Andrew Pressley-Instructor's Solutions Manual To Elementary Differential Geometry-Springer (2012) PDF
Andrew Pressley-Instructor's Solutions Manual To Elementary Differential Geometry-Springer (2012) PDF
Andrew Pressley-Instructor's Solutions Manual To Elementary Differential Geometry-Springer (2012) PDF
1.1.6 (i) The squares of the distances from p to the foci are
(p cos t ± ǫp)2 + q 2 sin2 t = (p2 − q 2 ) cos2 t ± 2ǫp2 cos t + p2 = p2 (1 ± ǫ cos t)2 ,
so the sum of the distances is 2p.
(ii) γ̇γ = (−p sin t, q cos t) so if n = (q cos t, p sin t) then n.γ̇γ = 0. Hence the
distances from the foci to the tangent line at γ (t) are
n
(p cos t ∓ ǫp, q sin t).n pq(1 ∓ ǫ cos t)
= 2 2
knk (p sin t + q 2 cos2 t)1/2
1
2
p2 q 2 (1−ǫ2 cos2 t)
and their product is (p2 sin2 t+q 2 cos2 t)
= q2 .
(p−f1 ).n (p−f2 ).n
(iii) It is enough to prove that = . Computation shows that
kp−f 1 k kp−f 2 k
both sides are equal to q.
t
a
0 at
1.1.7 When the circle has rotated through an angle t, its centre has moved to (at, a),
so the point on the circle initially at the origin is now at the point
1 √ √
y − ( √ − 1) = −(x − 2)( 2 − 1).
2
1.1.10 (i) Putting x = sec t gives y = ± sec t tan t so γ (t) = (sec t, ± sec t tan t) gives
parametrizations of the two pieces of this curve (x ≥ 1 and x ≤ −1).
3t 3t2
(ii) Putting y = tx gives x = 1+t 3 , y = 1+t3 .
y 2 = x2 (1 − (x − 1)2 ) = x3 (2 − x).
(ii) y = tx so x4 = t2 x3 + t3 x3 = y 2 x + y 3 = y 2 (x + y).
1.1.12 (i) γ̇γ (t) = (− sin t, cos t + cos 2t) so γ̇γ (t) = 0 if and only if t = nπ (n ∈ Z) and
(−1)n + 1 = 0, so n must be odd.
3
(ii) γ̇γ (t) = (2t+3t2 , 3t2 +4t3 ). This vanishes ⇐⇒ t(2+3t) = 0 and t2 (3+4t) = 0,
i.e. ⇐⇒ t = 0.
1.1.13 (i) Let OP make an angle θ with the positive x-axis. Then R has coordinates
γ (θ) = (2a cot θ, a(1 − cos 2θ)).
(ii) From x = 2a cot θ, y = a(1 − cos 2θ), we get sin2 θ = y/2a, cos2 θ =
cot2 θ sin2 θ = x2 y/8a3 , so the Cartesian equation is y/2a + x2 y/8a3 = 1.
1.1.14 Let the fixed circle have radius a, and the moving circle radius b (so that b < a in
the case of the hypocycloid), and let the point P of the moving circle be initially
in contact with the fixed circle at (a, 0). When the moving circle has rotated
through an angle ϕ, the line joining the origin to the point of contact of the
circles makes an angle θ with the positive x-axis, where aθ = bϕ. The point P
is then at the point
b
'
a P
and
so θ = π/3.
1.1.16 γ̇γ (t) = (t cos t, t sin t) so a unit tangent vector is t = (cos t, sin t). The distance
of the normal line at γ (t) from the origin is
Rt
1.2.1 γ̇γ (t) = (1, sinh t) so k γ̇γ k = cosh t and the arc-length is s = 0
cosh u du = sinh t.
1.2.2 (i) k γ̇γ k2 = 14 (1 + t) + 14 (1 − t) + 12 = 1.
2 2 2
(ii) k γ̇γ k2 = 16 2 9 2
25 sin t + cos t + 25 sin t = cos t + sin t = 1.
1.2.3 Denoting d/dθ by a dot, γ̇γ = (ṙ cos θ − r sin θ, ṙ sin θ + r cos θ) so k γ̇γ k2 = ṙ 2 + r 2 .
Hence, γ is regular unless r = ṙ = 0 for some value of θ. It is unit-speed if and
only if ṙ 2 = 1 − r 2 , which gives r = ± sin(θ + α) for some constant α. To see
that this is the equation of a circle of radius 1/2, see the diagram in the proof
of Theorem 3.2.2.
1.2.4 Since u is a unit vector, |γ̇γ.u| = k γ̇γ k cos θ, where θ is the angle between γ̇γ and
Rb Rb
u, so γ̇γ.u ≤k γ̇γ k. Then, (q q − p)..u = (γγ (b) − γ (a))..u = a γ̇γ .u dt ≤ a k γ̇γ k dt.
Taking u = (q q − p)/ k q − p k gives the result.
√
1.2.5 γ̇γ (t) = (6t, 1 − 9t2 ) so k γ̇γ (t) k = 36t2 + 1 − 18t2 + 81t4 = 1 + 9t2 . So the
arc-length is Z t
s= (1 + 9u2 )du = t + 3t3 .
0
1.2.6 We have γ̇γ (t) = (−2 sin t + 2 sin 2t, 2 cos t − 2 cos 2t) so
p p t
k γ̇γ (t) k = 8(1 − sin t sin 2t − cos t cos 2t = 8(1 − cos t) = 4 sin .
2
So the arc-length is
x
t x x
Z
s= 4 sin dt = 8 1 − cos = 16 sin2 .
0 2 2 4
1.2.7 The cycloid is parametrized by γ (t) = a(t − sin t, 1 − cos t), where t is the angle
through which the circle has rotated. So
t
γ̇γ = a(1 − cos t, sin t), k γ̇γ k2 = a2 (2 − 2 cos t) = 4a2 sin2 ,
2
and the arc-length is
2π t=2π
t t
Z
2a sin dt = −4a cos = 8a.
0 2 2 t=0
5
1.2.8 The curve intersects the x-axis where cosh t = 3, say at t = ±a where a > 0. We
have k γ̇γ (t) k2 = 2 cosh2 t − 2 cosh t so the arc-length is
Z ap Z ap
2
s= 2 cosh t − 2 cosh t dt = 2 2 cosh2 t − 2 cosh t dt.
−a 0
1.3.1 (i) γ̇γ = sin 2t(−1, 1) vanishes when t is an integer multiple of π/2, so γ is not
regular.
(ii) γ is regular since γ̇γ 6= 0 for 0 < t < π/2.
(iii) γ̇γ = (1, sinh t) is obviously never zero, so γ is regular.
1.3.2 x = r cos θ = sin2 θ, y = r sin θ = sin2 θ tan θ, so the parametrization in
terms of θ is θ 7→ (sin2 θ, sin2 θ tan θ). Since θ 7→ sin θ is a bijective smooth
map (−π/2, π/2) → (−1, 1), with smooth inverse t 7→ sin−1 t,√ t = sin θ is a
reparametrization map. Since sin2 θ = t2 , sin2 θ tan θ = t3 / 1 − t2 , so the
reparametrized curve is as stated.
1.3.3 (i) γ̇γ = 0 at t = 0 ⇐⇒ m and n are both ≥ 2. If m > 3 the first components of
...
γ̈γ and γ are both 0 at t = 0 so γ̈γ and γ̈γ are linearly dependent at t = 0; similarly
...
if n > 3. So there are four cases: if (m, n) = (2, 2) or (3, 3) then either γ̈γ or γ
is zero at t = 0, so the only possibilities for an ordinary cusp are (m, n) = (2, 3)
...
and (3, 2) and then γ̈γ and γ are easily seen to 3be linearly independent at t = 0.
t
(ii) Using the parametrization γ (t) = t2 , √1−t 2
, we get γ̇γ = 0, γ̈γ = (2, 0),
...
γ = (0, 6) at t = 0 so the origin is an ordinary cusp.
(iii) Let γ̃γ (t̃) be a reparametrization of γ (t), and suppose γ has an ordinary
cusp at t = t0 . Then, at t = t0 , dγ̃γ /dt̃ = (dγγ /dt)(dt/dt̃) = 0, d2 γ̃γ /dt̃2 =
(d2γ /dt2 )(dt/dt̃)2 , d3γ̃γ /dt̃3 = (d3γ /dt3 )(dt/dt̃)3 + 3(d2γ /dt2 )(dt/dt̃)(d2 t/dt̃2 ).
Using the fact that dt/dt̃ 6= 0, it is easy to see that d2γ̃γ /dt̃2 and d3γ̃γ /dt̃3 are
linearly independent when t = t0 .
1.3.4 (i) If γ̃γ (t) = γ (ϕ(t)), let ψ be the inverse of the reparametrization map ϕ. Then
γ̃γ (ψ(t)) = γ (ϕ(ψ(t))) = γ (t).
(ii) If γ̃γ (t) = γ (ϕ(t)) and γ̂γ (t) = γ̃γ (ψ(t)), where ϕ and ψ are reparametrization
maps, then γ̂γ (t) = γ ((ϕ ◦ ψ)(t)) and ϕ ◦ ψ is a reparametrization map because it
d
is smooth and dt (ϕ(ψ(t)) = ϕ̇(ψ(t))ψ̇(t) 6= 0 as ϕ̇ and ψ̇ are both 6= 0.
6
1.3.5 (i) γ̇γ (t) = (2t, 3t3 ) which vanishes ⇐⇒ t = 0. So γ is not regular.
(ii) γ̇γ (t) = (− sin t − sin 2t, cos t + cos 2t) so k γ̇γ (t) k = 2 cos 2t . Hence, γ̇γ (t) =
0 ⇐⇒ t is an odd multiple of π. Thus, when t is retricted to the interval
−π < t < π, γ is regular.
4t cos t
1.3.6 γ̇γ (t) = 2, − (1+t 2 )2 is obviously never zero, so γ is regular. Let ϕ(t) = 1+sin t.
Then, dϕ 1
dt = − 1+sin t is never zero so ϕ is a reparametrization map. Setting
u = ϕ(t) we get
!
2 cos t 2(1 + sin t)2
2 cos t 2
γ (u) = , cos2 t
= , = γ̃γ (t),
1 + sin t 1 + (1+sin t)2
1 + sin t 2 + 2 sin t
so γ is a reparametrization of γ̃γ .
1.3.7 γ̇γ (t) = (aω cos ωt, b cos t) = 0 ⇐⇒ cos ωt = cos t = 0 ⇐⇒ ωt = (2k +1) π2 and t =
(2l + 1) π2 , where k, l ∈ Z. This means that ω = 2k+1 2l+1 is the ratio of two odd
integers.
Rt R t̃
1.3.8 We have s = t0 k dγγ /du k du, s̃ = t̃0 k dγ̃γ /dũ k dũ. By the chain rule,
Rt
dγγ /du = (dγ̃γ /dũ)(dũ/du), so s = ± t0 k dγ̃γ /dũ k (dũ/du) du = ±s̃, the sign
being that of dũ/du.
1.3.9 We can assume that the curve γ is unit-speed and that the tangent lines all pass
through the origin (by applying a translation to γ ). Then, there is a scalar λ(t)
such that γ̇γ (t) = λ(t)γγ (t) for all t. Then, γ̈γ = λ̇γγ + λγ̇γ = (λ̇ + λ2 )γγ . This implies
that γ̈γ is parallel to γ̇γ . But these vectors are perpendicular since γ is unit-speed.
Hence, γ̈γ = 0, so γ (t) = taa +b b where a , b are constant vectors, i.e. γ is a straight
line.
If all the normal lines are parallel, so are all the tangent lines. If γ is assumed to
be unit-speed, this means that γ̇γ is constant, say equal to a. Then γ (t) = taa + b
as before.
1.4.1 It is closed because γ (t + 2π) = γ (t) for all t. Suppose that γ (t) = γ (u).
Then cos3 t(cos 3t, sin 3t) = cos3 u(cos 3u, sin 3u). Taking lengths gives cos3 t =
± cos3 u so cos t = ± cos u, so u = t, π − t, π + t or 2π − t (up to adding multiples
of 2π). The second possibility forces t = nπ/3 for some integer n and the third
possibility is true for all t. Hence, the period is π and for the self-intersections
we need only consider t = π/3, 2π/3, giving u = 2π/3, π/3, respectively. Hence,
there is a unique self-intersection at γ (π/3) = (−1/8, 0).
1.4.2 The curve γ̃γ (t) = (cos(t3 + t), sin(t3 + t)) is a reparametrization of the circle
γ (t) = (cos t, sin t) but it is not closed.
1.4.3 If γ is T -periodic then it is kT -periodic for all k 6= 0 (this can be proved by
induction on k if k > 0, or on −k if k < 0). If γ is T1 -periodic and T2 -periodic
7
γ (t + k1 T1 + k2 T2 ) = γ (t + k1 T1 )
But since tan t is undefined when t = ±π/2, ±3π/2, ..., γ must be defined on one
of the intervals (−π/2, π/2), (π/2, 3π/2), etc. The restriction of γ to the first of
these intervals parametrizes the part of the curve with x > 1, the second gives
the part with x < 1. This shows that the two parts of the curve with x < 1 and
with x > 1 are connected.
1.5.5 Letting f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 = 1/4, g(x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + x − 3/4, we find
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂g ∂g ∂g
that ( ∂x , ∂y , ∂z ) = (2x, 2y, 0), ( ∂x , ∂y , ∂z ) = (2x + 1, 2y, 2z). If these vectors
are parallel, z = 0; if y 6= 0 the vectors must then be equal and this is impossible;
so y = 0 and then we must have x = 1/2 to satisfy both equations. Hence, the
vectors are parallel only at the point (1/2, 0, 0).
For the parametrization γ in Exercise 1.1.8, γ̇γ (t) = (− sin 2t, cos 2t, cos t). This
is never zero as k γ̇γ (t) k2 = 1 + cos2 t, so γ is regular.
1.5.6 Define Θ(t) = tan πθ(t)/2, where θ is the function defined in Exercise 9.4.3.
Then Θ is smooth, Θ(t) = 0 if t ≤ 0, and Θ : (0, ∞) → (0, ∞) is a bijection. The
curve
(Θ(t), Θ(t)) if t ≥ 0,
γ (t) =
(−Θ(−t), Θ(−t)) if t ≤ 0,
is a smooth parametrization of y = |x|.
9
Chapter 2
2.1.1 (i) γ is unit-speed (Exercise 1.2.2(i)) so
1 1 1
κ = k γ̈γ k = k ( (1 + t)−1/2 , (1 − t)−1/2 , 0) k = p .
4 4 8(1 − t2 )
(iv) (−3 cos2 t sin t, 3 sin2 t cos t, 0)×(−3 cos3 t+6 cos t sin2 t, 6 sin t cos2 t−3 sin3 t, 0)
sin2 t cos2 t)k
= (0, 0, −9 sin2 t cos2 t), so κ = k(−3 k(0,0,−9
cos2 t sin t,3 sin2 t cos t,0)k3
= 3| sin 1t cos t| . This
becomes infinite when t is an integer multiple of π/2, i.e. at the four cusps
(±1, 0) and (0, ±1) of the astroid.
2.1.2 The proof of Proposition 1.3.5 shows that, if v(t) is a smooth (vector) function
of t, then k v(t) k is a smooth (scalar) function of t provided v(t) is non-zero
for all t. The result now follows from the formula in Proposition 2.1.2. The
curvature of the regular curve γ (t) = (t, t3 ) is κ(t) = 6|t|/(1 + 9t4 )3/2 , which is
not differentiable at t = 0.
2.1.3 Working in R3 , γ̇γ (t) = (1 − cosh 2t, 2 sinh t, 0) = 2 sinh t(− sinh t, 1, 0), γ̈γ (t) =
γ ×γ̈γ k
kγ̇
(−2 sinh 2t, 2 cosh t, 0) which gives γ̇γ ×γ̈γ = (0, 0, 4 sinh2 t cosh t) and κ = kγ̇γ k3 =
1/2 sinh t cosh2 t. This is non-zero if t > 0, but → 0 as t → ∞.
10
2.1.4 We have
which gives γ̇γ × γ̈γ = sec4 t(0, 0, 2 sec2 t − 3). Hence, the curvature vanishes where
sec2 t = 3/2. If −π/2 < t < π/2, cos t > 0 so the curvature vanishes at the
two values
√ of t between −π/2 and π/2 at which cos t = 2/3, i.e. at the point
(3/2, 5/2).
a
κs = dϕ/ds = 1/a sec2 ϕ = 1/a(1 + tan2 ϕ) = .
s2 + a2
Using the first part and Example 2.2.4 gives the result.
2.2.5 We have dγγ λ /dt = dγγ /dt + λdn ns /dt = (1 − λκs )ds/dt t, so the arc-length sλ
of γ λ satisfies dsλ /dt = |1 − λκs |ds/dt. The unit tangent vector of γ λ is tλ =
(dγγ λ /dt)/(dsλ/dt) = ǫtt, hence the signed unit normal of γ λ is nλs = ǫn
ns . Then,
11
2.2.10 The rotation ρ−θ(s) takes the tangent line of γ at γ (s) to l and the line joining
q and γ (s) to a line parallel to that joining Γ(s) to p + saa. Hence,
p + saa) = ρ−θ(s) (q
Γ(s) − (p q − γ (s)),
The last term is clearly parallel to a and as they are both unit vectors they are
equal. So we want to prove that
d
ρ−θ(s) (q q − γ (s))..ρ−θ(s) (q
q − γ (s)) = 0.
ds
Since t = γ̇γ / k γ̇γ k = √k12 +1 (k cos t − sin t, k sin t + cos t), the signed unit normal
is ns = √k12 +1 (−k sin t − cos t, k cos t − sin t). So
p
2.2.19 If s is the arc-length of γ , ds/dt = a2 sin2 t + b2 cos2 t = 1/λ, say. Then,
denoting d/ds by a dot, t = γ̇γ = λ(−a sin t, b cos t), ns = λ(−b cos t, −a sin t),
ṫt = λ[λ(−a cos t, −b sin t) − λ3 (a2 − b2 ) sin t cos t(−a sin t, b cos t)] = λ3 abn
ns
ab
after some simplification. Hence, κs = λ3 ab = (a2 sin2 t+b2 cos2 t)3/2
and so
a2 − b2 b2 − a2
λ 3 3
ǫ = (a cos t, b sin t) + 3 (−b cos t, −a sin t) = cos t, sin t .
λ ab a b
κs
So κλs = |1−λκs | and
|1 − λκs | 1 − λκs
ǫλ = γ + λn
ns + ns ) = γ + λn
(±n ns + ns = ǫ.
κs κs
dǫǫ 1
ι(u) = ǫ + (ℓ − u) ns = γ − (ℓ − u0 )n
= γ + ns − (ℓ − u)n ns ,
du κs
x cos θ + y sin θ = p.
ẏ dy cos θ
= =− .
ẋ dx sin θ
Differentiating the first equation and using the second gives
Solving the first and third equations for x and y gives the stated formula for γ .
(ii) From (i), γ̇γ = (p + p̈)(− sin θ, cos θ), so k γ̇γ k = |p + p̈|. Hence, γ is regular
if and only if p + p̈ is never zero. In that case p + p̈ must be either always > 0
or always < 0. But the latter R 2π case is impossible since it implies that p̈ < 0,
contradicting the fact that 0 p̈ dθ = 0 since p is smooth and 2π-periodic.
d
θ + π2 = dθ 1
(iii) If s is the arc-length of γ , the signed curvature is ds ds = ds/dθ =
1 1
γ k = p+p̈ .
kγ̇
ds
(iv) Since dθ = p + p̈, the length of γ is
Z 2π Z 2π
(p + p̈)dθ = p dθ.
0 0
(v) The first part is obvious. The foot of the perpendicular from the origin to
the tangent line at γ (θ) is p(θ)(cos θ, sin θ), so w(θ) is the distance between this
16
point and p(θ + π)(cos(θ + π), sin(θ + π)) = p(θ + π)(− cos θ, − sin θ) which is
p(θ) + p(θ + π).
(vi) The function q(θ) = w(θ) − w(θ + π) is smooth and q(0) = −q(π/2) because
w(0) = w(π). Hence, for some angle θ0 with 0 ≤ θ0 ≤ π/2, we have q(θ0 ) = 0,
i.e. w(θ0 ) = w(θ0 +π/2). This means that the tangent lines at θ0 , θ0 +π/2, θ0 +π
and θ0 + 3π/2 form a square.
(vii) From (iv) and (v), the length is
Z π Z π
(p(θ) + p(θ + π))dθ = w(θ) dθ,
0 0
1 1
κs = = 1 1 ,
a cos2 kθ
2
− 1 2
2
k a cos kθ +b 2a +b+ 2 (1 − k 2 )a cos kθ
In the notation of Exercise 2.2.10, θ is the angle between (cosh t, cosh t sinh t)
and the x-axis, so cos θ = secht, sin θ = tanht, p = (0, 0), a = (1, 0) and we get
cos θ sin θ − sinh t
Γ = (s, 0) + .
− sin θ cos θ 1 − 12 sinh2 t
Using the formulas for s and θ from above gives the stated formula for Γ after
simplification.
2.2.24 Differentiating γ (t+a) = γ (t) gives t (t+a) = t(a); rotating anti-clockwise by π/2
ns (t + a) = κs (t)n
gives ns (t + a) = ns (t); differentiating again gives κs (t + a)n ns (t),
so κs (t + a) = κs (t).
17
2.3.4 Differentiating (γγ −aa).(γγ −aa) = r 2 repeatedly gives t.(γγ −aa) = 0; t.tt +κn
n.(γγ −aa) =
0, so n.(γγ −aa) = −1/κ; n.tt +(−κtt +τb b).(γγ −aa) = κ̇/κ2 , and so b.(γγ −aa) = κ̇/τ κ2 ;
n.(γγ − a ) = (κ̇/τ κ2 )˙, and so τ /κ = (κ̇/τ κ2 )˙. Conversely, if Eq.
and finally b.tt − τn
(2.22) holds, then ρ = −σ(ρ̇σ)˙, so (ρ2 + (ρ̇σ)2 )˙ = 2ρρ̇ + 2(ρ̇σ)(ρ̇σ)˙ = 0, hence
ρ2 + (ρ̇σ)2 is a constant, say r 2 (where r > 0). Let a = γ + ρn n + ρ̇σbb; then
ȧ = + ρ̇n + ρ(−κt + τb) + (ρ̇σ)˙b + (ρ̇σ)(−τn) = 0 using Eq. (2.22); so a is a
a t n t b b n
constant vector and k γ − a k2 = ρ2 + (ρ̇σ)2 = r 2 , hence γ is contained in the
sphere with centre a and radius r.
Γ = P γ̇γ so T = P t and k Γ̇
2.3.5 Γ̇ Γ k2 = (P γ̇γ )..(P γ̇γ ) = γ̇γ.γ̇γ since P is orthogonal. Then,
Γ = P γ̈γ , taking lengths shows that γ and Γ have the same curvature κ, and then
Γ̈
dividing by κ gives N = P n. Then B = P t × P n. If P corresponds to a direct
isometry (i.e. a rotation), this is equal to P (tt × n) = P b, but if P corresponds
to an opposite isometry, P t × P n = −P b (Proposition A.1.6).
2.3.6 Let λij = vi .vvj . The vectors v1 , v2 , v3 are orthonormal if and only if λij = δij
(= 1 if i = j and = 0 if i 6= j). So it is enough to prove that λij = δij
for all values of s given that it holds for s = s0 . Differentiating vi .v vj gives
P3
λ̇ij = k=1 (aik λkj + ajk λik ). Now λij = δij is a solution of this system of
differential equations because aij +aji = 0. But the theory of ordinary differential
18
equations tells us that there is a unique solution with given values when s = s0 .
√ √ √ √
2.3.7 (i) t = γ̇γ = ( √12 sin t 2 cos t 2, √12 ), ṫt = (cos t 2, − sin t 2, 0) so κ = k ṫt k = 1,
√ √
n = ṫt, b = t × n = ( √12 sin t 2, √12 cos t 2, − √12 ). Then, ḃ b = n so τ = 1.
(ii) t = γ̇γ = (− √13 sin t + √12 cos t, − √13 sin t, − √13 sin t − √12 cos t), so κ = k ṫt k = 1
and n = ṫt. Then b = t × n = (− √1 , √2 , − √1 ) is constant so τ = 0.
6 6 6
1
2.3.8 Denoting d/dt by a dot, γ̇γ = so k γ̇γ k = cosh t. Hence, the
√ (sinh t, cosh t, 1)
2
arc-length is s = sinh t, up to adding a constant. The unit tangent vector is
1
t = ds/dt γ̇γ = √12 (tanht, 1, secht) so
b
db secht 2 sech2 t
= √ (−sech t, 0, secht tanht) = − √ n,
ds 2 2
so τ = √1 sech2 t.
2
...
2.3.9 1
γ̇γ = (− t2 + 1, 1, − t12 ),...γ̈γ = ( t23 , 0, t23 ), γ = (− t64 , 0, − t64 ). Hence γ̈γ is parallel to
... γ ×γ̈γ ). γ
γ , and so τ = (γ̇ γ γk = 0. Alternatively, note that 1+t2
− (1−t) = t + 1 so γ
kγ̇ ×γ̈ t t
is contained in the plane x − z = y.
