Dutch Golden Age painting 1

Dutch Golden Age painting

Dutch Golden Age painting is the painting
of the Dutch Golden Age, a period in Dutch
history generally spanning the 17th
century,[1] during and after the later part of
the Eighty Years War (1568–1648) for
Dutch independence. The new Dutch
Republic was the most prosperous nation in
Europe, and led European trade, science,
and art. The northern Netherlandish
provinces that made up the new state had
traditionally been less important artistic
centres than cities in Flanders in the south,
and the upheavals and large-scale transfers
of population of the war, and the sharp
break with the old monarchist and Catholic
cultural traditions, meant that Dutch art
needed to reinvent itself entirely, a task in
which it was very largely successful.

Although Dutch painting of the Golden Age

comes in the general European period of
Baroque painting, and often shows many of Johannes Vermeer, The Milkmaid (1658–1660)

its characteristics, most lacks the

idealization and love of splendour typical of much Baroque work, including that of neighbouring Flanders. Most
work, including that for which the period is best known, reflects the traditions of detailed realism inherited from
Early Netherlandish painting.

A distinctive feature of the period is the proliferation of distinct genres of paintings, with the majority of artists
producing the bulk of their work within one of these. The full development of this specialization is seen from the late
1620s, and the period from then until the French invasion of 1672 is the core of Golden Age painting.

History of Dutch and Flemish painting

Early Netherlandish  (1400–1500)

Renaissance painting  (1500–1584)

Dutch "Golden Age" painting  (1584–1702)

Flemish Baroque painting  (1585–1700)

List of Dutch painters

List of Flemish painters

Dutch Golden Age painting 2

Types of painting
A distinctive feature of the period, compared to earlier European
painting, was the small amount of religious painting. Dutch Calvinism
forbade religious painting in churches, and though biblical subjects
were acceptable in private homes, relatively few were produced. The
other traditional classes of history and portrait painting were present,
but the period is more notable for a huge variety of other genres,
sub-divided into numerous specialized categories, such as scenes of
peasant life, landscapes, townscapes, landscapes with animals,
maritime paintings, flower paintings and still lifes of various types.
The development of many of these types of painting was decisively
influenced by 17th-century Dutch artists.

The widely held theory of the "hierarchy of genres" in painting,

Frans Hals' tronie, with the later title Gypsy Girl. whereby some types were regarded as more prestigious than others, led
1628-30. Oil on wood, 58 x 52 cm. The tronie many painters to want to produce history painting. However this was
includes elements of portraiture, genre painting,
the hardest to sell, as even Rembrandt found. Many were forced to
and sometimes history painting.
produce portraits or genre scenes, which sold much more easily. In
descending order of status the categories in the hierarchy were:

• history painting, including allegories and popular religious subjects.

• Portrait painting, including the tronie
• genre painting or scenes of everyday life
• landscape, including seascapes, battlescenes, cityscapes, and ruins.
• still life
The Dutch concentrated heavily on the "lower" categories, but by no
means rejected the concept of the hierarchy. Most paintings were
relatively small – the only common type of really large paintings were
group portraits. Painting directly onto walls hardly existed; when a
wall-space in a public building needed decorating fitted framed canvas
was normally used. For the extra precision possible on a hard surface
many painters continued to use wooden panels, some time after the rest
of Western Europe had abandoned them; some used copper plates,
usually recycling plates from printmaking. In turn the number of Paulus Potter, The Young Bull (1647); 3.4 metres
surviving Golden Age paintings was reduced by them being wide. An unusually monumental animal painting
that challenges the hierarchy of genres.
overpainted with new works by artists throughout the 18th and 19th
century – poor ones were usually cheaper than a new canvas, stetcher
and frame. There was very little Dutch sculpture during the period; it is mostly found in tomb monuments and
attached to public buildings, and small sculptures for houses are a noticeable gap, their place taken by silverware and
ceramics. Painted delftware tiles were very cheap and common, if rarely of really high quality, but silver, especially
in the auricular style, led Europe. With this exception, the best artistic efforts were concentrated on painting and
printmaking.
Dutch Golden Age painting 3

The art world

Foreigners remarked on the enormous quantities of art produced, and
the large fairs where many paintings were sold – it has been roughly
estimated that over 1.3 million Dutch pictures were painted in the 20
years after 1640 alone.[2] The volume of production meant that prices
were fairly low, except for the best known artists; as in most
subsequent periods there was a steep price gradient for more
fashionable artists. Those without a strong contemporary reputation or
fallen out of fashion, including many now considered among the
greatest of the period, such as Vermeer, Frans Hals and Rembrandt in
Dirck Hals, genre scene of Gentlemen Smoking
his last years, had considerable problems earning a living, and died
and Playing Backgammon in an Interior. Note
the paintings on the wall of what appears to be a poor; many artists had other jobs, or abandoned art entirely.[3] In
tavern; also here. particular the French invasion of 1672 (the Rampjaar, or "year of
disaster"), brought a severe depression to the art market, which never
quite returned to earlier heights.[4] The distribution of pictures was very wide: "yea many tymes, blacksmithes,
cobblers etts., will have some picture or other by their Forge and in their stalle. Such is the generall Notion,
enclination and delight that these Countrie Native have to Painting" reported an English traveller in 1640.[5] There
were for virtually the first time many professional art dealers, several also significant artists, like Vermeer and his
father, Jan van Goyen and Willem Kalf. Rembrandt's dealer Hendrick van Uylenburgh and his son Gerrit were
among the most important. Landscapes were the easiest uncommissioned works to sell, and their painters were the
"common footmen in the Army of Art" according to Samuel van Hoogstraten[6]

The technical quality of Dutch artists

was generally very high, still mostly
following the old medieval system of
training by apprenticeship with a
master; typically workshops were
smaller than in Flanders or Italy, with
only one or two apprentices at a time,
the number often being restricted by
guild regulations. The turmoil of the
early years of the Republic, with
displaced artists from the South
moving north and the loss of
traditional markets in the court and
church, led to a resurgence of artists
guilds, often still called the Guild of The Haarlem Painter's Guild in 1675, by Jan de Bray, whose self-portrait is the second
Saint Luke; in many cases these from the left
involved the artists extricating
themselves from medieval groupings where they shared a guild with several other trades, such as housepainting.
Several new guilds were established in the period: Amsterdam in 1579, Haarlem in 1590, and Gouda, Rotterdam,
Utrecht and Delft between 1609 and 1611,.[7] The Leiden authorities diistrusted guilds and did not allow one until
1648.,[8] while The Hague with its Catholic court, split itself in two in 1656 with the Confrerie Pictura. Later in the
century it began to become clear to all involved that a the old idea of a guild controlling both training and sales no
long worked well, and gradually the guilds were replaced with academies only concerned with the training of artists.
Dutch Golden Age painting 4

