Part III: Complex Variable Theory

Tilahun Abebaw
Department of Mathematics
Addis Ababa University

January 31, 2023

1 Functions of Complex Variables

1.1 Complex Numbers

• A complex number z is of the form x + yi and it represents a point (x, y) in a plane.

• The set of complex numbers, C, is equivalent to the plane, R2 equipped with a new
multiplication operation defined by

(a, b)(x, y) = (ax − by, ay + bx).

Reading assignment ...

Read on the algebra involving complex numbers, modulus and conjugate of complex num-
bers, polar form of a complex number and the Euler’s formula, finding roots of any complex
number, etc.

1.2 Complex Valued Functions on Complex Variables

• A function w of a complex variable z is a rule that assigns a unique value w(z) to each
point z in some set D in the complex plane.

• If z = x + yi, then
w(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)
i.e., the real and imaginary parts of w(z) are functions of the variables x and y.

Example 1.2.1.
w(z) = z 2 = (x + yi)2 = x2 − y 2 + i2xy.
Thus, u(x, y) = x2 − y 2 and v(x, y) = 2xy.

1
1.3 Elementary Functions
1. Exponential Functions

– Recall that ez = ex+iy = ex eiy = ex (cos y + i sin y) (from Euler’s formula).

p
– But |eiy | = | cos y + i sin y| = cos2 y + sin2 y = 1.
Hence |ez | = |ex eiy | = ex |eiy | = ex , for all z = x + iy.

So, the exponential function of a complex variable is well defined.

2. Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

– From Euler’s formula we have,

e−iy = cos y − i sin y and eiy = cos y + i sin y

Combining the two we get

eiy + e−iy eiy − e−iy

cos y = and sin y =
2 2i
Using this fact we can give the following definition

Definition 1.3.1. For a complex variable z the basic trigonometric and hyperbolic functions are
defined by

eiz + e−iz eiz − e−iz

cos z = and sin z =
2 2i
e + e−z
z
e − e−z
z
cosh z = and sinh z =
2 2

• From the above definition the following relations follow immediately.

cos(iz) = cosh z, sin(iz) = i sinh z

cosh(iz) = cos z, sinh(iz) = i sin z

• Using the definition show that

cos2 z + sin2 z = 1 and cosh2 z − sinh2 z = 1.

1.4 Polar Form and Multi-valuedness

• The polar form of a complex number z takes the form
√ p y
z = reiθ , where r = z·z = x2 + y 2 and θ = arctan .
x

2
 • The expression z k is single valued only if the exponent k is an integer. If k is a rational
n
number, k = m (in reduced form), then the map

f (k) = z k is n-valued.

[because there are exactly n nth -roots of a complex number z]

• So there are multi-valued mappings in complex variable theory.

3. The Logarithmic function

– Let z = eiθ in its polar form. Then

log z = log reiθ = ln r + iθ = ln r + i(α + 2kπ)

for k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . and 0 ≤ α ≤ 2π.

– This fact will lead us to the following definition

Definition 1.4.1. The natural logarithm of any complex number z is defined by

log z := ln r + i(α + 2kπ), k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

• The natural logarithm of any complex number z is an infinite-valued mapping unless we

restrict our region of consideration, say by taking only the principal argument of z.

Example 1.4.1. Compute log(1 + i).

√
• Here r = 2 and α = π4 . Then
√ π
log(1 + i) = ln 2 + i( + 2kπ)
4
ln 2 π ln 2 9π ln 2 7π
= +i , +i , − i ,...
2 4 2 4 2 4

• Logarithm of a complex number is an infinite valued mapping.

• To make “multivalued - function” single valued we use the so called a “branch cut” concept
(for example, by specifying the integer k).

2 Differential Calculus and Analyticity

Suppose f : C → C is a complex-valued function.

• Note that f maps R2 into R2 .

3
2.1 Limit of Functions of Complex Valued Function

Definition 2.1.1. Let z0 be an interior point in the domain of definition of a function f : C → C.

We say that the limit of f (z) as z approaches to z0 is L and write

lim f (z) = L
z→z0

if to each  > 0 (no matter how small it is), there corresponds a δ > 0 such that |f (z) − L| < 
for all z satisfying 0 < |z − z0 | < δ.

