Haydn J - Haydn's Dictionary of Dates Relating To All Ages and Nations - 1866 PDF
Haydn J - Haydn's Dictionary of Dates Relating To All Ages and Nations - 1866 PDF
Haydn J - Haydn's Dictionary of Dates Relating To All Ages and Nations - 1866 PDF
https://books.google.com
i
■
I
I
HAYDN'S
DICTIONARY OF DATES
COMPREHENDING
REMARKABLE OCCURRENCES, ANCIENT AND MODERN,
THE FOUNDATION, LAWS, AND GOVERNMENTS OF COUNTRIES—THEIR PROGRESS IN J
SCIENCE, AND LITERATURE—THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS IN ARMS—AND
THEIR CIVIL, MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND PHILANTHROPIC
INSTITUTIONS, PARTICULARLY OF
THE BRITISH EMPIRE.
HAYDN'S
DICTIONARY OF DATES
FOR
UNIVERSAL REFERENCE.
TWELFTH EDITION,
CORRECTED TO FEBRUARY, 1866.
By BENJAMIN VINCENT,
ASSISTANT SECRETARY AND KEEPER OF THE LIBRARY OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN.
LONDON :
EDWARD MOXON AND CO., DOVER STREET.
1866.
• ••••• •
LONDON
NUDBUST} 1TAK8, AND CO., PRINTERS, WRITEFRIAKS.
PKEFACE
TO
THE TWELFTH
♦ EDITION.
The design of the Author has been to attempt the compression of the
greatest body of general information that has ever appeared in a single volume,
and to produce a Book of Reference whose extensive usefulness may render its
possession material to every individual—in the same manner that a London
Directory is indispensable, on business affairs, to a London merchant.
He grounds his hope of the Public taking an interest in this work altogether
upon its own intrinsic utility. Its articles are drawn principally from historians
of the first rank, and the most authentic annalists ; and the Dictionary op
Dates will, in almost every instance, save its possessor the trouble of turning
over voluminous authors to refresh his memory, or to ascertain the date, order,
and features of any particular occurrence.
The volume contains upwards of Fifteen Thousand Articles, alphabeti
cally arranged ; and, from the selection of its materials, it must be important
to every man in the British Empire, whether learned or unlearned, or whether
connected with the professions or engaged in trade.
It would be difficult to name all the authors from whose works the Compiler
of this volume has copiously extracted ; but he may mention among the classics,
Herodotus, Livy, Pliny, and Plutarch. He has chosen in general chronology,
Petavius, Usher, Blair, Prideaux, and the Abbe- Lenglet Dufresnoy. For the
events embraced in foreign history, he has relied upon Henault, Voltaire, La
Combe, Rollin, Melchior Adam, the Nouveau Dictionnaire, and chief authors of
their respective countries. On subjects of general literature, his authorities
are Cave's Sistoria Literaria, Moreri, Bayle, Priestley, and others of equal
repute. And English occurrences are drawn from Camden, Stow, Hall, Baker,
Holinshed, Chamberlayne, Bapin, Hume, Gibbon, Goldsmith, <fec. Besides
these, the Compiler has freely used the various abridgments that have brought
facts and dates more prominently forward ; and he is largely indebted to
PBEFACE.
POPULA
TION.
Anhalt Papulation in Dec. 1364 193.046 Leopold, duke. Oct. 1. 1794. Aug. 9. 1817.
Argentine Confederation . . 1859 1,171.800 Bartolomeo Mitre, president Oct. 12, 1862.
Austrian Empire . . . Oct. 1857 35.018 988 Francis-Joseph, tmyerw Aug. 18, 1830 Dec. 2. 184S.
Baden Dec. 1864
1864 1,431,754 Frederick. grand-duke . . Sept 9, 1826 April 24, 1852.
Bararia Dec. 4,807.440 Louis II.. king Aug. 25, 1845 March 10. 1864.
Belgium Dec. 1863 4.893. 021 Leopold II., king .... April 9, 1835 Dee. 10. 1865.
BoDVia 1858 1.987,352 Gen. M. Melgarejo, president Dec. 1864.
Brazil 1856 7.677,800 Pedro LI., emperor . . . Dec. 2, 1826. April 7, 1831.
Bremen (free city) . . . Dec. 1864 104.091 C. Mehr, burponuwfer . . Dec. 31, 1863.
Brunswick-Wolfenbllttel . Dec. 1864 293.3S8 William, duke April 25, 1806 April 26, 1831.
Chili (estimated) 1857 1,559.000 Jose" J. Perez, president . . Sept. 18, 1861.
Chinese Empire (estimated) . 1849 415.000.00C Ki-tsiaug, emperor . . . April 5, 1855 Aug. 22, 1861.
Costa Rica (estimated) . . . 1861 135,000 J. XimeneanrfsidCTit . . April 3. 1863.
Denmark and colonies . . . 1865 1,825,220 Christian IX , king . . . April'8, i818 Nor. 15, 1862.
E-luator (estimated) .... 1858 1,0-10,371 G. Carrson, president . . 1866.
Ejypt 1859 6,125,000 Ismail Pacha viceroy . . Jan. 18, 1863.
Fiance and colonies (estimatd.) 1862 43,534,245 Napoleon III., emperor . . April 20, 1808 Dec. 2, 1853.
Frankfort (free city) . . Dec. 1864 91,180 Two Burgomasters.
Great Britain & colonies (estm.) 1861 223.820,099 Victoria, queen May 24. 1819 June 20. 1837.
Greece and Ionian Islands (est.) 1865 1,325,341 George L, king Dec. 24, 1845 Juno 5, 1863.
Guatemala 1858 850 000 Vincent Cema, president . May 3, 1865.
Hamburg (free city) .... 1860 229,941 Senate
Hanover Dec. 1864 1,923,492 George V., king .... May 27, 1819 . Not. 18, 1851.
Hiyti and St. Domingo'(est.) . 1865 672,000 N. Fabre Geffrard. president Jan. 23, 1859.
Hasse-C'assel Dec. 1864 745,063 Frederic-William I., elector Aug. 20, 1802 Not. 20. 1847.
H :sse-Darmstadt . . . Dec. 1864 853,315 Louis III., grand-duke . . June 9, 1806 June 16. 1848.
Hesse-Homburg .... Dec. 1864 27.374 Ferdinand, landgrave . . April 26. 1783 Sept. 8, 1S48.
Holland and colonics .... 1863 21.805.607 William III., king . . . Feb. 19, 1817 March 17, 1849.
Holstein 1865 554,510 Held by Austria.
Honduras 1858 . 22 350,000 J. M. Medina president Feb. 1864.
Italy (estimateid) 1864 104,789 Victor-ErnmanueL king . March 14, 1820 March 17, 1861.
Japan (estimated) '36 to 40 mil. Mikado (spiritual) ; Tycoon [temporal).
Liechtenstein 1858 7,150 John II., prince Oct. 5, 1840 . Not. 12. 1858.
Lippe Dec. 1864 111,330 Leopold, prince Sept 1. 1821 . Jan. 1, 1851.
Llibcck (free city) 1862 50.614 Burgomasters and Senate.
Meckleiiburg-Schwcriu . Dec. 1864 552,612 Frederic Francis, grand-duke . Feb. 28, 1823 . March 7, 1842.
Mecklentatts-Sttellte .... 1860 99,060 Frederic William, grand-duke Oct. 17, 1819 . I Sept. 6, 1860.
Mexico (estimatedl 1865 8.218,080 Maximilian I., emperor. . . July 6, 1832. . April 10, 1864.
Monaco 1864 1,687 Charles, prince Dec. 8,1818. . June 20. 1S56.
Montenegro (estimated) . . . 1859 125.000 Nicholas I., prince .... 1840 . . . . Aug. 14. 1860.
Morocco about 8,000,000 Sidi Mohamed, sultan , . . Sept. 1859.
Nassau Dec. 1864 463,311 Adolphus, duke July 24, 1817 Aug. 20, 1839.
New Granada 1864 2,794,473 M. Murillo, president . . . April 1, 1864.
Nicaragua 1858 400,000 T. Martinez, president . . . March 1, 1859.
Oldenburg 301,812
Dec. 1864 2,784,473 Peter, grand-duke JulyS, 1827. Feb. 27, 1853.
Pitnama 1864 JU Colunje, governor. . . . March 10, 1865.
Pipal States (estimaUrd) . . . 1863 1,337.431700,000 Pius IX., pope May 13, i792 June 16, 1846.
Paraguay 1857 F. S. Lopez Scnt^lte.
Persia (estimated) 1859 10,000.000 Nassir-ed-Deen, shah . . . ' 1829'. '. ;
Pern 1859 2,500,000 M. Canseco, president . . .
Oct. 31, 1838 . Not.,
8,037.194 1865.
Portugal and colonies . . Dec. 1863 19,304,813 Louis I., king Not. 11, 1861.
Prussia Dec. 1865 William L, king March 22, 1797 Jan.
Henry XXII., prince . . . March 28, 1846 Not. 8, 1861.
43,924 2.
Rcuss-Oreiz Dec. 1864 1859.
Reuss-Schleiz Dec. 1864 86.472 Henry LXIX., prinee . . . May 19, 1792 . Sept. 16, 1850.
Rouraania (Dan. Prnciiijestim. 1862 4.003.000 Alex. John I. (Cousa) Ao*ooaar March 10, 1820 Jan. 1859.
Russia, Poland. Ac. (estim.) . 1865 80,255,430 Alexander II., czar .... April 29, 1818 . March 2. 1855.
Sandwich Islands (Hawaii. 4c.) 1861 69,800 Kanichamena
Capitani rtggenIV '• . Dec. 11, 1830 . Not., 1863.
San Marino 1858 8,000
San Salvador 600.000
1858 2.343,994 F. Duenas, president ....
Dec. 12. 1801 April, 1866.
Bazoo? Dec. 1864 John, king Aug. 9, 1864.
Saie-Altenburg .... Dec. 1864 141,839 Ernest, thih- Sept. 16, 1826
June 21, 1818 Jan. 29. 1853.
Ernest II., duke Aug. 3,
Saie-Coburg-Goth.1 . Dec. 1864 154,527
178.065 184-1.
Saxe-Meluingen .... Dec. 1864 Bernard, duke Dec. 17, 1800 Dec. 24, 1803.
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach Dec. 1864 2S 1.2.1I Charles-Alexander.ffrand-dul* June 24, 1818 July 8, 1853.
Schaumburg-Lippe . . Dec. 1864 31.382 Adolphus, prince Aug. 1, 1817 Not. 21. I860.
Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt, Dec. 1864 73,752 Gunther, prince ... Nor. 6. 1793 April 28, 1807.
Schwartzburg-Sondcrshausen ,. 1864 66,189 Gunther, prince Sept 24, 1801 Aug. 19, 1835.
Scrrta 1865 1,220,000 Michael III. (Milosch) . . . Sept. 4, 1825 Sept 26, 1860.
Skswig 1865 406,486 Held by Prussia.
Spain and colonies 1864 Isabella II., queen Oct. 10. 1830
Sweden and Norway (estiintd.) 1863 21,031.258
5,700.000 Charles XV., king
Sept. 29, 1833.
May 3, 1826 . July 8, 1859.
Switzerland Dec. 1860 2.510.424 Annual president July 4, 1864.
Turkish Empire (estimated) . 1865 39,000.000 Abdul-Aziz, sultan .... June 25. 1861.
Uruguay 1860 240.965 Gen. V. Florca, prov. president Feb., 1865.
Venezuela 1859 J. E. Falcon, president . . , March 18. 1865.
Waldeck Dec. 1864 1,565,500
59,143 George V., prmcf Jan. 14. 1831. May 15, 1845.
Wiirtemberg Dec. 1864 1,748,328 Charles, king . . . March 6, 1823 . June 26, 1864.
United States of America . . 1860 31.445,080 Andrew Johnson, president I 1809. .. . April 15, 1865.
TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY
Great Britain. Peninsula.
France. Germany, Hungary.
Esaland. Scotland. Castile. Abracok. Portugal.
1066. Will. I. 1057. Malc.3. 1060. Philip. I. 1066. Sancho II. 10G5. Sancho. 1065. Sancho of 1056. Hen. 4, 1064. Solom.
1093. Donald Castile. anptr&r.
1087. Wil. II. 1094. Dune. 1072. Alfonso VI. 1072. Alfonso VI. 1075. Geisa,
1094. Donald 1076. Lad. 1.
again. 1094. Poter. 1093. Henry, 1098. Colo-
1098. Edgar. count. man.
1 100. Hen L 1 107. Alex. I. 1 108. Louis VI. 1109. Urracaand 1 104. Alfonso I. 1 112. Alfonso, as 1106. Hen.5. 1114. Stop.2.
Alfonso VII. count.
1124. Dav. I. 1126. Alfon. VII.
1 125. Loth.2. 1131. Bela 2.
1135. Steph. 1137. Louis VII.
1 134. Ramiro.
1 154. Hen. 2. 1153.Mal.IV. 1137. Petronolla 1 139, Alfonso I., ii38.Conr.3. iMi.Geisaj
1157. Sancho III. and Raymond as king.
1158.Alfon.VlII.
1 172. (]rtld. 1165. Will ii52.Frcd.i. 1 161. Step.3.
annexed.)
1163. Alfonso II. 1 173. Bela 3.
1 180. Philip II.
1 189. Rich.i.
1185. Sancho I. 1190. Hon.6.
1 199. John. 1 196. Peter II. 1198.Philip. 1196. Emeric
1216. Hen. 3. 1214. Alex. 2. 1214. Henry I. 1213. James I. 1212. Alfonso II. 1208. Otho 4. 1204. Ladis-
1223. Louis VIII. las II.
1215. Fred.2. 1205. An
1226. Louis IX. 1230. Ferdin.III. 1223. Sancho II. drew II.
1235. Bela 4.
1249. Alex.3. 1252. Alfonso X. 1248. Alfon. III. 1250. Con. 4.
1254. Will.
1257. Rich.
1272. Ed. I. 1270. Philip III. 1276. Peter III. 1270. Sto. 4.
1279. Dionysius 1273. Ro- 1272. Lad. 3.
1282 (Vain Interregnum. 1284. Sancho IV. or Denis. dolph.
annexed.) 1285. Philip IV. 1285. Alfons. III.
1792. John
EiUoL 1292. Adolp.
1295. Fcrdin. IV. 1291. James II. 1298. Alb. 1. 1290. And. 3.
1307. Ed. II. 1306. Robert 1308. Hon. 7. 1301. Charo-
(Bruce) I. 1314. Louis X. 1312. AlfonsoXI. 1314. Lou. 5. bert
1316. John. 1327. AlfonsoIV. 1325. Alfonso IV.
1327.Ed.III. 1329.Dav.II. Phil. V.
1332.Ed.Bal. 1321. Chas. IV.
1342.Dav.II. 1328. Phil. VI. 1336. Peter IV.
1342. Louis.
1347. Chaa.4.
1350. John. 1350. Peter. 1357. Poter.
1377. Rich.2. i37i.R0b.II. 1364. Chas. V. 1369. Henry. 1367. Ferdinand. 1378. Wen-
(Stuart). 1379. John I. 1387. John I. ceslas. 1382. Mary.
1380. Chas. VI. 1383. John I. 1387. Mai-v*
'399- Hen. 4. 1390. Rob. 3. 1390. Henry II. 1395. Martin. 1400. Rupert Sigismujid
1413. Hen.5. 1406. Jas. I. 1406. John II. 1410. Interregnm. 1410. SigIsmund.
1422. Hen.6. 1422. Chas. VII. 1412. Ferdinand
of Sicily.
1437. Jas. II. 1416. Alfonso V. 1433. Edward.
1454. Henry IV. 1438. Alfonso V. 1438. Al xrt.
1458. John II. 1440. Fred. 3. 1440. Lad. 4.
1461. Ed.IV. 1460.Jaa.III. 1461. Louis XI. 1474. Isabella. 1479. Fordin. II. 1445. Lad. 5.
1458. Mat
Spain. thias.
1483. Ed. V.
Rich. 3. 1483. Chas.VIII. 1479. Ferdinand and Isabella. 14S1. John II. 1493. Max. 1.
1485. Heu.7. 1488.Jas.IV.
1498 Louis XII. 1495. Emanuel. nutcpena. 1490. Lad. 6.
EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS.
Scandinavia. Italy.
Eastern
Poland. Empire.
s™. Norwat. Denmark. PorES. Naples and 8icilt.
1066. Halstan. 1069. Olaf. 1047. Sweyn II. lOj^Boles- 1068. Rom. 4 1061. Alex. II.
1076. Harold.
1080. Canute IV. 1082. Ladis- 1071. Mich. 7 1073. Grcg.VII.
1086. Olaua IV. las. 1078. Nicep. 3 1086. Victor III.
1090. Ingo. 1093. Magnus. 1095. Eric L 1081. Alexius 1099. Urban
1088. 11.
Pascal II.
1 1 13. Philip. 1103. Sigurd I., 1 105. Eric IL 1102. Bolos.3 1 1 18. John 1 1 18. Gelas. II.
1118. Ingo II. and others. Comnenus. 1119. Calixt. II.
1 1 29. Swerker. 1124. Honor. II.
1 122. Sigurd I. 1 1 30. Innoc. II. 1131. Roger I.
1 143. Celest II.
1144. Lucius II.
1130. MagnusIV. 1137. Eric III. 1138. Lad. 2. 1143. Manuel 1 145. Eugen. III.
1 1 55. Eric I. and others. 1145. Bolos.4 Comnenus. 1153. Anasta.lV. 1154. William I.
1147. Sweyn III. 1154 Adrian IV.
life. Char. VIL OUt tear and Canute V. 1159. Alex. III. 1 166. William It
1 157. Waldcmar. 1 173. Miccis- 1181. Lucius III.
1167. Canute. ias III. 1180. Alox. 2. 1185. Urban III.
1:78. Ca- 1 183. Andro- 1187. Greg. VIII. 1 1 89. Tancred.
semir II. nicus C. Clem III. 1194. William III.
1186. Swerro. 1 182. Canute VI. 1 185. Isaac 2. 1 191. Celest. III.
1 199. Swerk. II. 1 194. Leak. 5. 1 195. Alex.3. 1 198. Innoc. III. 1 197. Fred. II. ofGermny.
1210. Eric II. 1202. Hako III. 1202. Walde. II. 1200. Mioc.3. i204.Thoodo. 1216. Honor. III.
1 2 16. John I. and others. 1202. Lad. 3. 1222. John 1227. Greg. IX.
1207. Hako IV. 1227. Boles.5 Ducas. 1241. Celest. IV.
1 2j2. Eric IIL 1243. Innoc. IV. 125a Conrad.
1254. Alex. IV. 1254. Conradln.
1241. Eric IV. 1255. Thoo.2. 1261. Urban IV. 1258. Manfred.
1250. Abel. 1265. Clem. IV. 1266. Charles of Anjou.
1250. Birgor, Jarl 1252. Christoph. 1258. John 1268-9. Vacant.
1263. MagnusVI. 1259. Eric V. Lascaris. 1271. Gregory X.
1266. Waldomar. 1 259. Mich.8. 1276. Innoc. V.
Adrian V.
1276. John XXI. Sicily.
1275. Magnus I. 1979. Lesk.6. 1277. NichoLIII.
1280. Eric 1281. Martin IV. 1285. Chas.2. 1282. Peter
1285. Honor. IV. of Arragmi.
1289. Anarch. 1282. Andro- 1288. Nich. IV. 1285. James.
i2QO.Prcniifl- nicus 11. 1292-3. Vacant.
MS. 1294. Colest. V.
1 290. Birgcr II. 1299. Hako V. 1296. Ladis.4 Bonif.VlII. 1295. Frcd.2.
1300. Winccs- 1303. Boned. XI. 1309. Robt
1 319. Magn. II. 1319. United to 1320. Christo las. 1305. ClemcntV.
pher II. {Avignon).
1314-15. Vacant.
1334. Inttrreffnm. 1333. Cas. 3. 1332. And.3. 131a JohnXXII.
1334. Bene. XII. 1337-Pcter 2.
1350. Eric I\ 1340. Wald. III. 1341. Johns. 1342. Clem. VI. 1343. Joan. 2. 1342. Louis.
1359. Magnu ■It 1352. Innoc. VI. & Andrew 1355. Fred. 3.
1363. Albert 1375. Interregnm. 1370. Louis. 1362. Urban V. of Hung.
1376. Olaus V. (Rome). 1349. Louis. 1376. Maria
1380. United to 1382. Mary. 1370. Greg. XI. & Martin .
Denmark. 1387. Margaret 1384. Hodw. 1 391. Man 1378. Urban VI. 1381. Chas. 3.
1396. Lad. 5. uel VI. 1389. Bouif. IX. 1385. Ladislas.
1404. Innoc. VII. 1402. Mart. 1.
141a. Eric. XIII. 1425.John 6. 1406. Grog. XII. 1414. Joan.2. 1409. Mart.2.
(United to
1434. Lad. 6. 1409. Alex. V. Arraaon)
1410. Jnhn 23. 1410. Ford. 1.
j+4°. Christopher III. 1448. Con 1417. Martin V. 1416. Alfo.i.
1445. Casi. 4 stant. 13. 1431. Eugen. IV.
1448. Chaa. VHI.| 1448. Christn. I. 1447. Nicholas V. 1435. Alfonso I.
1455. Calix. III.
Turkey. 1458. Pius 11. 1458. rerd. 1. 1458. John.
1457- Christian I.
M33- Ma 1464. Paul 11
homet 11. 1471. Sixtus IV. .494. Alfo.2. Ferd.
1483. John of Denmark. 1481. John. i48i.Bajaz.2. 1484. Inno. VIII. 1495. Ferd.2.
1492. Allxjrt 1492. Alex. VI. 1496.Fred. 2.
TABLE OF CONTEMPOBARY
Great Britain, Peninsula.
France. Germany. Hungary.
KOLAKD. ScOTLAXD. Castilk. Abraoon. PORTUGAL.
15.19. Hen. 8- Joanna i Ferdinand II.
1504. Joa 1516. Lou. 2.
1 513. Jas. V 151 5. Francis I. Philip I. 1531. John III. 1 519. Chas 5 1526 Jn. Za-
(£ of Sp.; olaki and
1512. Fcrd.V.(Cast.)II. (Arragon) erdiu. 2.
15..7. Ed. VI. 1542. Mary. 1547. Henry II. 1516. Charles I. (V. of Germ. 1519).
15.13. Mary, j 1559. Francis II. 1 K - ■•■ of Hungary.)
1558. Eli*, j 1560. Charles IX.
1567. Jan. VI. 1558. Ferdinand.
1556. Philip II. 1 557. Sebastian 1564. Maximilian II.
1574. Henry III. Holland.
1579. William of 1578. Henry. 1576. Rudolph II.
Orange, stadl
holder.
1589. Henry IV. 1580. Annexed to
1598. Philip III. 1387. Mnurieo. Spain.
16.3. Jas. I. (VI. of SootJi 1610. LouisXIII. 1612. Mathias.
1615. Charles I. iGa:. Philip IV. 1625. Fred. Hon. 1619. Ferdinand II.
Kingdom rtttond
1637. Ferdinand III.
i6j9- Commonwealth. 1643. Louis XIV. 1647. William II. 1640. John of
1650-72. No Braganza.
1600. Charles II. 1665. Charles II ttadtholder. 1656. Alfonso VI 1658. Leopold I.
1667. Peter,
16^5. James II. 1672. Will. Hen. regent.
i6Jq. William and Mary. (Will. III. of 1683. Peter II.
16)5. William III. England.)
1732. Anno. 1700. Philip V. 1702-47. No 1706. John V. 1705. Joseph 1 prussiai
i7t4. George I. 1715. Louis XV. (abdicated). ttadiholdcr. 1711. Chas 6. 1
1717. Goorge II. 1724. Louts.
Philip V. 1 701. Frod. 1.
again. 1713. Fred.-
1742. Chas.7. William r.
1746. Fcrd. VI 1747. Will. Hen 1750. Joseph. 1 745. Francis 1740. Fred. 2.
r759- Chas. III. 1757. Will. IV. 1
[7 jo. George III. 1765. Jos. 3.
1774. Louis XVI.
1777. Maria and
Peter III. 1786. Frod.-
1788. Chas. IV. 1786. Maria, William 2.
(abdicated.) alono.
1793. Lou. XVII. 1795. Annexid tu i79o.Leop.2, 1797. Fred.-
Republic. France. tjgt. John,regent 1792. Fran. 2. William 3.
1802. Consulate. 1808. Fcrd. VII. 1806. Louis,king.
1812. (Georgo Princo of 1804.Napoleon I. (dcttironett) Austria.
Wales, regent.)* 1814.L0u.XVXU. Jos. Bonap. Netherlands. !i8i6. John VI.
1814. Fcrd. VII. — |i826. Peter IV.
(ratored). :8i4. Will. Fred. Maria II. 1 806. Fran. 1.
i8k>. George IV. king* 1828. Miguel.
1824. Charles X.
1833. Maria II. 1835. Ford. 2.
1 8 jo. William IV. 183o.L0u.Pl.ilip. 1833. Isabella II.
18J7. Victoria. 1840. William II 1840. Fred.-
1848. Republic. 1849. WiU. III. 1848. Francis William +
Joseph.
1852. Napol. III. 1853. Peter V.
,1860. Will. 1.
1 861, Luis I.
Belgium,—1831. Leopold I.
„ 1865. Leopold II.
EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS, continued.
Scandinavia. Italy.
Poland. Eastern
Sweden. Norway. Denmark. Empire.
Por-Es. Naples and Sicilt.
1 1501. Alex. 1
1513. Christn.II. 1506. Big. I. 15:3. Belim. 1503. Julius Pius III.
II. -501. United to Spam.
1530. Christian II. 1513. Leo X.
1523. Gustavus , 1523. Fredrick I. 1522. Adrian VI.
Vasa. I and Norway. 1 1520. Soly- 1523. Clem. VII.
man II. 1534. Paul III.
1533. Ivan IV. 1534. Christ III 1550. Julius III.
1555. Marcel. II.
1548. 8ig.IL Paul IV.
156a Eric XIV 1566. Sel. 2. 1559. I*iu8 IV.
1559. Fred. II. 1566. Pius V.
1568. John m. 1572.
1573-Henrv. 1574. Amu- 1585. Blxtua V. Greg.XIII.
1584. Feodor I. 1575. Steph.
r588.Christu.IV. 1587. Sig. 3. rath III. I1 1590. Greg. Urban VII.
XIV.
tsga. Sigismund 1598. Boris. 1591. Innoc. IX.
;.Mab. 1592- Clem. VIII.
1604- Chan. IX. 1606. Basil 1603. Ach. 1 , 1605. Leo XI.
161 1. Gustavus 1613. Michael 1617. Mum. i. Paul V.
Adolphus. (Romaaoff). 1618 Osm.2. 1621. Greg. XV.
1632. Lad. 7. 1 1622. Must*
1633. Christina. i648.John C. I pha, again. 1623. UrbanVIII.
1645. Alexis. 1648. Fred. HI. 1669. Mich. 1623, Am. 4. 1644. InnocentX.
1654- Chas. X. 1674. John i 1640. Ibrah. 1665. 1667.
Alex. VH.
aem. IX.
1660. Chas. XI. 676. Feodor. 1670. Christn. V. Subieski. 1648. Mah.4. 1670. Clem. X.
1683. Ivan V. & [1687. Sol. 3. 1676. Innoc. XI.
Peter t
1697. Chas. XII. 1680, Peter I. 1699. Fred. IV. 1697. Fredk. 1691. Ach. 2. 1689. Alex. VIII
August. 1. '1695. Mus. 2. 1691. Imioc.XlI. :
1704. Stan. 1 • '1703. Ach. 3. 1700. Clem. XI.
1 719. Ulrica and 1735. Gather. I. 1709. Fredk -Taplea and
Frederick L 1727. Peter II. Augustus 1721. Bene.XIII.
Inno.XIHJ 0lcu7>Sicilv ' Sardinia.
1730. Anne. 1730.Christn.YI restored. 1730. Mah.5. 1724.
1733. Fredk.
1740. Ivan VI. August. 2. 1730. Clem. XII. 1713. Chas.3.
1741. Fred. I. 1 741. Elizabeth. 1746. Fred. V. 1740. Bene. XIV. Naples. 1730. Victor-
1 751. Adolphus 1754. Osm.3. Victor- Amadeus.
Frederick. | 1764. Stan. 2. 1757. Mus.3 Axel of Sa- 1730. Charles
1762. Peter III. 1766. ChristVII. 1758. aem.XIII. voy, Sicily, j Emmau. 1 .
j Gather. It 1769. Clem. XIV. 1730 Annexed''
77x.Gufltav.III. 177-4- Ach. 4. i775. Pius VI. to Germany. 11773. Victor.
i784.PrinceFrcd. 1 789. Selui. 3 , 173S. Chas. 4. Amade. 3.
regent. Naples.
'1795. Parti, 1759. Fred. 4- 1706. Charles
79a. Guatav.IV. 1796. Paul I. tion. 1800. Piu» VII. Sicily. Emman.2.
809. Chas. XI II. 1801. Alexand. I. 808. Fred. VI. Greece. 1807. Mus. 4.
814- Norway an-\ 1814. Norway 1808. Mah.O. 1823. Leo XII. Naples. 1802. Victor*
Emmau. 1.
nexed. 1828. Nicholas. taken auay. i8o$.Annexed
818. Chas. XIV. 1829. Pius VIII. 1806. Joseph to kingdom
1831. Greg. XVL 1808. Bonaparte 1814. 0/ Italy.
1832. Othol. Joach. Emman. Victor-
1839.ChriM.VlH. Murat. 1821. Charles1.
1S19. Abdul \
' Medjid. Felix.
844. Oscar. 1848. Fred. VII. 1846. Pius IX. Naple and 1831.Charles
Albert.
1855. Alex. IX Sicily. 1849. Victor-
859. Chas. XV.
1815. Fcrd.i. Emman.2.
1S25. Fran. 1.
1830. Ferd.2.
1859. Fran. 2
1860.Annexed
to Italy.
Italy.
1 1861. Abdul 1861. Victor-Emmanuel.
1S63. Chrisn. IX. 1863. Geo. L Aziz.
* Sec Article Russia for preceding Rulers.
DICTIONARY OF DATES.
AAR ABC
AARGAU (Switzerland,) formerly included in Berne, was formed into an independent
canton in 1803, and finally settled as such in 1815. It was much disturbed by religious dis
sensions in 1841 —44.
ABACUS, the capital of the Corinthian order of architecture, ascribed to Callimnchns,
about 540 B.c.—This name is also given to a frame traversed by stiff wires, on which bends
or counters are strung, used by the Greeks, Romans, and Chinese. M. Ijilanne published
an abacus at Paris in 1845.—The multiplication table has been called the Pythagorean
abacus.
ABATTOIRS, slaughter-houses for cattle. In 1810 Napoleon decreed that five should bo
erected near Paris ; they were opened in 1818. An abattoir was erected at Edinburgh in
1851 ; and abattoirs form part of the new London metropolitan cattle-market, opened on
June 13, 1855.
ABBASSIDES, descendants of Mahomet's undo, Ahbas-Bcn-Abdul-Motalleb. Abul
Abbas defeated Merwan II., the last caliph of the Ommiailes, in 750, and became the ruler
of the faithful. The Abbasside colour was black. Thirty-seven caliphs of this race reigned
from 750 to 1258.
ABBAYE, a military prison near St. Germain dos Prds, Paris, where 164 prisoners were
murdered by infuriated republicans led by Maillard, Sept. 2 and 3, 1792.
ABBEYS, monasteries for men or women. See Monachixm and Cimrcnls. The first abbey
founded in England was at Bangor in 560 ; in France, at Poitiers, about 360 ; in Ireland in
the fifth century ; in Scotland in the sixth century. 1 10 monasteries ana priories were sup
pressed in England, 2 Henry V. 1414. Salmon. These institutions (containing then about
47,721 persons) were totally suppressed throughout the realm by Henry VIII., 1539.*
Abbeys were suppressed in France in 1790 ; and in the kingdom of Italy in 1861.
ABBOT (from Ab, father), the head of an abbey. In England, mitred abbots were lords of
parliament ; there were twenty-seven abbots and two priors thus distinguished in 1329 ; but
the number was reduced to twenty-five in 1396. Coke. The abbots of Beading, Glastonbury,
and St. John's, Colchester, were hanged and quartered for denying the king's supremacy, and
not surrendering their abbeys, 1539. See Glastonbury.
ABC CLUB. A name adopted by a number of republican enthusiasts in Paris, their
object being to relieve the abaissis or depressed. They broke out into an insurrection on
June 5, 1832, which was suppressed with bloodshed, after Paris had been put into a state of
siege on June 6. These events are described by Victor Hugo in Lcs Misirabks, published
in 1862.
• VU., 374 lar^e monasteries (revenue 104,919'. 13*. 3<7 ), 186 less monasteries 'rcvonuc 33,479'. 13*. 7I1L),
and 48 houses of the knights hospitallers (revenue 2385/. 124. 8'J : total, houses, 608 ; revenue,
140,784'. 19*. Gfd.
B
AW 2 ABE
-- -ABDICATIONS of sovereigns, voluntary and compulsory, are numerous in history, The
following are the most remarkable :—
Bylla, Roman dictator B.C. Philip V., of Spain (re Napoleon, of France, April 5, 1814
Diocletian, Roman emperor 79 sumed) 1724 Victor Emmanuel, of Sar
A.D. 305 Victor Amadeus, of Sardinia 1730 dinia . . March 13, 1821
Stephen II., of Hungary H3X Charles, of Naples . , . 1759 Pedro IV., of Portugal,
Albert, the Bear of Bran Stanislaus, of Poland . . 1795 May 2, 1826
denburg 1143 Charles Emmanuel II., of Charles X., of France,
Lescov V. of Poland . . 1200 Sardinia , . June 4, 1802 Aug. 2, 1830
Uladislaus III. of Poland . . 1206 Francis II., of Germany, Pedro I., of Brazil . April 7. 1831
John Balliol, of Scotland . 1306 who became emperor of Dom Miguel, of Portugal
Otho (of Bavaria), of Hun Austria . . Aug. xx, 1804 (by leaving it) . May 26, 1834
gary !3O0 Charles IV., of Spain, in William I., of Holland, Oct. 8, 1840
Eric IX., of Denmark, &c. . 1439 favour of his son, March 19 ; Louis-Philippe, of France,
Pope Felix V *449 In favour of Bonaparfc Feb. 24, 1848
Charles V. , as emperor . 1555 See Spain , . May J So? Louis Charles, of Bavaria,
,, as king of Spain . 155* Gustavus IV., of Sweden . 1809 March 21, 1848
Christina, of Sweden 1654 Joseph Bonaparte, of Naples Ferdinand of Austria, Dec. 2, 1848
John Casimir, of Poland . . 1669 (for Spain) . June i, Charles Albert, of Sardinia,
James II., of England . Louis, of Holland . July 1, xSio M;irch 26, 1849
Frederick Augustus II,, of Jerome, of Westphalia, Leopold' II., grand-duke of
Poland 1704 Oct. ao, 1813 Tuscany . . . July, 1859
ABECEDARIANS, followers of Stork, an Anabaptist in the sixteenth century, deriving
their name from their rejection of all worldly knowledge, even of the alphabet.
ABELARD and HfetctfsE, celebrated for their passionate love, which commenced at
Paris, 1 1 18, when Heloise (a canon's daughter) was under seventeen years of age. Abelard
built the convent of the Paraclete and made her abbess in 1 121. Here he taught what was
condemned as heresy, 1122 and 1 140. After suffering an ignominious injury, ho became
a monk of the abbey of St. Denis, and died of grief in 1142, at St. MarceL Heloise begged
his body, buried it in the Paraclete, and was interred beside him in 1 163. The ashes of both
were carried to the Museum of French Monuments in 1800 ; and the museum having been
subsequently broken up, they were finally removed to the burying-ground of Pere La Chaise,
in 1817. Their works and letters were published in one volume in 1616. Pope's imitations
of the latter are well known.
ABENCERRAGES, a powerful Moorish tribe of Granada, opposed to that of the Zegiis.
From 1480 to 1492 their quarrels deluged Granada with blood and hastened the fall of the
kingdom. They were exterminated by Boabdil (Abu Abdallah), the last king, who was
dethroned by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492; his dominions were annexed to Castile.
ABENSBERG. See Eckmiihl.
ABERDEEN (N. Scotland), said to have been founded in the third century after Christ.
Gregory the Great conferred peculiar privileges on Aberdeen, in 893. Old Aberdeen was
made a royal burgh in 1 154 ; it was burnt by the English in 1336; and soon after New
Aberdeen was built. The university was founded by bishop William Elphinstone, who had a
bull from the pope Alexander VI. in 1494. King's college was erected in ijoo-6. Marischal
college was founded by George Keith, earl marischal of Scotland, in 1593 ; rebuilt in 1837. In
1858 the universities and colleges were united. —Malcolm III. having gained a great victory
over the Danes iu the year 1010, resolved to found a new bishojtric, in token of his gratitude
for his success, and pitched upon Mortlaeh in Banffshire, where St. Beanus was first bishop,
1015. The see, removed to Aberdeen early in the twelfth century, was discontinued at the
revolution, 1689, and is now a post-revolution bishopric, instituted in 1721. See Bishvps.
ABERDEEN ADMINISTRATION, called the Coalition Ministry, as including Whigs,
Radicals, and followers of Sir R. Peel. Formed in consequence of the resignation of the first
Derby administration ; sworn in Dec. a8, 1852 ; resigned Jan. 30, 1855 ; succeeded by the
Palimrston administration, which sec.
Earl of Aberdeen,*first lord of the treasury. Sir James Graham, first lord ofthe admiralty.
Lord Cranworth, lord chancellor. Sir Charles Wood, prendent of the India board.
Earl Granvillo, prendent of the council. Edward Cardwell, president of board of trade.
Duko of Argyll, lor%l privy seal. Hon. Sidney Herbert, secretary-ut-tear.
Lord John Russell,* foreign. Sir William Molesworth, chiefcommissioner of works.
Viscount Palmerston, home secretary. Marquess of Lansdowne (without office).
Duke of Newcastle,! colonial and war secretary. Viscount Canning, Lord Stanley of Alderley, right
William Ewart Gladstones, chancellor of exchequer. hon. Edward Strutt, &c.
* Born in 1784; engaged in foreign diplomacy, 1813 ; became foreign secretary, Jan. 1828; joined
the party of SirR. Peel, 1846; died, Dec. 14, i860.
t Lord John Russell was succeeded as foreign secretary by the earl of Clarendon, but continued a
member of the cabinet, without office; he afterwards became president of the council, in the room of
earl Granville, appointed to the duchy of Lancaster.
t On June it, 1854, tho officos wore separated ; the duke of Newcastle remained secretary of tear, and
sir George Grey was made colonial secretary.
ABH 3 ABS
ABHORRERS, a political court-party in England, in the reign of Charles II. the
opponents of the Addressers (afterwards Whigs), so called from their address to the king
praying for the immediate assembly of the parliament which was delayed on account of its
being adverse to the court. The first mentioned (afterwards Tories) expressed their abhorrence
of those who endeavoured to encroach on the royal prerogative, l68o. Hume.
ABINGDON LAW. In 1645, lord Essex and Waller held Abingdon, in Berks, against
Charles I. The town was unsuccessfully attacked by sir Stephen Hawkins in 1644, and by
prince Rupert in 1645. On these occasions the defenders put every Irish prisoner to death
without trial ; hence the term "Abingdon law." ,
rABJURATION of certain doctrines of the church of Rome was enjoined by statute 25
Charles II. 1672. The oath of abjuration of the pope and the pretender was first administered
by statute 13 William III. 1701 ; the form was changed in after reigns. By 21 & 22 Vict,
c. 48 ( 1 858) an alteration in this oath was authorised for Jews.
ABO, a port of Russia, founded prior to 1157, was till 1809 capital of Swedish Finland.
It has suffered much by fire, especially in 1775 and 1827 ; was seized by the Russians in
Feb., 1808 ; ceded to them in 1809 ; and rebuilt by them after the fire in 1827. A university
was erected by Gustavus Adolphus and Christina, 1640, et seq., and removed to Helsingfors
in 1827. The peace of Abo, between Russia and Sweden, was signed in 1743.
ABORIGINES (from ab origine, without origin), a name given to the earliest known
inhabitants of Italy (whence came the Latini) ; now applied to the original inhabitants of
any country. —The Aborigines Protection Society was established in 1838. Reports on the
condition of the aborigines in the British colonies were presented to parliament in 1834
and 1837.
ABOUKIR (Egypt), tho ancient Canopus. The bay is famous for the defeat of the
French fleet by Nelson, August 1, 1798. See Nile. A Turkish army of 15,000 was defeated
here by 5000 French under Bonaparte, July 25, 1 799. A British expedition to Egypt under
general sir Ralph Abercromby landed here, and Aboukir surrendered to them after an
obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, March 8, 1801. See Alexandria.
ABRAHAM, Era of, used by Eusebius ; so called from the patriarch Abraham, who died
B.c. 1821. It began October 1, 2016 B.C. To reduoe this era to the Christian, subtract
2015 years and three months.
ABRAHAM, Heights of, near Quebec, Lower Canada. The French were defeated here
by general Wolfe, who fell in the moment of viotory, Sept. 13, 1759. See Quebec.
ABRAHAMITES, a sect which adopted the errors of Paulus, and was suppressed by
Cyriacus, the patriarch of Antioch. In the ninth century, there sprang up a community of
inonksunder a like designation: it, too, was suppressed, or rather exterminated, for worshipping
images. A mongrel sect of this name was banished from Bohemia by Joseph II. in 1783.
ABSALOM'S REBELLION, ending in his death (1024-3 ao.) is described in 2 Sam.
xv.—xix.
ABSENTEE TAX (four shillings in the pound) was first levied in Ireland in 1715 on tho
incomes and pensions of absentees (persons who derive their income from one country and
spend it in another) but ceased in 1 753. A tax of 2s. in the pound was vainly proposed by
Mr. Flood in 1773 and by Mr. Molyneux in 1783.
ABSOLUTION, Ecclesiastical. Till the third century, the consent of the congregation
was necessary to absolution ; but soon after the power was reserved to the bishop ; and in
the twelfth century the form " / absolve thee" had become general.
ABSTINENCE. It is said that St. Anthony lived to the age of 105 on twelve ounces of
bread and water daily, and James the hermit to the age of 104. St. Epiphanius lived
thus to 115; Simeon the Stylite to 112; and Kentigern, commonly called St. Mungo,
to 185 years of age. SpoUiswood. Ann Mooro, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire,
was said to have lived twenty months without food ; but her imposture was detected by Dr.
A. Henderson, Nov. 1808. At Newry, in Ireland, a man named Cavnnagh was reported to
have lived two years without meat or drink, Aug. 1840. His imposture was afterwards
discovered in England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. See Fasts.
* The commons expelled several members for being Abhorrers, among them sir Francis Withens
(whom they sent to the Tower), and prayed his majesty to remove others from places of trust. They also
resolved, * that it is tho undoubted right of the subject to petition for tho calling of a parliament, and
that to traduce suoh petitions as tumultuous and seditious, is to contribute to tho design of altering tho
constitution." Oct. 1680. Salmon.
B 2
ABS 1
ABSTINENTS, ascetics that wholly abstained from wine, flesh, and marriage, appeared
in France and Spain in the third century.
ABYSSINIA, a large country in N. E. Africa. Its ancient history is very uncertain.
The kingdom of Auxumita; (from its chief town Auxume) flourished in the 1st and 2nd
centuries after Christ. The religion of the Abyssinians is a corrupt form of Christianity
introduced about 329 by Frumentius. About 960, Judith, a Jewisli princess, murdered a
great part of the royal family, and reigned forty years. The young king escaped : and the
royal house was restored in 1268 in the person of his descendant Icon Anuac. In the middle
ages it was said to be ruled by Prestcr John or Pretc Janni. The Portuguese missions com
menced in the 15th century, but were expelled about 1632 in consequence of the tyranny of
Mendez and the Jesuits. The encroachments of the Gallas and intestine disorders soon after
broke up the empire into petty governments. Missions were sent from England in 1829 and
1841. Much information respecting Abyssinia has been given by Bruce (1790), Salt
(1805—9), Ruppell (1838), and Parkyns (1853).*
ABYSSINIAN ERA is reckoned from the creation, which the Abyssinians place in the
5493 i\l year before our era, on the 29th Aug. old stylo : and their dates consequently exceed
ours by 5492 years and 125 days. To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract
5492 years and 125 days.
ACADEMIES. Academia was a shady grove without the walls of Athens (bequeathed to
Academus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato 6rst taught philosophy, and his followers
took the title ot Academics, 378 B.c. Stanley. —Rome had no academics. — Ptolemy Soter is
said to have founded an academy at Alexandria, about 314 b.c. Abderahman I., caliph of
Spain, founded academies about A.D. 773. Theodosius the Younger, Charlemagne, and
Alfred are also named as founders of academies. Italy is celebrated for its academies ; and
Jarckius mentions 550, of which 25 were in the city of Milan. The following are among the
principal academies :—
Amorlcan Academy of Sciences, Boston, 1780. Milan, Architecture, 1380; Sciences, 1719.
Ancona. of the Caglinosi, 1642. Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759.
Basil, 1460. Naples, Bossana, 1540; Mathematics, 1560; Sciences,
Berlin, Royal, 1700; of Princes, 1703; Architecture, 1695; Hcrcalaneum, 1755.
1799. New York, Literature and Philosophy, 1814.
Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1687; Mathematics, 1690; Nismos, Royal Academy, 1682.
Sciences and Arts, 1712. Padua, for Poetry, 1613 ; Sciences, 1792.
Brescia, of the Brranli, 1626. Palermo, Medical, 1645.
Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682, Paris, Sorbonne, 1253; Painting, 1391 ; Music, 1543
Brussels, Bella Ldtret, 1773. and 1672 ; French (by Richoliou), 1635; Fine Arts,
Caen, Iklies Lettret, 1705. 1648 ; Inscriptions et Belles Lettres (by Colbert),
Copenhagen, of Sciences, 1743. 1663; Sciences (by Colbert), 1666; Architecture.
Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. 167 1 ; Surgery, 1731; Military, 1751 ; Natural
Dublin, Arts, 1742; Painting, Sculpture, Ac., 1823. Philosophy, 1796.
Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. Parma, the Innominati, 1550.
Faenza, the Phtloponi, 1612. Perousa, Iiisensati, 1561 ; Filigirti, 1574.
Florence, Bellss Lettre*t 1272 ; Dtlla Crusca (now Philadelphia, Arts and Sciences, 1749.
united with the Florentine, and merged under Portsmouth, Naval, 1722; enlarged, 1806.
that name), 1582; Del Cimento, 1657 (by cardinal Rome, Umnrinti, 1G11 ; FatUntcici, 1625; Infecondi,
do' Medici); Antiquities, 1807. 1653; Painting, 1665; Arcadi, 1690; English,
Geneva, Medical, 1715. 1752 ; Lineei, about 1600; Wuoci Lincei, 1847.
Genoa, Painting. Ac., 17151 ; Sciences, 1783. St. Petersburg, Sciences, 1725 ; Military, 1732 ; tho
Germany, Katura Curion, now IsopoUline, 1662. School of Arts, 17G4.
GOttingon, 1750 Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles Lettrest 1753;
Haerlem, the Sciences, 1760. Agriculture, 1781 ; Royal Swedish, 1786.
Irish Academy, Royal, Dublin, 1782. Toulon, Military, 1682.
Lisbon, History, 1720 ; Sciences, 1779. Turin Sciences, about 1759; Fine Arts, 1778.
London. See Societies. Royal Academy of Fine Turkey, Military School, 1775.
Arts, 1768 ; of Music, 1734-43; and 1822. Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720.
Lyons, Sciences, 1710; Physic and Mathematics Vonice, Medical, Ac, 1701.
added, 1758. Vorona, Music, 1543 ; Soionces, 1780.
Madrid, tho Royal Spanish, 1713 ; History, 1730; Vienna, Sculpture and tho Arts, 1705 ; Surgery,
Painting and the Arts, 1753. 1783 ; Oriental, 1810.
Manheim, Sciences, 1755 ; Sculpture, 1775. Warsaw, Languages, and History, 1753.
Mantua, tho Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. Washington. United States, America, 1863.
Marseilles, Belle* Lettres, 1726. Woolwich, Military, 1741.
Massachusetts, Arts and Sciences, 1780.
* Abyssinia has long been in a state of anarchy. In 1855 the emperor Ros Ali was deposed by his
son-in-law Theodore, the present ruler, who invited tho European sovereigns to join him in a crusade
against his neighbours the Turks. Our consul (Plowden) at Massowah imprudently jninod this sovereign,
and lost his life while opposing an insurrection ; and his successor (col. Cameron; and other persons are
now imprisoned by Theodore, who is jealous of their favouring the Turks. The subject was discussed
in parliament in July, 1865, and the consul was censurod by government for having disregarded his
in&tructions.
ACA 5 ACH
ACADIA. See Nova Scotia.
ACANTHUS, the foliage forming the volutes of the Corinthian capital, ascribed to
Calliinachus, about 540 B. c.
ACAPULCO, a Spanish galleon, from Acapulco, laden with gold and precious wares
(estimated at above l,coo,oooi. sterling), taken by lord Anson, who had previously acquired
booty in his voyage amounting to 6oo,oooZ. He arrived at Spithcad in the Centurion, after
having circumnavigated the globe, June 15, 1744.
ACARNANIA, N. Greece. The people became prominent in the Peloponnesian war,
having invited the help of the Athenians against the Ambracians, 432 B.C. The Acarnanians
were subdued by the Lacedemonians in 390 ; they took part with Macedon against the Romans
in 200, by whom they were subjugated iu 197 ; finally, in 145.
