Part III Complex Analysis
Part III Complex Analysis
Part III Complex Analysis
Tilahun Abebaw
Department of Mathematics
Addis Ababa University
• The set of complex numbers, C, is equivalent to the plane, R2 equipped with a new
multiplication operation defined by
• If z = x + yi, then
w(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)
i.e., the real and imaginary parts of w(z) are functions of the variables x and y.
Example 1.2.1.
w(z) = z 2 = (x + yi)2 = x2 − y 2 + i2xy.
Thus, u(x, y) = x2 − y 2 and v(x, y) = 2xy.
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1.3 Elementary Functions
1. Exponential Functions
Definition 1.3.1. For a complex variable z the basic trigonometric and hyperbolic functions are
defined by
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• The expression z k is single valued only if the exponent k is an integer. If k is a rational
n
number, k = m (in reduced form), then the map
f (k) = z k is n-valued.
• To make “multivalued - function” single valued we use the so called a “branch cut” concept
(for example, by specifying the integer k).
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2.1 Limit of Functions of Complex Valued Function
lim f (z) = L
z→z0
if to each > 0 (no matter how small it is), there corresponds a δ > 0 such that |f (z) − L| <
for all z satisfying 0 < |z − z0 | < δ.
In the above definition, z = x + iy and f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y). Moreover |z − z0 | means the
modulus of the complex number z − z0 and |z − z0 | < δ represents an open circle centered at z0
and radius δ.
Theorem 2.1.1. Let f and g be complex functions and z0 and c be complex numbers such that
limz→z0 f (z) = L and limz→z0 g(z)) = M . Then
1. lim (f ± g)(z) = L + M.
z→z0
3. If M 6= 0, then
f L
lim (z) = .
z→z0 g M
Definition 2.1.2. For a complex function f , if limz→z0 f (z) = f (z0 ), then we say that f is
continuous at z0 and a function is continuous in a set if it is continuous at each point of the set.
The derivative of a complex valued function is defined using the limit concept.
f (z) − f (zo )
f 0 (zo ) = lim
z→zo z − zo
if the limit exists and is a complex number.
In this definition the limit value should be independent of the way z approaches zo .
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Example 2.2.1. Evaluate the derivative of the following functions at any point z, if it exists,
using the definition
1. f (z) = z 2
1
2. f (z) = z
4. Quotient Rule: 0
f f 0 (z)g(z) − f (z)g 0 (z)
(z) = .
g (g(z))2
5. The complex version of the Chain Rule: (f ◦ g)0 (z) = f 0 (g(z))g 0 (z).
Consider the function f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y). If f is analytic in some domain D, then the
partial derivatives of f w.r.t x and y must coincide. i.e., at any point z = x + iy, we must have
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
+i = −i
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
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Or
ux = vy and vx = −uy (1)
• Note that this equation is only a necessary condition for analyticity of f . But the following
Theorem gives us a sufficient condition for analyticity.
Theorem 2.3.1 (Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Analyticity). Let f (z) = u(x, y) +
iv(x, y) be defined throughout some neighborhood of a point zo = xo + iyo . Then
• If f is differentiable at some point z = x + iy, then f 0 can be given in any one of the
following four expressions.
Example 2.3.1. 1. Give a formula for the derivative of the following functions in terms of z.
a. f (z) = ez
b. f (z) = sin z.
2 −z
c. f (z) = ez .
2. When expressed in polar form, show that the Cauchy-Riemann equation is given by
∂u 1 ∂v ∂v 1 ∂u
= , =− ,
∂r r ∂θ ∂r r ∂θ
where f (z) = u(r, θ) + iv(r, θ).
3. Let f (z) = log z = ln r+iθ, with θ = arg z is the principal argument of z. (i.e., 0 < r < ∞
and −π < θ ≤ π). Then find f 0 (z), in terms of z.
• If a function f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in some domain D, then the Cauchy-
Riemann equation will be
ux = vy and uy = −vx in D.
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• If a function f is analytic in D, then the partial derivatives of the component functions of
all order exists and are continuous in D.
• The pair of these two last equations is called Laplace’s equation. Moreover, the component
functions u and v, with such properties are called conjugate harmonic functions.
Example 2.3.2. Consider complex function f (z) = |z|2 = z z̄. Then f (z) = (x2 + y 2 ) + 0i.
Thus the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold true only at the origin and hence f (z) = |z|2 is
differentiable only at z = 0 and it is analytic nowhere.
and hence u(x, y) = x2 −8x−y 2 +3 and v(x, y) = 2xy−8y. Then ux = 2x−8, uy = −2y, vx = 2y
and vy = 2x − 8 and we also have
ux = 2x − 8 = vy and vx = 2y = −uy
for all (x, y) ∈ R2 , that is, the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied everywhere in R2 and
all ux , uy , vx and vy are continuous in R2 and hence u and v are continuously differentiable
everywhere in R2 .