In the above definition, z = x + iy and f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y). Moreover |z − z0 | means the
modulus of the complex number z − z0 and |z − z0 | < δ represents an open circle centered at z0
and radius δ.

2.1.1 Basic Limit Theorems

Theorem 2.1.1. Let f and g be complex functions and z0 and c be complex numbers such that
limz→z0 f (z) = L and limz→z0 g(z)) = M . Then

1. lim (f ± g)(z) = L + M.
z→z0

2. lim (f.g)(z) = LM.

z→z0

3. If M 6= 0, then  
f L
lim (z) = .
z→z0 g M

4. lim (cf )(z) = cL.

z→z0

Definition 2.1.2. For a complex function f , if limz→z0 f (z) = f (z0 ), then we say that f is
continuous at z0 and a function is continuous in a set if it is continuous at each point of the set.

2.2 Derivative of Complex Functions

The derivative of a complex valued function is defined using the limit concept.

Definition 2.2.1. The derivative of a complex-valued function f at the point zo is defined as

f (z) − f (zo )
f 0 (zo ) = lim
z→zo z − zo
if the limit exists and is a complex number.

In this definition the limit value should be independent of the way z approaches zo .

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Example 2.2.1. Evaluate the derivative of the following functions at any point z, if it exists,
using the definition

1. f (z) = z 2
1
2. f (z) = z

3. f (z) = z (the complex conjugate function)

Show that this function is nowhere differentiable in C.

2.2.1 Rules of Differentiation for Complex Functions

Theorem 2.2.1. Let f and g be complex functions and c be a complex number.

1. Sum(Difference) Rule: (f ± g)0 (z) = f 0 (z) ± g 0 (z).

2. Constant Multiple Rule: (cf )0 (z) = cf 0 (z).

3. Product Rule: (f · g)0 (z) = f 0 (z)g(z) + f (z)g 0 (z).

4. Quotient Rule:  0
f f 0 (z)g(z) − f (z)g 0 (z)
(z) = .
g (g(z))2

5. The complex version of the Chain Rule: (f ◦ g)0 (z) = f 0 (g(z))g 0 (z).

How to test differentiability of a complex function at any given point?

2.3 Analyticity of A complex Function

Definition 2.3.1. A (complex-valued) function f is said to be

• analytic in a domain D if f (z) is defined and is differentiable at all points of D.

• analytic at a point zo ∈ D if f is analytic in some neighborhood of zo .

• (simply) an analytic function if it is analytic in some domain.

2.3.1 Test for Analyticity of a Function

Consider the function f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y). If f is analytic in some domain D, then the
partial derivatives of f w.r.t x and y must coincide. i.e., at any point z = x + iy, we must have
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
+i = −i
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y

5
Or
ux = vy and vx = −uy (1)

• The above equation (Equation 1) is called the Cauchy-Riemann equation.

• Note that this equation is only a necessary condition for analyticity of f . But the following
Theorem gives us a sufficient condition for analyticity.

Theorem 2.3.1 (Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Analyticity). Let f (z) = u(x, y) +
iv(x, y) be defined throughout some neighborhood of a point zo = xo + iyo . Then

1. (Necessary Condition) If f is differentiable at zo , then the Cauchy-Riemann equation is

satisfied.

2. (Sufficient Condition) If the Cauchy-Riemann equation is satisfied at zo and if u and v

are continuously differentiable in some nbhd of zo , then f is analytic at zo .

• If f is differentiable at some point z = x + iy, then f 0 can be given in any one of the
following four expressions.

f 0 = ux + ivx = vy − iuy = ux − iuy = vy + ivx

Example 2.3.1. 1. Give a formula for the derivative of the following functions in terms of z.

a. f (z) = ez
b. f (z) = sin z.
2 −z
c. f (z) = ez .

2. When expressed in polar form, show that the Cauchy-Riemann equation is given by
∂u 1 ∂v ∂v 1 ∂u
= , =− ,
∂r r ∂θ ∂r r ∂θ
where f (z) = u(r, θ) + iv(r, θ).