ACCENTS. The most ancient manuscripts are written without accents, and without any
separation of words ; nor was it until after the ninth century that the copyists began to leave
spaces between the words. Michaclis, after Wctstein, ascribes the insertion of accents to
Kuthalius, bishop of Sulca, in Egypt, a.d. 458. Accents were first used by the French iu
the reigu of Louis XIII. (about 1610).
ACCESSION, The, i.e. that of the bouso of Hanover to the throne of England, in the
person of George I., elector of Hanover, the son of Sophia, the daughter of Elizabeth, the
daughter of James I. He succeeded to the crown, Aug. I, 1714, by virtue of the act of
settlement passed in the reign of William III., June 12, 1701, which limited the succession
to his mother (as a protestant) in the event of queen Anne dying without issue.
ACCESSORIES to Crimes. The law respecting them consolidated and amended in 1861.
ACCIDENTS. See Coal, Fires, Railicays, &c. For compensation for accidents, see
Campbell'* Act and Passeiujcrs.
ACCLIMATISATION of Animals. This has been prosecuted with great vigour since the
establishment of the Zoological society of London in 1829, and of the Society d'Acclimata-
tiou in Paris. Numbers of European animals have been naturalised in Australia ; the
camel has been conveyed to Brazil (1859) ; alpacas are bred at Paris ; and ostriches in Italy
(1859). On Oct. 6, i860, the Bois de Boulogne, near Paris, was opened as a zoological
Garden, containing only acclimatised animals. An English acclimatisation society was
founded Juno 10, i860, by lion. Grantley Berkeley, Mr. J. Crockford, Mr. F. Bnckland, &c,
and the prince of Wales became president in April, 1865. An acclimatising garden was
established at Melbourne, Australia, in Feb. 1861, and efforts are being made to naturaliso
English birds, fishes, &c.
ACCORDION, a small wind-instrument with keys, introduced into England from Germany
about 1828.
ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL in Chancery. The office was appointed in 1726, and
abolished in 1841 ; it was always held by a master in chancery. Hardy.
ACCUSERS. By the occult writers, such as Agrippa, accusers are the eighth order of
devils, whose chief is called Asteroth, or Spy. In the Revelation, ch. xii. 10, the devil is
called " the accuser of the brethren."—False accusers were to be hanged, by 24 Henry VI.
1446 ; and burnt in the face with an F, by 37 Henry VIII. 1545. Stow.
ACELDAMA, a field, said to have been the one bought with the thirty pieces of silver given
to Judas Iscariot for betraying Christ, is still shown to travellers. It is covered with an arched
roof, and retains the name Aceldama, that is "the field of blood," to this day. Mattlvcw
xxvii. 8; Actsi. 19. —This namo was given to an estate purchased by judge Jeffreys after
the "bloody assizes" in 1685.
ACETYLENE, a luminous hydrocarbon gas resembling coal gas, discovered by Berthelot,
and made known in 1862.
ACHAIA (N. Peloponnesus), Greece ; the capital was settled by Achajus, the son of
Xuthus, about 1330 B.C. ( ?) The kingdom was united with Sicyon or subject to the jEtolians
until about 284 n.c. The Achaci, descendants of Achseus, originally inhabited the neigh
bourhood of Argos ; but when the Hentclidie drove them thence, they retired among the
Ionians, expelled the natives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz., Pellene, jttgira, /Egium,
Bura, Trita?a, Ijcontium, Rhypes, Cerynea, Olenos, Helice, Patrre, Dyme, and Pharm, form
ing the Acii.tAN League, which was bruken up soon after the death of Alcxauder of Macedon,
323 B.C.
AOH 6 ACR
Achaia invaded by Epaniinondaa . . B.C. 366 TheAchsaans overrun Measeniawitb fire & sword 182
Tho Achaean league revived by four cities The Romans enter Achaia, and carry off num
about 280— bers of the people, among whom is the cele
Aratus made pnetor 245 brated Polybius 165
Ttie league joined by Corinth, Mogara, Ac. 243—236 Metellus enters Greece ... . . 147
Supported by Athena and Antigonus Doson . . 229 The Achxeans defeated by Mummius at Leuco-
War with the Spartans ; tho Achseans defeated potra ; the leaguo dissolved by Mummius ;
at Ladocea, by tho Spartans under Cloo- Corinth taken ; Greece subjected to Rome,
menos III., 226; but totally defeat them at and named the province ofAchaia . . . 146
Scllasia 321 Achaia made a Latin principality, a.,d. 1205;
The Social war begun ; battle of Caphyee, in founded by William of Champlitte, 1205 ; ob
Arcadia ; Aratus defeated . ... 220 tained by Geoffrey Villchardouin, 1210 ; by
The Peloponnesus ravaged by the JStolians . 219 Geoffrey II., 1218; by his brother William,
Aratus poisoned at JSgnini 213 1246 ; who conquers the Moors, 1248 ; makes
Philopoeraen. leader of the league, defeats tho war with the emperor Michael, 1259, and
Spartan tyrant Machanidas . . . . 208 gains three fortresses, 1 262 ; succeeded
Alliance of the league with tho Romans . . 198 by Isabella, 1277 ; who marries Florenz
Philopcsmcn defeated by Nabis in a naval of Hainult, 1291 ; their daughter Maud,
battle 194 princess, 1311; thrice married ; forcibly mar
Sparta joined to the league .... 191 ried to John de Gravina, and dies in prison ;
War with Mcssene : Philopcenieu made pri Achaia subject to tho kings of Naples . . 1334
soner and slain 183 Conquered by tho Turks . . . about 1 540
ACHONRY, Sligo (N. Ireland) ; a bishopric founded by St. Finian, who erected the
chnrch of Achad, usually called Achonry, about 520, and conferred it on his disciple Nathy
(Dathy, or David), the first bishop. The see, hold with Killala since 1612, was united with
Tuam in 1834.
ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES, in which colour is got rid of, were invented by John
Dollond, and described in Phil. Trans, of tho Royal Society, London, 1753-8.
ACIDS (now defined as salts of hydrogen) are generally solublo in water, redden organic
blues, decompose carbonates, and destroy the properties of alkalfes, forming alkaline salts.
The number was increased by the Arabs ; Geber (8th century) knew nitric acid and
sulphuric acid. Theories of the constitution of acids were put forth by Becher (1669),
Lemery (1675), and Stahl (1723). After the discovery of oxygen by Priestley, Aug. 1, 1774.
Lavoisier (1778) concluded that oxygen wasa constituent of all acids ; but about 1810 Davy,
Gay-Lussac, and others, proved the existence of acids free from oxygen. In 1816 Dulong
proposed the binary or hydrogen theory of acids, and in 1837 Liebig applied the theories of
Davy and Dulong to explain the constitution of several organic acids. Oxygen acids are
now termed anhydrides. An innumerable number of acids have been discovered through tho
advance of organic chemistry. Watts.
ACOLYTES, an inferior order of clergy in the Latin church, unknown to tho Greek
church for four hundred years after Christ.
ACOUSTICS (from akoud), Greek, I hear), the science of sound, so named by Sauveur in
the 17th century. The communication of sounds to tho air by the vibrations of the
atmosphere, strings, Ac, was explained by Pythagoras about 500 B.C., and by Aristotle,
330B.C.
Tho speaking trumpet is said to have been used by Velocity of sound said to bo 1473 feet in a second,
Alexander the Great, 33s b.o. by Gasscndi ; 1172 feet by Cassini, KOmer and
Galileo's discoveries, about a.d. 1600. others ; 968 by Newton, about 1700.
His theorem of the harmonic curve demonstrated Chladni (who raised acoustics to an independent
by Dr. Brook Taylor, in 1714 ; further perfected science) published his important discoveries on
by D'Alembert, fculor, BornouilU, and La Grange, the figures produced in layers of sand by harmonic
at various periods of the eighteenth century. chords, &&, in 1787, and since.
Hooko calculated tho vibration of sounds by tho Cagniard-Latour invented tho sirtne {which we). 1819.
striking of the teeth of brass wheels, 1681. Biot, Savart, Wheatstono, Lissajous, Hclmholtz,
Sauveur determined the number of vibrations be- Tyndall, and others in the present century have
longing to a given note, about 1700. greatly increased our knowledge of acoustics.
ACRE. This measure was formerly of uncertain quantity, and differed in various parts
of tho realm, until made standard by statute 31 Edward I. 1303, and fixed at 40 poles or
perches in length, and 4 in breadth—or 160 square poles, containing 4840 square yards,
ur 43j 560 square feet. In certain counties and places the measure is larger. Pardon.
ACRE, Acca, anciently Ptolcmais, in Syria, was taken by tho Saracens in 638 ; by the
crusaders under Baldwin I. in 1104 ; by Saladin in 1 187 ; and again by Richard I. and other
crusaders, July 12, 1 191, after a siege of two years, with a loss of 6 archbishops, 12 bishops,
40 earls, 500 barons, and 300,000 soldiers. It was then named Si. Jean d'Acre. It was
retaken by tho Saracens in 1291, when 60,000 Christians perished. This capture was
rendered memorable by the murder of the nuns, who had mangled their faces to repress the
ACIi 7 ACT
lust of the infidels. —Acre, gallantly defended by Djezzar Kucha against Bonaparte in July,
179&, was relieved by Sir Sidney Smith, who resisted twelve attempts by the French, between
March 16 and May 20, 1799, when Bonaparte retreated. —St Jean d'Acre, as a pachalic
subject to the Porte, was seized July 2, 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted. On
Nov. 3, 1840, it was stormed by the British fleet under sir Robert Stopford, and taken after
a bombardment of a few hours, the Egyptians losing upwards of 2000 in killed and wounded,
and 3000 prisoners, while the British had but twelve killed and 42 wounded. See Syria and
Turkey.
ACROPOLIS, the citadel of Athens, was built on a rock, and accessible only on one side ;
Minerva had a temple at the bottom. The roof of this vast pile, which had stood above
2000 years, was destroyed by the Venetians who took Athens in 1687.
ACS (Hungary). The Hungarians under Gorgey were defeated here by the Austrians
and Russians, on July 10, 1849.
ACT of Settlement, &c. See Accession, Succession, Supremacy, and Uniformity Acts.
ACTA SANCTORUM (acts of the saints), a work commenced by the Jesuits in the
seventeenth century. The first volume appeared in 1643 : the publication was interrupted
in 1734, when the fifty-third volume was published, but was resumed in 1846, and is still in
progress : having advanced in the order of the months as far as October. From one of the
first editors, Bolland, the writers have been named Bollandists.
ACTINOMETER, an instrument to measure the power of the solar rays, invented by sir
J. F. Herschel, about 1825. See Sun,
ACTIUM, a promontory of Acamania, "W". Greece, near which was fought, on Sept. 2,
31 bc, the battle between the fleets of Oetavianus Caisar on the one side, and of Marc Antony
and Cleopatra on the other, which decided the fate of Antony ; 300 of his galleys going over
to Caesar. This victory made Oetavianus master of the world, and the Roman empire is
commonly dated Jan. 1, 30 B.C. (the Aclian Era). The conqueror built Nicopolis (the city
of victory), and instituted the Actian games. Blair,
ACTRESSES appear to have been unknown to the ancients; men or eunuchs performing
the female parts. Charles II. is said to have first encouraged the public appearance of
women on the stage in Eugland, in 1662 ; but the queen of James I. had previously per
formed in a theatre at court. Theat. Biog. Mrs Colrnan was the first actress on the stage ;
she performed the part of lanthe in Davenanfs "Siege of Rhodes," in 1656. Victor.
ACTS of Parliament, or Statutes. See Parliament. The following are among the
most celebrated early statutes :—
Statutes of Clarendon, to restrain the power of the since 1800, was 570, in 1846 (the railway year) ;
clergy, enacted in 10 Hen. II. 1164. Provisions 402 were local ana personal, 51 private, and 117
of Morton, 1235-6. Statute of Marlborough, 1267. public acts. In 1841, only 13 were passed (the
Of Bigamy, 1275-6. Of Gloucester, the earliest lowest number), of which two were private. In
statute of which any record exists, 6 Edw. I., three instances only, the annual number was
1278. Of [Mortmain, 1279. Quo Warranto, Oct. under a hundred. The average number of the first
1280. Statutes of Wales, 1284. Of Winchester, Oct. ten yeais of the present century was 132 public
1284. Of Westminster, 1285. Statute forbidding acts. In the ten years ending 1850, the average
the levying of taxes without the consent of par numbor of acts, of public interest, was 112.
liament, 1297. Magna Charta, 1097. Of Pra> The number of public general acts passed in 1851
munire, 1306. was 106 ; in 1852, 88 ; in 1853, 137 ; in 1854, 125 ;
Between 1823 and 1829, 1126 acts were wholly re in 1855, 134; in 1856, 120; in 1857, 86; in 1858,
pealed, and! 443 repealed in part, chiefly arising T09 ; in 1859, 101 ; in i860, 154 ; in 1861, 134 ; in
out of the consolidation of the laws by Mr. (after 1862, 114; in 1863, 125; in 1864, i2x.
wards sir Robert) Peel ; of these acts, 1344 related In 185a i„ Vict. c. 13, was passed to curtail Repeti
to the kingdom at large, and 225 to Ireland solely; tions in statutes.
and in 1856 many obsolete statutes (enacted be Statutes first printed in the reign of Richard III.,
tween 1285 and 1777) were repealed. 1483,
By the Statute Law Revision Act of 1861, 770 acts Statutes of the Realm, from Magna Charta to
were wholly repealed, and a great many partially. George I. , printed from the original records and
By the similar Act of 1863, a great number of MSS. in 12 vols, folio, under the direction of com
enactments were repealed, commencing with the missioners appointed in i8ot, 1811—28.
Provisions of Merton, 20 Henry III. (1236), and The statutes passed during each session are now
ending with 1 James II. (1685). printed annually in 4to. and 8vo. Abstracts are
The greatest number of acts passed in any one year given in the Cabinet Lawyer.
ACTS, in dramatic poetry, first employed by the Romans. Five acts are mentioned by
Horace (Art of Poetry) as the rule (about B.C. 8).
ACTUARY, AcTUARirs, the Roman accountant. The Institute of Actuaries founded in
1848, publishes its proceedings in the "Assurance Magazine."
ADA S ADM
ADAM and EVE, Era or, set down by most Christian writers as being 4004 B.C. There
have been as many as one hundred and forty opinions on the distance of time between tlio
creation of the world and the birth of the Redeemer : some make it 3616 years, and some as
great as 6484 years. See Creation.
ADAMITES, a sect said to have existed about 130, and to have assembled quite naked
in their places of worship, asserting that if Adam had not sinned there would have been no
marriages. Their chief was named Prodicus ; they deified the elements, rejected prayer, ami
said it was not necessary to confess Christ. Eitsebius. A similar sect arose at Antwerp in the
twelfth century, under Taudemus, or Tanchclin, whose followers, 3000 soldiers and others,
committed many crimes under spiritual names. The sect became extinct soon after the
death of its chief ; but another of the same kind, named Turlupius, appeared shortly after in
Savoy and Dauphiny. A Fleming named Pieard, revived this sect in Bohemia, about 1415 ;
it was suppressed by Ziska.
ADDINGTON ADMINISTRATION. Mr. Pitt, having engaged to procuro Roman
Catholic emancipation to secure the union with Ireland, and being unable to do so as a
minister, resigned Feb. 3, 1801. A new ministry was formed by Mr. Addington, March
1801 ; after various changes it terminated May 11, 1804.
Henry Addington,* first lord 0/ the treasury and Lord Hawkosbury, foreign secretary.
chancellor 0/ the exchequer. Lord Hobart, colonial secretary.
Lord Eldon, lord chanctVor. Earl 8t. Vincent, admiralty.
Duke of Portland, lord president. Earl of Chatham, ordnance.
Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy teal. Charles Yorko, secrttary-al-war.
Lord Pelham, home secretary. I Viscount Lewisham, Lord Auckland, *c.
ADDISCOMBE COLLEGE, near Croydon, Surrey, established by the East India
company, in 1809, for the education of candidates for the scientific branches of the Indian
army, was closed in 1861.
ADDLED PARLIAMENT. See Parliament, 1614.
ADDRESSERS. See Abliorrers.
ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia, was founded in 1836. It contained 14,000
inhabitants in 1850, and 18,259 in 1855. It was made a bishopric in 1847.
ADELPHI (Greek for brothers), a series of streets on the south side of the Strand, London,
erected about 1768 by the brothers, John, Robert, James, and William Adam, after whom
the streets are named. Adelphj. Theatre, see under Tlieatres.
ADEN, a free port on the S. W. corner of Arabia, where in 1837 a British ship was
wrecked and plundered. The sultan promised compensation, and agreed to cede the place
to the English. The sultanls son refusing to fulfil this agreement to captain Haynes, a
naval and military force, under captain H. Smith, of the Volage, was dispatched to Aden,
which captured it, Jan. 19, 1839. It is now a coal depot for Indian steamers, &c.
ADIGE, a river in N. Italy, near which the Austrians defeated the French on March 26,
30, and April 5, 1799.
ADMINISTRATIONS of England, and of Great Britain, t For a fuller account of
each, since 1700, sec separate articles headed with the name of the premier.
* Born T757; becamo viscount Sidmouth In 1805; held various offices afterwards, nnd died in 1844.
His circular to tho lords lieutenants, dated March 27, 1817, directing them to adopt severe measures against
the authors of blasphemous and seditious pamphlets, was greatly censured, and not carried into effect.
t Until tho Restoration, there was not in fact anything that could bo exclusively called a Cabinet.
The Bovercifrn latterly governed by a collection of privy councillors, sometimes of larger, sometimes of
smaller nmnlxjr, the men and offices being frequently changed. Tho separation of the Cabinet from tho
Privy Council becamo greater during the reign of William III., and tho control of the chief, now termed
tho " premier" was established in tho reign of Anno. " The era of ministries may most properly bo
reckoned from the day of the meeting of the parliament after the general election of 1698."—Lord
Macanlay. " In Walpole's time there was an interior council, of Walpole, the chancellor, and secretaries
of state, who. in the first instance, consulted together on the more confidential points."—Croker's
Memoirs of Lonl Hervey. 1111 1850 the cabinet council usually consisted of the following twelve members :
—First lord of the treasury ; lord chancellor ; lord president of the council ; chancellor of the exchequer ;
lord privy seal ; home, foreign, and colonial secretaries ; first lord of the admiralty ; president of tho
boai-dof trade; president of the board of control; chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. In 1850, the
number wasfifteen, and included tho secretary-at-war, the postmaster-general, and tho chiof secretary for
Ireland. In the Palmcrston-Hussell cabinet (which see), the president of the poor-law-board replaced tho
secretary for Ireland. The average duration of a ministry has been set down at four, five, and six years ;
but instances have occurred of the duration of a ministry for much longer periods : sir Robert Walpole
was minister from 1721 to 1742 (21 years); Mr. Pitt, 1783 to 1801 (18 years); and lord Liverpool, 1812 to
1827 (15 years). Several ministries have not endured boynnd a few months, as the Coalition Ministry in
1783, and tho " Talents" Ministry in 1806. The " Sttort-lived" Administration lasted Feb. 10 to 12, 1746.
ADM ADM
Administrations of England, and of Great Britain.
FIenry VIII.—Abp. Warham ; Bps. Fisher and of Hamilton ; Edward, earl of Dorset ; sir
Fox ; earl of Surrey, Ac. . . . a.d. 1509 John Coko ; sir Francis Windebank, Ac. . 1635
Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, Ac. . . .1514 William Juxon, bishop of London ; sir John
Earl of Surrey ; Tunstall, bishop of London, Ac. 1523 Finch, afterward* lord Finch ; Francis, lord
Sir Thomas More ; bishops Tunstall and Gardi Cottington ; Wentworth, earl of Strafford ;
ner, and Cranmer (afterward* abp. of Canter Algernon, earl of Northuml>erland ; James,
bury) 1529 marquess of Hamilton ; Laud, archbishop of
Abp. Cranmer; lord Cromwell, aft. earl of Canterbury ; sir Francis Windebank ; air
Essex ; Thos. Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire, Ac. . *532 Henry Vane, Ac 1640
Thomas, duko of Norfolk ; Henry, earl of [The king beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649. ]
Surrey ; Thomas, lord Audley ; bishop Gardi Commonwealth.—Oliver Cromwell, protector,
ner ; sir Ralph Sadler, Ac ^540 namod a council, the number at no time to
LonlWriothesleyjThomaSjduke ofNorfolk; lord exceed twenty-one members, or be less than
Lisle; sirWilliam Petre; sirWilliam Paget, Ac. 1544 thirteen 1653
Edward VI.— Lord Wriothesley, now earl of Richard Cromwell, son of Oliver, succeeded on
Southampton, lord chancollor (expelled) ; the doath of the latter. A council of officers
Edward, earl of Hertford, lord protector, ruled at Wallingford house . . . . 1658
created duke of Somerset ; John, lord Rus Charles II.—Sir Edward Hyde, afterward* onr\
sell ; Henry, earl of Arundol ; Thomas, lord of Clarendon ; George Monk, created duke of
Sevmour; sir William Paget; sir William Albemarle ; Edward Montagu, created earl of
Petre, Ac . 1547 Sandwich ; lord Saye and Sclo ; earl of Man
John Dudley, late lord Lisle and carl of War chester; lord Seymour; sir Robert Long, Ac. 1660
wick, created duke of Northumberland ; Georgo Monk, duke of Albemarle, made first
John, earl of Bedford; bishop Goodrich, sir commissioner of the treasury, Ac. . . . 1667
William Cecil, Ac. . . • 1551 ** Cabal" Ministry: Clifford, Ashley, Bucking-
Mary.—Stephen Gardiner, bp. of Winchester , bam, Arlington, Lauderdale. (See Cabal.) . 1670
Edmund Bonner, bp. of London ; William, Thomas, lord Clifford ; Anthony, earl of Shaftes
marquess of Winchester ; sir Edwd. Hastings, bury ; Henry, earl of Arlington; Arthur,
Ac. carl of Anglesey ; sir ThomasOsborno, created
Elizabeth.—Sir Nicholas Bacon ; Edward, lord; "554 viscount Latimer ; Henry Coventry ; air
Clinton ; sir Robert Dudley, afld*. earl of George Carteret ; Edward Seymour, Ac. . 167a
Leicester ; sir Wm. Cecil, a,flds. lord Burleigh. 1558 Thomas, viscount Latimer, afterward* earl of
Lord Burleigh (minister during nearly all tho Danby, made lord high treasurer June 26, 1673
reign) ; sir N. Bacon, Ac. Arthur, earl of Essex (succeeded by Lawrence
William, lord Burleigh ; sir Thomas Bromley , Hyde, aft. earl of Rochester) ; Robert, carl of
Robert Dovereux, carl of Essex (a favourite) ; Sunderland, Ac 1679
carl of Leicester; earl of Lincoln; sir Walter [The king nominated a new council on April 21,
Mildmay ; air Francis Walsingharo, Ac. 1579 consisting of thirty members only, of whom
Lord Burleigh ; Robert, earl of Essex ; sir the princi]Xil were the great officers of Btato
Christopher Hatton, Ac 1587 and great officers of the Household.]
Thomas Sockville, lord Buckburst, afterward* Sidney, lord Godolphin ; Lawrence, earl of
earl of Dorset ; sir Thomas Egerton, afier- Rochester : Daniel, earl of Nottingham ;
tcani* lord Ellesmere and viscount Brackloy ; Robert, carl of Sunderland ; sir Thomas
sir Robert Cecil, Ac. Chichefey; George, lord Dartmouth ; Henry,
Jamks I. —Thomas, earl of Dorset; Thomas, >590 earl of Clarendon ; carls of Bath and Radnor,
lord Ellesmere ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Ac 1684
Thomas, earl of Suffolk ; Edward, earl of James II.—Lawrence,earl of Rochester; George,
Worcester ; Robert Cecil, afterward* earl of marquess of Halifax ; sir Georgo Jeffreys,
Salisbury, Ac 1603 afterward* lord Jeffreys ; Henry, earl of Cla
Rol>ert Cecil, earl of Salisbury ; Thomas, lord rendon ; sir John Ernlcy ; viscount Preston,
Ellesmere ; Henry, earl of Northampton ; Ac . . 1685
Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Thomas, earl of The earl of Rochester was displaced, and John,
Suffolk, Ac. i(x>) lord Bolasyso, made first commissioner of
Henry, earl of Northampton ; Thomas, lord the treasury in his room, Jan. 4 ; the earl of
Ellesmere ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; sir Sunderland made president of the council ;
Ralph Winwood ; Charlos, earl of Notting viscouut Preston, secretary of state ; and
ham ; Robert, viscount Rochester, afterwards various other changes took place in this and
earl of Somerset, Ac the following year 1687
Thomas, lord Ellcsmero ; Thomas, earl of [Tho king loft Whitehall in the nightof Dec. 17,
Suffolk ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; sir and quitting the kingdom, landed at Amble-
George Villiers (a favourite), afterward* vis teuse, in France, on Dec. 23, 1688.]
count Vllliers, and successively earl, mar William III. and Mary.—Charles, viscouut
quess, and duke of Buckingham . 1615 Mordaunt ; Thomas Osborne, earl of Danby,
Sir Henry Montagu, afterward* viscount Man- created marquess of Carmarthen, afterward*
devillo and earl of Manchester . . . , 1620 duke of Leeds ; Georgo, marquess of Halifax ;
Lionel, lord Cranfteld, afterward* earl of Middle Arthur Herbert, afterteardt lord Torrington ;
sex : Edward, earl of Worcester ; John, earl earls of Shrewsbury, Nottingham and Sun
of Bristol ; John Williams, dean of West derland ; earl of Dorset and Middlesex ;
minster; George Villiers, now marquess of William, earl (afterward* duke) of Devon
Buckingham ; sir Edward Conway, Ac. 1621 shire; lord Godolphin; lord Montagu; lord
Charles I.—Richard, lord Weston, afterward* De la Mere, Ac 1689
earl of Portland ; sir Thomas Coventry, after Sidney, lord Godolphin ; Thomas, earl of
ward* lord Coventry ; Henry, earl of Man Danby; Richard Hampden ; Thomas, earl of
chester (succeeded by James, earl of Marl Pembroke; Henry, viscouut Sydney ; Dauicl,
borough, who, in turn, gave place to Edward, earl of Nottingham, Ac. .... 1690
lord, afterward* viscount, Conway); William Sir John Somers became lord Somcrs in 1607,
Laud, bishop of London ; sir Albert Morton, and lord chancellor ; Charles Montagu, after
Ac 1628 ward* lord Halifax, was made first commis
William Laud, now archbishop of Canterbtiry : sioner of the treasury, May i, 1698, succeeded
Francis, lord Cuttington ; James, marquess by Ford, oarl of Taukorviile, in 1699.
ADM 10 ADM
ADMINISTRATIONS of Great Britain, continued.
Anne.—Sidney, lord (afterward/ earl of) Godol- numerous changes in, and accessions to,
phin; Thomas, earl of Pembroke, Ac. May, 170a office occurred. J
Robert Harley, carl of Oxford- ; sir Simon Har- George Canning; lord Lyndhurst ; viscount
court, Ac June r, 1711 Godorich ; Mr. Huskisson ; lord Palmerston ;
Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, made lord trea duke of Clarence, Ac. . April, 1827
surer three days before the quocn's death, [Mr. Canning died Aug. 8, 1837.]
Ac July 30, 1714 Viscount Goderich : viscount Palmerston ; mar
George I.—Charles, earl of Halifax (succeeded quess of Lansdowno ; Mr. Huskisson, Ac.
on his death by the earl of Carlisle), Ac. . 1714 Aug. „
Hobcrt Walpole, first lord of the treasury and Duke of Wellington; Robert Peel; Mr. Hus
chancellor of the exchequer, Ac. . . . 1715 kisson, Ac Jan. 1828
James (afterwards carl) Stanhope; William, lord [The ministry was reconstructed on the retire
Cowper, Ac 1717 ment of the earl of Dudley ; lord Palmerston ;
Charles, carl of Sunderland, Ac 1718 Mr. Grant ; and Mr. Huskisson.] May and
Robert Walpole, afterward* sir Robert Walpole, June, „
and earl of Orford, Ac 1721 William IV.—Duke of Wellington, Ac, con
George II.—Robert Walpole, continued . . 1727 tinued June 26, 1830
[Sir Robert remained prime minister twenty- Earl Grey ; marquess of Lansdowno ; lord
one years ; numerous changes occurring in Brougham ; viscount Althorpe ; earl of Dur
the time. Seo Walpole.] ham ; viscounts Melbourne, Palmerston, and
Earl of Wilmington; lord Hardwicko, Ac. . 1742 Godorich ; sir James Graham ; lord John
Henry Felham, in the room of earl of Wilming Russell, Ac Nov. n
ton, deceased Aug. 1743 [Earl Grey resigns offico, owing to a majority
"Broad Bottom" administration—H011ry Pel- against him in the lords, on the Reform Bill,
ham; lord Hardwicko, Ac. . Nov. 1744 May 10; but resumes his post] . May 18, 1832
" Short-lived " administration—earl of Bath; Viscount Melbourne ; Ac. . . . July, 1834
lords Winchilsoa and Granville Feb. 10-12, 1746 [Viscount Melbourne's administration dissolved,
Henry Polham, Ac, again . Feb. 12, 1746 Nov. 1834. The duko of Wellington held tho
Thos. H. Polham, duke of Newcastle/ earl of seals of office till tho return of sir Robert
Iloldcrnossc, die April, 1754 Peel from Italy, Doc. 1834.I
Duke of Devonshire; William Pitt, Ac. Nov. 1756 Sir Robert Peel ; lord Lyndhurst ; duke of
Duke of Newcastle, and Mr. Pitt, afterwards Wellington; earl of Aberdeen; Ac. Nov.
earl of Chatham, Ac. • June, 1757 and Dec. „
Georoe III.—Duke of Newcastle, Mr. Pitt's Viscount MeIbourne, Ac . , . April, 1835
ministry, continued 1760 Victoria.—Viscount Melbourne, Ac, continued
Earl of Bui*; lord Henley, Ac. . . May, 1762 Juno 20, 1837
George Grenville; carls of Halifax and Sand [Among the subsequent accessions were F. T.
wich, Ac April, 1763 Baring ; earl of Clarendon ; T. B. Macaul&y,
Marquess of Rockingham; earl of Winchilsoa, Ac]
Ac - July, 1765 [ViBcount Melbourne resigns, and sir Robert
Earl of ChaUiam; duke of Grafton, Ac Aug. 1766 Pool receives the queen's commands to form
Duke of Grafton; lord North, Ac. . Doc. 1767 a new administration, May 8. This command
Frederick, lord North; earl Gowcr, Ac Jan 1770 is withdrawn, and on May 10, lord Melbourne
(Lord North was minister during tho whole of and his friends return to power] . . . 1839
tho American war.] Sir Robert Peel; duke of Wellington; lord
Marquess of Rockingham ; lord Camden ; C. J. Lyndhurst; sir James Graham ; oarl of Aber
Fox ; Edmund Burke, Ac. . . March, 1782 deen ; lord Stanley, Ac. . Aug. and Sept. X&41
Earl of Shelbume (afterwards marquess of Lans- [Among tho accessions were, Sidney Herbert ;
downc); William Pitt, Ac. . . . July, „ W. E. Gladstone, Ac]
''Coalition Ministry," duke of Portland; lord Lord John Russell ; viscount Palmerston ; earl
North ; C. J. Fox ; Edmund Burke, Ac April, 1783 Grey, Ac July, 1 346
William Pitt; Henry Dundas, Ac. . Dec. „ [Among the accessions were : earl Granville ;
[During Mr. Pitt's long administration, nume Mr. Fox Manic ; earl of Carlisle ; sir Thomas
rous changes in the ministry took place. 1 Wilde, created lord Truro, Ac]
Henry Addington; duke of Portland; lord [Feb. 24. Lord John Russell announced to tho
Eldon, Ac March, ft seq. 1801 commons, and the marquess of Lansdowno
William Pitt; lord Eldon; George Canning, to the lords, that the ministers had resigned,
Ac May, et seq. 1804 owing to their defeat on Mr. Locke King's
(Mr. Pitt died Jan. 23, 1806 ] motion respecting tho franchise, the majo
"All the Talents" administration—lord Gren rity against them being 48 (100 to 52) ; and
ville ; lord Henry Petty; lord Erskine; C. J. on March 3, the same personages informed
Fox ; sir Charles Groy (afterwards earl Grey). parliament, that it having been found im
Feb. 1806 possible to construct a coalition ministry,
[Mr. Fox's death, Feb. 13, 1806, led to nume the queen, by the advico of the duke of Wel
Portland; lord Eldon, Ac.• March, 1807 lington,
rousofchanges.]
Duke had called upon her late ministers
to resume offico. Lord Stanley (since earl of
Spencer Perceval; carl of Liverpool; viscount Derby) had been charged by her majesty, in
Palmerston, Ac. . . . Nov. and Doc. 1809 the interval, to form a now cabinet, but had
Regency. — Mr. Spencer Perceval (shot by not succeeded]
Bellinghani, May ir, 1812), Ac., continued Lord John Russell and his colleagues continued.
Feb. 5, 181 1 March,
Earl of Liverpool; lord Eldon ; Mr. Vansittart ; Earl of Derby (late Lord 8tanley) ; lord St Leo
lord Melville ; viscount Castlereagh, Ac. nards ; Benjamin Disraeli ; Spencer II. Wal
May, June, 1812 pole ; earl of Malmesbury : sir John Paking-
George IV.—Earl of Liverpool, Ac, continued ton; duke of Northumberland, Ac Feb. 27,
Jan. 29, 1820 Earl of Aberdeen ; lord John Russell ; viscount 1852
[During lord Liverpool's long administration, Palmerston, Ac Dec 28
* Tho duel between lord Castlereagh and Mr. Canning, Sept 22, 1809, led to tho breaking up of this
administration.
ADM 11 ADM
ADMINISTRATIONS of Great Britain, continued.
[In this last ministry various changes of offices On the second reading of tho Foreign Con
took place ; a fourth secretary of state was spiracy bill, the government (defeated by a
appointed, by a separation of the war from the vote of censure being passed by a majority of
colonial department. See Secntariu of State.] 19, on the motion of Mr. Milner Gibson) re
[ I'bo retirement of Lord J. Russell, Jan. 24, signed immediately .... Feb. 19, 1858
1855, and a majority in the commons against Earl of Derby : B. Disraeli : Spencer Walpolo ;
ministers of 157(305 to 148) on Mr. Roebuck's lord Stanley ; sir F. Thosiger (lord Chelms-
motion respecting the conduct of the war, fordX *c Fob. 26 „
lod to tho resignation of lord Aberdeen and [The Derby administration, in consequence of
his colleagues, Jan. 30 ; the cabinet was re a vote of want of confidence in it being
constructed under lord Palmerston.] carried by a majority of 13, June 10, 1859,
Viscount Palmerston i lord Cranworth ; Ac. resigned the next day. Earl Granville at
Feb 7, 1855 tempted to form an administration in vain ;
(Viscount Palmerston, owing to the secession and lord Palmerston and lord John Russell
of Sir J. Graham, Mr. Gladstone, and Mr. S, came into office.]
Herbert, had to reconstruct his ministry.] Palmerston-Russelladministration—viscount
Viscount Palmerston : lord John Russell ; earl Palmerston; lord John (eiuce earl) Russell, Ac.
of Clarendon ; sir G. Grey ; sir G. C. Lewis ; June 18, 1859
Bir W. Molosworth, *c. . . Fob. 24, „
ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM ASSOCIATION derived its origin from a general opinion
that the disasters which occurred to the army in the Crimea in 1854-5 were attributable to
the inefficient and irresponsible management of the various departments of the state. The
association was organised in London, May 5, 1855. A meeting was held in Drury-lane
theatre, on June 13, and Mr. Layard's motion on the subject in parliament was negatived
June 18 following. The association was reorganised in 1856, Mr. Roebuck, M.P., becoming
chairman, but soon became unimportant. See Civil Service.
ADMIRAL. This distinction does not appear to have been adopted in these realms until
about the year 1300, but the title was in use some time previously in Franco. Sir Harris
Nicolas. Alfred, Athelstan, Edgar, Harold, and other kings, had been previously the com
manders of their own fleets. The first French admiral is said to have been appointed 1284.
The rank of admiral of the English seas was one of great distinction, and was first given to
William de Leybourne by Edward I. in 1297. Spehnan ; Rynur. The first L011D High
Admiral in England was created by Richard II. in 1385 : there had been previously high
admirals of districts—the north, west, and south. This office has seldom been entrusted to
single hands, the duties being generally executed by lords commissioners. A similar dignity
existed in Scotland from the reign of Robert III. : in 1673, the king bestowed it upon his
natural son Charles Lennox, afterwards duke of Richmond, then an infant, who resigned tho
office to the crown in 1703 : after the union it was discontinued.—The dignity of lord high
admiral of Ireland (of brief existence) was conferred upon James Butler by Henry VIII., in
May, 1534. The Admiral of the Fleet is the highest rank in the Royal Navy, corresponding
to that of marshal in the army. We have now three admirals of the fleet, twenty-one
admirals, and twenty-seven vice-admirals (1865). See Navy.
ADMIRALTY, Court of, said to have been erected by Edward III., in 1357 ; a civil
court for the trial of causes relating to maritime affairs. It was enacted in the reign of
Henry VIII., that criminal causes should be tried by witnesses and a jury, some of the
judges at Westminster (or, as now, at the Old Bailey) assisting. The judgeship of the
admiralty was constituted in 15 14, and was filled by two or more functionaries until the
Revolution, when it was restricted to one. Beatson. The judge has usually been an
eminent doctor of the civil law. In 1844 tho criminal jurisdiction of this court was
removed, and by 20 & 21 Vic. c. 77 (1857) the judgo of the Probate court was to be also
judge of the Admiralty court. Sir John Dodson, the last admiralty judge, died in 1858.
The jurisdiction of this court was extended in 1861.
ADMIRALTY OFFICE dates from 1512, when Henry VIII. appointed commissioners to
inspect his ships of war, &c. In 1662 the admiralty was first put into commission, the
great officers of state being the commissioners. During the commonwealth the admiralty
affairs were managed by a committee of the parliament; and at the restoration in 1660,
James, duke of York, became lord high admiral. See succeeding changes below. In 1688-9,
the admiralty was put into commission, and the board appears to have assembled at admiral
Herbert's lodgings, in Channel-row, Westminster, he being at that time first lord. In
1830, 1832, and 1836 various changes were made in the civil departments, several offices
being abolished or consolidated with others. In March, 1861, a royal commission recom
mended the abolition of the board of admiralty and the appointment of a minister of the
navy department.
ADM 12 ADU
FIRST LORDS OP TUB ADMIRALTY, ETC.
1660. James, duke of York, lord high admiral, June 6. 1763. George Grenville, esq.. Jan. 1.
1673. King Charles II , Juno 14. ,, John, carl of Sandwich, April 23.
„ Prince Rupert, July 9. ,, John, earl of Egmont, Sept. 10.
1679. Sir Henry Capel, Feb. 14. 1766. Sir Charles Saunders, Sept. 10.
1680. Daniel Finch, esq., Feb 19. „ Sir Edward Hawke, Dec. 10.
1681. Daniel, lord Finch, Jan. 20. 1771. John, carl of Sandwich, Jan. 12.
16S3. Daniel, carl of Nottingham, April 17. 1782. Hon. Augustus Kennel, April 1.
1684. Kino Charles II. ,, Augustus, viscount Keppel, July 18.
1685. Kino James II., May 17. 1783. Richard, viscount Howe, Jan. 28.
Office in commitsion. 1788. John, earl of Chatham, July iG.
1689. Arthur Herbert, esq., March 8. 1794. George John, carl Spencer, Dec. 20.
1690. Thoinus carl uf Pembroke and Montgomery, 1801. John, earl St. Vincent, Fob. 19.
Jan. 20. 1804. Henry, viscount Mclvillo, May 15.
1692. Charles, lord Cornwallis, March 10. 1805. Charles, lord Barham, May 2.
1693. Anthony viscount Falkland, April 15. 1806. Hon. Charles Grey, Feb. 10.
1694. Edward Russell, esq. (a/t.earlof Ortbrd), May 2. „ Thomas Grenville, esq., Oct. 23.
1699. John, carl of Bridgewater, June 2. 1807. Henry, lord Mnigrave, April 6.
1701. Thomas, carl of Pembroke, April 4. 1809. Charles Vorko, esq., May 10.
1702. George, prince or Denmark, lord high ad 1812. Robert, viscount Melville, March 25.
miral, May 20. 1827. William Henrv, duke uf Clarence, lord
1708. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, ditto, Nov. 29. high admiral, May 2, resignod Aug. 12, 182S.
Office in commission. 1828. Robert, viscount Melville, Sept. 19.
1709. Edward, earl of Orford, Nov. 8. 1830. Sir James R. G. Graham, hurt., Nov. 25.
1710. Sir John Leake, Oct. 4. 1834. George, lord Auckland, Juno 11.
1712. Thomas, carl ofStrafford, Sept. 30. Thomas Philip, carl do Grey, Dec. 23.
1714. Edward, earl of Orford, Oct. 14. 1835. George, lord Auckland, April 25.
1717. James, earl of Berkeley, March 19. ,, Gilbert, carl of Minto, Sept. 19.
1727. George, viscount Torrington, Aug 2. 1841: Thomas, earl of Haddington, Sept. 8.
1733. Sir Charlos Wagner, knt., June 25. 1846. Edward, carl of Ellenlxirough, Jan. 13.
1742. Daniel, earl of Winchilsca, March 19. ,, George, earl of Auckland, July 24.
1744. John, duko of Bedford, Dec. 27. 1849. Sir Francis Thornhill Baring, Jan. 18.
1748. John, earl of Sandwich, Feb. 10. 1852. Algernon, duke of Northumberland, Feb. 28.
1751. George, lord Anson, June 22. 1853. Sir James Robert George Graham, Jan 5.
1756. Richard, earl Temple, Nov. 19. 1855. Sir Charles Wood, bart., Feb. 24.
1757. Daniel, earl of Winchilsca, April 6. 1858. Sir John Pakiugtou, Feb. 26.
,, George, lord Anson, July 2. 1859. Edward, duke of Somerset, the present First
1762. George M. Dunk, earl of Halifax, June 19, Lord (1865).
ADMIRALTY, Whitehall. " At the south end of Duke-street, Westminster, was seated
a large house, made use of for the admiralty office, until the business was removed to
Greenwich, and thence to Wallingford-house, against Whitehall." It was rebuilt by Ripley
about" 1 726 ; the screen was erected, to conceal the ugliness of the building, by the brothers
Adam, in 1776. — Lord Nelson lay in state in one of the apartments on Jan. 8, 1806 ; and on
the next day was buried at St. Paul's.
"ADMONITION to the Parliament," condemning all religions ceremonies but those
commanded in the New Testament, was published by certain Puritans in 1571. It waa
answered by abp. Whitgift. Its presumed authors, Field and Wilcox, were imprisoned.
ADRIAN'S WALL (to prevent the irruptions of the Scots and Picts into the northern
counties of Kugland, then under the Roman government) extended from the Tyne to Solway
firth, and was eighty miles long, twelve feet high, and eight in thickness, with watch-towers;
built 121. It was named after its second founder, the emperor Adrian, and was repaired by
Severus, 208.
ADRIANOPLE, in Turkey, so named after its restorer the emperor Adrian (who died
July 10, 138). Near here was fought the battle by which Gonstantine gained the empire,
July 3, 323 ; also, near here the emperor Valeus was defeated and slain by the Goths, Aug.
9, 378. Adrianople was taken by the Turks under Amurath in 1361, and was the seat of
their empire till tne capture of Constantinople in 1453- Mahomet II. was born here in 1430.
Priestley.—Adrianople was taken by the Russians on Aug. 20, 1829 ; but was restored at
the close of the war, Sept. 14, same year. See Turkey.
ADRIATIC. The ceremony of the doge of Venice wedding the Adriatic sea (instituted
about 1 1 73), took place annually on Ascension-day. The doge dropped a ring into the sea
from his bucentaur, or state barge, being attended by his nobility and foreign ambassadors.
The ceremony was first omitted in 1797.
ADULTERATION of Food was the subject of legislation in England in 1267. Much
attention was drawn to it in 1822, through Mr. Accuiu's book, popularly called "Death
in the Pot," and in 1855 through Dr. HassalVs book, " Food and its Adulterations." By an
act for preventing the adulteration of food, passed in i860, parochial chemical analysts may
be appointed.
ADU 18 ML
ADULTERY, by the law of Moses (1490 B.C.) was punished with death, Lev. xx. 10. —
Lycuxgus (884 B.C.) punished the offender as he did a parricide, and the Locrians and Spar
tans tore out the offender's eyes. The early Saxons burnt the adulteress, and erected a
gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adulterer. The ears and nose were cut off
under Canute, 1031. Ordained to be punished capitally under Cromwell, May 14, 1650 :
but there is no record of this law taking effect. In New England a law was ordained
whereby adultery was made capital to both parties, even though the man were unmarried ;
and several suffered under it, 1662. Hardie. Till 1857 the legal redress against the malo
offender was by civil action for a money compensation ; the female being liable to divorce.
By 20 & 21 Vic. c. 85 (1857) the " action for criminal conversation" was abolished and tho
"Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes" was established, with power to grant divorces
for adultery and ill usage. See Divorce.
ADVENT (adveniens, coming). The season includes four Sundays, previous to Christmas,
the first being the nearest Sunday to St. Andrew's day (Nov. 30), before or after. Homilies
respecting Advent are mentioned prior to 378. Advent Sunday, 1865, Dec. 3 ; 1866, Dec. 2 ;
1S67, Dec. I.
ADVENTURE BAY, at the S.E. end of Van Diemen's Land, discovered in 1773 by capt.
Furneaux in his first voyage to the Pacific, and named from bis ship Adventure. It was
visited by captain Bligh in 1788.
ADVENTURERS, Merchant, a celebrated company of enterprising merchants, originally
formed for the discovery of territories, and the extension of commerce, by John, duke of
Brabant, in 1296, was transferred to England in the reign of Edward III. Elizabeth formed
it into an English corporation in 1564. Anderson.
ADVERTISEMENTS in Newspapers, as now published, were not general in England
till the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty of 50Z. was inflicted on persons
advertising a reward with "No questions to be asked" for the return of things stolen, and
on the printer, 25 Geo. II. 1754. Statutes. The advertisement duty was formerly charged
according to the number of lines ; it was afterwards fixed, in England, at 3s. (xl., and in
Ireland at 2S. 6d. each advertisement. The duty was further reduced, in England, to is. 6d.
and in Ireland to 1*. each, in 1833, and was altogether abolished in the United Kingdom, by
16 ft 17 Vic. c. 63 (Aug. 4, 1853).* Advertising Vans, a great nuisance, were prohibited
by 16 ft 17 Vic. c. 33 (1853).
ADVOCATE, The King's. This office was instituted about the beginning of the sixteenth
century ; and the advocate (always a doctor of the civil law) was empowered to prosecute at
liis own instance certain crimes, 1597. The Lord Advocate in Scotland is tho same
as tho attorney-general in England. —It was decided in the parliament of Paris, in 1685,
that the king's advocate of Fiance might at the same time be a judgo ; so in like maimer it
was allowed in Scotland, where sir John Nesbit and sir William Oliphant were lord advocates
and lords of session at the same time. Bealson. —The Advocates' library in Edinburgh was
established by sir G. Mackenzie in 1682.
jEDILES, magistrates of Rome, first created 492 B.C. There were three degrees of these
officers, with functions similar to those of our justices of tho peace. The plebeian aidiles
presided over the more minute affairs of the state, the maintenance of order, the reparation
of the streets, the supply of provisions, &c. Varro.
AGATES ISLES, W. of Sicily : near these, during the first Punic war, the Roman
consul Lutatius Catulus gained a decisive victory over the Carthaginian fleet under Hanno,
March 10, 241 B.C. Peace ensued, the Romans obtaining Sicily and a tribute of 3200 talents.
jEGINA, a Greek island, a rival of Athens, was humbled by Themistocles, B.C. 485 ; and
taken 455. Its inhabitants, expelled 431, were restored by the Spartans, 404 : they renewed
war with Athens 388, and made peace, 387.
iEGOSPOTAMOS, the Goat-river, in the Chersonesus, where Lysander, the Lacedaemonian,
defeated the Athenian fleet, 405 B.C., and ended tho Pelopoimesiau war.
jELIA CAPITOLINA, built on the ruins of Jerusalem by the emperor Adrian, 131.
* On Oct 16, i860, tho whole of tho libretto of MacFarrcn's opera, Robin Hood, was inserted as an
advertisement in the Times (4} columns).
14 AFF
./EMILIA, tho name given to the provinces of Parma, Modena, and the Romagna, united
to Sardinia in i860 ; and now part of the kingdom of Italy.
-iENEID, the great Latin epic poem, relating the adventures of .fineas, written about 24
B.C. by Virgil, who died Sept. 22, 19 B.C., before he had finally corrected the poem. It was
first printed in 1469, at Romo.
ENIGMA. Samson's riddle (about 1141 B.C. ; Judges xiv. 12) is the earliest on record.
The ancient oracles frcquontly gave responses admitting of perfectly contrary interpretations.
Gale attributes senigmatioal speeches to the Egyptians. In Nero's time, the Romans were
often obliged to have recourse to this method of concealing truth under obscure language.
Tho following epitaph on Fair Rosamond (mistress of our Henry 11. about 1 1 73) is a medi
aeval specimen :— " Hie jacet in tomba Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda ; Non redolet, sed
olet, quae redolere solet."
jEOI,IA, in Asia Minor, was colonised by a principal branoh of the Hellenic race : begin
ning about 1 124 B.C. The jEolians built several large cities both on tho mainland and tho
neighbouring islands ; Mitylene, in Lesbos, was considered the capital.
jEOLIAN HARP. Its invention is ascribed to Kiroher, 1653, but It was known before.
jEOLOPILE, a hollow ball with an orifice in which a tube might be screwed, was used in
the 17th century as a boiler for experimental steam-engines.
jEQUI, an ancient Italian race, were subdued by tho Romans, and their lands annexed
after a conflict, 471-302 B.O.
iERAS. See Eras.
