FM71 1

FM 71-1 Table of Contents
* FM 71-1
Headquarters
Field Manual
Department of the Army
No 71-1
Washington, DC, 26 January 1998
FM 71-1
TANK AND
MECHANIZED
INFANTRY
COMPANY
TEAM
TABLE OF CONTENTS
COVER
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2 BATTLE COMMAND
CHAPTER 3 OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS
CHAPTER 4 DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS
CHAPTER 5 OTHER TACTICAL OPERATIONS
CHAPTER 6 COMBAT SUPPORT
CHAPTER 7 COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT
APPENDIX A COMBAT ORDERS

APPENDIX B ROAD MARCHES AND ASSEMBLY AREAS
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APPENDIX C RISK MANAGEMENT
APPENDIX D FRATRICIDE PREVENTION
APPENDIX E CONTINUOUS OPERATIONS
APPENDIX F LIMITED VISIBILITY OPERATIONS
APPENDIX G NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, CHEMICAL, AND

SMOKE OPERATIONS
APPENDIX H INTEGRATION OF HEAVY AND LIGHT
FORCES
APPENDIX I MILITARY OPERATIONS IN URBAN
TERRAIN
APPENDIX J STABILITY OPERATIONS
APPENDIX K SUPPORT OPERATIONS
APPENDIX L DIRECTED-ENERGY WEAPONS
APPENDIX M OPERATIONS SECURITY
APPENDIX N SNIPER OPERATIONS
APPENDIX O ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
GLOSSARY
REFERENCES
AUTHORIZATION
Distribution Restriction: Approved for public release; distribution is
unlimited.
* This publication supersedes FM 71-1, 22 November 1988.

Preface
Because of its mix of weaponry, personnel, and supporting elements, the
company team is one of the most versatile combat assets on the modern
battlefield. Whether it fights "pure" as a tank or mechanized infantry
company or is task organized as a tank-heavy or mech-heavy company
team, it gives the commander a powerful combination of firepower,
mobility, and shock effect. This manual describes how the company
team fights. It focuses on the principles of company team operations and
the TTP the company team uses to exploit its combat power and
minimize its limitations and vulnerabilities.
FM 71-1 is for leaders at all levels of the company team. Because
weapons and equipment vary among the different company-level
organizations (pure tank and mechanized infantry companies and tank-
and mech-heavy company teams), users should adapt information
presented in the manual to fit their specific requirements. Where
capabilities of the various company team systems differ significantly,
the manual examines alternative considerations and techniques for their
employment.
The proponent of this publication is HQ TRADOC. Readers are invited
to submit comments on the manual and recommendations for improving
it. Prepare these comments using DA Form 2028, and send the form to
Commander, US Army Armor Center, ATTN: ATZK-TDD-P, Fort
Knox, Kentucky 40121-5000.
Unless otherwise stated, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer
exclusively to men.

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FM 71-1 Chapter 1 Introduction
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Tank and mechanized infantry companies and company teams can fight and win engagements on any
part of the battlefield in a conventional, nuclear, or chemical environment. The company team is
normally task organized by the battalion task force commander, based on his estimate of the situation,
to perform a variety of tactical missions as part of task force operations. In filling this combat role, the
company team integrates with combat, combat support (CS), and combat service support (CSS)
elements.
Company teams are capable of deploying in an 18-hour deployment sequence as part of the Army's
force projection mandate. (NOTE: For a more detailed discussion of deployment operations and force
projection operations, refer to FM 100-5.) They also can conduct stability and support operations as
part of a joint task force or multinational force.
CONTENTS
Section 1 Mission, Organization, Capabilaities, and Limitations

Tank Company Headquarters
Mechanized Infantry Company Headquarters
Tank Platoon
Mechanized Infantry Platoon
Combat Support Assets
Combat Service Support Assets
Section 2 Company Team Battlefield Focus
Section 3 Duties and Responsibilities of Key Personnel

Commander
Executive Officer
First Sergeant
Platoon Leader
Platoon Sergeant
Fire Support Officer
Communications Specialist
Supply Sergeant
NBC NCO
Armorer
Master Gunner
Maintenance Team Chief
Senior Aidman
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Section 4 Operating Systems

Command and control
Reconnaissance, Surveillance, and Intellignece
Maneuver
Fire Support
Information Operations
Air Defense
Mobility and Survivability
Combat Service Support
Section 5 The Human Dimension
Section 6 Specialized Operating Environments

Military Operations in Urban Terrain
Desert Operations
Jungle Operations
Mountain Operations
Cold-Weather Operations
SECTION 1 - MISSION,
ORGANIZATION,
CAPABILITIES, AND LIMITATIONS
The mission of the tank and mechanized infantry company team is to
close with the enemy by means of fire and movement to defeat or
capture him or to repel his assault by fire, close combat, or
counterattack. In accomplishing its assigned missions, the company
team employs CS and CSS assets within its capabilities.
The company team is an organization whose effectiveness depends on
the synergy of its subordinate elements, including tanks, BFVs, infantry,
engineers, and support elements. These components have a broad array
of capabilities; individually, however, they also have a number of
vulnerabilities. Effective application of the company team as a combined
arms force can capitalize on the strengths of the team's elements while
minimizing their respective weaknesses.
TANK COMPANY HEADQUARTERS

Figure 1-1 illustrates the organization of a tank company. The company

headquarters includes the following personnel and equipment:
● Two tanks with full crews, commanded by the company
commander and the XO.
● An M113A2 APC with crew under the command of the 1SG.
● Two M998 HMMWVs with drivers. These vehicles carry the

company master gunner and the company NBC NCO.
● One cargo truck with 400-gallon water trailer. Manning this
vehicle is the company supply section, which comprises the
supply sergeant and the armorer.
Figure 1-1. Tank company organization.
MECHANIZED INFANTRY COMPANY HEADQUARTERS

Figure 1-2 illustrates the organization of a mechanized infantry
company. The company headquarters includes the following personnel
and equipment:
● Two BFVs with full crews under the command of the company
commander and the XO.
● An M113A2 APC with crew under the command of the 1SG.
● Two M998 HMMWVs with drivers.
● Two cargo trucks with one 400-gallon water trailer and one cargo
trailer. The company supply section mans these vehicles.

Figure 1-2. Mechanized infantry company organization.
TANK PLATOON
The tank platoon is considered the smallest maneuver element in the
company. It normally fights as a unified element, with its sections
fighting in concert with one another. Based on METT-TC factors,
however, tank sections may be task organized with other elements.
Examples include the task organization of a tank section with an infantry
company during light/heavy operations or the task organization of a tank
section with a mechanized infantry platoon during MOUT.
Personnel As noted, the tank platoon comprises four tanks, normally M1-series
vehicles, organized in two sections. The platoon leader (Tank 1) and
and PSG (Tank 4) are the section leaders. Tank 2 is the wingman in the
equipment platoon leader's section, and Tank 3 is the wingman for the PSG's tank.
Each four-man crew consists of the TC, gunner, loader, and driver. For
a detailed description of the tank platoon's organization and personnel
responsibilities, refer to FM 17-15. Figure 1-3 illustrates tank platoon
organization.

Figure 1-3. Tank platoon organization.
Capabilities The tank platoon has the following capabilities:

and ● It has the necessary manpower and equipment to effectively
develop the situation.
limitations
● It can conduct operations requiring firepower, mobility, armor
protection, and shock effect.
● When equipped with mine rollers and mine plows, it can reduce
mine and wire obstacles.
● It can employ maneuver (a combination of fire and movement) to
destroy enemy tanks, fighting vehicles, antiarmor systems, and
emplacements (such as strongpoints and bunkers).
● It can assault enemy positions.
● It can secure terrain.
● It can defend, repelling enemy attacks with fires.
● It can conduct combat operations under limited visibility

conditions.
● It can conduct mounted patrols.
● It can provide support, in the form of armor protection and fires,

to infantry and engineer elements in restricted terrain or during an
assault.
● It can suppress enemy positions with machine gun and/or main
gun fire.
● It can ford water obstacles up to 4 feet in depth.
● It can operate in an NBC environment.
● It can operate in a stability and support environment.

The tank platoon has these limitations:

● Built-up areas, wooded areas, and other types of restricted or
rugged terrain can severely limit the platoon's maneuverability.
● Tanks are vulnerable to antiarmor weapons.
● Water crossing operations present a variety of difficulties because

of the weight of the platoon's tanks and requirements for fording
sites and/or bridges that can support them.
● The tank's weight and size limit its mobility over soft ground and
prevent it from crossing many bridges.
● During offensive operations, the platoon is vulnerable to dug-in
enemy infantry elements, which are especially dangerous when
equipped with antiarmor systems.
● In defensive operations in restricted terrain, the tank platoon is
vulnerable to dismounted infantry elements attacking from
well-covered positions.
● The platoon requires large amounts of fuel during extended
operations. It can operate for eight hours without refueling.
● It has limited capability to hold ground without infantry support.
MECHANIZED INFANTRY PLATOON

The mechanized infantry platoon can fight as a unified maneuver
element or as two distinct elements, one mounted and one dismounted.
The platoon must be prepared to operate in a variety of situations, both
mounted and dismounted, conducting missions to attack, defend, delay,
and move.
Personnel The mechanized infantry platoon is equipped with four BFVs. For
mounted operations, it is organized in two sections of two vehicles each.
and The dismounted element consists of two squads of nine soldiers each
equipment and a machine gun section of five soldiers. The dismounted infantry
squads ride in the BFVs, which serve as the base of fire during
dismounted infantry operations. For a detailed description of the
mechanized infantry platoon's organization and personnel
responsibilities, refer to FM 7-7J.
Figure 1-4 illustrates the organization of the mechanized infantry
platoon.


Figure 1-4. Mechanized infantry platoon organization.
Capabilities The following paragraphs list capabilities of the mechanized infantry

and platoon in mounted and dismounted operations, as well as the platoon's
limitations tactical limitations.
The mechanized infantry platoon has these capabilities:
● It has the necessary manpower and equipment to effectively
● It can destroy light armor vehicles using direct fire from the
BFV's cannon.
● It can employ cannon fire to fix, suppress, or substantially limit
the movement of tanks, fighting vehicles, and antiarmor systems
at a range of up to 2,500 meters.
● It can destroy tanks and fighting vehicles with long-range ATGM
fires. In the missile launch mode, the BFV is best employed at a
range of 2,500 to 3,750 meters, where the target can be tracked
for at least 12 seconds.
● It can suppress and destroy the enemy's dismounted infantry
elements with cannon and machine gun fire.
● It can repel enemy attacks with close combat.
● It can assault through small arms and indirect fires to deliver

dismounted elements to tactical positions.
● It can operate in an NBC environment.
● It can operate in a stability and support environment.
● It can seize and/or retain key terrain.
● It can block dismounted avenues of approach.
● It can protect obstacles and prevent enemy breaching operations.
● It can establish strongpoints to deny the enemy key terrain or

flank positions.
● It can conduct assault breaches of obstacles.
● In conjunction with its BFVs, the platoon's infantry squads can

clear danger areas and prepare positions for mounted elements.
● In conjunction with the BFVs, infantry squads can assault enemy
positions.
● The infantry squads can augment the antiarmor fires of tanks and
BFVs.
● The infantry squads can move over terrain not trafficable by
tracked vehicles.
● The platoon can infiltrate enemy positions.
● It can conduct mounted or dismounted patrols and OPs in support

of security operations.
● If provided with airlift support, it can conduct air assault
operations.
The mechanized infantry platoon has these limitations:
● The platoon's BFVs are vulnerable to enemy antiarmor fires.
● The platoon's infantry squads are vulnerable to small arms and

indirect fires. Infantry squads should not be positioned where they
will be exposed to long-range fires before they are able to take the
enemy under fire.
● The pace of dismounted offensive operations is limited to the foot
speed of the dismounted infantryman.
● The BFV poses a variety of difficulties in water crossing
operations, including the requirement for either adequate fording
sites or a bridge with sufficient weight classification.
COMBAT SUPPORT ASSETS

The company team may be task organized with the following CS
elements:
● The company team FIST.
● Engineer assets, such as an engineer platoon or squad and/or

special equipment.
● Either a Stinger team, which rides on a dedicated BSFV or
another company team vehicle, or a Bradley Linebacker.
● A task force scout platoon during some security operations.
● A task force mortar platoon or section during some tactical

operations.
● Sensor teams, such as those using ground surveillance radar
(GSR) or the improved remotely monitored battlefield sensor
system (IREMBASS), during some security operations.
● Counterintelligence, civil affairs, and linguistic support teams
during some stability and support operations.
COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT ASSETS

The tank or mechanized infantry company team has an organic supply
section. In addition, it is normally task organized with the following CSS
attachments:
● A maintenance team.
● A medical aid and evacuation team.

SECTION 2 - COMPANY TEAM

BATTLEFIELD FOCUS
The company team employs maneuver (fire and movement) and
integrates CS and CSS assets to complete tactical tasks in support of the
battlefield purpose specified by the controlling task force commander. In
doing this, the company team commander develops the situation, gaining
sufficient information on the enemy situation to make prudent tactical
decisions; the team then closes with and destroys enemy forces. The area
of operations defined by this principle varies widely according to the
nature of the battle and other METT-TC factors. It may be less than 100
meters in any direction during operations in forested areas, urban areas,
close terrain, or trench lines. In more open terrain, the area of operations
may extend up to 4 kilometers from the team’s direct fire weapon
systems and out to 6 kilometers with support from the task force’s
indirect fire systems.
During offensive operations, the company team may face stationary or
moving enemy forces. The commander must apply his knowledge of the
ground, the enemy, and the team’s combat, CS, and CSS assets to
achieve superiority in local combat power. The close fight may require
the team to breach obstacles, using suppressive fires and/or assaulting to
penetrate or destroy enemy defenses. It is this ability to close with,
destroy, and penetrate enemy ground forces that is the unique
contribution of the company team. Following the destruction or
penetration of the enemy, the company team aggressively follows
through to its next action. The team destroys defending forces by
integrating direct and indirect fires with mounted and dismounted
movement. Following the attack, the company team consolidates and
prepares for further action. It may also be tasked to conduct security
operations for a larger force during offensive operations.
In the defense, the company team will most likely be expected to defend
against an enemy battalion. It can repel the attacking enemy with fires
and close combat, integrating the effects of direct and indirect fires,
maneuver, and obstacles. It may also be designated as a reserve or
counterattack force during defensive operations, or it may be tasked to
conduct security operations for a larger force.
Regardless of the operation (offensive or defensive) it is conducting at
any given moment, the company team must remain focused on
continuing or returning to the offense. The team commander must
aggressively seek and employ the appropriate offensive options in any
situation.
SECTION 3 - DUTIES AND

RESPONSIBILITIES
OF KEY PERSONNEL

COMMANDER
The commander is responsible for everything the company team does, or
fails to do, in executing the mission assigned to it by the task force
and/or brigade. His responsibilities include leadership, discipline,
tactical employment, training, administration, personnel management,
supply, maintenance, communications, and sustainment activities. These
duties require the commander to understand the capabilities of the
team’s soldiers and equipment and to know how to employ them to best
tactical advantage. At the same time, he must be well versed in enemy
organizations, doctrine, and equipment.
Using this knowledge, the commander prepares his unit for combat
operations using troop-leading procedures. Ultimately, he must know
how to exercise command effectively and decisively. He must be
flexible, using sound judgment to make correct decisions quickly and at
the right time based on the higher commander’s intent and the tactical
situation. He must be able to issue instructions to his subordinate leaders
in the form of clear, accurate combat orders; he then must ensure that the
orders are executed.
EXECUTIVE OFFICER
The XO is the company team’s second in command and its primary CSS
planner and coordinator. He and his crew may serve as the team net
control station (NCS) for both radio and digital traffic. The XO’s other
duties include these:
● Ensure accurate, timely tactical reports are sent to the task force.
● Assume command of the company team as required.
● In conjunction with the 1SG, plan and supervise the company

team CSS effort prior to the battle.
● Assist in preparation of the OPORD, especially paragraph 4
(service support).
● Conduct tactical coordination with higher, adjacent, and
supporting units.
● As required, assist the commander in issuing orders to the
company team headquarters and attachments.
● Conduct additional missions as required. These may include
serving as OIC for a quartering party or as the leader of the
detachment left in contact (DLIC) in a withdrawal.
● Assist the commander in preparations for follow-on missions.

FIRST SERGEANT
The 1SG is the team’s senior NCO and normally is its most experienced
soldier. He is the commander’s primary tactical advisor; he is an expert
in individual and NCO skills. He is the team’s primary CSS operator; he
helps the commander to plan, coordinate, and supervise all logistical
activities that support the tactical mission. He operates where the
commander directs or where his duties require him.
The 1SG’s specific duties include the following:
● Execute and supervise routine operations. The 1SG’s duties may
include enforcing the tactical SOP; planning and coordinating
training; coordinating and reporting personnel and administrative
actions; and supervising supply, maintenance, communications,
and field hygiene operations.
● Supervise, inspect, and/or observe all matters designated by the
commander. For example, the 1SG may observe and report on a
portion of the team’s sector or zone, proof fighting positions, or
assist in proofing an engagement area.
● Plan, rehearse, and supervise key logistical actions in support of
the tactical mission. These activities include resupply of Class I,
III, and V products and materials; maintenance and recovery;
medical treatment and evacuation; and replacement/RTD
processing.
● Assist and coordinate with the XO in all critical functions.
● As necessary, serve as quartering party NCOIC.
● Conduct training and ensure proficiency in individual and NCO

skills and small-unit collective skills that support the company
team’s METL.
● In conjunction with the commander, establish and maintain the
foundation for company team discipline.
PLATOON LEADER
The platoon leader is responsible to the commander for leadership,
discipline, training, and sustainment activities related to the platoon; for
maintenance of its equipment; and for its success in combat. He must be
proficient in the tactical employment of the platoon and his section
(mounted or dismounted) in concert with the rest of the company team.
In many ways, the platoon leader’s command and control
responsibilities parallel those of the team commander. Like the
commander, he must have a solid understanding of troop-leading
procedures and develop his ability to apply them quickly and efficiently.
He must know the capabilities and limitations of the platoon’s personnel
and equipment and be well versed in enemy organizations, doctrine, and
equipment. On the battlefield, characteristics of an effective platoon

leader again mirror those of the commander: a combination of tactical

flexibility, sound judgment, and the ability to make rapid decisions
accurately and at the right time based on the commander’s intent and
specifics of the tactical situation.
PLATOON SERGEANT
The PSG is platoon’s second in command and is accountable to the
platoon leader for the leadership, discipline, training, and welfare of the
platoon’s soldiers. He coordinates the platoon’s maintenance and
logistical requirements and handles the personal needs of individual
soldiers. The PSG fights his section in concert with the platoon leader’s
section.
FIRE SUPPORT OFFICER

The company team fire support officer (FSO) helps the commander to
plan, coordinate, and execute the team’s fire support requirements and
operations. During operational planning, he develops and refines a fire
support plan based on the commander’s concept and guidance. He then
coordinates the plan with the battalion FSO. The team FSO also has
these responsibilities:
● Advise the commander on the capabilities and current status of all
available fire support assets.
● Serve as the commander’s primary advisor on the enemy’s
indirect fire capabilities.
● Assist the commander in developing the OPORD to ensure full
integration of fires.
● Recommend targets and fire control measures, and determine
methods of engagement and responsibility for firing the targets.
● Determine the specific tasks and instructions required to conduct
and control the fire plan.
● Develop an observation plan, with limited visibility contingencies,
that supports the company team and task force missions.
● Brief the fire support plan to the company team commander and
the task force FSO.
● Brief the fire support plan as part of the company team OPORD,
and coordinate with platoon FOs (when attached) to ensure they
understand their responsibilities.
● Refine and integrate the company team target worksheet; submit
the completed worksheet to the task force fire support element
(FSE).
● Assist the commander in incorporating execution of the indirect
fire plan into each company team rehearsal. This includes
integrating indirect fire observers into the rehearsal plan.

● In tactical situations, alert the company team commander if a

request for fires against a target has been denied.
● In tactical situations, monitor the location of friendly units and
assist the commander in clearance of indirect fires.
● Request counterbattery support in response to enemy artillery
and/or mortar attacks.
COMMUNICATIONS SPECIALIST
The communications specialist supervises the operation, maintenance,
and installation of organic wire and FM communications. His
responsibilities include sending and receiving routine traffic and making
required communications checks. The communications specialist may
also have these duties:
● Perform limited troubleshooting of the company team’s organic
communications equipment, and provide the link between the
company team and the task force for maintenance of
communications equipment.
● Supervise all activities in regard to the company team’s COMSEC
equipment. This usually will entail requisition, receipting,
training, maintenance, security, and employment of this
equipment and related materials.
● Assist the commander in planning and employment of the team’s
communications systems. Using the commander’s guidance, the
communications specialist may assist in preparation of paragraph
5 (command and signal) of the OPORD.
● Supervise or assist in company team CP operations.
Responsibilities may include relaying information, monitoring the
tactical situation, establishing the CP security plan and radio
watch schedule, and informing the commander and subordinate
elements of significant events. (NOTE: In many situations, the
communications specialist will be a soldier with the rank of
specialist or below; he may or may not have the experience to take
on additional duties such as NCOIC of the CP.)
SUPPLY SERGEANT

The supply sergeant requests, receives, issues, stores, maintains, and

turns in supplies and equipment for the company team. He coordinates
all supply requirements and actions with the 1SG and the battalion S4.
Normally, the supply sergeant will be positioned with the task force field
trains, where he is supervised by the HHC commander or support
platoon leader. He communicates with the company team using the task
force A/L radio net (when available in the field trains). (NOTE: Refer to
Chapter 7 for a detailed discussion of CSS operations and requirements.)
The supply sergeant’s specific responsibilities include the following:
● Control the company team cargo truck and water trailer, and
supervise the supply clerk/armorer.
● Monitor company team activities and/or the tactical situation;
anticipate and report logistical requirements; and coordinate and
monitor the status of the company team’s logistics requests.
● Coordinate and supervise the organization of the company team
LOGPAC in the task force field trains.
NBC NCO
The NBC NCO assists and advises the company team commander in
planning for and conducting operations in an NBC environment. He
plans, conducts, and/or supervises NBC defense training, covering such
areas as decontamination procedures and use and maintenance of
NBC-related equipment. Specific duties include the following:
● Assist the commander in developing company team operational
exposure guidance (OEG) in accordance with OEG from higher
headquarters.
● Make recommendations to the commander on NBC survey and/or
monitoring, decontamination, and smoke support requirements.
● Requisition NBC-specific equipment and supply items.
● Assist the commander in developing and implementing the

company team NBC training program. The NBC NCO ensures
that the training program covers the following requirements:
❍ First-line supervisors provide effective sustainment training
in NBC common tasks.
❍ NBC-related leader tasks are covered in sustainment
training.
❍ NBC-related collective tasks are covered in overall unit
training activities.
❍ NBC factors are incorporated as a condition in the
performance of METL tasks.
● Inspect company team elements to ensure NBC preparedness.
● Process and disseminate information on enemy and friendly NBC

capabilities and activities, including attacks.
● Advise the commander on contamination avoidance measures.

● Coordinate, monitor, and supervise decontamination operations.
ARMORER
The armorer performs organizational maintenance on the company’s
small arms and is responsible for evacuating weapons as necessary to the
direct support (DS) maintenance unit. In addition, he normally assists
the supply sergeant in the brigade support area (BSA). (NOTE: As an
option, the armorer may serve as the driver of the 1SG’s vehicle to make
him more accessible for weapons repair and maintenance in forward
areas.)
MASTER GUNNER
The master gunner is the company team’s expert in vehicle gunnery. He
assists the commander in gunnery training and preparations for combat
to ensure that every crew and platoon can make effective, lethal use of
their firepower assets. These preparations include assisting tank and
BFV crews by establishing or coordinating boresight lines, plumb and
sinc berms (for M1A2 units), and/or use of live-fire screening ranges
and zero ranges. The master gunner also assists turret mechanics from
the company maintenance team (CMT) in troubleshooting and repairing
turret main armament and fire control systems. As the company team’s
direct fire weapons expert, he can assist in engagement area
development and direct fire planning for both offensive and defensive
operations. Additional duties in the planning and preparation phases may
include assisting in CSS coordination and execution, serving as NCOIC
of the CP, and assisting the commander in troop-leading procedures.
During combat operations, the master gunner advises the commander on
applicable battlesight ranges. He may serve as the gunner on one of the
command tanks or BFVs, as a CSS operator riding on the APC, or as a
section NCOIC in the company team’s wheeled vehicles with
responsibility for facilitating communications with the task force.
MAINTENANCE TEAM CHIEF

The maintenance team chief (attached from the task force maintenance
platoon) supervises the CMT. He decides whether damaged vehicles and
equipment can be repaired in place or must be evacuated. Other key
responsibilities include coordinating evacuation and repair operations;
managing requisition of Class IX supplies in conjunction with the task
force maintenance officer; and managing the employment of the CMT
mechanics and evacuation assets. The maintenance team chief monitors
the tactical situation and directs maintenance team personnel during
combat repair and recovery operations. If necessary, he leads the
company team combat trains in the 1SG’s absence.

SENIOR AIDMAN
The senior aidman (attached from the BAS) works with the company
team medic in coordinating medical activities and supervising team
personnel (such as combat lifesavers and platoon aidmen) who hold
medical responsibilities. He provides training in such areas as basic first
aid and buddy aid; he can also train and direct company team combat
trains personnel to assist in handling mass casualties. He is responsible
for resupply of Class VIII materials and equipment for the company
team.
During tactical operations, the senior aidman monitors the tactical
situation and responds as necessary. He administers first aid to
casualties, supervises other medical personnel, and directs evacuation of
casualties from platoon positions when required. He keeps the 1SG
informed of the status of casualties and coordinates with him for
additional evacuation and treatment assets.
SECTION 4 - OPERATING
SYSTEMS
The eight operating systems allow the company team commander to
analyze various tactical, maneuver, and support functions as he prepares
his unit for combat operations. In developing his plan, the commander
integrates considerations and procedures from each operating system, as
described in this section, to ensure the unit can effectively accomplish its
mission.
COMMAND AND CONTROL

The command and control process is the commander’s basic tool in the
employment of the company team. It consists of the activities and
procedures used by the commander to plan, direct, coordinate, and
control the functions and actions of the company team; it also includes
the personnel and equipment that assist him with command and control.
The commander employs the team in accordance with the guidance and
orders he receives from the battalion task force. Perhaps his most
important skills lie in accurately analyzing the situation and developing
a plan that has the greatest chance of accomplishing the mission with the
least cost in lives and equipment. After developing the plan, the
commander delegates authority to his subordinates, clearly assigning
responsibilities, tasks, and purposes and stating his intent so that every
member of the unit can effectively use his own initiative.
During the battle, the commander must position himself where he can
most effectively carry out the duties and demands of battle command.
The position must allow him to make sound tactical decisions in keeping

with the axiom, "See the terrain, see the enemy, see yourself." Because
he may not be able to see everything, however, the commander must
also be prepared to visualize what is happening through oral and written
reports and information from digital systems. He must be ready at all
times to influence the battle by using FRAGOs to issue clear, concise
instructions to company team elements.
NOTE: As the company team’s second in command, the XO holds the
critical responsibility of assisting the commander in the command and
control process. The XO must be prepared to assume command at any
time. During mission planning and preparation, the commander must
consider where he and the XO will be positioned on the battlefield; this
is a key factor both in assuring effective control of the team and in
facilitating a smooth transition if the XO must assume command.
RECONNAISSANCE, SURVEILLANCE, AND

INTELLIGENCE
The RSI operating system covers activities employed to see the enemy,
terrain, and other aspects of battle space that will affect friendly
operations. Although the company team’s primary mission is to fight, it
normally conducts some type of reconnaissance or surveillance prior to
any operation; in addition, it conducts reconnaissance during execution
of all operations. Both before and during an operation, the company
team receives intelligence and combat information from its parent
headquarters, from other company teams, and from elements within the
team. At the same time, the team is a critical source of combat
information throughout the operation.
MANEUVER
Maneuver is the employment of forces on the battlefield; it entails using
a combination of fire (or fire potential) and movement to achieve a
position of advantage with respect to the enemy, to develop the situation
as necessary, and to close with and destroy the enemy. Based on
METT-TC factors, the company team commander may maneuver his
tank platoons, BFV platoons, infantry squads, and other support forces
to achieve the positional advantage.
Ideally, the commander moves the company team using bounding
overwatch when contact is likely, then makes the transition to maneuver
(executing actions on contact as necessary) once contact is made. He
uses indirect fires and a base of fire by stationary friendly elements to
provide protection for the moving elements as they close with the
enemy. He also ensures effective flank security, an essential element of
successful maneuver.

FIRE SUPPORT
The company team integrates fire support into its portion of the task
force fight. The task force fire support plan specifies the intended
tactical purpose for each task assigned to the company team; for
example, the plan may state that a target will be fired so that it diverts an
enemy force from a particular route. The company team commander
designates triggers for each target as well as primary and backup
observers to call for and adjust fires as necessary. The commander then
has ultimate responsibility for ensuring not only that the team effectively
executes the target but also that the intended purpose is met (in this case,
diverting the enemy from his original course).
INFORMATION OPERATIONS
Friendly forces employ information operations to magnify their own
combat power and diminish the enemy’s; a key function is to paralyze,
disorganize, or degrade the enemy’s ability to apply his operating
systems. Information operations may be offensive or defensive. Typical
components are electronic warfare (EW), physical destruction,
deception, operations security (OPSEC), psychological operations
(PSYOP), civil affairs (CA), and public affairs (PA).
AIR DEFENSE
The company team executes passive or active air defense measures, or a
combination, to evade enemy aircraft, degrade the effects of an air
attack, or destroy the attacking aircraft. Passive air defense is aimed at
avoiding detection or protecting the unit through the use of camouflage,
hide positions, and similar measures. Active air defense may entail use
of evasive measures, execution of air defense drills by organic elements,
employment of the company team’s organic firepower, and/or
employment of air defense assets.
MOBILITY AND SURVIVABILITY

This operating system addresses both engineer and NBC functions. In

the offense, for example, the company team may receive mobility assets,
such as MICLICs from the supporting engineer unit or additional mine
plows and rollers from other tank companies, for the conduct of
breaching operations. In conducting a defense, the team may be able to
employ supporting engineer survivability assets or be called upon to
execute the team’s portion of the task force countermobility effort.
Examples of the company team’s NBC-related functions include
escorting smoke-generating or chemical reconnaissance elements or
conducting decontamination operations supported by a decontamination
platoon attached to the brigade.
COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT

There are five functional areas of CSS: supply, transportation,
maintenance, field services, and personnel services. The company team
has an organic supply section and normally has attached
medical/evacuation and maintenance teams. Other support for the team
is provided by CSS assets from the task force.
SECTION 5 - THE HUMAN

DIMENSION
Although the "human dimension" is not an operating system, it is a
crucial factor in the success of any mission. Soldiers win battles;
systems are only their tools. At the same time, soldiers are human, and
as such, they have repetitive physical and emotional needs. A leader who
is 100-percent "mission first," with no consideration of the human
dimension, will see his command degrade quickly.
Leaders and subordinates alike must earn trust; it is not automatic.
Commanders must consider the training and experience of their
subordinates so they can assign missions that best capitalize on each
soldier’s strengths. They must also identify and correct their troops’
weaknesses. For their part, soldiers must believe that the chain of
command will do its best to take care of them within the parameters of
the mission requirements.
The individual soldier’s competence and performance on the battlefield
depends heavily on his belief in his own abilities; in turn, this
self-confidence is the sum of his confidence in his equipment, in his
leaders, and in his fellow soldiers as part of a team. Soldier confidence is
built through effective leadership and tough, realistic training.
For commanders, the guiding principle in handling the human dimension
of military operations is that they can tap their units’ full combat
potential only when soldiers are healthy physically, mentally, and
spiritually. Every commander must take every necessary action to
enhance his soldiers’ health, morale, welfare, and overall readiness to
fight.

Refer to FM 22-100 for more information on the human dimension.
SECTION 6 - SPECIALIZED
OPERATING ENVIRONMENTS
The company team must be prepared to fight on any type of terrain and
in all types of adverse climatic conditions and weather. The following
paragraphs examine some of the tactical considerations and
requirements the team will face in several special operating
environments. The discussion lists field manuals that provide additional
information on operations in each type of environment.
MILITARY OPERATIONS IN URBAN TERRAIN

On the urban battlefield, the company team must take full advantage of
all natural and man-made features. At the same time, it must remain
vigilant because of the potential dangers these features pose. Built-up
areas provide virtually unlimited positions affording cover and
concealment for a defender; they restrict the attacker’s mobility and
observation as well.
Whether tank-heavy or mech-heavy, the company team has only a
limited number of dismounted infantrymen that it can employ to clear
and defend urban areas. The commander therefore must carefully assess
how to employ the firepower of the team’s tanks and BFVs in support of
the infantry squads during clearance or strongpoint defense operations.
Refer to FM 90-10, FM 90-10-1, and Appendix I of this manual for
information on MOUT.
DESERT OPERATIONS
Desert operations require special training, effective acclimatization, and
a high degree of self-discipline. The company team commander must
take into account a variety of unique operational factors, such as
increased visibility (both for the team and for enemy elements) and wide
mobility corridors. He must also recognize the special problems that
desert operations pose in the area of logistical support. The desert is hard
on vehicles and equipment, causing a variety of maintenance problems.
The extended distances, lack of cover and concealment, and
less-than-ideal movement conditions can complicate resupply
operations.
(NOTE: While the techniques of desert combat and logistical support
differ from those used in temperate climates, the commander must
always remember that basic operational principles and fundamentals do
not change.)
Refer to FM 90-3 for a detailed examination of desert operations.

JUNGLE OPERATIONS
Severe limitations in visibility and mobility are dominant factors for the
heavy company team during jungle operations. Lack of visibility greatly
increases the potential for problems related to flank coordination, mutual
and adjacent support, short engagement ranges, and enemy infiltration.
Highly restrictive mobility corridors will almost invariably slow the
team’s movement. Severe weather also adversely affects operations in
the jungle. The degree to which soldiers are acclimated and trained to
live and fight in the jungle will contribute to the unit’s success or failure.
FM 90-5 is the primary reference for information on jungle operations.
MOUNTAIN OPERATIONS
Mountainous terrain requires the commander to modify the company
team’s tactics and techniques. Mountains obviously pose a serious
physical barrier to any type of movement. The impact can be especially
significant for the heavy company team, which will find its mobility and
fields of observation and fire greatly restricted. In addition, the severity
and highly variable nature of mountain weather have a significant
impact on military operations.
See FM 90-6 for additional information on mountain operations.
COLD-WEATHER OPERATIONS
Cold weather, which can vary from the relatively mild winters of central
Europe to the extremes of subarctic climates, will greatly affect
company team operations. Low temperatures will degrade most optical
systems. To varying degrees, cold will also cause performance problems
in most vehicles; related weather conditions, such as heavy snow, can
severely hamper vehicle mobility. Company team personnel are affected
by cold weather as well. Commanders must determine how to limit the
amount of time soldiers are directly exposed to the cold. Cold-weather
conditions can also affect other tactical considerations; for example, they
may change the effectiveness of natural and reinforced obstacles and
barriers.
Refer to FM 90-22 for additional information on these operations,
including prevention of cold-weather injuries.

FM 71-1 Chapter 2 Battle Command
CHAPTER 2
Battle Command
Battle command is the art of decision-making and leading on the battlefield. It covers the knowledge,
techniques, and procedures necessary to control operations and to motivate soldiers and their
organizations into action to accomplish assigned missions. As part of battle command, commanders
visualize the current state of the battlefield as well as future states at different points in the operation;
they then formulate concepts of operations that allow their units to progress from one state to the other
at the least cost. Other elements of the battle command process include assigning missions, prioritizing
and allocating resources, selecting the critical times and places to act, and knowing how and when to
make adjustments during the fight.
The company team commander employs a variety of means to prepare for operations, issue orders,
employ the company team, and communicate. The success of this command and control process rests
mainly on effective training; thorough (and thoroughly understood) SOPs; accurate, timely
communications; and, most of all, decisive leadership.
CONTENTS
Section 1 Command
Mission-Oriented Command and Control

Plans and Orders
Company Team Troop-Leading Procedures
Succession of Command
Command and Support Relationships
Section 2 Control
Situational Awareness
Reports
Standing Operating Procedure
Communications
Communications Security
Company Team Command Post
Direct Fire Control
SECTION 1 - COMMAND

Command is the authority that a commander in military service lawfully

exercises over subordinates by virtue of rank and assignment. It is vested
in an individual who possesses total responsibility and accountability for
the actions of his unit. It is the authority that empowers this individual,
the commander, to effectively use available resources in planning
assigned missions and in organizing, coordinating, employing, and
directing the necessary military forces to accomplish these missions at
the least possible expense in manpower and material.
Command, however, is more than the simple exercise of constitutional,
legal authority; it goes beyond merely the practiced application of a set
of managerial skills. The essence of command authority is the sum of
many intangible personal assets: the commander’s knowledge,
experience, and personality and how he interacts with his own unit and
with others.
Above all, command is an art. It is the art of effective decision-making
and of motivating and leading both individual soldiers and larger
organizations. It is the art of turning decisions, motivation, and
leadership into actions that impose the will of the commander on his unit
and, ultimately, the will of the nation on its enemies.
MISSION-ORIENTED COMMAND AND CONTROL

This method of directing military operations encourages and assists
subordinates in taking action consistent with the intent and concept of
higher headquarters. Mission-oriented command and control requires a
clear understanding by subordinate elements of the unit purpose; at the
same time, it provides them with the freedom to react to enemy actions
without further guidance. The following paragraphs outline the
underlying principles of this type of command and control.
Expect The commander must understand the environment of combat. The battle
will be dynamic and the enemy uncooperative. Communications may be
uncertainty degraded, and the chaos of battle may prevent the commander from
knowing what is happening beyond the reach of his own senses. The
situation the unit anticipates during the planning phase will inevitably
change before and during execution.
Reduce When soldiers expect the commander to make every decision or initiate
every action, they may become reluctant to act. To counter this
leader tendency, the commander must plan and direct operations in a manner
intervention that requires a minimum of intervention. He operates on the principle
that some loss of precision is better than inactivity.

The commander still must be prepared to provide subordinates with the

criteria and guidance for making decisions when precise control is
required for synchronization. During the planning process, he should
identify those few critical decisions that will absolutely be required
during the battle and then determine the criteria for initiation of actions
associated with these decisions. Examples include the use of
engagement criteria, trigger lines, and disengagement criteria. The
commander then disseminates the decision criteria throughout the
company team.
NOTE: The commander must keep in mind that changing
conditions and unexpected situations will require him to make
decisions continuously once the battle begins. His preparations
related to critical decisions will allow him, and his subordinates,
to react more effectively when changes become necessary.
Optimize The company team commander must ensure that the timelines he
planning develops for mission planning and preparation provide adequate
troop-leading time for the subordinate elements. An effective way to
time optimize the use of the available time, no matter how short, is to
for conduct training of the company team orders process under tough,
subordinates realistic conditions at every available opportunity.
Allow Given the expected battlefield conditions, leaders at every level must
avoid placing unnecessary limits on their soldiers’ freedom of action.
maximum The leader at the point of decision must have the knowledge, training,
freedom of and freedom necessary to make the correct choice in support of the
action commander’s intent. This concept must be emphasized at every
for opportunity at every level of leadership. Soldiers win battles; their
leaders can only place them in a position where they are able to seize
subordinates the opportunity to do so. Subordinates will be successful on the
battlefield only if their commanders and leaders have fostered the
necessary confidence and initiative before the battle begins.
Encourage Subordinate leaders do not always require guidance from the
commander to address a change in the situation. In some instances,
cross-talk because of their position on the battlefield, two or more subordinates,
working together, may have the clearest view of what is happening and
may be better suited than the commander to develop a tactical solution.
This type of problem-solving, involving direct coordination between
subordinate elements, is critical to mission-oriented command and
control. In addition to its obvious impact on mission accomplishment, it
empowers subordinates to take decisive action and teaches them the
value of close cooperation in achieving the unit’s overall purpose.
Command The commander positions himself where he can best fight his company
team and make critical decisions to influence the outcome of the fight.
and This position is normally with the main effort to allow the commander
lead well to exert his leadership and to shift or retask the main effort as necessary.
forward He must be far enough forward to "see" the battlefield using all
available resources; these assets include not only visual observation but
also radio reports and, in digitized units, information provided over
digital systems. The team XO is normally with the supporting effort and
must be able to rapidly assume command if needed.

PLANS AND ORDERS

Plans are the basis for any mission. The company team commander
develops his concept of the operation summarizing how best to
accomplish his mission within the scope of the task force and brigade
commanders’ intents. The team commander uses troop-leading
procedures to turn the concept into a fully developed plan and to
prepare a concise, accurate OPORD. He assigns additional tasks (and
outlines their purpose) for subordinate elements, allocates available
resources, and establishes priorities to make the concept work.
The following discussion, covering important aspects of orders
development, serves as an introduction to the discussion of
troop-leading procedures and delegation skills later in this chapter. The
first portion focuses on the mission statement and the commander’s
intent, which provide the doctrinal foundation for the OPORD. Also
included are basic discussions of the three types of orders (warning
orders, OPORDs, and FRAGOs) used by the team commander. It is
important for the company team commander to have a thorough
understanding of these elements because they are the building blocks
for everything else that he does during the troop-leading process.
(NOTE: Refer to Appendix A of this manual for more detailed
information on orders formats.)
Mission The commander uses the mission statement to summarize the upcoming
operation. This brief paragraph (sometimes a single sentence) describes
statement the form of operation, the unit’s task and purpose, the actions to be
taken, and the reasons for these actions. It is written in a format based
on the five "Ws": who (unit), what (tasks/operations), when (date-time
group), where (grid location/geographical reference for the area of
operations and/or objective), and why (purpose). The commander must
ensure that the mission is thoroughly understood by all leaders and
soldiers two echelons below (section or squad). The following
paragraphs cover considerations that apply in development of the
mission statement.
Operations Operations are groupings of related activities in four broad categories:
offense, defense, stability, and support. Each category is subdivided
into types of operations, with different types further divided into forms
of operations.
(NOTE: For example, as shown in Table 2-1, the attack is a type of
offensive operation. Forms of the attack include the spoiling attack,
counterattack, raid, feint, demonstration, and search and attack.
Retrograde operations are a type of defensive operation; forms are the
delay, withdrawal, and retirement.) Operations are the building blocks
of higher unit missions.
Table 2-1. Operations.
Category OFFENSE DEFENSE STABILITY SUPPORT

Types of Movement to contact Area defense Peace operations Humanitarian

operations Attack Mobile defense Counterdrug operations
- Spoiling Retrograde operations Environmental
(Forms of attack - Delay Nation assistance operations
operations - - Support to
are listed Counterattack Withdrawal insurgencies
under - Raid - Show of force
types) - Feint Retirement Combating terrorism
- NEOs
Demonstration Support to civil
- Search and authorities
attack Support to
counterinsurgencies
Exploitation
Support to civil
Pursuit
disturbance
The company team may also take part in a variety of other operations;
these may be conducted as part of any operation in the four general
categories outlined above. The following are examples of these
additional operations:
Reconnaissance Security Troop movement
- Zone - Screen Breach
- Area - Guard Water/gap crossing
- Route - Cover Relief in place

Deception - Area
Tasks Tactical tasks are specific activities performed by the unit while it is
conducting a form of tactical operation or a choice of maneuver.
(NOTE: The title of each task can also be used as an action verb in the
unit’s mission statement to describe actions during the operation.)
Normally, a commander will assign one mission-essential task to each
subordinate unit. Tasks should be definable, attainable, and measurable.
Tactical tasks that require specific TTP for the company team are
covered in detail throughout this manual. The following list gives
examples of tactical tasks the team and its subordinate elements may be
called upon to conduct:
Advance Contain Follow and Retain
in assume
contact Counter- Rupture
Follow and
support
Assault reconnaissance Hold Secure
Attack by Defeat Interdict Seize
fire
Block Destroy Isolate Support by
fire
Breach Disrupt Link up Suppress

Bypass Disengage Occupy

Canalize Disrupt Protect
Clear Fix Reduce
NOTE: For clarity, the commander normally lists tasks and operations
together in the OPORD mission statement.
Purpose A simple, clearly stated purpose improves understanding of the
commander’s intent. It will also assist subordinate leaders in adjusting
their tasks during execution of the mission, allowing them to stay within
the parameters of the higher commander’s intent. The purpose should
tell the subordinates why the company team is conducting the mission
and how the team will operate with or provide support for other units.
The following list provides examples of purposes that the company
team may be called upon to achieve:
Prevent Create Protect Deceive
Enable Influence Cause Draw
Deny Allow Divert Support
Placement The commander has several options as to where in the OPORD he
outlines his subordinates’ mission-essential tasks and purpose. His
overriding consideration is that placement of the mission statement
should assist subordinate leaders in understanding exactly each of the
five "W" elements.
The following is an example of a mission statement the company team
commander might include in his order:
Example
mission Team D (who) attacks at 040600Z FEB 97 (when) to breach
statement (what) the obstacle belt at NX330159 (where), enabling Team B
(task force main effort) to penetrate the enemy’s positions
vicinity OBJ BOB (why).
Commander's The commander’s intent is a clear, concise statement of what the
company team must do to succeed in relation to the enemy, the terrain,
intent and the desired end state. It provides the link between the mission
statement and the concept of the operation by stating the key tasks that,
along with the mission, are the basis for subordinates to exercise
initiative when unanticipated opportunities arise or when the original
concept of the operation no longer applies. The commander can also use
the intent statement to explain a broader purpose for the operation
beyond that outlined in the mission statement. The intent, which is
mandatory in all orders, may be expressed in several "bullets" or in
complete sentences; these presentation methods are covered later in this
discussion. As with the mission, the commander must ensure that the
intent statement is thoroughly understood by all leaders and soldiers two
echelons below (section or squad). The following paragraphs focus on
considerations that apply in development and presentation of the intent
statement.

How to use The purpose of the intent at the company team level is to provide
the vehicle commanders and squad leaders with a summary of the most
intent important details of what the company team is supposed to achieve
statement during the operation. The intent statement must be developed and
presented so they can remember this critical information, recognize
specific situations while in contact on the battlefield, and act in
accordance with the commander’s intent to achieve the desired end
state.
The focus of the intent is on the company team’s key tasks during the
operation. Key tasks are those that the team must perform to achieve the
stated purpose of the operation, as outlined in paragraph 2 of the
OPORD; they may also specify conditions that must be met for mission
accomplishment. Key tasks are not tied to a specific COA; rather, they
identify actions or conditions that are fundamental to the unit’s success.
In the ever-changing operational environment, such as when significant
opportunities present themselves or when the original concept or COA
does not apply, subordinate elements use these tasks to ensure their
efforts continue to support the commander’s intent. Examples of critical
areas that key tasks may cover include the tempo of the operation, the
desired effect of fires on the enemy, and terrain that must be controlled.
At the same time, the intent statement does not specify the technique or
method by which the unit will achieve the commander’s projected end
state; the method is covered in the concept of the operation. Nor does
the intent cover "acceptable risk"; risk factors are part of the
commander’s guidance and are addressed in the evaluation of all COAs
for the operation. In addition, the purpose addressed in the intent is not
merely a restatement of the why (purpose) from the mission statement,
which focuses on the company team’s immediate operation. Instead, the
commander uses the intent to examine the broader operational context
of the company team and higher missions.
One technique in presentation of the commander’s intent is to condense
it to three to five "bullet" comments (instead of reciting a lengthy
paragraph). This can make it easier for the team’s subordinate leaders to
recall each point and recognize related situations. As an example, the
following could summarize the commander’s intent for a mechanized
"Bullet" infantry team with the task of seizing a choke point for the purpose of
method allowing the remainder of the task force to pass:
of
My intent is to accomplish these actions during the operation:
presentation
● Control the choke point until the entire task force has passed.
● Prevent effective enemy antiarmor fires against the task force as

it passes through the choke point.
● Be prepared to defend the choke point against a counterattack
from the southeast.

Paragraph The company team commander can also summarize his intent in
method paragraph form. He should keep the intent statement as concise as
of possible; at the same time, however, he must ensure that the paragraph
presentation covers all pertinent details of the operation. The following example
shows how he might explain the team’s mission to provide support by
fire as the support force in a task force deliberate attack:
We must suppress all enemy forces that can place effective direct
fires against Team Bravo as it assaults. We will maintain this
suppression until Team Bravo begins its maneuver. Additionally,
we must be prepared to assume Team Bravo’s assault to seize the
choke point.
NOTE: The examples provided here should not be interpreted as the
only "correct" methods of presenting the intent statement. The company
team commander must determine the most effective way to summarize
his intent based on such factors as the complexity of the mission, the
applicable METT-TC factors, and the conditions under which the order
is being issued.
Combat Combat orders are the means by which the company team commander
receives and transmits information, from the earliest notification that an
orders operation will occur through the final phases of execution. These basic
tools are absolutely critical to mission success. In a tactical situation,
the team commander and subordinate leaders work with combat orders
on a daily basis; obviously, they must have precise knowledge of the
correct format for each type. At the same time, they must ensure that
every soldier in the company team understands how to receive and
respond to the various types of orders. Because of these requirements,
the commander must take every opportunity to train the team in the use
of combat orders. The skills associated with orders development and
dissemination are highly perishable; they can be lost without constant,
realistic practice. (NOTE: Refer to Appendix A of this manual for
examples of company team orders formats.)
Warning During the planning phase of an operation, commanders use warning
order orders as a shorthand method of alerting their subordinate leaders.
Warning orders also initiate the commander’s most valuable time
management tool, the parallel planning process. The company team
commander usually sends a series of warning orders to his subordinate
leaders to help them prepare for new missions. The directions and
guidelines in the warning order allow subordinates to begin their own
planning and preparation activities.
The content of warning orders is based on two major variables:
information about the upcoming operation that is available to the
company team from the task force and what the team commander
ultimately wants to achieve by issuing the warning order (what he
wants his subordinates to do with the information). The commander
normally issues his warning orders either as he receives additional
orders from the task force or as he completes his own analysis of the
situation.
In addition to alerting the unit to the upcoming operation, warning

orders allow the commander to put out tactical information

incrementally and, ultimately, to shorten the length of the actual
OPORD. In the example in Table 2-2, the commander uses three
warning orders to issue information that otherwise would make up
paragraphs 1 and 2 and most of paragraph 3 in the OPORD. As a result,
when he issues the OPORD, he can simply review previously issued
information or brief the changes or earlier omissions. He will then have
more time to concentrate on visualizing his concept of the fight for his
subordinates.
Table 2-2 summarizes an example of how the company team
commander might use a series of warning orders both to alert the team
to an upcoming operation and to provide tactical information and initial
planning guidance. The left-hand column lists actions the commander
takes before issuing each of the three warning orders in the example.
The center column describes specific elements included in each
warning order, with the right-hand column outlining the commander’s
purpose for each order.
NOTE: The numbering system used in Table 2-2 (warning
orders #1, #2, and #3) recurs in the discussion of troop-leading
procedures to explain how warning orders are used at various
phases of the troop-leading process.
Operation When time and information are available, the company commander will
order normally issue a complete OPORD as part of his troop-leading
procedures. As noted, he does not need to repeat information covered
previously in his warning orders. The commander may also issue an
execution matrix, either to supplement the OPORD or as a tool to aid in
the execution of the mission; however, the matrix order does not replace
a five-paragraph OPORD.
Techniques for presentation of the OPORD and visualization of the
operation are covered in detail in the discussion of step 7 of
troop-leading procedures (issue the order). Refer to Appendix A for
more detailed information on the five-paragraph OPORD format and
for an example matrix order.
Table 2-2. Example of a commander’s use of multiple warning
orders.
COMPANY POSSIBLE COMMANDER’S

TEAM CONTENT OF PURPOSE
COMMANDER’S WARNING ORDER
ACTION

Receive the task Warning order #1 ● Prepare platoons

force warning covers the following: for movement to
order ● Security plan. the tactical
assembly area.
● Movement plan.
● Obtain map
● Task
sheets.
organization.
● Specify
● Tentative
company team task
timeline.
organization.
● Standard drills to
be rehearsed.
Conduct Warning order #2 ● Initiate

METT-TC analysis covers the following: platoon-level
● Friendly mission analysis.
situation. ● Initiate generic
● Enemy situation. rehearsals (drill-

and task-related).
● Terrain analysis.
● Prepare for
● Company team
combat.
mission.
Develop and Warning order #3 ● Initiate

analyze COAs covers the following: platoon-level COA
● Commander’s development.
intent. ● Identify
● Concept of the platoon-level

operation. reconnaissance
requirements.
● COA
analysis/selection. ● Direct leader’s
reconnaissance.
● Concept of fires.
● Prepare for
● Subordinate unit
combat.
tasks and
purposes.
● R&S guidance.
● Updated
SITEMP/
draft graphics.

Fragmentary
order
The FRAGO is a brief oral or written order that can serve any of the
following purposes:
● Implement timely changes to existing orders.
● Provide pertinent extracts from more detailed orders.
● Provide instructions until a detailed order is developed.
● Provide specific instructions to subordinates who do not require a

complete order.
A written FRAGO follows the five-paragraph OPORD structure;
however, it includes only the information required for subordinates to
accomplish their mission. To enhance understanding of voice FRAGOs,
digitally equipped units can quickly develop hasty graphics and
transmit digital overlays.
During the execution of an operation, FRAGOs are the medium of
battle command. The company team commander uses them to
communicate changes in the enemy or friendly situation and to retask
his subordinate elements based on changes in the situation. The
company team FRAGO normally includes the following information:
● Updated enemy or friendly situation.
● Changes to company team or platoon tasks and/or purposes.
● Changes to the scheme of maneuver.
● Specific instructions as necessary.
Table 2-3 illustrates the various transmissions that might be sent as part
of an oral company team FRAGO.
Table 2-3. Example company team FRAGO.
TYPE/PURPOSE RADIO TRANSMISSION

OF ORDER
Alert "GUIDONS, THIS IS BLACK 6; FRAGO

FOLLOWS."
Situation "THREE T-80s, TEN BMPs, AND

SUPPORTING VEHICLES VICINITY CP
17, MOVING EAST TOWARD CP 11."
Mission "WE WILL DESTROY THE ENEMY

VICINITY CP 11 TO MAINTAIN THE
FREEDOM OF MANEUVER OF THE
TASK FORCE WHICH IS MOVING TO
OUR SOUTH."

Intent ● "I WANT TO ESTABLISH AN

ENGAGEMENT AREA
VICINITY CP 11, INITIALLY
BLOCKING THE ENEMY WITH
TWO PLATOONS."
● "I THEN WANT TO DESTROY THE
ENEMY BY ATTACKING HIM BY
FIRE FROM THE NORTH."
● "I WANT MORTAR FIRES TO
SCREEN THE TASK FORCE’S
MOVEMENT SOUTH OF CP 11."
Tasks to ● "RED AND WHITE, MOVE TO CP 9

subordinate units TO BLOCK THE ENEMY,
ALLOWING BLUE TO DESTROY
HIM."
● "ESTABLISH THE BLOCKING
POSITION WITH RED ON THE
RIGHT; RED, EMPLOY YOUR
INFANTRY TO SECURE THE
RIGHT FLANK OF THE POSITION."
● "BLUE AND BLACK 5, MOVE TO
CP 10 VIA CP 8 AND ATTACK THE
ENEMY BY FIRE TO MAINTAIN
THE FREEDOM OF MANEUVER
OF THE TASK FORCE."
● "REDLEG, MOVE TO A POSITION
VICINITY CP 8 FROM WHICH TO
CALL FOR SCREENING FIRES TO
PREVENT THE ENEMY FROM
OBSERVING THE TASK FORCE."
Coordinating ● "I WANT THE BLOCKING FORCE

instructions TO INITIATE FIRES WHEN FIVE
OR SIX VEHICLES HAVE
CROSSED PL ABRAMS."
● "BLUE, BEGIN THE ATTACK BY
FIRE WHEN THE ENEMY IS AT CP
11 OR IF THE ENEMY BEGINS
MOVEMENT SOUTH TOWARD CP
10."
CSS "COMPANY TRAINS MOVE TO CP 4."
Command and "I WILL BE WITH RED."

signal
Acknowledgment "ACKNOWLEDGE. OVER."

Figure 2-1. Troop-leading procedures and related activities.
COMPANY TEAM TROOP-LEADING PROCEDURES

Troop-leading procedures are the basis of the dynamic process

(illustrated in Figure 2-1) by which units develop plans and orders at
every level of leadership. The process, although discussed here with the
eight steps in traditional order, is not rigid, and the steps are not
necessarily sequential. The tasks involved in some steps (such as
initiate movement, issue the warning order, and conduct
reconnaissance) may recur several times during the process. Although
listed as the last step, activities associated with supervising and refining
the plan and other preparations occur throughout troop-leading.
Conversely, in some situations, time constraints and other factors may
prevent leaders from conducting steps as thoroughly as they would like.
Regardless of the time available, leaders must always remember this
principle: "See the terrain, see the enemy, see yourself." Only after they
view and evaluate the terrain and the enemy can they determine what
their own actions should be in that given situation. They update this
visualization continuously throughout the troop-leading process, basing
this new "picture" of the battlefield on their own refinements to the
plan, additional information from the task force and other sources, or
developments in the reconnaissance and security fight.
Troop-leading procedures begin when the leader receives the first
indication of an upcoming operation (often a warning order from higher
headquarters) and continue throughout the planning, preparation, and
execution phases of the mission. Starting as the first bit of information
becomes available allows the leader to maximize the available planning
time.
The warning order is the most important time-management tool the
commander has and is also his most effective means of delegating
responsibility. In addition, by immediately passing information to
subordinate leaders through the use of warning orders, he can ensure
that they develop their plans concurrently with his. Under no
circumstances should leaders delay the start of the troop-leading
process, even if initial information is incomplete or vague.
NOTE: In many cases, the commander can initially make most
effective use of his troop-leading time by conducting physical
actions on the ground, such as developing an engagement area,
preparing BPs, or conducting other preparations. He then can
move on to the other troop-leading steps.
The following discussion provides a step-by-step overview of
troop-leading procedures. Figure 2-1 illustrates the process, along with
some of the considerations and procedures involved in the eight steps.

Step 1 - This step normally begins with the receipt of an initial warning order
from the task force, although it may begin when the company team
Receive and commander receives the task force OPORD (if the task force did not
analyze use warning orders). If he receives the task force OPORD, he will
the mission normally be required to give a confirmation brief to the task force
commander to ensure that he understands the higher commander’s
concept of the operation and his intent for the company team. The team
commander must also, as necessary, obtain clarification of the
information from the higher headquarters and conduct initial
coordination with other units.
Collect initial Although mission analysis is continuously refined throughout the troop-
information leading process, the company team commander’s initial analysis is
normally based only on the initial task force warning order. During this
step, the commander conducts his initial METT-TC analysis, collecting
information about the terrain and the friendly and enemy situations.
Additionally, he conducts his initial time analysis, develops his initial
security plan, and issues an initial warning order to provide guidance
and planning focus for his subordinates. (NOTE: The initial analysis is
normally conducted as quickly as possible to allow the commander to
issue the initial warning order in a timely manner. He then conducts a
more detailed METT-TC analysis after the initial warning order is put
out.)
Issue the The step begins with the commander and his subordinate leaders
initial gathering information about enemy and friendly forces, terrain, and
warning order weather as they prepare to receive the task force plan. They should
(warning focus on available information of all types: details provided in the task
order #1) force warning order; terrain and weather data; their knowledge of the
enemy’s doctrine. As the task force develops its plans, the company
team commander remains proactive, calling the TOC or sending a
runner to obtain information, such as updated SITEMPs and graphics,
as it becomes available. With each piece of information, he and his
leaders continue to build and refine the company team plan. (NOTE: In
many instances, the tactical situation will still be vague because the
reconnaissance and security plan has not been executed, because the
task force or brigade has not received its orders, or because the unit has
just arrived in the area of operations.)
Upon receipt of the initial task force warning order, the commander
immediately passes on the information to the company team’s
subordinate leaders. At a minimum, the initial team warning order
should include the following:
● Enemy situation as stated in the task force order (if available).
● Friendly situation (usually the type of operation, higher unit

mission statement, task organization, and boundaries).
● Movement instructions (such as routes to the tactical assembly
area, movement times, and formations).
● Coordinating instructions, including an initial timeline, map
requirements, and an initial security plan. (NOTE: The security
plan should cover initial movement to and occupation of the
assembly area or BP and address the REDCON levels applicable

at various times during the planning and preparation phases.)

Analyze the The commander conducts mission analysis using the factors of
mission METT-TC: mission, enemy, terrain (and weather), troops, time
available, and civilian considerations. Mission analysis is a continuous
process. The commander constantly receives information (during the
planning phase, en route to the objective, or just prior to assaulting an
enemy force) and must decide if the information affects his mission. If
it does, he then decides how to adjust his plan to meet this new
situation. METT-TC is not necessarily analyzed sequentially. How and
when the commander analyzes each factor depends on when
information is made available to him. The following discussion covers
the six factors of METT-TC in detail.
NOTE: The acronym METT-TC is a common mnemonic device
for the factors of mission analysis; the following discussion
presents these elements in the traditional order (mission, enemy,
terrain, troops, time available, and civilian considerations).
Mission is always the first factor to be analyzed. The second
factor in the analysis, however, should be terrain rather than the
enemy. By analyzing the terrain first, the leader gains a clear
picture of factors that influence the enemy situation; this enables
him to develop a better understanding of the enemy’s capabilities
and limitations.
Mission analysis. After receiving an essential task and purpose, either
in a warning order or the OPORD, the commander can begin the
analysis of his own mission. He may use a refined product, such the
modified combined obstacle overlay (MCOO) and/or the SITEMP (if
available), to better visualize the interrelationships of the terrain, the
enemy, and friendly forces. His goal in this analysis is to clarify what
the unit is to accomplish, why the unit is to accomplish it, and what
COAs it will take to achieve its overall purpose.
Analysis of higher unit mission and intent. Leaders at every echelon
must have a clear understanding of the intent and concept of operation
of the commander two levels higher. For additional details on intent and
concept, refer to the discussion of mission statements and commander’s
intent earlier in this chapter.
Analysis of own mission. Once he understands the operation at the task
force and brigade levels, the commander can analyze the company team
mission. Key considerations in this analysis include the following:
● Purpose. Identify the company team’s purpose. Determine how
the team’s purpose relates to the purposes of the task force and its
other company teams and elements. (NOTE: The purpose of the
main effort company team usually matches the task force
purpose. Purposes of the supporting effort company teams must
relate directly or indirectly to the purpose of the main effort
company team.)
● Specified tasks. What tasks (such as reconnoiter a route or assist
a passage of lines) does the OPORD specify for the company
team to accomplish?

● Implied tasks. What tasks not specified in the OPORD must the
team execute to successfully accomplish its specified tasks?
● Essential tasks. What essential tasks specified in the task force
OPORD must be accomplished for mission success? Are any
implied tasks essential? What specific results must the team
achieve in terms of the terrain and the enemy and/or friendly
forces?
● Limitations. What limitations does the OPORD place on the
team’s freedom of action?
NOTE: There are two types of limitations: constraints and
restrictions. Constraints dictate actions that the unit must take
(such as retain one platoon in reserve). Restrictions specify
actions or areas from which the unit is prohibited (such as no
direct fires beyond PHASE LINE DOG).
Restated mission. The commander writes his restated mission,
ensuring that it includes the five "W" elements: who, what, when,
where, and why. If the unit must accomplish more than one essential
task, he lists them as on-order missions in the order in which they will
occur. For an in-depth discussion of the mission statement and its
components, refer to the discussion earlier in this chapter.
Enemy analysis. The following paragraphs examine areas the
commander should cover in his analysis of the enemy.
Doctrinal analysis. This step normally begins with a study of the
enemy’s tactical doctrine, his weapons and equipment, and his
supporting battlefield functional systems. The result of this evaluation is
a doctrinal template illustrating how the enemy force might look and act
without the effects of weather and terrain. Early in the planning process,
the commander reviews the enemy’s doctrine. He looks at specific
enemy actions during a given operation (such as defense out of contact,
security zone defense, or movement to contact). It is not enough simply
to know the number and types of vehicles the enemy has. The
commander and his subordinate leaders must thoroughly understand
when, where, and how the enemy will use all assets down to squad
level.
The commander will normally not have time to develop a doctrinal
template during troop-leading procedures, and he may not have a task
force product until he receives the SITEMP. In such situations,
predeveloped templates can provide a baseline for planning at company
team and platoon levels. Figure 2-2 illustrates an example of a doctrinal
template for an MRC strongpoint. One technique is to develop
1:50,000-scale threat doctrinal templates on acetate for use as an
"off-the-shelf" doctrinal resource. The commander may develop
necessary doctrinal templates for each major operation he expects the
enemy to conduct.
Composition (order of battle). Determine the number and types of
threat vehicles and equipment in the company team area of operations.
Analyze how the enemy organizes for combat, reviewing such areas as

doctrinal formations and distances between units. Where does the

enemy place his tanks and PCs within a formation or within a defense?
Where and how many dismounted infantrymen and hand-held antitank
systems does the enemy have, and how will he employ them? What CS
and CSS assets does he have, where are they located, and how will he
use them? How, when, and where does he use his reserve?
Capabilities. Study the planning ranges for each threat weapon system.
Assess the impact of doctrinal march rates and timelines. (NOTE: One
technique is to have these capabilities listed in the leader’s books of the
company team’s key subordinate elements.)
Doctrinal objectives. Based on the expected threat mission, identify
the enemy’s projected doctrinal objectives. In doctrinal terms, why will
he conduct this type of operation? Is the enemy oriented on the terrain
(for example, a forward detachment), on his own force (such as an
advance guard), or on friendly forces (as in a security zone)? What
effect will this have on the way the enemy fights?
Anticipated enemy COAs. To identify potential enemy COAs, the
commander weighs the results of his initial analysis of terrain and
weather against the enemy’s composition, capabilities, and doctrinal
objectives. The end product is a SITEMP that depicts graphically how
he believes the enemy will fight under the specific conditions expected
on the battlefield.
The task force S2 should have developed his own SITEMP at this point
in the troop-leading process. The company team commander should
obtain a copy to assist him in developing the threat COAs; he should
not develop the company team SITEMP independently of the S2’s
product. If there are differences between the company team and task
force products, he must resolve them before continuing with his
analysis of the enemy.
The commander must apply his own analysis of the specific force the
team will face to the existing task force product. As an example, the
S2’s SITEMP might identify the location of MRPs on the objective area
and provide generic weapons range lines. The commander would apply
his knowledge of the enemy and terrain to identify individual vehicle
positions and, based on intervisibility lines around the objective area, to
determine when and where enemy vehicles can engage the company
team.


Figure 2-2. Doctrinal template for a motorized rifle company strongpoint.

Factors influencing COAs. The following paragraphs examine key
factors the commander should consider in refining (or developing) an
accurate SITEMP for the enemy’s likely COAs.
Mission. Based on threat doctrine and knowledge of the
situation, determine what the enemy’s likely mission will be.
Why is the enemy conducting this operation? Identify his likely
task or objective. Is he trying to protect another threat unit,
deceive friendly forces, allow another unit to bypass them, or
prevent them from seizing terrain? Is the operation oriented on
the terrain, on the enemy force, or on friendly forces?
Specifically, what key terrain, enemy force, or friendly element is
involved? How will this affect how the enemy attacks or
defends?
Objectives. Based on the SITEMP and the projected threat
mission, identify the enemy’s march objectives (offense) or the
terrain or force he intends to protect (defense).
Avenues of approach. Reanalyze the avenues of approach. If the
enemy is attacking, which avenues will he use to reach his
objectives in executing his likely COAs? How will terrain affect
his speed and formations? How will he use the key terrain and
locations with clear observation and fields of fire during the
fight? Which avenues should friendly forces deny him or divert
him from? If the enemy is in the defense, which avenues provide
the most direct or fastest access to the terrain the enemy is
defending or to the enemy force itself? How will that affect
positioning of the enemy forces? From the enemy perspective,
what is the most dangerous approach for friendly units (this is
where he may weight his effort)?
Known enemy locations. Plot all known enemy positions in the
task force area of operations (if not already provided on the S2’s
SITEMP).
Assumed enemy locations. In planning an attack on an
objective, identify all threat platoons, down to the vehicle level,
in the company team area of interest; plot their locations on
applicable templates. Using the S2’s SITEMP as a framework,
consider the situation from the enemy commander’s perspective.
Given his mission, where will he place vehicles in his position?
How will he employ them? If it becomes necessary, where will
he reposition his forces? Use the MCOO to assist in identifying
such features as observation, fields of fires, and maneuver space.
One technique is to draw a line representing the maximum
engagement range for each enemy weapon system in the team’s
area of interest based on the fields of fire. In planning a defensive
operation, consider where the threat commander will deploy,

where he will position overwatch elements, and where he will

move in the engagement area to avoid friendly direct fires. Based
on weapons ranges and intervisibility factors, determine when the
enemy can place effective fires on the company team defensive
position.
Boundaries, CPs, and reserves. Identify likely boundaries,
seams, or time separations between platoon-, company-, and
battalion-size elements. Determine the location of the enemy’s
CPs and other command and control assets. Calculate the time
required for reserves or reinforcing elements to influence the
battle based on their initial positions.
Engineer obstacles and fortifications. Plot the likely locations
of obstacles and fortifications based on the enemy’s weapons
ranges, fields of fires, and engineering capabilities.
Enemy sketch. One way the commander can help subordinates
understand the SITEMP is to develop a large sketch of enemy positions
on the terrain. He can also use the sketch to illustrate the situation when
he issues the company team OPORD later in the troop-leading process.
Figure 2-3 is an example of a company team SITEMP with an enemy
MRB conducting a defense out of contact.

Figure 2-3. Company team SITEMP for an MRB defense out of contact.
Terrain and weather analysis. In this step of mission analysis, the
commander focuses not only on the impact of terrain and weather on
the company team and other friendly forces, but also on how they will
affect enemy operations.
Terrain analysis. Normally, the task force staff will provide the
company team with a MCOO, which depicts the physical effects of the
battlefield on military operations. Ideally, the MCOO is developed early
in the troop-leading process to allow leaders at all levels to take
advantage of the information. In developing this product, the task force
staff applies the five military aspects of terrain, known as OCOKA.
These factors, summarized later in this discussion, are the following:
● Observation and fields of fire.
● Cover and concealment.
● Obstacles.
● Key terrain.
● Avenues of approach.
NOTE: The acronym OCOKA is a common mnemonic device

for the military aspects of terrain. The following discussion
presents these factors in the traditional order as listed in the
previous paragraph; however, leaders should evaluate them in the
order that best supports their terrain analysis.
Because the MCOO is focused at the task force level, the company
team commander must further refine it using considerations that are
applicable at his level. As noted, key terrain for the task force may not
be as critical to the company team and vice versa. For example, an
intervisibility line near an objective area may be key terrain for an
assault force within the company team, but may not be considered as

key by other companies in the task force operation. In the absence of a

task force MCOO, the company team commander can develop his own
product.
The commander normally must prioritize his analysis of the terrain
based on time constraints that influence orders development at the
company team level. For example, in the conduct of an assault, his
priority may be the area around the objective, followed by analysis of
the team’s specific axis leading to the objective. Time permitting, he
might then analyze the rest of the task force area of operations.
The following discussion examines OCOKA in detail.
Observation and fields of fire. The commander must determine
what locations along each avenue of approach provide clear
observation and fields of fire for both the attacker and the
defender. He analyzes the area surrounding key terrain,
objectives, and obstacles. He locates intervisibility lines (terrain
that allows observation from one point to another) and assesses
the ability of the attacking force to overwatch or support (with
direct fire) the movement of its elements.
In analyzing fields of fire, the commander focuses on the ability
of friendly and enemy units to cover terrain with direct fires from
known or likely positions. In addition, he must identify positions
that afford clear observation for FIST personnel, allowing them
to employ indirect fires effectively.
Whenever possible, the commander conducts a reconnaissance
from the enemy and friendly perspectives. This will help him to
determine where both friendly and enemy fires can be
concentrated. (NOTE: Refer to the discussions of actions on
contact in Chapter 3 and of engagement area development in
Chapter 4.)
Figure 2-4 lists several offensive and defensive considerations
that the commander can include in his analysis of observation
and fields of fire.
Offensive considerations
● Are clear observation and fields of fires available on or near the

objective for enemy observers and weapon systems?
● Where can the enemy concentrate fires?
● Where will the enemy be unable to concentrate fires?
● Where is he vulnerable?
● Where are positions from which friendly forces can conduct support by
fire or attack by fire?
● Where are the natural TRPs?
● Where do I position indirect fire observers?

Defensive considerations
● What locations afford clear observation and fields of fire along enemy
avenues of approach?
● How obvious are these positions to the enemy?
● Where will the enemy set firing lines and/or antitank weapons?
● Where will I be unable to mass fires?
● Where is the dead space in my sector? Where am I vulnerable?
● Where are the natural TRPs?
● Where do I position indirect fire observers?
Figure 2-4. Considerations in analysis of observation

and fields of fire.
Cover and concealment. The commander looks at the terrain, foliage,
structures, and other features on the avenues of approach to identify sites
that offer cover and concealment. In the defense, weapon positions must be
both lethal and survivable, with effective cover and concealment just as
vital as clear fields of fire.
Figure 2-5 lists offensive and defensive considerations that the commander
can include in his analysis of available cover and concealment.
● What axes afford both clear fields of fire and effective cover and
concealment?
● Which terrain provides bounding elements with cover and concealment
while facilitating lethality?
● What locations afford effective cover and concealment as well as clear

fields of fire?
● How can the enemy use the available cover and concealment?
Figure 2-5. Considerations in analysis of cover and concealment.

Obstacles. In analyzing the terrain, the commander first identifies existing
and reinforcing obstacles that may limit mobility (affecting such features as
objectives, avenues of approach, and mobility corridors) and affect the
company team’s countermobility effort.
Existing obstacles include, but are not limited to, the following:
● Gullies, ravines, gaps, and ditches over 3 meters wide.
● Streams, rivers, and canals over 1 meter deep.
● Mountains or hills with a slope in excess of 60 percent.
● Lakes, swamps, and marshes over 1 meter deep.

● Tree stumps and large rocks over 18 inches high.

● Forests or jungles with trees 8 inches or more in diameter and with
less than 4 meters of space between trees.
● Man-made existing obstacles, including built-up areas such as towns,
cities, or railroad embankments.
Reinforcing obstacles include, but are not limited to, the following:
● Minefields (conventional and situational).
● Antitank ditches.
● Road craters.
● Abatises and log cribs.
● Wire obstacles.
● Infantry strongpoints.
Based on the degree of obstruction posed by obstacles, terrain is further

classified in one of the following categories:
● Unrestricted. This is terrain free of any restriction to movement; no
actions are required to enhance mobility. For armored and
mechanized forces, unrestricted terrain is typically flat or moderately
sloped, with scattered or widely spaced obstacles such as trees or
rocks. This type of terrain generally allows wide maneuver and offers
unlimited travel over well-developed road networks.
● Restricted. This terrain hinders movement to some degree. Little
effort is needed to enhance mobility, but units may have to zigzag or
make frequent detours. They may have difficulty maintaining
optimum speed, moving in some types of combat formations, or
transitioning from one formation to another. For armor and
mechanized forces, restricted terrain typically encompasses moderate
to steep slopes and/or moderate to dense spacing of obstacles such as
trees, rocks, or buildings. Swamps and rugged ground are examples
of restricted terrain for dismounted infantry forces. Logistical or rear
area movement may be hampered by poorly developed road systems.
● Severely restricted. This terrain severely hinders or slows
movement in combat formations unless some effort is made to
enhance mobility. It may require commitment of engineer forces to
improve mobility or deviation from doctrinal tactics, such as using a
column rather than a line formation or moving at speeds much lower
than otherwise preferred. For armor and mechanized forces, severely
restricted terrain is typically characterized by steep slopes, densely
spaced obstacles, and/or the virtual absence of a developed road
system.
Friendly and enemy elements will usually take advantage of unrestricted
terrain in situations requiring rapid movement. In other instances, such as
when security is the paramount concern, they may move in more restricted
terrain, which may provide more cover and concealment.
Figure 2-6 lists several offensive and defensive considerations the
commander can include in his analysis of obstacles and restricted terrain.

● How is the enemy using obstacles and restricted terrain features?

● What is the composition of the enemy’s reinforcing obstacles?
● How will obstacles and terrain affect my movement and/or maneuver?
● If necessary, how can the company team avoid such features?
● How do we detect and, if desired, bypass the obstacles?
● Where has the enemy positioned weapons to cover the obstacles, and
what type of weapons is he using?
● If I must support or execute a breach, where is the expected breach site?
● Where do I want to kill the enemy? Where do I want him to go?

● How will existing obstacles and restricted terrain affect the enemy?
● How can I use these features to force the enemy into my engagement
area, deny him an avenue, or disrupt his movement?
Figure 2-6. Considerations in obstacle analysis

(including terrain considerations).
Key terrain. Key terrain is any location or area whose seizure, retention, or
control affords a marked advantage to either combatant. As an example, a
prominent hilltop overlooking an avenue of approach may or may not be key
terrain. Even if the hill offers clear observation and fields of fire, it will be of no
marked advantage to the unit that controls it if the opposition can easily bypass it
on another avenue of approach. On the other hand, if the hilltop can influence the
area through which a force must pass regardless of which avenue of approach it
uses, the unit that controls the higher terrain has a definite advantage.
Designation of an area as key terrain depends largely on the characteristics of the
avenue of approach (such as the width or length and the restrictiveness of terrain
along the avenue) and the size of the unit required to control it. Other contributing
factors include maneuver space, fields of fire, and cover and concealment
afforded by the key terrain itself. For example, an area where several trails
converge may be key terrain for a company team, whereas an area in which
several battalion-size avenues of approach join may prove key for a brigade.
At the company team level, the commander must assess what terrain is key to his
mission accomplishment. An example of key terrain for a company team in the
attack could be a small hill or tree line that overlooks the enemy’s reverse slope
defense. Securing this area may be critical in establishing a support by fire
position to protect the breach force.
The company team commander must also identify decisive terrain, which is key
terrain that will have an extraordinary impact on the mission. Decisive terrain is
relatively rare; it will not be present in every situation. By designating terrain as
decisive, the commander recognizes that seizing and/or retaining it is an absolute
requirement for successful accomplishment of the mission.

Figure 2-7 lists several considerations that the commander can include in his
analysis of key terrain. (NOTE: Figure 2-9 illustrates a sample MCOO with
restricted terrain, avenues of approach, key terrain, and graphic control measures.)
Operational considerations
❍ What terrain is key to the company team and to the task force and why?
❍ Is the enemy controlling this key terrain?
❍ What terrain is key to the enemy and why?
❍ How do I gain or maintain control of key terrain?
❍ What terrain is key for friendly observation, both for command and
control and for calling for fires?
Figure 2-7. Considerations in key terrain analysis.

Avenues of approach. These are areas through which a unit can maneuver. The
definition of an avenue of approach is an area that provides sufficient ease of
movement and enough width (for dispersion) to allow passage of a force large
enough to significantly affect the outcome of the battle. In turn, avenues of
approach are composed of mobility corridors, which are areas through which the
force will be canalized by terrain features and constrictions. In making his terrain
analysis, the company team commander can use the following process to identify
avenues of approach:
● Identify mobility corridors.
● Categorize each corridor by the size or type of force it will accommodate.
● Group mobility corridors to form avenues of approach.
The commander must identify mounted, dismounted, and air avenues of approach
within the sector or area of operations. Mounted forces may move on avenues
along unrestricted or restricted terrain (or both). Dismounted avenues and avenues
used by reconnaissance elements normally include restricted terrain and, at times,
severely restricted terrain. In addition, the terrain analysis must identify avenues
of approach for both friendly and enemy units.
After identifying avenues of approach, the commander must evaluate each
avenue. He determines the size and/or type of force that could use the avenue and
evaluates the terrain that the avenue traverses as well as the terrain that bounds or
otherwise influences it. Figure 2-8 lists several offensive and defensive
considerations that the commander can include in his evaluation of avenues of
approach.

❍ How can I use each avenue of approach to support my movement

and/or maneuver?
❍ How will each avenue support movement techniques, formations, and
(once we make enemy contact) maneuver?
❍ Will variations in trafficability or lane width force changes in
formations or movement techniques or require defile drills?
❍ What are the advantages and/or disadvantages of each avenue?
❍ What are the enemy’s likely counterattack routes?
❍ Do lateral routes exist that we can use to shift to other axes or that the
enemy can use to threaten our flanks?
❍ What are all likely enemy avenues into my sector?

❍ How can the enemy use each avenue of approach?
❍ Do lateral routes exist that the enemy can use to threaten our flanks?
❍ Which avenues would support a friendly counterattack?
Figure 2-8. Considerations in avenue of approach analysis.

Figure 2-9. MCOO showing restricted terrain, avenues of approach, and key terrain.
Weather analysis. Consideration of the effects of weather conditions is
an essential part of the mission analysis. The commander should review
the results of his terrain analysis and determine the impact of the
following factors on terrain, personnel, and equipment and on the
projected friendly and enemy COAs.
Light data. At what times are BMNT, sunrise, sunset, EENT,
moonrise, and moonset? Is the sun to the back of friendly forces
or the enemy? What effect will this have on either force’s ability
to see? Will friendly forces have to remove or install driver’s
night periscopes during movement? When during the operation
will they have to use night vision goggles? What effect will long
periods of darkness (such as during winter nights) have on
soldiers’ ability to stay awake and alert?
Precipitation. How will precipitation affect the terrain along
each avenue of approach? Will some restricted terrain become
severely restricted if it rains or snows? Will moist air cause foggy
conditions? Will lack of precipitation cause extremely dusty
conditions? How will fog, dust, or stormy conditions affect
visibility?
Temperature. What will the temperature be during the operation
and what effect will this have on soldiers? Will they be able to
sustain a long fight in extreme conditions? Will the ground freeze
or thaw during the operation? What effect will this have on
trafficability? How will extreme heat or cold affect the optical
images in the vehicle sights? Will changes in the temperature and
barometric pressure require MRS updates on the tanks? How

often? Are temperature dispersions favorable for the use of

smoke or chemicals?
Wind speed and direction. What is the expected wind speed and
direction during the operation? What effect will wind conditions
have on use of smoke, flares, or chemical agents? Will the wind
affect dust, fog, and other battlefield conditions?
Visibility. How will weather conditions (including light
conditions, precipitation, temperature, and wind speed and
direction) affect visibility? Will friendly forces have the sun in
their eyes? Will the wind blow dust or smoke away from the
route of march (making it easier to see) or back toward friendly
forces? Under such conditions, what is the maximum observation
range? How will that range affect the enemy?
Troop analysis (available assets). Analyze the combat readiness of
troops and equipment task organized to the team, including
attachments. Direct subordinate leaders to outline the readiness status of
their elements; if possible, inspect each element to verify readiness.
Compile updates of each vehicle’s maintenance, fuel, ammunition, and
personnel status. Determine the anticipated readiness status, as of the
time the operation is to start, of vehicles and equipment that are
currently nonmission-capable (NMC).
Time analysis. Identify the specific and implied times governing
actions that must occur throughout the planning, preparation, and
execution phases of the operation. Assess the impact of limited
visibility conditions (including darkness) on the troop-leading process
and other time-sensitive preparations for the company team and its
subordinate elements. (NOTE: Figure 2-10 illustrates a method of
analyzing usable light and limited light conditions.) Analyze the timing
for the execution phase in terms of the terrain and enemy and friendly
forces. Update previous timelines, listing all events that affect the
company team and all subordinate elements.
Figure 2-11 illustrates a sample company team planning timeline.

