Other
forms of voluntary exposure are primarily driven by economic imperatives and include
collecting scrap metal and in some cases deliberately tampering with live ordnance, primarily
to disable the UXO to render the scrap saleable. While people are generally aware of, and
understand the risk, the habitual presence of UXO, the routine handling of ordnance which
does not always result in harm, alongside the degree to which people feel they can control the
level of risk, for example, by moving an item carefully, being sure not to hit it and so forth
means that on the whole people feel the level of risk is acceptable or at least manageable.
Risks may also be rationalised through weighing up the costs versus the benefits by
considering the hazard, for example, some items of UXO are considered safer than others so
the perceived cost of moving those items is deemed acceptable. The following quote helps to
demonstrate this:

“I moved 3 bombies from the bottom of a bomb crater. When I was digging I hit one of the
bombies so I slowly picked it up and moved it out from the bomb crater to a nearby area. I was
afraid when moving the bombie but I needed the money - in one bomb crater I could get 40kg
of scrap metal” (Female scrap collector, Saravan).

The most common ways in which people voluntarily expose themselves to UXO risk is through
collecting or dealing in scrap metal, moving UXO from farmland and dismantling UXO.

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Predisposing factors include, level of contamination of farming land, beliefs that some UXO
are relatively safe to move, perceptions of safe behaviours and digging to investigate metal
detector signals. Enabling factors include, ease of which people can pick up UXO items and
move them, availability of metal detectors and inability of clearance agencies to respond
timely to reports of UXO on farming land. Reinforcing factors include, food security problems
which motivate people to engage in the collection of scrap metal, lack of alternative income
generating activities, price of scrap metal and lack of access to alternative farming land which
is not contaminated with UXO. The following quote from one of the female respondents helps
to illustrate how UXO contamination levels, inability of clearance agencies to meet community
needs, food security and alternative options contribute to people deciding to voluntarily take
risk:

“I found more than 10 BLUs in my new farming land, each time I moved them into one place
and kept farming as my family land is very small so I need to keep farming in that area”
(Female , Saravan).
Almost everyone who voluntarily exposed themselves to potential live ordnance was able to
provide examples of the risk reduction strategies they took, despite these strategies having
little bearing on actual safety, illustrating their perceived control over the situation, itself a
contributing factor in risk taking behaviours. Some of the risk reduction strategies described,
which do not necessarily improve safety, included:
− Do not turn the BLUs when moving them and move the BLU very slowly and put it
down very slowly

− Place soil around the BLU before moving it

− Use a shovel to pick up the BLU

− If placing the BLU in the hole of a tree use a rope to put the BLU in the hole

− Before moving the UXO decide what is going to be done with it

− Turn head and back away when putting the UXO down

Scrap metal collectors were identified as a high risk group, especially those who actively
search for sub-surface scrap using readily available Vietnamese metal detectors which can be
purchased for approximately US$12. A common strategy used to reduce risk concerns the
perceptions of the accuracy of a signal given by a detector, despite this strategy being based
on misinformation the statements below represent views held by many:

“I feel safer when digging, more confident that it isn’t a UXO when I hear the small beeps” or
“the system of the detector is that if we find a small piece of scrap we get a different sound, if
we find a large piece of metal we get no sound”.

Scrap dealers were also identified as a high risk group although almost all of them reported
that they did not buy items of UXO as they could not sell them. Evidence suggests that this
may not always be the case. In scrap yards for example, UXO can be found and dealers
reported a number of strategies for reducing the threat of UXO, including:

− Making the scrap collector take the items away

− Storing items in bags / drums on the premises

− Removing UXO from premises to nearby location

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 − Storing until UXO clearance agency can deal with the item

Further, not all dealers have the skills to differentiate between safe and unsafe ordnance as
shown in the quote below:

“Without knowing it I have bought many things from villagers, BLUs with explosives, hand
grenades with no pins, bullets, mortar shells with gunpowder inside” (Female scrap dealer,
Xieng Khouang).

Likewise some of the people bringing scrap to the dealers may not have the skills or
knowledge to distinguish safe from unsafe scrap, this may be particularly true of children,
according to one dealer for example:
“Children sometimes bring me UXO items, especially boys around 7-13 years of age. The
children send them to me as they don’t know or understand the dangers of UXO, so when
they find something they always think that it is a piece of scrap to make money’ (Male, scrap
metal dealer, Xieng Khouang).

Of the children surveyed 52% reported collecting scrap metal which in the context of the Lao
PDR where children often contribute to the household labour and income this is perhaps not
surprising. Almost all of the children who reported collecting scrap recognised it was a
potentially dangerous activity giving the following reasons:

− It is not safe to collect scrap metal below the surface when using a small shovel to dig
as they cannot see the UXO below the surface (again highlighting the fear surrounding
involuntary contact)

− It is dangerous while digging, for example, in bomb crater areas

− Cannot tell if there is a fuse or explosive inside

− Afraid that they might inadvertently collect a UXO such as a ‘bombie’

− UXO might be in the ground and can explode

− High risk from UXO which can kill

Involuntary exposure, for example exposure to sub surface UXO while farming, is generally
feared due to the lack of control people have over the situation. People reported voluntarily
exposing themselves to UXO, for example, removing items from farming land, in order to
avoid possible unintentional exposure later. Contributing factors to involuntary exposure
include the limited ability of clearance agencies to respond to the needs of farmers and lack of
alternative agricultural land. The following quote expresses a view shared by many and helps
to illustrate this as well as highlighting the higher level of fear that surrounds involuntary
exposure:
“No clearance team comes and helps us so even though it is not safe to move, when we find
UXO this farming season we need to move them, otherwise the following year when we farm
again we don’t know where they are” (Male, Saravan).

In summary, the assessment has demonstrated that UXO related behavioural decisions are
not motivated by single causal factors but are made within a complex and interlocking milieu
of economic, social, political and cultural factors. Reducing risk taking behaviour to a single
causal factor is therefore likely to over simplify the situation and result in less effective
interventions. UXO risk takers, including women and children, generally are aware of the risk
and activate some form of risk assessment process and use this to make rational and

10
deliberate decisions regarding acceptable risk. Within other stakeholder perspectives however,
for example, humanitarian mine action ‘experts’, regulatory bodies, educationalists and
decision makers there are different views on acceptability and rationality of local risk
assessment processes. This conflict is largely about a divergent definition of risk, differences
in ways problems are structured and solved, differences in judgments about the probability of
an accident and different kinds of knowledge. While this gap may be difficult to bridge, the
UXO sector in the Lao PDR is at a dynamic and pivotal period and this alongside a move
towards a risk management approach to UXO contamination presents an opportunity to
develop strategies to bridge some of the gaps and work in partnership with the various
stakeholders to reduce UXO risk.

1.4 Recommendations
This assessment has been undertaken primarily as a MRE assessment and to inform MRE
strategies and programming and many of the recommendations will be focused on MRE.
Nevertheless, it is clear from the assessment that while information and education will remain
a prerequisite for promoting UXO safe behaviour, particularly for children, on its own it is
inadequate as a risk reduction strategy. In order to reduce risk the underlying vulnerabilities of
risk and the way UXO risk is perceived by all stakeholders, also needs to be addressed.
Recommendations therefore relate not only to MRE but also to broader structural issues
including policy and legislation and clearance processes. Further, information and advocacy
efforts will need to target different levels of society including policy makers, service providers
and affected communities. The legislative training aimed at legislators in the HMA sector,
which occurred at the end of 2006, is a good start. The information gathered during this
assessment will inform development of the NRA Risk Management and Mitigation Strategy
being developed by the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Deming (GICHD) with
support from UNDP. The recommendations made are related to the below points and are
further elaborated in Section 7 Recommendations:

− Establish a process for engaging stakeholders

− Improve targeting and deployment of UXO clearance assets

− Review legislation and regulatory controls

− Review and revise current MRE messages and strategies

− Review and revise current information management systems

− Develop strategies to reduce the risk to children and youth

− Develop strategies targeting adults & children who collect scrap metal

− Develop strategies to reduce the risk to people who dismantle UXO

− Develop strategies to reduce the risk to farmers working in the fields

2. Introduction
The Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia
with an estimated population of 5.8 million and an annual growth rate of 2.3% (World Bank
Development Indicators Database, August 2004). An estimated 28% of the population is living
on less than a dollar a day making Laos one of the poorest countries in the world. Its
geographical conditions restrict both the quantity and quality of agricultural produce as well as
posing difficulties in providing adequate infrastructure and access to basic services. These

11
development challenges are compounded by a predominantly rural population (82.9% of the
population live in rural and remote areas), great ethnic diversity and UXO. Years of aerial
bombardment during the Second Indochina War has left approximately 50% of the land and
surface area of the country contaminated with UXO.

Lao PDR has the distinction of being, per capita, the most heavily bombed nation in the world.
As a result of intense ground battles and extensive bombing during the Indo-China War,
especially during the years 1964 – 1973 there is widespread contamination of UXO, which
thirty years on continues to act as a barrier to socio economic development and causes death
and injury to adults and children. UXO injury, especially in a country such as Lao PDR where
access to adequate health services is limited, can result in long-term medical and
psychological sequelae (Handicap International, 2004) as well as a huge financial burden to
affected individuals, families, their communities and health services. Often, those who suffer a
landmine/UXO injury are aware of the risk (International Campaign to Ban Landmines, 2000;
Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining, 2003).
In the Lao PDR as a response to the continuing UXO threat, the Government, with assistance
from UNDP and UNICEF established the Lao PDR Trust Fund for UXO in 1995 to finance a
national programme of clearance and education. A National Survey on the Socio-economic
Impact of UXO was conducted (Handicap International, 1997) and of the eighteen provinces in
Lao PDR, fifteen reported contamination in 2,861 villages (25% of all Lao villages). Nine
hundred and forty eight rural villages reported UXO in the centre of the village. As a result,
UXO was deemed a major safety and development issue and a mine action programme was
established.

The United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF) for Lao PDR, 2007-2011,
also recognises that UXO is a cross cutting issue in tackling poverty and recognises the
importance of an approach which facilitates the provision of an enabling environment for
growth and development. Key areas seen as critical components include pro-poor policy
reform, support to natural resource development and the environment, clearance of UXO,
nutrition and household food security, reproductive health, disaster management, promotion of
trade and private sector development, and strengthening of donor and aid coordination and
alignment (UNDAF, 2006). As the results of this assessment will show, creating an enabling
and multi-faceted approach to improved livelihoods will also contribute to a reduction in UXO
risk.

In the UNDAF as well as other documents it is recognised that the continued presence of
UXO more than three decades after the end of the war, poses an on-going threat to both
livelihood security and personal safety. UXO for example, continues to kill or injure more than
150 people a year, with 77 children being injured or killed due to UXO accidents in 2005 (UXO
LAO).

In common with most other mine action programmes, the Lao national UXO programme
(1996-ongoing), aims to reduce risk through survey, marking, surface and sub-surface
landmine/UXO clearance and MRE. MRE aims to promote safety in UXO contaminated
communities and in the Lao PDR as in many other programmes of its time, has been primarily
underpinned by psychological theories of behaviour change, such as the Health Belief Model
(Rosenstock 1974). More specifically, in the Lao PDR, UNICEF has supported MRE for
children in several at risk communities in 12 of the most heavily contaminated provinces.
Since 2002, this support has been focused on the implementation of two projects: the
introduction of UXO as an extra curricular activity within the primary school system,

12
implemented by World Education Consortium with the Ministry of Education and ‘Sport in the
Box’ implemented by the Lao Youth Union.

Since the outset, UNICEF has supported continuous monitoring and evaluation, including
UNICEF funded evaluations in 2000 (Delneuville, A.) and 2005 (Geneva International Centre
for Humanitarian Demining). In 2001 UXO LAO also undertook a KAP study in 3 provinces
followed by a more in depth study in one province to try and understand the contributing
factors to UXO risk behaviour and injury (Sisawath, B and Durham, J.). Two other important
studies which informed this assessment were two Cambodian studies into the motivations of
villagers to undertake their own demining and the deliberate handling of live ordnance
(Bottomley, 2003; Moyes, 2004) and a UNICEF commissioned study into the Scrap Metal
Trade in the Lao PDR (GICHD, 2005).
Recognizing that while information and awareness is a prerequisite to change and the value of
such activities should not be underestimated, the UNICEF commissioned evaluation in 2005
recommended that in preparation for the next 5 year strategy, a risk assessment be
undertaken to ascertain who is currently at risk, why and what can be done to mitigate the risk.

Risk assessment is the process of identifying and assessing risks and risk taking behaviour in
order to provide decision makers with the information they require. Based on information
provided in a risk assessment, operational decisions can be made that balance costs against
benefits and also take into account political, social and economic considerations as well as
statutory or policy requirements. Risk assessment, therefore, involves identifying the hazard
and the type of problems caused and how a particular hazard is perceived by different
stakeholders. This will influence behaviour and level of risk people are prepared to accept.
Risk assessment also involves identifying for example, who is exposed to the hazard, in what
ways and what factors contribute to or lead to a person coming into contact with a particular
hazard. Information gathered during the risk assessment process feeds into risk management
decisions which may be technological, regulatory and educational or more frequently, a
combination of all three based on available funds, feasibility, land use and impact.

Specifically, this assessment aimed to identify ‘Who is at risk?’ ‘Why?’ and ‘What can be done
about it?’ Specific objectives were:
To collect and analyse quantitative and qualitative data to identify who is at risk of UXO
accidents, why and what can be done about it

To involve a range of stakeholders in the assessment

To provide a report based on the above which can be used to underpin the MRE strategy
for the Lao PDR and for UNICEF specifically and can be used to develop measurable
impact and outcome objectives and indicators

To provide recommendations on appropriate UXO messages and risk reduction strategies

The assessment took an eclectic approach to the risk assessment combining ecological
approaches to health promotion and injury prevention and risk management approaches to
environmental health. The study was also informed by the ‘International Mine Action
Standards (IMAS) Mine Risk Education Best Practice Guidebook 2, Data Collection and
Needs Assessment for MRE as well as the IMAS for MRE Best Practice Guidebooks and the
UNICEF technical note Children Participating in Research Monitoring and Evaluation – Ethics
and Your Responsibilities as a Manager’.

13
Data was gathered in six provinces: Houaphan, Xieng Khouang, Saravan, Savanakhet,
Khammouane and Attapeu using a Knowledge Attitude and Practice (KAP) survey form. In
total, 1312 adults completed the KAP questionnaire and 26 adult focus group discussions
were held. A total of 720 children between the ages of 8-18 completed the KAP questionnaire,
of these there were 495 boys and 225 girls and 18 focus group discussions were held.
Following the KAP, a more qualitative data collection phase was undertaken in three
provinces: Khammouane, Xieng Khouang and Saravan to enable a more in-depth
examination of risk taking behaviour and factors that underpin risk.

The assessment found that the general categories often used to characterize at risk
populations, that is, the uniformed, the unaware, the reckless and the intentional, were less
relevant to the context of the Lao PDR. Instead, the study distinguished between intentional
exposure (i.e. voluntary) to live ordnance, that is, where actors aware of the risk, purposefully
expose themselves to live ordnance, and unintentional exposure (involuntary). Voluntary
exposure may include for example, moving an item of UXO to another location or tampering
with ordnance for economic gain. Unintentional exposure to UXO injury is where a person’s
exposure to live ordnance is unplanned and may include for example exposure due to
inattention or lack of knowledge. While some of the prevention activities may be the same,
intentionality is an important variable and particularly relevant in the Lao PDR where UXO
injury due to intentional exposure to live ordnance, for example through the deliberate
tampering of ordnance for the scrap metal trade is thought to be increasing. To promote the
concept of UXO safety it is also important to understand and address people’s perceptions of
safety, danger and risk.

As will be shown, the assessment found generally a high level of UXO awareness and
knowledge of risk taking and risk reduction behaviours. Despite this however, the assessment
also found that many people, including women and children, on an almost daily basis,
continue to voluntarily interact with live, or potentially live ordnance. This apparent
inconsistency can be rationally defended by risk takers and behavioural decisions are taken
based on a cognitive process of risk assessment influenced by individual and group
perceptions of risk. The assessment identified a number of perceptual, cognitive, pragmatic
and economic market factors which inform this rationale defence of risk taking behaviour. Also
key is a weighing up of benefits and costs of UXO risk activities compared with an evaluation
of other household risks.

A key household risk is basic food insecurity and this is often a motivating force in the decision
to engage with, or at least potentially engage with, UXO. In trying to meet basic needs such as
food security, individuals and households also consider the costs and benefits of alternative
income generating options, often preferring activities which may expose them to UXO, for
example scrap metal collection in contaminated areas. This is compounded by the ease with
which detectors, which potentially bring people in more regular contact with UXO, can be
bought, the inability of clearance agencies to respond in a timely manner to meet the needs of
those affected and a certain level of social and parental acceptance of UXO risk taking
behaviour, even where a UXO incident may have economic and social consequences for
families and communities. Further, while people may have the knowledge, intent and skills to
change their behaviour, they may feel unable to do so in the light of other household risks and
the perceived costs of other household income generating options. A number of contradictions
were also identified, for example, scrap metal collection is on the one hand perceived as being
potentially risky but on the other hand is not necessarily associated with accidents. This may
be due to a cognitive coping strategy whereby the risk is explained away as being
exaggerated or a belief that the person has the necessary skills to remain in control.

14
The complex milieu in which behavioural decisions are made, poses a particular challenge for
agencies in developing and responding to UXO contamination in the Lao PDR and suggests a
need for a collaborative, multi-sectoral and multi-level response which will include a range of
legislative and regulatory strategies as well as improved UXO clearance methodology and
targeting of resources, skills training, MRE and shifts in perceptions. Central to this is
developing processes to ensure the meaningful engagement of a range of stakeholders. For
this reason, while the recommendations focus primarily on educational and training
interventions, the report also makes a number of other recommendations. It was also clear
from the literature review that currently the public health sector lacks the necessary skills and
expertise to provide adequate emergency and rehabilitation care and although not the specific
focus of this assessment, it is important that health care provision is improved and more
specifically UXO injury surveillance and health care for UXO casualties integrated into the
public health system.

3. Literature Review
The literature review was used to inform the assessment and begins with an overview of HMA
and MRE to provide a more global and historical context to the assessment. As MRE is
essentially a health and safety promotion activity, the review also includes a section on
contemporary approaches to health and safety promotion and their application to MRE.

3.1 Humanitarian Mine Action

HMA is the term used to describe those activities that attempt to address the problems faced
by people as a result of landmine/UXO contamination. It is composed of five components:
mine clearance and survey; stockpile destruction; mine risk education; survivor and victim
assistance; and advocacy and aims to recreate an environment in which people can live
without landmines/UXO and in which mine survivors are fully integrated into their societies
(United Nations, 2003a).

Humanitarian mine action, which has its roots in the military, developed as a response to the
landmine/UXO problem in current and former areas of conflict and is now governed by
international standards and operating procedures. In the early 90s, western humanitarian
mine action NGOs were also formed with programmes established in Afghanistan, Cambodia
and northern Iraq. The aim of these programmes was to reduce risk and return land and
infrastructure to safe productive use to a specified depth through as close as possible to 100
per cent clearance (Eaton, Horwood and Niland, 1997). Different methods of landmine/UXO
clearance have been tried, (for example using dogs or mechanical clearance techniques)
however, until recently there has been a general consensus that manual clearance, although
time consuming, costly and labour intensive, is the most effective.

More recently, there has been much discussion within the sector of applying risk management
approaches to UXO clearance. Risk management is the process of optimising the use of
scarce resources to reduce the risk that a person or community faces from a hazard. Risk
management begins with a risk assessment which is usually based on a review of a
combination of epidemiological and health surveillance data, behavioural surveillance and an
assessment of the level and type of hazard, its current or likely impact and an analysis of who
is likely to be exposed to the hazard, in what way, for what reasons, when and where and
what the likely outcome will be of that exposure.

In terms of UXO contamination, risk management usually means a combination of regulatory,

educational and technical interventions and involves a compromise based on available funds,

15
feasibility, land use and impact. In adopting a risk assessment/management approach
clearance operators are also moving away from a zero risk approach to acknowledging that
100% clearance is unrealistic and that there will be a residual risk. Part of the risk
management process therefore and based on the risk assessment is determining what is an
acceptable level of residual or tolerable risk. The outcome of any clearance should be a risk
that is tolerable to the end users, but which represents the best use of the resources available
(GICHD, 2005). Given that risk management is premised on the basis of tolerable risk for the
end user, implicit in a risk management approach is the involvement of affected communities
in the risk management process.
Risks associated with the situation also have to be placed within the context of other real or
perceived risks. This determines the level of acceptable levels of risk. In this respect, people’s
perceptions of risk also play an important part as people’s perceptions may be at variance
from actual risk. In assessing risk and in determining appropriate responses to risk it is
important therefore to engage in public consultation.
Frameworks for environmental health risk management include the following steps:

− Defining the problem/context including defining the hazard and its potential impact,
identifying stakeholders and determining risk management goals

− Analysing the risks including who is at risk and contributing factors to exposure to the
hazard

− Reviewing the various management options based on resources and acceptable risk

− Taking risk management decisions

− Developing action plans including plans for risk communication

− Monitoring and evaluating the risks and risk management interventions

Key to all stages of the process is engagement with stakeholders and taking a multi-
contextual, multi-risk view to risks and hazards. As will be seen below, such an approach is
also consistent with contemporary paradigms of health and safety promotion.

3.2 Health and Safety Promotion and Mine Risk Education

A review of the literature shows two dominant paradigms in health and safety promotion. One
is underpinned by the medical view of health and is focussed mainly on individual behaviours
and lifestyles. The approach taken in this model of health promotion has arisen from the fields
of medicine and psychology, in particular socio-cognitive theories of behaviour. This approach
has traditionally underpinned many MRE programmes.

The second approach takes a broader view of health, and tries to addresses structural issues
such as the social, political and economic determinants of health. This approach has been
influenced by the principles of the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion (World Health
Organisation 1986) and stems from systems approaches, particularly socio-eco systems
models.