AERATED WATERS. Apparatus for combining gases with water have been patented by
Thomson in 1807 ; Bakewell in 1832 and 1847 ; Tylor in 1840. and by several other
persons. Aerated bread is made by processes patented by Dr. Dauglish, 1856-7.
AERIANS, followers of Aerius, a presbyter, in the 4th century, who held that there was
no distinction between a bishop and a presbyter ; that there was no Pasch to be observed by
Christians ; that the Lent and other fasts should not be observed ; and that prayers should
not be offered for the dead. Epiphanius.
AERONAUTICS, and AEROSTATICS. See Plying, and Balloons.
jESOP'S FABLES, said to have been written about 619, 571, or 565 B.C. They are, no
doubt, a compilation from various sources. Phcedrus's Latin paraphrases in Iambics (about
a.d. 8) are very elegant.
./ESTHETICS (from the Greek aisthesis, perception), the science of the beautiful (especially
in art) ; a term invented by Baumgarten, a German philosopher, whose work " ./Eathetica !'
was published in 1 750.
ETHIOPIA. See Ethiopia. .STNA. See Etna.
jETOLIA, in Greece, a country named after jEtolus of Elis, who, having nocidentnlly
killed a son of rhoroneus, king of Argos, left the Peloponnesus, and settled here. After
the ruin of Athens and Sparta, the jEtolians became tho rivals of the Achaans, and alter
nately allies and enemies of Rome.
Tho iEtolians join Sparta against Athens B.C. 455 War with Philip, mi ; dosortcd by tho Romans,
Subdued by Antipatcr during tho Laniian war . 322 tho j£tolians make peace . . . B.C. 20s
Aid in tho expulsion of tho Gauls . . . 279 Thoy invito the kings of Macodon, Syria, and
Invade the Peloponnesus, and nivage MeBsenia Sparta, to coalesce with them against the
(Social War), and defoat tho Ach&ana at Romans 193-2
Caphyse 220 Defeat of the allies near Thermopylas . . . iqi
Philip V. , of Macedon, Invades iEtolia, and takes Conquered by tho Romans under Fulvius . . 189
Thermum—Peace concluded .... 217 Leading patriots massacred by the Roman party 167
Alliance with Romo 211 Made a province of Rome 146
AFFINITY. Marriage within certain degrees of kindred was prohibited in almost every
age and country, but has yet taken place to a considerable extent. See Leviticus, chap, xviii.
(1490 B.C.). In England, a table restricting marriage within certain near degrees was set
forth by authority, 1563. Prohibited marriages were adjudged to be incestuous and unlawful
by the 99th canon, in 1603. All marriages within the forbidden degrees are declared to bo
absolutely void by statute 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 54, 1835. Soe Marriage (of deceased Wife's
Sister).
AFF 15 AGA
AFFIRMATION. See Quakers. The affirmation was altered in 1702, 1721, 1837, ami
in April, 1859. —The indulgence was granted to persons who were formerly Quakers, but
who nad seceded from that sect, 2 Vic. 1838 ; and extended to other dissenters by 9 Geo. IV.
c 32 (1828), and 18 & 19 Vic. c. 2 (1855).
AFGHANISTAN, a large country in central Asia, formerly part of the Persian and Greek
empires, was conquered by the Tartars about 997.
The Mahommedan dynasty, the Ghaznovides, said His son and successor, Timour, died in 1793 ; whose
to have ruled from 1186 to 1206. son, Zcmaun, was dethroned and blinded after
They were conquered by Genghis Khan about 1221, reigning ten years. Since then the history is a
and by Tamerlane, 1308. series of broils, crimes, and murders.
Baber conquered Caubuf in 1523. Ruujeet Sing, the Sikh chief of Lahore, conquers a
On his death Afghanistan divided between Persia large part of the country in 1818.
and Hindostan. Post Mohammed becomes ruler, 1829.
The Afghans revolt in 1720 ; invado Persia and tako [For the Afghan waiwith England, seo India, 1838.]
Ispahan; repulsed by Nadir Shah in 1728, who Dost Mohammed takes Herat May 26 ; dies, after
subdues the whole of the country, 1737. designating his eldest son, Shir-Ali, his successor,
On bis assassination, one ofhis officers, Ahmed Shah, May 20, 1863 ; a war of succession ensues.
an Afghan, forms Afghanistan into an independent The English remain neutral, June, Ac. 1863.
kingdom, and reigns prosperously, 1747-73. Treachery and anarchy prevailing, June, 1865.
AFRICA, called Libya by the Greeks, one of the three parts of the ancient world, and
the greatest peninsula of the universe ; said to have been first peopled by Ham. For its
history see Egypt, Carthage, Cyrenc, Abyssinia, Algiers, Morocco, <t*c.
Carthage subdued by the Romans 146 B.e. other unoxplorod. His book was published in Nov.
provinces gained by Pompoy, 82. 1857- In Feb. 1858, he was appointed British
N Africa conquered by the Vandals under consul for the Portuguese possessions in Africa,
Geuseric, a.d. 429-35, reconquered by Belisarius, and left England shortly after.
The publication of M. du Chaillu's travels in central
The533-5-
Saracens subdue the north of Africa 637—709. Africa created much controversy and excitement
Portuguese settlements begun 1450. in 1861.
Cape of Good Hope discovered by Diaz. 1487. Second expedition of Dr. Livingstone, March, 1858.
Knglish merchants visit Guinea in 1550 ; and Elisa Captains Speke and Grant announce the discovery
beth granted a patent to an African company in of the source of the Nile In Lake Nyanza Victoria,
1588. Feb. 23, 1863.
Dutch colony at the Cape founded, 1650. [Capt. Speke was accidentally shot by his own gun
Capt. Stubbs sailed up the Gambia, 1723. while alone near Bath, Sept. 15, 1864.]
limce commenced his travols in 1768. Some Dutch ladies unsuccessfully explore the White
Sierra Leone settled by the English 1787/ Nile, and undergo many privations, July, 1863—
Mungo Park, who made his first voyage to Africa, 1864.
May 22, 1705; and his second voyage, January 30, Oxford mission. Bishop Mackenzie sent out ; dies
1804, but from which he never returned (soe 1863.
Park). Du Chaillu starts on a fresh expedition, 6 Aug. 1863.
Visited by Salt in 1805 and 1809; Burckhardt In Dr. Livingstone returns July 23, 1864.
T812 ; Hornemann in 1816 ; Denham and Clapper- Death of Dr. W. B. Baikie, at Sierra Leone, Nov.- 3°.
ton in 1822 ; the brothers Lander in 1830. 1864.
The great Niger expedition (for which parliament [He was sent as special envoy to the Negro tribes
voted 6i,ooof.), consisting of the Albert, Wilber- near the Niger by tho Foreign Office about 1854.
forcc, and Sowlan steam-ships, commenced the He opened commercial relations with Central
ascent of the Niger, Aug. 20, 1841 ; but when they Africa,]
reached Iddah, fever broko out among the crews, Mr. Samuel Baker discovered a lake, supposed to be
aud they were successively obliged to return, the another source of the Nile, which he named Lake
AlOcr! having ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles Nyanza Albert, March, 1864,
from the sea, Sept. 28. The expedition w;is, in Dr. Livingstone appointed British consul for Inner
the end, relinquished owing to disease, heat, and Africa, March 24, 1865.
hardships, and all the vessels had cast anchor at African Association, for promoting the exploration
Clirencc Cove, Fernando Po, Oct 17, 1841. of Central Africa, was formed in June, 178S,
James Richardson explored the great Sahara In principally by Sir Joseph Banks ; and under its
1845-6, and in 1849 (by direction of the Foreign auspices many additions were made to African
Office) he left England to explore central Africa, geography by Lodyard, Park, Burckhardt,
accompanied by Drs. Barth and Overwcg. Hornemann, <fcc. It merged into tho Royal Geo
Kichardson died, March 4, 1851 ; and Overweg, graphical Society in 1831.
Sept 27, 185a. African Company (merchants trading to Africa),
Dr. V6gel sent out with roinforccments to Dr. arose out of an association In Exeter, formed in
B-uth, Feb. 20, 1853; in April, 1857, said to have 1588. A charter was granted to a joint-stock
been assassinated. company in 1618; a third company was created in
Dr. Barth returned to England, and received the 1631 ; a fourth corporation in 1662 ; another was
Royal Geographical Society's modal, May 16, 1856. formed by letters patent in 1672; remodelled in
His travels were published in 5 vols, in 1858. 1695. In 1821 tho company was abolished.
Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary traveller, re African Institution, founded in London in i8cy, for
turned to Eughind in Dec. 1856, after an absenco tho abolition of the sl.au trade, and the civilisa
of 16 years, during which he traversed a large tion of Africa. Many schools have been established
part of the heart of S. Africa, and walked about with success, particularly at Sierra Leone.
11,000 miles, principally over country hitherto
AOAPiE (agape, Greek for love, charity), "feasts of charity,1' referred to Jade 12, and
described by Tertullian, of which the first Christians of all ranks partook, in memory of the
AGA 16 AGI
last time when Christ ate with his disciples. In consequence of disorders creeping in, these
feasts were forbidden to be celebrated in churches by the councils of Iiaodicea (366), and
Carthage (390). These feasts are still recognised by the Greek church, and are held in their
original form weekly by the Sandemaniaus, and also in some measure by the Moravians
and Wesleyans,
AGAPEMONIANS, a sect which originated with Henry James Prince, an ex-clergyman of
the church of England, who claimed the attributes of omnipotence, and thereby obtained
great influence over his wealthy dupes in 1845. They professed to live in a state of brotherly
love, delivering themselves up to innocent amusements, not vexing themselves with the
cares of ordinary mortals. Various disclosures did not at all confirm these statements.
They resided in a building called " Agapdmonfi " (Greek for "the abode of lovo"), near
Bridgewater, iu Somersetshire.*
AGE. Chronologers have commonly divided the time between the creation and the birth
of Christ into periods called ages. Hesiod (about 850 B.C.) described the Golden, Silver,
Brazen, and Iron Ages. See Dark Ages.
B.C. B.C.
First Aoe (from the Creation to the Fourth Aoe (to the founding of Solo-
Deluge) 4004-2349 mon's Temple) 1490—1014
Second Aok (to the coming of Abraham [ Fifth Aoe (to the capture of Jerusalem) 1014— 5S8
into Canaan) 2348—1922 1 Sixth Aoe (to the birth of Christ) . 588— 4
Thiku Age (to the Exodus from Egypt) 1931—1491 \ Seventh Aoe (to the present time) B.C. 4—a.d. 1865
AGE, OF. Varied in different countries. In Greece and Rome twenty-five was full age
for both sexes, but a greater age was requisite for the holding certain offices : e.g. thirty for
tribunes ; forty-three for consuls. In England the minority of a male terminates at twenty-
one, and of a female in some cases, as that of a queen, at eighteen. In 1547, the majority of
Edward VI. was, by the will of his father, fixed at eighteen years ; previously to completing
which age, Henry VIII. had himself assumed the reins of government, in 1509. —A male of
twelve may take the oath of allegianco ; at fourteen he may consent to a marriage, or
choose a guardian ; at seventeen lie may be an executor, and at twenty-one ho is of
ago; but according to the statute- of wills, 7 Will. IV. and I Vict. c. 26, 1837, no will
made by any person under the age of twenty-one years shall be valid. A female at
twelve may consent to a marriage ; at fourteen she may choose a guardian, and at twenty-
one she is of age.
AGINCOURT (N. France), a village, where Henry V. of England, with about 9000 men,
defeated about 60,000 French on St. Crispin's day, Oct. 25, 1415. Of the French, whose
leaders acted with little judgment, there were according to some accounts 10,000 killed,
including the dukes of Alencon, Brabant, and Bar, the archbishop of Sens, one marshal,
thirteen earls, 7iinety-two barons, and 1500 knights ; and 14,000 prisoners, among whom
were the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentlemen. The
English lost the duke of York, the carl of Suffolk, and about 20 others. St. Homy asserts
with more probability that the English lost 1600 men. Henry V. soon after abtaiued the
kingdom of France.
AGITATORS (or Adjutators), officers appointed by the English army in 1647, to take care
of its interests : each troop or company had two. The protector Cromwell was eventually
obliged to repress their seditious power. At a review he seized the ringleaders of a mutiny,
shot one instantly, in the presence of his companions and the forces on the ground, and thus
restored discipline. Hume. —Daniel O'Connell, called the agitator of Ireland, was born in
1775. He began to agitato at the elections in 1826; was elected for Clare, Julys, 1828;
the election being declared void, he was re-elected July 30, 1829. After the passing of the
Catholic emancipation bill, he agitated in vain for the repeal of tlie union, 1834 to 1843.
He died May 15, 1847.—Richard Cobden and John Bright wero the chief Anti-corn-law
agitators, 1841-45.
*. On May 22, 1850, Thomas Robinson sought to recover the possession of his child from the care of its
mother (from whom Thomas had separated) ; the application was refused by the vice-chancellor, on the
ground that the father would instil the doctrines of this sect into the child in educating it, and the court
held it a duty to " save it from the pollution of the parent's teaching." Several suicides have been com
mitted by the deluded females of this sect.—On Aug. 21, 1858, Miss Louisa Jane Nottldge died, having
transferred her property to Mr. H. J. Prince. Her brother, Mr. Nottidge, by an action, recovered from
Prince 5728!., as having been fraudulently obtained. Extraordinary disclosures wero mado during the
trial, July 25, i860. In the autumn of 1860, the R-v. Mr. Price, after several vain attempt*, succeeded in
rescuing his wife from the Agapemone. They bud both been early supporters of it.
AGN 17 AGR
AGNADELLO (N. E. Italy). Here Louis XII. of France gained a great victory over the
Venetians, some ofwhose troops were accused of cowardice and treachery ; May 14, 1509,
The conflict is also termed the battle of the Rivolta.
AGNOITJ5 (from agnoia, Greek, ignorance). 1. a sect founded by Theophronius of
Cappadocia about 370 : said to have doubted the omniscience of God. 2. the followers of
Themistius of Alexandria about 530, who held peculiar views as to the body of Christ, and
doubted his divinity.
AGONISTICI (from agon, Greek, a conflict), also termed circutores, abranch of the Donatists
(which sec). They preached their heretical doctrines with great boldness in public places,
and hence incurred the severe persecution of the emperors in the 4th and 5th centuries.
AGRA (N. W. India), founded by Akbar in 1566, was the capital of the great mogul. See
Mausoleums. In 1658 Aurungzebe removed to Delhi. —The fortress of Agra, termed the key
of Hindustan, in the war with the Mahrattas, surrendered to the British forces, under general
Lake, Oct. 17, 1803, after one day's siege : 162 pieces of ordnance and 240,000/. were captured.
—In June, 1857, the city was abandoned to the mutineers by the Europeans, who took
refuge in the fort, from which they were rescued by major Montgomery and colonel
Greathed. —Allahabad was made capital of the N. W. provinces of India, instead of Agra, in
1861.
AGRARIAN LAW {Agraria lex) decreed an equal division among the Roman people of
all the lands acquired by conquest, limiting the acres which each person should enjoy. It
was first proposed by the consul Spurius Cassius, 486 B.C., and occasioned his judicial murder
■when he went out of office in 485. It was re-introduced by the tribune Licinius Stolo, 376,
and by the tribune Tiberius Gracchus, 132 b.o. The law at last proved fatal to the freedom
of Rome under Julius Caesar, 60 B.C. Llvy ; Vossius. In modern times the term has been
misinterpreted to signify a division of the lands of the rich among the poor, frequently
proposed by demagogues, such as Gracchus Babeuf,* editor of the Tribun du Peuple, in 1794.
AGRICOLA'S WALL. See Roman Walls.
AGRICULTURE. " Abel was a keeper of sheep, but Cain was a tiller of the ground,"
Genesis iv. 2. The Athenians asserted that the art of sowing corn began with them ; and
the Cretans, Sicilians, and Egyptians made the same claim.
Cato the Censor (died 149 B.C.) and Varro (died 28 meetings annually, one in London the other In
b.c.) were eminent Roman writer* on agriculture. the country ; the first country mceling at Oxford,
It was brought into England by the Romans about in 1839. It awards prizes, and publishes a
a.d. 27. valuable journal. The London meeting at Batter-
Fitsherbert's " Book of Husbandry," printed in sea in June, 1862, wan highly successful.
1524. "Chambers of Agriculture" were established in
Tusser's "Five Hundred Points of Husbandry,'* France in 1851.
1562 The Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester
Blytbe's " Improver, * 1649. organised, 1842 ; chartered, 1845.
Hartlib's " Legacy," 1650. Agricultural Chemistry. —Sir Humphry Davy
Jethro Tull's '* florse-hoeing Husbandry," 170T. delivered lectures on this subject (afterwards
About tbe end of the 18th century fallowing was published), at the instance of the Hoard of Agri
gradually superseded by turnips and other green culture, in 181a ; but it excited little attention
crops. till the publication of Lfebig's work in 1840, which
Agricultural Societies. —The earliest mentioned made a powerful impression. Boussingault's
in the British Isles was the Society of Improvers " Economic Rurale," an equally important work,
of Agriculture in Scotland, instituted in 1723. appeared in 1844. The immoderate expectations
The Dublin Agricultural Society (1749) gave a from this study having been somewhat dis
stimulus to agricullure in Ireland ; its origin is appointed, a partial reaction took place. Liebig's
attributed to Mr. Prior of Rathdowney, Queens ' Letters on Agriculture " appeared in 1859.
County, in 1731. The Bath and West of England Agricultural Hall, Islington, N. London, chiefly
Society established, 1777 ; and the Highland for the meetings of the Smithfield Club. The
Society of Scotland, 1793. County Agricultural foundation stone was laid by the president, lord
Societies are now numerous. Berners, Nov. 5, 1861. A remarkable exhibition
London Board of Agriculture established by act of of dogs was opened here on June 24, 1862 ; and of
parliament, 1793- horses and of donkeys, in July, 1864, 1865.
Francis, duke of Bedford, a great promoter of agri In A<.ug. 1855, a committee presented a report on
culture, died, March 2, 1802. the bestt mode of olobtaining accurate Agricultural
Royal Agricultural Society of England established Statistics, which has not oeen acted on. There
in 1838, by noblemen and gentlemen, the chief were, in 1831, 1,055,982 agricultural labourers in
landed proprietors in the kingdom, and incor Great Britain, ana in Ireland, 1,131,715.
porated by royal charter, 1840. It holds two
* In 1796 he conspired against the directory with the view of obtaining a division of property, and was
execu'ed.
AGR 18 AIR
AGRICULTURE, continued.
The following Table, drawn up by Mr. William Coullng, C.E., In 1827,* is extracted from the Third
Report of the Emigration Committee :—
Wastesof
capnhle Unprofitable. Total.
Countries. Cultivated. Improverm-nt.
ACRKS. ACRES. ACRES. ACRES.
England 35,632,000 3,454,000 3,256,400 32,342,400
3,117,000 530.000 2,105,000 4,752,000
5,365,000 5,950,000 8,523.030 *9.738.930
I3,I35,28o 4,900,000 2,416,664 X9«44I,944
British Islands 166,000 569.469
46,522,970 15,000,000 15.871.463 77-394.433
AGRIGENTUM (now Girgenti), a celebrated city of Sicily, built about 582 B.C. It was
governed by tyrants from 566 to 470 ; among these were Phalnris (see Brazen Bull) ;
Akumanes ; Theron who, with his step-father Gelon, defeated the Carthaginians at Himera ;
and ThrasycUeus, his son, expelled in 470 ; when a republic was established and Agrigentum
became opulent and luxurious. It was taken by the Carthaginians in 405 B.C., and held,
except during short intervals, till wrested from them by the Romans in 262 B.C. From
A.D. 825 till 1086 it was held by the Saracens.
AHMEDNUGG1TRCW. India), once capital of a state founded by Ahmed Shah, about 1494,
which after having fallen into the hands of the Moguls and the Mahrattas, was taken from the
latter by Arthur Wellesley, Aug. 12, 1803, and finally annexed to the British dominions in 1817.
AID. SeeAyde.
AILANTINE. See Silk.
AIR, or Atmosphere. Anaximenes of Miletus (530 B.C.) declared air to be a self-existent
deity, and the first cause of everything created. Posidonius (about 79 B.C.) calculated the
height of the atmosphere to be 800 stadia. The pressure of air, about 15 lbs. to the square
inch, was discovered by Torricclli A.l). 1645, and was found by Pascal, in 1647, to vary with
the height. Halley, Newton, and others, up to the present time have illustrated the agency
and influences of this great power by various experiments, and numerous inventions have
followed ; among others the Air-gun of Outer of Nuremberg about 1656 ; the Air-pi mp,
invented by Otto von Guerioke of Magdeburg about 1650 ; improved by the illustrious
Boyle in 1657 ; and the Air-pipe, invented by Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, about 1756.
The density and elasticity of air were determined by Boyle ; and its relation to light and
sound by Hooke, Newton, and Derham. Tho extension of our atmosphere above the sur
face of the earth, long considered as about 45 miles, was thought by admiral FitzRoy to bo
only about 9 or 10 niiles7i862). — Its composition, about 77 parts of nitrogen, 21 of oxygen,
and 2 of other matters (such as carbonic acid, watery vapour, a trace of ammonia, &c), was
gradually ascertained by Priestley (who discovered oxygen gas in 1774), Scheele (1775T,
Lavoisier, and Cavendish ; and its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737.
Dr. Stenhouso's Air-fillers (in which powdered charcoal is used) were first set up at the
Mansion-house, London, in 1854. In 1858, Dr. R. Angus Smith made known a chemical
method of ascertaining the amount of organic matter in the air. The researches of Dr.
Schbnbein, a German chemist of Basel, between 1840 and 1859, led to the discovery of two
states of the oxygen in the air, which he calls ozone and antozonc. See Oxygen, Nitrogen,
Ozone, Atmospheric Railway, and Pneumatic Despatch.—The force of compressed air has been
employed in boring the Cenis tunnel, which see.
• At that period it was computed that the soil of the United Kingdom was annually cropped in the
following proportions :—
ACRES. ACRES.
Brought forward . . 21,310,000
Wheat 7,000,000 /-grounds 20,000
Barley and ryo 1,950,000 IncloHed fruit, flower, kitchen, and other
Potatoes, oats, and beans . . . . 6,500,030 gardens 1 10,000
Turnips, cabbages, and othor vegetables . 1.150,000 Pleasure-grounds 100,000
Clover, rye-grass, Ac 1,750,000 Ljind depastured by cattle .... 21,000.000
F:illoW 2,800,000 Hedge-rows, copses, and woods . . 2,000,000
Hop-grounds 60,000 Ways, water, Ac . 2,100,000
Forward 21,210,000 I Cultivated land 4D. 540,000
It was reckoned by tho Agricultural Committee, that the cultivation of waste lands wouldi viek
yield above
20.000,000^. a year. It. was calculated in 1854 that there were in England 32.160.000 acres in cul
the auuual value of 37,412,0001. Since that time much land has been brought into cultivation. See If heat.of
ultivation,
AIX 19 ALB
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Aachen), a Roman city, now in Rhenish Prussia. Here Charle
magne was born 742, and died 814 ; having built the minster (796 804), and conferred many
privileges on the city, in which fifty-five emperors have since been crowned. The city was
taken by the French in 1792 ; retaken by the Austrians, 1793 ; by the French, 1794 ; reverted
to Prussia, 1814. —The first Treaty of peace signed here was between France and Spain,
when Franco yielded Franehe Comte, but retained her conquests in the Netherlands, May 2,
1668. —The second, or celebrated treaty, was between Great Britain, France, Holland,
Germany, Spain, and Genoa. (By it the treaties of Westphalia in 1648, of Nimeguen in
1678 and 1679, of Ryswickin 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, of Baden in 1714, of the Triple
Alliance in 1 7 1 7, of the Quadruple Alliance in 1718, and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed
and confirmed.) Signed on the part of England by John, earl of Sandwich, and sir Thomas
Robinson, Oct. 7, 1748. —A Congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia,
assisted by ministers from England and France, was held at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a conven
tion signed, Oct. 9, 1818. The sum then due from France to the allies was settled at
265,000,000 of francs.
AJACCIO. See Corsica.
AJNADIN (Syria). Here the Mahometans defeated the army of the emperor Heraclius,
in July, 633. They took Damascus in 634.
AKERMAN (Bessarabia). After being several times taken, it was ceded to Russia in 1812.
Here the celebrated treaty between Russia and Turkey was concluded in 1826, which secured
for the former the navigation of the Black Sea, recognised the Danubian principalities, Ac.
ALABAMA, a Southern slave state, originally part of Georgia, N. America ; made an
independent state in 1819 : commercial metropolis, Mobile. It seceded from the Union by
an ordinance passed Jan. 11, 1861, and was reunited in 1865.*
ALAND ISLES (Gulf of Bothnia), taken from Sweden by Russians, 1809. See Bomar-
sund.
ALANI, a Tartar race, invaded Parthia, 75. They joined the Huns in invading the
Roman empire, were defeated by Theodosius, 379-382. They were subdued by the Visigoths,
452 ; and were eventually incorporated with them.
ALARCOS (Central Spain). Here the Spaniards under Alfonso IX., king of Castile, were
totally defeated by the Moors, July 19, 1 195.
ALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Italy, said to have been founded by Ascanius, son of
tineas, 1 152 B.c. Its history is of doubtful authenticity.
Ascanius, son of jEneas, 1152 B.C. ; Sylvius Pofl- Agrippa ; Romulus Silvias, 864 ; Aventinus,
thumus, 1143; .Kneas Sylvius . B.C. 1114 845 ; Ptocok, 808 ; Numitor . . B.a 795
Reucn of Latinus. 1048 ; Alba, 1038 ; Atys, or Amulius,t the brother of Numitor, seixes the
Capetns, 1002 ; Capys, 976 ; Capotus . gj6 throne, 794 ; killed by his grandson,
Reitrn of Tiberinus, 903 ; being defeated in Romulus, who restores Numitor . . 754
battle, near tbe river Alttitla. be throws him Romulus builds and fortifies Romo (see Rome) 753
self into the stream, is drowned, and hence Alba conquered by Tullus Hostilius, and in
this river is now called the Tiber . . . 895 corporated with Romo 665
ALBANIA, a province in European Turkey, formerly part of the ancient Epirus. The
Albanians became independent during the decline of the Greek empire. They were success
fully attacked by the Turks in 1388. About 1443, under George Castriot (Scandcrbeg), they
baffled the efforts of Mahomed II. to subdue them till the siege of Scutari in 1478, when
they partially submitted. Albania became independent under Ali Pacha, of Janina, in 1812,
who defeated the Turkish pachas, and governed ably, but cruelly and despotically, till Feb.
1822, when he and his two sons were slain, after surrendering under a solemn promise of
safety. A revolt in Albania was suppressed in 1843.
• The Alabama," a steam-vessel belonging to the Southern States of North America, was built at
Birkenhead, and sailed under a false name from the Mersey, July 28, 1862. Under tho command of
captain Semmes it made much havock in tho Federal trading vossels. The " Alabama " was attacked and
mink by the Federal iron-clad " Kearsago " near Cherbourg, on Sunday morning, June 19, 1864. Part of
the crew were saved by Mr. John Lancaster in an English yacht.
t Early traditions state, that when Ainulius dethroned his brother, ho condemned Ilia, the daughter
of Numitor, to a life of celibacy, by obliging her to take the vows and office of a vestal, thoroby to assure
his safety in the usurpation. His object was, however, frustrated ; violence was offered to Ilia, and she
became the mother of twins, for which Amulius ordered her to bo buried alive, and her offspring to be
thrown into tho Tiber, 770 B.C. But tho little bark in which the infants were sent adrift stopped near
mount Aventine, and was brought ashore by Faustulus, the king's chief shepherd, who reared the children
as his own, and called them Romulus and Remus. His wife, Acca-Laurentia, was sumamed Lupa: whence
arose the fable that Romulus and his brother were suckled by a she-wolf. At sixteen years of age, Romulus
avenged the wrongs of Ilia and Numitor, 754 B.C., and the next year founded Rome. Varro.
C 2
ALB 20 ALB
ALBAN'S, ST. (Hertfordshire), near the Roman Verulam, derived its present name from
Alban, the British protomartyr, said to have been beheaded during the persecution by
Diocletian, June 23, 286. A stately monastery to his memory was erected by Otfa, king
of Mercia, about 793, who granted it many privileges. Its superior sat as premier abbot in
parliament till the dissolution in 1539. It was taken from Cassivelaunus by Julius Csesar, 54
B.C., and retaken with much slaughter by Boadicea or Bunduica, queen of the Iceni, a.d. 61.
On May 22 or 23, 1455, was fought the jirst battle of St. Albans, when the Lancastrians were
defeated, their leader, Edmund duke of Somerset slain, and king Henry VI. taken prisoner,
by the duke of York and his partisans. In the second battle, on Shrove Tuesday, Feb. 17,
1461, queen Margaret totally defeated the Yorkists under the earl of Warwick and rescued
the king. There was much blood shed in these desperate conflicts. St. Alban's was incor
porated by Edward VI. in 1553, and disfranchised for bribery, June 17, 1852. St. Albans
raid, see United States, 1804.
ALBANY (or Ai.bainn), the ancient name of the Scottish Highlands. The brother of
Robert III. of Scotland was made duke of Albany in 1398. Frederick, son of George III.,
was duke of York and Albany. He died Jan. 5, 1827.
ALBERT MEMORIAL. The Prince Consort died on Dec. 14, 1861, deeply lamented by
the whole civilised world. A meeting to organise a method of receiving contributions for a
great national memorial was held at the Mansion-house, Jan. 14, 1862 ; and a large sum
was quickly subscribed. 36,000?. had been received on March 1, and 50,220?. on June II,
1862. The nature of the memorial was referred to the queen herself. In a letter to the
lord mayor, dated Feb. 19, 1862, sir Charles Grev says, on behalf of her majesty, " It would
be more in accordance with her own feelings, and she believes with those of the country in
general, that the monument should be directly personal to its object. After giving the
subject her maturest consideration, her majesty has come to the conclusion, that nothing
would be more appropriate, provided it is on a scale of sufficient grandeur, than an obeli.sk
to be erected in Hyde-park on the site of the Great Exhibition of 1851, or on some spot
immediately contiguous to it. Nor would any proposal that could be made be more
gratifying to the queen herself personally, for she can never forget that the prince himself
had highly approved of the idea of a memorial of this character being raised on the same spot in
remembrance of the Great Exhibition." In a second letter the queen expressed her intention of
personally contributing towards erecting the memorial, that it might be recorded in future
ages as raised by the queen and people of a grateful country to the memory of its benefactor. "
Shortly after a committee was appointed to fulfil her majesty's desire. As a suitable block
of granite could not be obtained, the proposal for an obelisk was given up. On April 22,
1863, the queen approved of the design of Mr. Gilbert G. Scott for an Eleanor Cross, with a
spire 150 feet high, accompanied by statues, &c. ; and on April 23, parliament voted 50,000?.,
in addition to the 60.000?. received by voluntary contributions. The sculptors employed
are M'Dowcll, Foley, Theed, John Bell, and Armistcad : material, Sicilian marble. (Jan.
1865.) Many memorials of the prince have been set up throughout the empire.*
ALBIGENSES, a name giyen to various bodies of persons who opposed the doctrines and
corruptions of the church of Rome, living at Albiga, in Languedoc, and at Toulouse in the
12th century. They were persecuted as Manichteaus, 1 163, and a crusade (proclaimed by
pope Innoceut III.) commenced against them in 1207. Simon de Montfort (to whom Toulouse
was given) commanded, and at Bezieres he and the pope's legate put friends and foes to the
sword, saying, "God will find his own I" At Minerba he burnt 150 of the Albigenses
alive ; and at La Vaur he hanged the governor, and beheaded the chief people, drowning the
governor's wife, and murdering other women. He next defeated the count of Toulouse, but
was himself killed in 1218. Louis VIII. and IX., kings of France, patronised the crusade ;
count Raymond was subdued in 1229 ; and the heretics were given up to the Inquisition.
See Waldenses.
ALBION (probably derived from albus or alp, white). Britain is said to have been so
called by Julius Ca?sur and others, on account of the chalky cliffs upon its coast.
ALBUERA (or Aluthera), Estreniadura, Spain, where a battle was fought between the
French, commanded by marshal Soult, and the British and Anglo-Spanish army, under
marshal, afterwards lord Beresford, May 16, 181 1. The allies obtained the victory, one of
* Inscription on the " Memorial Cairn" on a high mountain overlooking Balmoral palace:—"To the
beloved memory of Ai.bebt the great and good Prince Consort, erected by his broken-hearted widow,
VicrouiA R., 21st Aug. 1862." Upon another dressed slab, a few inches below the above, is this quota
tion :—" Ho being made perfect in a short time, fulfilled a long time : for his soul pleased the Lord,
therefore hasted he to take him away frum among the wicked."— IViedon u/ Solomon, chap. iv. 13, 14.
21 ALD
the most brilliant achievements of the war. The French loss exceeded 8000 men previously
to their retreat ; hut the allies lost a large number. The chief braut of the action fell on
the British ; colonel Inglis, 22 officers, and more than 400 men, out of 570 who had
mounted a hill, fell, —out of the 57th regiment alone ; the other regiments were scarcely
better otf, not one-third being left standing ; " 1500 unwounded men, the remnant of 6000
unconquerable British soldiers, stood triumphant on this fatal hilL" Napier.
ALBUFERA (Spain, East Central), a lagoon, near jvhich the French marshal Suchet
(afterwards duke of Albufera) defeated the Spaniards under Blake, Jan. 4, 1812 : this led to
his capture of Valencia on Jan. 9.
ALCANTARA, an illustrious Spanish military order of knighthood, established in n 56.
The sovereign of Spain has been grand master since 1495.
ALCAZAR-QUIVER hear Fez, N. W. Africa, where the Moors totally defeated the
Portuguese, whose gallant king Sebastian was slain, Aug. 4, 1578. The Portuguese
disbelieved his death and anxiously expected his return ; this led to the successive appear
ance of five impostors.
ALCHEMY, the forerunner of the science of chemistry : its chief objects being the
discovery of the philosopher's stone (which was to cfiect the transmutation of metals into
gold), an alkahest or universal menstruum, and the elixir of life. Alchemy is said to be as
old as the Flood ; yet few writers, from Homer till 400 years alter Christ, mention any such
thing. The alchemists assert that their founder was Hermes Trismegislus (thrice greatest),
an ancient Egyptian king. — Pliny says, the emperor Caligula was the first who prepared
natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it off, oecanse the charge exceeded the
profit. Others say, the Egyptians knew the secret. Zosimus wrote on the subject about
410. The Arabians are said to have invented this art, wherein they were vainly followed
(in the 13th century) by Eoger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, Aquinus, and Raymond Lullius,
by Basil Valentine (born 1394), and by Paracelsus (died 1541), and others. —In 1404 tho
craft of multiplying gold and silver was made felony by 5 Hen. IV. c. 4, which act was
repealed in 1689.
to one A licenceCarter,
for practising alchemy with
Feed. allDr.kinds
Price,of ofmetals and minerals
■was granted Richard 1476. Hymer's Guildford, in 1782
published an account of his experiments in this way, and pretended to success : he brought
his specimens of gold to the King, affirming that they were made by means of a red and
■white powder. Being a fellow of the Royal Society, he was required, upon pain of expulsion,
to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Wolfe (some say Higgins) ; but alter
much equivocation and delay he took poison and died, Aug. 1783.
ALCOHOL. Pure spirit of wine or hydrated alcohol was obtained by the distillation of
fermented liquors by Abucasis in the 12th century ; and the dehydration of this liquor
was first partially effected by Raymond Lullius in the 13th century by carbonate of potas
sium. Alcohol has never been reduced to the solid state, but becomes viscid at very low
temperatures. In 1820, Faraday and Hennell obtained traces of alcohol by passing olefiant
gas (bi-carburetted hydrogen) through sulphuric acid ; and in 1862 this process was
examined and confirmed by Berthelot. See Distillation, Spirits, Brandy, Gin, Rum.
AL-CORAN. See Koran, Mahometanism, &c.
ALDERMAN. The Saxon ealdorman was next to the king and frequently a viceroy : but
after the settlement of the Danes the title was gradually displaced bv that of carl. Aldermen
are now next in dignity to the mayor. They were appointed in London (where there are
twenty-six) in 1242 ; and in Dublin (where there are twenty-four) in 1323. Aldermen
chosen for life, instead of annually, 17 Richard II, 1394. Present mode of election
established n Geo. I. 1725. Aldermen made justices of the peace 15 Geo. II. 1741.
ALDERNEY
■William (English Channel),
the Conqueror, 1066. The with"Race"
Jersey, &c, was incorporated
is celebrated for twowith the occurrences;
fatal kingdom by
William of Normandy, son of Henry I. of England, and many young nobles (140 youths of
the principal families of France and Britain), were overtaken by a storm, and all lost, Nov.
25, 1120. The British mun-of-war Victory, of 100 guns and 1160 men, was wrecked here,
Oct. 5, 1744 ; the admiral, sir John Balchan, and all his crew perished. Through this strait
the French escaped after their defeat at La Hogue by admiral Rooke, May, 1692.
ALDERSHOT CAMP, a moor near Farnham, about 35 miles from London. In April,
1854, the War office, having obtained a giant of ioo,oooi., purchased 4000 acres of land
for a permanent camp for 20,000 men. Additional land was purchased in 1856. Barracks
ALD 22 ALE
have been since erected for 4000 infantry, 1500 cavalry, and several batteries of artillery.
Great improvements in military cookery were introduced here under the superintendence of
captain John Grant in 1857. See Cookery. —It was visited by the queen April ig, 1856 ;
and on July 7 the queen reviewed the troops returned from the Crimea ; and again on the
16th, in the presence of both houses of parliament. In 1859, about 15,000 men were
stationed hero. (Cost, up to Feb. i860, said to be 1,291,5312.) An industrial and fine art
exhibition, furnished by officers and men and their wives, was opened here June 29, and
closed July 14, 1864. "
ALD1NE PRESS, that of Aldus Manutins, at Venice, where were printed many of the
first editions of the Greek, Latin, and Italian classics, commencing in 1494 with Musa;us.
ALE, Beer (and Wine) are said to have been invented by Bacchus ; the first in Egypt,
where the soil was considered unable to produce grapes. Ale was known as a beverage at
least in 404 B.C. Herodotus ascribes the first discovery of the art of brewing barley-wine to
Isis, the wife of Osiris.—A beverage of this kind is mentioned by Xenophon, 401 B.C. The
Romans and Germans very early learned from the Egyptians the process of preparing a
liquor from corn by means of fermentation. Tacitus. Ale-houses are made mention of
in the laws of Ina, king of Wessex (a.d. 688). Booths were set up in England 728, when
laws were passed for their regulation. Ale-houses were subjected to regulation by 5 & 6
Edw. VI. c. 25 (1551). By 1 James I. c. 9 (1603), one full quart of the best, and two
quarts of small ale were to be sold for one penny. Excise duty on ale and beer was imposed
by the parliament in 1643, and continued by Charles II. (1660). See Beer, Porter, Wine.
ALEMANNI, or All Men (i.e. men of all nations), hence Allemand, German. A body
of Suevi, who took this name, were defeated by Caracalla, 214. After several repulses, they
invaded the empire under Aurelian, who subdued them in three battles, 270. They were
again vanquished by Julian, 356, 357. They were defeated and subjugated by Clovis at
Tolbiac (or Zulpich), 496. The Suabians are their descendants.
ALENCON (N. France) gave title to a count and duke.
1268. Peter made count by his father king Louis IX. 1404. John (his son), made duke in 1414, killed at
1293. Charles I., of Valois, made count by his bro Agincourt, 1415.
ther king Philip the Fair. 1415. John II. rhisson), intrigued against tho king.
1325. Charles II., his son, killed at Crecy. 1476. Charles IV. fled after tho battle of Pavia in
1346. Charles III. (his sou), became a priest. 1525, and died shortly after of chagrin. Tho
1361. Peter, his brother. duchy was absorbed by the crown.
ALEPPO (anciently Boroea), a largo town, If. Syria, so named by Seleucus Nicator about
299 B.C. The pachalic of Aleppo is one of the five governments of Syria. It was taken by
the Turks, A.D. 638, who restored its ancient name Haleb or Chaleb ; by Saladin, 1 193 ; and
sacked by Timour, 1400. Its depopulation by the plague has been frequent ; 60,000 persons
were computed to have perished by it in 1797. It suffered by the plague in 1827, and the
cholera in 1832. Aleppo suffered severely from the terrible earthquakes in 1822 and 1830 ;
and has often been the scene of fanatical massacres. On Oct. 16, 1850, the Mahometans
attacked the Christian inhabitants. They burnt everything in their way ; three churches
were destroyed, five others were plundered, thousands of persons were slain, and the total
loss of property amounted to about a million sterling ; no interference was attempted by the
pacha or the Turkish soldiers.
ALESSANDRIA, a city of Piedmont, built in 1168 under the name of Ca:sarea by tho
Milanese and Cremonese, to defend the Tanaro against the emperor, and named Alessandria
after pope Alexander III. It has been frequently besieged and taken. The French took
Alessandria in 1798, but were driven out July 21, 1799. They recovered it after the battle
of Marengo, in 1800. Alessandria was strongly fortified by Napoleon. Its works were
destroyed at the peace in 1814, but a European subscription was commenced in 1856, to
restore them.
ALEXANDER, Era of, dated from the death of Alexander the Great, Nov. 12, 323 B.C.
In the computation of this era, the period of the Creation was considered to bo 5502 years
before the birth of Christ, and, in consequence, tho year 1 A.D. was equal to 5503. This
computation continued to the year A.D. 284, which was called 5786. In the next year (A.D.
285), which should have been 5787, ten years were discarded, anil the date became 5777.
This is still used in the Abyssinian era, which see. The date is reduced to the Christian era
by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and after that time by subtracting 5492.
"ALEXANDRA CASE." See Trials, 1862-64.
ALE •23 ALG
ALEXANDRA PARK, Muswell Hill, London, N., purchased by a company, and named
after the Princess of Wales, was opened with a flower show, July 23, 1863. A portion of
the Exhibition of 1862 is to be erected within it. The work, which rapidly proceeded in
1864, is now suspended (1865).
ALEXANDRIA (Egypt), the walls whereof were six miles in circuit, was built by
Alexander the Great, 332 B.C., who was buried here, 322. It became the residence of the
Greek sovereigns of Egypt, the Ptolemies.
Ptolemy Soter erects the Mnseum, the Sera- Alexandria captured by Chosroes II. of Persia,
peum, the Pharo, and other edifices, and 616 ; and by Amrou, the general of tho caliph
begins the library about .... B.C. 298 Omar, who ordered the library to be burnt,*
These works completed by his son P. Philadel- whereby the baths wore supplied with fuel
phus and his grandson P. Energetes . 283-222 for six months .... Dec. 22, 640
Alexandria taken by Julius Caisar ; when a Cairo founded by the Saracens ; which tends to
lihriry is burnt 48 the decay of Alexandria 969
"Which Antony replaces by one brought from Alexandria surprised and plundered by the
Perganiua 36 Crusaders 1365
The city restored by Adrian . . . a.d. 122 The French invade Egypt and capture Alex
Maw-acre of the youth by Caracalla, In revenge andria July, 1798
for an old insult six A British army under gen. Ralph Abercroniby
Alexandria supporting the usurper Achilleus is land, and defeat the French under Mcnou,
taken by Diocletian after a long siege . 297 March 21, 1801
Alexandria disturbed by the feuds between the Abercromby dios of his wounds, March 28 ;
Athanasians and Arians 321 Merum and 10,000 French surrender to
George of Cappadocia was killed 362, and Hutchinson, who transmit them to Franco,
Atuanasius finally restored .... 363 Sept. 1801
50,000 persons perish by an earthquake . . 365 Alexandria taken by tho British under Eraser,
Paganism suppressed by Theodosius, when a March 20 ; evacuated by them . Sept. 23, 1807
second library is burnt 390 Railway to Cairo formed 1851
ALEXANDRIAN CODEX, a MS. of the Bible in Greek, said to have been written by a
lady named Thecla, in the 6th century, and to have belonged to the patriarch of Alexandria
in 1098. It was presented to Charles I. of England in 1628 by Cyrillus Lascaris, patriarch
of Constantinople, and was placed in the British Museum in 1753. It was printed in fac
simile, 1786- 1 821.
ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS of Philosophy. The first school arose soon after the
foundation of Alexandria, 332 B.C. It nourished under the patronage of the Ptolemies till
about 100 B.C. It included Euclid (300), Archimedes (287—212), Apollonius (250). Hippar-
chua (150), and Hero (150). The second school arose about a.d. 140, and lasted till about
400. Its most eminent members were Ptolemy, the author of the Ptolemaic system (i5°)i
Diophantus, the arithmetician (200), and Pappus, the geometer (350).
ALEXANDRINES, verses of twelve syllables, first written by Alexander of Paris, about
1 164, and since called after him. The last line of the Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine.
In Pope's Essay on Criticism, this verse is thus happily exemplified —
" A needless Alexandrine ends tho song1,
That, like a woundud snake, drags its slow length along."
The longest English poem wholly in Alexandrine verse is Drayton's Tolyolbion, published
iu 1612. Chapman's Homer's Iliad (1598) is in this measure.
ALFORD (N. Scotland), Battle of. General Baillic, with a large body of Covenanters,
was defeated by the marquess of Montrose, July 2, 1645.
ALGEBRA : Diophantus, said to be the inventor, first wrote upon it, probably about
200. It was much cultivated in the 9th century by tho Arabs, who brought it into
Spain. Among its votaries in Italy was Leonardo Bonaceio of Pisa, in 1220. In 1494
Luca Paciolo published the first printed book on algebra in Europe. Serret. Some of tho
algebraic signs were introduced either by Christophe Rudolph (1522-6) or Michael Stifelius
of Nuremberg, 1544, and others by Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into general
use. Moreri. Descartes applied algebra to geometry about 1637. The binomial theorem
of Newton, the basis of the doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. Dean
Peacock's "Algebra" is a first-class work.
ALGERIA. See Algiers,
• The celebrated saying of Omar—" That If the books agreed with the book of God, they were useless;
if they disagreed, they were pernicious"—is denied by Mahometans. It is also attributed to Thoophilus,
archbishop of Alexandria (390), and to cardinal Ximenes (1500).
ALG 24 ALI
ALGES1RAS, or Old Gibraltar (S. Spain). By this city, the Moors entered Spain in
710, and held it till 1343.-—Two engagements took place here between the English fleet
under sir James Saumarez and the united French and Spanish fleets, July 6 and 12, 1801.
In the first the enemy was victorious, the English losing the Pompey ; but their honour was
redeemed in the latter conflict, the San Antonio^ 74 guns, being captured. By an unfortu
nate error, two Spanish ships fired on each other and took fire ; of 2000 men on board, 250
were saved by the English. Alison*
ALGIERS, now Algeria, N. W. Africa ; part of the Ancient Mauritania, which was
conquered by the Romans, 46 B.C. ; by the Vandals, 439 a.d. ; recovered for the empire by
Belisarius, 534 ; and subdued by the Arabs about 690.
The town Algiers founded by the Arabs on the General Damremont attacked Constantina
site of Icosium about 935 (which jw) Oct. 13, 1837
Becoming the seat of the Barbary pirates, it After various engagements Abd-el-Kader sur
is captured by Ferdinand of Spain, 1509; but renders Dec. 22, 1847*
is retaken by Horuc and Hayreddin Bar- An insurrection of the Kabyles subdued by the
barossa, and made the capital of a state ; French, after several sharp engagements . 185if
governed by a dey, nominally subject to the The government entrusted (for a short time)
sultan of Turkey 1516—20 to prince Napoleon 1858
The emperor Charles V. loses a fine fleet and The Arab tribes attack, the French ; defeated,
army in an unsuccessful expedition against Oct. 31 and Nov. 6, 1859
them 1541 Algiers visited by the emperor Napoleon III.,
Algiers terrified into pacific measures by Sept i860
Blake, 1655 ; by Du Quesne .... 1683 Marshal Felissier, duke of Malakboff, appointed
In consequence of tho continued piracy of the governor-general of Algeria Nov. i860
Algerines, the city was successfully bom The emperor promises a constitution securing
barded by the British fleet, under admiral the rights of the Arabs, saying : " I am as
lord Esmouth Aug. 27, 1816 much emperor of the Arabs as of the French. "
A new treaty followed, and Christian slavery Feb. 1863
was abolished. Insurrection of the Arabs—May ; submission
Algiers surrendered to a French armament announced June 15, 1864
under Bourmont and Duperre', after severe Death of Pelissier—dies May 22 ; mai-shal
conflicts ; the dey is deposed, and the bar M'Mahon, duke of Magenta, succeeds him,
barian government wholly overthrown July Sept. 8, 1864
5, 1830. The French ministry announce their Fresh rovolt; insurgents defeated by Jolivet,
intention to retain Algiers permanently, Oct. 2, 1864
May 20, 1834 The emperor well received during his visit,
The Arab chief, Abd-ol-Kader, preaches a holy May 3—June 1865
war, becomes powerful, and attacks the More rights and privileges promised to the
French, at first successfully . . 1834-5 natives July* 1865
Marshal Clausel defeats the Arabs in two
battles, and enters Mascara . . Dec 8, 1836
ALHAMBRA, a Moorish palace and fortress near Granada, S. Spain, founded by Moham
med I. of Granada about 1253. It surrendered to the Christians Jan. 6, 1496. The remains
have been described in a magnificent work by Owen Jones and Jules Goury, published
1842-5. There is a fac-simile of a part of this palace in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham.
The Panopticon {which see) was opened as a circus, &c, under this name, in March 1858. The
Alhambra Palace Company, incorporated in July 1863, applied for dissolution in Jan. 1865.