3. Let f (z) = log z = ln r+iθ, with θ = arg z is the principal argument of z. (i.e., 0 < r < ∞
and −π < θ ≤ π). Then find f 0 (z), in terms of z.

• If a function f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in some domain D, then the Cauchy-
Riemann equation will be

ux = vy and uy = −vx in D.

• Taking the derivative w.r.t x and y respectively we have

uxx = vyx and uyy = −vxy

uxy = vyy and uyx = −vxx

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 • If a function f is analytic in D, then the partial derivatives of the component functions of
all order exists and are continuous in D.

• Hence vyx = vxy ⇒ uxx + uyy = 0 in D.

and uxy = uyx ⇒ vyy + vxx = 0 in D.

• The pair of these two last equations is called Laplace’s equation. Moreover, the component
functions u and v, with such properties are called conjugate harmonic functions.

Example 2.3.2. Consider complex function f (z) = |z|2 = z z̄. Then f (z) = (x2 + y 2 ) + 0i.

Hence we have u(x, y) = x2 + y 2 and v = 0.

Since ux = 2x, uy = 2y, vx = 0 and vy = 0, all u, v, ux , uy , vx , vy are continuous in R2 and hence

u and v are continuously differentiable everywhere in R2 .
But ux = vy only if x = 0, that is on the y-axis and vx = −uy only if y = 0, that is, on the x-axis.

Thus the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold true only at the origin and hence f (z) = |z|2 is
differentiable only at z = 0 and it is analytic nowhere.

Example 2.3.3. Let f (z) = z 2 − 8z + 3. If z = x + iy, then

f (z) = f (x + iy) = (x2 − y 2 ) + 2xyi − 8x − 8yi + 3 = (x2 − 8x − y 2 + 3) + (2xy − y)i

and hence u(x, y) = x2 −8x−y 2 +3 and v(x, y) = 2xy−8y. Then ux = 2x−8, uy = −2y, vx = 2y
and vy = 2x − 8 and we also have

ux = 2x − 8 = vy and vx = 2y = −uy

for all (x, y) ∈ R2 , that is, the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied everywhere in R2 and
all ux , uy , vx and vy are continuous in R2 and hence u and v are continuously differentiable
everywhere in R2 .
Therefore, f is differentiable for all z and f 0 (x + iy) = ux (x, y) + ivx (x, y) = (2x − 8) + 2yi.

Definition 2.3.2. Functions that satisfy Laplace’s equation and all various first-and second-
order partial derivatives of their component functions w.r.t x and y are continuous (or are C (2)
functions) are called harmonic functions.

Theorem 2.3.2 (Harmonic Functions). If f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in a domain D,

then u and v are harmonic in D. That is, they are C (2) functions and satisfy the Laplace’s
equation:

∇2 u = uxx + uyy = 0
∇2 v = vxx + vyy = 0

7
Note that, since f is analytic, u and v are related by the Cauchy-Riemann equation. To refer to
this relation ship we call such functions conjugate harmonic functions.

Example 2.3.4. Show that the function u(x, y) = x2 − y 2 − y is harmonic in C and find a
conjugate harmonic function V of u.
Solution:
Clearly ∇2 u = uxx + uyy = 2 − 2 = 0 and hence u is harmonic. To find the conjugate harmonic
function v, first we have ux = 2x and uy = −2y − 1 and by the Cauchy-Riemann equations v
must satisfy vy = ux = 2x and vx = −uy = 2y + 1.
Integrating the first part with respect to y, we get v = 2xy + h(x), where h(x) is a function
of x only (or is constant with respect to y) and we differentiate v with respect to x to get
vx = 2y + h0 (x) = 2y + 1. This implies h0 (x) = 1 and hence h(x) = x + c for some constant c.
Therefore, v(x, y) = 2xy + x + c and hence

f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) = (x2 − y 2 − y) + i(2xy + x + c)

= x2 − y 2 + i2xy + − y + ix + ic = z 2 + i(z + c) = z 2 + iz + c1 ,

where c1 = ic.

3 Conformal Mapping
• It is helpful to develop a powerful solution technique for problems in two dimensional
Potential Theory

• It deals with (more of) the geometrical aspect of a complex valued mapping.