Under the socio-cognitive theory of behaviour change the responsibility for behaviour change
is seen to reside primarily within the individual and is influenced by several different factors.
Some of these factors include:

The Rational Factor which is based on knowledge, that is, people are expected to behave
rationally if they have sufficient knowledge about something. If people know about the

16
 potential harm of unsafe behaviours and know how they can avoid harm, they are more
likely to adopt a new behaviour.

The Practical Factor, this is based on the personal skills acquired to carry out the new
behaviour: People change their behaviour. In other words people will practice the new
behaviour if they feel competent in practising a new behaviour.
The Social Network of Interpersonal Communication: People change their behaviour if
they can associate with, and be supported by, others to share their behaviour. A member
of a group is more likely to accept and follow a safe behaviour because other members
are practising that behaviour.

Socio-cognitive theories to behaviour change recognise that behaviour change is not a one
time event, but rather it is a process with people moving through several intermediate stages
— each taking time — between behaving one way to behaving another way consistently.
Further, as will be discussed in more detail below, a person’s decision to change their
behaviour depends not only on their own ability but also on the extent to which the
environment supports positive behaviour change. People are also more likely to accept and
apply recommended risk reduction behaviours if they perceive themselves to be susceptible to
a problem, and feel the recommended behaviour change will not only reduce their
susceptibility to the problem, but that the changed behaviour will bring about other benefits
that will be at least equal to the effort expended in adopting the new behaviour.

Research has shown that an

Perceived susceptibility
individual will take preventive
to problem health action based on the
Perceived interaction between four
threat different types of beliefs as
Perceived seriousness
of consequences
shown in the Figure 1
of problem Self-efficacy Preventive Health Action
(Perceived ability to Process 1 , thus behaviour
carry out recommended
action) change is a complex
Perceived benefits
of specified action incremental process,
Outcome influenced by existing values,
expectations norms, and emotions.
Perceived barriers
to taking action

There are, however, limitations to these socio-cognitive theories: first, they are focussed
primarily on the individual. Secondly, while it is true that an individual can exert some control
of their behaviour and their immediate environment, they are not completely free agents.
People may for example, suffer injury or death as a consequence of someone else’s
behaviour, or through the physical environment in which they live or the social environment in
which they behave.

Haddon (1980) incorporated these other non behavioural factors in the Haddon matrix which
applied epidemiological principles to injury. More recently a systems approach to safety has
been taken. This approach focuses on the milieu in which individuals behave and tries to
make changes in the system. From this perspective, an injury event is rarely the result of an

1 Nutbeam, Don and Harris, Elizabeth, Theory in a Nutshell — A guide to Health Promotion Theory, McGraw–Hill 1999

17
isolated behaviour error on the part of an individual; rather it is a combination of weaknesses
in the system, triggering events and behavioural errors.

Bosnia and Herzegovina (Lusica 2003) have also applied a risk assessment model to
analysing UXO/mine risk which also takes into account the environment, economic conditions
and public safety, human behaviour, social impact and economic impact. UNICEF has
developed a number of matrixes based on level of threat, level of impact and level of risk to
develop a risk register and plan interventions. The matrixes are used to develop a picture of at
risk groups which is followed by a SWOT analysis to further define at risk communities and
devise appropriate interventions.

Green and Kreuter’s (1999) social ecological model of health promotion also places health
and safety within the context of the whole ecological system and provides a useful paradigm
for understanding risk. The framework has been applied usefully as a tool for analysing UXO
risk in the Lao PDR (UXO LAO in depth study in Boulapha District 2002, Durham, J. et al.
2005, Durham, J. 2006) and is included in the IMAS Guide to MRE (GICHD, 2005) and is
used in this assessment.

3.3 What Makes Health and Safety Promotion Programmes Work

As discussed, any approach to injury prevention and UXO safety needs to embrace a range of
strategies which target not only individual behaviour but also communities as well as socio-
economic, policy, legislation, environmental and technological interventions. Nevertheless,
awareness and education remains a prerequisite for change and its importance in UXO risk
reduction should not be underestimated. Risk communication is the third aspect of risk
assessment/risk management paradigm and is very closely related to risk management.

In mine/UXO action programmes, communication interventions may be used to raise

awareness of the UXO threat, promote safe behaviour among people who are already aware
of the threat or may specifically target communities that have been identified as being
particularly high risk due to the presence of a number of socio-economic and environmental
indicators (UNICEF/GICHD, 2005). It is also important to note that a communication strategy
may not only target those who are directly affected but also those who may be able to
contribute to solving the problem, for example, politicians, donors, legislators and journalists
(GICHD). Risk communication may include one way messages but also a range of other
communication processes and strategies are suggested:

Barriers to risk communication may include:

− Characteristics and limitations of the information about the risk – the message

− Characteristics and limitations of people communicating the message – the source

− Characteristics and limitations of the media in reporting of risk information – the

channel
− Characteristics and limitations of the public in evaluating and interpreting risk
information (for example perceptions, judgments on risk acceptability, complexity of
issues – the receiver

In summary the literature review provided direction in answering the research questions of
who is at risk, why and what can be done about it? What is clear from the UXO LAO study, is
that exposure to risk is not just about individual behaviours. Rather a complex web of
interlocking and related risk factors and vulnerabilities underlie risk taking behaviours and
even where UXO clearance has occurred, people may continue to be vulnerable to exposure

18
to live ordnance. This will be especially true where those vulnerabilities to high risk behaviour
remain (Bottomely, 2003). Crucial therefore in framing an appropriate response to UXO risk is
firstly identifying and then addressing these underlying risk factors and vulnerabilities. The
apparent upward trend in UXO related mortality and morbidity also suggests that the
professional UXO community is not currently fully meeting the needs of affected communities.

4. Methodology
The assessment took an eclectic approach and consisted of four main components: a
literature review; development and administration of a quantitative knowledge, attitude and
practice (KAP) questionnaire; a qualitative assessment and data analysis. Given the
inconsistencies and incompleteness of the current accident data, a full analysis of the accident
data was not included although the available data was reviewed and used to inform the
assessment.

The KAP form was developed based on a review of similar forms and in a workshop with the
LYU and the MAG research team. The KAP was used to provide broad contextual information
on a general level of community mine/UXO awareness, attitudes to the deliberate exposure of
live ordnance, people’s assessment of the attendant risk associated with such practices and
how these opinions have been informed. The results of the KAP were used to develop the
qualitative survey tools in a participatory workshop with the data gatherers and research team.
The KAP was field tested in Khammouane.

The qualitative tools were used to identify the individual circumstances, motivations and
contributing factors which lead to voluntary or deliberate and non deliberate exposure to live
ordnance and provide a detailed understanding of the range of contributing socio-economic,
psychological, cultural, political and legal factors that contribute to risk behaviours and
exposure to live ordnance. Triangulation was ensured through the collection of qualitative data
using different tools, for example, semi/un structured interviews, focus group discussions and
collecting information from different sources and the multi disciplinary nature of the research
team. Neither quantitative nor qualitative data collection tools required participants to be able
to read or write thus ensuring that those who were illiterate were not excluded from the
assessment.
Data gathering tools were developed based on existing forms and tools and adapted to the
Lao context. The IMAS Mine Risk Education Best Practice Guidebook 2, Data Collection and
Needs Assessment for MRE Guidelines was also used as a guide for the development of
appropriate data collection tools.

4.1 Sampling

To ensure the sample was as representative as possible, multistage cluster sampling was
used with districts selected based on UXO contamination and impact. In each Province two
districts were selected based on contamination levels, reported injury rates, recent UXO
related surveys and accessibility. The sample size for the KAP was based on the need to
include 2,000 respondents and a proportion of male and female adults and children exposed
to the UXO. In each province, districts were chosen with probability proportional to size (PPS)
with a list of villages prepared as a sampling frame for each district with approximately 50
villages being selected by simple random sampling with probability of selection proportional to
the number of villages.

Following this, the sample population was estimated based on PPS and in each sample
village the number of respondents was selected using a list of households with adults and

19
children over 8 years of age as the unit of the sampling frame. Using systematic random
interval sampling, respondents were then selected by dividing the total number of households
in the village by the number of sampling units required in each village. Once in the village, the
survey team started from the centre of the village, and randomly chose the first household.
Following this, subsequent households were selected by adding the sampling interval until the
total number of adult males and females, boys and girls over 8 years of age of each village
were obtained. In cases where there were no people in the selected household the next house
was chosen and where there were insufficient households in one direction, the researchers
returned to the centre and started working in another direction based on the direction of a
spun pen.

Occasionally, due to the timing of the assessment and many farmers being away from their
house and working in the rice fields, it was not possible for the selection of sampling units to
be completely random. Nevertheless, MAG feels that the results are generally representative
and due to the large sample size it is possible to make generalizations based on the data
collected.

In total 1312 adults completed the KAP questionnaire of which54% were men and 46% were
women. Focus group discussions were held with 14 groups of men and 12 groups of women.
The main occupation of the respondents was farming and livestock production. A total of 720
children over 8 years of age completed the KAP questionnaire, of these there were 495 boys
and 225 girls. Eighteen focus group discussions were also held with children.

4.2 Data analysis

The aim of the data analysis was to understand from the perspective of affected communities,
the nature of the risk associated with UXO contamination. The results of the KAP study was
analysed through using standard software: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences.

Content analysis was used to analyse the qualitative data and to identify predisposing,
enabling and reinforcing contributing factors2 to risk behaviour (refer also to IMAS Mine Risk
Education Best Practice Guidebook 2, Data Collection and Needs Assessment for MRE,
Annex 2) and to identify appropriate strategies and communication mechanisms for promoting
safety and mitigating risk.

4.3 Location

The KAP study was conducted in villages selected from five provinces identified by UNICEF
and LYU with high, medium and low levels of UXO contamination based on the HIB socio-
economic impact study (1997). Two of the study sites were selected from among those with
the highest reported UXO incident and casualty numbers while a third was chosen from
among provinces that, although affected by similar levels of UXO contamination, had low
incident and casualty numbers.

The qualitative data gathering phase which primarily utilised semi and unstructured interviews
and focus group discussion was undertaken initially in two Provinces (Xieng Khouang and
Saravan) and in consultation with UNICEF, an additional province (Khammouane) was also
included.

2 Predisposing (motivating), for example, knowledge, beliefs, values and attitudes; Enabling (facilitating), that is those factors

that enable a behaviour or situation to occur. Reinforcing (maintaining or rewarding) these are factors that provide incentives
for health behaviours to be maintained.

20
Site selection also took into account the location of the recent UXO Victim and Survivor
Assistance (Handicap International Belgium, 2006) study in Savanakhet and Xieng Khouang.
In the three districts included in the study in Savanakhet for example, all known UXO survivors
were interviewed and care was taken not to raise expectations through further interviews with
the same survivors although information gathered in the HIB survey did inform the
assessment analysis.
4.4 Ethics

In each data collection site the MAG research supervisor explained the purpose and nature of
the data collection, how the information would be used, data collection methods employed, the
right for informants to withdraw at any stage in the assessment process without retribution,
possible benefits, harms and outcomes and avenues for complaint and how such complaints
would be investigated. Training in confidentiality was also provided to data gatherers which
included interviewing individuals in places where as much as possible they would not be
overheard. They were also trained in the appropriate storing of information. Questionnaires
and interview tools will remain anonymous with no names or identifying features appearing on
completed questionnaires or interview notes. Access to the records and the length of time the
data will be kept will be agreed in consultation with UNICEF.

Community leaders and individuals were asked to give informed verbal or written consent as
considered appropriate. Prior to the commencement of the data gathering phase, the
assessment methodology was agreed with UNICEF and checked to ensure that it met
UNICEF’s ethical research guidelines.

4.5 Training of Data-gatherers

The MAG research team was already trained in data gathering for health research and was
lead by an International Team Leader and a National Principle Researcher. Additional training
was provided however, in ethics of data collection and working with children. Research
Assistants were allocated to each province, where they trained the LYU data gatherers in that
particular location.

4.6 Quality Control

In addition to the training provided, the MAG International Team Leader and the National
Principle Researcher provided day to day quality control and monitoring support. Further, in
the data collection phase for the KAP, one Research Assistant was deployed to each province
to work alongside and provide management support to the LYU data gatherers. The Research
Assistants checked that forms were completed properly, provided one to one support where
needed and held regular debriefing sessions with the data gatherers.

4.7 Special Considerations for the Participation of Children

Given that children form part of the wider community affected by UXO contamination, many
UXO casualties are children and that information collected will be used to inform decisions
that will relate to children and MRE interventions aimed at children, the assessment aimed to
ensure that child informants were actively included in the assessment. Both quantitative and
qualitative information was gathered from children.

Including children in the assessment however presented its own challenges in ensuring that
the rights of the child and the best interests of the child were built into the assessment design.
To ensure this the assessment, based on UNICEF guidelines aimed to:

21
 − Ensure that children were not exposed to risks or potential harm through the
assessment process. Children and their carers were informed of the assessment, its
purpose and design and the right to non participation, interviews were conducted in
safe areas with children having the opportunity to be accompanied by a friend or carer.

− Child participation was based on the child’s consent. Children were also informed and
given opportunities to practice saying ‘no’ so that they could withdraw from the process
at any time

− Confidentiality was maintained in all records and reports

− Researchers and data gatherers were trained in gathering data from child participants
− Literacy was not a pre condition for inclusion in the assessment

− UNICEF reviewed the final assessment design specifically for ethical aspects and its
approach to children

4.8 Stakeholder Meeting

The findings and preliminary recommendations of the risk assessment were presented at a
stakeholder meeting on the 21st September 2006. Participants at the stakeholder meeting
included the Lao Youth Union, MRE service providers and the NRA. The stakeholder meeting
provided an opportunity for a question and answers session and presented a forum in which
the findings could be discussed and comments and inputs from the stakeholder meeting were
incorporated into the final report along with input from group discussions which informed the
recommendation section of the final report.
4.9 Limitations

Road conditions during the rainy season meant some districts of Saravan were inaccessible;
these districts were districts which had the highest level of contamination and reportedly the
highest active involvement in scrap metal collection. As the KAP survey was conducted during
the peak farming season the adult labour force was mobilized planting rice crops, impacting
on the availability of people to be interviewed. These two factors may have resulted in the
incidence of high risk activities such as moving UXO out of farming land and adults who
actively collected scrap metal in fact being under reported as highly contaminated districts
could not be accessed and farmers, who potentially were moving UXO were working in the
fields at the time.

5. Findings
5.1 Summary of Findings
This section provides a general overview of the assessment. The section is divided into three
main parts: UXO mortality and morbidity, UXO risk and channels of communication. A more
detailed presentation of the findings of the KAP arranged under the three areas of knowledge,
attitude and practice follows in the next section under general findings.
5.1.1 UXO Mortality and Morbidity

As part of the assessment, a review was undertaken of the available UXO accident data which
was provided primarily by UXO LAO. A review of this data shows that in common with many
other developing countries, injury surveillance and resulting data is insufficient, incomplete
and lacking standardization and socio-demographic data. Further, given that almost all of

22
UXO LAO’s data comes only from the 9 provinces in which it is operational, UXO accidents
are likely to be underreported. A review of the other available literature, also suggests that
hospital data is also incomplete and excludes fatalities or other cases that are not treated in a
tertiary level health care facility. To provide a broad overview of the accident and casualty
situation there have been a total of 976 recorded accidents from 1999 – 2006, in the 9
provinces of UXO LAO operations. In 2005 UXO LAO recorded a total of 164 casualties, 88
children (54%) and 76 adults (46%) with 36 accidents resulting in death. Eighty nine percent
of these casualties were males or boys, with 11% of the casualties being women or girls.

Available statistics are therefore inadequate from a research perspective because of

incomplete reporting, inaccuracies and insufficient classification of information. Quantitative
statements on the prevalence, incidence and risk estimates on probability of a UXO accident
therefore are not currently possible. Nor is it possible to accurately analyse whether there is
any correlation between UXO accidents and UXO action. Notwithstanding these difficulties,
however, the data that does exist and anecdotal evidence shows that accidents are occurring
during the course of routine livelihood activities such as working in agricultural fields,
collecting forest products and from cooking fires along with activities in which the individual is
intentionally engaging in contact with the UXO, such as scrap metal collecting and playing.

This is supported by the HIB Victim and Survivor Assistance Study (2006) which analysed
data in Xieng Khouang and Savanakhet from the UXO LAO database and found field work
(defined as working in rice fields, cultivation, gathering food in the forest and construction) as
the greatest cause of accidents.

Xieng Khouang Xieng

Cause of accident and Savanakhet Khouang Savanakhet
Field work (rice field cultivation,
forest gathering and construction) 33% 27% 38%
Cooking fires 29% 27% 31%
Scrap metal collection 21% 9% 31%
Playing with UXO 13% 27% 0%
Nearby at time of explosion 4% 9% 0%

The table below gives the rate of UXO accidents per province per 1000 people and shows
Xieng Khouang has an accident rate of 1.5 accidents per 1000 people followed by Attapeu
with 0.8 accidents per 1000 people. Interestingly, in the remaining provinces the accident rate
is very similar. It should be noted however, that the population figures used are for the whole
province rather than the population of people affected by UXO contamination, or from the
districts where UXO LAO gathers data.

23
 Number of accidents 1999-2005*
Accident rate per
Province Population # Total casualties* Injuries Deaths 1000 people
Luang Prabang 407,039 88 59 29 0.22
Houaphan 280,938 63 53 10 0.22
Xieng Khouang 229,596 334 248 86 1.5
Khammouane 337,390 70 42 28 0.21
Savanakhet 825,902 160 120 40 0.19
Saravan 324,327 47 33 14 0.14
Sekong 84,995 17 12 5 0.20
Champasak 607,370 107 73 34 0.18
Attapeu 112,120 90 47 43 0.80
# Population data courtesy Steering Committee for Census of Population and Housing (2006)
* Accident data courtesy of UXO LAO

5.1.2 Cause of UXO Accidents

Interestingly while the perception tends to be that most accidents are caused by scrap metal
collection, the available data suggests that the cause of UXO accidents is in fact spread over
a range of activities, including people who are going about their routine agricultural work or
collecting food or wood, to children who are playing and adults who are tampering with UXO.
Some caution is needed however as it may be that due to the legal status of dealing in war
scrap the activity at the time of a UXO incident may at times be misreported.

Activity at time of UXO accident as reported by adult and

children respondents

Don't know /
other
6%

Tampering with
Playing with UXO
UXO
25%
20%

Working in the
fields
10% Collecting scrap
metal
21%
Lighting a fire
6%
Foraging in the
forest for food /
wood
12% sample size: 2435

24
According to the available data, males are far more at risk from a UXO injury than females; for
example, UXO LAO data shows that between 1999 and 2006 males constituted 81% of UXO
injuries. In 2005 and 2006 males account for 89% of total number of injuries reported with
25% of accidents resulting in fatal injuries.

Casualties usually suffer severe and long term injury and disability and the fatality rate is high.
What is also disturbing is that for that for this period, 1999 – 2006, the available figures show
that just over half of the casualties are children and the majority of adults killed or injured fall
within the productive age of 18-45. The large proportion of children injured by UXO reflects the
type of UXO contamination in Laos. UXO are often found in the village and other areas where
children work and play. The prevalence of cluster bomb sub munitions (bombies) pose a
particular hazard for children who account for approximately 51% of accidents.
Due to the inconsistencies and possible misreporting of UXO related accidents to authorities,
the assessment has provided valuable insight into accident causation directly from the
affected communities. Seventy eight percent of the adult respondents and 63% of the children
knew of someone who had been injured or killed by a UXO accident. The above graph
highlights the activity individuals were reported to be carrying out at the time of the UXO
accident.

The principal cause of death or severe injury is severe blood loss; the geography of the
country limiting quick access to health care institutions capable of providing blood transfusions;
usually available only at provincial level hospitals. The needs resulting from an UXO accident,
for both adults and children require a long term integrated multi-sectored approach to
providing assistance to people with disabilities. Currently the assistance for survivors of UXO
accidents in Lao PDR is limited in scope and reach and is far from adequate.3 This limited
health and rehabilitation support makes it crucial to ensure that accidents where possible are
prevented. In order to do this in an effective and efficient manner, a thorough understanding of
peoples’ interactions with UXO and the motivating factors behind risk taking behaviours is
needed in order to develop MRE messages as part of an overall strategy aimed at reducing
accident rates.

5.1.3 UXO Risk in the Lao PDR

The risk assessment found that almost all people living in contaminated areas are potentially
at risk of exposure to live ordnance although the level of exposure and reasons underpinning
exposure, and the risks taken when exposed to UXO are different.

The risk to the population is both surface and subsurface UXO, with the largest number of
reports indicating exposure to BLU sub munitions. No one single factor can be contributed to
people’s exposure to UXO, rather exposure is often the consequence of complex interlocking
factors including;
− Exposure to live ordnance, both surface and subsurface

− Engagement in routine farm or household activities at the time of the incident or

engaged in some way in scrap metal trading

− Poverty and low cash income contributing to households seeking income derived from
UXO as either scrap metal, or through tampering and dismantling UXO

− Lack of real or perceived sustainable livelihood options

3 HIB, 2006

25
 − Perceived costs of other alternative livelihood options compare unfavourably with other
options even though those other options may put people at greater risk from UXO

− Lack of farmland, resulting in continuation of farming contaminated land and

households inability to produce enough food to ensure food security

− Inability of clearance agencies to meet community needs

− Access to a market in which to sell scrap metal

− A lack of parental supervision of children

− Active involvement of children in high risk activities such as scrap metal collecting

Lack of knowledge, however, was not found to be a major contributing factor to UXO exposure.
Generally, the assessment found a high level of awareness and understanding among both
adults and children and the risks associated with coming into contact with UXO are overall
well understood. For example, 82% of the adult respondents indicated that no UXO is safe
and provided a number of reasons for UXO detonating. Reasons given included: impact from
a strong force, touching / moving the UXO, high temperatures from a fire and vibration from
movement and tampering. Of the children, 99.6% considered UXO to be dangerous and 97%
of the children reported being afraid of UXO.