2.3.10 We have
2.3.12 Let a dot denote d/dt. Then, δ̇δ = γ̈γ = κn n, so the unit tangent vector of δ
is T = n and its arc-length s satisfies ds/dt = κ. Now dT T/ds = ṅn/(ds/dt) =
2
−1
κ (−κtt +τbb) = −tt + κ b. Hence, the curvature of δ is k −tt + κ b k = (1+ κτ 2 )1/2 =
τ τ
19
Now γ is a generalized helix if and only if there is a constant λ such that τ = λκ,
i.e.
3abc(a2 + 4b2 t2 + 9c2 t4 )3/2 = 2λ(9b2 c2 t4 + 9a2 c2 t2 + a2 b2 )3/2 ,
which is equivalent to
The first and third equations give µ = b2 and the second gives µ = 9a2 c2 /4b2 .
Hence, if γ is a generalized helix 9a2 c2 /4b2 = b2 , which is equivalent to the
stated condition. Conversely, if this condition holds, taking µ = b2 (and hence
λ = 3ac/2b2 ) satisfies (*) so τ = 3ac
2b2 κ and γ is a generalized helix.
2.3.15 (i) From the definition, γ̃γ (s̃) = γ (s) + a(s)n
n(s), where a is a scalar possibly
depending on s. Then,
ds̃ dγγ da n
dn da
t̃t = + n+a = (1 − κa)tt + n + τ ab
b.
ds ds ds ds ds
n = ±n
But we are given that ñ n, so t̃t is perpendicular to n. This implies that
da/ds = 0 and hence a is constant.
(ii) We have
d ds̃
(tt.t̃t) = κn
n.t̃t + κ̃tt.ñ
n = 0,
ds ds
since t̃t is perpendicular to ñ
n and hence to n, and similarly t is perpendicular to ñ n.
Hence, t.t̃t is a constant, say cos α (it must lie between −1 and 1 as t and t̃t are unit
20
vectors). Then, since t is perpendicular to n, we must have t̃t = cos αtt ± sin αb
b,
and we can assume the sign is − by changing α to −α if necessary. Then,
b = t̃t × ñ
b̃ n = ±(cos αtt − sin αb
b) × n = ±(sin αtt + cos αb
b).
1 ds dtt b
db κb − τ a ds
n = ±√
κ̃ñ (b + a ) = ± √ n.
a2 + b ds̃ ds
2 ds a2 + b2 ds̃
n = ±n
It follows that ñ n.
2.3.18 The solutions of Exercises 2.3.15 and 2.3.17 show that γ̃γ = γ + an n is a Bertrand
mate of γ (a being a constant) if and only if aκ + bτ = 1 for some constant b, and
that such curves γ̃γ are all the Bertrand mates of γ . Thus, γ has more than one
Bertrand mate if and only if the equation aκ + bτ = 1 is satisfied by more than
one value of a (and some corresponding values of b). In that case κ and τ must be
constant, so γ is a circular helix (Exercise 2.3.2). To see that γ̃γ is then a circular
helix with the same axis and pitch as γ , take γ to have axis the z-axis (this can
be achieved by applying an isometry of R3 ). Then, γ (t) = (c cos λt, c sin λt, dλt),
where c is the radius of γ , 2πd is its pitch and λ = (c2 + d2 )−1/2 . Hence,
n = (− cos λt, − sin λt, 0) so the most general Bertrand mate of γ is
which is a circular helix with axis the z-axis, pitch 2πd and radius |c − a|.
2.3.19 If κ is constant, Eq. (2.22) in Exercise 2.3.4 gives τ = 0, so the curve is a circle
(constant curvature and zero torsion).
2.3.20 Let γ (t) be a unit-speed parametrization of C. If all the normal planes of C pass
through a point p, there are scalars λ, µ (possibly depending on t) such that
n + µb
γ + λn b=p
n + λ(−κtt + τb
t + λ̇n b) + µ̇b
b − µτn
n = 0.
Hence,
1 − λκ = 0, λ̇ − µτ = 0, λτ + µ̇ = 0.
Using the first and third equations,
d 2
(λ + µ2 ) = 2λλ̇ + 2µµ̇ = 2λ(µτ ) + 2µ(−λτ ) = 0,
ds
p
so k γ − p k = λ2 + µ2 is constant. Hence, γ lies on a sphere with centre p.
(An alternative is to make use of Exercise 2.3.4.)
2.3.21 (i) is obvious.
(ii) Ḟ = γ̇γ .N so Ḟ (t0 ) = 0 if and only if the tangent vector of γ at γ (t0 ) is parallel
to Π. Using (i) this gives (ii).
(iii) F̈ = γ̈γ.N = κn n.N, so F̈ (t0 ) = 0 if and only if n(t0 ) is parallel to Π. Thus,
the unique plane Π such that F (t0 ) = Ḟ (t0 ) = F̈ (t0 ) = 0 is that passing through
γ (t0 ) and parallel to t(t0 ) and n(t0 ), i.e. perpendicular to b(t0 ).
(iv) If γ is contained in the plane v.N′ = d′ , then γ̇γ .N ′ = γ̈γ .N′ = 0 so by (iii)
the osculating plane Π of γ at any point γ (t0 ) is perpendicular to N′ , and so is
parallel to Π′ . But both Π and Π′ pass through γ (t0 ), so they must coincide.
(v) The (signed) distance from γ (t) to Π is d(t) = (γγ (t) − γ (t0 ))..b(t0 ). Then,
d(t0 ) = 0 and
˙ 0 ) = t(t0 )..b(t0 ) = 0,
d(t
¨ 0 ) = κ(t0 )n
d(t n(t0 )..b(t0 ) = 0,
...
n + κ(−κtt + τb
d (t0 ) = (κ̇n b))(t0 )..b(t0 ) = κ(t0 )τ (t0 ).
1
d(t) = κ(t0 )τ (t0 )(t − t0 )3 + higher order terms.
6
22
As t passes from values < t0 to values > t0 , the leading term changes sign, so γ
crosses Π.
2.3.22 For the circular helix γ (t) = (a cos t, a sin t, bt), b = √a21+b2 (b sin t, −b cos t, a), so
by Exercise 2.3.21 the osculating plane at γ (t0 ) is (γγ (t) − γ (t0 ))..b(t0 ) = 0, i.e.
2.3.23 Proceeding as in the preceding exercise, the osculating plane at γ (t) is found to
be
3t2 x − 3ty + z = t3 .
If P1 , P2 , P3 correspond to t = t1 , t2 , t3 , the three osculating planes intersect at
a single point if and only if the determinant
2
3t1 −3t1 1
2
3t −3t2 1 6= 0.
22
3t −3t3 1
3
But the determinant equals 9(t1 −t2 )(t2 −t3 )(t3 −t1 ), and this is indeed non-zero
as t1 , t2 , t3 are distinct.
If Q is the point (X, Y, Z), then t1 , t2 , t3 are the roots of
t3 − 3t2 X + 3tY − Z = 0.
On the other hand, if the plane Π passing through the points γ (t1 ), γ (t2 ) and
γ (t3 ) has equation
ax + by + cz + d = 0,
then t1 , t2 , t3 are also the roots of
at + bt2 + ct3 + d = 0.
The two cubic equations must be the same, so Π must be the plane
3Y x − 3Xy + z = Z,
γ + λtt + µn
n = p.
µτ = 0, λ̇ − µκ = −1, λκ + µ̇ = 0.
23
These vectors are linearly independent if κ(t0 ) and τ (t0 ) are non-zero, so in that
case Γ has an ordinary cusp at t = t0 .
The orthogonal projection of γ onto its osculating plane at γ (t0 ) is
Γ = γ − (γγ.b(t0 ))b
Γ̃ b(t0 ),
so
˙
Γ(t0 ) = t(t0 ) − (tt(t0 )..b(t0 ))b
Γ̃ b(t0 ) = t(t0 ) 6= 0,
1 κ̇
γ − c = − n + 2 b,
κ κ τ
so the centre c of S is uniquely determined and its radius is
r
1 κ̇2
R =k γ −c k= +
κ2 κ4 τ 2
24
1 κ̇
γ+ b = γ + µtt + νn
n − 2 b + λb n,
κ κ τ
κ̇
all quantities being evaluated at t = t0 . So λ = κ2 τ and the centre of the
osculating circle is
1
b(t0 ) = γ (t0 ) +
c(t0 ) + λb n(t0 ).
κ(t0 )
If R is the radius of the osculating sphere, the radius r of the osculating circle
is given by
1 κ̇2 1
r = R − k − k = 2 + 4 2 − λ2 = 2 ,
2 2
c′
c 2
κ κ τ κ
so r = 1/κ(t0 ).
Chapter 3
3.1.1 γ̇γ = (− sin t − a sin 2t, cos t + a cos 2t), k γ̇γ k2 = 1 + a2 + 2a cos t ≥ 1 + a2 − 2|a| =
(1 − |a|)2 so γ is regular if |a| = 6 1. If |a| = 1 then k γ̇γ k = 2(1 + a cos t) so
the origin is a singular point of γ . If a = 0 then γ is a circle. If 0 < |a| < 1,
then γ (t1 ) = γ (t2 ) =⇒ 1 + a cos t1 = 1 + a cos t2 =⇒ cos t1 = cos t2 =⇒ t2 = t1
or 2π − t1 . In the latter case, γ (t2 ) = ((1 + a cos t1 ) cos t1 , −(1 + a cos t1 ) sin t1 )
so γ (t1 ) = γ (t2 ) =⇒ sin t1 = 0 =⇒ t1 = 0 or π. In all cases, t2 − t1 is a
multiple of 2π, so γ is a closed curve with period 2π without self-intersections.
If |a| > 1, γ passes through the origin when cos t = −1/a, which has two roots
25
with 0 ≤ t < 2π, say t1 < t2 , so the origin is a self-intersection. The picture is
qualitatively similar to that in Example 1.1.7 (which is the case a = 2), so the
complement of the image of γ is the union of two bounded regions enclosed by
the part of the curve with t1 ≤ t ≤ t2 , and an unbounded region.
3.1.2 γ̇γ = (− sin t − 2a sin t cos t, cos t + a(cos2 t − sin2 t)) so
cos t + a cos 2t
tan ϕ = − ,
sin t + a sin 2t
dϕ 1 + 3a cos t + 2a2
∴ sec2 t = ,
dt (sin t + a sin 2t)2
dϕ 1 + 3a cos t + 2a2 a(cos t + a)
∴ = 2
=1+ .
dt 1 + 2a cos t + a 1 + 2a cos t + a2
If |a| < 1, γ is a simple closed curve of period 2π (Exercise 3.1.1), so by the
Umlaufsatz, Z 2π
dϕ
dt = 2π,
0 dt
giving
2π
a(cos t + a)
Z
dt = 0.
0 1 + 2a cos t + a2
If |a| > 1, it is clear geometrically that the tangent vector of γ rotates by 4π on
going once around γ (see the diagram in Example 1.1.7 for the case a = 2), so
2π
dϕ
Z
dt = 4π,
0 dt
giving
2π
a(cos t + a)
Z
dt = 2π.
0 1 + 2a cos t + a2
R 2π
if the ellipse is a circle, i.e. p = q. But its length is 0
k γ̇γ k dt =
R 2π p
0
p2 sin2 t + q 2 cos2 t dt.
3.2.3 γ (t′ ) = γ (t) ⇐⇒ cos t′ = cos t and sin t′ = sin t ⇐⇒ t′ − t is a multiple of 2π, so
γ is simple closed with period 2π. Taking x = p cos t, y = q sin t in Eq. 3.2 gives
1 2π
R
the area as 2 0 pq dt = πpq.
x2i y2
3.3.1 Let (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) be points in the interior of the ellipse, so that p2
+ qi2 < 1
for i = 1, 2. A point of the line segment joining the two points is
√
3.3.2 γ̇γ = (− sin t − 2 sin 2t, cos t + 2 cos 2t) and k γ̇γ k = 5 + 4 cos t, so the angle ϕ
between γ̇γ and the x-axis is given by cos ϕ = − √ sin t−2 sin 2t
5+4 cos t
, sin ϕ = cos
√ t+2 cos 2t .
5+4 cos t
− sin t(24 cos2 t+42 cos t+9)
Differentiating the second equation gives ϕ̇ cos ϕ = (5+4 cos t)3/2
, so
2
sin t(24 cos t+42 cos t+9) 9+6 cos t
ϕ̇ = (5+4 cos t)(sin t+2 sin 2t)
= 5+4 cos t
. Hence, if s is the arc-length of γ , κs =
dϕ/ds = (dϕ/dt)/(ds/dt) = (9 + 6 cos t)/(5 + 4 cos t)3/2 , so
b sin t
tan ϕ = ,
a − b cos t
b(a cos t − b)
∴ ϕ̇ sec2 ϕ = ,
(a − b cos t)2
b(a cos t − b) (a − b cos t)2 b(a cos t − b)
∴ ϕ̇ = 2 2 = .
(a − b cos t) (a − b cos t)2 + b2 sin t a − 2ab cos t + b2
2
Hence,
dκs ab sin t(2b2 − a2 − ab sin t cos t)
= .
dt (a2 − 2ab cos t + b2 )5/2
2b2 −a2
Thus, γ (t) is a vertex if and only if sin t = 0 or cos t = ab .
Hence,
2 there are
2
vertices when t is an integer multiple of π, and no other vertices if 2b ab
−a
> 1.
2 2
On the other hand, if 2b ab
−a
≤ 1, i.e. if a−b
b
≤ 2b
a
≤ a+b
b
, there are infinitely-
2b2 −a2
many values of t such that cos t = ab
, and these all correspond to different
points on the curve.
Chapter 4
4.1.1 Let U be an open disc in R2 and S = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | (x, y) ∈ U, z = 0}. If
W = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | (x, y) ∈ U }, then W is an open subset of R3 , and S ∩ W
is homeomorphic to U by (x, y, 0) 7→ (x, y). So S is a surface.
4.1.2 The image of σ x± is the intersection of the sphere with the open set ±x > 0 in
R3 , and its inverse is the projection (x, y, z) 7→ (y, z). Similarly for σ y± and σ z± .
A point of the sphere not in the image of any of the six patches would have to
have x, y and z all zero, which is impossible.
28
4.1.3 Multiplying the two equations gives (x2 − z 2 ) sin θ cos θ = (1 − y 2 ) sin θ cos θ, so
x2 + y 2 − z 2 = 1 unless cos θ = 0 or sin θ = 0; if cos θ = 0, then x = −z and
y = 1 and if sin θ = 0 then x = z and y = −1, and both of these lines are also
contained in the surface. The given line Lθ passes through (sin 2θ, − cos 2θ, 0)
and is parallel to the vector (cos 2θ, sin 2θ, 1); it follows that we get all of the
lines by taking 0 ≤ θ < π.
Let (x, y, z) be a point of the surface; if x 6= z, let θ be such that cot θ =
(1 − y)/(x − z); then (x, y, z) is on Lθ ; similarly if x 6= −z. The only remaining
cases are the points (0, 0, ±1), which lie on the lines Lπ/2 and L0 . To get a
surface patch covering S, define σ : U → R3 by
σ (u, v) = (sin 2θ, − cos 2θ, 0) + t(cos 2θ, sin 2θ, 1).
4.1.7 Noting that (x, y, z) lies on the ellipsoid if and only if ( xp , yq , zq ) ∈ S 2 , we can use
the latitude-longitude parametrization of S 2 to get the parametrization
by the four patches obtained by taking (θ, ϕ) to lie in one of the following open
sets:
(i) 0 < θ < 2π, 0 < ϕ < 2π;
(ii) 0 < θ < 2π, −π < ϕ < π;
(iii) −π < θ < π, 0 < ϕ < 2π;
(iv) −π < θ < π, −π < ϕ < π.
Each patch is regular because
U1 = {(u, v)|u > 0, 0 < v < 2π} and U2 = {(u, v)|u > 0, −π < v < π}
4.4.1 (i) At (1, 1, 0), σ u = (1, 0, 2), σ v = (0, 1, −2) so σ u × σ v = (−2, 2, 1) and the
tangent plane is −2x + 2y + z = 0.
(ii) At (1, 0, 1), where r = 1, θ = 0, σ r = (1, 0, 2), σ θ = (0, 1, 2) so σ r × σ θ =
(−2, −2, 1) and the equation of the tangent plane is −2x − 2y + z = 0.
σ (ũ, ṽ) be a reparametrization of σ . Then,
4.4.2 Let σ̃
∂ ũ ∂ṽ ∂ ũ ∂ṽ
σu = σ ũ +
σ̃ σ ṽ , σ v =
σ̃ σ ũ +
σ̃ σ ṽ ,
σ̃
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
so σ u and σ v are linear combinations of σ̃ σ ũ and σ̃σ ṽ . Hence, any linear combination
of σ u and σ v is a linear combination of σ̃ σ ũ and σ̃ σ ṽ . The converse is also true
σ
since is a reparametrization of σ̃ .σ
d
4.4.3 If γ (t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) then dt F (γγ (t)) = Fx ẋ + Fy ẏ + Fz ż = ∇F .γ̇γ . Since
∇ S F − ∇F is perpendicular to Tp S, it is perpendicular to γ̇γ (t0 ) for every curve
γ on S passing through p when t = t0 . It follows that ∇S F .γ̇γ = ∇F .γ̇γ at p. If
the restriction of F to S has a local maximum or a local minimum at p, so does
33
d
F (γγ (t)) for all curves γ on S passing through p, hence dt F (γγ (t)) = 0 at p, which
implies that ∇F is perpendicular to γ̇γ , and hence perpendicular to the tangent
plane of S at p. This means that ∇S F = 0.
4.4.4 d(f ◦ γ )/dt) = Dγ (t) f (γ̇γ (t)) is non-zero because γ̇γ is non-zero (γγ is regular) and
Dγ (t) f is invertible (Proposition 4.4.6).
√ √
4.4.5 We find that, at θ = ϕ = π/4, σ θ = 21 b(−1, −1, 2), σ ϕ = 21 (a 2 + b)(−1, 1, 0),
so the unit normal of the torus at this point is parallel to
√ √ √
(−1, −1, 2) × (−1, 1, 0) = − 2(1, 1, 2).
√
Hence, the tangent plane is x + y + 2z = 0.
4.5.1 The transition map Φ(t, θ) = (t̃, θ̃) is defined on the union of the rectangles given
by 0 < θ < π and π < θ < 2π (and −1/2 < t < 1/2). Obviously Φ(t, θ) = (t, θ)
if 0 < θ < π. If π < θ < 2π, we must have θ̃ = θ − 2π. Since sin θ̃2 = − sin θ2 ,
cos 2θ̃ = − cos θ2 , σ (t, θ) = σ̃
σ (t̃, θ̃) forces t̃ = −t. So Φ(t, θ) = (t, θ) if 0 < θ < π,
and = (−t, θ − 2π) if π < θ < 2π. The Jacobian determinant is +1 on the first
rectangle, −1 on the second.
σ α : Uα → R3 } be an atlas for S such that the transition map Φαβ between
4.5.2 Let {σ
σ α and σ β satisfies det(J(Φαβ )) > 0 for all α, β (Definition 4.5.1). By Proposi-
tion 4.3.1, {f ◦ σ α } is an atlas for S̃, and the transition maps for this atlas are
the same as those for the atlas of S, because (f ◦ σ β )−1 ◦ (f ◦ σ α ) = σ −1
β ◦ σα
(where this composite is defined). So the atlas {f ◦ σ α } gives S̃ the structure of
an oriented surface.
σ (θ, ϕ).
4.5.3 If σ (θ, ϕ) = (cos θ cos ϕ, cos θ sin ϕ, sin θ), we find that σ θ × σ ϕ = − cos θσ
Hence, the standard unit normal points inwards if cos θ > 0 (if −π/2 < θ < π/2,
for example) and outwards of cos θ < 0. Note that the points at which cos θ = 0
(i.e. the north and south pole) must be excluded for σ to be regular.
For the patches σ x± , for example, we find that (σ σ x± )v = ± √1−u12 −v 2 σ x± , so
σ x± )u ×(σ
the standard unit normal of σ x+ points outwards and that of σ x− points inwards.
4.5.4 Apply the proof of Proposition 2.2.1 with f = γ̇γ .v, g = γ̇γ.ṽ
v.
4.5.5 From σ ∗ = σσ.σ , we get
σ.σ )σ
(σ σ u − 2(σ
σ u.σ )σ
σ
σ ∗u = 4
,
kσ k
34
1
σ ∗u × σ ∗v = 2
k σ k σ
(σ u × σ v ) − σ
2σ × σ
((σ u . σ σ
)σ v − (σσ v .σ σ
)σ u )
k σ k6
1 2
= k σ k σ
(σ u × σ v ) + σ
2σ × σ
(σ × σ
(σ u × σ v ))
k σ k6
1
σ − k σ k2 (σ
= 6
2(σσ.(σσ u × σ v ))σ σu × σ v )
kσ k
k σ u × σ v k 2(σ σ .N)σσ
= −N .
k σ k4 k σ k2
Hence, it suffices to show that 2(σ .N )σ − N is a unit vector. But its squared
kσ k2
length is
σ.N )2
4(σ 4(σσ. N ) 2
− + k N k2 = 1.
k σ k2 k σ k2
Chapter 5
5.1.1 (i) fx = 2x, fy = 2y and fz = 4z 3 vanish simultaneously only when x = y =
z = 0, but this does not satisfy x2 + y 2 + z 4 = 1. So by Theorem 5.1.1 this is a
smooth surface.
(ii) Let f (x, y, z) be the left-hand side minus the right-hand side; then,
fx = 4x(x2 + y 2 + z 2 − a2 − b2 ),
fy = 4y(x2 + y 2 + z 2 − a2 − b2 ),
fz = 4z(x2 + y 2 + z 2 + a2 − b2 );
Comparing with the standard forms in Theorem 5.2.2 gives the stated results
when c > 2 and c < 2. If c = 2 we have a cone with axis the z-axis (which is
the same as the z ′ -axis), vertex at x′ = y ′ = 0, z ′ = 1, i.e. x = y = 0, z = 1, and
2 2
cross-section perpendicular to the z-axis an ellipse 23 x′ + 43 y ′ = constant.
36
5.2.3 Substituting the components (x, y, z) of γ (t) = a + tbb into the equation of the
quadric gives a quadratic equation for t; if the quadric contains three points on
the line, this quadratic equation has three roots, hence is identically zero, so the
quadric contains the whole line.
For the second part, take three points on each of the given lines; substituting
the coordinates of these nine points into the equation of the quadric gives a
system of nine homogeneous linear equations for the ten coefficients a1 , . . . , c of
the quadric; such a system always has a non-trivial solution. By the first part,
the resulting quadric contains all three lines.
5.2.4 Let L1 , L2 , L3 be three lines from the first family; by the preceding exercise,
there is a quadric Q containing all three lines; all but finitely-many lines of the
second family intersect each of the three lines; if L′ is such a line, Q contains
three points of L′ , and hence the whole of L′ by the preceding exercise; so Q
contains all but finitely-many lines of the second family; since any quadric is a
closed subset of R3 , Q must contain all the lines of the second family, and hence
must contain S.
x y x y 1
5.2.5 z = p − q p + q = uv, x = 2 p(u+v), y = 12 q(v−u), so a parametrisation is
σ (u, v) = ( 21 p(u+v), 12 q(v −u), uv); σ u ×σ
= (− 21 q(u+v), 12 p(v −u), pq) is never
σv
zero so σ is regular. For a fixed value of u, σ (u, v) = ( 21 pu, − 12 qu, 0)+v( 21 p, 12 q, u)
is a straight line; similarly for a fixed value of v; hence the hyperbolic paraboloid
is the union of each of two families of straight lines.
a c
5.2.6 Let A = . Since A is a real symmetric matrix, there is an orthogonal
c b ′
t ′ ′ a 0
matrix P such that P AP = A is a diagonal matrix, say A = (see
0 b′
Appendix 0). We can assume that det(P ) = 1 by changing the sign of one of the
rows of P if necessary. Then the equation of the conic becomes
2 2
a′ x′ + b′ y ′ + d′ x′ + e′ y ′ + f = 0,
x′
′
x d d
where = P , = P . In other words, we might as well
y′ y e′ e
assume that c = 0 from the beginning.
Assume then that c = 0. If a 6= 0, we can assume that d = 0 by replacing x by
x + ad (a translation). Similarly, if b 6= 0 we can assume that e = 0.
If a and b are both 6= 0, we can therefore assume that d = e = 0 and we are in
case (i) or (iii).
If a = 0 and b 6= 0, the equation takes the form by 2 + dx + f = 0. If d 6= 0
replacing x by x + fd we can assume that f = 0 and then we are in case (ii). If
d = 0 we are in case (v). The case a 6= 0, b = 0 is similar.
37
and (v) to a plane by (x, y, z) 7→ (x, y, 0); type (vii) to the unit cylinder by
(x, y, z) 7→ ( xp , yq , z); type (ix) to a plane by (x, y, z) 7→ (x, 0, z); and type (x) is
a plane.
(ii) For types (iii) and (vi) the connected pieces are the parts of the quadric with
z > 0 and with z < 0. Each part of type (iii) is diffeomorphic to the plane by
(x, y, z) 7→ (x, y, 0). Each part of type (vi)is diffeomorphic to the unit cylinder
x y
p q
by (x, y, z) 7→ q 2
,q 2
, ln |z|. The two connected pieces of type
x2 x2
+ y2 + y2
p2 q p2 q
(viii) are given by x > 0 and x < 0; each piece is diffeomorphic to the plane by
(x, y, z) 7→ (0, y, z).