Figure 2-10. Use of time analysis to assess light conditions for an operation.
Analysis of civilian considerations. Identify any civilian considerations
that may affect the company team mission. These factors may include
refugees, humanitarian assistance requirements, or specific
considerations related to the applicable ROE and/or ROI.


Figure 2-11. Troop-leading procedures in the parallel planning process.

Based on his restated mission and the information compiled thus far in
the troop-leading process, the commander issues as detailed a warning
Step 2 - order as possible. The company team warning order, usually given
Issue the orally, allows subordinate units to continue with the planning and
warning preparation activities that started with the initial warning order. The
order commander should not delay issuing the order while awaiting additional
information; likewise, he should not withhold needed information, even
(warning if it is somewhat incomplete. He can send updates as needed using
order #2) subsequent warning orders. As a minimum, the company team warning
order should include the elements outlined in the following paragraphs.
Situation At this point in the troop-leading process, the commander has normally
(enemy had time to conduct a detailed mission analysis. The goal of the
and friendly) warning order is to allow his subordinates to start their own mission
analysis. Provide a layout of the terrain using the five military aspects
of terrain (if this was not done earlier). Include results of the enemy
analysis. Give the intent and mission statements of the commander two
levels up. Brief the task organization and the higher concept of the
operation. Allow subordinates to copy the draft SITEMP, if available,
and all available operational graphics.
Mission Give the restated company team mission.
Coordinating Provide any instructions that will allow for proactive planning and
instructions preparation, including priorities of work and the unit security plan. As
part of the coordinating instructions, the commander may find it useful
to provide a timeline that includes an assessment of the troop-leading
procedures conducted at the task force, company team, and platoon
levels as a means of deconflicting leader responsibilities at each level.
(NOTE: Figure 2-11 illustrates a timeline that could be used for this
purpose.) In addition, specify what types of mission-specific rehearsals
(for example, covering actions on contact, breaching, or support by fire)
that you expect subordinate units to conduct within the framework of
their timelines.
Service Address any changes to the support requirements (such as the addition
support of an engineer platoon) for which the XO, 1SG, or subordinate leaders
may have to plan.
Step 3 - Using results of his METT-TC analysis, his knowledge of the situation,
and other available resources, the commander begins development of
Make a his tentative plan. He can use the techniques and principles outlined in
tentative plan the following paragraphs.
SITEMP The commander continues to update his SITEMP using refined versions
updates of the S2’s SITEMP and the intelligence annex from the task force
OPORD (both should be available by this time). He can use additional
information, including results of the company team’s reconnaissance
and of task force reconnaissance and security operations, as it becomes
available during the troop-leading process.

COA The purpose of COA development is simple: to determine one or more

development ways to achieve the mission, in most cases by applying the company
procedures team’s combat power to defeat the enemy at the decisive point in the
battle. The commander makes each COA as detailed as necessary to
describe clearly how he plans to use his forces to achieve the unit’s
tasks and purpose. He focuses on the actions the unit must take at the
decisive point.
When time permits, the commander should develop several COAs for
the company team. The spectrum of COAs should provide enough
flexibility, and cover enough different possible situations, to achieve the
unit purpose against each likely enemy COA that was identified
previously in the troop-leading process. In developing COAs, the
commander must ensure they meet the following criteria:
● Suitability. Each COA must enable the company team to
accomplish its mission while complying with the higher unit
order.
● Feasibility. The company team must have the capability to
successfully accomplish the COA in terms of available time,
space, and resources.
● Acceptability. The advantage gained by executing the COA must
justify the cost in manpower and material resources.
● Distinguishability. Each COA must be sufficiently different
from the others to justify full development and consideration.
● Completeness. Development of the COA must cover the
operational factors of who, what, when, where, and how.
There are normally six steps in COA development. The following
paragraphs describe each step in detail.
COA Step 1 - Analyze relative combat power. Combat power is created
by combining the elements of maneuver, firepower, protection, and
leadership in combat against the enemy. The commander applies the
effects of these elements with other potential CS and CSS assets. The
purpose of analyzing relative combat power is to identify enemy
strengths and weaknesses, to identify friendly strengths and
weaknesses, and to determine whether the company team has adequate
combat power to defeat the force against which it is arrayed.
COA Step 2 - Generate options. The commander must first identify the
decisive points or times at which the unit will mass the effects of
overwhelming firepower to achieve a specific result (with respect to
terrain, enemy, and/or time) that will accomplish the unit’s purpose.
This will be the company team’s main effort. The commander must
next identify any supporting efforts; these are tasks other than the main
effort that must be accomplished to allow the main effort to succeed.
The commander then determines the purposes of the main effort and the
supporting efforts. (NOTE: The main effort’s purpose is directly
related to the mission of the unit, while the supporting efforts’ purposes
relate directly to the main effort.) The commander can then identify the
essential tasks that will enable the main and supporting efforts to

achieve their purposes. Figure 2-12 depicts company team purposes for
a breaching operation.
COA Step 3 - Array initial forces. The commander must then determine
the specific number of combat systems necessary to accomplish each
task. He should allocate resources to the main effort and continue with
supporting efforts in descending order of importance. For example, the
main effort in a breaching operation may require four tanks and three
plows, whereas a supporting assault force, required to fight for terrain,
may call for BFVs and infantry squads.

Figure 2-12. Identification of company team purposes in a breaching operation.

COA Step 4 - Develop schemes of maneuver. Applying information
from the analysis of terrain and enemy, the commander links the
company team’s tasks in schemes of maneuver. He determines how the
achievement of one task will lead to the execution of the next. He
identifies the best ways to use the available terrain and how best to
employ the team’s strengths against the enemy’s weaknesses. The
commander then develops the maneuver control measures necessary to
convey the commander’s intent, enhance understanding of the schemes
of maneuver, prevent fratricide, and clarify the tasks and purposes of
the main and supporting efforts.
COA Step 5 - Assign headquarters. The commander assigns specific
elements as the main and supporting efforts.
COA Step 6 - Prepare COA statements and sketches. The
commander’s ability to prepare COA sketches and statements will
depend on the amount of time available. Whenever possible, he should
prepare a sketch showing each COA to clarify maneuver aspects of the
COA; he should also prepare a statement describing specific actions
that may occur. Figure 2-13 shows a sample COA sketch and COA
statement.
Analysis of After developing the COAs, the commander must analyze them to
COAs confirm that the criteria for valid COAs are met, to determine the
advantages and disadvantages of each COA, and to visualize the flow of
the battle. Typically, he war-games each friendly COA against each
likely enemy COA. If time is limited, he may choose to employ the box
technique of war-gaming, analyzing only the most critical event in each
friendly COA against the corresponding enemy action. (NOTE: If the
commander uses this technique, he must be prepared to conduct more
detailed war-gaming later to complete the plan.)
COA After war-gaming the COAs, the commander must compare them,
comparison weighing the specific advantages, disadvantages, strengths, and
weaknesses of each course as noted during the war game. These
attributes may pertain to the accomplishment of the company team
purpose, the use of terrain, the destruction of the enemy, or any other
aspect of the operation that the commander believes is important.
The commander uses these factors as his frame of reference in
tentatively selecting the best available COA. He makes the final
selection of a COA (during completion of the plan) based on this
comparison, taking into account results of the company team’s
reconnaissance and the reconnaissance and security operations of the
task force and brigade.

Tentative plan The commander may use a warning order to outline his tentative plan
warning order for subordinates and to issue instructions for reconnaissance and
(warning movement (as necessary). The order should clearly and briefly cover
order #3) key aspects of the tentative plan: the purpose and result (end state) of
the operation; the company team’s essential tasks; when the operation
begins; the area of operations; the scheme of maneuver; and subordinate
unit tasks and purposes.
In describing his concept, the commander should emphasize that the
plan remains generally unrefined, with many of the details to be
clarified through additional war-gaming and issued in the OPORD. This
warning order is important because it allows subordinates to see how
the commander is developing the plan; it allows them to begin (or
continue) mission analysis based on their elements’ assigned tasks and
purposes.
The commander initiates any movement that is necessary to continue
Step 4 - preparations or to posture the unit for the operation. This may include
Initiate movement to an assembly area, BP, or attack position; movement of
movement reconnaissance elements; or movement to compute time-distance
factors for the unit’s mission.

Figure 2-13. COA sketch and statement.
Step 5 - This step covers the necessary reconnaissance that allows the
commander to refine the unit’s plan. Even if the company team
Conduct commander has made a leader’s reconnaissance with the task force
reconnaissance commander and staff at some point during troop-leading procedures,
he should still conduct a reconnaissance of his own with the team’s
subordinate leaders. This will allow them to see as much of the terrain
and enemy as possible; it should also help each leader to visualize the
projected plan, and any related branch plans, more clearly.
At the team level, the leader’s reconnaissance may include movement
to or beyond the LD or a drive from the FEBA back to and through the
engagement area along likely enemy routes. If possible, the
commander should select a vantage point that provides the group with
the best possible view of the decisive point.
In addition to the leader’s reconnaissance, the company team may
conduct more detailed reconnaissance operations. Examples include
surveillance of an area by subordinate elements, patrols by infantry
squads to determine where the enemy is (and is not) located, and
establishment of OPs to gain additional information. The nature of the
reconnaissance, including what it covers and how long it lasts, depends
on the tactical situation and time available. The commander should use
the results of the COA development process to identify information
and security requirements for the team’s reconnaissance operations.

Step 6 - Completion of the plan includes several steps that transform the
commander’s intent and concept into a fully developed OPORD. These
Complete the steps, examined in detail here, are the following:
plan ● Select a COA.
● Conduct detailed war-gaming.
● Finalize the plan.
● Prepare the OPORD.
Complete the The company team commander makes this selection based on his
plan comparison of the alternative COAs (conducted earlier as part of
Step 1 - troop-leading step 4, make a tentative plan), results of the team’s
Select a COA reconnaissance, and information gained through task force and brigade
reconnaissance and security operations.
Complete the
This is normally a more time-intensive process than the initial
plan
war-gaming of the COAs. By war-gaming the plan again, this time in
Step 2 -
more detail, the commander can better visualize how the fight will
Conduct
occur, determine when and where he will need to make decisions, and
detailed
identify when and where he must employ CS and CSS assets. The end
war-gaming
result of war-gaming is a fully integrated plan that includes a detailed
operations overlay, a detailed direct fire plan, an integrated indirect fire
plan, refined obstacle and ADA plans, and a complete company team
CSS plan.
Purposes of war-gaming. The commander uses the detailed
war-gaming process to assist him in accomplishing these planning and
preparation objectives:
● Build additional flexibility into the plan by developing branch
plans based on likely enemy COAs, or refine the COA so it
addresses all likely enemy COAs.
● Develop graphic control measures (such as checkpoints, contact
points, and TRPs) that facilitate control and flexibility.
● Integrate operating system assets (including fire support,
engineers, ADA, and NBC) with maneuver elements to support
company team tasks and purposes identified in the scheme of
maneuver.
● Conduct a bottom-up review of the task force plan, including
integration of task force operating system assets at company team
level. This step may entail identifying required refinements,
additions, and deletions to the task force plan and developing
recommendations for later submission to the higher staff.
● Develop coordinating instructions.
● Complete paragraphs 3, 4, and 5 of the OPORD (as well as

selected annexes if required).
● Assess on-order and be-prepared missions.
● Identify projected CSS expenditures.
● Identify projected casualties and resulting medical requirements.
War-gaming guidelines. The commander and subordinate leaders

should use the following procedures and considerations in conducting

detailed war-gaming:
● The essential tasks identified during COA development can be
used to drive the progress of the war game.
● Include all appropriate personnel in the war-gaming process;
these may be the XO, 1SG, FSO, maintenance team chief, and
others.
● Evaluate the COAs using a map, accurate sketch, or terrain
model.
● Carefully consider actions on contact.
● As the war game continues, identify when and where to integrate

CS and CSS assets.
● As necessary, make refinements to supplementary plans, such as
those for fire support, obstacles, and ADA.
● Use additional graphic control measures to add clarity to the
scheme of maneuver.
War-gaming techniques. The commander can choose among three
basic war-gaming techniques (the box, the belt, and avenue in depth) in
the analysis of friendly COAs. He and the subordinate leaders can use
any one technique or a combination to help them visualize the
battlefield or look at the battle in a logical sequence. In doing this, they
should avoid becoming unduly concerned with the structure of the war
game. Rather, they should remain focused on its purpose, adapting the
war-gaming techniques as necessary to accomplish the purpose.
Box technique. The box method focuses the war game on a
specific area of the battlefield. This may be the objective area, the
engagement area, or some other critical location where the
decisive action will take place. Determine the size of the box
based on the specific situation; it should include all of the units,
friendly and enemy, that will have a direct impact on the decisive
action. This technique is a good one to use when time is limited
because of its focus on the decisive action. A key disadvantage,
however, is that in considering only actions at the decisive point
the commander may overlook other critical actions or events that
could have a significant impact on the company team’s mission.
Belt technique. The belt technique allows the commander to
divide the COA into phases or belts. This may be done in several
ways, such as from phase line to phase line or by significant
event. Each phase is then war-gamed in sequence. This approach
is most effective for offensive COAs. As an example, an
offensive operation can be divided into these phases or belts:
● Movement from tactical assembly areas to the LD or attack
position.
● Movement from the LD to the PLD or assault position.
● Actions at the PLD or assault position.
● Conduct of the assault or actions on the objective.
● Consolidation on the objective.

Avenue in depth technique. This method is most effective

during war-gaming of a defensive COA, especially when there
are several avenues of approach to consider. Using the enemy’s
most probable COA, the commander and subordinate leaders
analyze friendly and enemy actions along one avenue of
approach at a time.
Additional war-gaming considerations. In addition to the selected
war-gaming technique, several other factors will have an impact on how
the commander and subordinate leaders carry out the war game. The
following discussion focuses on the participants, procedures, and other
considerations for conducting the process.
Participants. As noted, the company team’s subordinate leaders
should assist the commander in conducting the war game.
Participants may include the XO, 1SG, platoon leaders, PSGs,
FSO, engineer platoon leader, ADA section leader, and company
team master gunner. Ensure that everyone who takes part
thoroughly understands all projected friendly and enemy COAs
and is ready to contribute to the process. At a minimum, the
commander should conduct the war game with the XO playing
the role of the enemy commander. (NOTE: Based on the team’s
priorities of work, some leaders listed here may not be available
for the war-gaming session.)
Terrain. Incorporate the results of the leader’s reconnaissance
into the MCOO. Reevaluate the terrain to ensure that the
classification (severely restricted, restricted, or unrestricted) is
correct.
Enemy capabilities. Update the SITEMP with new enemy
information. Ensure that each participant thoroughly understands
the enemy’s capabilities and limitations and that each knows the
difference between known and suspected enemy positions. One
technique is to make leaders of the team’s CS attachments
responsible for learning and reporting their enemy counterparts’
capabilities; for example, the FSO is responsible for threat
artillery systems, the ADA section leader (if task organized to the
team) for threat ADA, and so forth. Evaluate how and when the
enemy can affect the company team using the seven forms of
contact:
● Visual contact.
● Physical contact (direct fire contact).
● Indirect fire contact.
● Contact with obstacles of enemy or unknown origin.
● Contact with enemy or unknown aircraft.
● Situations involving NBC conditions.
● Situations involving electronic warfare tactics (such as

jamming, interference, and imitative deception).
NOTE: For a detailed discussion of actions on contact, refer to

Chapter 3 of this manual.
Friendly forces. Assess current maintenance and personnel

status reports to determine whether the combat power of any
adjacent units will affect the company team plan. For example, if
the breach force (another task force element) has two inoperative
plows while the team’s are operational, the commander can
assume that the task force will direct him to cross-attach two of
his plows.
Assumptions. Specify assumptions that were made during the
COA development process so that participants understand the
underlying doctrinal principles and objectives.
Complete the After concluding the war-gaming process, the commander takes the
plan actions outlined in the following paragraphs to complete the plan
Step 3 - (including any branch plans) and wrap up preparations for the
Finalize the upcoming operations. He includes any additional activities that he and
plan the team’s subordinate leaders believe will contribute to unit readiness.
Begin bottom-up refinement. This process includes developing
refinements, additions, and deletions to the task force plan and
submitting them to the appropriate member of the task force staff. For
example, if the task force fire support plan allocates a smoke target to
screen company team movement, the commander may discover during
war-gaming that the target is not in a correct position to support the
team. He would then direct the team FSO to submit a change to the
target list.
Finalize CSS integration. After estimating how many casualties and
disabled vehicles the company team will incur and pinpointing expected
locations for these losses, the commander integrates the team’s CSS
requirements into paragraph 4 of the OPORD. This includes (but is not
limited to) such factors as the location of unit casualty and maintenance
collection points, times when company team assets will occupy them,
routes to task force CSS sites, and security procedures for CSS assets.
Refer to Chapter 7 of this manual for a more detailed discussion of CSS
planning.
Identify command and control requirements. Based on their
visualization of the fight, the commander and subordinate leaders
identify other command and control requirements that will be necessary
to ensure the success of the mission. Covered in paragraph 5 of the
OPORD, these include graphic control measures, signals, locations of
the commander and XO, and communications during the fight with
other units and/or commanders.
Finalize graphics. The commander must be sure to add company team
graphics to the task force overlay. (NOTE: One technique is to use a
different color to distinguish the team’s operational graphics from
existing task force graphics.) Most of these additions should have been
made during war-gaming. Examples could include the following:
● A designated PLD where the team will change to the bounding

overwatch movement technique based on the location of an

enemy combat security outpost (CSOP).
● A dismount point and corresponding entry point into a trench
line.
● Additional direct fire control measures, such as TRPs.
● Additional key intervisibility lines identified during war-gaming.
These may be designated as company team phase lines.
Complete the The company team commander begins this step by finalizing his orders
plan products. Examples include the following items:
Step 4 - ● The SITEMP.
Prepare the
● Supporting plans, including those covering maneuver, fire
OPORD
support, engineer support, and CSS.
● Operational graphics.
● "Visualization" products, such as maps, overlays, sketches,

models, and matrices.
The commander must decide how these products will be produced and
distributed to the company team’s subordinate elements. One technique
is to employ personnel from the team headquarters in production and
distribution tasks, such as building terrain models and copying graphics
or matrices. The commander must also establish a quality control
system to ensure that all products are complete and accurate. (NOTE:
Refer to the discussion of the functions of the company team CP.)
When time is short, the commander must weigh the need for a lengthy,
thoroughly detailed written OPORD against the value of a relatively
brief, but still well-developed, plan that he can explain orally and
visualize through the use of maps and models. At the company team
and platoon levels, there often is not enough time to write out every
single detail of a thorough five-paragraph OPORD. Also, subordinates
will find it difficult to copy pertinent information and still listen as the
commander issues the order. It is advisable, therefore, to provide a
detailed, but concise, document that summarizes the essentials of the
order. Subordinates can then listen carefully as the commander explains
(and illustrates) the details of the order, writing down only the most
essential items.
Step 7 - The OPORD should precisely explain, both verbally and visually, the
commander’s intent, providing enough information to ensure that all
Issue the subordinate elements work toward the desired end state. When the
order commander has finished issuing the order, subordinate leaders should
walk away with a clear mental picture of what he expects their elements
to do.

OPORD The format of the five-paragraph OPORD is organized to help the

format commander paint a picture of all aspects of the operation, from the
terrain to the enemy and finally to the unit’s own actions from higher to
lower. The format assists him in deciding what relevant details he must
include and in providing subordinates with a smooth flow of
information from beginning to end. At the same time, the commander
must ensure that the order is not only clear and complete but also as
brief as possible. If he has already addressed an item adequately in a
previous warning order, he then can simply state "no change" or
provide any necessary updates. Refer to Appendix A of this manual for
a discussion of OPORD format.
Location and The commander should select a location from which to issue the
time OPORD that is secure and will help enhance understanding of the order.
An ideal site, when time and security factors allow, is one that
overlooks the battlefield. Whenever possible, the commander should
avoid issuing the order during hours of darkness. If he must issue the
order at night, he chooses a location (such as inside a well-lighted tent)
that allows subordinates to see visual materials clearly. In daylight
hours, he then takes the order group to a favorable vantage point to
clarify the plan.
Presentation During the orders briefing, the commander may make use of the visual
techniques materials developed earlier to help paint the picture of how the fight
will unfold. Subordinates will better comprehend complex ideas and
situations with the aid of a sketch, diagram, or model. The commander
should further ensure that subordinates keep their maps, with graphics
posted, on hand for reference. As noted, he may furnish copies of the
written order (or a summary of key details). He then must present the
plan clearly and logically, providing only updates (not complete
restatement) of items he has covered in earlier warning orders or
FRAGOs.
Confirmation At the conclusion of the OPORD briefing, the commander answers any
brief questions, then conducts a walk-through confirmation brief (this is not a
techniques rehearsal) on a terrain model that provides accurate representations of
the terrain, the enemy, and friendly graphics. The focus of the
confirmation brief is on the elements of what, why, and how for
execution of the company team’s mission; it covers subordinates’
specific tasks within the plan. The commander should avoid questioning
subordinates specifically how they will execute their tasks because they
have not yet formulated their own plans. Rather, he uses the
confirmation brief to further clarify the scheme of maneuver for them
and to give them a feel for how they will work in concert with one
another to achieve the unit purpose. Subordinate leaders should use the
confirmation brief to discuss issues related to the company team
timeline and their own timelines.
Step 8 - The best plan may fail if it is not managed effectively and efficiently.
Throughout the troop-leading process, the commander must continue to
Supervise refine the plan, conduct coordination with adjacent units, and supervise
and refine combat preparation and execution. Inspections and rehearsals are
critical elements of this step.

Precombat During continuous combat operations, units at all levels should have
training either formal or informal combat zone training programs to convert new
ideas into actual practice. This allows soldiers to practice a variety of
skills that will enhance their protection and endurance during extended
combat. For example, after receiving his mission, the company team
commander should assess the team’s proficiency in the individual,
leader, and collective tasks required for the upcoming mission. If he
feels the team, or a subordinate element, cannot perform a task
properly, he can then conduct precombat training during the planning
and preparation phases.
Inspections Inspections allow the commander to check the company team’s
operational readiness. The key goal is to ensure that soldiers and
vehicles are fully prepared to execute the upcoming mission.
Inspections also contribute to improved morale.
It is essential that the entire company team chain of command know
how to conduct precombat checks (PCC) and precombat inspections
(PCI) in accordance with applicable unit SOPs and guidelines from FM
7-7J, ARTEP 71-1-MTP, and ARTEP 17-237-10-MTP. Leaders should
focus on the readiness of mission-essential equipment and ammunition
and on the mission understanding of all subordinate leaders and
individual soldiers. Procedures for a comprehensive program of checks
and inspections include the following:
● Perform before-operation maintenance checks; report or repair
deficiencies.
● Perform prepare-to-fire checks for all weapons; report or repair
deficiencies. Weapons are boresighted, and all sights are referred.
Machine guns and individual weapons are test-fired, if possible.
● Perform communications checks of voice and digital systems.
● Ensure soldiers in each subordinate element understand the plan,

have posted current graphics, and are in the correct uniform and
MOPP level.
● Upload vehicles in accordance with unit SOP. The
standardization of load plans allows the commander, XO, 1SG,
or subordinate leader to quickly check accountability of
equipment. It also ensures standard locations of equipment in
each vehicle; this can be an important advantage when a leader is
forced to switch to a different vehicle during an operation.
● Review the supply status of rations, water, fuel, oil, all types of
ammunition, pyrotechnics, first-aid kits, combat lifesaver bags,
MOPP suits, and batteries (for such items as flashlights, night
vision devices, and NBC alarms). Direct resupply operations as
necessary.
● Ensure vehicles are correctly camouflaged so they match the area
of operations.
Each leader should observe his element throughout the process of
preparation for combat. The commander should conduct the final
inspection of each element once the leader reports that soldiers,
vehicles, and equipment are prepared.

Rehearsals Rehearsals are practice sessions conducted to prepare units for an

upcoming operation or event. They are essential in ensuring thorough
preparation, coordination, and understanding of the commander’s plan
and intent. Company team commanders should never underestimate the
value of rehearsals.
Effective rehearsals require leaders and, when time permits, other
company team soldiers to perform required tasks, ideally under
conditions that are as close as possible to those expected for the actual
operation. At their best, rehearsals are interactive; participants
maneuver their actual vehicles or use vehicle models or simulations
while verbalizing their elements’ actions. During every rehearsal, the
focus is on the how element, allowing subordinates to practice the
actions called for in their individual scheme of maneuver. (NOTE: A
rehearsal is different from the process of talking through what is
supposed to happen. For example, in a rehearsal, platoon leaders should
actually send SPOTREPs when reporting enemy contact, rather than
simply saying, "I would send a spot report now.")
Purposes of rehearsals. The commander uses well-planned, efficiently
run rehearsals to accomplish the following:
● Reinforce training and increase proficiency in critical tasks.
● Reveal weaknesses or problems in the plan, leading to further

refinement of the plan or development of additional branch plans.
● Integrate the actions of subordinate elements.
● Confirm coordination requirements between the company team

and adjacent units.
● Improve each soldier’s understanding of the concept of the
operation, the direct fire plan, anticipated contingencies, and
possible actions and reactions for various situations that may
arise during the operation.
Rehearsal scope and techniques. The company team commander can
choose among several approaches in conducting rehearsals. He must
decide on the scope of the rehearsal in terms of participation and on the
specific rehearsal technique to be used. As a general guideline,
rehearsals should follow the crawl-walk-run training methodology to
prepare the team and subordinate elements for increasingly difficult
conditions.
Scope. The company team can prepare for operations using
reduced-force rehearsals and/or full-force rehearsals. These
considerations apply:
● The commander conducts reduced-force rehearsals when
time is limited or when the tactical situation does not
permit everyone to attend. Team members who can take
part practice their actions on mock-ups, sand tables, or
actual terrain (usually over a smaller area than in the actual
operation).
● The full-force rehearsal is the most effective, but consumes
the most time and resources. It involves virtually every

soldier who will participate in the operation. If possible, it

should be conducted under the same conditions (such as
weather, time of day, and terrain) that the team can expect
to encounter during actual operations.
Techniques. Rehearsal techniques include the following:
● Special rehearsal. This rehearsal covers tasks that will be
critical to the success of the operation at individual, crew,
or element level. The commander may initiate special
rehearsals when he issues the warning order early in the
troop-leading process.
● Map rehearsal. This is usually conducted as part of a
confirmation brief involving subordinate leaders and/or
portions of their elements. The leader uses the map and
overlay to guide participants as they brief their role in the
operation. If necessary, he can use a sketch map.
● Communications rehearsal. This is a reduced-force or
full-force rehearsal conducted when the situation does not
allow the company team to gather at one location.
Subordinate elements check their communications systems
and rehearse key elements of the company team plan.
● Key leader rehearsal. In this rehearsal, leaders discuss the
mission while moving over the key terrain in vehicles.
● Sand table or terrain model. This reduced-force or
full-force technique employs a small-scale table or model
that depicts graphic control measures and important terrain
features for reference and orientation. Participants walk or
move "micro" armor around the table or model to practice
the actions of their own elements or vehicles in relation to
other members of the company team.
● Full mounted rehearsal. This is used during a full-force
rehearsal. Rehearsals begin in good visibility over open
terrain, then become increasingly realistic until conditions
approximate those expected in the area of operations. This
technique presents several options:
- The company team may rehearse with platoons or
other team elements going "force on force" against
each other.
- The company team trains can portray enemy forces
to prompt action by the platoons or other team
elements.
- The entire team may go against another task force
element.

Rehearsal guidelines. The company team commander is responsible for

most aspects of the team’s rehearsals. The following paragraphs outline
procedures and considerations that affect the rehearsal process.
General. The commander will select the tasks to be practiced and
will control execution of the rehearsal. He will usually designate
someone to role-play the enemy elements he expects to face
during the operation.
Conditions. Rehearsal situations should be as close as possible to
those expected during the actual operation. This includes the
physical aspects of the rehearsal site as well as such factors as
light and weather conditions.
Actions before the OPORD is issued. Initial warning orders
should provide subordinate leaders with sufficient detail to allow
them to schedule and conduct rehearsals before the company
team OPORD is issued. For example, if breach, support, and
assault elements are identified in an early warning order, leaders
can begin rehearsing mission-specific tasks, drills, and SOPs for
each element early in the troop-leading process. Rehearsals after
the OPORD can then focus on tasks that cover integration of the
entire team.
Progression of rehearsal activities. Rehearsals begin with
soldier and leader confirmation briefs to ensure understanding of
individual and unit tasks. Individual elements and the company
team as a whole then use sand tables or sketches to talk through
the execution of the plan. This is followed by walk-through
exercises and full-speed mounted rehearsals.
Rehearsal priorities. The company team commander establishes
a priority of rehearsals based on the time available and the
relative importance of the actions to be rehearsed. As with COA
development, the priority should begin at the decisive point of the
operation and move on to actions that are less critical to the plan.
As an example, the commander’s priorities could call for
rehearsal of tasks and drills in this order: actions on the objective,
actions on contact, reaction to an air attack, movement
formations and techniques, medical treatment and evacuation,
and resupply operations.

Refinement At all times, the company team commander must ensure that the team
has an accurate picture of the enemy situation and that the plan to defeat
the enemy is relevant to the enemy’s current disposition. This means
that the company team plan must continue to evolve as the enemy
situation develops.
As discussed previously, the team will receive a constant stream of
additional information about the enemy before the operation starts
through a combination of team-, task force-, and brigade-level
reconnaissance and security operations. The commander uses this
information to continually adjust the plan as necessary. Changes to the
plan and the enemy situation must be disseminated down to the lowest
organizational level. Although these constant updates may cause some
disruption of troop-leading procedures at the platoon level, the
refinement process is critical to the success of the company team plan.
NOTE: Refinement of the plan does not stop when the company
team crosses the LD. Once the operation is under way, the
commander continues to adjust the plan based on the enemy’s
actions and the terrain on which the team is operating. The
commander gains additional information through reports and the
company team’s own development of the situation. He uses
FRAGOs to update the team on refinements to the plan.
Additional To assure himself of adequate time to focus on his own critical
preparation troop-leading tasks, the company team commander must effectively
tasks delegate the numerous preparation tasks that are part of the
troop-leading process. One technique is to use members of the company
team headquarters to assist in completion of these activities. Available
personnel may include the company team master gunner, NBC NCO,
and communications specialist and the crews from the commander’s,
XO’s, and 1SG’s vehicles. (NOTE: Refer to the discussion of company
team CP functions in this chapter.) Additional preparations delegated by
the commander may include, but are not limited to, the following tasks:
● Build terrain models.
● Create visualization products such as sketches, strip maps, and

overlays.
● Copy orders, graphics, and matrices.
● Create digital products based on other materials (including the

SITEMP, orders, overlays, and reports).
● Record incoming information such as status reports, warning
orders, and FRAGOs.
● Continuously refine the SITEMP using the latest intelligence.
● Distribute the updated SITEMP to all company team elements.
● Enforce the company team timeline.
● Receive standard reports from company team elements.
● Pass required reports to the task force.
● Track unit battle preparations and logistical and maintenance

status.

Abbreviated When there is not enough time to conduct all eight troop-leading steps
in detail, such as when a change of mission occurs after an operation is
troop-leading in progress, the company team commander must understand how to
procedures trim the procedures to save time. Most steps of these abbreviated
troop-leading procedures are done mentally, but the commander skips
none of the steps. Once the order is received, he conducts a quick map
reconnaissance, analyzes the mission using the factors of METT-TC,
and sends for the subordinate leaders. He makes sure each leader posts
the minimum required control measures on his maps, then issues a
FRAGO covering the key elements of the enemy and friendly
situations, mission, commander’s intent, and concept of the operation.
The service support and command and signal paragraphs can be deleted
if they are unchanged or covered by SOP. The commander and
subordinate leaders may also conduct a quick walk-through rehearsal of
critical elements of the maneuver plan using a hastily prepared terrain
model or sand table.
In some cases, there may not be enough time even for these shortened
procedures. The company team may have to move out and receive
FRAGOs from the task force by radio or at the next scheduled halt. It
then becomes critical for the team commander to send FRAGOs of his
own to the subordinate leaders explaining the team’s purpose within the
overall task force maneuver plan.
At all times, the commander, XO, 1SG, and subordinate leaders share
the responsibility for keeping the team informed of the ever-changing
enemy and friendly situations. They accomplish this by monitoring the
task force net and issuing frequent updates to their elements using
available communications assets. Digital information systems (such as
IVIS, DBCS, EPLRS, and appliqué) and global positioning systems
(GPS) are valuable tools when the company team is forced to use
abbreviated troop-leading procedures and FRAGOs. These systems
allow the commander to communicate information quickly and
accurately; he can also use them to designate waypoints to assist in
navigation and TRPs to assist in weapons orientation.
Other keys to success when abbreviated procedures are in effect include
a well-trained company team; clearly developed, thoroughly understood
SOPs; and an understanding by all members of the team of the current
tactical situation (situational awareness). Whenever time is available,
however, there is no substitute for effective, thorough troop-leading
procedures. The odds of success increase still further when detailed
planning and rehearsals are conducted prior to an operation, even if
time is limited. Successful commanders and leaders make the most of
every available minute.
SUCCESSION OF COMMAND

The company team must treat the succession of command as a type of

drill. The commander must ensure that all leaders understand the
procedures required for a smooth succession; ideally, he should conduct
rehearsals of the succession process. The normal succession of
command in a company team is the following:
● Commander.
● XO.
● Platoon leaders.
● FSO.
● 1SG.
● NCOs by seniority.
When casualties or other battlefield factors necessitate succession, the

new commander acts quickly to reestablish the chain of command. He
establishes communications with the task force and all elements of the
company team and
informs them of the situation. (NOTE: All elements of the company
team should have preset their radios to facilitate a smooth transition in
case a change of command becomes necessary.) The new commander
compiles status reports within the company team, receives and analyzes
any new orders from the task force, and continues operations. He issues
FRAGOs as required.
NOTE: In most situations, the leader in the best position to
control the company team fight should assume command. For
example, the platoon leader of the assault force may have a better
understanding of a critical part of the battle than does the XO and
would be better suited to take command until the XO is in
position to do so.
COMMAND AND SUPPORT RELATIONSHIPS

Nonorganic combat and CS assets can significantly enhance the
company team’s combat capability. These elements support the
company team under established command and support relationships.
Regardless of the nature of the relationship, the company team
commander is responsible for the integration and synchronization of
these assets within the team’s scheme of maneuver.

Command The command relationship defines the degree to which a command

owns, controls, and supports various elements of another unit, such as
relationships the company team. There are four types of command relationships:
● Organic. The subordinate unit is listed in the higher unit’s TOE
or MTOE.
● Assigned. Units or personnel are placed in an organization on a
relatively permanent basis. The gaining headquarters controls,
administers, and provides logistical support to the subordinate
units.
● Attached. This is the temporary placement of units or personnel
in an organization. The gaining headquarters exercises the same
degree of command and control as it does for organic units. This
responsibility also includes logistical support, but rarely covers
administrative actions.
● Operational control (OPCON). OPCON authority allows the
gaining commander to direct units or personnel to accomplish
specific missions or tasks, usually limited by function, time, or
location. The commander can deploy these units and retain or
assign tactical control. OPCON does not include administrative
or logistical support.
Support Supporting and supported units share specific relationships and
relationships responsibilities. For example, the assigning headquarters retains both
logistical support responsibility and the authority to reorganize or
reassign all or part of a supporting force. Although support relationships
usually do not occur at the company team level, it is important to
understand how they affect the type of support the task force or brigade
provides and/or receives. The following paragraphs discuss the four
types of support relationships.
Direct support The DS unit provides support in response to a direct request from
another unit. It is not attached to or under the command of the
supported unit, but it is required to report directly to that unit and
provide any requested support. DS units also must provide or arrange
their own support. An example of this type of support unit during
defensive operations is a task force DS engineer company. In the
offense, operating system assets may be tasked to provide DS to the
company team (normally when it is the task force main effort). In
light/heavy operations, tank sections, platoons, and companies may
serve as DS elements.
Reinforcing In this type of support, a unit provides reinforcing fires or support for
another unit; as a secondary mission, it remains responsive for DS
requests.
General support The GS unit provides support to the supported force as a whole and not
to any particular subunit. GS units are responsible for their own
logistical support. From the company team perspective, these units
provide area, not unit, support. An example of a GS unit would be
BSFVs or Bradley Linebackers attached to the brigade but positioned in
the task force area of operations to cover air avenues of approach into
the brigade rear.

In addition to performing its primary support tasks, the supporting unit

General support in this type of relationship has the secondary mission of providing
reinforcing reinforcing fires to another force. This relationship usually pertains to
artillery units.
SECTION 2 - CONTROL
Control, the counterpart of command, is the process by which the
commander follows up a decision and minimizes deviation from his
concept. It entails supervision of all aspects of the operation, including
synchronization of all systems and activities.
SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
Situational awareness is the ability to maintain a constant, clear
mental "picture" of the tactical situation. This picture includes an
understanding of relevant terrain and of the relationship between
friendly and enemy forces in time and space. It also includes the
ability to correlate battlefield events as they develop.
Decision-making For the company team commander and all subordinate leaders,
situational awareness is the key to making sound, quick tactical
decisions. It allows them to form logical conclusions and to make
decisions that anticipate future events and information. A critical
benefit of situational awareness on the part of all leaders is a
reduction in fratricide incidents. Situational awareness also gives
leaders the ability to compress the time necessary to conduct
troop-leading procedures; this is especially critical when there is
limited time to plan and prepare for an operation.
Structure of The commander structures the battlefield based on his intent and the
the battlefield factors of METT-TC. How he does this affects his subordinate leaders’
mission planning and their ability to maintain situational awareness.
The framework of the battlefield can vary from a highly rigid extreme,
with obvious front and rear boundaries and closely tied adjacent units,
to a dispersed and decentralized structure with few secure areas and unit
boundaries and no definable front and/or rear boundary.
Between these extremes is an unlimited number of possible variations.
Maintaining situational awareness becomes more difficult as the
battlefield becomes less structured. Modern, highly mobile operations
involving small forces lend themselves to a less rigid framework that
challenges the leader’s ability to maintain an accurate picture of the
battlefield.

"Seeing" the To "see" the battlefield accurately, the commander and subordinate
leaders must have virtually perfect knowledge of the friendly situation
battlefield one level higher than their own (the task force or company team/troop
situations). It is also vital that the commander update subordinates
periodically on the higher situation. The commander must also have a
relatively complete knowledge of the terrain and the enemy situation.
He must be able to visualize enemy and friendly elements through time
and to picture how terrain will affect their actions. (NOTE: This
requirement to maintain a real-time awareness of the battlefield one
level higher does not relieve the commander of his responsibility to
understand the situation and commander’s intent two levels higher than
his own. The difference is that his understanding of the situation two
levels higher does not have to be as specific or as timely.)
Most of the information the commander requires comes from what he
can observe from his tank or BFV and receive through his
communications systems, which he monitors both from reports
addressed specifically to him and by eavesdropping. He then can track
enemy and friendly elements and plot all movement on his map and/or
digital display (IVIS, DBCS, or appliqué). This allows him to adjust
movement so the company team makes contact with the enemy from
positions of advantage.
How effectively the commander can keep track of events on the
battlefield is, to some degree, experience-dependent. No matter what his
experience level, however, he is responsible for learning techniques that
allow him to relate the information he is receiving to his map or display
and thereby track the tactical situation. Personal preparation is
absolutely critical to any leader’s performance during operational
execution. The commander must carefully evaluate what he will be
required to do during the battle and then take the necessary actions to
prepare for the upcoming operation.
Battle space The ability to see the battlefield provides the commander with
important tactical information, including friendly and enemy positions
and relevant terrain. In turn, complete understanding of the military
significance of this picture requires knowledge of the concept of battle
space; this is the key element in the intellectual process of visualizing
the battlefield.
At the most fundamental level, battle space is the three-dimensional
area in which the company team and its subordinate elements can
acquire enemy forces and influence them with effective fires. This
space is defined by several battlefield factors: the locations of friendly
forces, including the team’s individual elements and OPs; the effects of
terrain, weather, and movement; and the ranges of all available weapons
and sensing systems. Each subordinate element has its own battle space.
The company team’s total battle space is the sum of the individual
elements’ battle spaces. The team battle space is not restricted by
boundaries; it can overlap the battle space of adjacent units.
Battle space has applications in all phases of mission planning,
preparation, and execution. During the planning process, it is a critical

factor in the selection of the movement axis as well as tentative

positions and potential engagement areas. In the preparation phase,
battle space information aids leaders in determining where vehicle
positions will be sited and to what level they will be prepared (dug).
Once mission execution begins, the commander’s knowledge of his
battle space is critical to his ability to issue timely and effective orders
as the situation changes.
The importance of battle space demands that the company team
commander direct much of his battle command effort toward managing
and enhancing his space. He must be aware at every moment of how
battle space is changing as friendly and enemy forces move and as
terrain and visibility conditions change. As the operation progresses, the
commander must take active measures to shape the battle space to his
best advantage.
One vital step in this process is to eliminate or reduce any gaps, or dead
space, within the company team’s battle space. The commander can
accomplish this in several ways. In the offense, for example, he can
maintain an overwatch element during movement through a choke point
or a danger area. In the defense, he can emplace OPs or reposition
elements or individual vehicles to cover potential gaps in the team’s
battle space. In all cases, the company team’s position in relation to
other friendly elements is an important factor in defining and enhancing
the battle space. The commander can shape his space more effectively if
he applies the principles of mutual support and thorough coordination
with adjacent units.
REPORTS
Reports exist to support the commander and to assist him in assessing
his critical information requirements. Their format and use is normally
mandated by unit SOP. With some exceptions, reports are not tied to a
fixed schedule. Rather, they are submitted in these circumstances:
● On request or on order.
● When a change in the situation warrants.
● As necessary to keep the higher commander informed.
Cycle of In serving their primary purpose of keeping higher headquarters and

reporting adjacent units informed of changes in the situation, reports must be
complete and accurate; at the same time, leaders must ensure that their
reports are neither overly complex nor too frequent. As a general rule,
leaders send increasingly detailed reports as the situation develops and
as more information (and more time) becomes available during an
operation. This concept is known as the cycle of reporting.
As an example of this cycle, a platoon leader who encounters an enemy
force immediately sends a contact report to the company team
commander and then initiates actions on contact. Once he has
developed the situation, he sends a SITREP, which outlines the nature
of the contact, his own situation, and his recommendation of a COA in

response to the contact. After executing the COA directed by the

commander, the platoon leader sends an updated SITREP (in this case,
a closure report) to inform the commander of the result of the operation
(again covering how the situation has changed).
Report Leaders at all levels should keep the following considerations in mind
in preparing, submitting, and using reports:
guidelines
● Send only the parts or lines of a report that contain new
information or changes. This will help to prevent overloading of
radio nets.
● Reports have prescribed formats to ensure completeness of the
information that is transmitted. The company team SOP should
outline the correct format for each report the unit normally uses.
The SOP should also explain how each report is used and under
what conditions it is to be submitted.
● At the same time, however, users must remember that timely
reporting, especially of enemy activity, is critical in fast-moving
tactical situations. Do not delay reports for the sole purpose of
assuring the correct format; report accurate information as
quickly as possible!
● Use the local time zone for all reports unless directed otherwise.
Types of Company team commanders and other leaders receive and send reports
in five general categories. Refer to the applicable SOP for unit-specific
reports information on these groups. In general, company-level reports include
the following:
● Operations reports. These include the following:
- Contact report and SPOTREP, used to report enemy

activity.
- SITREP. Several variations of the SITREP are also
available, including the modified SITREP, the SALT
report (a modified SITREP that is used to quickly
summarize the enemy situation by covering only the
aspects of size, activity, location, and time), and the
closure report, sent to make a final report on the end state
or result of an operation or action.
- Combat power report, which a unit uses to send
assessments of friendly combat power to its higher
headquarters.
- Sensitive items report (SENSEREP), used to relay the
status and accountability of sensitive items to higher
headquarters.
- Reports covering physical aspects of the area of
operations. These include the report for bridges,
overpasses, culverts, underpasses, or tunnels, known as the
BRIDGEREP; the report for fords, ferries, and other water
crossing sites, known as the CROSSREP; the route
reconnaissance report, known as the ROUTEREP; the
obstacle report; and the bypass report.

● Intelligence reports. These include the intelligence summary report

and the MIJI report.
● Logistics reports. These include equipment status reports (known as
ESTAT), battle loss SPOTREPs, ammunition status reports,
ammunition requests, POL status reports, and POL requests.
● Personnel reports. These include personnel battle loss reports and
MEDEVAC requests.
● NBC reports. These include observer’s initial reports (NBC-1);
immediate warning of expected contamination reports (NBC-3); reports
of NBC hazards by monitoring, survey, or reconnaissance (NBC-4);
and reports of areas of contamination (NBC-5).
STANDING OPERATING PROCEDURES

SOPs articulate how the company team will conduct certain operations
(or component actions within an operation). A well-rehearsed tactical
SOP ensures quick, predictable actions by members of the team. It
standardizes procedures for tactical road marches, assembly areas,
communications, maneuver, engagement area development, CS, and
CSS, as well as any other operations designated as critical by the
commander. An effective SOP normally delegates responsibility for
specific tasks to specific subordinate elements or individuals. Examples
of SOPs are discussed throughout this manual.
The maneuver portion of the company team SOP helps leaders to make
quick, accurate decisions; in turn, this enhances the team’s ability to
maintain the initiative, even when unexpected contact occurs. A
maneuver SOP normally consists of a series of maneuver plans,
sometimes referred to as plays, that can be executed with slight
modifications based on a timely METT-TC analysis. Unlike platoon
battle drills (discussed in Chapter 3 of this manual), plays allow the
commander to account for friendly task organization, specific terrain,
and a specific enemy. As a result, the maneuver SOP for a unit whose
primary mission is to fight an infantry-based enemy in restricted terrain
must be significantly different from that of a unit that must fight a
mechanized enemy force in desert terrain. An effective technique in
development of maneuver plays is to develop a sketch and statement
similar to the COA sketch and statement, which were discussed earlier
in this chapter. Figure 2-14 illustrates an example of a play from a
company team maneuver SOP.

Figure 2-14. Example SOP maneuver play for securing a choke point.
COMMUNICATIONS

Introduction The company team communicates to control subordinate elements and

weapons, to gather and pass information, and to call for fires. The
commander must carefully plan the use of the team’s communications
resources to ensure that he maintains redundancy and flexibility. He
must understand the capabilities and limitations of the various means of
communications available to the company team and the role that
METT-TC factors play in determining which means will be used in a
given situation.
SOPs are a critical element of company team communications. They
may prescribe when to use certain methods or establish priorities for
reports and other types of transmissions. For units with digital
capability, SOPs should standardize graphics and dictate how overlays
are passed from the top down and from the bottom up.
Means of The following discussion covers the capabilities, limitations,
communications advantages, and disadvantages of the various means of
communications available to the company team.
Messengers When security conditions, resources, and time permit, the use of
messengers is the preferred means of communications for the
company team. It is the most secure means and generally is also
very flexible and reliable. Messengers can deliver fire plans, status
reports, and various types of messages. If possible, lengthy
messages sent by messenger should be written to prevent
confusion.
Wire This method of communications is especially effective in static
positions. The company team may employ a hot loop in defensive
positions, OPs, and assembly areas. Wire is both secure and
reliable, but it imposes strict limits on the mobility of the user. This
could interfere with unit troop-leading procedures or other
priorities of work. (NOTE: Wire can also be used on M1-series
tanks and BFVs to facilitate communications with dismounted
elements working with the unit. Wire is routed from inside the
vehicle to an externally mounted phone.)
Visual signals Visual communications are valuable in identifying friendly forces
or transmitting prearranged messages quickly over short distances.
Standard
hand-and-arm or flag signals work well during periods of good
visibility.
(NOTE: See FM 21-60 for a description of hand-and-arm signals.)
Crews can use no-power thermal paper, flashlights, chemical
lights, or other devices during periods of limited visibility, but they
must exercise extreme care to avoid alerting the enemy to friendly
intentions. Pyrotechnic ammunition can also be used for visual
signaling. The meaning of these signals must be specified in
paragraph 5 of the OPORD or by unit SOP.

Sound signals This form of communications is mainly used to attract attention,

transmit prearranged messages, and spread alarms. Sound signals,
however, carry only short distances, and their range and clarity are
greatly reduced by battle noise. In addition, since they are open to
enemy interception, use of sound signals may be restricted for
security reasons. They must be kept simple to avoid creating
confusion. Prearranged meanings for sound signals must be
covered in unit SOPs and SOIs.
Radio The radio is the company team’s most flexible, most frequently
used means of communications. It can quickly transmit information
over long distances with great accuracy. It is also the least secure
means, although secure equipment and the ability of SINCGARS
to frequency-hop provide the company team with protection
against most enemy direction-finding, interception, and jamming
capabilities. To maintain effective radio communications, leaders
must strictly enforce proper radio discipline and procedures and
adhere to the following guidelines:
● Keep radio transmissions short (10 seconds or less); break up
longer messages into short transmissions.
● Make clear, concise transmissions.
● When direct radio contact is broken, set up relays or go to

high ground.
● Submit initial contact reports immediately, then send
additional information later.
● Prioritize transmissions.
Digital systems IVIS and appliqué digital systems enable users to transmit digitally
encoded information over SINCGARS or EPLRS radios to
similarly equipped vehicles. When digitally linked, users receive
updated position information for vehicles operating on the same
radio nets or within a tactical internet. Reports and overlays can be
sent and received within the confines of the digital routing matrix.
Units in the routing matrix must use precise SOPs to dictate how
the unit and specific users will send and receive overlays from the
top down and from the bottom up. SOPs must also specify digital
log-on procedures and address the duties of the NCS, which are
more complex within a digitized unit.
Company teram The company team transmits and receives tactical information over
a variety of radio nets. The following paragraphs outline
radio nets communications equipment and procedures used by the team’s
leaders and its subordinate and attached elements. Figure 2-15
illustrates the organization of the company team radio net.

Commander and XO The company team commander normally operates on the company
team command net and monitors the task force command net. This
allows the commander to fight the team effectively while
remaining responsive to the task force commander as necessary. He
operates on the task force net to provide tactical assessments to the
task force commander; to send critical information to the task force
commander and/or other company team commanders; and to
respond as required by the situation or as requested by the task
force commander. The XO monitors the team net and operates on
the task force net, making him responsive to both the team and task
force commanders. He normally handles routine traffic on the task
force net.
Platoon leader Platoon leaders normally operate on their specific platoon nets and
and PSG monitor the company team command net, while each PSG
monitors the platoon net and operates on the company team net.
This allows platoon leaders to fight their platoons effectively while
PSGs remain responsive for routine traffic. Platoon leaders must
also remain responsive to the commander via the company team
net; they provide tactical assessments and other critical information
to the commander and other platoon leaders as required or
requested.

Figure 2-15. Company team command radio net.

Other leaders Other factors related to the company team’s radio nets include the
and elements following:
● The 1SG monitors the company team net and operates on the task
force A/L net.
● The company combat trains monitor the company team net.
● BFV platoons are equipped with an additional man-portable radio

as well as four hand-held radios for control of dismounted
operations. Use of these assets will leave the internal platoon net
nonsecure, although the platoon leader can still maintain secure
communications on the company team net.
● BSFVs and/or Bradley Linebackers that are in DS or GS to the
task force and are moving with the company team normally have
two radios; they transmit and receive on the ADA platoon net and
monitor the ADA early warning net and the company team net.
The BSFV/Linebacker platoon leader has three radios; he
transmits and receives on the ADA platoon net and ADA battery
net and monitors the ADA early warning net and the task force
command net.
● The company team FIST has four radios that transmit and receive
on the following nets:
- Tactical fire direction system. Known as TACFIRE, this
digital task force net employs either of two systems, the
IFSAS or the AFATDS.
- Task force fire support net (voice net).
- Mortar fire direction net (voice or digital net).
- Company team command net.
● Attached engineer platoons normally have two radios that
transmit and receive on internal platoon nets and on the team
command net.
Preset SINCGARS radios offer up to eight preselected settings (manual, cue,
capability and up to six additional preset frequencies or hopset patterns). The
company team SOP should specify how leaders will configure their
radios so that the frequency can be changed in response to a variety of
situations and requirements, such as succession of command, cross-talk,
and integration of CS and CSS assets.
COMMUNICATIONS SECURITY

Introduction COMSEC involves measures taken to sustain and protect radio

communications against enemy detection and electronic warfare attacks;
it covers actions taken to protect personnel, facilities, and equipment
from the effects of friendly and enemy electronic warfare that can
degrade or destroy a unit’s combat capability. Although the team is not
usually the focus of interception, jamming, or direction-finding systems,
proper COMSEC procedures are an absolute requirement for all
operators. At the team level, COMSEC consists mainly of proper active
protection measures and antijamming techniques for the specific
equipment the unit is employing. For example, a company team with
SINCGARS radios may try to avoid detection by employing its
frequency-hopping capability at a low power setting (although use of a
hot loop remains an option).
Active When the company team must use nonsecure or damaged
communications assets, effective use of active protection measures can
protection delay or prevent the enemy from gaining important tactical information
measures from the team’s radio transmissions. Active protection measures include
the following procedures:
● Using approved codes.
● Changing frequencies and call signs when specified.
● Restricting radio use or designating times for radio listening

silence.
● Using low power when appropriate.
● Selecting radio sites from which obstructions block friendly

transmissions from enemy detection.
Antijamming Company team radio operators should use the procedures outlined in the
following paragraphs to defeat the enemy’s jamming activities. (NOTE:
procedures These procedures may also apply to other types of communications
interference.)
Recognition If he detects or suspects radio interference, the operator must determine
the cause. He should not immediately assume that he is being jammed;
some other types of radio interference may resemble jamming
"symptoms." The operator first removes the antenna to determine
whether the signal is being generated internally by the receiver. If the
interference decreases in intensity when the antenna is removed,
interference is external, possibly the result of enemy jamming.
Continued After identifying jamming as a possible cause of interference, the
operation operator follows a simple rule: continue to operate unless ordered by the
NCS to shut down or change frequencies. He must continue normal
radio operations so the enemy will not learn that the interference is
working; he should never mention over a nonsecure radio or frequency
that he is being jammed. If the company team cannot continue to
operate on the jammed net, operators should switch to the antijamming
frequency and continue the mission. The commander may direct the XO
to monitor the old frequency until all nodes have reestablished
communications.

Reporting Use a MIJI report, sent via a secure means of communications, to

inform leaders that jamming has been detected. The MIJI report format,
found in the SOI or unit SOP, usually contains the following
information:
● Date and time of the jamming.
● Frequencies jammed.
● Type and strength of the jamming signal.
● Designation of the unit making the report.
NOTE: Although not related to enemy activity, "hot mikes" and

unintentionally keyed radio nets can severely limit the ability of the
company team and subordinate elements to communicate effectively.
The team commander and subordinate leaders must develop reporting
and action procedures to prevent these problems.
COMPANY TEAM COMMAND POST

Purpose The company team CP assists the commander and his subordinate
leaders in preparing for battles by providing a centralized point for
information gathering and dissemination, coordination, time
management, and tracking of unit status.
The tank or mechanized infantry company team is generally limited
to the use of a tent or one of its organic headquarters vehicles as the
CP. Tank company team options include the use of the 1SG’s M113
or the FIST-V. The 1SG’s vehicle is organic to the team and thus is
more likely to be available during the preparation phase. The FIST-V
is large enough to serve as the CP, but it may be retained by the task
force and therefore will not be available to the company. The
mechanized infantry team may use one of its headquarters BFVs, the
1SG’s M113, or the FIST-V. Disadvantages in using a BFV are that it
may be required for a mounted rehearsal and that it will be required
for boresighting.
The use of an additional shelter can enhance the capabilities of any
type of vehicle CP. A canvas or modular extension will provide
additional room to allow CP personnel to perform their functions
more efficiently. Another CP technique is the use of a GP-small tent
in conjunction with radio remotes.

Manning There are several options for manning a company team CP. A senior
NCO from the headquarters section or an attached element may be
designated as information manager or NCOIC of the CP. Although
the primary duty of this NCO may pull him away for limited periods,
he can generally remain available for duty in the CP. Options include
the master gunner, NBC NCO, or a senior gunner on a headquarters
section BFV or tank.
Other positions in the CP can be manned on a rotational basis by the
members of the headquarters section or attached elements. These may
include the crews of headquarters tanks or BFVs; company team
medics; the driver of the 1SG’s M113; the communications specialist;
and the crew of the FIST-V.
Functions The company team CP assists the commander by reducing the
number of items he must personally track and report. This further
frees the commander to conduct troop-leading procedures during the
preparation phase. Examples of CP operations include the following:
● Record incoming information (such as status reports, warning
orders, and FRAGOs).
● Continuously refine the SITTEMP using the latest intelligence
and distribute the updated SITTEMP to all company team
elements.
● Post current guidance, timelines, and overlays.
● Pass required reports to the task force.
● Track unit battle preparations and logistical and maintenance

status.
● Conduct required coordination with adjacent and flank units.
● Facilitate bottom-up refinement of operating system planning

and preparation.
The CP may act as the point of contact for attached or OPCON units.
It can further assist the commander in his troop-leading procedures
by providing a variety of services: supervising and enforcing the
timeline; reproducing overlays; converting acetate overlays to digital
format (in digital units); constructing sand tables for company team
and platoon rehearsals.
DIRECT FIRE CONTROL

Suppressing or destroying the enemy with direct fires is fundamental to
success in close combat. Effective direct fires are essential to winning
the close fight; they are the unique contribution of maneuver forces to
the combine arms team. Because fire and movement are complementary
components of maneuver, the tank or mechanized infantry company
team commander must be able to effectively mass the fires of all
available resources at critical points and times to be successful on the
battlefield.

Unitwide Acquiring the enemy is a precursor to direct fire engagement.

Commanders must not assume that the unit will be able to see the
surveillance enemy; they must expect him to use cover and concealed routes
and effectively when attacking and to make best use of flanking and
target concealed positions in the defense. As a result, the company team will
acquisition not often have the luxury of a fully exposed enemy that can be easily
seen.
Rather, the acquisition of the enemy will often be dependent on
recognition of very subtle indicators that may be especially difficult to
see while moving. Examples include exposed antennas, reflections from
the vision blocks of enemy vehicles, small dust clouds, or smoke from
vehicle engines or ATGM or tank fires. (NOTE: Refer to Figure 3-1 for
more examples of these indicators.)
Because of the difficulty of target acquisition, the company team
commander must develop unit surveillance plans to assist the team in
acquiring the enemy. He must also be prepared to apply these techniques
to help orient other friendly forces. Techniques for unit surveillance,
target acquisition, and orientation of subordinate elements are discussed
in more detail in "Orient forces to speed target acquisition" later in this
chapter. Target acquisition at the crew level and crew gunnery
techniques are discussed in detail in FM 17-12-1 and FM 23-1.
Principles of Effective fire control requires a unit to rapidly acquire the enemy and
mass the effects of fires to achieve decisive results in the close fight.
fire control When planning and executing direct fires, the commander and
subordinate leaders must know how to apply several fundamental
principles. The purpose of these principles of direct fire is not to restrict
the actions of subordinates. Applied correctly, they help the company
team to accomplish its primary goal in any direct fire engagement: to
both acquire first and shoot first; they give subordinates the freedom to
act quickly upon acquisition of the enemy. This discussion focuses on
the following principles:
● Mass the effects of fire.
● Destroy the greatest threat first.
● Avoid target overkill.
● Employ the best weapon for the target.
● Minimize friendly exposure.
● Prevent fratricide.
● Plan for extreme limited visibility conditions.
● Develop contingencies for diminished capabilities.

Mass the effects The company team must mass its fires to achieve decisive results.
of fire Massing entails focusing fires at critical points and distributing the
effects. Random application of fires is unlikely to have a decisive effect.
For example, concentrating the company team’s fires at a single target
may ensure its destruction or suppression; however, that fire control
COA will probably not achieve a decisive effect on the enemy formation
or position.

Destroy the The order in which the company team engages enemy forces is in direct
greatest threat relation to the danger they present. The threat posed by the enemy
first depends on his weapons, range, and positioning. Presented with multiple
targets, a unit will, in almost all situations, initially concentrate fires to
destroy the greatest threat, then distribute fires over the remainder of the
enemy force.
Avoid target Use only the amount of fire required to achieve necessary effects. Target
overkill overkill wastes ammunition and ties up weapons that are better
employed acquiring and engaging other targets. The idea of having every
weapon engage a different target, however, must be tempered by the
requirement to destroy the greatest threats first.
Employ the best Using the appropriate weapon for the target increases the probability of
weapon for the rapid enemy destruction or suppression; at the same time, it saves
target ammunition. The company team has many weapons with which to
engage the enemy. Target type, range, and exposure are key factors in
determining the weapon and ammunition that should be employed, as are
weapons and ammunition availability and desired targets effects.
Additionally, leaders should consider individual crew capabilities when
deciding on the employment of weapons. The commander task organizes
and arrays his forces based on the terrain, enemy, and desired effects of
fires. As an example, when he expects an enemy dismounted assault in
restricted terrain, the commander would employ his infantry squads,
taking advantage of their ability to best engage numerous, fast-moving
targets.
Minimize Units increase their survivability by exposing themselves to the enemy
friendly only to the extent necessary to engage him effectively. Natural or
exposure manmade defilade provides the best cover from kinetic-energy direct fire
munitions. Crews and squads minimize their exposure by constantly
seeking effective available cover, attempting to engage the enemy from
the flank, remaining dispersed, firing from multiple positions, and
limiting engagement times.
Prevent The commander must be proactive in reducing the risk of fratricide and
fratricide noncombatant casualties. He has numerous tools to assist him in this
effort: identification training for combat vehicles and aircraft; the unit’s
weapons safety posture; the weapons control status; recognition
markings; situational awareness. Knowledge and employment of
applicable ROE are the primary means of preventing noncombatant
casualties. (NOTE: Because it is difficult to distinguish between friendly
and enemy dismounted infantry soldiers, the commander must constantly
monitor the position of friendly infantry squads.)

Plan for At night, limited visibility fire control equipment enables the company
extreme team to engage enemy forces at nearly the same ranges that are
limited visibility applicable during the day. Obscurants such as dense fog, heavy smoke,
conditions and blowing sand, however, can reduce the capabilities of thermal and
infrared (IR) equipment. The commander should therefore develop
contingency plans for such extreme limited visibility conditions.
Although decreased acquisition capabilities have minimal effect on area
fire, point target engagements will likely occur at decreased ranges.
Typically, firing positions, whether offensive or defensive, must be
adjusted closer to the area or point where the commander intends to
focus fires. Another alternative is the use of visual or IR illumination
when there is insufficient ambient light for passive light intensification
devices. (NOTE: Vehicles equipped with thermal sights can assist
infantry squads in detecting and engaging enemy infantry forces in
conditions such as heavy smoke and low illumination.)
Develop Leaders initially develop plans based on their units’ maximum
contingencies capabilities; they make backup plans for implementation in the event of
for casualties or weapon damage or failure. While leaders cannot anticipate
diminished or plan for every situation, they should develop plans for what they view
capabilities as the most probable occurrences. Building redundancy into these plans,
such as having two systems observe the same sector, is an invaluable
asset when the situation (and the number of available systems) permits.
Designating alternate sectors of fire provides a means of shifting fires if
adjacent elements are knocked out of action.
Fire control
measures
Fire control measures are the means by which the commander or

subordinate leaders control fires. Application of these concepts,
procedures, and techniques assists the unit in acquiring the enemy,
focusing fires on him, distributing the effects of the fires, and
preventing fratricide. At the same time, no single measure is sufficient
to effectively control fires. At the company team level, fire control
measures will be effective only if the entire unit has a common
understanding of what they mean and how to employ them. The
following discussion focuses on the various fire control measures
employed by the company team. Figure 2-16 lists the control measures;
it is organized by whether they are terrain-based or threat-based.
Terrain-based Fire Control Threat-based Fire Control

Measures Measures

● Target reference point ● Fire patterns

(TRP) ● Target array
● Engagement area ● Engagement priorities
● Sector of fire ● Weapons ready posture
● Direction of fire ● Trigger
● Terrain-based quadrant ● Weapons control status
● Friendly-based quadrant ● Rules of engagement
● Maximum engagement (ROE)
line (MEL) ● Weapons safety posture
● Restrictive fire line (RFL) ● Engagement techniques
● Final protective line
(FPL)
Figure 2-16. Common fire control measures.

Terrain-based The company team commander uses terrain-based fire control measures
fire to focus and control fires on a particular point, line, or area rather than
control on a specific enemy element. The following paragraphs describe the
measures TTP associated with this type of control measure.
Target reference point. A TRP is a recognizable point on the ground
that leaders use to orient friendly forces and to focus and control direct
fires. In addition, when TRPs are designated as indirect fire targets, they
can be used in calling for and adjusting indirect fires. Leaders designate
TRPs at probable enemy locations and along likely avenues of
approach. These points can be natural or man-made. A TRP can be an
established site, such as a hill or a building, or an impromptu feature
designated as a TRP on the spot, like a burning enemy vehicle or smoke
generated by an artillery round. Friendly units can also construct
markers to serve as TRPs, as illustrated in Figure 2-17. Ideally, TRPs
should be visible in three observation modes (unaided, passive-IR, and
thermal) so they can be seen by all forces. Example of TRPs include the
following features and objects:
● Prominent hill mass.
● Distinctive building.
● Observable enemy position.
● Destroyed vehicle.
● Ground-burst illumination.
● Smoke round.
● Laser point.

Figure 2-17. Examples of constructed TRP markers.

Engagement area. This fire control measure is an area along an enemy
avenue of approach where the commander intends to mass the fires of
available weapons to destroy an enemy force. The size and shape of the
engagement area is determined by the degree of relatively unobstructed
intervisibility available to the unit’s weapon systems in their firing
positions and by the maximum range of those weapons. Typically,
commanders delineate responsibility within the EA by assigning each
platoon a sector of fire or direction of fire; these fire control measures
are covered in the following paragraphs.
Sector of fire. A sector of fire is a defined area that must be covered by
direct fire. Leaders assign sectors of fire to subordinate elements,
crew-served weapons, and individual soldiers to ensure coverage of an
area of responsibility; they may also limit the sector of fire of an
element or weapon to prevent accidental engagement of an adjacent
unit. In assigning sectors of fire, commanders and subordinate leaders
consider the number and types of weapons available. In addition, they
must consider acquisition system type and field of view in determining
the width of a sector of fire. For example, while unaided vision has a
wide field of view, its ability to detect and identify targets at range and
in limited visibility conditions is restricted. Conversely, most fire
control acquisitions systems have greater detection and identification
ranges than the unaided eye, but their field of view is narrow. Means of
designating sectors of fire include the following:
● TRPs.

● Clock direction.
● Terrain-based quadrants.
● Friendly-based quadrants.
Direction of fire. A direction of fire is an orientation or point used to
assign responsibility for a particular area on the battlefield that must be
covered by direct fire. Leaders designate directions of fire for the
purpose of acquisition or engagement by subordinate elements,
crew-served weapons, or individual soldiers. Direction of fire is most
commonly employed when assigning sectors of fire would be difficult
or impossible because of limited time or insufficient reference points.
Means of designating a direction of fire include the following:
● Closest TRP.
● Clock direction.
● Cardinal direction.
● Tracer on target.
● IR laser pointer.
Quadrants. Quadrants are subdivisions of an area created by

superimposing an imaginary pair of perpendicular axes over the terrain
to create four separate areas or sectors. Quadrants can be based on the
terrain, on friendly forces, or on the enemy formation. (NOTE: The
technique in which quadrants are based on the enemy formation is
usually referred to as the target array; it is covered in the discussion of
threat-based fire control measures.)
The method of quadrant numbering is established in the unit SOP;
however, care must be taken to avoid confusion when quadrants based
on terrain, friendly forces, and the enemy formation are used
simultaneously.
Terrain-based quadrant. A terrain-based quadrant entails use of
a TRP, either existing or constructed, to designate the center
point of the axes that divide the area into four quadrants. This
technique can be employed in both offensive and defensive
operations. In the offense, the commander designates the center
of the quadrant using an existing feature or by creating a
reference point (for example, using a ground burst illumination
round, a smoke marking round, or a fire ignited by incendiary or
tracer rounds). The axes delineating the quadrants run parallel
and perpendicular to the direction of movement. In the defense,
the commander designates the center of the quadrant using an
existing or constructed TRP.
In the examples shown in Figure 2-18, quadrants are marked
using the letter "Q" and a number (Q1 to Q4); quadrant numbers
are in the same relative positions as on military map sheets (from
Q1 as the upper left-hand quadrant clockwise to Q4 as the lower
left-hand quadrant).

Figure 2-18. Examples of terrain-based quadrants.

Friendly-based quadrant. The friendly-based quadrant
technique entails superimposing quadrants over the unit’s
formation The center point is based on the center of the
formation, and the axes run parallel and perpendicular to the
general direction of travel. For rapid orientation, the friendly
quadrant technique may be better than the clock direction
method; this is because different elements of a large formation
are rarely oriented in the same exact direction and because the
relative dispersion of friendly forces causes parallax to the target.
Figure 2-19 illustrates use of friendly-based quadrants.
Maximum engagement line. An MEL is the linear depiction of the

farthest limit of effective fire for a weapon or unit. This line is
determined both by the weapon’s or unit’s maximum effective range
and by the effects of terrain. For example, slope, vegetation, structures,
and other features provide cover and concealment that may prevent the
weapon from engaging out to the maximum effective range. An MEL
serves several purposes. The commander may use it to prevent crews
from engaging beyond the maximum effective range, to define criteria
for the establishment of triggers, and to delineate the maximum extent
of battle space on the sector sketch.
Restrictive fire line. An RFL is a linear fire control measure beyond
which engagement is prohibited without coordination. In the offense,
the commander may designate an RFL to prevent a base of fire element
from firing into the area where an assaulting element is maneuvering.

This technique is particularly important when armored vehicles support

the maneuver of infantry squads. In the defense, the commander may
establish an RFL to prevent the unit from engaging a friendly rifle
squad positioned in restricted terrain on the flank of an avenue of
approach.
Figure 2-19. Example of friendly-based quadrants.

Final protective line. The FPL is a line of fire established where an
enemy assault is to be checked by the interlocking fires of all available
weapons. The unit reinforces this line with protective obstacles and
with final protective fires (FPF) whenever possible. Initiation of the
FPF is the signal for elements, crews, and individual soldiers to shift
fires to their assigned portion of the FPL. They spare no ammunition in
repelling the enemy assault, a particular concern for machine guns and
other automatic weapons.
Threat-based The company team commander uses threat-based fire control measures
fire to focus and control fires by directing the unit to engage a specific
control enemy element rather than to fire on a point or area. The following
measures paragraphs describe the TTP associated with this type of control
measure.
Fire patterns. Fire patterns are a threat-based measure designed to
distribute the fires of a unit simultaneously among multiple, similar
targets. They are most often used by platoons to distribute fires across
an enemy formation. Leaders designate and adjust fire patterns based on
terrain and the anticipated enemy formation. The basic fire patterns,
illustrated in Figure 2-20, are the following:
● Frontal fire.

● Cross fire.
● Depth fire.
Frontal fire. Leaders may initiate frontal fire when targets are
arrayed in front of the unit in a lateral configuration. Weapon
systems engage targets to their respective fronts. For example,
the left flank weapon engages the left-most target; the right flank
weapon engages the right-most target. As targets are destroyed,
weapons shift fires toward the center of the enemy formation and
from near to far.
Cross fire. Leaders initiate cross fire when targets are arrayed
laterally across the unit’s front in a manner that permits diagonal
fires at the enemy’s flank or when obstructions prevent unit
weapons from firing frontally. Right flank weapons engage the
left-most targets; left flank weapons engage the right-most
targets. Firing diagonally across an engagement area provides
more flank shots, thus increasing the chance of kills; it also
reduces the possibility that friendly elements will be detected if
the enemy continues to move forward. As enemy targets are
destroyed, weapons shift fires toward the center of the enemy
formation.
Depth fire. Leaders initiate depth fire when targets are dispersed
in depth, perpendicular to the unit. Center weapons engage the
closest targets; flank weapons engage deeper targets. As the unit
destroys targets, weapons shift fires toward the center of the
enemy formation.

Figure 2-20. Examples of fire patterns.

Target array. Target array permits the commander to distribute fires
when the enemy force is concentrated and terrain-based controls are
inadequate. This threat-based distribution measure is created by
superimposing a quadrant pattern over an enemy formation. The pattern
is centered on the enemy formation, with the axes running parallel and
perpendicular to the enemy’s direction of travel. Quadrants are
described using their relative locations. The examples in Figure 2-21
illustrate the target array technique.
Figure 2-21. Examples of target array.

Engagement priorities. Engagement priorities, which entail the
sequential ordering of targets to be engaged, can serve one or more of
the following critical fire control functions:
● Prioritize high-payoff targets. In concert with his concept of the
operation, the commander determines which target types provide
the greatest payoff; he can then set these as a unit engagement
priority. For example, he may decide that destroying enemy
engineer assets is the best way to prevent the enemy from
breaching an obstacle.
● Employ the best weapons for the target. Establishing
engagement priorities for specific friendly systems increases the
effectiveness with which the unit employs its weapons. As an
example, the engagement priority for the company team’s tanks
could be enemy tanks first, then enemy PCs; this would decrease

the chance that the team’s lighter systems will have to engage
enemy armored vehicles.
● Distribute the unit’s fires. Establishing different priorities for
similar friendly systems helps to prevent overkill and achieve
effective distribution of fires. For example, the commander may
designate the enemy’s tanks as the initial priority for one BFV
platoon while making the enemy’s PCs the priority for another
platoon. This would decrease the chance of multiple TOWs being
launched against two enemy tanks while the dangers posed by the
PCs are ignored.
Weapons ready posture. The weapons ready posture is a means by
which leaders use their estimate of the situation to specify the
ammunition and range for the most probable anticipated engagement.
The ammunition selection is dependent on the target type, but the leader
may adjust it based on engagement priorities, desired effects, and
effective range. Range selection is dependent on the anticipated
engagement range; it is affected by terrain intervisibility, weather, and
light conditions. Within the company team, weapons ready posture
affects the types and quantities of ammunition loaded in ready boxes,
stowed in ready racks, and carried by rifle squads. The following
● For tanks, weapons ready posture is defined as the battlecarry.
● For BFVs, weapons ready posture covers the selected

ammunition and the indexed range.
● For infantry squads, weapons ready posture is the selected
ammunition and indexed range for individual and crew-served
weapons. For example, an M203 grenadier whose most likely
engagement is to cover dead space at 200 meters from his
position might load HEDP and set 200 meters on his quadrant
sight. To prepare for an engagement in a wooded area where
engagement ranges are extremely short, an antiarmor specialist
might dismount with an AT4 instead of a Javelin.
Trigger. A trigger is a specific set of conditions that dictates initiation
of fires. Often referred to as engagement criteria, a trigger specifies the
circumstances in which subordinate elements are to engage. The
circumstances can be based on a friendly or enemy event. For example,
the trigger for a friendly platoon to initiate engagement could be three
or more enemy combat vehicles passing or crossing a given point or
line. This line can be any natural or man-made linear feature, such as a
road, ridge line, or stream. It may also be a line perpendicular to the
unit’s orientation, delineated by one or more references points.
Weapons control status. The three levels of weapons control status
outline the conditions, based on target identification criteria, under
which friendly elements may engage. The commander sets and adjusts
the weapons control status based on friendly and enemy disposition and
the clarity of the situation. In general, the higher the probability of
fratricide, the more restrictive the weapons control status. The three
levels, in descending order of restrictiveness, are the following:

● WEAPONS HOLD. Engage only if engaged or ordered to

engage.
● WEAPONS TIGHT. Engage only targets that are positively
identified as enemy.
● WEAPONS FREE. Engage any targets that are not positively
identified as friendly.
As an example, the commander may establish the weapons control
status as WEAPONS HOLD when friendly forces are conducting a
passage of lines. By maintaining situational awareness of his own
elements and adjacent friendly forces, however, he may be able to
lower the weapons control status. In such a case, the commander may
be able to set a WEAPONS FREE status when he knows there are no
friendly elements in the vicinity of the engagement. This permits his
elements to engage targets at extended ranges even though it is difficult
to distinguish targets accurately at ranges beyond 2,000 meters under
battlefield conditions. A further consideration is that the weapons
control status is extremely important for forces using combat
identification systems; establishing the weapons control status as
WEAPONS FREE permits leaders to engage an unknown target when
they fail to get a friendly response.
Rules of engagement. ROE specify the circumstances and limitations
under which forces may engage; they include definitions of combatant
and noncombatant elements and prescribe the treatment of
noncombatants. Factors influencing ROE are national command policy,
the mission and commander’s intent, the operational environment, and
the law of war. ROE always recognize a soldier’s right of self-defense;
at the same time, they clearly define circumstances in which he may
fire.
Weapons safety posture. Weapons safety posture is an ammunition
handling instruction that allows the commander to precisely control the
safety of his unit’s weapons. Leaders’ supervision of the weapons
safety posture, as well as soldiers’ adherence to it, minimizes the risk of
accidental discharge and fratricide. Table 2-4 outlines procedures and
considerations for the company team in using the four weapons safety
postures, listed in ascending order of restrictiveness:
● AMMUNITION LOADED.
● AMMUNITION LOCKED.
● AMMUNITION PREPARED.
● WEAPONS CLEARED.
In setting and adjusting the weapons safety posture, the commander

must weigh the desire to prevent accidental discharges against the
requirement for immediate action based on the enemy threat. If the
threat of direct contact is high, for example, the commander may
establish the weapons safety posture as AMMUNITION LOADED. If
the requirement for action is less immediate, he may lower the posture
to AMMUNITION LOCKED or AMMUNITION PREPARED.
Additionally, the commander may designate different weapons safety

postures for different elements of the unit. For example, in the attack
position, tanks and BFVs may switch to AMMUNITION LOADED
while rifle squads riding in BFVs remain at AMMUNITION LOCKED.
Table 2-4. Weapons safety posture levels.
ELEMENT TANK WEAPONS BFV WEAPONS INFANTRY SQUAD

AND AMMUNITION AND AMMUNITION WEAPONS AND
SAFETY AMMUNITION
POSTURE
AMMUNITION Main gun ammunition 25-mm rounds cycled Rifle rounds

LOADED loaded. to bolt. chambered.
Machine gun Coax rounds on feed Machine gun and SAW
ammunition on feed tray; bolt locked to rear. ammunition on feed
tray; bolt locked to rear. tray; bolt locked to rear.
TOW missiles in
Smoke grenades in launchers. Grenade launcher
launchers. loaded.
Smoke grenades in
Weapons on electrical launchers. Weapons on manual
safe. safe.
Weapons on electrical
safe.
AMMUNITION Main gun ammunition 25-mm rounds loaded Magazines locked into
LOCKED in ready rack. into feeder, but not rifles.
cycled to bolt
Machine gun Machine gun and SAW
ammunition on feed TOW missiles in ammunition on feed
tray; bolt locked launchers. tray; bolt locked
forward. forward
Smoke grenades in
Smoke grenades in launchers. Grenade launcher
launchers. unloaded.
Weapons on electrical
Weapons on electrical safe.
safe.
AMMUNITION Main gun ready rack 25-mm ready boxes Magazines, ammunition
PREPARED filled. filled. boxes, launcher
grenades, and hand
Machine gun Coax ammunition grenades prepared but
ammunition boxes boxes filled. stowed in
filled. pouches/vests.
TOW missiles in
Smoke grenades in launchers.
launchers.
Smoke grenades in
launchers.

WEAPONS Main gun ready rack 25-mm feeder removed; Magazine, ammunition
CLEARED filled. feeder and chamber boxes, and launcher
cleared. grenades removed;
Machine gun cleared, weapons cleared.
with bolts locked to the Coax bolt group
rear. removed and chamber
cleared.
Engagement techniques. Engagement techniques are effects-oriented

fire distribution measures. The following engagement techniques, the
most common in company team operations, are covered in this
discussion:
● Point fire.
● Area fire.
● Volley fire.
● Alternating fire.
● Observed fire.
● Sequential fire.
● Time of suppression.
● Reconnaissance by fire.
Point fire. Point fire entails concentrating the effects of a unit’s

fire against a specific, identified target such as a vehicle, machine
gun bunker, or ATGM position. When leaders direct point fire,
all of the unit’s weapons engage the target, firing until it is
destroyed or the required time of suppression has expired.
Employing converging fires from dispersed positions makes
point fire more effective because the target is engaged from
multiple directions. The unit may initiate an engagement using
point fire against the most dangerous threat, then revert to area
fire against other, less threatening point targets. (NOTE: Use of
point fire is fairly rare because a unit seldom encounters a single,
clearly identified enemy weapon.)
Area fire. Area fire involves distributing the effects of a unit’s
fire over an area in which enemy positions are numerous or are
not obvious. If the area is large, leaders assign sectors of fire to
subordinate elements using a terrain-based distribution method
such as the quadrant technique. Typically, the primary purpose of
the area fire is suppression; however, sustaining effective
suppression requires judicious control of the rate of fire.
Volley fire. Units employ volley fire, also referred to as
simultaneous fire, to rapidly mass the effects of their fires or to
gain fire superiority. For example, a unit may initiate a support
by fire operation with volley fire, then revert to alternating or
sequential fire to maintain suppression. Volley fire is also
employed to negate the low probability of hit and kill of certain
antiarmor weapons. As an example, a rifle squad may employ
volley fire with its AT4s to ensure rapid destruction of a BMP

that is engaging a friendly position.