With the obvious exception of portraits, many more Dutch paintings were done "speculatively" without a specific
commission than was then the case in other countries – one of many ways in which the Dutch art market showed the
future.[5]
There were many dynasties of artists, and many married the daughters of their masters or other artists. Many artists
came from well-off families, who paid fees for their apprenticeships, and they often married into property.
Rembrandt and Jan Steen were both enrolled at the University of Leiden for a while. Several cities had distinct styles
and specialities by subject, but Amsterdam was the largest artistic centre, because of its great wealth.[9]
Dutch artists were strikingly less concerned about artistic theory than
those of many nations, and less given to discussing their art; it appears
that there was also much less interest in artistic theory in general
intellectual circles and among the wider public than was by then
common in Italy.[10] As nearly all commissions and sales were private,
and between bourgeois individuals whose accounts have not been
preserved, these are also less well documented than elsewhere. But
Dutch art was a source of national pride, and the major biographers are
crucial sources of information. These are Karel van Mander (Het
Schilderboeck, 1604), who essentially covers the previous century, and
Aert de Gelder, Self-portrait as Zeuxis (1685)
Arnold Houbraken (De groote schouburgh der Nederlantsche
konstschilders en schilderessen – "The Great Theatre of Dutch
Painters", 1718–21). Both followed, and indeed exceeded, Vasari in including a great number of short lives of artists
– over 500 in Houbraken's case – and both are considered generally accurate on factual matters. The German artist
Joachim von Sandrart (1606–1688) had worked for periods in Holland, and his Deutsche Akademie in the same
format covers many Dutch artists he knew. Houbraken's master, and Rembrandt's pupil, was Samuel van
Hoogstraten (1627–1678), whose Zichtbare wereld and Inleyding tot de Hooge Schoole der Schilderkonst (1678)
contain more critical than biographical information, and are among the most important treatises on painting of the
period. Like other Dutch works on the theory of art, they expound many commonplaces of Renaissance theory and
do not entirely reflect contemporary Dutch art, still often concentrating on history painting.[11]

History painting
This category comprises not only paintings that depicted historical
events of the past, but also paintings that showed biblical,
mythological, literary and allegorical scenes. Recent historical events
essentially fell out of the category, and were treated in a realist fashion,
as the appropriate combination of portraits with marine, townscape or
landscape subjects.[12] Large dramatic historical or Biblical scenes
were produced less frequently than in other countries, as there was no
local market for church art, and few large aristocratic Baroque houses
to fill. More than that, the Protestant population of major cities had
been exposed to some remarkably hypocritical uses of Mannerist
allegory in unsuccessful Habsburg propaganda during the Dutch Jacob van Loo, Danaë (compare Rembrandt's
treatment)
Revolt, which had produced a strong reaction towards realism and a
distrust of grandiose visual rhetoric.[13] History painting was now a
"minority art", although to an extent this was redressed by a relatively keen interest in print versions of history
subjects[14]
Dutch Golden Age painting 5

More than in other types of painting, Dutch history painters continued to be influenced by Italian painting. Prints and
copies of Italian masterpieces circulated and suggested certain compositional schemes. The growing Dutch skill in
the depiction of light was brought to bear on styles derived from Italy, notably that of Caravaggio. Some Dutch
painters also travelled to Italy, though this was less common than with their Flemish contemporaries, as can be seen
from the membership of the Bentvueghels club in Rome.[5]
In the early part of the century many Northern Mannerist artists with
styles formed in the previous century continued to work, until the
1630s in the cases of Abraham Bloemaert and Joachim Wtewael.[15]
Many history paintings were small in scale, with the German painter
(based in Rome) Adam Elsheimer as much an influence as Caravaggio
(both died in 1610) on Dutch painters like Pieter Lastman, Rembrandt's
master, and Jan and Jacob Pynas. Compared to Baroque history
painting from other countries, they shared the Dutch emphasis on
realism, and narrative directness, and are sometimes known as the
"Pre-Rembrandtists", as Rembrandt's early paintings were in this Utrecht Caravaggism:Dirck van Baburen, Christ
style.[16] crowned with thorns, 1623, for a convent in
Utrecht, not a market available in most of
Utrecht Caravaggism describes a group of artists who produced both Holland.
history painting and generally large genre scenes in an
Italian-influenced style, often making heavy use of chiaroscuro. Utrecht, before the revolt the most important city in
the new Dutch territory, was an unusual Dutch city, still about 40% Catholic in the mid-century, even more among
the elite groups, who included many rural nobility and gentry with town houses there.[17] The leading artists were
Hendrick ter Brugghen, Gerard van Honthorst and Dirck van Baburen, and the school was active about 1630,
although van Honthorst continued until the 1650s as a successful court painter to the English, Dutch and Danish
courts in a more classical style.[18]

Rembrandt began as a history painter before finding financial success as a portraitist, and he never relinguished his
ambitions in this area. A great number of his etchings are of narrative religious scenes, and the story of his last
history commission, The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis (1661) illustrates both his commitment to the form and the
difficulties he had in finding an audience.[19] Several artists, many his pupils, attempted with some success to
continue his very personal style; Govaert Flinck was the most successful. Gerard de Lairesse (1640–1711) was
another of these, before falling under heavy influence from French classicism, and becoming its leading Dutch
proponent as both artist and theoretician.[20]
Nudity was effectively the preserve of the history painter, although many portraitists dressed up their occasional
nudes (nearly always female) with a classical title, as Rembrandt did. For all their uninhibited suggestiveness, genre
painters rarely revealed more than a generous cleavage or stretch of thigh, usually when painting prostitutes or
"Italian" peasants.
Dutch Golden Age painting 6

Portraits
Portrait painting thrived in the Netherlands in the 17th century, as there
was a large mercantile class who were far more ready to commission
portraits than their equivalents in other countries; a summary of
various estimates of total production arrives at between 750,000 and
1,100,000 portraits.[22] Rembrandt enjoyed his greatest period of
financial success as a young Amsterdam portraitist, but like other
artists, grew rather bored with painting commissioned portraits of
burghers: "artists travel along this road without delight", according to
van Mander.[23]

While Dutch portrait painting avoids the swagger and excessive

rhetoric of the aristocratic Baroque portraiture current in the rest of
17th century Europe, the sombre clothing of male and in many cases
female sitters, and the Calvinist feeling that the inclusion of props,
Bartholomeus van der Helst, Sophia Trip (1645), possessions or views of land in the background would show the sin of
a member of one of the wealthiest families in
[21] pride leads to an undeniable sameness in many Dutch portraits, for all
Holland.
their technical quality. Even a standing pose is usually avoided, as a
full-length might also show pride. Poses are undemonstrative,
especially for women, though children may be allowed more freedom.
The classic moment for having a portrait painted was upon marriage,
when the new husband and wife more often than not occupied separate
frames in a pair of paintings. Rembrandt's later portraits compel by
force of characterization, and sometimes a narrative element, but even
his early portraits can be dispiriting en masse, as in the roomful of
'starter Rembrandts' donated to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in
New York.

The other great portraitist of the period is Frans Hals, whose famously
lively brushwork and ability to show sitters looking relaxed and
cheerful adds excitement to even the most unpromising subjects,
though the extremely "nonchalant pose" of the example at left is
exceptional: "no other portrait from this period is so informal".[24] The
sitter was a wealthy textile merchant who had already commissioned
Frans Hals, Willem Heythuijsen (1634), 47 x 37 Hals' only individual life-sized full length portrait ten years before. In
cm. this much smaller work for a private chamber he wears riding
clothes.[25] Jan de Bray encouraged his sitters to pose costumed as
figures from classical history, but many of his works are of his own family. Thomas de Keyser, Bartholomeus van
der Helst, Ferdinand Bol and others, including many mentioned below as history or genre painters, did their best to
enliven more conventional works. Portraiture, less affected by fashion than other types of painting, remained the safe
fallback for Dutch artists.

