Research DRRM
Research DRRM
Research DRRM
He also made fundamental contributions in the study of differential equations and to rational mechanics,
notably the Hamilton–Jacobi theory.
It was in algebraic development that Jacobi's peculiar power mainly lay, and he made important
contributions of this kind to many areas of mathematics, as shown by his long list of papers in Crelle's Journal
and elsewhere from 1826 onwards. One of his maxims was: 'Invert, always invert' ('man muss immer
umkehren'), expressing his belief that the solution of many hard problems can be clarified by re-expressing them
in inverse form.
In his 1835 paper, Jacobi proved the following basic result classifying periodic (including elliptic)
functions: If a univariate single-valued function is multiply periodic, then such a function cannot have more than
two periods, and the ratio of the periods cannot be a real number. He discovered many of the fundamental
properties of theta functions, including the functional equation and the Jacobi triple product formula, as well as
many other results on q-series and hypergeometric series.
The solution of the Jacobi inversion problem for the hyperelliptic Abel map by Weierstrass in 1854
required the introduction of the hyperelliptic theta function and later the general Riemann theta function for
algebraic curves of arbitrary genus. The complex torus associated to a genus algebraic curve, obtained by
quotienting by the lattice of periods is referred to as the Jacobian variety. This method of inversion, and its
subsequent extension by Weierstrass and Riemann to arbitrary algebraic curves, may be seen as a higher genus
generalization of the relation between elliptic integrals and the Jacobi or Weierstrass elliptic functions.
Jacobi was the first to apply elliptic functions to number theory, for example proving of Fermat's two-
square theorem and Lagrange's four-square theorem, and similar results for 6 and 8 squares. His other work in
number theory continued the work of C. F. Gauss: new proofs of quadratic reciprocity and introduction of
the Jacobi symbol; contributions to higher reciprocity laws, investigations of continued fractions, and the
invention of Jacobi sums.
He was also one of the early founders of the theory of determinants; in particular, he invented
the Jacobian determinant formed from the n² differential coefficients of n given functions of n independent
variables, and which has played an important part in many analytical investigations. In 1841 he reintroduced
the partial derivative ∂ notation of Legendre, which was to become standard.
Students of vector fields and Lie theory often encounter the Jacobi identity, the analog of associativity
for the Lie bracket operation.
Planetary theory and other particular dynamical problems likewise occupied his attention from time to
time. While contributing to celestial mechanics, he introduced the Jacobi integral (1836) for a sidereal
coordinate system. His theory of the last multiplier is treated in Vorlesungen über Dynamik, edited by Alfred
Clebsch (1866).
He left many manuscripts, portions of which have been published at intervals in Crelle's Journal. His
other works include Commentatio de transformatione integralis duplicis indefiniti in formam
simpliciorem (1832), Canon arithmeticus (1839), and Opuscula mathematica (1846–1857). His Gesammelte
Werke (1881–1891) were published by the Berlin Academy.