Alternating fire. In alternating fire, pairs of elements
continuously engage the same point or area target one at a time.
For example, a company team may alternate fires of two
platoons; a tank platoon may alternate the fires of its sections; or
an infantry platoon may alternate the fires of a pair of machine
guns. Alternating fire permits the unit to maintain suppression for
a longer duration than does volley fire; it also forces the enemy to
acquire and engage alternating points of fire.
Observed fire. Observed fire is normally used when the
company team is in protected defensive positions with
engagement ranges in excess of 2,500 meters. It can be employed
between elements of the company team, such as the tank platoon
lasing and observing while the BFV platoon fires, or between
sections of a platoon. The commander or platoon leader directs
one element or section to engage. The remaining elements or
section observes fires and prepares to engage on order in case the
engaging element consistently misses its targets, experiences a
malfunction, or runs low on ammunition. Observed fire allows
for mutual observation and assistance while protecting the
location of the observing elements.
Sequential fire. Sequential fire entails the subordinate elements
of a unit engaging the same point or area target one after another
in an arranged sequence. For example, a mechanized infantry
platoon may sequence the fires of its four BFVs to gain
maximum time of suppression. Sequential fire can also help to
prevent the waste of ammunition, as when an infantry rifle
platoon waits to see the effects of the first Javelin before firing
another. Additionally, sequential fire permits elements that have
already fired to pass on information they have learned from the
engagement. An example would be an infantryman who missed a
BMP with AT4 fires passing range and lead information to the
next soldier preparing to engage the BMP with an AT4.
Time of suppression. Time of suppression is the period,
specified by the commander, during which an enemy position or
force is required to be suppressed. Suppression time is typically
dependent on the time it will take a supported element to
maneuver. Normally, a unit suppresses an enemy position using
the sustained rate of fire of its automatic weapons. In planning
for sustained suppression, leaders must consider several factors:
the estimated time of suppression, the size of the area being
suppressed, the type of enemy force to be suppressed, range to
the target, rates of fire, and available ammunition quantities. The
following example lists steps that a unit might take in calculating
time of suppression capabilities:
● The BFVs in a mechanized infantry platoon are given the
task of suppressing an area to support the assault of
another element.

● One BFV, firing 25-mm HEI-T ammunition at a sustained

rate of 60 rounds per minute, expends 180 rounds (capacity
of the large ready box, minus sufficient rounds for easy
reloading) in three minutes.
● Given an adjusted basic load of 720 rounds of HE, a single
BFV can sustain fire for four periods of three minutes,
requiring three reloads of 180 rounds into the large ready
box.
● A BFV crew, using a loader in the troop compartment, can
reload the large ready box with 180 rounds in about three
minutes if the ammunition is already prepared for loading.
● Using an individual BFV’s sustained rate of fire of 60
rounds per minute and alternating the fire of sections to
permit reloading (one section fires for three minutes while
the other reloads), the platoon can sustain 120 rounds per
minute for 24 minutes.
Reconnaissance by fire. Reconnaissance by fire is the process of
engaging possible enemy locations to elicit a tactical response,
such as return fire or movement. This response permits the
commander and subordinate leaders to make accurate target
acquisition and then to mass fires against the enemy element.
Typically, the commander directs a subordinate element to
conduct the reconnaissance by fire. For example, he may direct
an overwatching platoon to conduct the reconnaissance by fire
against a probable enemy position before initiating movement by
a bounding element.
Fire Fire commands are oral orders issued by commanders and leaders to focus
and distribute fires as required to achieve decisive effects against the
commands enemy. They allow leaders to rapidly and concisely articulate their firing
instructions using a standard format. Unit fire commands include these
elements, which are discussed in detail in the following paragraphs:
● Alert.
● Weapon or ammunition (optional).
● Target description.
● Orientation.
● Range (optional).
● Control (optional).
● Execution.
Alert The alert specifies the elements that are directed to fire. It does not require
the leader initiating the command to identify himself. Examples of the
alert element (call signs and code words based on unit SOP) include the
following:
● "GUIDONS" (all subordinate elements).
● "RED" (1st Platoon only).

Weapon or This element identifies the weapon and/or ammunition to be employed by

ammunition the alerted elements. Leaders may designate the type and number of
(optional) rounds to limit expenditure of ammunition. Examples of this element
include the following:
● "TOW."
● "TWO ROUNDS SABOT."

Target Target description designates which enemy elements are to be engaged.
description Leaders may use the description to focus fires or achieve distribution.
Examples of target description include the following:
● "THREE PCs."
● "THREE TANKS AND TEN PCs."
● "TROOPS IN TRENCH."
Orientation This element identifies the location of the target. There are numerous ways
to designate the location of target, including the following:
● Closest TRP. Example: "TRP 13."
● Clock direction. Example: "ONE O’CLOCK."
● Terrain quadrant. Example: "QUADRANT ONE."
● Friendly quadrant. Example: "LEFT FRONT."
● Target array. Example: "FRONT HALF."
● Tracer on target. Example: "ON MY TRACER."
● Laser pointer. Example: "ON MY POINTER."

Range The range element identifies the distance to the target. Announcing range
(optional) is not necessary for systems that are range finder-equipped or that employ
command-guided or self-guided munitions. For systems that require
manual range settings, leaders have a variety of means for determining
range, including the following:
● Predetermined ranges to TRPs or phase lines.
● An M1A1/M1A2 tank crew announcing the range for an

M2A2-equipped platoon.
● Hand-held range finders.
● Range stadia.
● Mil reticle.
Control The commander may use this optional element to direct desired target
(optional) effects, distribution methods, or engagement techniques. Subordinate
leaders may include the control element to supplement the commander’s
instructions and achieve effective distribution. Examples of information
specified in the control element include the following:
● Target array. Example: "FRONT HALF."
● Fire pattern. Example: "FRONTAL."
● Terrain quadrant. Example: "QUADRANT ONE."
● Engagement priorities. Example: "TANKS ENGAGE TANKS;

BFVs ENGAGE PCs."
● Engagement technique. Example: "VOLLEY."
● Target effect. Example: "AREA."

Execution The execution element specifies when fires will be initiated. The
commander may wish to engage immediately, delay initiation, or delegate
authority to engage. Examples of this element include the following:
● "FIRE."
● "AT MY COMMAND."
● "AT YOUR COMMAND."
● "AT PHASE LINE ORANGE."
Fire control To successfully bring direct fires against an enemy force, commanders and
leaders must continuously apply the steps of the fire control process. At
process the heart of this process are two critical actions: rapid, accurate target
acquisition and the massing of fire to achieve decisive effects on the target.
Target acquisition is the detection, identification, and location of a target
in sufficient detail to permit the effective employment of weapons.
Massing entails focusing fires at critical points and then distributing the
fires for optimum effect. The following discussion examines target
acquisition and massing of fires using these basic steps of the fire control
process:
● Identify probable enemy locations and determine the enemy scheme
of maneuver.
● Determine where and how to mass (focus and distribute) fire effects.
● Orient forces to speed target acquisition.
● Shift fires to refocus or redistribute their effects.

Identify The commander and subordinate leaders plan and execute direct fires
probable based on their estimate of the situation. An essential part of this estimate is
enemy the analysis of the terrain and the enemy force, which aids the commander
locations in visualizing how the enemy will attack or defend a particular piece of
and determine terrain. A defending enemy’s defensive positions or an attacking enemy’s
the support positions are normally driven by intervisibility. Typically, there
enemy scheme are limited points on a piece of terrain that provide both good fields of fire
of and adequate cover for a defender. Similarly, an attacking enemy will have
maneuver only a limited selection of avenues of approach that provide adequate
cover and concealment. Coupled with available intelligence, an
understanding of the effects of a specific piece of terrain on maneuver will
assist the commander in identifying probable enemy locations and likely
avenues of approach both before and during the fight. Figure 2-22
illustrates the commander’s analysis of enemy locations and scheme of
maneuver; he may use any or all of the following products or techniques in
developing and updating the analysis:
● A SITEMP based on the analysis of terrain and enemy.
● A spot or contact report on enemy locations and activities.
● Reconnaissance of the area of operations.

Figure 2-22. Example of identifying probable enemy locations

and determining enemy scheme of maneuver.

Determine To achieve decisive effects, friendly forces must mass their fires.
where Effective massing requires the commander both to focus the fires of
and how to subordinate elements and to distribute the effects of the fires. Based on
mass fires his estimate of the situation and his concept of the operation, the
commander identifies points where he wants to, or must, focus the
unit’s fires. Most often, these are locations he has identified as probable
enemy positions or points along likely avenues of approach where the
unit can mass fires. Because subordinate elements may not initially be
oriented on the point where the commander wants to mass fires, he may
issue a fire command to focus the fires. At the same time, the
commander must use direct fire control measures to effectively
distribute the fires of his elements, which are now focused on the same
point. Figure 2-23 illustrates how the commander masses fires against
the enemy.

Figure 2-23. Example of determining where and how to mass (focus and distribute)
fire effects to kill the enemy.
Orient forces To effectively engage the enemy with direct fires, friendly forces must
to rapidly and accurately acquire enemy elements. Orienting friendly
speed target forces on probable enemy locations and on likely avenues of approach
acquisition will speed target acquisition. Conversely, failure to orient subordinate
elements will result in slower acquisition; this greatly increases the
likelihood that enemy forces will be able to engage first. The clock
direction orientation method, which is prescribed in most unit SOPs, is
good for achieving all-around security; however, it does not ensure that
friendly forces are most effectively oriented to detect the enemy. To
achieve this critical orientation, the commander typically designates
TRPs on or near probable enemy locations and avenues of approach; he
orients his subordinate elements using directions of fire or sectors of
fire. Normally, the gunners on crew-served weapons scan the
designated direction, sector, or area while other crewmen observe
alternate sectors or areas to provide all-around security. Figure 2-24
illustrates how the commander orients the company team for quick,
effective acquisition of the enemy force.

Figure 2-24. Example of orienting forces to speed target acquisition.

Shift fires to As the engagement proceeds, leaders must shift fires to refocus and
refocus and redistribute the effects based on their evolving estimate of the situation.
redistribute See Figure 2-25 for an illustration of this process. Situational awareness
becomes an essential part of the fire control process at this point. The
commander and subordinate leaders apply the same techniques and
considerations, including fire control measures, that they used earlier to
focus and distribute fires. A variety of situations will dictate shifting of
fires, including the following:
● Appearance of an enemy force posing a greater threat than the
one currently being engaged.
● Extensive attrition of the enemy force being engaged, creating
the possibility of target overkill.
● Attrition of friendly elements that are engaging the enemy force.
● Change in the ammunition status of the friendly elements that are

engaging the enemy force.
● Maneuver of enemy or friendly forces resulting in terrain
masking.
● Increased fratricide risk as a maneuvering friendly element closes
with the enemy force being engaged.
Direct fire The commander plans direct fires in conjunction with development of
planning his estimate of the situation and completion of the plan. Determining
where and how the company team can and will mass fires is also an
essential step as the commander develops his concept of the operation.
After identifying probable enemy locations, the commander determines
points or areas where he will focus combat power. His visualization of
where and how the enemy will attack or defend will assist him in
determining the volume of fires he must focus at particular points to
have a decisive effect. In addition, if he intends to mass the fires of
more than one subordinate element, the commander must establish the
means for distributing fires effectively.
Based on where and how they want to focus and distribute fires, the
commander and subordinate leaders can then establish the weapons
ready postures for company team elements as well as triggers for
initiating fires. Additionally, the commander must evaluate the risk of
fratricide and establish controls to prevent it; these measures include
designation of recognition markings, weapons control status, and

weapons safety posture.

Having determined where and how they will mass and distribute fires,
the commander and subordinate leaders then must orient elements so
they can rapidly and accurately acquire the enemy. They also can
war-game the selected COA or concept of the operation to determine
probable requirements for refocusing and redistributing fires and to
establish other required controls. Also during mission preparation, the
commander plans and conducts rehearsals of direct fires (and of the fire
control process) based on his estimate of the situation.
The commander and his subordinate leaders must continue to apply
planning procedures and considerations throughout execution. They
must be able to adjust direct fires based on a continuously updated
estimate of the situation, combining situational awareness with the
latest available intelligence. When necessary, they must also apply
effective direct fire SOPs, which are covered in the following
discussion.

Figure 2-25. Example of shifting to refocus and redistribute fires.
Direct fire A well-rehearsed direct fire SOP ensures quick, predictable actions by
all members of the company team. The commander bases the various
SOP elements of the SOP on the capabilities of his force and on anticipated
conditions and situations. SOP elements should include standing means
for focusing fires, distributing their effects, orienting forces, and
preventing fratricide; these elements are examined later in this
discussion. The commander should adjust the direct fire SOP whenever
changes to anticipated and actual METT-TC factors become apparent.
If the commander does not issue any other instructions, the company
team begins the engagement using the SOP. The commander can
subsequently use a fire command to refocus or redistribute fires.
The following paragraphs discuss specific SOP provisions for focusing
fires, distributing fires, orienting forces, and preventing fratricide.
SOP element TRPs are a common means of focusing fires. One technique is to
for establish a standard respective position for TRPs in relation to friendly
focusing fires elements and then to consistently number the TRPs, such as from left to
right. This allows leaders to quickly determine and communicate the
location of the TRPs.
SOP element Two useful means of distributing the company team’s fires are
for engagement priorities and target array. One technique is to assign an
distributing engagement priority, by type of enemy vehicle or weapon, for each type
fires of friendly weapon system. The target array technique can assist in
distribution by assigning specific friendly elements to engage enemy
elements of approximately similar capabilities. The following are
example SOP elements for distributing the fires of a mechanized
infantry company team (one tank platoon, two mechanized infantry
platoons) moving in a wedge or line formation with the tank platoon in
the center:
● Tanks engage tanks first, then PCs.
● BFVs engage PCs first, then other antitank weapons.
● If the company team masses fires at the same target, the tank
platoon engages tanks; the left flank platoon engages the left half
of the enemy formation; and the right flank platoon engages the
right half of the enemy formation.

SOP element A standard means of orienting friendly forces is to assign a primary

for direction of fire, using a TRP, to orient each element on a probable
orienting enemy position or likely avenue of approach. To provide all-around
forces security, the SOP can supplement the primary direction of fire with
sectors using a friendly-based quadrant. The following example SOP
elements illustrate the use of these techniques:
● The center (front) platoon’s primary direction of fire is TRP 2
(center) until otherwise specified; the platoon is responsible for
the front two quadrants.
● The left flank platoon’s primary direction of fire is TRP 1 (left)
until otherwise specified; the platoon is responsible for the left
two friendly quadrants (overlapping with the center platoon).
● The right flank platoon’s primary direction of fire is TRP 3
(right) until otherwise specified; the platoon is responsible for the
right two friendly quadrants (overlapping with the center platoon)
SOP element A primary means of minimizing fratricide risk is to establish a standing
for weapons control status of WEAPONS TIGHT, which requires positive
preventing enemy identification prior to engagement. The SOP must also cover
fratricide means for identifying friendly rifle squads and other dismounted
elements; techniques include using arm bands, medical heat pads, or an
IR light source or detonating a smoke grenade of a designated color at
the appropriate time.
At the bottom line, the SOP must address the most critical requirement
of fratricide prevention: maintaining situational awareness. It must
direct subordinate leaders to inform the commander, adjacent elements,
and subordinates whenever a friendly force is moving or preparing to
move.

FM 71-1 Chapter 3 Offensive Operations
CHAPTER 3
Offensive Operations
Offense is the decisive form of war. With offensive action comes the ability to create and maintain the initiative
and choose the time and place of decisive action. Because of their ability to move quickly and employ devastating
amounts of firepower with a high level of protection, armor and mechanized infantry company teams are ideally
suited to perform a variety of critical offensive operations on the modern battlefield. Company team operations
accomplish the following purposes:
● Defeat, destroy, or neutralize an enemy force.
● Protect friendly forces by suppressing the enemy.
● Seize or secure key or decisive terrain.
● Develop the situation and gain critical tactical information.
● Deprive the enemy of resources.
● Hold the enemy in position.
● Disrupt an enemy attack.
● Set conditions for future operations.
CONTENTS
Section 1 Planning Considerations
Fire Support
Aviation Combat Missions
Air Defense Artillery
Section 2 Tactical Movement
Introduction
Movement Techniques
Infiltration
Overwatch
Movement Formations
Section 3 Maneuver
Base of Fire Element

Bounding Element
Positioning of Platoons and Other Elements
Relationship of Tactical Movement, Actions on
Contact, Maneuver, and Tactical Tasks
Section 4 Actions on Contact

Introduction
Developing Actions on Contact
Time Requirements for Actions on Contact
The Four Steps on Actions on Contact
Examples of Actions on Contact
Section 5 Types of Offensive Operations
Introduction
Movement to Contact
Attack
Section 6 Offensive Tactical Tasks
Introduction
Advance in Contact
Attack by Fire
Support by Fire
Follow and Support
Bypass
Clearance in Restricted Terrain
Assault
Ambush
SECTION 1 - PLANNING
CONSIDERATIONS
FIRE SUPPORT
As part of the top-down fire planning system, the company team commander must refine the fire plan from higher
headquarters to meet his mission requirements. He incorporates the results of his METT-TC analysis and makes
key locations and targets from the fire plan an integral part of the company team rehearsal. Additionally, he works
with the FSO to develop a corresponding observation plan as well as triggers for initiating or shifting fires.
The commander employs supporting fires in the offense to achieve a variety of operational goals:
● Suppress enemy antitank systems that inhibit movement.
● Fix or neutralize bypassed enemy elements.
● Prepare enemy positions for an assault. Preparatory fires are normally used during a deliberate attack, with
fires placed on key targets before the assault begins. Fires are initiated on call or at a prearranged time. The
commander must weigh the benefits of preparatory fires against the potential loss of surprise.
● Obscure enemy observation or screen friendly maneuver. The company team can take advantage of smoke
in various maneuver situations, such as during a bypass or in deception operations.
● Support breaching operations. Fires can be used to obscure or suppress enemy elements that are
overwatching reinforcing obstacles. They can also obscure or suppress enemy forces on an objective area

during the conduct of an assault breach.

● Illuminate enemy positions. Illumination fires are always included in contingency plans for night attacks.
AVIATION COMBAT MISSIONS

Reconnaissance Like their ground-based counterparts, air reconnaissance operations obtain information
by visual observation and other detection methods; they employ assets that must have
the ability to develop the situation, process the information, and provide it to the
commander in near real time. The company team commander can take advantage of the
supporting aviation element’s OH-58D Kiowa Warrior and AH-64 Apache helicopters
to dramatically improve his 24-hour reconnaissance capability. These assets
complement and extend the zone covered by the team’s tank and mechanized infantry
platoons. Under favorable conditions, they can furnish early information concerning the
enemy’s general disposition and movements to considerable depth beyond the FEBA.
Security Aviation assets can extend the company team’s security area, providing the commander
with enhanced situational awareness and battle-tracking capability. They can expand
the team’s maneuver space, provide additional reaction time, and assist in protection of
the team.
Attack The primary purpose of attack helicopter operations is the destruction of enemy ground
forces at decisive points of the battle. Attack helicopter units can be used in conjunction
with tank and mechanized infantry elements during close operations. Helicopters are
normally most effective when used in mass in continuous operations on the enemy’s
flanks and rear. Night operations are preferred.
Support by fire When assigned a support by fire mission, attack helicopters establish a base of fire or
overwatch position. They then can engage enemy targets while tank or mechanized
infantry elements move to or bypass the target area. The helicopters’ role may range
from suppression to complete destruction of the enemy force; their most common
mission is to fix targets so other friendly elements can maneuver.
Attack by fire When the enemy situation is vague, as in a movement to contact, and the attack
helicopter battalion commander has been assigned his own sector, he may establish
attack by fire positions. From these positions, the attack helicopters engage their
targets, but do not maneuver over them, with the intent of inflicting a specified level of
damage. Attack by fire positions are best suited to a fluid battlefield. The aviation
commander often has the best vantage point from which to synchronize the combat
multipliers, clear fires, and prevent fratricide.
Air assault Heavy forces should always consider the use of air assault to assist them in overcoming
obstacles during the seizure of critical terrain and in executing follow and support
missions to preserve the momentum of the attack. Refer to FM 90-4 or FM 7-10 for a
detailed discussion of air assault operations.
Communications All Army helicopters have SINCGARS radios, and the OH-58D(I) and
AH-64 can transmit digital information to vehicles equipped to receive such data
(currently the M1A2 tank). While the radio is the primary means of tactical
communications, however, face-to-face contact is still the best method of passing
information between air and ground elements. Whenever the situation permits, aviation
leaders should land their aircraft, link up with their ground counterparts (such as the
company team commander), and directly communicate the battlefield situation as
gathered from the air.

Coordination Aviation scout assets can easily identify enemy targets and then coordinate with the
company team FIST to facilitate destruction of the targets with direct and indirect fires.
In addition, prior coordination between air and ground elements, identifying friendly
positions and planned movements, can eliminate a significant number of factors that
contribute to fratricide, a vital concern during combined arms missions.
AIR DEFENSE ARTILLERY

BSFVs, Bradley Linebackers, or HMMWV-mounted Stinger sections may be attached to or travel with the
company team. Their security must be a consideration in planning for offensive operations. The company team
commander must plan for and rehearse internal air security and active air defense measures. ADA requirements
and procedures are normally dictated by SOP. The commander must anticipate possible contact with enemy air
assets by templating enemy helicopter and fixed-wing air corridors and avenues of approach.

The task force may task organize the company team with engineers as part
of a deliberate or in-stride breaching operation in the offense. If the company
team is tasked to serve as the advance guard or breach force for the task force, it will normally receive additional
mobility assets (such as MICLICs, ACEs, or AVLBs) based on METT-TC. (NOTE: Refer to FM 90-13-1 and/or
FM 90-7 for a more detailed discussion of mobility and survivability operations and support.)

The main purpose of CSS in the offense is to assist maneuver elements in maintaining the momentum of the
attack. Key CSS planning considerations for company team offensive operations include the following:
● Increased consumption of Class III supplies.
● Higher casualty rates.
● Vehicle maintenance requirements.
In the offense, CSS functions are performed as far forward as the tactical situation allows. Team trains remain one
terrain feature (or about 1 kilometer) behind the combat formations. CSS elements move forward as required to
evacuate casualties and conduct resupply. The 1SG reports the team’s combat status to the task force combat
trains CP and requests resupply of Class III and V as needed.
SECTION 2 - TACTICAL MOVEMENT
INTRODUCTION

The purpose of tactical movement is to move units on the battlefield and prepare them for contact. This section
focuses on the movement techniques and formations that, in combination, provide the commander with options
for moving his unit. The various techniques and formations have unique advantages and disadvantages. Some
movement techniques are secure yet slow, while others are faster but less secure. Some formations work well in
certain types of terrain or tactical situations, but are less effective in others.
The task force may dictate which movement techniques and formations the company team will use in a particular
situation. This decision, however, normally falls to the team commander. His primary goals are to balance the
requirements of speed and security and to conduct movement so the smallest possible element of the team makes
contact with the enemy.
In developing the company team movement plan, the commander must assess METT-TC factors to determine
which techniques and formations will allow him to maintain the correct balance of speed and security to best
accomplish his mission. He also must determine how and when the unit will transition to more secure or more
rapid techniques and/or formations based on the situation. None of the movement techniques or formations
discussed in this section should be considered inflexible or immutable. The commander must always be prepared
to adapt them to the situation at hand.
MOVEMENT TECHNIQUES
The company team commander selects from the three movement techniques
(traveling, traveling overwatch, and bounding overwatch) based on several
battlefield factors:
● The likelihood of enemy contact.
● The type of contact expected.
● Availability of an overwatch element.
● The terrain over which the moving element will pass.
● The balance of speed and security required during movement.
Traveling Traveling is characterized by continuous movement by all company team

elements. It is best suited to situations in which enemy contact is unlikely and
speed is important.
NOTE: Organization of the company team in both traveling overwatch
and bounding overwatch consists of a lead element (also called the
bounding element in bounding overwatch) and a trail (or overwatch)
element. The commander constitutes these elements using varying
combinations of company team elements; his decision must be based on
the results of his METT-TC analysis. As an example, the lead element
might be one platoon and the XO’s vehicle, overwatched by the remaining
two platoons, the commander, and the FSO.

Traveling overwatch This is an extended form of traveling that provides additional security when
speed is desirable but contact is possible. The lead element moves continuously.
The trail element moves at various speeds and may halt periodically to overwatch
movement of the lead element.
Dispersion between the two elements must be based on the trail element’s ability
both to see the lead element and to provide immediate suppressive fires in case
the lead element is engaged. The intent is to maintain depth, provide flexibility,
and maintain the ability to maneuver even if contact occurs, although a unit
ideally should make contact while moving in bounding overwatch rather than
traveling overwatch.
Bounding overwatch Bounding overwatch is used when contact is expected. It is the most secure, but
slowest, movement technique. The purpose of bounding overwatch is to deploy
prior to contact, giving the unit the ability to protect a bounding element by
immediately suppressing an enemy force.
In all types of bounding, the overwatch element is assigned sectors to scan while
the bounding element uses terrain to achieve cover and concealment. The
bounding element should avoid masking the fires of the overwatch element; it
must never move beyond the range at which the overwatch element can
effectively suppress likely or suspected enemy positions. The company team can
employ either of two bounding methods, alternate bounds and successive bounds;
these are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Alternate bounds Covered by the rear element, the lead element moves forward, halts, and assumes
overwatch positions. The rear element advances past the lead element and takes
up overwatch positions. This sequence continues as necessary, with only one
element moving at a time. This method is usually more rapid than successive
bounds.
Successive bounds In the successive bounding method, the lead element, covered by the rear
element, advances and takes up overwatch positions. The rear element then
advances to an overwatch position roughly abreast of the lead element and halts.
The lead element then moves to the next position, and so on. Only one element
moves at a time, and the rear element avoids advancing beyond the lead element.
This method is easier to control and more secure than the alternate bounding
method, but is slower.
INFILTRATION

Infiltration is a form of maneuver that infantry units can employ in a variety of situations. During an attack, for
example, the company team may encounter strong enemy defensive positions. To avoid the enemy’s strength, the
company team commander may use stealth to move infantry elements through gaps or around the enemy
positions to conduct operations in the enemy’s rear area. The team’s infantry may also infiltrate to conduct attacks
to seize key terrain, such as a choke point that will facilitate movement of the rest of the company team, or it can
infiltrate to conduct an ambush. Infiltration can also be used in many other types of operations, such
reconnaissance and covert breaching.
Infiltration is normally conducted in five phases:
● Patrol. Locate enemy positions, and find gaps or weak areas in the enemy defense.
● Prepare. Conduct troop-leading procedures.
● Infiltrate. The primary goal is to avoid enemy contact, normally by moving in the smallest elements
possible.
● Consolidate. Link up with other infiltrating elements, and prepare for actions on the objective.
● Execute. Complete the mission.
For a more detailed discussion of infiltration, refer to FM 7-10.
OVERWATCH
Overwatch is the component of tactical movement in which an element
observes and, if necessary, provides direct fire support for a friendly moving
element. Situational awareness is crucial for the overwatch unit, whose
objective is to prevent the enemy from surprising and engaging the moving
unit. The overwatch force must maintain communications with the moving
element and provide early warning of enemy elements that could affect it. The
overwatch must be able to support the moving element with immediate direct
and indirect fires; it can do this either while stationary (as in bounding
overwatch) or on the move (as in traveling overwatch). (NOTE: The
overwatch element must also maintain 360-degree observation and security for
itself.)
The key to successful overwatch is aggressive scanning of gaps and dead space
within the moving element’s formation and on surrounding terrain. If the
overwatch is unable to scan gaps and dead space and effectively engage the
enemy, it must alert the moving element of the lapse in coverage. The moving
element will normally adjust its movement speed and/or formation and initiate
its own overwatch until the overwatch force completes movement to a position
from which it can continue the overwatch mission.
Figure 3-1 illustrates what the overwatch element must look (and listen) for as
well as locations where the enemy can often be found.
Company team The company team may be tasked to perform an overwatch mission in support
of the task force or a portion of it. In general, because of organic weapons
role capabilities and normal operational intervals, one company team will not
normally provide overwatch for another. At this level, overwatch is usually
performed by platoons, sections, or individual vehicles.

Stationary If possible, the stationary overwatch element occupies hull-down firing

positions that afford effective cover and concealment, unobstructed
overwatch observation, and clear fields of fire. The leader of the overwatch element (such
as the commander or the platoon or section leader) will assign sectors of
observation and fire. As noted, the overwatch element is responsible for its
own security during both occupation of the overwatch position and execution
of the operation. A common security measure is to dismount infantry squads or
loaders from the tanks to clear the overwatch position before the rest of the
element occupies it.
Crews aggressively scan their sectors to identify enemy elements and
positions. The leader must structure the mission so the overwatch element can
effectively scan for known or likely enemy positions, paying close attention to
possible gaps and dead space. The element must have a clear understanding of
the enemy situation so crewmen know what to look for and where to look.
They use applicable search techniques and employ all available sights and
other visual devices (such as binoculars and night vision goggles).
If contact is made, the overwatch element initiates a high volume of direct and
indirect suppressive fires. It moves as necessary between primary and alternate
positions to avoid being decisively engaged by the enemy.
Overwatch This type of overwatch is used in conjunction with the traveling overwatch
movement technique. While maintaining its location in the overall unit
on the move formation, the overwatch element (usually a platoon or section) continuously
scans the lead element’s battle space and closely monitors all potential gaps
and dead space.
The overwatch maintains a specified interval from the lead element; this is
dictated by weapons capabilities and the effects of such factors as terrain and
movement speed. As needed, the overwatch can execute short halts to provide
more effective observation, facilitating acquisition of enemy forces.

Figure 3-1. Overwatch locations and techniques.
MOVEMENT FORMATIONS

The company team commander uses formations for several purposes:

● Establish the relationship of one platoon to another on the ground.
● Allow the team to position firepower where it is needed in support of the direct fire plan.
● Establish responsibilities for sector security among platoons.
● Facilitate the execution of battle drills and directed COAs.
Like movement techniques, formations are planned based on where enemy contact is expected and
how the higher commander expects to react to the contact. The company team commander must
evaluate the situation and determine which formation best suits the mission and the situation.
It is not necessary for the team formation to be the same as the task force formation. It is critical,
however, for the team commander to coordinate his formation with those of other elements moving in
the main body task force formation. A parallel consideration is that while the company team
formation establishes the relationship between the team’s platoons, the actual positioning of vehicles
within each platoon is dictated by the platoon formation. In some cases, the platoon may use the same
formation as the company team (for example, the platoons may use the column formation within a
team column). In other situations, however, platoon and team formations may be different as a result
of METT-TC factors (such as the platoons moving in wedge formations within a team vee.)
An important consideration in movement planning and execution is that formations are not rigid.
Spacing requirements, as well as other METT-TC considerations, will require the company team
commander and subordinate leaders to adapt the basic formations as necessary. They must be ready to
adjust the distance between platoons and individual vehicles based on terrain, visibility, and mission
requirements.
As a rule, the company team will move in formation when using traveling or traveling overwatch.
When the team is using bounding overwatch, the bounding element makes the best use of the terrain,
rather than adopting a precise formation, to move effectively while maintaining adequate security.
NOTE: The formations shown in illustrations in this chapter are examples only; they
generally are depicted without consideration of the terrain and. other METT-TC is
always the deciding factors, which are always the most crucial element in the selection
and execution of a formation. and Lleaders must be prepared to adapt theseir choice of
formation guidelines to the specific situation.
Column The column is used when speed is critical, when the company team is moving through restricted
terrain on a specific route, and/or when enemy contact is not likely. Each platoon normally follows
directly behind the platoon in front of it. If the situation dictates, however, vehicles can disperse
laterally to enhance security; Figure 3-2 illustrates this type of column movement. The column
formation has the following characteristics, advantages, and limitations:
● It provides excellent control and fires to the flanks.
● It permits only limited fires to the front and rear.
● It is easy to control.
● It provides extremely limited overall security.
● Normally,Iit is normally used for traveling only.

Figure 3-2. Company team in column formation with dispersal for added security.

Wedge The wedge formation, illustrated in Figure 3-3, is often used when the enemy situation is unclear or
contact is possible. In the company team wedge, the lead platoon is in the center of the formation, with
the remaining platoons located to the rear of and outside the lead platoon. The wedge has the following
characteristics, advantages, and limitations:
● It permits excellent fires to the front and good fires to the flanks.
● It is easy to control.
● It provides good security to the flanks.
● It can be used with the traveling and traveling overwatch techniques.
● It allows rapid transition to bounding overwatch.
Figure 3-3. Company team in wedge formation (with different platoon formations).

Vee The vee formation, illustrated in Figure 3-4, is used when enemy contact is possible. In the company team
vee, the center platoon is located in the rear of the formation, while the remaining platoons are to the front
of and outside the center platoon. The vee has the following characteristics, advantages, and limitations:
● It permits more firepower to the front than the wedge and affords good fires to the flanks.
● It is more difficult to control than the wedge and makes it more difficult for vehicles to maintain
proper orientation.
● It allows one platoon in the formation to maintain freedom of maneuver when contact occurs.
● It facilitates rapid deployment into any other formation.
● It can be used with the traveling and traveling overwatch techniques.
● It allows rapid transition to bounding overwatch.
Figure 3-4. Company team in vee formation (with different platoon formations).

Line The line formation, illustrated in Figure 3-5, is primarily used when a unit or element is crossing a danger
area or needs to maximize firepower to the front. In the company team line, platoons move abreast of one
another and are dispersed laterally. The line formation has the following characteristics, advantages, and
limitations:
● It permits maximum fires to the front or rear, but minimum fires to the flanks.
● It is difficult to control.
● It is less secure than other formations because of the lack of depth.
● It is the most difficult formation from which to make the transition to other formations.
● It may be used in the assault to maximize the firepower and/or shock effect of the heavy company
team. This is normally done when there is no more intervening terrain between the unit and the
enemy, when antitank systems are suppressed, and/or when the unit is exposed to artillery fire and
must move rapidly.
Figure 3-5. Company team in line formation (with platoons in wedge formations).

Echelon The echelon formation, illustrated in Figure 3-6, is used when the task force
wants to maintain security and/or observation of one flank and enemy contact
is not likely. The company team echelon formation (either echelon left or
echelon right) has the lead platoon positioned farthest from the echeloned
flank, with each subsequent platoon located to the rear of and outside the
platoon in front of it. The echelon formation has the following characteristics,
advantages, and limitations:
● It is difficult to control.
● It affords excellent security for the higher formation in the direction of

the echelon.
● It facilitates deployment to the echeloned flank.
Figure 3-6. Company team in echelon right formation (with platoons in echelon formations).
Coil and herringbone The coil and herringbone are platoon-level formations, employed when elements
of the company team are stationary and must maintain 360-degree security. Refer
to FM 17-15 or FM 7-7J for more information on these formations.

SECTION 3 - MANEUVER
Maneuver is the foundation for the employment of forces on the battlefield. It is defined as the use of movement
in combination with fire (or fire potential), employed to achieve a position of advantage with respect to the enemy
and to facilitate accomplishment of the mission. At the company team level, maneuver is the essence of every
tactical operation and task. The company team commander maneuvers his mounted and dismounted elements to
close with the enemy, to gain positional advantage over him, and ultimately to destroy him.
BASE OF FIRE ELEMENT

The combination of fire and movement first requires a base of fire, in which some elements of the company team
remain stationary and provide protection for bounding elements by suppressing or destroying enemy elements.
The base of fire element occupies hull-down firing positions (when possible) that afford effective cover and
concealment, unobstructed observation, and clear fields of fire. Once it is in position, the base of fire has the
responsibility both for suppressing known enemy elements and for aggressively scanning assigned sectors of
observation; it identifies previously unknown elements and then suppresses them. The protection provided by the
base of fire element allows the bounding unit to continue its movement and to retain the initiative even when it is
both under enemy observation and within range of enemy weapons.
Because maneuver is decentralized in nature, decisions on where and when to establish a base of fire must be
made at the appropriate level. They normally fall to the leader on a specific part of the battlefield who knows
what enemy elements can engage the moving element and what friendly forces are available to serve as the base
of fire. Within the company team, these decisions may be made at team level (with the base of fire provided by a
platoon), within platoons (with base of fire by a section), or within sections (with an individual vehicle or squad
as the base of fire).
BOUNDING ELEMENT
Movement in a maneuver situation is inherently dangerous. It is complicated not only by the obvious potential for
harm posed by enemy weapons but also by the uncertainty caused by unknown terrain and other operational
factors. The following considerations apply for movement in maneuver situations:
● The bounding element must take full advantage of whatever cover and concealment is provided by the
terrain. Leaders and drivers can enhance security by enforcing or applying the principles of terrain driving;
among these important actions are use of intervening terrain and avoidance of skylining.
● All crews involved in the maneuver must maintain 360-degree security at all times. Crewmen in the
bounding element must continuously scan their assigned sectors of observation.
● Although METT-TC factors will ultimately dictate the length of the bounds, the bounding element should
never move beyond the range at which the base of fire element can effectively suppress known, likely, or
suspected enemy positions. This will minimize the bounding element’s exposure to enemy fires.
● In severely restricted terrain, bounds will generally be much shorter than in more open areas.
● The bounding element may have to dismount infantry squads or individual crewmen to observe intervening
gaps or dead space. Although this will usually force the element to make a tactical pause, it will not slow
the operation as much as the loss of a vehicle and crew to a hidden enemy antitank system.
● The bounding element must remain focused on its ultimate goal of gaining a positional advantage, which it

can then use to destroy the enemy by direct and indirect fires.
POSITIONING OF PLATOONS AND OTHER ELEMENTS

Based on his evaluation of METT-TC factors, the company team commander
should establish the role of each platoon and support asset within the company
team scheme of maneuver. These considerations apply:
● Tanks lead in maneuver against automatic weapons, antipersonnel
mines, wire obstacles, and enemy armored units.
● Tanks, BFVs, and dismounted infantry maneuver in concert in the
following situations:
- In assaults against entrenched infantry, jungle positions, heavily
fortified areas, and towns and villages.
- During periods of limited visibility.
● Dismounted infantry squads and engineers lead in maneuver against
constructed antitank defenses (such as antitank ditches and abatises),
across defended water obstacles, through heavy woods, within built-up
areas, and in mountainous terrain. In such situations, tanks and BFVs
provide a base of fire.
RELATIONSHIP OF TACTICAL MOVEMENT, ACTIONS

ON
CONTACT, MANEUVER, AND TACTICAL TASKS
The purpose of tactical movement is to move units on the battlefield and to prepare them for contact with the
enemy. The process by which units transition from tactical movement to maneuver is actions on contact, which
are covered in Section 4 of this chapter. Properly executed, maneuver allows units to move on the battlefield
while in contact. Maneuver is an integral part of tactical tasks, all of which require the combination of fire and
movement. At the same time, it is the action that allows a unit to advance while in contact to reach the point on
the battlefield from which it executes its next tactical task. Tactical tasks, in turn, have specific effects in relation
to the enemy, the terrain, and other friendly forces. (NOTE: Section 6 of this chapter examines the tactical tasks
most frequently executed by the company team.)
This complex relationship can be illustrated using the example of a company team with the mission of conducting
support by fire as part of a task force attack.
The company team conducts tactical movement from its assembly area (changing movement techniques as
appropriate) and makes initial contact with the enemy. The team then conducts actions on contact and transitions
to maneuver. It maneuvers by establishing a base of fire and using bounding techniques to "fight" its way to a
position from which it can conduct its support by fire task. While conducting that tactical task, the company team
continues to maneuver as necessary. Figure 3-7 illustrates the transitions that affect tactical movement (changes in
movement technique) and the relationship on the battlefield of tactical movement, actions on contact, maneuver,
and tactical tasks.

Figure 3-7. Battlefield relationship of tactical movement,

actions on contact, maneuver, and tactical tasks.
SECTION 4 - ACTIONS ON
CONTACT
INTRODUCTION
In both offensive and defensive operations, contact occurs when a member of the company team encounters any
situation that requires an active or passive response to the enemy. These situations may entail one or more of the
following forms of contact:
● Visual contact (friendly elements may or may not be observed by the enemy).
● Physical contact (direct fire) with an enemy force.
● Indirect fire contact.
● Contact with obstacles of enemy or unknown origin.
● Contact with enemy or unknown aircraft.
● Situations involving NBC conditions.
● Situations involving electronic warfare tactics.
Leaders at echelons from platoon through task force conduct actions on contact when they or a subordinate
element recognizes one of the forms of contact or receives a report of enemy contact. The company team may
conduct actions on contact in response to a variety of circumstances, including the following:
● Subordinate platoon(s) conducting actions on contact.
● Reports from the task force or another higher unit.
● Reports from or actions of an adjacent unit.

DEVELOPING ACTIONS ON CONTACT

Company team commanders and platoon leaders analyze the enemy throughout the troop-leading process to
identify all likely contact situations that may occur during an operation. Through the planning and rehearsals
conducted during troop-leading procedures, they develop and refine COAs to deal with the probable enemy
actions. The COAs will eventually become the foundation for the company team’s scheme of maneuver.
During the troop-leading process, the leaders must evaluate a number of factors to determine their impact on the
unit’s actions on contact. For example, the commander needs to consider how the likelihood of contact will affect
his choice of movement techniques and formations. In doing this, he can begin preparing the team for actions on
contact; for example, he may outline procedures for the transition to more secure movement techniques before a
contact situation. An example of a commander’s assessment and corresponding selection of movement techniques
is illustrated in Figure 3-7.
TIME REQUIREMENTS FOR ACTIONS ON CONTACT

Commanders must understand that properly executed actions on contact require time at both platoon and
company team levels. To fully develop the situation, a platoon or team may have to execute extensive lateral
movement, dismount and remount infantry squads, conduct reconnaissance by fire, and/or call for and adjust
indirect fires. Each of these activities requires time. The commander must balance the time required for
subordinate elements to conduct actions on contact with the need of the company team or task force to maintain
tempo and momentum. In terms of slowing the tempo of an operation, however, the loss of a platoon or team is
normally much more costly than the additional time required to allow the subordinate element to properly
THE FOUR STEPS OF ACTIONS ON CONTACT

The company team should execute actions on contact using a logical, well-organized
process of decision-making and action entailing these four steps:
● Deploy and report.
● Evaluate and develop the situation.
● Choose a COA.
● Execute the selected COA.
The four-step process is not intended to generate a rigid, lockstep response to the enemy.
Rather, the goal is to provide an orderly framework that enables the company team and its
platoons to survive the initial contact, then apply sound decision-making and timely actions
to complete the operation. Ideally, the team will acquire the enemy (visual contact) before
being sighted by the enemy; it then can initiate physical contact on its own terms by
executing the designated COA.
Actions on Events that occur during the first step of actions on contact depend in great measure on
contact whether the contact is expected or unexpected. The following discussion examines some of
Step 1 - the variables the company team commander faces in expected and unexpected contact
Deploy and situations and discusses the role of platoon battle drills and reporting in the deploy and
report step.
report

Expected contact If the commander expects contact, he will already have deployed the company team by
transitioning to the bounding overwatch movement technique. If the team is alert to the
likely presence of the enemy, it has a better chance of establishing first visual contact and
then physical contact on its own terms. Contact, either visual or physical, is usually made
by an overwatching or bounding platoon, which initiates the team’s actions on contact. In a
worst-case scenario, the platoon may be engaged by a previously undetected (but expected)
enemy element. The platoon in contact would conduct a battle drill Rfor its own survival
and then initiate actions on contact.
Unexpected contact In some cases, the company team will make unexpected contact with the enemy while
using traveling or traveling overwatch. The element in contact or, if necessary, the entire
company team may have to deploy using battle drills to survive the initial contact.
Battle drills Battle drills provide virtually automatic responses to contact situations, in which
immediate and, in many cases, violent execution of an action is critical both to the unit’s
initial survival and to its ultimate success in combat. Drills are not a substitute for carefully
planned COAs; rather, they buy time for the unit in contact and provide a framework for
development of the situation.
When contact occurs, the company team’s platoons deploy immediately, executing the
appropriate battle drills under the supervision of the commander. Table 3-1 lists the drills
executed during the deployment step of actions on contact. Figure 3-8 shows an example of
platoons executing battle drills.
NOTE: For additional information on platoon battle drills, refer to FM 17-15, FM
7-7J, ARTEP 17-237-10-MTP, and ARTEP 7-247-11-DRILL.
Table 3-1. Platoon battle drills for deployment

during actions on contact.
TANK PLATOON DRILLS MECHANIZED INFANTRY

PLATOON DRILLS
● Change of Formation Drill ● Platoon Attack Drill

● Contact Drill ● React to Contact Drill
● Action Drill ● Break Contact Drill
● React to Indirect Fire Drill ● React to Ambush Drill
● React to Air Attack Drill ● Change Formation Drill
● React to a Nuclear Attack Drill ● Execute Action Right or Left
● React to a Chemical/Biological Attack Drill
Drill
Maneuver SOP An effectively written, well-rehearsed maneuver SOP helps to ensure quick, predictable
actions by all members of the company team. In addition, the SOP, unlike platoon battle
drills, allows leaders to take into account the friendly task organization, a specific enemy,
and a specific type of terrain. As a result, the SOP can assist the company team in
conducting actions on contact and in maintaining the initiative in a number of battlefield
situations. For a more detailed discussion of SOPs, refer to Chapter 2 of this manual.

Reporting Timely, accurate reports are essential throughout actions on contact. As part of the first
step of the process, the company team commander must send a contact report to the task
force as soon as possible after contact occurs. He provides subsequent reports updating the
situation as necessary. (NOTE: Refer to the discussion of reports in Chapter 2 of this
manual.)
NOTE: Whether contact is expected or unexpected, the first step of actions on
contact concludes with the unit deployed (into base of fire and bounding elements),
the enemy suppressed or destroyed, and the XO sending a contact report sent to task
force headquarters.
Figure 3-8. Example of a tank platoon contact drill in concert with

a mechanized infantry platoon action right drill.

Actions on contact While the company team is deploying, the commander must evaluate the situation
and, as necessary, continue to maneuver to develop it. The commander quickly
Step 2 - gathers as much information as possible, either visually or, more often, through
Evaluate and reports of the platoon(s) in contact. He analyzes the datainformation to determine
develop the situation critical operational considerations, including these:
● The size of the enemy element.
● Location, composition, activity, and orientation of the enemy force.
● The impact of obstacles and terrain.
● Friendly and eEnemy capabilities (especially antiarmor capability).
● Probable enemy intentions.
● How to gain positional advantage over the enemy.
● The friendly situation (location, strength, and capabilities).
● Possible friendly COAs to achieve the specifiedfacilitate end state..
After evaluating the situation, the commander may discover that he does not have
enough information to identify the necessary operational considerations. To make
this determination, he canmust further develop the situation in accordance with
the task force commander’s intent, using a combination of these techniques:
● Surveillance, employing infantry squads, dismounted tank loaders, and/or
tank and BFV commanders (using binoculars and other optical aids).
● Mounted and/or dismounted maneuver (this includes lateral maneuver to
gain additional information by viewing the enemy from another
perspective).
● Indirect fire.
● Reconnaissance by fire.
Once the commander determines the size of the enemy force the company team
has encountered, he sends a report to the task force.
Actions on contact After developing the situation and determining that he has enough information to
make a decision, the company team commander selects a COA that both meets the
Step 3 - requirements of the task force commander’s intent and is within the company team’s
Choose a COA capabilities.
Nature of contact The nature of the contact (expected or unexpected) may have a significant impact on
how long it takes a commander to develop and select a COA. As an example, in
preparing to conduct an attack, the company team commander determines that the
team will encounter an enemy CSOP along its axis of advance; during troop-leading
procedures, he develops a scheme of maneuver to defeat the outpost. When the
team’s lead platoon makes contact with two BMPs, the commander can quickly
assess that this is the anticipated contact and direct the team to execute his plan. On
the other hand, unexpected contact with a well-concealed enemy force may require
time for development of the situation at platoon and team levels. As it "fights" for
critical information that will eventually allow the commander to make a sound
decision, the platoon and/or company team may have to employ several of the
techniques for developing the situation.

COA procedures The commander has several options in how he goes about the process of selecting a
COA. These procedures include the following:
● The company team commander can direct the team to execute the original
plan if his development of the situation reveals no need for change.
● If his analysis shows that the original plan is still valid but that some
refinement is necessary, the team commander canshould inform the task force
commander (prior to execution, if possible) and issue a FRAGO to refine the
plan.
● If his analysis shows that the original plan needs to be changed but that the
selected COA will still comply with the task force commander’s intent, the
team commander should inform the task force commander (prior to
execution, if possible) and issue a FRAGO to retask his subordinate elements.
● If his analysis shows that the original plan deviates from the task force
commander’s intent and needs to be changed, the team commander mustcan
report the situation and, based on knowninformation in response to an
unforeseen enemy or battlefield situation, recommend an alternative COA to
the task forceTF commander..
● He can direct If the battlefield picture is still vague, the team commander
must direct the team or a platoon to continue to ovementdevelop the situation.
This will allow him to gather the information needed to clarify a vague
battlefield picture. He then uses one of the first four options to report the
situation and choose a COA and/or to direct further action.
Actions on contact In executing a COA, the company team transitions to maneuver. It then continues to
Step 4 - maneuver throughout execution, either as part of a tactical task or to advance while
Execute a COA in contact to reach the point on the battlefield from which it executes its tactical
task. The team can employ a number of tactical tasks as COAs, any of which may
be preceded (and/or followed) by additional maneuver. Refer to Chapters 3, 4, and 5
of this manual for detailed descriptions of these tasks, which include the following:
● Advance in contact.
● Support by fire.
● Attack by fire.
● Bypass.
● Clearance in restricted terrain.
● Assault.
● Breach.
● Defend.
● Delay.
● Withdraw.
As execution continues, more information will become available to the company

team commander. Based on the emerging details of the enemy situation, he may
have to alter his COA during execution. For example, as the company team
maneuvers to destroy what appears to be a tank platoon, it discovers two additional
platoons in prepared positions. The commander must analyze and develop the new
situation. He then selects an alternate COA, such as establishing a support by fire
position to support another company team’s maneuver against the newly discovered

enemy force.
EXAMPLES OF ACTIONS ON CONTACT

The following examples illustrate the four-step process for executing actions on contact in
two possible tactical situations.
Contact with an Figures 3-9 through 3-11 illustrate actions on contact when the company team encounters
expected force an expected enemy element.

Figure 3-9. Company team deploys and reports.

Figure 3-10. Company team develops the situation and advances in contact.

Figure 3-11. Suppression continues as mech platoon assaults to destroy remaining BMP and
infantry.
Contact with an Figures 3-12 and 3-13 illustrate an example of actions on contact that the company
unexpected force team might execute following an unexpected encounter with an enemy force. In this
case, the enemy element is a forward security element (FSE) with tanks and BMPs.

Figure 3-12. Company team makes unexpected contact, deploys,

and receives and sends contact reports.

Figure 3-13. Company team develops the situation and chooses and executes a COA.
Chapter 3 (continued)

FM 71-1 Chapter 4 Defensive Operations
CHAPTER 4
Defensive Operations
Military forces conduct defensive operations only until they gain sufficient strength to attack. Though
the outcome of decisive combat derives from offensive actions, commanders often find that it is
necessary, even advisable, to defend. Once they make this choice, they must set the conditions for the
defense in a way that allows friendly forces to withstand and hold the enemy while they prepare to
seize the initiative and return to the offense. A thorough understanding of the commander’s intent is
especially critical in defensive operations, which demand precise integration of combat, CS, and CSS
elements.
The immediate purposes of all defensive operations are to defeat an enemy attack and gain the initiative
for offensive operations. The company team may also conduct the defense to achieve one or more of
the following purposes:
● Gain time.
● Retain key terrain.
● Facilitate other operations.
● Preoccupy the enemy in one area while friendly forces attack him in another.
● Erode enemy forces at a rapid rate while reinforcing friendly operations.
CONTENTS
Section 1 Sequence of the Defense
Reconnaissance and Security Operations

and Enemy Preparatory Fires
Occupation
Approach of the Enemy Main Attack
Enemy Assault
Counterattack
Consolidation and Reorganization
Section 2 Defensive Planning Considerations
Weapons Positioning
Displacement Planning
Fire Support
Air Defense
Section 3 Preparation and Integration
Engagement Area Development

Battle Position Occupation and Preparation
Adjacent Unit Coordination

Section 4 Defensive Techniques
Defend in Sector
Defend a Battle Position
Defend a Strongpoint
Defend a Perimeter
Section 5 Reserve Operations in the Defense
Introduction
Planning Considerations
Reserve Operations and Techniques
Section 6 Retrograde Operations
Delay
Withdrawal
Retirement
SECTION 1 - SEQUENCE OF THE DEFENSE

As part of a larger element, the company team conducts defensive operations in a sequence of
integrated and overlapping phases or steps. The following paragraphs focus on the tactical
considerations and procedures involved in each phase.
RECONNAISSANCE AND SECURITY OPERATIONS

AND ENEMY PREPARATORY FIRES
Security forces must be employed to protect friendly MBA forces and allow them to continue their
preparations. The enemy will attempt to discover the defensive scheme of maneuver using
reconnaissance elements and attacks by forward detachments and advance guard elements. He will also
attempt to breach the task force’s tactical obstacles.
The goals of the task force security force normally include providing early warning, destroying enemy
reconnaissance units, and impeding and harassing enemy main body elements. The security force will
continue its mission until directed to displace. The commander may also use security forces in his
deception effort, employing them to give the illusion of strength in one area while positioning his true
combat power in another. While conducting this type of security operation, the company team may
simultaneously have to prepare BPs, creating a challenging time management problem for the
commander and other leaders.
During this phase of the operation, the company team may need to provide guides to the passing
security force and may be tasked to close the passage lanes. The team may also play a role in shaping
the battlefield. The task force or brigade commander may position the team to deny likely enemy attack
corridors, enhancing flexibility and forcing enemy elements into friendly engagement areas. When it is
not conducting security or preparation tasks, the company team will normally occupy hide positions to
avoid possible chemical strikes or enemy artillery preparation.

OCCUPATION
During this phase, the company team reconnoiters and occupies its positions. This usually includes
movement from tactical assembly areas to the actual defensive sector, led by a quartering party that
clears the defensive positions. The division, brigade, and task force will establish security forces during
this phase, and remaining forces will begin to develop engagement areas and prepare BPs.
Operational and tactical security is critical during the occupation to ensure the company team can avoid
detection and maintain combat power for the actual defense. Leaders and crewmen at all levels of the
team must thoroughly understand their duties and responsibilities related to the occupation; they then
must be able to execute the occupation quickly and efficiently to maximize the time available for
planning and preparation of the defense.
APPROACH OF THE ENEMY MAIN ATTACK

As this phase begins, the company team’s parent brigade engages the enemy at long range using
indirect fires, electronic warfare, and CAS (deep fight). The goal is to use these assets, along with
disrupting obstacles, to shape the battlefield and/or to slow the enemy’s advance and disrupt his
formations, leaving him more susceptible to the effects of CS weapons.
As the enemy’s main body echelon approaches the task force engagement area, the task force may
initiate indirect fires and CAS to further weaken the enemy by attrition; at the same time, the brigade’s
effort normally shifts to second-echelon forces. (NOTE: Long-range fires may be withheld in
accordance with the commander’s intent.) Friendly forces will occupy their actual defensive positions
before the enemy reaches direct fire range; positions are shifted in response to enemy actions or other
tactical factors.
ENEMY ASSAULT
During this phase, the enemy will deploy to achieve mass at a designated point, normally employing
both assault and supporting forces. This may leave him vulnerable to the combined effects of indirect
and direct fires and integrated obstacles. He may employ additional forces to fix friendly elements and
prevent their repositioning.
Friendly counterattack forces may be committed against the enemy flank or rear, while other friendly
forces may displace to alternate, supplementary, or successive positions in support of the commander’s
scheme of maneuver. All friendly forces should be prepared for the enemy to maximize employment of
combat multipliers, such as dismounted infantry operations, to create vulnerability. The enemy is also
likely to use artillery, CAS, and/or chemical weapons to set the conditions for the assault.
COUNTERATTACK

As the enemy’s momentum is slowed or stopped, friendly forces may launch a counterattack. The
counterattack may be launched purely for offensive purposes to seize the initiative from the enemy. In
some cases, however, the purpose of the counterattack will be mainly defensive, such as reestablishing
the FEBA or restoring control of the sector. The company team may participate in the counterattack as
a base of fire element (providing support by fire for the counterattack force) or as the counterattack
force.
CONSOLIDATION AND REORGANIZATION

The company team must secure its sector by repositioning forces, destroying remaining enemy
elements, processing EPWs, and reestablishing obstacles. The team conducts all necessary CSS
functions as it prepares to continue the defense. Even when it is not being actively engaged by enemy
forces, the company team must maintain situational awareness and local security at all times during
consolidation and reorganization.
SECTION 2 - DEFENSIVE PLANNING

CONSIDERATIONS
WEAPONS POSITIONING
The goal of effective weapons positioning is to enable the company
team to mass fires at critical points on the battlefield and to enhance its
survivability. To do this, the commander must maximize the strengths
of the company team’s weapons systems while minimizing its
exposure to enemy observation and fires. The following paragraphs
focus on tactical considerations for weapons positioning.
Depth and dispersion Dispersing positions laterally and in depth helps to protect the force
from enemy observation and fires. Company team and platoon
positions are established in depth, allowing sufficient maneuver space
within each position to establish in-depth placement of vehicle weapon
systems and dismounted infantry elements. Refer to Figure 4-1 for an
illustration of how a company team establishes depth in sector.
Vehicle and infantry fighting positions should be positioned to allow
the massing of fires at critical points on the battlefield. (NOTE: For a
more detailed discussion of emplacement of weapon systems, refer to
Section 3 of this chapter.) Although METT-TC factors ultimately
determine the placement of weapon systems and unit positions, the
following general guideline apply:
● Tanks are best employed where they can engage targets with the
main gun (out to a maximum range of 4,000 meters for M1A1
and M1A2 tanks) and with the coaxial machine gun (at ranges
out to 900 meters). The factors of METT-TC will ultimately
dictate positioning and engagement criteria. As a general
guideline, however, tanks are normally best employed where
they can engage the enemy at a range of approximately 2,500

meters.
● TOW missiles are best employed at a range of 2,500 to 3,700
meters, where targets can be tracked for at least 12 seconds.
● BFVs are best employed from flank positions and in positions,
at a range of 2,500 meters or less, from which they can destroy
lightly armored vehicles and infantry or fix or severely limit the
movement of tanks.
● Infantry squads should be positioned on reverse slopes or in
restricted terrain where they cannot be engaged before they can
take the enemy under fire.
● Infantry squads can supplement the antiarmor fires of the tanks
and BFVs with Javelin missiles, which have a maximum range
of 2,000 meters.
● Infantry squads can retain or deny key terrain if employed in
strongpoints or well-covered positions.
● Infantry squads can protect obstacles or flank positions that are
tied into severely restricted terrain.
Figure 4-1. Example of a company team achieving depth in sector.

Flank positions Flank positions enable a defending force to bring fires to bear on an attacking
force moving parallel to the defender’s attack formation. An effective flank
position provides the defender with a larger and more vulnerable target while
leaving the attacker unsure of the location of the defense.
Major considerations for successful employment of a flank position are the
defender’s ability to secure the flank and his ability to achieve surprise by
remaining undetected. Effective fire control and fratricide avoidance measures
are critical considerations in the employment of flank positions. Figure 4-2
illustrates an example of a team using flank positions in the defense.

Figure 4-2. Example of company team depth and flank positions.
Reverse The reverse slope defense uses the topographical crest to mask the
defender from the attacker’s observation and supporting long-range
slope direct and indirect fires. This can provide the defender with both a
positions degree of force protection and the advantage of surprise. By employing
OPs on the far side of the crest, he gains early warning of the attacking
force’s advance and can use indirect fires to disrupt or destroy the
enemy. In addition, the reverse slope defense allows effective
employment of obstacles. The enemy will have very little time to react
to any obstacles placed on the friendly side of the crest, preventing him
from generating effective combat power (mass) for a rapid penetration.
Figure 4-3 illustrates an example of a company team reverse slope
defense.

Figure 4-3. Example of company team reverse slope defense.
DISPLACEMENT PLANNING
Disengagement and displacement are key defensive tasks that allow the
company team to retain its operational flexibility and tactical agility.
The ultimate goals of disengagement and displacement are to enable the
company team to maintain standoff range and to avoid being fixed or
decisively engaged by the enemy. The company team commander must
consider several important factors in displacement planning; these
include, but are not limited to, the following:
● The enemy situation (for example, an enemy attack with two
MRBs may prevent the company team from disengaging).
● Disengagement criteria.
● Availability of direct fire suppression that can facilitate

disengagement by suppressing or disrupting the enemy.
● Availability of cover and concealment, indirect fires, and smoke
to assist disengagement.
● Obstacle integration, including situational obstacles.
● Positioning of forces on terrain (such as reverse slopes or natural

obstacles) that provides an advantage to the disengaging
elements.
● Identification of displacement routes and times that
disengagement and/or displacement will take place.
● The size of the friendly force that must be available to engage the
enemy in support of the displacing unit.
● Location of remount points, times that remount operations will
take place, and maneuver considerations for conduct of a remount
in contact.
While disengagement and displacement are valuable tactical tools, they
can be extremely difficult to execute in the face of a rapidly moving
enemy force. In fact, displacement in contact poses such great problems
that the company team commander must plan for it thoroughly before
the operation; even then, he must carefully evaluate the situation
whenever displacement in contact becomes necessary to ensure it is
feasible and will not result in unacceptable personnel or equipment
losses.

Disengagement Disengagement criteria dictate to subordinate elements the

circumstances under which they will displace to an alternate,
criteria supplementary, or successive BP. The criteria are tied to an enemy
action (such as one MRC advancing past PL DOG) and are linked to the
friendly situation (for example, they may depend on whether an
overwatch element or artillery can engage the enemy). Disengagement
criteria are developed during the planning process based on the unique
conditions of a specific situation; they should never be part of the unit’s
SOP.
Direct fire The attacking enemy force must not be allowed to bring effective fires
to bear on a disengaging force. Direct fires from the base of fire
suppression element, employed to suppress or disrupt the enemy, are the most
effective way to facilitate disengagement. The company team may
receive base of fire support from another element in the task force. In
most cases, however, the team will establish its own base of fire; an
internal base of fire requires the commander to carefully sequence the
displacement of his elements.
Cover, concealment, Ideally, the company team and subordinate elements should use covered
and/or concealed routes when moving to alternate, supplementary, or
and rehearsals successive BPs. Regardless of the degree of protection the route itself
affords, the team should rehearse the movement. This will increase the
speed at which it can conduct the move, providing an added measure of
security. The company team commander must make a concerted effort
whenever time is available to rehearse movement in limited visibility
and degraded conditions.
Indirect fires Artillery or mortar fires can be employed to assist the team during
disengagement. Suppression fires, placed on an enemy force as it is
and smoke closing inside the defender’s standoff range, will slow the enemy and
cause him to button up. The defending force rapidly engages the enemy
with long-range direct fires, then disengages and moves to new
positions. Smoke can be employed to obscure the enemy’s vision, slow
his progress, or screen the defender’s movement out of the BP or along
his displacement route.
Obstacle integration Obstacles should be integrated with direct and indirect fires to assist in
disengagement. By slowing and disrupting enemy movement, obstacles
provide the defender with the time necessary for displacement and
allow friendly forces to employ direct and indirect fires against the
enemy. MOPMS can also be employed in support of the
disengagement, either to block a key displacement route once the
displacing unit has passed through it or to close a lane through a tactical
obstacle.
The location of obstacles in support of disengagement depends in large
measure on METT-TC factors. A major consideration is that an obstacle
should be positioned far enough away from the defender that he can
effectively engage enemy elements on the far side of the obstacle while
remaining out of range of the enemy’s massed direct fires.

FIRE SUPPORT
Target For the fire plan to be effective in the defense, the unit must plan and
execute fires in a manner that achieves the intended task and purpose of
purpose each target. Indirect fires serve a variety of purposes in the defense,
including the following:
● Slow and disrupt enemy movement.
● Prevent the enemy from executing breaching operations at

turning or blocking obstacles.
● Destroy or delay enemy forces at fixing obstacles using massed
fires or pinpoint munitions (such as Copperhead rounds).
● Disrupt enemy support by fire elements.
● Defeat attacks along dismounted avenues of approach with the

use of FPF.
● Disrupt the enemy to allow friendly elements to disengage or
conduct counterattacks.
● Obscure enemy observation or screen friendly movement during
disengagement and counterattacks.
● Deliver scatterable mines to close lanes and gaps in obstacles, to
disrupt or prevent enemy breaching operations, to disrupt enemy
movement at choke points, or to separate or isolate enemy
echelons.
● Provide illumination as necessary.
● Execute SEAD missions to support CAS attacks and high-payoff

targets.
● Use smoke to separate enemy echelons; to screen friendly
displacement; or to silhouette enemy formations, facilitating
direct fire engagement.
Fire support In developing the fire plan, the company team must evaluate the
indirect fire systems available to support a specific operation;
assets considerations include tactical capabilities, weapons ranges, and
available munitions. These factors help the company team commander
and FSO to determine the best method for achieving the purpose of
each target in the fire plan.
Positioning The company team’s fire support personnel contribute significantly to
the fight; effective positioning is critical. The team commander and
of the FSO must select positions that provide fire support personnel with
FSO and unobstructed observation of the area of operations. In addition, the
FIST-V FIST-V should receive high priority for a position with enhanced
survivability.
AIR DEFENSE

The focus of the air defense plan is on likely air avenues of approach for enemy fixed-wing aircraft,
helicopters, and UAVs; these may or may not correspond with the enemy’s ground avenues of
approach. ADA assets are positioned based on METT-TC factors and the task force commander’s
scheme of maneuver. For example, a key consideration is to position air defense vehicles (BSFVs or
Bradley Linebackers), usually about 2 kilometers apart, to maximize the Stinger’s capabilities in the
defense. The Stinger then becomes the primary killer of rotary-wing and fixed-wing aircraft, with the
Bradley’s 25-mm machine gun used for close-in defense. In another situation, the task force S2 and the
task force air defense officer (ADO) may determine that the air defense vehicles should be positioned
independent of the friendly ground maneuver elements. These vehicles are also frequently used to
protect friendly counterattack forces against aerial observation or attack.
Other factors in air defense planning include development of engagement criteria for BSFVs or
Linebackers that become involved in the ground fight and positioning of air defense vehicles near
templated enemy LZs in the task force sector. Resupply of Stinger missiles places unique demands on
the company team; it requires detailed planning and consideration. It may be necessary to pre-position
Stingers in the company team area to facilitate timely resupply.

Mobility Mobility operations in the defense focus on the ability to reposition
forces, including unit displacement and the commitment of reserve
forces. Priorities set by the task force may specify some routes for
improvement in support of such operations. Normally, however, all
or most of the task force engineer assets will be allocated to the
survivability and/or countermobility effort.
Survivability Survivability positions are prepared in BPs or strongpoints to
protect vehicles, weapon systems, and dismounted infantry
elements. Positions can be dug in and reinforced with overhead
cover to provide dismounted infantry and crew-served weapons
with protection against shrapnel from air bursts. Vehicle fighting
positions are constructed with both hull-defilade firing positions
and turret-defilade observation positions. In addition, the company
team may use blade assets to dig in ammunition prestocks at
alternate, supplementary, or successive BPs or in individual vehicle
fighting positions.
Because the process of digging in a task force requires many "blade
hours" and assets may be limited, the company team commander
must develop a plan for digging in the team; he prepares the team
area for the arrival of the blades by marking vehicle positions and
designating guides for the engineer vehicles. He also may have to
position fuel vehicles in the vicinity of the BP to refuel the
supporting ACEs or dozers.
The commander must prioritize the survivability effort; for
example, he may only have time to dig in positions that have the
least amount of natural cover and concealment. Soil composition
should also be a consideration in BP selection; sites to be avoided
include those where the soil is overly soft, hard, wet, or rocky.

Countermobility To be successful in the defense, the company team commander

must integrate individual obstacles into both direct and indirect fire
plans, taking into account the intent of each obstacle group. At the
task force level, obstacle intent consists of the target of the obstacle
group, the desired effect on the target, and the relative location of
the group. In addition, like artillery and mortar employment,
obstacle emplacement must have a clear task and purpose. The
purpose will influence many aspects of the operation, from
selection and design of obstacle sites to actual conduct of the
defense. Normally, the task force or brigade will designate the
purpose of an obstacle group. For example, the task force
commander might specify this purpose: "We must deny the enemy
access to our flank by turning the northern, first-echelon MRB into
our engagement area, allowing Team B and
Team C to mass their fires to destroy it."
Refer to FM 90-7 for additional information on obstacle planning,
siting, and turnover. The following paragraphs discuss employment
considerations for various types of standard obstacles. (NOTE:
Engineers can augment these with nonstandard obstacles such as
tank ditches and abatises.)
Disrupting effects These are often the product of situational obstacles, such as
scatterable mines. Disrupting effects focus a combination of fires
and obstacles to impede the enemy’s attack in several ways, such as
breaking up his formations, interrupting his tempo, and causing
premature commitment of breaching assets. These obstacles are
normally used forward within engagement areas or in support of
forward positions within a defensive sector. Normally, only indirect
fires and long-range direct fires are planned in support of disrupting
obstacles.
Turning effects The commander uses this combination of fires and obstacles to
support the scheme of maneuver in several ways, including the
following:
● Divert the enemy into an engagement area, exposing his
flanks when he makes the turn.
● Divert an enemy formation from one avenue of approach to
another.
● Deny the enemy the ability to mass forces on a flank of the
friendly force.
The fire plan should specify how the defending unit will maintain
pressure on the enemy throughout the turn as well as identify the
task and purpose of the obstacle. In addition, the commander must
clearly identify the size of the enemy element to be turned. The
turning obstacle is tied into an existing obstacle (severely restricted
terrain) at its initial point. The commander may further enhance the
effectiveness of the obstacle by using infantry squads to cover it
with fires.

Fixing effects Fixing effects use the combination of fires and obstacles to slow or
temporarily stop an attacker within a specified area, normally an
engagement area. The defending unit can then focus on defeating
the enemy, using indirect fires to suppress him in the engagement
area while direct fires inflict maximum casualties and damage. If
necessary, the defender can reposition his forces using the
additional time gained as a result of fixing the enemy. To fully
achieve the fixing effect, these obstacles must be covered by direct
and/or indirect fires. The commander must clearly specify the size
of enemy unit to be fixed.
Blocking effects Blocking effects use the combination of fires and obstacles to stop
an attacker along a specific avenue of approach. Fires employed to
achieve blocking effects are primarily oriented on preventing the
enemy from maneuvering. Because they require the most extensive
engineer effort of any type of obstacle, blocking effects are
employed only at critical choke points on the battlefield.
Blocking obstacles must be anchored on both sides by existing
obstacles (severely restricted terrain). They must be covered by
direct and/or indirect fires to achieve the full blocking effect. The
commander must clearly specify the size of enemy force that he
intends to block.
Protective obstacles Company teams are responsible for coordinating and employing
their own protective obstacles to protect their BPs. To be most
effective, these should be tied into existing obstacles. The company
team may use mines and wire from its basic load or pick up
additional assets (including MOPMS, if available) from the
engineer Class IV/V supply point. The team may also be
responsible for any other required coordination (such as that needed
in a relief in place), for recovery of the obstacle, or for its
destruction (as in the case of MOPMS).
In planning for protective obstacles, the commander must evaluate
the potential threat to the team’s position and then employ the
appropriate system to counter that threat. For example, MOPMS is
predominantly an antitank system best used on mounted avenues of
approach, although it does have some antipersonnel applications;
on the other hand, wire obstacles may be most effective when
employed on dismounted avenues. FM 90-7 provides detailed
planning guidance for protective obstacle emplacement.
Obstacle lanes The company team may be responsible for actions related to lanes
through obstacles. These duties may include marking lanes in an
obstacle, reporting locations of the start and end points of each lane,
manning contact points, providing guides for elements passing
through the obstacle, and closing the lane.


In addition to the CSS functions required for all operations, the
company team commander’s planning process should cover the
considerations discussed in the following paragraphs. (NOTE: CSS
operations are discussed in detail in Chapter 7 of this manual.)
Prestocks The commander’s mission analysis may reveal that the company team’s
ammunition needs during an upcoming operation will exceed its basic
and caches load. This will require the team to establish ammunition caches, or
prestocks. The prestocks, which may be positioned either at an alternate
or successive BP or with the fighting vehicles, should be both dug in
and guarded.
Position of The company team combat trains normally operate 500 to 1,000 meters
(or one terrain feature) to the rear of the company team to provide
trains immediate recovery, medical, and maintenance support. The
commander must ensure that all elements know the locations of the
forward and main aid stations. He must also plan and rehearse casualty
evacuation procedures.
SECTION 3 - PREPARATION
AND INTEGRATION
ENGAGEMENT AREA DEVELOPMENT

The engagement area is where the commander intends to trap and
destroy an enemy force using the massed fires of all available weapons.
The success of any engagement depends on how effectively the
commander can integrate the obstacle plan, the indirect fire plan, and
the direct fire plan within the engagement area to achieve the company
team’s tactical purpose.
At the company team level, engagement area development is a
complex function, demanding parallel planning and preparation if the
team is to accomplish the myriad tasks for which it is responsible.
Despite this complexity, however, engagement area development
resembles a drill in that the commander and his subordinate leaders use
an orderly, fairly standard set of procedures. Beginning with evaluation
of METT-TC factors, the development process covers these steps:
● Identify all likely enemy avenues of approach.
● Determine likely enemy schemes of maneuver.
● Determine where to kill the enemy.
● Plan and integrate obstacles.
● Emplace weapon systems.
● Plan and integrate indirect fires.
● Rehearse the execution of operations in the engagement area.

The following paragraphs outline planning and preparation procedures

the commander may use for each of these steps.
Identify likely enemy The following procedures and considerations, as illustrated in Figure
avenues of approach 4-4, apply in identifying the enemy’s likely avenues of approach:
● Conduct initial reconnaissance. If possible, do this from the
enemy’s perspective along each avenue of approach into the
sector or engagement area.
● Identify key and/or decisive terrain. This includes locations that
afford positions of advantage over the enemy as well as natural
obstacles and/or choke points that restrict forward movement.
● Determine which avenues will afford cover and concealment for
the enemy while allowing him to maintain his tempo.
● Evaluate lateral routes adjoining each avenue of approach.
Figure 4-4. Identify all likely enemy avenues of approach.

Determine the enemy The company team commander can use the following procedures and
scheme of maneuver considerations, which are illustrated in Figure 4-5, in determining the
enemy’s scheme of maneuver:
● Determine how the enemy will structure the attack. Will he use
two MRBs forward and one back? Will the attack be led by an
FSE, an advance guard, or a forward detachment?
● Determine how the enemy will use his reconnaissance assets.
Will he attempt to infiltrate friendly positions?
● Determine where and when the enemy will change formations
and/or establish support by fire positions.
● Determine where, when, and how the enemy will conduct his
assault and/or breaching operations.
● Determine where and when he will commit follow-on forces.
●
● Determine the enemy’s expected rates of movement.
● Assess the effects of his combat multipliers.
● Determine what reactions the enemy is likely to have in

response to projected friendly actions.
Figure 4-5. Determine the enemy’s scheme of maneuver.

Determine The following steps (illustrated in Figure 4-6) apply in identifying and
where marking where the task force and company team will engage the
enemy:
to kill the
● Identify TRPs that match the enemy’s scheme of maneuver,
enemy allowing the company team to identify where it will engage
enemy forces through the depth of the sector.
● Identify and record the exact location of each TRP.
● Determine how many weapon systems will focus fires on each

TRP to achieve the desired end state.
● Determine which platoons will mass fires on each TRP.
● Establish engagement areas around TRPs.
● Develop the direct fire planning measures necessary to focus fires

at each TRP. (NOTE: For additional information applicable to
this step, refer to the discussion of direct fire control in Chapter 2
of this manual.)
NOTE: In marking TRPs, use thermal sights to ensure visibility
at the appropriate range under varying conditions, including
daylight and limited visibility (darkness, smoke, dust, or other
obscurants).
Figure 4-6. Determine where to kill the enemy.

Plan and The following steps apply in planning and integrating obstacles in the
company team defense (see Figure 4-7 for an illustration):
integrate
● In cooperation with the engineer platoon leader, identify, site,
obstacles and mark task force tactical obstacles and team protective
obstacles. (NOTE: Refer to the discussion of obstacle siting in
Chapter 6 of this manual.)
● Ensure coverage of all obstacles with direct fires.
● Assign responsibility for guides and lane closure as required.
Figure 4-7. Plan and integrate obstacles.
Emplace The following steps apply in selecting and improving BPs and
emplacing the company team’s vehicles, crew-served weapon systems,
weapon and dismounted infantry positions (see Figure 4-8):
systems
● Select tentative platoon BPs. (NOTE: When possible, select
these while moving in the engagement area. Using the enemy’s
perspective enables the commander to assess survivability of the
positions.)
● Conduct a leader’s reconnaissance of the tentative BPs.
● Drive the engagement area to confirm that selected positions are
tactically advantageous.
● Confirm and mark the selected BPs.
● Ensure that BPs do not conflict with those of adjacent units and
that they are effectively tied in with adjacent positions.
● Select primary, alternate, and supplementary fighting positions to
achieve the desire effect for each TRP.

● Ensure that platoon leaders, PSGs, vehicle commanders, and/or

dismounted infantry squad leaders position weapon systems so
that each TRP is effectively covered by the required number of
weapons, vehicles, and/or platoons.
● Ensure that positions allow vehicle commanders, loaders, and/or
gunners (as applicable for each vehicle) to observe the
engagement area from the turret-down position and engage
enemy forces from the hull-down position.
● Stake vehicle positions in accordance with unit SOP so engineers
can dig in the positions while vehicle crews perform other tasks.
● Proof all vehicle positions.
The following steps, as illustrated in Figure 4-8, apply in planning and
integrating indirect fires:
● Determine the purpose of fires.
● Determine where that purpose will best be achieved.
● Establish the observation plan, with redundancy for each target.

Observers will include the FIST, as well as members of
maneuver elements with fire support responsibilities (such as
PSGs).
● Establish triggers based on enemy movement rates.
● Obtain accurate target locations using survey and/or navigational

equipment.
● Refine target locations to ensure coverage of obstacles.
● Adjust artillery and mortar targets.
● Plan FPF.
● Request CFZs for protection of maneuver elements and NFAs for

protection of OPs and forward positions.

Figure 4-8. Emplace weapon systems and plan and integrate indirect fires.
NOTE: Figure 4-9 illustrates the completed scheme of maneuver
for a company team defense in sector; refer to the discussion of
defense in sector in Section 4 of this chapter.

Figure 4-9. Example of a company team defense in sector.
Conduct an The purpose of this rehearsal is to ensure that every leader and soldier
engagement understands the plan and that elements are prepared to cover their
assigned areas with direct and indirect fires. Although the company
area team commander has several options, the most common and most
rehearsal effective type is the mounted rehearsal. One technique for the mounted
rehearsal in the defense is to have the company team trains, under the
control of the team XO, move through the engagement area to depict
the enemy force while the commander and subordinate platoons
rehearse the battle from the team BP. The rehearsal should cover these
actions:
● Rearward passage of security forces (as required).
● Closure of lanes (as required).
● Movement from the hide position to the BP.
● Use of fire commands, triggers, and/or MELs to initiate direct

and indirect fires.
● Shifting of fires to refocus and redistribute fire effects.
● Preparation and transmission of critical reports using FM and

digital systems (as applicable).
● Assessment of the effects of enemy weapon systems.
● Displacement to alternate, supplementary, or successive BPs.
● Cross-leveling or resupply of Class V.

● Evacuation of casualties.
NOTE: The company team commander should coordinate the
team rehearsal with the task force to ensure other units’
rehearsals are not planned for the same time and/or location.
Coordination will lead to more efficient use of planning and
preparation time for all task force units. It will also eliminate the
danger of misidentification of friendly forces in the rehearsal
area, which could result in fratricide.
BATTLE POSITION OCCUPATION AND PREPARATION

Occupation and preparation of the BP is conducted concurrently with
troop-leading procedures and development of the engagement area.
Almost all aspects of BP preparation are tied closely to those two
processes. As an example of this, the company team commander must
determine where to kill the enemy and where to emplace his weapon
systems before the team can occupy the BP and begin digging
survivability positions. The process is not sequential, however, and
the commander must weigh the limited time available against the
competing demands of security, engagement area development,
execution of the troop-leading procedures, and BP preparation. The
potential problems associated with this process, especially lack of
adequate preparation time, can be compounded if the team has several
other BPs (alternate, supplementary, and successive) and engagement
areas to develop.
Hasty occupation The company team may conduct a hasty occupation in the defense
during a counterattack or after disengagement and movement to
of a BP alternate, supplementary, or successive BPs. At a minimum, the team
must accomplish the following actions:
● The commander issues a FRAGO, at a minimum covering the
following information:
- Changes in the enemy and/or friendly situation (the
reason the FRAGO is being issued).
- The company team task and purpose (what the team
must accomplish and why).
- The task and purpose for each platoon/element.
- The scheme of fires.
- Coordinating instructions.
● The team approaches the BP from the rear or flank.
● The commander establishes direct fire control measures or, if
these are preplanned, reviews the plan.
● The commander reports "OCCUPIED" to the task force.

Deliberate The company team conducts deliberate occupation of a BP when time

is available, enemy contact is not expected, and friendly elements are
occupation of a positioned forward in sector to provide security for forces in the
BP MBA. The actual establishment of the BP is conducted concurrently
with the development of the engagement area. The commander directs
the initial reconnaissance from the engagement area; only then are
vehicle and weapon system positions tentatively emplaced.
Once this is completed, subordinate leaders can begin to develop their
sector sketches and fire plans based on the basic team fire plan
developed during the leader’s reconnaissance of the engagement area.
Vehicle positions are improved while the direct fire plan is finalized
and proofed. Depending on METT-TC factors, the company team may
occupy hide positions when preparations are completed, then occupy
the BP just before initiating the defensive operation.
BP preparation The commander will designate the level of preparation for each BP
based on the time available and other tactical considerations for the
mission. There are three
levels of BP preparation, which are listed here in descending order of
thoroughness and time required:
● Occupy. This is complete preparation of the position from
which the company team will initially defend. The position is
fully reconnoitered, prepared, and occupied prior to the "defend
NLT" time specified in the task force OPORD. The company
team must rehearse the occupation, and the commander must
establish a trigger for occupation of the position.
● Prepare. The position and the corresponding engagement area
will be fully reconnoitered. Platoon and vehicle positions in the
BP should be marked, along with fire control measures in the
engagement area. Survivability positions may be dug,
ammunition caches pre-positioned, and protective obstacles
emplaced.
● Reconnoiter. The engagement area and BP will both be fully
reconnoitered. Tentative platoon and weapon positions should
be planned in the BP, and limited fire control measures should
be established in the engagement area.
Alternate, In addition to establishing the company team’s primary BP, the
commander and subordinate leaders normally plan for preparation and
supplementary, occupation of alternate, supplementary, and successive BPs in
and accordance with the task force OPORD. The following paragraphs
successive BPs describe tactical considerations for these positions; accompanying
illustrations depict how the positions are employed in tactical
situations.