From what little we know of the studio procedures of artists, it seems that, as elsewhere in Europe, the face was
probably drawn and perhaps
Dutch Golden Age painting 7

painted at an initial sitting or two. The typical number of further

sittings is unclear - between zero (for a Rembrandt full-length) and 50
appear documented. The clothes were left at the studio and might well
be painted by assistants, or a bought in specialist master, although, or
because, they were regarded as a very important part of the
painting.[26] Married and never-married women can be distinguished
by their dress, highlighting how few single women were painted,
except in family groups.[27] As elsewhere, the accuracy of the clothes
shown is variable - striped and patterned clothes were worn, but artists
Jan Mijtens, family portrait, 1652, with the boys
in "picturesque" dress.
rarely show them, understandably avoiding the extra work. Lace and
ruff collars were unavoidable, and presented a formidable challenge to
painters intent on realism. Rembrandt evolved a more effective way of painting patterned lace, laying in broad white
stokes, and then painting lightly in black to show the pattern. Another way of doing this was to paint in white over a
black layer, and scratch off the white with the end of the brush to show the pattern.[28]

At the end of the century there was a fashion for showing sitters in a semi-fancy dress, begun in England by van
Dyck in the 1630s, known as "picturesque" or "Roman" dress.[29] Aristocratic, and militia, sitters allowed themselves
more freedom in bright dress and expansive settings than burghers, and religious affiliations probably affected many
depictions. By the end of the century aristocratic, or French, values were spreading among the burghers, and
depictions were allowed more freedom and display.
A distinctive type of painting, combining elements of the portrait, history, and genre painting was the tronie. This
was usually a half-length of a single figure which concentrated on capturing an unusual mood or expression. The
actual identity of the model was not supposed to be important, but they might represent a historical figure and be in
exotic or historic costume. Jan Lievens and Rembrandt, many of whose self-portraits are also tronies (especially his
etched ones), were among those who developed the genre.
Family portraits tended, as in Flanders, to be set outdoors in gardens, but without an extensive view as later in
England, and to be relatively informal in dress and mood. Group portraits, largely a Dutch invention, were popular
among the large numbers of civic associations that were a notable part of Dutch life, such as the officers of a city's
schutterij or militia guards, boards of trustees and regents of guilds and charitable foundations and the like.
Especially in the first half of the century, portraits were very formal and stiff in composition. Groups were often
seated around a table, each person looking at the viewer. Much attention was paid to fine details in clothing, and
where applicable, to furniture and other signs of a person's position in society. Later in the century groups became
livelier and colours brighter. Rembrandt's Syndics of the Drapers' Guild is a subtle treatment of a group round a
table.
Scientists often posed with instruments and objects of their study around them. Physicians sometimes posed together
around a cadaver, a so called 'Anatomical Lesson', the most famous one being Rembrandt's Anatomy Lesson of Dr.
Nicolaes Tulp (1632, Mauritshuis, The Hague). Boards of trustees preferred an image of austerity and humility,
posing in dark clothing (which by its refinement testified to their prominent standing in society), often seated around
a table, with solemn expressions on their faces.
Most group portraits of militia guards were commissioned in Haarlem and Amsterdam, and were much more
flamboyant and relaxed or even boisterous than other types of portraits, as well as much larger. Early examples
showed them dining, but later groups showed most figures standing for a more dynamic composition. Rembrandt's
famous The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq better known as the Night Watch (1642), was an
ambitious and not entirely successful attempt to show a group in action, setting out for a patrol or parade, also
innovative in avoiding the typical very wide format of such works.
Dutch Golden Age painting 8

The cost of group portraits was usually

shared by the subjects, often not
equally. The amount paid might
determine each person's place in the
picture, either head to toe in full
regalia in the foreground or face only
in the back of the group. Sometimes all
group members paid an equal sum,
which was likely to lead to quarrels
when some members gained a more Bartholomeus van der Helst, Banquet of the Amsterdam Civic Guard in Celebration of the
Peace of Münster, 1648; 5.47 metres wide
prominent place in the picture than
others. In Amsterdam most of these
paintings would ultimately end up in the possession of the city council, and many are now on display in the
Amsterdams Historisch Museum; there are no significant examples outside the Netherlands.

Scenes of everyday life

Genre paintings show scenes that prominently feature figures to whom
no specific identity can be attached – they are not portraits or intended
as historical figures. Together with landscape painting, the
development and enormous popularity of genre painting is the most
distinctive feature of Dutch painting in this period, although in this
case they were also very popular in Flemish painting. Many are single
figures, like the Vermeer Milkmaid above; others may show large
groups at some social occasion, or crowds. There were a large number
A typical Jan Steen picture (c. 1663); while the of sub-types within the genre: single figures, peasant families, tavern
[30]
housewife sleeps, the household play. scenes, "merry company" parties, women at work about the house,
scenes of village or town festivities (though these were still more
common in Flemish painting), market scenes, barracks scenes, scenes with horses or farm animals, in snow, by
moonlight, and many more. In fact most of these had specific terms in Dutch, but there was no overall Dutch term
equivalent to "genre painting" – until the late 18th century the English often called them "drolleries".[31] Some artists
worked mostly within one of these sub-types, especially after about 1625.[32] Over the course of the century, genre
paintings tended to reduce in size.

Though genre paintings provide many insights into the daily life of 17th-century citizens of all classes, their
accuracy cannot always be taken for granted.[33] Many which seemed only to depict everyday scenes actually
illustrated Dutch proverbs and sayings or conveyed a moralistic message – the meaning of which may now need to
be deciphered by art historians, though some are clear enough. Many artists, and no doubt purchasers, certainly tried
to have things both ways, enjoying the depiction of disorderly households or brothel scenes, while providing a moral
interpretation – the works of Jan Steen, whose other profession was as an innkeeper, are an example. The balance
between these elements is still debated by art historians today.[34] The titles given later to paintings often distinguish
between "taverns" or "inns" and "brothels", but in practice these were very often the same establishments, as many
taverns had rooms above or behind set aside for sexual purposes: "Inn in front; brothel behind" was a Dutch
proverb.[35] The Steen above is very clearly an exemplum, and though each of the individual components of it is
realistically depicted, the overall scene is not a plausible depiction of a real moment; typically of genre painting, it is
a situation that is depicted, and satirized.[36]
Dutch Golden Age painting 9

The Renaissance tradition of recondite emblem books had, in the hands

of the 17th-century Dutch – almost universally literate in the
vernacular, but mostly without education in the classics – turned into
the popularist and highly moralistic works of Jacob Cats, Roemer
Visscher, and others, often based in popular proverbs. The illustrations
to these are often quoted directly in paintings, and since the start of the
20th century art historians have attached proverbs, sayings and mottoes
to a great number of genre works. Another popular source of meaning
is visual puns using the great number of Dutch slang terms in the Gerrit van Honthorst (1625), punning visually on
the lute in this brothel scene.
sexual area: the vagina could be represented by a lute (luit) or stocking
(kous), and sex by a bird (vogelen), among many other options,[37] and
purely visual symbols such as shoes, spouts, and jugs and flagons on their side.