σ (u, v) = (cos u, sin u, 0) + v(− sin u, cos u, 1) = (cos u − v sin u, sin u + v cos u, v).
Since γ̇γ.δ̇δ = 0, the line of striction is γ (see the solution to Exercise 5.3.4).
39
5.4.1 Both surfaces are closed subsets of R3 , as they are of the form f (x, y, z) = 0,
where f : R3 → R is a continuous function (equal to x2 − y 2 + z 4 − 1 and
x2 + y 2 + z 4 − 1 in the two cases). The surface in (i) is not bounded, and hence
not compact, since it contains the point (1, a2 , a) for all real numbers a; that in
(ii) is bounded, and hence compact, since x2 + y 2 + z 4 = 1 =⇒ −1 ≤ x, y, z ≤ 1.
The surface in (ii) is obtained by rotating the curve x2 + z 4 = 1 in the xz-plane
around the z-axis:
5.4.2 A closed curve γ with period T can be identified with the unit circle by γ (t) 7→
40
(cos(2πt/T ), sin(2πt/T )). This gives rise to a diffeomorphism from the tube
around γ to a tube around the circle, i.e. a torus. We have to make the tube
have a sufficiently small radius as otherwise it might intersect itself and then it
would not be a surface.
by the equation U = 0.
(ii) Let
p p p p
U = yz − ux, V = x2 + y 2 + x2 + z 2 − v, W = x2 + y 2 − x2 + z 2 − w.
√ x x √ y z
Then, ∇U = (−u, z, y), ∇V = + x2 +z2 ,
√ , x2 +z2 , ∇ W =
√
x2 +y 2 x2 +y 2
√ 2x 2 − √ 2x 2 , √ 2y 2 , − √ 2z 2 . Hence, at a point of intersection of the
x +y x +z x +y x +z
surfaces U = 0, V = 0 and W = 0, ∇ U..∇V = (yz − ux) √ 21 2 + √x21+z2 =
x +y
2 2 2 2
0 by the equation U = 0; ∇V .∇W = x2x+y2 − x2x+z2 + x2y+y2 − x2z+z2 = 0;
1 1
∇ W .∇U = (yz − ux) √ 2 2 − √x2 +z2 = 0 by the equation U = 0.
x +y
5.5.4 Two families of plane curves U (x, y) = u and V (x, y) = v form an orthogonal
system if ∇ U..∇ V = 0 at each point of intersection of a curve
of the first family
∂U ∂U
with a curve of the second family. Here, ∇U = ∂x , ∂y , etc.
(i) U (x, y) = x, V (x, y) = y, i.e. the two families of straight lines parallel to the
y- and x-axis, respectively. The orthogonality is obvious.
(ii) U (x, y) = y cos u − x sin u, V (x, y) = x2 + y 2 − v 2 , i.e. the family of straight
lines passing through the origin and the family of circles with centre the origin.
The orthogonality is obvious.
5.5.5 The function Ft (a, b) is a continuous function of t (for fixed non-zero real numbers
a, b) in each of the open intervals (−∞, p2 ), (p2 , q 2 ) and (q 2 , ∞). Also, Ft (a, b) →
0 as t → ±∞, and Ft (a, b) → ±∞ as t approaches p2 or q 2 from the left (+ sign)
or right (− sign). It follows that there is at least one value of t in each of the
open intervals (−∞, p2 ) and (p2 , q 2 ) such that Ft (a, b) = 1. On the other hand,
Ft (a, b) = 1 is equivalent to a quadratic equation for t which has at most two real
roots. It follows that there are unique numbers u ∈ (−∞, p2 ) and v ∈ (p2 , q 2 )
such that Fu (a, b) = Fv (a, b) = 1. The conics Fu (x, y) = 1 and Fv (x, y) = 1
are ellipses and hyperbolas, respectively, and we have shown that there is one
of each passing through each point on the plane that does not lie on one of the
coordinate axes.
To show that this is an orthogonal system of curves, we calculate ∇Fu .∇Fv
at
a point (a, b) that lies on the conics Fu = 1 and Fv = 1. Since ∇ Fu =
2x 2y
p2 −u , q 2 −u , we get
4a2 4b2
∇Fu.∇Fv = +
(p2 − u)(p2 − v) (q 2 − u)(q 2 − v)
4(Fu (a, b) − Fv (a, b) 4−4
= = = 0.
u−v u−v
42
2
For the last part, let Ft (x, y) = p2x−t − 2y + t. Arguing as in Exercise 5.5.2,
for any point (a, b) ∈ R2 not on one of the coordinate axes, there are unique
numbers u ∈ (−∞, p2 ) and v ∈ (p2 , ∞) such that Fu (a, b) = Fv (a, b) = 1. Both
systems of curves Fu (x, y) = 1 and Fv (x, y) = 1 are parabolas. At (a, b) we find
that
5.6.3 Let σ (u, v) = (f (u, v), g(u, v), h(u, v)). The condition σ u × σ v 6= 0 at (u0 , v0 )
fu fv
means that the matrix gu gv has rank 2 at (u0 , v0 ), so at least one 2 × 2
hu hv
fu fv
submatrix is invertible, say . If F (u, v) = (f (u, v), g(u, v)), then as
gu gv
in the proof of Proposition 4.2.6 there is an open subset V of R2 containing
F (u0 , v0 ) and an open subset W of U containing (u0 , v0 ) such that F : W → V
is bijective, in particular injective. Then the restriction of σ to W is injective.
5.6.4 Let σ (u, v) = (f (u, v), g(u, v), h(u, v)). The condition
that N (u0 , v0 ) is not par-
fu fv
allel to the xy-plane means that the matrix is invertible at (u0 , v0 ).
gu gv
If F (u, v) = (f (u, v), g(u, v)), then as in the proof of Proposition 4.2.6 there
is an open subset V of R2 containing F (u0 , v0 ) and an open subset W of U
containing (u0 , v0 ) such that F : W → V is bijective with smooth inverse. If
F −1 (u, v) = (α(u, v), β(u, v)), then near (x0 , y0 , z0 ) the surface coincides with
the graph z = h(α(x, y), β(x, y)). If N (u0 , v0 ) is parallel to the xy-plane, then
at least one of the other two 2 × 2 submatrices of the Jacobian matrix of σ (u, v)
is invertible, and then the surface coincides near (x0 , y0 , z0 ) with a graph of the
form x = ϕ(y, z) or y = ϕ(x, z).
5.6.5 Let γ (t) = (γ1 (t), . . . , γn (t)). As γ is regular, γ̇γ (t0 ) 6= 0, so at least one compo-
nent of γ̇γ (t0 ) is non-zero, say γ̇1 (t0 ) (the proof is the same in the other cases).
By the inverse function theorem for real-valued function of one variable, there
is a smooth function α, say, defined on an open interval containing γ1 (t0 ), and
some ǫ > 0 such that α(γ1 (t)) = t for all t ∈ (t0 − ǫ, t0 + ǫ). This implies that the
restriction of γ1 to the interval (t0 − ǫ, t0 + ǫ) is injective. Hence, the restriction
of γ to the same interval is injective.
Chapter 6
6.1.1 (i) Quadric cone x2 + z 2 = y 2 ; we have
Since ũ = 12 (û + v̂), ṽ = 21 (û − v̂), the first fundamental form becomes
1 1 1
(dû + dv̂)2 + cos θ(dû2 − dv̂ 2 ) + (dû − dv̂)2
4 2 4
1 1 θ θ
= (1 + cos θ)dû2 + (1 − cos θ)dv̂ 2 = cos2 dû2 + sin2 dv̂ 2 .
2 2 2 2
6.2.4 The line of striction is given by v = −(γ̇γ .δ̇δ )δδ / k δ̇δ k2 (Exercise 5.3.4), where in this
case δ = γ̇γ . Since γ is unit-speed, γ̇γ .γ̈γ = 0 so v = 0 and we get the curve γ itself.
For the second part, we can assume that u0 = 0 and by applying an isometry of
R3 that γ (0) = 0, t(0) = i, n(0) = j, b(0) = k (in the usual notation). Then, using
...
Frenet-Serret, γ̈γ (0) = κ(0)jj, γ (0) = (−κ(0)2 , κ̇(0), κ(0)τ (0)) so, neglecting higher
...
powers of u in each component, γ (u) = γ (0) +uγ̇γ (0) + 12 γ̈γ (0)u2 + 61 γ (0)u3 +. . . =
(u, 12 κ(0)u2 , 61 κ(0)τ (0)u3 ). The intersection of the surface with the plane perpen-
dicular to t(0) = i is given by setting the x-component of σ (u, v) equal to zero.
This gives v = −u+ higher terms, so neglecting such terms, u = −v. Then the
intersection is Γ(v) = σ (−v, v) = γ (−v) + vγ̇γ (−v) = (0, − 21 κ(0)v 2 , 31 κ(0)τ (0)v 3 ).
6.2.5 A generalized cylinder can be parametrized by σ (u, v) = γ (u) + vaa, where we can
assume (see Exercise 5.3.3) that γ is unit-speed, a is a unit vector, and γ̇γ .a = 0,
where the dot denotes d/du. Then, σ u = γ̇γ , σ v = a so the first fundamental
form is du2 + dv 2 . This is the same as the first fundamental form of the plane
(u, v, 0), so by Corollary 6.2.3 the map σ (u, v) 7→ (u, v, 0) is a local isometry.
6.2.6 Assume that f satisfies the given condition and denote d/du by a dot. Define
Rq
g(u) = 1 − f˙2 du; then g is smooth since the term inside the square root
is always > 0. The curve γ (u) = (f (u), 0, g(u)) in the xz-plane is unit-speed,
and by Example 6.1.3 if we rotate γ around the z-axis, the resulting surface of
revolution has first fundamental form du2 + f (u)2 dv 2 . By Corollary 6.2.3, the
given surface is locally isometric to this surface of revolution.
Rp
6.2.7 Define ũ = U (u) du. The given condition on U implies that U (u) > 0 for all
values of u, so ũ is a smooth function of u and dũ/du is never zero. It follows
that (u, v) 7→ (ũ, v) is a reparametrization map. The first fundamental form in
terms of (ũ, v) is dũ2 + Ũ (ũ)dv 2 , where Ũ (ũ) = U (u). By Exercise
6.2.6, this
df
surface patch is locally isometric to a surface of revolution if dũ < 1 for all
47
p
values of ũ, where f = Ũ . But,
df 1 dŨ 1 dU/du 1 dU
= p = √ = .
dũ 2 Ũ dũ 2 U dũ/du 2U du
6.3.1 If the first fundamental forms of two surfaces are equal, they are certainly pro-
portional, so any isometry is a conformal map. Stereographic projection is a
conformal map from S 2 to the plane, but it is not an isometry since λ 6= 1 (see
Example 6.3.5).
6.3.2 The first fundamental form of the given surface patch is (1+u2 +v 2 )2 (du2 +dv 2 );
this is a multiple of du2 + dv 2 so the patch is conformal.
2
6.3.3 The first fundamental form of σ̃ σ (u, v) is dψdu
du2 + cos2 ψ(u)dv 2 . So σ̃ σ is
R
conformal ⇐⇒ dψ/du = ± cos ψ. Taking the plus sign, we get u = sec ψdψ =
ln(sec ψ + tan ψ), so 1+sin ψ u u
cos ψ = e . Then 2 cosh u = e + e
−u
= 1+sin ψ cos ψ
cos ψ + 1+sin ψ =
2 sec ψ. Hence, cos ψ = sechu, sin ψ = tanhu and σ̃ σ (u, v) is the patch in Exercise
5.3.2.
6.3.4 Φ is conformal if and only if fu2 + gu2 = fv2 + gv2 and fu fv + gu gv = 0. Let
z = fu + igu , w = fv + igv ; then Φ is conformal if and only if zz̄ = ww̄ and
z w̄ + z̄w = 0, where the bar denotes complex conjugate; if z = 0, then w = 0 and
all four equations are certainly satisfied; if z 6= 0, the equations give z 2 = −w2 ,
so z = ±iw; these are easily seen to be equivalent to the first pair of equations
in the statement of the exercise if the sign is +, and to the second pair if the
fu g u
sign is −. We have det(J(Φ)) = = ±(f 2 + f 2 ), with a plus sign if the
u v
fv g v
first pair of equations hold and a minus sign if the second pair of equations hold.
6.3.5 Let S be an orientable surface. Fix a smooth choice of unit normal at each point
of S, and let A be the atlas for S consisting of all the surface patches for S
whose standard unit normal agrees with the chosen normal. On the other hand,
by Theorem 6.3.6 S has an atlas consisting of conformal parametrizations; let
à be the maximal such atlas (i.e. the set of all conformal parametrizations of
S). Then, A ∩ Ã is an atlas for S. Indeed, if p ∈ S, let σ be any conformal
parametrization of S containing p. If σ has the wrong orientation (so that
σ ∈ σ (u, v) = σ (−u, v) is a conformal parametrization containing p
/ Ã), then σ̃
that has the correct orientation. Thus, in any case there is a surface patch of
S containing p that is both conformal and correctly oriented. Let Φ be the
transition map between two of the patches in the atlas A ∩ Ã. Then, Φ is a
conformal diffeomorphism between open subsets of R2 . By Exercise 6.3.4, Φ is
either holomorphic or anti-holomorphic, and in the latter case det(J(Φ)) < 0,
contradicting the fact that Φ is the transition map between two correctly oriented
surface patches. Hence, Φ must be holomorphic.
48
x y
6.3.6 Following Example 6.3.5, we find Π̃(x, y, z) = ( z+1 , z+1 , 0). Identifying (u, v) ∈
2
1−|w|
R2 with w = u + iv ∈ C, we find σ̃ σ 1 (w) = ( |w|2w
2 +1 , 1+|w|2 ). Then σ 1 (w) =
σ 1 (1/w̄), so the transition map is w 7→ 1/w̄. This is not holomorphic, so the atlas
σ̃
{σ σ 1 } does not give S 2 the structure of a Riemann surface. If σ̂
σ 1 , σ̃ σ 1 (w) = σ̃ σ 1 (w̄),
the transition map between σ 1 and σ̂ σ 1 is w 7→ 1/w. This is holomorphic (when
w 6= 0, which holds on the overlap of the two patches), so the atlas {σ σ 1 , σ̂
σ 1 } gives
2
S the structure of a Riemann surface.
6.3.7 Any circle on S 2 is the intersection of S 2 with a plane, and so (see Appendix 2)
has equation of the form aw + āw̄ + bz = c, where a ∈ C, b, c ∈ R are constants
|ξ|2 −1
(and a and b are not both zero). Substituting w = |ξ|2ξ 2 +1 , z = |ξ|2 +1 gives
E σ.σ u )2
4(σ σ. σ u ) 2
4(σ E
E ∗ = σ ∗u.σ ∗u = 2
− 3
+ 3
= .
σ. σ )
(σ σ .σ )
(σ σ. σ )
(σ k σ k4
Similarly, we find that F ∗ = F/ k σ k4 , G∗ = G/ k σ k4 . Hence, the first
fundamental form of σ ∗ is a multiple of that of σ .
6.3.12 By Example 6.1.3, any surface of revolution has an atlas consisting of surface
2 2 2
patches σ (u, v) whose first fundamentalR duform is du + f (u) dv for some positive
smooth function f (u). Define ũ = f (u) . Then, the first fundamental form of
the reparametrization σ̃σ (ũ, v) of σ (u, v) is f 2 (dũ2 + dv 2 ). This is a conformal
surface patch.
This holds ⇐⇒ the two integrands are equal everywhere, i.e. ⇐⇒ E1 G1 − F12 =
E2 G2 − F22 .
6.4.7 Since N is perpendicular to the tangent plane, N × σ u is parallel to the tangent
plane, and so = ασ σ u + βσ
σ v for some α, √ N × σ u ).σ
β. Now (N σ u = 0, (N
N × σ u )..σ v =
σ u × σ v )..N = k σ u × σ v k N.N = EG − F by √
(σ 2 Proposition 6.4.2. This
gives the √ two equations αE + √ βF = 0, αF + βG = EG − F 2 , which imply
α = −F/ EG − F , β = E/ EG − F 2 . The formula for N × σ v is proved
2
similarly.
50
6.4.8 By Exercise 6.1.6(ii), the first fundamental form is du2 + (1 + u2 )dv 2 . So the
area is
Z 2π Z 1 p √ √
1 + u2 dudv = π( 2 + ln(1 + 2)).
0 0
6.5.1 If the internal angles are equal to α, Theorem 6.4.7 gives 3α − π = 4π/4, so
α = 2π/3. Corollary 6.5.6 then gives the length of a side as A = cos−1 (−1/3).
6.5.2 Using the notation following Proposition 6.5.8, there is a rotation R1 of S 2 that
takes a′ to a; then a further rotation R2 around the diameter through a that
52
makes the side through a and R1 (b b′ ) coincide with the side through a and b. By
Corollary 6.5.6 the two triangles have sides of the same length, so we must have
b = R2 R1 (b b′ ). If c and c′ are on the same side of the plane containing the side
through a and b, we shall then have c = R2 R1 (cc′ ) and the isometry R2 R1 takes
the triangle with vertices a′ , b′ , c′ to the triangle with vertices a, b, c; if they are
on opposite sides the isometry R3 R2 R1 does this, where R3 is reflection in the
plane containing the side through a and b.
6.5.3 By applying an isometry of R3 , which leaves lengths and areas unchanged, we
can assume that p is the north pole (0, 0, 1). The spherical circle of radius R
and centre p is then the circle of latitude ϕ = π/2 − R (Example 4.1.4), which is
a circle of radius sin R. The area inside it is, by Example 6.1.3 and Proposition
R 2π R π/2
6.4.2, 0 π/2−R cos θdθdϕ = 2π(1 − cos R). The maximum value of R is π; if
π/2 ≤ R ≤ π, one replaces R by π − R in (i) and (ii).
′ ′
6.5.4 (i) If M ′ (w) = ac′ w+d
w+b ′
′ is another unitary Möbius transformation, (M ◦ M )(w) =
Aw+B
Cw+D
, where A = a′ a + b′ c, B = a′ b + b′ d, C = c′ a + d′ c, D = c′ b + d′ d. Thus,
Ā = ā′ ā + b¯′ c̄ = d′ d + (−c′ )(−b) = D and similarly C = −B̄. Inverses are dealt
with similarly.
(ii) Denoting (x, y, z) ∈ R3 by (ξ, z) with ξ = x + iy ∈ C, the plane through
the origin perpendicular to (a, b) is w̄a + wā + 2bz = 0, and reflection in it
|w 2 −1
is F (ξ, z) = (ξ, z) − 2 w̄a+wā+2bz
|a|2 +b2 (a, b). Taking ξ = |w|2w
2 +1 , z = |w|2 +1 , we
on S 2 with sides of length A/R, B/R, C/R and the same angles. Applying the
cosine rule to the triangle on S 2 gives cos C A B A B
R = cos R cos R + cos γ sin R sin R ,
where γ is the angle opposite the side of length C (and two similar formulas).
2
x x x
If R is large, cos R is approximately equal to 1 − 2R 2 and sin R is approximately
x
equal to R . Substituting into the cosine rule gives
C2 A2 B2
AB
1− = 1− 1− + 2 cos γ,
2R2 2R 2 2R 2 R
2 2
which gives C 2 = A2 + B 2 − 2AB cos γ − A2RB2 . Letting R → ∞ gives the usual
cosine rule for a plane triangle with sides of length A, B, C and with γ the angle
opposite the side of length C. This happens because when R → ∞ and A, B, C
are fixed, the triangle becomes more and more nearly planar. (When standing
at a point on a sphere of very large radius, one seems to be standing on a plane
- this is why the Ancients thought the Earth is flat!)
6.5.6 Let n, a, b be the North Pole, Athens and Bombay, respectively, and let R =
6500km be the radius of the Earth. The angle at n of the spherical triangle with
vertices n, a, b is 73◦ − 24◦ = 49◦ , and the lengths of the sides opposite b and a
are obtained by multiplying by R the radian equivalents of 90◦ − 19◦ = 71◦ and
90◦ − 38◦ = 52◦ , respectively. If d is the spherical distance between Athens and
Bombay, applying the cosine rule in the preceding exercise thus gives
d
cos = cos 52◦ cos 71◦ + sin 52◦ sin 71◦ cos 49◦ = 0.6892.
R
Hence, d/R = 0.8104 (radians) and d = 0.8104R = 5267km.
6.5.7 Drawing the diagonal of the square gives two spherical triangles with angles
α/2, α/2 and α, the sides opposite these angles being A, A and D (the length of
the diagonal). Applying the cosine rule to one of these triangles gives
1
cos A = cos A cos D + sin A sin D cos α,
2
2 2
cos D = cos A + sin A cos α.
Using the sine rule (Proposition 6.5.3(ii)) gives sin D = sin A sin α/ sin 21 α =
2 sin A cos 21 α. Substituting the formulas for cos D and sin D into the first equa-
tion above gives
1
cos A = cos3 A + cos A sin2 A cos α + 2 sin2 A cos2 α.
2
Hence, cos A sin2 A(1 − cos α) = 2 sin2 A cos2 12 α, and this gives the desired for-
mula for cos A.
54
(cos α + cos β)(1 + cos γ) = cos α + cos β cos γ + cos β + cos α cos γ
= λ sin γ sin B cos A + λ sin γ sin A cos B
by (ii), which = λ sin γ(sin A cos B + cos A sin B) = λ sin γ sin(A + B).
(iv) Writing the formula in (iii) in terms of half-angles gives
1 1 1 1 1
cos (α + β) cos (α − β) = λ tan γ sin (A + B) cos (A + B).
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
sin (α + β) cos (α − β) = λ sin (A + B) cos (A − B).
2 2 2 2
Dividing this equation by the preceding one gives the first formula in (iv). The
second follows similarly from (iii) and the second equation in (i).
(v) Applying the first formula in (iv) to the polar triangle, we get
1 cos 21 (π − α − π + β) 1
tan (π − A + π − B) = 1 cot (π − C),
2 cos 2 (π − α + π − β) 2
i.e.,
1 cos 12 (α − β) 1
tan (A + B) = 1 tan C.
2 cos 2 (α + β) 2
Similarly,
1 sin 12 (α − β) 1
tan (A − B) = 1 tan C.
2 sin 2 (α + β) 2
6.5.9 If a′ 6= ±aa a rotation through an angle 12 dS 2 (aa, a′ ) around the line through the
origin parallel to a × a′ takes a ′ to a . If a ′ = −aa the same thing is achieved by
applying the isometry v 7→ −v v. Thus, in all cases there is an isometry of S 2
that takes a ′ to a. Since composites of isometries are isometries, it is sufficient
to prove the result when a′ = a .
If θ is the angle between the great circles passing through a and b and through a
and b′ , a rotation by θ about the line through the origin and a fixes a and takes
b′ to a point b′′ on the great circle passing through a and b. Since b and b′ are
equidistant from a, so are b and b′′ . It follows that either b′′ = b or b′′ is obtained
55
Chapter 7
7.1.1 σ u = (1, 0, 2u), σ v = (0, 1, 2v), so N = λ(−2u, −2v, 1), where λ = √1+4u12 +4v 2 ;
σ uu = (0, 0, 2), σ uv = 0, σ vv = (0, 0, 2), so L = 2λ, M = 0, N = 2λ, and the
second fundamental form is 2λ(du2 + dv 2 ).
Nu = −σ
7.1.2 σ u .N σ uu .N
N (since σ u .N
N = 0), so Nu .σ
σ u = 0; similarly, Nu .σ
σ v = Nv .σ
σu =
Nv .σσ v = 0; hence, Nu and Nv are perpendicular to both σ u and σ v , and so
are parallel to N . On the other hand, Nu and Nv are perpendicular to N since
N is a unit vector. Thus, Nu = Nv = 0, and hence N is constant. Then,
σ .N
(σ N)u = σ u .N
N = 0, and similarly (σ σ .N
N)v = 0, so σ .N
N is constant, say equal to
d, and then σ is an open subset of the plane v.N N = d.
7.1.3 From §4.5, Ñ N = ±N σ ũ = σ u ∂∂uũ + σ v ∂∂vũ ,
N, the sign being that of det(J). From σ̃
σ ṽ = σ u ∂u
σ̃ ∂v
∂ ṽ + σ v ∂ ṽ , we get
2 2
∂ 2u ∂ 2v
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
σ σ
σ̃ ũũ = u 2 + v 2 + σ uu
σ σ uv
+ 2σ + σ vv .
∂ ũ ∂ ũ ∂ ũ ∂ ũ ∂ ũ ∂ ũ
2 ∂v 2
So L̃ = ± L ∂u + 2M ∂u ∂v
∂ ũ ∂ ũ ∂ ũ
+N ∂ ũ
N = σ v .N
, since σ u .N N = 0. This, to-
gether with similar formulas for M̃ and Ñ , are equivalent to the matrix equation
in the question.
7.1.4 Let σ be a surface patch, P a 3 × 3 orthogonal matrix, a ∈ R3 a constant vector,
σ = P σ +aa. Then, σ̃
and σ̃ σ u = P σ u , σ̃
σ v = P σ v , so σ̃
σ u ×σ̃
σ v = ±σ
σ u ×σ
σ v (Proposition
A.1.6), the sign being + if the isometry v 7→ P v +aa is direct and − if it is opposite.