The following characteristics and considerations apply for an alternate

BP, which is illustrated in Figure 4-10:
● It covers the same avenue of approach and/or sector of fire as
the primary BP.
● It is located slightly to the front, flank, or rear of the primary
Alternate BP BP.
● It may be positioned forward of the primary BP during limited
visibility operations.
● It is normally employed to supplement or support positions with
weapons of limited range, such as dismounted infantry
positions.
Figure 4-10. Alternate BP.

Supplementary The following characteristics and considerations apply for a
BP supplementary BP, which is illustrated in Figure 4-11:
● It covers an avenue of approach and/or sector of fire different from
those covered by the primary BP.
● Occupation is based on specific enemy actions.

Figure 4-11. Supplementary BP.

Successive BP The following characteristics and considerations apply for a successive
BP, which is illustrated in Figure 4-12:
● It covers the same avenue of approach and/or sector of fire as the
primary BP.
● It is located in depth through the defensive sector.
● Occupation is based on specific enemy actions or conducted as
part of the higher headquarters scheme of maneuver.

Figure 4-12. Successive BP.
ADJACENT UNIT COORDINATION

The ultimate goal of adjacent unit coordination is to ensure unity of
effort in the accomplishment of the higher unit’s mission. Items that
adjacent units must coordinate include, but are not limited to, the
following:
● The enemy situation.
● Unit positions, including locations of command and control

nodes.
● Locations of OPs and patrols.
● Overlapping fires (to ensure that direct fire responsibility is

clearly defined).
● TRPs.
● Alternate, supplementary, and successive BPs.
● Indirect fire and SOI information.
● Obstacles.
● Air defense considerations, if applicable.
● Routes to be used during occupation and repositioning.
● CSS considerations.

SECTION 4 - DEFENSIVE
TECHNIQUES
The company team will normally defend using one of these basic
techniques:
● Defend in sector.
● Defend a BP.
● Defend a strongpoint.
● Defend a perimeter.
DEFEND IN SECTOR
This defense allows the task force to maintain flank contact and security
and ensures unity of effort within the task force scheme of maneuver.
Sectors afford depth in the company team defense. They allow the team
to achieve the commander’s desired end state while facilitating
clearance of fires at the appropriate level of responsibility. The task
force commander normally orders a defense in sector when these
conditions apply:
● Flexibility is desired.
● Retention of specific terrain features is not necessary.
● The task force cannot concentrate fires because of any of the

following factors:
- Extended frontages.
- Intervening, or cross-compartment, terrain features.
- Multiple avenues of approach.
The company team is assigned a defend in sector mission to prevent
enemy forces from penetrating the rear boundary of the sector; see
Figures 4-2 and 4-9. To maintain coherence of the sector defense, it is
critical that the company team remain tied in to adjacent units on the
flanks. The task force commander may direct the team to conduct the
defense in one of two ways:
● In one type, he specifies a series of successive BPs within the
sector from which the team will defend; he normally does this to
ensure that fires of two company teams can be massed at any
given time.
● The other option is to assign a sector to the company team. The
team commander assumes responsibility for most tactical
decisions, normally controlling maneuver of his platoons by
assigning them a series of successive BPs. The task force
commander will normally assign a sector to the team only when
it is fighting in isolation.

DEFEND A BATTLE POSITION

The task force commander assigns this defense to his company teams
when he wants to mass the fires of two or more teams in the task force
engagement area or to position a team to execute a counterattack.
Purposes of this defense include the following:
● Destroy an enemy force in the engagement area.
● Block an enemy avenue of approach.
● Control key or decisive terrain.
● Fix the enemy force to allow another unit to maneuver.
The task force commander assigns company team BPs to allow each
team to concentrate its fires or to place it in an advantageous position
for the counterattack. The size of the team BP can vary, but it should
provide enough depth and maneuver space for platoons to maneuver
into alternate or supplementary positions and to execute local
counterattacks.
The BP is a general position on the ground; the company team
commander places his vehicles on the most favorable terrain within the
BP based on the higher unit mission and intent. The team then fights to
retain the position unless ordered by the task force commander to
counterattack or displace. (NOTE: Figure 4-1, illustrates a company
team defense of a BP.)
DEFEND A STRONGPOINT
Defense of a strongpoint is an uncommon mission for an armor or
mechanized infantry force. Strongpoints sacrifice the mobility of the
unit’s organic weapon systems, require extensive engineer support (in
terms of expertise, materials, and equipment), and take a long time to
complete. Nonetheless, when the company team is directed to defend a
strongpoint, it must retain the position at all costs until ordered to
withdraw. This defensive mission may require the team to accomplish
any of the following purposes:
● Hold key or decisive terrain critical to the task force scheme of
maneuver.
● Provide a pivot for the maneuver of friendly forces.
● Block an avenue of approach.
● Canalize the enemy into one or more engagement areas.

Employment The success of the strongpoint defense depends on how well the
position is tied into the existing terrain. It is most effective when
considerations employed in terrain that naturally provides cover and concealment to
both the strongpoint and its supporting obstacles. Mountainous,
forested, or urban terrain can be easily adapted to a strongpoint defense.
Strongpoints placed in more open terrain, however, require the use of
reverse slopes or of extensive camouflage and deception efforts.
The prime characteristic of an effective strongpoint is that it cannot be
easily overrun or bypassed. It must be positioned and constructed so
that the enemy knows he can reduce it only at the risk of heavy
casualties and significant loss of materiel. He must be forced to employ
massive artillery concentrations and dismounted assaults. To
accomplish this, the strongpoint must be tied in with existing obstacles
and positioned to afford 360-degree security in terms of both
observation and fighting positions.
At company team level, a strongpoint defense is normally executed by a
mechanized infantry team to take advantage of the organic infantry
squads’ ability to retain ground. The defense can be used in conjunction
with BPs and sectors to make best use of the team’s tanks and BFVs.
Before committing a platoon to construct a strongpoint, the company
team commander must have the permission of the task force
commander.
Strongpoint The following discussion covers a variety of techniques and
considerations involved in the establishment and execution of the
procedures strongpoint defense. It also includes considerations for displacement
and withdrawal from the strongpoint.
Establishment of The company team commander begins by determining the projected
the strongpoint size of the strongpoint. He does this by assessing the number of
vehicles, weapon systems, and individual soldiers available to
conduct the assigned mission, as well as the terrain on which the team
will fight. He must remember that although a strongpoint is usually
tied into a task force defense and is flanked by other BPs, it must
afford 360-degree observation and firing capability.
The commander must ensure that layout and organization of the
strongpoint maximize the capabilities of the team’s personnel
strength and weapon systems without sacrificing the security of the
position. Siting options range from positioning all the vehicles
outside the strongpoint (with the infantry occupying dismounted
positions inside it) to placing all assets inside the position. From the
standpoint of planning and terrain management, placing everything
within the strongpoint is the most difficult option. An added factor is
that this is potentially the most dangerous organization because of the
danger of enemy encirclement.
In laying out the strongpoint, the commander first designates weapon
positions that support the task force defensive plan. Once these
primary positions have been identified, he continues around the
strongpoint, siting weapons on other possible enemy avenues of

approach and engagement areas until he has the ability to orient

effectively in any direction. The fighting positions facing the task
force engagement area may be positioned along one line of defense or
staggered in depth along multiple lines of defense (if the terrain
supports positions in depth). Similarly, vehicle positions may be
located abreast of the two-man fighting positions or, for greater
depth, behind them. The commander can create a broader frontage for
the strongpoint by interspersing vehicle and dismounted positions.
Mobility/survivability Terrain reinforcement is the primary role of engineers in support of
considerations the strongpoint defense. Priorities of work will vary depending on the
situation and the time available. For example, the first 12 hours of the
strongpoint construction effort may be critical for emplacing
countermobility and survivability positions as well as command and
control bunkers. On the other hand, if the focus of engineer support is
to make terrain approaching the strongpoint impassable, the task
force engineer effort must be adjusted accordingly.
The task force obstacle plan will be the foundation for the company
team strongpoint obstacle plan. Depending on the situation, the
commander may need to determine how he can integrate protective
obstacles (designed to defeat dismounted assaults) into the overall
countermobility plan. In addition, if adequate time and resources are
available, he should plan to reinforce existing obstacles using field
expedient demolitions and booby traps.
Once the enemy has identified the strongpoint, it will bring all the
fires it can spare against the position. To safeguard his dismounted
infantry, the commander must arrange for construction of overhead
cover for the individual fighting positions. If the strongpoint is in a
more open position, such as on a reverse slope, he may also plan for
connecting trench lines, which will allow soldiers to move between
positions without exposure to fire. Time permitting, these crawl
trenches can be improved to fighting trenches or standard trenches.
Employment The reserve may comprise mounted elements, dismounted elements,
of the reserve or a combination. Regardless of the actual configuration, the
commander must know how to influence the strongpoint battle by
employing his reserve. He has several employment options, including
these:
● Reinforcing a portion of the defensive line.
● Counterattacking along a portion of the perimeter against an

identified enemy main effort.
The commander should identify routes or axes that allow the reserve
to move to any area of the strongpoint. He should then designate
positions that the reserve can occupy once they arrive. These routes
and positions should afford sufficient cover to allow the reserve to
reach its destination without enemy interdiction. The commander
should give special consideration to developing a direct fire plan for
each contingency that may involve the reserve; one key area of focus
may be a plan for isolating an enemy penetration of the perimeter.

NOTE: Refer to Section 5 of this chapter for a detailed

discussion of reserve employment in the defense.
Displacement The commander should conduct a rehearsal covering actions the
considerations company team must take if it has to fall back to a second defensive
perimeter; this should include the direct fire control measures
necessary to accomplish the maneuver. FPF may be employed to
assist in the displacement.
Example Figure 4-13 illustrates an example of a mechanized infantry company
team conducting a strongpoint defense in a small town.
DEFEND A PERIMETER
A perimeter defense allows the defending force to orient in all
directions, as illustrated in Figure 4-14. In terms of weapons
emplacement, direct and indirect fire integration, and reserve
employment, a commander conducting a perimeter defense must
consider the same factors as for a strongpoint operation.
The perimeter defense is a relatively uncommon mission for a tank or
mechanized company team because it allows only limited maneuver
and limited depth. (NOTE: The defense is normally conducted at task
force or higher level to protect maneuver units against Level III threats
and to protect CS and CSS assets against Level I and II threats.)
Nonetheless, the company team may called upon to execute this type of
defense under a variety of conditions, including the following:
● When it must hold critical terrain in areas where the defense is
not tied in with adjacent units.
● When it has been bypassed and isolated by the enemy and must
defend in place.
● When it conducts occupation of an independent assembly area or
reserve position.
● When it begins preparation of a strongpoint.
● When it is directed to concentrate fires into two or more adjacent

avenues of approach.
NOTE: A variant of the perimeter defense is the use of the
"Y"-shaped defense, which allows two of the team’s platoons to
orient at any particular time on any of three engagement areas.
Refer to Figure 4-15.


Figure 4-13. Example of a company team strongpoint defense.
Figure 4-14. Company team perimeter defense during assembly area operations.

Figure 4-15. "Y"-shaped perimeter defense.
SECTION 5 - RESERVE
OPERATIONS
IN THE DEFENSE
INTRODUCTION

The company team may be assigned to serve as the reserve for either
the task force or the brigade. In this role, it executes either offensive or
defensive missions to support the scheme of maneuver of the
controlling headquarters. Purposes of reserve employment include the
following:
● Conduct counterattacks to destroy an enemy force, to exploit
success, and/or to regain the initiative.
● Block enemy penetrations.
● Conduct defense of a BP.
● Reinforce defending elements in a BP.
● Assume another company team’s mission.
PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
Command Flexibility and the ability to remain responsive to the commander are
of paramount importance to successful reserve operations. At the same
guidance time, however, these attributes, coupled with the wide range of
missions the reserve can perform, dictate that the task force
commander’s initial intent will not always correspond directly to his
use of the reserve on the battlefield. His command guidance for the
reserve will most likely cover a series of be-prepared missions rather
than a single well-defined task. To assist the reserve commander with
mission planning and preparation, the task force commander’s
guidance should, at a minimum, address the following areas:
● Positioning.
● Be-prepared missions in priority order. The task force

commander must understand that the reserve commander may be
able to effectively plan for only a limited number of these
missions.
● A clear task and purpose for each mission.
● Decision points that define the friendly and/or enemy criteria

under which the reserve will be employed for each be-prepared
mission.
● Supporting graphic control measures, such as BPs or attack by
fire positions and corresponding engagement areas.
● Direct fire planning information.

Time Receipt of a reserve mission will have a significant impact on the

troop-leading process. Because he normally will be required to plan for
management, several contingencies, the reserve commander must, in most cases,
coordination, delegate responsibilities for conducting preparations for combat.
rehearsals, and Thorough coordination and effective rehearsals are keys in ensuring
REDCON levels that the unit is ready to fight. As an example, the company team may
be tasked as the brigade reserve and committed in one of several
sectors. This results in much broader coordination requirements and
creates a need for well-focused rehearsals. The team commander and
subordinate leaders must be proactive in fulfilling these requirements
and ensuring that their soldiers are ready to execute the team’s portion
of the higher commander’s plan. In addition, the commander must
make a realistic determination of the REDCON levels under which the
company team will operate throughout the reserve mission. Refer to
Appendix E of this manual for a detailed discussion of REDCON
levels.
Positioning and Since the reserve is one of the higher commander’s most important
resources, he must ensure both that the force remains intact and that it
protection is located where it can influence the battle. He does this through
effective positioning and thorough OPSEC and force protection
measures.
Reserve position The location of the reserve position is a critical factor in the success of
the reserve, no matter what mission it is performing. The commander
must position the force so it is responsive to the most likely
contingency; however, the reserve position must allow it to respond to
all possible missions dictated by the task force or brigade.
Force protection The enemy’s actions (both actual and anticipated) also have a
significant effect on reserve positioning. The enemy will target the
reserve in his intelligence collection effort; later, he will try to prevent
the reserve from influencing the battle, using indirect fires, chemicals,
or virtually any other means to divert, slow, or weaken it. To counter
these actions, the commander must ensure that the reserve position
enhances security, if possible affording cover from enemy fires and
concealment from enemy observation. If an effective hide position is
not available, the reserve can maintain security through frequent moves
or effective dispersion.
Axis planning Mobility is a key factor in maintaining the responsiveness of the
and reserve force. Both the reserve commander and the higher commander
time-distance are responsible for ensuring that the reserve can move quickly and
safely throughout the defensive sector. Their tools in this effort include
analysis axis planning and time-distance analysis.
Whenever possible, the commander should identify covered and
concealed axes for each contingency the reserve may face. This will
require detailed coordination and planning for routes through and/or
around tactical and protective obstacles in the sector. The reserve
should rehearse movement on as many axes as possible under a variety
of conditions.
The commander also must calculate time-distance factors for each axis.

The time required to move between the reserve position and each
contingency BP or attack by fire position must be forwarded to the
controlling headquarters to assist in the synchronization of the higher
plan.
Engagement During planning for the reserve mission, the commander must
prioritize engagement area development and direct fire planning. The
area level of planning and preparation that goes into each engagement area
development should be based on the priority it was given in the task force or brigade
and command guidance. The reserve force is not likely to receive
direct fire countermobility and survivability support in developing its engagement
areas since those assets will normally be allocated to company teams in
planning defensive positions; this means the commander must give special
attention to the use of existing terrain features and obstacles in
providing security for the reserve. He must also conduct direct fire
planning for all contingencies. Depending on the designated priorities,
the level of planning and preparation will vary for each contingency.
For example, the commander may specify a mounted rehearsal for the
most likely mission, but limit planning for contingencies of lower
priority to a leader’s reconnaissance.
Planning for Planning and preparation for BPs and/or attack by fire positions in
reserve operations are virtually identical to the corresponding activities
BPs for other types of operations. A key difference is that the commander
and attack by has a greater opportunity, and a greater responsibility, to employ
fire positional advantage in the reserve role. Whenever possible, he should
positions maximize the use of BPs and attack by fire positions on the enemy's
flanks or on reverse slopes.
Fire support The company team commander and FSO must develop fire support
plans to support the engagement area(s) designated for each reserve
planning contingency. Once it is employed, the reserve is usually designated as
the main effort and, as such, may receive priority of fires. An
additional fire support consideration is the employment of smoke to
screen the movement of the reserve force. (NOTE: When the company
team is serving in the reserve role, the team FIST may be task
organized with forward elements of the task force.)
RESERVE OPERATIONS AND TECHNIQUES

In a reserve role, the company team may be committed to execute an
offensive mission (such as a counterattack to destroy an enemy force or
to exploit success) or a defensive mission (for example, block a
penetration, reinforce a BP, or assume another company team’s mission).
In either case, the tactical tasks the team will be called on to execute are
similar to those discussed in Chapter 3 (offensive operations) and
elsewhere in Chapter 4 (defense).

Counterattack The reserve force may execute a counterattack by fire to destroy exposed
enemy elements and free decisively engaged friendly elements. A base of
by fire fire element suppresses or fixes the enemy force while the counterattack
(maneuver) element moves on a concealed route to firing positions from
which it can engage the enemy in the flank and/or rear. The
counterattack element must maneuver rapidly to its firing position, often
fighting through enemy flank security elements, to complete the
counterattack before the enemy can bring follow-on forces forward to
influence the fight.
Counterattack security is provided in several ways. The commander and
all element leaders analyze and implement intelligence data from the task
force. Platoons in the counterattack element employ fire and movement,
with support from the base of fire element adding a degree of movement
security. Smoke is especially valuable in enhancing counterattack
security. It can be employed to screen the movement of the counterattack
element. It can also aid in a deception effort; examples include placing
smoke on previous reserve positions to simulate disengagement and
placing it on the flank opposite the counterattack force to deceive the
enemy as to the location of the counterattack.
Execution of the counterattack by fire is similar to that for an attack by
fire; refer to the discussion of the attack by fire in Chapter 3 of this
manual. Planning and preparation considerations for the counterattack
will vary depending on the purpose and location of the operation. For
example, the counterattack may be conducted forward of friendly
positions, requiring the reserve force to move around friendly elements
and through their protective and tactical obstacles. In other situations, the
commander may use a counterattack by fire to block, fix, or contain a
penetration. In any case, the reserve force will conduct the counterattack
as an enemy-oriented operation. Figure 4-16 illustrates a counterattack
by fire conducted by a company team.
Assault In a reserve role, the company team can conduct an assault to destroy an
enemy force, to relieve pressure on a friendly unit, or to regain key
terrain. The unit attacks the enemy force from the flank and uses
maneuver (fire and movement) to close with and destroy the threat.
Unlike the counterattack by fire, in which long-range fires are employed
from stationary positions to reduce enemy combat power by attrition, the
assault requires the attacking force to maneuver to a position of
advantage well inside the range of enemy weapons.
Reinforce a Reinforcement of a defending element requires a level of detailed
planning and coordination similar to that associated with linkup
defending operations. As the reinforcing element, the reserve force moves into
force adjacent positions covering the same avenues as the unit being
reinforced. It then assists the other unit in the defense of the BP or
assumes responsibility for the defense. Figure 4-16 illustrates a reserve
mission in which the company team reinforces a defending element.

Assume the In assuming the mission of another company team (or another type of
mission unit, if applicable), the reserve force first conducts a relief in place. The
of another now-committed reserve then continues the mission, such as defense of a
BP.
team
Figure 4-16. Example of company team reserve missions, including counterattack by fire,
reinforce a defending element, and block a penetration.
SECTION 6 - RETROGRADE
OPERATIONS

Retrograde operations entail organized movement away from the

enemy. Units may employ them, either voluntarily or under direct
pressure from the enemy, to achieve a variety of purposes:
● Improve a tactical situation or prevent an unfavorable situation
from becoming worse.
● Economize forces.
● Maintain freedom of maneuver.
● Avoid combat under unfavorable conditions.
There are three types of retrograde operations:

● Delay. This operation allows the unit to trade space for time,
avoiding decisive engagement and safeguarding its elements.
● Withdrawal. The commander uses this operation to break enemy
contact, especially when he needs to free the unit for a new
mission.
● Retirement. This operation is employed to move a force that is
not in contact to the rear.
DELAY
This is a series of defensive and offensive actions over successive
positions in depth. It is an economy of force operation that trades space for
time. While the enemy gains access to the area (space) that is vacated,
friendly elements gain time to conduct necessary operations and retain
freedom of action and maneuver. This allows friendly forces to influence
the action; they can prevent decisive engagement or postpone it to occur at
a more critical time or place on the battlefield.
Delay There are two types of delay missions:
missions ● Delay in sector.
● Delay forward of a specified line or position for a specified time.
The controlling commander must determine whether the delay operation

will focus on avoiding decisive engagement and preserving the combat
power of the friendly force (delay in sector) or on a specific, time-related
objective. The type of mission must be clearly outlined in the
commander’s intent.
For either type of delay mission, the flow of the operation can be
summarized as "hit hard, then move." A successful delay has three key
components:
● The ability to stop or slow the enemy’s momentum while avoiding
decisive engagement.
● The ability to degrade the enemy’s combat power.
● The ability to maintain a mobility advantage. Techniques for

maintaining this advantage are covered in detail in the discussion of
displacement planning earlier in this chapter.

Planning In preparing for the delay operation, the commander uses planning
considerations that are identical to those for a defense in sector, varying
only in their purpose. Refer to the discussion of defense in sector earlier in
this chapter. Planning for the delay must cover several areas related to
hindering enemy movement and maintaining mobility. These
considerations include the following:
● Use of existing terrain and obstacles, enhanced as necessary by
employment of reinforcing obstacles.
● Designation of positions from which the friendly force can harass or
impede the enemy without risking decisive engagement itself; this is
especially applicable for a delay in sector. When a task force is
delaying in sector, company teams are normally assigned a series of
specific BPs to enhance command and control across the sector.
Likewise, in a company team delay in sector, the commander will
assign a series of specific BPs for each platoon.
● Assessment of opportunities to conduct limited counterattacks to
disrupt enemy actions.
● Designation of high-speed avenues of withdrawal.
● Rehearsal of operations anticipated for the delay; these may include

engagement of the enemy and maneuver through the delay area.
Delay In executing either a delay in sector or a time-related delay, the
commander can choose from the following techniques:
techniques
● Delay from successive positions or phase lines.
● Delay from alternating positions.

Delay from This delay technique is normally used when the sector is so wide that
successive available forces cannot occupy more than a single line of positions. The
positions commander must be aware of several factors that may put his unit at a
or phase lines disadvantage during the delay:
● Lack of depth at any particular time.
● The possibility of inadequate time to prepare successive positions.
● Decreased security during disengagement.
● The possibility of gaps between units.
When the unit receives the order to conduct the delay from its initial
positions, one element (such as a company team in a task force delay or a
platoon in a company team delay) displaces and occupies its successive
BP. The remainder of the unit maintains contact with the enemy until the
first displacing element is in position to engage the enemy from the
successive position. The first element then provides overwatch or base of
fire as other elements displace to their successive positions. Figure 4-17
illustrates a company team delay from successive positions.

Delay from This method of delay may be used when the delaying element has
alternating sufficient forces to occupy more than a single line of positions (normally
positions in a narrow sector). The delaying task force or company team arrays one
or more of its subordinate elements in the initial delay positions. This first
echelon then engages the enemy while the rest of the unit occupies and
prepares second-echelon delay positions.
The unit then alternates fighting the enemy with movement to new
positions. The elements in the initial delay positions engage the enemy
until ordered to displace or until their displacement criteria have been met.
They then displace, moving through the second-echelon delay positions to
their own successive positions (which become the third echelon of the
delay).
Elements in the second echelon overwatch the displacing units’ movement
and assume responsibility for engaging the enemy. This sequence
continues until the delay operation is completed. Figure 4-18 illustrates a
company team delay from alternating positions.

Figure 4-17. Example company team delay from successive positions.

Figure 4-18. Example company team delay from alternating positions.
WITHDRAWAL
A withdrawal is an operation in which a unit frees itself for a new
mission. It can also be conducted when the commander determines that
he must reposition all or part of his force for a specific purpose; for
example, he may need to separate from the enemy by a prescribed
distance to allow employment of special-purpose munitions. A
withdrawal can be executed at any time and during any type of
operation. The company team normally conducts a withdrawal as part
of a task force operation.
Classification In addition to the purpose of the operation, conduct of the withdrawal
is classified in several ways:
● Under pressure or not under pressure. A unit making a
withdrawal under pressure must additionally be prepared to
conduct disengagement operations.
● Assisted or unassisted. In an assisted withdrawal, a security
force provided by the next higher headquarters assists the main
body in breaking contact with the enemy. In an unassisted
withdrawal, the controlling headquarters must provide its own
security. Assisted and unassisted withdrawals are covered later
in this discussion.
Phases Withdrawals are accomplished in three overlapping phases, which are
outlined in the following paragraphs.
The commander dispatches quartering parties, issues warning orders,
Preparation phase
and initiates planning. Nonessential vehicles are moved to the rear.
Disengagement Designated elements begin movement to the rear. They break contact
phase (refer to the discussion of displacement planning earlier in this chapter)
and conduct tactical movement to a designated assembly area or
position.

Security phase In this phase, a security force protects and assists the other elements as
they disengage and/or move to their new positions. This is done either
by a DLIC, which the unit itself designates in an unassisted
withdrawal, or by a security force provided by the higher headquarters
in an assisted withdrawal. As necessary, the security force assumes
responsibility for the sector, deceives the enemy, and protects the
movement of disengaged elements by providing overwatch and
suppressive fires. In an assisted withdrawal, the security phase ends
when the security force has assumed responsibility for the fight and the
withdrawing element has completed its movement. In an unassisted
withdrawal, this phase ends when the DLIC completes its
disengagement and movement to the rear.
Unassisted In an unassisted withdrawal, the unit conducting the withdrawal
establishes the DLIC to maintain contact with the enemy and/or to
withdrawal deceive him. In a task force withdrawal, the DLIC may consist of an
element from each company team (under leadership of the team XO or
a platoon leader), with the task force S3 as the overall DLIC
commander. As an alternative, a company team may serve as the DLIC
for the rest of the task force. The company team commander has
several deployment options. He can reposition elements across the
entire task force frontage. Another option is to position the team to
cover only the most dangerous enemy avenue of approach; other
avenues into the sector are covered with observation from additional
security elements provided by the task force, such as the scout platoon.
The commander has similar options in an unassisted company team
withdrawal. He may designate one platoon to execute the DLIC
mission for the team, or he can constitute the DLIC using elements
from all three platoons, with the XO as the DLIC commander. Figure
4-19 illustrates an example of an unassisted withdrawal.

Figure 4-19. Example of an unassisted withdrawal.

Assisted In an assisted task force withdrawal, the brigade will normally provide a
security element to maintain contact with and deceive the enemy while
withdrawal the task force conducts its withdrawal. Likewise, in a company
withdrawal, the task force provides the security force.
The security force establishes defensive positions behind the
withdrawing unit and conducts preparations for a rearward passage of
lines. The withdrawing force disengages from the enemy and conducts
the rearward passage through the security force to assembly areas in the
rear.
RETIREMENT
Retirement is a retrograde operation in which a force not in contact with
the enemy conducts organized movement to the rear. It is normally
done during periods of limited visibility. The company team conducts a
retirement as part of a larger force.

FM 71-1 Chapter 5 Other Tactical Operations
CHAPTER 5
Other Tactical Operations

This chapter covers tasks the company team may conduct, either on its own or as part of a larger force,
to complement or support its primary missions.
CONTENTS
Section 1 Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance Planning
Reconnaissance Execution
Reconnaissance Before and After Operations
Reconnaissance During Operations
Forms of Reconnaissance
Section 2 Security Operations
Screen Operations
Guard Operations
Local Security
Section 3 Linkup
Linkup Situations
Phases of the Linkup Operation
Section 4 Passage of Lines
Reconnaissance and Coordination
Forward Passage of Lines
Rearward Passage of Lines
Section 5 Relief in Place
Planning the Relief

Coordination
Conducting the Relief
Section 6 Breaching Operations
Mobility Assets
Breaching Tenets
Types of Breaching Operations
Example of a Deliberate Breach

Section 7 Hasty Water Crossing/Gap Crossing Operations
Methods/Purposes of Water Crossing Operations

Company Team Crossing Capabilities
Task Force Hasty Water Crossing Operations
Company Team Hasty Gap Crossing Operations
SECTION 1 -
RECONNAISSANCE
Reconnaissance is any mission undertaken, using visual observation or
other methods, to obtain information regarding the activities and
resources of enemy forces or the physical characteristics of a particular
area. Successful reconnaissance is a focused collection effort, aimed at
gathering timely, accurate information about the enemy and the terrain
in the area of operations. It is the responsibility of every commander
to conduct reconnaissance, with the goal of gaining the information he
needs to ensure the success of his mission. In addition, the company
team may conduct other reconnaissance operations to gather
information for higher headquarters. For a more detailed discussion of
reconnaissance operations, refer to FM 17-95 or FM 100-40.
RECONNAISSANCE PLANNING
Reconnaissance planning starts with the commander’s identification of
critical information requirements. This process may be conducted while
the unit is planning or preparing for an operation; in may cases, it will
continue during the conduct of the operation.
As an example of identifying information requirements before an
operation, the company team commander determines that he must find
out if an enemy force is controlling a choke point through which the
team must move during the next day’s attack. As a result, the
commander may decide to send an infantry patrol to reconnoiter the
choke point the night before the attack. Once the operation is under
way, the commander continues to identify information requirements.
An example is the need to find an assailable flank or another position of
advantage over an identified enemy force while the company team
develops the situation; in such a situation, the commander may dispatch
a platoon or section to find a flank or position from which the team can
effectively engage the enemy.

RECONNAISSANCE EXECUTION
Reconnaissance can be passive or active. Passive reconnaissance
includes such techniques as map and photographic reconnaissance and
surveillance. Active methods available to the company team include
mounted and dismounted ground reconnaissance and reconnaissance
by fire. Active reconnaissance operations are also classified as stealthy
or aggressive, as discussed in the following paragraphs.
Stealthy Stealthy reconnaissance emphasizes procedures and techniques that
allow the unit to avoid detection and engagement by the enemy. It is
reconnaissance more time-consuming than aggressive reconnaissance. To be effective,
stealthy reconnaissance must rely primarily on dismounted elements
that make maximum use of covered and concealed terrain. The
company team’s primary assets for stealthy reconnaissance are its
infantry squads. For a more detailed discussion of dismounted
patrolling, refer to FM 7-10 or FM 17-98.
Aggressive Aggressive reconnaissance is characterized by the speed and manner
in which the reconnaissance element develops the situation once
reconnaissance contact is made with an enemy force. A unit conducting aggressive
reconnaissance uses both direct and indirect fires and movement to
rapidly develop the situation. It uses primarily mounted
reconnaissance and reconnaissance by fire. In conducting a mounted
patrol, the unit employs the principles of tactical movement to
maintain security. The patrolling element maximizes the use of cover
and concealment and conducts bounding overwatch as necessary to
avoid detection. For a more detailed discussion of tactical movement,
refer to Chapter 3 of this manual. The discussion of direct fire control
in Chapter 2 includes a description of reconnaissance by fire.
RECONNAISSANCE BEFORE AND AFTER OPERATIONS

To be most effective, reconnaissance must be continuous, conducted
before, during, and after operations. Before an operation, the company
team focuses its reconnaissance effort on filling gaps in its information
about the enemy and terrain. (NOTE: Figure 5-1 shows an example of
company team reconnaissance prior to an operation.) After an
operation, the team normally conducts reconnaissance to maintain
contact with the enemy and collect information for upcoming
operations. Situations in which the company team may conduct
reconnaissance before or after an operation include the following:
● Reconnaissance by a quartering party of an assembly area and the
associated route to it.
● Reconnaissance from the assembly area to the LD and in the
vicinity of the LD before an offensive operation.
● Reconnaissance by infantry patrols to probe enemy positions for
gaps prior to an attack or infiltration.

● Reconnaissance by infantry patrols to observe forward positions

and guide mounted elements to key positions on the battlefield.
● Reconnaissance by dismounted patrols (normally infantry and
engineers) to locate bypasses around obstacle belts or to
determine the best locations and methods for breaching
operations.
● Reconnaissance by infantry patrols of choke points or other
danger areas in advance of the remainder of the company team.
● Reconnaissance by mounted patrols to observe forward positions
or to clear a route to a forward position.
● Reconnaissance of defensive positions or engagement areas prior
to the conduct of the defense.
● Reconnaissance by mounted or dismounted patrols as part of
security operations to secure friendly obstacles, clear possible
enemy OPs, or cover areas not observable by stationary OPs.
● Reconnaissance by mounted or dismounted patrols to maintain
contact with adjacent units.
● Reconnaissance by mounted or dismounted patrols to maintain
contact with enemy elements.
RECONNAISSANCE DURING OPERATIONS

During offensive operations, company team reconnaissance normally
focuses on fighting for information about the enemy and the terrain,
with the primary goal of gaining an advantage over the enemy. The
company team conducts this type of reconnaissance during actions on
contact. As the team develops the situation, the commander may
dispatch mounted or dismounted patrols to identify positions of
advantage or to acquire an enemy force. The information gained by the
company team while in contact is critical not only to the success of its
own mission but also to the success of its higher headquarters. Actions
on contact are discussed in detail in Chapter 3 of this manual.


Figure 5-1. Example of a company team commander identifying intelligence requirements

and using patrols to conduct reconnaissance.
FORMS OF RECONNAISSANCE
In addition to reconnaissance performed as part of another type of
operation, there are four forms of reconnaissance that are conducted
as distinct operations: route reconnaissance, zone reconnaissance,
area reconnaissance, and reconnaissance in force. Although not
optimally organized for reconnaissance, the company team can
conduct route, zone, or area reconnaissance. It may conduct a
reconnaissance operation during preparation for another operation of
its own (for example, performing zone reconnaissance before
initiating a stationary guard operation), or it can conduct the
reconnaissance to gain information for a higher headquarters. The
team will normally be task organized with additional combat or CS
assets as needed to meet the requirements of the reconnaissance
operation. (NOTE: Reconnaissance in force is a limited-objective
operation conducted by battalion-size and larger forces.)
Positioning of In conducting a route, zone, or area reconnaissance, the company
team employs a combination of mounted and dismounted elements
subordiante as well as reconnaissance by direct and indirect fires. Based on his
elements evaluation of METT-TC factors, the team commander establishes
the role of organic elements and support assets within his scheme of
maneuver. The following considerations apply:
● Mechanized infantry platoons normally perform the
reconnaissance role, taking advantage of their ability to use
infantrymen to gather information on the ground.
● Tank platoons normally perform the overwatch role,
providing security to reconnaissance elements. Based on
METT-TC, however, the tanks may be tasked to perform the
reconnaissance role.
● Engineers remain behind the combat elements; as necessary,
they move forward to conduct any required breaches once
breach sites have been secured by the combat elements.
Focus of the In planning for route, zone, or area reconnaissance, the company
team commander must determine the focus of the mission,
reconnaissance identifying whether the reconnaissance will be oriented on the
terrain or on the enemy force. It is then essential that he provide the
team with clear guidance on the focus of the reconnaissance. In a
force-oriented reconnaissance operation, the critical task will simply
be to find the enemy and gather information on him; terrain
considerations of the route, zone, or area are only a secondary
concern. The company team generally is able to move more quickly
than in terrain-oriented reconnaissance.
Conduct of the The following paragraphs examine the specifics of route, zone, and
area reconnaissance. For a more detailed discussion of these
reconnaissance operations at the company/troop level, refer to FM 17-97.

Route A route reconnaissance is a directed effort to obtain detailed

reconnaissance information on a specific route as well as on all terrain from which
the enemy could influence movement along that route. Route
reconnaissance may be oriented on a specific area of movement,
such as a road or trail, or on a more general area, like an axis of
advance. It is normally assigned when a commander wants to use
the route in question. Although METT-TC and the commander’s
intent will ultimately dictate what actions the company team must
take, the following tasks are normally considered critical
components of the route reconnaissance:
● Determine the trafficability of the route.
● Reconnoiter all built-up areas.
● Reconnoiter all terrain the enemy can use to dominate

movement along the route.
● Reconnoiter all lateral routes.
● Inspect and evaluate all bridges.
● Locate fords and crossing sites near all bridges.
● Reconnoiter all defiles. This step includes clearing defiles of

enemy forces and obstacles (within capability) or locating
bypasses.
● Locate and clear mines, obstacles, and barriers (within
capability).
● Locate a bypass around built-up areas, obstacles, and
contaminated areas.
● Find and report all enemy elements that can influence
movement along the route.
● Report all reconnaissance information.
Zone A zone reconnaissance is a directed effort to obtain detailed
reconnaissance information concerning all routes, terrain, enemy forces, and
obstacles (including areas of chemical and radiological
contamination) within a zone, which is defined by specific
boundaries. The zone reconnaissance is normally conducted when
the enemy situation is vague or when information concerning
cross-country trafficability is required. As in route reconnaissance,
METT-TC and the commander’s intent will dictate the company
team’s actions during a zone reconnaissance; the following tasks are
normally considered critical components of the operation:
● Find and report all enemy forces within the zone.
● Reconnoiter specific terrain within the zone.
● Report all reconnaissance information.
Time permitting, the commander may also direct the company team
to accomplish the following tasks as part of a zone reconnaissance:
● Reconnoiter all terrain within the zone.
● Inspect and classify all bridges.
● Locate fords or crossing sites near all bridges.

● Inspect and classify all overpasses, underpasses, and culverts.

● Locate and clear all mines, obstacles, and barriers (within
capability).
● Locate bypasses around built-up areas, obstacles, and
contaminated areas.
Area Area reconnaissance, a specialized form of zone reconnaissance, is a
reconnaissance directed effort to obtain detailed information concerning the terrain
or enemy activity within a prescribed area. The area can be any
location that is critical to the unit’s operations. Examples include
easily identifiable areas covering a fairly large space (such as towns
or military installations), terrain features (ridge lines, wood lines,
choke points), or a single point (like a bridge or a building). The
critical tasks of the area reconnaissance are the same as those
associated with zone reconnaissance.
SECTION 2 - SECURITY
OPERATIONS
Security operations are conducted to provide early and accurate
warning of enemy operations, to provide the protected force with time
and maneuver space to react to the enemy, and to develop the situation
to allow the commander to effectively employ the protected force.
These operations may be conducted to the front, flanks, or rear of the
force. For additional information on security operations, refer to FM
17-95 or FM 100-40.
The four forms of security operations are screen, guard, cover, and area
security. The screen, guard, and cover entail deployment of
progressively higher levels of combat power and provide increasing
levels of security for the main body. Area security preserves a higher
commander’s freedom to move his reserves, position fire support assets,
conduct command and control operations, and provide for sustainment
operations.
NOTE: All forces have an inherent responsibility to provide for
their own local security. Local security includes OPs, local
security patrols, perimeter security, and other measures taken to
provide close-in security for the force. Refer to the discussion at
the end of this section.
The company team can conduct screen or guard operations on its own.
It participates in area security missions and covering force operations
only as part of a larger element. The company team always provides its
own local security. (NOTE: As part of a larger element’s area security
operation, the company team may conduct route clearance or convoy
escort operations; refer to Appendix J for a detailed discussion on these
missions.)

Security operations require the commander assigning the security
mission and the security force commander to address a variety of
special operational factors. These planning considerations are
discussed in the following paragraphs.
Augmentation of When it is assigned to conduct a guard or screen mission, the
company team may receive additional combat, CS, and CSS
security forces elements. Attachments may include, but are not limited to, the
following:
● A scout platoon.
● A mortar section or platoon.
● Additional tank or mechanized infantry platoons.
● MI surveillance assets. For example, these may include

elements equipped with AN/PPS-5 night vision devices.
● Associated CSS elements.
Enemy-related Security operations require the company team to deal with a unique
set of enemy considerations. For example, the array of enemy forces
considerations (and the tactics that enemy commanders use to employ them) may be
different from those for any other tactical operation the team will
conduct. Additional enemy considerations that may influence
company team security operations include, but are not limited to, the
following:
● The presence or absence of specific types of forces on the
battlefield, including the following:
- Insurgent elements (not necessarily part of the enemy
force).
- Enemy reconnaissance elements of varying strength
and capabilities (at divisional, regimental, or other
levels).
- Enemy security elements (such as CRPs or forward
patrols).
- Enemy stay-behind elements or enemy elements that
have been bypassed.
● Possible locations that the enemy will use to employ his
tactical assets, including the following:
- Reconnaissance and/or infiltration routes.
- OP sites for surveillance and/or indirect fire observers.
● Availability and/or anticipated employment of other enemy
assets, including the following:
- Surveillance devices, such as radar devices or UAVs.
- Long-range rocket and artillery assets.

- Helicopter and fixed-wing air strikes.

- Elements capable of dismounted insertion and/or
infiltration.
- Mechanized forward detachments.
Time the security The time by which the screen or guard must be set and active will
influence the company team’s method of deploying to the security
operation is area as well as the time it begins the deployment.
initiated
Reconnaissance The company team commander uses a thorough analysis of
METT-TC factors to determine the appropriate methods and
of techniques the company team will use in accomplishing this critical
the security area action. (NOTE: The commander must make every effort to conduct
his own reconnaissance of the security area he expects the team to
occupy, even when the operation is preceded by a zone
reconnaissance by other task force elements.)
Movement to the In deploying elements to an area for a stationary security mission,
the company team commander must deal with the competing
security area requirements of establishing the security operation quickly to meet
mission requirements and of providing the necessary level of local
security in doing so. The team can move to the security area using
one of two basic methods: a tactical road march or a movement to
contact. Either method should be preceded by a zone reconnaissance
by the task force scout platoon. The following paragraphs examine
considerations and procedures for the two methods of movement.
Tactical road march The company team conducts a tactical road march to an RP behind
the security area. From that point, the platoons (or sections) deploy
to occupy their initial positions. This method of deployment is faster
than a movement to contact, but less secure. It is appropriate when
enemy contact is not expected or when time is critical.
Movement to The company team conducts a movement to contact from the LD to
contact the security area. This method is slower than a tactical road march,
but it is more secure. It is appropriate when time is not critical and
either enemy contact is likely or the situation is unclear.
Location and The main body commander determines the location, orientation, and
depth of the security area in which he wants the security force to
orientation of operate. The security force commander conducts a detailed analysis
the security area of the terrain in the security area. He then establishes his initial
dispositions (usually a screen line, even for a guard mission) as far
forward as possible on terrain that allows clear observation of
avenues of approach into sector. The initial screen line is depicted as
a phase line and sometimes represents the FLOT. As such, the screen
line may be a restrictive control measure for movement; this requires
the company team commander to conduct all necessary coordination
if he decides to establish OPs or to perform reconnaissance forward
of the line.

Initial OP The company team commander may deploy OPs to ensure effective
surveillance of the sector and designated NAIs. He will designate
locations initial OP locations on or behind the screen line. He should provide
OP personnel with specific orientation and observation guidance,
including, at a minimum, the primary orientation for the surveillance
effort during the conduct of the screen. Once set on the screen line,
the surveillance elements (normally, either scouts or mechanized
infantrymen) will report their location. The element that occupies
each OP always retains the responsibility for changing the location
in accordance with tactical requirements and the commander’s intent
and guidance for orientation. OPs may be either mounted or
dismounted. Mounted OPs allow use of vehicular optics and weapon
systems and maximize speed of displacement, but are more easily
detected by the enemy. Dismounted OPs maximize stealth.
Width and depth The company team sector is defined by lateral boundaries extending
out to an LOA (the initial screen line) forward of a rear boundary.
of the security The team’s ability to maintain depth through the sector decreases as
area the screened or guarded frontage increases.
Special The company team commander must specify any additional
considerations for the security operation, including, but not limited
requirements to, the following:
and/or constraints ● All requirements for observing NAIs, as identified by the task
force.
● Any additional tactical tasks or missions that the company
team and subordinate elements must perform.
● Engagement and disengagement criteria for all team elements.
Indirect fire The company team commander conducts indirect fire planning to
integrate artillery and mortar assets into the security mission. A wide
planning sector may require him to position attached mortar assets where they
can provide effective coverage of the enemy’s most likely axis of
attack or infiltration route, as determined in his analysis of the
enemy. The commander can position the mortars so that up to
two-thirds of their maximum range lies forward of the initial screen
line. The company team FIST assists the commander in planning
artillery fires to adequately cover any gaps in mortar coverage.
Positioning of The commander normally positions himself where he can observe
the most dangerous enemy axis of attack or infiltration route, with
command and the XO positioned on the second most critical axis or route. The XO
control and positions the team CP (if used) in depth and, normally, centered in
CSS assets sector; this allows the CP to provide control of initial movement, to
receive reports from the screen or guard elements, and to assist the
commander in more effectively facilitating command and control.
Combat trains are positioned behind masking terrain, but they
remain close enough for rapid response. The trains are best sited
along routes that afford good mobility laterally and in depth.
Patrols may be required to cover gaps between the OPs. The
company team commander will task elements to conduct either
mounted or dismounted patrols as required.

Coordination The company team commander must conduct adjacent unit

coordination to ensure there are no gaps in the screen or guard and to
ensure smooth execution of the team’s rearward passages of lines (if
required). Additionally, he must coordinate the team’s follow-on
mission.
CSS The company team commander’s primary consideration for CSS
during the security operation is coordinating and conducting
considerations resupply of the team, especially for Class III and Class V supplies.
(NOTE: One technique is for the commander to position prestock
Class III and Class V vehicles at the team’s successive positions.) In
addition to normal considerations, however, the commander may
acquire other responsibilities in this area, such as arranging CSS for
a large number of attached elements or coordinating resupply for a
subsequent mission.
The company team’s support planning can be further complicated by
a variety of factors. These include the extended distances from the
task force combat trains and the BSA over which the team must
operate (making resupply, casualty evacuation, and vehicle recovery
more difficult), the wide frontages that the team must cover, and the
increased numbers of attachments for which the team must provide
resupply and other support services (such as casualty evacuation). To
prevent these factors from creating outright tactical problems, the
company team must receive logistical support, such as additional
medical evacuation vehicles, from the controlling task force.
Follow-on The complexities of security missions, combined with normal
operational requirements (such as troop-leading procedures,
missions engagement area development, rest plans, and CSS activities), can
easily rob the company team commander of the time he needs for
planning and preparation of follow-on missions. He must address
these competing demands in his initial mission analysis to ensure
that the team, and its leaders, can adequately meet all requirements
for current and future operations. If METT-TC factors permit, for
example, the commander can shift his focus to preparing for
follow-on missions once preparations for the security mission are
complete (or satisfactorily under way). Another technique is to
detach the XO, with support personnel and vehicles, to prepare for
follow-on missions. The XO’s party can handle such operational
requirements as reconnaissance, coordination, and development of
follow-on engagement areas and BPs.
SCREEN OPERATIONS
A screen primarily provides early warning. It observes, identifies, and
reports enemy actions. A screen provides the least amount of protection
of any security mission. Generally, a screening force engages and
destroys enemy reconnaissance elements within its capabilities, but
otherwise fights only in self-defense. It normally does not have the
combat power to develop the situation.

Purposes A screen is appropriate to cover gaps between forces, the exposed

flanks or rear of stationary and moving forces, or the front of a
stationary formation; it is used when the likelihood of enemy contact is
remote, the expected enemy force is small, or the friendly main body
needs only a minimum amount of time once it is warned to react
effectively. Screening is largely accomplished by establishing a series
of OPs and conducting patrols to ensure adequate surveillance of the
assigned sector. Purposes of the operation include the following:
● Prevent enemy ground elements from passing through the screen
undetected or unreported.
● Maintain continuous surveillance of all avenues of approach into
the sector under all visibility conditions.
● Destroy or repel enemy reconnaissance elements within
capability.
● Locate the lead elements of each enemy advance guard force and
determine their direction of movement.
● Maintain contact with enemy forces and report any activity in
sector.
● Impede and harass the enemy within capability while displacing.
● Maintain contact with the enemy main body and any enemy
security forces operating on the flanks of friendly forces.
Stationary The company team commander first takes a close look at infiltration
routes into the screen sector, then assigns surveillance responsibility to
screen the team’s subordinate elements. He designates locations of OPs, which
should be in depth through the sector. The OPs are normally manned by
sections within the company team. The commander identifies the
enemy’s likely axes of attack or infiltration routes; if necessary, he
identifies additional control measures (such as NAIs, phase lines, TRPs,
or checkpoints) to assist in movement control and in tracking of enemy
elements. The company team conducts mounted and dismounted patrols
to reconnoiter areas that cannot be observed from OPs.
Once the enemy is detected from an OP, the screening force normally
engages him with indirect fires. This prevents the enemy from
penetrating the screen line and does not compromise the location of the
OP. Within its capability, the screening force may destroy enemy
reconnaissance assets with direct fires if indirect fires cannot
accomplish the task. (NOTE: For additional details, refer to the
discussion of actions against enemy reconnaissance elements in the
guard segment of this section). The screening force also impedes and
harasses other enemy elements, primarily through the use of indirect
fires. If enemy pressure threatens the security of the screening force, the
unit normally reports the situation and requests permission to displace
to a subsequent screen line.
Moving The company team can conduct a moving screen to the flanks or rear of
the screened force. The movement of the screen is keyed to time and
screen distance factors associated with the movement of the friendly main
body.

Moving flank Responsibilities for a moving flank screen begin at the front of the main
screen body’s lead combat element and end at the rear of the protected force.
In conducting a moving flank screen, the company team either occupies
a series of temporary OPs along a designated screen line or, if the
protected force is moving too fast, continues to move while maintaining
surveillance and preparing to occupy a designated screen line. There are
four basic methods of controlling movement along the screened flank.
The screening force may use one or more of these methods as the speed
of movement of the protected force changes or contact is made. The
four methods are described in the following paragraphs.
Alternate bounds by individual OP. This method is used when the
protected force is advancing slowly or enemy contact is likely along the
screen line. Designated elements of the screening force move to and
occupy new OPs as dictated by the enemy situation and the movement
of the main body. Other elements remain stationary, providing
overwatch and surveillance, until the moving elements establish their
new positions; these elements then move to new positions while the
now-stationary elements provide overwatch and surveillance. This
sequence continues as needed. The method of alternate bounding by
individual OP is secure but slow.
Alternate bounds by unit. This method is used when the protected force
is advancing slowly or enemy contact is likely along the screen line.
Designated elements of the screening force move and occupy new
positions as dictated by the enemy situation and the movement of the
main body. Other elements remain stationary, providing overwatch and
surveillance, until the moving elements establish their new positions;
these elements then move to new positions while the now-stationary
elements provide overwatch and surveillance. This sequence continues
as needed. The method of alternate bounding by unit is secure but slow.
Successive bounds. The screening element uses this method when
enemy contact is possible and the main body makes frequent short halts
during movement. Each platoon of the screening force occupies a
designated portion of the screen line each time the main body stops.
When main body movement resumes, the platoons move
simultaneously, retaining their relative position as they move forward.
Continuous marching. This method is used when the main body is
advancing rapidly at a constant rate and enemy contact is not likely.
The screening force maintains the same rate of movement as the main
body, at the same time conducting surveillance as necessary. Stationary
screen lines are planned along the movement route, but the screening
force occupies them only as necessary to respond to enemy action.
Moving rear A moving rear screen may be established to the rear of a main body
screen force conducting an offensive operation or between the enemy and the
rear of a force conducting a retrograde operation. In either case,
movement of the screen is keyed to the movement of the main body or
to the requirements of the enemy situation; the operation is normally
controlled by movement to a series of phase lines.

GUARD OPERATIONS
A guard force protects the friendly main body either by fighting to gain
time (while simultaneously observing the enemy and reporting pertinent
information) or by attacking, defending, and/or delaying the enemy to
prevent him from observing the main body and engaging it with direct
fires. There are three types of guard operations (advance guard, flank
guard, and rear guard). They can be conducted in support of either a
stationary or a moving friendly force.
The guard force differs from a screening force in that it contains sufficient
combat power to defeat, repel, or fix the lead elements of an enemy ground
force before they can engage the main body with direct fires. In addition,
the guard force normally deploys over a narrower front than does a
comparably sized screening force, allowing greater concentration of
combat power. The guard force routinely engages enemy forces with both
direct and indirect fires (it normally operates within range of the main
body’s indirect fire weapons).
Purposes The purposes of the guard operation, in addition to those listed in the
earlier discussion of the screen, include the following:
● Destroy or repel all enemy reconnaissance elements.
● Fix and defeat enemy security elements.
● Cause the enemy main body to deploy and report its direction of
travel to the friendly main body commander.
Types of
The following discussion covers operational considerations for advance
guard guard, flank guard, and rear guard operations.
operations
Advance guard An advance guard for a stationary force is defensive in nature. The
company team defends or delays in accordance with the intent of the main
body commander. An advance guard for a moving force is offensive in
nature. The company team normally conducts an offensive advance guard
mission during a movement to contact as part of a task force. Its role is to
maintain the freedom of maneuver of the supported task force; it does this
by providing early warning of enemy activity to the protected task force
and by finding, fixing, and destroying enemy reconnaissance and security
elements. For more details on advance guard operations, refer to the
discussion of movement to contact in Chapter 3 of this manual.

Flank guard A flank guard protects an exposed flank of the main body. A flank guard is
similar to a flank screen except that both OPs and defensive positions are
planned. The company team may conduct a moving flank guard during an
attack or a movement to contact. In conducting a moving flank guard, the
company team will normally occupy a series of BPs along the protected
flank. It must maintain orientation both to the front (to perform its
overwatch role and to maintain its own security) and to the protected flank.
It must also maintain a sufficient distance from the main body to prevent
the enemy from engaging the main body with long-range direct fires before
early warning can be sent. A more detailed discussion later in this section
focuses on execution of a moving flank guard.
Rear guard The rear guard protects the rear of the main body as well as all CS and CSS
elements within the main body. This may occur during offensive
operations when the main body breaks contact with the FLOT or during
retrograde operations. A rear guard may be deployed behind both moving
and stationary main bodies. The rear guard for a moving force displaces to
successive BPs along phase lines or delay lines in depth as the main body
moves. During retrograde operations, the rear guard normally deploys its
elements across the entire sector behind the main body’s forward maneuver
units. For a more detailed discussion of retrograde operations, refer to
Section 6 of Chapter 4.
Stationary As noted, a stationary guard mission is, at least initially, defensive in
nature. The guard force normally employs OPs to accomplish all
guard surveillance requirements of the guard mission. The company team must
be prepared to conduct actions against the enemy’s main body and security
elements as well as his reconnaissance forces. The following paragraphs
discuss considerations for operations involving these enemy elements.
Actions against Once contact is made with an enemy main body or security force, the
main body and guard force attacks, defends, or delays in accordance with the enemy
security situation and the intent of the commander of the protected force. (NOTE:
elements Considerations for the defense are discussed in Chapter 4 of this manual;
considerations for retrograde operations are covered in Section 6 of
Chapter 4.)
Actions against When it must execute counterreconnaissance tasks, the team will normally
reconnaissance task organize into a surveillance element (normally occupying a screen
elements line) and an attack element. Each element has specific responsibilities but
must be prepared to work effectively with the other to ensure success of the
operation.
Surveillance element and surveillance sectors. The commander must
assign clear responsibilities for surveillance of identified avenues of
approach and designated NAIs. The surveillance element (normally scout
or mechanized infantry elements) is tasked with detecting, reporting, and
maintaining contact with the enemy in the assigned surveillance sector. In
addition, the surveillance element is responsible for passing off the enemy
force to the attack element for destruction.
Attack element. In this role, the company team’s tank platoons (or
sections) will be the primary direct fire killing assets and will remain
responsive to the commander. (NOTE: Depending on the composition of

the company team conducting the guard mission, BFVs may also be
employed in this role, especially in a mech-heavy team.) The attack
element occupies hide positions, BPs, or attack by fire positions along
enemy avenues of approach. Once alerted by the surveillance force, it
moves into position (if necessary) and destroys the approaching enemy
element. The attack element is responsible for direct fire planning and
engagement area development in support of the commander’s plan. It must
also rehearse all necessary movement to the planned fighting positions and
report the required movement times to the commander.
Relationship of surveillance and attack elements. The company team’s
surveillance element must track locations of any enemy vehicles moving
through the sector while the attack element moves into position. Once the
attack element is set and can observe the enemy, the surveillance element
completes target handover. This operation requires continuous
communication between the two subordinate elements conducting the
handover as well as close control by the company team commander or XO.
In close terrain, the surveillance and attack elements must be positioned
much closer together than in open terrain. This helps the elements both in
maintaining visual contact and in achieving target handover at the
appropriate time. Figure 5-2 illustrates a company team stationary guard
operation.

Figure 5-2. Example company team stationary guard (with infantry squads forward in OPs).
Moving flank Many of the considerations for a moving flank screen apply to the
execution of a moving flank guard. Unlike a moving flank screen,
guard which occupies a series of OPs, the flank guard force plans to occupy a
series of defensive positions. In conducting a moving flank guard, the
company team either occupies a series of temporary BPs along the
protected flank or, if the protected force is moving too quickly,
continues to move along the protected flank. During movement, the
team maintains surveillance to the protected flank while preparing to
occupy designated BPs based on enemy activity or on the movement of
the protected force. There are three basic methods of controlling
movement along the guarded flank:
● Alternate bounds by unit.
● Successive bounds by unit.
● Continuous marching.
NOTE: These are identical to the methods for controlling

movement along a screened flank except that the company team
and its platoons occupy designated defensive positions instead of
OPs. Refer to the discussion of screen operations earlier in this
section.
The lead element of a moving flank guard must accomplish three tasks.
It must maintain contact with the protected force, reconnoiter the flank
guard’s route of advance, and reconnoiter the zone between the
protected force and the flank guard’s advance. The rest of the flank
guard marches along the route of advance and occupies BPs to the
protected flank as necessary.
Figure 5-3 illustrates a company team flank guard operation during a
movement to contact. One platoon is employed to provide security to
the front and maintain contact with the main body; the other two
platoons are oriented to the protected flank. The illustration shows BPs
the platoons may occupy to respond to the approaching enemy force.

Figure 5-3. Example of a company team guarding the brigade flank during movement to contact.
LOCAL SECURITY
The company team is responsible for maintaining its own security at all
times. It does this by deploying mounted and dismounted OPs and
patrols to maintain surveillance and by employing appropriate OPSEC
measures. (NOTE: For a detailed discussion of OPSEC measures, refer
to Appendix M of this manual.) In addition to maintaining security for
its own elements, the company team may implement local security for
other units as directed by the task force commander. Examples of such
situations include, but are not limited to, the following:
● Provide security for engineers as they emplace obstacles or
construct survivability positions in the company team BP.
● Secure a templated LZ.
● Establish mounted and/or dismounted OPs to maintain

surveillance of enemy infiltration and reconnaissance routes.

● Conduct patrols to cover gaps in observation and to clear possible
enemy OPs from surrounding areas.
SECTION 3 - LINKUP
LINKUP SITUATIONS
Linkup is an operation entailing the meeting of friendly ground forces
(or their leaders or designated representatives). It may occur in, but is
not limited to, the following situations:
● Advancing forces reaching an objective area previously secured
by air assault, airborne, or infiltrating forces.
● Units conducting coordination for a relief in place.
● Cross-attached units moving to join their new organization.
● A unit moving forward during a follow and support mission with

a fixing force.
● A unit moving to assist an encircled force.
● Units converging on the same objective during the attack.
● Units conducting a passage of lines.
PHASES OF THE LINKUP OPERATION

The company team conducts linkup activities independently or as
part of a larger force. Within a larger unit, the team may lead the
linkup force. The linkup consists of three phases; the actions
outlined in the following paragraphs are critical to the execution of
a successful operation:
Phase 1 - far During this phase, the units or elements involved in the linkup
should establish communications before they reach direct fire
recognition signal range. The lead element of each linkup force should monitor the
radio frequency of the other friendly force.

Phase 2 - Before initiating movement to the linkup point, the forces must
coordinate necessary tactical information, including the following:
coordination
● The known enemy situation.
● Type and number of friendly vehicles.
● Disposition of stationary forces (if either unit is stationary).
● Routes to the linkup point and rally point (if used).
● Fire control measures.
● Near recognition signal(s).
● Communications information.
● CS coverage.
● CSS responsibilities and procedures.
● Finalized location of the linkup point and rally point (if

used).
● Any special coordination, such as that covering maneuver
instructions or requests for medical support.
Phase 3 - All units or elements involved in the linkup must enforce strict fire
control measures to help prevent fratricide; linkup points and RFLs
movement must be easily recognizable by moving and/or converging forces.
to the linkup point Linkup elements take these actions:
and linkup ● Conduct far recognition using FM radio.
● Conduct short-range (near) recognition using the designated

signal.
● Complete movement to the linkup point.
● Establish local security at the linkup point.
● Conduct additional coordination and linkup activities as

necessary.
SECTION 4 - PASSAGE OF
LINES
A passage of lines entails movement of one or more units through
another unit. This operation becomes necessary when the moving
unit(s) cannot bypass the stationary unit and must pass through it. The
primary purpose of the passage is to maintain the momentum of the
moving elements. A passage of lines may be designated as either
forward or rearward (refer to the discussion and illustrations later in this
section).
The controlling task force is responsible for planning and coordination
of a passage of lines involving the company team. In some situations, as
when the company team is using multiple passage routes (such as a
separate route for each platoon), the team commander must take
responsibility for planning and coordinating each phase of the
operation.

In planning the passage of lines, the commander must
consider the tactical factors and procedures covered in the
following paragraphs.
Passage lanes The passage should facilitate transition to follow-on missions
through the use of multiple lanes or of lanes wide enough to
support doctrinal formations for the passing units.
Use of deception Deception techniques, such as the use of smoke, may be
employed to enhance security during the passage.
Battle handover The controlling commander must clearly define the battle
handover criteria and procedures to be used during the
passage. His order should cover the roles of both the passing
unit and the stationary unit and the use of direct and indirect
fires. If necessary, he also specifies the location of the BHL as
part of the unit’s graphic control measures. For a forward
passage, the BHL is normally the LD for the passing force; in
a rearward passage, it is normally a location within the direct
fire range of the stationary force. In general, a defensive
handover is complete when the passing unit is clear and the
stationary unit is ready to engage the enemy. Offensive
handover is complete when the passing unit has deployed and
crossed the BHL.
Obstacles The passing and stationary units must coordinate obstacle
information, to include the locations of enemy and friendly
obstacles, of existing lanes and/or bypasses, and of guides for
the passage.
Air defense Air defense coverage is imperative during the high-risk
passage operation. Normally, the stationary unit will be
responsible for providing air defense, allowing the passing
unit’s air defense assets to move with it.
CSS responsibilities Responsibility for CSS actions, such as vehicle recovery or
casualty evacuation in the passage lane, must be clearly
defined for both passing and stationary units.
Command and control To enhance command and control during the passage, the
company team will collocate a command and control element,
normally the commander or XO (and his vehicle), with a
similar element from the stationary or moving unit (as
applicable).
RECONNAISSANCE AND COORDINATION

Detailed reconnaissance and coordination are critical in a passage of

lines, both in dealing with the often complex planning factors outlined
previously and in ensuring that the passage is conducted quickly and
smoothly. The company team commander normally conducts all
necessary reconnaissance and coordination for the passage. At times, he
may designate the XO, 1SG, or a platoon leader to conduct liaison
duties for reconnaissance and coordination.
The following items of information are coordinated (an asterisk
indicates items that should be confirmed by reconnaissance):
● Unit designation and composition; type and number of passing
vehicles.
● Passing unit arrival time(s).
● Location of attack positions or assembly areas. *
● Current enemy situation.
● Stationary unit’s mission and plan (to include OP, patrol, and
obstacle locations). *
● Location of movement routes, contact points, passage points, and
passage lanes. (NOTE: In units with digital capability, the use of
GPS/POSNAV waypoints will simplify this process and, as a
result, speed the passage.)
● Guide requirements.
● Order of march.
● Anticipated actions on enemy contact.
● Requirements for supporting direct and indirect fires, including

the location of the RFL. *
● NBC conditions.
● Available CS and CSS assets and their locations. *
● Communications information (to include frequencies, digital

data, and near and far recognition signals).
● Criteria for battle handover and location of the BHL.
● Additional procedures for the passage.
FORWARD PASSAGE OF LINES

In a forward passage, the passing unit first moves to an assembly area

or an attack position behind the stationary unit. Designated liaison
personnel move forward to link up with guides and confirm
coordination information with the stationary unit. Guides then lead the
passing elements through the passage lane.
The company team conducts a forward passage by employing tactical
movement. It moves quickly, using appropriate dispersal and
formations whenever possible and keeping radio traffic to a minimum.
It bypasses disabled vehicles as necessary. The team holds its fire until
it passes the BHL or designated fire control measure unless the
commander has coordinated fire control with the stationary unit. Once
clear of passage lane restrictions, the unit consolidates at a rally point or
attack position and then conducts tactical movement in accordance with
its orders. Figure 5-4 illustrates a forward passage of lines.
Figure 5-4. Company team forward passage of lines.

REARWARD PASSAGE OF LINES

Because of the increased chance of fratricide during a rearward passage,
coordination of recognition signals and direct fire restrictions is critical.
The passing unit contacts the stationary unit while it is still beyond
direct fire range and conducts coordination as discussed previously.
Near recognition signals and location of the BHL are emphasized.
Additional fire control measures, such as RFLs, may be employed to
further minimize the risk of fratricide.
Following coordination, the passing unit continues tactical movement
toward the passage lane. Gun tubes are oriented on the enemy, and the
passing unit is responsible for its own security until it passes the BHL.
If guides are provided by the stationary unit, the passing unit may
conduct a short halt to link up and coordinate with them. The passing
unit moves quickly through the passage lane to a designated location
behind the stationary unit. Refer to Figure 5-5 for an illustration of the
rearward passage.

Figure 5-5. Company team rearward passage of lines.
SECTION 5 - RELIEF IN PLACE

A relief in place occurs when one unit is replaced by another unit
during either offensive or defensive operations. Its purpose is to
preserve the combat effectiveness of committed units. In a relief
involving the company team, the task force commander will direct
when and how the operation will be conducted.
PLANNING THE RELIEF

In planning for a relief in place, the company team commander takes
the following actions:
● Issue a FRAGO immediately.
● Use an advance party composed of key leaders to conduct

detailed reconnaissance and coordination.
● As the relieving unit, adopt the outgoing unit’s normal pattern of
activity as much as possible.
● As the relieving unit, determine when the team will assume
responsibility for the outgoing unit’s position.
● As the relieving unit, collocate team headquarters with the
relieved unit’s headquarters.
● Maximize OPSEC to prevent the enemy from detecting the relief
operation. (NOTE: Whenever possible, conduct the relief at
night or under other limited visibility conditions.)
● Plan for relief of CS elements after combat elements are relieved.
● Plan for transfer of excess ammunition, wire, POL, and other

material of tactical value to the incoming unit. (NOTE: Other
equipment that may be exchanged includes machine gun T&E
mechanisms and tripods, emplaced sensors and chemical alarms,
and MOPMS control boxes.)
● Control movement by reconnoitering, designating, and marking
routes and providing guides.

COORDINATION
The incoming and outgoing commanders must meet to exchange
tactical information, conduct a joint reconnaissance of the area, and
complete other required coordination for the relief. The two
commanders must carefully address passage of command and jointly
develop contingency actions to deal with enemy contact during the
relief. This process will normally include coordination of the following
additional information:
● Location of vehicle and individual fighting positions (to include
hide, alternate, and supplementary positions).
● Enemy situation.
● The outgoing unit’s tactical plan, to include graphics, company

team and platoon fire plans, and individual vehicles’ sector
sketches.
● Fire support coordination, including indirect fire plans and the
time of relief for supporting artillery and mortar units.
● Types of weapon systems being replaced.
● Time, sequence, and method of relief.
● Location and disposition of obstacles and the time responsibility

will be transferred.
● Supplies and equipment to be transferred.
● Movement control, route priority, and placement of guides.
● Command and signal information. (NOTE: The relief will be

conducted on the radio nets of the outgoing unit.)
● Maintenance and logistical support for disabled vehicles.
● Limited visibility considerations.
CONDUCTING THE RELIEF

During conduct of the relief, the outgoing commander retains
responsibility for the area of operations and the mission. He
exercises operational control over all subordinate elements of the
incoming unit that have competed their portion of the relief.
Responsibility can pass to the incoming commander when all
elements of the outgoing unit are relieved and adequate
communications are established.
There are two overall methods of relief, sequential and
simultaneous, with elements relieved one at a time or all at once.
In addition, the relief of individual elements can be conducted in
one of two ways:
● By alternate element position. The relieving element
occupies a position separate from that of the relieved
element. See Figure 5-6 for an illustration of this relief

method.
● By alternate vehicle and/or individual position. The
relieving element occupies vehicle or individual fighting
positions within the same BP as the relieved element.
Sequential relief This is the most time-consuming method. The relieving unit
moves to an assembly area to the rear of the unit to be relieved.
Subordinate elements are relieved one at a time. This can occur
in any order, with the relief generally following this sequence:
● The outgoing and incoming units collocate their
headquarters and trains elements to facilitate command
and control and transfer of equipment, ammunition, fuel,
water, and medical supplies.
● The first element being relieved (such as a platoon) moves
to its alternate fighting positions or BP while the relieving
element moves into the outgoing element’s primary
positions. The incoming element occupies vehicle and
individual fighting positions as appropriate.
● Incoming and outgoing elements complete the transfer of
equipment and supplies.
● The relieved element moves to the designated assembly
area behind the position.
● Once each outgoing element clears the RP en route to its
assembly area, the next relieving element moves forward.
Simultaneous relief This is the fastest, but least secure, method. All outgoing
elements are relieved at once, with the incoming unit normally
occupying existing positions, including BPs and vehicle and
individual fighting positions. The relief takes place in this
general sequence:
● Outgoing elements move to their alternate BPs and/or
vehicle and individual positions.
● Incoming elements move along designated routes to the
outgoing elements’ primary positions.
● The units complete the transfer of equipment and supplies.
● Relieved elements move to the designated unit assembly

area.

Figure 5-6. Example relief in place by alternate platoon positions.

Figure 5-7. Example relief in place by alternate vehicle positions.
SECTION 6 - BREACHING
OPERATIONS
Obstacle breaching is a high-frequency task during offensive
operations. Breaching entails the employment of a combination of TTP
and equipment to project combat power to the far side of an obstacle.
The company team commander must understand the challenges
presented by various types of obstacles and the capabilities and
limitations of the mobility assets the team can employ to defeat them.
He must further understand the basic tenets of breaching operations and
the types of breaches the company team may be tasked to conduct.
FM 90-13-1 contains a more detailed discussion of breaching
operations and threat obstacle employment.

MOBILITY ASSETS
The following paragraphs summarize the capabilities and
limitations of the breaching assets available to the company
team.
Mine plow Also known as the mine-clearing blade, the mine plow is used to
breach and proof minefields. The system affords good
survivability. When fully operational, a tank equipped with a
mine plow can quickly clear two 68-inch-wide lanes, one in front
of each track. (NOTE: The plow’s dogbone assembly will
detonate the tilt rods of mines in the area between the two
plowed lanes; however, only plows equipped with the improved
dogbone assembly, known as the IDA, will defeat magnetically
activated mines.)
The plow must be dropped at least 100 meters before the tank
reaches the minefield. It then is not lifted until the tank is at least
100 meters past the far edge of the minefield. The plow must
have 18 inches of spoil to be effective, limiting the tank’s speed
to 10 mph or less in the lane. The mine plow should be used only
in a straight line; it does not work well on hard, rocky, or uneven
ground where it cannot maintain adequate spoil. Mine detonation
can cause violent upward movement of the blade; the tank’s main
gun must be traversed to the side during plowing to prevent
damage to the gun tube. The plow’s lifting straps can become
entangled in wire obstacles. Manual lifting of the plow takes at
least 10 minutes.
Mine roller The mine roller is used to identify the forward edges of a
minefield and to proof lanes. The roller sweeps a 44-inch path in
front of each track and is also equipped with a dogbone
assembly. It is also effective at breaching wire obstacles.
The roller, however, is not effective on broken or uneven ground.
The mine roller, like the mine plow, will not defeat magnetically
fuzed mines unless equipped with the IDA. The main gun must
be traversed to the side or rear when contact with a mine is
possible or imminent; detonation can throw the roller (or pieces
of it) violently upward, possibly damaging the tube.

Mine-clearing Used to breach wire and mine obstacles, the MICLIC can be
either towed or mounted on an M60A1 chassis (this vehicle is
line charge known as the AVLM). It clears a lane 100 meters deep and 14
meters wide. (NOTE: The MICLIC must be fired 62 meters
from the obstacle to get the full 100 meters of depth.) The charge
may create two skip zones, where the mines are not detonated, on
the right and left side of the center line of the cleared lane. The
skip zones, which are about 1.5 meters wide, require all MICLIC
lanes to be proofed.
The MICLIC is effective against pressure-activated antitank
mines and against mechanically activated antipersonnel mines.
Effectiveness is limited against magnetically activated mines,
including scatterable mines, and those with multiimpulse
(double-impact) or time-delay fuzes. The MICLIC is not
effective on severely broken ground where the line charge cannot
lay flat. When detonated, the MICLIC has danger area with a
radius of 1,600 meters.
Armored combat Using its blade, the ACE can defeat berms and antitank ditches.
The ACE can also skim a minefield with its blade; however, it is
earthmover slow and vulnerable in this role and should be employed this way
only as a last resort. The vehicle is further limited by its one-man
crew.
Armored vehicle The AVLB is primarily employed to cross short gaps, such as
narrow streams, antitank ditches, craters, canals, or partially
launched bridge blown bridges. Its span is 18 meters (60 feet) using prepared
abutments and 17 meters with unprepared abutments. The
capacity of the bridge is one military load class (MLC) 60
vehicle (this is waived for M1-series tanks in combat operations).
The AVLB launcher, which requires 10 meters of overhead
clearance for transportation and operation, is most visible and
vulnerable during launching of the bridge. An experienced crew
can launch the bridge in two to five minutes.
NOTE: The AVLB will soon be replaced by the
Wolverine, which is based on an M1-series chassis. The
new bridge will be able to support MLC 70 vehicles across
a gap of up to 24 meters.
Engineer squad The most versatile of all breaching assets, the engineer squad can
conduct explosive or manual breaches and proofing and can
mark lanes through an obstacle. While it is conducting these
breaching and proofing operations, however, the squad is
extremely vulnerable to enemy direct and indirect fires.

Mechanized infantry If other breaching assets are unavailable, a mechanized infantry

or tank platoon can conduct explosive breaches (with
or tank squad hand-emplaced charges) and/or use manual breaching kits
(normally consisting of grappling hooks, gloves, and wire
cutters). At the same time, however, employment of either type
of platoon organization in breaching operations has distinct
disadvantages. The pace of the breach will be slow, and the
operation will leave the platoon vulnerable to enemy attack. For
a more detailed discussion of manual breaching techniques for
the mechanized infantry platoon, refer to FM 7-7J.
BREACHING TENETS
In the planning and execution of a successful combined arms
breaching operation, the company team commander must apply the
five tenets of breaching. These basic principles, described in this
discussion, are the following:
● Intelligence.
● Breaching fundamentals.
● Breaching organization.
● Mass.
● Synchronization.
Intelligence Well-rehearsed drills and SOPs and redundancy in breaching assets

can offset a lack of obstacle intelligence (OBSTINTEL) in breaching
operations involving simple obstacles or lightly defended obstacles.
Detailed OBSTINTEL, however, is imperative for a successful
breach of a complex obstacle. Without thorough information on the
obstacle itself and the defense it supports, the breach force will be at
risk. At a minimum, OBSTINTEL requirements for breach and
maneuver planning should cover the following:
● Bypasses and gaps. The existence of adequate bypasses will
affect the decision of whether a breaching operation is
required. Gaps may influence what type of breach will be
used.
● Obstacle location and orientation. These are factors in
where the breach will be conducted.
● Obstacle composition and depth. These factors, which are
critical to how the breach will be conducted, include the
following:
- Type of mines employed, by target type
(antipersonnel, antitank), positioning (buried,
surface-laid), and/or method of activation (pressure,
mechanical, magnetic).
- Presence of antihandling devices.
- Size of the obstacle and whether it is tied into existing

or reinforcing obstacles.
● Location of the enemy’s direct fire weapons (mounted and
dismounted). This influences actions on the objective during
the breach, including how to suppress and obscure the enemy.
● Topography. This will have an impact of the use of various
types of breaching assets. For example, because plows do not
work well on rocky or uneven ground, plow settings may have
to be adjusted, or the plow may be rendered totally unusable.
Breaching These summarize the four basic steps that are part of every breaching
operation. The simplified steps, known by the abbreviation SOSR,
fundamentals are these:
● Suppress. Focus all available fires on the enemy to prevent
him from placing effective fires on the breach and assault
forces.
● Obscure. Employ screening or obscuring smoke to prevent
enemy acquisition of friendly elements.
● Secure. Secure the breach site to prevent the enemy from
interfering with obstacle reduction or passage of friendly
forces through the cleared lanes. Security must be effective
against all types of enemy elements that can influence these
actions, including outposts and fighting positions near the
obstacle, overwatching units, and counterattack forces.
● Reduce. Create lanes through or over the obstacle to allow the
assault force to pass through and to enable follow-on forces to
accomplish their missions.
Breaching The breach commander designates support, breach, and assault
forces. The following paragraphs summarize the responsibilities and
organization actions of the three elements during the breaching operation.
Support force The support element takes these actions:
● Establish support by fire positions and suppress the enemy
with direct and indirect fires to prevent him from placing
effective fires against friendly forces.
● Employ or call for smoke to obscure the enemy and/or to
screen friendly movement.
Breach force The breach element takes these actions:
● Search for bypasses.
● Establish breach site security on the near side of the obstacle

against mounted and dismounted enemy elements.
● Reduce the obstacle.
● Proof and mark lanes or bypasses.
● Establish breach site security on the far side against mounted

and dismounted enemy elements to facilitate passage of the
assault force.

Assault force The assault element takes these actions:

● As necessary, assist the support force with suppression during
the initial reduction of the obstacle.
● As necessary, conduct an assault breach of protective
obstacles.
● Secure the far side of the obstacle (this is defined as the area
that can influence the breach site).
● As directed, conduct additional actions on the objective to
destroy enemy elements on the far side of the obstacle.
Mass Mass, a critical factor in the success of any breaching operation, is
achieved when the friendly force is able to fix a majority of the
enemy or to isolate or obscure the objective using smoke. The breach
commander must plan for 50-percent redundancy in reduction assets.
Favorable force ratios can be generated through the employment of
additional combat multipliers.
Synchronization Synchronization can best be achieved in a breaching operation
through the use of detailed reverse planning, clear instructions to
subordinate elements, effective command and control, and extensive
rehearsals. The emphasis is on the steps of SOSR. Planning
considerations for synchronization during the breach, listed in a
possible reverse sequence, include the following:
● Reverse planning starts with actions on the objective.
● The planned actions on the objective will influence the size

and composition of the assault force and the number and
location of lanes to be created.
● Lane requirements, topography, and the type of obstacles will
determine the type and number of reduction assets task
organized to the breach force.
● The ability of the enemy’s infantry to interfere with the breach
will determine whether the breach site is secured by fires or by
force.
● The enemy’s ability to mass fires at the breach site will dictate
the nature of the required suppression fires (including the
composition of the support force and the type and amount of
supporting fires).
● The location of the enemy and the availability of clear fields
of fire will determine the location of the support force and its
support by fire position.
TYPES OF BREACHING OPERATIONS

The following paragraphs cover four major types of breaching
operations: deliberate breach, in-stride breach, assault breach, and
covert breach. Also included is a discussion of the bypass operation,
which the commander must consider as an alternative to conducting
an actual breach.

Bypass When a unit bypasses an obstacle, it physically changes direction,

moving along a route that avoids the obstacle. Obstacles should be
bypassed whenever possible to maintain the momentum of the
operation. Commanders, however, must ensure that conducting the
bypass will provide a tactical advantage without exposing the unit to
unnecessary danger. If possible, they should conduct a
reconnaissance to evaluate tactical considerations, including the
following:
● The limits of the obstacle.
● Physical aspects of the bypass route, including location,

availability of cover and concealment, and key terrain
influencing the route.
● Confirmation that the bypass route will take the unit where it
needs to go while avoiding possible enemy ambush sites and
kill sacks.
NOTE: For additional considerations related to bypass
operations, refer to the discussion of the bypass as a tactical
task in Chapter 3 of this manual.
Deliberate The deliberate breach is a scheme of maneuver specifically designed
to reduce an obstacle, allowing the unit to continue the mission. The
breach deliberate breach is characterized by thorough reconnaissance,
detailed planning, and extensive preparation and rehearsal.
Subordinate elements are tasked to perform the roles of support,
breach, and assault forces.
In a task force deliberate breach, the company team is most likely to
be part of the support or assault force; the engineer team, task
organized with plow and roller tanks, serves as the breach force. The
task force commander may also form the breach force by task
organizing a tank or mechanized infantry company team with one or
more engineer platoons. The task force commander is responsible for
synchronizing the steps of SOSR.
NOTE: If the task force commander designates the company
team to conduct the breach on its own, the team commander
task organizes internally for the operation, designating specific
elements within the team as support, breach, and assault forces.
Success will depend on whether the team has the necessary
assets to internally apply SOSR breaching fundamentals.