The same painters often painted works in a very different spirit of housewives or other women at rest in the home or
at work – they massively outnumber similar treatments of men, in fact working class men going about their jobs are
notably absent from Dutch Golden Age art, with landscapes populated by travellers and idlers but rarely tillers of the
soil.[38] This group of subjects was a Dutch invention, reflecting the cultural preoccupations of the age,[39] and was
to be adopted by artists from other countries, especially France, in the two centuries following.
The tradition developed from the realism and detailed background
activity of Early Netherlandish painting, which Hieronymus Bosch and
Pieter Bruegel the Elder were among the first to turn into their
principal subjects, also making use of proverbs. The Haarlem painters
Willem Pieterszoon Buytewech, Frans Hals and Esaias van de Velde
were important painters early in the period. Buytewech painted "merry
companies" of finely dressed young people, with moralistic
significance lurking in the detail. Van de Velde was also important as a
landscapist, whose scenes included unglamorous figures very different
Adriaen van Ostade, Peasants in an Interior from those in his genre paintings, typically set at garden parties in
(1661)
country houses. Hals was principally a portraitist, but also painted
genre figures of a portrait size early in his career.[40] A stay in Haarlem
by the Flemish master of peasant tavern scenes Adriaen Brouwer, from 1625 or 1626 gave Adriaen van Ostade his
lifelong subject, though he often took a more sentimental approach. Before Brouwer, peasants had normally been
depicted outdoors; he usually shows them in a plain and dim interior, though van Ostade's sometimes occupy
ostentatiously decrepit farmhouses of enormous size.[41]
Dutch Golden Age painting 10

Van Ostade was as likely to paint a single figure as a group, as were

the Utrecht Caravaggisti in their genre works, and the single figure, or
small groups of two or three became increasingly common, especially
those including women and children. The most notable woman artist of
the period, Judith Leyster (1609–1660), specialized in these, before her
husband, Jan Miense Molenaer, prevailed on her to give up painting.
The Leiden school of fijnschilder ("fine painters") were renowned for
small and highly finished paintings, many of this type. Leading artists
included Gerard Dou, Gabriel Metsu, Frans van Mieris the Elder, and
later his son Willem van Mieris, Godfried Schalcken, and Adriaen van
der Werff.

This later generation, whose work now seems over-refined compared

Gabriel Metsu, The Hunter's Gift, c. 1660, a study
to their predecessors, also painted portraits and histories, and were the [42]
in marital relations, with a visual pun.
most highly regarded and rewarded Dutch painters by the end of the
period, whose works were sought after all over Europe.[43] Genre
paintings reflected the increasing prosperity of Dutch society, and settings grew steadily more comfortable, opulent
and carefully depicted as the century progressed. Artists not part of the Leiden group whose common subjects also
were more intimate genre groups included Nicolaes Maes, Gerard ter Borch and Pieter de Hooch, whose interest in
light in interior scenes was shared with Jan Vermeer, long a very obscure figure, but now the most highly regarded
genre painter of all.

The mute Hendrick Avercamp Pieter de Judith Leyster, Nicolaes

painted almost exclusively winter Hooch, A Boy and a Maes, The
scenes of crowds seen from some Courtyard of a Girl with a Cat idle servant;
distance. House in Delft, and an Eel; housemaid
1658, a study in various troubles were
domestic virtue, references to the subject of
texture and proverbs or several of
spatial emblems have Maes'
[46]
complexity. been works.
[45]
The woman is a suggested.
[44]
servant.
Dutch Golden Age painting 11

Landscapes and cityscapes

Landscape painting was a major genre in the 17th century. Flemish
landscapes (particularly from Antwerp) of the 16th century first served
as an example. These had been not particularly realistic, having been
painted mostly in the studio, partly from imagination, and often still
using the semi-aerial view from above typical of earlier Netherlandish
landscape painting in the tradition of Joachim Patinir, Herri met de
Bles and Pieter Bruegel the Elder. A more realistic Dutch landscape
style developed, seen from ground level, often based on drawings
made outdoors, with lower horizons which made it possible to
emphasize the often impressive cloud formations that were (and are) so
Esaias van de Velde, Winter Landscape (1623)
typical in the climate of the region, and which cast a particular light.
Favourite subjects were the dunes along the western sea coast, rivers
with their broad adjoining meadows where cattle grazed, often with the silhouette of a city in the distance. Winter
landscapes with frozen canals and creeks also abounded. The sea was a favourite topic as well since the Low
Countries depended on it for trade, battled with it for new land, and battled on it with competing nations.

Important early figures in the move to realism were Esaias van de Velde (1587–1630) and Hendrick Avercamp
(1585–1634), both also mentioned above as genre painters – in Avercamp's case the same paintings deserve mention
in each category. From the late 1620s the "tonal phase" of landscape painting started, as artists softened or blurred
their outlines, and concentrated on an atmospheric effect, with great prominence given to the sky, and human figures
usually either absent or small and distant. Compositions based on a diagonal across the picture space became
popular, and water often featured. The leading artists were Jan van Goyen (1596–1656), Salomon van Ruysdael
(1602–1670), Pieter de Molyn (1595–1661), and in marine painting Simon de Vlieger (1601–1653), with a host of
minor figures – a recent study lists over 75 artists who worked in van Goyen's manner for at least a period, including
Cuyp.[47]
From the 1650s the "classical phase" began, retaining the atmospheric
quality, but with more expressive compositions and stronger contrasts
of light and colour. Compositions are often anchored by a single
"heroic tree", windmill or tower, or ship in marine works.[48] The
leading artist was Jacob van Ruisdael (1628–1682), who produced a
great quantity and variety of work, using every typical Dutch subject
except the Italianate landscape (below); instead he produced "Nordic"
landscapes of dark and dramatic mountain pine forests with rushing
torrents and waterfalls.[49] His pupil was Meindert Hobbema
(1638–1709), best known for his atypical Avenue at Middelharnis Jacob van Ruisdael, The Windmill at Wijk (1670)
(1689, London), a departure from his usual scenes of watermills and
roads through woods. Two other artists with more personal styles, whose best work included larger pictures (up to a
metre or more across), were Aelbert Cuyp (1620–1691) and Philips Koninck (1619–1688). Cuyp took golden Italian
light and used it in evening scenes with a group of figures in the foreground and behind them a river and wide
landscape. Koninck's best works are panoramic views, as from a hill, over wide flat farmlands, with a huge sky.
Dutch Golden Age painting 12

A different type of landscape, produced throughout the tonal and

classical phases, was the romantic Italianate landscape, typically in
more mountainous settings than are found in the Netherlands, with
golden light, and sometimes picturesque Mediterranean staffage and
ruins. Not all the artists who specialized in these had visited Italy. Jan
Both (d. 1652), who had been to Rome and worked with Claude
Lorrain, was a leading developer of the sub-genre, which influenced
the work of many painters of landscapes with Dutch settings, such as Aelbert Cuyp, River landscape with Riders
(c.1655); Cuyp specialized in golden evening
Aelbert Cuyp. Other artists who consistently worked in the style were
light in Dutch settings.
Nicolaes Berchem (1620–1683) and Adam Pijnacker. Italianate
landscapes were popular as prints, and more paintings by Berchem
were reproduced in engravings during the period itself than those of any other artist.[50]

A number of other artists do not fit in any of these groups, above all Rembrandt, whose relatively few painted
landscapes show various influences, including some from Hercules Seghers (c.1589 – c.1638); his very rare large
mountain valley landscapes were a very personal development of 16th-century styles.[51] Aert van der Neer (d. 1677)
painted very small scenes of rivers at night or under ice and snow.
Landscapes with animals in the foreground were a distinct sub-type, and were painted by Cuyp, Paulus Potter
(1625–1654), Adriaen van de Velde (1636–1672) and Karel Dujardin (1626–1678, farm animals), with Philips
Wouwerman painting horses and riders in various settings. The cow was a symbol of prosperity to the Dutch,
hitherto overlooked in art, and apart from the horse by far the most commonly shown animal; goats were used to
indicate Italy. Potter's The Young Bull is an enormous and famous portrait which Napoleon took to Paris (it later
returned) though livestock analysts have noted from the depiction of the various parts of the anatomy that it appears
to be a composite of studies of six different animals of widely different ages.
Architecture also fascinated the Dutch, churches in particular. At the
start of the period the main tradition was of fanciful palaces and city
views of invented Northern Mannerist architecture, which Flemish
painting continued to develop, and in Holland was represented by
Dirck van Delen. A greater realism began to appear and the exteriors
and interiors of actual buildings were reproduced, though not always
faithfully. During the century understanding of the proper rendering of
perspective grew and were enthusiastically applied. Several artists
Pieter Jansz Saenredam, Assendelft Church, 1649,
specialized in church interiors. Pieter Jansz Saenredam, whose father
with the gravestone of his father in the
foreground.
Jan Saenredam engraved sensuous nude Mannerist goddesses, painted
unpeopled views of now whitewashed Gothic city churches. His
emphasis on even light and geometry, with little depiction of surface textures, is brought out by comparing his works
with those of Emanuel de Witte, who left in the people, uneven floors, contrasts of light and such clutter of church
furniture as remained in Calvinist churches, all usually ignored by Saenredam. Gerard Houckgeest, followed by van
Witte and Hendrick van Vliet, had supplemented the traditional view along a main axis of the church with diagonal
views that added drama and interest.[52] Gerrit Berckheyde specialized in lightly populated views of main city
streets, squares, and major public buildings; Jan van der Heyden preferred more intimate scenes of quieter
Amsterdam streets, often with trees and canals. These were real views, but he did not hesitate to adjust them for
compositional effect.[53]
Dutch Golden Age painting 13