From the multiple responses given

the children identified that accidents
could happen through touching the How UXO accidents can happen
UXO, by hitting the UXO, through
playing with the UXO, by throwing the
UXO and by burning farmland. Burning /
Other Touch UXO
weeding
1% 14%
farmland
Children also reported having a
11%
number of strategies to protect
themselves from UXO related
accidents including: Throwing
UXO
− When coming across a UXO 23%
not going close to it (51%)
Hitting UXO
− Being careful when going 35%
where never been before (5%)
Playing with
− Being careful when digging UXO sample size: 1640
(17%) 16%

− Being careful when slashing

and burning (8%)

− Building domestic fires off the ground on stones in case a UXO was subsurface (4%)
− When finding a UXO report it (12%)

− Other (3%)

These strategies also largely reflect the standard UXO messages and in this sense are
perhaps less sophisticated than strategies reported by adults which are based more on
experience and folklore and relate more to the ways in which adults actually handle UXO.

26
In general, both adults and children’s engagement with items of UXO can be categorized as
either voluntary and intentional or involuntary and unintentional. Voluntary, intentional
exposure is often a pragmatic and habitual response to UXO contamination and the risk
assessment found the reasons for voluntary contact were to move items of UXO from
agricultural land and moving UXO from areas where children go. The other form of voluntary
exposure was primarily driven by economic imperatives and includes collecting scrap metal
and in some cases deliberately tampering with live ordnance, primarily to disable the UXO to
render the scrap saleable.

Predisposing factors (that is factors related to knowledge, beliefs, values and attitudes) for
voluntary engagement with UXO include, level of contamination of farming land, people’s
beliefs that some UXO are safe to move and digging to investigate metal detector signals.
Enabling factors (that is those factors that enable a behaviour or situation to occur) include
ease of which people can pick up UXO items and move them, availability of metal detectors,
and inability of clearance agencies to respond timely to reports of UXO on farming land.
Reinforcing factors include, food security problems which motivate people to engage in the
collection of scrap metal, lack of alternative income generating activities, price of scrap metal
and lack of access to alternative farming land which is not contaminated with UXO.

Men, women and children all engage in the scrap metal trade, 52% of the children surveyed
for example, reported having collected scrap metal which in the context of the Lao PDR where
children often contribute to the household labour and income is perhaps not surprising. Almost
all of the children who reported collecting scrap recognised it was a potentially dangerous
activity giving the following reasons:

− It is not safe to collect scrap metal below the surface when using a small shovel to dig
as they cannot see the UXO below the surface (again highlighting the fear surrounding
involuntary contact)

− It is dangerous while digging, for example, in bomb crater areas

− Cannot tell if there is a fuse or explosive inside

− Afraid that they might inadvertently collect a UXO such as a ‘bombie’

− UXO might be in the ground and can explode

− High risk from UXO which can kill

Almost all of these children had received money for scrap collected which they used for three
main activities, buying school supplies, buying clothes and buying sweets. In the previous 12
month period 2% of the adults had destroyed or dismantled UXO. UXO were destroyed or
dismantled in the following ways:

− Used a strong object to break it open (11%)

− Placed the UXO in a hot fire (56%)

− Used spanner to open large bomb (7%)

− Put salt over the UXO (7%)

− Others, which included opening UXO with a knife or a small spade (19%)

The majority of people who destroyed UXO do so by burning them on farming land in order to
clear the land for farming and to make the environment safer (74%), while 16% reported that

27
they dismantle UXO to collect the scrap metal, with 3% dismantling UXO to collect the
explosive and 7% dismantling UXO to be able to use it as a lamp. People who destroy or
dismantle UXO have learnt how to do this through their experiences as a solider and from
friends who also conducted this activity.

Further, 17% of the adults included in the KAP thought that handling UXO on a regular basis
made it safer to handle UXO in the future and 19% of the people surveyed were interested in
watching people handle UXO both to learn how to dismantle UXO and out of curiosity as they
had never seen someone handling a UXO before. This was reinforced during the focus group
discussions where it was reported on numerous occasions:

“We hear from the UXO team that we can not touch or move UXO safely so when we see
someone do this we want to see why and how they can do that safely” (Male, former scrap
metal dealer, Xieng Khouang).

This tendency to be interested in and to watch people dismantling UXO may also provide one
reason why there are often multiple casualties in accidents involving tampering and has
implications for risk messages.
While people are generally aware of, and understand the risks, the habitual presence of UXO
and routine handling of ordnance, alongside the degree to which people feel they can control
the level of risk - by moving an item carefully, or being sure not to hit it - means that on the
whole people feel the level of risk is acceptable or at least manageable. Many of the
respondents who reported UXO exposure for example, were able to explain risk reduction
strategies they used as shown in the graph below.

Involuntary exposure, particularly

How adults protect themselves from UXO accidents
to sub surface UXO while farming,
is generally feared due to the lack
of control people have over the
Mark UXO situation and people reported
5% Other
2% voluntarily exposing themselves to
When find UXO
report them UXO, such as removing items from
Don't go close to
13%
UXO
farming land, in order to avoid
Build domestic 36% possible involuntary exposure later.
fires above the
ground Contributing factors to involuntary
5%
exposure include the level of
Careful when
contamination on farming land,
slashing and methods used when farming, such
burning
12% as digging, lack of alternative
uncontaminated farming land, lack
Careful when Be careful when of knowledge and the inability of
digging land
21%
going to new
places
UXO clearance agencies to meet
6% communities’ clearance needs.
sample size: 2968

In general, as highlighted in the preceding paragraphs, individuals in contaminated

environments understand the dangers of UXO. Yet there are individuals who having not
grown-up in a contaminated environment have not developed strategies to deal with UXO or
are simply unaware of the risks UXO pose and may unintentionally place themselves in

28
danger. This was highlighted by a woman originally from Vientiane who had married and
moved to a village contaminated by UXO in Xieng Khouang. After living in the village for a
short time she saw that many people collected scrap metal which could be sold to make
money. Completely unaware of the dangers she collected all the BLU sub munitions in her
skirt that her husband had piled up in their home garden and carried them to a near by tree.
She then proceeded to throw the BLUs at the tree to break them open so she could sell them
as scrap. Fortunately for her, a family member came and saw what she was doing. ‘everyone
was very mad at me, but I didn’t know it was dangerous’’ she said.

Relocated communities are also at risk, as highlighted by a village in Houaphan which had
relocated from a mountainous area to be closer to health facilities after many people died of
illness in the village. They had moved from an area of low level contamination to another area
of low contamination, so were not faced with the threat of UXO, however what was clear was
the community lacked general knowledge about UXO and had not developed strategies to
deal with UXO. If they had relocated to an area of medium or high contamination the
community would have been at risk. This should become a consideration in future MRE
campaigns if populations living in mountainous areas are relocated closer to infrastructure and
facilities, possibly exposing individuals to UXO and placing them at an increased risk of
intentional and unintentional contact.

The risks associated with a particular situation also have to be placed within the context of the
real or perceived risk; this real or perceived risk determines what level of risk is acceptable to
the risk taker. The risk assessment found many examples where judgments and decisions
were made based on misinformation, such as the safety precautions taken when moving UXO
and what items of UXO are ‘safe’ to move. In this respect people’s perceptions of risk also
play an important part, as it is these perceptions that form the basis from which adults and
children rationalise a risk taking behaviour. However the risk assessment found that people’s
perceptions of risk are at times in variance from actual risk, placing them in danger of injury or
death from a UXO accident. As an example, the inadequate safety precautions farmers take
when moving UXO such as turning their heads when placing the UXO down will have little
impact in preventing injury or death.

In summary, the risk assessment found that voluntary exposure to UXO is first and foremost
driven by the need to improve household income and food security, as is the case with scrap
metal collection. Rural areas of Lao PDR have few options available at the household level to
generate cash flow. The risk assessment identified the selling of labour, the collection of non-
timber forest products to sell at the local market, the selling of livestock assets and scrap
metal collection as the primary means in which households generate income outside of the
cropping production. In view of the options available, the collection of scrap metal is seen as a
viable option to providing a cash flow to poor households due to the low level of investment
that is required for the return gained, whereas the selling of labour can result in the break up
of the family unit in order for someone to move to an urban centre to seek employment.
Contradictions were also found within the study, parents would warn children of the dangers of
UXO and scrap metal collection and then actively involve children in these activities. The
biggest contradiction of all however, was the level of knowledge and awareness surrounding
high risk activities and yet the involvement of many people in these activities. As the report will
show this is primarily due to people’s ability to rationalise a risk through the development of
risk reduction strategies and the lack of, consistent negative consequences reinforcing a
particular behaviour as high risk. Further, people may deny or discount risk when the
perceived benefits resulting from accepting the risk are deemed to outweigh the risks.

29
To summarize, the assessment has demonstrated that behavioural decisions are made within
a complex and interlocking milieu of economic, social, political and cultural factors. UXO risk
takers, including women and children, generally are aware of the risk and activate some form
of risk assessment process and use this to make rational and deliberate decisions regarding
acceptable risk. The following sections will look at this more closely and examine the
motivations and driving forces that underpin specific high risk behaviours.
5.1.4 Communication Channels

Adults identified the following

What UXO information should be given to the community community awareness
information that should be
Government Basic UXO
given to their communities.
regulations Other recognation
How to move UXO 6% 5% 11% The main gateway of
safely
3%
information to the village level
Where UXO are
found
3%remains through a fairly formal
Impact fromUXO and hierarchical chain from
10%
central government, to
provincial, district and village
level. These formal
Dangers of UXO communication structures
30%
however, may also act as an
entry point to non formal
structures. Other factors that
How to prevent
accidents occuring affect access to information
32%
include geographical location,
sample size: 2600
socio-economic status and
ethnicity and language.
Populations living in urban,
peri-urban and lowland areas generally have better access to information due to better access
to electricity and mass
communication
mechanisms as well as Ways in which villagers hear new information
better access to education
Other
and public services, higher 4%
socio-economic status and Village leader
26%
higher literacy levels. Television
19%
There are therefore, a
range of communication
opportunities to reach
communities in these
circumstances. As villages Radio
Village notice
become more remote and 17%
board
the percentage of poor 10%
people increases so
opportunities for Friends / family
Loudspeaker
disseminating risk 12%
12%
education and
communication materials sample size: 2544
tend to diminish.

30
Households of lower socio-economic status for example, may have fewer opportunities to
attend meetings and gain access to radio or may not be able to repair broken radios or
replace batteries. Rural women, partly due to their work patterns may have even less access
to or even be excluded from any form of mass media. Further, rural women and ethnic women
particularly, are more likely to be illiterate and have less social and formal contacts than men,
with information most often being received orally through informal channels of communication
such as family members, peers and friends. It is important therefore, that any risk
communication campaign in Lao PDR takes into account a range of possible communication
channels to ensure inclusion of all at risk groups and sub-groups. The KAP respondents
receive information about health or agricultural activities in a variety of ways as shown in the
chart below.

The various ways in which people receive information differs greatly due to their geographic
location (as highlighted below) and the wealth of a household and their ability to afford radios
or televisions. This will need to be considered in future communication strategies, as
discussed further in the recommendations.

Ways in which villagers hear new information

250

200
Village leader
Number of responde

Village notice board

150
Friends/family
Loudspeaker

100 Radio
Television
sample size: 2600
Other
50

0
Xiengkhouang Houaphan Savannaket Attapeu Saravan

Province

5.2 General Findings

The general findings section has been separated out into two sections, adults and children.
5.2.1 General Findings – Adults

This section presents the findings from the quantitative KAP survey and is organised under
the headings of knowledge, attitude and practice. A total of 1312 adults completed the KAP
questionnaire, 54% men and 46% women. The age of the adults ranged from 19-21 years of
age (5%), 22-26 years of age (12%), 27-35 years of age (23%), 36-45 years of age (28%) and
over 46 years of age (32%). Focus group discussions were held with 14 groups of men and 12
groups of women.

31
The respondents were mainly farmers (76%), government officials (9%) or small business
owners (9%). Ninety three percent of the respondents owned their own land with income
being derived from a variety of sources.

On average households reported having rice from their own agricultural production for 9.6
months of the year. When families experienced food shortages a variety of strategies were
used to be able to generate income to buy rice, the multiple responses include:

− Borrow rice (6%)

− Borrow money to buy rice Main source of income

(5%) No income
Other
Handicrafts 2%
− Collect scrap metal to buy 5%
3%

rice (8%)
Salary from
employment
− Go out labouring (15%) 9% Farming
production
− Sell livestock (31%) 40%
Scrap metal
− Sell handicrafts (6%) collection
5%

− Collect and sell non timber

forest products (17%) Labourer
10%

− Small business (4%)

− Other (8%) Non forest timber

Small business
products
12%
Fifty five percent of the adults had 13% Remittance from
family
reported seeing UXO in the last 12 1% sample size: 2195
months; predominately men over the
age of 27, with men over 46 years of
age making up the majority of this group. Adults are coming across UXO primarily in farming
land and forest areas.

5.2.1.1 Knowledge

Adults are well informed that UXO is dangerous and amongst the multiple responses the
following were identified as what could make a UXO explode:

− Impact from a strong force (40%)

− Touching / moving the UXO (24%)

− High temperatures from a fire (18%)

− Vibration from movement (10%)

− Tampering (5%)

32
 Where adults have seen UXO
Around the house
Along the road
yard
4%
9%
In the village
5%

Farming land
28% Mountainous areas
9%

Stream/pond/lake
9%

Old military areas

4%

Community land
Forest 1%
sample size: 1391 31%

As discussed in the summary of findings, adults could identify strategies to protect themselves
from UXO accidents or injury. It is import that when asked what makes a UXO safe, 82% of
the respondents indicated that no UXO is safe, indicating a good general awareness of the
dangers of UXO.

Adults understanding of how far away you need to be to prevent injury or death from an
explosion varied greatly with the distance ranging from 1m to 3000m, with the average being
49m, with many respondents indicating that it depended on the type of ordnance that
exploded.

5.2.1.2 Attitude

Male scrap metal collectors were identified by the communities interviewed as being most at
risk from UXO. The community identified men as being most at risk (97%) and perceived them
to be at risk when involved in the following activities:

− Scrap metal collectors (36%)

− Farmers working in the fields (24%)

− People foraging in the forest (17%)

− Children who play with UXO (21%)

− Other (2%) which included UXO clearance teams

Seventy two percent of the respondents knew someone that had been killed or injured by
UXO, with 52% believing the person knew it was dangerous at the time, 27% believing they

33
didn’t know it was dangerous and 21% were unsure. The multiple responses given for the
activities they were conducting at the time included:

− Playing with the UXO (21%)

− Collecting scrap metal (19%)

− Foraging in the forest (10%)

− Collecting firewood (2%)

− Lighting a fire (5%)

− Working in the fields (10%)

− Dismantling / tampering with the UXO (28%)

− Other (5%)
Seventeen percent of the adults thought that handling UXO on a regular basis made it safer to
handle UXO in the future. Of the people surveyed 19% (men (63%) and women (37%)) were
interested in watching people handle UXO, of these 34% watched to learn how to dismantle
UXO, 31% watched out of curiosity, 10% wanted to see what was inside with 25% to how
brave the person was being and to give advice.
This was reinforced during the focus group discussions were it was reported on numerous
occasions: “We hear from the UXO team that we can not touch or move UXO safely so when
we see someone do this we want to see why and how they can do that safely” (Male, former
scrap metal dealer, Xieng Khouang).

5.2.1.3 Practice

Fifty two percent of the adults report that UXO prevent them from carrying out normal day to
day activities, such as those shown in the table below.

What UXO prevent adults from doing

250

200
Respondents

150

male
100
female

50

0
s

nd

st
ng
d

ea
ld
er

re
oo

le

la
fie

ni
at

ar

fo
ho
w

ur

g
w

in
r

in
/b
he
g

th

ng
ng

rm
in

od
es
ot
in

gi
hi

ct

fa

fo
ig
tc

fir
le

to
ng

w
D
Fe

ol

g
g
g

ne
ki

rin
C

in
in
or

ld
el

he
n
W

ui

pe
av

at
B

O
Tr

Activity

34
Moving UXO out of Farming Land

Sixteen percent of the adults surveyed had previously moved UXO to then be able to use the
land. This land was predominately used for farming (41%) and home gardens (32%). The
primary reason for moving UXO was to make it ‘safer’ to farm in that area and to reduce the
risk the farmers face when digging their land and home garden areas.
“If we find UXO in the forest we never move them, we only move UXO out of our farming land”
(Male, Saravan).

When asked how you can tell if a UXO is safe 82% of the adults responded that no UXO is
safe. This was reinforced in the focus group discussions by adults who were moving UXO out
of farming land all acknowledging that the practice they were undertaking was a dangerous
one; there was no acknowledgement that what they were doing was safe.

General Handling of UXO

Ten percent of the adults interviewed had moved or handled UXO in the last 12 months; 80%
of these people were men, 20% women, with men over 27 years of age accounting for the
greatest proportion of people who moved UXO. The predominate UXO that adults are moving
are “bombies” (BLU sub munitions). Based on answers given in the KAP, the level of
education of the adults does not seem to have a bearing on whether they moved a UXO.

The primary reason for the moving and handling of UXO is to be able to farm agricultural land
(42%) and to prevent children from playing with the UXO (43%). Adults who move or handle
UXO generally did so alone (74%) and if not alone with a friend (11%), relative who is an adult
(7%), and in some cases a relative who is a child (4%).
Of these adults who moved UXO in the past year, 17% did so on a regular basis, 2-3 times
per week, 2% on a weekly basis with 61% doing so monthly, with the remaining 20% moving
UXO once or twice a year.

Storing of UXO
Four percent of the adults had stored UXO in the previous 12 months, 80% of which were
males and 20% females. Adults are storing UXO in the house (5%), garden and farming land
(20%), in a stream or lake (4%) and in the forest (57%) or other (14%) which included in the
mountains.

Adult men aged 27 and above are primarily storing UXO, on average 4 times a year and are
primarily storing UXO to prevent children from playing with them. Other reasons given by both
men and women were that they own the UXO as they found it on their land and they were
waiting for the scrap metal collector to come.

Destroying or Dismantling UXO

In the previous 12 month period, 2% of the adults had destroyed or dismantled UXO. Adults
who destroyed or dismantled UXO did so in a variety of ways:

− Used a strong object to break it open (11%)

− Placed the UXO in a hot fire (56%)

− Used spanner to open large bomb (7%)

− Put salt over the UXO (7%)

35
 − Others, which included opening UXO with a knife or a small spade (19%)

Four percent of the adult respondents reported destroying UXO on a daily basis, 26% monthly
and 56% 1-5 times per year. The majority of people are destroying UXO by burning them on
farming land to then be able to use the land. Seventy four percent dismantled UXO to make
the environment safer while 16% undertook the activity to collect the scrap metal. People who
destroy or dismantle UXO have learnt how to do this through their experiences as a soldier
and from friends who also conducted this activity.

Scrap Metal Collection

Thirty one percent of adults had collected scrap metal in the previous 12 months; 60% were
men, 40% women. The educational level of the adults has no influence on whether adults
become involved in scrap metal collection according to the data collected in the KAP.

Adults predominately collect scrap metal opportunistically when they come across it in their
everyday activities. Other methods used to collect scrap metal include using a metal detector
and actively digging for scrap metal. From the multiple responses given, 65% of the adults
collected scrap metal from the surface, and 30% collected sub-surface items.

Scrap metal collection - active and opportunistic

250

male
200
No. of adult

150 female

100 male
female
50
male female
0
Active scrap collection Opportunistic scrap Other
collection

Type of scrap metal collection

As opportunistic scrap metal collectors only collect scrap metal when they come across it, the
frequency in which they engage in this activity varies greatly; it may be daily, weekly or
monthly. Active scrap metal collectors predominately collect scrap metal when their labour is
not being utilised in farming production. “We collect scrap metal all year round except in the
farming season [this was identified as June and July]; more and more people go collecting
scrap when they have no job in the fields”. (Male, active scrap metal collector, Khammouane)
Ninety percent of the respondents indicated that scrap metal dealers do not buy UXO which
still contain fuses or explosives. Seventy four percent of the scrap collectors identified that it
was a dangerous activity with 23% indicating it was safe. Sixty two percent of the scrap
collectors had been warned about the dangers of collecting scrap metal, primarily from UXO
LAO Community Awareness Team (31%), local authorities (25%), family (19%) and friends
(19%).

36
 Scrap metal is usually sold
to a scrap metal dealer in
How earnings from scrap metal collection are used
the village (73%) or to a
scrap metal dealer who
School fees & school
comes to the village (19%).
Other
supplies 2% The revenue from scrap
6%
metal collection is used for
Food a variety of purposes.
Sweets for children
33%
13%
Four percent of the
respondents had used a
metal detector to clear
their own land.
Household
belongings
Medicine Children and UXO
24%
11%
Fourteen percent of the
Personal belongings
adults reported having
Agricultural inputs
9%
2% seen children in the village
sample size: 931
playing with UXO. Adults
reported talking with their
children about the dangers
of UXO, when they heard children were collecting UXO (1%), after they heard about an
accident (8%), about once a month (38%), every week (29%),never (20%) other (4%).

Reporting of UXO

Forty five percent of adults surveyed had reported UXO, 33% reported UXO to the village
leader, 44% to a UXO clearance agency, 9% to village authorities and 11% reported UXO to
friends and family. The response time from the clearance agency varied greatly from
responding within a week to taking months or even years.

UXO clearance agencies response times

300 300 300

258

250 250 250

200 200 200

162

150 150 150

100 100 100

50 50 50
45
32
27
12
3 1 2 1
0 0 0

1-7 8-14 15-21 > 21 1-3 4-6 7-12 1-3 4-5 >5

Number of days Number of months Number of years

37
 Behaviours changed after community awareness activites

Stopped collecting
Other scrap metal
6% 9%

Collected scrap
more carefully
15%

More careful
when digging land
42%

Ceased using
detector
12%

No longer built
fires outside sample size: 1078
16%

Adults who have not reported UXO did so as they had not found any UXO to report or they
had no-one to report the UXO to (33%). Ten percent of the respondents had moved UXO to a
‘safer’ place until the UXO clearance agency could come.