• A conformal mapping is a change of variables that simplifies a two-dimensional problem by

simplifying the domain, while preserving the Laplace PDE.

3.1 The Idea Behind Conformal Mapping

• Suppose that we want to solve the two-dimensional Laplace equation:

∇2 ψ = ψxx + ψyy = 0 (2)

in some domain D of the xy -plane. Assume ψ is C (2) (i.e., it is a twice continuously

differentiable function.)

• If the shape of D is not simple (rectangle or circular), then the problem (2) is difficult to
solve.

8
• Use a change of variables (to simplify the region)

u = u(x, y) and v = v(x, y)

from x, y-plane in to the u, v-plane, so that the transformed region D0 (in the uv-plane) is
simpler than D.

• This mapping should be invertible and we must have

x = x(u, v) and y = y(u, v)

• The transformation mapping is invertible if the Jacobian is nonzero in D (by the Implicit
Function Theorem)

∂(u, v) ux uy
i.e, = = ux vy − vx uy 6= 0
∂(x, y) vx vy

• Applying this change of variables in (2) we have:

ψx = φu ux + φv vx , where φ(u, v) := ψ(x(u, v), y(u, v))

and ψxx = (φuu ux + φuv vx )ux + φu uxx + (φvu vx + φvv vx )vx + φv vxx

• Similarly we get

ψyy = (φuu uy + φuv vy )uy + φu uyy + (φvu vy + φvv vy )vy + φv vyy

• Hence (2) is equivalent to

⇒ (u2x + u2y )φuu + (ux vx + uy vy )(φuv φvu ) + (vx2 + vy2 )φvv

+(uxx + uyy )φu + (vxx + vyy )φv = 0 (3)

• To simplify equation (3), assume that the mapping

f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)

is analytic in D.

• Then u and v are C (2) functions and satisfy ux = vy , uy = −vx , uxy = uyx and vxy = vyx
in D.

• The above equalities imply that

ux vx + uy vy = 0
uxx + uyy = 0 and
vxx + vyy = 0

9
 • This simplifies (3) in to
u2x + u2y (φuu + φvv ) = 0


(4)

• Again since

∂(u, v)
u2x + u2y = ux vy − uy vx = 6= 0 in D by the assumption,
∂(x, y)

(4) will be reduced to φuu + φvv = 0 everywhere in D0 .

Thus if the change of variables mapping is analytic and its Jacobian is non-zero, then the Laplace
equation is preserved under the change of variables.
Hence we have the following Theorem

Theorem 3.1.1. Let w = f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be analytic in a domain D, with f 0 (z) 6= 0
everywhere in D. Denote the image of D under f as D0 , and let the mapping be a bijection. If
ψ(x, y) is harmonic in D, then ψ(x(u, v), y(u, v)) := φ(u, v) is also harmonic in D0 .

Definition 3.1.1 (Conformal Mapping). A mapping f : D → D0 is

• said to preserve angles, if for any zo in D with two smooth curves in D intersecting at zo
making an angle θ, then the images of these curves also intersect at the same angle θ at
f (zo ).

• said to preserve orientation if a counterclockwise rotation in D is mapped by f to a coun-

terclockwise rotation in D0 . [Conformal Mapping]

• said to be conformal if it preserves both angles and orientation.

Observe that, not all functions are conformal.

Example 3.1.1. The function f (z) = z̄ is not conformal, since it reverses orientation.

Question: Which functions are conformal?

To check conformality of a given mapping we need the following characterization.

Theorem 3.1.2 (Conformality). If f is analytic, then the mapping w = f (z) is conformal, except
at points where f 0 (z) = 0. The points on which f 0 (z) = 0 are called critical points of f .

Example 3.1.2. Let f (z) = z 2 . Then f 0 (z) = 2z = 0 implies z = 0 and hence z = 0 is the
only critical point of f and at z = 0 the mapping is the function f is not conformal, since the
angles are doubled at z = 0..

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3.2 The Bilinear Transformation

Let us consider special classes of conformal mappings called Bilinear Transformations.