In-stride breach Brigades and task forces employ the in-stride breaching technique to
quickly overcome unexpected or lightly defended obstacles; they may
also use the technique when the obstacle or enemy situation is
unclear. Brigade and task force commanders may prepare their units
for an in-stride breach by task organizing subordinate task forces or
company teams (as applicable) with the additional forces necessary to
conduct the operation.
As with the deliberate breach, the task force commander may direct
the company team, probably task organized with one or more
engineer platoons, to conduct the in-stride breach on its own. The
team commander assumes responsibility for designating support,
breach, and assault forces and for synchronizing SOSR actions.
Assault breach When the company team is designated as the assault force in a
breaching operation, it may conduct assault breaching operations to
penetrate an enemy’s protective obstacle belt. This type of breach
allows the assault force to penetrate the enemy’s defense, destroy his
forces, and exploit success by continuing the assault through the
objective.
In preparing for the assault breach, the company team commander
synchronizes SOSR activities and allocates breaching assets to
subordinate platoons. The actual breaching operation is conducted
either by engineer squads under platoon control or by plow and roller
tanks. Because friendly and enemy forces are likely to be in close
proximity during the assault breach, indirect fires must be carefully
coordinated with maneuver. The task force mortars are a valuable
asset in SOSR activities.
NOTE: Refer to the discussion of assault operations in Chapter
3 of this manual for additional considerations that may be
applicable in planning and executing an assault breach.
Covert breach This special breaching operation is used by infantry and dismounted
engineer forces under limited visibility conditions. The covert breach
relies on stealth and dismounted maneuver, with the breach force
employing quiet, manual lane reduction techniques. This type of
breach is most likely to be conducted in operations involving light,
light/heavy, or heavy/light forces. (NOTE: In a covert breach,
suppression from the support force can be either a be-prepared task,
initiated if the enemy detects the breach force, or an on-order task,
initiated with the start of the assault.)
EXAMPLE OF A DELIBERATE BREACH

In this example, a tank-heavy company team is assigned to conduct a

deliberate breach as part of a task force in-stride breach. The team is
task organized with two plow tanks and two roller tanks, all of which
are in the team’s 1st Platoon. It also has an attached engineer platoon,
which comprises three engineer squads with four M113s and two towed
MICLICs.
The company team is tasked with creating two lanes in an
80-meter-deep minefield, which has a conventional
antitank/antipersonnel mix and is bounded on the far side by wire. The
commander assigns responsibilities for the operation, including
reduction of the obstacle and creation of the lanes, using available
intelligence on the obstacle and the enemy as well as results of the
team’s war-gaming process. Based on this mission analysis, he
designates the following responsibilities for his maneuver elements:
● The 1st Platoon (tank), augmented by the engineer platoon, is the
breach force.
● The 2d Platoon (mech) is the assault force; it will secure the far
side of the obstacle and destroy remaining enemy forces.
● The 3d Platoon (tank) is the support element, assigned to
suppress an MRP(+).
The chart in Figure 5-8 provides an example of the assignment of assets
for the company team breaching operation.
LANE 1 LANE 1 LANE 2 LANE 2

PRIMARY BACKUP PRIMARY BACKUP
BREACH MICLIC Plow tank, MICLIC Plow tank,

followed followed
by by
engineer engineer
squad squad
PROOF Roller tank Plow tank, Roller tank Plow tank,

followed followed
by by
engineer engineer
squad squad
MARK Engineer Engineer

squad squad
Figure 5-8. Example of company team breaching assets.

Figures 5-9 through 5-13 illustrate an example company team breaching
operation. Notes in each illustration list key company team, platoon,
and leader actions.


Figure 5-9. Company team sets the conditions for the breach.

Figure 5-10. Company team establishes security.

Figure 5-11. Company team conducts the breach.

Figure 5-12. Breach force proofs the lanes and establishes far side security.

Figure 5-13. Assault force conducts the assault and secures the objective.
SECTION 7 - HASTY WATER

CROSSING AND GAP
CROSSING OPERATIONS
The company team may take part in three types of water crossing
operations: hasty, deliberate, and retrograde. It normally participates in
a hasty water crossing as part of a task force and in deliberate or
retrograde crossings as part of a brigade or larger element. The team
may also conduct a hasty gap crossing independently when supported
by attached engineer assets.
METHODS AND PURPOSES OF WATER CROSSING

OPERATIONS
Hasty water crossings are decentralized operations to cross inland
bodies of water such as canals, lakes, or rivers. These operations
include crossing by tactical bridging or by vehicle swimming or fording
operations. (NOTE: For a detailed explanation of deliberate and
retrograde water crossings, refer to FM 90-13.)
The task force commander (or company team commander, if
applicable) may choose to conduct a hasty crossing when the
momentum of the operation must be maintained, when the banks are
lightly held or undefended, and when sufficient CS assets are available
to support the crossing. Despite the use of the term "hasty," the
commander must use all available time and assets to ensure that the
conditions are set for the crossing. The crossing is similar to a breach in
that suppression and obscuration normally precede any attempt to cross
the obstruction.
COMPANY TEAM CROSSING CAPABILITIES

The company team’s organic water crossing capabilities include the
M113’s ability to "swim" and the fording capability of M1-series tanks.
The team may also have an AVLB or Wolverine attached for hasty
water crossing. Other engineer assets for water crossing operations are
covered in more detail in FM 90-13.

Amphibious Amphibious vehicles like the M113 series should cross bodies of water
in groups, preferably by platoons. If there is no current, each group
vehicles should cross in line formation. An echelon formation should be used to
compensate when there is a current. Amphibious vehicles should cross
downstream from tank fording sites. In preparing for crossing
operations, commanders must take into account the time required to
prepare the vehicles for swimming.
Fording Without special preparation, tanks can ford water obstacles up to 4 feet
deep if the stream bed has a solid bottom and the banks have been
vehicles prepared. (NOTE: If tactically feasible, bridges from the AVLB or
Wolverine can be used to solidify the bottom of ford sites.) Ford sites
should be proofed for obstacles before the crossing begins.
Vehicle Units equipped with the AVLB can lay an 18-meter (60-foot) bridge,
supporting MLC 60 vehicles, in about four minutes. The bridge can
launched span unprepared gaps of up to 17 meters (57 feet). Units equipped with
bridges the Wolverine bridge vehicle can span a gap of more than 24 meters (75
feet) and cross vehicles up to MLC 70.
TASK FORCE HASTY WATER CROSSING OPERATIONS

The task force commander organizes his units into assault, support, and
follow and support forces. The company team must be prepared to
execute any of these missions as part of a task force water crossing
mission.
Assault force Transported by assault boats or air assault aircraft, this element
conducts the initial assault across the body of water. It normally seizes
immediate objectives on the far side to secure the crossing site for other
task force elements. If it has the capability, the assault force then
continues the advance from the exit bank to the final objective. Infantry
elements establish local security on the exit bank to permit development
of the crossing site. Engineers move with the assault force to breach
obstacles and open or improve trails.
Support force The support force normally consists of engineer elements and command
and control elements from the controlling headquarters. It develops the
crossing site, emplaces the crossing means (if applicable), and controls
units moving into and away from the crossing site. The controlling
commander may also position the support force where it can assist the
assault force in the direct assault on the crossing site. The engineers
provide these types of support for crossing operations:
● Improve mobility and reduce obstacles at the entrance and exit to
the crossing site.
● Improve fording sites.
● Emplace assault boats, rafts, ferries, or bridges as the means of

crossing the body of water. Bridges used by supporting engineers
include the AVLB, Wolverine, and ribbon or medium girder
bridges. In addition, engineers may repair an existing bridge so
that it can support the crossing operation.

Follow and The follow and support force’s primary mission is to provide protection
as the assault force moves to the far side of the water obstacle and
support force seizes its immediate objectives. The follow and support force does this
mainly by suppressing defending enemy elements with both direct and
indirect fires and by firing or calling for smoke to screen the crossing
site from enemy observation. It must also be prepared to take over the
assault force’s mission.
COMPANY TEAM HASTY GAP CROSSING OPERATIONS

In most circumstances, these operations are limited to "dry" gaps such
as irrigation ditches, railroad embankments, and antitank ditches.
Operational considerations for a company team hasty gap crossing are
similar to those for a breach, with the team task organized into support,
breach, and assault forces. (NOTE: For a description of each element’s
responsibilities, refer to the discussion of breaching in Section 6 of this
chapter.) The primary crossing means in the company team hasty gap
crossing is the AVLB or Wolverine, which moves as part of the breach
force. Without a vehicle launched bridge, the team may employ a field
expedient method, such as the use of explosives, to facilitate the
crossing.

FM 71-1 Chapter 6 Combat Support
CHAPTER 6
Combat Support
For a unit to achieve its full combat potential, the commander must effectively integrate all available
CS assets. This chapter focuses on the CS elements with which the company team is most likely to
work: fire support, engineers, air defense, NBC, intelligence, and Army aviation in its CS role. Other
CS elements include signal and military police; the company team, however, will very rarely be task
organized with those types of units.
NOTE: Additional considerations, procedures, and techniques for integration of CS assets
appear throughout this manual. References to such information are included as appropriate in this
chapter.
CONTENTS
Section 1 Fire Support
Fire Support Planning

Fire Support Team
Section 2 Engineer Support
Organization and Organic Equipment

Equipment Capabilities
Mobility Planning Considerations
Countermobility Planning Considerations
Survivability Planning Considerations
Section 3 Air Defense
Systems, Organization, and Capabilities

Employment of ADA Systems
Weapons Control Status
Early Warning Procedures
Reaction Procedures
Section 4 Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Support
Reconnaissance Support
Decontamination Support
Smoke Support
Section 5 Intelligence
Section 6 Aviation Combat Support Missions

Command, Control, and Communications

Air Movement
Aerial Mine Warfare
SECTION 1 - FIRE SUPPORT

Fire support is the collective and coordinated use of indirect fire weapons and armed aircraft in support
of the battle plan. Fire support assets include mortars, field artillery cannons and rockets, Army
aviation, CAS, and naval gunfire. Support can be either lethal or nonlethal (smoke or illumination).
FIRE SUPPORT PLANNING

Fire support planning is conducted concurrently with maneuver planning at
all levels. Task forces and brigades typically use top-down fire support
planning, with bottom-up refinement of the plans. The commander
develops guidance for fire support in terms of tasks and purposes. In turn,
the fire support planner determines the method to be used in accomplishing
each task; he also specifies an end state that quantifies task
accomplishment.
Individual fire support assets then incorporate assigned tasks into their fire
plans. Units tasked to initiate fires must refine and rehearse their assigned
tasks. This means that the company team commander will refine the team’s
assigned portion of the task force fire support plan, ensuring that the
designated targets will achieve the intended purpose. He also conducts
rehearsals to prepare for the mission and, as specified in the plan, directs
the team to execute its assigned targets.
Linking fire A clearly defined maneuver purpose enables the maneuver commander to
articulate precisely how he wants indirect fires to affect the enemy during
suppoort different phases of the battle. In turn, this allows fire support planners to
tasks and develop a fire support plan that effectively supports the intended purpose.
maneuver They can determine each required task (in terms of effects on target), the
purpose best method for accomplishing each task (in terms of a fire support asset
and its fire capabilities), and a means of quantifying accomplishment.
A carefully developed method of fire is equally valuable during execution
of the fire support mission; it assists not only the firing elements but also
the observers who are responsible for monitoring the effects of the indirect
fires. With a clear understanding of the intended target effects, fire support
assets and observers can work together effectively, planning and adjusting
the fires as necessary to achieve the desired effects on the enemy.
The following paragraphs describe several types of targeting effects
associated with fire support tasks, with examples of how the commander
might link a target task to a specific maneuver purpose in his order.

Delay The friendly force uses indirect fires to cause a particular function or action
to occur later than the enemy desires. For example, the commander might
direct delaying fires this way: "Delay the repositioning of the enemy’s
antitank reserve, allowing Team B to consolidate on OBJECTIVE BOB."
Disrupt Disrupting fires are employed to break apart the enemy’s formation; to
interrupt or delay his tempo and operational timetable; to cause premature
commitment of his forces; or to otherwise force him to stage his attack
piecemeal. Example: "Disrupt the easternmost first-echelon MRB to
prevent the enemy from massing two MRBs against Team B and Team D."
Limit Indirect fires are used to prevent an action or function from being executed
where the enemy wants it to occur. Example: "Limit the ability of the
enemy’s advance guard to establish a firing line on the ridge line to the
flank of the task force axis of advance to prevent the enemy from fixing the
task force main body."
Divert These fires are employed to cause the enemy to modify his course or route
of attack. Example: "Divert the enemy’s combined arms reserve
counterattack to EA DOG to facilitate its destruction by Team D."
Screen This purpose entails the use of smoke to mask friendly installations,
positions, or maneuver. Screening fires are normally conducted for a
specified event or a specified period of time. Example: "Screen the
movement of the counterattack force (Team D) along ROUTE RED to
ABF position 21 to prevent the remnants of the enemy MRB from engaging
the team."
Obscure Smoke is placed between enemy forces and friendly forces or directly on
enemy positions, with the purpose of confusing and disorienting the
enemy’s direct fire gunners and artillery FOs. Obscuration fires are
normally conducted for a specified event or a specified period of time.
Example: "Obscure the northernmost MRC to protect our breach force until
the breach site is secured."
NOTE: The supported commander may also designate purposes for
special munitions such as ADAM/RAAM, Copperhead, or
illumination rounds.
FPF planning FPF are designed to create a final barrier, or "steel curtain," to prevent a
dismounted enemy from moving across defensive lines. They are fires of
last resort; as such, they take priority over all other fires, to include priority
targets. The employment of FPF presents several potential problems. They
are linear fires, with coverage dependent on the firing sheaf of the fire
support asset(s). In addition, while FPF may create a barrier against
penetration by enemy infantry, armored vehicles may simply button up and
move through the fires into the friendly defensive position.
FPF are planned targets and thus must have a clearly defined purpose. FPF
planning is normally delegated to the company team that is allocated the
support. Table 6-1 summarizes the coverage area of several possible FPF
arrays, a critical planning factor the team commander must consider in
employing FPF.
Table 6-1. Coverage area of FPF assets.
FPF ASSET COVERAGE AREA

2 mortar tubes (60-mm) 60 meters by 30 meters
6 artillery tubes (155-mm) 300 meters by 50 meters
Target The company team commander is responsible for the employment of

indirect fires in his zone or sector. The most critical aspect of this
refinement responsibility is target refinement, in which he makes necessary changes to
the fire support plan to ensure that targets accomplish the task force or
brigade commander’s intended battlefield purpose. Rather than merely
executing targets without regard to the actual enemy situation, the company
team commander and FSO must be ready to adjust existing targets or to
nominate new targets that allow engagement of specific enemy forces.
Necessary refinements usually emerge when the team commander conducts
war-gaming as part of step 6 (complete the plan) of troop-leading
procedures. The war-gaming process allows him to identify required
additions, deletions, and adjustments to the task force fire support plan. The
team FSO then submits the refinements to the task force FSE for inclusion
in the scheme of fires for the operation. (NOTE: This is normally only the
first step of target refinement, with the commander and FSO making further
adjustments as the enemy situation becomes clearer.)
As a specific requirement in defensive planning, the team commander must
focus on target refinement for the ground he will "own" during the
operation. This usually takes place as part of engagement area
development. The commander makes appropriate adjustments to the targets
based on refinements to the SITEMP, such as the actual positions of
obstacles and enemy direct fire systems.
Because fire support is planned from the top down, cutoff times for target
nomination and target refinement are normally specified in the task force
OPORD. Commanders must ensure that nominations and refinements meet
these deadlines to provide fire support planners with sufficient time to
develop execution plans.
Fire support As noted, although the task force and brigade commanders establish target
tasks and purposes and allocate appropriate fire support assets, it is the
preparation team commander who must ensure execution of assigned targets. In turn,
successful execution demands thorough preparation, focusing on areas
covered in the following paragraphs.

Observation In developing the observation plan, the commander must ensure that all
plan targets are covered by both a primary observer and an alternate observer.
The plan must provide clear, precise guidance for the observers. Perhaps
the most important aspect of the plan is positioning; observers’ positions
must allow them to see the trigger for initiating fires as well as the target
area and the enemy force on which the target is oriented. The commander
must also consider other aspects of observer capabilities, including
available equipment. For example, the ground/vehicle laser locator
designator (G/VLLD) provides first-round fire for effect capability; without
it, observers may have to use adjust-fire techniques that take longer and are
more difficult to implement. The observation plan must also include
contingency plans that cover limited visibility conditions and backup
communications.
NOTE: In addition to providing the specific guidance outlined in the
observation plan, the commander must ensure that each observer
understands the target task and purpose. For example, observers must
understand that once the first round impacts, the original target
location is of no consequence; rather, they must orient on the
targeted enemy force to ensure that fires achieve the intended
battlefield purpose.
Rehearsals The company team commander is responsible for involving his FSO in
team- and task force-level rehearsals, for making the team available for any
separate fire support rehearsals, and for rehearsing the team’s observers in
the execution of targets. He should also use rehearsals to ensure that the
team’s primary and backup communications systems will adequately
support the plan.
Target In the defense, the commander should confirm target location by adjusting
adjustment fires as part of engagement area development.
Trigger The commander develops a trigger for each target. The trigger can be a
planning point on the ground, such as an easily recognizable terrain feature or an
emplaced marker, or a designated linear control measure. In the defense,
triggers should be physically marked on the ground or their location
specifically selected and identified during the development of the
engagement area. (NOTE: Triggers can be marked using techniques
similar to those for marking TRPs. Figure 2-17 illustrates some of these
methods.)
The trigger line or point must be tied to clearly understood engagement
criteria associated with the targeted enemy force. As an example, the
commander might use the following order to begin indirect fires: "Initiate
target AE0001 when approximately 30 BMPs and 10 T-80s cross
TRIGGER LINE ORANGE."
Several factors govern the positioning of the trigger. Especially critical are
the enemy’s rate of travel and the resulting time required for the enemy
force to move from the trigger to the target area. Using this information, the
commander can then select the trigger location based on the following
considerations:
● The amount of time required to make the call for fire.

● The time needed by the fire support element to prepare for and fire
the mission.
● The time required for the task force and/or brigade to clear the fires.
● Any built-in or planned delays in the firing sequence.
● The time of flight of the indirect fire rounds.
● Possible adjustment times.
The company team commander can use the information in Tables 6-2 and
6-3 as he completes the process of determining the location of the trigger in
relation to the target area. Table 6-2 lists the time required for the enemy
force to move a specified distance at a specified rate of march. Table 6-3
lists the response time required by field artillery assets to prepare for and
fire various types of support missions.
Lifting and As in trigger planning for the initiation of fires, the commander must
shifting establish triggers for lifting and/or shifting of fires based on battlefield
fires,/U> events, such as the movement of enemy or friendly forces. One technique is
the use of a minimum safe line, known as an MSL, when a friendly
element, such as a breach force, is moving toward an area of indirect fires.
As the element approaches the MSL, observers call for fires to be lifted or
shifted, allowing the friendly force to move safely in the danger area.
Table 6-2. Time (in minutes) required to travel a specified distance.
DISTANCE TRAVELED
RATE 1 km 2 km 3 km 4 km 5 km 6 km 7 km 8 km 9 km 10
OF km
MARCH
60 km/hr 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
50 km/hr 1.2 2.4 3.6 4.8 6 7.2 8.4 9.6 10.8 12
40 km/hr 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5 9 10.5 12 13.5 15
30 km/hr 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
25 km/hr 2.4 4.8 7.2 9.6 12 14.4 16.8 19.2 21.6 24
20 km/hr 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
15 km/hr 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
10 km/hr 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
5 km/hr 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120

Table 6-3. Artillery response times.
GRID OR POLAR MISSION 5-7 minutes

(UNPLANNED)
PREPLANNED MISSION 3 minutes
PREPLANNED PRIORITY 1-2 minutes

MISSION
NOTE: These are approximate times (based on ARTEP

standards) needed to process and execute calls for fire
on normal artillery targets. Special missions may take
longer.
Clearance of The maneuver commander has the final authority to approve (clear)
fires and their effects within his zone or sector. Although he may
fires delegate authority to coordinate and clear fires to his FSO, the ultimate
responsibility belongs to the commander. Normally, the FSO will assist
the commander by making recommendations on the clearance of fires.
Fire support As a tool in fire support planning and execution, the company team
commander may develop a graphic summary outlining the critical
execution elements of the fire support plan and team’s role in it. The commander
matrix can incorporate this information into his own execution matrix or into a
separate fire support execution matrix, as illustrated in Figure 6-1. The
company team execution matrix should include, at a minimum, the
following information for each target:
● Target number and type, to include FPF designation.
● Allocated fire support asset and munition type.
● Observer and backup observer.
● Trigger.
● Target purpose.
● Target grid.
PHASE PHASE I PHASE II PHASE III: PHASE IV

(LD to SBF 01) (Set conditions (Team B breach) (Team C assault)
SUPPORT for
DATA breach from SBF
01)
TARGET/ AE0001 AE0002 O/O shift O/O lift AE0003

GRID (PK 10184938) (PK 09005031) AE0001 to
AE0003 (PK
10204810) and
lift AE0002
ASSET 155-mm HE Mortar smoke 155-mm 155-mm

OBSERVER/ Scout platoon will FSO (primary)/ AE0003: FSO FSO (primary)/
BACKUP initially call for 1st Platoon leader (primary)/ 3d Platoon leader
and adjust fires; (backup) 2d Platoon leader (backup)
FSO adjusts upon (backup)
arrival at SBF; 1st
Platoon leader is
backup
TRIGGER Team C crosses On-call at SBF Team B crosses Team C completes

PL LYNX PL LION consolidation
on OBJ BOB
PURPOSE Disrupt enemy on Obscure enemy Disrupt MRB Protect the assault
OBJ BOB to to prevent reserve force (Team C)
facilitate interference with to protect the
maneuver of Team B’s breach assault
company team to force (Team C)
the SBF position
Figure 6-1. Example company team fire support execution matrix.
FIRE SUPPORT TEAM

The following paragraphs examine capabilities, procedures, and
other considerations that affect the company team FIST and its
employment in the fire support mission.
Personnel FIST personnel for the company team include the team FSO, the
fire support sergeant, a fire support specialist, and a radiotelephone
operator (RTO). The mechanized infantry FIST also includes three
FO parties per company; each party includes an FO and a radio
operator and is attached to the supported platoons.
Equipment The FIST operates out of the M981 FIST-V. This M113-based
vehicle is equipped with digital and voice communications links to
all available indirect fire support assets. The large targeting head
atop the FIST-V houses the G/VLLD, which can accurately
determine the range, azimuth, and vertical angle to targets and can
designate targets for laser-guided munitions.

Communications The FIST has the capability to transmit on and/or monitor these
four nets:
● The DS battalion fire direction net (digital). The FIST uses
this net to relay calls for fire through the task force FSE to
supporting artillery assets.
● The company team command net (voice). This net allows
the FIST to monitor company team operations and links it to
the commander, platoon leaders, and FOs for planning and
coordination.
● The task force fire support net (voice). The FIST
communicates with the FSE on this net, for which the FSE
is the NCS.
● The mortar platoon fire direction net (digital). As necessary,
the FIST sends fire missions to the supporting mortar
platoon or section using this net.
FIST employment The company team commander has two options for employment of
his FIST. These are described in the following paragraphs.
Option 1 The company team FSO works out of the FIST-V, which he
positions where he can most effectively observe and control
execution of the fire support plan. The FSO establishes OPs that
take maximum advantage of the capability of the G/VLLD to
create lethal, accurate fires. He communicates with the commander
on the company team command net. This option allows the FSO to
maintain effective control of his FOs and to conduct required fire
support coordination. He must keep the company team informed at
all times of his location and of the routes he will take when
moving from OP to OP.
Option 2 The FIST-V is used as a combat observation lasing team (COLT)
somewhere within the task force or brigade sector or zone and is
controlled by another headquarters. The company team FSO,
accompanied by the fire support specialist, rides with the team
commander or in another company team maneuver vehicle. He
brings two radios and the forward entry device (FED). This option
severely degrades the ability of the FIST to support the company
team.
Forward observer Three options are available to the company team FSO in
controlling and communicating with the team’s FOs. He selects the
control one that will provide the most effective support for the team after
evaluating the tactical situation, the degree of training and
experience of his FOs, and the availability of fire support assets. In
each option, the FSO monitors all calls for fire.
Option 1 Platoon FOs may call for fire directly from the available fire
(decentralized) support assets. This option gives the company team FSO the
lowest degree of positive control. It therefore requires the highest
degree of training and experience for the FOs as well as extensive
coordination between the FOs and the FSO.

Option 2 The company team FSO assigns each FO a fire net (and hence a
(predesignated) fire support asset). If two or more assets are available (artillery
and/or mortars), each FO will have his own asset; this option also
allows two FOs to be assigned the same asset. If an FO requires
support from an asset other than the one assigned to him, he
contacts the FSO for assistance.
Option 3 Each FO contacts the FIST with his initial call for fire and is then
(centralized) directed to the fire support asset that the company team FSO
determines to be most effective. This option provides the FSO with
the highest degree of centralized control; it is also the slowest.
SECTION 2 - ENGINEER SUPPORT

ORGANIZATION AND ORGANIC EQUIPMENT
The engineer company attached to support a heavy task force consists
of two engineer platoons and an assault and obstacle platoon.
Engineer Each engineer platoon is organized into three engineer squads and a
headquarters section; it is equipped with four M113s and an ACE.
platoon When tasked to conduct breaching operations, the engineer platoon may
be reinforced with elements from the engineer company’s assault and
obstacle platoon.
Assault and The assault and obstacle platoon consists of two assault sections and an
obstacle section. Each assault section has two AVLBs or Wolverines,
obstacle two ACEs, and two MICLICs. The obstacle section has two M548s
platoon (which may carry the Volcano mine-laying system), two SEEs, two
HEMTTs, and an ACE.
Company The company team may be task organized in one of several ways: with
an engineer platoon (or squad) and an assault section for breaching
team role operations; with the engineer platoon(s) in emplacement of tactical
obstacles during engagement area development; or with the assault and
obstacle platoon in constructing survivability positions during BP
preparation. In addition, the team may attach its mine plow or roller
tanks to the engineer company when the engineers serve as the breach
force in a task force breaching operation. (NOTE: For missions in
which the company team is task organized with an engineer platoon, the
team commander should expect the engineer platoon leader to take part
in development of the team’s plan; the platoon leader will provide
expertise in terrain analysis and employment of the engineer assets.)
EQUIPMENT CAPABILITIES
Armored combat The M9 ACE, with its front-end blade and rear-end winch, is
capable of filling craters and antitank ditches and of digging
earthmover antitank ditches and vehicle fighting positions. Additional
mobility capabilities of the ACE are discussed in the description
of breaching operations in Chapter 5 of this manual.

Armored vehicle The AVLB is based on an M60-series or M48-series tank chassis

modified to transport, launch, and retrieve an 18-meter (60-foot)
launched bridge bridge. The span is capable of carrying MLC 60 track loads
across a 17-meter gap and MLC 70 loads across a 15-meter gap.
Refer to the discussion of breaching operations in Chapter 5 and
the discussion of gap crossing operations, also in Chapter 5, for
additional information on the AVLB’s mobility capabilities.
(NOTE: The AVLB will soon be replaced by the Wolverine.
Based on an M1-series tank chassis, the new bridge will be
capable of supporting MLC 70 traffic across gaps of up to 24
meters.)
Mine-clearing The MICLIC is a rocket-propelled explosive line charge; when
fired into a minefield, it can create a lane that is 100 meters long
line charge and 14 meters wide. The line charges are either trailer-mounted
or, as noted in the following paragraph, carried on the AVLM.
Refer to the discussion of MICLIC capabilities in Chapter 5.
Armored vehicle This vehicle serves as a launch platform for two MICLICs. The
AVLM is a modified version of the AVLB.
launched MICLIC
The SEE has a backhoe, a bucket loader, and other attachments,
including a handled hydraulic rock drill, a chain saw, and a
Small earth pavement breaker. The SEE can dig positions for individual,
excavator crew-served, and antitank weapons or for Stinger missile teams.
It can also be employed to dig in ammunition prestock positions.
Volcano The Volcano is a scatterable mine system that can be mounted
on the back of a five-ton truck, on an M548, or on a UH-60
helicopter. It can rapidly produce tactical minefields with a
linear frontage of up to 1,100 meters and a depth of 120 meters.
The system can be employed to reinforce existing obstacles;
close lanes, gaps, and defiles; provide flank protection for
advancing forces; and deny the enemy access to possible air
defense sites. Volcano minefields are also ideal for employment
when the company team is operating in concert with air and
ground cavalry units in conducting flank guard and flank screen
missions.
MOBILITY PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

In mobility operations, the engineer platoon can perform the
support operations described in the following paragraphs.
(NOTE: For a detailed discussion of mobility operations, refer
to FM 90-13-1.)
Obstacle reduction Engineers can reduce obstacles, thereby improving maneuver
capability of the unit they are supporting. The discussion of
breaching operations in Chapter 5 of this manual covers the
engineers’ obstacle reduction capability.

Route construction The engineers have limited capability to construct, improve, and
maintain roads, bridges, and fords. In addition to providing
and improvement mobility support for offensive operations, they can enhance
mobility in the defense, focusing on the ability to shift forces.
This effort includes assisting defensive elements in movement to
alternate, supplementary, and successive BPs and assisting in the
movement of reserve forces to counterattack, blocking, or
reinforcing positions.
COUNTERMOBILITY PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

In their countermobility role, engineers construct obstacles that can
destroy the enemy’s ability to execute his scheme of maneuver.
Commonly used obstacles include minefields, wire obstacles, antitank
ditches, road craters, abatises, and log cribs. Engineers can also
reinforce terrain and existing obstacles to disrupt, fix, turn, or block the
enemy force. The company team, especially its infantry squads, will
often assist the engineers in the emplacement of obstacles. (NOTE: For
a detailed discussion of countermobility operations, refer to FM 90-7.)
Regardless of the type of defense used by the maneuver commander,
there are five basic principles for the employment of reinforcing
obstacles:
● Obstacles must support the scheme of maneuver.
● They must be integrated with and covered by observed fires.
● Reinforcing obstacles must tie into existing obstacles when

possible.
● Obstacles are most effectively employed in depth.
● They should be employed to surprise the enemy.
Obstacle An understanding of obstacle integration will assist the company team

commander in implementing the team’s portion of the task force
integration obstacle plan. This includes knowledge of obstacle purpose and
integration procedures.
Obstacle The task force commander decides how he will use obstacles to support
intent his scheme of maneuver, defining the end result that the combination of
fires and obstacles must achieve. His obstacle intent provides purpose
and unity of effort for his subordinates’ obstacle emplacement. At task
force level (as well as at brigade level), obstacle intent identifies the
following emplacement factors:
● Target. Obstacles are force-oriented combat multipliers. The
company team commander and supporting engineers must
understand the target of each obstacle so it can be properly
designed and sited.
● Obstacle effect. An understanding of the higher commander’s
desired obstacle effect (disrupt, fix, turn, or block) is essential.
● Relative location. This is a vital consideration; it ties the target
and obstacle effect into the higher commander’s scheme of

maneuver.
Obstacle Commanders use obstacle zones (at division level and higher) and
obstacle belts (at brigade level) to define the areas in which
zones, subordinates are authorized to employ tactical obstacles. Zones and
belts, and belts give subordinate commanders flexibility in their use of obstacles.
groups At the same time, however, they help to eliminate conflicts among
subordinate elements over obstacle employment while ensuring that the
effects of obstacles that are emplaced will support the higher
commander’s overall plan and scheme of maneuver.
Within the brigade belt, individual task forces are responsible for
developing and emplacing obstacle groups. These are collections of
individual obstacles designed and arrayed to produce a singular,
specific tactical effect on a battalion-size enemy element. At the task
force level, obstacle effects are directly linked to the direct and indirect
fire plans. Table 6-4 summarizes the echelons of obstacle control and
effects.
Table 6-4. Echelons of obstacle control and effects.
Types of The task force employs tactical obstacles to directly attack the enemy’s
tactical ability to maneuver, mass, and reinforce. These obstacles are used to
obstacles produce four types of primary effects: to disrupt, to turn, to fix, or to
block.
The three types of tactical obstacles (situational, reserve, and directed)
are described in the following paragraphs. Refer to the discussion of
planning considerations in Chapter 4 of this manual for additional
information on the purpose of each type. (NOTE: In addition to the
three types described here, the company team employs protective
obstacles.) Figure 6-2 shows an example countermobility planning
matrix that the commander might use to plan time requirements for
obstacle construction.

OBSTACLE TYPE CONSTRUCTION

TIME
Disrupting minefield (250 meters by 100 1.5 platoon hours

meters)
Fixing minefield (250 meters by 120 1.5 platoon hours

meters)
Turning minefield (500 meters by 100 3.5 platoon hours

meters)
Blocking minefield (500 meters by 320 5 platoon hours

meters)
Hasty road crater (6 to 10 meters wide) 1.5 squad hours
Abatis (75 meters deep) 4 squad hours
Triple standard concertina wire obstacle 1 engineer platoon

(300 meters) hour OR
1.5 infantry platoon
hours
11-coil concertina wire roadblock 1 squad hour
Figure 6-2. Example countermobility planning matrix.

Situational These are obstacles that units plan (and, if possible, prepare) before an
obstacles operation. Execution, however, is a be-prepared mission based on the
actions of the enemy; the unit does not execute situational obstacles
unless specific criteria are met. Although situational obstacles can be
conventionally emplaced, employment is normally limited to scatterable
mine systems, which include the following types:
● ADAM and RAAM. These are, respectively, antipersonnel and
antitank mines delivered by 155-mm artillery. Depending on the
number of aim points and volume of rounds, they can be
employed in low-, medium-, or high-density minefields ranging
from 100 to 800 meters wide and from 400 to 1,000 meters deep.
Both ADAM and RAAM have a safety zone of 860 meters, a
short duration of four hours, and a long duration of 48 hours/15
days.
● Gator. This mix of antipersonnel and antitank mines is delivered
by fixed-wing aircraft. The Gator system has a safety zone of 275
meters, a short duration of four hours, and a long duration of
48 hours/15 days.
● Volcano. This modular mine delivery system was described
earlier in this section. It can produce a field of antipersonnel and
antitank mines measuring 120 meters deep and up to 1,100
meters wide. Volcano minefields can be emplaced by air or

ground systems. They have a safety zone of 235 meters, a short

duration of four hours, and a long duration of 48 hours/15 days.
(NOTE: For detailed information on the design of Volcano
minefields based on the desired effect, refer to FM 20-32.)
● MOPMS. This system centers on a man-portable dispenser that
can emplace 17 antitank mines and 4 antipersonnel mines in a
35-meter semicircle. Mines are dispensed on command using the
M71 remote control unit (RCU) or an electronic initiating device,
such as the M34 blasting machine. The company team can use
MOPMS to create a protective minefield or to close lanes in task
force tactical obstacles. The safety zone is 20 meters. MOPMS
has a duration of four hours, which can be extended up to three
times (a total of 16 hours); mines can be command-detonated
using the M71 RCU.
NOTE: Scatterable mines begin self-destruction at 80 percent of
their life cycle.
Reserve These are on-order obstacles (such as road cratering and bridge
obstacles demolition) for which the commander restricts execution authority. He
usually specifies the unit responsible for emplacing, guarding, and
executing the reserve obstacle. He must also clearly identify the
conditions under which the obstacle is to be executed. For additional
details on reserve obstacles, refer to FM 90-7.
Directed Most directed obstacles are planned at task force level to achieve a
obstacles specific obstacle intent. In support of this intent, they are assigned to a
specific unit for siting and emplacement.
Obstacle The company team commander and engineer platoon leader work
siting together on obstacle siting during the development of the engagement
area (NOTE: For a detailed discussion of obstacle siting procedures,
refer to FM 90-7. Additional information is provided in the discussion
of engagement area development in Chapter 4 of this manual.) The
following specific steps apply in this procedure:
● Combat elements should be used to provide security for the
engineers as they emplace obstacles.
● The company team marks fire control measures (such as TRPs
and artillery targets) in the engagement area.
● Elements from the engineer platoon enter the engagement area
and move to the far side of the proposed trace of the obstacle
group.
● The engineer platoon leader and company team commander
collocate in the defensive positions covering the obstacle.
● Elements from the engineer platoon move along the proposed
trace of the obstacle group.
● From the defensive position, the commander, platoon leaders,
and vehicle commanders follow the movement of the engineer
platoon, ensuring that all points of the obstacle trace can be
covered with fires. They maintain communications with the
engineers via FM.

● The commander and engineer platoon leader refine the obstacle

trace, adjusting the position of individual obstacles as necessary.
The team commander and the emplacing engineer should use a common
set of operational "tools" to ensure accurate, effective obstacle siting.
These resources include the following:
● The current SITEMP.
● Commander’s intent.
● The fire plan and applicable maneuver graphics.
● Obstacle execution matrix.
● Scheme of obstacles overlay.
● Fire support plan.
● CSS graphics.
Obstacle Once an obstacle group is completed, the emplacing element conducts

obstacle turnover, transferring control of the obstacles to the owning
turnover unit. Turnover procedures should cover the following:
and transfer ● Mutual identity check.
● Briefing on current enemy and friendly situations.
● Description of obstacle locations, types, marking, and

composition. This information may cover the following
considerations:
- Conventional minefields (types of mines, fuzing, and
antihandling devices).
- Scatterable minefields (types of mines, duration,
self-destruct times, and safety zone).
- Other obstacles (including booby traps and other
hazards).
● Information on obstacle lanes, including number, locations,
marking, closure plans, and information on reserve obstacles (if
applicable).
● Coordination requirements, including whether coordination with
the FIST is completed or is still required.
● Transfer of graphics and documentation, including minefield
records, demolition target folders, orders for the demolition
guard, and/or other written records.
SURVIVABILITY PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

The commander must plan the priority of his survivability effort. His
plan should specify a sequence in which vehicle and individual
positions will receive dozer and/or ACE support; it should also
designate the priority for SEE support (to construction of infantry
fighting positions or to emplacement of Class V caches). Survivability
specifications for vehicle and individual fighting positions are covered
in FM 17-15, FM 7-7J, and FM 5-103. FM 7-7J and FM 5-103 also list
the specifications for trench lines and bunkers associated with a
strongpoint defense.
Table 6-5 summarizes the amount of time required to prepare various
types of vehicle and individual positions using the assets available to
the company team. The company team commander can use this
information in developing his survivability plan, in establishing digging
priorities, and in directing the handoff of digging assets among his
platoons. Additional considerations for survivability planning include
site security, CSS, and movement times between BPs.
Table 6-5. Survivability planning timetable (time, in hours, required to prepare
vehicle and individual positions).
ASSET BLADE TEAM

SEE MANUAL
TYPE OF POSITION (2 ACEs OR 2 dozers)
M1/BFV hull-defilade 1.5 NA NA
M1/BFV turret-defilade 3.5 NA NA
Modified hull-down position 1 NA NA

("banana")
M113 position 0.6 NA NA
Two-man fighting position NA 0.5 * 6*
Machine gun position NA 1* 7*
Antitank position NA 1* 6*
* An additional five hours is required for these assets to prepare overhead cover for the position.
SECTION 3 - AIR DEFENSE
SYSTEMS, ORGANIZATION, AND CAPABILITIES

In most operational environments, enemy air forces will be operating

over the battlefield, attacking friendly ground forces and attempting to
destroy them or disrupt their operations. The air defense battalion will
provide SHORAD coverage for divisional assets. For close-in
protection, however, lower echelons, including the company team, must
depend on their own air defense capabilities.
The company team commander must be able to employ all available
active and passive air defense measures. The team can mass the fires of
its individual and crew-served weapons against any enemy aircraft to
provide a significant terminal defense. In addition, every member of the
company team must be capable of firing at attacking air platforms.
ADA systems The air defense commander employs several types of systems to
provide low- to high-altitude air defense coverage. At corps level and
higher, these systems are the Avenger, the Patriot, THAAD, and
MANPADS. At the tactical level, low- to medium-altitude air defense
is accomplished by the air defense battalion organic to the division.
Task force A maneuver task force is normally task organized with an air defense
platoon equipped with four BSFV or Bradley Linebacker fire units. The
organization company team may have an air defense section moving with it;
however, this section normally will remain part of the air defense
platoon, responsible for providing DS, GS, or GS-R coverage to the
task force.
Task force Air defense systems employed by the task force are described in the
following paragraphs.
assets
Stinger This is the task force’s primary air defense weapon system, employing
short-range, shoulder-fired, heat-seeking guided missiles. It is designed
to counter the threat of advanced helicopters, UAVs and RPVs,
high-speed maneuvering aircraft, and cruise missiles. The Stinger has a
range in excess of 5 kilometers.
Man-portable The Stinger can be employed as a man-portable air defense system,
system known as MANPADS. The two-man Stinger team, consisting of a
gunner and a crew chief, is transported in a HMMWV or BSFV
(described in the following paragraph).
Bradley Stinger The BSFV provides the air defender with armor protection. The vehicle
fighting vehicle also gives him the ability to maneuver with the supported force and
position the Stinger system forward on the battlefield. The Stinger team
must dismount to fire its missiles. The BSFV carries a basic load of six
Stinger missiles as its primary air defense weapon; the Bradley’s
25-mm chain gun can be used to augment the Stinger and cover dead
space to a range of 2,000 meters. The vehicle also carries five TOW
missiles.
Bradley This recently developed vehicle replaces the BSFV’s TOW system with
Linebacker four ready-to-fire Stinger missiles, housed in the standard vehicle
mounted launcher (SVML). The Bradley Linebacker, with its ability to
shoot on the move, is designed specifically to provide air defense on the
battlefield.

EMPLOYMENT OF ADA SYSTEMS

In offensive situations, BSFV and Bradley Linebacker units will
accompany the main attack. They may maneuver with the task force’s
lead company teams, orienting on low-altitude air avenues of approach.
When the unit is moving or in a situation that entails short halts, the
Bradley’s primary weapon is the 25-mm chain gun, which has an
effective range of 2,000 meters. Consequently, to assure mutual
support, BSFVs or Linebackers will maneuver no farther than 1,000
meters away from other task force elements. The Stinger gunners on the
BSFV can dismount to provide air defense when the unit reaches the
objective or pauses during the attack.
In the defense, BSFV or Bradley Linebacker units establish BPs based
on available IPB information and the task force commander’s scheme
of maneuver. Squads are positioned approximately 2 kilometers apart to
maximize the air defense vehicles’ defensive capabilities. BSFVs and
Linebackers are often used to protect counterattacking maneuver units
that are vulnerable to detection and attack by enemy air forces.
WEAPONS CONTROL STATUS

The weapons control status describes the relative degree of control in
effect for air defense fires. It applies to all weapon systems. The
weapons control status is dictated in the task force OPORD and may be
updated based on the situation. The three levels of control are the
following:
● WEAPONS FREE. Crews can fire at any air target not
positively identified as friendly. This is the least restrictive
weapons control status level.
● WEAPONS TIGHT. Crews can fire only at air targets positively
identified as hostile according to the prevailing hostile criteria.
● WEAPONS HOLD. Crews are prohibited from firing except in
self-defense or in response to a formal order. This is the most
restrictive control status level.
EARLY WARNING PROCEDURES

While air defense warnings cover the probability of hostile air action
over the entire theater of war or operations, local air defense warnings
describe with certainty the air threat for a specific part of the battlefield.
ADA units use these local warnings to alert Army units to the state of
the air threat in terms of "right here, right now." There are three local
air defense warning levels:
● DYNAMITE. Air platforms are inbound or are attacking locally
now.
● LOOKOUT. Air platforms are in the area of interest but are not
threatening. They may be inbound, but there is time to react.
● SNOWMAN. No air platforms pose a threat at this time.
NOTE: Air defense warnings are routinely issued by the area air
defense commander for dissemination throughout the theater of
war or operations. These warnings describe the general state of
the probable air threat and apply to the entire area.
REACTION PROCEDURES
Passive air Passive air defense consists of all measures taken to prevent the enemy
from detecting and/or locating the unit, to minimize the target
defense acquisition capability of enemy aircraft, and to limit damage to the unit
if it comes under air attack. One advantage the company team can
exploit is that target detection and acquisition are difficult for crews of
high-performance aircraft. In most cases, enemy pilots must be able to
see and identify a target before they can launch an attack.
Guidelines The company team should follow these guidelines to avoid detection
and/or to limit damage:
● When stopped, occupy positions that offer cover and
concealment; dig in and camouflage vehicles that are exposed.
When moving, use covered and concealed routes.
● Disperse vehicles as much as possible to make detection and
attack more difficult.
● Wipe out track marks leading to vehicle positions, and eliminate
or cover the spoil from dug-in positions
● If moving when an enemy aircraft attacks, disperse and seek
covered and concealed positions.
● Do not fire on a hostile fixed-wing aircraft unless it is clear that
the aircraft has identified friendly elements. Premature
engagement will compromise friendly positions.
● Designate air guards for every vehicle and/or position, and
establish and maintain 360-degree security.
● Establish an air warning system in the unit SOP, including both
visual and audible signals.

Passive air When the company team observes fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, or
defense UAVs that could influence its mission, it initially takes passive air
procedures defense measures unless the situation requires immediate active
measures. This reaction normally will be in the form of each platoon’s
react to air attack battle drill; however, the commander can initiate
specific passive measures if necessary. Refer to the passive air defense
guidelines for the company team discussed earlier in this section.
(NOTE: Passive air defense also includes the company team’s
preparations for conducting active air defense measures.)
Passive air defense involves these three steps:
● Step 1 - Alert the company team with a contact report.
● Step 2 - Deploy or take the appropriate actions. If the

company team is not in the direct path of an attacking aircraft, the
commander or the platoon leaders order vehicles to seek cover
and concealment and halt with at least a 100-meter interval
between vehicles. The team also may be ordered to continue
moving as part of the task force. Figure 6-3 illustrates procedures
used to evade enemy aircraft.
● Step 3 - Prepare to engage. Fighting vehicle crews prepare to
engage the aircraft with machine gun or main gun fire on order of
the commander or their platoon leaders.

Figure 6-3. Procedures for evading enemy aircraft.
Active air If the commander determines that the company team is in the direct
path of attacking aircraft, he initiates active air defense procedures,
defense including react to air attack drills by the team’s platoons. Active air
defense entails the following steps:
● Step 1 - Initiate fires. The primary intent is to force aircraft to
take self-defense measures that alter their attack profile and
reduce their effectiveness. Leaders may use a tracer burst to
designate an aim point for machine gun antiaircraft fires (see
Figure 6-4). Volume is the key to effectiveness; tanks and BFVs
throw up a "wall of steel" through which aircraft must fly.
Effective in company team air defense employment are the tank
main gun and TOW and Javelin missiles against hovering attack
helicopters, the tank main gun and BFV 25-mm cannon against
moving helicopters, and the tank main gun MPAT round against
high-performance aircraft.
● Step 2 - Create a nonlinear target. Vehicles move as fast as
possible at a 45-degree angle away from the path of flight and
toward attacking aircraft (as illustrated in Figure 6-3). Each
platoon maintains an interval of at least 100 meters between
vehicles, forcing aircraft to make several passes to engage the
entire platoon.
● Step 3 - Move quickly to covered and concealed positions and
stop. Vehicles freeze their movement for at least 60 seconds after
the last flight of aircraft has passed.
● Step 4 - Send a SPOTREP. The commander or XO updates the
task force commander on the situation as soon as possible.


Figure 6-4. Machine gun aim points against helicopters and high-performance aircraft.
SECTION 4 - NUCLEAR,
BIOLOGICAL, AND CHEMICAL
SUPPORT
The company team receives NBC support through the division chemical
company. Within the chemical company, specialized platoons provide
three basic categories of support: NBC reconnaissance,
decontamination, and smoke operations. Elements of the
reconnaissance or smoke platoon may be task organized down to
brigade or task force level.
RECONNAISSANCE SUPPORT
The division chemical company provides NBC reconnaissance
throughout the division area. The NBC reconnaissance platoon, which
is organized into four reconnaissance squads, has the capability of
locating, identifying, marking, and reporting NBC-contaminated areas.
The platoon can also report and mark bypass routes around
contaminated areas.
DECONTAMINATION SUPPORT
The chemical company’s chemical decontamination platoon is
organized into three squads, each equipped with an M12A1
decontamination apparatus. The squads usually work directly with
elements of the division in setting up and operating sites for operational
and thorough decontamination. The company team may be tasked to
work with the decon platoon or one of its squads during the conduct of
thorough decontamination operations. (NOTE: For a more detailed
discussion of decontamination requirements, refer to Appendix G of
this manual. Table G-4 provides a complete list of required resources.)
SMOKE SUPPORT

The chemical company provides the division with smoke support

through its mechanized smoke platoon. The platoon has the capability
of providing both hasty smoke generation and large-area smoke support
for tactical operations in the MBA. The smoke platoon consists of seven
M1059 mechanized vehicles, each equipped with a caliber .50 machine
gun and two smoke generators.
NOTE: For additional information on NBC operations, refer to
Appendix G of this manual.
SECTION 5 - INTELLIGENCE
The company team may conduct operations with any of several types of
intelligence assets. In stability and support operations, for example,
interrogation or counterintelligence teams may work in DS of the
company team. While conducting security operations, the team may
receive attached intelligence assets, such as GSR or IREMBASS teams.
In most situations, however, attachment of intelligence assets to the
company team will be rare. More commonly, these assets will be
operating in or near the team’s area of operations; they will be attached
to or in DS or GS of the task force, brigade, or division. The company
team should be prepared to take advantage of information from the
intelligence assets. It may also be tasked to provide a degree of tactical
and/or logistical support, especially area medical support coverage, for
the intelligence elements.
In situations in which the company team works with or supports
intelligence assets, leaders of each element share responsibility for
conducting coordination early in the operation. Coordination commonly
includes exchanging call signs and frequencies; conducting fratricide
prevention activities; and sharing basic operational plans, fire support
plans, and fire control measures.
SECTION 6 - AVIATION
COMBAT SUPPORT MISSIONS
Aviation support is an important, but sometimes overlooked, CS asset.
Army aviation elements can provide support to the team in several
critical areas, including those covered in the following discussion.
COMMAND, CONTROL, AND COMMUNICATIONS

Aviation units can assist the company team in maintaining these critical
functions. They can conduct liaison between separate units, transmit
intelligence information, and verify unit situations and locations. They
can enhance communications through airborne transmission capabilities
and relay equipment. Additional aviation intelligence functions that
may aid the company team include target acquisition, reconnaissance,
and employment of intelligence-gathering systems.
AIR MOVEMENT
Air movement operations are conducted to reposition units, personnel,
supplies, equipment, and other critical combat elements in support of
current and/or future operations. These operations include both airdrops
and air landings.
AERIAL MINE WARFARE

Aviation units can employ the Volcano scatterable mine system in
support of the company team’s operations. For a description of
Volcano, refer to Section 2 of this chapter.

FM 71-1 Chapter 7 Combat Service Support
CHAPTER 7

Simply stated, the role of CSS in any military unit is to sustain the force for continuous combat
operations. In the company team, the commander has ultimate responsibility for CSS. The XO and the
1SG are the team’s primary CSS operators; they work closely with the task force staff to ensure they
receive the required support for the team’s assigned operations.
CONTENTS
Section 1 Responsibilities
General Guidelines
Individual Responsibilities
Section 2 Trains
Company Team Combat Trains

Task Force Combat Trains
Task Force Field Trains
Trains Security
Communications
Section 3 Supply Considerations
Classes of Supply
Combat Load, Basic Load, and Prescribed Load List
Reporting
Section 4 Resupply Operations
Routine Resupply
Emergency Resupply
Prestock Operations
Class IV/V Supply Points and Mine Dumps
Section 5 Maintenance Operations
Company Team Role

Cross-Attachment Considerations
UMCP Operations
Destruction
Section 6 Health Service Support

Health and Hygiene

Sick Call and Health Assessment
Soldiers Wounded in Action
Soldiers Killed in Action
Section 7 Personnel Services
Postal, Financial, and Legal Services

Unit Ministry Team
Public Affairs
EPW Processing and Evacuation
Section 8 Reorganization and Weapon Replacement
Replacement and Cross-Leveling of Personnel

Replacement and Salvaging of Equipment
Integration and Preparation for Combat
Weapon System Replacement Operations
Section 9 CSS Planning Considerations
Development of the CSS Plan

CSS Briefings and Rehearsals
Section 10 Aviation CSS Missions
Aerial Sustainment
Casualty Evacuation
SECTION 1 - RESPONSIBILITIES
GENERAL GUIDELINES
In most tank and mechanized infantry battalion task forces, CSS assets are assigned to the HHC. The
HHC commander then provides each maneuver company team with personnel, equipment and supplies,
and other support functions, including POL and transportation requirements. These services are
provided by the HHC medical platoon, maintenance platoon, and support platoon.
Within that support structure, the company team must plan, prepare, and execute its portion of the task
force CSS plan. Concurrent with other operational planning, the team develops its CSS plan during the
mission analysis and refines it in the war-gaming portion of the troop-leading process. CSS rehearsals
are normally conducted at both task force and company team levels to ensure the team receives a
smooth, continuous flow of materiel and services.
The company team’s basic CSS responsibilities are to report and/or request support requirements
through the correct task force channels and to ensure that CSS operations are properly executed when
support elements arrive in the team area. The XO and 1SG will normally be in charge of these

functions, with guidance and oversight provided by the commander. They must submit accurate
personnel and logistical reports, along with other necessary information and requests.
INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITIES
The following paragraphs focus on specific individual responsibilities
within the company team’s CSS chain.
Executive officer The XO is the company team’s primary CSS planner and coordinator,
reporting directly to the commander. During preparations for the operation,
he works closely with the 1SG to determine specific support requirements
in support of the tactical plan. He then must ensure that proper
arrangements are made for delivery of CSS goods and services. The XO
also performs these CSS functions:
● Determine the location of the team’s resupply point based on data
developed during operational planning and the war-gaming process.
● Compile periodic maintenance updates from the platoon leaders,
PSGs, the 1SG, and the maintenance team chief and provide updates
to the commander as required.
● Along with the 1SG, ensure that the company team is executing CSS
operations in accordance with the task force plan.
First sergeant The 1SG is the company team’s primary CSS operator. He executes the
team’s logistical plan, relying heavily on team and task force SOPs. He
directly supervises and controls the combat trains. The 1SG also performs
these CSS functions:
● Conduct CSS rehearsals at the company team level and/or integrate
CSS into the team’s maneuver rehearsals.
● Receive, consolidate, and forward all administrative, personnel, and
casualty reports to the task force combat trains.
● Direct and supervise the medical team, moving it forward when the
situation requires.
● Establish and organize the company team resupply point.
● Meet the LOGPAC at the LRP, guide it to the company team

resupply point, supervise resupply operations there, and if necessary,
guide the LOGPAC to its subsequent destination.
● Provide a company team orientation for new personnel and, in
consultation with the commander, assign replacements to the team’s
subordinate elements.
● Supervise evacuation of casualties, EPWs, and damaged equipment.
● Maintain the company team battle roster.

Supply sergeant The supply sergeant is the company team’s representative in the task force
field trains. He assembles the LOGPAC and moves it forward to the LRP.
The supply sergeant also performs these CSS functions:
● Coordinate with the support platoon leader for resupply of Classes I,
III, and V.
● Maintain individual supply and clothing records, and requisition
Class II resupply as needed.
● Requisition Class IV and Class VII equipment and supplies.
● Coordinate with the task force PLL section to turn in and/or pick up
maintenance documents, routine Class IX supplies, and recoverable
materials.
● Pick up replacement personnel and, as necessary, deliver them to the
1SG.
● Receive and evacuate KIAs to the mortuary affairs point in the
brigade support area (BSA).
● Transport, guard, and/or transfer EPWs as required.
● Guide the LOGPAC, along with EPWs and damaged vehicles (if
applicable), back to the BSA.
● Coordinate with the task force S1 section to turn in or pick up mail
and personnel action documents.
● Collect bagged contaminated soil and transport it to collection points
as part of LOGPAC procedures.
● Maintain and provide supplies for team field sanitation activities.
Maintenance The maintenance team chief and the mechanics he supervises are assigned
to the task force HHC, but are attached to the company team. The
team chief maintenance team chief performs these CSS functions:
● Supervise maintenance and recovery operations.
● Compile DA Forms 2404 and/or 5988 from the PSGs.
● Review the forms, ensure deficiencies and problems are verified by

the mechanics, and complete the forms as necessary (for example,
adding the parts numbers for required parts).
● Submit the completed forms to the 1SG or XO.
● Develop and implement a tracking system to monitor critical

maintenance services, such as the following:
- Deferred maintenance.
- AOAP.
- Services due.
- Work to be completed by the maintenance team.
- Status and flow of DA Forms 2404/5988.
- Status of replacement parts, including parts on order and
valid parts requisition numbers.
● Distribute and/or store replacement parts.

Direct and/or supervise recovery operations to the UMCP.

●
● Ensure all recoverable parts are turned in.
● As appropriate, supervise turn-in of used or excess POL products and

of hazardous waste.
● Advise the XO and 1SG on vehicle recovery, repair, and/or
destruction.
● Conduct rehearsals of spill prevention procedures.
● Ensure that soil contaminated during maintenance activities is

collected, bagged, and turned in to the supply sergeant.
● Assist the 1SG as required and, in his absence, serve as NCOIC of
the company team trains.
Platoon sergeants Each PSG in the company team performs these CSS functions:
● Ensure crews perform proper maintenance on all assigned
equipment.
● Compile all personnel and logistics reports for the platoon and
submit them to the 1SG as directed or in accordance with SOP.
● Collect each DA Form 2404/5988 within the platoon, check the
forms for accuracy, and submit them to the maintenance team chief.
● Obtain supplies and equipment (all classes) and mail from the supply
sergeant and ensure proper distribution within the platoon.
Senior aidman Like the maintenance team chief and his mechanics, the company team’s
senior aidman and medics are assigned to the task force HHC but attached
to the team. The senior aidman’s responsibilities include the following:
● Supervise triage for injured, wounded, and ill friendly and enemy
personnel.
● Provide first aid for and stabilize injured, wounded, or ill personnel.
● Under the direction of the 1SG, evacuate those who are seriously
wounded.
● Supervise the company team’s field sanitation team.
● Conduct sick call as required.
● Assist in training company team personnel in first-aid procedures.
● Advise the team chain of command on the health status of personnel

and other health concerns.
● Requisition Class VIII supplies, including combat lifesaver bags and
first-aid kits, for the medical team and other company team elements.
● Recommend locations for casualty collection points.
● Supervise the team’s combat lifesavers and field sanitation team.
SECTION 2 - TRAINS

COMPANY TEAM COMBAT TRAINS

The most forward CSS element is the company team combat trains, which provide vehicle recovery,
medical aid, and maintenance services. The 1SG normally positions the trains and directly supervises
CSS operations. The trains normally operate 500 to 1,000 meters (or one terrain feature) to the rear of
the company team. (NOTE: METT-TC factors ultimately dictate the actual distance.) This gives the
team virtually immediate access to essential CSS functions while allowing the trains to remain in a
covered and concealed position behind the FLOT. The company team combat trains normally include
the following vehicles, with corresponding crews:
● The M88A1 recovery vehicle.
● The maintenance M113.
● The 1SG’s M113.
● The medic’s M113.
● The commander’s and 1SG’s HMMWVs.
TASK FORCE COMBAT TRAINS

The task force combat trains are normally positioned close enough to
the FLOT to be responsive to forward units, but beyond the range of
enemy direct fires. The trains are generally located 4 to 8 kilometers
behind the most forward company. The task force trains normally
include the CTCP, emergency Class III and Class V elements from the
support platoon, the UMCP, and the BAS. The CTCP, BAS, and UMCP
are normally located in separate, but nearby, positions; however, they
can be collocated to form a base cluster for defense. The CMT’s tool
truck is normally located in the UMCP.
TASK FORCE FIELD TRAINS

The task force field trains are normally positioned in the BSA. In
offensive operations, this usually places them 20 to 25 kilometers
behind the task force combat trains; in the defense, the distance is 20 to
40 kilometers to the rear. The company team normally locates its supply
section and corresponding vehicles, including the water trailer and the
CMT’s PLL truck, in the task force field trains.
TRAINS SECURITY

Because security of CSS elements is critical to the success of the

company team and task force missions, the company team and task
force combat trains and the task force field trains must all develop plans
for continuous security operations. Where feasible, they may plan and
execute a perimeter defense. The trains, however, may lack the
personnel and combat power to conduct a major security effort. In such
situations, they must plan and implement passive security measures to
provide protection from enemy forces.
COMMUNICATIONS
Fast, reliable communications are critical to the CSS effort. Whether as
directed by higher headquarters or as needed to support the company
team mission, the 1SG must be able to instantly report the company
team’s status, including combat losses, and to send resupply and
support requests.
As in all tactical situations, the radio is the fastest and most frequently
used means for transmitting CSS requests and reports. It is also the least
secure means of communications and poses other problems for the
company team’s CSS operators. The task force A/L net is used for most
CSS traffic, but the team may not have enough working radio systems
to monitor it. When this is the case, a higher NCS will be forced to
enter the company team net when it must contact the team. Another
type of problem can arise when company teams enter the A/L net. The
transmission of one team may "walk over" another team’s report or
request. Unit SOPs must specify procedures to be followed in this type
of situation to ensure that the task force field and/or combat trains
receive all transmissions on a timely basis.
As an alternative, the company team can send CSS reports and requests
by messenger or wire. Messengers are slower, but more secure, than
radio transmission. Wire communications are also very secure, but are
strictly limited in range and/or coverage. In situations where use of the
radio is not possible, a messenger can be sent with the resupply or
evacuation vehicle. In addition, either messenger or wire is the best
means for sending lengthy or complex reports and requests.
SECTION 3 - SUPPLY
CONSIDERATIONS

The supply sergeant is responsible for obtaining supplies and delivering

them to the company team. He handles small items himself; the assets
of the support platoon are employed to deliver bulky or
high-expenditure items. Priorities for delivery are established by the
commander, but the demands of combat will normally dictate that
supplies and equipment in Classes I, III, V, and IX are the most critical
to successful operations.
CLASSES OF SUPPLY
Class I Class I includes rations, water, and ice as well as gratuitous issue of
items related to health, morale, and welfare. Class I supplies are
automatically requested from the brigade on the daily strength report.
Rations are prepared in the field trains and delivered with the
LOGPAC. MREs stored on combat vehicles are eaten only when Class
I resupply, including mess operations, cannot be accomplished.
Class II This supply class includes clothing, individual equipment, MOPP suits,
tentage, tool sets, and administrative and housekeeping supplies and
equipment. Expendable items such as soap, toilet tissue and insecticide
are distributed during LOGPAC operations.
Class III Class III comprises POL products. Unusual Class III requests are
normally submitted to the combat trains. POL includes both bulk and
package products. Examples of bulk products include JP8 (Army
common fuel), diesel, and MOGAS.
Package products are requested and received like Class II and Class IV
items; they include 5-gallon and 55-gallon containers; packaged
products such as lubricants, grease, hydraulic fluid, and solvents in
amounts of 55 gallons or less; and cylinders of liquid and compressed
gasses.
Class IV Construction materials, pickets, sandbags, and concertina wire are
among the items covered by Class IV. Company team SOP will specify
the combat load of Class IV items for each vehicle.
Class V Class V covers all types of ammunition and mines, including C-4 and
other explosives.
Class VI Class VI includes personal-demand items ordinarily sold through the
exchange system. Examples are candy, tobacco products, soaps,
cameras, and film. When a PX is not available, Class VI support is
requested through the S1.
Class VII This supply class includes major end items such as tanks, BFVs, and
other vehicles. Class VII items are issued based on battle loss reports.
Ready-to-fight weapon systems are sent forward with the LOGPAC.
Class VIII Class VIII covers medical supplies. Combat lifesaver bags and first-aid
kits are replaced on a one-for-one basis at the BAS.

Class IX Class IX includes repair parts and documents required for equipment
maintenance operations. Repair parts are issued in response to a specific
request or are obtained by direct exchange of repairable parts, to include
batteries for night vision devices and man-portable radios. In combat
situations, exchange and cannibalization are the normal means of
obtaining Class IX items.
Class X In this class are materials to support nonmilitary programs such as
agriculture and economic development. Instructions for request and
issue of Class X supplies are provided at division level or higher.
Maps The company team requests maps through the task force S4.
COMBAT LOAD, BASIC LOAD, AND PRESCRIBED LOAD

LIST
Combat load The company team’s combat load includes the supplies that it
physically carries into the fight. Some minimum requirements will
be dictated by the task force commander; however, most items will
be specified by the company team commander or by unit SOP.
Specific combat loads will vary by mission.
Basic load The basic load includes supplies kept by the company team for use
in combat. The quantity of most supply items in the basic load is
related to the number of days in combat the team may be required
to sustain itself without resupply. For Class V, the basic load is a
quantity of ammunition, specified by the higher command or by
SOP, that the team is required to have on hand to meet combat
needs until resupply can be accomplished.
Prescribed load The PLL specifies the quantity of combat-essential supplies and
repair parts that major commanders direct their units to have on
list hand. In the company team, PLL items are normally carried on the
PLL truck located in the task force field trains.
REPORTING
There are few, if any, scenarios in which US military forces will have
all the supplies they need for an operation. Because of this, it is
essential that every unit’s daily logistical reports accurately reflect not
only its operational needs but also what supplies and equipment are on
hand.
As much as possible, CSS planners try to standardize "push" packages,
providing all units with sufficient quantities of each supply item.
Together with the commander’s guidance for issuance of scarce, but
heavily requested, supply items, accurate reporting allows planners to
quickly forecast supply constraints and then to submit requisitions to
alleviate projected shortages. Conversely, inaccurate or incomplete
reporting can severely handicap efforts to balance unit requirements and
available supplies. As a result, some units may go into combat without

enough supplies to accomplish the mission while others have an excess

of certain items.
SECTION 4 - RESUPPLY
OPERATIONS
Resupply operations are generally classified as routine, emergency, or
prestock. Cues and procedures for each method are specified in the
company team SOP and are rehearsed during team training exercises.
The actual method selected for resupply in the field will depend on
METT-TC factors.
ROUTINE RESUPPLY
Routine resupply operations cover items in Classes I, III, V, and IX as
well as mail and any other items requested by the company team.
Whenever possible, routine resupply should be conducted daily, ideally
during periods of limited visibility. Because tanks and other major combat
vehicles consume large amounts of fuel (for example, M1-series tanks
require refueling twice daily during offensive operations), the company
team must resupply Class III at every opportunity.
LOGPAC The LOGPAC technique is a simple, efficient way to accomplish routine
resupply operations. The key feature is a centrally organized resupply
operations convoy originating at the task force trains. It carries all items needed to
sustain the company team for a specific period, usually 24 hours or until
the next scheduled LOGPAC. Company team and task force SOPs will
specify the exact composition and march order of the LOGPAC.
Preparation The company team supply sergeant first compiles and coordinates all of
the team’s supply requests. Based on the requests, he them assembles the
LOGPAC under the supervision of the support platoon leader or the HHC
commander. He obtains the following items and materials:
● Class I, Class III (bulk and packaged products), and Class V
supplies from the support platoon. This will normally entail
employment of one or two fuel HEMTTs and one or two cargo
HEMTTs.
● Class II, Class IV (basic load resupply only), Class VI, and
Class VII supplies from task force S4 personnel in the field trains.
● Routine Class IX supplies and maintenance documents (as required)
from the PLL section in the field trains.
● Replacement personnel and soldiers returning from medical
treatment.
● Vehicles returning to the company team area from maintenance.
● Mail and personnel action documents (including awards and finance

and legal documents) from the task force S1 section.

When LOGPAC preparations are completed, the supply sergeant initiates

tactical movement to the LRP under the supervision of the support platoon
leader. The supply sergeant and LOGPAC link up with the 1SG at the
LRP.
Actions at the When the 1SG arrives at the LRP to pick up the company team LOGPAC,
LRP he updates all personnel and logistical reports and is briefed by the field
trains OIC on any changes to the tactical or support situation. He then
escorts the convoy to the company team resupply point, providing security
during movement from the LRP.
Resupply The company team uses either the service station or the tailgate resupply
procedures method, both of which are discussed later in this section. The time
required for resupply is an important planning factor. It must be conducted
as quickly and efficiently as possible, both to ensure operational
effectiveness and to allow the company team LOGPAC to return to the
LRP on time. Service station resupply of the team can normally be
completed in 60 to 90 minutes, although it may take longer. Tailgate
resupply usually requires significantly more time than do service station
operations.
Return to the Once resupply operations are completed, the LOGPAC vehicles are
LRP prepared for the return trip. Company team vehicles requiring recovery for
maintenance or salvage are lined up and prepared for towing. KIAs are
carried on cargo trucks, fuel trucks, or disabled vehicles. EPWs ride in the
cargo trucks and are guarded by walking wounded or other company team
personnel. All supply requests and personnel action documents are
consolidated for forwarding to the field trains, where the appropriate staff
section will process them for the next LOGPAC.
The 1SG or the supply sergeant leads the LOGPAC back the LRP, where
he links up with the support platoon leader. Whenever possible, the
reunited task force LOGPAC convoy returns to the field trains together.
When METT-TC dictates or when the LOGPAC arrives too late to rejoin
the larger convoy, the company team vehicles must return to the field
trains on their own. Because only minimal security assets will be
available, this situation should be avoided.
Resupply As directed by the commander or XO, the 1SG establishes the company
team resupply point using either the service station or tailgate method. He
methods briefs each LOGPAC driver on which method will be used. When the
resupply point is ready, the 1SG informs the commander, who in turn
directs each platoon or element to conduct resupply based on the tactical
situation.

Service With the service station method, vehicles move individually or in small
station groups to a centrally located resupply point. Depending on the tactical
resupply situation, one vehicle or section or even an entire platoon moves out of its
position, conducts resupply operations, and then moves back into position.
This process continues until the entire company team has been resupplied.
In using this method, vehicles enter the resupply point following a
one-way traffic flow; only vehicles requiring immediate maintenance stop
at the maintenance holding area. Vehicles move through each supply
location, with crews rotating individually to eat, pick up mail and sundries,
and refill or exchange water cans. When all platoon vehicles and crews
have completed resupply, they move to a holding area, where, time
permitting, the platoon leader and PSG conduct a PCI.

Figure 7-1. Service station resupply method.

Tailgate The tailgate method is normally used only in assembly areas. Combat
resupply vehicles remain in their vehicle positions or back out a short distance to
allow trucks carrying Class III and Class V supplies to reach them.
Individual crewmen rotate through the feeding area, pick up mail and
sundries, and fill or exchange water cans. Any EPWs are centralized
and guarded. KIAs, with their personal effects, are brought to the
holding area, where the 1SG takes charge of them. Refer to Figure 7-2.
Figure 7-2. Tailgate resupply method.

EMERGENCY RESUPPLY
Occasionally (normally during combat operations), the company team
may have such an urgent need for resupply that it cannot wait for a
routine LOGPAC. Emergency resupply may involve Classes III, V, and
VIII, as well as NBC equipment and, on a rare occasions, Class I. The
task force will usually use support platoon and medical assets located in
the task force combat trains to conduct emergency resupply of the
company team.
Emergency resupply can be conducted using either the service station or
tailgate method, although procedures may have to be adjusted when the
company team is in contact with the enemy. In the service station
method, individual vehicles pull back during a lull in combat on order
of the commander or platoon leader; they conduct resupply and then
return to the fight. With tailgate resupply, the company team brings
limited supplies forward to the closest concealed position behind each
vehicle or element.
PRESTOCK OPERATIONS
Prestock resupply, also known as pre-positioning, is most often required
in defensive operations. Normally only Class V items are
pre-positioned. Class III supplies can be pre-positioned; however, this
requires company team vehicles to refuel before moving into fighting
positions during initial occupation of the BP or to move out of their
fighting positions to conduct refueling operations at the rear of the BP.
Figures 7-3 and 7-4 illustrate two methods of pre-positioning supplies.
Prestock operations must be carefully planned and executed at every
level. All leaders, down to vehicle commander and squad leader, must
know the exact locations of prestock sites, which they verify during
reconnaissance or rehearsals. The company team must take steps to
ensure survivability of the prestock supplies. These measures include
digging in prestock positions and selecting covered and concealed
positions. The team commander must also have a plan to remove or
destroy pre-positioned supplies to prevent the enemy from capturing
them.
During offensive operations, mobile pre-positioning can be employed
by loading supplies on trucks and positioning them forward on the
battlefield. This technique works well if the company team expects to
use a large volume of fire, with corresponding ammunition
requirements, during a fast-moving operation.

Figure 7-3. Prestock resupply operations - method 1 (central Class V prestock site).

Figure 7-4. Prestock resupply operations - method 2 (Class V prestock site for each vehicle).
CLASS IV/V SUPPLY POINTS AND MINE DUMPS

These sites are important elements of task force resupply operations.
For a more detailed discussion of Class IV/V supply points and mine
dump operations, refer to FM 90-7.

Class IV/V Class IV/V supply points stock construction and barrier materials; they
supply points are also the sites at which the task force receives and transfers control
of mines pushed forward by corps and/or division throughput haul
assets. The task force has responsibility for establishing the supply
point and for transporting materials from the point to locations in the
task force area where the supplies are needed. The site is normally run
by the task force S4 or his NCOIC, assisted by an NCO from the task
force’s attached engineer company. Other task force elements,
including the company team, may be tasked to provide personnel for
supply point operations. These soldiers play a crucial role in organizing
the site, unpacking the barrier materials, loading them onto transport
vehicles, and as necessary, helping to transport the materials forward.
(NOTE: The task force may supplement the supply point with mine
dump sites to better support engineer platoons in establishing obstacles
on the ground. Refer to the following discussion.)
Mines dumps The mine dump is the most forward mine resupply node, although it is
not normally a permanent supply point. It is the site at which mines are
task organized into mine strip packages and then are inspected,
prepared, and loaded into emplacing vehicles. Mine dump operations
are primarily handled by an engineer company or platoon. When a mine
dump supports an obstacle the company team has responsibility for
siting, however, the team will normally augment the unit operating the
dump. Table 7-1 illustrates how many mines a given number of soldiers
can process in a given time period; this is a critical planning factor in
mine dump operations.
Table 7-1. Processing schedule for mine dump operations.
Processing element Quantity of mines processed
2-man team 25 mines/hour
Squad (8 soldiers) 100 mines/hour
Platoon 300 mines/hour

3,600 mines/day
Company 10,800 mines/day
NOTE: Processing rates are based on a speed of 2

minutes per mine processed by a 2-man team, with
soldiers working 50 minutes per hour and 12 hours per
day.
SECTION 5 - MAINTENANCE
OPERATIONS

Proper maintenance is the key to keeping vehicles, equipment, and

other materials in serviceable condition. It is a continuous process that
starts with preventive measures taken by each vehicle crew and
continues through repair and recovery efforts by higher-level
maintenance personnel. It includes the services involved in inspecting,
testing, servicing, repairing, requisitioning, recovering, and evacuating.
As a general guideline, repair and recovery are performed as far
forward as the situation allows. When vehicles and equipment cannot
be repaired on site, they must be evacuated to the rear for necessary
repairs. Table 7-2 shows normal time guidelines for maintenance at
each level of support. (NOTE: These guidelines indicate normal repair
times only; they do not account for recovery time or for time spent
awaiting repair parts.)
Table 7-2. Vehicle repair and maintenance time guidelines.
MAINTENANCE/REPAIR TIME GUIDELINE

SITE
On site Less than 2 hours
UMCP 2 to 6 hours
FSB/field trains 6 to 24 hours
DSA 24 to 36 hours
COMPANY TEAM ROLE

"Flow" of Company team maintenance functions begin with PMCS, a daily crew
maintenance responsibility, and crew-level preparation of the prescribed maintenance
forms forms (DA Forms 2404 and/or 5988, as applicable). These forms are the
and repair primary means through which the crew obtains repair parts; they follow
parts a pathway, described in the following paragraphs, from crew level to
the task force field trains and back; the company team XO and the
maintenance team chief supervise the "flow" of these critical
maintenance documents and of repair parts.
Vehicle commanders collect their crews’ maintenance forms each day;
they give the forms to the PSG, who consolidates them for the platoon.
The PSG in turn gives the forms to the maintenance team chief, who
reviews and verifies problems and deficiencies and requisitions Class
IX items needed for maintenance and repairs. During the next
LOGPAC operation, the completed forms are given to the 1SG or
supply sergeant, who transfers them to maintenance personnel in the
task force field trains.
In the field trains, PLL clerks issue the required repair parts they have
on hand; they order any other required parts and assign a document

number and status for the ordered parts. The maintenance forms,
amended with the document numbers and status of ordered parts, are
returned to the company team supply section (along with the issued
repair parts). The amended forms and repair parts are transported via
the LOGPAC to the company team area. The maintenance team chief
works with PSGs and vehicle commanders to distribute the repair parts
and to verify the accuracy and status of the parts on order.
Maintenance The vehicle crew conducts initial maintenance, repair, and recovery
sequence actions on site. Once it is determined that the crew cannot repair or
recover the vehicle or equipment, the platoon contacts the 1SG, who in
turn dispatches the CMT to the vehicle’s location. If the CMT needs
additional assistance, the team chief or the 1SG requests it from the
BMO.
Location of During offensive operations, the CMT usually follows one terrain
the CMT feature behind the company team. In the defense, it is normally located
one terrain feature or 1 to 2 kilometers behind the company team. This
positioning enhances security and allows for quick reaction when
support is requested by the platoons. In some situations, METT-TC
factors may dictate that the CMT be positioned at the UMCP to further
enhance security and survivability.
CROSS-ATTACHMENT CONSIDERATIONS
The number of mechanics in the company team combat trains, as well
as their specialties, should reflect the number and types of vehicles in
the team. As an example, a tank team should have at least one BFV hull
mechanic, with appropriate manuals, in its trains; the team will also
detach a tank hull mechanic to the corresponding mechanized infantry
team.
UMCP OPERATIONS
When a vehicle or piece of equipment cannot be fixed quickly on site, it
is moved to the task force UMCP, where it is repaired by the
maintenance platoon or MST. When not involved in on-site actions, the
CMT may assist with operations in the UMCP. Vehicles that cannot be
repaired within the established timelines or that would overload the
UMCP’s capability are recovered to the field trains or FSB.
DESTRUCTION

When a vehicle or piece of equipment cannot be recovered or is

damaged beyond repair, the crew reports the situation to the
commander. He will give permission for destruction of the materiel if
that is the only way to prevent enemy capture. Crewmen remove all
radios, crew-served weapons, ammunition, personal items, and other
serviceable items and parts; they also take all classified materials or
paperwork that could be of intelligence value to the enemy. The crew
then destroys the vehicle or equipment using procedures specified in the
team SOP.
SECTION 6 - HEALTH
SERVICE SUPPORT
Effective, timely medical care is an essential factor in sustaining the
company team’s combat power during continuous operations. The
commander must ensure that the team’s leaders and its medical
personnel know how to keep soldiers healthy, how to save their lives if
they are wounded or injured, and how to make them well once injury or
illness occurs.
HEALTH AND HYGIENE

The commander and all leaders, in conjunction with the company team
senior aidman and field sanitation team, must emphasize and enforce
high standards of health and hygiene at all times. This "preventive
maintenance" approach should cover all aspects of the soldier’s health
and well-being, including the following:
● Daily shaving to ensure proper fit of the protective mask.
● Regular bathing and changing of clothes.
● Prevention of weather-related problems. These include

cold-weather injuries such as frostbite, trench foot, and
immersion foot and heat-related injuries like heat exhaustion and
heat stroke. Soldiers must understand the effects of such
conditions as sunburn and windchill.
● Effective field sanitation measures, including unit waste control,
waste disposal activities and facilities, water purification, rodent
control, food service sanitation, and use of insect repellents.
● Battle fatigue prevention, including strict implementation of the
unit sleep plan.
SICK CALL AND HEALTH ASSESSMENT

In noncombat situations, the company team senior aidman will conduct

sick call as needed. This will be coordinated through the 1SG and
conducted either at the team’s position or during LOGPAC operations.
In addition, the senior aidman will check with vehicle crews as often as
possible to assess their medical needs and to gauge the overall health of
the company team. He briefs the commander regularly on sick call
activities and on the results of his health assessment.
SOLDIERS WOUNDED IN ACTION

Medical treatment of wounded or injured soldiers during combat
operations is a continuous, progressive operation that occurs in a
series of separate, but interlocking, stages. It involves personnel,
equipment, and facilities at virtually every level of the organization.
Company team The normal "flow" of medical treatment for combat casualties is
from the combat lifesaver to the company team senior aidman at the
responsibilities casualty collection point to medics at the BAS. In addition, company
team leaders play an important role in obtaining and providing
medical services for their WIAs. The following paragraphs discuss
the individual responsibilities of company team personnel in this
process.
Combat lifesaver Along with the vehicle commander, the combat lifesaver is almost
always the first person on the scene to begin the process of treating
wounded and injured personnel. With the help of the vehicle
commander and company team and platoon aidmen, the combat
lifesaver provides initial first aid to WIAs. He prepares them for
medical evacuation or returns them to duty status after rendering
first aid. Whenever possible, the company team commander should
ensure that there is at least one combat lifesaver on each team
vehicle at all times.
Vehicle The vehicle commander is responsible for ensuring that wounded or
commander injured crewmen receive immediate first aid and that the commander
is informed of casualties. He coordinates with the 1SG and company
team senior aidman for ground evacuation or with the 1SG or
commander for aerial evacuation. The vehicle commander ensures
that casualty feeder and witness statement forms are completed and
routed to the proper channels. (NOTE: The casualty feeder card
stays with the wounded soldier; witness statements are given to the
1SG.)

Senior aidman The senior aidman is both the company team’s primary medical
treatment practitioner and the supervisor of all battlefield medical
operations. The latter role encompasses numerous responsibilities.
The senior aidman works closely with the commander to ensure all
members of team understand what to do to provide and/or obtain
medical treatment in combat situations. He oversees the training of
combat lifesavers and, once combat begins, directs their actions. He
assists the vehicle commanders and the 1SG in arranging WIA
evacuation.
The senior aidman is also responsible for monitoring the vital
paperwork that is part of the medical treatment and evacuation
process. He must ensure that DA Form 1156 (the casualty feeder
report) remains with each WIA until the soldier reaches a source of
definitive medical care (a surgeon or physician’s assistant) in the
task force main aid station or field aid station. (NOTE: The Form
1156 is collected at the aid station by designated medical personnel
or members of the task force S1 section; it is sent to the S1 section
for further processing through administrative channels in the task
force field trains.) If a soldier’s remains cannot be recovered, the
senior aidman ensures that the crew completes DA Form 1155
(witness statement) as quickly as possible and ensures that the form
is given to the 1SG for processing.
First sergeant The 1SG supervises and coordinates casualty operations, collects
witness statements and submits them to the S1, and submits the
battle loss report to the task force TOC. Perhaps his most important
duty is managing the company team’s personnel status during
combat operations; as necessary, he directs cross-leveling among
platoons and vehicle crews to alleviate personnel shortages. The
1SG also supervises the completion and processing of DA Forms
1155 and 1156; refer to the discussion of these forms in the
paragraph covering the senior aidman’s duties.
Commander The commander has overall responsibility for medical services; his
primary task is to prepare the team to properly treat and/or evacuate
casualties. In this role, he works closely with others in the team
medical process to ensure that they fully understand the
responsibilities described in the previous paragraphs and are
proficient in required medical skills. The commander designates the
location for the company team’s casualty collection point and
ensures that all vehicle commanders record the location on
appropriate overlays. He also develops and implements appropriate
SOPs for casualty evacuation; an example is standardized vehicle
markings based on the severity of casualties carried on particular
vehicles.