ALI, Sect of, founded by Ali (who married Mahomet's daughter Fatima), about 632.
He became Mahomet's vizir, 613; and caliph, 655. Ali was called by the prophet, 44 the
lion of God, always victorious ; * and the Persians follow the interpretation of the Koran
according to All, while other Mahometans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. Ali was
assassinated in 660. %—This sect is called Shiites and Fatimites.
ALIENS, or Foreigners, were banished in 1 155, being thought too numerous. In 1343
they were excluded from enjoying ecclesiastical benefices. By 2 Rich. II. st. 1, 1378, they
were much relieved. "When they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to be half
foreigners, if they so desired, 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or
handicraft by retail, 1483, a prohibition which was relaxed in 1663. The celebrated
* He, with his suite, embarked at Oran, and landed at Toulon on Dec. 28 following. He was remoTed
to the castle of Amboisc, near Tours, Nov. 2, 1848, and released from his confinement by Louis Napoleon,
Oct. 16, 1&52, after swearing on the Koran never to disturb Africa again ; he was to reside henceforward at
Broussa, in Asia Minor; but in consequence of the earthquake at tbat place Feb. 28, 1855, he removed to
Constantinople. In July, i860, Abd-el-Kader held the citadel of Damascus, and there protected many of
the Christians whom he had rescued from the massacres then in perpetration by tho Turks. He received
honours from the English, French, and Sardinian sovereigns.
t 500 Arabs in a cave refuse to surrender ; suffocated by smoke ; said to have been ordered by general
Fclissier, June 18, 1845.
t Tut; first four successors of Mahomet—Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and Ali, his chief agents in estab
lishing his religion and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that account he styled the " cutting swords
of God," all died violent deaths ; and his family was wholly extirpated within thirty years after his own
decease.
ALI 25 ALL
Alien Bill passed, Jan. 1793. Act to register aliens, 1795.— The celebrated baron Geramb,
a conspicuous and fashionable foreigner, known at court, was ordered out of England,
April 6, 1812.—Bill to abolish their naturalisation by the holding of stock in the banks of
Scotland, June, 1820. New registration act, 7 Geo. IV. 1826. This last act was repenled
and another statute passed, 6 Will. 1 V. 1836. The rigour of the alien laws was much
mitigated by 7 & 8 Vict c. 66 (1844). —Alien Priories were suppressed in England
in 1414.*
ALIWAL, a village in N. W. India, the site of a battle on Jan. 28, 1846, between the
Sikh army under sirdar Runjoor Singh Majeethea, 19,000 strong, supported by 68 pieces of
ca;iuou, and the British under sir H. Smith, 7000 men, with 32 guns. The contest was
obstinate, but ended in the defeat of the Sikhs, who lost nearly 6000 killed or drowned in
attempting to recross the Sutlej.
ALKALI ES (from kali, the Arabic name for the plant from which an alkaline substance
was first procured) are ammonia, potash, soda, and litbia. Black discovered the nature of
the difference between caustic and mild alkalies in 1 736.
The fixed alkalies, potash and soda, decomposed by are defined as works for the manu
Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution, London, facture of alkali, sulphates of soda, sulphate of
1808. Dr. Ure invented an alkalimcter, 1816. potash, and in which muriatic gas is evolved.
The manufacture of alkalies, very extensive in Mr. Wm. Gossago's process for condensing muriatic
Lancashire and Cheshire, are based on the decom acid gas patented in 1836.
position "f common salt (chloride of sodium), by In consequence of the serious injury to vegetation
a process invented by a Frenchman named Le produced by the numerous alkali works in Lanca
Blanc, about 1793. shire and Cheshire, the Alkali act "for the mure
Mr. Losh obtained crystals of soda from brine about effectual condensation [of 95 per cent.] of muriatic
18x4. Various modifications of these processes acid gas " (or hydrochloric acid) was passed, July
are now in use. 28, 1863, to come into operation Jan. 1, 1864.
ALKMAER. See Bergen.
ALLAHABAD (N. W. Hindostan), the " holy city " of the Indian Mahometans, situated
at the junction of the rivers Jumna and Ganges. The province of Allahabad was succes
sively subject to the kings of Delhi and Oude, but in 1803 was wholly incorporated with the
British possessions. By treaty here, Bengal, 4c, was ceded to the English in 1765. —
During the sepoy mutiny several regiments of the East India company rose and massacred
their officers, June 4, 1857 ; colonel Neil marched promptly from Benares and suppressed
the insurrection. In' Nov. 1861, lord Canning made this city the capital of the N. W.
provinces.
ALLEGIANCE. See Oaths.
ALLEGORY is as old as language, and abounds in the Scriptures and Homer: see
Jacob's blessing upon his sons, Genesis xlix. (B.C. 1689), Psalm .\xxx., and all the prophets.
Spenser's Faerie Queene (1590) and Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (1678) are allegories
throughout ; Addison's writings in the Spectator (171 1) abound in allegories.
ALLIA (Italy), a small river flowing into the Tiber, where Brennus and the Gauls
defeated the Romans, July 16, 390 B.C. The Gauls sacked Rome and committed so much
injury that the day was thereafter held to be unlucky (ncfas), and no public business was
permitted to be done thereon.
ALLIANCE, Treaties of, between the high European powers. The following are the
principal. See Coalitions, Conventions, Treaties, United Kingdom, 4c.
ALLIANCE. ALLIANCE. ALLIANCE.
Of Leipsic . April 9, 1631 Of Versailles . . May 1, 1756 Of England, France, & Turkey
Of Vienna May 27, 1657 Germanic July 23, 1785 (at Constantinople) Mar. 12, 1854
The Triple Jan. 28, 1668 Of Paris . . . May 16, 1795 Of England and France rati
Of Warsaw . March 31, 1683 Of St. Petersburg April 8, 1 805 fied . . April 3, ,,
The Grand May i2, 1689 Austrian March 14, 18x2 Of Sardinia with the Western
The Hague . Jan. 4, 1717 Of Sweden . . March 24, ,, Powers (at Turin) Jan. 26, 1855
The Quadruple Aug. 2, 17x8 Of Toplitz . Sept. 9, 1813 Of Sweden with the Western
Of Vienna . March 16. 1731 Holy Alliance Sept. 26, 1815 Powers . . Dec. 19, ,,
ALLOTMENTS. See Land, note.
ALL SAINTS' DAY (Nov. 1), or All-Hallows, a festival said to have been begun by pope
Boniface IV. about 607, and celebrated in the Pantheon at Rome, and established by pope
Gregory IV. (about 830) for the commemoration of all those saints and martyrs in whose
* " Fmtiffntn have reclaimed our marshes, drained our fens, fished our seas, and built our bridges
and harbours." Smilts, 1861.
ALL 26 ALM
honour no particular day is assigned. The reformers of the English church, 1549, struck
out of their calendar altogether a great number of anniversaries, leaving only those which at
their time were connected with popular feeling or tradition.
ALL SOULS' DAY (Nov. 2), a festival of the Roman Catholic church to commemorate
the souls that are in purgatory, instituted, it is said, at Cluny ahout 993 or 1000.
"ALL THE TALENTS" ADMINISTRATION. See Grcnville Administrations.
ALMA, a river in the Crimea, near which was fought a great battle on Sept, 20, 1854. See
Rosso-Turkish War and Crimea. Tho English, French, and Turkish army (about 57,000
men) moved out of their first encampment in the Crimea on Sept. 19, and bivouacked for the
night on the left bank of the Bnlganac. The Russians (commanded by Prince Menschikoff ),
mustering 40,000 infantry, had 180 field-pieces on the heights, and on the morning of Sept.
20th were joined by 6000 cavalry from Theodosia (or Kaffa). The English forces, under
lord Raglan, consisted of 26,000 men; the French of 24,000, under marshal St. Arnaud.
At 12 o'clock the signal to advance was made ; the river Alma was crossed, while prince
Napoleon took possession of the village under the fire of the Russian batteries. At 4, after
a sanguinary fight, the allies were completely victorious. The enemy, utterly routed, threw
away their arms and knapsacks in their flight, having lost about 5000 men, of whom 900
were made prisoners, mostly wounded. The loss of the British was 26 officers and 327 men
killed, and 73 officers and 1539 men wounded (chiefly from the 23rd, 7th, and 33rd regi
ments) ; that of the French, 3 officers and 233 men killed, and 54 officers and 1033 men
wounded. Total loss of allies, about 3300.
ALMACK'S ASSEMBLY-ROOMS, King-street, St. James's, London, at first very
exclusive, were erected by a Scotchman named Alniack, and opened Feb. 12, 1765.
ALMANAC'S (from the Arabic al mavah, to conntV* The Egyptians computed time by
instruments. The Alexandrians had almanacs. Log calendars were anciently in use. In
the British Museum and universities are curious specimens of early almanacs. Michael
Nostradamus, the celebrated astrologer, wrote an almanac in the style of Merlin, 1556.
Dufresnoy. Professor Augustus De Morgan's valuable ''Book of Ahnanaes, with an index
of reference, by which the almanac may be found for every year," was published in March,
1851. Among the earlier and more remarkable almanacs were
John Somor's Calendar, written in Oxford . 1380 Moore's Almanac .... 1698 or 171 3
One in Lambeth palace, written in . . . 1460 Lady's Diary ....... 170s
First printed ono, published at Buda . 1472 Season on the Seasons . . , . . . 1735
First printed in England, by Richard Pynson . 1497 Gentleman's Diary 1741
Tybalt's Prognostication!* 1533 Nautical Almanac, begun by Dr. Neville Mas-
Almanac Liegeota ...... 1636 kclyne (materially improved in 1834) . . 1767
Lilly's Ephemeris ....... 1644 British Imperial Kalcndar 1809
Poor Rubin's Almanac 1652 Hone's Evcry-Day Book . .... 1836
British Merlin 1658 British Almanac and Companion . . . 1S28
Edinburgh Almanac 1683 Anniversary Calendar, published by W. Kidd 1832
Connaissancc des Temps (by Picard) . . . 1699 Chambers' Book of Days .... 1S62—3
ALMANZA (S. E. Spain). Here, on April 25 (0. S. 14), 1714, the English, Dutch,
and Portuguese forces under the carl of Galway, were totally defeated by the French and.
Spanish commanded by James Fitzjames, duke of Berwick (illegitimate son of James II.).
Most of the English were killed or made prisoners, having been abandoned by the
Portuguese at the first charge.
ALMEIDA (Portugal), a frontier town, captured by Massena, Aug. 27, 1810. The French
crossed into Spain, leaving a garrison at Almeida, blockaded by the English, April 6, 181 1.
Almeida was retaken by Wellington (May 10), who eventually compelled Massena to retire
from Portugal, his route being tracked by horrid desolation.
ALMENARA, a village, N. E. Spain, where, on July 28, 1710, an English and German
army defeated the Spanish army supporting Philip V., the grandson of Louis XIV. of France.
Stanhope, the English general, killed the Spanish general, Amezaga, in single conflict, an
act almost unexampled in modern warfare.
• Of Moore's (under the management of Henry Andrews, the able computor of the Nautical Ephrmerii)
at one time upwards of 430,000 copies were annually sold. He died in 1820. The stationers' company
claimed the exclusive right of publishing almanacs in virtue of letters patent from James I., granting the
privilege to them and the two universities ; but the monopoly was broken up by a decision of the Court of
Common Tleaa in 1775. A bill to renew the privilege was lost in 1779. Tbo stamp duty on Engliah
almanacs, first imposed in 1710, was abolished in August, 1834: since when almanacs have become in
numerable, being issued by tradesmen with their goods. Of Foreiini Almai-act, the principal are the
" Almanach de France," first published in 1699, and the " Almanach de Gotha," 1764.
ALM •17 ALP
ALMOHADES, Mahometan partisans, followers of El-Hch di in Africa, about 1120.
They subdued Morocco, 1145 ; entered Spain and cook Seville, Cordova, and Granada,
1146-56 ; ruled Spain till 1232, and Africa till 12/a.
ALMONER, an office of uncertain origin, anciently allotted to a dignified clergyman, who
had the privilege of giving the fir .t disii from the royal table to the poor, or instead thereof
an alms in money. By an ancient canon all bishops were required to keep almoners. The
grand almoner of Franco ylc grand aumonier) was the highest ecclesiastical dignity in that
kingdom before the revolution, 1789. Queen Victoria's almoner (now the bishop of Oxford)
or his sub-almoner distributes the queen's gifts on Maundy Tliursday (which see).
ALMORAVIDES, Mahometan partisans in Africa, rose about 1050; entered Spain by
invitation, 1086 ; were overcome by the Almohades in 1145.
ALMSHOUSES for aged and infirm persons have been erected by very many public
companies and benevolent individuals, particularly since the destruction of religious houses
at the time of the Reformation in the 16th century. A list of them, with useful information,
will be found in " Low's Charities of London," ed. 1862.
Cornelius Van Don founded the Red Lion alms Dame Owen's almshouses, Islington, built in
houses, Westminster ...... 1577 161 3 (in gratitude for her escape from an
Emmanuel College, Westminster, founded by arrow-shot) were rebuilt by tho Brewera'
Lady Dacre 1594 company 1839
Whittington's almshouses, founded in 1621, Bancroft's almshouses, Mile End, were erected 1735
were rebuilt near Highgate-hill by the Mer The London almshouses, in commemoration of
cers' company 1826 the passing of the Reform Bill, built at
The Fishmongers' company founded alms- Brixton 1833
bouses in 2618, and rebuilt them on Wands Numerous almshouses since erected for
worth common 1850 printers, bookbinders, &c.
Haberdashers' almshouses, Hoxton, founded
by Robert Asko 1692
ALNEY. A combat is asserted to have taken place between Edmund Ironside and Canute
the Great, on Alney, an island on the Severn, Gloucestershire, in sight of their armies ;
when the latter was wounded, he proposed a division of the kingdom, the south part falling
to Edmund. Edmund was murdered at Oxford shortly after the treaty, according to some
by the treachery of jEdric Streon, and Canute obtained possession of the whole kingdom,
1016. •
ALNWICK (Saxon Ealmtric), on the river Alne in Northumberland, was given at tho
conquest to Ivo de Vesco. It has belonged to the Percies since 1310. Malcolm, king of
Scotlund, besieged Alnwick in 1093, when he and his sous were killed. It was taken by
David I. in 1136, and attempted in 1174 by William the Lion, who was defeated and
taken prisoner. It was burnt by king John in 1215, and by the Scots in 1448. Since 1854
the castle has been repaired and enlarged with great taste and at unsparing exponse.
ALPACA (or Paco), a species of the S. American quadruped the Llama, the soft hairy
wool of which is now largely employed in the fabrication of cloths. It was introduced into
this country about 1836, by the earl of Derby. An alpaca factory, &c. (covering 11 acres),
was erected at Saltaire, near Shipley, Yorkshire, by Mr. Titus Salt in 1S52.
ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, is said to have been the author of hieroglyphics,
and to have written thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 B.C. Blair. But Josephus
affirms that he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam ; this is deemed fabulous.
The Egyptian alphabet is ascribed to Memnon, they became the ground of the Roman letters,
1823 B.c. now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos
The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew invented the double characters, 8, X, *, E, about
alphabet was ttieph, called by the Greeks alpha, and 1224 b.c. ; and Simonides added, Z, II, 12, about
abbreviated by the moderns to A. The Hebrew 489 b.c. Arundelian Marblt*.—When the K was
is supposed to be derived from the Phceuician. introduced is not precisely known. The Greek
Cadmus the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B.C., is said alphabet consisted of 16 letters till 399 (or 403)
to have brought the Phcenician lettera (fifteen in B.c, when the Ionic of 24 characters was intro
number) into Greece, viz. :—A,B, r, A, I, K, A, duced. The small letters, for the convenience of
M, N, O, n, P, 5, F, T. These letters were writing, are of later invention. The alphabets of
originally either Hebrew, Phcenician, or Assyrian the different nations contain the following number
characters, and changed gradually in form till of letters
English . . a6 German . 26 Greek . 24 Turkish . r3
French . . . 25 Slavonic . . 42 Hebrew. . . 22 Sanscrit
Italian . . 20 Russian • 35 Arabic . 28 Chinese radical cha 44
Spanish . . 27 Latin . . . 22 Persian . - • 32 racters .
ALFHONSINE TABLES, astronomical tables, composed by Spanish and Arab astro
nomers, and collected in 1253 under the direction of Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the
28 ALU
Wise, who is said to have expended upwards of 400,000 crowns in completing the work ; he
himself wrote the preface. The Spanish government ordered the work to be reprinted from
the best MSS. ; three volumes have appeared, 1863-5.
ALPS, a European range of mountains. Those between France and Italy were passed by
Hannibal 218 B.C., by the Romans 154 B.C., and by Napoleon I. in A.D. 1800. Roads over
Mont Cenis and the Simplon, connecting France and Italy, were constructed by order of
Napoleon, between 1801-6. See Simplon. A sub-alpine tunnel through Mont Cenis to
connect Savoy and Piedmont has been in progress since 1857.* In 1859 the "Alpine Club,"
which consists of British travellers in the Alps, published their first work, " Peaks, Passes,
and Glaciers."
ALSACE (N. E. France), formerly part of the kingdom of Australia, now the departments
of the Upper and Lower Rhine. It was incorporated into the German empire in the 10th
century. A portion was restored to France, 1648, and the whole, including Strasburg, in
1697. The precinct of Whitefriars, London, called Alsatia, is described in Scott's "Fortunes
of Nigel." Its privilege of sanctuary was abolished in 1696.
ALTAR. One was built by Noah, 2348 B.C. (Gen. viiL 20) ; others by Abraham, 1921
(Gen. xii. 8). Directions for making an altar are given Exod. xx. 24, 1491 B.c. Altai's
were raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, 1556 B.C. He introduced among the Greeks
the worship of the deities of Egypt. Herodotus. The term "altar" was applied to the
Lord's table for the first three centuries after Christ (Heb. xiii. 10). Christian altars in
churches were instituted by pope Sixtus I., A.D. 135 ; and were first consecrated by pope
Sylvester. The first Christian altar in Britain was in 634. Stow. The church of England
terms the table on which the elements are placed an altar. Since the time of Elizabeth
there has been much controversy on the subject, and the Puritans in the civil war destroyed
many of the ancient stone altars, substituting wooden tables. In 1845 it was decided in
the Arches Court that stone altars were not to be erected in English churches.
ALTER EGO {another or second I), a term applied to Spanish viceroys when exercising
regal power ; used at Naples when the crown prince was appointed vicar-general during an
insurrection in July, 1820.
ALT-RANSffADT (Prussia), where the treaty of peace dictated by Charles XII. of Sweden,
to Frederick Augustus of Poland, was signed, Sept. 24, 1 706. Frederick, deposed in 1 704,
regained the throne of Poland after the defeat of Charles XII., in 1709.
ALUM is said to have been first discovered at Rocha, in Syria, about 1300 ; it was found
in Tuscany aliout 1470 ; was brought to perfection in England by sir T. Challoner, who
established large alum works near Whitby in 1608; was discovered in Ireland in 1757;
and in Anglesey in 1790. Alum is a salt used as a mordant in dyeing ; and also to harden
tallow, to whiten bread, and in the paper manufacture. It may be mode of pure clay
exposed to vapours of sulphuric acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley ; but is
usually obtained by means of ore called alum slate.
ALUMBAGH, a fort near Lncknow, Oude, India, seized and heroically defended by the
British under sir James Outram during the mutiny in 1857. He defeated an attack of
30,000 sepoys on Jan. 12, 1858, and of 20,000 on Feb. 21. He was relieved by sir Colin
Campbell in March.
ALUMINIUM, a metal, the base of the earth alumina (clay), which was shown to be a
distinct earth by Marggratf in 1754, having been previously confounded with lime. Oerstedt
in 1826 obtained the chloride of aluminium ; and in 1827 the metal itself was first obtained
by F. Wbhler, but was for some time merely a scientific curiosity, the process being
expensive. The mode of production was afterwards simplified by Bunsen and others, more
especially by H. Ste.-Claire Deville, who in 1856 succeeded in procuring considerable quan
tities of this metal. It is very light (sp. g. 2 25), malleable, and sonorous ; when pure does
not rust, and is not acted on by sulphur or any acid except hydrochloric. These qualities
will render it very useful when improved processes render it cheaper. In March, 1856, it
was 3?. the ounce ; in June, 1857, 1 1*. or 12s., and it is now much cheaper (1865). The eagles
of the French colours have been made of it, and many other ornamental and useful articles.
Deville's work, "De l'Aluminium," was published in 1859. An aluminium manufactory
was established at Newcastle in i860, by Messrs. Bell. They obtain the metal from a
* At first the boring was effected by ordinary machinery ; in i860 steam power was employed ; but
afterwards compressed air was used as a motive power with great success. It is confidently expected that
the tunnel will be completed in 1870. In 1865 Messrs. Brassey proposed laying down a line of steeply
inclined railway for 47 miles, to be used till the tunnel is completed.
AMA 29 AMB
French mineral, bauxite. Their aluminium bronze, an alloy of copper and aluminium,
invented by Dr. John Percy, F.R.8., came into use for watch-cases, &c, manufactured by
Messrs. Reid of Newcastle, in 1862.
AMADIS of Gaul, a Spanish or Portuguese romance, stated to have been written about
1342 by Vasco de Lobeiro. It was translated and enlarged by De Montalvo, about 1485.
AMALEKITES (descendants of Amalek, grandson of Esau or Edom, the brother of Jacob)
attacked the Israelites 1491 B. c, when perpetual war was denounced by God against them.
They were subdued by Saul about 1079 ; by David, 1058 and 1056 ; and by the Simeonites
about 715 B.C.
A*MALFI, a city on the gulf of Salerno, Naples, in the 8th century became the seat of
a republic, and flourished by its commerce till 1075, when it was takeu by Roger Guiscard.
It eventually was incorporated into the kingdom of Naples. The Pisans, in their sack of the
town in 1 135, are said to have found a copy of the Pandects of Justinian, and thus to have
induced the revival of the study of Roman law in Western Europe. Flavio Gioia, a native
of Amalfi, is the reputed discoverer of the mariner's compass, about 1302.
AMAZON, West India mail steam ship, left Southampton on her first voyage, Friday,
Jan. 2, 1852, and on Sunday morning, Jan. 4, was destroyed by fire at sea, about 110 miles
"W.S.W. of Scilly (ascribed to the spontaneous ignition of combustible matter placed near
the engine-room). Out of 161 persons on board, 102 persons must have perished by fire or
drowning. 21 persons were saved by the life-boat of the ship ; 25 more were carried
into Brest harbour by a Dutch vessel passing by ; and 13 others were picked up in the bay
of Biscay, also by a Dutch galliot. Eliot Warburton, a distinguished writer in general
literature, was among those lost.
AMAZONIA (S. America) was discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1540. Coming from
Peru, he sailed down the river Amuzou to the Atlantic, and observing companies of women
in arms ou its bank, he called the country Amazonia, and gave the name of Amazon to the
river, which had previously been called Maranon.
AMAZONS. Three nations of Amazons have been mentioned—the Asiatic, Scythian, and
African. They are said to have been the descendants of Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia,
■where their husbands, having made incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscades
by their enemies. Their widows resolved to form a female state, and having firmly established
themselves, they decreed that matrimony was a shameful servitude. Quintus Curtius. They
were said to have been conquered by Theseus, about 1231 B.C. The Amazons were constantly
employed in wars ; and that they might throw the javelin with more force, their right
breasts were burned off, whence their name from the Greek, a, no, ma.208, breast. Others
detive the name from maza, the moon, whom they are supposed to have worshipped. About
330 B.c. their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the Great, while ho was pursuing his
conquests in Asia ; three hundred females were in her train. Herodotus.
AMBASSADORS. Accredited agents, and representatives from one court to another, are
referred to early ages. In most countries they have great privileges ; and in England, they
and their servants are secured against arrest. England usually has twenty-five ambassadors
or envoys extraordinary, and about thirty-six chief consuls, resident at foreign courts, exclu
sive of inferior agents ; the ambassadors and other chief agents from abroad at the court of
London in 1865 were 47.
The Russian ambassador's being imprisoned for breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them
debt by a lace-merchant, July 27, 1708, led to the to be imprisoned three months, and the other
passing the statute of 8 Anne, for the protection fined, Hay 12, 1780.
of ambassadors, 1 709. The first ambassador from the United States of
Two men, convicted of arresting the servant of an America to England, John Adams, presented to
ambassador, wore sentenced to be conducted to tho king, June 2, 1785 ; the first from Great
the house of the ambassador, with a label on their Britain to America was Mr. Hammond, in 1791.
AMBER, a carbonaceous mineral,* principally found in the northern parts of Europe, of
great repute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed as a medicine before the Christian
era : Theophrastus wrote upon it ; 300 b.c. Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found
in one year on the sands of the shore near Pillau. Phillips.
• Much diversity of opinion Btill prevails among naturalists and chemists, respecting the origin 01
amber, some referring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and some to the animal kingdom ; its
natural history and chemical analysis affording something in favour of each opinion. It is considered by
Berzelius to have h*-en a reBin dissolved in volatile oil. It often contains delicately-formed insects. Sir l>.
Brewster concludes it to be indurated vegetable juice. When rubbed it becomes electrical, and from its
Greek name, ehrfron, tho Urm Electricity is derived.
AMB no AME
AMROISK (C. France). A conspiracy of the Hiiguonots against Francis II. , Catherine de
Medicis, and the Guises, was suppressed at this place in Jan. 1560. On March 19, 1563,
the 1'acilication of Amhoisc was published, whereby toleration was granted to the Huguenots.
The civil war was however soon renewed.
AMBOYNW, one of the Molucca isles, discovered about 1512 by the Portuguese, hut not
wholly occupied by them till 1580. It was taken by the Dutch in 1605. The English
factors at this settlement were cruelly tortured and put to death, Feb. 17, 1623-4, by the
Dutch, on an accusation of a conspiracy to expel them from the island, where the two
nations resided and jointly shared in the pepper trade of -lava. Cromwell compelled the
Dutch to give a sum of money to the descendants of the sufferers. Amboyna was seized by
the English, Feb. 16, 1796, hut was restored by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802. It was
again seized by the British, Feb. 17-19, 1810 ; and again restored at the peace of 1814.
AMBROSIAN CHANT. See Chant
AMEN, an ancient Hebrew word meaning true, faithful, certain. At the end of a prayer,
it implies so be it; at tho termination of a creed, so it is. It is used in the Jewish and
Christian assemblies, at the conclusion of prayer. See 1 Cor. xiv. 16 (a.d. 59).
AMENDE Honorable, in France, in the 9th century, was an infamous punishment
inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons : the offender was delivered into the hands of
the hangman : his shirt was stripped off, a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand ;
lie was then led into court, and was obliged to beg pardon of God and the country. Death
or banishment sometimes followed.
AMERCEMENT, in Law, a fine assessed for an offence done, or pecuniary punishment at
the mercy of the court : thus differing from a fine directed and fixed by a statute. By
Magna Charta a freeman cannot be amerced for a small fault, but in proportion to the offence
he has committed, 9 Henry III. 1225.
AMERICA,* the great Western Continent, is about 9000 miles long, with an area of about
13.668,000 square miles. It is now believed to have been visited by the Norsemen or
Vikings in the 10th and nth centuries ; but the modern discovery is due to the sagacity
and courage of the Genoese navigator, Christopher Columbus,+ who, after having his scheme
long contemptuously rejected, sailed on his first expedition from Palos in Andalusia on
Friday, Aug. 3, 1492, with vessels supplied by the sovereigns of Spain.
Columbus lands on GuanahanL, one of the Baha He visits the various islos ; and explores their
mas ; takes possession of it in the name of coasts .... ... 1 495-6
Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, and names Returns to Spain to meet the charges of his
it Sun Salvador . . Friday. Oct. 12, 149a enemies ... . June 11, 1496
Ho discovers Cuba, Oct. 28; and Hispaniola Cabot (sent out by Henry VII. of England) dis
(now Hayti), where he builds a fort, La Navi- covers Labrador on tho coast of North Ame
dad Dec. 6, rica (he is erroneously said to have dis
lie returns to Spain , March 1 5 ; sails from Cadiz covered Florida, and also Newfoundland,
on his teeond expedition, Sept 25 ; discovers and to have named it Prima Vista] June 24, 1497
the Caribbeo isles,— Dominica, Nov. 3; Gua Columbus sails on his third voyage. May 30 ;
deloupe, Nov. 4 ; Antigua, Nov. 10 ; founds discovers Trinidad, July 31; lands on Terra
Isabella in Hispaniola, the first Christian Pinna, without knowing it to be the new
city in tho Now World . . . Dec, 1493 continent, naming it Isla Santa Aug 1, 1498
He discovers Jamaica, May 3 ; and Evangclista Ojeda discovers Surinam, June; and the gulf
(now Isle of Pines), June 13; war with the of Venezuela 1409
natives of Hispaniola I49+
• The name is derived from Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine merchant, who died in 1512. He accom
panied Ojeda
friends in Italy.in his
Hevoyage on the
is charged witheastern coasts in 1498
presumptuously ; and described
inserting " Tierra dotheAmerigo
country■ inin his
letters
maps.sent Irving
to his
discusses the question in the Appendix to the Life of Columbus, but comes to no conclusion. Humboldt
asserts that the name was given to the continent in the popular works of Wuldseemilller, a German geo-
grapher without the knowledge of Vespucci To America we are indebted, among other things, for
uu'uze the turkev, the potato, Peruvian bark, and tolwicco.
t Christ*»fore* Colurobo was born about 1445 ; first went to sea about 14^0 ; settled at Lisbon in 1470,
where he married Folipa, tho daughter of Pcrestrello, an Italian navigator ; whereby he obtained much
ifcoirraphical knowledge. He is said to have laid the plans of his voyage of discovery beforo the republic
of Genoa, in 1485, and other powers, and finally before tho court of Spain, where at length the queen
Isabella iwcame his patron. After undergoing much ingratitude and cruel persecution from his own
followers and the Spanish court, he died on May 20, 1506; and was buried with much pomp at ValladoUd.
His remains were transferred, in 1513, to Seville; in 1536 to San Domingo; and in Jan. 1796 to the
Havana*. tuba. The original inscription on his tomb is said to have been : " A Castilla y a" Leon Nuevo
llundo dirt Colon." "To Castile and Leon Colon gave a New World." Humboldt says beautifully, that tho
Bticcesa of Columbus was " a conquest 0/ rtjUctiani "
AME 31 AME
AMERICA, continued.
Vicente Yafiez Pinzon discovers Brazil. South ment on the mainland, founded by lord dc la
Arnsrica, Jan. 26; and the river Marafi<>n(tho Warr 1607
Amazon); Cabral the Portuguese lands in Quebec founded by the French .... 1608
Brazil (see Brazil) .... May 3, 1500 Hudson's bay discovered by him . . . , 1610
Gaspar Cortereal discovers Labrador . The Dutch "build Manhattan, or New Amster
Columbus is imprisoned in chains at San Do dam (now New York) on the Hudson . . 1614
mingo by Bobadilla, sent out to investigate Settlement in New England begun by capt.
into his conduct. May; conveyed to Spain, .Smith „
where he is honourably received Dee. 17, „ New Plymouth built by the banished English
Columbus sails on his fourth voyage, May 9 ; nonconformists 1630
discovers various isles on the coast of Hon Nova Scotia settled by the Scotch under sir
duras, and explores the coast of th« isthmus, Win. Alexander i6aa
July, &c. ; discovers and names Porto Bello, Delaware settled by the Swedes and Dutch . 1627
Nov. 2, 1502 Massachusetts, by sir H. Boswell . . * M
Negro slaves imported into nispaniola 1501-3 Maryland, by lord Baltimore 163a
Worried by the machinations of his enemies, he Connecticut granted to lord Hay and Broke in
returns to Spain, Nov. 7; his friend, queen
[■.'-■ili. dies .... Nov. 20, 1504 here till 1630 : but no English settlement was made
163s
He dies while treated with base Ingratitude by Rhode Island settled by Roger Williams and his
the Spanish government May 20, 1506 brethren, driven from Massachusetts . . IP
Soils and Pinzon discover Yucatan . . . ,, New Jersey settled by the Dutch, 1614, and
Ojoda foundR San Sebastian, the first colony on Swedes, 1627 ; granted to the duke of York,
the mainland 1510 who sells it to lord Berkeley .... 1664
Subjugation of Cuba by VcUzques . .1511 New York captured by the English . . . „
The coast of Florida discovered by Ponce do Carolina settled by the English .... 1669
Leon 15x2 Pennsylvania scttlod by William Peun, the
Vascode Balboa crosses the isthmus of Darien, celebrated Quaker 1683
and discovers the South Pacific Ocean . . 1513 Louisiana settled by the French „
Grijalva penetrates into Yucatan, and names it The Mississippi explored 1699
New Spain 1518 The Scotch settlement at Darien (1698-9) aban
Pannage of Magellan's Straits by him . . 1520 doned i7<3»
Conquest of Mexico by Fernando Cortes . 1519-21 New Orleans built 1717-
Pizarro discovers the coast of Quito . . . 1526 Gcorgia settled by general Oglethorpe , . 173a
He invades and conquers Peru . 1532-5 Kentucky, by colonel Boon . .... 1754
Cartier, a Frenchman, enters the Gulf of St. Canada conquered by tho English, 1759-60;
Lawrence, and sails up to Montreal . 1534-5 ceded to Great Britain 1763
Grijalva's expedition, equipped by Cortes, dis American w;ir—declaration of independence by
cover* California ....... 1535 the United States, 1776; recognised by Great
Bflctidoza founds Buenos Ayres, and conquers Britain 1783
the adjacent cotintry „ Louisiana ceded to Spain, 1762 ; transferred to
Chili conquered by Valdivia 1541 France, 1800 ; sold to the united States . 1803
Orcllana nails down the Amazon to the sea . . „ Florida ceded to Great Britain, 1763 ; taken by
Louisiana conquered by De Soto „ Spain, 1 78 1 ; to whom it is ceded, 1783; ceded
Retiellion in Peru—tranquillity established by to the United States 1820
Gasca 1548 Revolution in Mexico—declaration of indepen
Davis's Straits discovered by him . . . 1585 dence 1821
Raleigh establishes the first English settlement Revolutions in Spanish America ; independence
—at Koanoke, Virginia ,, established by Chili, 1810 ; Paraguay, 1811 ;
Falkland isles discovered by Davis . . 1592 Buenos Ayres, and other provinces, 1816;
De Monts, a Frenchman, settles in Acadia, now Peru 1S26
Nova Scotia 1604 [See United State*. Mexico, and other states,
Jamestown, in Virginia, the first English settle throughout the volume.]
AMERICA, British. See British America.
AMERICA, Central, including the states of Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nica
ragua, and Costa Rica, which see, declared their independence Sept. 21, 1821, and separated
from the Mexican confederation, July 21, 1823. The states made a treaty of union between
themselves March 21, 1847. There has been among them siuce much anarchy and blood
shed, aggravated greatly by the irruption of American filibusters under Kenny and Walker,
1854-5. In Jan. 1863, a war began between Guatemala (afterwards joined by Nicaragua) and
San Salvador (afterwards supported by Honduras). The latter were defeated at Santa Rosa
June 1 6, and San Salvador was taken Oct. 26 ; the president of San Salvador, Harrios, fled ; and
Can-era, the dictator of Guatemala became predominant over the confederacy. — Population,
1859, about 2,355,000. See Nicaragua, Darien, and Panama.
AMERICA, SoUTn. See Brazil, Argentine, Pent, Paraguay, Uruguay, &c.
"AMERICA," an American yacht, schooner-built, 171 tons burthen. On Aug. 22, 1851,
at Cowes regatta, in a match round the Isle of Wight for a cup worth 100/., open to
all nations, she came in first by 8 miles, due to her superior construction on the wave
principle.
AMERICANISMS : a useful dictionary of these expressions was compiled by John R.
Bartlett, and first published in 1848.
AME 32 AMS
AMETHYST, the ninth stone upon the breastplate of the Jewish high priest ; and on it
was engraved the name Issachar. It is of a rich violet colour. One worth 200 rix-dollars,
having been rendered colourless, equalled a diamond in lustre, valued at 18,000 gold
crowns. De Bool, Hist. Ocmmaram. —Amethysts discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1775.
AMIENS, an ancient city in Picardy (N. France) : the cathedral was built in 1220. It
was taken by the Spanish and English Sept. 25, 1597. The preliminary articles of the
memorable peace between Great Britain, Holland, France, and Spain, fiftoen in number,
were signed in London by lord Hawkesbury and M. Otto, on the part of England and
Fiance, Oct. I, 1801 ; and the definitive treaty was subscribed at Amiens, on March 27, 1802,
by the marquess of Cornwallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain,
aud Sehimmelpenninek for Holland. —War was declared again in 1803.
AMMONIA, the volatile alkali, mainly produced by the decomposition of organic sub
stances. Its name is ascribed to its having been procured from heated camel's dung near
the temple of Jupiter Amnion in Libya. The discovery of its being a compound of nitrogon
and hydrogen is ascribed to Joseph Priestley in 1774. By the recent labours of chemists the
oxide of the once hypothetical metal ammonium, and ammonium amalgam, have been
formed ; and specimens of each were shown at the Royal Institution in 1856 by Dr. A. \V.
Hofmann, who has done very much for the chemical history of ammonia.
AMMONITES, descended from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot (1897 B.C.). They invaded
the land of Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated by Jephthah,
1 143 B.C. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul, with an intention to put out the
right eye of all those they subdued ; but Saul overthrew them, 1095 B.C. They were after
wards many times vanquished ; and Antiochus the Great took Rabbah their capital, and
destroyed all the walls, 198 B.C. Josephus.
AMNESTY (a general pardon after political disturbances, 4c.) was granted by Thrasy-
bnlus, the Athenian patriot, after expelling the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only
thirty friends, 403 b.c. Acts of amnesty were passed after the civil war in 1651, and after
the two rebellions in England in 1715 and 1745.—After his victorious campaign in Italy,
Napoleon III. of France granted an amnesty to all political offenders, Aug. 17, 1859. An
amnesty, with certain exemptions, was granted to the vanquished southern states of
North America by president Johnson, May 29, 1865.
AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, asserted traditionally to have been established at Ther-
mopylte by Amphictyon, for the management of all affairs relative to Greece. This cele
brated council, composed of twelve of the wisest and most virtuous men of various cities of
Greece, began 1498 [11 13, Clinton] B.C. Other cities in time sent also chosen citizens to
the council of the Amphictyons, and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they were increased
to the number of thirty. Suidas. Its immediate office was to attend to the temples and
oracles of Delphi. Its interference caused the Sacred wars, 595—586, and 356—340.
AMPHION, a British frigate, of 38 guns, blown up while riding at anchor in Plymouth
Sound, and the whole of her crew then on board, consisting of more than two hundred and
fifty persons, officers and men, perished Sept. 22, 1796. Sutler.
AMPHITHEATRES, said to have been first constructed by Curio, 76 B.C., and Julius
Cffisar 46 B.C. In the Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round or oval buildings, the people
assembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhibitions. They were
generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of stone, under Augustus Cassar.
See Coliseum. The amphitheatre of Vespasian (capable of holding 87,000 persons) was built
between A. D. 75 and 80; and is said to have been a regular fortress in 1312. The amphi
theatre at VeTona was next in size, and then that of Nismes.
AMPHITR1TE, the Ship. See Wrecks, Aug. 30, 1833.
AMPUTATION, in surgery, was greatly aided by the invention of the tourniquet by
Morel, a French surgeon in 1674 ; aud of the flap-method by Lowdham of Exeter in 1679.
AMSTERDAM (Holland). The castle of Amstel was commenced in 1100; the build
ing of the city in 1203. Its commerce was. greatly increased by the decay of that of Antwerp
after 1609. The exchange was built in 1634 ; and the noble stadthouse in 1648 ; the latter
cost three millions of guilders, then a large sum. It is built upon 13,659 piles. Amsterdam
surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince invaded Holland, in favour of the
stadtholder. in 1787. The French were admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The
Dutch government was restored in December, 1813. The crystal palace for an industrial
exhibition was opened by prince Frederick of the Netherlands Aug. 16, 1864.
AMU' 33 ANA
AMULETS, on Charms, employed from the earliest times. Amulets were ni.iJe of the
wood of the true cross, about 328. They hare been sanctioned in modern times by
medical men—witness the anodyno necklace, &c.
AMYLENE, a colourless, very mobile liquid, first procured by M. Balard of Paris in 1844 ,
by distilling fousel oil (potato-spirit) with chloride of zinc. The vapour was employed
instead of chloroform first by Dr. Snow in 1856. It has since been tried in many hospitals
here, and in France. The odour is more unpleasant than chloroform, and more vapour must
lie used. It is, however, thought less dangerous.
ANABAPTISTS. The sect arose about 1521, and was known in England before 1549.
John of Leyden, Muucer, Storck, and other German enthusiasts, about the time of the
Reformation, taught that infant baptism was a contrivance of the devil, that there is no
original sin, that men have a free will in spiritual things, and other doctrines still more wild
and absurd. They committed many violences, and in 1534 seized Minister, calling it Mount
Zion, and declared one Mathias, a baker, to be the king of Zion. Their enthusiasm led
them to the maddest practices, and they at length rose in arms under pretence of gospel
liberty. Miinster was taken June 24, 1535, and the chiefs of the Anabaptists were put to
death. —On Jan. 6, 1661, about 80 anabaptists in London appeared in arms, headed by their
preacher, Thomas Vcnner, a wine-cooper. They fought desperately, and killed many of the
soldiers brought against them. Their leader and sixteen others were executed, Jan. 19 and
21. AnnaU of England.—For the modern Anabaptists see Baptists.
ANACREONTIC VERSE, commonly of the jovial or bacchanalian strain, named after
Anacreon of Teos, the Greek lyric poet, whose odes are much prized. He is said to have
been choked by a grape-stone in his eighty-fifth year, about 514 B.C. His odes have been
frequently translated; Thomas Moore's celebrated version was published in 1800.
ANESTHETICS. See Chloroform, Ether, Amylene, Kerosolcnc. Intense cold is also
employed in deadening pain.
ANADOLIA (Asia Minor), comprises the ancient Lycia, Caria, Lydia, Mysia, Bithynia,
Paphlagonia and Phrygia, u-hich.su.
ANAGRAMS, formed by the transposition of the letters of a name or sentence : as army
from Mary, are said to have been made by ancient Jews, Greeks, &c. On the question put
by Pilate to Our Saviour, "Quid est Veritas'!" (what is truth ?) we have the remarkable
anagram, " Est vir qui adest" (the man who is here). Another good one is "Horatio Nelson,"
and " Honor est a Nilo " ("there is Honour from the Nile"). —The French arc said to have
introduced the art as now practised, about the year 1560, in the reign of Charles IX.
Hlnault.
ANAM. See Annam.
ANASTATIC PRINTING. See Printing, 1841.
ANATHEMA, among the Jews, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction,
as in the case of Jericho (Joshua vi. 17). The word occurs 1 Cor. xvi. 22. Anathemas were
used by the primitive churches, 387. Sec Excommunicatim.
ANATOMY (Greek, cutting up). The study of the human body was part of the philo
sophical investigations of Plato, Xenophon, and Aristotle ; and it became a branch of medical
art under Hippocrates, about 420 B.C. Erasistratus and Herophilus may be regarded as
the fathers of anatomy; they were the first to dissect the human form, as anatomical
research had been previously confined to animals : it is mentioned that they practised upon
the bodies of living criminals, about 300 and 293 B.C. Galen, who died a. n. 193, was a
great anatomist. In England, the schools were supplied with subjects unlawfully exhumed
from graves ; and until lately, the bodies of executed criminals were ordered for dissection.*
Pope Boniface VIII. forbade the dissection of dead bodies, 1297. The first anatomical
plates, designed by Titian, were employed by Vesalius, about 1538. Leonardo da Vinci,
Raphael, and Michael Angelo, studied anatomy. The great discoveries of Harvey were
* By 32 Henrv VIII., c. 42 (1540), surgeons wore granted four bodies of executed malefactors for
" anatltoinya," which privilege was extended in following reigns : but in consequence of the crimes com
niittcd by resurrection-men in order to supply the surgical schools (robbing churchyards and even com
mitting murder, see Rurking), a new statute was passed in 1832, which abated the ignominy of dissection
by prohibiting that of executed murderers, and made provision for the wants of surgeons by permitting,
under certain regulations, the dissection of persons dying in workhouses, &e. The act also appointed
inspectors of anatomy, regulated the schools, and required persons practising anatomy to obtain a
licence. It repealed tno clause of the act of 1828, which directed the dissection of the body of an executed
murderer.
D
ANC U AND
made in 1616. 'William and John Hunter wire great anatomists; they died in 1783 and
'793- Quain's and Wilson's large anatomical plates were published in 1842. Comparative
anatomy has been treated systematically by Cuvier, Owen, Midler, Huxley, and others.
The anatomy of plants has been studied since 1680. See Botany.
ANCHORITES. See Monachism.
ANCHORS arc of ancient use, and the invention belongs to the Tuscans. Pliny. The
second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the Scythian (592 B.C.) Strabo. Anchors
were first forged in England A. p. 578. Those of a first-rate ship of war (four) will weigh 99
cwt. each, costing 450Z. Phillips. The Admiralty anchor was introduced about 1841.
Improved anchors were made by Pering and Rodgers about 1831 ; by Porter 1846 ; by
Oostell 1848 ; by Trotman 1853 ; and by several other persons. Trotman's is attached to
the Queen's yacht the Fairy. The anchors of the Great Eastern are of enormous size. An
act for the proving and sale of chain cables and anchors, was passed in 1864.
ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the Holy Scriptures, and in the history of
Herodotus about 1687 B.C. It is considered as ending with the destruction of the Roman
empire in Italy, a.d. 476. Modern history begins with Mahomet (A.D. 622), or Charle
magne (768).
ANCIENTS. See Councils.
ANCONA, an ancient Roman port on the Adriatic. The mole was built by Trajan,
A.r. 107. After many changes of rulers Ancona was finally annexed to the papal states in
1532. In 1798 it was taken by the French ; but was retaken by the Austrians in 1799.
It was occupied by the French in 1832 ; evacuated in 1838 ; after. an insurrection it was
bombarded and captured by the Austrians, Juno 18, 1849. The Marches (comprising this
city) rebelled against the Papal government in Sept. i860. Lamoriciere, the papal general,
fled to Ancona after his defeat at Castelfidardo, but was compelled to surrender himself, the
city, and the garrison, on Sept. 29. The king of Sardinia entered soon after.
ANCYRA, in ancient Galatia, now Angora or Engour, Asia Minor. A council was held
here in 314. Near this city, on July 28, 1402, Timour or Tamerlane defeated and took
prisoner the sultan Bajazet, and is said to have conveyed him to Samarcand in a cage.
ANDALUSIA (S. Spain), a province forming part of the ancient Lusitania and Baitica.
The name is a corruption of Vandalitia, acquired in consequence of its having been held by
the Vandals from 419 to 421, when it was acquired by the Visigoths. The latter were
expelled by the Moors in 711, who established in it the kingdom of Cordova, which they
retained till their final overthrow in 1492.
ANDERNACH, Rhenish Prussia, once an imperial city. Near here, the emperor Charles
the First, while attempting to deprive his nephews of their inheritance, was totally defeated
by one of them, Louis of Saxony, Oct. 8, 876.
ANDORRA, a small republic in the Pyrenees, bearing the title of "the valleys and
sovereignties of Andorra," was made independent by Charlemagne about 778, certain rights
being reserved to the bishop of Urgel. The feudal sovereignty, which long appertained to
the counts of Foix, reverted to the French king, Henry IV., in 1589 ; but was given up in
1790. On March 27, 1806, an imperial decree restored the old relations between Andorra
and France. The republic is now governed by a council elected for life ; but the magistrates
are appointed alternately by the French government and the Spanish bishop of Urgel. The
population was about 18,000, in 1850. Chiibert.
ANDRE'S Execution-. See Vnilal States, 1780.
ANDREW, ST., said to have been martyred by crucifixion, Nov. 30, 69, at Patrse, in
Achaia. The festival was instituted about 359. Andrew is the titular saint of Scotland,
owing to Hungus, the Pietish prince, having dreamed that the saint was to be his friend in
a pending battle with the Northumbrians. St. Andrew's eross ( x ) appeared in the air
during the fight, and Hungus conquered. The collar of an order of knighthood, founded on
this legend, is formed of thistles (not to be touched) and of rue (an antidote against poison) ;
the motto is Nemo me impune lacessit (A'o one assails me with impunity). The institution of
the order is attributed to Achaius abont 809 ; its revival is duo to king James V. in 1 540,
and to James II. of England in 1687. See Thistle. The Russian order of St. Andre* was
instituted in 1698 by Peter I.
ANDREW'S, St. (E. Scotland). Here Robert Bruce held his first parliament in 1309 ;
und here Wishart was burnt by archbishop Beaton, who himself was murdered here in
AND 35 ANH
1546. Tho university was founded in 1411 by bishop Wnrdlaw. The bishopric originated
with the establishment of Christianity in Scotland. Sir 1(. Sibbald's list of tho bishops of
St. Andrew's commences with Killaeh, 872. Tho see became archicpiscopal in 1470, and
roused soon after tho Revolution, 1689. St. Andrew's is now a post-revolution bishopric,
re-instituted in 1844. See Bishops.
ANDRUSSOV, Peace of (Jan. 20. 1667), between Russia and Poland, by which the
latter lost the greater part of her conquests among the Cossacks.
ANEMOMETER (Greek, anemos, the wind), a measurer of the strength and velocity of
the wind, was invented by Wolfing, in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind to
be 93 miles per hour. Osier's and Whewell's anemometers were highly approved of in 1844.
ANEROID. See Barometer.
