ISSN (Print) 0023-4001 ISSN (Online) 1738-0006
ISSN (Print) 0023-4001 ISSN (Online) 1738-0006
Yu-Chin An1, Chia-Cheng Sung2, Chih-Chien Wang2, Hsin-Chung Lin3, Kuang-Yao Chen4, Fu-Man Ku5,
Ruei-Min Chen3, Mei-Li Chen3, Kuo-Yang Huang6,*
1Department of Emergency Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan;
2Departments of Pediatrics, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taiwan; 3Division of Clinical
Pathology, Department of Pathology, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center,Taipei, Taiwan;
4Department of Parasitology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan; 5Molecular Regulation and
Bioinformatics Laboratory, Department of Parasitology, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan;
6Graduate Institute of Pathology and Parasitology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
Abstract: Human diphyllobothriasis is a parasitic disease caused by ingestion of larvae (plerocercoids) in raw or under- cooked
fish and commonly found in temperate areas. Rare cases were reported in tropical or subtropical areas especially in children. The
first documented case of pediatric diphyllobothriasis in Taiwan had been reported 11 years ago. Here, we report another
8-year-old girl case who presented with a live noodle-like worm hanging down from her anus, with no oth- er detectable
symptoms. We pulled the worm out and found the strobila being 260 cm in length. Examination of gravid proglottids showed that
they were wider than their lengths, containing an ovoid cirrus sac in the anterior side and the ro- sette-shaped uterus. Eggs
extracted from the uterus were ovoid and operculated. Diphyllobothrium latum was confirmed by molecular analysis of the
mitochondrial DNA cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) gene. The girl was treated with a single oral dose of praziquantel, and
no eggs or proglottids were observed from her stool in the subsequent 3 months. The reemergence of human diphyllobothriasis in
non-endemic countries is probably due to prevalent habit of eating im- ported raw fish from endemic areas. This pediatric case
raised our concern that human diphyllobothriasis is likely under- estimated because of unremarkable symptoms.
Key words: Diphyllobothrium latum, diphyllobothriasis, pediatric case, cox1
INTRODUCTION
Tapeworms of the genus Diphyllobothrium, known as “fish tapeworms” or “broad tapeworms”, are worldwide in
distribu- tion and commonly found in temperate freshwater ecosys- tems. Infections of Diphyllobothrium spp.
(diphyllobothriasis) are mostly reported in Western Europe, North America, South America, and the Far East,
including Korea, Japan, and Russia [1,2]. Rare cases were reported in tropical or subtropical coun- tries where these
cases may be related to imported fish from endemic areas [2]. The most prevalent human diphyllobothri- asis are
caused by D. latum, D. dendriticum, D. nihonkaiense, and D. pacificum. The life cycles of these species are
complex,
•Received 11 June 2017, revised 27 June 2017, accepted 2 July 2017. *Corresponding author ([email protected]) ©
2017, Korean Society for Parasitology and Tropical Medicine This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits
unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
comprising of 2 intermediate hosts (a copepod and a fish) and a definitive host (humans or other piscivorous
mammals).
Human diphyllobothriasis takes place through the ingestion of larvae (plerocercoids) in raw or undercooked fish.
In recent years, eating raw fish becomes popular in Taiwan, resulting in the demand for imported fish. This may also
increase the risk of Diphyllobothrium infection due to eating imported fish. Since Taiwan is not in an endemic area,
rare cases were previously reported, especially for pediatric cases. The first published pe- diatric case of D. latum
infection in Taiwan had been reported 11 years ago [3]. Here, we present another rare case of D. latum infection in
an 8-year-old girl, which was confrimed by molec- ular analysis of the mitochondrial DNA cytochrome c oxidase
subunit 1 (cox1) gene.