Evacuation When combat begins and casualties occur, the first step is initial
treatment of the WIAs. As noted, treatment is provided by combat
procedures lifesavers, platoon medics, the company team senior aidman, or any
other crewmen qualified in first aid. Vehicle commanders arrange
for evacuation of WIAs to the casualty collection point, which is
normally set up in a covered and concealed location to the rear of
the platoon position.
NOTE: Before casualties are evacuated to the collection point
or beyond, leaders should remove all key operational items
and equipment, including SOIs, maps, position location
devices, and laser pointers. Every unit should establish an
SOP for handling the weapons and ammunition of its WIAs.
At the collection point, the senior aidman conducts triage of all
casualties, takes the necessary steps to stabilize their condition, and
initiates the process of moving them to the rear for further treatment.
He assists the PSG and vehicle commanders in arranging either
ground transport or aerial evacuation (MEDEVAC or CASEVAC).
(NOTE: Refer to the discussion of aerial evacuation in Section 10
of this chapter.)
When aerial evacuation is not absolutely necessary or when these
assets are not available, the team has these options for transporting
casualties:
● The senior aidman can transport them to the BAS himself. He
turns the WIAs over to the task force medical team, obtains
any needed medical supplies, and returns to the company
team location. (NOTE: The 1SG’s M113 can be equipped
with litters for use in medical evacuation.)
● Casualties can be transported by the task force medical
platoon’s ambulance section. Although ambulances are task
force assets, they can be task organized as needed. In many
cases, they are habitually associated with the company team.
The team’s assigned ambulance moves WIAs to the AXP,
then returns to the team location.
In either option, task force medical elements assume responsibility
for moving WIAs to the BSA for further treatment and evaluation.
There, the FSB medical company will hold them for up to 72 hours.
The wounded soldiers will then be returned to duty or sent farther to
the rear for additional care.
SOLDIERS KILLED IN ACTION

The company team commander will designate a location for the

collection of KIAs. All personal effects remain with the body, while
equipment and issue items become the responsibility of the vehicle
commander until they can be turned over to the 1SG or supply sergeant.
As a rule, KIA remains should not be transported on the same vehicle as
wounded soldiers. The commander will send a letter of condolence to
the soldier’s next of kin, normally within 48 hours of the death.
SECTION 7 - PERSONNEL
SERVICES
Personnel services include clothing exchange and showers, awards and
decorations, leaves and passes, command information, mail, religious
services, financial services, legal assistance, rest and relaxation, and any
other service designed to enhance or maintain the soldier’s health,
welfare, and morale. The following paragraphs discuss several of these
functions.
POSTAL, FINANCIAL, AND LEGAL SERVICES

Postal Incoming mail is sorted at the task force trains and is then given to the
1SG or a certified mail handler from the company team for the next
services LOGPAC. All outgoing and returned mail is given to the 1SG or mail
handler during resupply and is turned over to the S1 section when the
LOGPAC returns to the field trains.
Financial Pay inquiries and allotment changes are collected by the 1SG or supply
sergeant during resupply and are then submitted with other S1 actions
services when the LOGPAC returns to the field trains. When requested actions
are completed, the S1 annotates actions taken and gives a copy of the
document to the 1SG or supply sergeant, who returns it to the soldier’s
PSG (or the soldier) at the next LOGPAC.
Legal Requests for legal action should be submitted in writing to the S1
during the LOGPAC. As necessary, the S1 will either prepare all
services required documents and return them to the soldier or inform the
company team commander of the time and location at which legal
proceedings, such as a hearing, will be conducted.
UNIT MINISTRY TEAM

The UMT, composed of the chaplain and his assistant, provides

religious services and counseling for the company team’s soldiers; this
includes soldiers who are in confinement or under arrest, as well as
EPWs, detainees, and refugees. The chaplain conducts funeral or
memorial services as necessary. The UMT also plays an important part
in the primary care of casualties suffering from battlefield stress. The
chaplain’s assistant accompanies the chaplain during all activities,
providing armed security and maintaining the UMT vehicle. He assists
the chaplain in ministering to injured or wounded personnel and in
preparing religious services.
PUBLIC AFFAIRS
The PAO is the commander’s official spokesman and handles the
functions of public and command information and community relations.
He provides the commander with public affairs advice and services
covering all matters of solider and media interest. All requests from the
media for interviews with any company team member should be
directed to the task force PAO or S1.
EPW PROCESSING AND EVACUATION

EPWs and captured enemy equipment and materials are excellent
sources of combat information and intelligence. This information,
however, will be of tactical value only if prisoners and materials are
processed and evacuated to the rear quickly. In any tactical situation,
the company team will have specific procedures and guidelines for
handling prisoners and captured materials; these measures are
prescribed in team and task force SOPs and in the commander’s
OPORD. Basic principles for handling EPWs are covered by the
"five-S" procedures: search, segregate, silence, speed, and safeguard.
Handling procedures also include tagging of prisoners and all captured
equipment and materials.
In addition to initial processing, the capturing element is responsible for
providing guards and transportation to move prisoners to the designated
EPW collection points. Prisoners normally will be carried on vehicles
already heading toward the rear, such as tactical vehicles being moved
for repair or replacement or supply vehicles returning from LOGPAC
operations. The capturing element also has responsibility for feeding the
EPWs, providing them with medical treatment, and safeguarding them
until they reach the collection point.
At the collection point, the 1SG generally assumes responsibility for
providing security for the EPWs and for transporting them to the task
force trains. He must be prepared to use any available personnel as
guards, including the walking wounded or soldiers moving to the rear
for reassignment.

SECTION 8 -
REORGANIZATION AND
WEAPON REPLACEMENT
REPLACEMENT AND CROSS-LEVELING OF

PERSONNEL
Replacements for wounded, killed, or missing personnel are requested
through the S1. Returning or replacement personnel arriving with the
LOGPAC should already have been issued all TA-50 equipment,
MOPP gear, and other items, including their personal weapons.
Within the company team, each platoon leader will cross-level
personnel among his crews, with the 1SG controlling cross-leveling
from platoon to platoon. Soldiers from disabled or destroyed vehicles
will be used to fill out crews until replacement personnel and vehicles
arrive at the company team CP.
REPLACEMENT AND SALVAGING OF EQUIPMENT

Lost, damaged, or destroyed equipment will be replaced through normal
supply channels and brought forward with the LOGPAC. When
vehicles are evacuated to the rear for extended periods, crews will
remove any serviceable equipment or parts for use on other company
team vehicles.
INTEGRATION AND PREPARATION FOR COMBAT

To maintain effective, consistent combat power, the company team
must have specific plans and procedures that allow each element to
quickly integrate replacement personnel and equipment. Unit SOP
should define how soldiers and equipment are prepared for combat; it
covers such areas as uploading, load plans, PCCs and PCIs, and
in-briefings.
WEAPON SYSTEM REPLACEMENT OPERATIONS

WSROs are conducted to provide units with fully operational,

ready-to-fight replacement weapon systems; they cover both vehicle
and crew-served systems. The division provides replacement weapon
systems to battalions based on the brigade priorities. At brigade level,
systems normally covered by WSROs are tanks with four-man crews,
mortars with four-man crews, and BFVs with three-man crews. Before
these weapon systems are brought forward for delivery to the company
team, the higher headquarters will supervise the completion of all
necessary PCCs.
SECTION 9 - CSS PLANNING

CONSIDERATIONS
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CSS PLAN

The company team commander develops his CSS plan by first
determining exactly what supplies he has on hand and then accurately
predicting his support requirements. To do this, he uses available
information from his mission analysis and from war-gaming the plan
with his subordinate leaders. This process is important not only in
confirming the validity of the CSS plan but also in ensuring that the
team’s support requests are submitted as early as possible.
The commander can formulate his CSS execution plan and submit
support requests to the task force based on the results of his COA
analysis and of the war-gaming and refinement of the maneuver plan.
The CSS plan should provide answers to a variety of operational
questions, such as the following examples:
● Based on the nature of the operation and specific tactical factors,
what types of support will the company team need?
● In what quantifies will this support be required? The discussion
will also cover these questions:
- Will emergency resupply be required during the battle?
- Does this operation require prestock supplies?
● What are the composition, disposition, and capabilities of the
expected enemy threat and how will this affect CSS operations
during the battle? The discussion will also cover these questions:
- Where and when will the expected contact occur?
- Based on the nature and location of expected contact,
what are the company team’s expected casualties and
vehicle losses?
- What impact will the enemy’s special weapons

capabilities (such as NBC) have on the battle and on

expected CSS requirements?
- How many EPWs are expected and where?
● How will terrain and weather affect CSS operations during the
battle? The discussion will also cover these questions:
- What ground will provide optimum security for trains
elements?
- What ground will provide optimum security for
maintenance and casualty collection points?
- What are the company team’s vehicle and casualty
evacuation routes?
- What are the team’s "dirty" routes for evacuation of
contaminated personnel, vehicles, and equipment?
● When and where will the company team need CSS? The
discussion will also cover these questions:
what are the best sites for the maintenance collection
points?
what are the best sites for the casualty collection points?
Where will the EPW collection points be located?
- What LRPs will be active, and when, during the battle?
● What are the criteria and triggers for the movement of the
company combat trains?
● What are the support priorities (by element and type of support)?
- Which platoon has priority for emergency Class III
resupply?
- Which platoon has priority for emergency Class V
resupply?
● Will there be lulls in the battle that will permit support elements
to conduct resupply operations in relative safety? If no lulls are
expected, how can the company team best minimize the danger to
the CSS vehicles that will provide the required support?
● Based on information developed during the CSS planning
process, which resupply technique should be used?
BRIEFINGS AND REHEARSALS

As in all operational areas, thorough briefings and comprehensive

rehearsals are important keys to effective CSS planning. These
activities play a critical role in ensuring that the company team can
execute its CSS plans efficiently, on time, and with the fewest possible
problems. They allow the commander, his subordinate leaders, and each
crewman to discover potential problem areas and to develop
contingency plans to take care of unforeseen difficulties.
At both the task force and company team levels, commanders have
several options for conducting CSS rehearsals. One is to integrate the
CSS rehearsal into the unit’s larger maneuver rehearsals. Another
alternative is to have the unit’s CSS operators conduct a separate
rehearsal. Within the company team, for example, the commander could
direct the XO and 1SG to rehearse CSS operations with the team’s
PSGs, maintenance team chief, and senior aidman.
SECTION 10 - AVIATION CSS

MISSIONS
AERIAL SUSTAINMENT
Aerial sustainment is the movement of personnel, equipment, material,
and supplies by utility, cargo, and fixed-wing assets for operations other
than air assault and combat support. These air movements are
considered CSS missions because the aviation forces are not task
organized with combined arms forces and because they do not move
forces or assets whose primary mission is to engage or destroy enemy
forces.
CASUALTY EVACUATION
Casualty evacuation (CASEVAC) is an important part of the combat
health support process. It is an aviation mission in which aircraft
directly support ground units by providing transportation for WIAs
from forward areas to the BSA or other designated collection and
treatment facilities. CASEVAC operations include battlefield pickup of
casualties, evacuation of casualties to initial treatment facilities, and
subsequent movement of casualties to treatment facilities within the
combat zone. Aeromedical assets are also employed to move medical
personnel, supplies, and equipment.
NOTE: An important distinction must be made between the
terms CASEVAC and MEDEVAC. CASEVAC can be
performed by any Army aviation utility aircraft when tasked by
the maneuver commander. CASEVAC requests are made through

aviation channels. MEDEVAC is the process of moving

casualties and/or patients while providing them with medical care
en route. Most aviation units are not equipped or staffed to
perform MEDEVAC, which is requested through medical
channels. Refer to the discussion of evacuation procedures in
Section 6 of this chapter.

FM 71-1 Appendix A Combat Orders
APPENDIX A
Combat Orders
Combat orders are the means by which commanders receive and transmit information, from the earliest
notification that an operation will occur through the final phases of execution. They are absolutely
critical to mission success. In a tactical situation, the company team commander and his subordinate
leaders work with these vital tools on a daily basis; obviously, they must have precise knowledge both
of the formats of various types of orders and of procedures for developing effective orders. At the same
time, they must ensure that every member of the company team understands how to receive and
respond to each type of order.
The company team commander must be familiar with the formats of warning orders, OPORDs, and
FRAGOs. He must be able to convert these into concise, yet thorough, orders for the team’s
subordinate leaders. This appendix includes a sample company team OPORD format and discusses the
related technique of using execution matrixes. Warning orders and FRAGOs vary in format depending
on the purpose of the order and the information available in a given situation; these orders are covered
in Chapter 2 of this manual.
CONTENTS
Section 1 Operation Orders
Section 2 Execution Matrix
SECTION 1 - OPERATION ORDERS

When sufficient time and information are available, the company team commander will normally issue a
complete OPORD as part of troop-leading procedures. The OPORD provides subordinate leaders with
the essential information required to conduct the operation and to carry out the commander’s intent.
Whenever possible, the OPORD is issued in writing and briefed orally in the five-paragraph format. This
helps to ensure that required information is presented in a logical, organized manner. Although the
five-paragraph format is straightforward, every commander will develop techniques that allow him to
make a clearer, more concise OPORD presentation. Presentation and visualization techniques are
discussed in Chapter 2 of this manual. Figure A-1 illustrates a sample company team OPORD format.
file:///C|/WINDOWS/Desktop/to CDR695/mcwp3131/AppA.htm (1 of 7) [12/8/2000 11:06:14 AM]

Figure A-1. Sample company team OPORD format.
PARAGRAPH 1 - SITUATION
a. Enemy forces (and battlefield conditions).
(1) Weather and light data.
● Precipitation.
● Temperature
● Other weather conditions (such as wind, dust, or fog).
● Light Data
BMNT: ________ Sunrise: ________

Sunset: _________ EENT: ________
Moonrise: _______ Moonset: _______
Percent Illumination: ________
(2) Terrain (factors of OCOKA).
● Observation and fields of fire.
● Cover and concealment.
● Obstacles.
● Key terrain.
● Avenues of approach.
(3) Enemy forces.

● Identification.
● Composition/order of battle.
● Recent activities.
● Strength.
● Current location.
● Most probable course of action.
● Most dangerous course of action.
● Weaknesses.
b. Friendly forces.
● Higher commander's concept of the operation.
● Higher commander's mission.
● Adjacent unit missions/locations.
● Unit(s) providing fire support.
● Other units supporting the task force.
c. Attachments and detachments.

● Time(s) of attachment.
● Time(s) of detachment.
● Support relationship(s).

PARAGRAPH 2 - MISSION.
PARAGRAPH 3 - EXECUTION.
Commander's intent.
a. Concept of the operation.
(1) Scheme of maneuver.
● Offensive operations
- Passage of lines.
- Axis or route
- Movement formations.
- Movement techniques.
- Actions on contact (prior to objective).
- Actions at obstacles.
- Aactions on the objective (decisive point).
- Consolidation and reorganization.
- On-order and be-prepared missions.
● Defensive operations.
- Security operations.
- Passage of lines of forward forces.
- Battle handover.
- Defense of initial and successive BPs.
- Displacement.
- Counterattack.
- Consolidation and reorganizartion.
(2) Fires.
● Purpose of indirect fires.
● Priority of fires.
● Allocation.
● Triggers.
● Restrictions/coordinating instructions
● Allocation and use of special fires (such as smoke, illumination, or CAS).
(3) Reconnaissance and surveillance.

(4) Intelligence.
(5) Engineer support.

● Purpose of engineer effort.

● Priority of engineer effort.
● Priority of engineer support.
● Obstacle overlay.
● Obstacle list.
● Restrictions/coordinating instructions.
(6) Air Defense.
(7) Information operations.
b. Tasks to maneuver units.
● Task and purpose.
● On-order missions.
● Specific instructions.
c. Tasks to CS units.
● Task and purpose.
● On-order missions.
● Specific instructions
d. Coordinating instructions.
● Time or condition when a plan or order becomes effective.
● Commander's critical information requirements (CCIR).
● Risk reduction control measures.
● ROE and/or ROI.
● Environmental considerations and control measures,
● Force protection control measures.
PARAGRAPH 4 - SERVICE SUPPORT.

a. Concept of support.
● Organization of company team trains.
● Location of company team trains (in each phase of the operation).
● Current location of task force combat and field trains.
● Current location of task force UMCP.
● Current location of task force aid station(s).
● Current and future designated MSRs and LZs.
b. Material and service.

(1) Supply
● Class I.
● Class III.
● Class V.
● Class IX.
(2) Transportation.

● Location of task force supply route.

● Location of LRPs and collection points.
● Priority of movement on task force MSR.
(3) Service.
● Location of mortuary services.
● Procedures for evacuation of KIA personnel.
(4) Maintenance.
● Location of maintenance collection points (in each phase of the operation).
● Location of UMCP during the battle.
● Method of marking damaged vehicles.
● Task force recovery plan.
c. Medical evacuation and hospitalization.

● Location of casualty collection points (in each phase of the operation).
● Location of task force aid station(s) during the battle.
● Method of marking vehicles with wounded/KIA.
● Procedures for evacuation of wounded.
d. Personnel.
● Procedures for handling EPWs and location of company team EPW collection points.
● Location of task force EPW collection points.
● Personnel replacement.
e. Civil/military cooperation.
● Civil affairs assets and POCs.
● Mission of civil affairs elements.
● Curfews.
● Collateral damage restrictions.
● Additional ROE/ROI considerations.
PARAGRAPH 5 - COMMAND AND CONTROL

a. Command.
● Location of company team commander and XO.
● Location of task force commander and XO.
● Location of task force main CP.
● Succession of command.
b. Signal.
● SOI in effect.
● Radio communications restrictions.
- Radio listening silence and the time it is effect.

- Alternate frequencies and time or condition for changing frequencies.

● Visual and pyrotechnic signals.

- During passage of lines.
- During movement.
- During breaching operations.
- On the objective.
- During defensive operations.
- Emergency signals.
● Code words and reports specific to the operations.
● COMSEC guidelines and procedures.
SECTION 2 - EXECUTION MATRIX

The execution matrix, a tool that can help the commander to complete and execute the plan, shows the
most critical tasks or events of the operation in a matrix format. The commander can use it to
supplement his formal OPORD as well as to assist him during the conduct of a mission. The matrix can
also help to enhance subordinate leaders’ understanding of the mission.
To construct a basic execution matrix for any operation, the commander lists his subordinate elements
along one axis of the matrix and the events or phases of the operation along the other axis. In the
corresponding boxes, he fills in the information that tells his subordinate leaders what each element is
doing during each step of the operation.
Information in these blocks may include movement instructions (including order of march, movement
technique, and movement formation); information on direct fire or observation responsibilities (such as
TRPs or sectors); locations of indirect fire targets, triggers, and decision points; and virtually anything
else the commander considers critical to the execution of the mission. Figure A-2 shows an example of
a basic execution matrix.
ELEMENT COM- FSO/ 1ST 2D INFANTRY 3D CSS XO
MANDER ENGINEER PLATOON PLATOON SQUADS PLATOON
EVENT BFV
CRP Order Secure Hide OP 20 and Hide Hide CP 4 Secure

REACHES unit to BP 21; BFVs BP 32;
TRP 2 respond observe destroy send
OP 20 area CRP SITREP
before it to task
reaches the force
bridge;
displace to
BP 21
FSE Order all BP 11 Hide Hide Hide CP 4 Send

REACHES platoons SITREP
TRP 2 to occupy to task
positions, force
with OPs
recovered

FSE Order 1st BP 11 Hide Hide Hide CP 4 Send

(MRC+) Platoon to SITREP
CROSSES fire to task
TRIGGER force
LINE
AGMB Call BP 11 BP 21 Hide BP 31 CP 4 Observe

REACHES AB4006; OP 30
TRP 2 O/O call Near Far Far area
AB4003 half right left
AGMB(-) Order 1st Fire Displace BP 21 BP 21 Displace Displace Displace

REACHES and 3d FPF 4001 to BP to BP to CP 5 to
TRP 4 Platoons 32 Far Protect 12 protect
to right flank trains;
displace Near Far report
half left to task
force
CONPLAN
1
CONPLAN
2
Figure A-2. Sample execution matrix.

FM 71-1 Appendix B Road Marches and Assembly Areas
APPENDIX B
Road Marches and Assembly Areas

When not in contact with the enemy, the company team may have to move long distances to position
itself for future operations or to move from garrison to training areas. This type of movement, called a
road march, is planned at company team and task force levels.
An assembly area, either the initial assembly area before movement begins or the forward assembly
area following the move, is a site at which the unit gathers to prepare for future operations. Preparation
activities include receiving and issuing orders, servicing and repairing vehicles, receiving and issuing
supplies, and taking care of the personal needs of members of the company team.
CONTENTS
Section 1 Tactical Road Marches
March Columns
Quartering Party
Control Measures
Actions During the March
Actions on Contact
Actions at the RP
Section 2 Assembly Areas
Quartering Party Operations

Occupation of the Assembly Area
Actions in the Assembly Area
SECTION 1 - TACTICAL ROAD MARCH

The main purpose of the road march is to relocate rapidly, not to gain contact. It is conducted using
fixed speeds and timed intervals. The discussion in this section examines tactical procedures and
considerations for the road march.
MARCH COLUMNS
The following paragraphs outline the three primary road march techniques. The
commander bases his decision on the formation to be used during the march on
which technique is employed. (NOTE: The road march is usually executed in
column formation.)
Open column The open column technique is normally used for daylight marches, though it can
be used at night with blackout lights or thermal vision equipment. The distance
between vehicles varies, normally from 50 meters to 200 meters, depending on
light and weather conditions.
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Close column The close column technique is normally used for marches conducted during
periods of limited visibility. The distance between vehicles is based on the ability
to see the vehicle ahead; it is normally less than 50 meters.
Infiltration The infiltration technique involves the movement of small groups of personnel or
vehicles at irregular intervals. It is used when sufficient time and suitable routes
are available and when maximum security, deception, and dispersion are desired.
Of the three road march techniques, infiltration provides the best possible passive
defense against enemy observation and detection.
Standard tasks the company team commander (and subordinate leaders, as necessary) may perform
prior to a tactical road march include the following:
● Designate a marshaling area to organize the march column and conduct final inspections and
briefings.
● Conduct a METT-TC analysis to determine the enemy situation, including the probability of air
or ground attack.
● Establish detailed security measures.
● Designate the movement route, including the SP, required checkpoints, and the RP. Additional
control measures that the team may be required to identify include critical areas, defiles, choke
points, rest and maintenance stops, and danger areas.
● Organize, brief, and dispatch the quartering party.
● Specify the march speed, movement formations, vehicle and serial intervals, catch-up speed,
lighting, and times of critical events.
● Plan for indirect fire support and contingency actions, and rehearse actions on contact.
Contingency plans should cover vehicle breakdowns, lost vehicles, and accidents.
● Coordinate for CSS, including refueling, mess operations, vehicle recovery, local police
assistance, and medical evacuation.
QUARTERING PARTY
Whether the company team is conducting the road march independently
or as part of a task force, it will normally send out a quartering party to
assist it in moving to and occupying a new assembly area. Dispatched
prior to the departure of the main body, the company team quartering
party assists the task force quartering party in reconnoitering the route
of march. It then conducts its own reconnaissance of the feeder route
from the RP to the proposed assembly area and of the assembly area
itself. If either the route or the assembly area proves unsatisfactory, the
quartering party recommends changes to the commander. (NOTE: If
the task force does not send a quartering party, the company team party
assumes sole responsibility for reconnoitering the route of march from
SP to RP.)
Once the road march begins, members of the quartering party serve as
guides along the feeder route and in the assembly area. The size and

composition of the party is usually dictated by unit SOP, although it can

be adjusted based on specific tactical requirements. Refer to Section 2
of this appendix for a more detailed discussion of quartering party
duties and procedures.
CONTROL MEASURES
The commander uses the control measures discussed in the following
paragraphs to assist in controlling the company team during the road march.
Graphics Road march graphics should include, at a minimum, the SP, the RP, and the
route, which have the following characteristics:
● The SP location represents the beginning of the road march route. It
should be located on easily recognizable terrain. It is far enough away
from the company team’s initial position to allow individual elements to
organize into the march formation at the appropriate speed and interval.
The commander should determine the time required to move to the SP.
This will help the team to arrive at the SP at the time designated in the
task force OPORD and to continue movement onto the route of march
without stopping.
● The RP marks the end of the route of march. It is also located on easily
recognizable terrain. Elements do not halt at the RP. They continue to
their respective positions with assistance from guides, waypoints, and/or
other graphic control measures.
● The route is the path of travel connecting the SP and RP.
Digital overlays Digital overlays, which serve as a backup to maps with overlays, can provide
valuable assistance for digitally equipped units. They display waypoints and
other information concerning unit locations along the route of march, not only
assisting the units in navigating accurately but in maintaining situational
awareness as well.
Critical points These are locations along the route of march where terrain or other factors may
interfere with movement or where timing is critical. They are represented using
checkpoints. The SP, RP, and all checkpoints are considered critical points.
Strip maps A strip map can be used to assist in navigation. It should include the SP, RP,
checkpoints, marshaling areas, and ROM sites; it also lists the distances
between these points. Detailed "blowup" sketches should be used for
marshaling areas, locations of scheduled halts, ROM sites, and other places
where confusion is likely to occur. Strip maps are included as an annex to the
movement order; if possible, a copy should be provided to all vehicle drivers.
Visual signals When radio silence is observed during a road march, hand-and-arm signals,
flags, and lights may be employed as the primary means of passing messages
between vehicles and between moving units.

Traffic control Road guides and traffic signs may be posted at designated traffic control points
by the headquarters controlling the march. At critical points, guides assist in
creating a smooth flow of traffic along the march route. Military police,
members of the task force scout platoon, or designated elements from the
quartering party may serve as guides. They should have equipment or markers
that will allow march elements to identify them in darkness or other limited
visibility conditions. There is normally an RP for every echelon of command
conducting the road march (that is, there will be a task force RP, followed by a
company team RP). Traffic problems may arise if actions at each of these
points are not well rehearsed.
ACTIONS DURING THE MARCH

Movement to The company team must arrive at the SP at the time designated in the task force
OPORD. The team commander may need to designate a marshaling area in which
the SP the quartering party and the main body can organize their march columns and
conduct final inspections and briefings before movement. If the situation dictates,
units may move directly to the column from their current positions. To avoid
confusion during the initial moveout, leaders of all team elements should conduct a
reconnaissance of the route to the SP, issue clear movement instructions, and
conduct thorough rehearsals, paying particular attention to signals and timing.
Orientation Every vehicle in the formation has an assigned sector of orientation. Each vehicle
commander should additionally assign sectors of observation to crewmen to
achieve 360-degree observation.
Halts While taking part in a road march, the company team must be prepared to conduct
both scheduled and unscheduled halts.
Scheduled halts These are conducted to permit maintenance, refueling, and personal relief activities
and to allow other traffic to pass. The time and duration of scheduled halts are
established in the movement order. Unit SOP specifies actions to be taken during
halts; the first priority must always be to establish and maintain local security. A
maintenance halt of 15 minutes is usually taken after the first hour of the march,
with a 10-minute halt every two hours thereafter.
During long marches, the unit may conduct a refuel on the move (ROM) operation.
The composition of the ROM site will depend both on OPSEC considerations and
on the refueling capability of assets at the ROM site. The OPORD will specify the
amount of fuel or the amount of time at the pump for each vehicle. It will also give
instructions for OPSEC at the ROM site and at the staging area to which vehicles
move after refueling.

Unscheduled halts The company team conducts unscheduled halts when the unit encounters
unexpected obstacles or contaminated areas or when a disabled vehicle temporarily
blocks the route. Whenever an unscheduled halt occurs, each vehicle commander
sends a messenger to the vehicle to his front; the messenger obtains (or, if
applicable, provides) information on the reason for the halt and on required
follow-on actions. The movement commander then takes any further actions
required to determine and/or eliminate the cause of the halt.
A disabled vehicle must not be allowed to obstruct traffic for lengthy periods. The
crew should move the vehicle off the road immediately, report its status, establish
security, and post guides to direct traffic. If possible, the crew repairs the vehicle
and rejoins the rear of the column. Vehicles that drop out of the column should
return to their original positions only when the column has halted. Until then, they
move at the rear just ahead of the trail element, which usually comprises the
maintenance team with the M88 recovery vehicle and some type of security (the
XO will normally handle security if he is not part of the quartering party). If the
crew cannot repair the vehicle, the vehicle is recovered by the trail element.
NOTE: Security during halts normally involves a combination of
dispersion, weapons orientation, clearance of terrain that dominates the route
of march, and employment of infantry squads to secure danger areas.
ACTIONS ON CONTACT
If enemy contact occurs during the road march, the company team executes actions on contact as
described in Chapter 3 of this manual.
ACTIONS AT THE RP
The company team moves through the task force RP without stopping. The team’s guide picks up the
unit there and guides it to the company team RP (normally at the entrance to the team’s position in the
new assembly area). Each platoon then picks up its own assigned guide and follows the guide’s signals
to its position in the assembly area. Depending on terrain and the equipment available (GPS or
POSNAV), guides and marking materials may be posted at or near exact vehicle locations (assembly
areas procedures are covered in the following section).
SECTION 2 - ASSEMBLY AREAS

An assembly area is a site at which maneuver units prepare for future operations. A well-planned
assembly area will have the following characteristics:
● Concealment from enemy ground and air observation.
● A location on defensible terrain.
● Good drainage and a surface that will support tracked and wheeled vehicles.
● Suitable entrances, exits, and internal roads or trails.
● Sufficient space for dispersion of vehicles and equipment.

QUARTERING PARTY OPERATIONS

Normally, the company team employs a quartering party (also known as an advance party) to assist in
the occupation of an assembly area. The quartering party is established in accordance with task force or
team SOP; for example, it may comprise one vehicle per platoon along with a vehicle from the
headquarters section. It is normally led by the company team XO or 1SG or by a senior NCO. The
quartering party’s actions in preparing the assembly area include the following:
● Reconnoiter for enemy forces and NBC contamination.
● Evaluate the condition of the route to the assembly area and the suitability of the area itself
(drainage, space, internal routes). (NOTE: If the area is unsatisfactory, the party requests
permission from the commander to find a new location.)
● Organize the area based on the commander’s guidance; designate and mark tentative locations
for platoons, CP vehicles, and trains.
● Improve and mark entrances, exits, and internal routes.
● Mark bypasses and/or remove obstacles (within the party’s capabilities).
● Mark tentative vehicle locations.
OCCUPATION OF THE ASSEMBLY AREA

Once the assembly area is prepared, the quartering party awaits the arrival of the company team,
maintaining surveillance and providing security of the area within its capabilities. Quartering party
members guide the team as a whole from the task force RP to the team RP; they then guide individual
elements from the team RP to their locations in the assembly area. SOPs and prearranged signals and
markers (for day or night occupation) should be used to assist vehicle commanders in finding their
positions. The key consideration is to move quickly, both to clear the route for other units and to
assume designated positions in the assembly area.
The company team may occupy the assembly area as an independent element or as part of a task force
(see Figure B-1). In either situation, the team occupies its positions upon arrival using the procedures
for hasty occupation of a BP. The commander establishes local security and coordinates with adjacent
units. He assigns weapons orientation and a sector of responsibility for each platoon and subordinate
element. If the team occupies the assembly area alone, it establishes a perimeter defense. (NOTE:
Figure 4-14 illustrates a perimeter defense for an assembly area.)
NOTE: Refer to Chapter 4 of this manual for discussions of hasty occupation of a BP and
conduct of a perimeter defense and to Appendix M for information on OPSEC procedures.
ACTIONS IN THE ASSEMBLY AREA

Following occupation, the company team and its individual elements can prepare for future operations
by conducting troop-leading procedures and priorities of work in accordance with task force and team
OPORDs. These preparations include the following:
● Establish and maintain security (at the appropriate REDCON level).
● Employ infantry squads to implement security measures as necessary, including protection

against enemy infiltration.
● Conduct troop-leading procedures.
● Perform maintenance on vehicles and communications equipment.
● Verify weapon system status; conduct boresighting, prepare-to-fire checks, test-firing, and other
necessary preparations. (NOTE: The company team normally must coordinate test-firing
activities with its higher headquarters.)
● Conduct resupply operations, including refueling and rearming.
● Conduct rehearsals and other training for upcoming operations.
● Conduct PCCs and PCIs based on time available.
● Eat, rest, and conduct personal hygiene activities.
● Adjust task organization as necessary.
● Account for company team personnel and assigned sensitive items.
● Reestablish vehicle load plans.

Figure B-1. Example company team assembly area (occupation as part of a task force).

FM 71-1 Appendix C Risk Management
<
APPENDIX C
Risk Management
Risk is the chance of injury or death for individuals and damage to or loss of vehicles and equipment.
Risks, and/or the potential for risks, are always present in every combat and training situation the
company team faces. Risk management must take place at all levels of the chain of command during
each phase of every operation; it is an integral part of all tactical planning. The company team
commander, his subordinate leaders, and all soldiers must know how to use risk management, coupled
with fratricide reduction measures, to ensure that the mission is executed in the safest possible
environment within mission constraints.
The primary objective of risk management is to help units protect their combat power through accident
prevention, enabling them to win the battle quickly and decisively, with minimum losses. This
appendix outlines the five-step process leaders can use to identify hazards and implement a plan to
address each identified hazard.
CONTENTS
Step 1 Identify Hazards
Step 2 Assess Hazards to Determine Risks
Step 3 Develop Controls and Make Risk Decisions
Step 4 Implement Controls
Step 5 Supervise and Evaluate
STEP 1 - IDENTIFY HAZARDS
A hazard is a source of danger. It is any existing or potential condition that could entail injury, illness,
or death of personnel; damage to or loss of equipment and property; or some other sort of mission
degradation. Tactical and training operations pose many types of hazards.
The company team’s leaders must identify the hazards associated with all aspects and phases of the
team’s mission, paying particular attention to the factors of METT-TC. Risk management must never
be an afterthought; leaders must begin the process during their troop-leading procedures and continue it
throughout the operation.
Figure C-1 lists possible sources of risk that the team might face during a typical tactical operation. It is
organized according to the factors of METT-TC.
SOURCES OF BATTLEFIELD RISK
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MISSION
● Duration of the operation.
● Complexity and clarity of the plan. (Is the plan well developed and easily understood?)
● Proximity and number of maneuvering units.
ENEMY
● Knowledge of the enemy situation.
● Enemy capabilities.
● Availability of time and resources to conduct reconnaissance.
TERRAIN AND WEATHER

● Visibility conditions, including light, dust, fog, and smoke.
● Precipitation and its effect on mobility.
● Extreme heat or cold.
● Additional natural hazards, such as broken ground, steep inclines, and water obstacles.
TROOPS
● Equipment status.
● Experience the units conducting the operation have working together.
● Danger areas associated with company team’s weapon systems.
● Soldier/leader proficiency.
● Soldier/leader rest situation.
● Degree of acclimatization to environment.
● Impact of new crewmembers.
● Impact of new leaders.
TIME AVAILABLE
● Time available for troop-leading procedures and rehearsals by subordinates.
● Time available for PCCs/PCIs.
CIVILIAN CONSIDERATIONS
● Applicable ROE and/or ROI.
● Potential stability and/or support operations involving contact with civilians (such as NEOs,
refugee or disaster assistance, or counterterrorism).
● Potential for media contact/inquiries.
Figure C-1. Examples of potential hazards.
STEP 2 - ASSESS HAZARDS TO DETERMINE RISKS

Hazard assessment is the process of determining the direct impact of each hazard on an operation (in
the form of hazardous incidents). Use these steps:
● Determine which hazards can be eliminated or avoided.
● Assess each hazard that cannot be eliminated or avoided to determine the probability that the
hazard can occur. This is done using the five degrees of probability: frequent, likely, occasional,
seldom, and unlikely. Refer to Table C-1 for a summary of the degrees of probability.
● Assess the severity of hazards that cannot be eliminated or avoided. Severity, defined as the
result or outcome of a hazardous incident, is expressed by the degree of injury or illness
(including death), loss of or damage to equipment or property, environmental damage, or other
mission-impairing factor (such as unfavorable publicity or loss of combat power). Hazard
assessment uses four degrees of severity: catastrophic, critical, marginal, or negligible. Table C-2
provides a summary of the degrees of severity for hazards.
● Taking into account both the probability and severity of a hazard, determine the associated risk
level (extremely high, high, moderate, and low). The standard risk assessment matrix shown in
Table C-3 uses the probability/severity correlation to assign a level of risk. Table C-4
summarizes the four risk levels. (NOTE: The risk level descriptions in Table C-4 include
alphanumeric designators for the probability/severity correlation. For example, a hazard that is
frequent and catastrophic is designated as IA; a hazard at the other end of the risk spectrum,
designated IVE, would be unlikely to occur and be of negligible severity.)
Table C-1. Degrees of hazard probability (likelihood that a hazard will affect a tactical operation).
Degree of FREQUENT LIKELY OCCASIONAL SELDOM UNLIKELY

probability (A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
(with frequency
criteria) Occurs Occurs Occurs Remote Almost
continuously several times sporadically possibility; certain not to
Affected or very often could occur occur
personnel/item at some (although
time not
impossible)
Individual item Occurs very Occurs Occurs at some Occurs in Occurrence

often in several times time in service service life, not
service life; in service life; as likely as but only impossible,
expected to life; expected not to occur remotely but can be
occur several to occur during specific possible; assumed
times over during operation not almost never
duration of specific expected to to occur in
specific operation occur service life;
operation during can be
specific assumed not
operation to occur
during
specific
operation

Fleet or Occurs Occurs at a Occurs several Occurs as Occurs very

inventory of continuously high rate, but times in service isolated rarely
items in service life intermittently life incident; (almost
of during (at regular possible to never or
specific intervals, occur at improbable);
operation often, or some time incidents
generally) in service may occur in
life, but service life
rarely;
usually
does not
occur
Individual Occurs very Occurs Occurs at some Occurs as Occurrence

soldier often in several times time in career; isolated not
career; in career; may occur incident in impossible,
expected to expected to during specific career; but can be
occur several occur during operation, but remotely assumed
times during specific not often possible, almost never
specific operation but not to occur
operation; expected to during
always occur specific
occurs during operation
specific
operation
All soldiers Occurs Occurs at a Occurs Occurs Occurs very

exposed continuously high rate, but sporadically rarely (as rarely,
during intermittently (irregularly, isolated although not
specific sparsely, or incident) impossible
operation sometimes) within
exposed
element or
population
Table C-2. Degrees of hazard severity.
Degree of CATASTROPHIC CRITICAL MARGINAL NEGLIGIBLE

severity (I) (II) (III) (IV)
Affected unit/
personnel/item
Unit Total or near-total Significantly/severely Degraded mission Little or no adverse

loss of mission degraded mission capability and/or impact on mission
capability; mission capability and/or unit unit readiness capability
failure readiness

Personnel Death or permanent Permanent partial Lost-day injuries or First aid or other
total disability; disability; temporary illness (duration minor medical
unacceptable total disability does not exceed 3 treatment required
casualties (duration exceeds 3 months)
months
Equipment/ Loss of major or Extensive (major) Minor damage to Slight damage to

property mission-critical damage to systems/ systems/equipment, systems/equipment,
systems/equipment; equipment; property, and but they remain
major property significant damage to environment functional/serviceable;
(facility) damage; property and little or no
severe environment environmental
environmental damage
damage
Collateral Unacceptable Significant collateral Minor collateral Little or no collateral

damage collateral damage damage damage damage
Table C-3. Risk assessment matrix for hazards.
Degree of Frequent Likely Occasional Seldom Unlikely

probability (A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
Degree
of severity
Catastrophic (I) E E H H M
Critical (II) E H H M L
Marginal (III) H M M L L
Negligible (IV) M L L L L
Legend for levels of risk:

E - extremely high risk H - high risk M - moderate risk L - low risk
NOTE: Refer to Table C-4 for a description of the four levels of risk.
Table C-4. Levels of risk.
Level of risk Extreme high High Moderate Low

(E) (H) (M) (L)
Type of effects

Mission capability Mission failure Significantly Degraded Little or no

if hazardous degraded mission impact on
incidents occur mission capability (in mission
during operation capability (in terms of not capability
terms of not completing
completing mission to
mission to standard) if
standard or not hazards occur
accomplishing during operation
all parts of
mission) if
hazards occur
during operation
Personnel/property Frequent or Occasional to Unlikely Unlikely

loss likely seldom probability of probability of
probability of probability of catastrophic loss critical loss
catastrophic loss catastrophic loss (IE); probability (IIE);
(IA or IB); (IC or ID); of critical loss is probability of
frequent likely to seldom (IID); marginal loss is
probability of occasional likely or no more than
critical loss probability of occasional seldom (IIID or
(IIA) critical loss (IIB probability of IIIE)
or IIC); frequent marginal loss
probability of (IIIB or IIIC);
marginal loss frequent
(IIIA) probability of
negligible loss
(IVA)
STEP 3 - DEVELOP CONTROLS AND MAKE RISK

DECISIONS
Developing controls After assessing each hazard, develop one or more controls that will
either eliminate the hazard or reduce the risk (probability and/or
severity) of potential hazardous incidents. A list of example controls
is included in the discussion of implementing controls (step 4).

Making risk decisions A key element in the process of making a risk decision is determining
whether accepting the risk is justified or, conversely, is unnecessary.
The commander must compare and balance the risk against mission
expectations. He alone decides if the controls are sufficient and
acceptable and whether to accept the resulting residual risk. If he
determines the risk is unnecessary, he directs the development of
additional controls or alternative controls; as another option, he can
modify or reject the selected COA for the operation.
Leaders can use the risk assessment matrix (see Table C-3) in
conjunction with the commander’s guidance on risk decisions. The
matrix can be useful in determining and communicating risk decision
authority. When the matrix is used as a guide for risk decision
authority, however, it should be tailored to specific mission
requirements. For example, the decision authority to accept high
residual risk resulting from a hazard assessed as having catastrophic
severity and a frequency of seldom may be retained at the highest
authority level. On the other hand, the same level of accident risk
(high) may be delegated to a lower level when the potential loss is
less extensive or less likely.
STEP 4 - IMPLEMENT CONTROLS

Controls are the procedures and considerations the unit uses to deal with an identified hazard.
Implementing controls is the most important part of the risk management process; this is the chain of
command’s contribution to the safety of the unit. Leaders of the company team integrate specific
controls into OPLANs, OPORDs, SOPs, and rehearsals. They then ensure that all crewmembers are
briefed on and understand the controls.
If the leaders have conducted a thoughtful risk assessment, the controls will be easy to implement,
enforce, and follow. Examples of risk management controls include the following:
● Thoroughly brief all aspects of the mission, including related hazards and controls.
● Conduct thorough PCCs and PCIs.
● Allow adequate time for rehearsals at all levels.
● Drink plenty of water, eat well, and get as much sleep as possible (at least 4 hours in any 24-hour
period).
● Use buddy teams.
● Enforce speed limits, use of seat belts, and driver safety.
● Establish recognizable visual signals and markers to distinguish maneuvering units.
● Enforce the use of ground guides in assembly areas and on dangerous terrain.
● Establish marked and protected sleeping areas in assembly areas.
● Limit single-vehicle movement.
● Establish SOPs for the integration of new personnel.

STEP 5 - SUPERVISE AND EVALUATE

During mission execution, it is imperative that leaders ensure risk management
controls are properly understood and executed. Leaders must continuously evaluate
the unit’s effectiveness in managing risks to gain insight into areas that need
improvement.
Supervision Leadership and unit discipline are the keys to ensuring that effective risk
management controls are implemented. All leaders are responsible for supervising
mission rehearsals and execution to ensure standards and controls are enforced. In
particular, NCOs must enforce established safety policies as well as controls
developed for a specific operation or task. Techniques include spot checks,
inspections, SITREPs, confirmation briefs, and buddy checks.
During the mission, leaders must continuously monitor risk management controls,
both to determine whether they are effective and to modify them as necessary.
Leaders must also anticipate, identify, and assess new hazards. They ensure that
imminent danger issues are addressed on the spot and that ongoing planning and
execution reflect changes in hazard conditions.
Evaluation Whenever possible, the risk management process should also include an after-action
review to assess the unit’s performance in identifying risks and preventing hazardous
situations. Leaders should then incorporate lessons learned from the process into unit
SOPs and plans for future missions.

FM 71-1 Appendix D Fratricide Prevention
<
APPENDIX D
Fratricide Prevention
Fratricide is defined as the employment of friendly weapons that results in the unforeseen and
unintentional death or injury of friendly personnel or damage to friendly equipment. Fratricide
prevention is the commander’s responsibility. He is assisted by all leaders across all operating systems
in accomplishing this mission.
CONTENTS
Section 1 The Role of Training
Section 2 Effects of Fratricide
Section 3 Causes of Fratricide
Section 4 Fratricide Risk Assessment
Section 5 Fratricide Prevention Techniques
SECTION 1 - THE ROLE OF TRAINING

The underlying principle of fratricide prevention is simple: Leaders who know where their soldiers are,
and where they want them to fire, can keep those soldiers alive to kill the enemy. At the same time,
leaders must avoid at all costs any reluctance to employ, integrate, and synchronize all required
operating systems at the critical time and place. They must avoid becoming tentative out of fear of
fratricide; rather, they strive to eliminate fratricide risk through tough, realistic, combined arms training
in which each soldier and unit achieves the set standard.
Training allows units and soldiers to make mistakes, with the goal of reducing or eliminating the risk of
errors occurring in combat. A key role of the company team training program is to teach tank and BFV
crews what targets to engage and when to engage them. Just as important, crews must learn and
practice restraint in what and when to engage; for example, every tank or BFV commander must know
that he must confirm the target as hostile before issuing and executing any fire command.
Eliminating the risk of fratricide is no less critical as a training standard than are other mission
requirements. All leaders must know all aspects of the applicable training standard, including fratricide
prevention, and then ensure their soldiers train to that standard. For a detailed discussion of crew duties
and responsibilities in fratricide prevention, refer to FM 17-12-1-1.
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SECTION 2 - EFFECTS OF FRATRICIDE

Fratricide results in unacceptable losses and increases the risk of mission failure; it almost always
affects the unit’s ability to survive and function. Units experiencing fratricide suffer these
consequences:
● Loss of confidence in the unit’s leadership.
● Increasing self-doubt among leaders.
● Hesitancy in the employment of supporting combat systems.
● Oversupervision of units.
● Hesitancy in the conduct of night operations.
● Loss of aggressiveness in maneuver (fire and movement).
● Loss of initiative.
● Disrupted operations.
● General degradation of unit cohesiveness, morale, and combat power.
SECTION 3 - CAUSES OF FRATRICIDE

The following paragraphs discuss the primary causes of fratricide.
Leaders must identify any of the factors that may affect their units and
then strive to eliminate or correct them.
Failures in the direct These occur when units do not develop effective fire control plans,
particularly in the offense. Units may fail to designate target
fire control plan engagement areas or adhere to target priorities, or they may position
their weapons incorrectly. Under such conditions, fire discipline often
breaks down upon contact.
The company team can use a number of techniques and procedures to
help prevent such incidents. An example is "staking in" vehicle and
individual positions in the defense, using pickets to indicate the left and
right limits of each position. An area of particular concern is the
additional planning that must go into operations requiring close
coordination between mounted elements and infantry squads. For
example, because of the danger posed by discarding petals, sabot
rounds should be fired over friendly infantry elements only in extreme
emergencies.
Land navigation Units often stray out of assigned sectors, report wrong locations, and
become disoriented. Much less frequently, they employ fire support
failures weapons from the wrong locations. In either type of situation, units that
unexpectedly encounter an errant unit may fire their weapons at the
friendly force.

Failures in combat Vehicle commanders and gunners cannot accurately identify thermal or
optical signatures near the maximum range of their systems. In limited
identification visibility conditions, units within that range may mistake one another
for the enemy.
Inadequate Units may fail to disseminate the minimum necessary maneuver fire
control measures and fire support coordination measures; they may
control measures also fail to tie control measures to recognizable terrain or events. As
the battle develops, the plan then cannot address obvious branches and
sequels as they occur. When this happens, synchronization fails.
Failures in reporting Units at all levels may fail to generate timely, accurate, and complete
and communications reports as locations and tactical situations change. This distorts the
tactical "picture" available at each level and can lead to erroneous
clearance of supporting fires.
Weapons errors Lapses in individual discipline can result in fratricide. These incidents
include charge errors, accidental discharges, mistakes with explosives
and hand grenades, and use of incorrect gun data.
Battlefield hazards A variety of explosive devices and materiel may create danger on the
battlefield: unexploded ordnance; unmarked or unrecorded minefields,
including scatterable mines; booby traps. Failure to mark, record,
remove, or otherwise anticipate these threats will lead to casualties.
SECTION 4 - FRATRICIDE RISK

ASSESSMENT
Figure D-1 is a worksheet for evaluating fratricide risk in the context of mission requirements. The
worksheet lists six mission-accomplishment factors that affect the risk of fratricide, along with related
considerations for each factor. Leaders should assess the potential risk in each area (low, medium, or
high) and assign a point value to each (one point for low risk, two for medium risk, three for high risk).
They then add the point values to calculate the overall fratricide assessment score.
The resulting score is used only as a guide, however. The leader’s final assessment must be based both
on observable risk factors like those on the worksheet and on his "feel" for the intangible factors
affecting the operation. Note that descriptive terms are listed only in the low- and high-risk columns of
the worksheet. The assessment of each factor will determine whether the risk matches one of these
extremes or lies somewhere between them as a medium risk.
SECTION 5 - FRATRICIDE PREVENTION

TECHNIQUES

As discussed in Appendix C of this manual, leaders of all units, including the company team, must
identify and assess the risks they will face in tactical and training situations. They then must develop
and implement controls to limit or, if possible, eliminate the hazards. The five-step risk assessment
process outlined in Appendix C is applicable for determining fratricide risk as well. The following list
provides examples of fratricide prevention techniques the company team may use:
● Ensure that all soldiers understand the formations and schemes of maneuver employed by
adjacent units.
● Keep soldiers calm and confident by ensuring that they clearly understand the friendly and
enemy situations.
● Use wingmen to make dual confirmation of enemy sightings prior to engagement; however,
avoid becoming too hesitant to fire.
● Implement and enforce the unit’s direct fire weapons control status (WEAPONS FREE,
WEAPONS HOLD, or WEAPONS TIGHT).
● Whenever the enemy situation is vague, implement a more restrictive weapons control status
level, but do not take the initiative away from subordinate elements.
● To prevent battlefield "surprises" when soldiers are fatigued, ensure they receive more, not less,
intelligence and operational guidance. Do not, however, oversupervise them or overwhelm them
with irrelevant information.
● Take additional steps in offensive and defensive planning and rehearsals to ensure soldiers
understand the correct orientation.
● Establish and enforce procedures to clear direct and indirect fires.
● Plan and rehearse actions on contact.
Potential risk categories

(with variable conditions and point values)
Factors affecting fratricide Low risk Medium risk High risk

(1 point) (2 points) (3 points)
UNDERSTANDING OF THE PLAN
Commander’s intent Clear Vague

Complexity Simple Complex
Enemy situation Known Unknown
Friendly situation Clear Unclear
ROE/ROI Clear Unclear
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Intervisibility Favorable Unfavorable

Obscuration Clear Obscured
Battle tempo Slow Fast
Positive target identification 100 % None (0 %)
CONTROL MEASURES
Command relationships Organic Joint/combined

Audio communications Loud / clear Jammed
Visual communications Easily seen Obscured
Graphics Standard Not understood
SOPs Standard Not used
Liaison personnel Proficient Untrained
Location/navigation Sure Unsure
EQUIPMENT (compared to US equipment)
Friendly Similar Different

Enemy Different Similar
TRAINING
Individual proficiency MOS-qualified Untrained

Unit proficiency Trained Untrained
Rehearsals Realistic None
Habitual relationships Yes No
Endurance Alert Fatigued
PLANNING TIME (based on 1/3 - 2/3 rule)
Higher headquarters Adequate Inadequate

Own unit Adequate Inadequate
Subordinate elements Adequate Inadequate
Overall risk assessment Low risk Medium risk High risk

(by total point value) 26 - 46 points 42 - 62 points 58 - 78 points

NOTE: Point values alone may not accurately reflect fratricide risk. The commander must
tailor his assessment to the unit’s requirements.
FIGURE D-1. Fratricide risk assessment worksheet.

FM 71-1 Appendix E Continuous Operations
APPENDIX E
Continuous Operations
US forces execute continuous operations to maintain constant pressure on the enemy without regard to
visibility, terrain, and weather conditions. The ability to effectively sustain this pressure is often a key
to success on the battlefield. It is also the most difficult challenge that Army units face, placing
enormous stress on soldiers, vehicles, and equipment alike. Continuous operations demand that units
conduct planning, preparation, and execution activities around the clock while maintaining effective
OPSEC at all times.
Numerous factors, which will vary with each situation, influence the actions and requirements of
friendly forces during continuous operations. The tempo will range from slow to fast. Some units may
remain in constant enemy contact, or under the threat of contact, for several days. Other units will
operate in low-threat areas with only a remote possibility of contact. Throughout the area of operations,
enemy forces will, at any given moment, be attempting to acquire intelligence information and gain the
tactical advantage.
The company team commander must understand the demands of continuous operations under all
possible conditions. He must provide his soldiers with the leadership and training they will need to
meet the challenges of the battlefield.
CONTENTS
Section 1 Leadership and Training
Leadership
Training
Section 2 Planning and Preparation
Readiness and Stand-to

Work Plan
Rest Plan
SECTION 1 - LEADERSHIP AND TRAINING

Preparation for continuous operations starts prior to combat with leadership and individual training.
The following discussion focuses on leadership and training activities the company team commander
should initiate within the unit. These will help to reduce the degradation of combat effectiveness that
can occur as a natural consequence of continuous operations.
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LEADERSHIP
The commander uses his leadership abilities to instill a sense of trust and confidence within the
company team. In doing so, he helps his subordinates to develop the skills they need to effectively lead
their own elements. Leadership guidelines at all levels of the team include the following:
● Build and maintain soldier resources. An essential element of this principle is individual
fitness, both physical and mental. Develop and enforce a well-rounded program of physical
fitness training. Ensure that soldiers’ diets provide balanced nutrition and that they receive
proper medical care, including current immunizations. Conduct morale-building activities, such
as unit social and athletic functions, and encourage soldiers to take advantage of available leisure
time.
● Maintain high standards. Demand both personal and professional excellence of all leaders and
soldiers in the unit. Lead by example. This helps to create a powerful desire in each soldier to
accomplish the mission.
● Develop individual confidence. Take a genuine interest in all soldiers in both personal and
professional matters. This fosters a "family" atmosphere that builds confidence within each
soldier and leads to strong unit cohesion.
● Develop unit confidence. Confidence flows from the top down. Bold, audacious, selfless service
builds esprit, morale, and commitment to the unit and its mission.
TRAINING
Thoughtfully designed and competently conducted training is the foundation on which the company
team commander builds unit success. Guidelines for effective training include the following:
● Conduct realistic training. Realism in training situations can help to reduce the stress that
soldiers will experience when they face actual combat.
● Cross-train all critical skills. Cross-training ensures that the commander will always have
soldiers available to perform, or assist with, critical tasks. The more important the task in the
company team scheme of maneuver, the higher its priority for cross-training.
● Make physical fitness a priority. Soldiers who are physically fit can fight off the effects of
fatigue and can recover more quickly from the exhausting labors involved in combat operations.
● Foster a spirit of the fight. As with unit confidence, a bold, audacious attitude creates a
fight-to-win spirit within the unit, spurring soldiers to do everything needed to accomplish the
mission.
SECTION 2 - PLANNING AND PREPARATION

Time management is the key to success in continuous operations. During the planning and preparation
phases of an operation, the commander dictates priorities of security, work, and rest. These priorities, in
conjunction with REDCON levels, enable the commander to develop his unit’s timeline. He then uses
troop-leading procedures to outline time requirements and disseminate them to the platoon leaders.
(NOTE: Refer to Chapter 2 of this manual for a detailed discussion of troop-leading procedures.
Appendix M covers OPSEC procedures.)
READINESS AND STAND-TO

Readiness conditions REDCON levels allow quick responses to changing situations and
ensure completion of necessary work and rest plans. The commander
uses the REDCON status as a standardized way to adjust the unit’s
readiness to move and fight. Refer to Figure E-1 for characteristics of
the four REDCON levels.
REDCON-1. Full alert; unit ready to move and fight.

● NBC alarms and hot loop equipment stowed; OPs pulled in.
● All personnel alert and mounted on vehicles; weapons

manned.
● Engines started.
● Company team is ready to move immediately.
NOTE: A variant of REDCON-1 is REDCON-1.5; the same

conditions apply except that the vehicles are not started in
REDCON-1.5.
REDCON-2. Full alert; unit ready to fight.
● Equipment stowed (except hot loop and NBC alarms).
● Precombat checks complete.
● All personnel alert and mounted in vehicles; weapons

manned.
(NOTE: Depending on the tactical situation and orders from the
commander, dismounted OPs may remain in place.)
● All (100 percent) digital and FM communications links
operational.
● Status reports submitted in accordance with task force SOP.
● Company team is ready to move within 15 minutes of

notification.
REDCON-3. Reduced alert.
● Fifty percent of the unit executes work and rest plans.
● Remainder of the unit executes security plan. Based on the

commander’s guidance and the enemy situation, some

personnel executing the security plan may execute portions
of the work plan.
● Company team is ready to move within 30 minutes of
notification.
REDCON-4. Minimum alert.
● OPs manned; one soldier per platoon designated to monitor
radio and man turret weapons.
● Digital and FM links with task force and other company
teams maintained.
● Company team is ready to move within one hour of
notification.
Figure E-1. REDCON levels.

Stand-to Stand-to encompasses all actions taken to bring the company team to a maximum state of
preparedness. Times for stand-to are derived from the task force commander’s OPORD.
Unit SOP should specify stand-to requirements, which will usually include procedures for
sending and receiving reports, use of accountability checks for personnel and equipment,
and criteria for assuming REDCON levels 1 and 2. (NOTE: Stand-to procedures for
digitized units include the updating of POSNAV systems, IVIS synchronization, and
completion of log-on for SINCGARS radios.)
WORK PLAN
The work plan enables subordinate leaders and soldiers to focus their
efforts in preparing vehicles, equipment, and themselves for operations.
Refer to Chapter 2 of this manual for a detailed company team timeline
for troop-leading procedures and the associated preparations and
priorities of work.
REST PLAN

The rest plan allows some soldiers to sleep while other crewmen conduct priorities of work and
maintain security. To be effective in sustained combat, a soldier should get a minimum of 4 hours of
uninterrupted sleep every 24 hours. Less than 4 hours of sleep can significantly degrade combat
performance.
Planning and decision-making are among the skills that suffer most dramatically when soldiers cannot
get enough sleep. The commander must ensure that subordinate leaders either have rest plans of their
own or are following his rest plan as directed.
The company team SOP must provide for an adequate division of duties to allow leaders to get sleep.
This may require key leaders to share duties. When soldiers are tired, confirmation briefings become
critical whenever orders are issued, even for the simplest task.

FM 71-1 Appendix F Limited Visibility Operations
APPENDIX F
Limited Visibility Operations

The company team may conduct limited visibility operations to accomplish the following purposes:
● Achieve surprise.
● Gain positions of advantage by means of stealth.
● Exploit success and maintain momentum.
Darkness obviously has the most dramatic effect on the ability of soldiers to see the battlefield, but
there are other conditions that restrict visibility as well:
● Weather conditions, including rain, snow, fog, and sandstorms.
● Dust.
● Smoke.
● Obscuration factors caused by weapons firing and movement of soldiers and equipment.
If it is to use its superior technology and basic combat skills to sustain continuous operations and
destroy the enemy, the company team must train to fight effectively in all types of visibility conditions.
The team should first master the execution of tasks under optimum visibility conditions and then
continue its training in progressively more difficult situations.
CONTENTS
Section 1 Equipment
Command and Control and Leader Systems

Vehicle Systems
Crew-served System Sights
Individual Equipment
Visible and Nonvisible Lignt Control
Section 2 Navigation
Section 3 Vehicle Identification
Section 4 Tactical Movement and Attack
Planning
Preparation
Execution
Section 5 Limited Visibility Defense
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Planning
Preparation
Execution
SECTION 1 - EQUIPMENT
The company team is equipped with a variety of equipment, described in the following paragraphs, that
enhances its ability to operate under limited visibility conditions.
COMMAND AND CONTROL AND LEADER

SYSTEMS
The following devices are available to the company team’s leaders for use in signaling and target
designation:
● IR signaling devices. These generate an IR light source that is visible through passive sights;
they can be used for marking a variety of locations, such as TRPs, passage points, sectors of fire,
obstacles, checkpoints, and routes.
● IR pointers or IR laser designators. Infantry platoon leaders and squad leaders can use these to
designate targets, allowing them to focus fires more effectively and enhancing their command
and control capability. These systems project IR light onto the target and are visible in passive
sights.
VEHICLE SYSTEMS
Vehicles organic to the company team are equipped with the following devices applicable to limited
visibility operations:
● Driver’s night vision viewer (AN/VVS-2 passive sight). This system may soon be replaced by a
driver’s thermal viewer.
● Gunner’s primary sight, commander’s extension, and ISU thermal sights.
● CITVs on the M1A2 and M2A3/M3A3.
CREW-SERVED SYSTEM SIGHTS

Several of the company team’s organic systems are equipped with sights that allow them to be used
effectively in limited visibility conditions. These crew-served systems include the following:
● M2 HB machine gun AN/TVS-5 (thermal sight heavy).
● M60 machine gun AN/TVS-4 (thermal sight medium).
● M249 SAW thermal sight medium.
● GSR AN/UAS-11 thermal sight.
● Antitank missile AN/UAS-12 thermal sight.
Table F-1 lists the comparative characteristics, capabilities, and limitations of passive and thermal sight
systems.
Table F-1. Comparison of passive and thermal sights.
THERMAL SIGHTS
PASSIVE SIGHTS
Limited by amount of available light. Not affected by light conditions.
Can be "washed out" by bright flashes of light. Not affected by flashes of light.
Narrow field of view. Choice of wide or narrow field of view.
Poor depth perception. Poor depth perception.
Excellent capability for identifying sources of Unable to detect sources of light.

light, including IR.
Adverse weather conditions limit the range of Adverse weather conditions limit the range of
the sight and may render it useless. the sight. On the other hand, the target
acquisition capability of the sight may exceed
the capability of the LRF to receive a return and
compute an automatic ballistic solution.
INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT
The following equipment used by individual crewmen enhances the company team’s limited visibility
capability:
● PVS-7 and PVS-7B passive vision devices.
● AN/PVS-4 (passive vision device for the M16A2).
● Aiming lights for infantrymen’s individual weapons.

VISIBLE AND NONVISIBLE LIGHT CONTROL

On the battlefield of the future, it is highly likely that any significant enemy will have access to various
types of night vision devices. Obviously, the enemy will use these devices any way he can to gain the
advantage. There is a related problem as well. If used improperly by friendly soldiers, aiming lights,
laser pointers, and IR illumination not only will be of no tactical advantage, but may also give away the
locations of friendly forces to an enemy element with night vision capability.
Commanders must establish positive controls over the use of such devices, establishing and enforcing
unit SOPs at all levels. As an example, the use of mortar-fired illumination rounds, both visible and
nonvisible (IR), should be controlled centrally because of the effects that the illumination may have on
units adjacent to one calling for the rounds. Smaller IR illumination rounds, such as those fired from a
grenade launcher, should be controlled at platoon or squad level. Visible and nonvisible chemical lights
can be very helpful on the battlefield if employment is standardized and carefully controlled.
Otherwise, use of chem lights can be counterproductive, even giving away friendly positions.
SECTION 2 - NAVIGATION
The commander uses several tools and techniques to help him navigate in limited visibility conditions:
the GPS and/or POSNAV, terrain association, and the compass and odometer method. When they are
fired to create a ground-burst effect, artillery or mortar illumination rounds can be helpful in
confirming locations.
SECTION 3 - VEHICLE IDENTIFICATION

The problem of vehicle identification is compounded in limited visibility conditions. Vehicle
commanders must be able to distinguish the vehicles of the company team and of other friendly
elements from those of the enemy. Most unit SOPs cover vehicle marking and identification
procedures. In addition, the commander may elect to use the following techniques to enhance command
and control and to help prevent fratricide:
● Attach color-coded lights or chemical lights to the rear of the turret or hull.
● Replace the brake light cover with color-coded plastic (such as green, blue, or yellow).
● Use luminous or thermal tape to "outline" vehicles or to mark battle boards.
● Use radio and digital systems to provide the commander with frequent updates of friendly unit
locations.
SECTION 4 - TACTICAL MOVEMENT

The fundamentals for executing tactical movement and attacks discussed elsewhere in this manual are
applicable during periods of limited visibility. The following paragraphs cover additional
considerations for the planning, preparation, and execution of these operations when visibility is
restricted.

PLANNING
The commander and subordinate leaders must pay particular attention to routes, formations, and
navigational aids. They must conduct a thorough route reconnaissance to identify locations where the
unit could become disoriented. This reconnaissance must also focus on finding rough or restricted
terrain that will be more difficult to negotiate in limited visibility. Such terrain may require a change in
formation or movement technique or employment of dismounted ground guides.
PREPARATION
The commander conducts rehearsals in as many types of adverse conditions as possible to prepare the
company team for potential command and control problems. He must stress light discipline. During the
PCI, he should view each vehicle using a passive sight to ensure that sources of light have been
dimmed or covered so they are not visible. During confirmation briefings and rehearsals, the
commander must ensure that all leaders understand the unit’s projected actions during each phase of
the operation. One technique is to designate waypoints or phase lines as trigger points for the company
team’s actions.
EXECUTION
The company team commander and subordinate leaders must assume that the enemy possesses the
same limited visibility observation capabilities as their own unit. Vehicle commanders use the PVS-7
and CITV (as applicable) to assist their drivers with navigation and to enhance situational awareness.
Use of terrain to mask movement and deployment remains critical since limited visibility may create a
false sense of protection from observation. During movement, the distance between vehicles is reduced
to allow them to observe each other and to decrease the time necessary to react to enemy contact.
When the company team encounters enemy elements, an effective technique is to have the vehicle that
makes contact fire a steady burst of machine gun fire in the direction of the enemy to orient the rest of
the team. The team must adhere strictly to applicable control measures, especially those covering the
employment of direct fires.
SECTION 5 - LIMITED VISIBILITY DEFENSE

The defensive fundamentals covered in this manual are applicable in limited visibility situations; the
following paragraphs outline additional considerations for planning, preparation, and execution of the
defense in limited visibility.
PLANNING

The company team commander and subordinate leaders conduct a thorough reconnaissance, usually
during daylight hours, to mark positions and routes. They must keep in mind that obscurants that limit
visibility may also degrade the effectiveness of their thermal sights and LRFs. This may force them to
designate alternate BPs that are closer to the company team’s engagement area(s). In marking their
positions, they use material that will facilitate occupation either in daylight or under limited visibility
conditions.
PREPARATION
The commander ensures that trigger lines, TRPs, and artillery targets are "thermalized" to allow for
positive identification during limited visibility. Examples of how to mark TRPs are shown in Chapter
2. Used with a sector sketch during direct fire engagements, thermalized TRPs also help vehicle
commanders to more accurately estimate the range to their targets when smoke or other factors inhibit
the use of the LRF. Ideally, rehearsals of occupation and displacement are conducted in limited
visibility conditions; the same applies to preparation and occupation of fighting positions and to any
necessary repositioning.
OPSEC is strictly enforced during all phases of defensive preparation. OPs are critical in providing
security and early warning of enemy activities. The commander emplaces mounted OPs to take
advantage of the capabilities of his vehicles’ thermal sights in scanning the team’s assigned sector and
the engagement area. Dismounted OPs provide local security and augment mounted OPs with
short-range observation and the ability to act as listening posts.
EXECUTION
As the company team enters the execution phase, the commander must ensure that all leaders
thoroughly understand the occupation and displacement criteria and that they strictly enforce all fire
control measures. Vehicle commanders use sketch cards and the CITV (if applicable) to estimate target
range when visibility factors prevent use of the LRF.

FM 71-1 Appendix G NBC and Smoke Operations
APPENDIX G
Nuclear, Biological, Chemical,

and Smoke Operations
Because many potential adversaries have the capability to employ nuclear, biological, and chemical
weapons, the company team must prepare to fight in an NBC environment, as well as to collect,
process, and disseminate NBC hazard information. To survive and remain effective on the battlefield,
the team must be proficient in the three fundamentals of NBC defense: contamination avoidance, NBC
protection, and decontamination. The company team NBC NCO conducts NBC training and assists and
advises the commander in planning NBC operations. Additional-duty NBC personnel, designated in the
team SOP, serve as crewmen for platoon NBC vehicles, as the decontamination team, and as chemical
agent detection and radiological survey/monitoring teams. Refer to FM 3-3, FM 3-3-1, FM 3-4, and
FM 3-5 for additional information on NBC operations.
Smoke is used extensively by enemy and friendly elements in both offensive and defensive operations.
The company team’s success on the battlefield may depend on how well the commander understand the
effects of smoke on enemy and friendly acquisition systems in various weather conditions.
CONTENTS
Section 1 Contamination Avoidance
General Avoidance Measures

Biological Defense
Defense Before a Nuclear Attack
Defense Before a Chemical Attack
Section 2 NBC Protection
MOPP Levels and SOP Requirements

Alarms and Signals
Defense During a Nuclear Attack
Defense After a Nuclear Attack
Defense During a Chemical Attack
Defense After a Chemical Attack
Biological and Chemical Casualties
Marking Contamination
Unmasking Procedures
All-Clear Signal
Warning and Reporting Systems
Section 3 Movement in an NBC Environment
Crossing a Chemically/Biologically Contaminated Area

Crossing a Radiologically Contaminated Area
Section 4 Decontamination
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Types of Contamination
Levels of Decontamination Operations
Section 5 Smoke Operations
Planning Considerations for Smoke Employment

Uses of Smoke
Sources of Smoke
Tactical Considerations in Smoke Operations
Countermeasures Against Enemy Smoke
SECTION 1 - CONTAMINATION AVOIDANCE

Avoidance is the most important fundamental of NBC defense because the best way to survive is to
avoid being the object of a chemical or nuclear attack. Avoiding contaminated areas minimizes the risk
of additional casualties; it also prevents the degradation of combat power that results when a unit must
operate in MOPP level 3 or 4 for extended periods of time. In addition, the unit is not required to spend
the time and resources needed for decontamination. Contamination avoidance measures include using
passive avoidance techniques, locating contaminated areas, identifying NBC agents, warning other
members of the company team as well as other units, and reporting NBC threats to higher headquarters.
GENERAL AVOIDANCE MEASURES

Passive avoidance Passive avoidance measures can decrease the possibility of NBC attack or
reduce the effects of an attack already under way. Effective use of
concealment, dispersion, prepared positions, OPSEC, and signal security
reduces the company team’s chances of being acquired as a target. The
team should continually analyze its vulnerability to NBC attack and take
appropriate protective measures.
Detection, alarms, Attacks and contamination must be detected quickly and reported to
adjacent units and higher headquarters. The company team must have an
and reporting effective method of quickly giving the alarm in the event of an NBC
attack. Alarms can be passed by radio, audible signals, or hand-and-arm
signals. Company team SOPs should specify criteria for increasing or
reducing the MOPP level; they should also cover procedures for the
marking of vehicles and MOPP suits with detection paper, for employing
detection teams, and for submitting the required NBC reports following an
NBC attack or when contamination is encountered.

Reconnaissance Whenever possible, all movement routes and future positions should be
reconnoitered for nuclear and chemical contamination. Quartering party
and evaluation personnel should be prepared to conduct monitoring operations; if they
detect contaminated areas, they identify, report, and mark them. The
quartering party can then evaluate the location and type of hazard (nuclear
radiation or chemical agent) to determine the best plan for bypassing,
crossing, or operating in the contaminated area. Based on the situation, the
company team commander must be able to implement protective measures
specified in the SOP to minimize personnel losses and limit the spread of
contamination.
BIOLOGICAL DEFENSE
The key protective measure against a biological attack is maintaining a high order of health, personal
hygiene, and sanitation discipline. Biological attacks are difficult to detect. If an attack occurs, the
chances of survival are better if personnel are healthy and physically fit and maintain good personal
hygiene. Keeping the body clean helps to prevent ingestion of biological agents. Small cuts or scratches
should be covered and kept germ-free by means of soap, water, and first-aid measures. Since insects
may carry biological agents, soldiers should prevent insect bites by keeping clothes buttoned and skin
covered and by using approved insect repellents. The biological integrated detection system (BIDS) is a
corps- or division-level asset that can detect and identify biological agents.
After an attack, the company team must assume that all surfaces have been exposed to germs. Do not
eat food or drink water that may be contaminated. Eat or drink only food or water that has been stored
in sealed containers; consume it only after washing and cleaning the outside of the container. All water
must be boiled for at least 15 minutes.
DEFENSE BEFORE A NUCLEAR ATTACK

The best defense against a nuclear attack is to dig in. Unit defensive positions, which range from
individual foxholes to full-scale improved fighting positions, should be prepared whenever the tactical
situation permits. Personnel should keep their individual weapons, equipment, clothing, and other issue
items in their vehicles. Inside the vehicle, equipment and any loose items must be secured because the
blast wave can turn unsecured objects into lethal missiles. Supplies, explosives, and flammable
materials should be dispersed and protected.
Reverse slopes of hills and mountains give some nuclear protection. The initial radiation and the heat
and light from the fireball of a nuclear blast tend to be absorbed by hills and mountains. The use of
gullies, ravines, ditches, natural depressions, fallen trees, and caves can also reduce nuclear casualties.
DEFENSE BEFORE A CHEMICAL ATTACK

Attack preparations The company team commander and subordinate leaders must ensure that
all personnel have their protective masks available and must make sure
each mask fits and functions properly. The team commander will
determine the appropriate MOPP level based on the higher headquarters’
designated MOPP level and IPB information; he cannot reduce the
MOPP level below that directed by higher headquarters. All personnel
should wear the proper protective clothing in accordance with the MOPP
level designated by the commander. The commander may consider
having vehicle drivers begin offensive operations in MOPP 4 when it is
likely that the enemy will use chemical or biological weapons; this will
allow the unit to continue to move while the rest of the crew goes to
MOPP 4. All equipment and supplies should be protected from liquid
chemical contamination by keeping them organized and covered.
Chemical alarms The M8A1 automatic chemical agent alarm system is the primary means
of detecting an upwind chemical attack. The system provides two
essential elements of survival: detection of a toxic agent cloud and early
warning to troops in the monitored position.
The company team commander, in coordination with the NBC NCO and
subordinate leaders, decides where to place the chemical alarms. In
stationary operations, first determine the wind direction. Then place
available detector units upwind of the nearest unit position to be
protected; detector units should be no more than 150 meters upwind of
that unit position. Space available detector units approximately 300
meters apart, and make sure each detector unit is connected to an alarm
unit by telephone cable (NB-1). Position the alarm units near
radiotelephone assets; this makes it easy to alert the unit to an attack.
Operation of the alarm can be affected by blowing sand or dust, rain,
sleet, snow, tropical conditions, and temperatures below 40 degrees
Fahrenheit (4.5 degrees Celsius).
SECTION 2 - NBC PROTECTION

Soldiers on the integrated battlefield face a combination of nuclear, biological, chemical, and
conventional attacks. If the company team cannot avoid an NBC hazard, it must be prepared to protect
personnel and equipment from the effects of exposure. The type and degree of protection required is
based on the unit’s mission and the hazard. Note that the line between contamination avoidance and
protection is not distinct. Many actions contribute to both areas of NBC defense.
MOPP LEVELS AND SOP REQUIREMENTS

The key to effective protection in an NBC environment is the company team’s proficiency in
automatically and correctly implementing NBC defense SOPs. Individual and unit protection against
chemical attack or contamination hinges on effective use of the MOPP and on individual proficiency in
basic NBC skills. The five levels of MOPP, shown with corresponding equipment requirements in
Table G-1, should also be outlined in the SOP.
Table G-1. MOPP levels and equipment requirements.

MOPP level Command

MOPP MOPP 0 MOPP
MOPP 1 MOPP 2 MOPP 3 (mask
Equipment READY (ZERO) 4
only)
Mask Carried Carried Carried Carried Worn 1 Worn Worn
Overgarment Ready 3 Available Worn 1 Worn 1 Worn 1 Worn

4
Vinyl Ready 3 Available Available Worn Worn Worn

overboots 4 4
Gloves Ready 3 Available Available Available Available Worn

4 4 4 4
Helmet Ready 3 Available Available Worn Worn Worn

protective 4 4
cover
Chemical Ready 3 Available Worn 2 Worn 2 Worn 2 Worn 2

protective 4
undergarment
2
1. In hot weather, coat or hood can be left open for ventilation.

2. The chemical protective undergarment is worn under the BDU (this primarily applies to armor
vehicle crewmen
and special operations forces).
3. These items must be available to the soldier within two hours, with a second set available
within six hours.
4. These items must be positioned within arm’s reach of the soldier.
ALARMS AND SIGNALS

When an NBC attack is recognized, everyone in the company team must receive the warning and
assume the appropriate MOPP level (see Table G-1). Soldiers in immediate danger need warnings they
can see or hear. The alarm or signal must be simple and unmistakable if it is to produce a quick and
correct reaction. Units that are not immediately affected need the information as well, either to prepare
for the hazard or to change plans.
If an NBC hazard is located, the contaminated area should be marked. The NBC warning and reporting
system (NBCWRS) and standardized contamination markers contribute to orderly warning procedures.
Warning methods include automatic alarms (M8 series), vocal alarms (a shout of "GAS" is the most
frequently used alarm), nonvocal alarms (horn blasts or banging of metal-to-metal objects), and visual
alarms, most commonly the appropriate hand-and-arm signals.

DEFENSE DURING A NUCLEAR ATTACK

Dismounted defense Immediately drop flat on the ground (face down) or to the bottom of a
foxhole or other low area, with head toward the blast. Cover as much
exposed skin as possible. Close your eyes. Remain down until the blast
wave has passed and debris has stopped falling. Stay calm, check for
injury, check weapons and equipment for damage, and prepare to
continue the mission.
Mounted defense As time permits, take the following actions:
● Position the vehicle with the rear facing the blast and the gun
pointed away from the blast.
● Lock the brakes.
● Secure loose equipment inside the vehicle to prevent injuries and

equipment damage.
● Secure all exterior components that could be damaged by the
blast (such as water cans, duffel bags, and antennas) inside the
vehicle.
● Turn off all radios as well as turret and master power.
● Close and lock all hatches, including ballistic shields.
● Wear your helmet and protect your eyes.
● Stow the CITV (M1A2) or TOW (BFV).
DEFENSE AFTER A NUCLEAR ATTACK

General actions Once the attack has ended, the company team and subordinate elements
should be prepared to take these actions:
● Prepare and submit NBC-1 nuclear reports.
● Organize survivors; assist and treat casualties.
● Secure and organize equipment.
● Repair and reinforce the BP.
● Improve protection against possible fallout.
● Begin continuous monitoring.
● Prepare to move, on order, to a less hazardous area if the radiation

dose rate reaches a hazardous level after fallout has ended.

Operating in the When operating in or crossing radiologically contaminated areas, vehicles

contaminated area should be closed tightly. Crewmen should wear their protective masks;
cargoes should be covered by tarps or tenting. Mission permitting,
vehicles should keep their speed down to prevent dust and should maintain
adequate following distance to stay out of the dust raised by preceding
vehicles.
After the unit exits a contaminated area, personnel, equipment, and cargo
should be checked for contamination and, if necessary, decontaminated.
Dose rates should be monitored closely to ensure compliance with the
OEG. The RES should be updated daily.
Fallout warning The first person to detect the arrival of fallout is usually a member of the
radiological survey and monitoring team. As soon as the recorded dose
rate reaches 1 cGy/hr (or rad per hour) or higher, he issues a fallout
warning. All personnel hearing the warning relay it to others. If the
mission allows, soldiers should get into a shelter with overhead cover and
stay there until given an "ALL CLEAR" signal or until otherwise directed
to move. If the unit cannot take cover, decontamination becomes more
important and, in many cases, more difficult.
Radiological The company team commander designates a point in the team area where
readings will be taken and notes the grid coordinates of the point. He
monitoring directs the monitor operator to take readings at least once each hour from
this point; he makes sure the operator zeroes or resets the radiacmeter
before taking each reading and uses the device properly. The operator
must immediately report all readings showing the presence of radiation, as
well as the time of these readings. The NBC NCO, in coordination with
the commander, uses this information and the location of the readings to
prepare an NBC-4 report. The operator monitors continuously if any of the
following conditions occur:
● A reading of 1 cGy/hr or more is obtained.
● A fallout warning is received.
● A nuclear burst is seen, heard, or reported.
● An order to monitor is received.
● The unit begins to move.
Continuous monitoring continues until readings show a dose rate of less

than 1 cGy/hr or until operators are directed to stop.