ANGEL, an ancient gold coin, weighing four pennyweights, was valued at 6s. 8d. in the
reign of Henry VI., and at las. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The angelot, a gold coin,
value half an angel, was struck at Paris when held by the English, in 143 1. Wood.
ANGELIC KNIGHTS of St. George. This order is said to- have been instituted
in Greece, 456. The Angelici were instituted by the emperor Angelus Comnenus, 1191.
—The Angelica;, an order of nuns, was founded at Milan by Louisa Torclli, 1534.
ANGERS (\V. Central France), formerly tho Roman city Juliomagus, possessing an amphi-
llieatro ; afterwards Andegamm, the capital of the county of Anjou, which see. It was
frequently besieged, and many councils were held in it between 453 and 1448, relating tu
0 eclesiastical discipline.
ANGERSTEIN GALLERY. See National Gallery.
ANGLESEY, called by the Romans Mona (N. Wales), the seat of the Druids, who we're
massacred in great numbers, when Suetonius Paulinus took the isle, 61. It was conquered
by Agricola, in 78; occupied by the Normans, 1090; and with the rest of Wales was annexed
by Edward I. in 1284. He built the fortress of Beaumaris in 1295. The Menai suspension
bridge was erected 1818-25, and the Britannia tubular bridge 1849-50.
ANGLICAN CHURCH. See Clmrch of England.
ANGLING. Its origin is uncertain ; allusion is made to it by the Greeks and Romans,
and in the Bible; Amos, iv. 2 (787 B.C.)
Oppian wrote his 11 Ilalieutics," a Greek epic Alb«ns, " eraprintcd at WV.stmcstre by Wynkyn
poem on Fishes and Fishing, probably about de Worde," in 1496, is " The Treatire of flushing
A.D. 198. uith an Anf/le.
In tho book on " HaukyflgcaHdHu'ntirnge" by Juliana Izuac Walton's " Comphpl AngUr " was first published
Bcrncrs or Bames, prioress of Sopwith, near St. in 1653.
ANGLO-SAXONS, or Angus, derive their name from a village near Sleswick, called
Anglen, whose population (called Angli by Tacitus,) joined the rirst Saxon freebootei-s.
East Auglia was a kingdom of tho heptarchy, founded bv the Angles, one of whose chiefs,
L'ffa, assumed the title of king, 571 ; the kingdom ceased in 792. See Britain. Ca;dmon
paraphrased part of the Bible in Anglo-Saxon about 680 ; a translation of the gospels was
made by abbot Egbert, of Iona. 721 ; of Boethius, Orosius, tec, by Alfred, 888. The Anglo-'
^nxon laws were printed by order of government, in 1840.
ANGOLA (S. W. Africa), settled by tho Portuguese soon after the discovery, by Diego
Cam, about i486. Loanda, their capital, was built 1578. Their authority over the interior
is very limited.
ANGORA. Sec Ancyra,
ANGOULEME, capital of the old province of Angouniois, Central France, AV., was a
bishopric in 260. After sharing the fortunes of the country, Angoulemo became an inde
pendent county about 856. It was united to the French crown in 1308. It was held by
the English, 1360 to 1372, in the reign of Edward III. The count of Angoulcme became
king of France as Francis I. in 1 5 15.
ANGRIA'S Fobt. Sec India, 1756.
ANHALT, House of, in Germany, deduces its origin from Berenthobaldus, who made
war upon the Thuringians in tho sixth century. In 1606, the principality was divided
among the four sons of Joachim Ernest, by the eldest, John George. Thus began the four
d 2
ANII 3fi ANN
liranrlios—Auhalt-Dessau (descended from John-George) ; Bernbourg,* extinct, 1863 ;
I'lotsgiiu or Coethen, extinct, 1847 ; nnd Zerbst, extinct, 1793. The princes of Anhalt
became dukea in 1809.
Duke of ANnALT (Subject* 181,824). Hrir, his ton, prince Frederic, bom April 29,
Leopold (born Oct. 1, 1704', became duke of Anbalt- 1831.
Dessau, 1817, and of Auhalt-Bembourg 1863.
ANHOLT, Island of, Denmark, was taken possession of by England, May 18, 1809, in
the French war, on account of Danish cruisers injuring British commerce. The Danes
made an attempt to regain it with a force which exceeded 1000 men, but were gallantly
repulsed by the British force not amounting to more than 150, March 27, 181 1.
ANILINE, a basic oily body discovered in 1826 by Unverdorben among the products of
distillation of indigo. Bcchamp, in 1856, obtained it from benzole by the successive treat
ment of this substance with concentrated nitric acid and reducing agents. The scientific
relations of aniline have been carefully examined by several chemists, more especially by
Dr. A. W. Hofmann. It was long known to yield a series of coloured compounds, but it was
only in 1856 that Mr. W. A. Perkin showed how a violet oxidation-product (mauve) could
be applied in dyeing. Anilino is now manufactured upon a large scale for the commercial
production of " Mauve" and "Magenta" (rosaniline), and several other colouring matters.
ANIMALCULE. Leeuwcnhoek's researches in 1677 produced the most astonishing
revelations. His Arcana Natural was published at Leyden in 1696. The great works of
Ehrenberg of Berlin, on the Infusorial Animalculae, 4c, were issued 1838-57. Pritchard's
Infusoria, ed. i860, is a valuable summary of our present knowledge of animalcuhe.
ANIMAL MAGNETISM was introduced by father Hehl, a Jesuit, at Vienna, about
1774 ; and had its dupes in France and Englanu in about 17S8-89.T See Mesmerism.
ANIMALS, Cruf.lty to. The late Mr. Martin, M.P., as a senator, zealously laboured
to repress this odious offence ; and a society in London, which was established in 1824,
effects much good this way. See Cruelty to Animals Society. Mr. Martin's act passed
3 Geo. IV. (1822). Similar acts were passed in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1849, and 1854. Dogs
were forbidden to bo used for draught by 2 4 3 Vict. c. 47 (1839).
ANJOU, a province in France, was inherited by Henry II. of England from his father
Geoffrey Plantageuet, count of Anjou, who married the empress Matilda in 1127. It was
taken from his son John by Philip of France in 1205 ; was reconquered by Edward III., but
relinquished by him in 1360 ; and was given by Charles V. to his brother Louis with the
title of duke. It afterwards became an appanage of tho French crown. The university
was formed in 1349.
DUKES OF ANJOU.
1360. Louis I. invested by the pope with tho of Naples, 1435 ; his daughter, Margaret,
dominions of Joanna of Naples, 1381 ; his married Henry VI. of England, 1445 ; he was
invading army destroyed by the plague, 1383 ; oxpelled from Anjou by Louis XL, 1474, and
he dies. 1384. his estates confiscated.
1384. Louis II., his son, receives the same grant, Francis, duke of Alencon, brother to Henry III.
but is also unsuccessful. of France, became duke of Anjou ; at one
Louis III., adopted by Joanna as heir; dies lime he favoured the protestante, and vainly
M34- or Reneo (a prisoner) declared king offered marriago to Elisabeth of England,
1434. Hognier 1581-82 ; died 1584. «
ANJOU, or Beaug£, Battle of, between the English and French ; the latter com
manded by the dauphin of France, March 22, 1421. The English were defeated : the duke
of Clarence was slain by sir Allan Swiuton, a Scotch knight, and 1500 men perished on the
field ; the earls of Somerset, Dorset, and Huntingdon were taken prisoners. Bcaugd was
the first battle that turned the tide of success against the English.
ANNAM, ok Anam, an empire of Asia, to the east of India, comprising Tonquin, Cochin
China, part of Cambodia, and various islands in the Chinese Sea ; said to have been
conquered by the Chinese 234 B.C., and held by them till a.d. 263. In 1406 they recon-
" Alexander, the last duke of Anhalt-Bornbourg, (bom March 2, 1805 ; duke, March 24, 1834 ;) died
without issue, Aug. 22, 1863, when his duchy reverted to the duke of Anhalt-Dessau.
t It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of lympathetic affection between
the sick person and the operator. The effect on the patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of
the fingers and features of the operator, he placing himself immediately before the patient, whose eyes
wore to be fixed on his. After playing in this manner on the imagination and enfeebled mind of the sick,
nnd performing a number of distortions and grimaces, tho cure was said to bo completed. Hehi, for ,1
short timo associated with Mesmer, but they soon quarrelled. —Mr. Perkins (who died in 1799) invented
•' Metallic Tractors for collecting, condensing, and applying animal magnetism ; " but Drs. Falconer and
Hnygarth put an end to his pretensions by performuig many wonders with a pair of wooden tractors.
Brande.
ANN 37 ANO
quered it, but abandoned it in 1428. After much anarchy, bishop Adran, a French
missionary, obtained the friendship of Louis XVI. for his pupil Gia-long, the son of the
nominally reigning monarch, and with the aid of a few of his countrymen established Gia-
long on the throne, who reigned till his death in 1821, when his son became king. In 1859
war broke out with the French, who defeated the army of Annam, 10,000 strong, about
April 22, when 500 were killed. On Juno 3, 1862, peace was mado ; three provinces were
ceded to the French, and toleration of the Christians granted. An insurrection iu these
provinces against the French, begun about Dec. 17, 1862, was suppressed in Feb. 1863.
Ambassadors sent from Annam with the view of regaining the ceded provinces arrived at
Paris in Sept. 1863, had no success. A new treaty with France was concluded July 26,
1864, which established a French protectorate, toleration for Christian missionaries, &c.
ANNATES. See First Fruils.
ANNO DOMINI, A.i>., the year of Our Lord, of Grace, of the Incarnation, of the Cir
cumcision, and of the Crucifixion (Trabeationis). The Christian era commenced Jan. i, in
tho middle of the 4th year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753rd year of the building of Rome,
and in 4714 of the Julian period. It is now held that Christ was bom Friday, April 5,
4 B.o. This era was invented by a monk, Dionysius Exiguus, about 532. It was intro
duced into Italy in the 6th century, and ordered to be used by bishops by the council of
C'lielsea, in 816, but not generally employed for several centuries. Charles III. of Germany
was the first who added "in the year of our Lord" to his reign, in 879.
"ANNOYANCE JURIES," of Westminster, chosen from tho householders in conformity
with 27 Eliz. c. 17 (1585), were abolished iu 1861.
ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the history of each year (beginning with 1758, and
continued to the present time), was commenced by R. & J. Dodsley. (Edmund Burke at
first wrote the whole work, but afterwards became only an occasional contributor. Prior.)
The somewhat similar but more elaborate work, the "Aunuaire des Deux Moudes," began in
Paris in 1850.
ANNUALS, the name given to richly bound volumes, containing poetry, tales, and essays,
by eminent authors, illustrated by engravings, published annually. Tliey were imitations
of similar books in Germany, and first appeared in London in 1823. The duration of the
chief of these publications is here given :
Forjjet-me not (Ackerman's) . . . 1823—48 Amulet 1S27—34
Friendship's Offering 1834—44 Keepsake 1828—56
Literary Souvenir (first as " the Graces ") 1824—34 Hood's Comic AunuaL .... 1830—38
ANNUITIES, or Pensions, were first granted in 1512, when 20I. were given to a lady
of the court for services done ; and 61. 13J. qi. for the maintenance of a gentleman, 1536.
6s. 8d. deemed competent to support a gentleman in the study of the law, 1554. An
act was passed empowering the government to borrow one million sterling upon an annuity
of fourteen per cent., 4—6 Will. & Mary, 1691-3. This mode of borrowing soon afterwards
became general among civilised governments. An annuity of il 2s. 1 id. per annum, accu
mulating at 10 per cent., compound interest, amounts in 100 years to 20,000/. The Govern
ment Annuities and Life Assurances Act was passed in 1864, for tho benefit of the working
classes ; since it enables the government to grant deferred annuities on condition that the
sum required may be payable in small instalments.
ANNUITY TAX : a tax levied to provide stipends for ministers iu Ediuburgh and
Montrose, and which caused much disaffection, was abolished in i860, and other provisions
made for the purpose. These, however, have proved equally unpalatable.
ANNUNCIATION of the Virgin Mary, tho 25th of March, Lady-day (which see).
A festival commemorating the tidings brought to Mary by the angel Gabriel (Luke i. 26) : its
origin is referred variously by ecclesiastical writers to the fourth and seventh century. Tho
religious order of the Annunciation was instituted in 1232, and the military order, iu Savoy,
by Amadeus, count of Savoy iu memory of Amadeus I., who had bravely defended Rhodes
against the Turks, 1355.
ANOINTING, an ancient ceremony observed at the inauguration of kings, bishops, and
other eminent personages. Aaron was anointed as high priest, B.C. 1491; and Saul, as king,
B.C. 1095. Alfred the Great is said to have been the first English king anointed, a.d. 871 ;
and Edgar of Scotland, 1098.—The religious rite is derived from the epistle of James, ch. v.
14, about a.d. 60. Some authors assert that in 550, dying persons, and persons iu extreme
danger of death, were anointed with consecrated oil, and that this was tho origin of Extreme
Unction (one of the sacraments of the Roman Catholic church).
A NO ANT
ANONYMOUS LETTERS. The sending of anonymous letters denouncing persons, or
demanding money, or using threats to obtain money, was made felony by the Black Act, 9
Geo. I. (1722). Hoc Threatening Letters.
ANTALCIDAS, Peace of. In 387 B.C. Antalcidas the Laccda?monian made peace with
Artaxerxcs of Persia, strongly in favour of Sparta, and generally in favour of Greece, Imt
giving up the cities of Ionia to the king.
ANTARCTIC TOLE, the opposite to the north or arctic pole. See Southern Continent.
ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the bibles of Mr. Whiston, the number of people in
the ancient world, as it existed previous to the Flood, reached to the enormous amount of
549,755 millions in the year of the world 1482.*
ANTHEMS, or Hymns (see Hymns). Hilary, bishop of roictiers, and St. Ambrose were
the first who composed them, about the middle of the fourth century. Lenglet. They were
introduced into the church service in 386. Baler. Ignatius is said to have introduced
them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose into the Western Church. They were introduced
into the Reformed churches in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565.
ANTHROPOPHAGI (eaters of human flesh) have existed in all ages of the world.
Homer says that the Cyclops and Lestrygones were such; and the Essedonian Scythians
were so, according to Herodotus. Diogenes asserted that we might as well eat the tlesh of
men as that of other animals ; and the practice still exists in Africa and the South Sea
Islands. The annals of Milan assert that a Milanese woman, named Elizabeth, had an
invincible inclination to human flesh ; she enticed children to her house, and killed and
salted them ; and on a discovery being made, she was broken on the wheel and burnt, in
1519. Cannibals were detected in Perthshire about 1339.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY (anthrSpos, Greek, man) for promoting the science .,f
man and mankind, held its lirst meeting on Feb. 24, 1863. Dr. James Hunt, president, in
the chair. The " Anthropological Review " lirst came out in May, 1S63.
ANTICHRIST (opponent of Christ), the name given by St. John (I Ep. ii. 18) to him
whom St. Paid calls the Man of Sin (2 Thess. ii. 3), who, as some assert, at the latter end
of the world, is to appear very remarkably in opposition to Christianity. t
ANTl-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, an association formed for the purpose of procuring the
repeal of the laws charging duty on the importation of foreign corn. See Corn-Lnvs. 1 1
sprang from various metropolitan and provincial associations (1834-8), headed by Messrs. C.
\ illiers, R. Cobden, J. Bright, &c. See Protectionists.
The Anti-Com-Law League formed at Man- Haauir at Coveut Garden opcued . . Mays, i^t:>
rhestcr Sept. 18, 1838 Great Manchester meeting, at which the.
Meetings held in various places March k April, 1841 League proposed to raise a <piartor of a
Excited meeting at Manchester . May,8. ,, million sterling .... Dec. 23, ,,
A bazaar held at Manchester, at which the , The Corn Importation 13111 having passed, June
League realised lo.ooof. . . . Feb. 2, 184? 26 ; the League is formally distal ced; ami Mr.
About 600 deputies connected with provincial | Cobden was rewarded )>y a national sub-
associations assemble in London, Feb. —Aug. „ 1 scription, amounting to nearly 8o,noo/.
Tho League at Manchester proposed to raiso July 7,
50,000?., to depute lecturers throughout the Appointment of the Derby ministry, a revival
country, and to print pamphlets Oct 20, „ | of the Anti-Com-Law League was proposed
First meeting at Drury-lane Theatre, March 15, 1843 I at a meeting held at Manchester, and a sub-
Scries of monthly meetings at Covent-Gardcn, ' I scription for the purpose was epened, which
commenced Sept. 28; and great free-trade I produced within half an hour 27, 520?. Mar. 2, 1S32
mcoting at Manchester Nov. 14, 1843. and [Subsequently, tho reconstruction ofthe League
(fan. 22, 1845 1 was deemed to bo unnecessary.]
* Burnet has supposed that the 6rst human pair miisht have left, at the end of the first century, ten
married couples ; and from these, allowing them to multiply in tho same decuple proportion as the first
pair did, would rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of persons than the earth was capable of holding,
llo therefore suggests a quadruple multiplication only ; and then exhibits the following table of increa.se
during the first sixteen centuries that preceded the Flood (at least ten times the present number of
mankind) :—
I 10 1 V. . . 2,560 1 IX. . . 6^,360 XIII. 167,172,160
II I" VI. . . 10,240 X. . . . 2,621,440 XIV. . . 671,088,640
III. . . i«n| VII. . . 40,960 XI. . . . ,0,483.760 XV. . . 2,684, 354,56..
II11 640 1 VIII. . . . 163,840 1 XII. . . . 41,943,040 XVI. .10,737,418,240
t His reign, it is supposed, will continue three years and a half, during which time there will be a
persecution. This is the opinion of the Iioman Catholics : but the Protestant*, as they differ from them,
so they dyfer among themselves. Grotius and Dr. Hammond suppose the time to be past, and tho cha
racters to bo furnished in the persons of Caligula, Simon Magus, and the Gnostics, r'ouic have l>clicve.l
the popo to be the true Antichrist, as at the council held at Gap, in 1603. Many consider that the k'Uj,'-
dom of Antichrist comprehends all who are opposed to Christ, oiwnly or secretly.
■■'>:> ANT
ANTIETAM CREEK, near Sharpsburg, Mainland, T.T. S. Here was fought a terribl"
battle on Sept. 17, 1862, between the Federals under general M'Clellan and the Confederates
under Lee. The latter after his victory at Bull liun or Manassas, Aug. 30, having invaded
Maryland, was immediately followed by M'Clellan. On the 16th I-ee was joined by Jackson,
and at five o'clock next morning the conflict began. About 100,000 men were engaged, and
the conflict raged with great fury from daylight to dark. The Federals were repeatedly
repulsed; but eventually the Confederates retreated and repassed the Potomac on Sept. 18
and 19. The loss of the Federals was estimated at 12,469 ; of the Confederates, 14,000.
ANTIGUA, a West India Island, discovered by Columbus in Nov. 1493 ; settled by the
English in 1632; made a bishopric, 1842. Population in 1861, 36,41 2.
ANTILLES, an early name of the West Indies, which sec.
ANTIMONY, a white brittle metal. Compounds of this mineral were early known, and
applied. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and women's eyes, as appears from
2 Kings ix. 30, and Jeremiah iv. 30, and in eastern countries it is used to this day. When
mixed with lead it forms printing type metal. Basil Valentine wrote on antimony about
1 410. Priestley.
ANTINOMIANS (from the Greek anli, against, and nomas, law), a name given by Luther
(in 1538) to John Agricola, who is said to have held "that it mattered not how wicked a
man was if he had but faith." (Opposed to Rom. iii. 28, and v. 1, 2). He retracted in
1540. These doctrines were condemned by the British parliament, 1648.
ANTIOCH, Syria, built by Seleucus, 300 B.C. , after the battle of Ipsus, in such grandeur
as to acquire the name " Queen of the East." Here the disciples were first called Christians,
a.d. 42 (Acts xi. 26). Autioch was taken by the Persians, 540 ; by the Saracens about 638 ;
recovered for the Eastern emperor, 966 ; lost again in 1086 ; retaken by the Crusaders in
1098, and held by them till 1268, when it was captured by the Sultan of Egypt. It was
taken from the Turks in the Syrian war, Aug. 1, 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, but restored at the
peace.— The Era of Autioch is much used by the early Christian writers of Antioch and
Alexandria ; it placed the Creation 5492 years D.c.
ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that antipodes existed
(about 368 B.C.). Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate of pope Zachary, is said to have
denounced a bishop as a heretic for maintaining this doctrine, a.d. 741. The antipodes of
England lie to the south-east of New Zealand, near Antipodes Island. Brookes.
ANTI-POPES, rival popes elected at various times, especially by the French and Italian
factions, from 1305 to 1439. In the article Popes, the Anti-popes are printed in italics.
ANTIQUARIES. A college of antiquaries is said to have existed in Ireland 700
years B.C.
A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Cam- 1 British Archa'ologieal Association founded Dcr
den, Stow, and othcra in 1572. 8pi:lm«ii.. I 1843; the Archa'oio<.dcal Institute of Great
Application was made in 1589 to Elizabeth for a ; Britain was formed by a seceding part of flu-
charter, but her death ensued, and her successor, Association, 1845. Journals arc published by
•tames I., was far from favouring tho design. both societies.
The Society of Antiquaries revived, 1707; received Society of Antiquaries of Edinburgh founded in
its charter of incorporation from George II., 1751 ; 1780.
and ai>artments in Somerset-house granted to it Since 1845 many county archaeological societies
in 1777. Its Memoirs, entitled Archaxdogia, first have been formed in the United Kingdom.
jwiblished in 1770 ; present president, earl Stair Tiie Society of Antiquaries of France (1814) began in
hope, elected, 1846. I 1805 as the Celtic Academy.
ANTI-TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to havo been the first
who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the second century. This
doctrine, advocated by Arius about 318, spread widely after the Reformation, when it was
adopted by LtHus and Faustus Socinus. Boyle. See Arians, Socinians, Unitarians.
ANTIUM, maritime city of Latium, now Porto d'Anzio, near Home, after a long struggle
for independence, became a Roman colony, at the eud of tho great Latin war, 340-338 B.C.
It was mentioned by Horace, and was" a favourite retreat of the emperors and wealthy
Romans, who erected many villas in its vicinity. Tho treasures deposited in the temple of
Fortune here were taken by Octavius Caesar during his war with Antony, 41 B.c.
ANT\VEI!P, the principal sea-port of Belgium, is mentioned in history in a.i>. 517. It
APA 40 APO
was a small republic in the eleventh century. It was the first commercial city in Europe
till the wars of the 16th and 17th centuries.
lis fine exchange built in 1531 ! after a dreadful conflict, being driven into
Taken after a lung siege by the prince of Parniu 1585 tho citadel, cannonaded the town with red-
Truce of Antwerp (between Spain and United , hot balls and shells, doing immense mischief
Provinces) 1609 Oct 27, 1S50
Much injured by tho imposition of a toll on tho 1 Tho citadel bombarded by tho French, Dec. 4 ;
Scheldt by the treaty of MUnster . . 1648 surrendered by gen. Chasae . . Dec. 23, 1832
After Marlborough's victory at RaniilHes, I The exchange burnt ; and valuablo archives,
Antwerp surrenders without firing a shot ; &c. destroyed .... Aug. 2, 1S5S
June 6, 1706 Proposal to strengthen the fortifications adopted
The Barrier troaty concluded here Nov. 16, 1 71 5 Aug. 1859
Taken by marshal Saxe 1746 A Fine Art feto held . . . Aug. 17-20 1861
Occupied by the Frouch . . 1792-3. 1794-1814 , Great Napoleon wharf destroyed by fire, loss 25
Civil war bctwocn the Belgians and the House 1 lives and about 400,000/. . . Doc. 2
of Orange. Sec Btlgiuni . . 1830-31 Great fete at the opening of tho port by the
The Belgian troops, having entered Antwerp, I abolition of the Scheldt dues . . Aug. 3, 1S63
were opposed by the Dutch garrison, who, 1
APATITE, mineral phosphate of lime. About 1856 it began to be largely employed as
manure. It is abundant in Norway, and in Sombrero, a small West India island.
APOCALYPSE, or Revelation, written by St. John in the isle of Patmos about 95.
Imucus. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic, and others to John,
the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many churches disowned it, and in the
fourth century it was excluded from the sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was
again received by other councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held in 1545, *f7-
Although the book has been rejected by Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority
questioned in all ages, from the time of Justin Martyr (who wrote his first Apology for
the Christians in a.d. 139), yet its canonical authority is still almost universally ac
knowledged.
APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, "These books are neyther
found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." Bible, 1539. The history of the Apocrypha
ends 135 B.C. The books were not in the Jewish canon, were rejected at the council of
Laodicea about a. d. 366, but were received as canonical by the Roman Catholic church, at
the council of Trent on April 8, 1 546. Parts of the Apocrypha are read as lessons by
the Anglican church.
1 Esdras, from about B.C. 623-445 Wisdom of Solomon . * * Bel and the Dragon . . * *
2 Esdras „ . . * * Ecclesiasticus (John) 300 or 180 Prayer of Manassos B.C. 676
Tobit „ . . 734-678 Baruch ... * * 1 Maccabees, about . . 323-135
Judith „ . 656 Song of the Threo Children * * 2 Maccabees, from about . 187-161
Esther ,, . 510 History of Susannah . * *
Thero are also Apocryphal writings in connection with the New Testament.
APOLLINARISTS, followers of Apollinaris, a reader inthe church of Laodicea, who taught
(366) that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him ; that his flesh was pre-
existent to his appearance upon earth, and that it was sent down from heaven, and conveyed
through the Virgin, as through a channel ; that there were two sons, one born of God, tho
other of tho Virgin, &c. Theso opinions were condemned by the council of Constanti
nople, 381.
APOLLO, the god of the fine arts, medicine, music, poetry, aud eloquence, had many
temples and statues erected to him, particularly in Egypt, Greece, and Italy. His most
splendid temple was at Delphi, built 1 263 B. c. See Delphi. His temple at Daphne, built
434 B.C., during a period in which pestilence raged, was burnt a.d. 362, and the Christians
were accused of the crime. Lenglct. The statue of Apollo Belvedere, discovered in the
remains of Antium, in Italy, in 1503, was purchased by pope Julius II., who placed it in
the Vatican.
APOLLONICON, an elaborate musical instrument, constructed on the principlo of tho
organ, was invented by Messrs. Flight and Robson, of St. Martiu's lane, Westminster, and
exhibited by them first iu 181 7. Timbs.
APOSTLES (Greek apostolos, one sent forth). Twelve were appointed by Christ, 31 ;
viz. Simon Peter aud Andrew (brothers), James and John (sous of Zebedee), Philip, Nathanael
1 or Bartholomew), Matthew (Levi), Thomas, James the Less (son of Alplneus), Simon the
Canaanito and Judo or Thndda-us (brothers!, und Judas Iscariot. Matthias was elected in
the room of Judas Iscariot, 33 {Acts i.) ; anil Paul aud Barnabas were appointed by the Holy
Spirit, a.d. 45 (Ads xiii. 2).
APO 41 APP
APOSTLES' CREED, a summary of the Christian faith, attributed to the apostles, is
mentioned by Rutfinus, 390, and is generally believed to have been gradually composed
a great while after their time. Irenins, bishop of Lyons (a.d. 177), gives a similar creed.
Its repetition in public worship was ordained in the Greek church at Autioch, and in the
Roman church in the nth century, whence it passed to the Church of England.
APOSTOLIC!, a sect which arose at the end of the 2nd century ; they renounced
marriage, wine, flesh, meats, &e. A second sect was founded by Segarelli about 1261.
They wandered about, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled hair, and bare heads,
accompanied by women whom they called their spiritual sisters, preaching against the
growing corruption of the church of Rome, and predicting its downfall. They renounced
baptism, the mass, purgatory, &c, and by their enemies are accused of gross licentiousness.
Segarelli was burnt alive at Parma in 1300 during a crusade against his follower!), who were
all dispersed iu 1307.
APOTHECARY (literally a keeper of a storehouse). On Oct 10, 134.5, Edward III.
settled six pence per diem for life on Coursus de Gangeland, " Apothccarius London," for
taking care of him during his severe illness in Scotland. Rymer's Faulcra. Apothecaries
were exempted from serving on juries or other civil otfices iu 1712. The London Apothecaries'
Company was separated from the Grocers' and incorporated 1617. Their hall was built in
1670 ; and their practice regulated and their authority extended over all England, by 55
Geo. III. c. 19 (1815), amended by 6 Geo. IV. c. 133 (1825K The Botanical Garden at
Chelsea was left by sir Hans Sloane to the company of Apothecaries, Jan. 1753, on condition
of their introducing every year fifty now plants, until their number should amount to 2000.
The Dublin guild was incorporated, 1745. See Pharmacy.
APOTHEOSIS, a ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, by which they raised
their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The deifying a deceased emperor was begun at
Rome by Augustus, in favour of Julius Cajsar, B.C. 13. Tillcmont.
APPEAL, on Assize of Battle. By the old law of England, a man charged with
murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt or innocence. In
1 81 7, a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have been violated and murdered by
Abraham Thornton, who, in an appeal, claimed his right by his wager of battle, which the
court allowed ; but the appellant (the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and tho
accused escaped, April 16, 1818. This law was immediately afterwards struck from off the
statute-book, by 59 Geo. III. (1819).
APPEALS. In the time of Alfred (a.d. 869-901), appeals lay from courts of justice to the
king in council ; but being soon overwhelmed with appeals from all parts of England, he
framed the body of laws which long served as the basis of English jurisprudence. The house
of lords is the highest court of appeal in civil causes. Courts of appeal at the Exchequer
Chamber, in error from the judgments of the King's Bench, Common Pleas, and Exchequer,
were regulated by statutes in 1830 and 1831. Appeals from English tribunals to the pope
were first introduced about 1 151 ; were loug vainly opposed, and were finally abolished by
Henry VIII. in 1534. See Privy Council.
APPEXZELL, a Swiss canton, threw off the feudal supremacy of the abbots of St. Gall
early in the 15th century, and became tho thirteenth member of tho Swiss confederation
in 1513.
APPIAN WAY, an ancient Roman road, made by Appius Claudius Ciecus, while
censor, 3 1 2 B.c.
APPLES. Several kinds are indigenous to England ; but those in general use have been
brought at various times from the continent. Richard Harris, fruiterer to Henry VIII., is
said to have planted a great number of the orchards in Kent, and Lord Scudamore, ambas
sador to France in the reign of Charles I., planted many of those in Herefordshire. Ray
reckons 78 varieties of apples in his day (1688).
APPRAISERS. The valuation of goods for another was nn early business in England ;
anil so early as 1283, by the statute of merchants, "it was enacted that if they valued the
goods of parties too high, the appraisers should take them at such price as they have limited. "
In 1845 their annual licenco was raised from 10s. to 40s.
APPRENTICES. Those of London were obliged to wear blue cloaks iu summer, and
blue gowns in winter, iu the reign of queen Elizabeth, 1558. Ten pounds was then a great
apprentice fee. From twenty to one hundred pounds were given in the reign of James I.
Stoic's fiurvry. The apprentice tax, enacted 43 Geo. Ill, 1802. An act for the protection
Apr 42 AQU
of apprentices, was passed in 1851. The term of seven yearn, not to expire till the
apprentice was 24 years old, required by the statute of Elizabeth (1563), was abolished in
1814. The apprentices of London have been at times very riotous ; they rose into insurrection
against foreigners on Evil May-day, which see.
APPROPRIATION CLAUSE, or the Irish Tithe Bill of 1835, brought forward by lord
John Russell, whereby any surplus revenue that might accrue by the working of the act was
to be appropriated for the education of all classes of the people. The clause was adopted by
the commons but rejected by the lords in 1835 and 1836, whereupon it was totally
abandoned.
APPROPRIATIONS (property taken from the church), began in the time of William T.,
the parochial clergy being then commonly Saxons, and the bishops and higher clergy
Normans. These impoverished the inferior clergy to enrich monasteries, which were
generally possessed by the conqueror's friends. Where the churches and tithes were so
appropriated, the vicar had only such a competency as the bishop or superior thought fit to
allow. Pope Alexander IV. complained of this as the bane of religion, the destruction of
the church, and a poison that had infected the whole nation. Pardon.
APRICOT, Primus Armeniaca, first planted in England about 1540, by the'gardener of
Henry VI 11. It originally came from Asia Minor.
APRIL, the fourth month of our year, the second of the ancient Romans.
APTERYX (wingless1), a bird, a native of New Zealand, first brought to this country in
1S13, and deposited in the collection of the earl of Derby. Fossil specimens of a gigantic
species of this bird (named Dinorilis) were discovered in New Zealand by Mr. Walter Mantel 1
in 1843, and since.
APULIA, a province in S. E. Italy, conquered by the Normans, whose leader Guiscanl
received the title of duke of Apulia from pope Nicholas II. in 1059. After many changes
of masters, it was absorbed into the kingdom of Naples, in 1265.
AQUARII, a sect said to have been founded by Tatian in the 2nd century, who forbore
the use of wine even in the sacrament, and nsed nothing but water, during persecution when
they met secretly in the night, for fear of discovery. For this they were censured t>y
Cyprian (martyred 258).
AQUARIUM OH Aquayivadium, a vessel containing water (marine or fresh) in which
animals and plants may co-exist, mutually supporting each other ; snails being introduced
us scavengers. In 1S49, Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded in growing sea-weeds in artificial sea-
water ; in 1850, Mr. R. Warington demonstrated the conditions necessary for the grow th of
animals and plants in jars of water ; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological Garden*,
Regent's Park, were set up under the skilful direction of Mr. D. Mitchell. In 1854, Mr.
Gosse published "The Aquarium." Mr. W. Alford Lloyd, late of Portland-road, London,
by his enterprise in collecting specimens did much to increase the value and interest of
aquaria. The great aquarium (50 yards long and 12 wide) at the Jardin d'Acclimatation ;>{
Paris, was constructed under his direction in i860.
AQUATINT. See Engraving.
AQUEDUCT, an artificial watercourse on an inclined plane No remains of Greek
aqueducts exist. Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first Roman aqueduct, as well
as the Ajipiamcay, about 312 B.C. Aqueducts of every kind were among the wonders of
Rome. Lin/. There are now some remarkable aqueducts in Europe : that at Lisbon is of
great extent and beauty ; that at Segovia has 129 arches ; and that at Versailles is three
miles long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The stupendous
aqueduct on the Ellesmere canal, in England, is 1007 feet in length, and 126 feet high ; it
was completed by T. Telford, and opened Dec. 26, 1805. The Lisbon aqueduct was com
pleted in 1738, and the Croton aqueduct, near New York, was constructed between 1837 and
1842. The aqueduct to supply Marseilles with water was commenced in 1830.
AQUILEIA (Istria), made a Roman colony about 180 B.C., and fortified A.D. i6S.
Constantine II. was slain in a battle with Constans, fought at Aquileia towards the close of
March 340. Slaximus defeated and slain by Theodosius, near Aquileia July 28, 38S.
Theodosius defeated Eugenius and Arbogastcs, tho Gaul, near Aquileia, and remained sole
emperor, Sept. 6, 394. Eugenius was put to death, and Arbogastcs died by his own hand,
mortified by his overthrow. St. Ambrose held a synod hero in 381. In 452 Aquileia w as
almost totally destroyed by Attila tho Hun, and near it in 4S9 Theodoric and the Ostrogoths
totally defeated Odnaccr, the king of Italy.
AQU 43 ARC
AQUITAINE, a province (S.'W. France). Subdued by the Visigoths, 418, ami taken
from them by Clovis in 507. Henry II. of Knglaml inherited it from his mother, 1 152. It was
erected into a principality for Edward the Black Prince in 1362 ; but was annexed to France
in 1370. The title of duke of Aquitainc was taken by the crown of Kngland on the
conquest of this duchy by Henry V. in 1418. The province was lost in the reign of Henry VI .
ARABIA (W. Asia). The terms Pctreca (stony), FelU (happy), and Veserta are said to
have been applied to its divisions by Ptolemy, about A.i>. 140. The Arabs claim descent
from Ishmael, the eldest son of Abraham, born 1910 B.C., Gen. xvi. The country was unsuc
cessfully invaded by Gallus, the Roman governor of Egypt, 24 B.C. 1 n A.D. 622, the Arabians
under the name of Saracens, followers of Mahomet (born at Mecca, 570), their general and
prophet, commenced theircourse of conqnest. Sec Afahonutauisni. The Arabs greatly favoured
literature and the sciences, especially mathematics, astronomy, and chemistry. To them we
owe our ordinary numerals and arithmetical notation. The Koran was written in Arabic
(622-632). The Bible was printed in Arabic in 1671.
ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS (or 1001 Tales) were translated into French
by Galland, and published in 1704 ; but their authenticity was not acknowledged till many
years after. The best English translation from the Arabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, pub
lished in 1839, with valuable notes and beautiful illustrations.
ARABIC!, a sect which sprung up in Arabia, whose distinguishing tenet was, that the
soul died with the body, and rose again with it, 207.
ARAGON, part of the Roman Tarraeoueusis, a kingdom, N. E. Spain. It was
conquered by the Carthaginians, who were expelled by the Romans about 200 u. c. It j«ir-
took of the fortunes of the country, but became an indepe ndent monarchy in 1035. Sec
under Spain.
ARAM, tin' ancient name of Syria, which see.
ARANJUEZ (Central Spain), contains a line royal palace, at which several important
treaties were concluded. On March 17, 1808, an insurrection broke out here against Charles
IV. and his favourite, Godoy, the prince of peace. The former was compelled to abdicate in
favour of his son, Ferdinand VII. •
ARBELA. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the Great and Darius
Codomauus decided the fate of Persia, Oct. I, 331 n.c, on a plain iu Assyria, between Arbcla
mid Gaugnmela. The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 foot and 40,000 horse ; the
Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 loot and 7000 horse. Arrian. The gold and
filver found in the cities of Susa, Pcrsepolis, and Babylon, which fell to Alexander from this
victory, amounted to thirty millions sterling ; and the jewels and other precious spoil,
belonging to Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 5000 camels. Plutarch.
ARBITRATION. Submission to arbitration was authorised and made equivalent in
force to the decision of a jury, by 9 k 10 AVi 11. III. (1698). Submissions to arbitration may
be made rules of any court of law or equity, and arbitrators may compel the attendance ot
witnesses, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 42 (1833). See Ouxl Galley. The Common Law Procedure
Act (1854) authorises the judges of superior courts to order compulsory arbitration ; and, by
an act passed in 1859, railway companies may settle disputes with each other by arbitration.
ARBUTUS. The Arbutus Audraehne., oriental strawberry-tree, was brought to England
from the Levant about 1724.
ARCADES, or Walks aroiikd over. The principal in London are the Burlington-
arcade, opened in March, iSiq ; and the Lowther-arcade, Strand, opened at the period of the
Strand improvements. See Sfmnd. Exeter Change, London, was rebuilt and opened iu
1845. See Ureter Change. The Royal-arcade, Dublin, opened June, 1820, was burnt to the
ground, April 25, 1837.
ARCADIA, iu the centre of the Peloponnesus, Grec:c. The Arcadians regarded their
nation as the most ancient of Greece, and older than the moon (Proteleni, which word
Doderlcrn conjectures to mean Prc-Hellcnic). They were more simple in their manners and
moderate in their desires than the other Greeks, from whom thev were separated by
mountains. Pelasgus is said to have taught them to feed on acorns, as being more nutritious
than herbs, their former food; for which they honoured him as a god. 1521 n.c. Arcadi.i
bad twenty-five kings, whose history is altogether fabulous.
41 AKC
ARCADIA (continued).
Magna Gnccia, in S. Italy, said to have been beaten by the women of the country, in the
colonised by Arcadians under (Enotrus, about absonce of their husbands (?) . b c. noa
1710 b c. ; and under Evander . . B.c. 1240 Aristocrates I. (of Orcbomenus) is put to death
Pelasgus begins his reign 1 52 1 fur offering violcnco to the priestess of Diana 715
Supposed institution of the Lupercaliu, in Aristocrates II. stoned to death, and a republic
honour of Jupiter by Lycaon ; reigned . . 1514 established 631
Areas, from whom the kingdom received its The supremacy of Sparta (acknowledged 560)
name, and who taught his subjects agricul is abolished by the Thebans ; Megalopolis
ture and the art of spinning wool . . 1514 founded by Epaminondas 37*
Lycwan games instituted, in honour of Tan . 1320 The Arcadians make alliance with Athene, and
Agapenor appears at the head of the Arcadians are defeated by Archidamus . . . . 367
at the siege of Troy (Hwtter) .... 1194 Arcadia, having "joined the Achaian league, on
The Lacedaemonians invade Arcadia, and are its suppression becomes part of the Roman
empire 146
ARCH. It appears in early Egyptian and Assyrian architecture. The oldest arch in
Europe is probably in the Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, constructed under the early kings,
about 588 B.C. The Chinese bridges, which are very ancient, are of great magnitude, ami
are built with stoue arches similar to those that have been considered a Roman invention.*
The Triumphal arches of the Romans formed a leading feature in their architecture. The
arch of Titus (a.d. 80), that of Trajan (1 14), and that of Constantine (312), were maguineent.
The arches in our parks in London were erected about 1828. The Marble Arch, which
formerly stood before Buckingham Palace (whence it was removed to Cumberland-gate,
Hyde Park, in 1851) was modelled from the arch of Constantine. See Hyde Park. ■
ARCHANGEL (N. Russia), a city, is thus named from a monastery founded here, and
dedicated to St. Michael in 1584. The passage to Archangel was discovered by the English
navigator Richard Chancellor in 1553, and it was the only seaport of Russia till the formation
of the docks at Cronstadt, and foundation of St. Petersburg in 1703. The dreadful fire here
by which the cathedral and upwards of 3000 houses were destroyed, occurred in June, 1793.
ARCHBISHOP (Greek archiepiscopos), a title given in the 4th and 5th centuries to the
bishops of chief cities, such as Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Constantinople, who pre
sided over the other metropolitans and bishops in the districts attached to those places. The
word is first found in the Apology against the Arians by Athanasius, who died 373. The
Eastern archbishops have since been styled palriarcks.f Riddle.
ARCH-CHAMBERLAIN. The elector of Brandenburg was appointed the hereditary
arch-chamberlain of the German Empire by the golden bull of Charles IV. in 1356, and in
that quality he bore the sceptre before the emperor.
ARCH-CHANCELLORS were appointed under the two first races of the kings of France
<4i8—986), and when their territories were divided, the archbishops of Mentz, Cologne, and
Treves became arch-chancellors of Germany, Italy, and Aries.
ARCHDEACON. The name was early given to the first or eldest deacon, who attended
on the bishop without any power ; but since the council of Nice, his function is become a
dignity, and set above that of priest, though anciently it was quite otherwise. The ap
pointment in these countries is referred to 1075. There are seventy-one archdeacons in
England (1865), and thirty-three in Ireland. T/he archdeacon's court is the lowest in eccle
siastical polity : an appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, by 24 Henry VIII. (1532).
* The new bridge of Chester, whose span is 200 feet, was commenced in 1829. The central arch of
London Bridge is 152 feet ; and the three cast iron arches of Southwark bridge, which reston massive stone
piers and abutments are, the two side ones 210 feet each, and the centro 240 feet : thus the centre arch
exceoda the admired bridge of Sunderland by four feet in the Bpan, and the long-famed Bialto at Venice,
by 167 feet. See Bridges.
f In these realm* the dignity is nearly coeval with the establishment of Christianity. Before the
Saxons came into England there were three sees : London, York, and Caerloon-upon-Usk ; but soon after
the arrival of St. Austin he settled the metropolitan see at Canterbury, 602. See Canterbury. York
continued archiepiscopal ; but London and Caerleon lost the dignity. Caerlcon was found, previously, to
bo too near the dominions of the Saxons ; and in the time of King Arthur the archbishopric was transferred
to St David's, of which St. Sampson was the 26th and last Welsh archbishop. See St. David's. The
bishoprics in Scotland were under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of York until the erection of the
archiepiscopal sees of St. Andrew's and Glasgow, in 1470 and 1491 ; these last were discontinued at the
Revolution. Sec Glasgow and St. Andrew's. The bishop of Moray, &c., is now (1865) styled Primus. The
rauk of archbishop was of early institution in Ireland. See Ferns. Four archbishoprics were constituted
in Ireland, n 51, namely, Armagh, Cashel, Dublin, and Tuani ; until then the archbishop of Canterbury
had jurisdiction over the Irish as well as English bishops, in like manner as the archbishop of York had
jurisdiction over those of Scotland. Of these four archbishoprics two were reduced to bishoprics, namely,
CashuL and Tuarn, conformably with the statute 3 & 4 Will. IV. 1835, by which also the number of wees in
Ireland was to Vie reduced (as the incumbents often of them respectively died) from twenty-two to twelve,
the present number. See Bishop Vaslttl, Taam ; Pallium, d-c.
ARC 4.1 a no
ARCHERY. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, by whom it was communicated to
the Cretans. Ishmael "became an archer" (Gen, xxi. 20), 1892 B.r. The Philistine
archers overcame Saul (I Sam. xxxi. 3), 1055 B.C. David commanded the use of the bow
to be taught (2 Sam. i. 18). Aster of Amphipolis, having been slighted by Philip, king of
Macedon, at -the siege of Methone, 353 B.C., shot an arrow, on which was written " Aimed
at Philip's right eye," which struck it and put it out ; Philip threw back the arrow with
these words : " If Philip take the town, Aster shall be hanged." The conqueror kept his
word.
Archery introduced into England previously to of parliament, ready to shoot the king and
Harold and his two brothers were killed by the members, 21 Richard II. (STow.) . . 1397
arrows shot from the cross-bows of the Nor The citizens of London formed into com
man soldiers at the battle of Hastings in panies of archers in the reign of Edward
Richard I. revived archery in England in 1190, III. ; aud into a corporate body by the style
and was himself killed by an arrow in . of ' The Fraternity of St George," 29 Henry
The victories of Crccy (1346), Poitiers (1356), VIII T5?S
and Agincourt (1415), were won chiefly by Roger Ascham's " Toxophilus, the School of
archers.* Shooting," published in
Four thousand archers surrounded the houses See Artillery Company, Toxophilites, dsc.
ARCHES, Court of, the most ancient consistory court, chiefly a court of appeal from
inferior jurisdictions within the province of Canterbury ; it derives its name from the church
of St. Mary-le-Bow (Sancta Maria de Arcubus), London, where it was held ; and whose top
is raised on stone pillars built archwise. Cowell. Appeals from this court lie to the judicial
committee of the privy council, by statute, 1832.
ARCHITECTURE (from the Greek archi-tekton, chief artificer), ornamental building.
The rive great orders of architecture are, —the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian {Greek) the
Tuscan and Composite (Roman). The Gothic began to prevail in the ninth century. See
the Orders respectively and Gothic.
The Pyramids of Egypt, begun about B.C. 1500 The Parthenon finished . B.C. 438
Solomou's Temple, oegun . . 1004 , The Pantheon, &c, built at Rome A.D. ' i
Birs Nimroud, in Assyria about . 900 I The Colosseum (or Coliseum) 70
The Doric order begins about . . . . 650 1 Hadrian builds temples at Rome, kc. . 117
Doric Temple at &gina ... 550 j Diocletian's palace at Si>aIatro . . 984
TempleofJupiter and Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, ! Basilicas at Rome .... 330-900
founded 616 j St. Sophia, at Constantinople, begun 532
Babylon built . 600 I Rock-cut temples in India-Caves ot'Ellora . 500-800
The Ionic order begins al>out . 500-430 ! Canterbury cathedral, founded . . . , 60a
The Corinthian order begins ■ 335 j Mosque of Omar, at Jerusalem .... 637
Choragic Monument of Lyaikrates . . 335 I York Minster, begun about 741
Architecture flourishes at Athens 480-320 \ St. Peter's, Rome . . ' . . . 1450-1626
Erechtheum at Athens . 450-420 St. Paul's, London 1675-1710
EMINENT ARCHITECTS.
Born. Dud. J?orn. Died. Born. Died.
Vitruvius, about . B.C. 27 A. Palladio . 1518—1580 James Gibbs . . 1674—1754
A.D. Inigo Jones . 1572—1652 R. and J. Adams. . 1728—1794
William of Wickham . T324— 1405 Bernini . 1598—1680 A. W. Pugin . . 1811—1852
Michael Angelo Buo- Christopher Wren 1632—1723 C. Barry ■ *795—I^o
narotti ■ M74—1564 J. Vanbntgh 1670—1726
An Architectural Club was formed in 1791. An Architectural Society existed In London in 1808.
The Royal Instctcte or British Architects was founded in 1834—Earl de Grey, president, 1835 61.
The Architectural Society, established in 1831, was united to the Institute In 1842. The Architectural
Association began about 1846,
ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at Athens, in memory of king Codrus, killed in
battle, 1044 B.C. (or 1070), the executive government was vested in elective magistrates
called archons, whose office continued for life. Medon, eldest son of Codrus, was the first
archon. The office was limited to ten years, 752 B.C., and to one year 683 b.(?.
ARCOLA (Lombardy), the site of battles between the French under Bonaparte, and the
Austrians under field-marshal Alvinizi, fought Nov. 15— 17, 1796. The result was the loss
on the part of the Austrians of 18,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, four flags,
and eighteen guns. The loss of the French was estimated at 15,000. They became masters
of Italy. In one of the contests Bonaparte was in most imminent danger, and was only
rescued by the impetuosity of his troops.
• The long-bow was six feet long, and the arrow throe feet ; the usual range from 300 to 500 yards.
Robin Hood U said to have shot from 600 to 800 yards. A Persian hero, Arish, is stated to have shot over
lwtween 400 and 500 mile*, as related by Ferdousi ! The cross-bow was fixed to a stock, and discharged
with a trigger.
46
ARCOT (East Indies). This city (founded 1716) was taken by colonel Clive, Aug. 31.
1751; was retaken, but again surrendered to colonel Coote, Feb. 10, 1760. Besieged by
llyder Ali, when the British under colonel Baillie suffered severe defeats, Sept. 10 anil
CK t. 3!, 1780. Aroot has been subject to Great Britain since 1801. See India.
ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. See North- West Passage and Franklins Expedition.
ARDAGH, an ancient prelacy in Ireland, founded by St. Patrick, who made his nephew,
Mell, the first bishop, previously to 454. This prelacy was formerly held with Kilinore ; but
since 1742 it has been held in commendam with Tnam (which sec). It was united with
ICilinore in 1839, and with Elphiu in 1841.
ARDFERT and AGHAUOE, bishopricks in Ireland long united ; the former was called
the bishopriek of Kerry ; Ert presided in the 5th century. William Fuller appointed in
1663, became bishop of Limerick in 1667, since when Ardfcrt and Aghadoe have been united
to that prelacy. Near the cathedral an anchorite tower, 120 feet high, the loftiest and finest
in the kingdom, suddenly fill, 1770.
ARDOCH. Sec Grampians.
AREIOPAGUS or AREOPAGUS, a venerable Greek tribunal, said to have heard causes
in the dark, because tho judges should be blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens about
1507 n.c. Arund. Marbles. The name is derived from the Greek Arkos pagos, the hill of
Mars, through the tradition that Mars was the first who was tried there for the murder of
1 lalirrhotius, who had violated his daughter Alcippe. The powers of this court were enlarged
by Solon, about 594 B.C., but diminished by the jealousy of Pericles, 461 B.C. Paul preached
on Mars' hill, A.D. 52 (Acts xvii.).
AREZZO, near the ancient Arretium, or Aretiuum, an Etrurian city, which made peace
with Rome for 30 years, 308 B.C., was besieged by the Galli Senones, about 283 B.C., who
defeated the Roman army Metellus sent to its relief—a disgrace avenged signally by Dolabella.
Arczzo was an ancient bishopric: the cathedral was founded in 1277. It is renowned as
the birthplace of Maecenas, Petrarch, Vasari, and other eminent men. Michael Angelo was
born in the vicinity.
ARGAUM, in the Deccan, India, where .sir A. Wellesley, on Nov. 29, 1803, thoroughly
defeated the rajah of Beraraud the Mahrntta chiefScindiah, who became in consequence <jnito
subservient to tho British.
ARGENTARIA, Alsace (now Colmae, N. E. France), where the Roman emperor Oratinn
totally defeated the Alemanui, and secured the peace of Gaul, 378.
ARGENTINE (or LA PLATA) CONFEDERATION, S. America, 14 provinces. This
country was discovered by the Spaniards in 1 5 1 5 ; settled by them in 1 553, and formed part
of the great vice-royalty of Peru till 1778, when it became that of Rio de la Plata. It joined
the insurrection in 181 1, and became independent in 1816. It was at war with Brazil from
1826 to 1828, for the possession of Uruguay, which became independent as Monte-Viden.
and at war with France from 1838-40. Buenos Ayres seceded in 1853, and was reunited in
1859. An insurrection began in San Juan, in Nov. i860, and was suppressed in Jan. 1861.
.1. Urquiza, elected president, Nov. 20, 1853, was succeeded by Dr. S. Derqui, Feb. 8, i860.
Gen. 6. Mitre, elected for six years, assumed the president's office, Oct. 12, 1862. In April,
1835, Lopez, president of Paraguay, made an alliance with Buenos Ayres, declared war
against Mitre, and invaded tho Argentine territories, May. Mitre made an alliance with
Brazil. Population in 1859, about 1,171,800. See Buenos Ayres for the disputes with
that state.
ARGINUSjE ISLES, between Lesbos anil Asia Minor; near these Conon and the
Athenian fleet defeated the Spartan admiral Callicratidas, 406 B.C.
ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, 1263 B.c. (1225, Clinton), undertaken by Jason to
avenge the death of his kinsmnn Phryxus, and recover his treasures seized by his murderer,
-Ee'tcs, king of Colchis. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been
adorned with the figure of a ram, it induced the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason
was for the recovery of the golden fleece. This is the first naval expedition on record.
Many kings and hemes accompanied Jason, whose ship was called At go, from its builder.
Dufresnoy.
ARG 47 ARI
ARGOS, the most ancient city of Greece, said to have been founded either by lnachus,
1856 b.l'., or his son, Fhoroncus, 1807, received its name from Argus, the fourth of the
lnachidVe, 1711 n,c.
Reign of Triopas : Polycaon seizes part of the Sparta becomes superior to Argos 495-490
kingdom, and calls it after his wife, Momenta Themistocles an exile at Argos . 471
B.C. 155a The Argives destroy Myccna? and regain their
Gelanor, last of the Inachiihe, deposed by superiority 4r.S
Danaus. an Egyptian Peloponnesian war—Argos long neutral ; but
Feast of the Flambeaux, instituted in honour of M75 joins Athens 4o
Hypermncstra, who saved her husband, Lyn- The aristocratieal party make* peace with
eeus, son of JSgyptus, on his nuptial night, Sparta, and overthrows the democratical
while her forty-nine sisters sacrificed theirs, government 41;
at the command of their father. Dauaus 1435 A reaction—alliance with Athens resumed
l-ynceus dethrones Danaus M*5 Pyrrhus of Macedon alaiu while l>csieging .105
The kingdom divided by tho brothers Acrisius Argos 273
and Prcetus .... 1344(1313. Ct.) Argt>8 long governed by tyrants supported by
Perseus, grandson of Acrisiu*, leaves Argos. Macedon ; it is freed and joint the Achtean
and founds Mycena) (which tee) . . .1313 league sag
The Heraclidft; retake the Peloponnesus, and Subjugated by tho Romans .... 146
Temenus seizes Argos 1 102 Argos taken from the Venetians . a.d. 1686
Pneidon's prosperous rule .... 770-730 Taken by the Turks 1716, who held it until . 1826
The Argives fine Sicyon and ^E-jiua for helping United to Greece under King Otho (see Greece)
Cleomencs of Sparta, with whom they are at Jan. 25, 1835
war 514
ARGYLE (W. Scotland), Bishopric of, founded about 1200, Evaldus being the first
bishop ; the diocese was previously part of the see of Dunkeld ; it ended with the abolition
of episcopacy in Scotland, 1688. Argyle and the Isles is a post-revolution bishopric, 1847.
Sec Jlisltoprics.
ARIAN, or Aryan (in Sanskrit signifying noble, warlike), a term now frequently
applied to the hypothetical hido-Germanic family of nations.
ARIANS, the followers of Arms of Alexandria, who preached against the divinity of
Christ, about 315, and died in 336. The controversy was taken up by Constantiue, who
presided at the council of Nice, 325, when the Ariaus were condemned ; but their doctrine
prevailed for a time in the East. It was favoured by Constantius II. 341 ; and carried into
Africa under tho Vandals in the 5th century, and into Asia under the Goths. Servctus
published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and was burnt, 1553. Sec Allianasian
Crfed. Leggatt, an Arian, was burnt at Sinithticld in 1614.
ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY : the most comprehensive system ever devised by man.
Aristotle was born at Stagyra (hence termed the Stagyrite), 384 B.c. ; was a pupil of Plato
from 364 to 347 ; became preceptor of Alexander, son of Philip of Macedon, iu 342 ; and died
in 322. He divided the circle of knowledge into Metaphysics and Logic, Physics, including
part of the science of mind, and Ethics. His philosophy was too much exalted by the
schoolmen during the middle ages, and too much depreciated after the Reformation. His
works on natural science contain a vast collection of facts and an extraordinary mixture of
sound and chimerical opinions. To him is attributed the assertion that nature abhors a
vacuum, an opinion now maintained by some eminent modern philosophers.
ARITHMETIC is said to have been introduced from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about
600 B.C. The Chinese used the abacus at an early period. It is asserted that the ancient
Hindus adopted a system having ten as a basis.
The oldest treatiso 1 arithmetic is by Euclid The date in Caxton's Mirrour of the World,
(7th, 8th, and hooks of his BUmtnU\ Arabic characters, is 1480
about b.c. 300 Arithmetic of decimals invented . 148.!
The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was John Shfrwood bishop of Durham's Lurfu*
used a.d. 130 FirstArithmo Machina,'* printed at Rome . . . 148 *
Diophantus, of Alexandria, was the author of work printed in England on arithmetic
thirteen books of arithmetical questions (of {de Arte Svpputanrti) was by Tonstall, bishop
which six ore now oxtant) . . . about 156 of Durham 15??
Notation by nine digits and rcro, known at The theory of decimal fractions was perfected
least as early as the sixth century in Hlndo- by Napier in his RUab'iolofjia, in . . 161 7
stan—introduced from thence into Arabia, Cocker s Arithmetic appeared in . . . . 1677
about 900—into Europe, about 080— into Nystrom's Tonal system with 16 as a basis pub
France, by Gorbert, 991—into Spain, 1050— lished 1863
into England 1253
ARIZONA, a territory of the United Staffs, otfgihftllr fvirr of Nfir Meti.-n, was organised
Feb. 24, 1863 ; capital, Tucson.
AUK arm
ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from u belief of its being the plan?
on which Noah's ark rested, after the universal deluge, 2347 B.c. But Apamea, in Phrygia,
claims to be the spot ; and medals have been struck there with a chest on the waters, and
the letters NOE, and two doves : this place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300
cubits in length, fifty in breadth, and thirty high ; but most interpreters suppose this cubit
to bo about a foot and a-half, and not the geometrical one of six.
ARKANSAS, originally part of Louisiana, purchased from France by the United States
in 1803, was admitted into the Union, 1836, and seceded from it May 6, 1861. Several
battles were fought in this state in 1862. Capital, Little Rock.
ARKLOW (in Wicklow), where a battle was fought between the insurgent Irish, amount
ing to 31,000, and a small regular force of British, which signally defeated them, June 10,
1798. The town was nearly destroyed by the insurgents in May previous. —Native gold was
discovered in Arklow, in Sept. 1795. Phil. Trans, vol. 86.
ARLES, an ancient town in France, in 879 the capital of the kingdom of Aries or Lower
Burgundy. Here are the remains of a Roman amphitheatre, capable of holding between
20,000 and 30,000 persons. English bishops are said to have been present at the council
held here against the Donatists, 314.
ARMADA, the Invincible. The famous Spanish armament, so called, consisted of 130
ships of war, besides transports, &c, 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 1 1,000 sailors, and
2000 volunteers, under the duke of Medina Sidonia, and 180 priests and monks. It sailed
from the Tagus, May 28-30, 1588, and arrived in the channel, July 19, 1588, and was
defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten fire-ships having been sent into the
enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put to sea and endeavoured to returu to their rendezvous
between Calais and Gravelines : the English fell upon them, took many ships, and admiral
Howard maintained a running fight from the 21 st July to the 28th, obliging the shattered fleet
to hear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a storm dispersed them, and the remainder of
the armament returned by the North Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships
in the engagement, and 5000 men ; seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Ireland,
and upwards of 5000 mon were drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. The English lost but
one ship. About one-third of the armament returned to Spain.
ARMAGH, in N. Ireland, of which it was the metropolis from the 5th to the 9th century,
was the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, founded by St. Patrick, its first bishop, about
444, who is said to have built the first cathedral 450. Six saints of the Roman calendar
have been bishops of this see. In the king's books, by an extent taken 15 James I., it is
valued at 400Z. sterling a year ; and until lately, was estimated at 15,000?. per annum. The
see was re-constituted (see Pallium) in 1 151. Bcatson. Armagh was ravaged by the Danes
on Easter-day, 852, and by O'Neil in 1564.
ARMAGNACS, a political party in France, followers of the duke of Orleans, derived their
name from his father-in-law, the count of Armaguac. About 3500 of this party were
massacred at Paris in May, 1418, by their opponents, the followers of the duke of Burgundy.
ARMED NEUTRALITY, the confederacy of the northern powers against England,
formed by the empress of Russia in 1780 ; ended in 1781. The confederacy was renewed,
and a treaty ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent powers,
Dec. 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being contrary to
the maritime system of England, the British cabinet remonstrated, war ensued, and Nelson
and Parker destroyed the fleet of Denmark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. This event
and the murder of the emperor Paul of Ruasia leel to the dissolution of the Armed
Neutrality.
ARMENIA, Asia Minor. Here Noah is said to have resided when he left the ark, 2347
B.C. Armenia, after forming part of the Assyrian, Median, and Persian empires, became
subject to the Greek kings of Syria, after the defeat of Antiochus the Great, 190 B.C.; the
Romans established the kingdoms of Armenia Major and Minor, but their influence over
them was frequently interrupted by the aggressions of the Parthians. The modern Christian
kingdom of Armenia arose about 1080 in the rebellion of Pliilaretus Brachancius against tho
Greek emperor. It lasted amid many struggles till the 14th century. In all their political
troubles the Armenians havo maintained the profession of Christianity. Their church is
governed by patriarchs, not subject to Rome. Since 171 5 an Armenian" convent has existed
at Venice, where hooks on all subjects are printed in the Armenian language.
AKM 4D ARM
ARMENIA, continued.
City of Artaxarta built . . . . b.o. 186 Christianity introduced, botween . . 100-200
Antiochus Epiphanes invades Armenia . . 165 Armenia added to the Persian empire . . 31a
Tigranos the GreiU reigns in Armenia Major . 95-60 Tiridates obtains tho throne through Dio
Becomes king of Syria, and assumes the title cletian, 286 ; is expelled by Narses, 294 ;
of " King of Kings " 83 Onrestored by Galerius 298
Defeated by Lucullus, 69 ; bo lays his crown at bis death, Armenia becomes subject to
the feet of Pompey Persia, 342 ; is made neutral by Rome
66 Persia, 384 ; who divide it by treaty . . 443 and
His son, Artavasdes, reigns, 54 ; he assists
Pompey against Julius Coisar, 48 ; and the Armenia conquered and roconquered by the
Parthians against Marc Antony ... 36 Greek and Persian sovereigns . 577-^87
Antony subdues, and sends him loaded with And by the Greek emperors and the Mabom-
silver chains to Egypt modans . . .
34 Leon . . . 693-1065
Artaxias, his son, made king by the Partbians 33 VI., last king of Armenia, taken prisoner
Deposed by the Romans, who enthrone Ti- by tho Saracens, 1375; released; ho dies at
granes 11 20 Paris . 1393
Armenia subjected to Parthia . . a,d. 15 Overrun by tho Mongols, 1235 ; by Timour,
Reconquered by Gennanicus, grandson of Au 1383 ; by the Turks, 1516; by tho Persians,
gustus ........ 18 Shah *534 I by the Turks 1583
After many changes Tiridates is made king by Abbas, of Persia, surrenders Armenia to
the Romans 58 the Turks, but transports 22,000 Armenian
The Parthian conquerors of Armenia are ex families into his own states . , . . 1580
pelled by Trajan 115 Overrun by the Russians 1828
Severus makes Volagarses king of part of Surrender of Erzeroum .... July, 1829
Armenia 199 (See Syrln and Stmo-TurMth War.)
ARMENIAN ERA, commenced on the 9th of July, 552 ; the ecclesiastical year on
tho nth August. To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years, and 221 days ; and in
lean years subtract one day from March 1 to August 10. The Armenians used the old
Julian style and months in their correspondence with Europeans.
ARMILLARY SPHERE, an instrument devised to give an idea of the motions of the
heavenly bodies. It is commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a manner that the
greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in their natural position and motion ; tho
whole being comprised in a frame. It is said to have been invented by Eratosthenes, about
255 B.C. ; and was employed by Tycho Brahe and other astronomers.
ARMINIANS (or Remonstrants) derive their former name from James Arminius (or
Harmensen), a Protestant divine, of Lcyden, Holland (died, 1609); the latter name from
his followers having presented a Remonstrance to tho States-General in 1610. They
separated from the Calvinists, considering Calvin's views of grace and predestination in
opposition to free will too severe. A fierce controversy raged to 1625, when the Arminians,
who had been exiled, returned to their homes. Their doctrines were condemned in 1619,
at the synod of Dort (which see). The Calvinists were then sometimes styled Gomarists,
from Gomar, the chief opponent to Arminius. James I. and Charles I. favoured the doc
trines of tho Arminians, which still prevail largely in Holland and elsewhere.
ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of the 12th century.
They took their rise from the knights painting their banners with different figures, and were
employed by the crusaders, in order at first to distinguish noblemen in battle, noo.
The lines to denote colours in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by
Colnmbiere in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798, and again in 1808. The armo
rial bearings of the English sovereigns are given under the article England.
ARMORICA, now Brittany, N. France, was conquered by Julius Ca:sar, 56 B.C. Many
Gauls retired there and preserved the Celtic tongue, a.d. 584. See Brittany.
ARMOUR. That of Goliath is described (about 1063 B.C.) 1 Sam. xvii. 5. The warlike
Europeans at first despised any other defence than the shield. Skins and padded hides were
first used ; and brass and iron armour, in plates or scales, followed. The first body armour
of the Britons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the well-
tanned leathern cuirass. Tacitus. This latter continued till the Anglo-Saxon era.
Hengist is said to have had scale armour, A.D. 449. The Norman armour formed breeches
and jacket, 1066. The hauberk had its hood of the samo piece, 1 100. John wore a surtout
over a hauberk of rings set edgeways, 1 199. The heavy cavalry were covered with a coat of
mail, Henry III. 1216. Some horsemen had vizors, and scull-caps, same reign. Armour
became exceedingly splendid about 1350. The armour of plate commenced 1407. Black
armour, used not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V. 1413. The armour of Henry VII.
consisted of a cuirass of steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500. Armour ceased
to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625. In the reign of Charles II. officers wore no other
ARM 50 ARM
armour than a largo gorget, which is commemorated in the diminutive ornament known at
the present day. Mcyrkk.
ARMS. The club was tho first offensive weapon ; then followed the mace, battle-nxe,
pike, spear, javelin, sword and dagger, bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of
the sling to tho Phoenicians. See articles on tlie various weapons throughout the volume.
ARMS. See Armorial bearings and Jlcraldry.
ARMS' BILL, for the repression of crime and insurrection in Ireland, was passed Oct. 15,
1831. It was a revival of the expired statutes of George III. The guns registered under
this act throughout the kingdom at the close of the first year scarcely amounted to 3000,
and the number was equally small of all other kinds of arms. The new Arms' bill passed
Aug. 22, 1843. It has been since renewed, but has not been rigidly enforced.
ARMY. NTnus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of fighting
men, 2017 B.C. The first guards and regular troops as a standing army were formed by
Saul, 1093 B.C. Eusebius. The army of Xerxes invading Greece is said to have been
1,700,000 foot and 80,000 horse : 480 B.C. One of the first standing armies of which we
have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The army which Darius opposed to
Alexander the Great (332 B.C.) is set down as between 750,000 and a million. The first
standing army which existed as such, in modern times, was maintained in France hy
Charles VII. in 1445. The chief European nations have had in their servico the following
armies: Spain, 150,000 men; Great Britain, 310,000 ; Prussia, 350,000 ; Turkey, 450,000;
Austria, 500,000 ; Russia, 560,000 ; and France, 680,000. Estimated number in Europe in
1863, 6,000,000 soldiers, 1,000,000 horses, n.oooguns.
ARMY, British, mainly arose in the reign of Charles II. in 1661, in consequence of the
extinction of feudal tenures. The first five regiments of British infantry were established
between 1633 and 1680. James II. established several regiments of dragoon guards (1685-8).
In 1685 the army consisted of 7000 foot and 1700 cavalry. Standing armies were introduced
by Charles I. in 1638 ; they were declared illegal in England, 31 Charles II. 1679 ; but one
was then gradually forming, which was maintained by William III. 1689, when the Mutiny
Act was passed. See Regimcnti. Grose's "History of the British Army" was published in
1 801. Tho effective rank-and-file of the army actually serving in the pay of Great Britain
on the 24th Dec. 1800, amounted to 168,082 ; and the estimates of the whole army in that
year were 17,973,000/. The militia, volunteer, and other auxiliary forces were of immense
amount at some periods of the war ending in 1815. Tho strength of the volunteer corps
was greatest between the years 1798 and 1804, in which latter year this species of force
amounted to 410,000 men, of whom 70,000 were Irish ; and the militia had increased to
130,000 men, previously to the regular regiments being recruited from its ranks in 1809.
Tho following are statements of the effective military strength of the United Kingdom at
the periods mentioned, and of the sums voted for military expenditure :
Men. Sum voted. Men. Sum voted.
1780, Timo of war : troops of 1855, War with Russia . 178,645* £13,721,158
tho lino . . . rio.ooo £7,847,000 1856, War with Russia (effec
1800, War 168,000 17,973,000 tive men 154,806) . . 206,836 14,545,059
1810, War: army including (Sept.. 5, 1856, reduced to 125,000 men,
foreign troops . . 300,000 26,748,000 oxclusive of tho Indian army.)
1815, Last year of the war . 300,000 39,150,000 1859, Prospect of European) ,
G^&)JUn^(m^^^hoseaJtCae) ,3,300.000
1820, Time of peace; war in
cumbrances . . . 88,100 18,253,000
1830, Peace ..... 89,300 6,991,000 1860, War with China . . 235,852 14,842,000
1S40, Peace . . . . 93,471 6,890,267 1861, 212,773 14,168,621
1850, Peace . . . . 99,118 6,763,488
1852, Peace (except Kaffir war) 101,937 7,018,164 1862 „
1863, (With Indian army) . . 220,918 15,060,237
M
1354, War with Russia . . 112,977 7>l67,486
ARMY, AND NAVY, AND OTHER CHARGES OF THE WAR WITH RUSSIA.
Original Estimate 1854-5 Actual Charge 1854-5 Estimatefor 1855-6
Army .... £6,287,486 . . . £7,167,486 .... £13,721,158
Navy 7,487,948 . . . . 10,417,309 . . . . 10,716,338
Ordnance .... 3,845,878 . . 5,986,662 .... 7,808,04a
Transports (increase in Navy) 3.582,474 . . . . 51181,465
Total. . . £17,621,312 £27,153,931 £37i437.o°3
Volunteers in Groat Britain in 7S62, stated to bo 167,291.
* Besides this national army, 14,950 foreign troops wero voted for the service of the year 1S55-6 ; and
the English militia wan called out, and increased to the number of 120,000 men, thus forming a total of
313,595, exclusive of 20,000 Turkish auxiliaries taken into British pay.
ARM f.l AliR
ARMY, Bkitish, conUnxKd.
BRITISH ARMY ; NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS AND PRIVATES, IN 184O.
Life Guards. Hontp Guards. Foot Guards. Caralry. Infantry.
English .... 724 367 4.3'4 6,174 35,785
Scotch 67 22 472 78r 12,046
Irish .... IQ 10 64 2,569 36,531
Total . . . 810 399 4.850 9.524 84,362
The Army Service Acts: 12 iz 13 Vict. c. 37 sequence of no bounty being granted ; and
(Juno st, 1847), and 18 Vict. c. 4 , Feb. 27, 1855 threatenings of mutiny appeared, which
The Mutiny Act Is passed annually; alterations subsided after an arrangement was made
were made in this Act and in the Articles of granting discharge to those who desired it
War in 1855. See Militia and Voluntters. See Jtutia 1859
Officers in the service of the East India Com Examination of candidates for the Military
pany to have the same rank and precedence Academy, previously conBned to pupils from
as those in the regular army . April 25, ,, Sandhurst, was thrown open, 1855 ; the prin
The office of Master-General of the Ordnance ciple of this measure was affirmed by the
abolished, and the civil administration of tho House of Commons by vote . April 26, 1S58
Army and Ordnance vested in the hands of . By 22 & 23 Vict. c. 42, provision made for a re
Lord Panmure, the Minister of War May 25, serve force, not to exceed 20,000 men, who
Examination of staff officers previous to their had been in her majesty's service , . . 1859
appointment ordered . . April 9, 1857 Flogging virtually abolished in the army : First
The army largely recruited In 1857 and 1858, in class soldiers to be degraded to second class
consequence of the war in India. before being liable to it . Nov. 9, ,,
The East India Company's army was transferred A report of a commission in 1858 causes great
to the Queen 1859 sanitary improvements in the army, barracks,
11 uch dissatisfaction arose in that army in con &c.p imder direction of Mr. Sidney Herbert 1859-60
ARMY of Occupation. The allied powers, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, by the treaty,
Mgned Nov. 20, 1815, established the boundaries of France, and stipulated for the occupa
tion of certain fortresses by foreign troops for three years, to the intense disgust of the
natives.
AROMATICS. Acron of Agrigentum is said to have been the first who caused great fires
to be made, and aromatics to be thrown into them, to purify the air, by which means he put
a stop to the plague at Athens, 473 B.C. Nouv. Diet.
ARP1NDM (S. Italy), celebrated as tho birthplace of Cicero, Jan. 3, 106 n.c. ; many
remains still bear his name.
ARQUEBUS. See Fire Arms.
ARQUES (N. France). Near here the League army, commanded by the due dc Mavenne,
was defeated by Henry IV. Sept. 21, 1589.
ARRACAN, a province of N.E. India. Arracan, the capital, was taken by the Burmese,
1783 ; and taken from them by general Morrison, April 1, 1825. The subjugation of the
whole province soon followed.
ARRAIGNMENT consists in reading the indictment by the officer of the court, and
calling upon the prisoner to say whether he is guilty or not guilty. Formerly, persons who
refused to plead m cases of felony were pressed to death by weights placed upon the breast.
A person standing mute was declared convicted by an act passed 1772 ; but in 1827, the
court was directed to enter a plea of " not guilty " in such cases. Sec Mute.
ARRAS {N.E. of France), the ancient Atrebates, the seat of a bishop since 390.
Here a treaty was concluded between the king of France and duke of Burgundy, when the
latter abandoned his alliance with England, Sept. 22, 1435. Another treaty was concluded
by Maximilian of Austria with Louis XI. of France, whereby the counties of Burgundy and
Artois were given to the dauphin as a marriage portion ; this latter was entered into in
1482. Vdly. Arras was held by the Austrians from 1493 till 1640, when it was taken by
Louis XIII.
ARRAY. On Dec. 23, 1324, Edward II. directed the bishop of Durham to -make
"arraier" his men-of-arms, horse and foot, and cause them to proceed to Portsmouth;
thence to proceed to the war in Oascony. Rymrr's Fo-fkra. Hallam says that this was the
earliest commission of array that he could find, and that the latest was dated 1557. The
E 2
AKU 52 AI!T
attempt of Charles I. to revive commissions of array in 1642, founded on a statute of Henry
IV., was strenuously opposed as illegal.
ARREST foe Debt. The persons of peers, members of parliament, 4c, are protected
from arrest. See Ambassadors; Fcrrurs' Arrest.
Clergymen performing divine service privi Statute abolishing arrost for debt on mesne
leged, 50 Edw. Ill process, except in esses wherein there ia
Seamen privileged from debts under 20I , by ground to show that the defendant designs
30 Goo. II 1 7/' to leave the country, 2 Vict., Aug. . . 1838
Barristers privileged from arrest while going By 7 & 8 Vict c. 96, the power of imprison
to, attending upon, and returning from court, ment even upon final process, that is judg
on the business of their clients. ment debts, is abolished if the sum does not
By statute 29 Charles II. no arrest can be made, exceed 20I. exclusive of costs, 1844 ; and by
nor process served, upon a Sunday. This 9 & 10 Vict. c. 95, the judge has no power to
law was extended by William III. of court except
punish, . . in• case of fraud or contempt 1846
Vexatious arrests prevented by act, May, 1733.
Prohibited for less than 10/. on process, 1779 : By the Absconding Debtors' Arrest Act, ab
and for less than 20I. . . . July, 1S27 sconding debtors owing 2oi- and upwards are
Arrests for less than 20?. were prohibitod on liable to arrest 1851
mesne process in Ireland, in June . .
ARRETINUM. See Arezzo.
ARSENAL, a great military or naval repository, The largest in this country is at Wool-
wich, which see.
ARSENIC, a steel-gray coloured brittle metal, extremely poisonous, known in early
times, lirandt, in 1733, made the first accurate experiments on its chemical nature. The
heinous crimes committed by means of this mineral obliged the legislature to enact regula
tions for its sale, 14 Vict. cap. 13, June 5, 185 1. The sale of all colourless preparations of
arsenic is regulated by this act. In 1858 Dr. A. S. Taylor asserted that green paper-
hangings prepared from arsenic were injurious to health ; which appears to be true, although
doubted by some chemists. See Cacodyl.
ARSEN1TE Schism. See Eastern Church, 1255.
ARSON was punished with death by the Saxons, and remained a capital crime on the
consolidation of tho laws in 1827, 1837, and 1861. If any house be fired, persons being
therein, or if any vessel be fired, with a view to murder or plunder, it shall be death, statute-
1 Vict., July, 1837.
ARSOTJF (Syria), Battle of, in which Richard I. of England, commanding the Christian
forces, reduced to 30,000, defeated Saladiu's army of 300,000 Saracens and other infidels, on
Sept. 3 or 7, 1191. Ascalon surrendered. Richard marched to Jerusalem, 1192.
ARTEMISIUM, a promontory in Eubosa, near which indecisive conflicts took place
between the Greek and Persian fleets for three days ; 480 B.C. The former retired on hearing
of the battle of Thermopylae.
ARTESIAN WELLS (from ArUsia, now Artois, in France, where they frequently occur)
are formed by boring through the upper soil to strata containing water, which has percolated
from a higher level, and which rises to that level through the boring tube. The fountains
in Trafalgar square and government offices near have been supplied since 1844 by two of
these wells (393 feet deep). At Paris the Grenollc well (1798 feet deep), was completed in
1841, after eight years of exertion, by M. Mulot at an expense of about 12,000?., and the
well at Passy, which it is said will supply sufficient water for nearly 500,000 persons, was
begun in 1855, and completed in i860 by M. Kind. Messrs. Amos and Easton completed
an artesian well for the Horticultural Society's garden in 1862. It yielded 880,000 gallons
of water, at the temperature of 81° Fahr., in twenty-four hours. The well at Kissingen was
completed in 1850. Artesian wells are now becoming common.
ARTICHOKES are said to have been introduced from the East into Western Europe in
the 15th century, and to have reached England about 1502.
ARTICLES of Religion. In June 8, 1536, after much disputing, the English clergy
in convocation published "Articles decreed by tho king's highness Henry VIII., who
published in 1539 tho " Statute of Six Articles," viz. transubstantiation, communion in one
kind, vows of chastity, private masses, celibacy of the clergy, and auricular confession. In
1551 forty-two were published without the consent of parliament. These forty-two were
modified and reduced to Thirty-nine in Jan. 1563 ; and they received the royal authority
and tho authority of parliament in 1571. The Lambeth Articles, of a more Calvinistic
character, attempted to be imposed by archbishop Whitgift, were withdrawn in consequence
ART 53 ARU
of the displeasure of queen Elizabeth, 1595. One hundred and four articles were drawn up
for Ireland by archbishop Usher in 1614. On the union of the churches, the Irish adopted
the English articles. See Perth Articles.
ARTICLES of Wak wero decreed in the time of Richard I . and John. Those made by-
Richard II. in 1485 appear in Grose's "Military Antiquities." The Articles of War now in
force are based upon an act, passed by William III. in 1689, to regulate the amiy about to
engage in his continental warfare.
ARTIFICERS akd Manufacturers. Their affairs were severely regulated by the
statutes of 1349, 1351, 1360, 1562. They were prohibited from leaving England, and those
abroad were outlawed, if they did not return within six months after the notice given them.
A tine of 100/., and imprisonment for three months, were the penalties for seducing them
from these realms, by 9 Geo. II. (1736) and other statutes, which were repealed ia 1824.
ARTILLERY, a term including properly all missiles : now applies to cannon. The first
piece was a small one, contrived by Schwartz, a German cordelier, soon after the invention
of gunpowder, in 1330. Artillery was used, it is said, by the Moors of Algesiras, in Spain,
in the siege of 1343 ; it was used, according to our historians, at the battle of Crecy, in 1346,
when Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the battle. We had artillery
at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venetians first employed artillery against the Genoese at
sea, 1377. Voltaire. Said to have been used by the English at Calais in 1383. Cast in
England, together with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flemish artists, in Sussex, 1543.
Rymefs Fccdera. Made of brass 1635 ; improvements by Browne, 1728. —See Cannon,
liombs, Carronades (under Carron), Mortars. Howitzers, Petard, Rockets, Fire-arms. The
Royal Artillery regiment was established in the reign of Anne.
ARTILLERY COMPANY of London-, Honourable, instituted in 1585, having ceased,
was revived in 1610. It met for military exercise at the Artillery ground, Finsbury, where
the London Archers had met since 1498. (See A rchery. ) In the civil war, 1641-8, the
company took the side of the parliament, and greatly contributed towards its success. The
company numbered 1200 in 1803 and 800 in 1861. Since 1842 the officers have been
appointed by the Queen. On the decease of the duke of Sussex in 1843, the Prince Consort
became colonel and captain-general. He died Dec. 14, 1861, and the Prince of Wales was
appointed his successor Aug. 24, 1863.
ARTISTS' FUND was established in 1810 to provide allowances for sick, and annuities
for incapacitated members.
ARTS. In the 8th century, the whole circle of sciences was composed of seven liberal
arts—grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. Harris. The
Royal Society of England (which see) obtained its charter April 2, 1663. The Society of
Arts, to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, was instituted in
1754 ; it originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and of its first president, lord Folke
stone.—Fine Arts. The first public exhibition by the artists of the British metropolis took
place in 1760, at the rooms of the Society of Arts, and was repeated there for several years,
till, in process of time, the Royal Academy was founded. Sec Royal Academy. The Society
of British Artists was instituted May 21, 1823 ; and their first exhibition was opened April
19, 1824. The Society for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts was founded in Dec. 1858.
See British Institution; National Gallery.
ART-UNIONS began in France and Germany early in the present century. The first in
Britain was established at Edinburgh ; that in London was founded in 1836, and chartered
in 1846, when these unions were legalised. Every subscriber is entitled to prints, and has
the chance of drawing prizes.
ARUNDEL CASTLE (Sussex), built by the Saxons about 800. The duke of Norfolk
enjoys the earldom of Arundel, as a feudal honour, by inheritance and possession of tho
castle, without any other creation. Philip Howard, son of tho attainted duke of Norfolk,
was made earl of Arundel, by summons, as possessor of this castlo, 1580. It was thoroughly
repaired by a late duke at a vast expense.
ARUNDELIAN MARBLES, called also Oxford Marbles ; ouo containing the chronology
of ancient history from 1582 to 355 B.C., and said to have been sculptured 264 B.C. They
consist of 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and wero found in the isle of Faros, in
the reign of James I., about 1610. They were collected by Mr. W. Petty, purchased by
lord Arundel, and given by his grandson Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk, to the
university of Oxford in 1667 ; and are therefore called also Oxfokd Makblks. The
AKU ASH
characters of the inscriptions are Greek. There are two translations : by Hcldtn, 1628 : by
PrieUaux, 1676. A variorum edition of the inscriptions, by Maittaire, appeared in 1732,
and a fine one by Chandler in 1 763. Sco KideVs Tracts ; and Parson's Treatise, 1 789.
ARUSPICES. See Haruspiccs.
AS, a Roman weight and coin : when considered as a weight, it was a pound ; when a
coin, it had different weights, but always the same value. In the reign of Servius, the as
weighed a pound of brass ; in the first Punic war, it weighed two ounces, 264 n.c. ; in the
second Punic war, one ounce, 218 B.C. ; and afterwards half an ounce ; its value was about
three farthings sterling.
ASAPH, ST. (N. Wales), a bishopric founded by Kcntigern, bishop of Glasgow. On
returning into Scotland about 560, he left a holy man, St. Asaph, his successor, from whom
the see takes its name. It is valued in the king's books at 187/. lis. 6d. By an order in
council, 1838, the sees of St. Asaph and Bangor were to have been united on the next
vacancy in either ; and t lie bishopric of Manchester was to have been then created. This
order was annulled in 1846, and the two sees still exist. Present income, 4200?. See
Manchester.
DECENT BISHOPS OF ST. ASAPH.
1802. Samuel Hornlcy, <liod Oct. 4, 1806. 1830. William Carey, died Sept. 13, 1846.
1806. William Cleaver, died May 15, 1815. 1846. Thomas Vowlcr Short (present bishop, 1865).
1S15. John Luxui'jorc, died Jan. 21, 1830.
ASBESTOS, a native fossil stone, which may be split into threads and filaments, and
which is endued with the property of remaining unconsumed in fire. Cloth was made of it
by the Egyptians (Herodotus), and napkins in the time of Pliny, 74 ; and also paper. The
spinning of asbestos known at Venice, about 1500. Porta.
ASCALON (Syria), a city of the Philistines, shared the fate of Phoenicia and Judea. The
Egyptian army was defeated here by the Crusaders, under Godfrey of Bouillon, Aug. 12,
1099. Ascalon was besieged by the latter in 1148, takeu in 1 153 ; and again in 1 191. Its
fortifications were destroyed for fear of the Crusaders by the Sultan in 1270.
ASCENSION, an island in the Atlantic ocean, 800 miles N. W. of St, Helena, discovered
by the Portuguese in 1501 ; and taken possession of by the English in 1815.
ASCENSION DAY, also called Holy Thursday, when the church celebrates the ascension
of our Saviour, the fortieth day alter his resurrection from the dead, May 14, 33 ; first com
memorated, it is said, 68. Ascension day, 1866, May 10; 1867, May 30 ; 1868, May 21.
ASCULUM, now Ascoli, a city of the Picentes, Central Italy, E. Near it, Pyrrhns of
Epirus defeated the Romans, 279 n.c. In 268 B.C., the whole country of the Picentes was
subdued by the consul Semprouius. In 1 190 A.D. Andrea, the general of the emperor
Henry VI., who was endeavouring to wrest the crown of Naples from Tancred, was defeated
and slain.
ASHANTEES, a warlike tribe of negroes of West Africa. In 1807 they conquered
Fantee, in which the British settlement Cape Coast Castle is situated. On the death of the
king, who had been friendly to the English, hostilities began; and on Jan. 21, 1824, the
Ashantees defeated about 1000 British under sir Charles M'Carthy at Accra, and brought
away his skull with others as trophies. They were totally defeated, Aug. 27, 1826, by col.
Purdon. The governor of Cape Coast Castle began a war with the Ashantees in spring of
1863. Tho British troops suffered much through disease ; and the war was suspended by
the government in May, 1864.
ASHBURTON TREATY, concluded at Washington, Aug. 9, 1842, by Alexander, lord
Ashburton, and John Tyler, president of the United States : it defined the boundaries of
the respective countries between Canada and the state of Maine, settled the extradition of
criminals, &c.
ASHDOD, or Azotus, the seat of the worship of the Phoenician god Dagou, which fell
down before the ark of the Lord ; captured by tho Pliilistines from the Israelites, about
1 141 B.C. (1 Sam. v.).
ASIIDOWN, or Assendmie, now thought to be Aston, Berks, where Ethelred and his
brother Alfred defeated the Danes in 871.
ASHMOLEAN LIBRARY (books, manuscripts, coins, &c0, was presented to the
university of Oxford by Elms Ashmole, the herald and antiquary, about 16S2. It included
ASH 55 ASS
the collections of the Tradescants, to whom he was executor. He died at Lambeth in 1692.
The Ashniolean Society, Oxford (scientific), was established in 1828.
ASHTAROTH, a Phoenician goddess, occasionally worshipped by the Israelites (see
Judges ii. 13) about 1406 B.C., and even by Solomon, about 984 B.C. (1 Kings xi. 5).
ASH-WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent, which in early times began on the Sunday
now called the first in Lent. Pope Felix III., in 487, first added the four days preceding
the old Lent Sunday, to raise the number of fasting days to forty ; Gregory the Grout (pope,
590) introduced the sprinkling of ashes on the first of the four additional days, and hence
the namo of Dies Cincrum, or Ash-Wednesday. At the Reformation this practice was
abolished, " as being a mere shadow, or vain show."
ASIA, the largest division of the globe, so called by the Greeks, from the nymph Asia,
the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, the wife of Japhct. Asia was the first quarter of tins
world peopled : here the law of God was first promulgated ; here many of the greatest
monarchies of the earth had their rise ; and hence most of the arts and sciences have been
derived. Its early history is derived from Herodotus, who relates the wars of Crrcsus, Cyrus,
and others. See China, India, Persia, and the other countries.
ASIA MINOR (now Anatolia), comprised the Ionian colonies on tho coast, the early
seats of Greek civilisation, and the countries Mysia, Phrygia, Lycia, Bithynia, Caria, Lydia,
Cappadocia, Galatia, &c, with the cities Troy, Ephesus, Smyrna (all which see). From the
time of the rise of the Assyrian monarchy, about 2000 B.C., to that of the Turks under
Osman, Asia Minor was the battle-field of the conquerors of the world.
First settlement ofthe Ionian Greeks, about B.C. 1043 Gradually acquirod by the Homana b.c. 188 to a. d. 15
Asia Minor subdued by tho Modes . about 711 by the Persians 600
Conquered by Cyrus .... about 546 Partially recovered by the emperor Basil . . 874
Contest between the Greeks and Persians begins 544 Invaded by Timour 140a
Asia Minor conquered by Alexander . . 332 Taken frum the Greek emperor, and established
Contended for by his successors ; separate as an empire by the Turks under Mahomet I. 1413
kingdoms established .... 321-378
ASIATIC SOCIETIES. The " Asiatic Society of Bengal," at Calcutta, was established
by sir William Jones in 1784, " tho bounds of its investigation to be the geographical limits
of Asia." The "Royal Asiatic Society," which has several branches in India, was founded
in 1823. It established the "Oriental Translation Fund" in 1828, which has published Sj
volumes of Eastern literature (1865).
ASKESIAN SOCIETY (from the Greek askesis, exercise), instituted in March, 1796, by
a number of young men for discussing philosophical subjects. Its founders were the after
wards celebrated Win. Allen, Win. Phillips, Alex. Tilloch, Luke Howard, W. H. Pepys, and
others. In 1806 it merged into tho Geological Society.
ASPERNE and Esslino, near tho Danube and Vienna, where a series of desperate con
flicts took place between the Austrian army under the archduke Charles, and the French
under Napoleon, Massena, &c, on May 21-22, 1S09, ending in the defeat of Napoleon ; tho
severest check that he had yet received. The loss of the former exceeded 20,000 men, and
of the latter 30,000. The daring marshal Lannes was killed ; the bridge of the Danube was
destroyed, and Napoleon's retreat endangered ; but the success of the Austrians had 110
beneficial effect on the subsequent prosecution of the war.
ASPHALT, a solid bituminous substance, which in nature probably derived its origin
from decayed vegetable matter. The artificial asphalt obtained from gas-works began to be
used as pavement about 1838. Claridge's patent asphalt was laid down in Trafalgar-square,
Jan. 1864.
ASPROMONTE, Naples. Here Garibaldi wits defeated, Wounded, and taken prisoner
Aug. 29, 1862, having injudiciously risen against the French occupation of Rome.
ASSAM (N. E. India) came under British dominion in 1825, and was surrendered by
the king of Ava in 1826. The tea-plant was discovered here by Mr. Bruce in 1823. A
superintendent of the tea-forests was appointed in 1836, the cultivation of the plant having
been recommended by lord William Bentiuck, in 1834. Tho Assam Tea Company was
established iu 1839. The tea was much in use in England in 1841. Chinese labour has
been introduced, and the growth of tea is enormously increasing.
ASSASSINATION PLOT, said to have been formed by the carl of Aylesbury and
others to assassinate William III., near Richmond, Surrey, and restore James II. Its
object would have been attained, Feb. 14, 1695-6, but for its timely discovery by
Prendergast.
ASS 56 ASS
ASSASSINS, ok Assassixians, a band of fanatical Mahometans, collected by Hassan-
ben-Sabah, and settled in Persia about 1090. In Syria they possessed a large tract of land
among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Montferrat in 1192;
Lewis of Bavaria in 1213 ; and the khan of Tartary in 1254. They were conquered by the
Tartars in 1257 ; and were extirpated in 1272. The chief or king of the corns assumed the
title of "Ancient of the Mountain," and " Old Man of the Mountain." * They trained up
young people to assassinate such persons as their chief had devoted to destruction. Hlnault.
From tin's fraternity the word assassin has been derived.
ASSAY of Gold and Silver originated with the bishop of Salisbury, a royal treasurer in
the reign of Henry I. Du Caiige. But certainly some species of assay was practised as
early as the Roman conquest. Assay was established in England 1354 ; regulated 13 Will.
III. 1700, and 4 Anne, 1705. Assay masters appointed at Sheffield and Birmingham, 1773.
The alloy of gold is silver and copper, that of silver is copper. Standard gold is 2 carats of
alloy to 22 of fine gold. Standard silver is 18 dwts. of copper to 1 1 ozs. 2 dwts. of fine silver.
See Goldsmiths' Company,
ASSAYE (E. Indies), Battle of. The British army, under general Arthur Wellesley
(afterwards duke of Wellington), entered the Mahratta states on the south ; took the fort of
Ahniednuggur, Aug. 12 ; and defeated Scindiah and the rajah of Berar at Assaye, Sept. 23,
1803. This was Wellington's first great battle, in which he opposed a force full more than
ten times greater than his own (only 4500 men). The enemy retired in great disorder, leaving
behind the whole of their artillery, ammunition, and stores.
ASSEMBLY of Divines held at Westminster, July 1, 1643, convoked by order of
parliament, to consider the liturgy, government, and doctrines of the church. Two members
were elected for each county. They adopted the Scottish covenant, and drew up the direc
tory for public worship, a confession, and the catechisms now used by the church of Scotland.
The last (1163rd) meeting was on Feb. 22, 1649. See Church of Scotland.
ASSENT. See Royal Assent.
ASSESSED TAXES. The date of their introduction has been as variously stated as the
taxes coming under this head have been defined—all things have been assessed, from lands
and houses to dogs and hair-powder. By some the date is referred to the reign of Ethelbert,
in 991 ; by others to that of Henry VIII. 1522 ; and by more, to the reign of William III.
1689, when a land-tax was imposed. See Land Tax. The assessed taxes yielded in 1 81 5
(the last year of the war), exclusively of the land-tax, 6,524,766?., their highest amount.
These imposts have varied in their nature and amount, according to the exigencies of the
state, and the contingencies of war and peace. They were considerably advanced in 1797
and 1801, ct scq., but considerably reduced in 1816, and in subsequent years. The last act
for the repeal of certain assessed taxes was passed 16 & 17 Vict. cap. 90, Aug. 20, 1853,
which was explained and amended by 17 & 18 Vict. cap. I, Feb. 17, 1854.—Acts for the
bettor securing and accounting for the Assessed and Income Taxes, Aug. 10, 1854. See
Taxes and Income Tax.
ASSIENTO, a contract between the king of Spain and other powers, for furnishing the
Spanish dominions in America with negro slaves, began with the Flemings. By the treaty
of Utrecht in 1713, the British government engaged to furnish 4800 negroes annually to
Spanish America for thirty years. The contract was vested in the South Sea Company ; but
this infamous contract was given up in 1750. See Guinea.
ASS1GNATS, a paper currency, ordered by the National Assembly of France to support
public credit during the revolution, April, 1790. At one period, eight milliards, or nearly
350 millions of pounds sterling, of this paper were in circulation in France and its depen
dencies. Alison. Assignats were superseded by mandats in 1796.
ASSIZE of Battle. See Appeal.
ASSIZE of Bread, &c. See Bread and Wood.
ASSIZE COURTS (from assideo, I sit) are of very ancient institution in England, and in
old law books are defined to be an assembly of knights and other substantial men, with
the justice, to meet at a certain time and place : regulated by Magna Charta, 1215.
The present justices of assize and Nisi Prius are derived from the statute of Westminster,
13 Edw. L 1284. Coke; Blackstone. "The king doth will that no lord, or other of the
• He sent his emissaries to assassinate Louis IX. of France, called St. Louis : but being afterwards
affected by the fame of this king's virtues, and he being at the time in his minority, ho gave the prince
notice to take care of himself. Ikna.uU. This statement is doubted.
ASS S7 AST
country, shall sit upon the bench with the justices to take assize in their sessions in the
counties of England, upon great forfeiture to the king," 20 Rich. II. 1396. Statutes,
Jirough Act. Assizes are general or special ; general when the judges go their circuits,
and special when a commission is issued to take cognisance of one or more causes. See
Bloody Assize.
ASSOCIATIONS. Sec National Associations.
ASSUMPTION, Feast of the, Aug. 15. It is observed by the church of Rome in
honour of the Virgin Mary, who is said to have been taken up to heaven in her corporeal
form, body and spirit, on this day, 45, in her 75th year. The festival was instituted m the
7th century, and enjoined by the council of Mentz, 813.
ASSURANCE. See Insurance.
ASSYRIA, an Asiatic country between Mesopotamia and Media, was the seat of the
earliest recorded monarchy. Its histoiy is mainly derived from Ctesias, an early Greek
historian of doubtful authenticity, Herodotus, and the Holy Scriptures. The discovery of
the very interesting Ninevite antiquities, now in the British Museum, by Mr. Layard,- and
the deciphering of many ancient cuneiform inscriptions, by Grotefend, sir H. Rawlinson,
and other scholars, have drawn much attention to the Assyrians. The chronologers, Blair,
Usher, Hales, and Clinton, differ much in the dates they assign to events in Assyrian
history, of which a large portion is now considered fabulous by modern writers.