It follows that (in the obvious notation), L̃ = ±L, M̃ = ±M, Ñ = ±N . The
dilation v 7→ av v, where a is a non-zero constant, multiplies σ by a and hence
multiplies each of L, M, N by a.
7.1.5 σ u = (cos v, sin v, 0), σ v = (−u sin v, u cos v, 1), so σ u × σ v = (sin v, − cos v, u)
1
and N = √1+u 2
(sin v, − cos v, u). Then, σ uu = 0, σ uv = (− sin v, cos v, 0), σ vv =
56
1
(−u cos v, −u sin v, 0). This gives L = σ uu.N = 0, M = σ uv .N = − √1+u2
,
N = σ vv .N = 0. So the second fundamental form is −2dudv
√
1+u2
.
7.1.6 The tangent developable is parametrized by σ (u, v) = γ (u) + vtt(u), where t =
dγγ /du. Using the standard notation and the Frenet-Serret equations, we find
v
n, σ v = t, σ u × σ v = −κvb
σ u = t + κvn b, N = − |v| b,
dκ
n+
σ uu = κn n + κv(−κtt + τb
vn b), σ uv = κn
n, σ vv = 0.
du
2
v
Hence, L = −κτ |v| , M = N = 0. So the second fundamental form is −κτ |v|du2 .
This vanishes at all points of the surface if and only if τ = 0 at all points
of γ , which holds if and only if γ is planar (Proposition 2.3.3). In that case,
the tangent developable is part of a plane. Thus, for tangent developables, the
second fundamental form vanishes everywhere if and only if the surface is part
of a plane. This is a special case of Exercise 7.1.2.
7.2.2 This is obvious since changing the orientation changes the Gauss map G to −G.
7.2.3 The hyperboloid of one sheet x2 + y 2 − z 2 = 1 is obtained by rotating the
hyperbola x2 − z 2 = 1 in the xz-plane around the z-axis. For this hyperbola,
dz
dx
= xz → ±1 as x → ±∞. The unit normal to the hyperbola therefore makes
an angle θ with the x-axis, where the angle θ takes all values in the range
− π4 < θ < π4 . Rotating around the z-axis, it follows that the image of the Gauss
map of the hyperboloid is the region of S 2 for which the latitude θ satisfies
− π4 < θ < π4 . This is an annulus on S 2 .
The hyperboloid of two sheets x2 − y 2 − z 2 = 1 is obtained by rotating the same
hyperbola as above around the x-axis. The image of G is the union of√ two ‘caps’
2 2 2 2
on S , namely the parts of the sphere x + y + z = 1 with |x| > 1/ 2.
7.3.1 Let t be the parameter for γ , let s be arc-length along γ , and denote d/dt by a dot
ds 2 ′′ 2
and d/ds by a dash. Then, γ̇γ = ds ′ γ
γ + ddt2s γ ′ . By Proposition 7.3.5,
dt γ , γ̈ = dt
1 1
κn = hhγγ ′ , γ ′ ii = hh (ds/dt) γ̇γ , (ds/dt) γ̇γ ii = hhγ̇γ , γ̇γ ii/(ds/dt)2 = hhγ̇γ , γ̇γ ii/hγ̇γ , γ̇γ i. For the
3 ′′
second part, since γ ′.(N N × γ ′ ) = 0, we have γ̈γ.(N N × γ̇γ ) = ds dt γ .(N N × γ ′) =
hγ̇γ , γ̇γ i3/2 κg .
7.3.2 Let γ be a unit-speed curve on the sphere of centre a and radius r. Then,
(γγ − a).(γγ − a ) = r 2 ; differentiating gives γ̇γ .(γγ − a ) = 0, so γ̈γ .(γγ − a ) = −γ̇γ .γ̇γ =
−1. At the point γ (t), the unit normal of the sphere is N = ± r1 (γγ (t) − a), so
κn = γ̈γ .N N = ± 1r γ̈γ .(γγ − a ) = ∓ 1r .
57
7.3.3 If the sphere has radius R, the parallel with latitude θ has radius r = R cos θ; if
p is a point of this circle, its principal normal at p is parallel to the line through
p perpendicular to the z-axis, while the unit normal to the sphere is parallel to
the line through p and the centre of the sphere. The angle ψ in Eq. 7.10 is
therefore equal to θ or π − θ so κg = ± 1r sin θ = ± R1 tan θ. Note that this is zero
if and only if the parallel is a great circle.
7.3.4 We have γ̇γ = u̇σ
σ + v̇σ
u σ , so by Exercise 6.4.7, N × γ̇γ = u̇(Eσ v −F√
v
σ u )+v̇(F σ v −Gσ u ) ,
EG−F 2
γ̈γ = üσ σ v + u̇2 σ uu + 2u̇v̇σ
σ u + v̈σ σ uv + v̇ 2σ vv . Hence,
p
κg = γ̈γ .(N
N × γ̇γ ) = (u̇v̈ − v̇ü) EG − F 2 + Au̇3 + B u̇2 v̇ + C u̇v̇ 2 + Dv̇ 3 ,
where
1
σ v − F σ u ) = E((σ
A = σ uu .(Eσ σu .σ
σ v )u − σ u .σ
σ uv ) − F (σ
σ u .σ
σ u )u
2
1 1
= E(Fu − Ev ) − F Eu ,
2 2
N1 .n
κ1 N2 − κ2 N1 = κ((N n)N
N2 − (N
N2 .n
n)N
N1 ) = κ(N
N1 × N 2 ) × n .
7.3.9 We find that, at the point where u = v = 1, the first and second fundamental
forms are 32 du2 + 2dudv + 32 dv 2 and 2dudv
√
5
, respectively. Taking u = v = t, so
that u̇ = v̇ = 1, Exercise 7.3.1 gives the normal curvature as
2√
u̇v̇
5 2
3 2 3 2 = √ .
2 u̇ + 2u̇v̇ + 2 v̇ 5 5
7.3.10 From Examples 6.1.3 and 7.1.2, the first and second fundamental forms are
du2 + f (u)2 dv 2 and (f˙g̈ − f¨ġ)du2 + f ġdv 2 , respectively (a dot denoting d/du.
We use the formulas in Exercise 7.3.1.
(i) For a meridian we use u as the parameter, so the curve is γ (u) = σ (u, v)
(with v constant). Note that γ is unit-speed. The second formula in Exercise
7.3.1 gives κn = f˙g̈ − f¨ġ. Now, γ̇γ = (f˙ cos v, f˙ sin v, ġ), γ̈γ = (f¨ cos v, f¨ sin v, g̈),
N = (−ġ cos v, −ġ sin v, f˙) (from Example 7.1.2 again), giving κg = γ̈γ. (N N×γ̇γ ) = 0.
(ii) For a parallel we use v as the parameter, so the curve is Γ(v) = σ (u, v)
(with u constant). Note that Γ is not unit-speed in general. Now, dΓ Γ/dv =
2Γ 2
(−f sin v, f cos v, 0), d /dv = (−f cos v, −f sin v, 0), giving Γ̈ Γ.(N Γ) = f 2 f˙.
N × Γ̇
2 ˙ ˙
Hence, κg = ff 3f = ff .
7.3.11 The paraboloid z = x2 + y 2 is obtained by rotating the parabola z = x2 in the
xz-plane around the z-axis. We could therefore use the preceding exercise but we
would need a unit-speed parametrization of the parabola, which is complicated.
Proceeding directly, parametrize the paraboloid by σ (u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, u2 ).
2
+2u2 dv 2
The first and second fundamental forms are (1+4u2 )du2 +u2 dv 2 and 2du√1+4u 2
,
respectively. A curve u = constant can be parametrized by γ (v) = σ (u, v).
2
√ 2u
1+4u2
Hence, κn = u2 .
Now, denoting d/dv by a dot, we find that γ̇γ = (−u sin v, u cos v, 0), γ̈γ =
1
(−u cos v, −u sin v, 0), and N = √1+4u2
(−2u cos v, −2u sin v, 1), which gives
2 2
γ̈γ .(N
N × γ̇γ ) = √ u . Hence, κg = 1
× √ u = √ 1 .
1+4u2 u3 1+4u2 u 1+4u2
Using the preceding exercise and the first part of this exercise, we get
1 √ √
θ̇ = κg − √ (Gu v̇ − Ev u̇) = κg + κ′g u̇ E + κ′′g v̇ G = κg − κ′g cos θ − κ′′g sin θ.
2 EG
7.3.16 Let γ (t) be a unit-speed parametrization of C, and let p = γ (t0 ). Let N be a unit
normal of S at p. Then, a parametrization of C˜ is γ̃γ = γ − (γγ .N )N N. Denoting
˙ ¨
N, γ̃γ = γ̈γ − (γ̈γ .N)N
d/dt by a dot as usual, γ̃γ = γ̇γ − (γ̇γ.N)N N, so the curvature of γ̃γ
at p is
since γ̃γ˙ (t0 ) = γ̇γ (t0 ) is a unit vector. Now, γ̈γ (t0 ) = κg N × γ̇γ (t0 ) + κn N, where κg
and κn are the geodesic and normal curvatures of γ at p. Hence, γ̈γ (t0 ) × N =
N × γ̇γ (t0 )) × N = κg γ̇γ (t0 ), so
κg (N
κ̃ = k γ̇γ (t0 ) × (κg N × γ̇γ (t0 )) k = |κg | k γ̇γ (t0 ) kk N × γ̇γ (t0 ) k = |κg |
−2u̇2 + 2u2 v̇ 2 = 0.
N = ṅ
Ṅ n cos ψ + ḃ
b sin ψ + ψ̇(−n
n sin ψ + b cos ψ)
= (−κtt + τb
b) cos ψ − nτ sin ψ + ψ̇(−n
n sin ψ + b cos ψ)
= −κ cos ψtt + (τ + ψ̇)(b
b cos ψ − n sin ψ)
= −κn t + τg B.
The formula for ḂB is proved similarly. Since {tt, N, B} is a right-handed orthonor-
3
mal basis of R , Exercise 2.3.6 shows that the matrix expressing ṫt, ṄN, Ḃ
B in terms
of t, N, B is skew-symmetric, hence the formula for ṫt.
7.3.23 By Exercise 7.3.6, b is parallel to N, so b = ±N N; then, B = t × N = ∓n n. Hence,
B = ∓ṅ
Ḃ n = ∓(−κtt + τb b) = ±κtt − τNN; comparing with the formula for Ḃ B in the
preceding exercise shows that τg = τ (and κn = ±κ).
7.4.1 ṽv is a smooth function of t and lies in Tγ (ϕ(t)) S = Tγ̃γ (t) S, so ṽv is a tangent vector
field along γ̃γ . The formula follows from Eq. (7.11) and the fact that ddtv = ddṽ v dϕ ,
t̃ dt
where t̃ = ϕ(t). The last part follows since ϕ̇ 6= 0 so ∇γ̃γ ṽ v = 0 ⇐⇒ ∇γ v = 0.
7.4.2 If p and q correspond to the parameter values t = a and t = b, respectively, let
qp
Γ(t) = γ (a + b − t) (thus, Γ is γ ‘traversed backwards’). We show that Π is
Γ
pq
the inverse of Πγ . Let w ∈ Tp S and let v be the tangent vector field parallel
pq w
along γ such that v(a) = w. Then, Πγ (w ) = v(b). By Exercise 7.4.1, V (t) =
qp qp
v(a + b − t) is parallel along Γ so Π (v v(b)) = Π (V V(a)) = V(b) = v(a) = w .
Γ Γ
qp pq
This proves that Π ◦ Πγ is the identity map on Tp S. One proves similarly
Γ
pq qp
(or by interchanging the roles of γ and Γ) that Πγ ◦ Π is the identity map
Γ
on Tq S.
7.4.3 Let α, β, γ be the internal angles of the triangle at p, q, r, respectively. Since the
arc through p and q is part of a great circle, the tangent vector of the arc is
parallel along the arc (Example 7.4.7). So the result of parallel transporting v0
to q along the arc pq through p and q is a vector v1 tangent to pq at q. Now v1
makes an angle π − β with the arc qr at q, so parallel transporting v1 along qr
62
Γ211 Γ112
1 2EFu − EEv − F Eu GEv − F Gu
+ = +
E G 2A2 E G
2EGFu − F GEu − EF Gu
= .
2A2 EG
Chapter 8
8.1.1 Parametrize the surface by σ (x, y) = (x, y, f (x, y)). Then, σ x = (1, 0, fx), σ y =
(0, 1, fy ), N = (1 + fx2 + fy2 )−1/2 (−fx , −fy , 1), σ xx = (0, 0, fxx), σ xy = (0, 0, fxy ),
σ yy = (0, 0, fyy ). This gives E = 1 + fx2 , F = fx fy , G = 1 + fy2 and L =
(1 + fx2 + fy2 )−1/2 fxx , M = (1 + fx2 + fy2 )−1/2 fxy , N = (1 + fx2 + fy2 )−1/2 fyy . By
2
fxx fyy −fxy (1+fy2 )fxx −2fx fy fxy +(1+fx2 )fyy
Corollary 8.1.3, K = (1+fx2 +fy2 )2
, H= 2(1+fx2 +fy2 )3/2
.
8.1.2 For the helicoid σ (u, v) = (v cos u, v sin u, λu),
8.1.5 The dilation (x, y, z) 7→ (ax, ay, az), where a is a non-zero constant, multiplies
E, F, G by a2 and L, M, N by a, hence H by a−1 and K by a−2 (using Corollary
8.1.3).
8.1.6 This follows immediately from Definition 8.1.1 and the hint.
8.1.7 Suppose that the cone is the union of the straight lines joining points of a curve
C to a vertex v. It is clear that the Gauss map G is constant along the rulings of
the cone, so the image of the cone under G is the same as the image of C under
G, which is a curve.
8.1.8 By Eq. 8.2, the area of σ (R) is
ZZ ZZ ZZ
k Nu × Nv k dudv = |K| k σ u × σ v k dudv = |K|dAσ .
R R R
respectively.
S+ S−
∇v (∇u w) = wuv − (w
wuv .N)N
N − (w
wu .Nv )N
N − (w
wu .N)N
Nv − (w
wuv .N)N
N
wuv .N)N
+ (w N + (w
wu.N v )N
N + (w
wu.N)(N
Nv .N)N
N
wuv .N)N
= wuv − (w N − (w
wu.N)N
Nv .
65
wv .N)N
λ{(w Nu −(w
wu.N)N
Nv }+λv (w
w.N)N
Nu −λu (w
w.N )N
Nv = λ{(w
wv .N )N
Nu −(w
wu.N)N
Nv }
w1 + w 2 )) − ∇u (∇v (w
∇v (∇u (w w1 + w 2 )) = (∇v (∇uw 1 ) − ∇u (∇v w1 ))
+ (∇v (∇uw2 ) − ∇u (∇v w 2 ))
ian curvature K on the part of the quadric where z > 0. Similar calculations
(with the same result) give K on the parts of the surface where z < 0, x > 0,
x < 0, y > 0 and y < 0. Together these regions cover the whole surface.
r
2
Taking f (x, y) = c 1 − xa − yb , and applying the first formula in Exercise
2
x y
The vector 2a , 2b , −1 is normal to the surface, so
2
y2
x
x y 2a + 2b − z
(x, y, z).. 2a
, 2b , −1 |z|
d = q = q =q .
x2 y2 x2 y 2
x 2 y2
4a 2 + 2 +4b 1
4a2 + 4b2 + 1 4a2 + 4b2 + 1
Hence, K = d4 /4abz 4 .
8.1.13 Taking f (x, y) = 1/xy, we get fx = −z/x, fy = −z/y, fxx = 2z/x2 , fxy = z/xy,
fyy = 2z/y 2 . The first formula in Exercise 8.1.1 gives
4z 2 z2
x2 y 2
− x2 y 2 3x−2 y −2 z −2
K= 2 = ,
z2 z2 (x−2 + y −2 + z −2 )2
1+ x2 + y2
hence the stated formula for K. Similarly, the second formula in Exercise 8.1.1
gives
2z z2 2z 3 2z z2
x2 1 + y2 − x2 y 2 + y2 1 + x2 xyz(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 1
H= 2 2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2
= 2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/2
= p .
3
x y 3 (x (x x 2 + y2 + z2
8.1.14 If the circle in the xz-plane has radius a and touches the z-axis at the point
(0, 0, c), it can be parametrized by γ (u) = (a(1 + cos u), 0, a sin u + c). Rotating
γ (u) around the z-axis through an angle v gives the point
Since the circle rotates at constant angular velocity and moves parallel to the
z-axis at constant speed, the distance it moves parallel to the z-axis in the time
taken to rotate through an angle v is a constant multiple of v, say bv. Hence,
after the circle has rotated through an angle v the point initially at γ (u) will
have moved to the point σ (u, v) in the statement of the exercise.
If a = b and c = 0 we have σ (u, v) = a((1 + cos u) cos v, (1 + cos u) sin v, sin u + v).
We find that the first fundamental form is
a3
((1 + cos u)du2 − 2 sin2 ududv + (1 + cos u)2 cos udv 2 ).
A
The first formula in Corollary 8.1.3 now gives
Since d = a(1 + cos u), this agrees with the formula in the statement of the
exercise.
8.1.15 Using the parametrization in Example
√ 8.1.5, we have σ u × σ v = γ̇γ × δ + vδ̇δ × δ .
Recalling that k σ u × σ v k = EG − F 2 , the formula for K in that example
becomes
−(δ̇δ. (γ̇γ × δ ))2
K= .
k γ̇γ × δ + vδ̇δ × δ k4
8.1.16 We use the parametrization σ (s, θ) in Exercise 4.2.7, a dot to denote d/ds, and
the standard notation relating to the Frenet-Serret data for γ . Then, σ s =
(1 − κa cos θ)tt − τ a sin θn
n + τ a cos θb
b, σ θ = −a sin θn
n + a cos θb
b. Hence,
n + sin θb
σ s × σ θ = −a(1 − κa cos θ)(cos θn b),
σ ss = (κτ a sin θ − κ̇a cos θ)tt + (κ(1 − κa cos θ) − τ̇ a sin θ − τ 2 a cos θ)n
n
+ (τ̇ a cos θ − τ 2 a sin θ)b
b,
σ sθ = κa sin θtt − τ a cos θnn − τ a sin θbb,
n − a sin θb
σ θθ = −a cos θn b.
R 2π R π/2
(ii) Since 0
| cos θ|dθ = 2 −π/2
cos θdθ = 4, we get
Z ℓZ 2π Z ℓ
|K|dA = 4 κ(s)ds.
0 0 0
8.1.17 It follows from Exercises 6.1.2 and 7.1.4 that applying a direct isometry of R3
leaves both H and K unchanged, while applying an opposite isometry leaves K
unchanged but changes the sign of H.
8.1.18 From the proof of Proposition 7.3.3, if γ is unit-speed its normal curvature is κn =
−Ṅ N.γ̇γ = W(γ̇γ )..γ̇γ . Hence, γ is asymptotic if and only if W(γ̇γ ) is perpendicular to
γ̇γ at each point of γ . Since −W(γ̇γ ) is the tangent vector of the image of γ under
the Gauss map of S, the result follows.
N = −W(γ̇γ ), and that W is self-adjoint (Corollary 7.2.4), we have
8.1.19 Recalling that Ṅ
to prove that
hW 2 (γ̇γ ) − 2HW(γ̇γ ) + K γ̇γ , γ̇γ i = 0.
This follows from the preceding exercise.
69
σ v + σ u .σ
σ uw .σ σ vw = 0, σ uv .σ
σ w + σ v .σ
σ uw = 0, σ vw .σ
σ u + σ w .σ
σ uv = 0.
Subtracting the second equation from the sum of the other two gives σ u .σ σ vw = 0,
and similarly σ v .σσ uw = σ w .σ
σ uv = 0.
σ w = 0, it follows that the matrix FI for the u = u0 surface is
(ii) Since σ v .σ
diagonal (and similarly for the others). Let N be the unit normal of the u = u0
surface; N is parallel to σ v × σ w by definition, and hence to σ u since σ u , σ v and
σ w are perpendicular; by (i), σ vw .σ σ u = 0, hence σ vw .N
N = 0, proving that the
matrix FII for the u = u0 surface is diagonal.
(iii) By part (ii), the parameter curves of each surface u = u0 are lines of cur-
vature. But the parameter curve v = v0 , say, on this surface is the curve of
intersection of the u = u0 surface with the v = v0 surface.
8.2.7 On the open subset of the ellipsoid qwith z 6= 0, we can use the parametrization
2
σ (x, y) = (x, y, z), where z = ±r 1 − xp2 − yq 2 . By Proposition 8.1.2 and the
2
remarks following Proposition 8.2.1, the condition for an umbilic is that FII =
κFI for some scalar κ. The formulas in the solution of Exercise 8.1.1 lead
to the equations zxx = λ(1 + zx2 ), zxy = λzx zy , zyy = λ(1 + zy2 ), where
q
λ = κ 1 + zx2 + zy2 . If x and y are both non-zero, the middle equation gives λ =
−1/z, and substituting into the first equation gives the contradiction p2 = r 2 .
Hence, either x = 0 or y = 0. If x = 0, the equations have the four solutions
s s
q2 − p2 r 2 − p2
x = 0, y = ±q , z = ±r .
q − r2
2 r2 − q2
71
Similarly, one finds the following eight other candidates for umbilics:
s s
2
p −q 2 r2 − q2
x = ±p , y = 0, z = ±r ,
p2 − r 2 r 2 − p2
s s
p2 − r 2 q2 − r2
x = ±p , y = ±q , z = 0.
p2 − q 2 q 2 − p2
v) = P v + a be an isometry of R3 , where P
8.2.14 Let σ (u, v) be a surface patch, let T (v
is an orthogonal matrix and a ∈ R3 , and let σ̃ σ = T (σσ ). Then, σ̃
σ u = P (σ
σ u ), etc.
σ . σ σ . σ
so in the obvious notation Ẽ = P (σ u ).P (σ u ) = u u (since P is orthogonal) so
Ẽ = E. Similarly, F̃ = F, G̃ = G. By Proposition A.1.6, Ñ N = εN N, the sign ε
being + if T is direct and − if T is opposite, so L̃ = εL, M̃ = εM , Ñ = εN .
The result now follows from Proposition 8.2.6.
8.2.15 Let κ1 and κ2 be the principal curvatures of a surface patch of S at p and θ the
oriented angle between a principal vector corresponding to κ1 and the tangent
vector of one of the m curves at p. By Euler’s Theorem 8.2.4, the sum of the
normal curvatures of the m curves at p is
m−1
X rπ rπ
κ1 cos2 θ + + κ2 sin2 θ + .
r=0
m m
m−1 m−1
1 X 1 X
(κ1 + κ2 ) + (κ1 − κ2 ) e2i(θ+rπ/m) + e−2i(θ+rπ/m) .
2 r=0 4 r=0
Pm−1 ±2iπ
1=e
But, r=0 e±2i(θ+rπ/m) = e±2iθ 1−e ±2iπ/m = 0, so the desired sum is simply
m−1
1 X 1
(κ1 + κ2 ) = m(κ1 + κ2 ) = mH,
2 r=0 2
(ii) If the surface is a generalized cylinder, the rulings are all parallel, so N1 is
constant along γ . So ṄN1 = 0, and since Ṅ
N1 = −κγ̇γ we have κ = 0. Conversely,
N1 = 0 so N1 is constant along γ and the rulings are parallel.
if κ = 0 then Ṅ
8.2.18 The image of γ under the Gauss map is the curve N, so the condition is that
γ̇γ is parallel to Ṅ
N, i.e. Ṅ
N = λγ̇γ for some scalar λ. The result now follows from
Exercise 8.2.2. The second part follows from the last sentence of Proposition
8.2.1.
8.2.19 If every curve on S is a line of curvature, every tangent vector of S at p is a
principal vector. By Proposition 8.2.6, it is enough to prove that every point
of S is an umbilic. Suppose for a contradiction that p ∈ S is not an umbilic,
and let κ1 6= κ2 be the principal curvatures at p with corresponding non-zero
principal vectors t 1 and t 2 . If W is the Weingarten map of S at p, we have
W(tt1 + t2 ) = κ1 t1 + κ2 t2 . Since every tangent vector is principal, there is a
scalar λ such that W(tt1 + t2 ) = λ(tt1 + t2 ); then (κ1 − λ)tt1 + (κ2 − λ)tt2 = 0.
But t 1 and t 2 are linearly independent, so this equation forces κ1 = λ = κ2 , a
contradiction.
8.2.20 In the notation of Exercise 7.3.22, τg = Ṅ N.(tt × N). By Exercise 8.2.2, if γ is
a line of curvature ṄN is parallel to t, so τg = 0. Conversely, if τg = 0 then
N × t ) = 0; but Ṅ
N.(Ṅ N and t are both perpendicular to N, so Ṅ N × t is parallel to
N; hence, ṄN × t = 0, so Ṅ
N is parallel to t and γ is a line of curvature by Exercise
8.2.2 again.
8.2.21 We use the usual Frenet-Serret notation for γ and let N be the unit normal of S.
We are given that b.N is constant, so τn n.N = b.Ṅ
N. If κ is the principal curvature
of S corresponding to γ , we have Ṅ N = −κtt so b.N = 0. If τ 6= 0 at some point
γ (t0 ) of γ , say, then for some ǫ > 0 we have τ (t) 6= 0 if t0 − ǫ < t < t0 + ǫ. For
values of t in this interval, n is perpendicular to N, so b is parallel to N, hence
b = ±N N. But then ḃ b = ±ṄN so τn
n = ±κtt; this forces τ = κ = 0, contradicting
assumption. It follows that τ = 0 at all points of γ , so γ is a plane curve.