Jacob van Ruisdael, Jan Both, Italian landscape Jan van Goyen, Dune landscape; The Grote Markt and
View of Haarlem; of the type Both began to an example of the "tonal" style Sint-Bavokerk, Haarlem,
Ruisdael is a paint after his return from 1696, by Gerrit Berckheyde.
central figure, with Rome.
more varied
subjects than many
landscapists.

Maritime painting
The Dutch Republic relied on trade by
sea for its exceptional wealth, had naval
wars with Britain and other nations
during the period, and was criss-crossed
by rivers and canals. It is therefore no
surprise that the genre of maritime
painting was enormously popular, and
taken to new heights in the period by
Dutch artists; as with landscapes, the
move from the artificial elevated view
typical of earlier marine painting was a
crucial step.[54] Pictures of sea battles
told the stories of a Dutch navy at the
peak of its glory, though today it is
Salomon van Ruisdael, typical View of Deventer Seen from the North-West (1657); an
usually the more tranquil scenes that are example of the "tonal phase".
highly estimated.

More often than not, even small ships fly the Dutch tricolour, and many vessels can be identified as naval or one of
the many other government ships. Many pictures included some land, with a beach or harbour viewpoint, or a view
across an estuary. Other artists specialized in river scenes, from the small pictures of Salomon van Ruysdael with
little boats and reed-banks to the large Italianate landscapes of Aelbert Cuyp, where the sun is usually setting over a
wide river. The genre naturally shares much with landscape painting, and in developing the depiction of the sky the
two went together; many landscape artists also painted beach and river scenes. Artists included Jan Porcellis, Simon
de Vlieger, Jan van de Cappelle, Hendrick Dubbels and Abraham Storck. Willem van de Velde the Elder and his son
are the leading masters of the later decades, tending, as at the beginning of the century, to make the ship the subject,
whereas in tonal works of earlier decades the emphasis had been on the sea and the weather. They left for London in
1672, leaving the master of heavy seas, the German-born Ludolf Bakhuizen, as the leading artist.
Dutch Golden Age painting 14

Still lifes
Still lifes were a great opportunity to show one's aptitude in painting
textures and surfaces in great detail and with realistic light effects.
Food of all kinds laid out on a table, silver cutlery, intricate patterns
and subtle folds in table cloths and flowers all challenged painters.
Several types of subject were recognised: banketje were "banquet
pieces", ontbijtjes simpler "breakfast pieces".[55] Virtually all still lifes
had a moralistic message, usually concerning the brevity of life – this
is known as the vanitas theme – implicit even in the absence of an
obvious symbol like a skull, or less obvious one such as a half-peeled Pieter Claesz, Vanitas (1630)
lemon (like life, sweet in appearance but bitter to taste).[56] Flowers
wilt and food decays, and silver is of no use to the soul. Nevertheless, the force of this message seems less powerful
in the more elaborate pieces of the second half of the century.

Initially the objects shown were nearly always mundane, but from the
mid-century the pronkstilleven ("ostentatious still-life"), showing
expensive and exotic objects, became more popular. The early realist,
tonal and classical phases of landscape painting had counterparts in
still life painting.[57] Willem Claeszoon Heda (1595–c. 1680) and
Willem Kalf (1619–1693) led the change to the pronkstilleven, while
Pieter Claesz (d. 1660) preferred to paint simpler "ontbijt" ("breakfast
pieces"), or explicit vanitas pieces. In all these painters, colours are
often very muted, with browns dominating, especially in the middle of
the century. This is less true of the works of Jan Davidszoon de Heem
(1606–1684), an important figure who spent much of his career based
over the border in Antwerp. Here his displays began to sprawl
sideways to form wide oblong pictures, unusual in the north, although
Abraham van Beyeren (1667); "ostentatious" still Heda sometimes painted taller vertical compositions. Still life painters
life with a mouse above the knife. were especially prone to form dynasties, it seems: there were many de
Heems and Bosschaerts, Heda's son continued in his father's style, and
Claesz was the father of Nicholaes Berchem.

Flower paintings formed a sub-group with its own specialists, and were occasionally the speciality of the few women
artists, such as Maria van Oosterwyck and Rachel Ruysch;[58] the Dutch also led the world in botanical and other
scientific drawings, prints and book illustrations. Despite the intense realism of individual flowers, paintings were
composed from individual studies or even book illustrations, and blooms from very different seasons were routinely
included in the same composition, and the same flowers reappear in different works, just as pieces of tableware do.
There was also a fundamental unreality in that bouquets of flowers in vases were not in fact at all common in houses
at the time – even the very rich displayed flowers one by one in delftware tulip-holders.[59]
Dutch Golden Age painting 15

The Dutch tradition was largely begun by Ambrosius Bosschaert (1573–1621), a

Flemish-born flower painter who had settled in the north by the beginning of the
period, and founded a dynasty. His brother-in-law Balthasar van der Ast (d.
1657) pioneered still lifes of shells, as well as painting flowers. These early
works were relatively brightly lit, with the bouquets of flowers arranged in a
relatively simple way. From the mid-century arrangements that can fairly be
called Baroque, usually against a dark background, became more popular,
exemplified by the works of Willem van Aelst (1627–1683).

Painters from Leiden, The Hague, and Amsterdam particularly excelled in the
genre. Dead game, and birds painted live but studied from the dead, were another
sub-genre, as were dead fish, a staple of the Dutch diet – Abraham van Beijeren Jacob Gillig, Freshwater Fish (1684)
[60]
did many of these. The Dutch were less given to the Flemish style of
combining large still life elements with other types of painting – they would have been considered prideful in
portraits – and the Flemish habit of specialist painters collaborating on the different elements in the same work. But
this sometimes did happen – Philips Wouwerman was occasionally used to add men and horses to turn a landscape
into a hunting or skirmish scene, Berchem or Adriaen van de Velde to add people or farm animals.

Willem van Willem Claeszoon Heda, Jan Davidszoon de Heem, Jan Weenix, Still
Aelst, Still life Breakfast Table with Blackberry Vanitas (1629) Life with a Dead
with a watch Pie (1631); Heda was famous for Peacock (1692),
(c.1665), with his depiction of reflective set in the gardens
typical dark surfaces. of a large country
background. house.