Therefore, f is differentiable for all z and f 0 (x + iy) = ux (x, y) + ivx (x, y) = (2x − 8) + 2yi.
Definition 2.3.2. Functions that satisfy Laplace’s equation and all various first-and second-
order partial derivatives of their component functions w.r.t x and y are continuous (or are C (2)
functions) are called harmonic functions.
∇2 u = uxx + uyy = 0
∇2 v = vxx + vyy = 0
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Note that, since f is analytic, u and v are related by the Cauchy-Riemann equation. To refer to
this relation ship we call such functions conjugate harmonic functions.
Example 2.3.4. Show that the function u(x, y) = x2 − y 2 − y is harmonic in C and find a
conjugate harmonic function V of u.
Solution:
Clearly ∇2 u = uxx + uyy = 2 − 2 = 0 and hence u is harmonic. To find the conjugate harmonic
function v, first we have ux = 2x and uy = −2y − 1 and by the Cauchy-Riemann equations v
must satisfy vy = ux = 2x and vx = −uy = 2y + 1.
Integrating the first part with respect to y, we get v = 2xy + h(x), where h(x) is a function
of x only (or is constant with respect to y) and we differentiate v with respect to x to get
vx = 2y + h0 (x) = 2y + 1. This implies h0 (x) = 1 and hence h(x) = x + c for some constant c.
Therefore, v(x, y) = 2xy + x + c and hence
= x2 − y 2 + i2xy + − y + ix + ic = z 2 + i(z + c) = z 2 + iz + c1 ,
where c1 = ic.
3 Conformal Mapping
• It is helpful to develop a powerful solution technique for problems in two dimensional
Potential Theory
• It deals with (more of) the geometrical aspect of a complex valued mapping.
• If the shape of D is not simple (rectangle or circular), then the problem (2) is difficult to
solve.
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• Use a change of variables (to simplify the region)
from x, y-plane in to the u, v-plane, so that the transformed region D0 (in the uv-plane) is
simpler than D.
• The transformation mapping is invertible if the Jacobian is nonzero in D (by the Implicit
Function Theorem)
∂(u, v) ux uy
i.e, = = ux vy − vx uy 6= 0
∂(x, y) vx vy
and ψxx = (φuu ux + φuv vx )ux + φu uxx + (φvu vx + φvv vx )vx + φv vxx
• Similarly we get
is analytic in D.
• Then u and v are C (2) functions and satisfy ux = vy , uy = −vx , uxy = uyx and vxy = vyx
in D.
ux vx + uy vy = 0
uxx + uyy = 0 and
vxx + vyy = 0
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• This simplifies (3) in to
u2x + u2y (φuu + φvv ) = 0
(4)
• Again since
∂(u, v)
u2x + u2y = ux vy − uy vx = 6= 0 in D by the assumption,
∂(x, y)
Thus if the change of variables mapping is analytic and its Jacobian is non-zero, then the Laplace
equation is preserved under the change of variables.
Hence we have the following Theorem
Theorem 3.1.1. Let w = f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be analytic in a domain D, with f 0 (z) 6= 0
everywhere in D. Denote the image of D under f as D0 , and let the mapping be a bijection. If
ψ(x, y) is harmonic in D, then ψ(x(u, v), y(u, v)) := φ(u, v) is also harmonic in D0 .
• said to preserve angles, if for any zo in D with two smooth curves in D intersecting at zo
making an angle θ, then the images of these curves also intersect at the same angle θ at
f (zo ).
Example 3.1.1. The function f (z) = z̄ is not conformal, since it reverses orientation.
Theorem 3.1.2 (Conformality). If f is analytic, then the mapping w = f (z) is conformal, except
at points where f 0 (z) = 0. The points on which f 0 (z) = 0 are called critical points of f .
Example 3.1.2. Let f (z) = z 2 . Then f 0 (z) = 2z = 0 implies z = 0 and hence z = 0 is the
only critical point of f and at z = 0 the mapping is the function f is not conformal, since the
angles are doubled at z = 0..
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3.2 The Bilinear Transformation
az + b
w= for ad − bc 6= 0 (5)
cz + d
is known as the Möbius transformation or linear fractional transformation.
Since (5) is equivalent to czw + dw − az = b, and this equation is linear with respect to both z
and w separately. Hence it called a Bilinear transformation.
0
• The mapping w is not a merely constant function and also is not a 0
form.
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2. w = T (z) = az, where a is a nonzero constant and |a| = 1, is called a rotation/magnification.
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3. w = T (z) = z
is called inversion in the unit circle.
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Lemma 3.2.1. The mapping w(z) = z
maps every straight line or circle onto a straight line or
circle.
Theorem 3.2.1. Every Linear Fractional Transformation
az + b
T (z) =
cz + d
maps any circle onto a circle or a straight line and any straight line onto a circle or straight line.