Community Awareness
Fifty four percent of the adults surveyed had participated in some form of UXO community
awareness activities, primarily games or puppet shows, question and answer sessions or
were informed about the dangers of UXO through meetings. Ninety four percent of the adults
who participated in these community awareness activities reported that due to this explanation
they changed their behaviour in some way as shown in the graph above.

5.2.2 General Findings – Children

A total of 720 children between the
ages of 8-18 completed the KAP Children's main activity if not attending school
questionnaire, of these there were Other
495 boys (69%) and 225 girls (31%). Paid 6%
emploment
Thirty one percent from age group 8- 5%
11, 48% from age group 12-15 and
20% from age group 16-18.
Eighteen focus group discussions Unemployed
17%
were also held with children.

Eighty seven percent of the children

attended school, for the 13% of
Scrap metal
children who did not attend school collection
their main activity is working in the 3%
Working in the
fields. fields
69%
Of the 13% of children who reported sample size: 1078
not attending school, 24% were 8-11

38
years of age, 34% were12-15 years of age and 42% were16-18 years of age. Boys were more
likely to not be attending school (69%) than girls (31%). There was a significant provincial
variation between the northern provinces of Xieng Khouang and Houaphan, and the southern
provinces of Attapeu, Saravan and Savanakhet for the percent of children who were not
attending school (Attapeu -26%, Saravan - 27%, Savanakhet - 32%, Xieng Khouang - 8%.
Houaphan -7%).
5.2.2.1 Knowledge

Ninety nine point six percent of the children considered UXO to be dangerous with 97% of the
children being afraid of UXO. Seventy six percent of the children identified that they knew
what UXO were. Eighty three percent of the children had talked about UXO with their school
teachers.

The children identified, in multiple response answers that accidents could happen in the
following ways;

− Through touching the UXO (14%)

− Hitting the UXO (36%)

− Playing with the UXO (16%)

− Throwing the UXO (23%)

− Burning farmland (8%)

− Weeding farmland (3%)

To protect themselves from accidents children identified in multiple responses the following
strategies:

− When see a UXO don’t go

close to it (51%)
Where children have seen UXO
− Be careful when going
Community land
where never been before In old military
4% Other
areas
(5%) 2%
2%

− Be careful when digging Stream / pond /

lake
(17%) 11%

Forest
− Be careful when slashing 41%
Mountainous
and burning (8%) area
9%
− Build domestic fire above
the ground on stones (4%) Around the
house yard
6%
− When find a UXO report it
(12%)
Along the road
3% Farming land
− Other (4%) 22%
sample size: 755
Children’s contact with UXO
Of the 54% of children who had
seen UXO in the last 12 moths, the first thing the children did was to run away (77%) some
children reported the UXO item (13%), did nothing (7%) or shot it with a catapult (1%).

39
Of the 54% of children who reported having seen UXO in the last 12 months it was
predominately boys (76%), 12-15 years of age who were finding UXO in forest areas. The
above graph depicts the multiple responses given to where children have seen UXO. How
frequently children discussed UXO with family and friends varied considerably, from a daily,
weekly, monthly basis to never.

5.2.2.2 Attitude and Practice

Sixty three percent of the
What children do with revenue from collecting scrap metal
children reported knowing
someone who had been killed
or injured by a UXO. Fifty two
Other Give to parents
percent of the children
6% 11% surveyed had collected scrap
Purchased school
metal. Eighty two percent of
supplies the children who collected
24%
scrap metal received money
which they used for three main
Buy sweets / toys
27% activities; buying school
Saved the money
supplies, buying clothes and
3% buying sweets.
Left over money
from sweets give
Of the children who collected
to parents Buy clothes
sample size: 669
scrap metal 78% thought it
3% 26%
was dangerous to do so. From
all children surveyed 63% had
been warned about the
dangers of scrap metal collection, from the multiple responses given the children were warned
by:

− Mother (31%)

− Father (32%)
How often children talk with friends or family about UXO

− Other family members Don't know Daily

4%
(3%) 4%

2-3 times a week

− Friends (9%) 17%

− Teachers (18%) Never

30%

− UXO LAO CA team

(3%) Weekly
14%
− Local authorities (2%)

− Other (1%)

Four percent of children

reported playing with UXO, by Monthly
sample size: 714
31%
picking it up and throwing it,
showing it to friends and
moving the UXO around with a stick.

40
Fifty three percent of the children had reported an item of UXO to someone, responses given
were:

− Friends (15%)

− Relatives (29%)
− Village leader (28%)

− Local authorities (6%)

− UXO clearance agency (14%)

− Others (7%)

6. High Risk Groups

Using Green and Krueters’ ecological framework (1999), which provides a holistic lens
through which to view UXO related risk behaviour; this section considers eight high risk
groups:

− Adults who actively collect scrap metal

− Adults who move UXO out of farming land

− Scrap metal dealers

− Adults who deliberately dismantle UXO

− Children who opportunistically and actively collect scrap metal

− Children who play or tamper with UXO

− Adults and children who work on agricultural land

− Out of school youth and young children

The section begins with a brief overview of risk taking behaviour and contributing factors
before moving on to explore specific UXO risk behaviours and contributing factors identified in
this assessment.

6.1 Risk Taking Behaviours

While actual risks associated with a certain hazard can be quantified, based on
epidemiological surveillance and levels of a particular hazard, for example, public perceptions
of risk may be different from statistical risk. While the ideal approach may be for an individual
to avoid exposure to risks, in reality risk is subjective and based on valued judgments. Often
risks people make can be defended rationally even if scientific evidence suggests otherwise.

A review of the literature and the findings of the risk assessment show that perceptions of risk
are still not fully understood nevertheless a number of conclusions can be drawn:
− Voluntariness of exposure – involuntary risks are less acceptable

− Familiarity – unfamiliar risks are less acceptable

− Understanding – risks which are understood are more acceptable

− Natural or manmade – man made are less acceptable

41
 − Catastrophic potential – large scale concerns cause more concern than numerous
small scale consequences

− Controllability – a risk is more acceptable if an individual has more control

− Feared– more feared outcomes are less acceptable

− Affects particular sections of society – risks to children are generally less acceptable

− Prevention – adults will accept a level of risk to themselves if it is seen as reducing a

greater risk to others, especially children

− Positive reinforcement – a risk is more acceptable if the risk taking activity has been
previously conducted with no negative consequences or if the possible consequences
of an incident are difficult to imagine or recall

− Presence of benefits – people are less concerned about risks that have perceived
benefits
− Trust in institutions – people are less concerned about risk where the risk management
institution is trusted and is seen as credible.

Risk therefore is multi-dimensional rather than single-dimensional and an important factor in

deciding what level of risk is acceptable is not so much a technical question, based on
technical expertise and quantifiable risk estimates, but a value question. People vary in how
they evaluate risk. People weigh the various factors according to their own values and stake in
the outcome. As acceptability is a matter of values and opinions and these differ between
individuals and groups, there is often a gap between ‘expert’ and lay people definitions of
acceptable risk with debates about risk being about values, accountability and control. As will
be seen in the analysis of risk behaviours, perceptions of risk are an important factor and
need to be taken into consideration both in a risk management and communication approach
to UXO contamination. Taking these other perceptions into account may also therefore require
a shift in attitudes and understanding in ‘experts’, in order to better accommodate the
perceptions and values of affected communities.

6.2 Risk Factors: Predisposing, Enabling and Reinforcing

Green and Kreuter’s (1999) social ecological model of health promotion places health and
safety within the context of the whole ecological system and provides a useful paradigm for
understanding risk. The framework has been applied usefully as a tool for analysing UXO risk
in the Lao PDR (UXO LAO in depth study in Boulapha District 2002, Durham, J. et al. 2005,
Durham, J. 2006) and is included in the IMAS Guide to MRE (Geneva International Centre for
Humanitarian Demining, 2005).

Based on this ecological model, risk factors are separated into behavioural and non-
behavioural causes of the health problem. Factors that affect behaviour may include:

− Predisposing (motivating), for example, knowledge, beliefs, values and attitudes.

− Enabling (facilitating), that is those factors that enable a behaviour or situation to

occur.
− Reinforcing (maintaining or rewarding) these are factors that provide incentives for
health behaviours to be maintained. Reinforcement may come from an individual or
group, from persons or institutions or society.

42
These factors are used to analyse UXO risk as identified in this assessment and show that a
move away from earlier Health Belief models is required in order to design and implement an
effective risk management and MRE programme.

6.3 High Risk Groups

The UXO risk education needs assessment identified groups of people who, for variety of
predisposing, enabling and reinforcing factors, are considered high risk groups with high
levels of risk taking behaviour. The assessment found that the general categories that are
often used to characterize at risk populations, that is, the uniformed, the unaware, the reckless
and the intentional were less relevant to the context of the Lao PDR. UXO risk taking
behaviour identified in the assessment can be categorized under two broad headings:
voluntary exposure and involuntary. The assessment also found that voluntary exposure to
UXO was rarely perceived by communities or individuals as the only option. More commonly,
voluntary or intentional UXO risk taking was found to be based on a rational decision making
process, involving weighing up of the potential costs and benefits of a range of available
livelihood options. These different high risk groups are described in this section.

6.3.1 Scrap Metal Collection

6.3.1.1 Opportunistic scrap metal collection compared with active metal scrap
collection

Seventy four percent of the adults who collected scrap identified it as a dangerous activity. It is
important to distinguish between scrap metal that is collected ‘opportunistically’ and scrap that
is collected ‘actively’, as the level of risk associated with the different methods of scrap
collection varies, as do the strategies the scrap collectors implement to minimise the risk they
face from a UXO accident when collecting scrap.

Adults viewed themselves as being opportunistic scrap metal collectors when they collected
scrap metal by:

− Never digging for scrap metal

− Only collecting scrap metal when they came across it

o When walking to the fields or gathering food in the forest

o When digging in the fields and finding scrap metal

− Never collecting UXO

The majority of the adults in the focus group discussions strongly identified that it was safe to
collect scrap metal when collecting opportunistically as they only collected scrap metal from
the surface, were only collecting pieces of scrap metal, and they could clearly see if the UXO
had or hadn’t exploded. For the minority that thought it was dangerous this was due to the
inability some people may have in being able to tell UXO from scrap metal.

Adults when collecting opportunistically identified strategies when collecting scrap metal to
make it safer, including not collecting UXO, not collecting UXO with fuses or explosives, or if
people suspected that it is a UXO they would not collect it.
6.3.1.2 Active scrap metal collection

Active scrap metal collectors on the other hand identified scrap metal collection as:

− Using a metal detector

43
 − Digging subsurface for scrap metal

− Actively going out with the sole purpose of finding scrap metal

− The primary activity outside of the planting season

The majority of people who actively collect scrap metal recognise it as a dangerous activity as:

− There is a worry when digging that a UXO and scrap metal may be close together and
when digging may hit the UXO and it will explode

− Sometimes the detector gives the ‘wrong signal’ and there are UXO (for example a
signal will be given which indicates a piece of scrap will be found, yet in actual fact a
UXO is found, it is just deeper in the ground)

− High risk as we are digging, during the wet season the soil is easy to dig, but in the dry
season force is needed to dig otherwise we would never reach the scrap

For the few in the focus group discussion who did think active scrap metal collection was a
safe activity it was because they dug slowly and did not tamper with the UXO and did not
collect UXO.

The collection and selling of scrap metal, despite its risks, has many perceived advantages
over other dry season crops, some of these include:
− Low initial investment, detectors can be purchased for US$12

− Quick return on investment

− Buyers come to the village or are located in the village

− High price of scrap metal

− Individuals can stay with their family unit

Adults identified scrap metal collection as a dangerous activity and risk reduction strategies
were employed to minimise the risk when collecting scrap metal, however as with other high
risk activities these strategies at times to not minimise the actual risk faced, including:

− When finding too many UXO in an area, stop looking for scrap metal in this area

− Don’t collect scrap metal alone, always go in a team of 4 or 5 people

− When the metal detector gives us a signal we place the search head on the ground
and dig around it. This is safer as we try to dig around where the scrap is without
hitting it

− When digging in the bomb craters dig slowly and carefully

− If people suspect that the scrap metal is a UXO they do not collect it

As with other high risk activities these strategies allowed the scrap metal collectors to
rationalise the risks they were taking, this combined with a degree of confidence in their ability
to discern scrap from dangerous items, resulted in the risk associated with scrap metal
collection being seen as acceptance. See Annex 1 for more details on the predisposing,
enabling and reinforcing factors that contribute to active scrap metal collection.

44
6.3.1.3 Poverty and food security problems

Poverty is frequently mentioned as a primary motivator for engagement in the scrap metal
trade. The UXO LAO qualitative study (2002:9) however, found that it is not necessarily
absolute poverty that drives people to engage in the scrap metal trade, but increased material
aspirations as a result of structural changes to the economy and increased access to market
commodities also play a part.

This study reinforces the UXO LAO findings, and in a village in Khammouane where scrap
metal collection is very active, households on average had enough rice from their own farming
production for only 6 months of the year. This village relies on scrap metal collection as an
additional source of income.
“If we could not collection scrap metal we would have no food for our family” (Male,
Khammouane).
Yet as highlighted the earnings from selling scrap metal are used for a variety of purposes,
predominately buying food, but also to purchase medicine, household goods and personnel
belongings and sweets for children.

Two factors that are closely linked with poverty and food security problems and which
reinforce the high risk behaviour of scrap metal collection are lack of alternative income
generating options and lack of farming land.

Lack of Alternative Income Generating Options

Many poor, underdeveloped areas of Laos have limited alternate income generating activities
to farming production, so if farming production does not meet their food needs poor farmers
are left with few income generating choices. The risk assessment identified the selling of
labour, the collection of non-timber forest products to sell at the local market, the selling of
livestock assets and scrap metal collection as the primary means in which households
generate income outside of the cropping season. In view of the options available the collection
of scrap metal is seen as a very viable option to providing a cash flow to poor households due
to the low level of investment that is required for the return gained and the general ease at
which scrap metal can be collected.

“I wanted to borrow money from the Agricultural Bank to buy fertilisers but the bank did not
approve my loan so I had to collect scrap metal” (Female, Saravan).

Lack of Farming Land

A lack of farming land is a major contributing factor to active scrap metal collection. The
majority of adults in focus group discussions reported that their farming land was not enough
to meet their production needs to ensure adequate food for their families.

These statements were repeated in villages that were actively involved in scrap metal
collection: “if we had more faming land and enough to eat we wouldn’t collect scrap metal” or
“need to open new farming land for every family, poor families are very active in collecting
scrap metal”.

When farmers are idle after the main farming season they are also more likely to engage in
scrap metal collecting during their spare time.

45
6.3.1.4 Digging to Collect Scrap Metal

Using a metal detector and digging for scrap metal is the primary method used by adults who
actively engage in scrap metal collection. Villagers in Saravan reported:

“Before we got the detectors we were looking for scrap in bomb craters by digging. Later when
the Vietnamese dealer came to our village asking about scrap and came with detectors he
explained that if we use these [the detectors] it would be easy to find scrap. With the bomb
craters we thought there was no more scrap left but by using the detectors in the bomb crater
we could dig deeper and deeper as we were still finding scrap”.

The use of metal detectors actively encourages adults to dig subsurface to investigate metal
detector signals, resulting in adults coming into contact with UXO. Adults recognise that
digging for scrap metal is a highly dangerous activity and in one particular village when the
UXO clearance agency was in their village the villagers reported:
“We watched them [UXO technicians] and how they dug the land…we asked the UXO
technicians what is the safe way to dig and what is unsafe. We wanted to ask more questions
but we were worried about getting into trouble from UXO LAO”.

6.3.1.5 Active Scrap Metal Collection Facilitates Regular Contact with Live Ordnance
Active scrap metal collecting facilitates adults coming into regular contact with UXO. While
working in the scrap metal industry is not necessarily dangerous in itself as much of the scrap
is remnants of the Indo-China conflict, it often brings people into regular contact with ordnance,
including live ordnance.

In a village in Khammouane all adult men interviewed had found UXO while scrap collecting.
The scrap metal collectors then have 2 choices; not to touch the UXO and leave it where it is,
or to initiate some form of contact with the UXO.
The majority of villagers reported that when a UXO was found they left it where it was and
continued searching for scrap metal. Yet there were reports that some people would try to
destroy the UXO to collect the scrap by trying to burn the fuses of the large bombs, trying to
dismantle the bombs and then burning out the explosives, or moving the UXO to continue to
search for scrap metal.

“I moved 3 bombies from the bottom of a bomb crater. When I was digging I hit one of the
bombies so I slowly picked it up and moved it out from the bomb crater to a near by area. I
was afraid when moving the bombie but I needed the money. In one bomb crater I could get
40kg of scrap metal” (Female scrap collector, Saravan).

Locating scrap metal with the aid of a metal detector increases the likelihood of unintentional
contact with a UXO resulting in an accident, or this initial unintentional contact turning into a
more high risk activity of tampering and / or moving UXO.
6.3.1.6 Reliance on Metal Detector Signals

Vietnamese metal detectors are a basic piece of equipment and as such can give inaccurate
signals, being used in a technical manner in which the operators are relying on the accuracy
of the signal given to discern between scrap metal and UXO and making decisions regarding
safety and digging based on these signals.

All scrap metal collectors explained the same procedure in using the detectors:

46
 − Switched on: when the metal detector is switched on there is a constant noise from the
detector

− Small beeps: the metal detector has located small pieces of scrap metal

− No sound: The metal detector has located a large piece of scrap metal or a UXO
A common strategy to reduce risk concerns the misperceptions of the accuracy of a signal
given by a detector, the statements below represent views held by many:

“I feel safer when digging, more confident that it isn’t a UXO when I hear the small beeps” or
“the system of the detector is that if we find a small piece of scrap we get a different sound, if
we find a large piece of metal we get no sound”.

What is concerning is the reliance that is placed on the accuracy of the signal. This system
has proven inaccurate on many occasions and the potential is that, this over familiarity with
the signals could cause the detector operators to become complacent resulting in an accident.
Villagers reported that they do find UXO when they hear the small beeps which should have
indicated the presence of scrap metal. When this occurred the villagers reported that they
predominately found BLU sub munitions which were deeper in the soil, approximately 15cm
deep, therefore the detector gave them the ‘wrong signal’. The adults also reported finding
smaller bombs in larger bomb craters.

A woman in Khammouane
Province demonstrated how
the metal detectors operated
for the research team, during
this demonstration the
detector picked up a signal
(small beep) indicating that
there was a piece of scrap
metal below the surface.
Although this woman had just
explained the safety
precautions taken when
digging for scrap metal she
then proceeded to forcefully
dig into the ground. When
questioned why she didn’t dig
Picture: Female forcefully digging to find scrap after getting a metal
detector reading (Lisa Ognjanovic, MAG) slowly and carefully like she
had explained in the focus
group she responded “the
sound from the detector tells me it is only scrap metal”.

6.3.1.7 Knowledge Gaps

There are gaps in people’s knowledge surrounding what makes it safe, and the safety
precautions taken, when collecting scrap metal:
− In some instances the scrap dealers who sell the detectors to the villagers are actively
encouraging the villagers to search in the bomb crater as they will be able to find more
scrap metal “bomb craters are safer to collect scrap metal in as the bomb has already
exploded and there are only bomb fragments left” (Female, scrap collector,
Khammouane).

47
 − Digging slowly and gently will prevent accidents from occurring

− Which items are safe or unsafe to collect

6.3.1.8 Decline in Scrap Metal

GICHD (2005) noted that a number of people predicted a decline in the scrap metal trade in
their local area in the foreseeable future. They saw metal as a finite resource that is being
rapidly exploited now but which will become harder and harder to find in the future years. This
was also supported by the risk assessment with some villagers also reporting a decline in
scrap metal.

A decline in scrap metal could have two potential consequences.

Consequence 1: as the amount of readily available scrap metal declines people may seek
alternative ways to generate income and cease all together or become less involved in
scrap metal collection; or

Consequence 2: if no alternative income generating activities are available people

continue to collect scrap in an environment where the availability of scrap metal is
reducing which may result in the scrap collectors taking more risks to find and collect
scrap metal.

The reality of these two options is well highlighted in a village in Saravan Province, which is
located across the river directly opposite Saravan Township, and from a discussion with a
scrap dealer in Xieng Khouang.

In Saravan Province:

“we are not getting the metal detectors anymore as the scrap is getting less and less [this
village would rent metal detectors on a needs basis] to solve our food problems we will work
as labourers in the town……before we started collecting scrap metal we worked as day
labourers, now that we stop collecting scrap again we will go back to labouring” (Male villager
in Saravan).

In coming to the decision to no longer actively collect scrap metal, the villagers have gone
through a process of:

− Weighing up the risks and the gains of continuing to collect scrap metal in an
environment where the resource is declining

− Identifying alternative sources of income which have similar daily cash benefits as
scrap metal collecting

− Reinforcement from other villagers has been given, and as a group a decision has
been made and

− Ceased active scrap metal collection and moved into alternative forms of income
generation.

Accessibility to alternative sources of income was crucial in the villagers deciding to stop
actively collecting scrap metal in an environment where scrap is declining.

Scrap Dealer:
“In my experience as a scrap dealer for the last 4 years, before there was a lot of scrap
metal for people to collect and it was very easy for them to find scrap metal everywhere

48
therefore they didn’t collect parts of UXO or live ordnance. Nowadays the scrap metal is less
and less making it difficult to find and people are making a smaller income for their families.
So when they need more income for their families they will dismantle the UXO for scrap. I can
compare the last 4 year period, last year people brought me many different parts of UXO they
had dismantled” (Male scrap metal dealer, Xieng Khouang).

6.3.1.9 Triggers to Scrap Metal Collection

The risk assessment identified during the focus group discussions with the villagers’ particular
triggers that encouraged people to actively collect scrap metal:

− Poverty – this was identified as the principal factor

− No work after the rice has been planted

− No alternative sources of income

− Lack of readily available cash

− Price of scrap metal

“If the price of scrap metal is higher then the villagers actively collect it” (Female, Xieng
Khouang).