Definition 3.2.1. The transformation (or a mapping) w : C → C, given by

az + b
w= for ad − bc 6= 0 (5)
cz + d
is known as the Möbius transformation or linear fractional transformation.

Since (5) is equivalent to czw + dw − az = b, and this equation is linear with respect to both z
and w separately. Hence it called a Bilinear transformation.

• The constants a, b, c and d in (5) can be real or complex.

• By using long division we can also equivalently get

az + b a cb − ad
w= = + .
cz + d c c(cz + d)

0
• The mapping w is not a merely constant function and also is not a 0
form.

• Again from (5) we have

ad − bc
w0 (z) =
(cz + d)2
exists and nonzero for all z 6= − dc .

• The Möbius transformation is conformal everywhere except at z = − dc .

• The point z = − dc is called a pole of the transformation and it corresponds to a point at

infinity in the w-plane (as 00 does not happen).

• In the extended plane, C, we can define

a

c
if c 6= 0
w(∞) =
∞ if c = 0

The condition for ad − bc 6= 0 in the mapping w = T (z) = az+b

cz+d
insures that we can solve for z
and invert the mapping
dw − b
z = T −1 (w) =
−cw + a
which is also a Linear Fractional Transformation.

Example 3.2.1 (Some Special Classes of Linear Fractional Transformations). 1. w = T (z) =

z + b, where b is a constant, is called a translation.

11
 2. w = T (z) = az, where a is a nonzero constant and |a| = 1, is called a rotation/magnification.
1
3. w = T (z) = z
is called inversion in the unit circle.
1
Lemma 3.2.1. The mapping w(z) = z
maps every straight line or circle onto a straight line or
circle.
Theorem 3.2.1. Every Linear Fractional Transformation
az + b
T (z) =
cz + d
maps any circle onto a circle or a straight line and any straight line onto a circle or straight line.

Fixed Points
Fixed points of a mapping w = f (z) are points that are mapped onto themselves by the mapping.
Fixed points are obtained from w = f (z) = f (z) = z.
Example 3.2.2.

1
1. The fixed points of the mapping w(z) = z
are 1 and −1.

2. The mapping w(z) = z has every point fixed point.

3. The mapping w(z) = z̄ has infinitely many fixed points.

Theorem 3.2.2. Every Linear Fractional Transformation
az + b
T (z) = ,
cz + d
not the identity mapping, has at most two fixed points. If a Linear Fractional Transformation is
known to have three or more fixed points, then it must be the identity w(z) = z.

3.2.1 Properties of The bilinear Transformation

Given
az + b
w= for ad − bc 6= 0,
cz + d
on the extended plane, C, w satisfies the following properties.

1. The bilinear transformation w is conformal on the extended complex plane.

2. The bilinear transformation is a bijection on the extended complex plane.

This is immediate from the condition that ad − bc 6= 0

3. The bilinear transformation sends every circle (including the infinite circle – straight line)
into either a circle or a straight line.

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Three points and their images uniquely determines a linear fractional transformation; as the
following statement justifies.

Theorem 3.2.3 (Three-Point-Theorem). Let z1 , z2 , and z3 be three distinct points in the z-

plane, and w1 , w2 and w3 be three distinct points in the w-plane. Then there is a linear fractional
transformation T of the z-plane to the w-plane such that

T (z1 ) = w1 , T (z2 ) = w2 , and T (z3 ) = w3 .

Let w = T (z) be the transformation. Then we can determine the mapping by solving the
equation:      
w − w1 w2 − w3 z − z1 z2 − z3
= (6)
w − w3 w2 − w1 z − z3 z2 − z1
for each substitution of z = zj to get w = wj , j = 1, 2, 3. (If one of the three points is the point
∞, then the quotient of the two differences containing this point must be replaced by 1.)

Example 3.2.3. Find a linear fractional transformation T which maps:

1. z1 = −1, z2 = 0, z3 = 1 onto w1 = 1, w2 = i, w3 = 1, respectively.

z−i
Ans.: T (z) = iz+1
.

2. z1 = 0, z2 = 1, z3 = ∞ onto w1 = −1, w2 = −i, w3 = 1 respectively.

z−i
Ans.: T (z) = z+i
.