The converse is a special case of Exercise 8.2.5, since every curve in a plane is a
line of curvature of the plane.
8.2.22 In the notation of the proof of Euler’s Theorem 8.2.4, t = cos θtt1 + sin θtt2 , so
N = −W(tt) = −κ1 cos θtt1 − κ2 sin θtt2 . Since t2 × N = t1 and t 1 × N = −tt2 , we
Ṅ
have t × N = − cos θtt2 + sin θtt1 so since t1 and t2 are perpendicular unit vectors,
N.(tt × N ) = −κ1 sin θ cos θ + κ2 sin θ cos θ = (κ2 − κ1 ) sin θ cos θ.
τg = Ṅ
8.2.23 By Euler’s Theorem 8.2.4, for an asymptotic curve we have κ1 cos2 θ +κ2 sin2 θ =
0, so κ1 κ2 = −κ22 tan2 θ ≤ 0 (if θ is a multiple of π/2 Euler’s Theorem gives
κ1 = 0 or κ2 = 0, and the condition again holds). If S is ruled, we must have
κ1 κ2 ≤ 0 because the rulings are asymptotic curves (Exercise 7.3.6).
If κ1 κ2 < 0, Euler’s theorem gives tan2 θ = −κ1 /κ2 , so there are two asymptotic
74
p
curves each of which makes an angle tan−1 −κ1 /κ2 with a principal vector
corresponding to κ1 , so the angle between them is as stated.
If κ1 = κ2 = 0 everywhere, every curve is asymptotic. If κ1 = 0 but κ2 6= 0,
say, Euler’s Theorem gives sin θ = 0 so there is one asymptotic curve through
each point, namely the line of curvature corresponding to κ1 (it is proved in
Proposition 8.4.2 that these curves are, in fact, straight lines).
8.2.24 Part (i) follows from the fact that hh , ii is symmetric; part (ii) follows from the
fact that it is linear in its second argument (since it is actually bilinear).
8.2.25 This is an immediate consequence of Proposition 7.3.3.
8.2.26 hhtt1 , t2 ii = hW(tt1 ), t2 i = κ1 htt1 , t2 i. But if κ1 6= κ2 then t1 is perpendicular to t2
(Proposition 8.2.1).
8.2.27 By Proposition 8.2.1, we can assume that t 1 is perpendicular to t2 (whether or
not κ1 and κ2 are distinct). Then t = cos θtt1 + sin θtt2 , t̃t = cos θ̃tt1 + sin θ̃tt2 , so
hhtt, t̃tii = cos θ cos θ̃hhtt1 , t1 ii + (cos θ sin θ̃ + cos θ̃ sin θ)hhtt1 , t2 ii + sin θ sin θ̃hhtt2 , t2 ii.
1 1 1 1
+ = 2 +
κn κ̃n κ1 cos2 θ + κ2 sin θ κ1 cos2 θ̃ + κ2 sin2 θ̃
1 + tan2 θ 1 + tan2 θ̃
= +
κ1 + κ2 tan2 θ κ1 + κ2 tan2 θ̃
κ2
1 1 1 − κ1 tan2 θ 1 − κκ21
= + + +
κ1 κ2 κ1 + κ2 tan2 θ κ2
κ1 + 1 cot2 θ κ2
1 1
= + .
κ1 κ2
v, γ̇γ ii = hv
8.2.29 hhv v, W(γ̇γ )i = −hv
v, Ṅ
Ni = −v
v.Ṅ
N = v̇
v.N (since v.N = 0).
8.2.30 The formulas for E ∗ , F ∗ and G∗ were proved in Exercise 6.3.11, where it was
also shown that
σu σ u.σ )σ
2(σ σ
σ ∗u = 2
− 4
.
kσ k kσ k
Hence,
σ uu σ u.σ )σ
4(σ σu σ uu.σ + σ u.σ u )σ
2(σ σ u.σ )2σ
σ 8(σ
σ ∗uu = − − + .
k σ k2 k σ k4 k σ k4 k σ k6
75
σ u .σ )2 σ
∗ σ uu σ u.σ )σ
4(σ σu σ uu.σ + σ u.σ u )σ
2(σ σ 8(σ σ.N )σ
2(σ σ
L = − − + . −N ,
k σ k2 k σ k4 k σ k4 k σ k6 k σ k2
(σ σ .N
σ uu.N) 2(σ N)(σ
σ u .σ u ) L σ .N
2E(σ N)σ
σ
L∗ = − 2
− 4
=− 2
− 4
E.
kσ k kσ k kσk kk
1 1 p.N)
2(p
FI∗ = 4
∗
FI , FII =− 2
FII − FI .
kpk kpk k p k4
∗ 1
FII + (k p k2 κ + 2(p
p.N))FI∗ = − (FII − κFI ).
k p k2
Parts (i) and (ii) follow immediately from this equation, and part (iii) is an
immediate consequence of (ii).
8.2.31 In the notation of the proof of Proposition 8.1.2, we have Nu = aσ σ u + bσ
σv ,
σ u + dσ
Nv = cσ σ v , so
Nu .NNu Nu .N
Nv
FIII =
Nv Nv .N
N u .N Nv
Ea2 + 2F ab + Gb2
Eac + F (ad + bc) + Gbd
=
Eac + F (ad + bc) + Gbd Ec2 + 2F cd + Gd2
a b E F a c
= = (−FI−1 FII )t FI (−FI−1 FII )
c d F G b d
= FII FI−1 FI FI−1 FII = FII FI−1 FII .
8.2.32 We can assume that the profile curve of σ is unit-speed. From Examples 6.1.3
and 7.1.2, the principal curvatures are −f¨ġ + f˙g̈ = −f¨/ġ (if ġ 6= 0) and ġ/f .
(i) If ġ(u0 ) = 0 the first principal curvature must be non-zero when u = u0 ,
so g̈(u0 ) 6= 0. Since g̈ is a continuous function of u, there is an ǫ > 0 such
that g̈(u) 6= 0 if 0 < |u − u0 | < ǫ. Then, ġ(u) 6= 0 if 0 < |u − u0 | < ǫ by the
intermediate value theorem.
(ii) Assume that ġ is never zero. Then the first principal curvature must be
zero everywhere, so f¨ = 0, i.e. f (u) = au + b for some constants a, b. Then,
76
√
ġ 2 = 1 − f˙2 = 1 − a2 so (up to a sign) g(u) = 1 − a2 u + c for some constant c.
Since ġ 6= 0, a2 < 1. If a = 0 we have a circular cylinder; if a 6= 0 then making
the reparametrization ũ = au + b and a suitable√translation parallel to the z-axis
gives the circular cone σ̃σ (ũ, v) = ũ(cos v, sin v, 1 − a2 ).
8.2.33 The first and second fundamental forms are
zxx dx2 + 2zxy dxdy + zyy dy 2
(1 + zx2 )dx2 + 2zx zy dxdy + (1 + zy2 )dy 2 , q .
2 2
1 + zx + zy
r2 y 2 r4 y 2
2 2
p 1− 2 2 =q 1+ 4 2 .
q z q z
q q
p2 −q 2 2 +r 2
Using y 2 /q 2 = z 2 /r 2 − 1, this leads to y = ±q z = ±r pq 2 +r
q 2 +r2
, 2 (with any
q q
q 2 −p2 2 2
combination of signs). Similarly, y = 0 leads to x = ±p p2 +r2 , z = ±r pq 2 +r+r2 .
If p2 6= q 2 , this gives four distinct (real) points of the surface; if p2 = q 2 we get
the two points (0, 0, ±r).
(ii) We can take the surface to be
x2 y2
z= + .
p2 q2
4x2 4y 2
2 4λxy 2
=λ 1+ 4 , 0= 2 2 , 2 =λ 1+ 4 .
p2 p p q q q
x2 y2 z2
+ = + 1,
p2 q2 r2
we can use x, y as parameters on the open subset of the surface where z 6= 0. The
formulas for zxx , zxy and zyy are the same as in part (i); the condition zxy = 0
forces x = 0 or y = 0, but neither of these is consistent with the conditions
zxx = zyy = 0. Hence, there are no umbilics for which z 6= 0.
To deal with the ‘waist’ z = 0 of the hyperboloid, we can use x, z as parameters
if x 6= 0 and y, z if y 6= 0. In the first case, for example, the condition for an
78
umbilic is yxx = yxz = yzz = 0; proceeding as above, we find that there are no
umbilics. Similarly in the last case.
Finally, for the hyperbolic paraboloid
x2 y2
z= − ,
p2 q2
for some λ. The second equation gives λ = xy and then the other equations give
x4 y 2 = x2 y 4 = 1; these equations force x2 = y 2 = 1, so x = ±1, y = ±1 (with
any combination of signs). Then z = 1/xy = ±1 and we obtain the four points
required.
8.2.37 On the open subset of S on which z 6= 0 we can use x, y as parameters. Differ-
entiating implicitly we find that
(y 2 + z 2 )(2x2 z 2 − y 2 z 2 − x2 y 2 )
zxx = ,
z 3 (x2 + y 2 )2
n is normal
is normal to S at (x, y, z). Taking x = y = 1 we find that (4, 4, 4) = 4n
to S at p, and hence so is n. Since t 1 and t2 are perpendicular to n, they are
tangent to S at p.
79
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111111111111111111 1
v
0
z−i Z+1
Z= z+i , z= i(Z−1) . The line v = π in the vw-plane corresponds to z + z̄ = 2π
Z+1
(the bar denoting complex conjugate), i.e. i(Z−1) − i(Z̄+1
Z̄−1)
= 2π, which simplifies
to |Z − (1 − πi )|2 = π12 ; so v = π corresponds to the circle in the U V -plane with
centre 1 − πi and radius π1 . Similarly, v = −π corresponds to the circle with
centre 1 + πi and radius π1 . Finally, w = 1 corresponds to z − z̄ = 2i, i.e.
Z+1 Z̄+1 1 2 1
i(Z−1) + i(Z̄−1) = 2i. This simplifies to |Z − 2 | = 4 ; so w = 1 corresponds to
the circle with centre 1/2 and radius 1/2 in the U V -plane. The required region
in the U V -plane is that bounded by these three circles:
U2 + V 2 = 1
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
O
00000
11111
U
For (iii) we follow the hint and make use of polar coordinates on the disc,
V = r cos θ, W = r sin θ, V̄ = r̄ cos θ̄, W̄ = r̄ sin θ̄. We find that r̄ = r22r+1 ,
θ̄ = θ. Suppose that the first fundamental form in terms of these param-
2(1−r2 )
eters is Edr̄ 2 + 2F dr̄dθ̄ + Gdθ̄ 2 . Since dr̄
dr = (1+r2 )2 , the first fundamental
4(1−r2 )2 2
4(dV 2 +dW 2 )
form is (1+r2 )4
Edr 2 + 4(1−r
(1+r2 )2
)
F drdθ + Gdθ 2 . Equating this to (1−V 2 −W 2 )2
=
4(dr2 +r2 dθ2 ) (1+r2 )4 2 2
2
(1−r ) 2 , we get E = (1−r2 )4
= (1−r̄1 2 )2 , F
= 0, G = (1−r 4r
2 )2
r̄
= 1−r̄ 2 . Con-
2
verting back to the parameters (V̄ , W̄ ), we have r̄dr̄ = V̄ dV̄ + W̄ dW̄ , r̄ dθ̄ =
81
The parametrisation is σ (u, v) = (f (u) cos v, f (u) sin v, g(u)), f (u) = eu , g(u) =
8.3.2 √
1 − e2u − cosh−1 (e−u ), −∞ < u < 0.
(i) A parallel u = constant is a circle of radius f (u) = eu , so has length 2πeu .
(ii) From Example 7.1.2, E = 1, F = 0, G = f (u)2 , so dAσ = f (u)dudv and the
R 2π R 0
area is 0 −∞ eu dudv = 2π.
(iii) From Examples 7.1.2 and 8.1.4, the principal curvatures are κ1 = f˙g̈ − f¨ġ =
−f¨/ġ = −(e−2u − 1)−1/2 , κ2 = f ġ/f 2 = ġ/f = (e−2u − 1)1/2 .
(iv) κ1 < 0, κ2 > 0.
8.3.3 Let γ (u) = (f (u), 0, g(u)) and denote d/du by a dot; by Example 8.1.4, f¨+Kf =
√ √
0. If K < 0, the general solution is f = ae− −Ku + be −Ku where a, b are
constants; the condition f (π/2) = f (−π/2) = 0 forces a = b = 0, so γ coincides
with the z-axis, contradicting the assumptions. If K = 0,√f = a + bu√and again
a = b = 0 is forced. So we must have K > 0 and f = a cos Ku+b sin Ku. This
time, f (π/2) = f (−π/2) = 0 and a, b not both zero implies that the determinant
√ √
cos Kπ/2 sin Kπ/2
√ √
cos Kπ/2 − sin Kπ/2 = 0.
√
This gives sin Kπ = 0, so K = n2 for some integer n 6= 0. If n = 2k is even,
f = b sin 2ku, but then f (0) = 0, contradicting the assumptions. If n = 2k + 1
is odd, f = a cos(2k + 1)u and f (π/2(2k + 1)) = 0, which contradicts the
assumptions
q unless k = 0 or −1, i.e. unless K = (2k+1)2 = 1. Thus, f = a cos u,
p
ġ = 1 − f˙2 = 1 − a2 sin2 u. Now, γ̇γ = (f˙, 0, ġ) is perpendicular to the z-
√
axis ⇐⇒ ġ = 0. So the assumptions give 1 − a2 = 0, i.e. a = ±1. Then,
γ (u) = (± cos u, 0, ± sin u) (up to a translation along the z-axis) and S is the
unit sphere.
8.4.1 Let σ̃σ (ũ, ṽ) be a patch of S containing p = σ̃σ (ũ0 , ṽ0 ). The Gaussian curvature
K of S is < 0 at p; since K is a smooth function of (ũ, ṽ) (Exercise 8.1.3),
K(ũ, ṽ) < 0 for (ũ, ṽ) in some open set Ũ containing (ũ0 , ṽ0 ); then every point of
σ (Ũ ) is hyperbolic. Let κ1 , κ2 be the principal curvatures of σ̃
σ̃ σ , let 0 < θ < π/2
82
p
be such that tan θ = −κ1 /κ2 , and let e1 and e2 be the unit tangent vectors of
σ making angles θ and −θ, respectively, with the principal vector corresponding
σ̃
to κ1 (see Theorem 8.2.4). Applying Proposition 8.4.3 gives the result. For the
last part, put v̇ = 0 in the formula for κn in Proposition 7.3.5: this shows that
L = 0 if the parameter curves v = constant are asymptotic. Similarly N = 0 if
the parameter curves u = constant are asymptotic.
second fundamental forms are (2 + v 2 )du2 + 2uvdudv + (2 + u2 )dv 2
8.4.2 The first and √
and −4dudv/ 4 + 2u2 + 2v 2 . By Exercise 8.2.3, the lines of curvature are given
by
−(2 + v 2 )u̇2 + (2 + u2 )v̇ 2 = 0,
so
dv du
Z Z
=± ,
2 + v2 2 + u2
and hence
v u
sinh−1 √ ± sinh−1 √ = constant.
2 2
We can take s = sinh−1 √v2 + sinh−1 √u2 , t = sinh−1 √v2 − sinh−1 √u2 , so u =
√ √
2 sinh 12 (s − t), v = 2 sinh 12 (s + t).
8.4.3 Assume that γ is unit-speed. Then, the ruled surface is σ (u, v) = γ (u) + vδδ (u),
where δ = t ×N N, t = γ̇γ (a dot denoting d/du), and N is the unit normal of (a patch
of) S. By Example 8.1.5, the flatness condition is δ̇δ.N = 0, i.e., (tt × Ṅ N)..N = 0.
Now, ṄN is tangent to S, so t × Ṅ N is parallel to N . Hence, S̃ is flat if and only if
N = 0, i.e. if and only if Ṅ
t × Ṅ N is parallel to γ̇γ . By Exercise 8.2.2, this is precisely
the condition for γ to be a line of curvature of S.
8.5.1 By Corollary 8.1.3 and the fact that σ is conformal, the mean curvature of σ is
H = L+N
2E
, so
(*) σ is minimal ⇐⇒ L + N = 0 ⇐⇒ (σ
σ uu + σ vv )..N = 0.
(1 + u2 + v 2 )2 (du2 + dv 2 ),
8.5.2 Using the formula in Exercise 8.1.1 with f (x, y) = ln cos y − ln cos x gives
Nu , Σv = σ v + wN
8.5.3 Σ u = σ u + wN Nv , Σ w = N. Σ u .Σ
Σw = 0 since σ u .N
N = Nu .N
N = 0,
Σ Σ
and similarly v .Σw = 0. Finally,
Σv = σ u .σ
Σ u .Σ σ v + w(σ
σ u .N Nu ) + w2N u .N
Nv + σ v .N Nv
= F − 2wM + w2 Nu .N
Nv = w2 Nu .N
Nv .
L
By the proof of Proposition 8.1.2, Nu = − E σ u , Nv = − N N
G σ v , so N u .Nv =
LN
EG
F = 0. Every surface u = u0 (a constant) is ruled as it is the union of
the straight lines given by v = constant; by Exercise 8.2.4, this surface is flat
provided the curve γ (v) = σ (u0 , v) is a line of curvature of S, i.e. if σ v is a
principal vector; but this is true since the matrices FI and FII are diagonal.
Similarly for the surfaces v = constant.
8.5.4 We take the ruled surface to be σ (u, v) = γ (u) + vδδ (u), where γ is unit-speed
and δ is a unit vector. Denoting d/du by a dot and γ̇γ by t, the coefficients of
the first and second fundamental forms are E = k t + vδ̇δ k2 , F = t.δ , G = 1,
˙
L = (ṫt + vδ̈δ )..N, M = δ̇δ.N, N = 0, where N = (t+vδ˙ )×δ . Then, the mean
k(t +vδ )×δ k
curvature
LG − 2M F + N E (ṫt − 2(tt.δ )δ̇δ + vδ̈δ )..N
H= 2
= .
2(EG − F ) 2(EG − F 2 )
If δ̇δ (u0 ) 6= 0 for some value of u0 , H(u0 , v) → 0 as v → ±∞, since the numerator
in the expression for H is independent of v while the denominator → ∞ as
v → ±∞. As H is constant, H = 0 everywhere, contradicting the assumption.
Hence, δ̇δ = 0 everywhere, δ is constant, and the surface is a generalized cylinder.
We can now assume that γ lies in a plane perpendicular to δ (Exercise 5.3.3).
Then, t × δ is a unit vector and the formula for the mean curvature simplifies to
ṫt.(tt × δ )
H= .
2 k t × δ k2
Now ṫt = κn
n where κ is the curvature of γ and n is its principal normal. Also, t ×δδ
is perpendicular to t and parallel to the plane containing γ ; hence, t × δ = ±n n.
It follows that H = ±κ/2, so if H is a non-zero constant then κ is constant and
the plane curve γ is a circle. Thus, the surface is a circular cylinder.
8.5.5 We use the notation and results of Proposition 8.5.2. If γ is a curve on σ , the
‘corresponding’ curve γ λ on the parallel surface σ λ is γ λ = γ + λN N. Now, γ λ
84
λ
is a line of curvature on σ λ ⇐⇒ Ṅ N = −κγ̇γ λ for some scalar κ (Exercise 8.2.2)
⇐⇒ ǫṄ N = −κ(γ̇γ + λṄ
N). But this last equation holds if and only if Ṅ
N is a scalar
multiple of γ̇γ , i.e. if and only if γ is a line of curvature on σ . In this case,
γ̇γ λ = γ̇γ + λṄ
N = (1 − κλ)γ̇γ is parallel to γ̇γ .
8.5.6 Let σ (u, v) be a patch of S. We are given that σ̃σ (u, v) = σ (u, v)+λ(u, v)N
N(u, v) is
a patch of S̃, for some function λ, where N(u, v) is the unit normal of σ at σ (u, v),
σ (u, v). Now σ̃
and that N (u, v) is also normal to S̃ at σ̃ σ u = σ u + λN
Nu + λuN; since
σ u and N u are all perpendicular to N, this implies that λu = 0; similarly
σ u , σ̃
λv = 0. Hence, λ is constant and S̃ = S λ is a parallel surface of S.
Chapter 9
9.1.1 By Exercise 4.1.3, there are two straight lines on the hyperboloid passing through
(1, 0, 0); by Proposition 9.1.4, they are geodesics. The circle z = 0, x2 + y 2 = 1
and the hyperbola y = 0, x2 − z 2 = 1 are both normal sections, hence geodesics
by Proposition 9.1.6.
9.1.2 Let κ(γγ ) = γ̈γ. (N
N × γ̇γ ). Note that if Γ(t) = γ (ϕ(t)) is a reparametrization of γ ,
3
then κ(ΓΓ) = dϕ dt
κ(γγ ). In particular, κ(γγ ) = 0 ⇐⇒ κ(Γ Γ) = 0.
For (i), let γ be a pre-geodesic and let Γ be a geodesic reparametrization of γ .
By Proposition 9.1.2 Γ has constant speed, say v, and then Γ̃ Γ(t) = Γ(t/v) is
a unit-speed geodesic. By Proposition 9.1.3, κ(Γ̃ Γ) = 0, hence κ(ΓΓ) = 0, hence
κ(γγ ) = 0. Conversely, if κ(γγ ) = 0 and if Γ is a unit-speed reparametrization of
γ , then κ(ΓΓ) = 0 so Γ is a geodesic by by Proposition 9.1.3.
Part (ii) is obvious.
For (iii), let γ be a constant speed pre-geodesic, say with speed v. Then Γ(t) =
γ (t/v) is a unit-speed pre-geodesic, hence a geodesic by (i) and Proposition 9.1.3.
Since γ̈γ = v 2Γ̈
Γ, γ̈γ is perpendicular to the surface, so γ is a geodesic.
Finally, (iv) follows from (iii) and Proposition 9.1.2.
9.1.3 Let Πs be the plane through γ (s) perpendicular to t(s); the parameter curve
s = constant is the intersection of the surface with Πs . From the solution to
Exercise 4.2.7, the standard unit normal of σ is N = −(cos θ n + sin θ b). Since
this is perpendicular to t, the circles in question are normal sections.
2 2 2
9.1.4 Take the ellipsoid to be xp2 + yq 2 + zr2 = 1; the vector ( px2 , qy2 , rz2 ) is normal to the
ellipsoid by Exercise 5.1.2. If γ (t) = (f (t), g(t), h(t)) is a curve on the ellipsoid,
˙2 2 2 2 2 2
R = ( fp2 + ġq 2 + ḣr2 )−1/2 , S = ( fp4 + gq 4 + hr4 )−1/2 . Now, γ is a geodesic ⇐⇒ γ̈γ
is parallel to the normal ⇐⇒ (f¨, g̈, ḧ) = λ( f2 , g2 , h2 ) for some scalar λ(t). From
p q r
f2 g2 2
f f˙ g ġ f˙2 ġ 2 ḣ2 f f¨ gg̈
p2 + q2 + hr2 = 1 we get hḣ
p2 + q 2 + r2 = 0, hence p 2 + hḧ
q 2 + r2 + p2 + q 2 + r2 = 0, i.e.
85
f˙2 ġ 2 ḣ2 f2 g2 h2
p2 + q2 + r2 +λ p4 + = 0, which gives λ = −S 2 /R2 . The curvature
q4 + r4
2 2 2
1/2
k γ̈γ k = (f¨2 + g̈ 2 + ḧ2 )1/2 = |λ| fp4 + gq 4 + hr4 = |λ| S
S = R2 . Finally,
! !
f f˙ g ġ hḣ f˙2 ġ 2 ḣ2
1 d 1
= + 4 + 4 + 2+ 2
2 dt R2 S 2 p4 q r p2 q r
2 ˙¨ !
f g 2 h2 ff ġg̈ ḣḧ
+ + 4 + 4 + 2 + 2
p4 q r p2 q r
! !
1 f f˙ g ġ hḣ λ f f˙ g ġ hḣ
= 2 + 4 + 4 + 2 + 4 + 4 = 0,
R p4 q r S p4 q r
9.1.8 The intersections of the surface with each of the planes x = ±y, y = ±z and
z = ±x are normal sections. Indeed, by the solution to Exercise 8.2.37, a normal
to the surface is (x(y 2 + z 2 ), y(x2 + z 2 ), z(x2 + y 2 )). The planes x = ±y have
normals (1, ∓1, 0) so the intersection of the surface with x = ±y is a normal
section if and only if
Γ.(N
Γ̇ N × Ṅ
N) = t.(n
n × ṅ
n) = t.(n
n × (−κtt + τb
b)) = t.(κb
b + τtt) = τ.
Since γ and Γ touch at p, γ ′ = ±Γ̇ Γ at p, and we can assume that the sign is +
by changing the sign of the parameter of γ if necessary. Since γ ′ = u′σ u + v ′ σ v ,
N′ = u′N u + v ′ Nv , etc., it follows that u′ = u̇ and v ′ = v̇ at p, and hence that
N′ = Ṅ
N at p. Hence, τg = Γ̇ Γ.(N
N × Ṅ
N) and the result now follows from the first
part of the exercise.
87
Since Γ touches itself at each of its points (!), its torsion is equal to its geodesic
torsion.