6.3.2 Farmers Who Move UXO to Farm Land

While farmers are generally aware of, and understand the risks of moving UXO out of farming
land the habitual presence of UXO, the routine handling of ordnance which does not always
result in harm, alongside the degree to which people feel they can control the level of risk, for
example, by moving an item carefully, being sure not to hit it and so forth means that on the
whole people feel the level of risk is acceptable or at least manageable.

Adults who voluntarily move UXO out of contaminated farming land prefer this voluntary
contact over possible unintentional contact which may occur when carrying out their normal
farming activities if a UXO item is left where it is. Through initiating this contact, instigating risk
reduction strategies it is felt that they can control the risk they face.
As part of the process of assessing the risk, adults in some cases, although not all, do take
into account a variety of considerations before moving UXO:

− No factors were considered, the UXO needed to be moved out of the farming land

− Do not know how to assess if it is safe to move, a chance is taken that it won’t explode

− Some farmers consider the type of UXO and reported not moving BLU 3Bs

− What the UXO looked like, for example, if the surface of the BLU is intact it is safe to
move, however if the BLU has a hole or the outside is damaged it is not safe to move
See Annex 1 for more details on the predisposing, enabling and reinforcing factors that
contribute to the removal of UXO from agricultural land.

6.3.2.1 Level of Contamination of New Farming Land

Lao PDR has the distinction of being, per capita, the most heavily bombed nation in the world.
As a result of intense ground battles and extensive bombing during the Indo-China War,
especially during the years 1964 – 1973. The fighting left widespread contamination by UXO.

49
The majority of adults believe that the new farming land they opened would be contaminated
by UXO, this belief was reinforced by:

− History of the war in the area

− The area is new farming land no one has been working there to clear the UXO
− When previously opening up farming land in an adjoining area it had been
contaminated with UXO

− When cutting grass in new areas to be opened UXO were found

− When collecting food in these areas UXO were found

“I found more than 10 BLUs in my new farming land, each time I moved them into one place
and kept farming as my family land is very small so I need to keep farming in that area”
(Female, Saravan) or “A lot of new land has bombies, a small piece of land [defined as 6x7m]
has 5-6 bombies, it is difficult to expand new agricultural land in our village” (Female, Xieng
Khouang).

6.3.2.2 Capacity of Clearance Agencies to Respond to Reports of UXO in Farming Land

The inability of clearance agencies to respond timely to reports of UXO results in adults
moving UXO out of their farming land as this is perceived as the “safer” option than leaving
the UXO where they are. Once a villager had reported a UXO the response time varied
considerably across UXO clearance agencies. Some responded within weeks, some within
months or years and in some cases no response was even provided.

A common sentiment felt was that when a UXO is found, it was ‘safer’ to move it out of the
farming land than leave it where it was. Farmers worried that if they didn’t remove the item,
when the crops grew, it would be difficult to remember where it was, exposing them to danger
when digging to prepare the land for the next season.

“No clearance team to come and help us, so even though it is not safe to move, when we find
UXO this farming season we need to move them, otherwise the following year when we farm
again we don’t know where they are” (Male, Saravan).
“We do not report to the Village Leader or the UXO agencies because they do not come to
clear quickly. When we report this year the UXO agency will come next year (Female,
Saravan).

6.3.2.3 Inability to Assess the Risks Associated with Moving UXO

Three factors contribute to adults’ inability to assess the risks associated with moving UXO:

− Lack of knowledge about which items are ‘safe’ or ‘unsafe’ to move

− Perceptions about what makes it “safe” to move UXO and the “safety” precautions
taken

− Perceptions of accidents

Lack of knowledge about which items are ‘safe’ or ‘unsafe’ to move

Eleven percent of the adults who had moved UXO did not know the type of UXO they were
moving and 3% of the adults move all types of UXO found.

“We don’t know how to identify each item, we just move them”

50
Perceptions about what makes it “safe” to move UXO and the “safety” precautions
taken

Almost everyone who voluntarily exposed themselves to potential live ordnance was able to
provide examples of the risk reduction strategies they took, illustrating their perceived control
over the situation, itself a contributing factor in risk taking behaviour. As with other high risk
behaviours the risk reduction strategies taken are misinformed or insufficient strategies to
prevent an accident. Some of the misinformed risk reduction strategies described:

− Do not turn the BLU sub munitions when moving them and move the BLU very slowly
and put it down very slowly

− Place soil around the BLU before moving it

− Use a shovel to pick up the BLU

− If placing the BLU in the hole of a tree use a rope to put the BLU in the hole

− If the BLUs are not hit they would never explode

− Before moving the UXO decide what is going to be done with it

− Turn head and back away when putting the UXO down

The risk reduction strategies employed here highlight how people’s perceptions of risk are at
variance from the actual risk. The moving of BLU sub munitions, regardless of if they are
moved slowly or with the aid of a shovel, is a very dangerous practice as some types of BLU
sub munitions (BLU 26 and BLU 36) are indistinguishable externally and may look similar yet
the BLU 36 contains a fuse with a cocked striker, which can function if subjected to the
slightest movement causing the BLU 36 to explode. Farmers would not be able to distinguish
between a BLU 26 and a BLU 36. Resulting in these ‘safety’ precautions they are taking
having no actual impact on safety.

Perceptions of accidents

Adults identified touching and moving UXO as one of the primary activities which can cause
UXO to explode; this knowledge appears to be overridden by the desire to move UXO out of
farming land to make it ‘safer’. Highlighted in the focus group discussions was that all villagers
reported that no accidents had occurred in their village from farmers moving UXO out of
farming land. This reinforces to the villagers that the ‘safety precautions’ taken to control the
risk associated with moving UXO are working.

“I have moved many BLUs and I am confident that if I move them slowly and in the same
direction nothing will happen” (Male farmer, Xieng Khouang).

6.3.3 Scrap Metal Dealers

The role of the scrap metal broker is to provide a local market for the scrap collector and to
support collection and haulage of metal to foundries (either in Laos or Vietnam). The inputs
required for this business are minimal – an area to store metal, and cash liquidity to purchase
metal when it is brought in by the collectors. For these brokers the buying and selling of scrap
metal is usually also a supplementary activity, running alongside farming or other commercial
enterprises such as trading in agricultural produce or running a small shop, restaurant or
guest house (GICHD, 2005).

51
Scrap dealers are aware of the high risk activity they are engaging in and implement risk
strategies to minimise the risk they face, these strategies include the checking of scrap bought
in by villagers yet they are still handling UXO on a routine basis. This routine handling of
ordnance by the scrap dealers appears to elicit a certain kind of familiarity in which they can
control the level of risk, for example, by removing any UXO items brought to the dealership
and returning these items to the scrap collectors or segregating UXO items. Again the risk
reduction strategies employed mean that on the whole people feel the level of risk is
acceptable or at least manageable, yet these strategies are often based on misinformation,
and at times ignorance, with some scrap dealers not having the skills or knowledge to
distinguish safe from unsafe scrap.

See Annex 1 for more details on the predisposing, enabling and reinforcing factors
contributing to individuals engaging in scrap metal dealing.

6.3.3.1 Villagers Bring UXO Items to Scrap Dealers

Ninety percent of scrap metal collectors interviewed stated that scrap dealers do not buy UXO
items if they still contain a fuse or explosives. All of the scrap dealers spoken to stated that
they do not buy UXO with explosives or fuses as they can not sell them to anyone else, so
they loose money. There are contradictions to these statements as in Khammouane Province
there are scrap dealers who actively buy BLU 42 to dismantle and sell the fuses. This is also
reinforced by the KAP survey which found that one reason given as to why people store UXO
is to wait until the scrap dealer comes to village, which can only be assumed, is to try to sell
them or to try to hide the UXO with other scrap metal.

The number of times scrap metal collectors bring live ordnance items to the dealers varies,
but the underlying issue here is that it is occurring on a regular basis endangering the lives of
the scrap collectors and the scrap dealers:

− “On average people try to sell UXO to me quite often, on average 3 times per week”
(Scrap dealer, Saravan).

− “Out of 10 villagers who bring scrap metal 6 would have some form of UXO or
something with explosive” (Scrap dealer, Xieng Khouang).

− “When I am out in the villages buying scrap metal, the village will often show me scrap
they want to sell which still has explosives. I tell them I never buy UXO with explosives
or fuses” (Scrap metal dealer, Saravan).

This is resulting in live ordnance being sold to dealers when it has been mixed with other
scrap metal, either intentionally by scrap metal collectors who are trying to increase the weight
of the scrap they are selling, or unintentionally as the scrap collector is unaware that the items
are dangerous.

The scrap metal dealers engage in one or more of the following strategies to reduce the risk
they face when items of live ordnance have been bought to their dealerships:

− Make the scrap collector take the items away. All scrap metal dealers report actively
checking all scrap that is coming in from villagers by cutting open the sacks and
checking through the contents. If they find live ordnance they will not buy these items
and make the scrap metal collector take the item away with them.
− Store items in bags / drums on the premises: If items of live ordnance, or items the
dealers are unsure about, are found after the scrap collectors have left the premises the
scrap dealers place the suspect items together in sacks or a drum and store them.

52
 − Remove UXO from premises to a nearby location: Some scrap dealers reported
putting suspect items in a sack and placing the items a ‘safe’ distance from the house, or
placing the items in a nearby bomb crater.

− Store until UXO clearance

agency goes by: For villagers
that live on routes where UXO
LAO frequently drive it was
reported that the suspect items
would be kept aside until the
UXO LAO team passed by and
could be stopped and the
items given to them.

The risks associated with scrap

metal dealing is tragically highlighted
by the story of a scrap dealing family
in Xieng Khouang as told here by a
35 year old women:
Picture: scrap dealer’s yard, Khammouane (Cliff Allen, MAG)
“Before we were farmers, but in
2003 we moved to this village and
built a small house and thought we would try a small business. My husband saw that there
were a lot of people sending scrap metal to Phonsavan and he thought it would be a good
idea to stop them and buy it here and then sell it to the Vietnamese. One Vietnamese dealer
gave us the money in advance to buy the scrap metal. We would sell our scrap to the
Vietnamese; the first time we sold 6 tonnes, second time 7 tonnes, and third time 3 tonnes.
On the fourth time we had 10 tonnes ready to sell when my husband went with our small
tractor to pick up the scrap our friend had collected in the surrounding villages. Our family
normally checked the scrap for UXO but this time we thought our friends had checked. There
were 5 sacks to load onto our tractor, when my husband loaded the last sack it exploded. At
first I thought my husband was OK, but then I shook him and tried to wake him, but I found
that a large piece of metal had gone into his heart. My son and I were also hit by shrapnel. It
was a very sad day”.

6.3.3.2 No Process to Remove UXO from Dealerships

“Without knowing it I have bought many things from villagers, BLUs with explosives, hand
grenades with no pin, bullets, mortar shells with gunpowder inside” (Female scrap dealer,
Xieng Khouang).

Scrap dealers have no formalised procedures with a UXO clearance agency to remove UXO
they have separated from scrap metal. Although some dealers reported stopping UXO LAO
vehicles on the road, this is on a very irregular basis and still requires UXO to be stored in a
residential environment until a UXO LAO vehicle passes by.
This results in highly dangerous items located in large numbers in residential areas. The
examination, by a MAG Technical Field Manager, of a bag in which a scrap dealer had placed
suspect items or items she had identified as UXO contained possible 12 x M50 4lb thermite
bombs (some armed), 1 x M23 with Fuse Mechanical Unit, 7 WP igniters (very dangerous
item, this one had already burnt out), a large number of 20mm High Explosive fused, a large
number 37mm High Explosive fused and un-fused, a number of M 26 High Explosive hand
grenades un-fused but full, a number of F1 High Explosive hand grenades un-fused but full, M

53
904 bomb nose fuse, a number of miscellaneous fuses, booster elements, half BLU sub
munitions containing explosive, 82mm Mortars full of explosive and a number of projectiles
containing explosive.

The items pose a danger to the scrap dealer and her family and to the residents in the
surrounding area. Due to the inability of the scrap dealer to deal with these items they were
stored in a bag and placed behind the side door of the house.

Picture: Children playing in scrap metal yard/Cliff Allen/MAG

6.3.4 Adults who Dismantle UXO to Collect Scrap Metal

Adults who tamper with and dismantle UXO are undertaking a high risk activity. Adults who
actively dismantle UXO appear to have this behaviour reinforced by the fact that they do not
suffer negative consequences as a result of their actions. This is despite occasions when
trying to speak to the local bomb expert who they had called upon to deal with UXO; the
research team was unable to do so as they had been killed when dismantling UXO. The one
time a negative consequence is experienced, it is often fatal.

Very few strategies are initiated to minimise the risk they face when dismantling UXO. Instead
what appears to play a major role is the belief in fate related to accident causation and the role
that Theravada Buddhism plays in the daily lives of many Lao people. See Annex 1 for the
predisposing, enabling and reinforcing factors that contribute to adults dismantling UXO to
collect scrap metal.

6.3.4.1 Engaging in a Highly Dangerous Activity

UXO have been designed to kill, maim or incapacitate, and if not dealt with from a position of
knowledge and proper experience all UXO, no matter how small, have the potential to function

54
as designed and inflict injury and death. Dismantling UXO is a highly dangerous activity, yet
there appears a certain confidence, and at times over confidence, from some adults who
dismantled UXO.

“All types of UXO can be dismantled depending on how much scrap metal it is possible to
collect from each item…..everyone can dismantle a BLU 42, men, women or children as it is
very easy to dismantle and it doesn’t explode” (Male, Xieng Khouang).

There also appears to be one person in the area who is willing to try to dismantle difficult UXO
“I sometimes found large bombs and I could not dismantle them so I sold them to someone
else who could” (Male, Khammouane).

6.3.4.2 Poverty and Lack of Alternative Income Generating Activities

Poverty is the driving force for adults to dismantle UXO. “I need scrap metal to sell to have
some money each day to support my family with food and daily utensils. I know that I am
100% at risk while I am dismantling UXO but I have to do this for my family’s life” (Male,
Khammouane).
“A few years ago I saw my friend die when dismantling a UXO, but this hasn’t stopped me, as
I have no other way to earn money” (Male, Xieng Khouang).
6.3.4.3 The Village Expert

A major contributor to adults continuing to dismantle UXO is that they are often seen as the
village bomb expert, although they have had very limited experience (relying on experience
from the war) or no training at all. The 1997 Handicap International Belgium study found that
these men were often viewed as being a little bit crazy or even stupid by other villagers, but
they were also seen as being courageous. Bomb openers were also perceived as providing as
essential service to the community that no-one else dared perform at a reasonable cost.
6.3.4.4 Beliefs and Fate Related to Accident Causation

Theravada Buddhism plays an important role in the daily lives of many Lao people, especially
Lao Loum and may also be used to explain accidents. In Theravada Buddhist cultures for
example, misfortune is frequently understood in terms of fate or karma, with concepts of
fate/karma often providing an explanatory framework for accidents and misfortune. Animistic
beliefs are also widely practiced, in both Buddhist and non-Buddhist cultures, in the Lao PDR
and the actions of spirits may also provide an explanation for UXO accidents. To date there is
little documented evidence of the part that beliefs about fate, karma and concepts of bravery
play in UXO related incidents in the Lao PDR. In Cambodia however, a BBC mine victim
survey found such beliefs encouraged a sense of fatalism related to mines and mine
avoidance (Grant, 1997).

An acceptance of the fate of someone who dismantles UXO was expressed by a male who
actively dismantles UXO in Xieng Khouang – “people all have to die one day”. He seemed
almost resigned to this fact, as this was his job; this was his fate in life.

6.3.5 Children Who Play or Tamper with UXO

Children are living in an environment where UXO are part of everyday life; bombs are used as
pig troughs, stilts for houses or a small bridge over a drain. BLU 3Bs have been dismantled
and are used as lamps in the house. This familiarity with UXO in children’s environment may
make it difficult for younger children (0-6 years of age) to distinguish between these items

55
which have been rendered safe, and highly dangerous items they may come across in their
communities.

Children may also witness their parents or other community members and people they hold in
high esteem moving UXO out of farming land or home garden areas. Children’s natural
curiosity combines with their lack of comprehension of the power of explosives and lack of
knowledge and awareness is a potentially deadly combination.

One village leader remarked “with everyone in the village now playing “petonk” many adults
are worried for the younger children that if they find a BLU they may play with it as it looks so
similar to the petonk ball”. See Annex 1 for the predisposing, enabling and reinforcing factors
which contribute to children playing or tampering with UXO.
6.3.6 Children Who Collect Scrap Metal

The majority of children identified scrap metal collection as a dangerous activity and had been
warned of the dangers. The risk reduction strategies that the children instigated are less
informed and developed than the adults and consisted primarily of identifying if what they are
collecting is a UXO or a piece of scrap and to not collect UXO. The strategies the children
implement are to say the least very basic risk reduction strategies that are informed on the
knowledge base of young children. Never the less these strategies help the children to
rationalise and justify their involvement in scrap metal collecting.

Children’s active involvement in scrap metal collecting and their familiarity in this activity, due
to the frequency in which they undertake it, results in the children being confident in their
abilities as scrap metal collectors and their ability to discern scrap from dangerous items,
cumulating with their acceptance of the level of risk they face when collecting scrap metal.
As with the adults who actively collect scrap metal there are some overlapping areas with why
children are at risk, including:

− Poverty and food security problems

− Not enough farming land for their family

− The method of collection with children looking for scrap metal both on the surface
(73%) and below the surface (26%)

− Children are also coming regular contact with UXO

− Reliance on metal detectors signals

− Active involvement in the industry from adults and

− Knowledge gaps about where it is safe or unsafe to look for scrap metal.
Children collect scrap metal in a variety of ways, some methods posing more of a risk to the
children than others:
− Opportunistically when on the way to the fields and come across scrap metal on the
surface
− When working and digging in the fields or home garden and unearthing scrap metal

− By using a small shovel, hoe or piece of wood to actively dig for scrap metal, generally
10 – 20cm below the surface

56
 − Looking in areas after slash and burning cultivation and all the vegetation had been
burnt

− Using metal detector to look for scrap metal

− For some children this involved actively digging in bomb craters

See Annex 1 for predisposing, enabling and reinforcing fact details of the factors which
contribute to male children collecting scrap metal.

6.3.6.1 Children’s Understanding of the Negative Consequences of Scrap Metal

Collecting
Seventy eight percent of the children who collected scrap metal considered it dangerous,
identifying the following:

− It is not safe to collect scrap metal below the surface when using a small shovel to dig
as we cannot see the UXO below the surface
− Because we use detectors and it is dangerous while digging, like in bomb crater areas

− Do not know if there is a fuse or explosive inside

− We are afraid that we might collect a UXO such as a ‘bombie’

− UXO sometimes might be in the ground and can explode

− High risk from UXO when we collect scrap and UXO can kill us

Of the 22% of the children who considered it safe to collect scrap metal the children could
identify the below reasons as to why, again the view of what is ‘safe’ or ‘unsafe’ is often based
on misinformation, and in the case of children their lack of knowledge regarding safe practices.

− Because the UXO is in pieces, would never collect if unsure what it is

− We can see the scrap clearly as it is on the surface, we can see if it is a UXO or pieces
of metal

− The UXO has already exploded and is in fragments

− Only collect scrap metal from the ‘bombies’ that have exploded

− Only collect the scrap metal from the bombs that have already exploded

Yet despite this high level of awareness about the dangers of scrap metal collection, children
do not readily associate scrap metal collection with accidents occurring. Only 0.4% of the
children identified scrap metal collection as how UXO accidents could occur. This lack of
association of scrap metal collection resulting in negative consequences is a major factor
contributing to children collecting scrap metal and adults continuing to actively involve children.

The negative consequences of scrap metal collection also appear not to be reinforced in the
school environment. Children did not list the dangers of scrap metal collection as information
they received in school based UXO education activities. This is not to say these messages are
not given, only that the children are not reporting this as a major outcome of the lessons. This
may indicate that they are not receiving strong re-enforcement through school UXO
awareness that scrap metal collection is a dangerous activity.

57
School age children all reported discussing UXO with their teacher at school. What varied was
the structure and length of the lessons; however the content and messages were very similar:

− While digging to be careful and don’t dig with a hoe

− Don’t cut the grass low to the soil

− Do not touch or play with UXO

− Do not throw the UXO

− The history of UXO, when they were dropped

− When building fires to build them off the ground

− Do not hit or try to dismantle UXO

− Do not shoot the UXO with a sling shot

− When finding a UXO report it to parents and village leader

“Children sometimes bring me UXO items, especially boys around 7-13 years of age. The
children send them to me as they don’t know or understand the dangers of UXO, so when
they find something they always think that it is a piece of scrap to make money” (Scrap metal
dealer, Xieng Khouang).

The children’s perception about safe behaviours and inability to associate the negative
consequences with scrap metal collection is highlighted by the story of a young man in Xieng
Khouang.

A male youth, aged 16, who had completed 2nd year of lower secondary school had an
accident while out collecting scrap metal in January 2006. He lost his lower right arm and
received many shrapnel wounds in his body.

In the morning he went to the farming land with his friend and they saw ½ BLU26 on the path
where they were walking, he
picked it up and saw that it was
full of soil. As it was ½ a BLU he
though it was safe. He kept
walking and found a rock which
he used to knock the soil out
from inside. The first time he hit
it nothing happened, second
time he hit it nothing happened,
third time he hit it, it exploded
blowing off his lower arm from
below the elbow. His friend, who
was a few meters away when
the accident happened, ended
up with shrapnel in his stomach,
but no life threatening injuries.
The youth had previously
collected scrap opportunistically Picture: BLU3B which has been modified to be used as a lamp, (MAG
when he came across it when UXO Risk Assessment 2006)

going out to the fields to work,

58
however he never actively collected scrap and would never dig for scrap metal only collect
what was on the surface. Before the accident he thought it was not dangerous as he would
only collect pieces and scrap, which to him was not dangerous. Previously when collecting
scrap metal he had found UXO, they at first looked like scrap but it was a UXO, when this
happened he left it there and never picked it up.