Mapping of Standard Domains by Three-Point-Theorem

Principle. Prescribe three boundary points z1 , z2 , z3 of the domain D in the z-plane. Choose
their images w1 , w2 , w3 on the boundary of the image of D in the w-plane. Obtain the mapping
from Equation 6. Make sure that D is mapped onto not onto its complement. In the latter case,
interchange two w-points.

Example 3.2.4. Find a linear fractional transformation T that maps the disk D = {z ∈ C :
z+1
|z| ≤ 1} onto the right half-plane ({x + iy ∈ C|x ≥ 0}.) Ans.: T (z) = z−1 .

4 The Complex Integral Calculus

• Complex integration is an immediate extension of the “line Integral” defined in R2 .

• A curve C can be parameterized by

z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) (for a ≤ t ≤ b) (7)

13
 • The sense of increment of the parameter t is called the positive sense of C and we say that
C is oriented by (7).

Example 4.0.5. 1. If C represents a circle |z| = r, then C is parameterized by

z(t) = r cos t + i sin t (for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π).

2. If C represents part of the parabola y = x2 from (1, 1) to (3, 9), then C is parameterized
by
z(t) = t + it2 (for 1 ≤ t ≤ 3).

A curve C parameterized by z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) (for a ≤ t ≤ b) is said to be smooth if C has a

continuous and nonzero derivative
dz
ż(t) = = ẋ(t) + iẏ(t)
dt
at each point.
Let C be a smooth curve in the complex plane parameterized by
z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) (for a ≤ t ≤ b)
and f be a continuous complex function given at each point of C. We subdivide the interval
a ≤ t ≤ b by points
a = t0 ≤ t1 ≤ · · · ≤ tn−1 ≤ tn = b.
To this subdivision, there corresponds a subdivision of C by the points
z0 , z1 , . . . , zn−1 , zn ,
where zi = z(ti ) for i = 0, . . . , n.
For each portion of the subdivision of C choose an arbitrary point say ζi = z(ti ) where t satisfies
ti−1 ≤ t ≤ ti for 1 ≤ i ≤ n. Then we have the following sum
n
X
Sn = f (ζk )∆zk , where ∆zk = zk − zk−1 . (8)
k=1

The limit of Sn as n → ∞ is called the the Complex Integral of the function f over a curve C
and it is denoted by: Z
I = f (z)dz.
C
If the curve C is a closed curve (that is, its initial and its terminal points coincide), the complex
integral over C is denoted by I
f (z)dz.
C
where C is an oriented curve in the complex plane, which is assumed to be piecewise smooth and
simple.
Here, C is called the path of integration.

14
4.1 Evaluation of Complex Integrals

Theorem 4.1.1. Let C be a piecewise smooth path, represented by z = z(t) = x(x) + iy(t),
where a ≤ t ≤ b. Let f (z) be a continuous function on C. Then
Z Z b
dz
f (z)dz = f (z(t))ż(t)dt, where ż(t) = .
C a dt

Steps in Applying the above Theorem:

1. Represent the curve C in the form of z(t) (for a ≤ t ≤ b.) That is parameterize the curve
C.
2. Calculate the derivative
dz
ż(t) = .
dt
3. Substitute z(t) for every z in f (z) (that is, x(t) for x and y(t) for y.)
4. Integrate f (z(t))ż(t) over t form a to b.

Now the question is how can we evaluate this integral. One possible way to evaluate the complex
integral is to write the line integral into one or more real line integrals. To see this, let f (z) = u+iv
and z = x + iy. Then dz = dx + idy.
Hence
Z Z Z Z


f (z)dz = u + iv (dx + idy) = (udx − vdy) + i (vdx + udy)
C C C C

Example 4.1.1. 1. Evaluate the integral

I
dz
,
C z
where C is the unit circle |z| = 1.
(Answer: 2πi.)
2. Evaluate the integral Z
z 2 dz,
C
where C is the parabolic arc given by x = 4 − y 2 for −2 ≤ y ≤ 2.
(Answer: − 16
3
i.)
Definition 4.1.1. Let C be a piecewise smooth curve that is made up of smooth curves C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn
such that the terminal point of Ci is the initial point of Ci+1 . Then we write C = C1 ⊕ ... ⊕ Cn .
Let f (z) be a continuous complex function on C. Then we define
Z X n Z
f (z)dz = f (z)dz.
C i=1 Ci

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Example 4.1.2. Let C be a curve consisting of portion of a parabola y = x2 in the xy−plane
from (0, 0) to (2, 4) and a horizontal line from (2, 4) to (4, 4). If f (z) = Im(z), then evaluate
Z
f (z)dz.
C

4.2 Properties of Complex Integrals

As in the line integrals we have the following generalizations.