CASE REPORT
An 8-year-old Taiwanese girl who was 127 cm tall and weighed 24 kg presented without discomfort, but a live
noo-
425
426 Korean J Parasitol Vol. 55, No. 4: 425-428, August 2017
A B C D
Fig. 1. (A) A strobila of Diphyllobothrium latum expelled by the patient (about 260 cm). (B) An egg extracted from the uterus of
a gravid proglottid. The egg was ovoid and operculated. (C) Tissue section stained with hematoxylin and eosin showing the
rosette-shaped uter- us of a gravid proglottid. An ovoid cirrus sac is located in the anterior side of the gravid proglottid. Several
eggs are observed in the loops of the uterus. (D) Molecular identification of D. latum by PCR. Lanes (1-4) represent the PCR
products amplified by using different primers for the most common Diphyllobothrium species. Lane 1, D. pacificum; lane 2, D.
latum; lane 3, D. dendriticum; lane 4, D. ni- honkaiense. M: marker.
dle-like worm hanging down from her anus which was discov- ered after defecation. She was a healthy elementary
school stu- dent, lived in a well-off family and loved to eat raw fish with- out any history of travel to a foreign
country. Initially we pulled the worm out and found a strobila of about 260 cm in length (Fig. 1A). The worm was
still alive and movable while we put it on the towel.
Physical examinations showed no specific signs, such as pale conjunctiva or abdominal tenderness. The laboratory
data re- vealed the hemoglobin count to be 12.3 g/dl, the red blood cell count to be 4.51×106/μl, and the mean
corpuscular vol- ume (MCV) of 79.8 fl. Platelet count was 248×103/μl, and the white blood cell count was
5.07×103/μl (neutrophils 51.1%; lymphocytes 40.2%; eosinophils 3.2%).
Diphyllobothriasis was diagnosed by examination of the gravid proglottids and eggs. The segments are wider than
their lengths, which contain an ovoid cirrus sac in the anterior side of each proglottid. The rosette-shaped gravid
uterus has 5-6 loops on each side (Fig. 1B). Eggs extracted from the worm’s uterus were found to be ovoid,
yellow-brown, and operculated (Fig. 1C). The specific identification of Diphyllobothrium species is very difficult
only by morphological observations. Hence,
molecular analysis using PCR (Table. 1) is the only reliable ap- proach to differentiate these parasites. Amplification
of the mitochondrial DNA cox1 gene was performed as previously described [4] (Fig. 1D). The expected product
sizes were 437 bp for D. latum, 318 bp for D. dendriticum, 727 bp for D. pacifi- cum, and 1,232 bp for D.
nihonkaiense. DNA extracted from the tapeworm sample was successfully amplified for D. latum, yielding a
specific product size close to the expected one, and no products were amplified for the other Diphyllobothrium spe-
cies. The data confirmed that the species of Diphyllobothrium is D. latum.
The girl was treated with a single oral dose of praziquantel (8.5 mg/kg/dose). After administration, no eggs or
proglottids were observed from the stool in the subsequent 3 months. Ra-
20 μM
M (bp)
1 2 3 4
1,000
500
Table 1. Primers used for PCR in this study
Specificity Strand Sequence (5’ > 3’)
Common Reverse ATGATAAGGGAYAGGRGCYCA Diphyllobothrium
latum
Forward GGGGTGTTACGGGTATTATACTC
D. dendriticum Forward GTGTTTTTCATTTGATGATGACCAGTC D. pacificum Forward
ACATGTGTGTAGTAACCTTGGC D. nihonkaiense Forward CTTTGTTGTCTGGCCTTCCT
An et al.: A pediatric case of Diphyllobothrium latum infection, Taiwan 427
diological examinations or gastrointestinal fiberoptic endos- copy were not performed due to her young age and no
other remarkable symptoms.
DISCUSSION
There are several species of Diphyllobothrium infecting hu- mans. Among these, D. latum, D. dendriticum, D.
pacificum, and D. nihonkaiense have been shown to be the main species. D. latum was commonly reported all over
the world, including Europe, North America (Alaska, Great Lakes), and Asia [2,5]. D. pacificum was found in the
Pacific Coast of South America and Japan. D. nihonkaiense is prevalent in Japan and Korea, but rare in Europe or
America. In Taiwan, only rare cases of diphyl- lobothriasis were reported in the past caused by D. latum and
presumably related to imported salmon [3,6]. Recent taxo- nomic studies indicated that the majority of human
diphyllo- bothriasis was caused by D. nihonkaiense. Many cases of D. la- tum infection reported in Korea were
re-identified as D. ni- honkaiense based on molecular analysis of the mitochondrial cox1 gene [7]. Therefore, it was
necessary to perform molecular analysis in order to identify the species of Diphyllobothrium. In our study, we
successfully identified the broad tapeworm to the species level by PCR analysis of cox1 gene. We used forma- lin-
and ethanol-preserved samples for extraction of DNA and subsequent PCR analysis. However, DNA can be
extracted only from ethanol-preserved samples but only with difficulty from formalin-preserved ones. This
observation is consistent with the results of previous studies, indicating that formalin irre- versibly affects the quality
of DNA.