The youth had not attended any UXO LAO CA activities, however he had learnt about UXO
through lessons at Primary School. He considered himself to be well informed about the
dangers of UXO, never touch live UXO or play with UXO, he strongly identified that ½ BLU
was safe to collect and nothing would happen.

6.3.6.2 Lack of Supervision by Adults or Adults Actively Engaging Children in Scrap

Collecting

Twenty six percent of children who collected scrap metal reported that they did so with an
adult family member, indicating that adults are willing to actively engage children in the
collection of scrap metal.

In a village in Khammouane
Who is with children when they collect scrap metal Province the scrap metal
industry is highly organised.
Adult family In the morning a truck
member
26% organised by the local scrap
dealers picks up the
villagers and then
transports the villagers to
Child family sites towards the
member Vietnamese boarder. “At
9%
Friends the end of the day we get
63% paid for the scrap we collect
Other villagers by the dealer and the truck
2% brings us back to our
sample size: 428 village”.
When questioned about
children’s involvement in
this the Village Leader explained, “Children can go on the truck as well, some children who
are 5-6 years old they go with their older brothers and sister, these children don’t use
detectors but join with their parents and older children to help carry scrap metal back. Children
do use the detectors, especially in the village areas, but these children are normally above 7
years of age”.

Children have minimal parental supervision, resulting in the children often being free to do as
they wish. Children as young as 6 years old are involved in collecting scrap metal. In
Khammouane, with a group of 3 young girls recently found to be collecting scrap metal, their
mother was questioned as to why she allowed the children to use the metal detector ‘I have
been in the fields all morning and only just come back, I didn’t know they had taken the
detector and gone out’. Whether this is the case or not is difficult to judge, when so many
children report going scrap collecting with adult family members. In some villagers where
children are actively involved in collecting scrap metal there is also a level of acceptance by
adults in the role children play in, not only helping there parents to carry scrap metal, as is the

59
case for the younger children, but also actively collecting scrap metal to contribute to the
household income, as is the case with the older children.

6.3.6.3 Lack of Out of School

Activities / Employment
Opportunities for Children
Children predominately report
collecting scrap metal on weekends
and in school holidays when they are
free to do so. Lack of out of school
activities leaves children free to collect
scrap during these periods.

Also contributing to children being at

risk, is that once children have finished
school they lack employment options
in small villages and work in the fields
with their parents, however when their
time is not being utilised they are free
to collect scrap to supplement their
incomes.

6.3.7 Children Aged 0-8 years of

Age

Children of this age group are

particularly at risk as they are too
young to comprehend the risk they
face from UXO. Younger children
generally under the age of 6 are at a
very high risk of inadvertently playing
or tampering with UXO as they have
not yet developed a level of Picture: Young scrap metal collector, (MAG UXO Risk
awareness or an understanding of the Assessment 2006)
highly dangerous nature of UXO.
These children have not yet started school, therefore miss out on where the UXO awareness
message is integrated into the school curriculum. The children’s ability therefore to identify
what UXO are, or to process and discern between dangerous items and items which have
been rendered safe and are common in their home environment, has not yet developed. See
Annex 1 for predisposing, enabling and reinforcing factors contributing to children handling
and playing with UXO.

“In March 2005 a bad accident occurred in our village. A company was to establish a nursery
and had dug up all the land in a field with machinery. Some of the village children went down
to the lake to go for a swim and when they had finished they walked back across the field
which had been dug up. We believe they found a BLU and all the children gathered around to
look at it, we are not sure, but they may have tried to break it open. The UXO exploded and all
of the children were killed” (Village Leader, Xieng Khouang). The children were aged between
4 and 6 years of age. 5 children were killed in this accident, 3 of whom were from the same
family.

60
The village leader went on to explain that the children were not even born last time the UXO
LAO Community Awareness team visited in 1999, and one of the children had just started
school so they hadn’t received the UXO message from their teacher yet.

As the table below highlights, since the beginning of data collection by UXO LAO in 1999,
children aged 0 to 8 years of age have on average made up 15% of the casualties from UXO
accidents and in some years accounting for as many as 25% of the casualties.

Casualty Information*

Children 0-8 years of age Total number of accidents

% of total
Year Casualties Injuries Deaths casualties Casualties Injuries Deaths

1999 15 13 2 15 101 75 26

2000 7 3 4 7 102 63 39

2001 20 18 2 17 121 86 35

2002 21 18 3 21 99 71 28

2003 7 5 2 6 109 76 33

2004 49 31 18 25 194 128 66

2005 22 20 2 13 164 128 36

141 108 33 15 890 627 263

*Data courtesy of UXO LAO

6.3.8 Adults and Children Working in Agricultural Land

Twenty nine percent of all adults surveyed reported finding UXO in their farming land in the
last 12 months, 59% of the adults were men, with 41% women, both men and women are at
risk when working in agricultural land as are children who are often working in farming land
with family members.
Farmers face the risk of unintentionally coming into contact with a subsurface UXO resulting in
an accident, primarily when digging in farming land, cutting or when carrying out slash and
burn shifting cultivation. This unintentional contact with UXO is greatly feared as unintentional
contact can not be controlled. See Annex 1 for predisposing, enabling and reinforcing factors
contributing to contact with UXO.
6.4 Conclusions

The assessment has demonstrated that behavioural decisions are made within a complex and
interlocking milieu of economic, social, political and cultural factors, with many factors
contributing to high risk behaviours. Framing UXO risk programmes in terms of a single causal
factor, simplifies the situation and is likely to lead to inadequate interventions. Using ecological
approach to analysis provides a more holistic lens through which to view UXO risk and brings
into sharp relief the complexity of behavioural decisions.

61
The assessment has also shown that UXO risk takers, predominately men but also women
and children, generally are aware of the risk and activate some form of risk assessment
process and use this to make rational and deliberate decisions regarding acceptable risk. Yet,
as the discussion has shown this rationalization is often based on misinformation and has little
bearing on rendering an activity safe.

The assessment has also helped to highlight differences in ways problems are structured and
solved, differences in judgments about the probability of an accident and access to different
kinds of knowledge often resulting in different definitions of risk. A collective paradigm shift
may be needed therefore in government, service providers and communities alike in order to
bridge the current gap between ‘expert’ and ‘lay’ opinions and assessment of risk. The NRA
as the lead government agency can play a pivotal role in bringing together the different
government bodies, service providers and communities to rise to this challenge.

As the recommendations below suggest, answers to addressing the challenges in reducing

UXO risk in the Lao PDR lie in good government policies and strategies, clear prioritisation
and targeting criteria, adequately resourced, appropriate and focused regulation of the scrap
metal industry and its practices, building on community strengths and knowledge, and
continuing engagement and awareness raising with communities, as well as examining
strategies to enable communities to manage any residual risk once clearance operations have
finished.

7. Recommendations
In summary, the assessment has taken an eclectic approach to analysing UXO risk and in
doing so has placed risk taking into the broader socio-economic and political environment in
which behavioural decisions are made. This approach to safety and injury prevention is
consistent with contemporary models of health and safety promotion, for example the
ecological approach (Green and Kreuter, 1999) as well as environmental health risk
assessment and risk management frameworks. The assessment has highlighted the complex
and multi causal nature of UXO and has shown how UXO risk is also interdependent on other
risks, for example, food insecurity. Reducing UXO risk therefore is going to require a creative,
collaborative, integrated and multi-strategic approach. Developing these strategies will require
a risk management approach that addresses the interdependence and cumulative effects of
various contributing factors, engages a range of stakeholders and enables the setting of
priorities in order to make sound and cost-effective risk management strategies.

An effective risk management programme will also need to be appropriately targeted with
different interventions and messages for different sectors and sub-sectors of the population.
Criteria for the targeting of affected communities will also have to be developed and based on
a number of variables that have been shown in this assessment to influence risk, including:
levels of contamination, land use and type of UXO that influence the likelihood of exposure.
As shown, factors influencing risk taking behaviour include food insecurity, access to the
scrap metal market, the price of scrap metal, real or perceived cash needs, alternative
livelihood options with the same benefits as the scrap metal trade, the responsiveness and
efficiency of a surface clearance capacity, the attitude of local authorities towards the war
scrap trade, levels of knowledge and an urgency to open up more land. Where there is a UXO
threat and a number of variables influencing high risk taking behaviour, MRE resources
should be deployed. Targeting may also take into account variables which influence the
impact of a UXO incident including the ability and capacity of the health service to respond.

62
Risk decision matrices are a basic tool for assessing risk and may be applied to HMA and
targeting of resources and have been used to target such activities in Bosnia-Herzegovina.

7.1 Establish a Process for Engaging Stakeholders

A general principal that underpins this recommendation is the importance of engaging with
stakeholders at every stage of the process. A stakeholder is anyone who has a ‘stake’ in a risk
management solution. Stakeholders typically include groups or communities directly or
potentially affected by the risk and programme managers and other groups either involved in
minimising the risk or affected by the risk in some way, for example, development agencies.
Stakeholder participation will result in more effective and more sustainable interventions.
Stakeholders bring with them important information, knowledge, expertise and insights for
crafting durable and acceptable solutions and are more likely to accept and implement risk
management decisions that they have participated in shaping.

In the case of UXO in the Lao PDR, stakeholder participation is particularly important for risk
management because as the assessment has shown, there are different interpretations about
the nature and significance of UXO risk. Collaboration and stakeholder involvement will
provide opportunities to bridge some of the gaps in understanding, values and perceptions
and facilitate an exchange of ideas that will lead to a better understanding and more informed
decision making by all parties.
It is also vital to continue and expand the dialogue with development agencies. One factor
driving high risk activity is poverty and as Moyes (2005) found it is not simply a question of
providing some other economic activity; the alternative must compete with the levels of
income and market integration in order to see a reduction of high risk taking activity.

7.1.1 Present the findings of the risk assessment at provincial and practitioner level
stakeholder meetings. This would include UXO LAO community awareness teams,
NGO community liaison and MRE staff and government implementing agencies such
as the LYU.

7.1.2 Develop a risk management strategy including MRE with stakeholders.

7.1.3 Develop MRE materials with stakeholders.

7.1.4 Include public health agencies and practitioners in developing risk reduction
interventions and deploy the tools of public health to monitor risk; for example,
epidemiology and surveillance and develop services to meet the needs of UXO
casualties. To ensure the sustainability and cost effectiveness of such programmes
there should be collaboration with other sectors in public health.

7.1.5 Hold stakeholder meetings at all levels from the village to the national strategic level
with those involved in the scrap metal trade to discuss and analyse risk taking
behaviours and agree on risk reduction strategies in relation to scrap metal collection.
7.1.6 Develop a holist approach to the UXO risk sector in Lao PDR built upon strong
partnerships between international organisations and agencies, national and local
government and national implementing bodies, best practices and lessons learnt.

7.1.7 Involve communities in defining tolerable risk.

7.1.8 Institutionalise stakeholder participation in the MRE unit of the National Regulatory
Authority (NRA), by providing key NRA staff with training on stakeholder involvement,

63
 establishing mechanisms to support this and enable full stakeholder participation in the
development of the MRE sector in Lao PDR.

Guidelines for stakeholder participation

⇒ In considering stakeholder involvement, the NRA and coordinating bodies need to

decide to what extent they will accommodate stakeholder involvement to make best
use of stakeholder time;
⇒ The goals of stakeholder involvement should be clarified at the outset;

⇒ Stakeholder involvement should include representatives of all affected groups to

ensure a range of perspectives. This may necessitate the offering of incentives to
ensure the participation of some groups;
⇒ Stakeholders must be willing to listen, negotiate and be flexible;

⇒ Stakeholder input should be credited and where it is not used explanations should be
given as to why.

7.2 Improve Targeting and Deployment of UXO Clearance Assets

Risk taking behaviours are at times the direct result of the clearance agencies inability to meet
communities’ clearance needs, as is the case with adults who move UXO out of farming land
and from community areas. The following factors can contribute to risk taking behaviours; lack
of a UXO reporting structure, requesting area clearance, lack of feedback and direction from
clearance agencies, and the realistic time frames for the clearance to begin. It is also
recognised that the clearance needs in Laos are such that it is not possible to clear all
requested areas, therefore strategies must also be developed to enable communities to
manage unmet needs and any residual risk.

7.2.1 Develop risk communication strategies to improve awareness of reporting processes

for UXO and develop a mechanism which delivers a response back to the village level
in a timely manner clearly outlining the outcome of the request and the response times.

7.2.2 Involve communities in the prioritisation of static UXO clearance sites – static
clearance sites are where clearance teams are deployed to clear an area of ground
that will require several days work, as opposed to roving tasks which visit sites to clear
surface UXO and then move on to the next request. Once these sites have been
identified, technical teams can apply a risk assessment/management process to these
sites to determine the most appropriate (if any) clearance assets to be deployed to the
site and when.

7.2.3 Define acceptable risk with community/end user input. Acceptable risk should be
defined both in terms of acceptable residual risk and acceptable number of fatalities
per year. Acceptable risk should be judged on severity not just probability. Other
criteria that can be used to help determine acceptable risk include:

− Whether exposure is involuntary (less acceptable)

− Consequences of exposure e.g. almost certain death, severe lifelong injuries with
long term complications (less acceptable)

− Distribution of risk (risks to children may be less acceptable)

64
 − Basic needs are threatened (e.g. food security)

7.2.4 Develop institutional and community strategies to deal with residual risk, which may
include an increased focus on training communities in the recognition of highly
dangerous items that must be reported immediately.

7.2.5 Develop and apply risk communication messages. The risk management approach
consists of 3 stages; risk assessment, risk management and risk communication.
These strategies must be developed in co-operation with the communities.

For example: stage 1, a risk assessment, such as this study in which high risk groups and
high risk activities are identified; stage 2, risk management strategies identified and developed
through community meetings and workshops; stage 3, risk communication, the development
of culturally and socially applicable messages and media focusing on safe livelihood
strategies (see recommendation 4 for further details).
7.3 Review Legislation and Regulatory Controls

Legislation and regulatory controls form part of the multi-strategy approach to reducing risk. In
an environment where there are inadequate regulatory controls, or lack of enforcement of the
existing regulatory controls, high risk activities continue to occur unchecked. Provincial letters,
memos and decrees exist in various forms throughout Laos outlining the legal status of
collecting UXO, scrap metal derived from UXO and the use of metal detectors. Some are
linked with the Articles of the Criminal Act and some outline penalties. What is inadequately
defined in all these documents is clear definitions of what is acceptable and unacceptable
scrap metal collection and enforcement of existing regulations. An opportunity exists within the
UXO sector in Lao PDR with the GICHD legislation training at the end of 2006, to assist in
understanding the effect of properly implemented legislation.

Further, as highlighted by the assessment, it should be acknowledged that there are also risks
attached with stringent regulation which could force high risk taking behaviour underground,
making it even more difficult to work with high risk groups. This was highlighted in Xieng
Khouang Province, where it was reported from Provincial Authorities that the Police would go
out at night into the forest areas to catch local villagers using their metal detectors.

7.3.1 A clear definition of what is and what is not acceptable metal within the scrap metal
trade:

− National level formulation of what is and is not acceptable metal within the scrap metal
trade needs developed (any war scrap, any metal derived from ordnance, any items
containing explosives) (GICHD, 2005)

− Participatory involvement of scrap dealers, collectors and HMA actors in jointly

negotiating and agreeing a definition of what this is

− Dissemination of this new information to scrap metal collectors and scrap metal
dealers

7.3.2 Enforcement of appropriate regulations:

− Establishment of a penalty system for people caught trading in what has been defined
as unacceptable scrap metal

− Participatory involvement of stakeholders such as provincial authorities, scrap metal

collectors, traders and the police in the establishment of such a penalty system

65
 − Identification and training for enforcement agency

− Selecting and training scrap dealers as peer educators in what is and isn’t acceptable
scrap metal

− Developing with stakeholders information and educational materials about safe and
unsafe scrap metal

7.3.4 Accreditation of scrap metal dealers through a national level accreditation system
managed by the NRA. Some of the following may be included in this accreditation:

− Undergo a basic UXO identification course in dangerous items recognition

− Compliance with national standards for what is and isn’t acceptable scrap metal to
purchase

− Moving dealerships out of populated residential areas (as defined through

accreditation standard)
− Scrap metal collectors must not purchase metal derived from ordnance from children
(GICHD, 2005)

− Scrap dealers must store suspect items in a segregated area and must report such
items for inspection by an authorized capacity (GICHD, 2005) such as UXO LAO
− Premises inspected by authorized personnel to ensure compliance

− Where scrap dealers organise scrap collectors into groups, and transport them to
locations to collect scrap metal, it must be made illegal to involve children in these
activities
7.3.5 Establishment of an ordnance disposal service for scrap metal dealers. A formalised
response process must be established between UXO clearance agencies and scrap
dealers to remove dangerous items from scrap dealers’ yards and scrap foundries
which pose a direct risk to the wider community. This process could be facilitated by
the relaxing of the MOU process and the removal of project specific MOUs enabling
UXO clearance agencies to respond to community needs outside of their direct project
locations.

Funding should not be diverted from humanitarian assistance; however it must be recognised
that scrap dealers and the surrounding communities are at risk of accidents and injury and
therefore funding which can be specifically used to provide a ordnance disposal service to
scrap metal dealers should be identified and the process of providing this service established
with UXO LAO and other UXO clearance agencies.

7.3.6 Review of provincial standards and development of national standards in relation to

metal detector use and enforcement:

− Licensing of detector operators

− Stronger cross boarder enforcement at key border crossings with Vietnam to prevent
metal detectors from entering Laos in large numbers

7.4 Review and Revise Current MRE Messages and Strategies

Any approach to injury prevention and UXO safety needs to embrace a range of strategies of
which awareness and education remains a prerequisite for change and its importance should

66
not be underestimated. Risk communication is the third aspect of the risk assessment/risk
management paradigm.

Risk communication does include one way message delivery but this is only one part of the
risk communication process. The “triangular” ∆ formula proposed by UNICEF (UNICEF
Vietnam, 2002) below also suggests that the delivery of health and safety promotion
messages is more effective when a combination of three key approaches is utilised. These
three key approaches include:

⇒ a mass medium such as radio or village broadcasts;

⇒ a face–to–face communication by a community leader, health worker, family member,

friend, etc; and,

⇒ a print or electronic IEC material such as leaflets, posters, flipcharts, teaching cards,
booklets, and radio or video cassettes.

The “triangular (∆) formula” is illustrated below:

Reaching a mass
Mass Medium audience, generating
(radio) awareness.

Attach to
“Opportunistic” activities

• “World days”
• Village festivals
• Religious festivals Print & Electronic
Face-to-Face,
• Market days
Interpersonal IEC materials
Most effective in Reinforce mass
creating behaviour change. media messages
and interpersonal
communication.

Triangular Formula for Health and Safety Promotion (UNICEF Vietnam, 2002)

7.4.1 Continue development of a “UXO Risk Education Strategy” including MRE with
stakeholders (as recommended in 1.2) which is currently being initiated by the NRA,
UNICEF and GICHD.

7.4.2 Develop MRE materials with stakeholders (as recommended in 1.3). The development
of new MRE materials should include:

− Materials in ethnic languages

− Oral forms of communicating messages developed for illiterate populations

− Materials which consider different geographical locations

− Materials which consider seasonality

− Materials which target high risk groups, especially children and youth

− Develop self confidence and life skills such as negotiation skills

67
7.4.3 Development of a communication strategy:

− The risk communication strategy developed must adopt a range of communication

channels to ensure inclusion of all at risk groups and sub-groups

− Deliver information through community–based, face–to–face education activities, via

existing community networks. The benefit will be that these individuals will be able to
deliver information to the target groups in their own languages

− Develop radio programming and audiocassettes in appropriate languages in co-

operation with Lao National Radio and provincial radio. Develop new, original
programming promoting safe behaviours
− Incorporate messages and activities into existing structures, occasions and events
such as World Health Day, World Food Day, village or ethnic festivals and so forth.

7.4.4 Training for service providers and message deliverers:

− Build the capacity of village groups, district, and provincial staff (e.g. LYU/UXO LAO).
Focus training to make service providers aware of behavioural change principles,
planning and monitoring and evaluation of communication activities

− Train UXO accident survivors as peer educators in their local communities

− Train service providers in contemporary health promotion skills including interpersonal

communication/counselling skills, IEC material use, and design and implementation of
simple injury prevention/MRE activities that can be linked to existing outreach and
community–based activities

− Train more senior level management/planning staff in the design, implementation and
monitoring of injury prevention/MRE campaigns

− Identify existing communication strategies, for example health based messages, in

which MRE messages could be included

− Identify organisations responsible for the delivery of MRE messages and develop a
more coordinated approach to MRE delivery among agencies

7.4.5 Communication of new risk messages:

− Use of ‘triangular’ approach to communicate MRE messages. Target groups should be

informed about the importance of safe behaviours through the sustained application of
a combined and coordinated set of communication activities using a mix of
interpersonal, mass media and print materials

− Target groups should include primary beneficiaries, as well as secondary target groups
who can influence the behaviour of primary beneficiaries

− Influential groups and individuals within targeted communities should be used to act as
“change agents" or “champions” among their peers, this may include village leaders,
LYU in the village, teachers or Lao Women’s Union representatives
− Messages should highlight existing positive beliefs and practices that exist among
target groups for example, adults who do not allow children to actively collect scrap
metal

− Messages should be consistent across all channels

68
 − Messages should enhance the image of promoted behaviours by countering
misconceptions and misunderstanding

− Messages and activities should attempt to instil confidence at the community, family
and individual level. The behaviours being promoted need to be considered as
“doable” allowing community members to recognise that they do have the power to
change their situations

− All materials and activities to be developed should be focused, reinforcing, attractive,

entertaining, simple and sustainable in design:

ƒ Focused: The target audience(s) must be clearly identified and sub–divided. The
message content must be specific to each target group and to the purpose of the
health promotion intervention.