9.1.15 If γ is an asymptotic curve, then (with the usual notation) b = ±N N so τ =
b.n = ∓Ṅ
−ḃ N.n. Since n = b × t = ±N N × t, we get
N. (N
τ = −Ṅ N × t ) = t. (N
N × Ṅ
N).
Γ. (N
τ = Γ̇ N) = −κγγ ′ .(N
N × Ṅ N × γ ′ ) = 0.
9.1.17 (i) By Exercise 9.1.14, the torsion τ of a geodesic γ on a surface S is equal to its
geodesic torsion which, by Exercise 8.2.22, is equal to (κ2 − κ1 ) sin θ cos θ in the
notation there. At an umbilic κ1 = κ2 so τ = 0.
(ii) By (i), the torsion is given by τ = (κ2 − κ1 ) sin θ cos θ. If a second geodesic
γ̃γ intersects γ at right angles at p, then in the obvious notation θ̃ = θ ± π/2 and
hence τ̃ = −τ .
(iii) If γ is a geodesic, its curvature κ is equal, up to sign, to its normal curvature,
so κ = ±(κ1 cos2 θ + κ2 sin2 θ) by Euler’s Theorem 8.2.4. Taking the + sign,
so
(κ − κ1 )(κ − κ2 ) = −(κ1 − κ2 )2 sin2 θ cos2 θ = −τ 2 .
Taking the − sign gives the other expression for τ 2 .
(iv) If the surface is flat, either κ1 = 0 or κ2 = 0 at p. If κ2 = 0, then
κ = ±κ1 cos2 θ, τ = −κ1 sin θ cos θ, so τ = ∓κ tan θ. The other formula results
if κ1 = 0 at p.
9.1.18 We can assume that γ is unit-speed as conditions (i) - (iii) are unchanged by
reparametrization. Let δ (u) be a non-zero vector parallel to the ruling through
γ (u). Then (i) says that γ is a geodesic, and by Exercise 9.1.13 this holds
⇐⇒ ṫt.δ = 0. By Exercise 5.3.4, (ii) holds ⇐⇒ t.δ̇δ = 0. And (iii) obviously holds
⇐⇒ t.δ is a constant. Everything now follows immediately.
9.1.19 Suppose that every geodesic on a surface S is a plane curve. By Proposition
8.2.9, it suffices to show that every point of S is an umbilic. Suppose for a
contradiction that p ∈ S is not an umbilic, let κ1 , κ2 be the distinct principal
88
as required.
9.2.1 If p and q lie on the same parallel of the cylinder, there are exactly two geodesics
joining them, namely the two circular arcs of the parallel of which p and q are
the endpoints. If p and q are not on the same parallel, there are infinitely-many
circular helices joining p and q (see Example 9.2.8).
9.2.2 Take the cone to be σ (u, v) = (u cos v, u sin v, u). By Exercise 6.2.1, σ is locally
isometric to an open subset of the xy-plane by
√ √
v v
σ (u, v) 7→ u 2 cos √ , u 2 sin √ , 0 .
2 2
By Corollary 9.2.7, the geodesics on the cone correspond to the straight lines in
the xy-plane. Any such line, other than the axes x = 0 and y = 0, has equation
ax + by = 1, where a, b are constants; this line corresponds to the curve
!
cos v sin v 1
v 7→ √ v v
,√ v v
,√ ;
2(a cos √2 + b sin √2 ) 2(a cos √2 + b sin √2 ) 2(a cos √2 + b sin √v2 )
v
(E u̇2 + 2F u̇v̇ + Gv̇ 2 )˙ = (Eu u̇ + Ev v̇) u̇2 + 2(Fu u̇ + Fv v̇)u̇v̇ + (Gu u̇ + Gv v̇)v̇ 2
+ 2E u̇ü + 2F (u̇v̈ + üv̇) + 2Gv̇v̈
= u̇(Eu u̇2 + 2Fu u̇v̇ + Gu v̇ 2 ) + v̇(Ev u̇2 + 2Fv u̇v̇ + Gv v̇ 2 )
+ 2E u̇ü + 2F (u̇v̈ + üv̇) + 2Gv̇v̈
= 2(Eu u̇ + F v̇)˙ u̇ + 2(F u̇ + Gv̇)˙ v̇ + 2(E u̇ + F v̇)ü
+ 2(F u̇ + Gv̇)v̈ by the geodesic equations
= 2[(E u̇ + F v̇)u̇]˙+ 2[(F u̇ + Gv̇)v̇]˙
= 2(E u̇2 + 2F u̇v̇ + Gv̇ 2 )˙.
Hence, (E u̇2 + 2F u̇v̇ + Gv̇ 2 )˙ = 0 and so k γ̇γ k2 = E u̇2 + 2F u̇v̇ + Gv̇ 2 is constant.
Suppose now that (i) and (ii) hold. Differentiating E u̇2 +2F u̇v̇ +Gv̇ 2 = constant
gives
i.e.,
(Eu u̇2 + 2Fu u̇v̇ + Gu v̇ 2 )u̇ + (Ev u̇2 + 2Fv u̇v̇ + Gv v̇ 2 )v̇
= −2(E u̇ + F v̇)ü − 2(F u̇ + Gv̇)v̈.
d
2u̇ (E u̇ + F v̇) + 2(E u̇ + F v̇)v̈ = −2(F u̇ + Gv̇)v̈ − (Ev u̇2 + 2Fv u̇v̇ + Gv v̇ 2 )v̇.
dt
The left-hand side of this equation equals
d d d
2 (u̇(E u̇ + F v̇)) = −2 (F u̇v̇ + Gv̇ 2 ) = −2(F u̇ + Gv̇)v̈ − 2v̇ (F u̇ + Gv̇).
dt dt dt
Combining the last two equations gives (ii) provided v̇ 6= 0.
9.2.5 E = 1, F = 0, G = 1+u2 , so γ is unit-speed ⇐⇒ u̇2 +(1+u2 )v̇ 2 = 1. The second
d a
equation in (9.2) gives dt ((1 +u2 )v̇) = 0, i.e. v̇ = 1+u 2 , where a is a constant. So
2
2 a dv v̇ a
u̇ = 1 − 1+u2 and, along the geodesic, du = u̇ = ± √ . If a = 0,
(1−a2 +u2 )(1+u2 )
√
then v = constant and we have a ruling. If a = 1, then dv/du = ±1/u 1 + u2 ,
which can be integrated to give v = v0 ∓ sinh−1 u1 , where v0 is a constant.
90
d 1 d 1
(*) (E u̇) = Eu u̇2 and (F u̇) = Ev u̇2 .
dt 2 dt 2
i.e.
1 F Ev
√ √ = .
E E u 2E
This is equivalent to the stated condition. One checks in the same way that the
first equation in (*) holds identically.
9.2.9 Let γ be the unit-speed curve on the surface corresponding to u + v = c, where
c is a constant. Then, u̇ + v̇ = 0 so the unit-speed condition gives
(1 + u2 + 2uv + 1 + v 2 )u̇2 = 1,
91
i.e., (2 + c2 )u̇2 = 1, so u̇ (and hence also v̇) is constant. The geodesic equations
are
d
((1 + u2 )u̇ − uv v̇) = u̇(uu̇ − v v̇),
dt
d
(−uv u̇ + (1 + v 2 )v̇) = v̇(v v̇ − uu̇).
dt
Using v̇ = −u̇ the first equation becomes
d
((1 + cu)u̇) = cu̇2 ,
dt
i.e. (1 + cu)ü = 0. Similarly, the second geodesic equation is equivalent to
(1 + cv)v̈ = 0. Both equations are obviously satisfied when u̇ and v̇ are constant.
9.2.10 The geodesic equations
1 d 1
ü = Gu v̇ 2 , (Gv̇) = Gv v̇ 2
2 dt 2
must be satisfied if v = cu and c is any constant. It is easy to see that these
equations are satisfied if c = 0 (since in that case u̇ = ±1 from the unit-speed
condition), so we assume that c 6= 0 from now on. Then the second equation is
d 1 2
dt (Gu̇) = 2 cGv u̇ , i.e.
1
Gü + (Gu + cGv )u̇2 = 0.
2
Using the first geodesic equation and writing c = v/u we get the stated equation
for G.
Substituting G = f (u)/v 2 leads to the ordinary differential equation
df
(f + 2u2 ) = 2uf,
du
which can be solved for the function f (u). (The solution is 2u3 = 3f 3 ln af ,
where a is an arbitrary constant.)
9.2.11 Assume that the geodesic is unit-speed. The second geodesic equation in Theo-
rem 9.2.1 gives F u̇+Gv̇ = Ω, a constant. Using this and the unit-speed condition
E u̇2 + 2F u̇v̇ + Gv̇ 2 = 1 gives
r
G − Ω2
u̇ = ± .
EG − F 2
Hence, either u = constant or, along the geodesic,
r
dv v̇ Ω − F u̇ F Ω EG − F 2
= = =− ± .
du u̇ Gu̇ G G G − Ω2
92
9.2.12 The surface is parametrized by σ (u, v) = γ (u) + vb b(u), where b is the binormal
of γ (we assume that γ is unit-speed). Then σ u = t − τ vn n, σ v = b and the first
fundamental form is
(1 + τ v 2 )du2 + dv 2 .
Let Γ(t) be a unit-speed geodesic on S, and denote d/dt by a dot. The first
geodesic equation in Theorem 9.2.1 gives
(1 + τ 2 v 2 )u̇ = c,
(u̇(tt − τ vn
n) + v̇b
b)..t = cos α,
cos α
u̇ = .
1 + τ 2v2
sin2 α + τ 2 v 2
v̇ 2 = ,
1 + τ 2v2
and hence
du cos α
= ±q .
dv
(sin2 α + τ 2 v 2 )(1 + τ 2 v 2 )
If τ 6= 0, |du/dv| decreases as |v| increases and, for large |v|, |du/dv| is approxi-
mately cos α/τ 2 v 2 . It follows that u approaches limits u± (say) as v → ±∞ and
that u is always between these limits.
If τ is always zero, then du/dv = ± cot α. If cot α 6= 0 then u → ±∞ as v → ±∞
and then γ is not contained between two rulings. If cot α = 0 then u is constant
and γ is a ruling.
√ √
9.2.13 Writing E = (U + V )P , G = (U + V )Q, we have cos θ = u̇ E, sin θ = v̇ G so
we have to prove that U Gv̇ 2 − V E u̇2 is constant along γ . Now
d d d d d
2 (U Gv̇ 2 − V E u̇2 ) = 2U v̇ (Gv̇) − 2V u̇ (E u̇) + 2Gv̇ (U v̇) − 2E u̇ (V u̇).
dt dt dt dt dt
93
d d
v̇U (Ev u̇2 + Gv v̇ 2 ) − u̇V (Eu u̇2 + Gu v̇ 2 ) + 2Gv̇
(U v̇) − 2E u̇ (V u̇)
dt dt
2 2
= u̇ v̇(U Ev − 2EVv ) + u̇v̇ (2GUu − V Gu ) + 2GU v̇v̈ − 2EV u̇ü
+ Gv U v̇ 3 − Eu V u̇3
= u̇2 v̇(U Ev − 2EVv ) + u̇v̇ 2 (2GUu − V Gu )
d d
+ U (Gv̇ 2 ) − U Gu u̇v̇ 2 − V (E u̇2 ) + V Ev u̇2 v̇
dt dt
= u̇2 v̇((U + V )Ev − EVv ) + u̇v̇ 2 (GUu − (U + V )Gu )
d d
+ U (Gv̇ 2 ) + Uu Gu̇v̇ 2 − V (E u̇2 )Vv E u̇2 v̇
dt dt
d
= (U Gv̇ 2 − V E u̇2 ) + u̇2 v̇((U + V )Ev − EVv ) + u̇v̇ 2 (GUu − (U + V )Gu ).
dt
Thus,
d
(U Gv̇ 2 − V E u̇2 ) = u̇2 v̇((U + V )Ev − EVv ) + u̇v̇ 2 (GUu − (U + V )Gu ).
dt
But, since U and P depend only on u, Ev = Vv P and so (U + V )Ev − EVv =
(U + V )(Vv P − Vv P ) = 0. Similarly, GUu − (U + V )Gu = 0.
9.2.14 The first part can be verified directly. Alternatively, this parametrization can be
deduced from that in (5.12) by putting a = p2 − u, b = q 2 − u, c = r 2 − u and
then reparametrizing by ũ = u − v, ṽ = u − w.
Straightforward algebra gives the first fundamental form as
udu2 vdv 2
(u − v) − .
(a + u)(b + u)(c + u) (a + v)(b + v)(c + v)
Thus, the quadric is a Liouville surface with U = u, V = −v. The result now
follows from the preceding exercise.
(k 2 cos2 u)v̇ = Ω,
The geodesic γ makes an angle α with the parallel u = 0 at the point σ (0, 0) =
(k, 0, 0). Hence,
γ̇γ .σ v
= cos α,
k
which gives v̇ = cos α/k at (k, 0, 0). On the other hand, v̇ = Ω/k 2 cos2 u = Ω/k 2
at (k, 0, 0). Hence, Ω = k cos α and we get
2
cos2 α
dv
= .
du k 2 cos2 u(cos2 u − cos2 α)
This gives
dv sec2 u
k = ±√ 2 .
du tan α − tan2 u
Integrating,
−1 tan u
kv = ± sin ,
tan α
97
and hence tan u = ± tan α sin kv. Since | sin kv| ≤ 1, the maximum value of u
along the geodesic is α, so the maximum height above the xy-plane is
Z α p
1 − k 2 sin2 θ dθ.
0
9.3.10 (i) We note that all geodesics γ (t) on the pseudosphere, except meridians, are
defined only for t in some finite interval α ≤ t ≤ β, say, whereas meridians are
defined on a semi-infinite interval. Since f (γγ (t)) is a geodesic defined on the
same interval as γ (t), it follows that f takes meridians to meridians, i.e. if v is
constant, so is ṽ. Hence, ṽ does not depend on w.
(ii) f preserves angles and takes meridians to meridians, so must take parallels
to parallels. Hence, w̃ does not depend on v.
(iii) The parallel w = constant has length 2π/w by Exercise 8.3.2(i) (w = e−u ).
As f preserves lengths, part (ii) implies that 2π/w = 2π/w̃, so w = w̃.
(iv) We now know that f (σ σ(u, v)) = σ (F (v), w)for some smooth function F (v).
2
The first fundamental form of σ (F (v), w) is w−2 dF dv 2 + dw2 ; since f is an
dv
isometry, this is equal to w−2 (dv 2 + dw2 ), hence dF/dv = ±1, so F (v) = ±v + α,
where α is a constant. If the sign is +, f is rotation by α around the z-axis; if
the sign is −, f is reflection in the plane containing the z-axis making an angle
α/2 with the xz-plane.
9.4.1 From Exercise 6.2.1, the cone is√ isometric to the ‘sector’ S of the plane with
vertex at the origin and angle π 2:
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000000000000000000
111111111111111111
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111111111111111111
O
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
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000000000000000000
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Geodesics on the cone correspond to possibly broken line segments in S: if a line
segment meets the boundary of S at a point A, say, it may continue from the
point B on the other boundary line at the same distance as A from the origin
and with the indicated angles being equal:
98
O B
(i) TRUE: if two points P and Q can be joined by a line segment in S there is no
problem; otherwise, P and Q can be joined by a broken line segment satisfying
the conditions above:
q1 Q
q2
O S
p1
R
P
p2
To see that this is always possible, let p1 , p2 , q1 and q2 be the indicated distances,
and let R and S be the points on the boundary of the sector at a distance
(p2 q1 + p1 q2 )/(p2 + q2 ) from the origin. Then, the broken line segment joining
P and R followed by that joining S and Q is the desired geodesic.
(ii) FALSE: Q
(iii) FALSE: many meet in two points, such as the two geodesics joining P and
Q in the diagram in (ii).
(iv) TRUE: the meridians do not intersect (remember that the vertex of the cone
has been removed), and parallel straight lines that are entirely contained in S
99
do not intersect.
(v) TRUE: since (broken) line segments in S can clearly be continued indefinitely
in both directions.
(vi) TRUE: a situation of the form
in which the indicated angles are equal is clearly impossible. But the answer
to this part of the question depends on the angle of the cone: if the angle is α,
instead of π/4, lines can self-intersect if α < π/6, for then the corresponding
sector in the plane has angle < π:
9.4.2 We consider the intersection of S 2 with the plane passing through p and q and
making an angle θ with the xy-plane, where −π/2 < θ < π/2. This intersection
is a circle Cθ but it is not a great circle unless θ = 0. Hence, if θ 6= 0, the short
segment of Cθ joining p and q is not a geodesic and so has length > π/2 (the
length of the shortest geodesic joining p and q). Since the length of Cθ is ≤ 2π,
the length of the long segment of Cθ joining p and q has length < 3π/2 if θ 6= 0,
i.e. strictly less than the length of the long segment of the geodesic C0 joining
p and q. So the long geodesic segment is not a local minimum of the length of
curves joining p and q.
2 2
9.4.3 (i) This is obvious if n ≥ 0 since e−1/t → 0 as t → 0. We prove that t−n e−1/t →
0 as t → 0 by induction on n ≥ 0. We know the result if n = 0, and if n > 0
100
Pn (t) −1/t2
dn θ
= t3n e if t 6= 0,
dtn 0 if t = 0,
Z R
σ r |r=R
σ θ .σ r=0 − σ rr dr = 0.
σ θ .σ
0
f (1) − f (0) = R.
(ii) Use the hint, noting that the length of the part of γ between p and q′ is ≥ R.
(iii) If the part of γ between p and q has length R, then it must stay inside
theqgeodesic circle with centre p and radius R by (ii), and then we must have
R1 R1q
0
f˙2 + Gġ 2 dt = 0
f˙2 dt. Then Gġ = 0 for all t ∈ (0, 1), so ġ = 0 (as G > 0)
and so g is a constant which must be α as γ passes through q. This means that
γ is a parametrization of the radial line θ = α.
9.5.3 The first fundamental form is dr 2 + Gdθ 2 and a geodesic circle is a parameter
curve r = constant. By Exercise 7.3.15, its geodesic curvature is Gr /2G. We are
101
∂
(ln G) = A(r)
∂r Z
∴ ln G = A(r)dr + B(θ) (say)
∴ G = f (r)g(θ),
R
A(r)dr
where f (r) = e and g(θ) = eB(θ) .
Chapter 10
10.1.1 The matrix of the Weingarten map with respect to the basis {σ σ u , σ v } is FI−1 FII =
−1
cos2 v 0 − cos2 v 0
= = −I, so Nu = σ u , Nv = σ v . Thus, N =
0 1 0 −1
σ −aa, where a is a constant vector. Hence, k σ −aa k = 1, showing that the surface
is an open subset of the sphere S of radius 1 and centre a. The standard latitude-
longitude parametrization σ (u, v) of S 2 has first and second fundamental forms
both given by du2 + cos2 udv 2 , so the parametrization σ (v, u) + a of S has the
given first and second fundamental forms (the second fundamental form changes
sign because σ v × σ u = −σ σ u × σ v ).
10.1.2 Γ122 = sin u cos u and the other Christoffel symbols are zero; the second Codazzi–
Mainardi equation is not satisfied.
10.1.3 The Christoffel symbols are Γ111 = 0, Γ211 = 1/w, Γ112 = −1/w, Γ212 = 0, Γ122 = 0,
Γ222 = −1/w. Using the first equation in Proposition 10.1.2 we get K = −1.
The Codazzi-Mainardi equations are Lw = −(L + N )/w, Nv = 0. Hence, N
depends only on w, and since −1 = K = LN/EG, we have LN = −1/w4 so
L also depends only on w; the first Codazzi-Mainardi equation gives dL/dw =
−L/w + 1/Lw5 , which is the stated differential equation. Putting P = Lw2 we
get dP/dw = (1 + P 2 )/wP 2 2
√ which integrates to give 1 + P = Cw , where C > 0
is a constant, i.e. L = ± Cw2 − 1/w. Hence, the second fundamental form is
only defined for w ≥ C −1/2 or w ≤ −C −1/2 .
The first fundamental form is this exercise is the same as that of a suitable
parametrization of the pseudosphere (see Exercise 8.3.1(i)). We saw that the
pseudosphere corresponds to (part of) the region w > 1.
10.1.4 The Christoffel symbols are Γ111 = Eu /2E, Γ211 = −Ev /2G, Γ112 = Ev /2E,
Γ212 = Gu /2G, Γ122 = −Gu /2E, Γ222 = Gv /2G. The first Codazzi–Mainardi
equation is
LEv −Ev 1 L N
Lv = −N = Ev + ,
2E 2G 2 E G
102
det(FII − κFI ) = 0.
det(C t FII C − κC t FI C) = 0,
If κ = 0, the surface has the same first and second fundamental forms as a plane,
so by Theorem 10.1.3 the surface can be obtained from a plane by applying a
direct isometry of R3 . It follows that the surface is a plane.
If κ 6= 0, then by the reparametrization v 7→ |κ|−1/2 v we can assume that κ = ±1.
By Examples 6.1.4, 7.1.2 and 10.1.4, in both cases there is a parametrization of
the unit cylinder with these first and second fundamental forms. By Theorem
10.1.3 again, the surface is obtained by applying to this cylinder a direct isometry
of R3 , and so is a circular cylinder.
10.1.6 (i) The Christoffel symbols are Γ111 = E 2E
u Ev
, Γ211 = − 2G , Γ112 = Ev
2E
, Γ212 = G
2G
u
,
1 Gu 2 Gv
Γ22 = − 2E , Γ22 = 2G . Eqs. 10.1 (with L = N = 0, M = 1) now state that
(E/G)u = 0 and (E/G)v = 0. Hence, E/G is constant.
(ii) If E/G = λ4 , the reparametrization ũ = λu, ṽ = λ−1 v leads to the first
and second fundamental forms Ẽ(dũ2 + dṽ 2 ) and 2dũdṽ, respectively, where
Ẽ = λ−2 E.
(iii) If E = G, the first of the Gauss equations in Proposition 10.1.2 gives
2 2 2 2
1 Ev Eu Eu Ev Ev Eu
− =− − + − + − ,
E 2E v 2E u 2E 2E 2E 2E
i.e.
Eu Ev 2
+ = ,
2E u 2E v E
which is the stated equation.
10.1.7 The assumption is that L = N = 0. The Codazzi-Mainardi equations are
10.1.8 (i) By Proposition 8.4.1, there is a patch σ (U, V ) of S containing p such that
F = M = 0. If κ1 = L/E is a constant κ, Exercise 10.1.4 implies that EV = 0
(since the principal curvatures
R√ are distinct by assumption). So E is a function
of U only. Define u = E dU , v = V . Then the first and second fundamental
forms are of the form du + Gdv 2 and κdu2 + N dv 2 , respectively.
2
(ii) The Christoffel symbols are Γ111 = Γ211 = Γ112 = 0, Γ212 = Gu /2G, Γ122 =
−Gu /2G, Γ222 = Gv /2G.
(iii) The parameter curve v = constant is parametrized by Γ(u) = σ (u, v). De-
noting d/du by a dot, we have Γ̇ Γ = σ u , Γ̈
Γ = σ uu ...
= κNN, by Proposition 7.4.4
and part√(ii). By the proof of Proposition 8.1.2, Γ = κN Nu = −κ2 σ u . Since
σ u , σ v / G, N} is a right-handed orthonormal basis of R3 ,
{σ
Γ × Γ̈
k Γ̇ Γk κ
= k √ σ v k = |κ|.
Γk
k Γ̇ 3 G
104
The torsion of Γ is
... √
Γ .(Γ̇
Γ × Γ̈
Γ) (−κ2 σ u )..(−κσ
σ v / G)
= = 0,
Γ k2
Γ × Γ̈
k Γ̇ κ2
d = −n
c = n cos α + b sin α, ±d n sin α + b cos α,
Σu + bΣ
Σuu = aΣ Σv + cΣ
Σw ,
1 1
p2 a = Σ uu.Σ u = Σu.Σ u )u = (p2 )u = ppu ,
(Σ
2 2
so a = pu /p. Next,
1
q 2 b = Σuu.Σv = (Σ
Σu.Σ v )u − Σ u.Σuv = − (Σ
Σu.Σu )v = −ppv ,
2
so b = −ppv /q 2 . Similarly, c = −ppw /r 2 , hence the stated formula for Σuu . The
other formulas for the second derivatives of Σ are proved similarly.
We now use these formulas to compute both sides of the equation (Σ Σuu )v =
Σuv )u ; both sides are then linear combinations of Σu , Σ v and Σw . We find that
(Σ
105
(eλ )u (eλ )v
1 ∂ ∂ 1
K=− λ + =− (λuu + λvv ).
2e ∂u eλ ∂v eλ 2eλ
∂r ∂r
Ẽ F̃ t E F ∂u ∂v
10.2.2 By Exercise 6.1.4, = J J, where J = = ∂θ ∂θ
u F̃ G̃ F G ∂u ∂v
v
r r . By Exercise 9.5.1, E = 1, F = 0, and we get the stated for-
−v u
r2 r2
2 2
mulas for Ẽ, F̃ , G̃. From Ẽ − 1 = vr2 rG2 − 1 , G̃ − 1 = ur2 rG2 − 1 , we get
u2 (Ẽ − 1) = v 2 (G̃ − 1). Since Ẽ and G̃ are smooth functions of (u, v), they have
i j 2 i j 2
P P
Taylor expansions Ẽ = i+j≤2 eij u v + o(r ), G̃ = i+j≤2 gij u v + o(r ),
where o(r k ) denotes terms such that o(r k )/r k → 0 as r → 0. Equating coef-
ficients on both sides of u2 (Ẽ − 1) = v 2 (G̃ − 1) shows that all the e’s and g’s
are zero except e02 = g20 = k, say. Then, Ẽ = 1 + kv 2 + o(r 2 ), √which implies
2
that G = r 2 + kr 4 + o(r 4 ). By Corollary 10.2.3(ii), K = − √1G ∂∂r2G . From the
√
first part, G = r + 21 kr 3 + o(r 3 ), hence K = −3k + o(1). Taking r = 0 gives
K(p p) = −3k.