Tactical dosimetry The company team will normally be issued eight dosimeters (either IM-93
or DT-236 radiacmeters). Before the operation begins, the commander
ensures that all dosimeters are zeroed (this applies to the IM-93 only). The
AN/VDR-75 reads the DT-236; the PP-1578 zeroes the IM-93. The
following considerations and procedures apply in conducting dosimetry:
● If a charger for the IM-93 is not available, note the original reading
on the dosimeter and adjust subsequent readings accordingly.
● Make sure survey readings are reported accurately.
● Collect readings at least once daily.
● Average the readings, round to the nearest 10, and report this
average to higher headquarters.
DEFENSE DURING A CHEMICAL ATTACK

The first soldier or element to detect a chemical attack or hazard gives the appropriate alarm. All
unmasked soldiers put on their protective masks and other MOPP gear. All personnel should move
inside their vehicles; in most cases, they should place their hatches in the closed position to protect
against gross contamination. Crews of vehicles that are equipped with NBC overpressurization turn the
system on. The commander directs use of the M256 chemical agent detector kits to determine the type
of agent and forwards an NBC-1 chemical report. The company team continues the mission when the
appropriate defensive measures are completed.
NOTE: Tactical and safety factors (such as observation of the terrain, enemy disposition, and the
amount of gross contamination that may be spread inside the vehicle) may outweigh the need to
keep the vehicle’s hatches closed. In addition, unit SOP may require vehicle commanders to keep
hatches in the open or open-protected position.
DEFENSE AFTER A CHEMICAL ATTACK

As specified by unit SOPs, the commander forwards follow-up NBC-1
chemical reports and directs these actions:
● Treat casualties.
● Perform immediate decontamination as required.
● Mark the contaminated area.
BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL CASUALTIES

Potential adversaries may have access to a wide variety of biological and chemical toxins on the
modern battlefield. These agents can be dispensed alone or with other carriers or agents. Casualties
resulting from live biological agents or chemical toxins require medical treatment as quickly as
possible.
The first step in the treatment process is usually appropriate self-aid and buddy-aid measures. These
vary depending on the agent. Soldiers should first mask to prevent inhaling or ingesting additional
agents; then they should remove agents from exposed skin, either by washing with soap and water or
by using the M291 kit. Soldiers use buddy-aid procedures to observe each other for early symptoms of
toxic exposure and to request medical assistance.
The company team commander should select separate casualty collection points for contaminated and
noncontaminated casualties to prevent cross-contamination. All contaminated casualties should be
decontaminated as thoroughly as the situation allows before being evacuated. The company team will
include in its casualty evacuation request the number of contaminated patients; this will allow the
evacuation team to send the proper number of vehicles for pickup.
Chemical agents fall into four major categories: nerve, blister, blood, and choking. Their primary routes
of attack on the body are through the respiratory system and the skin. These agents are especially
dangerous because they can kill or incapacitate quickly. The first, and most important, step in dealing
with them effectively is to recognize symptoms so proper treatment can be administered. Table G-2
lists protection and detection measures, symptoms, and treatment and decontamination procedures for
chemical agents.
Table G-2. Chemical agents.
AGENT NERVE BLISTER BLOOD CHOKING

TYPE
Protection Protective mask Protective mask Protective mask Protective mask

and suit and suit
Detection M8A1, M256A1, M256A1, M8/M9 M256A1 Odor only

CAM, M8/M9 paper, CAM (resembles
paper new-mown hay or
green corn)
Symptoms Difficult breathing, Burning eyes, Convulsions and Coughing,

drooling, nausea, stinging skin, coma choking, nausea,
vomiting, irritated nose (no headache, tightness
convulsions, symptoms with in chest
blurred vision mustard or
nitrogen mustard)
Effects Incapacitates Blisters skin and Incapacitates Floods and

damages damages lungs
respiratory tract
First aid Mark 1 NAAK Same as for NONE Avoid movement

second- and and keep warm
third-degree burns

Decontami- Use M291 kit and Use M291 kit and NONE NONE
nation flush eyes with flush eyes with
water water
MARKING CONTAMINATION
Contamination must be marked so unsuspecting personnel will not be
exposed to it. When company team monitoring assets detect or suspect
an NBC hazard, they mark all likely entry points into the area and
report contamination to higher headquarters and to adjacent and/or
affected units. The only exception to this policy is if marking the area
would help the enemy. If this exception is made by the commander, the
hazard must still be reported to protect friendly units. Refer to FM 3-3
for information on marking of contaminated areas.
Units discovering a marked contaminated area do not have to conduct
elaborate, time-consuming surveys. They simply check the extent of
contamination and use the information to adjust their plans, if
necessary. If the size of the hazard has changed, they relocate the signs.
If the hazard is gone, they remove the signs. Changes are reported to
higher headquarters.
UNMASKING PROCEDURES
Soldiers should unmask as soon as possible except when a live biological
or toxin attack is expected. Use the procedures outlined in the following
paragraphs to determine if unmasking is safe.
Unmasking If an M256/M256A1 detector kit is available, use it to supplement
unmasking procedures. The kit does not detect all agents; therefore,
with proper unmasking procedures, which take approximately 15 minutes,
M256/M256A1 must still be used. If all tests with the kit (including a check for liquid
detector kit contamination using M8 detector paper) have been performed and the
results are negative, use the following procedures:
● The senior person should select one or two soldiers to start the
unmasking procedures. If possible, they move to a shady place;
bright, direct sunlight can cause pupils in the eyes to constrict,
giving a false symptom.
● Selected soldiers unmask for 5 minutes, then clear and reseal
masks.
● Observe the soldiers for 10 minutes. If no symptoms appear,
request permission from higher headquarters to signal "ALL
CLEAR."
● Watch all soldiers for possible delayed symptoms. Always have
first-aid treatment immediately available in case it is needed.

Unmasking If an M256/M256A1 kit is not available, the unmasking procedures take

approximately 35 minutes. When a reasonable amount of time has passed
without after the attack, find a shady area; use M8 paper to check the area for
M256/M256A1 possible liquid contamination. Conduct unmasking using these
detector kit procedures:
● The senior person selects one or two soldiers. They take a deep
breath and break their mask seals, keeping their eyes wide open.
● After 15 seconds, the soldiers clear and reseal their masks. Observe
them for 10 minutes.
● If no symptoms appear, the same soldiers break seals, take two or
three breaths, and clear and reseal masks. Observe them for 10
minutes.
● If no symptoms appear, the same soldiers unmask for 5 minutes,
then remask.
● If no symptoms appear in 10 minutes, request permission from
higher headquarters to signal "ALL CLEAR." Continue to observe
all soldiers in case delayed symptoms develop.
ALL-CLEAR SIGNAL
The all-clear signal is passed by word of mouth through the chain of command. It is initiated by higher
headquarters after testing for contamination proves negative. The commander designates the specific
all-clear signal and includes it in the unit SOP or the OPORD. If required, standard sound signals may
be used, such as a continuous, sustained blast on a siren, vehicle horn, or similar device. When "ALL
CLEAR" is announced on the radio, the receiving unit must authenticate the transmission before
complying.
WARNING AND REPORTING SYSTEMS

The NBCWRS is a rapid means of sending reports of an NBC attack. These reports inform other
affected units of clean areas and possible contamination. They are also used to provide this information
up and down the chain of command and to adjacent units. Each report has a specific purpose and uses
standard codes to shorten and simplify the reporting process.
SECTION 3 - MOVEMENT IN
AN NBC ENVIRONMENT
As with other combat elements, one of the basic tactical requirements for the company team is to be
able to move through and operate in a contaminated area. To do so safely, the team should follow the
procedures outlined in this section.

CROSSING A CHEMICALLY/BIOLOGICALLY
CONTAMINATED AREA
Once a contaminated area has been identified, all company team elements must make preparations for
crossing. While part of each element (such as a section or squad) provides security, other soldiers and
vehicles in the element, positioned in a covered and concealed location, take the necessary steps. For
example, vehicle crews remove all externally stored equipment, ensure mounted M8A1 alarms are
functioning, affix M9 detector paper to vehicles, assume MOPP 4, and/or prepare the vehicle
overpressurization system (as available and if METT-TC factors
permit). Dismounted elements assume MOPP 4 and assist the crews of the vehicles on which they ride.
Once the necessary preparations are completed, vehicles move into overwatch positions; the rest of the
company team’s vehicles then move to covered and concealed positions and follow the same
procedures.
When all elements have been prepared, the company team uses standard tactical movement techniques
(such as bounding overwatch) to cross the contaminated area. During this movement, vehicle crews
continuously monitor the M8A1 and the M9 paper. Drivers and vehicle commanders must take
precautions to avoid low ground, overhanging branches, and brushy areas as much as possible. While
the unit is in the contaminated area, all personnel observe each other for signs of chemical poisoning.
Once the company team has successfully crossed the contaminated area, it halts temporarily. During
the halt, detection teams monitor for the presence of chemical agents. As needed, vehicle crews and
individual soldiers execute immediate decontamination. With higher headquarters’ approval, they
initiate unmasking procedures or request support for operational or thorough decontamination. Once
these procedures are complete, the team continues its mission.
CROSSING A RADIOLOGICALLY CONTAMINATED

AREA
The procedures involved in crossing a radiologically contaminated area are similar to those for a
chemically or biologically contaminated area, with the following additional considerations:
● Vehicle preparation. Crews may store external equipment in the vehicle or cover it with a tarp.
This prevents contaminated dust particles from accumulating on the equipment. Place wet
sandbags or other materials on the vehicle floor to increase the amount of radiation shielding.
When available, turn on the turret overpressure system to protect the crew compartment from
contaminated dust.
● Movement. Vehicles should limit their speed to minimize dust. In addition, they must maintain
the correct dust interval.
● Monitoring. Ensure that dosimeters (IM-93 and DT-236) are zeroed and/or operational (as
applicable). Conduct continuous monitoring, ensuring that the unit does not exceed the
commander’s OEG.
● Decontamination. During decontamination, each soldier should cover his nose and mouth with a
handkerchief or cloth to avoid breathing contaminated dust particles.

SECTION 4 - DECONTAMINATION
TYPES OF CONTAMINATION
Nonpersistent agents Nonpersistent contamination generally does not require
decontamination; however, the duration and effectiveness of the
chemical or biological agent employed will depend on a series of
factors, including the following:
● Type of contamination.
● Temperature.
● Wind speed.
● Amount of sunlight.
● Humidity and precipitation.
● Density and droplet size of the contaminant.
● Composition of the contaminated surface and/or type of

soil/terrain.
Persistent agents During continuous operations in areas of persistent chemical or
biological contamination, decontamination is essential in preventing
casualties and severe combat degradation. The company team will
gain maximum benefit from the available time and decontamination
resources by observing these considerations:
● The company team should begin decontamination as soon as
possible and as far forward as possible.
● Decontamination should be conducted only to the extent that is
necessary to ensure the team’s safety and operational readiness.
● Decontamination priorities should be strictly observed to ensure
unit safety and mission accomplishment.
LEVELS OF DECONTAMINATION OPERATIONS

The principles listed for decontamination involving persistent agents are
consistent with doctrine that places the burden of decontamination at the task
force level. Nonetheless, the company team must develop a thorough SOP,
covering decontamination methods and priorities, that will allow it to use all
available assets efficiently and as required.
The remainder of this section provides a detailed discussion of the levels of
decontamination activities in which the company team may be involved.
Refer to FM 3-5 for a more detailed explanation of NBC decontamination
procedures.

Immediate Immediate decontamination is a basic soldier survival skill carried out by

soldiers as soon as possible after they discover they are contaminated. Its
decontamination basic purposes are to minimize casualties, save lives, and limit the further
spread of contamination. Any contact between chemical or toxic agents and
bare skin should be treated as an emergency. Some agents can kill if they
remain on the skin for longer than a minute. The best technique for removing
or neutralizing these agents is to use the M291 skin decontamination kit.
Leaders must ensure that their soldiers are trained to execute this technique
automatically, without waiting for orders.
Personal wipedown should begin within 15 minutes of contamination. The
wipedown removes or neutralizes contamination on the hood, mask, gloves,
and personal weapon. For chemical and biological contamination, soldiers
use mitts from the M295 individual equipment decontamination kit (IEDK).
For radiological contamination, they wipe off the contamination with a cloth
or simply brush or shake it away.
Operator’s spraydown of equipment should begin immediately after
completion of personal wipedown. The spraydown removes or neutralizes
contamination on the surfaces operators must touch frequently to perform
their mission. For chemical and biological contamination, operators can use
on-board decontamination apparatuses, like the M11/M13, or the M295
IEDK to decontaminate surfaces to which DS2 cannot be applied. (NOTE:
DS2 must be washed off surfaces no more than 30 minutes after application.
If necessary, use 5-gallon water cans or other water sources to assist in
removing DS2.) For radiological contamination, they brush or scrape away
the contamination with whatever is at hand or flush it with water and wipe it
away.
Operational Operational decontamination allows a force to continue fighting and sustain
momentum after being contaminated. It limits the hazard of transferring
decontamination contamination by removing most of the gross contamination on equipment
and nearly all the contamination on individual soldiers. This speeds the
weathering process and allows clean areas (people, equipment, and terrain)
to stay clean. Following operational decontamination, soldiers who have
removed sources of vapor contamination from their clothing and equipment
can use hazard-free areas to unmask temporarily and eat, drink, and rest.
The two types of operational decontamination, unsupported and supported,
are covered in the following discussion. Refer to FM 3-5 for a complete
discussion of operational decontamination. Table G-3 provides an
operational decon checklist.

Unsupported The company team uses its own resources, with personnel assistance from
(assistance from the task force, to conduct this type of operational decontamination. The
the task force only) procedure involves two decontamination techniques: vehicle washdown and
MOPP gear exchange.
Vehicle washdown is conducted as far forward as possible with the
assistance of the power-driven decontamination equipment (PDDE) crew
provided by the task force; the crew moves using a five-ton truck (normally
from the support platoon, located near the task force TOC). The PDDE crew
provides specialized lightweight decontamination equipment for the
washdown. (NOTE: Before performing vehicle washdown, company team
elements should conduct operator’s spraydown to increase the effectiveness
of decontamination.)
Vehicles should be washed with hot, soapy water for two to three minutes.
Because speed is important and detection is difficult, crews should not check
for contamination after the washdown. The equipment used to conduct the
washdown should be able to provide 60 to 120 psi, the amount of pressure
needed to remove gross contamination from vehicles. Unheated soapy water
or plain water may be used if necessary but will be less effective. Crews can
also apply the decontaminant with mops and stiff brooms, using 30-gallon
trash cans as containers for the decontamination solution and water supply if
no other equipment is available.
The MOPP gear exchange, conducted at the same time as the washdown, is
best performed using the buddy system. The task force PDDE crew or the
company supply team normally brings all the equipment required for the
exchange. Vehicle drivers exchange their MOPP gear once vehicles have
been washed down. (NOTE: For a listing of equipment requirements for
MOPP gear exchange, refer to FM 3-5.)
Supported by the The company team conducts supported operational decontamination with
decon platoon assistance from a chemical decontamination platoon supervised by the task
force NBC NCO. The platoon includes three decontamination squads,
equipped with an M12A1 power-driven decontamination apparatus or M17
lightweight decon systems, and a support squad with the capability of
hauling 2,400 gallons of water.
The platoon can establish and operate two separate operational decon sites
for vehicle washdown and MOPP gear exchange; as an alternative, it can
operate a single, dual-lane site. (NOTE: Uncontaminated vehicles and
personnel should not undergo either technique.)
Table G-3. Operational decontamination checklist.
STEP ACTIONS TAKEN
Coordination Company team commander/XO/1SG conducts coordination with the

task force chemical section on where to meet. Decontamination should
be done between one and six hours after contamination.

Site selection The company team NBC NCO chooses the decon site in coordination
with the company team commander and the task force NBC NCO.
Factors in site selection include the following:
● The site should be off the main route but with easy access to the
route.
● The site should be large enough to accommodate the unit being
decontaminated, with at least 100 square meters per squad-size
element.
● The site should afford adequate overhead concealment and
facilitate effective security.
● There must be an adequate water source; plan for 100 gallons
per vehicle.
● The site must afford good drainage.
Rendezvous Ensure that the task force PDDE crew knows the location, time, and
number/types of vehicles to be decontaminated. The unit supply
sergeant delivers decontaminants and replacement MOPP gear.
Site setup The NBC NCO ensures that PDDE is positioned properly and is ready
to dispense hot, soapy water. He ensures that the company team
conducts MOPP gear exchange at the same time as vehicle washdown.
Site control and The NBC NCO ensures that vehicle drivers know when to move into
security position at the washdown location. The company team commander
establishes site security.
Processing The commander, XO, and/or 1SG ensure that the decon NCOIC
processes vehicles at a rate of three minutes per vehicle. They ensure
that soldiers complete MOPP gear exchange as needed.
Cleanup The decon NCOIC ensures that the MOPP gear exchange area is
cleaned up.
Marking and The decon NCOIC directs his team to properly mark the
reporting decontamination site and forwards an NBC-5 report to higher
headquarters.

Thorough Thorough decontamination operations restore the combat power of maneuver

decontamination units by removing nearly all contamination from soldiers, vehicles, and
individual equipment. Executed promptly and correctly, these detailed
procedures reduce the danger of contamination exposure to negligible risk
levels. Just as important, they allow soldiers to operate equipment safely for
extended periods at reduced MOPP levels. Refer to FM 3-5 for a detailed
discussion of thorough decontamination.
Thorough decontamination is conducted to support operations throughout the
battlefield or as part of a major reconstitution effort in brigade, division, or
corps support areas. Below brigade level, units generally lack the quantities
of decontamination resources (such as water, decontaminants, and time)
required for coordination and execution of such an extensive process. In a
very few cases, a contaminated unit may be able to conduct thorough
decontamination with organic assets; an example is an FSB, which normally
has four to six M17 decontamination systems. Most units, however, must
depend on support from a chemical platoon.
When detailed equipment decontamination (DED) operations are required,
the chemical unit usually selects a site, sets it up, and performs detailed
procedures with assistance from the contaminated unit. Refer to Table G-4 for
a list of personnel and equipment requirements for a DED site equipped with
M12A1 apparatuses. Contaminated units conduct detailed troop
decontamination (DTD) under the supervision of unit NBC personnel. Table
G-5 lists the personnel and equipment required for a DTD site.
After completing thorough decontamination, the unit continues the mission or
moves into an adjacent assembly area for reconstitution. Support elements
from the brigade, division, or corps support area replenish combat stocks,
refit equipment, and replace personnel and equipment. The newly
reconstituted unit leaves the assembly area fully operational and fit to return
to battle. A small risk from residual contamination remains, so periodic
contamination checks must be made following this operation.
NOTE: Thorough decontamination does the most complete job of
getting rid of contamination and related hazards, but as noted, it
requires large quantities of valuable resources that may not be
immediately available. In addition, under a variety of tactical or
operational conditions, it will be impossible to execute such a major
effort. The next best solution is to decontaminate only to the extent
necessary to sustain the force and allow it to continue the mission. This
entails using a combination of immediate and operational
decontamination procedures.
Table G-4. Personnel and equipment requirements for detailed equipment decontamination site.
DECON PLATOON SUPPORTED UNIT EQUIPMENT

STATION

Station 1 - Washdown ● Squad leader 4 scrubbers ● 2 M12A1

● 2 PDDE apparatuses
operators ● 2 3,000-gallon
● 4 sprayers tanks
● 2 65-gpm pumps
● 6 long-handled
brushes
● 8 TAP aprons
● Liquid detergent
Station 2 - ● Squad leader 9 appliers ● 18 long-handled

DS2 application ● 3 appliers brushes
● 9 mops with extra
mop heads
● 3 30-gallon
containers
● 9 M13 DAPs
● Sufficient DS2
Station 3 - 1 NCO 2 interior decon ● 2 AN/VDR-2s or

Wait/ assistants AN/PDR-27s
interior ● 3 TAP aprons
decontamination
● 6 30-gallon
containers
● 10 books M8
paper
● 30 sponges
● 8 M256A1 kits
● 50 trash bags
● Clipboard and
pen
● Stopwatch
Station 4 - Rinse ● Squad leader 2 sprayers ● 1 M12A1

● PDDE operator apparatus
● 2 pump ● 1 3,000-gallon
operators tank
● 3 65-gpm pumps
● 2 TPUs
● 2 TAP aprons

Station 5 - Check 2 CAM ● 2 CAMs

operators ● 10 M256A1 kits
(NCOs)
● 20 books M8
paper
● 2 AN/VDR-2s or
AN/PDR-27s
● 2 M8A1 alarms.
Command and control ● Platoon leader ● 1

● PSG HMMWV/CUCV
with radio
● 3 NBC marking
kits
TOTAL 20 17
PERSONNEL
Table G-5. Personnel and equipment requirements for detailed troop decontamination site.
PERSONNEL EQUIPMENT
STATION
Station 1 - ● 2 attendants ● 3 30-gallon containers

Individual gear decontamination ● 1 monitor (CAM ● 2 long-handle brushes
operator) ● 2 ponchos or plastic
sheets
● 1 CAM
● 8 books M8 paper
● 4 M256A1 kits
● 100 trash bags
Station 2 - 1 attendant ● 2 cutting tools

Overboot and hood ● 60 M258A1 or M295
decontamination kits (or 1 per person)
● 2 ponchos or plastic
tarps
● 100 trash bags
Station 3 - 1 attendant ● 10 M258A1 or M295

Overgarment removal kits
● 2 30-gallon containers
● 100 trash bags

Station 4 - 1 attendant ● 2 30-gallon containers

Overboot and glove removal ● 100 trash bags
● Engineer tape
● Cutting tool
Station 5 - Monitoring ● 1 attendant (CAM ● 1 CAM

operator) ● 5 books M8 detector
● 1 aidman or combat paper
lifesaver ● 24 M258A1 or M295
kits
Station 6 - Mask removal 2 attendants 1 M8A1 chemical

alarm
Station 7 - ● 2 mask ● 4 3-gallon containers

Mask decontamination decontamination ● 1 CAM
attendants
● 2 sponges
● 1 monitor
● 1 case paper towels
● 1 immersion heater
with container
● Mask sanitizing
solution
Station 8 - Reissue point ● Unit supply sergeant Mask PLL

● Unit NBC NCO
SECTION 5 - SMOKE OPERATIONS

One of the key features of the modern battlefield is the extensive use of smoke. Effective smoke is a
combat multiplier. It can be used for identification, signaling, obscuration, deception, or screening. At
the same time, employment of smoke must be carefully planned and coordinated to prevent
interference with friendly units.
As the company team prepares for an operation, the commander should plan to take advantage of
smoke from all available sources. Mission accomplishment, however, should never depend on smoke
for success; the commander must develop alternative plans in case smoke delivery systems are not
available.
PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS FOR SMOKE

EMPLOYMENT

Planning for the use of smoke on the battlefield, either by friendly or enemy forces, is an essential part
of the overall tactical plan. As noted, smoke is a combat multiplier, but its employment must be
carefully planned so it does not hinder the maneuver of other friendly units. Planning considerations
● Commanders must develop alternate plans in case artillery, mortars, smoke generators, or smoke
pots are not available on the battlefield.
● Smoke screens for breach forces should be placed either directly on the enemy or between the
enemy and the obstacle. Wind direction will dictate the source and type of smoke (such as
artillery rounds, generated smoke, or smoke pots) used for the screen. Use artillery when the
wind direction is from the enemy to the unit; use generated smoke when the wind is blowing
toward the enemy. Careful consideration is necessary in determining which element (support
force, breach force, or assault force) will use available smoke pots.
● Lifting or shifting of the smoke screen may be necessary because of the dangers posed by WP
rounds. Refer to the discussion of tactical considerations in smoke employment later in this
section.
● The effectiveness of smoke is highly dependent on weather conditions. Refer to the discussion of
tactical considerations.
● The company team commander will sometimes control maneuver of smoke units that are
conducting task force-directed smoke missions.
● The enemy’s thermal imaging capability is a critical factor in the use of IR smoke, which can be
approved by higher headquarters only.
USES OF SMOKE
The following paragraphs examine general uses of smoke on the battlefield.
Marking Smoke is used to mark targets, supply and evacuation points, and friendly positions
during CAS operations. As a means of prearranged battlefield communications, it can
be employed to initiate such operations as displacement.
Obscuring Obscuring smoke is delivered directly on or immediately in front of the enemy’s
positions, normally by projected means (such as artillery and mortars). The primary use
of obscuring smoke is to blind the enemy or degrade his vision both within and beyond
his positions. It can also defeat enemy target acquisition and guidance systems at their
source.
Smoke can be fired on enemy positions to degrade the vision of gunners and known or
suspected OPs, preventing them from seeing or tracking targets and thereby reducing
their effectiveness. Employed against an attacking force, nonthermal smoke can cause
confusion and disorientation by degrading the enemy’s command and control
capabilities; at the same time, friendly units retain the ability to engage the enemy
using thermal sights. IR smoke, employed against an enemy with thermal imaging
capability, can cause similar confusion and disorientation while defeating threat
sensors/seekers. (NOTE: At the same time, however, friendly commanders considering
use of IR smoke must weigh the cost to their own forces in terms of lost thermal sight
capability.) Smoke is also useful at night to degrade enemy night vision devices.
Another important use of obscuring smoke is to cause enemy vehicles to become
silhouetted as they emerge from the smoke. If smoke employment is planned and

executed correctly, this will occur as the enemy reaches the trigger line (see Figure
G-1).
Figure G-1. Using smoke to confuse the enemy and silhouette his vehicles.

Protecting Friendly forces use protecting smoke on the battlefield to defeat enemy
guidance systems. For example, when enemy gunners have already
fired ATGMs or have used laser designators, the commander can
immediately employ protecting smoke to screen vehicle movement and
defeat enemy guidance links.
Another important use of protecting smoke is to attenuate the effects of
some types of enemy weapons, including directed-energy weapons and
nuclear weapons. It does this by absorbing, reflecting, or refracting the
energy generated by the weapon. In an active nuclear environment or
when employment of nuclear weapons is likely, commanders can plan
the use of protecting smoke to attenuate the thermal energy of nuclear
detonation. When other resources are not available to defeat the
enemy’s smart weapons, IR smoke can increase survivability of friendly
forces. (NOTE: IR smoke reduces the friendly force’s ability to
maneuver freely on the battlefield; commanders must take this into
consideration during planning.)
Deception Deception smoke is used as part of the overall deception plan to mislead
the enemy regarding friendly intentions. For example, it can be
employed on several avenues of approach at once to deceive the enemy
as to the direction of the main attack. In the defense, smoke may be
fired at a remote location for the sole purpose of attracting attention and
confusing the enemy. (NOTE: Deception smoke must complement
other aspects of the deception plan; it should not be used alone to sell
the "story.")
Screening Smoke is used in the friendly area of operations or in areas between
friendly and enemy forces to degrade enemy ground and aerial
observation and to defeat or degrade enemy acquisition systems.
Screening smoke helps to conceal the company team as it displaces
from a BP or as it conducts tactical movement approaching enemy
positions. Smoke can also be employed to conceal the team as it
conducts a bypass, breach, or assault mission. Figures G-2 through G-4
illustrate uses of screening smoke.

Figure G-2. Using screening smoke to conceal displacement.

Figure G-3. Using screening smoke to conceal a bypass.

Figure G-4. Using screening smoke to conceal a breaching operation.
SOURCES OF SMOKE
There are a number of sources of smoke on the battlefield, including the
residual effects of burning vehicles, equipment, storage facilities, and other
structures. Depending on availability, the company team commander can
employ the following smoke delivery systems during tactical operations.

Mortars Mortar support, provided by the task force mortar platoon, is the most
rapid and responsive means of indirect fire smoke delivery. The company
team commander coordinates the planning and execution of mortar smoke
missions with the team FIST. Most mortars (but not all) use WP rounds,
which can degrade the effectiveness of thermal sights.
Field artillery Cannons are used to place smoke on distant targets. Artillery assets can
deliver either WP smoke or HC smoke; HC has less effect on thermal
sights than does WP. Artillery smoke has a longer duration than mortar
smoke; however, it may not be available unless it is planned and
coordinated well in advance.
Smoke pots These produce a large volume of white or grayish-white smoke that lasts
for extended periods. The smoke has minimal effect on thermal sights.
This is the only system that floats on water and that can be delivered by
hand or vehicle. The company team may employ smoke pots to screen
displacement or breaching operations.
Hand-held smoke These can produce white or colored smoke. White smoke grenades are
most often used to screen individual vehicles. Colored smoke grenades are
grenades primarily used to signal displacement and other critical events or to
identify (mark) friendly unit positions and breach and evacuation
locations. Smoke from hand-held grenades has minimal effect on thermal
sights.
Vehicle smoke Grenade launchers, which can produce a limited amount of smoke, are
grenade launchers used as a self-defense measure to screen or conceal the vehicle from
enemy antitank gunners. They can also be used to screen individual
vehicle displacement. Smoke from vehicle-launched grenades can degrade
thermal sights.
Vehicle engine The VEESS injects diesel fuel into the engine exhaust to produce smoke. It
serves primarily as a self-defense measure for individual vehicles, but a
exhaust smoke vehicle crew can also employ it to screen other friendly vehicles if wind
system conditions and the direction of vehicle movement allow. This system
consumes fuel at the rate of one gallon per minute of operation. It can be
used only with diesel fuel because other fuels, such as JP-8, create a
fire hazard.
Tactical smoke These wheel- or track-mounted systems are available through chemical
units; their use is prescribed at battalion or brigade level. The generators
generators can produce large-area smoke screens covering several square kilometers.
This type of smoke normally does not affect thermal sights; however, the
new M56 (wheel-mounted) and M58 (track-mounted) systems can produce
IR smoke, which can defeat both friendly and enemy thermal imaging
capabilities.
TACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN SMOKE OPERATIONS

Weather The effectiveness of smoke in tactical situations (including the time required to
build the cloud and cloud duration) depends in large measure on the weather.
Wind direction, wind speed, humidity, and cloud cover are important
considerations. If the wind is strong or blowing in the wrong direction, it may be
impossible to establish an effective smoke screen. Smoke clouds build up faster
and last longer the higher the humidity and the greater the cloud cover. The best
time to use smoke is when the ground is cooler than the air. The commander
should evaluate the weather before using smoke, conducting a test of the
conditions whenever possible.
Type of smoke Certain types of smoke will degrade visual, infrared, and thermal sights. Enemy
capabilities and the desired effect of the smoke (such as screening or
obscuration) will dictate what type is requested. (NOTE: Even types of smoke
that do not affect thermal sights may prevent the vehicle’s laser range finder
from computing an accurate ballistic solution. Under such conditions, crewmen
must rely on such techniques as range estimation and battlesighting.)
Navigation Navigational aids such as POSNAV, GPS (including PLGR), and thermal sights
assist individual vehicles during movement through smoke, while IVIS,
appliqué, and other digital systems help the commander to maintain situational
awareness and control of the company team.
Maneuver The following paragraphs discuss the impact of smoke on company team
maneuver, with procedures, techniques, and considerations for offensive and
defensive operations.
Offense A defending enemy may employ smoke to confuse and disorient the attacker.
Whenever the company team is traveling through smoke, whether it is of
friendly or enemy origin, the vehicle commander must remember that his
vehicle will be silhouetted as it emerges from the smoke. The critical
consideration is for all vehicles to emerge at the same time. The navigational
tools discussed previously enable the commander to maintain command and
control during movement and to posture the team to mass fires against
previously unidentified enemy vehicles as it exits the smoke.
During an assault, friendly smoke should be shifted in advance of the arrival of
the assault element. The use of multispectral smoke for obscuration must be
carefully planned. The duration of the effects of the smoke should be controlled
based on the capability of enemy and friendly units to acquire and engage
targets through the smoke and on the ability of friendly units to maintain
situational awareness during movement.
Defense An attacking enemy may employ smoke on the company team’s positions or in
the team’s engagement area. As noted, this may not only "blind" thermal sights
but also prevent laser range finders from determining accurate ranges to targets.
One solution is to occupy alternate BPs that conform with the commander’s
intent but that are not obscured by smoke. If multispectral smoke does not
disable thermal sights, the vehicle commander can use sector sketches with grid
lines, range bands, and TRPs to estimate the target range in the absence of a
laser-computed range.

COUNTERMEASURES AGAINST ENEMY SMOKE

The company team commander must be prepared to react instantly and effectively when the enemy
employs smoke on the battlefield. Countermeasures include the following:
● See through the smoke. Thermal sights can see through most types of smoke with little or no
degradation. If this is the case, the company team can fight as planned. If smoke degrades sights
to the point that execution is affected, however, the commander must move the team closer to the
engagement area or obstacle or adjust the engagement area closer to his positions.
● Use countersmoke to blind enemy defenders. This tactic is used when the enemy produces a
smoke screen in front of the attacking company team. When the team exits the screen, its
vehicles will be silhouetted by the smoke and can be effectively engaged by enemy gunners. To
prevent this, the commander can place smoke between the enemy’s screen and the objective
using mortar or field artillery fires. This smoke will blind the enemy and cover the team’s
movement to the objective.
● Use enemy smoke to cover friendly movement. When the enemy places smoke directly on the
company team’s defensive position or when he establishes a screen in front of his advancing
units, the team can use the concealment provided by the enemy smoke to move to alternate or
supplementary positions covering the enemy’s route of advance.

FM 71-1 Appendix H Integration of Heavy/Light Forces
APPENDIX H
Integration of Heavy and Light Forces

Employing tank and mechanized infantry company teams with light units can be a combat multiplier.
This type of organization can take advantage of the light unit’s ability to operate in restricted terrain
(such as urban areas, forests, and mountains) to increase the survivability of the overall force. At the
same time, the integrated force has the advantage of the mobility and firepower inherent in tank and
mechanized infantry units. All forces should be mutually supporting based on the commander’s
concept of employment; this ensures effective integration of tank, mechanized, and light assets.
This appendix provides information the company team commander must consider in conducting
operations with light forces. It focuses on the two scenarios that are most likely to affect the company
team: attachment of the team to a light brigade or battalion and attachment of a light platoon to the
team. For more detailed information on a heavy platoon attached to a light infantry battalion, refer to
FM 7-20 and FM 17-15. For a more detailed discussion of heavy forces attached to a light infantry
company, refer to FM 7-10.
CONTENTS
Section 1 Organization of Light Forces
Capabilities and Limitations

Organization of Light Force Brigades
Organization of Light Force Battalions
Organization of Light Force Companies and Platoons
Command and Control

Intelligence
Maneuver
Fire Support
Air Defense
Section 3 Operations and Tasks
Section 4 Task Organization Considerations
Task Organization Below Platoon Level

Additional Attachments to the Company Team
Operational Organization
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Section 5 Additional Operatonal Considerations
Dismounted Infantry Movement Rates

Tank-Mounted Infantry
Communications
Safety Considerations
Section 6 CSS Operations
Planning and Integration

Supply Requirements
Operational Considerations
SECTION 1 - ORGANIZATION OF
LIGHT FORCES
CAPABILITIES AND LIMITATIONS

Light forces have the capabilities to perform the following actions:
● Seize, occupy, and hold terrain.
● Move on foot or by aircraft, truck, or amphibious vehicle.
● Move in all types of terrain.
● Conduct operations with tank and mechanized infantry forces.
● Conduct covert breaches.
● Conduct air assault operations.
● Take part in counterinsurgency operations within a larger unit.
● Rapidly accept and integrate augmenting forces.
Light forces have the following limitations:

● They must depend on nonorganic transportation for rapid movement over long distances.
● Without protective clothing, they are vulnerable to the effects of prolonged NBC exposure.
● They require external support when they must operate for an extended period.
● Unless dug in with overhead cover, they are extremely vulnerable to indirect fires.
● Unless dug in, they are vulnerable in open terrain to long-range direct fires.

ORGANIZATION OF LIGHT FORCE BRIGADES

The heavy company team may support any of three primary types of
light brigades: light infantry, airborne, and air assault. These
organizations vary in capabilities and limitations and in their impact
on the heavy force. For example, differences in the organization of the
brigade headquarters and in antiarmor capability may affect the heavy
company team mission. The company team commander must
understand the organization of the brigade that the team will support.
Light infantry brigade Light infantry brigades have the most austere of the three headquarters
organizations in terms of communications capabilities and the number
of staff officers. There is no assistant S3, assistant S3-Air, or LO.
There are few vehicles in the main CP. Organizational maintenance is
centralized at the brigade maintenance section. All Class I rations are
prepared by the brigade mess team. Like the light infantry division,
the brigade must depend on corps-level transportation assets. A key
characteristic of the light infantry brigade is its limited antiarmor
capability. There are 12 TOWs and 54 Dragons or Javelins per
brigade. In addition, the light infantry division has only one attack
helicopter battalion.
Airborne brigade Once entry operations are complete, the airborne brigade essentially
functions as a light infantry brigade. It has more CS and CSS assets
than does the light infantry brigade and has 60 TOWs and 54 Dragons
or Javelins. The airborne division has only one attack helicopter
battalion.
Air assault brigade Staff and CSS functions in the air assault brigade are similar to those
in tank and mechanized brigades. The air assault brigade uses
helicopters to extend its command and control and CSS capabilities.
Antiarmor capability is the same as for the airborne brigade. The air
assault division has a combat aviation brigade, consisting of two
attack helicopter battalions, that adds to its antiarmor capability.
ORGANIZATION OF LIGHT FORCE BATTALIONS

Light infantry The light infantry battalion is the most austere light battalion and the one
whose organization is most different from that of a heavy battalion. There
battalion are only three rifle companies and a headquarters company in the
battalion. It has four TOWs and 18 Dragons or Javelins. Organic fire
support is provided by an 81-mm mortar platoon assigned to the
headquarters company.
Differences between this battalion and the air assault and airborne
battalions are greatest in the organization of support and logistics
elements. It has no trucks larger than its 27 cargo HMMWVs. The
battalion has no mess team; Class I is prepared at brigade level. There is
only one mechanic in the entire battalion; repairs are conducted at the
brigade level. The battalion has only 18 long-range radios.
Air assault and Once inserted, the air assault and airborne battalions perform much like
airborne battalions the light infantry battalion, with walking a primary means of
transportation. Each battalion has 10 two-and-a-half-ton trucks and 36
cargo HMMWVs and can conduct nontactical movement by truck. Each
has a mess section and a 16-man maintenance platoon. Air assault and
airborne battalions have 30 long-range radios, and both have 20 TOWs
and 18 Dragons or Javelins. Their organic fire support is provided by an
81-mm mortar platoon assigned to the headquarters company.
ORGANIZATION OF LIGHT FORCE COMPANIES

AND PLATOONS
Light infantry The light infantry company has three platoons and a headquarters
company and platoon section, a total of 130 soldiers. The company headquarters contains
both the antiarmor section, consisting of six Dragons or Javelins, and
the mortar section, which has two 60-mm mortars. The rifle platoons,
with 34 soldiers each, are organized into three squads and a
headquarters section, which controls the platoon’s machine guns.
Each rifle squad consists of two fire teams.
Airborne and air Airborne and air assault companies are capable of more independent
action than their light infantry counterpart. Each of the three rifle
assault companies platoons has its own weapons squad, as well as three rifle squads. The
weapons squads have both machine gun crews and antiarmor missile
crews. The company headquarters retains control of the 60-mm mortar
section.
SECTION 2 - PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

Employment of heavy and light forces requires thorough integration of the operating systems of both
types of units. This section focuses on considerations for each of the seven operating systems.

COMMAND AND CONTROL

The directing headquarters designates command relationships between light infantry and the tank or
mechanized infantry force. The command relationship between a light unit and a heavy unit can be
either attached or OPCON. A light unit attached to a heavy unit can normally be adequately supported.
Attachment of a heavy unit to a light unit, however, requires considerable CS and CSS support from
the heavy unit’s parent organization or from higher-level support assets.
Light units normally have considerably less long-range communications capability than their heavy
force counterparts. A gaining heavy unit must therefore thoroughly analyze the communications
requirements of an attached light unit.
Units conducting light/heavy or heavy/light operations normally exchange LOs, who assist in joint
operational planning, coordinate the development of orders and overlays, and serve as advisors to the
counterpart units. In addition, leaders from the attached unit may be required to perform special
functions in the light/heavy or heavy/light configuration.
Additional command and control considerations include the following:
● LOs and/or unit leaders may be required to conduct linkup and coordination, either in theater or
prior to deployment.
● When a single tank or mechanized infantry company team is attached or OPCON to a light
infantry brigade or battalion, personnel from the team’s parent organization should be designated
as LOs, serving as planners and advisors for the supported unit’s commander. A strong LO team
requires proper manning, equipment, and expertise; it must be capable of conducting 24-hour
operations. It must have the equipment to communicate effectively with the supported unit as
well as vehicles to move around the battlefield. Whenever possible, the team should include two
officers and two NCOs (along with drivers as needed). The logistics LO should be the senior
soldier from the CSS slice, with expertise in Class I, III, and V resupply and medical and
maintenance support. (NOTE: If an LO team is not available, the company team CP should
collocate with the brigade or battalion TOC.)
● When a single tank or mechanized infantry platoon is OPCON or a light infantry platoon is
attached, the platoon leader serves as the principal advisor to the supported headquarters
commander. For a tank or mechanized infantry platoon, the platoon leader normally works with a
light infantry battalion commander; a light infantry platoon leader normally assists a company
team commander.
INTELLIGENCE
Detailed intelligence is critical in integrating light infantry with tank and mechanized infantry forces.
Light forces orient on concentrations of enemy units, including counterattack forces and artillery and
air defense assets; they also focus on the enemy’s infantry avenues of approach and LZs/PZs.

MANEUVER
Either the light force or the tank/mechanized infantry force can fix the enemy, allowing the other force
to maneuver. Whether it conducts the fixing operation or maneuver, the light force requires the
advantage of close terrain. These maneuver considerations apply in light/heavy or heavy/light
employment:
● The light force is best suited to close and restricted terrain, where it can impede the enemy’s
mobility and nullify his ability to use long-range weapons and observation assets.
● The differences between the operational tempo of light infantry and that of tanks and mechanized
infantry is always a key consideration, as are rehearsal schedules. An early rehearsal may be
required, both to allow light and heavy forces to take part jointly and to effectively resolve the
operational differences.
● To help prevent detection, the movement of light infantry must be planned to coincide with
limited visibility conditions such as darkness, severe weather, smoke, or fog.
● Direct and indirect fires should be mutually supporting during integrated operations. The
company team can use its long-range direct fires to provide suppression, allowing infantry units
to maneuver. Conversely, light infantry forces can provide overwatch or support by fire to the
company team, allowing tanks and BFVs to maneuver in restricted terrain.
● Mechanized units can assist infiltration by augmenting security at the LD. They can use their
thermal capability to scan the area for enemy forces and can provide direct fire support as
necessary.
FIRE SUPPORT
Fire support assets available to both light and heavy forces must be integrated into the fire plan. Light
infantry units have different indirect fire assets than do the heavy forces and have more limited
communications assets associated with their indirect fire systems. Tank or mechanized infantry forces
must recognize that dismounted infantry operations rely on stealth, which may not allow for
preparatory and other preliminary fires. In addition, light forces are extremely vulnerable to indirect
fires; as a result, light infantry positions should be designated as CFZs.
AIR DEFENSE
Air defense assets may be deployed to fight and provide protection
within the scope and design of any organization. Because infantry
forces frequently maneuver in restricted terrain, Avenger and BSFV
coverage may not be feasible. In such operations, man-portable Stingers
should be allocated to support the infantry.


A common obstacle plan must be developed for light/heavy or heavy/light operations. Light forces may
be used to reduce obstacles and clear choke points for the tank and mechanized infantry forces. In
breaching operations, light forces must ensure the breach is large enough for the widest vehicle in the
operation.
Survivability remains the priority for light forces. They must be prepared to take advantage of the
engineer assets available to the heavy forces.
In an NBC environment, light forces lack decontamination equipment and therefore are more limited
than the tank or mechanized infantry force. The mobility of light forces is affected because soldiers
must carry protective clothing in addition to their standard loads. When other transportation assets are
not available, tank and mechanized infantry units should assist in carrying NBC equipment for light
forces. Additionally, heavy battalions have expedient means to haul decontamination equipment and
water, reducing the load for light infantry units. In planning for NBC operations, commanders must
take METT-TC factors into account; they must plan linkup points to ensure their light forces can obtain
critical NBC-related items as they need them.

Light units are not organized, equipped, or trained to meet the support
requirements of a heavy unit. They must rely on considerable assistance
from the heavy unit’s organic elements and or from corps-level support
assets to support an attached heavy unit. Heavy units, however, should
be able to provide support to a light infantry attachment. For a more
detailed discussion of CSS considerations, refer to Section 6 of this
appendix.
SECTION 3 - OPERATIONS AND TASKS

Table H-1 lists the operations normally performed by a light brigade or battalion, along with the heavy
company team’s supporting tasks or operations for each operation.
Table H-1. Light brigade/battalion operations and supporting
heavy company team operations and tasks.
LIGHT BRIGADE/ HEAVY COMPANY TEAM

LIGHT BATTALION OPERATIONS/TASKS
OPERATIONS
Movement to contact Support by fire; attack by fire; assault; breach;

follow and support; reserve; route clearance; convoy escort;
checkpoint/roadblock operations.

Attack Support by fire; attack by fire; assault; breach.
Exploitation Serve as security force (screen); lead the exploitation (assault

or attack by fire).
Pursuit Serve as enveloping force, reserve (attack by fire

or assault), or security force (screen); lead direct pressure
force (support by fire, attack by fire, or assault).
Security (screen, guard, cover) Screen; guard; defend; delay; attack by fire; assault.
Defend Screen; guard; defend; delay; attack by fire (counterattack);

assault (counterattack).
Retrograde (delay, withdrawal, Defend; delay; screen; guard; attack by fire (counterattack);
retirement) withdraw.
Breakout from encirclement Serve as rupture force (assault or attack by fire) or rear guard
(delay).
Table H-2 lists the operations and tasks normally performed by the tank or mechanized infantry
company team, along with the light platoon’s supporting tasks for each operation or task.
Table H-2. Heavy company team operations and tasks and
supporting light platoon tasks.
HEAVY COMPANY TEAM LIGHT PLATOON TASKS

OPERATIONS AND TASKS
Attack by fire Secure an ABF position (reconnoiter an area or attack);

provide local security or act as the blocking force (defend).
Support by fire Secure an SBF position (reconnoiter an area or attack);

provide local security; conduct overwatch/support by fire.
Bypass Serve as the fixing force (defend); perform linkup with

follow-on forces.
Assault Attack; assault; breach; overwatch/support by fire; knock out

a bunker; clear a trench line; clear a building.
Clearance in restricted terrain Attack; assault; overwatch/support by fire; knock out a

bunker; clear a trench line; clear a building; breach.
Defend Defend; defend MOUT/building; construct an obstacle.
Screen/guard Perform surveillance or screen.

Breach Breach; overwatch/support by fire; assault.
Hasty water/gap crossing Cross water obstacles; assault; overwatch/support by fire.
Delay Delay; break contact.
Withdrawal Break contact; serve as advance party (assembly area

procedures).
SECTION 4 - TASK ORGANIZATION

CONSIDERATIONS
TASK ORGANIZATION BELOW PLATOON LEVEL

In some circumstances, tank or mechanized infantry sections may be task organized to light infantry
companies, normally as OPCON elements. The infantry company is the lowest level to which a heavy
section should be task organized. (NOTE: Individual vehicles should never be task organized.)
ADDITIONAL ATTACHMENTS TO THE COMPANY

TEAM
In addition to the organic and attached elements normally associated

with a company team (as discussed in Chapter 1 of this manual), the
company team may receive additional CS and CSS elements when it is
OPCON or attached to a light force. Table H-3 summarizes these
potential augmentation assets.
Table H-3. Heavy company team augmentation assets.
AUGMENTATION ASSET PROVIDED BY:
Support section (with 2 or 3 Parent heavy battalion

cargo HEMMTs, 2 fuel
HEMMTs, mess team)

DS maintenance contact team Parent heavy FSB

(shop office section with limited
ASL; automotive team;
armament section with limited
DX; communications/electrical
section; 5,000-gallon POL
tankers)
Mechanized engineer platoon Parent heavy division engineer

brigade
Air defense section Parent heavy division ADA

battalion
The heavy company team should be attached to a light brigade when the
team’s parent unit is not adjacent to the brigade’s zone or sector and is
not close enough to provide adequate logistical support for the heavy
team. Attachment requires the light brigade to support the heavy
company. To do this, the light brigade and its parent division must
receive CSS attachments from the corps. These should include assets to
provide Class III and Class V resupply, transportation, and heavy
maintenance. It may be possible to provide assets from the company
team’s parent division to the light division, routing them through the
corps.
OPERATIONAL ORGANIZATION
There are no special organizational considerations when a light platoon
is attached to a heavy company team. The platoon operates as a single
maneuver element under the control of the company team commander.
When the company team operates in support of light forces, it may
deploy in one of several different configurations based on mission and
situational requirements. These options, which may be limited by the
task organization of the company team, include the following:
● As a single element under control of the company team
commander. The company team may provide support either
under brigade control or under control of a designated battalion.
● Split into two company(-) organizations (if four platoons are
available), with the company team commander controlling one
element and the XO controlling the other. Another command and
control arrangement would have the company team commander
controlling the company at a central location from the team CP
while the two company(-) maneuver elements operate under

control of the senior platoon leader in each. The XO may be

tasked to control one of these elements as required.
● Partially task organized, with one or two platoons attached to
outside battalions. The company team headquarters and
remaining platoon(s) are retained under the parent brigade’s
control or are task organized to a battalion.
● With individual platoons attached directly to outside battalions.
The company team commander is located at the battalion with
the most critical mission.
SECTION 5 - ADDITIONAL OPERATIONAL

CONSIDERATIONS
The following considerations apply in the employment of the heavy company team during light/heavy
or heavy/light operations.
DISMOUNTED INFANTRY MOVEMENT RATES

Commanders of heavy forces often overestimate (or simply fail to recognize) the speed with which
dismounted elements can move. Numerous factors can affect the rate of march for light forces: tactical
considerations, weather, terrain, march discipline, acclimatization, availability of water and/or rations,
morale, individual soldiers’ self-confidence, and individual loads. Table H-4 summarizes dismounted
rates of march for normal terrain.
Table H-4. Dismounted rates of march (normal terrain).
ROADS CROSS-COUNTRY
Day 4.0 kmph 2.4 kmph
Night 3.2 kmph 1.6 kmph
The normal distance covered by a dismounted force in a 24-hour period is from 20 to 32 kilometers,
marching from five to eight hours at a rate of 4 kmph. A march in excess of 32 kilometers in 24 hours
is considered a forced march. Forced marches increase the number of hours marched, not the rate of
march, and can be expected to impair the unit’s fighting efficiency. Absolute maximum distances for
dismounted marches are 56 kilometers in 24 hours, 96 kilometers in 48 hours, or 128 kilometers in 72
hours.
TANK-MOUNTED INFANTRY

An additional maneuver consideration for a light/heavy or heavy/light operation is the decision of

whether to move infantrymen on tanks. This mode of transportation can be difficult, but it is not
impossible. It does, in fact, afford some significant advantages. The mounted infantry can provide
additional security for the company team. When the team conducts a halt or must execute a breach or
other tactical tasks, infantry assets are readily available to provide support and security. The
commander must weigh the potential dangers of carrying dangers of carrying tank-mounted
infantrymen against the advantages of mobility and security they can provide. For specific procedures
and safety considerations involved in mounting infantry on tanks, refer to FM 17-15.
COMMUNICATIONS
Communication between vehicle crews and soldiers on the ground is difficult, even under the best of
circumstances. On M1-series tanks, the crew can route wire from the AM-1780 through the loader’s
hatch or vision block to a field phone attached to the outside of the tank. Infantry squads can
communicate with the BFV crew using the external wire connection located on the rear of the vehicle.
In addressing the communications issues inherent in light/heavy or heavy/light operations, the
commander may also consider altering radio net configurations and/or prearranging visual signals.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
At least initially, most infantrymen will not be familiar with the hazards that may arise during
operations with tanks, BFVs, and other armored vehicles. The most obvious of these include the
dangers associated with main gun fire and the inability of armored vehicle crews to see people and
objects near their vehicles.
Leaders of heavy and light units alike must ensure that their troops understand the following points of
operational safety:
● Tank sabot rounds and BFV antipersonnel rounds discard stabilizing petals when fired, creating a
downrange hazard for infantry. The aluminum petals of the tank rounds are discarded in an area
extending 70 meters to the left and right of the gun-target line out to a range of 1 kilometer. The
danger zone for BFV rounds extends 30 degrees to the left and right of the gun-target line out to
200 meters from the vehicle. Infantrymen should not be in or near the direct line of fire for the
tank main gun or BFV cannon unless they are under adequate overhead cover.
● Tank main guns create noise in excess of 140 decibels. Repeated exposure to this level of noise
can cause severe hearing loss, even deafness. In addition, dangerous noise levels may extend
more than 600 meters from the tank. Single-layer hearing protection, such as ear plugs, will
allow infantrymen to work within 25 meters of the side or rear of the tank without significant
hazard.
● Crewmen on tanks and BFVs have very limited ability to see anyone on the ground to the side or
rear of the vehicle. As a result, vehicle crews and dismounted infantrymen share responsibility
for avoiding the hazards this may create. Infantrymen must maintain a safe distance from
armored vehicles at all times. In addition, when they work close to an armored vehicle,
dismounted soldiers must ensure that the vehicle commander knows their location at all times.

NOTE: A related hazard is that M1-series tanks are deceptively quiet and may be difficult
for infantrymen to hear as they approach. As noted, vehicle crews and dismounted
infantrymen share the responsibility for eliminating potential dangers in this situation.
● M1-series tanks have an extremely hot exhaust plume that exits from the rear of the tank and
angles downward. This exhaust is hot enough to burn skin and clothing.
● The TOW missile system has a dangerous area extending 75 meters to the rear of the vehicle in a
90-degree "cone." The area is divided into a 50-meter danger zone and a 25-meter caution zone.
SECTION 6 - CSS OPERATIONS

CSS planning and execution are critical elements for integration of light and heavy forces. Light
brigades are not organized, equipped, or trained to meet the support requirements of a heavy company
team. CSS may be further complicated if the heavy team is operating across a large geographical area
to meet the demands of a decentralized mission. On the other hand, a heavy organization will normally
be able to meet the logistical needs of an attached light unit; this includes the attachment of a light
platoon to the company team. The following discussion covers CSS considerations that may affect
light/heavy and heavy/light operations.
PLANNING AND INTEGRATION

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Light/heavy operations may require the heavy team to integrate into the light brigade organization early
in the deployment phase. In turn, this may require CSS assets to move into the theater of operations
very early as well, usually at the same time as the command and control elements. Specific support
requirements, including the needed quantities of supplies, will depend on the mission; they must be
planned and coordinated as early as possible. In addition, because the light brigade does not possess the
required logistical redundancy to sustain the heavy company team, it is imperative that mission
requirements calling for division- or corps-level CSS assets be identified early in the planning process.
SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS
Operations with a light brigade create many unique supply considerations for the heavy
company team. The sheer bulk and volume of supplies required by the heavy team merit
special attention during the planning and preparation phases. The following paragraphs
examine some of these supply-related considerations.
Class I Class I food requirements are determined based on the heavy team’s personnel strength
reports. This process may be complicated by unique mission requirements imposed on
the team, such as rapid changes in task organization or dispersion of subordinate team
elements over a wide area.

Class II Many Class II items required by tank and BFV crews, such as specialized tools and
Nomex clothing, may be difficult to obtain in a light organization. Although such items
can be ordered through normal supply channels, the heavy company team may face
significant delays in receiving them. To overcome this problem, the heavy team should
identify any potential shortages and arrange to obtain the needed supplies before leaving
its parent organization.
Class III The fuel and other POL products required by the heavy company team are extremely
bulky; they present the greatest CSS challenges in planning and preparing for light/heavy
operations. Transportation support must be planned carefully. For example, planners
must consider the placement of fuel HEMMTs during all phases of the operation. They
must also focus on general-use POL products, such as lubricants, that are not ordinarily
used by the light brigade. As noted previously, the heavy team should stock its basic load
of these items, as well as make necessary resupply arrangements, before attachment to
the light brigade.
Class IV The heavy company team does not have any unique requirements for barrier or
fortification materials. The main consideration is that any Class IV materials that the
team commander wants may have to be loaded and carried prior to attachment.
Class V Along with POL products, ammunition for the heavy company team presents the greatest
transportation challenge in light/heavy operations. Planning for Class V resupply should
parallel that for Class III; key considerations include anticipated mission requirements
and the availability of HEMMTs. Ammunition may be prestocked based on expected
consumption rates.
Class VI Light/heavy operations create no unique requirements for personal demand items and
sundries.
Class VII Class VII consists of major end items; this includes entire vehicles, such as a "float" tank
or BFV the company team requires as a replacement for one its organic vehicles. The
handling of these items requires thorough planning to determine transportation
requirements and positioning in the scheme of the operation.
Class VIII The heavy company team involved in light/heavy operations has no unique requirements
for medical supplies.
Class IX Repair parts for combat vehicles are essential to the sustainment of the heavy company
team. Requirements for items on the team’s PLL and ASL must be carefully considered
before light/heavy operations begin. The team may find it advantageous to prestock
selected items to meet its anticipated needs.
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
The variety of organizational options for the heavy company team, such as deployment as a single unit
or attachment of separate platoons, requires that the team’s CSS organization be both flexible and
adaptable. Most CSS assets supporting the heavy team will operate from the BSA. The company team
trains, under control of the 1SG, will generally operate as a single entity in support of detached
platoons and other team assets. The exception is when the heavy team is operating as two equal
company(-) elements. If the team has sufficient assets, it can split its CSS effort into two separate
support elements, each working directly with a company(-) element.


FM 71-1 Appendix I MOUT
APPENDIX I
Military Operations in Urban Terrain

The company team may take part in large-scale urban combat operations as part of a larger force. The
team may also have to conduct MOUT when maneuvering separately; situations might include enemy
contact in a very small village (10 or fewer buildings) or in a lateral strip area (along a road or
highway).
This appendix examines the basic characteristics of MOUT as well as special planning considerations
and techniques of offensive and defensive operations. For more detailed information, refer to FM 90-10
and FM 90-10-1.
CONTENTS
Section 1 MOUT Planning Considerations
MOUT Considerations
Vehicles and Equipment
Command and Control
Maneuver
Fire Support
Section 2 Offensive MOUT
Hasty and Deliberate Attacks in MOUT

Phases of Offensive MOUT
Task Organization
Offensive Techniques in MOUT
Section 3 Defensive MOUT
Enemy Forces Outside the Urban Area

Enemy Forces Within the Urban Area
Defensive Techniques in MOUT
SECTION 1 - MOUT PLANNING

CONSIDERATIONS
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MOUT CHARACTERISTICS
Built-up areas consist mainly of man-made features such as buildings, streets, and subterranean
systems. These features of urban terrain create a variety of tactical problems and possibilities. To
ensure the company team can operate effectively in the MOUT environment, the team observation and
direct fire plans must address the ground-level fight (in streets and on the ground floor of buildings),
the aboveground fight (in multistoried buildings), and the subterranean fight. The following
● Buildings offer cover and concealment and severely restrict movement of military elements,
especially armored vehicles. They also severely restrict fields of fire. Every street corner and
successive block becomes an intervisibility line, requiring careful overwatch. Thick-walled
buildings provide ready-made fortified positions. Thin-walled buildings may afford observation
and fields of fire.
● Another important aspect of the MOUT environment is that built-up areas complicate, confuse,
and degrade command and control.
● Streets are usually avenues of approach. Forces moving along a street, however, are often
canalized by buildings and have little space for off-road maneuver. Obstacles on urban streets
thus are usually more effective than those on roads in open terrain since they are more difficult to
bypass.
● Subterranean systems found in some built-up areas can be easily overlooked, but they may prove
critical to the outcome of urban operations. Figure I-1 illustrates examples of underground
systems, which include subways, sewers, cellars, and utility systems.

Figure I-1. Underground systems.
VEHICLES AND EQUIPMENT

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As described in the following paragraphs, numerous factors related to vehicles
and equipment affect the company team’s MOUT planning and execution.

M1-series tanks The following factors may affect MOUT:

● HEAT rounds are normally the primary main gun ammunition in the
MOUT environment. They are the most effective round against masonry
and will penetrate all but the thickest reinforced concrete. A HEAT
round will open a hole large enough for a man to fit through in masonry
or concrete walls, but it will not destroy the reinforcing bars in
reinforced concrete. HEAT is also effective against all earthen and
sandbag-reinforced strongpoints. A 120-mm HEAT round arms about 36
feet from the end of the gun tube.
● MPAT rounds will also penetrate concrete and masonry, but they are not
as effective as HEAT against heavier structures.
● Sabot ammunition has limited utility against most nonvehicular targets,
and its discarding petals endanger accompanying infantry elements.
Sabot petals create a hazard area extending 70 meters on either side of
the gun-target line out to a range of 1 kilometer.
● The tank’s main gun can depress only to -10 degrees and can elevate
only to +20 degrees. This creates considerable dead space for the M1
crew at the close ranges that are typical in the MOUT environment.
● When buttoned up, the tank crew has limited visibility to the sides and
rear and no visibility to the top. Figures I-2 and I-3 illustrate the dead
space associated with tank operations in an urban environment.
● The external M2 HB machine gun can elevate to +36 degrees; however,
the TC must be unbuttoned to fire the M2 on the M1A2.
● The tank can be outfitted with an external phone hookup for
communications with accompanying infantry.
BFVs The following factors may affect MOUT:
● The primary roles of the BFV in the MOUT environment are to provide
suppressive fires and to breach exterior walls. The vehicle’s
armor-piercing rounds can be extremely useful in urban operations. They
can penetrate concrete up to 16 inches thick, can easily penetrate brick
structures, and are highly effective against earthen and
sandbag-reinforced bunkers.
● The BFV can elevate its 25-mm gun to +60 degrees and depress it to -10
degrees.
● The crew has limited visibility to the sides and rear and no vision to the
top when buttoned up.
● The BFV can be outfitted with an external phone hookup for
communications with accompanying infantry.
● The 25-mm gun can be used effectively against enemy-occupied
buildings and fortifications, firing AP, HE, and even TP-T rounds. Refer
to FM 90-10-1 for detailed information on the effects of these rounds on
typical urban construction materials.
● The M240C coax machine gun can effectively deliver suppressive fires
against enemy personnel and against enemy positions that are behind
light cover.

● TOW missiles can be effectively employed to destroy heavily fortified

positions.
● The discarding petals of 25-mm sabot rounds create a downrange hazard
for dismounted troops who are within 30 degrees on either side of the
gun-target line out to a range of 200 meters.
Figure I-2. Tank weapon dead space at street level.

Figure I-3. Tank cannon and coax machine gun dead space above street level.
COMMAND AND CONTROL

The following command and control considerations will affect the

company team’s MOUT planning and execution:
● Communications problems. The low-level task organization
that may take place during MOUT will require elements to
establish additional communications links, which can be
disrupted by buildings and other urban terrain features.
● Fire control. Extensive direct fire planning and restrictive fire
control measures are an absolute requirement in MOUT.
● Proximity and visibility. Friendly elements often must operate
in confined and restrictive areas during MOUT, and they may not
be able to see other nearby friendly forces. These factors
significantly increase the danger of fratricide.
● Personnel factors. MOUT imposes significant, and often
extreme, physical and psychological demands on soldiers and
leaders.
● ROE and noncombatants. The ROE may restrict the use of
certain weapon systems. As an integral part of MOUT,
noncombatants create special operational problems. To deal with
these concerns, units operating in urban terrain must know how
to effectively employ linguists and counterintelligence and civil
affairs teams.
● The slow pace of MOUT. This will usually prevent the company
team from taking full advantage of the speed and mobility of its
fighting vehicles.
MANEUVER
The following factors related to maneuver will affect the company
team’s MOUT planning and execution:
● The need for detailed centralized planning and decentralized
execution. MOUT are usually executed as a deliberate attack,
demanding extensive intelligence activities and rehearsals.
● Formation of combined arms teams at the lowest levels.
Whereas task organization normally is done no lower than
platoon level, MOUT may require task organization of squads
and sections. The company team may face a number of unusual
organizational options, such as a tank section working with an
infantry platoon.
● Vulnerability of friendly forces. Tanks and BFVs can provide
firepower to effectively support accompanying infantry squads,
but they are, in turn, vulnerable to attack from enemy infantry.
The attacking force in urban operations must also guard against
local counterattacks.
● Requirements for cooperation. MOUT can be successful only
when close cooperation is established between infantry squads
and fighting vehicles at the lowest level.

● The role of infantry. Infantry squads are employed extensively

during MOUT. They can fight both enemy vehicles and enemy
dismounted elements.
FIRE SUPPORT
The MOUT environment will affect how and when indirect fires will be employed. The following
factors may have an impact on planning and execution:
● Careful use of VT ammunition is required to prevent premature arming.
● Indirect fire may cause unwanted rubble.
● The close proximity of enemy and friendly troops requires careful coordination.
● WP ammunition may create unwanted fires or smoke.
● Fuze delay should be used to ensure rounds penetrate fortifications as required.
● Illumination can be effective; however, it must be carefully planned to ensure friendly positions
remain in the shadows while enemy positions are highlighted. Tall buildings may mask the
effects of illumination rounds.
● VT and ICM rounds are effective for clearing enemy positions, observers, and antennas on
rooftops.
● Scatterable mines can be used to impede enemy movement in the MOUT environment. It may be
especially useful during the isolation phase to prevent the enemy from repositioning or
reinforcing his forces. The effectiveness of scatterable mines is reduced when the mines are
delivered on a hard surface.
● Artillery may be used in direct fire mode against point targets.
● Mortars are the most responsive indirect fires available to the company team in the MOUT
environment. They are well suited for combat in built-up areas because of their high rate of fire,
steep angle of fall, and short minimum range.
● The MOUT environment creates difficulties for the company team in target acquisition and in
clearance and adjustment of fires.
● When taking part in urban operations, the company team must always keep in the mind that the
MOUT environment creates unique requirements for centrally controlled fires and more
restrictive fire control measures.
● Depending on the range to targets and the height of buildings in the urban area, up to 50 percent
of all artillery rounds may impact on the roofs and sides of the buildings rather than on targets on
the ground. Mortar fires are significantly more effective in hitting targets at street level between
buildings.

Guidelines for providing effective CSS to units fighting in built-up

areas include the following:
● Provide supplies to units in the required quantities and as close as
possible to the location where those supplies are needed.
● Protect supplies and CSS elements from the effects of enemy fire
by preventing and/or avoiding detection and by using effective
cover and concealment.
● Disperse and decentralize CSS elements to develop the most
effective support structure based on requirements for
communications, command and control, security, and proximity
to the MSR for resupply.
● Position support units as far forward as the tactical situation
permits.
● Plan the locations of casualty collection points and evacuation
sites.
● Plan for the use of carrying parties and litter bearers.
● Plan for and use host-country support and civil resources when
authorized and practical.
● Develop plans for requesting and obtaining special equipment
such as ladders and toggle ropes with grappling hooks.
SECTION 2 - OFFENSIVE MOUT

Offensive operations in a built-up area are planned and executed based on the factors of METT-TC and
established doctrine. This section focuses on the unique problems and challenges that offensive MOUT
pose for the company team.
HASTY AND DELIBERATE ATTACKS IN MOUT

At the task force level, the MOUT offense takes the form of either a hasty or
deliberate attack. Both types of attack require the friendly force to conduct as
much planning, reconnaissance, and coordination as time and the situation
permit.
Hasty attack Task forces and company teams conduct hasty attacks as a result of meeting
engagements, when unexpected contact occurs and bypass has not been
authorized, or when the enemy is in a vulnerable position and can be quickly
defeated through immediate offensive action. The following special
considerations apply for hasty attacks in the MOUT environment:
● In built-up areas, incomplete intelligence and concealment may require
the maneuver unit to move through, rather than around, the unit fixing
the enemy in place (the base of fire element). Control and coordination
become important factors in reducing congestion at the edges of the
built-up area.
● Once its objective is secured, a MOUT hasty attack force may have to
react to contingency requirements, either by executing on-order or
be-prepared missions or by responding to FRAGOs.

Deliberate attack A deliberate attack is a fully integrated operation that employs all available
assets against the enemy’s defense. It is employed when enemy positions are
well prepared, when the built-up area is large or severely congested, or when
surprise has been lost. Deliberate attacks are characterized by precise
planning based on detailed information and reconnaissance and thorough
preparations and rehearsals. Given the nature of urban terrain, the techniques
employed in the deliberate attack of a built-up area are similar to those used
in assaulting a strongpoint. The attack avoids the enemy’s main strength,
instead focusing combat power on the weakest point in the defense. A
deliberate attack in a built-up area is usually conducted in four phases:
reconnoiter the objective, isolate the objective, secure a foothold, and clear
the built-up area. The following discussion examines these phases in detail.
PHASES OF OFFENSIVE MOUT

Reconnoiter the The reconnaissance phase of MOUT must provide the company team
and other friendly elements with adequate intelligence to stage a
objective deliberate attack. This can pose a variety of problems and challenges
since the intelligence not only must be extremely detailed but also
must generally be collected from outside the urban area to ensure the
survivability of the scouts. Detailed maps of the area of operations
must be distributed to the lowest level.
Isolate the objective Isolating the objective involves seizing terrain that dominates the area
so the enemy cannot supply or reinforce his defensive forces. This
step may be taken at the same time as securing a foothold. If isolating
the objective is the first step, the subsequent steps should be carried
out quickly so the defender has no time to react.
Secure a foothold Securing a foothold involves seizing an intermediate objective that
provides attacking forces with cover from enemy fire as well as a
place at which they can enter the built-up area. For the company
team, a foothold is normally one to two city blocks. As the team
attacks to secure the foothold, it should be supported by direct and
indirect suppressive fires and by obscuring or screening smoke.
Clear the built-up area In determining the extent to which the built-up area must be cleared,
the commander of the attacking force must consider the factors of
METT-TC. He may decide to clear only those parts of the area
necessary to the success of his mission if any of the following factors
apply:
● An objective must be seized quickly.
● Enemy resistance is light or fragmented.
● Buildings in the area are of light construction with large open

areas between them. In this situation, the commander would
clear only those buildings along the approach to his objective
or those necessary to ensure the unit’s security.
On the other hand, the attacking unit may have a mission to
systematically clear an area of all enemy forces. Through detailed
analysis, the commander may anticipate that the unit will be opposed

by a strong, organized resistance or will be operating in areas where

buildings are close together. In such a situation, one or two company
teams may attack on a narrow front against the enemy’s weakest
sector. The teams move slowly through the area, clearing
systematically from room to room and building to building. Other
maneuver elements support the clearing teams and are prepared to
assume their mission as necessary.
TASK ORGANIZATION
The task organization of a company team conducting an attack during MOUT will
vary according to the specific nature of the built-up area and the objective. In
general, the team will employ an assault force, a support force, and a reserve; in
some cases, a security force is also used. Normally, there is no separate breach
force; however, breaching elements may be part of the assault or support force,
depending on the type and location of anticipated obstacles.
Support force Normally, most mounted elements of the MOUT unit are task organized in the
support force. This allows the task force or company team commander to employ
the firepower of the fighting vehicles without compromising their survivability, a
distinct danger when heavy forces move into an urban area. The support force
isolates the area of operations and the actual entry point into the urban area,
allowing assault forces to secure a foothold.
Assault force The assault force is the element that gains a foothold in the urban area and
conducts the clearance of actual objectives in the area. This force is normally a
dismounted element task organized with engineers, with specific augmentation by
armored vehicles.
Reserve force The reserve force normally includes both mounted and dismounted forces. It
should be prepared to conduct any of the following tasks:
● Attack from another direction.
● Exploit friendly success or enemy weakness.
● Secure the rear or flank of friendly forces.
● Clear bypassed enemy positions.
● Maintain contact with adjacent units.
● Conduct support by fire or attack by fire as necessary.
OFFENSIVE TECHNIQUES IN MOUT

During the attack of a built-up area, tanks and BFVs may support by fire while
lead elements are seizing a foothold. They then provide overwatch or serve as a
base of fire for the infantry until the area has been secured.

Role of tanks The commander must employ tanks and BFVs to take advantage of their
long-range lethality. He can usually do this by positioning the armored vehicles
and BFVs outside the built-up area, where they remain for the duration of the attack to
cover high-speed avenues of approach. This is especially true during the
isolation phase. (NOTE: Before providing support for the attack, tanks and
BFVs must be able to maneuver into overwatch or base of fire positions; this
will normally require support from organic infantry weapons to suppress enemy
strongpoints and ATGM assets.)
Mutual support In house-to-house and street fighting, tanks and BFVs move down the streets
protected by the infantry, which clears the area of enemy ATGM weapons. The
armored vehicles in turn support the infantry by firing their main guns and
machine guns from a safe standoff range to destroy enemy positions. (NOTE:
Refer to Figures 3-24 and 3-25 for an illustration of the mutual overwatch
techniques that are required during combined operations in restricted areas.)
Figure I-4 illustrates a task force attack in a MOUT environment.

Figure I-4. Example task force attack in a MOUT environment.
SECTION 3 - DEFENSIVE MOUT

Like offensive MOUT, defensive operations in a built-up area require thorough planning and precise
execution based on METT-TC and established doctrine. This section examines MOUT considerations
that affect the company team in the defense.
ENEMY FORCES OUTSIDE THE URBAN AREA

While positioned in an urban area, the company team may be tasked to defend against an enemy
approaching from outside the area. In general, procedures and considerations are the same as those for
defensive operations in open terrain. For example, the commander designates BPs that take advantage
of all available weapon systems. Objectives are similar as well; these may include preventing the
enemy from isolating the defensive position, conducting reconnaissance of the defensive position,
and/or gaining a foothold in the urban area. This type of MOUT may transition into an in-depth defense
of the urban area, as described in the following paragraph, if the attacker continues to commit forces to
the battle and the defending force fails to divert or destroy them.
ENEMY FORCES WITHIN THE URBAN AREA

The company team may be called upon to conduct any of several types of defensive operations
(including defend in sector, defend a strongpoint, and defend a BP) when it faces enemy forces within
the urban area. Procedures and considerations for these defensive operations are generally similar to
those used in more conventional open terrain situations. The commander should designate engagement
areas that take advantage of integrated obstacles and urban terrain features and that can be covered by
direct and indirect fires. Figure I-5 illustrates defensive MOUT.
DEFENSIVE TECHNIQUES IN MOUT

Role of tanks In the defense, tanks and BFVs provide the MOUT commander with a mobile force
that can respond quickly to enemy threats. They should be located on likely enemy
and BFVs avenues of approach in positions that allow them to take advantage of their
long-range fires. Effective positioning allows the commander to employ the
armored vehicles in a number of ways, such as the following:
● On the edge of the city in mutually supporting positions.
● On key terrain on the flanks of towns and villages.
● In positions from which they can cover barricades and obstacles by fire.
● As part of the reserve.
Tanks and BFVs are normally employed as a platoon. The commander also has the
alternative of employing sections or individual armored vehicles with infantry
platoons and squads; this allows tanks and BFVs to take advantage of the close
security provided by the infantry.

Figure I-5. Example company team defense in a MOUT environment.

Fighting positions Fighting positions for tanks and BFVs are an essential component of a
complete and effective defensive plan in built-up areas. Vehicle positions
must be selected and developed to afford the best possible cover,
concealment, observation, and fields of fire; at the same time, they must not
restrict the vehicles’ ability to move when necessary. The following
● If fields of fire are restricted to the street area, hull-down positions
should be used to provide cover and to enable tanks and BFVs to fire
directly down the streets. From these positions, the armored vehicles
are protected while retaining their ability to rapidly move to alternate
positions. Buildings collapsing from enemy fires are a minimal
hazard to the armored vehicles and their crews.
● Before moving into position to engage the enemy, a tank or BFV can
occupy a hide position for cover and concealment. Hide positions for
armored vehicles may be located inside buildings or underground
garages, adjacent to buildings (using the buildings to mask enemy
observation), or in culverts. Refer to Figure I-6 for an example of a
tank using a hide position in a MOUT environment.
● Since the crew will not be able to see the advancing enemy from the
hide position, an observer from the vehicle or a nearby infantry unit
must be concealed in an adjacent building to alert the crew (see
Figure I-6). When the observer acquires a target, he signals the
armored vehicle to move to the firing position and, at the proper
time, to fire.
● After firing, the tank or BFV moves to an alternate position to avoid
compromising its location.

Figure I-6. Example vehicle hide position in a MOUT environment.

Employment of Infantry squads are usually employed abreast so that they all can fire toward
the expected direction of attack. In the company team, however, the limited
infantry squads number of available infantrymen may require squad positions to be
interspersed with vehicle positions. In built-up areas, squads may be
separated by rooms within a building, or they may be positioned in different
buildings. Infantry positions must be mutually supporting and allow for
overlapping sectors of fire, even when they are in separate buildings or are
divided by walls.
Employment of The commander’s defensive scheme of maneuver in MOUT must always
the reserve force include the employment of a reserve force. This force should be prepared to
counterattack to regain key positions, to block enemy penetrations, to protect
the flanks of the friendly force, or to provide a base of fire for disengaging
elements. For combat in built-up areas, the reserve force has these
characteristics:
● It normally consists of infantry elements.
● It must be as mobile as possible.
● It may be supported by tanks and/or BFVs.
● In company team MOUT, the reserve force may be a platoon or squad.

FM 71-1 Appendix J
APPENDIX J
Stability Operations
Stability operations apply military power to influence the political environment, to facilitate diplomacy,
or to interrupt or prevent specific illegal activities. These operations cover a broad spectrum. At one
end are development and assistance activities aimed at enhancing a government’s willingness and
ability to care for its people. At the other are coercive military actions; these involve the application of
limited, carefully prescribed force, or the threat of force, to achieve specific objectives. Army elements
may be tasked to conduct stability operations to accomplish one or more of the following purposes:
● Deter or thwart aggression.
● Reassure allies and friendly governments, agencies, or groups.
● Provide encouragement and/or support for a weak or faltering government.
● Stabilize an area with a restless or openly hostile population.
● Maintain or restore order.
● Lend force, or the appearance of force, to national or international agreements and policies.
For more detailed information on stability operations, refer to the following publications:
● Joint Publications 3-07.2 and 3-07.3.
● FM 100-20.
● FM 100-23.
● FM 100-19.
● FM 7-98.
● FM 100-5.
CONTENTS
Decentralized Operations
Rules of Engagement
Rules of Interaction
Force Protection
Task Organization
CSS Considerations
Media Considerations
Operations with Outside Agencies
Section 2 Stability Activities
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FM 71-1 Appendix J
Noncombatant Evacuation Operations

Support to Domestic Civil Authority
Peace Operations
Show of Force
Support to Insurgency and Counterinsurgency Operations
Combating Terrorism
Support to Counterdrug Operations
Arms Control and Nation Assistance
Section 3 Company Team Tasks
Establish and Occupy a Lodgment Area

Conduct Negotiations
Monitor Compliance with an Agreement
Establish Observation Posts
Establish Checkpoints
Conduct Patrol Operations
Conduct Convoy Escort
Open and Secure Routes
Conduct Reserve Operations
SECTION 1 - PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

The following paragraphs examine several important considerations that will influence planning and
preparation for stability operations. For a more detailed discussion of these subjects, refer to FM
100-23.
DECENTRALIZED OPERATIONS
Although stability operations are normally centrally planned, execution often takes the form of
small-scale, decentralized actions conducted over extended distances. Responsibility for making
decisions on the ground will fall to junior leaders. Effective command guidance and a thorough
understanding of ROE (refer to the following paragraph) are critical at each operational level.
RULES OF ENGAGEMENT

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The ROE are directives that explain the circumstances and limitations
under which US forces initiate and/or continue combat engagement
with hostile forces. These rules reflect the requirements of the laws of
war, operational concerns, and political considerations when the
operational environment shifts from peace to conflict and back to peace.
ROE must be briefed and trained to the lowest operational level. They
should be established for, disseminated to, and thoroughly understood
by every soldier in the unit. Another important consideration in
development and employment of ROE is that commanders must assume
that the belligerents they encounter will also understand the ROE; these
unfriendly elements will attempt to use the ROE to their own advantage
(and to the disadvantage of the friendly force). Refer to FM 100-23 for
a more detailed discussion of ROE.
RULES OF INTERACTION
These directives, known as ROI, embody the human dimension of
stability operations; they lay the foundation for successful relationships
with the myriad of factions and individuals that play critical roles in
these operations. ROI encompass an array of interpersonal
communication skills, such as persuasion and negotiation.
These are tools the individual soldier will need to deal with the
nontraditional threats that are prevalent in stability operations, including
political friction, unfamiliar cultures, and conflicting ideologies. In turn,
ROI enhance the soldier’s survivability in such situations.
ROI are based on the applicable ROE for a particular operation; they
must be tailored to the specific regions, cultures, and/or populations
affected by the operation. Like ROE, ROI can be effective only if they
are thoroughly rehearsed and understood by every soldier in the unit.
FORCE PROTECTION
Commanders must implement appropriate security measures to protect
the force. Establishment of checkpoints, effective base camp security
procedures, and aggressive patrolling are examples of force protection
measures.
TASK ORGANIZATION
Because of the unique requirements of stability operations, the company
team may be task organized to operate with a variety of units. This
includes some elements with which the team does not normally work,
such as linguists, counterintelligence teams, and civil affairs teams.

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CSS CONSIDERATIONS
The operational environment the company team faces during stability operations may be very austere,
creating special CSS considerations. These factors include, but are not limited to, the following:
● Reliance on local procurement of certain items.
● Shortages of various critical items, including repair parts, Class IV supply materials, and
lubricants.
● Special Class V supply requirements, such as pepper spray.
● Reliance on bottled water.
MEDIA CONSIDERATIONS
The presence of the media is a reality that confronts every soldier involved in stability operations. All
leaders and soldiers must know how to deal effectively with broadcast and print reporters and
photographers. This should include an understanding of which subjects they are authorized to discuss
and which ones they must refer to the PAO.
OPERATIONS WITH OUTSIDE AGENCIES

US Army units may conduct certain stability operations in coordination
with a variety of outside organizations. These include other US armed
services or government agencies as well as international organizations
(including private volunteer organizations, nongovernmental
organizations, and UN military forces or agencies).
SECTION 2 - STABILITY
ACTIVITIES
FM 100-5 categorizes stability operations into several activities. The
boundaries between these activities are not always well defined nor are
they meant to be exhaustive. This section provides an introductory
discussion of stability activities; for more detailed information, refer to
FM 100-5 and FM 7-98.
NONCOMBATANT EVACUATION OPERATIONS

NEOs are primarily conducted to evacuate US citizens whose lives are
in danger, although they may also include natives of the host nation and
third-country aliens friendly to the United States. These operations
involve swift insertion and temporary occupation of an objective,
followed by a planned withdrawal. Leaders use only the amount of
force required for self-defense and protection of evacuees.