Foreign lands
Karel van Mander's Schilderboeck was meant not only as a list of
biographies, but also a source of advice for young artists. It quickly
became a classic standard work for generations of young Dutch and
Flemish artists in the seventeenth century. The book advised artists to
travel and see the sights of Florence and Rome, and after 1604 many
did so. However, it is noticeable that the most important Dutch artists
in all fields, figures such as Rembrandt, Vermeer, Hals, Steen, Jacob
van Ruisdael, and others, had not made the voyage.[5] Frans Post, scene in Dutch Brazil; painted in
1662, some years after the colony was lost.
Many Dutch (and Flemish) painters worked abroad or exported their
work; printmaking was also an important export market, by which
Rembrandt became known across Europe. The Dutch Gift to Charles II of England was a diplomatic gift which
included four contemporary Dutch paintings. English painting was heavily reliant on Dutch painters, with Sir Peter
Lely followed by Sir Godfrey Kneller, developing the English portrait style established by the Flemish Anthony van
Dyck before the English Civil War. The marine painters van der Velde, father and son, were among several artists
Dutch Golden Age painting 16

who left Holland at the French invasion of 1672, which brought a collapse in the art market. They also moved to
London, and the beginnings of English landscape painting were established by several less distinguished Dutch
painters, such as Hendrick Danckerts. The Bamboccianti were a colony of Dutch artists who introduced the genre
scene to Italy. Jan Weenix and Melchior d'Hondecoeter specialized in game and birds, dead or alive, and were in
demand for country house and shooting-lodge overdoors across Northern Europe. Frans Post, a landscapist, and
Albert Eckhout, a still life painter who also turned his hand to native figures, were sent to the brief-lived Dutch
Brazil; the much more significant Dutch East Indies were covered much less well artistically.

Subsequent reputation
The enormous success of 17th-century Dutch painting overpowered the
work of subsequent generations, and no Dutch painter of the 18th
century—nor, arguably, a 19th-century one before Van Gogh—is well
known outside the Netherlands. Already by the end of the period artists
were complaining that buyers were more interested in dead than living
artists.

If only because of the enormous quantities produced, Dutch Golden

Age painting has always formed a significant part of collections of Old
Master paintings, itself a term invented in the 18th century to describe
Philips Wouwerman, Travelers Awaiting a Ferry Dutch Golden Age artists. Taking only Wouwerman paintings in old
(1649); a landscape with Wouwerman's royal collections, there are more than 60 in Dresden and over 50 in the
trademark highlight of a white horse.
Hermitage.[61] But the reputation of the period has shown many
changes and shifts of emphasis. One nearly constant factor has been
admiration for Rembrandt, especially since the Romantic period. Other artists have shown drastic shifts in critical
fortune and market price; at the end of the period some of the active Leiden fijnschilders had enormous reputations,
but since the mid-19th century realist works in various genres have been far more appreciated.[62] Vermeer was
rescued from near-total obscurity in the 19th century, by which time several of his works had been re-attributed to
others. However the fact that so many of his works were already in major collections, often attributed to other artists,
demonstrates that the quality of individual paintings was recognised even if his collective oeuvre was unknown.[63]
Other artists have continued to be rescued from the mass of little known painters: the late and very simple still lifes
of Adriaen Coorte in the 1950s,[64] and the landscapists Jacobus Mancaden and Frans Post earlier in the century.[65]

Genre paintings were long popular, but little-regarded. Sir Joshua

Reynolds, the English leader of 18th-century academic art, made
several revealing comments on Dutch art. He was impressed by the
quality of Vermeer's Milkmaid (illustrated at the start of this article),
and the liveliness of Hals' portraits, regretting he lacked the "patience"
to finish them properly, and lamented that Steen had not been born in
Italy and formed by the High Renaissance, so that his talent could have
been put to better use.[66] By Reynold's time the moralist aspect of
genre painting was no longer understood, even in the Netherlands; the
famous example is the so-called Paternal Admonition, as it was then
known, by Gerard ter Borch. This was praised by Goethe and others
for the delicacy of its depiction of a father reprimanding his daughter. Gerard ter Borch, Paternal Admonition, or
Brothel Scene (c. 1654; Amsterdam version).
In fact to most (but not all) modern scholars it is a proposition scene in
a brothel – there are two versions (Berlin & Amsterdam) and it is
unclear whether a "tell-tale coin" in the man's hand has been removed or overpainted in either.[67]
Dutch Golden Age painting 17

In the second half of the 18th century, the down to earth realism of Dutch painting was a "Whig taste" in England,
and in France associated with Enlightenment rationalism and aspirations for political reform.[68] In the 19th century,
with a near-universal respect for realism, and the final decline of the hierarchy of genres, contemporary painters
began to borrow from genre painters both their realism and their use of objects for narrative purposes, and paint
similar subjects themselves, with all the genres the Dutch had pioneered appearing on far larger canvases (still lifes
excepted).
In landscape painting, the Italianate artists were the most influential and highly regarded in the 18th century, but
John Constable was among those Romantics who denounced them for artificiality, preferring the tonal and classical
artists.[50] In fact both groups remained influential and popular in the 19th century.

Notes
[1] In general histories 1702 is sometimes taken as the end if the Golden Age, a date which works reasonably well for painting. Slive, who avoids
the term (see p. 296), divides his book into two parts: 1600 - 1675 (294 pages) and 1675 - 1800 (32 pages).
[2] Lloyd, 15, citing Jonathan Israel. Perhaps only 1% survive today, and "only about 10% of these were of real quality".
[3] Jan Steen was an innkeeper, Aelbert Cuyp was one of many whose wealthy wives persuaded them to give up painting, although Karel
Dujardin seems to have run away from his to continue his work. See their biographies in MacLaren. The fish artist Jacob Gillig also worked as
a warder in the Utrecht prison, conveniently close to the fish market. (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=qkW3ff-NRZoC& pg=PA208&
dq="Jacob+ Gillig"#v=onepage& q="Jacob Gillig"& f=false). Bankrupts included: Rembrandt, Frans Hals, Jan de Bray, and many others.
[4] Franits, 217 and ff. on 1672 and its effects.
[5] Fuchs, 43
[6] Fuchs, 104
[7] Prak (2008), 151-153, or Prak (2003), 241
[8] Prak (2008), 153
[9] Franits' book is largely organized by city and by period; Slive by subject categories
[10] Fuchs, 76
[11] See Slive, 296-7 and elsewhere
[12] Fuchs, 107
[13] Fuchs, 62, R.H. Wilenski, Dutch Painting, "Prologue" pp. 27-43, 1945, Faber, London
[14] Fuchs, 62-3
[15] Slive, 13-14
[16] Fuchs, 62-69
[17] Franits, 65. Catholic 17th century Dutch artists included Abraham Bloemaert and Gerard van Honthorst from Utrecht, and Jan Steen, Paulus
Bor, Jacob van Velsen, plus Vermeer who probably converted at his marriage. (http:/ / www. essentialvermeer. com/ delft/ delft_today/
catholic_church. html) Jacob Jordaens was among Flemish Protestant artists.
[18] Slive, 22-4
[19] Fuchs, 69-77
[20] Fuchs, 77-78
[21] Trip family tree (http:/ / www. beernink. com/ articles/ triptree. htm?timeline=off). Her grandparents' various portraits by Rembrandt are
famous.
[22] Ekkart, 17 n.1 (on p. 228).
[23] Shawe-Taylor, 22-23, 32-33 on portraits, quotation from 33
[24] Ekkart, 118
[25] Ekkart, 130 and 114.
[26] Ekkart (Marike de Winkel essay), 68-69
[27] Ekkart (Marike de Winkel essay), 66-68
[28] Ekkart (Marike de Winkel essay), 69-71
[29] Ekkart (Marike de Winkel essay), 72-73
[30] Another version at Apsley House, with a different composition, but using most of the same moralizing objects, is analysed by Franits, 206-9
[31] Fuchs, 42 and Slive, 123
[32] Slive, 123
[33] Franits, 1, mentioning costume in works by the Utrecht Caravagggisti, and architectural settings, as especially prone to abandon accurate
depiction.
[34] Franits, 4-6 summarizes the debate, for which Svetlana Alpers' The Art of Describing (1983) is an important work (though see Slive's terse
comment on p. 344). See also Franits, 20-21 on paintings being understood differently by contemporary individuals, and his p.24
[35] On Diderot's Art Criticism. Mira Friedman. p. 36 (http:/ / arts. tau. ac. il/ departments/ images/ stories/ journals/ arthistory/ Assaph2/
assaph2-08friedman. pdf)
Dutch Golden Age painting 18