R 2π R 2π √ R 2π
G dθ = 0 R − 16 K(p p)R3 + o(R3 ) dθ =
10.2.3 (i) CR = 0 k σ θ k dθ = 0
2π R − 16 K(p p)R3 + o(R3 ) .
√ R R R 2π √
(ii) Since dAσ = G drdθ, the area AR = 0 0 G drdθ is equal to
R
p) 2
1 K(p
Z
3 3 2 2
2π p)r + o(r ) dr = πR 1 −
r − K(p R + o(R ) .
0 6 12
(iii) Using the formula for K in Corollary 10.2.3(ii) and the expression for the
first fundamental form of σ in Exercise 9.5.1, we get
√
α
1 ∂2 G √
f (θ)
ZZ Z Z
KdAσ = −√ G drdθ
T 0 0 G ∂r 2
Z α √ r=f (θ) Z α √ !
∂ G ∂ G
=− dθ = ψ′ + dθ.
∂r ∂r
0 0
r=0 r=0
√ √
By Exercise 10.2.2,
RR G = r +o(r) so ∂ G/∂r = 1 at r = 0, where o(r)/r → 0 as
r → 0. Hence, ABC KdAσ = ψ(α) −ψ(0) +α = γ −(π −β) +α = α +β +γ −π.
(
6
A)
(0)
10.2.5 With the notation of Example 4.5.3 we have, on the median circle t = 0,
θ θ θ
σ t = − sin cos θ, − sin sin θ, cos , σ θ = (− sin θ, cos θ, 0),
2 2 2
1 θ θ 1 θ θ 1 θ
σ tt = 0, σ tθ = − cos cos θ + sin sin θ, − cos sin θ − sin cos θ, − sin ,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Hence, the surface is flat if and only if (m, n) = (0, 0), (2, 0), (0, 2) or (2, 2).
If m = n = 0 the first fundamental form is du2 + dv 2 so the surface is locally
isometric to a plane (Corollary 6.2.3). If (m, n) = (2, 0), we get v 2 du2 + dv 2 ,
which is the first fundamental form pf a cone (Example 6.1.5), and this is locally
isometric to a plane by Exercise 6.2.5. Similarly if (m, n) = (0, 2). The case
in which m = n = 2 is less obvious, but the reparametrization U = 2−1/2 uv,
V = ln uv transforms the first fundamental form v 2 du2 +u2 dv 2 into dU 2 +U 2 dV 2 ,
which is the first fundamental form of a cone.
10.2.8 Using the Christoffel symbols calculated in Exercise 7.4.4, the second of the
Gauss equations (Proposition 10.1.2) gives
K cos θ = 0 − (θu cot θ)v + 0 − (−θu cosec θ)(−θv cosec θ) = −θuv cot θ,
respectively. Since these are different, the map σ (u, v) 7→ σ̃ σ (u, v) is not an
isometry. Nevertheless, by Corollary 10.2.3(i), the Gaussian curvatures are equal:
1 ∂ 2u 1
K = K̃ = − √ √ =− .
2 u2 + 1 ∂u 1 + u2 (1 + u2 )2
1
σ (ũ, ṽ) is an isometry, the Theorema Egregium tells us that − (1+u
If σ (u, v) 7→ σ̃ 2 )2
1
= − (1+ũ2 )2 , so ũ = ±u; let ṽ = f (u, v). The first fundamental form of
σ (±u, f (u, v)) is (1 + (1 + u2 )fu2 )du2 + 2(1 + u2 )fu fv dudv + (1 + u2 )fv2 dv 2 ; this
σ̃
108
cos θ 1 a
K= = 2− 2 .
b(a + b cos θ) b b (a + b cos θ)
If σ (θ, ϕ) 7→ σ (θ̃, ϕ̃) is an isometry of the torus, the Theorema Egregium implies
that we must have cos θ = cos θ̃, and hence θ̃ = ±θ (up to adding integer
multiples of 2π). Since the first fundamental form is b2 dθ 2 + (a + b cos θ)2 dϕ2 ,
we must therefore have dϕ̃2 = dϕ2 , and hence ∂ ϕ̃/∂θ = 0, ∂ ϕ̃/∂ϕ = ±1. Hence,
ϕ̃ = ±ϕ + constant.
10.2.12 Since all parameter curves are pre-geodesics we have, by Exercise 9.2.8,
10.3.1 Arguing as in the proof of Theorem 10.3.4, we suppose that J attains its maxi-
mum value > 0 at some point p ∈ S contained in a patch σ of S. We can assume
that the principal curvatures κ1 and κ2 of σ satisfy κ1 > κ2 > 0 everywhere.
Since H = 12 (κ1 + κ2 ), κ1 > H and J = 4(κ1 − H)2 . Thus, J increases with κ1
when κ1 > H, so κ1 must have a maximum at p, and then κ2 = 2H − κ1 has
a minimum there. By Lemma 10.3.5, K ≤ 0 at p, contradicting the assumption
that K > 0 everywhere.
10.3.2 We start with the parametrization
R√ σ (U, V ) = (f (U ) cos V, f (U ) sin V, g(U )), where
U 2U
f (U ) = e , g(U ) = 1 − e dU . The first and second fundamental forms are
−e U √
dU + e dV and √ 2U dU 2 + eU 1 − e2U dV 2 , respectively. In the notation
2 2U 2
1−e
√ √
of the proof of Proposition 10.3.2, κ1 = −1/eU√ 1 − e2U , κ2 = e−U 1 − e2U . So
we are in case (ii) of the proof and tan ω = e−2U − 1. We find that e(U ) =
109
E/ sin2 ω = 1
, g(V ) = G sec2 ω = 1. So Ṽ = V and Ũ = √ dU
R
1−e2U
=
1−e2U
− cosh−1 (e−U ) − c for some constantqc. So U = − ln(cosh(Ũ + c)). Hence, θ =
√
2ω = 2 tan−1 e−2U − 1 = 2 tan−1 cosh2 (Ũ + c) − 1 = 2 tan−1 sinh(Ũ + c).
Finally, u = 12 (Ũ + Ṽ ), v = 12 (Ṽ − Ũ ), so Ũ = u − v.
√
10.3.3 We have E = G = 1, F = cos θ and θuv = sin θ. Hence, EG − F 2 = θuv .
Consider the quadrilateral bounded by the parameter curves u = u0 , u = u1 ,
v = v0 and v = v1 , and let
Chapter 11
11.1.1 Let l meet the real axis at b and suppose that Re(a) > b (the case Re(a) < b is
similar). The semicircle with centre c on the real axis and radius |a − d| passes
through a and does not meet l provided that |a − d| ≤ |d − b|, i.e. provided
d ≥ (|a|2 − b2 )/(Re(a) − b).
11.1.2 Suppose that a and b lie on a half-line geodesic,
Rt say a = r + is, b = r + it, where
r, s, t ∈ R and t > s. Then, dH (a, b) = s dww = ln(t/s) = d, say, so t/s
=e .
d
On the other hand, the formula in Proposition 11.1.4 gives 2tanh−1 t−s
t+s =
d
2tanh−1 eed −1
+1
= 2tanh−1 (tanh d2 ) = d.
11.1.3 The required hyperbolic line cannot be a half-line, so must be a semicircle with
centre the origin, and it must have radius |a|.
−1 z−a
11.1.4 By Proposition 11.1.4, z ∈ Ca,R ⇐⇒ 2tanh z−ā = R. If λ = tanh(R/2),
this is equivalent to (1 − λ2 )|z|2 − (ā − λ2 a)z − (a − λ2 ā)z̄ + (1 − λ2 )|a|2 = 0.
According to Proposition A.2.3, this is the equation of a circle provided that
λ2 < 1, which is obvious, and |ā − λ2 a|2 > (1 − λ2 )2 |a|2 . This condition reduces
to 2|a|2 > a2 + ā2 . Writing a = |a|eiθ this becomes cos 2θ < 1, which is true
because a ∈ H implies 0 < θ < π.
Cic,R will be a circle with centre on the imaginary axis, say at ib. Then Ca,R
intersects the imaginary axis at the points i(b ± r), so these two points must
111
(v) This follows from the fact that, if M is a real Möbius transformation, so is
J ◦ M ◦ J. For example, if M1 , M2 are real Möbius transformations, then
(M1 ◦ J) ◦ (M2 ◦ J) = M1 ◦ (J ◦ M2 ◦ J)
(see the proof of Proposition 11.2.1), so it suffices to prove that I0,1 is a Möbius
isometry; but I0,1 = (−K) ◦ J, where −K(z) = −1/z is real Möbius.
11.2.6 By Proposition 11.1.3(i), there is a unique hyperbolic line l, say, passing through
a and b. By Proposition 11.2.3, by applying a suitable isometry of H we can
assume that l is the imaginary axis. Let C and C ′ be the hyperbolic circles with
centres a and b, respectively, which pass through c (Exercise 11.1.4). These are
Euclidean circles with centres on the imaginary axis.
Suppose for a contradiction that the stated inequality is false, and let a = iw,
b = iw′ , where w′ > w (interchanging the roles of a, b if necessary). Then,
C intersects the imaginary axis at a point ir, say, with r > w; we must have
r < w′ since r ≥ w′ implies that d(a, b) ≤ d(a, ir) = d(a, c), which contradicts
our assumption. Similarly, C ′ intersects the imaginary axis at a point is, say,
between a and b. Since C and C ′ intersect, we must have s ≤ r; in fact, s < r
for if s = r then C and C ′ touch, contradicting the fact that a, b, c do not lie on
a geodesic. Then,
d(a, c) + d(c, b) = d(a, ir) + d(is, b) > d(a, ir) + d(ir, b) = d(a, b),
a contradiction.
11.2.7 Let F be an isometry of H that takes l to the imaginary axis. By Exercise
11.1.5, the equidistant curves are then a pair of Euclidean half-lines l1 , l2 passing
through the origin. The isometry F −1 of H, being a composite of reflections and
inversions (Exercise 11.2.4), takes Euclidean lines and circles to Euclidean lines
and circles (Appendix 2). Since the real axis is the only Euclidean straight line
passing through a and b, F −1 must take l1 , l2 to a pair of circular arcs passing
through a and b. We observed in Exercise 11.1.5 that these are not geodesics.
11.2.8 By applying a suitable isometry, we can assume that a and d are on the imaginary
axis. The centre of the semicircle geodesic passing through a and b is (R, 0),
114
where a = iR cot 12 α, and its radius is Rcosec 21 α. Let d = it. We must have
Rcosec 12 α < R + t. Then,
cot 12 α
R 1
d(a, d) = ln cot α < ln = f (α).
t 2 cosec 12 α − 1
11.2.9 As in the proof of Theorem 11.2.4, we can assume that a = a′ , that a, c and
c′ are all on the imaginary axis, that b and b′ are on the same side of the
imaginary axis, and that c and c′ are either both ‘above’ or both ‘below’ a on
the imaginary axis. Then, clearly, c = c′ . Since the angles of the two triangles at
a are equal, the geodesic through a and b is the same as that through a and b′ .
Since d(a, b) = d(a, b′ ) and since b and b′ are on the same side of the imaginary
axis, we must have b = b′ .
11.2.10 The proof is the same as in Euclidean geometry. Let a, b ∈ H, let d be the
mid-point of the geodesic l passing through a and b, and let m be the geodesic
passing through d perpendicular to l. If c is any point on m then, by the
preceding exercise, the triangles with vertices a, d, c and b, d, c are congruent. In
particular, d(a, c) = d(b, c). Hence, m is the set of points equidistant from a and
b.
−1 P −1 (b)−P −1 (a) z+1
11.3.1 The distance we want is 2tanh −1 −1
. Now use P −1 (z) = i(z−1) .
P (b)−P (a)
The algebra is straightforward.
11.3.2 By Proposition 11.2.3, there is an isometry F that takes l to the real axis and
the point of intersection of l and m to the origin. Then F must take m to the
imaginary axis as this is the unique hyperbolic line through the origin perpendic-
ular to the real axis. The number of such isometries is the number of isometries
that take the real axis to itself and the imaginary axis to itself. If G is such an
isometry, then either G, R0 ◦ G, R1 ◦ G or R1 ◦ R0 ◦ G fix the real and imaginary
axes and also each quadrant into which the disc DP is divided by the axes. If H
is this isometry, the argument used in the solution of Exercise 11.2.4(ii) shows
that H must be the identity map. Hence, G = R0 , R1 , R0 ◦ R1 or the identity
map.
11.3.3 Let us call a Möbius transformation of the type in the statement of the exercise
a hyperbolic Möbius transformation. Since P is a Möbius transformation, the
Möbius transformations that take DP to itself are those of the form PM P −1 ,
where M is a Möbius transformation that takes H to itself, i.e. a real Möbius
transformation (Exercise 11.2.5). If M (z) = az+bcz+d
, where a, b, c, d ∈ R and
(a+d+i(b−c))z+a−d−i(b+c)
ad − bc > 0, we find that PM P −1 (z) = (a−d+i(b+c))z+a+d−i(b−c) . Since
sin α 1 sin β 1
so sinh A = sinh C . Interchanging the roles of A and B gives sinh B = sinh C .
In the general case suppose that the hyperbolic line through the vertex of the
triangle with angle α intersects the opposite side at a point which divides that
side into segments of lengths A′ and A′′ , so that β is the angle between the
sides of lengths C and A′ . Suppose also that this hyperbolic line segment has
length D. Then the original triangle is divided into two triangles, one with angles
π/2, β, α′ and sides of lengths C, D, A′ and the other with angles π/2, γ, α′′ and
sides of lengths B, D, A′′ . Applying the first part to each of these triangles gives
sin β/ sinh D = 1/ sinh C and sin γ/ sinh D = 1/ sinh B. Hence, sin β/ sinh B =
sin γ/ sinh C. The other equation is proved by interchanging the roles of A and
B (for example). The case in which the hyperbolic line through a vertex meets
116
the hyperbolic line through the other two vertices in a point outside the triangle
is similar.
11.3.7 (i) This was established in the solution of the preceding exercise.
(ii) Using the sine and cosine rules, sin β = sinh B
sinh C
and cos α = coshsinh
B cosh C−cosh A
B sinh C
.
2
cos α cosh B cosh C−cosh A cosh B cosh A−cosh A
Hence, sin β = sinh2 B
= sinh2 B
= cosh A.
(iii) Using sin β = sinh B/ sinh C and the cosine rule for cos β, we get cot β =
cosh A cosh C−cosh B sinh2 A cosh B sinh A
sinh A sinh B = sinh A sinh B = tanhB .
11.3.8 If γ = π/2 the formula we want is that in Exercise 11.3.7(ii). In the general case,
we use the method (and notation) of the solution of Exercise 11.3.6. In the case
where the hyperbolic line through a vertex perpendicular to the opposite side
meets that side at a point inside the triangle, applying Exercise 11.3.7(ii) to the
two right-angled triangles gives cosh A′ = cos α′ / sin β, cosh A′′ = cos α′′ / sin γ,
so
cos β cos γ
using Exercise 11.3.7(iii). By Exercise 11.3.7(ii), cosh D = sin α′ = sin α′′ so
cosh A sin β sin γ = cos α + sin α′ sin α′′ + tanh2 D cos β cos γ
= cos α + sech2 D cos β cos γ + tanh2 D cos β cos γ
= cos α + cos β cos γ.
The case in which the perpendicular meets the opposite side at a point outside
the triangle is similar.
11.3.9 Let γ (t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) be a curve on S 2 . Then, Π(γγ (t)) = (u(t), v(t)), where
u = 1−z x y
, v = 1−z . Denoting d/dt by a dot, u̇ = (1−z) ẋ+xż
(1−z)2 with a similar formula
for v̇, which give
u̇2 + v̇ 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
4 = (1 − z) ( ẋ + ẏ ) + (x + y ) ż + 2(x ẋ + y ẏ) ż(1 − z) .
1 + u2 + v 2 (1 − z)2
cos 2π
n + cos
2 α
2
cosh A =
sin2 α2
2 cos2 πn
∴ 1 + cosh A =
sin2 α2
A cos nπ
∴ cosh = .
2 sin α2
11.3.12 Let D be the length of the diagonal of the quadrilateral, and let β be the angle
between the diagonal and the side of length B. By Corollary 11.3.7,
By the sine rule, the other two (equal) angles α of the quadrilateral are given by
sinh D cos β
sin α = .
sinh C
By the cosine rule,
Hence,
cosh B cosh D − cosh A cosh A sinh B
sin α = = .
sinh B sinh C sinh C
11.3.13 Let n be one of the geodesics bisecting the angle between l and m, and let a be
a point on n. We will show that a is equidistant from l and m. By applying an
isometry we can assume that n is the real axis in DP .
Let j and k be the geodesics through a meeting l and m at right angles, and let
b and c be the points in which j meets l and k meets m, respectively. Reflection
R in the real axis is an isometry of DP that interchanges l and m and fixes each
point of n. If R(c) 6= b, the hyperbolic triangle with vertices a, b and R(c) would
have two angles equal to π/2, contradicting Theorem 11.1.5. It follows that R
interchanges b and c, and hence that d(a, b) = d(a, c).
Consider a hyperbolic triangle with vertices a, b, c and let l, m, n be the geodesics
bisecting the angles at a, b, c, respectively. Let d be the point of intersection of l
and m. Then, d is equidistant from all three sides of the triangle, and hence lies
on n.
11.3.14 By applying an isometry of DP , we can assume that l is the imaginary axis, m
is the real axis, a = 0 and c = 1. By Proposition 11.1.4, the hyperbolic circle
with centre b > 0 and radius R is
|z − b| R
= tanh .
|1 − bz| 2
|z − b| = b|1 − bz|,
11.4.1 Let l and m be two distinct hyperbolic lines in H that do not intersect at any
point of H. If l and m are both half-lines they are parallel as they do not have
119
equal to a constant, say D, gives (after some algebra) v 2 /w2 = 2 sinh2 (D/2).
This is the equation of a pair of lines passing through the origin. As they are
not perpendicular to the real axis (unless D = 0), they are not hyperbolic lines.
11.4.3 We work in DP . By applying an isometry we can assume that a is the origin
and b > 0. Suppose that the hyperbolic triangle with vertices a, b, c has internal
angles α, β, γ, and assume that Re(c) > 0.
The hyperbolic line through b and c is part of a circle Γ with centre d and radius
r, say. The line through b and d makes an angle π/2 − β with the real axis,
so d = b + r sin β + ir cos β. Similarly, d = c + r sin(α + γ) − ir cos(α + γ) =
c + r sin(A + β) + ir cos(A + β) using A = π − α − β − γ. Writing c = v + iw we
get v = b − r sin A cos β + r(1 − cos A) sin β, w = r(1 − cos A) cos β + r sin A sin β.
Then, v(1 − cos A) + w sin A = (b + 2r sin β)(1 − cos A). But, since γ intersects
the boundary C of DP perpendicularly, r 2 + 1 = |d|2 = (b + r sin β)2 + r 2 cos2 β =
r 2 + b2 + 2br sin β, so 2br sin β = 1 − b2 . Hnece, v(1 − cos A) + w sin A = 1−cosb
A
.
This is the equation of a straight line that interescts the real axis at 1/b and
makes an angle A/2 with the (negative) real axis. The set of points c for which
the triangle with vertices a, b, c has area A is the union of this line together with
its reflection in the real axis. These lines are not hyperbolic lines as they do not
pass through the origin.
11.4.4 In the first two parts of this exercise it is slightly easier to work in H (by applying
P −1 ).
(i) By applying a suitable isometry of H, we can assume that one of the sides
of the triangle is the imaginary axis. Then the other sides must be a semicircle
passing through the origin and some point a ∈ R, together with the half-line
Re(z) = a. By further applying a suitable translation parallel to the real axis
and a positive dilation (which are isometries of H), we can assume that the three
sides are the half-lines Re(z) = ±1 and the semicircle |z|2 = 1. Then, the area
of the triangle is
1 ∞ 1
dw dv
Z Z Z
dv √ = √ = π.
−1 1−v 2 w2 −1 1 − v2
(ii) Let a be the vertex of the biasymptotic triangle in H, and let l be the geodesic
through a perpendicular to the opposite side, meeting it at a′ , say. By applying
an isometry of H, we can assume that l is the imaginary axis and that a′ = i.
120
Then, the side opposite a is the semicircle |z|2 = 1. The side joining 1 and a is
an arc of a circle with centre b < 0, say, where
α −b
cos = .
2 1−b
The equation of the circle is (v − b)2 + w2 = (1 − b)2 , so the area of the triangle
is !
Z 1
1 1
2 √ −p dv.
0 1 − v2 (1 − v)(1 + v − 2b)
1−b
du −b
Z
π−2 p du = 2 sin−1
−b (1 − b)2 − u2 1−b
−1 −b
= π − 2 cos = π − α.
1−b
That a bisymptotic triangle with angle α exists for any 0 < α < π is proved
using the method of Exercise 11.3.11.
(iii) We now switch back to DP . Assume that the vertex at which the angle is α
is 0, let b be the other vertex of the triangle in DP . Let the side of the triangle
passing through 0 and b meet C at c, and let the other side passing through 0
meet C at d (these sides are radii of C). The area of the asymptotic triangle with
vertices 0, b, d is the difference between the areas of the biasymptotic triangles
with vertices 0, c, d and b, c, d, which by part (ii) is
(π − α) − (π − (π − β)) = π − α − β.
Let a be a point on the radius joining 0 and d and consider the triangle with
vertices 0, a, b. Let the angle of this triangle at b be β ′ and the angle at a be α′ .
Thus, α′ tends to zero and β ′ tends to β as a tends to d along the radius (‘tends
to’ in the Euclidean sense). By Exercise 11.3.8, the length A of the side joining
0 and b is given by
cos α′ + cos α cos β ′
cosh A = .
sin α sin β ′
Letting a tend to c, we obtain
1 + cos α cos β
cosh A = .
sin α sin β
121
11.4.5 (i) Let a, b ∈ DP be the vertices of one of the triangles, let l be the geodesic
passing through a, b and let m be the other side of the triangle passing through
a; define a′ , b′ , l′ , m′ similarly for the other triangle. By applying an isometry to
one of the triangles, we can assume that a = a′ , m = m′ and that l and l′ are
on the same side of m. As the triangles have the same angle at a, l = l′ and by
Exercise 11.4.4(iii) the lengths of the finite sides of the two triangles are equal.
It follows that b = b′ , and since the two triangles have the same angle at b their
third sides must also coincide.
(ii) As in (i), by applying an isometry to one of the triangles we can assume that
their vertices in DP coincide, as do the two sides passing through this vertex.
But then the two triangles coincide.
(iii) This was established in the solution of Exercise 11.4.4(i).
11.4.6 We consider the biasymptotic triangle with vertices 0, 1 and e3iπ/4 , where the
two sides meeting at the origin are radii of DP and the side joining 1 and e3iπ/4
is an arc of a circle meeting C at right angles at 1 and e3iπ/4 . The ‘altitude’ of
this triangle passing through 1 is a circular arc that meets C at −i, and that
through e3iπ/4 is a circular arc meeting C at e5iπ/4 . These two geodesics are
clearly ultraparallel (one is confined to the region v > 0, the other to the region
v < 0). If we now replace the vertices 1 and e3iπ/4 with nearby points a, b ∈ DP ,
the altitudes of the hyperbolic triangle with vertices 1, a, b passing through a and
b will still be ultraparallel.
−1 2v 2w v 2 +w 2 −1
11.5.1 From Example 6.3.5, Π (v, w) = v 2 +w2 +1 , v 2 +w2 +1 , v 2 +w2 +1 , so K(v, w) =
2(v,w)
v 2 +w 2 +1
.
11.5.2 From Appendix 2, every Möbius transformation is a composite of transformations
of the form z 7→ 1/z, z 7→ z + λ, z 7→ λz (where λ 6= 0 in the last case). Hence, it
suffices to establish Eq. 11.11 when M is of this form. For the last two types this
(a−1 −c−1 )(b−1 −d−1 )
is obvious; for the first, (a−1 , b−1 ; c−1 , d−1 ) = (a −1 −d−1 )(b−1 −d−1 ) = (a, b; c, d)
Chapter 12
12.1.1 κ1 + κ2 = 0 =⇒ κ2 = −κ1 =⇒ K = κ1 κ2 = −κ21 ≤ 0. K = 0 ⇐⇒ κ21 = 0 ⇐⇒
κ1 = κ2 = 0 ⇐⇒ the surface is an open subset of a plane (by Proposition 8.2.9).
12.1.2 From Eq. 8.15, σ λu × σ λv = (1 − λκ1 )(1 − λκ2 )σ σ u × σ v , where κ1 , κ2 are the
principal curvatures of σ . Since σ is minimal, κ2 = −κ1 so
ZZ
Aσ λ (U ) = (1 − λ2 κ21 ) k σ u × σ v k dudv
U
ZZ
2
= Aσ (U ) − λ κ21 k σ u × σ v k dudv.