ƒ Reinforcing: The message content must be reinforced by being consistently

delivered to the target audiences through different channels of communication.
For example, messages targeting youth can be delivered at school by teachers
or through scheduled visits from UXO LAO enhanced by print materials posted in
and around the school, video presentations at locations where youth gather, and
on radio.
ƒ Attractive: IEC materials must be attractive in design: colourful, well presented,
clear, and entertaining to appeal to the target audiences.
ƒ Simple and sustainable: Health promotion approaches should be low cost so
that production and distribution can be sustainable
− Messages and materials should be field tested prior to wider dissemination

7.5 Review and Revise Current Information Management Systems

Efficient information systems are required to fully understand the current situation, monitor
change, target resources and assess the impact of activities in the humanitarian mine action
sector. As shown earlier however, current systems in Lao PDR are underdeveloped and
incomplete, making analysis and accurate targeting problematic.
7.5.1 Incorporate UXO injury surveillance into existing public health systems. This will be
more cost effective than establishing a new system and will also provide public health
services with the necessary information for appropriate resource allocation and ensure
sustainability in an effective injury surveillance system. The surveillance system will
provide a clear view of the national health burden caused by UXO injury.

7.5.2 Use GIS systems to map contamination, HMA and record accidents in order to identify
hot spots for prioritisation for UXO action.
7.5.3 Clean and standardise available data.

7.6 Strategies to Reduce the Risk to Children

Young children’s knowledge and awareness of what UXO is and what are safe or unsafe
practices is not fully developed. Adults are also often away from the home environment which
can result in children being left on their own or with minimal supervision. This can potentially
result in children with limited parental supervision coming across UXO and not having the
knowledge or understanding of appropriate behaviour in relation to the UXO. It is therefore
crucial to target interventions for this group.

69
Strategies targeting of children 0 – 8 years of aged
7.6.1 Identification of high risk areas to target campaigns

− These areas may have a lot of high risk activities occurring such as an active scrap
metal trade, or high levels of poverty resulting in children not attending school until
they are older

7.6.2 Targeting of secondary groups who can influence the younger children

− Development of a parenting orientation module based on UXO awareness and

parental responsibilities
− Peer group educators for parents, reinforcing positive messages concerning parental
supervision and acceptable behaviour for children with regards to UXO

− Build on the decision making process within the community to enforce community
responsibility for children who are seen engaging in high risk activities
− Targeting of older children with school based UXO awareness messages to encourage
them to inform younger children and relatives of the dangers of UXO

NB: Peer educators must be clearly identified as people who are not actively involved in high
risk activities themselves, it is important the message they are giving is reinforced through
their actions.

7.6.3 Delivery of MRE messages to children

− Utilising existing Lao Youth Union networks (potentially building on the network of
trained volunteers from the UNICEF initiative ‘Sport in a Box’) to identify peer
educators in villages

− Training of peer educators in MRE specifically aimed at young children which would
include games and singing

− ‘Activity mornings’ for activities with young children in which MRE messages are
incorporated

Strategies aimed at reducing the risk to school children

7.6.4 Review and modify existing school based UXO awareness education

− Development of life skills and negotiating skills approach to risk education

− Inclusion of peer group educators

− Increased focus on scrap metal collection as a dangerous activity

− Review of current materials used to deliver messages

− Development of new MRE materials (see recommendation 4)

7.6.5 Continue and expand new UXO awareness education in the school curriculum

− Children in high risk areas continue to receive UXO awareness education in their
school environment

− Expansion of UXO awareness activities, incorporated into provincial level curriculum to

be implemented at district level. UXO awareness messages need to be expanded

70
 outside existing highly contaminated areas as children in less contaminated
environments are also at risk if they come into contact with UXO and are unaware of
the dangers or have not developed appropriate response mechanisms

7.7 Strategies Targeting Adults and Children who Collect Scrap Metal

The reduction of children operating in the scrap metal industry will require a strategic
approach targeting the whole community; adults, children and scrap metal dealers. Adults
express a desire to protect their children from UXO which is shown in their reasoning behind
moving UXO, yet on the other hand, adults seem to let their children collect scrap and in some
instances actively engage their children in the collection of scrap.

The Lao Government is a signatory to the Convention on the Rights of the Child and is duty-
bound to support the best interests of children and Article 32:

States Parties recognise the right of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and
from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child’s
education, or to be harmful to the child’s health …
It is important that targeted messages provide positive reinforcement and show this is a highly
dangerous activity. Adults on the other hand are generally aware of the risks, yet continue to
collect scrap metal primarily for socio-economic reasons; therefore new MRE messages must
be specifically targeted at this group.

For Children

7.7.1 Targeting of secondary groups who can influence children, or agents who have been
actively involving children in scrap metal collection

− Peer group educators for parents to positively reinforce scrap metal as a high risk
activity for children to be engaged in

− Build on community strengths and current decision making processes within the
community to enforce no detector use by children

− Educate scrap metal dealers who are actively transporting children to scrap metal
collection sites and consider imposing penalties on those that do so

7.7.2 Review of school based UXO awareness education material to include a greater focus
on scrap metal collection

For Adults
7.7.3 Development of messages specifically targeting scrap metal collection

− What is safe and unsafe scrap metal to collect

− What to do if a UXO is found

− Messages need to be developed to improve the level of awareness about digging and
safety precautions to take when digging for scrap metal

7.8 Strategies to Reduce the Risk to People who Dismantle UXO

A clear definition and enforcement of what constitutes acceptable and unacceptable scrap
metal will hopefully go some way to reducing this high risk behaviour as there would no longer
be a market for items of UXO that have been dismantled. Yet relying solely on enforcement is

71
not an adequate response, message based approaches and involvement of the wider
community will also be required.

7.8.1 Development and dissemination of MRE messages targeting people who actively
dismantle UXO. Messages should include:

− If you dismantle UXO, don’t leave the live fuses where children can find them4

− If you want to dismantle UXO, don’t bring the item into the village where others may be
hurt5

7.8.2 Development of community strategies

− Build on community strengths and current decision making processes within the
community to enforce safer behaviour from individuals who dismantle UXO

− Discourage communities from calling upon the local ‘bomb expert’ to dismantle UXO
on their behalf and encourage them to follow the correct reporting process
7.9 Strategies to Reduce the Risk to Farmers Working in Fields

7.9.1 Develop strategies to enable farmers to more adequately deal with residual risk, this
may include an increased MRE focus on training communities in recognition of highly
dangerous items that must be reported immediately
7.9.2 Prioritisation of roving tasks requests

Priority of roving tasks should be given to:

− Tasks which pose an immediate threat to an individual

− Reports of UXO in agricultural land where the item is impeding agricultural production
and there is a risk the land owner will move the UXO

− Areas where new agricultural land is being opened up

7.9.3 Development and dissemination of MRE messages targeting people who are at risk of
moving UXO out of farming land

− Focus messages to dispel the myths surrounding perceived safe precautions when
moving UXO

4 GICHD, 2005
5 ibid

72
ANNEXES
1. PREDISPOSING, ENABLING, REINFORCING FACTORS
RISK GROUP: Adults who actively collect scrap metal - men and women of all ages
Of the people who collected scrap metal, 29% do so actively through the use of a metal detector or digging for scrap metal, of which 65% are men and 35%
women. Active scrap collectors are from all ages groups, although the older age groups are more actively involved. Those 27 years and above group
represented 82% of the collectors.

RISK BEHAVIOUR: Digging to investigate metal detector signals and unintentionally or intentionally coming into contact with UXO

Predisposing Factors Enabling Factors Reinforcing Factors

Need for cash income Availability of scrap metal to collect Poverty and food security problems
Reliance on metal detector signals to give signal Availability of metal detectors, with scrap dealers Lack of agricultural production land resulting in
indicating only scrap metal is present often bringing detectors directly to the villagers families continuing to look for scrap metal to
supplement household incomes
Digging subsurface to investigate signals Access to scrap metal dealers, either in the villager or
who travel to the village to buy the scrap metal Limited alternative employment options offering a
Knowledge gaps in:
similar level of financial return
Failure to enforce regulations regarding the collection
• What is scrap metal and what is ordnance of ordnance and the use of metal detectors Lack of consistent sanctions or negative response
• What are ‘safe’ UXO to collect and what are from authorities (local police, village chief etc)6
Highly organised nature of scrap collecting industry,
‘dangerous’ UXO to collect, inability to where in some circumstances scrap collectors are Price of scrap metal
discriminate between live and safe items transported out to locations to collect scrap daily
• Where is it considered ‘safe’ to look for scrap
metal (i.e. bomb craters)
Lack of knowledge about regulations governing the
collection of ordnance and the use of metal detectors

6 Moyes, 2004

73
RISK GROUP: Farmers who move UXO out of agricultural land - predominately men over 36 years of age.
16% of adults had moved UXO to enable the cleared land to be used for agricultural production. Men (72%) over 36 years of age (72%) made up the
majority

RISK BEHAVIOUR: Moving and relocating UXO

Predisposing Factors Enabling Factors Reinforcing Factors

Level of contamination of agricultural land Lack of clarity regarding reporting systems for EOD Communities not informed of the outcome of
response6 requests for clearance
Need to utilise the land safely / want to reduce the
risk of farming7 Inability of UXO clearance agency to respond to Lack of information on when a formal EOD
6
clearance requests in a timely manner response will be made
Belief that some UXO are ‘safe’ to move
Ease of which a UXO can generally be picked up Process is effective and results in useable land6
Belief that it is ‘safer’ to move the UXO than leave it
and moved
in farming land Enhanced sense of self-efficacy at having solved a
problem6
Knowledge about what makes it safe or unsafe to
move a UXO Lack of association of accidents occurring as a
result of moving UXO out of the farming land with
Belief that the ‘safety precautions’ taken when
adults moving UXO without negative outcomes
moving UXO will prevent a UXO exploding, or an
injury occurring Lack of access to alternative or new agricultural
land that is not contaminated
People believe that they can control their
interaction with UXO6 Poverty, reinforces the need to continue to farm in
contaminated areas and potentially moving UXO

7Moyes, 2004

74
RISK GROUP: Men and women scrap metal dealers
Both men and women are engaged in scrap metal dealing, generally as a family business. Scrap metal dealers, their families and the residents in
the immediate surrounding environment are all at risk, as scrap dealing often results in the presence of live ordnance in a residential area.

RISK BEHAVIOUR: Through the purchasing of scrap metal intentionally and unintentionally coming into contact with UXO
Moving, handling and storing UXO within a residential area

Predisposing Factors Enabling Factors Reinforcing Factors

Need for cash income Larger scrap dealers advance the start up money Price of scrap metal
to smaller dealers enabling them to being a
Lack of knowledge about UXO items, and No form of accreditation required for scrap dealers
business
inability to distinguish between live and safe enabling people with no experience or taking any
items No standardised procedure to remove items of safety precautions to operate a business
UXO from scrap dealerships
Scrap collectors regularly, both intentionally and Lack of consistent sanctions or negative responses
unintentionally bringing UXO items to scrap from authorities (local police, village chief etc)8
dealers
No process for scrap dealers to dispose of UXO,
resulting in dealers handling, moving and storing
UXO
Locations of scrap dealers in residential areas is
placing the surrounding community at risk

8 Moyes, 2004

75
RISK GROUP: Adults who dismantle UXO – men over 36 years of age
Predominately men (89%), who are over 36 years of age (81%), actively report dismantling UXO.

RISK BEHAVIOUR: Dismantling UXO to collect scrap metal

Predisposing Factors Enabling Factors Reinforcing Factors

Need of cash income The simplicity of equipment used to dismantle UXO Financial reward
being readily available
Lack of apparent economic alternatives People destroy and dismantle UXO without
There is a market in which to sell dismantled UXO suffering negative outcomes
Willingness to expose themselves to risk
Often called upon by local villagers and seen as Poverty and food security problems resulting in
Belief that they can control their interaction with
the ‘bomb expert’ or the ‘UXO expert’ adult men dismantling UXO to supplement
UXO (self-efficacy)
household incomes
Some basic knowledge of techniques for
Limited alternative employment options offering a
dismantling specific types of UXO
similar level of financial return
General exposure to UXO gives people an
Price of scrap metal
understanding of the mechanics of UXO
Lack of consistent sanctions or negative response
Military experience gives people a prior
from authorities (local police, village chief etc)
understanding of the mechanics of UXO
Over familiarity with dismantling UXO leading to
over confidence
Beliefs and fate related to accident causation

76
HIGH RISK GROUP: Children who play or tamper with UXO
Predominately boys of all age groups. Of the 4% of children who played with UXO 77% were boys representing all ages. 8-11 years of age (38%),
12-15 years of age (35%) and 16-18 years of age (27%).

RISK BEHAVIOUR: Playing, picking up and handling UXO

Predisposing Factors Enabling Factors Reinforcing Factors

Ignorance of what the item is (accidental risk- Presences of UXO in the community Peer response
taking)
Lack of parental supervision Children playing with UXO without suffering
Knowledge that the item is dangerous (deliberate negative outcomes
Herding activities bring children in contact with
risk taking)
UXO UXO education and awareness is not part of the
Desire for excitement and desire to be brave9 school curriculum in all area of Laos resulting in
No activities for children during school holiday
some children not receiving UXO education
Curious nature of children times resulting in children having many hours free
messages at schools despite living in
each day
Lack of comprehension of the power of explosives contaminated environments
Familiarity with UXO due to UXO being present in
their home and community environment in a
dismantled form
Inability of children to associate that some UXO
are dangerous whilst others have been rendered
safe

9 Moyes 2004

77
RISK GROUP: Boys of all ages, (8 – 18) who collect scrap metal
Boys were considerably more active with 76% of the children collecting scrap being boys from all age groups.

RISK BEHAVIOUR: Opportunistically and actively collecting scrap metal, using a detector and digging

Predisposing Factors Enabling Factors Reinforcing Factors

Need for cash income Availability of scrap metal to collect, scrap dealers Peer response
who will purchase items from children
Reliance on metal detector signals to give signal Lack of consistent sanctions or negative response
indicating only scrap metal is present An market in which the children can sell the scrap from authorities (parents, village chief, local police,
monks etc) 8
Digging subsurface to investigate signals from the Familiarity with UXO (whether safe or unsafe) 8
metal detectors Children see their ‘peers’ or respected members of
Lack of parental supervision enabling children to
10 their community engaging in this activities
Lack of comprehension of the power of explosive collect scrap metal
Children are aware that scrap collecting is dangerous,
Knowledge gaps in: Parents don’t investigate children’s income sources8
however they collect scrap metal without any negative
• What is scrap metal and what is ordnance Active involvement in scrap metal collection by adult consequences occurring
family members
• what are ‘safe’ or ‘unsafe’ items of scrap to collect Price of scrap metal
Given access to scrap metal detectors by family
• Where is it considered ‘safe’ to look for scrap members
metal (i.e. bomb craters)
Highly organised nature of scrap collecting industry,
• That scrap metal collection is a dangerous activity where children are transported out to locations to
collect scrap daily
Lack of activities for children during school holidays
and weekends when children are most active in
collecting scrap metal

10 Moyes, 2004

78
HIGH RISK GROUP: Children aged 0-8 years old

RISK BEHAVIOUR: Playing, picking up and handling UXO

Predisposing Factors Enabling Factors Reinforcing Factors

Ignorance of what the item is (accidental risk- Presence of UXO in the community Peer response
taking)
Lack of parental supervision Children playing with UXO without suffering
Knowledge that the item is dangerous (deliberate negative outcomes
Herding activities bring children in contact with
risk taking)
UXO Role models and peers may be engaging in this
Desire for excitement and desire to be brave activity
No developed pre-school system for children to
Curious nature of children activities for children during school holiday times UXO education and awareness is not part of the
resulting in children having many hours free each school curriculum in all area of Laos resulting in
Lack of comprehension of the power of explosives
day some children not receiving UXO education
Familiarity with UXO due to UXO being present in messages at schools in contaminated
their home and community environment in a environments
dismantled form
Inability of children to associate that some UXO
are dangerous whilst others have been rendered
safe

79
RISK GROUP: Farmers who are working in agricultural production, planting, slashing and burning and cutting vegetation.

RISK BEHAVIOUR: Unintentional contact with subsurface UXO

Predisposing Factors Enabling Factors Reinforcing Factors

Level of contamination of agricultural land Lack of clarity regarding reporting systems for Communities not informed of the outcome of
EOD response11 requests for clearance
Manner in which land is being farmed, (digging,
cutting, burning) Communities are not actively involved in the Lack of information on when a formal EOD
9
prioritisation of clearance tasks response will be made
Lack of knowledge of the presence of UXO
Inability of UXO clearance agency to respond to Lack of access to alternative or new agricultural
Suspected knowledge of the likely presence of
clearance requests in a timely manner land that is not contaminated
UXO but inability to take action to find and remove
the UXO Poverty, reinforces the need to continue to farm in
contaminated areas

11 Moyes, 2004

80
2. REFERENCES
Andersson N, Palha de Sousa C, Paredes S. (1995) Social Cost of Land Mines in Four
Countries: Afghanistan, Bosnia, Cambodia, and Mozambique. British Medical Journal,
311:718-21.

Bottomley, R. (2003) Crossing the Divide: Landmines, Villagers and Organizations.

International Peace Research Institute, Handicap international Belgium, UNICEF, PRIO, Oslo.

Delneuville, A. (2000) UXO Awareness Education Activities Supported by UNICEF in the Lao
PDR, External Evaluation, UNICEF, Vientiane, Lao PDR.

Durham, J. Gillieat, S. and Sisawath, B. (2005) Mine Risk Education in Former War Zones: A
Shared Responsibility. Journal of International Health Promotion, vol. 20 no. 3, 2005, Oxford
University Press.

Durham, J. (2006) From Interventions to Integration: Mine Risk Education and Community
Liaison. Issue 9.2, February 2006. Journal of Mine Action, Fall 2000.

Eaton, R. Horwood, C. and Niland, N. (1997) Study Report: the Development of Indigenous
Mine Action Capacities. UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs, New York.

Filipino, E. (2000) Implementing Landmine Awareness Programs: Constraints and Strategies.

Journal of Mine Action, Fall 2000.

Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining. (2002) An Assessment of Mine Risk
Education Needs in Croatia. GICHD, Geneva.

Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining. (2003) A Guide to Mine Action.
GICHD, Geneva.

Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining (2005) Scrap Metal Collection in the
Lao PDR, GICHD, Geneva.

Grant, T. (1997) BBC Mine Victim Survey Report, BBC

Green, L. and Kreuter, M.W. (1999) Health Promotion Planning: An Educational and
Ecological Approach, 3rd ed. Mayfield Publishing Company, Mountain View, California.

Haddon, W. (1980) Advances in the Epidemiology of Injuries as a Basis for Public Policy.
Public Health Report, Volume 95:411-21.

Handicap International Belgium (2004) Feasibility Study into a National Network for UXO
Accidents in Lao PDR, Handicap International Belgium.

Handicap International. (1997) Living with UXO, Final Report, National Survey on the Socio-
Economic Impact of UXO in the Lao PDR. Handicap International for The Ministry of Labour
and Social Welfare Lao National UXO Programme, Vientiane.

Handicap International Belgium, (2006) Victim and Survivor Assistance Study Lao PDR,
Handicap International.

International Campaign to Ban Landmines (2000) Landmine Monitor Report 2000: Towards a
Mine Free World. International Campaign to Ban Landmines, Canada.

Lusica, D., (2003) Bosnia and Herzegovina Mine Problem: Priority Setting, Journal of Mine
Action, Vol. 7.3 August 2003.

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Moyes, R. (2004) Tampering: Deliberate Handling and Use of Live Ordnance in Cambodia.
Report for Handicap international Belgium, Mines Advisory Group and Norwegian People’s
Aid funded by the European Commission Humanitarian Aid Office, the Australian Government
and Norwegian People’s Aid, Phnom Penh.
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and Housing Census, Government of Lao PDR.

Nutbeam, D. and Harris, E. (1999) Theory in a Nutshell – A Guide to Health Promotion Theory,
McGraw-Hill, Australia.
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Historicalizing a Cultural Model in International Health. Medical Anthropology, 17: 181-194.

Rosenstock, I. M. (1974) Historical Origins of the Health Belief Model. Health Education
Monographs, 2 (4), 328-335.
Sisawath, B. and Durham, J. (2001) Baseline Study. The Lao National UXO Programme, Lao
PDR, Vientiane.

Sisawath, B. and Durham, J. (2002) In Depth Study, Boulapha District, Khammouane. The
Lao National UXO Programme, Lao PDR, Vientiane.
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Awareness Education. United Nations: New York.

United Nations. (2003a) International Mine Action Standards, 04.10, Edition 2, 1 January 2003,
Standard 3.124, www.mineactionstandards.org, accessed January 5 2004.
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2011, United Nations.
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protective Behavior. Health Psychology, 12: 74-85.

Wheatley, A. (2005) Mine Awareness and Mine Risk Education: An Overview of Activities to
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Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining, Geneva.

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5 2004.