[36] Fuchs, 39-42, analyses two comparable scenes by Steen and Dou, and p. 46.
[37] Fuchs, pp 54, 44, 45.
[38] Slive, 191
[39] Explored at length by Schama in his Chapter 6. See also the analysis of The Milkmaid (Vermeer), claimed by different art historians for each
tradition.
[40] Franits, 24-27
[41] Franits, 34-43. Presumably these are intended to imply houses abandoned by Catholic gentry who had fled south in the Eighty Years War.
His self-portrait shows him, equally implausibly, working in just such a setting.
[42] Franits, 180-182, though he strangely seems to discount the possibility that the couple are married. Married or not, the hunter clearly hopes
for a return from his gift of (punning) birds, though the open shoe and gun on the floor, pointing in different directions, suggest he may be
disappointed. Metsu used opposed dogs several times, and may have invented the motif, which was copied by Victorian artists. A statue of
Cupid presides over the scene.
[43] Fuchs, 80
[44] Franits, 164-6.
[45] MacLaren, 227
[46] Franits, 152-6. Schama, 455-460 discusses the general preoccupation with maidservants, "the most dangerous women of all" (p. 455). See
also Franits, 118-119 and 166 on servants.
[47] Slive, 189 – the study is by H.-U. Beck (1991)
[48] Slive, 190 (quote), 195-202
[49] Derived from works by Allart van Everdingen who, unlike Ruysdael, had visited Norway, in 1644. Slive, 203
[50] Slive, 225
[51] Rembrandt owned seven Seghers; after a recent fire only 11 are now thought to survive – how many of Rembrandt's remain is unclear.
[52] Slive, 268-273
[53] Slive, 273-6
[54] Slive, 213-216
[55] MacLaren, 79
[56] Slive, 279-281. Fuchs, 109
[57] Fuchs, 113-6
[58] and only a few others, see Slive, 128, 320-321 and index, and Schama, 414. The outstanding woman artist of the age was Judith Leyster.
Other female artists are described here (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=gQLqRd7hJq0C& pg=PA984& dq=Houbraken+ Leyster&
hl=en& ei=0M61S8yHOuKJ4gbB1oWbCQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CDwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
q=Houbraken Leyster& f=false)
[59] Fuchs, 111-112. Slive, 279-281, also covering unseasonal and recurring blooms.
[60] Slive, 287-291
[61] Slive, 212
[62] See Reitlinger, 11-15, 23-4, and passim, and listings for individual artists
[63] See Reitlinger, 483-4, and passim
[64] Slive, 319
[65] Slive, 191-2
[66] Slive, 144 (Vermeer), 41-2 (Hals), 173 (Steen)
[67] Slive, 158-160 (coin quote), and Fuchs, 147-8, who uses the title Brothel Scene. Franits, 146-7, citing Alison Kettering, says there is
"deliberate vagueness" as to the subject, and still uses the title Paternal Admonition.
[68] Reitlinger, I, 11-15. Quote p.13

References
For more details and many more painters see Dutch Golden Age, List Of People – Painters and List of Dutch
painters. MacLaren is the main source for biographical details.
• "Ekkart": Rudi Ekkart and Quentin Buvelot (eds), Dutch Portraits, The Age of Rembrandt and Frans Hals,
Mauritshuis/National Gallery/Waanders Publishers, Zwolle, 2007, ISBN 9781857093629
• Franits, Wayne, Dutch Seventeenth-Century Genre Painting, Yale UP, 2004, ISBN 0300102372
• Fuchs, RH, Dutch painting, Thames and Hudson, London, 1978, ISBN 0500201676
• Ingamells, John, The Wallace Collection, Catalogue of Pictures, Vol IV, Dutch and Flemish, Wallace Collection,
1992, ISBN 0900785373
• Lloyd, Christopher, Enchanting the Eye, Dutch Paintings of the Golden Age, Royal Collection Publications, 2004,
ISBN 1902163907
Dutch Golden Age painting 19

• MacLaren, Neil, The Dutch School, 1600–1800, Volume I, 1991, National Gallery Catalogues, National Gallery,
London, ISBN 0947645-99-3
• Prak, Maarten, (2003) "Guilds and the Development of the Art Market during the Dutch Golden Age." In:
Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art, vol. 30, no. 3/4. (2003), pp. 236–251. Expanded version is
Prak (2008)
• Prak, Maarten, (2008), Painters, Guilds and the Art Market during the Dutch Golden Age (http://books.google.
co.uk/books?id=fXlALljcyMkC&pg=PA143&dq=Guilds+and+the+Development+of+the+Art+Market+
during+the+Dutch+Golden+Age&hl=en&ei=oDFKTMHkLsPU4wazm8CaDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&
ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Guilds and the Development of the Art Market
during the Dutch Golden Age&f=false), in Epstein, Stephen R. and Prak, Maarten (eds), Guilds, innovation, and
the European economy, 1400-1800, Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 0521887178, 9780521887175
• Reitlinger, Gerald; The Economics of Taste, Vol I: The Rise and Fall of Picture Prices 1760-1960, Barrie and
Rockliffe, London, 1961
• Schama, Simon, The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age, 1987
• Shawe-Taylor, Desmond and Scott, Jennifer, Bruegel to Rubens, Masters of Flemish Painting, Royal Collection
Publications, London, 2008, ISBN 9781905686001
• Slive, Seymour, Dutch Painting, 1600–1800, Yale UP, 1995, ISBN 0300074514

Further reading
• Alpers, Svetlana. The Art of Describing: Dutch Art in the Seventeenth Century, Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1983

External links
• A Brief Overview of the Dutch Art Market in the 17th c (http://www.essentialvermeer.com/dutch-painters/
dutch_art/ecnmcs_dtchart.html)
Article Sources and Contributors 20