U
123
Since the integrand in the last integral is ≥ 0 everywhere, the stated inequality
follows. Equality holds ⇐⇒ the last integral vanishes, which happens ⇐⇒ the
integrand vanishes everywhere, i.e. ⇐⇒ κ1 = 0 everywhere. In that case κ2 =
−κ1 = 0 also, and σ is an open subset of the plane by Proposition 8.2.9.
12.1.3 By Proposition 8.6.1, a compact minimal surface would have K > 0 at some
point, contradicting Exercise 12.1.1.
12.1.4 The first part follows from Exercises 6.1.2 and 7.1.4. The map which wraps the
plane onto the unit cylinder (Example 6.2.4) is a local isometry, but the plane
is a minimal surface and the cylinder is not.
12.1.5 If κ1 , κ2 are the principal curvatures at the point, we have κ1 + κ2 = 0 as the
surface is minimal, and κ1 = κ2 as the point is an umbilic. Hence, κ1 = κ2 = 0.
12.1.6 Let Σ0 be the minimal surface and let S = Σλ in the notation of Definition 8.5.1.
Let k1 , k2 be the principal curvatures of Σ. By Proposition 8.5.2(ii), we have
1 1 1 − λk1 1 − λk2 2λ
+ = + =− ,
κ1 κ2 ǫk1 ǫk2 ǫ
1 1
since k1 + k2 = 0 (because k1 + k2 = 0).
12.1.7 The condition for a minimal surface is LG − 2M F + N E = 0 (Corollary 8.1.3).
From the solution of Exercise 8.1.16, E = (1−κa cos θ)2 +τ 2 a2 , F = τ a2 , G = a2 ,
L = aτ 2 − κ cos θ(1 − κa cos θ), M = τ a, N = a, and we find that the condition
for the tube to be a minimal surface is
hhhtt, tiii
= κ21 = −κ1 κ2 = −K.
htt, ti
12.2.1 By the solution of Exercise 8.1.2, the helicoid σ (u, v) = (v cos u, v sin u, λu) has
124
E = λ2 + v 2 , F = 0, G = 1, L = 0, M = λ/(λ2 + v 2 )1/2 , N = 0, so H =
LG−2M F +NG
2(EG−F 2 ) = 0.
12.2.2 A straightforward calculation shows that the first and second fundamental forms
of σ t are cosh2 u(du2 + dv 2 ) and − cos t du2 − 2 sin t dudv + cos t dv 2 , respectively,
2
u+cos t cosh2 u
so H = − cos t cosh 2 cosh4 u
= 0.
12.2.3 From Example 5.3.1, the cylinder can be parametrized by σ (u, v) = γ (u) + vaa,
where γ is unit-speed, k a k = 1 and γ is contained in a plane Π perpendicular to
a. We have σ u = γ̇γ = t (a dot denoting d/du), σ v = a, so E = 1, F = 0, G = 1;
N = t × a, σ uu = ṫt = κn n, σ uv = σ vv = 0, so L = κn n.(tt × a), M = N = 0. Now
t × a is a unit vector parallel to Π and perpendicular to t, hence parallel to n;
so L = ±κ and H = ±κ/2. So H = 0 ⇐⇒ κ = 0 ⇐⇒ γ is part of a straight line
⇐⇒ the cylinder is an open subset of a plane.
12.2.4 The first fundamental form is (cosh v + 1)(cosh v − cos u)(du2 + dv 2 ), so σ is
conformal. By Exercise 8.5.1, to show that σ is minimal we must show that
σ uu +σ σ vv = 0; but this is so, since σ uu = (sin u cosh v, cos u cosh v, sin u2 sinh v2 ) =
−σσ vv .
(i) σ (0, v) = (0, 1 − cosh v, 0), which is the y-axis. Any straight line is a geodesic.
(ii) σ (π, v) = (π, 1 + cosh v, −4 sinh v2 ), which is a curve in the plane x = π
such that z 2 = 16 sinh2 v2 = 8(cosh v − 1) = 8(y − 2), i.e. a parabola. The
d
geodesic equations are dt (E u̇) = 12 Eu (u̇2 + v̇ 2 ), dt
d
(E v̇) = 12 Ev (u̇2 + v̇ 2 ), where
a dot denotes the derivative with respect to the parameter t of the geodesic
and E = (cosh v + 1)(cosh v − cos u). When u = π, the unit-speed condition is
E v̇ 2 = 1, so v̇ = 1/(cosh v + 1). Hence, the first geodesic equation is 0 = 12 Eu v̇ 2 ,
which holds because Eu = sin u(cosh v + 1) = 0 when u = π; the second geodesic
d
equation is dt (cosh v + 1) = (cosh v + 1) sinh v v̇ 2 = sinh v v̇, which obviously
holds.
(iii) σ (u, 0) = (u −sin u, 1 −cos u, 0), which is the cycloid of Exercise 1.1.7 (in the
xy-plane, with a = 1 and with t replaced by u). The second geodesic equation
is satisfied because Ev = sinh v(2 cosh v + 1 − cos u) = 0 when v = 0. The
unit-speed condition is 2(1 − cos u)u̇2 = 1, so u̇ = 1/2 sin u2 . The first geodesic
equation is dt d
(4 sin2 u2 u̇) = sin uu̇2 , i.e. dtd
(2 sin u2 ) = cos u2 u̇, which obviously
holds.
12.2.5 Using Exercise 8.1.1, the surface is minimal ⇐⇒
2
(1 + g ′ )f¨ + (1 + f˙2 )g ′′ = 0,
where a dot denotes d/dx and a dash denotes d/dy; hence the stated equation.
Since the left-hand side of the stated equation depends only on x and the right-
hand side only on y, we must have
f¨ g ′′
= a, = −a,
1 + f˙2 1 + g′2
125
for some constant a. Suppose that a 6= 0. Let r = f˙; then f¨ = rdr/df and
the first equation is rdr/df = a(1 + r 2 ), which can be integrated to give af =
1 2
2 ln(1 + r ), up to adding an arbitary constant (which
√
corresponds to translating
the surface parallel to the z-axis). So df /dx = ± e2af − 1, which integrates to
give f = − a1 ln cos a(x + b), where b is a constant; we can assume that b = 0
by translating the surface parallel to the x-axis. Similarly, g = a1 ln cos ay, after
translating the surface parallel to the y-axis. So, up to a translation, we have
cos ay
az = ln ,
cos ax
which is obtained from Scherk’s surface by the dilation (x, y, z) 7→ a(x, y, z). If
a = 0, then f¨ = g ′′ = 0 so f = b + cx, g = d + ey, for some constants b, c, d, e,
and we have the plane z = b + d + cx + ey.
−1
12.2.6 Using
p Exercise 8.1.1, taking f (x, y) = sin (sinh x sinh y), and writing λ =
1/ 1 − sinh2 x sinh2 y, we find that fx = λ cosh x sinh y, fy = λ cosh y sinh x,
fxx = λ3 sinh x sinh y cosh2 y, fxy = λ3 cosh x cosh y, fyy = λ3 sinh x sinh y cosh2 x.
It is easy to check that (1 + fy2 )fxx − 2fx fy fxy + (1 + fx2 )fyy = 0.
12.3.1 (i) From the proof of Theorem 12.3.2, the Gauss map is conformal ⇐⇒ W 2 =
λ..id, where λ is a smooth function on S. If H 6= 0 at p, then H 6= 0 on an open
2
subset O of S containing p. By Exercise 8.1.6, W = λ 2H +K
.id, so every point of
O is an umbilic and O is an open subset of a plane or a sphere by Proposition
8.2.9. Since H 6= 0 the planar case is impossible.
Part (ii) is now obvious.
For (iii), assume that S is not minimal. Then, there is a point p ∈ S at which
H 6= 0, say H = µ. The argument in (i) and (ii) shows that the set Sµ of points
of S at which H = µ is a (non-empty) open subset of S; it is also a closed subset
because H is a continuous function on S. Since S is connected, Sµ = S. Hence,
every point of S is an umbilic, and so S is an open subset of a sphere (the planar
case is impossible as µ 6= 0).
12.3.2 (i) From Example 12.1.4, N = (−sech u cos v, −sech u sin v, tanh u). Hence, if
N(u, v) = N (u′ , v ′ ), then u = u′ since u 7→ tanh u is injective, so cos v = cos v ′
and sin v = sin v ′ , hence v = v ′ ; thus, N is injective. If N = (x, y, z), then
x2 +y 2 = sech2 u 6= 0, so the image of N does not contain
p the poles. Given a point
2 −1
(x, y, z) ∈ S other than the poles, let u =p±sech x2 + y 2 , thepsign being that
of z, and let v be such that cos v = −x/ x2 + y 2 , sin v = −y/ x2 + y 2 ; then,
N(u, v) = (x, y, z).
(ii) By the solution of Exercise 8.1.2, N = (λ2 + v 2 )−1/2 (−λ sin u, λ cos u, −v).
Since N(u, v) = N (u + 2kπ, v) for all integers k, the infinitely-many points
of the helicoid all have the same image under the Gauss map. (Of course, this is
geometrically obvious because the helicoid itself is left unchanged by the transla-
tion by 2π parallel to the z-axis.) If N = (x, y, z), then x2 +y 2 = λ2 /(λ2 +v 2 ) 6= 0,
2 2 2
so the image ofpN does not contain the poles. If (x, y, z) ∈ Spand x + y 6= 0,
let vp= −λz/ x2 + y 2 and let u be such that sin u = −x/ x2 + y 2 , cos u =
−y/ x2 + y 2 ; then N(u, v) = (x, y, z).
12.5.1 We have
σv
ϕ = σ u − iσ
= (1 − u2 + v 2 − 2iuv, 2uv − i(1 − v 2 + u2 ), 2u + 2iv)
= (1 − ζ 2 , −i(1 + ζ 2 ), 2ζ).
So the conjugate surface is, up to a translation,
Z
σ (u, v) = Re (i(1 − ζ 2 ), 1 + ζ 2 , 2iζ) dζ
σ̃
ζ3 ζ3 2
= Re i ζ − , ζ + , iζ
3 3
3
u3
2 v 2
= −v + u v − , u + − uv , −2uv .
3 3
127
√ √
Let U = (u − v)/ 2, V = (u + v)/ 2, σ̃ σ (U, V ) = σ (u, v); then,
1 2 2 1 3 1 3
σ (U, V ) = √
σ̃ U − V + UV − U V + V − U ,
2 3 3
1 2 2 1 3 1 3 2 2
√ U + V + UV + U V − V − U , U − V .
2 3 3
Applying the π/4 rotation (x, y, z) 7→ √12 (x + y), √12 (y − x), z to σ̃ σ (U, V ) then
gives U − 31 U 3 + U V 2 , V − 31 V 3 + U 2 V, U 2 − V 2 , which is Enneper’s surface
again.
12.5.2 ϕ = 12 (1 − ζ −4 )(1 − ζ 2 ), 2i (1 − ζ −4 )(1 + ζ 2 ), ζ(1 − ζ −4 ) , so
ζ3 ζ −3 ζ3 ζ −3
2
ζ −2
1 −1 i −1 ζ
σ = Re ζ− −ζ + , ζ+ +ζ + , +
2 3 3 2 3 3 2 2
1 i 1
= Re − (ζ − ζ −1 )3 , (ζ + ζ −1 )3 , (ζ + ζ −1 )2 ,
6 6 2
up to a translation. Put ζ = eζ̃ , ζ̃ = ũ + iṽ. Then, σ (u, v) = σ̃ σ (ũ, ṽ), where
4 4i
σ (ũ, ṽ) = Re − sinh3 ζ̃, cosh3 ζ̃, 2 cosh2 ζ̃
σ̃
3 3
1
= 4 sinh ũ cos ṽ(cosh2 ũ sin2 ṽ − sinh2 ũ cos2 ṽ) ,
3
1
4 sinh ũ sin ṽ( sinh2 ũ sin2 ṽ − cosh2 ũ cos2 ṽ),
3
2(cosh2 ũ cos2 ṽ − sinh2 ũ sin2 ṽ) .
Integrating gives
it
σ e (u, v) = cos t(cosh u cos v, cosh u sin v, u) + sin t(− sinh u sin v, sinh u cos v, −v)
σ (u, v) + sin tσ̂
= cos tσ σ (u, v),
g + ḡ + g − ḡ
π(G(ζ)) = = g(ζ).
|g|2 + 1 − (|g|2 − 1)
−64|ζ|6
K= ,
(1 + |ζ|4 )4
√
and this tends to zero as |ζ| = u2 + v 2 → ∞.
12.5.10 Using the conformal parametrization in Exercise 12.4.2, we get
σϕ
ϕ = σ θ − iσ
= a(− sinh ϕ sin θ − i cosh ϕ cos θ, sinh ϕ cos θ − i cosh ϕ sin θ, 1)
= a(−i cos ζ, −i sin ζ, 1),
f = ϕ1 − iϕ2 = −iae−iζ ,
ϕ3
g= = ieiζ .
ϕ1 − iϕ2
By Proposition 12.5.5,
16|eiζ |2
K=−
a2 |e−iζ |2 (1 + |eiζ |2 )4
16e−2ϕ
= − 2 2ϕ
a e (1 + e−2ϕ )4
16
=− 2 ϕ
a (e + e−ϕ )4
= −a−2 sech4 ϕ.
130
Chapter 13
RR
13.1.1 If γ is a simple closed geodesic, Theorem 13.1.2 gives int(γ ) KdA = 2π; since
K ≤ 0, this is impossible. The parallels of a cylinder are not the images under a
surface patch σ : U → R3 of a simple closed curve π in the plane such that int(π π)
is contained in U . Note that the whole cylinder can actually be covered by a
single patch (see Exercise 4.1.4) in which U is an annulus, but that the parallels
correspond to circles going ‘around the hole’ in the annulus.
13.1.2 Since the unit normal N of S 2 is equal to ±n n, the geodesic curvature κg of n
n ′′ . n n′
is, up to a sign, (n × ). Let t be the arc-length
√ of γ and denote d/dt by
n k = k −κtt + τb 2 2
b k = κ + τ = R, say,
a dot. Then, ds/dt = k ṅ where t = γ̇γ .
−κt +τ b
Then, n′ = (−κtt + τb b)/R, n × n′ = (κb b + τtt)/R, and n′′ = R1 dt
d
R =
−R−1 (κ/R)˙tt + R−1 (τ /R)˙b
b − R−2 (κ2 + τ 2 )n
n. These formulas give
n′′. (n
n × n′ ) = −R−2 τ (κ/R)˙+ R−2 κ(τ /R)˙ = (κτ̇ − τ κ̇)/R3 .
′ ′
Since κ̇ = Rκ′ , etc, κg = ± κτκ2 −τ κ
+τ 2
d
= ± ds tan−1 κτ . Applying Theorem 13.1.2
R ℓ(n)
to the curve n on S 2 , and noting that K = 1 for S 2 and that 0 κg dt = 0
because κg is the derivative of an ℓ(n n)-periodic function (where ℓ(n
n) is the length
of the closed curve n), we get that the area inside n is 2π.
13.1.3 Before smoothing K = 0 so the total curvature is zero. To compute the total
curvature after smoothing, we apply Theorem 13.1.2 to the smoothed cone with
γ being the circle on the cone given by z = a for some constant a > 0. The
radius of this circle is a tan α so its curvature is κ = 1/a tan α. Since the angle
of the cone is α, the geodesic curvature of γ is κg = κ sin α = a−1 cos α. The
part of the cone with z > a still has K = 0 so does not contribute to the total
curvature. Integrating K over the part of the cone with z < a, Gauss-Bonnet
gives the total curvature as
ZZ Z
KdA = 2π − κg ds = 2π − (a−1 cos α)(2πa tan α) = 2π(1 − sin α).
γ
13.2.1 The parallel u = u1 is the circle γ 1 (v) = (f (u1 ) cos v, f (u1 ) sin v, g(u1 )); if s
is the arc-length of γ 1 , ds/dv = f (u1 ). Denote d/ds by a dot and d/du by
a dash. Then, γ̇γ = (− sin v, cos v, 0), γ̈γ = − f (u1 1 ) (cos v, sin v, 0), and the unit
normal of the surface is N = (−g ′ cos v, −g ′ sin v, f ′ ). This gives the geodesic
′ R ℓ(γ 1 )
curvature of γ as κg = γ̈γ .(NN × γ̇γ ) = ff (u
(u1 )
1)
. Since γ
ℓ(γ 1 ) = 2πf (u 1 ), 0
κg ds =
′ ′′
RR
2πf (u1 ). Similarly for γ 2 . By Example 8.1.4, K = −f /f , so R KdAσ =
R 2π R u2 f ′′
0 u1
− f f dudv = 2π(f ′ (u1 ) − f ′ (u2 )). Hence,
Z ℓ(γ 1 ) Z ℓ(γ 2 ) ZZ
κg ds − κg ds = KdAσ .
0 0 R
131
This equation is the result of applying Theorem 13.2.2 to the curvilinear polygon
shown below.
B
u = u2
A u = u1
13.2.2 Applying Theorem 12.2.2 to the curvilinear n-gon, and noting the −K ≥ 1, we
get X
A(int(γγ )) ≤ (n − 2)π − αi .
i
13.3.1 This can be proved by expressing a, b, c in component form and computing both
sides. Alternatively, one may observe that both sides of the equation are linear
in each of a, b, c (separately), and change sign when any two of a, b, c are
interchanged. This means that it is enough to prove the formula when a = i, b =
j, c = k, when both sides are obviously equal to 1.
13.3.2 Define ϕk as in the hint. The stated properties are easily checked.
RR
13.4.1 By Corollary 13.4.8, S KdA = 4π(1 − g), and g = 1 since S is diffeomorphic
to T1 . By Proposition 8.6.1, K > 0 at some point of S.
RR
13.4.2 K > 0 =⇒ S KdA > 0 =⇒ g < 1 by Corollary 13.4.8; since g is a non-negative
integer, g = 0 so S is diffeomorphic to a sphere. The converse is false: for
132
ab
(a2 sin2 θ+b2 cos2 θ)dθ 2 +a2 cos2 θdϕ2 and p (dθ 2 +cos2 θdϕ2 ),
2
a2 sin θ + b2 cos2 θ
b2
K= ,
(a2 sin2 θ + b2 cos2 θ)2
p
dAσ = a cos θ a2 sin2 θ + b2 cos2 θdθdϕ.
Hence,
2π π/2
ab2 cos θ dθdϕ
ZZ Z Z
KdAσ = .
S 0 −π/2 (a2 sin2 θ + b2 cos2 θ)3/2
13.4.4 The surface in Exercise 5.4.1(ii) is diffeomorphic to S 2 , hence its Euler number
is 2.
13.5.1 Assuming that every country has ≥ 6 neighbours, the argument in the proof of
Theorem 13.5.1 gives E ≥ 3F and 2E ≥ 3V , so V − E + F ≤ 2E3
− E + E3 = 0,
contradicting V − E + F = 2.
13.5.2 3F = 2E because each face has three edges and each edge is an edge of two
faces. From χ = V − E + F , we get χ = V − E + 32 E, so E = 3(V − χ).
133
Since each edge has two vertices and two edges cannot intersect in more than
one vertex, E ≤ 12 V (V − 1); hence, 3(V − χ) ≤ 21 V (V − 1), which is equivalent
1 √
to V 2 − 7V + 6χ ≥ 0.
The roots of the quadratic are 7 ± 49 − 7χ , so
1 √ 1 √ 2
V ≤ 2 7 − 49 − 7χ or V ≥ 2 7 + 49 − 7χ . Since χ = 2, 0, −2, . . . , the
first condition gives V ≤ 3, which would allow only one triangle; hence, the
second condition must hold.
13.5.3 This is obvious since a diffeomorphism S → S̃ takes an n-coloured map on S to
an n-coloured map on S̃.
13.5.4 Since three edges meet at each vertex and each edge has two vertices, we have
3V = 2E. As each edge is an edge of two countries,
∞
X
2E = ncn .
n=2
1
ncn , V = 31
P P P
Hence, E = 2
ncn , and since F = cn we get
∞ ∞
X 1 1 1X
χ= n − n + 1 cn = (6 − n)cn .
n=2
3 2 6 n=2
13.5.5 (i) In the notation of the preceding exercise, for a soccer ball we have cn = 0
unless n = 5 or 6 so the formula in the preceding exercise gives c5 = 12 (since
χ = 2 for a sphere).
(ii) This time we are given that cn = 0 unless n = 4 or 6, so the formula gives
2c4 = 12.
13.6.1 The circle θ = θ0 is a circle in the plane z = b sin θ0 with centre on the z-
axis, so its principal normal is a unit vector perpendicular to the circle and in
this plane, hence equal (up to a sign) to (cos ϕ, sin ϕ, 0). The unit normal of σ
is N = (− cos θ cos ϕ, − cos θ sin ϕ, − sin θ), so the angle between N and n at a
point of the circle θ = θ0 is θ0 . The radius of the circle is a + b cos θ0 , so its
sin θ0
R
geodesic curvature is a+b cos θ0 . Hence, κg ds = 2π sin θ0 and the holonomy is
2π − 2π sin θ0 . The circles ϕ = constant are geodesics (as they are meridians on
a surface of revolution) so κg = 0 and the holonomy is 2π − 0 = 2π.
13.6.2 For the circle v = 1 on the cone, the radius is 1 and the angle between the
principal normal n of the√circle and√the unit normal N of the cone is π/4, so
the holonomy is 2π − 2π/ 2 = (2 − 2)π. The cone is flat so if the converse of
Proposition 13.6.5 were true the holonomy around any closed curve on the cone
would be zero.
R ℓ(γ ) dϕ
13.6.3 For a general closed curve, 0 ds ds is an integer multiple of 2π, say 2nπ.
Then, (13.28) is replaced by
Z ℓ(γ )
2nπ − κg ds.
0
134
13.6.4 As in the proof of Proposition 13.6.1, v = cos ϕtt + sin θtt1 , where t1 = N × t, so
v = ϕ̇(− sin ϕtt + cos ϕtt1 ) + cos ϕṫt + sin ϕṫt1 .
v̇
By Exercise 7.3.22, ṫt = κn N + κg t1 , ṫt1 = −κg t + τg N, so
v̇v = (ϕ̇ + κg )(− sin ϕtt + cos ϕtt1 ) + (κn cos ϕ + τg sin ϕ)N
N = (κn cos ϕ + τg sin ϕ)N
N,
by Proposition 13.6.1, and hence
k v̇v k2 = (κn cos ϕ + τg sin ϕ)2 .
13.7.1 Take the reference tangent vector field to be ξ = (1, 0), and take the simple
closed curve γ (s) = (cos s, sin s). At γ (s), we have V = (α, β), where
(cos s + i sin s)k if k > 0,
α + iβ = −k
(cos s − i sin s) if k < 0.
By de Moivre’s theorem, α = cos ks, β = sin ks in both cases. Hence, the angle ψ
between V and ξ is equal to ks, and Definition 13.7.2 shows that the multiplicity
is k.
13.7.2 If σ (u, v) = σ̃ σ (ũ, ṽ), where (ũ, ṽ) 7→ (u, v) is a reparametrization map, then
V = ασ σ u + βσ σ v = α̃σ̃ σ ũ + β̃σ̃ ∂ ṽ
σ ṽ =⇒ α̃ = α ∂∂uũ + β ∂u , β̃ = α ∂∂vũ + β ∂v
∂ ṽ
. Hence, α̃
and β̃ are smooth if α and β are smooth. Since the components of the vectors
σ u and σ v are smooth, if V is smooth so are its components. If the components
of V = ασ σ v + βσ σ v are smooth, then V.σ σ u and V.σ σ v are smooth functions, hence
V σ V σ V σ V σ
α = G( . EG−F u )−F ( . v )
2 , β = E( . EG−F v )−F (
2
. u)
are smooth functions, so V is
smooth.
13.7.3 If ψ̃ is the angle between V and ξ̃ξ , we have ψ̃ − ψ = θ (up to multiples of 2π); so
R ℓ(γ )
we must show that 0 θ̇ ds = 0 (a dot denotes d/ds). This is not obvious since
θ is not a well defined smooth function of s (although dθ/ds is well defined).
However, ρ = cos θ is well defined and smooth, since ρ = ξ .ξ̃ξ / k ξ kk ξ̃ξ k. Now,
R ℓ(γ ) ρ̇
ρ̇ = −θ̇ sin θ, so we must prove that 0 √ ds = 0. Using Green’s theorem,
1−ρ2
maxima or minima).
13.8.5 The position of the two rods can be specified by giving the angles θ and ϕ made
by the rods with the vertical. The bijection takes this configuration of the rods
to the point σ (θ, ϕ) of the torus, in the notation of the solution of Exercise 4.2.5.
The potential energy is E = 21 aα cos θ + (a + 21 b)β cos ϕ + constant, where a, b
are the lengths of the two rods and α, β are positive constants; write this as
E = λ cos θ + µ cos ϕ + ν for simplicity (where λ, µ > 0 and ν are constants). For
a critical point we must have ∂E/∂θ = ∂E/∂ϕ = 0, which gives sin θ = sin ϕ = 0.
Thus, there are four critical points, namely (θ, ϕ) = (0, 0), (π, 0), (0, π), (π, π).
In the notation of Definition 13.8.3,
−λ cos θ 0
H= ,
0 −λ cos ϕ