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3. MRE NEEDS ASSESSMENTS
ADULT QUESTIONNAIRE
Interviewer’s Name
Date
Village
District
Province
Introduce yourself, explain why this survey is being conducted, ensure you explain to the interviewee their right to
withdraw at any time. For all questions in the survey a child is under the age of 18. This is to be explained clearly to the
interviewee when answering questions concerning children.
Type of housing (do not ask this question interviewer to look for self)
1. Concrete house with tiled / tin roof
2. Concrete house one or two floors with thatched / wooden roof
3. Two story house ( first floor with concrete and second floor with wood) with tiled/tin roof
4. Wooden house with tined roof
5. House with wooden / thatched roof
6. Simple bamboo house
7. Other
SECTION 1: PERSONAL INFORMATION
1.1 Sex of interviewee
1. Male 2. Female
1.2 Age of interviewee
1. 19-21
2. 22-26
3. 27-35
4. 36-45
5. Over 46
1.3 Level of education
1. No education
2. Completed grade primary school 1-3 / adult literacy training
3. Completed grade primary school 4-5
4. Completed grade secondary school 1-3
5. Completed grade secondary school 4-6
6. Other
1.4 Main Occupation
1. Farmer
2. Labourer
3. Small business
4. Student
5. Scrap metal collector
6. Unemployed
7. Government Official
8. NGO
9. Other
1.5 Source of Income (multiple answers)
1. Farming production/ livestock
2. Small business
3. Family living overseas / other provinces send money
4. Non forest timber products
5. Work on someone else’s farm or in construction
6. Scrap metal collection

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 7. Salary from employment
8. Handicrafts
9. No income
10. Other
1.6 From your own farming production how many months of the year do you have rice?
1. ............................................months. (If enough food go to 1.8)
1.7 If the rice doesn’t last all year, how do you get more rice? (multiple answers possible)
1. Borrow rice
2. Borrow money to buy rice
3. Scrap metal to raise the money
4. Go out labouring
5. Farming / livestock
6. Handicrafts
7. Non forest timber products
8. Small business
9. Other
1.8 How many people living in your family?...............................people.
1. Men.........................
2. Women....................
3. Boys........................
4. Girls........................
SECTION 2: ASSESTS
2.1 Do you own land?
1. Yes
2. No
2.2 What livestock do you own and how many?
1. If they have
2. If they don’t have (go to section 3)
3. Pigs………….
4. Ducks / Chickens………………
5. Buffalo………………
6. Cow………………..
7. Goats……………….
8. Horse………………
9. Other........................
SECTION 3: GENERAL CONCERN
3.1 What are the main concerns that you have (do not read this list out) (rank 1 as what
concerns the person the most, 3 as what concerns the person the least)
1. Not having enough money
2. Not having enough food
3. Sickness
4. Accident from UXO
5. Livestock/poultry diseases
6. Lack of labour
7. Not enough farming land
8. Natural event (flooding/drought....)
9. Lack of clean water
10. Nothing
11. Other
3.2 What are the main concerns you have for your children (do not read this list out) (rank 1 as
what concerns the person the most, 3 as what concerns the person the least)
1. Do not have children

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 2. Playing with UXO and get injured
3. Accident (drowning, fall out of trees, electrocution, road)
4. No job for children in the future
5. Sickness
6. Not getting an education
7. Lack of clean water
8. Drug abuse
9. Not enough clothes
10. Not enough food
11. Children work hard
12. Other
3.3 How often would you have a conversation with family / friends about UXO?
1. Never
2. Some reasons ( 1-5 times per year )
3. Sometimes ( Monthly )
4. Often ( Weekly )
5. Always ( Daily )
SECTION 4: UXO INFORMATION
4.1 Have you ever seen an item of UXO in the last 12 months?
1. Yes
2. No ( if no, go to section 5 )
4.2 Where have you seen UXO? (multiple answers possible) (do not read this list out)
1. Forest
2. Farming land
3. Along the road
4. Around the house yard
5. In the village
6. In mountain area
7. Stream / pond / lake
8. Old military areas
9. Public land (temple, school, health centre)
10. Other
4.3 Do UXO stop you going anywhere important or doing normal day to day things?
1. Yes
2. No ( if no, go to section 5 )
4.4 If yes, what do they top you from doing? (multiple answers)
1. Getting water
2. Collecting wood
3. Working in the field
4. Travelling to other areas
5. Building fires / burning
6. Digging holes
7. Open new farming land
8. Gathering food in forest
9. Other
SECTION 5: Moving / Handling /Storing UXO
5.1 Have you ever moved or handled UXO last 12 months?
1. Yes
2. No (if no, go to section 6)
5.2 Where did you move the UXO to? (multiple answers possible)
1. Off the path / road
2. Out of the agricultural land

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 3. Took it home
4. Took it to scrap metal dealer
5. Moved to forest area
6. Other
5.3 What made you move / handle / store the UXO? (multiple answers possible)
1. To prevent children touching it
2. To collect scrap metal
3. To avoid someone steal or see it
4. To farm agricultural land
5. To play with it
6. Other
5.4 In the last 12 months how many times have touched UXO?
1. Daily
2. 2-3 times a week
3. Weekly
4. Monthly
5. Other
5.5 Does anyone help you move / handle UXO with you? (multiple answers)
1. No one
2. Friends
3. Relatives who are adult
4. Relatives who are children
5. Neighbours
6. Other villagers
7. Others
5.6 What types of UXO do you touch or move / handle in the last 12 months? (multiple answers
possible)
1. Don’t know the type
2. Everything
3. Bombies
4. Projectiles
5. Large bombs
6. Motor shells
7. Rockets / missiles
8. Hand grenades
9. Mines
10. Bullets
11. Other
5.7 Have you ever stored UXO in the last 12 months? (multiple answers possible)
1. Yes
2. No (if no, go to section 6)
5.8 Where did you store the UXO?
1. House
2. Garden / farming land
3. In the stream / lake
4. Forest
5. Other
5.9 Approximately how many times have you stored UXO?
1. ................... times
5.10 Why did you store the UXO? (multiple answers possible)
1. So children wouldn’t play
2. Waiting for scrap metal collector to come

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 3. Because I own them
4. Because they were found on my land
5. Other
SECTION 6: Destroying / Dismantled UXO
6.1 Have you destroyed / dismantled UXO in the last 12 months?
1. Yes
2. No ( if no, go to section 7 )
6.2 How often would you destroy / dismantle UXO?
1. Never
2. Some reasons ( 1-5 times per year )
3. Sometimes ( Monthly )
4. Often ( Weekly )
5. Always ( Daily )
6.3 Was someone with you when you destroyed or dismantled the UXO? (multiple answers)
1. Alone
2. Friends
3. Relatives who were adults
4. Relatives who are children
5. Neighbours
6. Other villagers
7. Others
6.4 How did you learn to destroy or dismantle UXO?
1. Through my experience as a solider
2. Learnt from friends
3. Learnt from family
4. Learn from other villagers
5. Learn from watching UXO team
6. Others
6.5 How did you destroy or dismantle the UXO?
1. Use strong object to break open (hammer / rock)
2. Place the UXO in a hot fire
3. Use spanner to open large bomb
4. Put the salt over them
5. Other
6.6 Why do you destroy / dismantle UXO?
1. To collect the scrap metal
2. To collect the explosive
3. To do farming
4. To make it’s safer
5. Other
SECTION 7: Scrap metal collection
7.1 Have you ever collected scrap metal in the last 12 months?
1. Yes
2. No (if no, go to section:8)
7.2 How often do you collect scrap metal?
1. ……………… / week
2. ……………../ month
3. ……………../ year
7.3 How do you look for the scrap metal?
1. Use detector
2. By digging for scrap metal
3. Looking in the forest area

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 4. Looking in agricultural area
5. After slash and burn
6. Come across scrap, opportunistically
7. Other
7.4 Where in the ground is the scrap metal you are looking for? (multiple answers)
1. On the ground
2. Below the ground
3. Under the water
4. Other
7.5 Who do you sell scrap metal to? (multiple answers)
1. Scrap dealer who comes to our village
2. Scrap dealer in village
3. Send to factory
4. Unsure who they are
5. Other
7.6 How much money do you make selling scrap metal?
1. ……………..kip / week
2. ………….…kip / month
3. …………….kip / year
7.7 What do you do with the money that you make from selling scrap metal? (multiple answers)
1. Buying food
2. Buy Medicine
3. Buy agricultural inputs (seeds / fertilisers)
4. Purchase household / personal belongings
5. Education fees for children, school supplies and snacks
6. Buy sweet for children
7. Other
7.8 Do scrap metal dealers buy UXO even if it still contains some explosive or the fuse?
1. Yes
2. No
3. Don’t know
7.9 Is collecting scrap metal dangerous or not dangerous?
1. Dangerous
2. Not dangerous
3. Don’t Know
7.10 Has anyone warned you about the dangers of collecting scrap metal?
1. Yes
2. No (if no, go to 7.12)
7.11 If yes, who has warned you? (multiple answers possible)
1. UXO LAO community awareness team
2. Local authorities
3. Family
4. Friends
5. Teachers
6. Other
7.12 What are the main times of the year you collect scrap metal?
1. Rainy season
2. Dry season
3. When farming is not busy
4. Before Lao New Year
5. When I need money
6. Other

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SECTION 8: Removal of UXO to use the land
8.1 Have you ever removed UXO to then use the cleared land?
1. Yes
2. No (if no, go to section 9)
8.2 Have you ever used a metal detector to clear your own land?
1. Yes
2. No ( if no, go to 8.4)
8.3 What did you use the cleared land for? (multiple answers)
1. Farming
2. To build a house / rice storage building
3. Garden
4. Livestock shelter (pigsty / cattle pen)
5. Fish pond
6. Other
8.4 Do you think it is safer to move a UXO off your land or leave it where it is?
1. Move it off land is safer
2. Leave it where it is safer
3. Unsure
SECTION 9: Move UXO to avoid children finding / playing with an item
9.1 Have you ever seen any children in the village playing with UXO?
1. Yes
2. No
9.2 How often do you talk to your children about the danger of UXO? (do not read the list out)
1. Do not have children
2. Never
3. Every week
4. About once a month
5. After I have heard about an accident
6. When I heard children are going to collect UXO
7. Other
SECTION 10: KNOWLEDGE
10.1 How can you tell if a UXO is safe? (do not read the list out)
1. I can see it has already exploded
2. I can see the fuse is missing
3. It looks rusty
4. The UXO has been there for a long time
5. No UXO is safe
6. Other
10.2 How can you protect yourself from being injured by a UXO accident (multiple answers
possible) (do not read the list out)
1. When see UXO don’t go close to it
2. Be careful when going where never been before
3. Careful when digging land
4. Careful when slashing and burning
5. Build domestic fires above the ground on stones
6. When find it report it to someone
7. Mark it for someone know that
8. Other
10.3 Can you tell me what makes a UXO explode? (multiple answers possible) (do not read the
list out)
1. Impact from a strong force
2. High temperature from fire

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 3. Touching / moving it
4. Trying to take out the explosive
5. Vibration from movement
6. Others
10.4 How far away can a UXO explosion kill or injury you? (multiple answers)
1. ………….. meters
2. It depends on the type of UXO that explodes
3. Unsure
4. Other
10.5 Do you know anyone who has been killed or injured by a UXO?
1. Yes
2. No (go to 10.8)
10.6 If yes, what were they doing at the time? (do not read this list out) (multiple answers
possible)
1. Playing with UXO
2. Collecting scrap metal
3. Foraging in the forest
4. Collecting firewood
5. Lighting a fire
6. Working in the fields
7. Dismantling / hitting UXO
8. Don’t know
9. Other
10.7 Do you think they knew it was dangerous at the time?
1. Yes
2. No
3. Don’t know
10.8 If you touch UXO often does it make it safer to handle UXO in the future?
1. Yes
2. No
SECTION 11: ATTITUDES
11.1 Who do you think are most at risk from UXO in your community?
1. Farmers working in the fields
2. People foraging in the forest
3. Scrap metal collectors
4. Children who play with UXO
5. Other
11.2 Are these people men or women?
1. Male
2. Female
11.3 Are you interested in watching people handle UXO?
1. Yes
2. No ( go to 11.5)
11.4 Yes if interested, why is this so?
1. I want to see what is inside
2. I had never seen someone handling a UXO before
3. I want to know how he dismantles it.
4. Other
11.5 No, not interested, why is this so?
1. It is dangerous
2. Have been told not to go near UXOs
3. Other

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11.6 What would you do if you were walking and saw a friend with a UXO? (do not read this list
out) (multiple answers possible)
1. Tell this it is dangerous and to put it down immediately
2. Tell them to throw it away as far as possible
3. Run away from them
4. Tell the village leader
5. Take the UXO and throw it
6. Take the UXO and put it down safely
7. Don’t know
8. Other
SECTION 12: REPORTING
12.1 Are there teams near your village who can destroy UXO?
1. Yes
2. No
12.2 Have you ever reported UXO to anyone?
1. Yes
2. No (go to 12.5)
12.3 If yes, who did you report the UXO item to? (multiple answers possible)
1. Friends
2. Relatives
3. Village leader
4. Local authorities
5. Provincial authorities
6. UXO clearance agency
7. Others
12.4 How long did it take for the team to come and destroy these items?
1. …………….. / day
2. ……………. / month
3. ……………. / year
4. …………… / have not yet come. When did you report it…………………
12.5 If no, why have you not reported UXO?
1. Have not found any to report
2. Not my business to report them
3. Afraid to report them to authorities
4. It does not worry me
5. No one to report to
6. Other
12.6 Have you ever moved an item to a safe place until the team could come?
1. Yes
2. No
12.7 Do you think it is better to have the UXO clearance team come and destroy the items?
1. Yes
2. No ( if no, go to 12.9)
12.8 If yes, why do you think it is good for the team to destroy UXO? (multiple answers)
1. Safer environment for community
2. To avoid accidents
3. For Physiology reasons
4. Easier gathering
5. Safer for farming activities
6. The team know how to destroy UXO
7. Other
12.9 If no, why is it not good to have a clearance team come and destroy the UXO?

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………………………………………..
SECTION 13: UXO RISK EDUCATION
13.1 Have any people or team come here to your village to explain about dangers of UXO?
1. Yes
2. No (if no, go to 13.6)
13.2 When did they last come?
1. .........................month......................year
13.3 If yes, how did they explain the dangers? (multiple answers possible)
2. Told the villagers the dangers when they have a meeting
3. Playing games / puppets
4. Ask and answer questions / role plays (roving CA team)
5. Can’t remember
6. Others
13.4 Due to this explanation did you change your behaviour in any way?
1. Yes
2. No (if no, go to 13.6)
13.5 If yes, how did you change your behaviour? (multiple answers possible)
1. Stop collecting scrap metal
2. Collected scrap more carefully
3. Don’t touch or use detector forever
4. Use metal detector now
5. Don’t build fires outside
6. More careful when digging land
7. Other
13.6 What information should be given to your community about UXO? (multiple answers)
1. Basic UXO recognition / colour of UXO
2. Where locations are found
3. How to identify different types of UXO
4. Dangers of UXO
5. How to prevent accidents occurring
6. Impact from UXO
7. How to move UXOs safely
8. Government regulation
9. How to avoid from UXO accidents while farming in the field
10. Don’t know
11. Other
SECTION 14: COMMUNICATION
14.1 What is the main way that people in your village get new information about health,
agricultural or other issues that are important? (multiple answers)
1. Village leader
2. Village notice board
3. Friends / family
4. Loudspeakers
5. Radio
6. Television
7. Other
14.2 Has consent been given to use photo’s or reference discussions?
1. Yes
2. No
Thank the respondents for their help and ask them if they have any questions they would like to ask you

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CHILDREN QUESTIONNAIRE
Interviewer’s Name
Date
Village
District
Province

Introduce yourself, explain why this survey is being conducted, ensure you explain to the interviewee their right to
withdraw at any time, ensure that the adolescent has an adult with them. For all questions in the survey a child is under
the age of 18.
SECTION 1: PERSONAL INFORMATION
1.1 Sex of interviewee
1. Male 2. Female
1.2 Age of interviewee
1. 8-11
2. 12 -15
3. 16-18
1.3 Do you attend school?
1. Yes (go to section 2)
2. No
1.4 If no, what is your main activity? (do not read out)
1. Working in the fields
2. Scrap metal collection
3. Unemployed (stay at home with family)
4. Paid employment
5. Other
SECTION 2: GENERAL CONCERNS
2.1 What are 3 things that most worry you and your friends? (do not read this list out)
(rank 1 as concerns the person the most, 3 concerns the person the least)
1. Playing with UXO and get injured
2. Drowning
3. No job for children in the future
4. Sickness
5. Not being able to go to school
6. Not enough food to eat
7. Lack of clean water
8. Nothing
9. Other
2.2 Are you and your friends afraid of UXO?
1. Yes
2. No
2.3 Are UXOs dangerous?
1. Yes
2. No
2.4 How often do you talk with friends/family about UXO?
1. Daily
2. 2-3 times a week
3. Weekly
4. Monthly
5. Never
6. Don’t know
2.5 Do you know what UXO are?
1. Yes
2. No
2.6 Do you ever play with UXO?

93
 1. Yes
2. No
2.7 How do you play with UXOs
1. Shoot at it with a catapult
2. Pick it up and throw it
3. Show it to friends
4. Move it around with a stick
5. Try to break it open with a rock
6. Other
2.8 Do you know anyone who has been killed or injured by a UXO?
1. Yes
2. No
2.9 If yes, what were they doing at the time?
1. Playing with UXO
2. Collecting scrap metal
3. Foraging in the forest
4. Collecting firewood
5. Lighting a fire
6. Working in the fields
7. Don’t know
8. Other
2.10 Do you think they knew it was dangerous at the time?
1. Yes
2. No
3. Don’t know
2.11 In the last 12 months have you ever seen a UXO while walking or playing with
friends?
1. Yes
2. No
2.12 If yes, what was the first thing that you did? (do not read this list out)
1. Ran away
2. Shot it with the catapult
3. Threw it
4. Played with it
5. Reported it
6. Picked it up
7. Keep going
8. Nothing
9. Other
2.13 Where have you seen UXO? (multiple answers possible) (do not read this list out)
1. Forest
2. Farming land
3. Along the road
4. Around the house yard
5. In mountain area
6. Stream / pond / lake
7. Old military areas
8. Public land (temple, school, health centre)
9. Other

2.14 What would you do if you were walking and saw a friend with a UXO? (do not read
this list out) (multiple answers possible)
1. Tell this it is dangerous and to put it down immediately
2. Tell them to throw is away as far as possible
3. Run away from them

94
 4. Take it away from them
5. Tell an adult
6. Take the UXO and throw it
7. Take the UXO and put it down safely
8. Don’t know
9. Other
2.15 How can UXO accidents happen? (multiple answers possible)
1. Touch UXO
2. Hitting UXO
3. Playing with UXO
4. Throwing UXO
5. Burning farmland
6. Weeding farmland
7. Walking over UXO in the ground
8. Collecting the UXO
9. Other
2.16 How can you protect yourself from a UXO accident (multiple answers possible) (do
not read the list out)
1. When see UXO don’t go close to it
2. Do not handle UXO
3. Be careful when going where never been before
4. Careful when digging land
5. Careful when slashing and burning
6. Build domestic fires above the ground on stones
7. When find it report it to someone
8. Other
2.17 Have any of your teachers at school talked about UXO to you?
1. Yes
2. No
SECTION 3: SCRAP METAL COLLECTION
3.1 Have you ever gone and collected scrap metal with your family or friends?
1. Yes
2. No
3.2 If yes, who was with you?
1. Adult family member
2. Child family member
3. Friends
4. Other villagers
5. Others
3.3 Where in the ground is the scrap metal you are looking for?
1. On the ground
2. Below the ground
3. Other
3.4 Did you receive money from collecting scrap metal?
1. Yes
2. No
3.5 What do you do with the money that you make from selling scrap metal? (multiple
answers possible)
1. Children
2. Give to parents
3. Buy sweets / toys
4. Buy clothes
5. Left over money from sweets give to parents
6. Saved the money
7. School supplies

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 8. Others
3.6 Did you think it was dangerous when you were collecting scrap metal?
1. Yes
2. No
3. Don’t Know
3.7 Has anyone warned you about the dangers of collecting scrap metal?
1. Yes
2. No
3.8 If yes, who has warned you? (multiple answers possible)
1. Mother
2. Father
3. Other family
4. Friends
5. Teachers
6. UXO LAO CA
7. Local authorities
8. Lao Youth Union
9. Other
SECTION 4: REPORTING UXO
4.1 Have you ever reported UXO to anyone?
1. Yes
2. No
4.2 Who did you report the UXO item to?
1. Friends
2. Relatives
3. Village leader
4. Local authorities
5. Provincial authorities
6. UXO clearance agency
7. Lao Youth Union
8. Others
4.3 Has consent been given to use photo’s or reference discussions?
1. Yes
2. No
Thank the respondents for their help and ask them if they have any questions they would like to ask you.

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4. LIST OF PEOPLE INTERVIEWED
World Education Consortium
Mr. Martin Dunn, Country Representative
Mr. Arthur Crisfield, Education Coordinator
Representatives from Xieng Khouang and Houaphan Provinces
Federation Suisse Deminage
Mr. Tony Fish, Programme Manager
Mr. Didier Bastien, EOD expert
Handicap International Belgium
Mr. Chris Bath, UXO Programme Manager
Ms. Clair Jacobs, Consultant
Lao Youth Union
Mr. May Lattanabounheuang, Director, LYU
Ms. Laysone Lakenchanh, Project Director, LYU
National Regulatory Authority for the UXO sector
Mr. Joseph Wenkoff, CTA
Mr. Maligna Saignavongs, Director
UNICEF
Ms. Amy Delneuville, Assistant Project Officer, Child Protection Section, Vientiane
UXO LAO
Mr. Bounpheng Sisawath, Chief of Public Information
Mr. Khamphane, Chief of Community Awareness
Mr. Vilaysouk Bouamanivong, Chief of Database Unit
E-mail communication with:
Norwegian People’s Aid, Ms. Ruth Bottomely, Research and Policy Development Advisor
Landmine Action, Mr. Richard Moyes
Semi-Structured Interviews
Xieng Khouang
Mr. Thongde Phonasa, Chief of Administration, Pek District
Mr. Maikham Sivongsa, Provincial Labour and Social Welfare
Male, UXO accident survivor
Scrap metal dealer (x3)
Person who actively tampers with UXO (x2)
Village leaders from Suoi Village, Lek Village, Khan Khai Village
Saravan
Mr Liem Maixay, Provincial Coordinator, UXO LAO
Deputy Provincial Coordinator, UXO LAO
Scrap metal dealers (x 6)
Lao Ngam District Governor
Representatives of Provincial Commercial Department
Village leaders from Mark Nao Noi Village, Thao Phoon Village, Theme Pho Phoon Village
Khammouane
Persons who actively tamper with UXO
Houaphan
Mr. Viengkham Pengsoulit, Provincial Coordinator, UXO LAO
Mr. Anousay Khamvongsack, Deputy Provincial Coordinator, UXO LAO
UXO LAO CA team
Village leaders :Nakai Village, Naloung Village, Kaleurn Village, Poung Nakhao Village, Nadeur Village, Souplao Village, Huay
Mai Village, Longaung Village, Meungpeun Village
Focus Group Discussions - Men, 14 groups with 140 people, women12 groups with 113 people, boys 9 groups with 105
people, girls 9 groups with 87 people

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