Fixed Points
Fixed points of a mapping w = f (z) are points that are mapped onto themselves by the mapping.
Fixed points are obtained from w = f (z) = f (z) = z.
Example 3.2.2.
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1. The fixed points of the mapping w(z) = z
are 1 and −1.
Given
az + b
w= for ad − bc 6= 0,
cz + d
on the extended plane, C, w satisfies the following properties.
3. The bilinear transformation sends every circle (including the infinite circle – straight line)
into either a circle or a straight line.
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Three points and their images uniquely determines a linear fractional transformation; as the
following statement justifies.
Let w = T (z) be the transformation. Then we can determine the mapping by solving the
equation:
w − w1 w2 − w3 z − z1 z2 − z3
= (6)
w − w3 w2 − w1 z − z3 z2 − z1
for each substitution of z = zj to get w = wj , j = 1, 2, 3. (If one of the three points is the point
∞, then the quotient of the two differences containing this point must be replaced by 1.)
Principle. Prescribe three boundary points z1 , z2 , z3 of the domain D in the z-plane. Choose
their images w1 , w2 , w3 on the boundary of the image of D in the w-plane. Obtain the mapping
from Equation 6. Make sure that D is mapped onto not onto its complement. In the latter case,
interchange two w-points.
Example 3.2.4. Find a linear fractional transformation T that maps the disk D = {z ∈ C :
z+1
|z| ≤ 1} onto the right half-plane ({x + iy ∈ C|x ≥ 0}.) Ans.: T (z) = z−1 .
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• The sense of increment of the parameter t is called the positive sense of C and we say that
C is oriented by (7).
2. If C represents part of the parabola y = x2 from (1, 1) to (3, 9), then C is parameterized
by
z(t) = t + it2 (for 1 ≤ t ≤ 3).
The limit of Sn as n → ∞ is called the the Complex Integral of the function f over a curve C
and it is denoted by: Z
I = f (z)dz.
C
If the curve C is a closed curve (that is, its initial and its terminal points coincide), the complex
integral over C is denoted by I
f (z)dz.
C
where C is an oriented curve in the complex plane, which is assumed to be piecewise smooth and
simple.
Here, C is called the path of integration.
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4.1 Evaluation of Complex Integrals
Theorem 4.1.1. Let C be a piecewise smooth path, represented by z = z(t) = x(x) + iy(t),
where a ≤ t ≤ b. Let f (z) be a continuous function on C. Then
Z Z b
dz
f (z)dz = f (z(t))ż(t)dt, where ż(t) = .
C a dt
1. Represent the curve C in the form of z(t) (for a ≤ t ≤ b.) That is parameterize the curve
C.
2. Calculate the derivative
dz
ż(t) = .
dt
3. Substitute z(t) for every z in f (z) (that is, x(t) for x and y(t) for y.)
4. Integrate f (z(t))ż(t) over t form a to b.
Now the question is how can we evaluate this integral. One possible way to evaluate the complex
integral is to write the line integral into one or more real line integrals. To see this, let f (z) = u+iv
and z = x + iy. Then dz = dx + idy.
Hence
Z Z Z Z
f (z)dz = u + iv (dx + idy) = (udx − vdy) + i (vdx + udy)
C C C C
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Example 4.1.2. Let C be a curve consisting of portion of a parabola y = x2 in the xy−plane
from (0, 0) to (2, 4) and a horizontal line from (2, 4) to (4, 4). If f (z) = Im(z), then evaluate
Z
f (z)dz.
C
1. Linearity: Z Z Z
(αf + βg)(z)dz.dr = α f (z)dz + β g(z)dz.
C C C
Let C be a piecewise-smooth simple closed curve in the complex plane (and hence in R2 ). Then
C encloses some simply connected region R. Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be continuous in a
simply connected domain D containing the curve C. Then
I I I
f (z)dz = (udx − vdy) + i (vdx + udy) (9)
C C C
Theorem 4.2.1 (Cauchy’s Theorem). If f (z) is analytic in a simply connected domain D,then
I
f (z)dz = 0,
C
where C is the unit circle centered at the origin and traverse counterclockwise. Then
1
f (z) =
(z − 2)(z − 3)
is analytic everywhere except at z = 2 and z = 3. But z = 2 and z = 3 are out of the region
enclosed in C. Hence f is analytic in the region enclosed by C. Then by Cauchy’s Theorem
I
dz
2
= 0.
C z − 5z + 6
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Theorem 4.2.2 (The Deformation Theorem). Let C1 and C2 be closed paths in the complex
plane with C2 is in the interior of C1 . Suppose that a complex function f is analytic in an open
set containing both paths and all points between them. Then
Z Z
f (z)dz = f (z)dz.
C1 C2
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Reading Assignment:
• Laurent Series,
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