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SUPPPORT TO DOMESTIC CIVIL AUTHORITY

Domestic support operations, covered in FM 100-19, are conducted by
military forces in support of federal and state officials under provisions
of, and limited by, the Posse Comitatus Act and other laws and
regulations. Actions defined by the US Congress as threats to national
security warranting military support include drug trafficking, illegal
immigration, and customs violations.
PEACE OPERATIONS
Peace operations encompass three general areas: diplomatic
(peacemaking and peace-building), traditional peacekeeping, and
threatened or actual forceful military actions (peace enforcement). The
company team may participate in peacekeeping or peace enforcement
operations.
Peacekeeping A peacekeeping force facilitates truce negotiations and political
settlement of disputes. In doing so, it must assure each side in the dispute
operations that other parties are not taking advantage of settlement terms to their
own benefit. Peacekeeping differs from internal security in that the force
does not act in support of a government. Rather, the peacekeeping force
must remain entirely neutral; if it loses a reputation for impartiality, its
usefulness within the peacekeeping mission is destroyed.
Peace Several unique characteristics distinguish peace enforcement activities
from wartime operations and from other stability operations. The purpose
enforcement of peace enforcement is to maintain or restore peace under conditions
broadly defined at the international level. It may entail combat, armed
intervention, or physical threat of armed intervention. Under the
provisions of an international agreement, the task force and its
subordinate company teams may be called upon to use coercive military
power to compel compliance with international sanctions or resolutions.
SHOW OF FORCE
Forces deployed abroad lend credibility to a nation’s promises and
commitments. In support of this principle, show of force operations are
meant to reassure a friendly nation or ally through a display of credible
military force directed at potential adversaries. These operations may
also be conducted to influence foreign governments or political-military
organizations to respect US interests.

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SUPPORT TO INSURGENCY AND

COUNTERINSURGENCY OPERATIONS
This type of support includes assistance provided by US forces to help a
friendly nation or group that is attempting to combat insurgent elements
or to stage an insurgency itself. This type of stability activity is
normally conducted by special forces.
COMBATING TERRORISM
In all types of stability operations, antiterrorism and counterterrorism
activities are a continuous requirement in protecting installations, units,
and individuals from the threat of terrorism. Antiterrorism focuses on
defensive measures. Counterterrorism encompasses a full range of
offensive measures to prevent, deter, and respond to terrorism. For
more information on these activities, refer to JCS Publication 3-07.2
SUPPORT TO COUNTERDRUG OPERATIONS

US military forces may be tasked for a variety of counterdrug activities,
which are always conducted in conjunction with another government
agency. These activities include destroying illicit drugs and disrupting
or interdicting drug manufacturing, growing, processing, and smuggling
operations. Counterdrug support may take the form of advisory
personnel, mobile training teams, offshore training activities, and
assistance in logistics, communications, and intelligence.
ARMS CONTROL AND NATION ASSISTANCE

Armored and mechanized company teams may work with another
nation’s military to conduct arms control or nation assistance activities.
These types of support usually entail short-term, high-impact
operations.
SECTION 3 - COMPANY TEAM

TASKS

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ESTABLISH AND OCCUPY A LODGMENT AREA

A lodgment area is a highly prepared position used as a base of
operations in stability operations. Like an assembly area or defensive
strongpoint, the lodgment provides a staging area for the occupying
unit, affords a degree of force protection, and requires 360-degree
security.
At the same time, several important characteristics distinguish the
lodgment area from less permanent positions. Most notable is the level
of preparation and logistical support required for long-term occupation.
The lodgment must have shelters and facilities that can support the
occupying force and its attachments for an extended period. The area
must be positioned and developed so the unit can effectively conduct its
primary missions (such as peace enforcement or counterterrorism)
throughout its area of responsibility.
In establishing the lodgment, the company team may use existing
facilities or request construction of new facilities. A key advantage in
using existing structures is immediate availability; this also reduces or
eliminates the need for construction support from engineers and
members of the team. There are disadvantages as well. Existing
facilities may be inadequate to meet the team’s operational needs, and
they may pose security problems because of their proximity to other
structures.
The company team may establish and occupy a lodgment area as part of
a task force or, with significant support from the controlling task force,
as a separate element. Figure J-1 illustrates a company team lodgment
area established using existing facilities.
Planning the Before he begins preparation, construction, and occupation of the
lodgemant lodgment area, the commander must plan its general layout. He should
area evaluate these factors:
● Location of the lodgment area.
● Effects of weather.
● Traffic patterns.
● OP sites and/or patrol routes.
● Entry and exit procedures.
● Vehicle emplacement and orientation.
● Bunkers and fighting positions.
● Fire planning.
● Size and composition of the reserve.
● Location of possible LZs and PZs.
● CSS considerations, including locations of the following:
- Mess areas, showers, and latrines (including drainage).

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- Storage bunkers for Class III, Class IV, and Class V

supplies.
- Maintenance and refueling areas.
- Aid station.
● CP site security.
● Size, composition, and function of advance/reconnaissance

parties.
● Nature and condition of existing facilities (quarters; water, sewer,
and power utilities; reinforced "hardstand" areas for
maintenance).
● Proximity to structures and/or roadways (including security
factors).
Priorities of The commander must designate priorities of work as the company team
establishes the lodgment area. He should consider the following tasks:
work
● Establishment of security of the immediate area and the
perimeter.
● Establishment of initial roadblocks to limit access to the area.
● Mine clearance.
● Construction of revetments to protect vehicles, generators,

communications equipment, and other facilities.
● Construction of barriers or berms around the lodgment area to
limit observation of the compound and provide protection for
occupants.
● Construction of shelters for lodgment personnel.
● Construction of defensive positions.
● Construction of sanitation and personal hygiene facilities.
● Construction of hardened CP facilities.
● Continuing activities to improve the site (such as adding

hard-wire electrical power or perimeter illumination).

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Figure J-1. Example company team lodgment area using existing facilities.
CONDUCT NEGOTIATIONS

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The company team may face a number of situations in which leaders will
need to conduct negotiations. There are two general types of
negotiations: situational and preplanned. Situational negotiations are
conducted in response to a requirement for on-the-spot discussion and
resolution of a specific issue or problem. An example would be members
of an advance guard negotiating the passage of a convoy through a
checkpoint. Preplanned negotiations are conducted in such situations as a
company team commander conducting a work coordination meeting
between commanders of former warring factions, known as FWFs, to
determine mine clearance responsibilities.
Situational At the company team level, situational negotiations are far more
common than the preplanned type. In fact, employment in stability
negotiations operations will require the commander, his subordinate leaders, and
other soldiers to conduct some form of negotiations almost daily. This in
turn requires them to have a thorough understanding of the ROE and
ROI.
Members of the company team apply this working knowledge to the
process of discussing and, whenever possible, resolving issues and
problems that arise between opposing parties, which may include the
team itself. A critical aspect of this knowledge is the negotiator’s ability
to recognize that he has exhausted his options under the ROE/ROI and
must turn the discussion over to a higher authority. Negotiations
continue at progressive levels of authority until the issue is resolved.
In preparing themselves and their soldiers for the negotiation process, the
commander and subordinate leaders must conduct rehearsals covering
the ROE and ROI. One effective technique is to war-game application of
ROE/ROI in a given stability situation, such as manning a checkpoint.
This forces leaders and subordinates alike to analyze the ROE/ROI and
apply them in an operational environment.
Preplanned Preplanned negotiations require negotiators to thoroughly understand
both the dispute or issue at hand and the factors influencing it, such as
negotiations the ROE and ROI, before talks begin. The negotiator’s ultimate goal is to
reach an agreement that is acceptable to both sides and that reduces
antagonism (and/or the chance of renewed hostilities) between the
parties involved. The following paragraphs list guidelines and
procedures for each phase of the negotiation process.

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Identify the Before contacting leaders of the belligerent parties to initiate the
purpose negotiation process, the commander must familiarize himself with both
of negotiations the situation and the area in which his unit will be operating. This
includes identifying and evaluating avenues of approach that connect the
opposing forces. Results of the negotiation process, which may be
lengthy and complicated, must be based on national or international
agreements or accords. Negotiation topics include the following:
● When the sides will withdraw.
● Positions to which they will withdraw (these should be located to

preclude observation and direct fire by the opposing parties).
● What forces or elements will move during each phase of the
operation.
● Pre-positioning of peace forces that can intervene in case of
renewed hostilities.
● Control of heavy weapons.
● Mine clearance.
● Formal protest procedures for the belligerent parties.

Establish the The next step in the process is to earn the trust and confidence of each
proper context opposing party. This includes establishing an atmosphere (and a physical
setting) that participants will judge to be both fair and safe. These
● Always conduct joint negotiations on matters that affect both
parties.
● When serving as a mediator, remain neutral at all times.
● Learn as much as possible about the belligerents, the details of the

dispute or issue being negotiated, and other factors such as the
geography of the area and specific limitations or restrictions (for
example, the ROE and ROI).
● Gain and keep the trust of the opposing parties by being firm, fair,
and polite.
● Use tact, remain patient, and be objective.
● Never deviate from applicable local and national laws and

international agreements.
Prepare for the Thorough, exacting preparation is another important factor in ensuring
negotiations the success of the negotiation process. Company team personnel should
use the following guidelines:
● Negotiate sequentially, from subordinate level to senior level.
● Select and prepare a meeting place that is acceptable to all parties.
● Arrange for interpreters and adequate communications facilities as

necessary.
● Ensure that all opposing parties, as well as the negotiating team,
use a common map (edition and scale).
● Coordinate all necessary movement.
● Establish local security.

FM 71-1 Appendix J
● Keep higher headquarters informed throughout preparation and

during the negotiations.
● Make arrangements to record the negotiations (use audio or video
recording equipment, if available).
Conduct the Negotiators must always strive to maintain control of the session. They
negotiations must be firm, yet evenhanded, in leading the discussion. At the same
time, they must be flexible, with a willingness to accept
recommendations from the opposing parties and from their own
assistants and advisors. The following procedures and guidelines apply:
● Exchange greetings.
● Introduce all participants by name, including negotiators and any

advisors.
● Consider the use of small talk at the beginning of the session to
put the participants at ease.
● Allow each side to state its case without interruption and without
making premature judgments.
● Make a record of issues presented by both sides.
● If one side makes a statement that is incorrect, be prepared to

produce evidence or proof to establish the facts.
● If the negotiating team or peacekeeping force has a preferred
solution, present it and encourage both sides to accept it.
● Close the meeting by explaining to both sides what has been
agreed upon and what actions they are expected to take. If
necessary, be prepared to present this information in writing for
their signatures.
● Do not negotiate or make deals in the presence of the media.
● Maintain the highest standards of conduct at all times.
MONITOR COMPLIANCE WITH AN AGREEMENT

Compliance monitoring involves observing FWFs and working with them to ensure they meet the
conditions of one or more applicable agreements. Examples of the process include overseeing the
separation of opposing combat elements, the withdrawal of heavy weapons from a sector, or the
clearance of a minefield. Planning for compliance monitoring should cover, but is not limited to, the
following considerations:
● Liaison teams, with suitable communications and transportation assets, are assigned to the
headquarters of the opposing sides. Liaison personnel maintain communications with the leaders
of their assigned element; they also talk directly to each other and to their mutual commander
(the company team or task force commander).
● The commander positions himself at the point where it is most likely that violations could occur.
● He positions platoons and squads where they can observe the opposing parties, instructing them
to assess compliance and report any violations.
● As directed, the commander keeps higher headquarters informed of all developments, including
his assessment of compliance and/or noncompliance.

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ESTABLISH OBSERVATION POSTS

Construction and manning of OPs is a high-frequency task for company
teams and subordinate elements when they must establish area security
during stability operations. Each OP is established for a specified time
and purpose. During most stability operations, OPs are both overt
(conspicuously visible, unlike their tactical counterparts) and
deliberately constructed. They are similar in construction to bunkers
(refer to FM 5-103) and are supported by fighting positions, barriers,
and patrols. (NOTE: If necessary, the company team can also employ
hasty OPs, which are similar to individual fighting positions.) Based on
METT-TC factors, deliberate OPs may include specialized facilities
such as the following:
● Observation tower.
● Ammunition and fuel storage area.
● Power sources.
● Supporting helipad.
● Kitchen, sleep area, shower, and/or toilet.
Each OP must be integrated into supporting direct and indirect fire

plans and into the overall observation plan. Figure J-2 illustrates an
example OP.

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FM 71-1 Appendix J
Figure J-2. Example deliberate observation post.
ESTABLISH CHECKPOINTS
Establishment of checkpoints is a high-frequency task for company
teams and subordinate elements involved in stability operations.
Checkpoints can be either deliberate or hasty.
Purposes The team or a subordinate element may be directed to establish a
checkpoint to achieve one or more of the following purposes:
● Deter illegal movement.
● Create an instant roadblock.
● Control movement into the area of operations or onto a specific

route.
● Demonstrate the presence of peace forces.
● Prevent smuggling of contraband.
● Enforce the terms of peace agreements.
● Serve as an OP and/or patrol base.
Checkpoint Checkpoint layout, construction, and manning should reflect

METT-TC factors, including the amount of time available for
procedures emplacing it. The layout of a deliberate checkpoint is depicted in
Figure J-3. The following procedures and considerations may apply:
● Position the checkpoint where it is visible and where traffic
cannot turn back, get off the road, or bypass the checkpoint
without being observed.
● Position a combat vehicle off the road, but within sight, to deter
resistance to soldiers manning the checkpoint. The vehicle
should be in a hull-down position and protected by local
security. It must be able to engage vehicles attempting to break
through or bypass the checkpoint.
● Place obstacles in the road to slow or canalize traffic into the
search area.
● Establish a reserve.
● Establish a bypass lane for approved convoy traffic.
● Establish wire communications within the checkpoint area to
connect the checkpoint bunker, the combat vehicle, the search
area, security forces, the rest area, and any other elements
involved in the operation.
● Designate the search area. If possible, it should be belowground
to provide protection against such incidents as the explosion of
a booby-trapped vehicle. Establish a parking area adjacent to the
search area.
● If applicable, checkpoint personnel should include linguists.
● Properly construct and equip the checkpoint. Consider inclusion
of the following items:

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- Barrels filled with sand, concrete, or water (emplaced to

slow and canalize vehicles).
- Concertina wire (emplaced to control movement around
the checkpoint).
- Secure facilities for radio and wire communications
with the controlling headquarters.
- First-aid kit.
- Sandbags for defensive positions.
- Wood or other materials for the checkpoint bunker.
- Binoculars, night vision devices, and/or flashlights.
- Long-handled mirrors (these are used in inspections of
vehicle undercarriages).
● Elements manning a deliberate CP may require access to
specialized equipment, such as the following:
- Floodlights.
- Duty log.
- Flag and unit sign.
- Barrier pole that can be raised and lowered.
- Generators with electric wire.

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Figure J-3. Example deliberate checkpoint layout.
CONDUCT PATROL OPERATIONS

Patrolling is also a high-frequency task during stability operations.
Planning and execution of an area security patrol are similar to
procedures for other tactical patrols except that patrol leaders must
consider political implications and ROE. (NOTE: Refer to FM 7-10 for
a detailed discussion of patrol operations.)
Figure J-4 illustrates the use of patrols, in conjunction with checkpoints
and OPs, in enforcing a zone of separation between belligerent forces.

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Figure J-4. Example employment of checkpoints, OPs, and patrols to enforce a zone of
separation.
CONDUCT CONVOY ESCORT

This mission requires the company team to provide a convoy with
security and close-in protection from direct fire while on the move. The
task force may choose this course of action if enemy contact is imminent
or when it anticipates a serious threat to the security of the convoy.
Depending on METT-TC factors, the company team is capable of
providing effective protection for a large convoy. (NOTE: Smaller-scale
convoy escort operations may be conducted by lighter security forces
such as military police units.)
Battle command The task organization inherent in convoy escort missions makes battle
command especially critical. The company team commander may serve
either as the convoy security commander or as overall convoy
commander. In the latter role, he is responsible for the employment not
only of his own organic combat elements but also of CS and CSS
attachments and drivers of the escorted vehicles. He must incorporate all
of these elements into the various contingency plans developed for the
operation. He must also maintain his link with the controlling TOC.
Effective SOPs and drills must supplement OPORD information for the
convoy, and rehearsals should be conducted if time permits.
Additionally, extensive PCCs and PCIs must be conducted, to include
inspection of the escorted vehicles. The commander must also ensure
that all required coordination is conducted with units and elements in
areas through which the convoy will pass.
Before the mission begins, the convoy commander should issue a
complete OPORD to all vehicle commanders in the convoy. This is vital
because the convoy may itself be task organized from a variety of units
and because some vehicles may not have tactical radios. The order
should follow the standard five-paragraph OPORD format; it may place
special emphasis on these subjects:
● Inspection of convoy vehicles.
● Route of march (including a strip map for each vehicle

commander).
● Order of march.
● Actions at halts (scheduled and unscheduled).
● Actions in case of vehicle breakdown.
● Actions for a break in column.
● Actions in built-up areas.
● Actions on contact, covering such situations as snipers, enemy

contact (including near or far ambush), indirect fire, and
minefields.
● Riot drill.

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● Refugee control drill.

● Evacuation drill.
● Actions at the delivery site.
● Chain of command.
● Guidelines and procedures for negotiating with local authorities.
● Communications and signal information.
Tactical disposition In any escort operation, the basic mission of the convoy commander
(and, as applicable, the convoy security commander) is to establish and
maintain security in all directions and throughout the length of the
convoy. He must be prepared to adjust the disposition of the security
force to fit the security requirements of each particular situation. Several
factors affect this disposition, including METT-TC, convoy size,
organization of the convoy, and types of vehicles involved. In some
instances, the commander may position security elements, such as
platoons, to the front, rear, and/or flanks of the convoy. As an
alternative, he may disperse the combat vehicles throughout the convoy
body.
Task organization When sufficient escort assets are available, the convoy commander will
usually organize convoy security into three distinct elements: advance
guard,
close-in protective group, and rear guard. He may also designate a
reserve to handle contingency situations. Figure J-5 shows a company
team escort force task organized with an engineer platoon, an aerial
scout section, a task force wheeled scout section, a BSFV air defense
vehicle, a task force mortar section, and the team’s normal maintenance
and medical attachments. (NOTE: The convoy escort will normally be
provided with linguists as required.)
The following paragraphs examine the role of the advance guard, of
security assets accompanying the convoy main body, and of the reserve.
Advance guard The advance guard reconnoiters and proofs the convoy route. It searches
for signs of enemy activity, such as ambushes and obstacles. Within its
capabilities, it attempts to clear the route. The distance and time
separation between the advance guard and the main body should be
sufficient to provide the convoy commander with adequate early
warning before the arrival of the vehicle column; however, the
separation should be short enough that the route cannot be interdicted
between the passage of the advance guard and the arrival of the main
body.
The advance guard should be task organized with reconnaissance
elements (wheeled scouts and aerial scouts, if available), combat
elements (a tank or mechanized infantry platoon), and mobility assets
(an engineer squad and a tank with plow or roller). As necessary, it
should also include linguists.

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Main body The commander may choose to intersperse security elements with the
vehicles of the convoy main body. These may include combat elements
(including the rear guard), the convoy commander, additional linguists,
mobility assets, and medical and maintenance support assets. Depending
on METT-TC, the convoy commander may also consider the
employment of flank security. The length of the convoy may dictate that
he position the accompanying mortars with the main body.
Reserve In a company team escort mission, the reserve may consist of a tank or
mechanized infantry platoon and the attached mortar section, if
available. The reserve force will either move with the convoy or be
located at a staging area close enough to provide immediate interdiction
against enemy forces. The supporting headquarters will normally
designate an additional reserve, consisting of an additional company
team or combat aviation assets, to support the convoy operation.

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Figure J-5. Example company team convoy escort mission.
Actions on As the convoy moves to its new location, the enemy may attempt to
harass or destroy it. This contact will usually occur in the form of an
contact ambush, often executed in coordination with the use of a hasty obstacle.
In such a situation, the safety of the convoy rests on the speed and
effectiveness with which escort elements can execute appropriate
actions on contact.
Based on the factors of METT-TC, portions of the convoy security
force, such as a tank platoon or tank section, may be designated as a
reaction force. This element performs its normal escort duties, such as
conducting tactical movement or occupying an assembly area, as
required until enemy contact occurs; it then is given a reaction mission
by the convoy commander.
Actions at An ambush is one of the most effective ways to interdict a convoy.
an ambush Conversely, reaction to an ambush must be immediate, overwhelming,
and decisive. Actions on contact in response to an ambush must be
planned for and rehearsed so they can be executed as a drill by all escort
and convoy elements; particular attention should be given to fratricide
prevention.
In almost all situations, the security force will take several specific,
instantaneous actions in reacting to an ambush. These steps include the
following:
● As soon as they acquire an enemy force, the escort vehicles
action toward the enemy. They seek covered positions between
the convoy and the enemy and suppress the enemy with the
highest possible volume of fire permitted by the ROE. Contact
reports are sent to higher headquarters as quickly as possible.
● The convoy commander retains control of the convoy vehicles
and continues to move them along the route at the highest

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possible speed.
● Convoy vehicles, if they are armed, may return fire only if the
security force has not positioned itself between the convoy and
the enemy force.
● Subordinate leaders or the convoy commander may request that
any damaged or disabled vehicles be abandoned and pushed off
the route.
● The escort leader uses SPOTREPs to keep the convoy security
commander informed. If necessary, the escort leader or the
security commander can then request support from the reserve;
he can also call for and adjust indirect fires.
● Once the convoy is clear of the kill zone, the escort element
executes one of the following COAs based on the composition of
the escort and reaction forces, the commander’s intent, and the
strength of the enemy force:
- Continue to suppress the enemy as the reserve moves to
provide support.
- Assault the enemy.
- Break contact and move out of the kill zone.
Actions at Obstacles pose a major threat to convoy security. Obstacles can be used
an obstacle to harass the convoy by delaying it; if the terrain is favorable, the
obstacle may stop the convoy altogether. In addition, obstacles can
canalize or stop the convoy to set up an enemy ambush. The purpose of
route reconnaissance ahead of a convoy is to identify obstacles and
either breach them or find bypasses. In some cases, however, the enemy
or its obstacles may avoid detection by the reconnaissance element. If
this happens, the convoy must take actions to reduce or bypass the
obstacle.
When an obstacle is identified, the convoy escort faces two problems:
reducing or bypassing the obstacle and maintaining protection for the
convoy. Security becomes critical, and actions at the obstacle must be
accomplished very quickly. The convoy commander must assume that
the obstacle is overwatched and covered by enemy fires.
To reduce the time the convoy is halted and thus to reduce its
vulnerability, these actions should occur when the convoy escort
encounters point-type obstacles:
● The lead element identifies the obstacle and directs the convoy to
make a short halt and establish security. The escort overwatches
the obstacle and requests that the breach force move forward.
● The escort maintains 360-degree security and provides overwatch
as the breach force reconnoiters the obstacle in search of a
bypass.
● Once all reconnaissance is complete, the convoy commander
determines which of the following COAs he will take:

FM 71-1 Appendix J
- Bypass the obstacle.

- Breach the obstacle with the assets on hand.
- Breach the obstacle with reinforcing assets.
NOTE: Among the obstacles the convoy may encounter is an
impromptu checkpoint established by civilians or noncombat
elements. If the checkpoint cannot be bypassed or breached, the
commander must be prepared to negotiate passage for the
convoy.
● The commander relays a SPOTREP higher and, if necessary,
requests support from combat reaction forces, engineer assets (if
they are not part of the convoy), and aerial reconnaissance
elements.
● Artillery units or the supporting mortar section are alerted to be
prepared to provide fire support.
Actions During a short halt, the convoy escort remains at REDCON-1 status
during regardless of what actions other convoy vehicles are taking. If the halt
a halt is for any reason other than an obstacle, the following actions should be
taken:
● The convoy commander signals the short halt and transmits the
order via tactical radio. Based on METT-TC factors, he directs
all vehicles in the convoy to execute the designated formation or
drill for the halt.
● Ideally, the convoy will assume a herringbone or coil formation.
If the sides of the road are untrafficable or are mined, however,
noncombat vehicles may simply pull over and establish
360-degree security as best they can. This will allow movement
of the escort vehicles as necessary through the convoy main
body.
● If possible, escort vehicles are positioned up to 100 meters
beyond other convoy vehicles, which are just clear of the route.
Escort vehicles remain at REDCON-1 but establish local security
based on the factors of METT-TC.
● When the order is given to move out, convoy vehicles reestablish
the movement formation, leaving space for escort vehicles. Once
the convoy is in column, local security elements (if used) return
to their vehicles, and the escort vehicles rejoin the column.
● When all elements are in column, the convoy resumes movement.
OPEN AND SECURE ROUTES

FM 71-1 Appendix J
This task is a mobility operation normally conducted by the engineers.

The company team may be tasked to assist them using its mine plows
and rollers and to provide overwatch support. The route may be cleared
to achieve one of several tactical purposes:
● For use by the task force for its initial entry into an area of
operations.
● To clear a route ahead of a planned convoy to ensure that
belligerent elements have not emplaced new obstacles since the
last time the route was cleared.
● To secure the route to make it safe for use as an MSR.
The planning considerations associated with opening and securing a

route are similar to those for a convoy escort operation. The company
team commander must analyze the route and develop contingency plans
covering such possibilities as likely ambush locations and sites that are
likely to be mined. The size and composition of a team charged with
opening and securing a route is based on METT-TC. For additional
information on combine arms route clearance operations, refer to FM
20-32.
CONDUCT RESERVE OPERATIONS

Reserve operations in the stability environment are similar to those in other tactical operations in that
they allow the commander to plan for a variety of contingencies based on the higher unit’s mission. As
noted throughout this section, the reserve may play a critical role in almost any stability activity or
mission, including lodgment area establishment, convoy escort, and area security.
The reserve force must be prepared at all times to execute its operations within the time limits specified
by the controlling headquarters. For example, a platoon-size reserve may be directed to complete an
operation within 5 minutes, while a company-size force may be allotted 10 minutes.
The controlling headquarters may also tailor the size and composition of the reserve according to the
mission it is assigned. If the reserve is supporting a convoy mission, it may consist of a company team;
in a mission to support established checkpoints, the reserve force may be the dismounted elements from
a platoon or company team, supported by aviation assets.

FM 71-1 Appendix K Support Operations
APPENDIX K
Support Operations
US military forces conduct support operations to assist designated groups by providing essential
supplies and services in the face of adverse conditions, usually those created by man-made or natural
disasters. Mission success in support operations, which are normally characterized by the lack of an
active opponent, is measured in terms of the ability to relieve suffering and to help civil authorities
respond to crises. The ultimate goals of these operations are to meet the immediate needs of the
supported groups and to transfer responsibility quickly and efficiently to appropriate civilian
authorities.
Domestic support operations are always conducted in support of local, state, and federal civil
authorities. Overseas support operations are almost always conducted in support of and in concert with
other agencies; these may be American or international organizations of either government or private
affiliation.
Support operations may be independent actions. Conversely, they may complement offensive,
defensive, or stability operations; refer to the discussions of company team operations in Chapter 3
(offense), Chapter 4 (defense), and Appendix J (stability operations). For a more detailed examination
of support operations, refer to FM 100-5.
CONTENTS
Section 1 Types of Support Operations
Section 2 Phases of Support Operations
Response Phase
Recovery Phase
Restoration Phase
SECTION 1 - TYPES OF SUPPORT

OPERATIONS
Support operations generally cover two broad categories: humanitarian assistance and environmental
assistance. Humanitarian assistance operations are people-oriented, focusing on the well-being of
supported populations; they provide critical supplies to designated groups at the request of local, state,
federal, or international agencies. Environmental assistance focuses on the condition of all types of
natural and man-made properties, with the goal of helping to protect and/or restore these properties as
requested. Typically, environmental operations are conducted in response to such events as forest and
grassland fires, hazardous material releases, floods, and earthquakes. (NOTE: Many support operations
combine both humanitarian and environmental support.)
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SECTION 2 - PHASES OF SUPPORT

OPERATIONS
Although each operation is unique, support operations are generally conducted in three broad phases:
response, recovery, and restoration. Army elements can expect to be most heavily committed during
the response phase. They will be progressively less involved during the recovery phase, with only very
limited activity, if any, during the restoration phase.
RESPONSE PHASE
In the response phase, commanders focus on the life-sustaining functions that are required by those in
the disaster area. The following functions dominate these response operations:
● Search and rescue.
● Emergency flood control.
● Hazard identification.
● Food distribution.
● Water production, purification, and distribution.
● Temporary shelter construction and administration.
● Transportation support.
● Fire fighting.
● Medical support.
● Power generation.
● Communications support.
RECOVERY PHASE
Recovery phase operations begin the process of returning the community infrastructure and related
services to a status that meets the immediate needs of the population. Typical recovery operations
● Continuation of response operations as needed.
● Damage assessment.
● Power distribution.
● Water and sanitation services.
● Debris removal.

RESTORATION PHASE
Restoration is a long-term process that returns the community to predisaster normality. Restoration
activities do not generally involve large numbers of military forces. When they are involved, Army
elements generally work with affected communities in the transfer of responsibility to other agencies as
military support forces redeploy.

FM 71-1 Appendix L Directed-Energy Weapons
APPENDIX L
Directed-Energy Weapons
While conventional weapons rely on either the kinetic or chemical energy of a sizable projectile to
cause casualties and target damage, directed-energy weapons produce these effects by depositing
energy on the target. This appendix provides the company team commander and subordinate leaders
with an overview of directed-energy weapons and how to defend against them.
CONTENTS
Section 1 Characteristics of Directed-Energy Weapons
Lasers
Microwave Radiation Emitters
Particle Beam Weapons
Section 2 Defense Against Directed-Energy Weapons
Lasers
Microwave Radiation Emitters
Section 3 Attack Reporting
Section 4 Laser Mission-Oriented Protective Posture
SECTION 1 - CHARACTERISTICS OF
DIRECTED-ENERGY WEAPONS
Directed-energy weapons destroy targets by bombarding them with either subatomic particles or
electromagnetic waves at or near the speed of sound. These weapons include lasers, particle beam
generators, and microwave radiation emitters. Currently, directed-energy weapons are only capable of
damaging soft targets, including personnel, or the soft components of hard targets, such as optical
components or communications equipment.
LASERS
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As the role of laser devices continues to grow on the modern battlefield, it becomes increasing clear
that any laser-emitting device, such as a target designator or a range finder, has the potential to be used
as a weapon. The most probable targets for such systems will be optical and electro-optical systems,
such as sights and vision viewers, and the personnel operating those sights and viewers.
Any laser beam entering a direct-view optical system (a tank or BFV sight, for example) has its power
increased by the magnification of the system. Soldiers using the sight could suffer burns to their eyes;
injuries may range from temporary flash blinding and mild burns to total, permanent blindness. The
severity of such injuries, the permanence of the damage, and the time required to heal depend on a
variety of factors:
● Weather conditions.
● Intensity of the laser.
● Frequency of the laser.
● Range to the laser source.
● Magnification of the optical device.
● Duration of exposure to the laser.
A laser beam entering a nonsee-through electro-optical device, such as a thermal imagery device, can
cause damage either through the effects of intense heat on the device’s sensor screens or by the sudden
surge of electricity produced by the laser’s energy.
MICROWAVE RADIATION EMITTERS

High-intensity microwaves can severely damage or destroy electronic components such as microchips;
they do this by overloading the components with electrical current. Soldiers may suffer the following
symptoms from long-term exposure to high-intensity microwaves:
● Pain.
● Erratic heartbeat.
● Fatigue, weakness, or dizziness.
● Nose bleeds.
● Headaches.
● Disorientation.
PARTICLE BEAM WEAPONS

Particle beam weapons use a directed flow of atomic or subatomic particles to cause target damage.
These highly energetic particles, when concentrated into a beam, can melt or fracture target material
and generate X rays around the point of impact.

SECTION 2 - DEFENSE AGAINST

DIRECTED-ENERGY WEAPONS
Without accurate information on the nature and capabilities of directed-energy weapons, soldiers are
likely to develop a number of misconceptions. For example, it may appear that these weapons wreak
devastating effects on personnel and equipment and that defense against them is nearly impossible.
Leaders must counter these false assumptions by directly confronting their soldiers’ fears. They should
take these steps:
● Provide soldiers with a basic understanding of how directed-energy weapons work.
● Cover the specific defensive procedures outlined in this section.
● Reinforce the knowledge that directed-energy injuries, while potentially serious and worthy of
concern, are both rare and preventable.
LASERS
The best defense against lasers incorporates the following techniques:
● Use laser-safe goggles and optic filters.
● Use night vision viewers or thermal viewers when scanning areas in which lasers are likely to be
employed.
● Use smoke rounds to temporarily defeat laser devices.
● Use sound tactics to prevent being pinpointed for attack by lasers.
MICROWAVE RADIATION EMITTERS

Effective defense against microwave radiation emitters entails using the following techniques:
● Disconnect all electronic equipment when not in use.
● Shield smaller electronic items by placing them in empty ammunition cans.
● Employ terrain masking, which provides some protection against microwave radiation.
● Limit the time personnel are exposed to microwave emissions.
NOTE: The defensive measures outlined in this section for lasers and microwave radiation are
also effective in protecting personnel and equipment from the effects of particle beam weapons.
SECTION 3 - ATTACK REPORTING

All attacks from directed-energy weapons should be reported. Reporting procedures are similar to those
for NBC attacks. Tables L-1 and L-2 summarize reports for laser attacks on the battlefield; these
reports use the established formats for the NBC-1 report (observer’s initial attack) and the NBC-3
report (immediate warning of expected contamination/laser usage). (NOTE: The report formats also
reflect the addition of a laser reporting column to GTA 3-6-3.)
Table L-1. Format for laser attack report (based on NBC-1,
observer’s initial report).
LINE DESCRIPTION
B Position of observer
C Direction of attack from observer
D Date-time group for detonation/attack
F Location of area attacked
G Means of delivery (state what weapon system, if known, delivered the

laser)
ZC Area or point from which laser was delivered (if known)
Table L-2. Format for laser attack report (based on NBC-3,

immediate warning of expected contamination/laser usage).
LINE DESCRIPTION
A Strike serial number
D Date-time group for start of attack
F Location of probable area of attack
SECTION 4 - LASER MISSION-ORIENTED

PROTECTIVE POSTURE
The laser MOPP (L-MOPP) levels outlined in Table L-3 are based on enemy activity and the known
use of lasers in the company team’s area of operations.
Table L-3. Laser mission-oriented protective posture levels.
L-MOPP LASER USE PROTECTIVE ACTIVITY

LEVEL

No known laser technology.

OR
Laser-protective eyewear
L-0 No known use in area of operations.
properly prepared and in close
(zero) OR
proximity.
Use of laser technology highly
unlikely.
Threat possesses laser technology.

OR
Laser-capable delivery systems Laser-protective eyewear ready
L-1
spotted in area of operations. for use and carried on person.
OR
Use of laser technology possible.
Use of threat/friendly lasers reported

in area of operations.
OR
Laser-protective eyewear worn
L-2 NBC/laser reporting system in effect.
at all times.
OR
Use of laser technology probable or
highly likely.

FM 71-1 Appendix M Operations Security
APPENDIX M
Operations Security
OPSEC entails all measures taken by the company team to deny the enemy information about its
actions and intentions. It covers a variety of procedures and precautions. This appendix focuses on
general security measures; measures taken to ensure information security, signal security, and physical
security; and employment of OPs.
CONTENTS
Section 1 General Security Measures
Section 2 Information Security
Section 3 Signal Security
Section 4 Physical Security
Section 5 Observation Posts
Selection of the OP Site

Mounted OPs
Dismounted OPs
SECTION 1 - GENERAL
SECURITY MEASURES
Maneuver units use general security measures to protect against surprise, observation, and infiltration.
The following considerations and procedures will assist the company team in executing general
security measures:
● Enforce noise and light discipline. Follow these procedures:
- If feasible, turn off the circuit breaker for the brake lights.
- Dim or cover all sources of light in the turret. Use a passive night observation device to
check vehicles for light leaks before operations begin.
- Move personnel and/or vehicles only when necessary.
- Use headsets or the CVC helmet to monitor the radio; do not use the radio’s external
speakers.
- Do not slam hatches.
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- Use short-count procedures to start engines simultaneously.

- Use terrain to mask resupply and maintenance areas.
- Use hand-and-arm signals and digital communications whenever possible.
- Do not allow smoking outdoors at night.
● Use camouflage to best advantage. Follow these procedures:
- Place vegetation on vehicles to break up their "profile."
- Drape camouflage nets over gun tubes and turrets.
- Park vehicles in natural concealment, such as shadows.
- Cover all headlights and optics whenever possible.
- Consider the effects of dust and exhaust smoke when moving.
- Minimize track, tire, and foot trails that could be detected from the air or from enemy
positions.
- Drive vehicles in previously made tracks when possible.
- In heavily used areas such as CPs and trains, ensure vehicles travel on existing tracks or
roadways.
● Maintain effective concealment. Follow these procedures:
- Disperse vehicles and personnel under foliage or inside structures whenever possible.
- Conceal vehicles and personnel behind objects that block the thermal "line of sight" of
enemy devices.
- Protect vehicles in hide positions against aerial observation by minimizing or eliminating
their thermal signatures.
● Use challenge and password. Employ this procedure as specified in the OPORD or unit SOP.
SECTION 2 - INFORMATION SECURITY

Information security is the protection of all materials, both classified and unclassified, that may be of
intelligence value to the enemy. The following procedures will assist the company team in maintaining
information security:
● Ensure that soldiers do not send critical information through the mail. This includes unit
identification, location, and capabilities; the commander’s name; and information on combat
losses or morale.
● Keep unauthorized personnel out of the company team’s area of operations.
● Before leaving an area, police it to make sure items of intelligence value are not left behind.

SECTION 3 - SIGNAL SECURITY

The discussions of communications and COMSEC in Chapter 2 of this manual outline considerations
and procedures for establishing and maintaining effective signal security.
SECTION 4 - PHYSICAL SECURITY

Physical security is the protection of materiel and equipment. The following considerations and
procedures will help the company team to maintain effective physical security:
● When stationary, employ antiintrusion devices, such as the platoon early warning system
(PEWS), trip flares, and concertina wire.
● Maintain the prescribed REDCON status, and execute designated stand-to procedures at
specified times.
● Do not allow foreign nationals and unauthorized observers in or near the unit’s area or positions
during operations. In accordance with the applicable ROE, ROI, and company team
commander’s intent, establish procedures for handling civilian intruders.
● Employ OPs to maintain surveillance on avenues of approach into the team’s area of operations.
● Employ mounted and/or dismounted patrols as necessary.
● Establish reporting and inspection SOPs for personnel and sensitive items.
SECTION 5 - OBSERVATION POSTS

OPs are an especially important element of the company team’s effort to establish and maintain
OPSEC. They provide protection when long-range observation from current positions is not possible;
this can occur when the team is in a hide position or when close terrain offers concealed avenues of
approach to its position. The team can employ any number of OPs, either mounted or dismounted, as
the situation dictates.
SELECTION OF THE OP SITE

Before deploying OPs, the company team commander analyzes the terrain in his sector. He also
coordinates with the team’s subordinate leaders and with adjacent units to develop effective procedures
for observing the assigned area of responsibility and eliminating gaps in observation between adjacent
units.
Next, based on requirements for early warning and security, the commander decides which type of OP
(mounted and/or dismounted) to employ and selects the best available location. A key consideration is
the amount of reaction time the company team will require based on its current REDCON status. After
selecting the type(s) of OPs and their locations, the commander should brief the company team OP plan
to his subordinate leaders and coordinate the plan with commanders of adjacent units as necessary.
To be most effective, OPs should have the following characteristics:
● Clear fields of observation covering the assigned area or sector. OPs must be positioned to
allow the company team to observe locations (such as the forward slope of a hill or dismounted
avenues of approach) that it cannot see from current positions.
● Overlapping coverage and mutual support. Ideally, the fields of observation of adjacent OPs
and/or units will overlap to ensure full coverage of the sector.
● Effective cover and concealment. Positions with natural cover and concealment help to reduce
the vulnerability of OPs to enemy observation and attack.
● Covered and concealed routes to and from the position. Soldiers must be able to enter and
leave their OPs without being seen and engaged by the enemy.
● A location that will not attract enemy attention. The commander should avoid sites that would
logically be the target of enemy observation or that could serve as artillery TRPs.
● A location that does not skyline observers. In selecting OP sites, the commander should avoid
hilltops. The OPs should be positioned farther down the slope of the hill.
● A location that is within range of supporting small arms fire. This enables the company team
to cover OP personnel and vehicles if withdrawal becomes necessary.
MOUNTED OPs
Mounted OPs are used when the company team, or subordinate elements, have access to hull-down or
turret-down positions that afford unobstructed surveillance of mounted avenues of approach in the
unit’s sector. This type of OP allows the commander to take advantage of his vehicles’ capabilities:
magnified thermal and daylight optics, sophisticated communications, lethal weapon systems, and
survivability.
A common mounted OP technique, executed at the platoon level, has one vehicle positioned forward to
observe an engagement area or obstacle while the remainder of the platoon occupies hide positions.
Even when the mounted OP has clear fields of observation, it is advisable to dismount one or two
members of the crew to provide close-in local security for the vehicle. The dismounted crewmen
occupy positions far enough away that sounds from the vehicle do not prevent them from hearing an
approaching enemy. Local security can also be enhanced by employment of infantry, which can
conduct patrols and occupy dismounted OPs in accordance with the commander’s OPSEC plan.

DISMOUNTED OPs
Whenever the company team must halt and occupy vehicle positions from which the terrain impedes
observation or early warning of enemy activities, it should employ dismounted OPs to provide local
security along dismounted avenues of approach. Dismounted OPs also augment or replace mounted
OPs based on requirements in the commander’s OPSEC plan. Platoons will normally emplace
dismounted OPs as directed by the commander. Refer to FM 7-7J and FM 17-15 for a discussion of
dismounted OPs.

FM 71-1 Appendix M Sniper Employment
APPENDIX N
Sniper Employment
Snipers play an important role in mechanized infantry units. They provide the commander with
long-range small arms fires that are both accurate and discriminatory. These fires are best used against
key targets that cannot be destroyed by other available weapon systems for a variety of reasons: range,
size, location, visibility, security and stealth requirements, collateral damage restrictions, intensity of
conflict, or applicable ROE.
Snipers also perform several important secondary roles. Unit and individual employment techniques
enable them to gather detailed information about the enemy. Commanders know that snipers also affect
enemy activities, morale, and decisions. Knowing snipers are present creates confusion and continuous
personal fear among the enemy’s soldiers. Effectively employed, snipers hinder the enemy’s
movement, disrupt his operations and preparations, and compel him to divert forces to deal with the
threat.
See FM 23-10 for detailed discussion of sniper operations.
CONTENTS
Section 1 Sniper Teams
Control and Employment

Movement
Commander's Role
Section 2 Offensive Employment
General Considerations
Movement to Contact
Attack
Section 3 Defensive Employment
Defensive Tasks
Employment Considerations
Section 4 Retrograde Employment
Section 5 MOUT Employment
SECTION 1 - SNIPER TEAMS
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Snipers are employed in two-man teams; each team consists of one sniper and one observer, normally
cross-trained. The sniper uses the sniper weapon system, while the observer carries an M16-series rifle.
Each has a side arm. A key operational concept is that sniper teams should avoid sustained battles.
During long periods of observation, team members help each other with range estimation, round
adjustment, and security.
CONTROL AND EMPLOYMENT

Sniper teams should be centrally controlled by the commander or mechanized infantry platoon leader.
Once they are deployed, however, snipers must be able to operate independently if necessary. This
requires them to have a thorough understanding of the commander’s intent, his concept of the
operation, and the purpose for their assigned tasks. It also allows them to exercise initiative within the
framework of the commander’s intent and to support the commander’s concept and achievement of the
unit’s mission.
Sniper teams are effective only in areas that offer clear fields of observation and fire. To ensure these
requirement are fulfilled, teams must be able to choose their own positions once they are on the ground.
The number of sniper teams employed in a particular operation depends on availability, the expected
duration of the mission, and enemy strength.
MOVEMENT
Sniper teams should move with a security element (squad or platoon) when possible. This allows the
teams to reach their areas of operation faster and safer than if they operated alone. The security element
also protects the teams during the operation. When moving with a security element, snipers follow
these guidelines:
● The leader of the security element leads the sniper team.
● Snipers must appear to be an integral part of the security element. To do this, they use the
following techniques:
- Each sniper carries his weapon system in line with and close to his body to hide the
weapon’s outline and barrel length. Sniper-unique equipment (optics, ghillie suit) is also
concealed from view.
- Snipers’ uniforms must be the same as those of the security element members.
- Proper intervals and positions in the element formation are maintained.
COMMANDER'S ROLE

History has proven that commanders must be educated on the proper use of
snipers. Commanders who understand the abilities and limitations of their snipers
can employ them effectively in the fight. In developing their estimate of the
situation, commanders should carefully consider all METT-TC factors as they
relate to sniper employment. The following discussion covers these
considerations.
Mission The sniper’s primary mission is to support combat operations by delivering
precise rifle fires from concealed positions. The mission assigned to a sniper
team for a particular operation consists of the tasks the commander wants the
sniper team to accomplish and the reason (purpose) for these tasks. The
commander must decide how he wants his sniper team to affect the battlefield.
Then he must assign missions to achieve this effect. The commander should
prioritize targets so snipers can avoid involvement in sustained engagements.
Regardless of how missions and targets are designated, however, the sniper team
must be free to change targets to support the commander’s intent. The following
methods may apply:
● The commander may describe the effect or result he expects and allow the
sniper team to select key targets.
● The commander may assign specific types of targets. For example, if he
wants to disrupt the defensive preparations of the enemy, he may task
snipers to accomplish one or more of the following tasks:
- Kill operators of bulldozers and other engineer equipment.
- Disable enemy vehicles carrying supplies.
- Engage enemy soldiers as they dig defensive positions.
● The commander may also assign specific targets. These can include enemy
leaders, command and control operators, ATGM gunners, armored vehicle
commanders, or weapons crews. In cases where large crowds pose a threat
to US forces, snipers can single out selected individuals. In populated areas
where casualties should be kept low, the snipers can be assigned to kill
enemy snipers.
Enemy The commander must consider the characteristics, capabilities, strengths,
weaknesses, and disposition of the enemy. Is the enemy force heavy or light,
rested or tired, disciplined or not? Is it motorized infantry or towed artillery? Is it
well supplied or short of supplies? Is it patrolling aggressively, or is it lax in
security? Is it positioned in assembly areas or dug in?
The answers to such questions help the commander determine the enemy’s
susceptibility and reaction to effective sniper operations. Naturally, a well-rested,
well-led, well-supplied, and aggressive enemy with armored protection poses a
greater threat to snipers than one whose forces are tired, poorly led, poorly
supplied, lax in security, and unprotected. In addition, the commander needs to
know if enemy snipers are present and if they are effective; they can pose a
significant danger to his own snipers. The enemy’s DEW capability should be

considered as well. Snipers use optical devices, so they are particularly

vulnerable to the directed-energy threat.
Terrain The commander must evaluate both the terrain in his snipers’ area of operations
and the terrain they must travel to reach it. He must consider the time and effort
snipers will expend getting into position, as well as the effect of weather on the
snipers (especially in terms of visibility). Snipers need good firing positions, with
adequate fields of observation and fire. They prefer positions at least 300 meters
from their target area. Operating at this distance allows them to avoid effective
fire from enemy rifles and to take advantage of the effective range of the sniper
rifle (800 to 1,000 meters).
Troops The commander must decide how many sniper teams to use. This depends on
their availability, on the duration of the operation, and on the expected
opposition. Another key factor is the number and difficulty of tasks and/or targets
assigned to the snipers. Commanders must always keep in mind the effects of the
human dimension on sniper operations.
Time available The commander must consider how long the snipers will have to achieve the
results he expects. He must allocate time for snipers to plan, coordinate, prepare,
rehearse, move, and establish positions. He must understand how the snipers’ risk
increases when they lack adequate time to plan or conduct such actions as
moving to the area of operations.
Movement factors for snipers moving with a security element are the same as for
any infantry force. When snipers are moving alone in the area of operations,
however, they move slowly; their movement can be measured in feet and inches.
The sniper team members themselves are best qualified to determine how much
time is required for a particular movement.
The amount of time a sniper team can remain in a position without loss of
effectiveness (due to eye fatigue, muscle strain, or cramps) depends mostly on the
type of position the team is occupying. Generally, snipers can remain in an
expedient position for six hours before they must be relieved. They can remain in
belly positions or semipermanent hides up to 48 hours. Mission duration times
average 24 hours. (NOTE: FM 23-10 provides guidance on sniper position
considerations, construction, and preparation and occupation times.)
SECTION 2 - OFFENSIVE EMPLOYMENT

Offensive operations carry the fight to the enemy to destroy his capability and will to fight. By killing
enemy targets that threaten the success of the attack, the sniper can play a major role in offensive
operations.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

During offensive operations, snipers can be employed to perform the following tasks:
● Conduct countersniper operations.
● Overwatch movement of friendly forces and suppress enemy targets that threaten the moving
forces.
● Place precision fires on enemy crew-served weapons teams and into exposed apertures of
bunkers.
● Place precision fires on key enemy personnel, including leaders, armored vehicle drivers or
commanders, and FOs.
● Place precision fires on small, isolated, and/or bypassed forces.
● Place precision fires on targets that are threatening a counterattack or are fleeing.
● Provide supplemental fires to assist in screening a flank.
● Dominate key terrain, using precision fires to control access to the terrain.
MOVEMENT TO CONTACT
The commander has several options in employing snipers to support a movement to contact. Sniper
teams can move with the lead element. They can also be deployed 24 to 48 hours before the unit’s
movement to perform these tasks:
● Select positions.
● Gather information about the enemy.
● Dominate key terrain, preventing enemy surprise attacks.
ATTACK
Although snipers can play only a limited role in a mounted attack, their firepower and mobility make
them a valuable asset in a dismounted assault. The following employment considerations apply:
● Snipers can be placed with lead elements, moving to positions that allow them to overwatch the
dismounted maneuver of the infantry squads and to provide long-range small arms fires.
● Snipers may also be placed with a mounted support element, with the assignment of suppressing,
fixing, or isolating the enemy on the objective.
● If time permits, snipers may be deployed as soon as the element reaches the dismount point.
● Snipers may move with infantry squads approaching the objective. They can then occupy a
close-in support by fire position from which they can help to suppress or destroy targets
threatening the assault of the infantry squads.
● To increase security and surprise, snipers may move covertly into position in an objective area
well before the main attack and mounted forces arrive.
● If their fires are masked, snipers must reposition as soon possible.
● During consolidation, snipers may displace forward to new positions. These positions, which are
not necessarily on the objective, allow the snipers to provide precision fires against bypassed

enemy positions, enemy counterattack forces, or other enemy positions that could degrade the
unit’s ability to exploit the success of the attack.
SECTION 3 - DEFENSIVE EMPLOYMENT

Snipers can be effective in enhancing or augmenting any unit’s defensive fire plan. They must be able
to analyze the terrain that will be used in the defense and then recommend employment options to the
commander.
DEFENSIVE TASKS
The sniper team can perform the following tasks in support of the unit’s defensive operations:
● Cover obstacles, minefields, roadblocks, and demolition missions.
● Perform counterreconnaissance tasks to kill enemy reconnaissance elements.
● Engage enemy OPs, armored vehicle commanders (while they are exposed in their vehicles’
turrets), and ATGM teams.
● Damage vehicle optics to degrade enemy movement capabilities.
● Suppress enemy crew-served weapons.
● Disrupt follow-on units with long-range small arms fires.
EMPLOYMENT CONSIDERATIONS
Sniper teams add considerable flexibility to the commander’s defensive scheme of maneuver. They can
be employed in the following ways:
● Snipers are generally positioned to observe or control one or more avenues of approach into the
defensive position. Their stealth, mobility, and available weapon systems make them ideal for
use against secondary avenues of approach. This enhances the unit’s
all-around security and allows the commander to concentrate his combat power against the most
likely enemy avenue of approach.
● Snipers can establish alternate and supplementary positions to further enhance all-around
security.
● Snipers can be positioned to overwatch key obstacles or terrain, such as river crossing sites,
bridges, and minefields that canalize the enemy directly into engagement areas.
● Snipers can play an integral part in the counterreconnaissance effort. They can help to acquire or
destroy targets, or both.
● Snipers should be tasked to support any unit that is defending a strongpoint. The characteristics
of the sniper team enable it to perform independent harassment and observation tasks in support
of the force in the strongpoint, either from within or outside of the strongpoint.

SECTION 4 - RETROGRADE EMPLOYMENT
In supporting a retrograde operation, sniper teams must understand the commander’s concept, intent,
and scheme of maneuver. They must also have a complete grasp of critical information for the
operation, including withdrawal times, conditions, and/or priorities; routes; support positions; rally
points; and locations of obstacles. The commander must thoroughly plan and coordinate engagement
and disengagement criteria for the operation to ensure that snipers can achieve the desired effect
without compromising their positions. (NOTE: Refer to Chapter 5 of this manual for a discussion of
retrograde operations.)
The following considerations apply for sniper employment during retrograde operations:
● Snipers may be assigned any of the following specific tasks during retrograde operations:
- Delay the enemy by inflicting casualties.

- Observe avenues of approach.
- Cover key obstacles with precision fire.
- Direct artillery fires against large enemy formations.
● Snipers can assist the delaying force in forcing the enemy to deploy prematurely during
retrograde operations. They do this by inflicting casualties with accurate, long-range small arms
fire.
● Because delaying forces risk being bypassed or overtaken by attacking enemy forces during
retrograde operations, commanders may have to provide transportation to move snipers to
successive positions.
● When snipers find themselves behind the enemy’s front, they must be prepared to infiltrate back
to friendly positions. Infiltration plans must be fully coordinated to prevent fratricide as sniper
teams attempt to reenter the friendly position.
SECTION 5 - MOUT EMPLOYMENT

The value of sniper teams to a unit operating in an urban area depends on several factors, including the
type of operation, the level of conflict, and the applicable ROE. Where ROE allow destruction of
enemy elements, snipers may have an extremely limited role because other weapon systems available
to the mechanized force have greater destructive effect. When the ROE prohibit collateral damage,
however, snipers may be the most valuable tool the commander has.
The following considerations apply for sniper employment during MOUT:
● Sniper effectiveness depends in part on the terrain; control is degraded by the characteristics of
the urban area. To provide timely and effective support, snipers must have a clear picture of the
scheme of maneuver and commander’s intent.
● Snipers should be positioned in buildings of masonry construction. Positions should afford
long-range fields of all-around observation and fire.
● Snipers should operate throughout the area of operations, moving with and supporting company
teams as necessary.
● Specific sniper tasks in MOUT include the following:
- Conduct countersniper operations.

- Kill targets of opportunity. Sniper teams prioritize these targets based on their
understanding of the commander’s intent. For example, they may attack enemy snipers
first, followed by (in order) leaders, vehicle commanders, radio operators, engineers, and
machine gun crews.
- Control key terrain by denying enemy access to certain areas or avenues of approach.
- Provide supporting fires for barricades and other obstacles.
- Maintain surveillance of flank and rear avenues of approach (screening operations).
- Support local counterattacks with precision fires.
NOTE: Snipers can also be valuable to commanders in stability and support operations, in which
the ROE normally restrict collateral damage and civilian casualties. A common task for snipers
in such situations is to selectively kill or wound key individuals who pose a threat to friendly
forces. This selective engagement allows the unit to avoid causing unacceptable casualties or
damage.

FM 71-1 Appendix O Environmental Protection
APPENDIX O
Environmental Protection
Protection of natural resources has become an ever-increasing concern. It is the responsibility of all unit
leaders to decrease, and if possible eliminate, damage to the environment when conducting all types of
operations.
CONTENTS
Section 1 Environmental Risk Management Process
Step 1 - Identify Hazards
Step 2 - Assess the Hazards
Step 3 - Make Environmental Risk Decisions
Step 4 - Brief the Cahin of Command
Step 5 - Implement Controls
Step 6 - Supervise
Section 2 Environmental Risk Assessment Worksheet
SECTION 1 - ENVIRONMENTAL RISK

MANAGEMENT PROCESS
Environmental risk management parallels safety risk management and is based on the same philosophy
and principles. (NOTE: Refer to the discussion of safety risk management in Appendix C of this
manual.) The environmental risk assessment and management process consists of the six steps outlined
in the following paragraphs.
STEP 1 - IDENTIFY HAZARDS

The company team’s leaders must identify potential sources of environmental degradation during their
analysis of METT-TC factors. These environmental hazards are conditions with the potential for
polluting air, soil, or water and/or destroying cultural or historical structures, sites, or artifacts.
STEP 2 - ASSESS THE HAZARD

Leaders can use the environmental risk assessment worksheet in Figure O-1 to analyze the potential
severity of environmental degradation for each training activity. The worksheet allows them to quantify
the risk to the environment as extremely high, high, medium, or low. The risk impact value is an
indicator of these levels of severity.
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STEP 3 - MAKE ENVIRONMENTAL RISK

DECISIONS
Based on the results of the risk assessment, the team’s leaders make decisions and develop measures to
reduce significant environmental risks. Risk decisions are made at a level of command that corresponds
to the degree of risk.
STEP 4 - BRIEF THE CHAIN OF COMMAND

Leaders should brief all responsible individuals and agencies (to include the installation environmental
office, if applicable) on the proposed operational and training plans and on pertinent high-risk
environmental factors.
STEP 5 - IMPLEMENT CONTROLS

The company team commander and subordinate leaders implement environmental protection measures
at all stages of operational planning, preparation, and execution. They integrate these measures into
plans, orders, SOPs, training performance standards, and rehearsals.
STEP 6 - SUPERVISE
Company team leaders enforce environmental protection standards during supervision of all training
activities.
SECTION 2 - ENVIRONMENTAL RISK

ASSESSMENT WORKSHEET
To use the environmental risk assessment worksheet (Figure O-1) for a specific operation or training
event, the company team commander and subordinate leaders first determine the impact level for each
of the five types of unit activities listed in the top part of the worksheet (movement of heavy vehicles
and equipment; movement of personnel and light vehicles and equipment; assembly area activities;
field maintenance activities; and garrison maintenance activities). This risk impact is assigned a value
from 0 (lowest risk) to 5 (highest risk) for each activity.
The second part of the worksheet allows leaders to assess the risk impact of these unit activities in
seven critical areas of environmental concern. The leaders determine which of the five activities will
affect each area and enter the corresponding risk impact value. For example, the commander
determines that movement of heavy vehicles (which he has assigned a risk value of 5), "light"
movement (a value of 2), and assembly area activities (a value of 4) will affect air pollution during the
company team’s upcoming training exercise. He enters those values in the appropriate columns, then
adds them together for a total risk impact value of 11 for air pollution. He repeats this process for the

other environmental areas of concern.

The total of the risk impact values for the seven environmental areas is the overall risk impact value for
the operation or exercise. As with other types of risk assessment, decisions concerning environmental
risk must be made, and appropriate controls implemented, at the proper level of command. The
decision-maker (whether it is the company team commander, a subordinate leader, or a higher
commander) uses the risk impact values as a guide in ensuring that the environment in the operational
area is protected and preserved.

Figure O-1. Environmental risk assessment worksheet.

Fm 71-1 Glossary
Glossary
A
AA avenue of approach; assembly area
ABF attack by fire (position)
ACA airspace coordination area
ACE armored combat earthmover
ADA air defense artillery
ADAM area denial antipersonnel mine
ADO air defense officer
AFATDS advanced field artillery tactical data system
AGC advance guard company
AGMB advance guard main body (enemy force)
A/L administrative/logistics
ammo ammunition
AOAP Army Oil Analysis Program
AP antipersonnel
APC armored personnel carrier
APERS antipersonnel
APFSDS-T armor-piercing, fin-stabilized, discarding-sabot tracer
(ammunition)
ARTEP Army Training and Evaluation Program
ASL authorized stockage list
AT antitank
ATGM antitank guided missile
AVLB armored vehicle launched bridge
AVLM armored vehicle launched MICLIC
AXP ambulance exchange point
B
bde brigade
BFV Bradley (infantry) fighting vehicle
BHL battle handover line
BHOL battle handover line
BIDS biological integrated detection system
BMNT beginning of morning nautical twilight
BMO battalion maintenance officer
bn battalion
BP battle position
BRIDGEREP report of bridge, overpass, culvert, underpass, or tunnel
BSA brigade support area
BSFV Bradley Stinger (missile) fighting vehicle
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Fm 71-1 Glossary
C
CA civil affairs
CAM chemical agent monitor
CAS close air support
CASEVAC casualty evacuation
CCIR commander’s critical information requirements
cdr commander
CFL coordinated fire line
CFZ critical friendly zone
cGy/hr centigray(s) per hour
CITV commander's independent thermal viewer
CLU command launch unit
CMT company maintenance team
co tm; co/tm company team
COA course of action
COLT combat observation lasing team
COMSEC communications security
CONPLAN contingency plan
coord inst coordinating instructions (illustration text only)
CP command post; checkpoint (illustration text only); contact point
(illustration text only)
CROSSREP report of ford, ferry, or other water crossing site
CRP combat reconnaissance patrol (enemy unit)
CS combat support
CSOP combat security outpost (enemy position)
CSS combat service support
CUCV commercial utility cargo vehicle
CVC combat vehicle crewman
D
DA Department of the Army
DAP decontamination apparatus
DBCS digital battle command system
DD Department of Defense
DED detailed equipment decontamination
div division
DLIC detachment left in contact
DMD digital message device
DS direct support
DTD detailed troop decontamination
DX direct exchange
E
EA engagement area
ECCM electronic counter-countermeasures

Fm 71-1 Glossary
ECM electronic countermeasures

EENT end of evening nautical twilight
en; EN enemy
engr engineer(s)
ENY enemy
EPLRS enhanced position locating and reporting system
EPW enemy prisoner of war
ESTAT equipment status report
EW electronic warfare
F
1LT first lieutenant
1SG first sergeant
FA field artillery
FD fire direction
FDC fire direction center
FEBA forward edge of the battle area
FED forward entry device
FIST fire support team
FIST-V fire support team vehicle
FKSM Fort Knox Supplemental Material
FLOT forward line of own troops
FM frequency modulation (radio); field manual
FO forward observer
FPF final protective fires
FPL final protective line
FRAGO fragmentary order
freq frequency
FS fire support
FSB forward support battalion
FSE fire support element; forward security element (enemy forces
only)
FSO fire support officer
FWF former warring factions
FY fiscal year
G
GP general purpose (tent designation)
gpm gallons per minute
GPS global positioning system
GS general support
GSR ground surveillance radar
GTA graphic training aid
G/VLLD ground/vehicle laser locator designator
H

Fm 71-1 Glossary
H hour (used for timeline designation)

HB heavy barrel
HC hexachloroethane
HE high explosive
HEAT high explosive antitank (ammunition)
HEAT-T high explosive antitank tracer (ammunition)
HEDP high explosive dual purpose (ammunition)
HEI-T high explosive incendiary tracer (ammunition)
HEMTT heavy expanded mobility tactical truck
HEP-T high explosive plastic tracer (ammunition)
HHC headquarters and headquarters company
HMMWV high-mobility multipurpose wheeled vehicle
HQ headquarters
hr hour(s)
IJK
ICM improved conventional munitions
ID identification
IDA improved dogbone assembly
IEDK individual equipment decontamination kit
IFSAS initial fire support automated system
IPB intelligence preparation of the battlefield
IR infrared
IREMBASS improved remotely monitored battlefield sensor system
ISU integrated sight unit
IVIS intervehicular information system
IVL intervisibility line
KIA killed in action
kmph kilometer(s) per hour
L
LC line of contact
LD line of departure
L-MOPP laser mission-oriented protective posture
LO liaison officer
LOA limit of advance
LOGPAC logistics package
LP listening post
LRF laser range finder
LRP logistic release point
LT lieutenant
LZ landing zone
M
m meter(s)
MACOM major (US Army) command

Fm 71-1 Glossary
MANPADS man-portable air defense system

MBA main battle area
MC mobility corridor
MCOO modified combined obstacle overlay
mech mechanized
MEDEVAC medical evacuation
MEL maximum engagement line
METL mission essential task list
METT-TC mission, enemy, terrain (and weather), troops, time available, and
civilian considerations (factors taken into account in situational
awareness and in the mission analysis process)
MG machine gun
MI military intelligence
MICLIC mine-clearing line charge
MIJI meaconing, intrusion, jamming, and interference
MLC military load class
mm millimeter(s)
MOPMS modular pack mine system
MOPP mission-oriented protective posture
MOS military occupational specialty
MOUT military operations in urban terrain
MPAT multipurpose antitank (ammunition)
MPCOA most probable course of action
mph mile(s) per hour
MRB motorized rifle battalion
MRC motorized rifle company
MRD motorized rifle division
MRE meals, ready to eat
MRP motorized rifle platoon
MRS muzzle reference sensor
MSL minimum safe line
MSR main supply route
MST maintenance support team
MTOE modified table(s) of organization and equipment
MTP mission training plan
N
NA not applicable
NAAK nerve agent autoinjector kit
NAI named area(s) of interest
NBC nuclear, biological, chemical
NBCWRS NBC warning and reporting system
NCO noncommissioned officer
NCOIC noncommissioned officer in charge

Fm 71-1 Glossary
NCS net control station

NFA no-fire area
NLT not later than
NMC nonmission-capable
O
obj objective
OAKOC Obstacles; avenues of approach; key terrain; observation and
fields of fire; and cover and concealment (considerations in
evaluating terrain as part of METT-T analysis)
OBSTINTEL obstacle intelligence
OEG operational exposure guidance
OIC officer in charge
O/O on order
OP observation post
OPCON operational control
OPLAN operation plan
OPORD operation order
OPSEC operations security
P
P persistent chemical agent (abbreviation on overlays)
PA public affairs
pam pamphlet
PAO public affairs office; public affairs officer
PC personnel carrier
PCC precombat check
PCI precombat inspection
PDDE power-driven decontamination equipment
PEWS platoon early warning system
PIR priority intelligence requirements
PL phase line
PLD probable line of deployment
PLGR precision lightweight GPS receiver ("Plugger")
PLL prescribed load list
PLOT-CR purpose, location, observer/alternate observer, trigger
communications, and rehearsal (critical target requirements),
plt platoon
PMCS preventive maintenance checks and services
POC point of contact
POL petroleum, oils, and lubricants
POSNAV position navigation (system)
PP passage point (abbreviation on overlays)
predet predetermined
prep preparatory

Fm 71-1 Glossary
PSG platoon sergeant

psi pounds per square inch
PSYOP psychological operations
PX post exchange
PZ pickup zone
QR
QRF quick reaction force
R&S reconnaissance and surveillance
RAAM remote antiarmor mine
rad radiation absorbed dose
RAG regimental artillery group
RCU remote control unit
recon reconnaissance; reconnoiter
REDCON readiness condition
regt regiment
RES radiation exposure status
RFL restrictive fire line
ROE rules of engagement
ROI rules of interaction
ROM refuel on the move
ROUTEREP route (reconnaissance) report
RP release point
RPV remotely piloted vehicle
RSI reconnaissance, surveillance, and intelligence
RTD returned to duty
rte route
RTO radiotelephone operator
S
2LT second lieutenant
S1 adjutant (US Army)
S2 intelligence officer (US Army)
S3 operations and training officer (US Army)
S3-Air air operations officer (US Army)
S4 supply officer (US Army)
S5 civil affairs officer (US Army)
SALT type of SITREP summarizing the enemy situation using size,
activity, location, and time
SBF support by fire (position)
SEAD suppression of enemy air defense
SEE small earth excavator
SENSEREP sensitive items report
SFC sergeant first class
SGT sergeant

Fm 71-1 Glossary
SH student handbook
SHORAD short-range air defense
SINCGARS single channel ground/airborne radio system
SITEMP situational template
SOI signal operation instructions
SOP standing operating procedure
SOSR suppression, obscuration, security, and reduction (actions
executed during breaching operations)
SP start point
SPEC specialist
SPOTREP spot report
SSG staff sergeant
STANAG standardization agreement (international)
SVML Stinger vehicle-mounted launcher
T
T&E traverse and elevation (mechanism)
TAA tactical avenue of approach; tactical assembly area (illustration
text only)
TACFIRE tactical fire direction system
TAI target area(s) of interest
TAMMS The Army Maintenance Management System
TAP toxological agent protective (apron)
TB MED technical bulletin, medical
TC tank commander
TCF tactical combat force
TF task force
THAAD theater high-altitude area defense
TOC tactical operations center
TOE table(s) of organization and equipment
TOW tube-launched, optically tracked, wire-guided (missile)
TP-T target practice-tracer (ammunition)
TPU tank and pump unit
TRADOC US Army Training and Doctrine Command
TRP target reference point
TSOP tactical standing operating procedures
TTP tactics, techniques, and procedures
U
UAV unmanned aerial vehicle
UMCP unit maintenance collection point
UMT unit ministry team
US United States (of America)
USAARMC US Army Armor Center
USAARMS US Army Armor School

Fm 71-1 Glossary
VWX
VEESS vehicle engine exhaust smoke system
VT variable-timed
WIA wounded in action
WP white phosphorus
WP-T white phosphorus tracer (ammunition)
WSRO weapon system replacement operations
XO executive officer

FM 71-1 References
CDROM Based Publications

CHQ SOFTWARE
Distributor of Military publications and digital media.
References
SOURCES USED
These sources are quoted or paraphrased in this publication.
Army Publications
ARTEP 7-8-MTP Mission Training Plan for the Infantry Rifle Platoon and
Squad. 29 September 1994.
ARTEP 7-247-11-DRILL Battle Drills for the Mechanized Infantry Platoon and
Squad (M2-Equipped). 24 March 1987.
ARTEP 17-237-10-MTP Mission Training Plan for the Tank Platoon. 25 September
1996.
ARTEP 71-1-MTP Mission Training Plan for the Tank and Mechanized
Infantry Company and Company Team. 3 October 1988.
(NOTE: This publication is currently under revision, with
publication scheduled for FY 1998.)
FM 3-3 Chemical and Biological Contamination Avoidance. 16
November 1992.
FM 3-3-1 Nuclear Contamination Avoidance. 9 September 1994.
FM 3-4 NBC Protection. 29 May 1992.
FM 3-5 NBC Decontamination. 17 November 1993.
FM 3-19 NBC Reconnaissance. 19 November 1993.
FM 3-100 Chemical Operations, Principles, and Fundamentals. 8 May
1996.
FM 6-20-20 Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Fire Support at
Battalion Task Force and Below. 27 December 1991.
FM 6-30 Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Observed Fire. 16
July 1991.
FM 6-71 Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Fire Support for
the Combined Arms Commander. 29 September 1994.
FM 7-7J Mechanized Infantry Platoon and Squad (Bradley). 7 May
1993.
FM 7-8 Infantry Rifle Platoon and Squad. 22 April 1992.
FM 7-10 The Infantry Rifle Company. 14 December 1990.
FM 7-20 The Infantry Battalion. 6 April 1992.
file:///C|/WINDOWS/Desktop/to CDR695/mcwp3131/Ref.htm (1 of 7) [12/8/2000 11:07:33 AM]

FM 71-1 References
FM 7-98 Operations in a Low-Intensity Conflict. 19 October 1992.

FM 17-15 Tank Platoon. 3 April 1996.
FM 17-18 Light Armor Operations. 8 March 1994.
FM 17-95 Cavalry Operations. 24 December 1996.
FM 17-97 Cavalry Troop. 3 October 1995.
FM 17-98 Scout Platoon. 9 September 1994.
FM 21-60 Visual Signals. 30 September 1987.
FM 23-10 Sniper Training. 17 August 1994.
FM 34-1 Intelligence and Electronic Warfare Operations. 27
September 1994.
FM 34-130 Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield. 8 July 1994.
FM 44-64 SHORAD Battalion and Battery Operations. 5 June 1997.
FM 71-2 The Tank and Mechanized Infantry Battalion Task Force.
27 September 1988. (NOTE: Materials for this manual
were taken from a draft revision of FM 71-2, published in
February 1996.)
FM 71-3 The Armored and Mechanized Infantry Brigade. 8 January
1996.
FM 71-123 Tactics and Techniques for Combined Arms Heavy Forces:
Armored Brigade, Battalion Task Force, and Company
Team. 30 September 1992.
FM 90-3 Desert Operations. 24 August 1993.
FM 90-5 Jungle Operations. 16 August 1982.
FM 90-7 Combined Arms Obstacle Integration. 29 September 1994.
FM 90-10 Military Operations in Urbanized Terrain (MOUT). 15
August 1979.
FM 90-10-1 An Infantryman's Guide to Combat in Built-up Areas. 12
May 93.
FM 90-13-1 Combined Arms Breaching Operations. 28 February 1991.
FM 100-5 Operations. 14 June 1993.
FM 100-23 Peace Operations. 30 December 1994.
FM 100-40 Tactics. (NOTE: Materials for this manual were taken from
the initial draft of FM 100-40, published in March 1996.)
FM 101-5 Staff Organization and Operations. 31 May 1997.
FM 101-5-1 Operational Terms and Symbols. 21 October 1985.
(NOTE: Materials for this manual were taken from a draft
revision of FM 101-5-1, published
in July 1995.)

FM 71-1 References
Command Publications
The following materials cannot be obtained through Armywide resupply channels. Address queries
concerning availability to the following address:
Commander, USAARMC
ATTN: ATZK-IMO-RS
Fort Knox, KY 40121-5000
FKSM 71-1-4 Company Team Operation Order Guide

and Format.
SH 7-45 Fire Planning Handbook.
TRADOC Pam 350-16 Heavy Opposing Force (OPFOR) Tactical Handbook. Draft
publication, September 1994.
Miscellaneous Publications
Battle Space: Article by LTG Paul E. Funk.

A Commander's Tool Military Review magazine, December 1993.
on the Future Battlefield
Clearing the Defile: Article by CPT John W. Miller III. Armor
A Doctrinal Discussion magazine, November-December 1994.
Company Team Command Article by CPT Dave Thompson. Armor
Post: The Missing Link magazine, July-August 1996.
Crisis in Battle: Article by MAJ David J. Lemelin. Armor
The Conduct of the Assault magazine, July-August 1995.
Direct Fire Planning Article by MAJ Derek Miller
and CPT Rick Averna.
Armor magazine, November-December 1993.
Drawing a Line in the Mud Center for Army Lessons Learned (CALL)
(summary of Bosnia operations) newsletter. Volume 96-5,
June 1996.
Leadership in Combat: Study conducted by the History Department,
An Historical Appraisal US Military Academy, under direction of
LTC K.E. Hamburger. 1984.
Mission Training Planfor Stability 7th Army Training Command White PaperJune 1995.
Operations
The Troop-Leading Prepared by CPT John T. Ryan. Mechanized
Procedures: Company Team Task Force Training Team, National Training
Planning Guide Center, Fort Irwin, California

FM 71-1 References
DOCUMENTS NEEDED
These documents must be available to the intended users of this publication.
Department of the Army Forms
DA Form 581 Request for Issue and Turn-in of Ammunition. August

1989.
DA Form 1155 Witness Statement on Individual. June 1966.
DA Form 1156 Casualty Feeder Report. June 1966.
DA Form 1594 Daily Staff Journal or Duty Officer's Log. November 1962.
DA Form 2028 Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms.
February 1974.
DA Form 2404 Equipment Inspection and Maintenance Worksheet. April
1979.
DA Form 2765 Request for Issue or Turn-in. April 1976.
DA Form 2765-1 Request for Issue or Turn-in. April 1976.
DA Form 5368-R Quick Fire Plan (LRA). December 1984.
DA Form 5988-E Equipment Inspection and Maintenance Worksheet. March
1991.
Department of Defense Forms
DD Form 1380 US Field Medical Card. December 1991.
READINGS RECOMMENDED
These readings contain relevant supplemental information.
Miscellaneous
Information on the following publication is available from the US Armor School Library at the
following address:
Commander, USAARMS
ATTN: ATSB-OPL
Fort Knox, KY 40121-5200

FM 71-1 References
A Bigger Hammer Armor Center monograph by LTC Arthur B. Alphin. May

1990.
Joint and Multiservice Publications
JCS Pub 3-07.2 Joint Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for

Antiterrorism. 25 June 1993.
JCS Pub 3-07.3 Joint Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Peacekeeping
Operations. 29 April 1994.
JCS Pub 3-11 Joint Doctrine for Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical
(NBC) Defense. 10 July 1995.
JCS Pub 3-50 National Search and Rescue Manual, Volume 1: National
Search and Rescue System.
1 February 1991.
STANAG 2014 Operation Orders, Warning Orders, and
Administrative/Logistics Orders.
STANAG 2029 Method of Describing Ground Locations, Areas, and
Boundaries.
STANAG 2099 Fire Coordination in Support of Land Forces.
STANAG 2128 Medical and Dental Supply Procedures.
STANAG 2144 Call for Fire Procedures.
STANAG 2147 Target Numbering System (Non-nuclear).
STANAG 3466 Responsibilities of Air Transport Units and User Units in
the Loading and Unloading of Transport Aircraft in Tactical
Air Transport Operations. Edition 2.
Army Publications
DA Pam 738-750 Functional Users Manual for the Army Maintenance

Management System (TAMMS). 1 August 1994.
FM 3-50 Smoke Operations. 4 December 1990.
FM 5-33 Terrain Analysis. 11 July 1990.
FM 5-36 Route Reconnaissance and Classification. 10 May 1985.
FM 5-100 Engineer Operations. 27 February 1996.
FM 5-101 Mobility. 23 January 1985.
FM 5-102 Countermobility. 14 March 1985.
FM 5-103 Survivability. 10 June 1985.
FM 5-114 Engineer Operations Short of War. 13 July 1992.
FM 5-250 Explosives and Demolitions. 15 June 1992.
FM 6-20 Fire Support in the AirLand Battle. 17 May 1988.
FM 6-20-50 Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Fire Support for
Brigade Operations (Light). 5 January 1990.
FM 7-30 The Infantry Brigade. 3 October 1995.

FM 71-1 References
FM 7-90 Tactical Employment of Mortars. 9 October 1992.

FM 8-42 Medical Operations in Low-Intensity Conflict. 4 December
1990.
FM 8-55 Planning for Health Service Support. 9 September 1994.
FM 12-6 Personnel Doctrine. 9 September 1994.
FM 14-7 Finance Operations. 17 August 1994.
FM 16-1 Religious Support. 26 May 1995.
FM 17-12-1 Tank Combat Tables, M1. 3 November 1986.
FM 17-12-1-1 Tank Gunnery (Abrams), Volumes I and II. 19 March 1993.
FM 17-12-1-2 (NOTE: These publications are currently under revision,
with publication scheduled for FY 1997.)
FM 19-40 Enemy Prisoners of War, Civilian Internees, and Detained
Persons. 27 February 1976.
FM 20-22 Vehicle Recovery Operations. 18 September 1990.
FM 20-32 Mine/Countermine Operations. 30 September 1992.
FM 21-76 Survival. 5 June 1992.
FM 22-100 Military Leadership. 31 July 1990.
FM 23-1 Bradley Gunnery. 18 March 1996.
FM 26-2 Management of Stress in Army Operations. 29 August
1986.
FM 31-20 Doctrine for Special Forces Operations. 20 April 1990.
FM 31-70 Basic Cold Weather Manual. 12 April 1968.
FM 33-1 Psychological Operations. 18 February 1993.
FM 41-10 Civil Affairs Operations. 11 January 1993.
FM 44-1 US Army Air Defense Artillery Employment. 9 May 1983.
FM 44-100 US Army Air Defense Operations. 15 June 1995.
FM 55-9 Unit Air Movement Planning. 5 April 1993.
FM 57-38 Pathfinder Operations. 9 April 1993.
FM 63-2-1 Division Support Command: Light Infantry, Airborne, and
Air Assault Divisions. 16 November 1992.
FM 71-100 Division Operations. 28 August 1996.
FM 90-2 Battlefield Deception. 3 October 1988.
FM 90-4 Air Assault Operations. 16 March 1987.
FM 90-6 Mountain Operations. 30 June 1980.
FM 90-8 Counterguerrilla Operations. 29 August 1986.
FM 90-13 River Crossing Operations. 30 September 1992.
FM 90-14 Rear Battle. 10 June 1985.
FM 90-22 Multiservice Night and Adverse Weather Combat
Operations. 31 January 1991.
FM 90-26 Airborne Operations. 18 December 1990.
FM 100-10 Combat Service Support. 3 October l995.
FM 100-15 Corps Operations. 29 October 1996.
FM 100-19 Domestic Support Operations. 1 July 1993.

FM 71-1 References
FM 100-20 Military Operations in Low Intensity Conflict. 5 December

1990.
FM 100-25 Doctrine for Army Special Operations Forces. 12 December
1991.
FM 100-27 US Army/US Air Force Doctrine for Joint Airborne and
Tactical Airlift Operations. 31 January 1985.
FM 100-37 Terrorism Counteraction. 24 July 1987.
TB MED 524 Occupational and Environmental Health: Control of
Hazards to Health from Laser Radiation. 20 June 1985.

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FM 71-1 Table of Contents

CHAPTER 3 OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS

CHAPTER 4 DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS

CHAPTER 5 OTHER TACTICAL OPERATIONS

CHAPTER 6 COMBAT SUPPORT

CHAPTER 7 COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT

APPENDIX A COMBAT ORDERS

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APPENDIX C RISK MANAGEMENT

APPENDIX D FRATRICIDE PREVENTION

APPENDIX E CONTINUOUS OPERATIONS

APPENDIX F LIMITED VISIBILITY OPERATIONS

APPENDIX G NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, CHEMICAL, AND

APPENDIX K SUPPORT OPERATIONS

APPENDIX L DIRECTED-ENERGY WEAPONS

APPENDIX M OPERATIONS SECURITY

APPENDIX N SNIPER OPERATIONS

APPENDIX O ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

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Section 1 Mission, Organization, Capabilaities, and Limitations

Section 2 Company Team Battlefield Focus

Section 3 Duties and Responsibilities of Key Personnel

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Section 4 Operating Systems

Section 5 The Human Dimension

Section 6 Specialized Operating Environments

TANK COMPANY HEADQUARTERS

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Figure 1-1 illustrates the organization of a tank company. The company

● Two M998 HMMWVs with drivers. These vehicles carry the

Figure 1-1. Tank company organization.

MECHANIZED INFANTRY COMPANY HEADQUARTERS

● Two M998 HMMWVs with drivers.

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Figure 1-2. Mechanized infantry company organization.

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Figure 1-3. Tank platoon organization.

Capabilities The tank platoon has the following capabilities:

● It can secure terrain.

● It can defend, repelling enemy attacks with fires.

● It can conduct combat operations under limited visibility

● It can provide support, in the form of armor protection and fires,

● It can operate in an NBC environment.

● It can operate in a stability and support environment.

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The tank platoon has these limitations:

● Water crossing operations present a variety of difficulties because

MECHANIZED INFANTRY PLATOON

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Figure 1-4. Mechanized infantry platoon organization.

Capabilities The following paragraphs list capabilities of the mechanized infantry

● It can assault through small arms and indirect fires to deliver

● It can operate in a stability and support environment.

● It can seize and/or retain key terrain.