Article Sources and Contributors

Dutch Golden Age painting  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=419567888  Contributors: Afasmit, Amadalvarez, Anakin101, Anlace, Arthena, Arvwd, BD2412, Biglovinb,
Bjankuloski06en, Briaboru, CommonsDelinker, Der Golem, Ghirlandajo, GoingBatty, Hebrides, Hu Totya, Ilyaroz, JNW, Jackjoker, Jan Arkesteijn, Jane023, John Hill, Johnbod, Krashlandon,
Kwiki, Lambiam, LilHelpa, LorenzoB, Maasje, Mattis, Michaeldouglas26, MisfitToys, Modernist, NellieBly, Olaf Davis, Outriggr, PKM, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Pietdesomere, Pinkville,
Roelzzz, Rrburke, Rubenescio, Sfan00 IMG, Shadygrove2007, ShakespeareFan00, Sint Aldegonde, Sparkit, Squad51, Stomme, Taksen, Vlad b, Vrenator, Wavelength, WikHead, Woohookitty,
27 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:Vermeer - The Milkmaid.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vermeer_-_The_Milkmaid.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke,
Calliopejen1, Civvi, Dbenbenn, Ecemaml, Goldfritha, Ilse@, Joseolgon, Mattes, PKM, Paddy, Takeaway, TwoWings, Vincent Steenberg, Wst
Image:Frans Hals 008.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frans_Hals_008.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anne97432, Dahn, Jastrow, Kjetil r, Paris 16,
Shakko, Skipjack, Starscream, Vincent Steenberg, Zolo, 1 anonymous edits
File:Paulus Potter - Young Bull.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paulus_Potter_-_Young_Bull.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Andreagrossmann,
Dedden, Goldfritha, Ilse@, JMCC1, Mattes, Vincent Steenberg, 2 anonymous edits
File:Gentlemen Smoking and Playing Backgammon in an Interior.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gentlemen_Smoking_and_Playing_Backgammon_in_an_Interior.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Man vyi, Mattes, PKM, Peter Isotalo
Image:Jan de Bray 002.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jan_de_Bray_002.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alexandrin, AndreasPraefcke, Docu,
EDUCA33E, Emijrp, Ilse@, Jane023, Kameraad Pjotr, Mattes, PKM, Rlbberlin, Shakko, Vincent Steenberg, 1 anonymous edits
File:De Gelder zeuxis.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:De_Gelder_zeuxis.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Achim Raschka, AndreasPraefcke, Docu,
Ephraim33, Mattes, Melkom, Shakko
File:Danae by Van Loo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Danae_by_Van_Loo.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Adam sk, Bukk, Mattes
File:Dirk van Baburen - Kroning met de doornenkroon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dirk_van_Baburen_-_Kroning_met_de_doornenkroon.jpg  License: Public
Domain  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Dedden, Mattes, Vincent Steenberg, Wst
File:Portrait sophia trip wife of balthasar coymans.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Portrait_sophia_trip_wife_of_balthasar_coymans.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: PKM, Taks, Zolo
File:Willem Heythuijsen by Frans Hals 1634.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Willem_Heythuijsen_by_Frans_Hals_1634.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Docu, Mattbuck, Mcke, PKM, Shakko, Tasja, Vincent Steenberg, 1 anonymous edits
File:Van den Kerckhoven door Jan Mijtens.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Van_den_Kerckhoven_door_Jan_Mijtens.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Afhaalchinees, Apalsola, Docu, Ecummenic, Gouwenaar, PKM, Pitke, Shakko
File:Bartholomeus van der Helst, Banquet of the Amsterdam Civic Guard in Celebration of the Peace of Münster.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bartholomeus_van_der_Helst,_Banquet_of_the_Amsterdam_Civic_Guard_in_Celebration_of_the_Peace_of_Münster.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Docu, Giorgiomonteforti, Jarekt, Paris 16, Shakko, UpstateNYer, Vincent Steenberg
File:Jan Steen 004b.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jan_Steen_004b.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Gryffindor, User:JoJan
File:Gerrit van Honthorst - De koppelaarster.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gerrit_van_Honthorst_-_De_koppelaarster.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Dedden, Estrilda, Goldfritha, Mattes, Shakko, Skipjack, Vincent Steenberg, 2 anonymous edits
File:Peasants in an Interior (1661) Adriaen van Ostade.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Peasants_in_an_Interior_(1661)_Adriaen_van_Ostade.jpg  License: Public
Domain  Contributors: Krscal, Vincent Steenberg, Wmpearl
File:Gabriël Metsu 006.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gabriël_Metsu_006.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: PKM, Vincent Steenberg, Wmpearl
File:Avercamp Winter.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Avercamp_Winter.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Rex Germanus at
en.wikipedia
File:Pieter de Hooch 004.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pieter_de_Hooch_004.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: EDUCA33E, Emijrp, Goldfritha, Ham,
Jan Arkesteijn, Olivier2, PKM, Postdlf, Shakko, 1 anonymous edits
File:Judith Leyster A Boy and a Girl with a Cat and an Eel.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Judith_Leyster_A_Boy_and_a_Girl_with_a_Cat_and_an_Eel.jpg
 License: Public Domain  Contributors: Abujoy, Ham, Man vyi, Mattes, PKM, Rlbberlin
File:The idle servant.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_idle_servant.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ham, JeremyA, S kitahashi, Takeaway, 1
anonymous edits
File:Esaias van de Velde Winter Landscape.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Esaias_van_de_Velde_Winter_Landscape.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Ham, Sandik, Zolo, 4 anonymous edits
File:The Windmill at Wijk bij Duurstede 1670 Ruisdael.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Windmill_at_Wijk_bij_Duurstede_1670_Ruisdael.jpg  License:
Public Domain  Contributors: Krscal, Oxxo, Tetris L, Vincent Steenberg
File:Aelbert Cuyp01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aelbert_Cuyp01.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dcoetzee, Ilse@, JoJan, Shakko, Vincent Steenberg
File:Assetimage.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Assetimage.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Fransvannes, Rotational, Tiago Vasconcelos, Vincent
Steenberg, Zolo, 1 anonymous edits
File:View of Haarlem from the Dunes at Overeen - Date unknown.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:View_of_Haarlem_from_the_Dunes_at_Overeen_-_Date_unknown.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Hans Dunkelberg
File:Jan Both 002.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jan_Both_002.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: EDUCA33E, Ilse@, Rlbberlin, Vincent Steenberg
File:Jan van Goyen 004b.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jan_van_Goyen_004b.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Gryffindor, User:Sandik
File:Berkheyde-Haarlem.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Berkheyde-Haarlem.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Andre Engels, Fransvannes, Gmhogervorst, Jan
Arkesteijn, Magister Mathematicae, Mcke, Mechamind90, Plindenbaum, Raymond, Vincent Steenberg, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Salomon van Ruisdael Deventer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Salomon_van_Ruisdael_Deventer.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Afhaalchinees,
Ham, JdH, Mattes, Sandik, 1 anonymous edits
File:Pieter Claesz 002b.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pieter_Claesz_002b.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Gryffindor
File:Stilmous1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stilmous1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Abraham van Beyeren. Original uploader was Craigor at
en.wikipedia
File:Jakob Gillig - Freshwater Fish.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jakob_Gillig_-_Freshwater_Fish.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: JMCC1, Jane023,
Kilom691, Phrood, Sparkit, Zolo
File:Willem van Aelst - Bloementuil.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Willem_van_Aelst_-_Bloementuil.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke,
Anna reg, Anne97432, Dedden, Ecummenic, HaguardDuNord, Hailey C. Shannon, Jean-Frédéric, Kilom691, Mattes, Wst, 1 anonymous edits
File:Heda, Willem Claeszoon - Breakfast Table with Blackberry Pie - WGA.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Heda,_Willem_Claeszoon_-_Breakfast_Table_with_Blackberry_Pie_-_WGA.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mattes
File:Jan Davidszoon de Heem, Still-life with Books and Skull (Vanitas).JPG  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jan_Davidszoon_de_Heem,_Still-life_with_Books_and_Skull_(Vanitas).JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Andreagrossmann, Goldfritha,
Wst, 3 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 21

File:Jan Weenix 003.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jan_Weenix_003.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BeatrixBelibaste, Gryffindor, Mattes
File:Frans Post - Gezicht op Olinda, Brazilië.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frans_Post_-_Gezicht_op_Olinda,_Brazilië.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
BoH, Dornicke, Vincent Steenberg
File:Philips Wouwerman - Travelers Awaiting a Ferry.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Philips_Wouwerman_-_Travelers_Awaiting_a_Ferry.jpg  License: Public
Domain  Contributors: Postdlf
File:Gerard ter Borch (II) 019.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gerard_ter_Borch_(II)_019.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ecummenic, Jarekt,
Mr.Dantes, Vincent Steenberg, Wmpearl

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