Nimrod or Bolus reigns B.C. [2554 H. 2235 C] 2245 Phul raised to the throne. Blair, about B.C. 777
" Asshur builded Nineveh " {Gen, x. 11) about 22l8 He invades Israel, but dcj>arts without drawing
Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, and a sword. Blair ; 2 Kings xv. ic>, 20 770
names his capital Nineveh . . [2182 C] SOT*} Tiglath-l*ileser invades Syria, takes Damascus,
Babylon taken by Ninus, who having subdued and makes great conquests . ... 740
the Armenians, Persians, Bactrians, and all Shalm^ncser takes Samaria, transports the
Asia Minor, establishes what is properly the people, whom he replaces by a colony of
Assyrian monarchy, of which Nineveh was Cutheans and others, and thus finishes tho
the seat of empire. Blair . . [22330.12059 kingdom of Israel. Blair I
Ninyas, an infant, succeeds Ninus . . 2017 He retires from before Tyre, after a siege of five
Semiramis, mother of Ninyas, usurps the years. Blair
government, enlarges and embellishes Baby Sennacherib invades Judea, and his general, 7*3
lon, and makes it tho scat of her dominion Rabshakeh, besieges Jerusalem, when the
[2130 C] 2007 angel of the Lord in ono night destroys
She invades Libya, Ethiopia, and India. Lcuglet 1975 180,000 of his army. I*aia)i xxxvii. . .
She is put to death by her son Ninyas . . 1965 [Commentators suppose that this messenger of
Ninyas put to death, and Arius reigns . . 1927 death was the fatal blast known in eastern
Reign 01 Aralius 1 897 countries by the name of SamUL]
Belochus, the last king of the race of Ninus . 1446 Esar-haddon invades Judea .... 6fio
He makes his daughter Atossa, surnamed So- Holofernes is slain by Judith (?) . . . . 677
miramis II., his associate on the throne . 1433 Sarac (Sardanapalus II.) besieged, kills his wifo
Atossa procures the death of her father, and and children, and burns himself hi his
marries Belatores (orBclapares) who reigns 1421 palace
»•**** 621
Nineveh razed to the ground, and Assyria be
The prophet Jonah appears in Nineveh, and comes a Median province 605
foretells its destruction. Blair . . . 840 Assyria subdued by Alexander the Great . 332
Nineveh taken by Arbaccs. [Sardanapalus, tho It subsequently formed part of the kingdoms
king, is mythically said to have enclosed of Syria, Parthia, and Persia.
himself, his court, and women, in his palace, It was conquered by tho Turks . . a.d. 1637
and to have perished in the fire kindled by
himself.] ........ 820
ASTLEY'S AMPHITHEATRE. See under Theatres.
ASTORGA ("N". W. Spain), the ancient Asturica Augusta, was taken by the French in
1810, and treated with great severity.
ASTRACAN" (S. E. Russia), a province acquired from the Mogul's empire in 1554; visited
and settled by Peter the Great in 1722.
ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by the Chaldeans, and hence was trans
mitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in vogue in Italy and France
in the time of Catherine de Medieis (married to Francis I. of France, 1533). He'voulL The
early history of astrology in England is very little known. It is said that Bcdc, 673—
735, was addicted to it; and Roger Bacon, 1214—1292. Lord Burleigh calculated the
nativity of Elizabeth, and she, and all the European princes, were the humble servants of
Dee, the astrologer and conjuror ; but the period of the Stuarts was the acme of astrology
amongst us. It is stated that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting his projected
escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. Ferguson. Astrological almanacs are still pub-
lished in London.
ATH
ASTRONOMY. The earliest astronomical observations were made at Babylon about
2234 B.C. The study of astronomy was much advanced in Chaldtea under Nabonassar ; it
was known to the Chinese about 1 100 B.C. ; some say many centuries before. See Eclipses,
Planets, Comets.
Lunar eclipses observed "at Babylon, and re Discoveries of Picard t66g
corded by Ptolemy . " . . about b.c. 720 Charts of the moon constructed by Scheiner,
Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause Langrenus, Ilevelius, Iticoioli, and others,
oflunar eclipses, taught by Thales, died . 546 about tGjo
Further discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught Discoveries of R5mcr on the velocity of light,
the doctrine ofcelestial motions, and believed and his observation of Jupiter's satellites 1675
in the plurality of habitable worlds,died about 470 Greenwich Observatory founded.
Meton introduces tho lunar-solar cycle about . 432 Motion of the sun round its own axis proved
Treatises of Aristotle " concerning the heavens," by Halley 1676
and of Autolycus "on tho motion of the Newton's Principin published ; and the system,
sphoro " (the earliest extant works on astro as now taught, demonstrated .... 1687
nomy) about 350 Catalogue of the stars m ulo by Flamsteed . . ['•■-'.
Aratus writes a poem on astronomy . . 281 CaMUU'fl chart of the full moon executed 1 f:i:
Archimedes observes solstices, &c. . . . 212 Satellites of Saturn, fee., discovered by Cassini 1 701
llipparchus, greatest of Greek astronomers, Hallev predicts the return of tho comet (of
determines mean motion of sun and moon ; 1758) 1705
discovers precession of equinoxes, &c. . 160-125 Flamsteed's Htitoria Ccclettis published
The precession of tho equinoxes confirmed, Aberration of tho stars clearly explained by '7-5
and the places and distances of tho planets Dr. Bradley
discovered by Ptolemy . . . a.d, 1 30^150 John Harrison produces chronometers for de >7£7
Astronomy and geography cultivated by the termining the longitude, 1735 et *eq., and
Arabs about 760 : brought into Europe about 1200 obtains the reward 17'M
Alphonslno tables (which gee) composed about . 1253 Nautical almanac first published
Clocks first usod in astronomy . . about 1500 Celestial inequalities found by La Grange . . 178a
True doctriuo of the motions of the planetary Uranus and satellites discovered by Herschcl.
bodies rovived by Copernicus, founder of See Qeorpium Si-lit* . . March 1 3, 1781
modern astronomy, author of the almagcst, M^anitjuf. Ctflerte, by La Place, published . . i7'/'
published.. . 1543 Royal Astronomical Society of London founded,
Astronomy advanced by Tycho Brahc, who yet 1 820 ; chartered iR ii
adheres to tho Ptolemaic system . about 1582 Beer and Miidler'a map of the moon published 1834
True laws of the planetary motions announced Lord Rosse's telescope constructed 28-45
by Kepler 1609 The planet Neptune discovered . Sept. 23, 1846
Galileo constructs a telescope, 1609 ; and dis Bond photographs the moon (see Photography,
covers Jupiter's satellites, &c. . . Jan, 8, 1610 celestial) i8Si
Various forms of telescopes and other instru Hansen's table of the moon published at ex
ments u«cd in astronomy invented . . 1608-40 | pense of the British government . 1857
Cartesian system published by Des Cartes . 1637 Trustees of the Late rev. Richard Sheepshanks
The transit of Venus over the sun's disc first presont io.oool. stock to Trinity College.
observed by Horrocks . . . Nov. 24, 1639 J Cambridge, for the promotion of the study
Cassini draws bis meridian line, after Dante. ] of astronomy, meteorology, and magnetism,
See Bologmt 1655,, Dec. 2,
The aberration of the light of the fixed stars Large photograph of the moon by Warren De
discovered by Ilorrebow .... 1659 la Rue
Huyghens completes tho discovery of Saturn's [For the minor planets recently discovered, sec
ring 1654 Planet*. ]
Gregory Invents a reflecting telescope . . 1G63
ASTURIAS (N. W. Spain), an ancient principality, the cradle of the present monarchy.
Here Pelago collected tho Gothic fugitives, about 713, and founded a new kingdom, and by
his victories permanently checked the progress of Moorish conquest. For a list of his
successors, see the article Spain. The heir-apparent of the monarchy has borne the title
*' prince of Asturias" since 1388, when it was assumed by Henry, son of John I. king of Leon,
on his marriage with a descendant of Peter of Castile. In 1808, the junta of Asturias began
tho organised resistance to the French usurpation.
ASYLUMS, or Privileged Places, at first were places of refuge for those who by
accident or necessity had done things that rendered them obnoxious to the law. God com
manded the Jews to build certain cities for this purpose, 145 1 b.c, Numbers xxv. —The
posterity of Hercules are said to have built one at Athens, to protect themselves against such
as their father had irritated. Cadmus built 0110 at Thebes, 1490 B.C., and Romulus one at
Mount Palatine, 751 b.c. Sec Sanctuaries.
ATELIERS NA.TIONAUX (National Workshops) were established by the French pro
visional government in Feb. 1848. They interfered greatly with private trade, and about
100,000 workmen threw themselves npon the government for labour and payment. The
breaking-up of the system led to the fearful conflicts in Juno following. The system was
abolished in July.
ATHANASIAN CREED. Athanasius, of Alexandria, was elected bishop, 326. He
firmly opposed the doctrines of Al ius (who denied Christ's divinity) ; was several times exiled }
ATI! 50 ATH
and died in 373. The creed which goes by his name is supposed by many authorities to
have been written about 340 ; by others to be the compilation of Vigilius Tansensis, an
African bishop in the 5th century. It was first commented on by Venatius iortunatus,
bishop of Poictiers in 570. Dr. Yfatcrland's History of this creed (1723) is exhaustive. See
A rians.
ATHEISM (from the Greek a, without, Tkeos, God, see Psalm xiv. 1). This doctrine
has had its votaries and martyrs. Spinoza was the defender of a similar doctrine (1632—
1677). Lucilio Vauini publicly taught atheism in France, and was condemned to be burnt
at Toulouse in 1619. Mathias Knntzen, of Holstein, openly professed atheism, and had
upw ards of a thousand disciples in Germany about 1674; he travelled to make proselytes,
and his followers were called Conscienciaries, because they held that there is no other deity
than conscience. Many eminent men have professed atheism. "Though a small draught of
philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a deep draught will certainly bring him. back again
to the belfef of a God." Lord Bacon.
ATHEN/EA were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honour of Minerva. One was
called Panathenea;, the other Chalcea ; they are said to have been instituted by Erechtheus
or Orpheus, 1397 or 1495 B.C. ; and Theseus afterwards renewed them, and caused them to
be observed by all the Athenians, the first every fifth year, 1234 B.C. Plutarch.
ATHEN/EUM, a place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and philosophers
recited their compositions. The most celebrated Athensea were at Athens, Kome, and
Lyons: that of Kome, of great beauty, was erected by the emperor Adrian, 125.—The
Atmen.eum Club of London was formed in 1823, for the association of persons of scientific
and literary attainments, artists, noblemen and gentlemen, patrons of learning, &c., by
the earl of Aberdeen, marquess of Lansdowne, Dr. T. Young, Moore, Davy, Scott, Mackin
tosh, Croker, Chantrey, Faraday, Lawrence, and others ; the clubhouse was erected in
1829-30 on the site of the late Carlton-palace ; it is of Grecian architecture, and the frieze is
an exact copy of the ranathenaie procession which formed the frieze of the Parthenon. —The
Liverpool Athenamm was ojiened Jan. 1, 1799. —At Manchester, Bristol, and many other
places, buildings under this name, and for a like purpose, have been founded. —The Alhc-
nceum, a weekly literary journal, first appeared in 1828.
ATHENS, the capital of ancient Attica, and of the modern kingdom of Greece. The first
sovereign mentioned is Ogyges, who reigned in LV-otia, and was master of Attica, then called
Ionia. In his reign (about 1764 B.C.) a deluge took place (by some supposed to be the
universal deluge), that laid waste the country, in which state it remained two hundred years,
until the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by whom the land was re-peopled,
and twelve cities founded, 1556 B.c. The city is said to have been first called Cecropia ; the
name having been changed to Athens in honour of Minerva (Athene), her worship having
been introduced by Erechtheus 1383 B.C. Athens was ruled by seventeen successive kings
(487 years), by thirteen perpetual archons (316 years), seven decennial archous (70 years),
and lastly by annual archons (760 years). It attained great power, and perhaps 110 other
city in the world can boast, in such a short space of time, of so great a number of citizens
illustrious for wisdom, genius, and valour. The ancients, to distinguish Athens in a more
]>eculiar manner, called it Aslu, the city, by eminence, and one of the eyes of Greece. See
Greece.
Arrival of Cecrops . B.C. [1558 //. 14330V.] 1556' In a battlo with the Heraclidee, Codmsis killed :
The Areopagus established 1507 ho had resolved to perish ; tho oracle having
Deucalion arrives in Attica
Reign of Ainphictyon . • . . . [1499//.] 14971502 Bido
declared
whosethat the victory
leader should
was killed, 1070.bo with the
Royalty
The Panatheuaian Games . . [1481 //.] 1495 abolished; — Athens governed by archons,
Erichthonius reigns 1487 Modon the first [1070 11. ] . .... 1044
Erechtheus teaches husbandry . . . . 1383 I Alcmeon, last ptrprtwal archon, dies . . . 753
Elcusiniun mysteries introduced by Eunoolpus 1356 I Chcrops, first tkcennial archon . . . . 752
Erochtheus killed hi battle with the Eleu- Hippomoncs deposed for his cruelty ; among
ainians 1347 other acts he exposed his own daughter to be
.Kgeus invades Attica, and ascends the throno . 1283 devoured by horses, on account of an illicit
He throws himselfinto the sea, and is drowned ; amour 713
hence the name of the iEgcan Sea. £usebin* 1235 Erixias, sevonth and last dcctnnial archon,
Theseus, his son, succeeds, and reigns 30 years ,, dies . . 684
He collects his subjects into one city, and Creon first annual archon 683
names it Athensj 1234 Draco, the twelfth annual archon, publishes his
Reign of Mnestheus, 1205 ; DeiuophoOn . . 1183 laws, said " to have been written m blood" 621
Court of Ephetes established 1179 Solon supersedes them by his excellent code . 594
Tho Prianepsso instituted 1178 Pisistratus, the " tyrant," seizes the supreme
Mclanthud conquers Xuthus in single combat power, 560 ; flight of Solon. 559. Pisistratus
and ia chosen king 1128 establishes his government, 537 ; collects a
Rei^Ti of L'odru*, his son, the last king . . 1093 public library, 531 ; dies ..... 527
ATH GO ATM
ATHENS, continued.
First tragedy acted at Athens, on a waggon, by
. b c. 535 Socrates (aged 70) put to death . . . B.C. 309
Thcspis The Corinthian war begins 3v5
Ilipparcbus assassinated by Harmodius and Cinon rebuilds the long walls, and fortifies
Aristogeiton 514 the Pineus - 393
The law of ostracism established ; Hippias and The Lacedemonian fleet defeated at Naxus by
the Piststratidni banishod .... Chabrlas 376
Lemnoa taken by Miltiades Philip, king of Macedon, opiwses the Atheni
Invasion of the Persians, who are defeated at ans. See Macedon 359
Marathon Sveond sacred (or social) war .... 357-355
Death of Miltiades First Philippic of Demosthenes .... 352
Aristidcs, surnamcd the Ju*t, banished , Battle of Chieronea, which t*t ; tho Athenians
Athens taken by tho Persian Xerxes . . . and Thebans defeated by Philip . ... 338
Jhirnt to the ground by Mardonins . Philip assassinated by Pausanias . . . 336
Rebuilt nnd fortified ; Pineus built . . . Athens submits to Alexander, who spares the
Thcmistoeles banished orators 335
Oiinon, son of Miltiades, overruns all Thrace . Death of Alexander
Pericles takes part in public affairs, 469; he and The Athenians rising agai at Macedon. defeated
Clraon adorn Athens. 464 ; the latter banished at Cranon : Demosthen 9 poisons himself
through his Influence 461 Athens surrenders to Ca sander, who go\
Athens begins to tyrannise over Greece . . 459 well 318
Literature, philosophy, and art flourish . . 440 Demetrius Puliorcetes expels Demetrius Phale-
The first sacred (or social) war ; which *ee . . M rcus, and restores the Athenian democracy,
Tohnidas conducts an expedition into Ikeotia, 307 ; the latter takes the chair of philosophy
and is defeated and killed new Coronea . 447 A le;igue l>etween Athens, Sparta, and Egypt . •77
Tho thirty years' truce between the Athenians Athens taken by Antigonus Gonatas, king of
and Iiacedamionians Macedon, 268 ; restored by Aratus 256
Herodotus said to have read his history in tho 445 Tho Athenians join tho Achaean league. . . 2- J
council at Athens They join the JStolians against Macedon, and
Pericles obtains the government . . . . send for assistance to Rome . . . . ri !
Pericles subdues Samos ..... A Roman fleet arrives at Athens -' ! I
Comedies prohibited at Athens . . . . Tho Romans proclaim liberty at Athens . . I /■
Alliance between Athens and Corcyra, then at Subjugation of Greece
war with Corinth, 433 ; leads to the Pclopon- The Athenians implore assistance against tho M4
nesian war (lasted 27 years) ; it began . Romans from Mithridates, king of Pontus,
A dreadful pestilence, which had ravaged whose general, Archehius, makes himself
Ethiopia, Libya, Egypt, and Persia, extends master of Athens 83
to Athens, and continues for five years . 4.;" Athens besieged by Sylla, tho Roman general,
Death of Pericles of tho plague . , . 429 it is reduced to surrender by famine . . . SO
Disastrous expedition against Sicily ; death of Cicoro studies at Athens, 79; and Horace .
the commanders, Demosthenes and Nicias ; Tho Athenians desert Pompey, to follow the 4--
Atheniau floct destroyed by GyHppus . -1'". interests of Cassar
Government of tbc " lour Hundred " . . . 411 Athens visited by tho Apostle Paul . . a.d.
AleibiadeB dofeats the Laccdremonians at Many temples, Ac, erected by Hadrian . 122-135
Cyzicus ; uhich ttl 41;. Athens taken by Alaric, and spared from
Alcibiadcs, accused of aspiring to sovereign slaughter 396
power, banished 407 By Mahomet II 1456
Athenian fleet destroyed by Lys.indcr at By the Venetians 1466
jKgospotamos .... 405 Restored to the Turks 1479
He besieges Athens by land and sea ; its walla Athens suffered much during the insurrection,
are destroyed, and it capitulates, and tho 1821-7. Taken May 17 1827
Peloponnesian war terminates . ... 404 Becomes tho capital of the kingdom of modem
Rule of the thirty tyrants, who aro overthrown Greece 1833
by Thrasybulus 403 Population, 50,000 • '857
' ' (800 Articlo Greece)
ATHLONE, Roscommon, Ireland, formerly a place of great strength and beauty, was
burnt during the civil war in 1641. After tho battle of tho Boyne, colonel R. Grace held
Atlilone for James II. against a besieging army, but fell when it was taken by assault by
Giuckel, June 30, 1691. Seo Aughrim.
ATLANTA. See United States, 1864.
ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. See Submarine Tclegrap7i.
ATMOLYSIS, a method of separating the constituent gases of a compound gas (such as
atmospheric air) by causing it to pass through a vessel of porous material (such as graphite) ;
first made known in Aug., 1863, by the discoverer, professor T. Graham, F.R.S., Master of
the Mint
ATMOSPHERE. See Air.
ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAYS. The idea ofproducing motion by atmospheric pressure was
conceived by Papin, the French engineer, about 1680. Experiments were made on a lino of rail,
laid down across Wormwood Scrubs, Loudon, between Shepherd's Bush and tho Great Western
railroad, to test tho efficacy of atmospheric tubes, the working of the air-pump, and speed of
carriages upon this new principle on railroads in June, 1840, and then tried on a line between
Croydon and London, 1845. Au atmospheric railway was commenced between Dalkey and
Killiney, in the vicinity of Dublin, in Sept. 1843 : opened March 29, 1844 ; discontinued
ATO 61 ATT
in 1855. A similar railway was proposed to be laid down in the streets of London by Mr.
T. W. Ramniell in 1857. Mr. Rainmell's Pneumatic Railway was put in action successfully
at the Crystal Palace on Aug. 27, 1864, and following days. An act for a pneumatic railway
between the Waterloo railway station and Whitehall was passed in July, 1865.
ATOMIC THEORY, in chemistry, deals with the indivisible particles of all substances.
The somewhat incoherent labours of nis predecessors (such as Wenzel in 1777) were reduced
by John Dalton to four laws of combining proportion, which have received the name of
" Atomic Theory." His "Chemical Philosophy," containing the exposition of his views,
appeared in 1808. Dr. C. Daubeny's work on the Atomic Theory was published in 1850.
In his standard of Atomic weight* Dalton takes hydrogen as 1. Berzelius, who commenced his
elaborate researches on the subject in 1848, adopts oxygen as 100. The former standard is
used in this country, the latter on the continent.
ATTAINDER, Acts of, whereby a person not only forfeited his land, but his blood was
attainted, have been numerous. Two witnesses in cases of high treason are necessary where
corruption of blood is incurred, unless the party accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 & 8
Will. III. 1694-5. Blackstorut. In 1814 and 1833 the severity of attainders was mitigated.
The attainder of lord Russell, who was beheaded in Lincoln 's-inn-fields, July 21, 1683, was
reversed under William, in 1689. The rolls and records of the acts of attainder passed in
the reign of James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, Oct. 2, 1695. Amongst the last
acts reversed was the attaint of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (who was implicated
in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), July I, 1819.
ATTICA. See Athens.
ATTILA, sumamedthe "Scourge of God," and thus distinguished for his conquests and
bis crimes, having ravaged the eastern empire from 445 to 450, when he made peace
with Theodosius. He invaded the western empire, 450, and was defeated by Aetius at
Chalons, 451; he then retired into Pannonia, where he died through the bursting of a
bloodvessel on the night of his nuptials with a beautiful virgin named Ildico, 453.
ATTORNEY (from tour, turn), a person qualified to act for others at law. The number
in Edward III. 's reign was under 400 for the whole kingdom. In the 32nd of Henry VI.
1454, a law reduced the practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to four
teen, and restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising in England, or
registered, or retired, is said to be about 13,000. The number in Ireland is stated at 2000.
The qualifications of practice of attorneys and solicitors are now regulated by acts passed in
1843 and 1861.
ATTORNEY-GENERAL, a law officer of the crown, appointed by letters patent. He
has to exhibit informations and prosecute for the king in matters criminal ; and to rile bills
in exchequer, for any claims concerning the crown in inheritance or profit. Others may
bring bills against the king's attorney. The first attorney-general was William do Gisilham,
7 Edward I. 1278. Beatson.
ATTORNEY-GENERALS SINCE TIIE RESTORATION.
8ir Jcffery Palmer 1660 Hon. Charles Yorke, again ; afterwards lord
Sir Heneage Finch, afterward* lord Finch . . 1670 Morden, and lord chancellor. See Chancellors 1765
Sir Francis North, knt., aftds. lord Guildford . 1673 William de Grey, afterward* lord Walsingham . 1766
Sir William Jones 1674 Edward Thurlow, esq., afterwards lord Thurlow 1771
Hir Crosvel Levinz, or Levinge, knt. . . . 1679 Alex. Wedderbume, aft. lord Loughborough . 1778
Sir Robert Sawyer, knt i63i James Wallace, esq. 1780
Sir Thomas Powis, knt. 1687 Lloyd Kenyon, esq 1782
Henry Pollexfen, esq 1689 James Wallace, esq 1783
Sir George Treby, knt. , John Lee, esq.
Sir^Iohn Somers, knt, afterwards lord Somcrs. 1692 Lloyd Kenyon, again ; afterwards lord Kenyon „]
Edward Ward, esq 1693 Sir Richard P. Arden, aft. lord Alvanley . . 1784
8ir Thomas Trevor, knt., aftds. lord Trevor . 1695 Sir Archibald Macdonald 1788
Edward Northey, esq 1701 Sir John Scott, aflencards lord Eldon . . J793
Sir Simon Harcourt, knt 1707 Sir J. Mitford, afterward* lord Redesdale . . 1800
Sir James Montagu, knt 1708 Sir Edward Law, aft. Id. Etlonborough, Feb. 14, 1801
Sir Simon Harcourt, again ; aft. lord narcourt . 1710 Hon. Spencer Percival (murdered by Sellina-
Hir Edward Northey, knt., again . . . „ ham, May 11, 1812) .... April 15, 1802
Nicholas Lochmere, esq., aft. lord Lecbmere . 1718 Sir Arthur Pigott Feb. 12, 1806
Sir Robert Raymond, aft. lord Raymond . . 1720 Sir Vicary Gibbs, afterwards chief justice of
Hir Philip Yorke, aft. earl of Hardwickg . . 1724 the common pleas . . . April 7, 1807
Sir John Willes, knt 1733 Sir Thomas Plumer, afterwards first vice-chan
Sir Dudley Ryder, knt 1737 cellor of England .... Juno 26, 1 812
Hon. William Murray, aft. earl of Mansfield . 1754 Sir William Garrow .... May 4, 1813
Sir Robert Hcnloy.Tcnt, aft. earl of Northington 1756 Sir Samuel Shepherd May 7, 1817
Sir Charles Pratt, knt., afterwards lord Camden 1757 Sir Robert Gifford, aft. lord Giffurd July 24, 1819
Hon. Charles Yorko 1762 Sir John Singleton Copley, afterwards lord
Sir Fletcher Norton, knt, aft. lord Grantley . 1763 Lyndhurst Jan. 9, 1824
ATT 62 AUG
ATTORNEY-GENERAL, eontinwd.
Sir Charles Wothcrell . . . . Sept. 20, 1836 Sir John Jervis, aftervanli chief justice of the
Sir Jamas Scarlett .... April 27, 1827 common plc;is July 13, 1846
Sir Charles Wetherell, again . . . Feb. 19, 1828 SirJohn RomIlly, aft. mast, of the rolls. July n, 1850
KirJaa. Soarlott, agn. ; aft. Id. Abinger, June 29, 1829 Sir Alex. James Edmund Cockburn .March 28, 1851
SirThos. Denman, aft. lord Uenman . Nov. 26, 1830 Sir Frederick Thesiger, again : afttrvanU lord
Sir William Homo .... Nov. 26, 1852 Cholmsford, and lord chancellor . March 2, 1852
Sir John Campbell March 1. 1834 Sir Alexander Cockburn, again ; aft. ch. just.
Sir Frederick Pollock .... Dec. 17, „ of common plaas and queen's bench, Dec. 28, 1852
Sir John Campbell, again : aflerwanU lord Sir Richard Bethell .... Nov. 15, 1856
Campbell (and, 1859, Id. chancellor), April 30, 1835 Sir Fitxroy Kelly Fob. 27. 1858
Sir Thomas Wilde ... July 3, 1841 Sir R. Bethell (tinct lord Westbury, and lord
Sir F. Pollock, again ; aft. chief baron Sept. 6, „ chancellor) June 18, 1859
Sir WiUiam W. Pollott . April 17, 1844 Sir William Atherton .... July, 186!
Sir Frederick Tbesigor . July 4, 1845 Sir Roundoll Palmer (present officer) . Oct. 2, 1863
Sir Thomas Wilde, again ; afterward* lord
Truro, and lord chancellor . July 6, 1846
ATTRACTION is described by Copernicus, about 1520, as an appetence or appetite which
the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter. It was described by Kepler to be a corporeal
affection tending to union, 1605. In 1687, sir I. Newton published his " Prineipia,' con
taining his important researches on this subject. There are the attractions of Gravitation,
Magnetism, and Electricity, which see.
AUBAINE, a right of the French kings, which existed from the beginning of the
monarchy, whereby they claimed the property of every stranger who died in their country,
without having been naturalised, was abolished by the national assembly in 1790; re-esta
blished by Napoleon ; and finally annulled July 14, 1819.
AUCKLAND, capital of New Zealand (north island), was founded in 1840. The popu
lation of the district, in 1857, was estimated at 15,000 Europeans, and 35,000 natives.
AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans, mentioned by Petronins Arbiter (about
66). The first in Britain was about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George in
the East Indies, who thus sold the goods he had brought home. Auction and sales' tax
began, 1779. Various acts of parliament have regulated auctions and imposed duties, in
some cases as high as five per cent. By 8 Vict. c. 15 (1845), the duties were repealed, and
a eharge imposed " on the licence to be taken out by all auctioneers in the United Kingdom,
of \ol." In 1858 there wore 4358 licences granted, producing 43,580/. Certain sales nre
now exempt from being conducted by a licensed auctioneer, such as goods and chattels under
a distress for rent, and sales under the provisions of the Small Debts' acts for Scotland and
Ireland.
AUDIANI, followers of Amicus of Mesopotamia, who had been expelled from the Syrian
church on account of his severely reproving the vices of the clergy, about 338, formed a sect
and became its bishop. He was banished to Scythia, where he is said to have made many
converts. His followers celebrated Easter at the time of the Jewish passover, attributed the
human figure to the Deity, and had other peculiar tenets.
AUDIT-OFFICE, Somerset House. Commissioners for auditing the public accounts
were appointed in 1785. Many statutes regulating their duties have since been enacted.
AUERSTADT (Prussia). Here and at Jena, on Oct. 14, 1806, the French signally de
feated the Prussians. See Jena.
AUGHRIM, near Athlone, in Ireland, where, on July 12, 1691, a battle was fought
between the Irish, headed by the French general St. Ruth, and the English under general
GinckeL The former were defeated and lost 7000 men ; the latter lost only 600 killed and
960 wounded. St Ruth was slain. This engagement proved decisively fatal to the interests
of .lames II. in Ireland. Ginckel was immediately after created earl of Athlone. The
ball by which St. Ruth was killed is still suspended in the choir of St. Patrick's cathedral,
Dublin.
AUGMENTATION of Poor Livings' Office, was established in 1704. 5597 poor
clerical livings, not exceeding 50/. per annum, were found by the commissioners under
the act of Anne capable of augmentation, by means of the bounty then established by
parliament.
AUGMENTATIONS COURT was established in 1535 by 27 Henry VIII. c. 27, in rela
tion to the working of cap. 28 of the same session, which gave to the king the property of all
monasteries having 200?. a year. The court was abolished by Mary in 1553, and restored bv
Elizabeth in 1558.
03 AUR
AUGSBURG (Bavaria), originally a colony settled by Augustus, about 12 B.C.; became
n free city, and flourished during the middle ages. Here many important diets of the
empire have been held. In a.t>. 952, a council confirmed the order for the celibacy of the
priesthood ; and on Sept. 25, 1555, tho celebrated treaty of Nassau was signed, by which
religious liberty was secured to Germany. League of Augsburg. A treaty between Holland
and other European powers, to cause the treaties of Munster and Nimeguen to be respected,
signed 1686. See Munster and Nimeguen. Augsburg has suffered much by war, having
l>een frequently taken by siege, 788, 1703, 1704, and, last, by the French, Oct. 10, 1805,
who restored it to Bavaria in March, 1806.
AUGSBURG CONFESSION (Articles of Faith, drawn up by Luther, Melanchthon, and
other reformers, and presented to the emperor Charles V. June 25, 1530), was directly
opposed to the abuses of tho church of Rome. It was signed by the elector of Saxony, and
other princes of Germany, and was delivered to the emperor in the palace of the bishop of
Augsburg. See Interim.
AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated by the coming or going of birds, long
before the time of Hesiod. Three augurs, at Rome, with vestals and several orders of the
priesthood, wero formally constituted by Numa, 710 B.C. The number had increased, and
was fifteen at the time of Sylla, 81 B.C., and the college of augurs was abolished by Theo-
dosius about a.d. 391.
AUGUST, the eighth Roman month of the year (previously called Sextilis, or the sixth
from March), by a decree of the senate received its present name in honour of Augustus
(_';esar, in the year 8, or 27, or 30 B.C., because in this month he was created consul, had
thrice triumphed in Rome, added Egypt to the Roman empire, and made an end of the
civil wars. Ho added one day to the month, making it 31 days.
AUGUSTINS, a religious mendicant "order, which ascribes its origin to St. Augustin,
bishop of Hippo, who died 430. These monks (termed Austin friars) first appeared about
the nth century, and the order was constituted by pope Alexander IV., in 1256. The rule
requires strict poverty, humility, and chastity. Martin Luther was an Augustin monk.
The Augustins held the doctrine of free grace, and were rivals of the Dominicans. The order
appeared in England soon after the conquest. One of their churches, at Austin Friars,
London, erected in 1354, and since the Reformation used by Dutch protestants, was partially
destroyed by fire, Nov. 22, 1862. A religious house of the order, dedicated to S. Monica,
mother of Augustin, was founded in Hoxton-squarc, London, 1864.
AULIC COUNCIL, a sovereign court in Germany, established by the emperor Maximilian
I., in 1506, being one of the two courts, tho first called the Imperial Chamber, formerly
held at Spires, and afterwards at Wetzlar, and the other the Aulic couueil at Vienna. These
courts, having concurrent jurisdiction, were instituted for appeals in particular cases from
the courts of the Germanic states.
AURAV (N.W. France). Here, on Sept. 29, 1364, the English, under John Chandos,
totally defeated the French and captured their heroic leader Du Guesclin. Charles of Blois,
made duke of Brittany by the king of France, was slain, and a peace was made in
April, 1365.
AURICULAR CONFESSION. The confession of sin at the ear (Latin auris) of the
priest must have been an early practice, since it is said to have been forbidden iu the 4th
century by Ncctarius, archbishop of Constantinople. It was enjoined by the council of
Literan, in 1215, and by the council of Trent in 1551. It was one of the six articles of
faith enacted by our Henry VIII. in 1539, but was abolished in England at the Reformation.
Its revival here has been attempted by the church party called Puseyites or Tractarians ; but
without much success.*
AURIFLAMMA, or Oriflamme, the national golden banner mentioned in French
history, belonging to the abbey of St. Denis, and suspended over the tomb of that saint,
1 140. Louis le Gros was the first king who took this standard from the abbey to battle,
1 124. Sinault. It appeared for the last time at Agincourt, 141 5. Tillet.
AURORA FRIGATE, sailed from Britain in 1771, to the East Indies, and was never
again heard of.
* The rev. Alfred Poole, one of tho curates of St. Barnabas, Kniffhtsbriilgc, was suspended from his
office for practising auricular confession in June, 1858, by tho bishop of London. On appeal, the suspen
sion was confirmed in January, 1859. Much excitement was created by a similar attempt by the rev.
Temple West at Boyno Hill, in September, 1858.
AUR 64 AUS
AUROR.E BOREALES and AUSTRALES (Northern and Southern Polar Lights), though
rarely seen in central Europe, are frequent in the arctic and antarctic regions. In March,
1716, au aurora borealis extended from the west of Ireland to the confines of Russia. The
whole horizon in the lat. of 570 N. overspread with continuous haze of a dismal red during
the whole night, by which many people were much terrified, Nov. 1765. —Mr. Foster, the
companion of captain Cook, saw the aurora in lat. 58° S. Its appearance in the southern
hemisphere had been previously doubted.*
AUSCULTATION. See Stethoscope.
AUSTERLITZ (Moravia), where a battle was fought between the French and the allied
Austrian and Russian armies, Dec. 2, 1805. Three emperors commanded : Alexander of
Russia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed aud wounded exceeded
30,000 on the side of the allies, who lost forty standards, 150 pieces of cannon, and thousands
of prisoners. The decisive victory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, signed Dec.
26, 1805. See Presburg.
AUSTIN FRIARS. See Augustins,
AUSTRALASIA, the fifth great division of the world. This name, originally given it
by De Brosses, includes Australia, Van Diemcn's Land, New Guinea, New Britain, New
Caledonia, &c, mostly discovered within two centuries. Accidental discoveries were mado
by the Spaniards as early as 1526 ; but the first accurate knowledge of these southern lands
is duo to the Dutch, who in 1605 explored a part of the coast of New Guinea. Torres, a
Spaniard, passed through the straits which now bear his name, between that island and
Australia, and gave the first correct report of the latter, 1606. The Dutch continued their
discoveries. Between 1642 and 1644, Tasman completed a discovery of a great part of the
Australian coast, together with the island of Van Diemcn's Land (also called Tasmania).
Wm. Dampier, an Englishman, between 1684 and 1690, explored a part of the W. and N.
W. coasts. Between 1763 and 1766, Wallis and Carteret followed in the track of Dampier,
and added to his discoveries; and in 1770, Cook first made known the East coast oJT
Australia. Furueaux, in 1773, Bligh in 1789, Edwards in 1791, Bligh (a second time) in
1792, Portlock same year, Brampton and Alt in 1793, an(l ^ass an<^ Elinders explored tho
coasts and islands in 1798-9 and discovered Bass's Straits. Grant in 1800, and Flinders
again (1801-5) completed the survey. M'Culloch.
AUSTRALIA (formerly New Holland), the largest island and smallest continent ; with
an estimated area of about three million square miles, including five provinces—New South
Wales, Victoria (formerly Port Phillip), South Australia, AVcst Australia (or Swan River),
and Queensland (which sec). Population, with Tasmania and New Zealand, in 1863, about
I.366,956-
Australia said to have been known to tho Por- 1 Great distress in consequence of the loss of the
tugucse before 1550 ship " Guardian," captain Uiou . . . 1790
Alleged discovery by Manoel Godinho de First church erected .... Aug. 1 793
Heredia, a Portuguese 1601 Government gazette first printed . .1 795
Torres passes through the straits named after Bass's Straits discovered by Bass and Flinders 1 79a
him 1606 First brick church built 1802
Tho Dutch also discover Australia . March, Colony of Von Diemeu's Land (now Tasmania)
Tho coast surveyod by Dutch navigators : I established . . 1803
north, by Zeachcn, 1618 ; west, by Edels, Flindors surveys the coasts of Australia . 1801-5
1619 ; south, by Nuyts, 1627 ; north, by | Insurrection of Irish convicts quelled . X804
Carpenter . 1627 Governor Bligh for his tyranny deposed by an
Wm. Dampier oxplores the W. and N.W. coasts, I insurrection 180S
1684-90 Superseded by governor Macquarie . . . 1809
Tasman coasts S. Australia .... 1642 Expeditions into the interior by Wentworth,
Terra Australis (Western Australia) named New | Lawson, Bloxland. Oxley, &c. . 1813,1817, 1823
Holland by ordor of the States-General . . 1665 | Population, 29,783 (three-fourths convicts) . . 1821
William Dampier lands in Australia . . 1686 West Australia formed into a province . . 1839
Capt. Cook, sir Joseph Banks, and others, land j Legislative council established ,
at Botany Bay, and name the country " New ' Sturt's expeditions into South Australia 1828-1831
South Wales" April aS, 1770 ! So)ith Australia erected into a provinco , Aug. 1S34
Governor Phillip founds the city of Sydney Sir T. Mitchell's oxjwditions into E. Australia 1831-6
near Port Jackson, with 1030 persons, First Rom. Cuth. Bishop (Folding) arrives, Sept 1835
Jan. 26, 1788 Port Phillip (now Victoria) colonised . Nov. ,,
[The seventy-first snnivorsary of this event was First Church of England bishop of Australia
kept with much fostivity, Jan. 26, 1859.] (Broughton) arrives .... June, 1836
* The aurora Is now attributed by many philosophers to the passage of electric light through the
rnrefiod air of tho polar regions. In August and September, 1859, when brilliant aurono were very
frequent, tho electric telegraph wires were seriously affected, and communications interrupted. Aurora
were seen at Home and Basel, and also in Australia.
A TO 65 AUS
AUSTRALIA, continued.
Colony of South Australia founded Dec. 1836 Remains of Burke and Wills recovered ; public
Eyre's expedition overland from Adelaide to funeral Jan. at, 1863
King George's Sound 1836-7 Strong and general resistance throughout Aus
Melbourne founded Nov. 1837 tralia to the reception of British convicts in
Suspension of transportation 1839 West Australia .... about June, 1S64
Strzolecki explores tho Australian Alps . . 1840 Cessation of transportation to Australia in
Great exertions of Mrs. Chisholm ; establish three years announced amid much rejoicing,
ment of " Homo for Female Emigrants" 1841-6 Jan. 26, 1865
Census—87,200 males ; 43,700 females . . . 1841 Morgan, a desperate bushranger and murderer,
Very numerous insolvencies . . . 1841-2 Burrounded and shot .... April, „
Incorporation of city of Sydney . . . . 1842 Boundary disputes between New South Wales
Leichhardt's expedition (never returned) . 1844-5 and Victoria, in summer of 1864; settled
Sturt proceeds from South Australia to tho amicably April 19,
middle of the continent 1845
Census (including Port Phillip)—114,700 males ; GOVERNORS.
74, 800 females 1846 Captain Arthur Phillip r788
Great agitation against transportation, which Captain Hunter 1795
had been revived by carl Grey . . . 1849 Captain Philip G. King 1 800
Port Phillip erected into a separate province- as Captain William Bligh 1806
Victoria 1850 Colonel Lachlan Macquarie (able and successful
Gold discovered by Mr. Hargraves, Ac.* . . 1851 administration) 1809
Census—males, 106,000 ; females, 81,000 (exclu General sir Thomas Brisbane . . . . 1821
sive of Victoria 80,000) Sir Richard Bourke 1831
Mints established .... March, 1853 Sir George Gipps 1838
Transportation ceased „ Sir Charles Fitzroy, governor-general of all the
Gregory's explorations of interior . . . 1856 Australian colonies, with a certain jurisdic
Death of archdeacon Cowper (aged 80), after tion over the lioutenant-governors of Van
about fifty years' residence . . July, 1858 Diemen's Land, Victoria, and South and
Queensland mado a province . . Dec. 4, 1859 Western Australia 1846
Stuart's expeditions 1858-60 Sir William T. Denison 1854
Expedition into the interior under Mr. Lan- Sir John Young, governor of New South Wales
dells organised Aug. i860 only 1S60
Robert O'Hora Burke, Wm. John Wills, and
others, start from Melbourne '. . Aug. 20, ,, Acts for the government of Australia, 10 George
J. M'Douall Stuart's expeditions . . . 1860-1 IV., cap. 22, May 14 (1829), 6 & 7 William IV.,
Burke, Wills, and two others, cross Australian cap. 68, Aug. 13 (1836), 13 & 14 Victoria,
continent to the gulf of Carpentaria ; all cap. 59, Aug. 5 (1850). Act for regulating tho
perish on their return, except John King, sale of waste lands in the Australian colonics,
who arrives at Melbourne . . Nov. 1861 5 & 6 Victoria, cap. 36, June 22 (1842).
Stuart, M'Kinlay, and Landsborough cross
Australia from sea to sea .... 1861-2
AUSTRASIA, (Esterreich (Eastern Kingdom), also called Metz, a French kingdom which
lasted from the 6th to the 8th century. It began with the division of the territories of Clovis
by his sons, 5 1 1, and ended by Carloman becoming a monk and surrendering his power to his
brother Pepin, who thus became sole king of France, 747.
AUSTRIA, a Hamburg company's steamship, sailed from Southampton for New York
Sept 4, 1858, with 538 persons on board. On Sept 13, in Iat. 450 N., long. 41° 30' "W., it
caught fire through the carelessness of some one in burning some tar to fumigate the steerage.
Only 67 persons were saved—upwards of 60 by the Maurice^ a French barque ; the rest by
a Norwegian ^barque. A heartrending account was given in the Times, Oct. II, 1858, by
Mr. Charles Brews, an English survivor.
AUSTRIA, (Esterreich (Eastern Kingdom), anciently Noricum and part of Pannonia,
was annexed to the Roman empire about 33 ; was overrun by the Huns, Avars, &c, during
the 5th and 6th centuries, and taken from them by Charlemagne, 791-796. He divided the
government of the country, establishing margraves of Eastern Bavaria and Austria, Louis
* Gold Discovery.—Mr. Edward Ilargraves went to California in search of gold, and was struck with
the similarity between the rocks and strata of California and those of his own district of Conobolas, some
thirty miles west of Batburst. On his return home, ho examined the soil, and after one or two months'
diguing, fuund a quantity of gold, Feb. 12, 1851. He applied to tho colonial government for a reward,
which ho readily obtained, with an appointment as commissioner of crown lands. Tbe excitement becamo
intense throughout the colony of New South Wales, rapidly spread to that of Victoria and other places ;
and in the first week of July, 1851, an aboriginal inhabitant, formerly attached to the Wellington mission,
and then in the service of Dr. Kerr, of Wallawa, discovered, while tending his sheep, a mass of gold among
a heap of quartz. Three blocks of quartz (from two to three hundred weight), found in the Murroo Creek,
fifty miles to tho north of Bathurst, contained 112 lb. of pure gold, valued at 4000?. Tho " Victoria nugget,"
a magnificent mass of virgin gold, weighing 340 ounces, was brought to England from the Bendigo
diggings; and a piece of pure gold of 106 lb. weight was nlso found. From the gold fields of Mount
Alexander and Bullaarat^ in the district of Victoria, up to Oct. 1852, there were found 2,532,422 ounces, oV
105 tons 10 cwt. of gold ; and tho gold exported up to the same date represented 8,863,477?. sterling. In
Nov. 1856. tho "James Baincs" and "Lightning" brought gold from Melbourne valued at i,2oo,oood. The
'* Welcome nugget" weighed 2019J ounces ; value, 8376Y. io.°. jod. \ found at Baker s Hill, Ballaarat, June 1 11
1858. Between May 1851, and May 1861, gold to the valuo of 96,000,000?. had been brought to England
from New South Wales and Victoria.
AUfi AUS
the German, son of Louis le Debonnaire, about 817, subjugated Kadbod, margrave ot
Austria ; but in 883 the descendants of the latter raised a civil war in Bavaria against the
emperor Charles the Fat, and eventually the margraves of Austria were declared immediate
princes of the empire. In 1 156 the margraviate was made a hereditary duchy by the
emperor Frederic I. ; and in 1453 it was raised to an archduchy by the emperor Frederic III.
Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, elected emperor of Germany in 1273, acquired Austria in 1278 ;
and from 1493 to 1804 his descendants were emperors of Germany. On Aug. ir, 1804, the
emperor Francis II. renounced the title of emperor of Germany, and became hereditary
emperor of Austria. The condition of Austria is now greatly improving under the enlightened
rule of the present emperor. The political constitution of the empire is based upon—1. The
pragmatic sanction of Charles VI., 1734, which declares the indivisibility of the empire and
rules the order of succession. 2. The pragmatic sanction of Francis II., Aug. 1, 1804, when
he became emperor of Austria only. 3. The diploma of Francis-Joseph, Oct. 20, i860,
whereby he imparted legislative power to the provincial states and the council of the empire
(Reiehsmtb). 4. Tho law of Feb. 26, 1861, on the national representation. Population of
the empire in Oct. 1857, 35,018,988.
roderic II., tho last main of tho house of I Further additions on the oast (Tcmeswar, Ac.)
Bamberg, killed iu battlo with the Hunga I by the peace of Passarowitz .... 1718
rians June 15, 1246 , Naples and Sicily given up to Spain . . .
Disputed succession: tho emperor Frederic II. Death of Charles VI., tho last sovereign of tho
sequestered tho provinces, appointing Otto, malo lino of the houso of Hapsburg ; his
count of Ebcrstein, governor In the name of daughter, Maria Theresa, becomes queen of
the emperor ; they are seized by Ladislaus, Hungary 1740
mar^ravo of Moravia, in right of his wife, She is attacked by Prussia, France, Bavaria,
Frederic's niece, Gertrude- : he died childless 1247 and Saxony ; but supported by Great Britain
Herman, margrave of Baden, marries Ger Francis, duke of Lorraine, who had married
trude, and holds the provinces till his death 1250 Maria Theresa in 1736, elected emperor .
Ottoear (or Premislas), of Bohemia, acquires tho By tho treaty of Campo Formio, tho emperor *745
provinces 1254 gives up Lombardy (which xte) and obtains
Compelled to cede Styria to Hungary, he Venice Oct 15,
makes war and recovers it, in consequenco Francis II., emperor of Germany, becomes »7 7
of a great victory 1260 Francis /. of Awiria . . . Aug. it, 1804
Ho inherits Carinthia, 1263 ; refuses to becomo [ His declaration against France . . Aug. 5, 1805
emperor of Germany, 1272, and to render I War : Napoleon successful, enters Vienna,
homage to Rodolph of Hapsburg, elected Nov. 14,
omperor 1273 Austrians and Russians defeated at Austerlitz,
War against Ottocar as a rebel : he is compelled Dec. 2,
to cede Austria, Carinthia, and Styria to By treaty of Prcsburg, Austria loses Venice
Rodolph 1274 and the Tyrol Jan. i, 1S06
The war renewed : Ottocar perishes in tho Vienna evacuated by the French . Jan. 12,
battlo of Marchfeld . . Aug. 26, 1278 Tho French again take Vienna . May 13, 1809
All)crt I. assassinated by his nephew and But restore it at the pcaco . . Oct. 24,
others, while attempting to enslave tho I Napoleon marries tho archduchess Maria,
Swiss May 1, 1308 1 Louisa, the daughter of the emperor, April 1, 1810
Successful revolt of the Swiss 307-9 Congress at Vienna .... Oct. 2, 1814
They totally defeat the Austrians under duke I Treaty of Vienna .... Feb. 35, 1815
Leopold, at Morgartcn . . . Nov. 16, 1315 [Italian provinces restored with additions—
The duke Leopold imposes a toll on tho Swiss ; Lornbardo-Venetian kingdom established,
which they resist with violence : ho makes April 7.]
war on them, and is defeated and slain at Death of Francis I., and accession of Ferdinand,
Sempach July, 1386 March 2, 1S35
Duke Albert V. obtains Bohemia and Hungary, New treaty of commerce with England, July 3, iS33
and is elected cinporor of Germany . . . 1437 Fordinand I. is crowned at Milan . Sept. 6,
Tho emperor Frederic III., as head of tho Insurrection at Vienna: flight of Mettornich,
house of Hapsburg, creates the archduchy March 13.
of Austria with sovereign power . Jan. 6, 1453 Insurrections in Italy. Ecc Milan, Vat ice, and iS43
Austria divided between him and his relatives, &irdi7ua March 18,
M57 I war ensues between them till . . . 1463 I Another insurrection at Vienna : the emperor
Burgundy accrues to Austria by the marriago j flics to Inspruck .... May 15-17,
of MaximiUan with the heiress of that pro- Archduke John appointed vicar-general of the
Tinco ... 1477 empire May 29,
Also Spain, by the marriage of Fhllip I. of Aus A constituent assembly meet atVienna, July 22,
tria, with the heiress of Arragon and Castile 1496 Insurrection at Vienna : murder of Count
Bohemia and Hungary united to Austria under I Latour Oct. 6,
Ferdinand I. 1526 Revolution in Hungary and war. Sec Hungary.