Let f and g be continuous complex functions on a piecewise smooth curve C and k be a constant.
Then

1. Linearity: Z Z Z
(αf + βg)(z)dz.dr = α f (z)dz + β g(z)dz.
C C C

2. Sense Reversal: If C 0 has an opposite orientation to that of C, then

Z Z
f (z)dz = − f (z)dz.
C C0

Let C be a piecewise-smooth simple closed curve in the complex plane (and hence in R2 ). Then
C encloses some simply connected region R. Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) be continuous in a
simply connected domain D containing the curve C. Then
I I I
f (z)dz = (udx − vdy) + i (vdx + udy) (9)
C C C

Theorem 4.2.1 (Cauchy’s Theorem). If f (z) is analytic in a simply connected domain D,then
I
f (z)dz = 0,
C

for every piecewise smooth simple closed curve C in D.

Example 4.2.1. Consider the integral
I I
dz dz
2
= ,
C z − 5z + 6 C (z − 2)(z − 3)

where C is the unit circle centered at the origin and traverse counterclockwise. Then
1
f (z) =
(z − 2)(z − 3)
is analytic everywhere except at z = 2 and z = 3. But z = 2 and z = 3 are out of the region
enclosed in C. Hence f is analytic in the region enclosed by C. Then by Cauchy’s Theorem
I
dz
2
= 0.
C z − 5z + 6

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Theorem 4.2.2 (The Deformation Theorem). Let C1 and C2 be closed paths in the complex
plane with C2 is in the interior of C1 . Suppose that a complex function f is analytic in an open
set containing both paths and all points between them. Then
Z Z
f (z)dz = f (z)dz.
C1 C2

Example 4.2.2. Show that

if n = −1

2πi
I
n
(z − a) dz =
C 0 6 −1
if n =
where C is any piecewise smooth, simple, closed path containing a in its interior and oriented
counterclockwise.
Theorem 4.2.3 (Cauchy’s Integral Formula). If f is analytic in D, then show that
I
f (z)
dz = (2πi)f (a) ∀a ∈ D,
C z −a
where C is any piecewise smooth, simple, closed path in D containing a in its interior.

• The above equality can also be rewritten as:

I
1 f (z)
f (a) = dz,
2πi C z−a
which is known as the Cauchy’s Integral formula.
• This formula helps us to find the integrals of several complex functions easily.
Example 4.2.3. 1. Find
z3 − 6
I
I = ,
C 2z − i
1 π
where a = 2
i inside C. Ans.: I = 8
− 6πi
2. Evaluate I
dz
I= ,
C z 2 (z − 2)(z − 4)
where C is a rectangle defined by
C = {z ∈ C| − 10 ≤ Re(z) ≤ 3, −5 ≤ Im(z) ≤ 20}.
Theorem 4.2.4 (Derivatives of an Analytic Function). If a function f is analytic in some domain
D then it follows from the Cauchy’s Integral Formula that f possesses derivatives of all order,
where the nth derivative is given by
I
(n) n! f (ζ)
f (z) = dζ for n = 1, 2, . . .
2πi C (ζ − z)n+1
Example 4.2.4. Let C be a smooth closed curve in which 1 lies in it and ±2i lies outside and
oriented counterclockwise. Then
 z 0
ez
I
e 6eπ
2 2
dz = 2πi 2 = i.
C (z − 1) (z + 4) z + 4 z=1 25

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Reading Assignment:

Read and understand the notions of,

• Fundamental Theorem of Complex Integral Calculus

• Laurent Series,

• Singularity points of a complex function,

• Residue Theorem and its applications.

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