Since D. latum was identified, we sought to investigate the possible source of this parasitic infection. In previous
studies, including rare cases reported in subtropical and tropical Asia [1,2,5], D. latum is worldwide in distribution
but D. ni- honkaiense seems to dominate in the northern Pacific region. The second intermediate hosts of D. latum,
including freshwa- ter, anadromous, and marine fish had been reported, and the pacific salmon was the major host
which contributed to D. ni- honkaiense infection [2,7]. More species of second intermediate hosts infected with D.
latum possibly result in wider distribu- tion, especially in non-endemic areas, due to imported fish. However, the
reliable cause of D. latum infection in Taiwan in- stead of D. nihonkaiense or other Diphyllobothrium spp. infec-
tion was still unclear. The different environmental adaptability of Diphyllobothrium spp. is worthy of investigation.
In our case,
the girl had never ingested salmon. Thus, her diphyllobothria- sis was presumably caused by ingestion of other
species of im- ported fish, although it is hard to trace the specific source.
D. latum infections are mostly asymptomatic, but some pa- tients may present with transient abdominal
discomfort, ab- dominal pain, diarrhea, fatigue, and less commonly intestinal obstruction. Severe cases of D. latum
infection may lead to megaloblastic anemia because vitamin B
12
is absorbed by the worm. Lee et al. [8] showed 5 cases of D. latum infection
among children in Korea, and 3 of them presented with ab- dominal pain, 1 with anemia, and 1 with passage of
proglot- tids [8]. The first pediatric case in Taiwan, a 8-year-old boy, also presented with passage of proglottids [3].
In our case, the tapeworm was initially misidentified as a part of intestine and finally recognized as D. latum. Due to
the unremarkable symp- toms and chief complaints of our case, we propose that D. la- tum infection may be
underestimated in Taiwan.
Praziquantel is the first choice of treatment for diphyllo- bothriasis. Oral administration of a single dose from 10 to
25 mg/kg has been recommended to treat D. latum infection. Al- most all reported cases have been effectively cured
with rare side effects. In our case, the proglottids were expelled before a single dose of praziquantel treatment (8.5
mg/kg/dose), and no eggs or proglottids were observed in the stool during fol- low-up. Intraduodenal gastrografin
has been reported to be an effective treatment as an alternative therapy for diphylloboth- riasis. However, this
method is limited for choice because in- sertion of duodenal tube is painful, which is not suitable for children.
We examined the level of hemoglobin and the stool in the subsequent 3 months for follow-up. All of them showed
nega- tive results. We did not check the level of vitamin B
12
because the levels of hemoglobin and MCV were normal, and no
evi- dence of anemia was found. In previous reports, gastrointesti- nal fiberoptic endoscopy and abdominal magnetic
resonance imaging were used for diagnosis and removal of the residual scolex [2,8]. However, these examinations
are costly and diffi- cult to be accepted for children.
Since eating raw fish imported from the endemic area be- comes more popular, prevention of diphyllobothriasis
should be taken seriously. Deep-frozen fish (at -10 ̊C for 24-48 hr) or brine-treated fish (12% NaCl) is safe for
consumption [6]. Ad- ditionally, plerocercoid larvae could be killed at a temperature of 55 ̊C in 5 min [5]. Hence, it
is not recommended to eat raw or smoked fish and consumption of well-cooked fish is the
428 Korean J Parasitol Vol. 55, No. 4: 425-428, August 2017
better way to prevent the reemergence of diphyllobothriasis.
In conclusion, we should be aware of reemergence of hu- man diphyllobothriasis in non-endemic countries due to
prevalent habit of eating raw fish that may be imported from endemic areas. Additionally, it is noteworthy that
human di- phyllobothriasis is likely underestimated because of unre- markable symptoms.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was funded by the Ministry of Science and Tech- nology, Republic of China (MOST 105-2320-B-016
-019 -MY2) to Kuo-Yang Huang.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
All authors declare no conflict of interest.
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