Austria harassed by Turkish invasions . 15 9-45 ' Hie emperor abdicates in favour of his nephew,
Charles V., reigning over Germany, Austria, j Francis-Joseph Dec. 2,
Bohemia, Hungary, Spain, tho Netherlands, 1 Convention of Olmiltz . . . Nov. 29,
and their dependencies, abdicates (sec Spain) 1556 Tho emperor revokes the constitution of 1S50
Mantua ceded to the emperor . . Jan. 3, 1708 March 4, 1849 .... Dec. 31,
By treaty of Utrecht he obtains part of tho ! Trial by jury abolished in tho empire Jan. 15,
duchy of Milan .... April 11, 1713 Death of prince Schwartzenbcrg, prime minis-
By treaty of Rastadt ho acquires the Nether I tcr -April 4,
lands .... .... 1714 , Attempted assassination of the emperor by
Tho Netherlands, Naples, Milan, &c. , added j Libenyi. Feb. 18 ; who was executed, Feb. 28,
to Austrian dominions . . . Nov. 15, *7X5 I Commercial treaty with Prussia . Feb. 19,
AUS 67
AUSTRIA, continued.
Austrians enter Danubian Principalities Aug. 1854 Austria protests against the annexation of Tus
Alliance with England and France relative to cany, Arc, by the king of Sardinia . April, i860
cistern question Dec. 2 Baron BrUck, suspected of complicity in the
Great reduction of the army Juno 24, 1S55 army frauds, dismissed April 20 ; commits
Degrading concordat with Homo . Aug. 18, suicide ...... April 23,
Amnesty for political offenders of 1848-9, The Reichsrath assembles, May 31 ; addressed
July 12, by the emperor June 1,
Austrians quit tho Danubian Principalities, liberty of tho press further restrained . July, ,,
March, Unsettled state of Hungary (which itt) July-Oct. ,,
Austria remonstrates against tho attacks of the Friendly meeting of tho emperor and the regent
free Sardinian press . . . Feb. 10, of Prussia at TOplitz . . . July 26, ,,
Firra reply of count Cavour . Feb. 7.0, Free debates in tho Reichsrath ; strictures on
Diplomatic relations between Austria and Sar the concordat, tho finances. Arc. ; proposals
dinia broken off in consequence, March 23*30, for separate constitutions for the provinces,
Emperor and empress visit Hungary May, Aug. & Sept „
Death of marshal Radetzky (aged 92) Jan. 5, 1858 The Rcichsrath adjourned. Sept. 29, ,,
Excitement throughout Europe, caused by the Diploma conferring on the Reichsrath legis
address of tho emperor Napoleon III. to tho lative powers, the control of the finances, &c,
Austrian ambassador:—"I regret that our a manifesto issued to the populations of tho
relations with your government are not as empire (not well received) . . Oct. 20, ,,
good as formerly, but I beg of you to tell the Meeting of tho emperor with the emperor of
emperor that my personal sentiments for Russia and prince regent of Prussia at
him have not changed," . . Jau. 1 , 1859 Warsaw: no important result . Oct. 20-26, ,,
The emperor of Austria replied in almost tho The government professes non-intervention in
same words on ... Jan. 4, Italy, but increases the army in Venetia,
Prince Napoleon Bonaparto marries princess Oct, & Nov. ,,
Clotildo of Sardinia . . .Jan 30. The empress goes to Madeira for health Nov. ,,
Austria prepares for war ; enlarges her armies Sale of Venttia, publicly spoken of, is re
in Italy ; and strongly fortifies tho banks of pudiated in Dec. ,.
the Ticino, the boundary of her Italian pro Ministerial crisis: M. Schmerling becomes
vinces and Sardinia . . Feb. & March, minister—more political concessions, Dec. 13, ,,
Lord Cowley at Vienna on a '* mission of peace," Tho proscribed Hungarian, count Teleki, at
Feb. 27, Dresden, is given up to Austria, which causes
Intervention of Russia—proposal for a con general indignation, about Dec. 20; ho is
gress ; disputes respecting the admission of released on parole .... Dec. 31, „
Sardinia—-Sardinia and France prepare for Amnesty for political offences in Hungary,
war March & April, Croatia, &c, published . . . Jan. 7, 1861
Austria demands the disarmament of Sardinia Reactionary policy of tho court leads to in
and the dismissal of the volunteers from other creased disaffection throughout tho empire,
states witliin three days . . April 23, Jan. & Fob. ,,
This domatid rejected . . . April 26, The statutes of the new constitution for the
The Austrians cross the Ticino . April 26, Austrian monarchy published . . Feb. 6,
The French troops enter Piedmont April 27, Civil and political rights granted to Protestants,
The French emperor declares war (to expel tho throughout the empire, except in Hungary
Austrian* from Italy) . . May 3, and Venice ..... April 8,
Resignation of count Ruol, foreign minister ; Meeting of Rcichsrath—no deputies present
appointment of count Rechberg, May 13-18, from Hungary, Croatia, Transylvania,Venetia,
The Austrians defeated at Montebcllo, May 20 ; or Istria April 29,
at Palestro, May 30-31 ; at Magenta, June 4 ; Ministry of Marino created . . .Jan. 1S62
at Maleguano (Mariguano) . . Juno 8, Inundation of the Danube, causing great
Prince Metternich dies, aged 86 (ho had been distress Feb. 4,
actively engaged in the wars and negotia Increased taxation proposed . March, „
tions of Napoleon I.) June n, At an imperial council, the emperor present,
Austrians defeated at Solfcrino (near tho theprinciplo of ministerial responsibility is
ftlincio) ; the emperors of Austria and Franco resolved on April 26, ,,
and king of Sardinia present . . Juno 24, Deficiency of 1,400.000/. in financial statement
Armistice agreed upon, July 6; the emperors —indignation of the Reichsrath . . June,
moot, July 11 ; the preliminaries of peace Amnesty to condemned political offenders in
signed at Villa Franca [Lombardy given up Hungary proclaimed . . . Nov. 18, ,,
to Sardinia, and an Italian confederation Reduction in the army assented to ; and a per
proposed to be formed] . . . July 12, sonal liberty law (resembling our habeas
Manifesto justifying the peace Issued to tho corpus act) passed .... Dec.
army, July 12 ; to tho pcoplo . July 15, Polish insurrection .... Jan. 1863
Patent issued, granting greatly increased privi Meeting of the German sovereigns(except kings
leges to the Protestants,—announced Sept. of Prussia, Holland, and Denmark) with tho
Conference between the envoys of Austria and cnipcrur of Austria, at Frankfort, by his
France at Zurich . . Aug. 8 to Sept. invitation : tllo draft of a reform of the fede
Many national reforms proposed . . Sept. rate constitution agreed to . Aug. 16-31, „
Treaty of Zurich, confirming tho preliminaries Tho Transylvanian deputies accept tho con
of Villa Franca, signed . . Nov. xi, stitution, and take their seats in tho
Decrees removing Jewish disabilities, Rcichsrath Oct. 20, ,,
Jan 6, 10, Feb. 18, Gallicia and Cracow declared to be in a state of
Patent issued for tbo summoning tho great siege Feb. 29, 1864
imperial council (Rcichsrath), composed of (For events of tho war with Denmark, see
representatives elected by the provincial Denmark:)
diets March 5,
Discovery of great corruption in tho army Tho emperor and the king of Prussia meet at
financial arrangements, a deficiency of about Carlsbad June 22,
1,700.000*. discovered ; general Eynatten Proposed reduction of the army, about Oct. 9, '*
commits suicide ; 82 persons arrested, March, Resignation of count Rechberg, foreign minis- "
F 2
A US CS AVE
AUSTRIA, continued.
ter, succeeded by count Mensdorff-Pouilly, 1330. Frederic II., the warlike. Killed in a battle
about Oct. 27, 1864 with tho Hungarians, Juno 15, 1246.
Emperor opens Reichsrath, Nov. 14 ; great
freedom of debate ; the state of siege in Interregnum.
Gallicia consured Dec. 1282. Albert I. and his brother Rodolph. Albert
Austria supports the Confederation in the dis becomes emperor of Germany, 1398.
pute respecting the duchies . . Dec. ,, 1308. Frederic I.
Apparent reunion between Austria and Prussia, 1 3 3°- Albert II. and Otto, his brother.
Jan. 1865 1358. Rodolph.
Great financial difficulty ; proposed reduction Albert III. and Leopold II. or III. (killed at
in the army by the chambers Jan. ,, Sempach).
Contest between the government and the 1395- William, and other brothers, and their cousin
chambers respecting reduction in army, &c., Albert IV.
April, ., 1411. Tho same. The provinces divided into tho
Reported failure of Mr. Hutt's mission to duchies of Austria and Cariuthia, and tho
Vienna, to promote free trade . . June, ,, county of Tyrol.
Now ministry formed, including count Mcns- 141x, Albert V., duke of Austria; obtains Bohe
dorff as nominal premier, and counts Bel- mia and Moravia; elected king of Hun
crecU and Estorhazy as ministers : concilia gary and omperor, 1437; dies, 1439; suc
tory measures towards Hungary, and other ceeded by his posthumous son.
provinces, proposed ; centralisation of the 1439. Ladislaus, who cues childless, 1457.
government to be given up, and free trade in 1457. The emperor Frederic III. and Albert VI.
prospect J»ly. h 1493. Maximilian I., son of Frederic III. (archduke),
(See Germany, Hungary, Vienna, &c.) emperor. (800 Germany.)
Margraves. Emperors of Austria.
Leopold L, 928; Albert I., 1018 ; Ernest, 1056;! 1804. Francis I. (late Francis II. of Germany),
Leopold II., 1075 : Leopold III., 1096; Albert II., emperor ofAustria only, Aug. 11, 1804 ; died.
1136; Leopold IV., 1136; Henry II., 114a (made a March a, 1835,
duke 1 156). Ferdinand, his son, March 2 ; abdicated in
Dukes. favour of his nephew, his brother Francis-
1156. Henry II. Charles having renounced his rights.
1 177. Leopold V. He mado prisoner Richard I. of 1848. Francis-Joseph, Doc. 2, 1848, emperor of
England when returning incognito from the Austria, son of Francis-Charles [born Aug.
crusade, and sold him to the emperor 18, 1830; married April 24, 1854, to Eliza
Henry VI. beth of BavfiriiiJ.
1 194. Frederic I., tho catholic. [Heir ; their son, the archduke Rodolph, born
1195. Leopold VI., the glorious. Killed in battle. Aug. 21, 1858.]
AUTHORS. For the law securing copyright, see Copyrights. #
AUTO DA Fl§ (Act of faith), the term given to the punishment of a heretic, generally
burning alive, inflicted by the Inquisition (which see). Since 1203, more than 100,000
victims have been sacrificed by the sentence of the inquisitions of Roman Catholic countries.
One of the last executions of this kind was at Goa, where twenty sufferers perished in the.
flames, 1717. An auto da fe took place at Lisbon, in 1761, when Malagrida, a Jesuit, was
strangled and burnt for heresy.
AUTOMATON FIGURES (on Andhoides), made to imitate living actions, are of early
invention. Arohytas' flying dove was formed about 400 B.O. Friar Bacon is said to have
made a brazen head which spoke, a.p. 1264. Albertus Magnus spent thirty years in making
another. A coach and two horses, with a footman, a page, a lady inside, were made by
Camus for Louis XIV. when a child ; the horses and figures moved naturally, variously,
and perfectly, 1649. Vaucanson, in 1738, made an artificial duck, which performed every
function of a real one, even an imperfect digestion—eating, drinking, and quacking. He
also made a flute-player. The writing automaton, exhibited in 1769, was a pentagraph
worked by a confederate out of sight. Tho automaton chess-player, exhibited the same
year, was also worked by a hidden person, and so was "the invisible girl," 1800. Maelzel
made a trumpeter about 1809. Early in this century, an automaton was exhibited in Loudon
which pronounced several sentences with tolerable distinctness. In July, 1864, tho "anthro-
poglosson," exhibited in St. James's-hall, London, seemed to utter songs.
AUTOTYPOGRAPHY, a process of producing a metal plate from drawings, made known
by Mr. Wallis, in April, 1863 ; it resembled Nature- Printing (which see).
AVA in 1822 became the capital of the Burmese ompire, it is said, for the third time. A
British embassy was received here in Sept, 1855.
AVARS, barbarians who ravaged Pannonia, and annoyed tho eastern empire in the 6tli
and 7th centuries, subdued by Charlemagne about 799, after an eight years* war.
AVEBURY, on Abury (Wiltshire). Here aro the remains of the largest Celtic or
Druidical work in this country. They have been sun'eyed by Aubrey, 1648 ; Dr. Stukely,
69 AZO
1720; and sirR. C. Hoare, in 1812, and others. Much information may be obtained from
Stukely's " Abury" (1743), and Hoare's "Ancient Wiltshire" (1812-21). Many theories
have been put forth, hut the object of these remains is still unknown. They are considered
to have been set up during the " stone age," i.e., when the weapons and implements were
mainly formed of that material.
AVEIN, or Avaine (Luxemburg, Belgium). Here the French and Dutch defeated the
Spaniards, May 20, 1635.
" A VE MARIA I " the salutation of the angel Gabriel to tho Virgin (Luke i. 28), was
made a formula of devotion by pope John XXI. about 1326. In the beginning of the 15th
century Vincentius Ferrarius used it before his discourses. Bingham.
AVIGNON, a city, S. E. Franco, ceded by Philip III. to the pope in 1273. The papal
scat was removed by Clement V. to Avignon, in 1309. In 1348 Clement VI. purchased the
city from Jane, countess of Provence and queen of Naples. In 1408, tho French, wearied
of the schism, expelled Benedict XIII., and Avignon ceased to be the seat of the papacy.
Hero were held nine councils (1080—1457). It was seized aud restored several times by the
French kings ; the last time restored on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. It was claimed
by the national assembly, 1791, and was confirmed to France by the congress of sovereigns
in 1815. In Oct. 1791, horrible massacres took place here.
AXE, "WEDGE, "WIMBLE, LEVEE, and various tools in common use, are said to have
been invented by Daidalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is ascribed the invention of
masts and sails for ships, 1240 B.C. Many tools are represented on the Egyptian
monuments.
AYACUCHO (Peru). Here tho Peruvians finally achieved their independence by
defeating the Spaniards, Dec. 9, 1824.
AYDE, or Aide, the tax paid by tho vassal to the chief lord upon urgent occasions. In
France and England an aide was due for knighting the king's eldest son. One was demanded
by Philip the Fair, 1313. The aide due upon the birth of a prince, ordained by the statute
of "Westminster (Edward I.) 1285, for the ease of the subject, was not to be levied until he
was fifteen years of age. The aide for the marriage of the king's eldest daughter could not
be demanded in this country until her seventh year. In feudal tenures there was an aide
for ransoming the chief lord ; so when our Richard I. was kept a prisoner by the emperor of
Germany, an aide of 20s., to redeem him, was enforced upon every knight's fee.
AYLESBURY, Buckinghamshire, was reduced by the "West Saxons in 571. St. O'Syth,
beheaded by the pagans in Essex, was buried there, 600. "William the Conqueror invested
his favourites with some of its lands, under the tenure of providing " straw for his bed
chambers ; three eels for his use in winter ; and in summer, straw, rushes, and two green
geese thrice every year." Incorporated by charter in 1554.
AYLESFORD (Kent). Here, it is said, the Britons were victorious over tho Saxon
invaders, 455.
AZINCOUR. See Agincourt.
AZOFF, Sea of, the Palus Maeotis of the ancients, communicates by the strait of
Yenikale' (the Bosphorus Cimmerius) with the Black Sea, and is entirely surrounded by
Russian territory ; Taganrog and Kertch being the principal places. An expedition com
posed of British, French, and Turkish troops, commanded by sir G. Brown, arrived at
Kertch, May 24, 1855, when the Russians retired, after blowing up the fortifications. On
the 25th the allies marched upon Yeuikale, which also offered no resistance. On the same
evening the allied fleet entered the sea of Azoff, and in a few days completed their occupa
tion of it, after capturing a large number of merchant vessels, &c. An immense amount of
stores was destroyed by the Russians to prevent them falling into the hands of the allies.
AZORES, or Western Isles (N. Atlantic), belonging to Portugal, the supposed site of
the ancient Atlantis, are said to have been discovered in the 15th century by a Dutchman
who was driven on their coasts by the weather. Cabral, sent by the Portuguese court, fell in
with St. Mary's in 1432, and in 1457 they were all discovered. Martin Behem found one of
them covered with beech trees, and lie called it therefore Fayal ; another abounding in sweet
flowers, he called it Flares; and all, being full of hawks, were therefore named Azores. They
were colonised about 1450. A violent concussion of the earth took place here for twelve
days in 1 59 1. A devastating earthquake in 1757. Here are fountains of boiling water. A
volcano at St. George's destroyed the town of Ursulina, May, 1808 ; and in 181 1 a volcano
BAB
appeared near St. Michael's, in the sea, where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An island
called Sabrina gradually disappeared, Dec. 1812.
AZOTE, the name given by French chemists to nitrogen (which see).
AZTECS, the ruling tribe in Mexico at the time of the Spanish invasion (1519). In
1853 some pretended Aztec children were exhibited in London. They were considered to be
mere dwarfs.
B.
BAAL (Lord), the male deity of the Phoenician nations, frequently made the object of
worship by the Israelites ; and established as such by Ahab, 918 B.C. His worshippers
were massacred by Jehu and his temple defiled, 884 B. c.
BAALBEC, Hei.iopolis (both meaning "City of the Sun'-), an ancient city of Syria,
of which magnificent ruins remain, described by Wood (in 1757), and others. Its origin
(referred to Solomon) is lost in antiquity. Hero Septimus Severus built a temple to the sun,
200. The city was sacked by the Moslems, 748, and by Timour Bey, 1400.
BABEL, Tower op, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 B.C. (Genesis, ch. xi.) The mag
nificent temple of Belus, asserted to have been originally this tower, is said to have had lofty
spires, and many statues of gold, one of them forty feet high. In the upper part of this
temple was the tomb of the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred scriptures), who was
deified after death. Blair. The Bus Nimroud, examined by Rich, Layard, and others, is
considered by some persons to be the remains of the tower of Babel.
BABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY, to assassinate queen Elizabeth, and make Mary of
Scotland queen, was devised by John Savage, a soldier of Philip of Spain, and approved by
Wm. Gifford and John Ballard, catholic priests. Anthony Babington and other gentlemen
were induced to join in the scheme. They were betrayed by Pooley Aspy, and fourteen were
executed, Sept. 20, 21, 1586. Babington was deluded by a romantic hope that Mary, in
gratitnde, would accept him as a husband.
BABOCUF'S CONSPIRACY. See Agrarian Lata.
BABYLON,* an Asiatic empire (see Assyria), founded by Belus, supposed to be the
Nimrod of holy writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 B C- Lcnglet. Ninus
of Assyria seized on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assyrian empire, by
uniting the two sovereignties, 2059 u.c. 2233 CI. The second empire of Babylon com
menced about 725 B.C.
Earliest astronomical observations, at Babylon, furnaco for refusing to worship it. Daniel
B.C. 2234 [2230, H. 2233) CI.) iii B.C. 570
aabonassar governs 747 Daniel interprets the king's second dream, and
Nabopolasser, tho Assyrian governor, revolts, Nebuchadnezzar is driven from among men.
and makes himself king of Babylon . . 725 Daniel iv 569
Nebuchadnezzar invades Syria, 606 ; Judea, The king recovers his reason and his throne,
605 ; defeats Pharaoh Nccho, and annihilates 562; dies 561
the Egyptian power in Asia . . . . 604 Evil Merodach (Neriglassar), king . . 559
He returns to Babylon with tho spoils of Jeru Labynetus (Nabonadius or Bolahazzar?) king . 555
salem. Blair ; Lenglet „ Babylon taken by the Medes and Persians,
Daniel interprets tho king's dream of the gol under Cyrus, and Belshazzar slain . . . 538
den-headed imige. Daniel ii G02 Daniel thrown into the lions' den. Daniel vi. . 537
Nebuchadnezzargoesa third time Against Jeru Babylon revolts, and is taken by Darius . . 518
salem, takes it and destroys the temple. Taken by Alexander, 331 ; he dies hero . . 323
Blair; Usher 589 to 587 Seleucus Nicator, who died B.C. 280, transfers
The golden image set up, and Shadrach, tho feat of government to Seleucia, and
Meshach, and Abed-nego thrown into tho Babylon is deserted.
* The city of Babylon was at ouo time tho most magnificent in the world. Tho Itanginn Gartfev* are
described as having been of a square form, and in terraces one above another until they rose as
high as the walls of tho city, the ascent being from terrace to terrace by steps. Tho whole pile was
sustained by vast arches raised on other arches ; and on the top were flat stones closely cemented
together with plaster of bitumen, and that covered with sheets »>f lead, upon which lay the mould of
tho garden. wh*-ro there were large trees, shrubs, and flower*, with various sorts of vegetables. There
were five of these garden*, each containing about four English acres, and disposed in tho form of oa
amphitheatre. Strain; Diodomi. Pliny said that in his time it was but a desolate wilderness. Mr. Rich
visited the ruins in 1811, and sir R. Kerr Porter in 1818. Tho laborious researches of Mr. Layard, sir H.
Rawlinson, M. Butta, and others, and the interesting relics cxeavatcd and brought to this country between
the years 1849 and 1855, have caused very much attention to bo given to the history of Babylon. Many of
tho inscriptions in the cuneiform or wedge-like character have been translated, principally by col. {now
sir Henry) Kawlinson, and published in tho Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. In the spring of 1855, he
returned to England, bringing with him many valuable relics, drawings, ic., which are now in the British
Museum. He gave discourses on the subject at tho Royal Institution, London, in 1851, 1855, and 1865.
BAC 71 BAG
BACCHANALIA ('games celebrated in honour of Bacchus) arose in Egypt, and were
brought into Greece by Mclampos, and were there called Dionysia, -about 1415 B.C. Diodurtts.
In Rome the Bacc/ianalia were suppressed, 186 B.C. The priests of Bacchus were called
Bacchanals.
BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on unmarried men ; and
men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at certain games laid hold of old
bachelors,
and dragged
disgrace. them round
VTosshis. A taxtheir
was altars, and inflicted
laid upon bachelorsoninthem various
England, marks of years
twenty-five infamyof
age, 12I. las. for a duke, and for a common person one shilling, 7 Will. III., 1695.
Bachelors were subjected to an extra tax ou their male and female servants, in 1 785.
BACKGAMMON'. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game, about
1224 B.C. It is stated by some to havo been invented in Wales in the period preceding the
conquest. Henry.
BACTRIANA, a province in Asia, was subjugated by Cyrus and formed part of the
Persian empire, when conquered by Alexander, 330 B.C. About 254 B.C., Theodotus or
Diodotus, a Greek, threw off the yoke of the Seleucidaj, and became king. Eucratides
reigned prosperously about 1S1 B.C., and Menander about 126 B.C. The Greek kingdom
appears to have been broken up by the irruption of the Scythians shortly after.
BADAJOZ (S. W. Spain). An important lmrrier fortress, surrendered to the French,
under Soult, March 11, 181 1 ; was invested by the British, under lord Wellington, on March
16, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6 following. The French retreated in haste.
BADDESDOWN HILL, or Mount Badon, near Bath, where Bcde says the Britons
defeated the Saxons in 493 ; others say in 511 or 520.
BADEN (S. W. Germany). The houso of Baden is descended from Herman, regarded
as the first margrave (1052), son of Berthold I., duke of Zahringen. From Christopher, who
united the branches of Hochberg and Baden, and died in 1527, proceed the branches of Baden-
Baden and Baden-Dourlach. By the treaty of Baden, between France and the emperor, when
Landau was ceded to the former, Sept, 7, 1714, Baden was elected into a grand duchy, as a
member of the Rhenish confederation, Aug. 13, 1806. lis territorial acquisitions by its
alliances with France were guaranteed by the congress at Vienna, in 1815. In May, 1849,
the grand-duke was expelled by his subjects, but was restored in June. In July, 1857, an
amnesty was decreed for political offences. A concordat made with the pope, Juno 28, 1859,
having greatly displeased the representative assembly, was set aside by the grand-duke,
April 8, i860. On June 16, i860, the emperor of the French met the regent of Prussia, the
kings of Hanover, Bavaria, Wurtembcrg, and Saxony, and the German princes at Baden-
Baden. The population of Baden, Dec. 1861, was 1,369,291.
Louis William, margrave of Baden-Baden, a great
genettil, born 1665 ; sallied out from Vienna and 1806. Charles Frederic ; dicsi8n; succeeded by his
defeated the Turks, 1083 ; diod 1707. grandson,
1811. Charles Louis Fredoric, whodied without issue
Charles William, margrave of Baden-Dourlach, born in 1818 ; succoeded by his uncle,
1679, died 1746; succeeded by his son, 1818. Louis William, died without issue in 1830 ;
Buccoeded by his brother,
Charles Frederic, margrave, afterwards grand-duke 1830. Leopold, died in 1852 ; succeeded by his second
of Baden-Dourlach, born 1728, who joined to his son (the first being imbecile),
dominions Baden-Baden in 1771, which were also 1852. Froderic (born Kept. 9, 1826), regent April 24,
increased by tho favour of Napoleon. 1852; declared grand-duke, Sept. 5, 1856.
[Heir: bis son Frederic William, born July 9, 1857.)
BAFFIN'S-BAV (N. America), discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616.
The extent of this discovery was much doubted, until the expeditions of Ross and Parry
proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his statement. Parry entered Lancaster
Sound, and discovered the islands known by his name, in 1818. See North-West Passage.
BAGDAD, in Asiatic Turkey, built by Al Manscrar, and made tho scat of the Saracen
empire, about 762. —Taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258.
Often taken by tho Persians, and retaken by the Turks, with great slaughter : the latter
took it in 1638, and have held it since.
BAGPIPE, an ancient Greek and Roman instrument. On a piece of ancient Grecian
sculpture, now in Rome, a bagpiper is represented dressed like a modem Highlander. Nero
is said to have played upon a bagpipe, 51. Our highland regiments retain their pipers.
BAH 72 BAL
BAHAMA ISLES (N. America) wore the first points of discovery by Columbus. San
Salvador was seen by him on the night of tho nth of October, 1492. New Providence was
settled by tho English in 1629. They were expelled by the Spaniards, 1641 ; returned, 1666 ;
again expelled in 1703. The isles were formally ceded to the English in 1783. Population
in 1861, 35,287.
BAHAR (N. India), a province (conquered by Baber in 1530), with Bengal and Orissa, a
princely dominion, became subject to the English East India company in 1765 by the treaty
of Allahabad for a quit-rent of about 300,000?.
BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the conquest, all felonies were bailable,
till murder was excepted by statute ; and by the 3 Edward I. (1274) the power of bailing in
treason, and in divers instances of felony, was taken away. Bail was further regulated in
later reigns. Bail is now accepted in all cases, felony excepted ; and where a magistrate
refuses bail, it may be granted by a judge.
BAILIFFS, on Sheriffs. Said to be of Saxon origin. London had its shire-reve prior
to the conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for counties in England in 1079.
Hen. Cornehill and Rich. Reynere were appointed bailiffs or sheriffs in London in 1 189.
Slow. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the name of bailiffs, in 1308 ; and the name
was changed to sheriff' i 11 1548. There are still some places where the chief magistrate is
called bailiff, as the high bailiff of Westminster. Bum-bailiff is a corruption of bound-
bailiff, every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his good behaviour.
Blackslone.
BAIRAM, Mahometan festivals. In 1865 the Little Buiram, following the fast of
Ramadan (which see), fell on Feb. 28, March I and 2. The Great Bairam began on May 10.
BAIZE, a species of coarse woollen manufacture, was brought into England by some
Flemish or Dutch emigrants who settled at Colchester, in Essex, and had privileges granted
them by parliament in 1660. The trade is under the control of a corporation called the
governors of the Dutch baize-hall, who examine the cloth previous to sale. Anderson.
BAKER. See Bread.
BAKERIAN LECTURES, Royal Society, originated in a bequest of 100Z. by Henry
Baker, F.R.S., the interest of which was to be given to one of the fellows, for a scientific
discourse to be delivered annually. Peter Wouffe gave the first lecture iu 1765. Latterly
it has been the custom to nominate as the lecture a paper written by one of the fellows.
Davy, Faraday, Tyndall, and other eminent men have given the lecture.
BALAKLAVA, a smalltown in the Crimea, with a fine harbour, 10 miles S.E. from
Sebastopol. After the battle of the Alma, the allies advanced upon this place, Sept. 26,
1854. On Oct. 25 following, about 12,000 Russians, commanded by gen. Liprandi,
attacked and took some redoubts in the vicinity, which had been entrusted to about 250
Turks. They next assaulted the English, by whom they were compelled to retire, mainly
through the charge of the heavy cavalry, led by brigadier Scarlett, under the orders of lord
Lucan. After this, from an unfortunate misconception of lord Raglan's order, lord Lucan
ordered lord Cardigan with the light cavalry, to charge the Russian army, which had re
formed on its own ground with its artillery in front. This order was most gallantly obeyed.
Great havoc was made on the enemy ; but of 607 British horsemen, only 198 returned. The
British had altogether 9 officers killed, 21 wounded, and 620 men put hors de combat. The
Russians had 550 men killed, and 6 officers (among whom was one general), and 190 men
wounded.—A sortie from the garrison of Sebastopol on the night of March 22, 1855, led to a
desperate engagement here, in which the Russians were vigorously repulsed, with the loss of
2000 men killed and wounded, the allies losing about 600.—The electric telegraph between
London and Balaklava was completed in April, 1855, and communications were then received
by the British government. —A railway between Balaklava and the trenches was completed
in June, 1855. See Russo-Turktih War.
BALANCE of Powf.r, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and control
the ambition of sovereigns ; the principle is said to have been first laid down by the Italian
politicians of tho 15th century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of France. Robertson.
It was first recognised by the treaty of Munster, Oct. 24, 1648. The arrangements for the
balance of power in Europe made in 1815, without the consent of the people of the countries
concerned, have been greatly set aside since 1830.
BAL 73 BAL
BALEARIC ISLANDS, in the Mediterranean, called by the Greeks Balearides, and by
the Romans Baleares, from the dexterity of the inhabitants at slinging : they include Majorca
and Minorca, with the small isle of Cabrera. These islands were conquered by the Romans,
123 B.C. ; by the Vandals, about 426 B.C., and formed part of Charlemagne's empire in A.D.
799. They have belonged to Spain since 1232. See Minorca.
BAL1ZE. See Honduras.
BALKAN, the ancient Htemus, a range of mountains extending from the Adriatic to
the Euxiue. The passage, deemed impracticable, was completed by the Russians under
Diebitsch, during the Russian and Turkish war, July 26, 1829. An armistice was the
consequence ; and a treaty of peace was signed at Adrianople, Sept. 14 following.
BALLADS may be traced in the British history to the Anglo-Saxons. Turner. Adhelme,
who died 709, is mentioned as the first who introduced ballads into England. "The
harp was sent round, and those might sing who could." Bcde. Alfred sung ballads.
Malmcsbury. Canute composed one. Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of
Edward IV. ; but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made punishable among rogues,
vagabonds, and sturdy beggars. Yvner. " Give me the writing of the ballads, and you may
make the laws." Fletcher of Saltoun. The sea-ballads of Dibdin were very popular in the
French war ; he died Jan. 20, 1833.
BALLETS began through the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One performed at
the interview between our Henry VIII. and Francis I. of France, in the field of the Cloth of
Gold, at Ardres, 1520. Guicciardini. They became very popular in France ; their zealous
patron, Louis XIV., bore a part in one, 1664. They were gradually introduced with operas
into England in the 18th century.
BALLINAMUCK, Longford. Here, on Sept. 8, 1798, the Irish rebels and their French
auxiliaries were defeated and captured.
BALLOONS.* A just idea of the principle of the construction of balloons was formed
by Albert of Saxony, an Augustin monk in the 14th century, and adopted by a
Portuguese Jesuit, Francesco Mendoza, who died at Lyons in 1626. The idea is also
attributed to Bartolomeo deGuzmao, who died in 1724. The theory of aeronautics includes :—
1, the power of a balloon to rise in the air ; 2, the velocity of its ascent ; and 3, thi
stability of its suspension at any given height, The application of sails and rudders has
been duly considered, and judged to be futile, Fatal accidents to the voyagers have been
estimated at 2 or 3 per cent.
Francis Lana, a Jesuit, proposed to navigate the chemist, April 25 and Juno 12 ; Fleurant
the air by me ins of a boat raised by four thin and Madame Thible" (the first female aero
balls made of thin copper, from which the air naut), Juno 28 ; the duke of Chartre^ (Philip
had been exhausted 1670 EgalitS) Sept. 19, 1784
Joseph Gallon suggested the filling a bag with The first ascent in England, made by Lunardi
the fine diffuse air of the upper regions of the at Moorfields, London . Sept 15, „
atmosphere 1755 Blanchard and Jeffries ascend at Dover aud
Henry Cavend^h discovered that hydrogen gas cross the Channel, alighting near Calais,
is io"8 times lighter than common air . . 1766 Jan. 7, 17S5
And soon after Black of Edinburgh filled a bag The first ascent in Ireland, from Ranelagh
with, hydrogen, which rose to the coiling of gardens, Dublin Jan 19,
the room 1767 Rozier and Remain killed In their descent near
Cavallo filled soap bubbles with hydrogen . 1782 Boulogne ; the balloon took fire . June 15, ,,
Joseph Montgolfler caused a silken bag to Parachutes constructed aud used by Blanchard,
ascend with heated air (the firstjin-balioon) Aug. „
Nov. Garnerin's narrow escape when descending in
Joseph and Stephen Montgolfler ascend and one, in London Sept. 2, 1802
descend safely by means of a fire-balloon at Sadler, who mado many previous expeditions
Annonay, for which they received many in England, fell into the sea, near Holyhead,
honours June 5, 1783 but was taken up . . . . Oct. 9, 1812
First ascent in a balloon filled with hydrogen, at Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at
Paris, by MM. Robert and Charles, Aug. 27, ,, night : tho balloon, being surrounded by fire
Joseph Montgolfler ascends in a balloon inflated works, took fire, and she was precipitated to
wiih the smoke of burnt straw and wool, the ground and killed . . July 6, 1817
Sept. ig, ,, Mr. Charles Green's first ascent . July 19, 182 1
First aerial voyage in a fire-balloon—Pilatre do Lieut. Harris killed descending In a balloou,
Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandi s Nov. 21, „ May 25, 1824
Second ascent of Charles in a hydrogen balloon Sadler, jun., killed, falling from a balloon, in . 1825
to the height of 9770 feet . . Dec. i, „ Tho great Nassau balloon, which had for some
Ascents become numerous : Andreani, Feb. time previously been exhibited to the inha
25; Blanchard, March 2; Guyton-Morveau, bitants of Loudon in repeated ascents from
'Astra C.mtra; Experiments and Adventures in the Atmosphere: by llatton Turner," appeared
in 1865.
BAL 74 BAL
BALLOONS, continued.
Vauxhall gardens, started from that place on ITo did so from Vauxhall gardens with a very
an experimental voyage, having three indi diminutive pony .... July, 1850
viduals in the car, and after having been Lieut. Gale, an Englishman, made an ascent
eighteen hours in the air descended at Weil- with a horse from tho Hippodrome of Vin-
burg, in the duchy of Nassau . Nov. 7, 1836 cennes, near Bordeaux. On descending, and
Sir. Cocking ascended from Vauxhall in order detaching tho animal from the balloon, tho
to try his parachute, in which he had great people who held its ropes, from some miscon
faith ; in its descent from the balloon it ception, prematurely let them go, and the
collapsed, and he was thrown out and killed, unfortunate aeronaut was rapidly borne in
July 24, 1837 the air before he was quite ready to resume
An Italian aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, his voyage. (Ho was discovered next morning
in Denmark ; his corpse was subsequently dashed to pieces in a field a mile from where
found on the sea-shore in a contiguous isl.tud, the balloon was found.) . . Sept. 8,
dashed to pieces .... Sept. 14, 1851 The ascent of Madame Poitcvin from Cremorne
Mr. Wise and three others ascended from St. gardens, new London, as "Europa on a
Louis (after travelling 11 50 miles they de- bull" (a feat she had often performed in
scend-d in Jefferson county, New York, Franco), and several ascents on horses,
nearly dead) .... June 23, 1859 brought tho parties concerned before the
Nadar's great balloon (largest ever made) when police-courts on a charge of cruelty to animals,
fully inflated contained 215,363 cubic feet of and put an end to experiments that outraged
gas ; the car, a cottage in wicker work, public feeling Aug. 1852
raised 35 soldiers at Paris ; Nadar hoped by M. Poitevin ascended on ahorse, in the vicinity
means of screw to steer a balloon in the of Paris, about the time just mentioned ; was
heavens. nearly drowned in the sea, near Malaga,
Nadar's first ascent, with 14 others, successful, whilo descending from his balloon in 1858,
Oct. 4, 1863 and died soon after.
Second ascent, nearly all voyagers injured ;
saved by presence of mind of M. Jules SCIENTIFIC ASCENTS.
Godard ; descend at Nieuburg, Hanover, Gay-Lussac and Biot at Paris, Aug. 23 : G.iy-
Oct. 12, , Lussac (to the height of a2,977 feet) Sept. 15, 1804
Nadar and his balloon at the Crystal Palace, Bixio and Barral at Paris (to the htight of
Sydenham Nov. , 19,000 feet. They passed through a cloud
Society for promoting aerial navigation formed 9000 foct thick) 1850
at M. Nadar's at Paris ; president, M. Barral, Mr. Welsh ascends, Aug. 17, 26; Oct. 21 and
Jan. 15, xl Nov. 10, 1852
Godard's great Montgolficr or firo-balloon as Scientific balloon ascents having been rocom-
cends . . . July 28 and Aug. 3, mendod by tho British Association and funds
Ascent of Nadar and others in his great balloon provided, Mr. James Glaisher commenced
at Brussels Sept. 26, his series of ascents, provided with suitable
Mr. Coxwoll ascends from Belfast in a new apparatus, in Mr. Coxwell's great balloon, at
balloon ; several persons aro injured by the Wolverhampton : he reached the height of
balloon becoming uncontrollable ; it escapes, 5 miles July 17, 1862
July 3, it Ho ascended to tho height of about 7 miles at
Wolverhampton ; at 5$ miles high he became
MILITARY APPLICATIONS. insensible ; Mr. Coxwcll lost the use of his
Guyton-Morveau ascended twice during tho hands, but was able to open the valve with his
battle, and gave important information to teeth; they thus descended in safety, Sept. 5,
Jourdain June 17, 1 ne ascended at Newcastle during the meeting-
Balloons were used during the battle of 94 of the British Association . . Aug. 31, 1S63
Solferino, June 24, 1859; and by tho Federal His 16th ascent ; surveys London . Oct. 9, „
army near Washington, in . . July, t> 16: His 17th ascent at Woolwich ; descends at Mr.
Brandon's, Suffolk (1st winter ascent this
EQUESTRIAN ASCENTS. century) Jan. xa, 1864
Mr. Green affirms that he ascended from He ascends from Woolwich (24th time) Dec. 30, „
London, on a horso attached to a balloon, His 25th ascent Feb. 27, 1865
though fow persons seem to bo aware that (Mr. Glaisher has laid tho result of his
the experiment was made . . . May, x! la8 observations before the scientific world.)
BALLOT (French lallotte, a little ball). Secret voting was practised by the ancient
Greeks and the modern Venetians, and is now employed in France and in the United States
of North America.
The ballot-box used in a political club at Miles's The Ballot Society is very energetic. Tho ballot
coffee-house, Westminster .... 1659 was adopted in Victoria, Australia, in . . 1836
A tract entitled "Tho Benefit of the Ballot," Secret voting existed in the chamber of deputies
said to have been written by Andrew Marvell, in Franco fron 1S40 to 1845. It has been
was published in the " State Tracts" . . 1693 employed since tho coupd'dtat in . Dec. 1851
Proposed to be used in the election of members The house of commons rejected the ballot—257
of Parliament in a pamphlet .... 1705 being against, and 189 for it . June 30, 1851
A bill authorising vote by ballot passed tho For several years it has been annually proposed
commons, but rejected by tho lords . . . 1710 and rejected.
The ballot has been an open question in whig
governments since 1835
BALL'S BLUFF, on the hanks of the Potomac, on the Virginia side, North America.
On October 21, 1861, hy direction of the Federal general C. P. Stone the heroic col. Baker
crossed tho river to reconnoitre. He attacked the Confederate camp at Leesburg, and was
1JAL 75
thoroughly defeated with great loss. The disaster was attributed to great mismanagement,
nnd in Feb. 1862, general Stone was arrested on suspicion of treason.
BALLYNAHINCH (Ireland), where a sanguinary engagement took place between a large
body of the insurgent Irish and the British troops, under gen. Nugent, June 13, 1798. A
large part of the town was destroyed, and the royal army suffered very severely.
BALMORAL CASTLE, Deesidc, Aberdeenshire; visited by her majesty in 1848, 1849,
1850. The estate was purchased for 32,000/. by prince Albert in 1852. In 1853 the new-
building, in the Scotch baronial style, was commenced, from designs by Mr. W. Smith of
Aberdeen.
BALTIC EXPEDITIONS aoaikst Denmark. In the first expedition under lord
Nolson and admiral Parker, Copenhagen was bombarded, and twenty-eight sail of the Danish
fleet were taken or destroyed, April 2, 1801. See Armed Neutrality. In the second expe
dition under admiral Gambier and lord Cathcart, eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, and
thirty-one brigs and gun-boats surrendered to Jhe British, July 26, 1807.
BALTIC EXPEDITION against Russia. Tho British fleet sailed from Spithcad in
presence of the queen, who led it out to sea in her yacht, the Fairy, March II, 1854. It
consisted of a crowd of steam-ships of the line, of which, five were each of 120 guns and
upwards : the whole under the command of vice-admiral sir Charles Napier, whose flag
floated on board the Duke of Wellington, of 131 guns. The fleet arrived in Wingo Sound,
March 15, and in the Baltic, March 20, following. The gulf of Finland was blockaded,
April 12. 10,000 French troops embarked at Calais for the Baltic in English ships of war,
in presence of tho emperor, July 15. The capture of Bomarsund, one of the Aland islands,
ana surrender of the garrison, took place, Aug. 16. See Bomarsund. The English and
French fleets, the latter having joined June 14, commenced their return homeward to
winter, Oct. 15, 1854. — The second expedition (of which the advanced or flying squadron
sailed March 20) left the Downs, April 4, 1855. In July it consisted of 85 English ships
(2098 guns), commanded by admiral R. S. Dundas, and 16 French ships (408 guns), under
admiral Pernand. On July 21, three vessels silenced the Russian batteries at Hoglaud
island. Tho fleet proceeded towards Cronstadt. Many infernal machines* were discovered.
Sveaborg was attacked Aug. 9. See Svcaborg. Shortly after, the fleet returned to
England.
BALTIMORE, n maritime city in Maryland, United States, founded in 1729. On Sept.
12, 1814, the British army under col. lioss advanced against this place. He was killed in a
skirmish ; and the command was assumed by col. Brooke, who attacked and routed the
American army, which lost 600 killed and wounded and 300 prisoners. The projected attack
on the town was however abandoned. Alison. See United States, 1861.
BAMBERG (Bavaria), said to have been founded by Saxons, in 804, and endowed with a
church by Charlemagne. It was made a bishopric in 1 107, and the bishop was a prince of
the empire till the treaty of Luneville, 1801, when Bamberg was secularized. It was
incorporated with Bavaria in 1803. Tho noble cathedral, rebuilt in 11 10, has been recently
repaired. Bamberg was taken and pillaged by the Russians in 1759.
BAMBOROUGII, or Bamburg, Northumberland, according to the " Saxon Chronicle,"
was built by king Ida about 547, and named Bebbanburgh. The castle and estate, the
property of the Forsters, and forfeited to the crown, through their taking part in tho
rebellion in 1715, were purchased by Nathaniel lord Crewe, bishop of Durham, and
bequeathed by him for various charitable purposes. The valuable library was founded by
the trustees in 1 7 78. The books are lent to persons residing within 20 miles of the castle.
BAMPTON LECTURES (Theological), delivered at Oxford annually, began in 1780, with
a lecture by James Bandinel, D.D. The lecturer is paid out of the proceeds of an estato
bequeathed for the purpose by the rev. John Bampton, and the lectures are published.
Among the more remarkable lectures were those by White (1784), Heber (1815), Whatcly
(1822), Milman (1827), Hampden (1832), and Mansel (1858).
BANBURY, Oxfordshire, a Saxon town. Tho castle, erected by Alexander de Blois,
bishop of Lincoln, 1125, has been frequently besieged. In 1646 it was taken by the parlia
mentarians and demolished. At Danesmore, near Banbury, Edward IV. defeated the
Lancastrians under the earl of Pembroke, July 26, 1469, and their leader and his brother
* These woro conos of galvanised iron, 16 inches in diametor. and 20 inches long. Each contained
q or 10 lb. of powder, with apparatus for firing by sulphuric acid. Little damago was done by them.
They were said to bo tho invention of the philosopher Jacobi.
BAN BAN
were soon after taken prisoners and executed. Banbury cakes were renowned in the time of
Ben Jonson, and Banbury Cross was destroyed by the Puritans.
BAND or GENTLEMEN PENSIONERS. See Oentlcmen-at-Arms.
BANDA ISLES (ten), Eastern Archipelago, visited by the Portuguese in 1511, who settled
on them,.i52i, but were expelled by the Dutch about 1600. Rohun island was ceded to the
English in 1616. The Bandas were taken by the latter in 1796 ; restored in 1801 ; retaken
in 181 1 ; and restored in Aug. 1814.
BANGALORE (S. India) was besieged by tho British under lord Cornwallis, March 6, and
taken by storm, March 21, 1791. Bangalore was restored to Tippoo in 1792, when he
destroyed the strong fort, deemed the bulwark of Mysore.
BANGOR (Banchor Iskoed, or Monachorum), Flintshire, the site of an ancient monastery,
very populous if it be true that 1200 monks were slain by Ethelfrid, king of the Angles, for
praying for the Welsh in their conflict with him in 707. Tanner.
BANGOR (N. Caernarvonshire). Its bishopric is of great antiquity, but its founder is
unknown. The church is dedicated to St. Daniel, who was a bishop, 516. Owen Glendower
greatly defaced the cathedral ; but a more cruel ravager than he, the bishop Bulkeley,
alienated many of the lands, and even sold the bells of the church, 1553. The see is valued
in the king's books at 1312. 16s. $d. An order in council directing that the sees of Bangor
and St. Asaph be united on the next vacancy in either, was issued in 1838 ; but rescinded by
the 10 & II Vict, c 108 (1846). Present income, 42002.
RECENT BISHOPS OV BANGOR.
1800. Wm. Cleaver, translated to St. Asaph, 1806. I 1830. Christopher Bethell, died April 19, 1859.
1806. John Randolph, translated to London, 1809. 1859. James Colquhoun Campbell (the present
1809. Henry William Majendie, died July 9, 1830. | bishop, 1865).
BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY was occasioned by Dr. Benjamin Hoadly, bishop of
Bangor, preaching a sermon before George I., March 31, 1717, upon the text, " My kingdom
is not of this world " (John xviii. 36), in which he demonstrated the spiritual nature of the
kingdom of Christ. He thereby drew upon himself the indignation of almost all the clergy,
who published hundreds of pamphlets.
BANISHMENT, an ancient punishment. By 39 Eliz. c. 4 (1597) dangerous rogues
were to be banished out of the realm, and to bo liable to death if they returned. See
Transportation.
BANK. The name is derived from banco, a bench, erected in the market-place for the
exchange of money. The first was established in Italy 808, by the Lombard Jews, of
whom some settled in Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still reside. The Mint
in the Tower of London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until Charles I.
laid his hands upon the money and destroyed the credit of the Mint in 1640. The traders
were thus driven to some other place of security for their gold, which, when kept at home,
their apprentices frequently absconded with to the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented
to lodge it with the goldsmiths in Lombard-street, who were provided with strong chests
for their own valuable wares ; this became the origin of banking in England. See Savings
Banks.
Samuel Lamb, a London banker, recommended Rowland Stephonson, M.P., banker and trea
the Protector Cromwell to establish a public surerof St. Bartholomew's hospital, absconds ;
bank: 1656 and 1658 defaulter to tho amount of 200,00c/. ; 70,000/.
Francis Child, a goldsmith, established a bank in exchequer bills ; (caused a great depression
about 1663 ; he died . . . Oct. 4, 1713 among bankers) Dec. 27, 1828
Run on the London bankers (said to bo the first) 1667 Establishment of joint-stock banks (see p. 78) . 1834
Charles II. arbitrarily suspends all payments Failure of Strahan, Paul, and Bates (securities
to bankers out of tho exchequer of monies unlawfully used); private banking much
deposited there by them ; they lost ultimately injured June 11, 1855
3,321,313/ Jan 2, 1672
Floai o's bank began about .... 1680 Banks in 1855. Rotes allowed to be issued.
Bank of England established (see next article) . 1694 Bank of England . . • • 1 14,000,000
Wood's bank at Gloucester, tho oldest county English private banks . . . . 196 4,999,444
bank, established 1716 English joint-stock banks (which see) 67 3,418,377
A list of bankers given in the " Royal Kalcndar " 1765
Forgeries of Henry Fauntleroy, banker ; exe 264 22,417,721
cuted Nov. 30, 1824 Banks In Scotland . . . .18 3,087,209
Act passed permitting establishment of joint- Banks in Ireland . . . . . 8 6,354,494
stock banks, which see 1826
Rogers's bank robbed of nearly 50.000/. (bank 29° 31,859.424
notes afterwards returned) . . Nov. 24. 1844
BAN 77 BAN
BANK, continued.
Bank of Bank of Bank of
Venice formed . . 1157 Rotterdam .... 1635 Caisse d'Escompto, Franco 1776
Geneva 1345 Stockholm 1688 Ireland .... 1783
Barcelona .... 1401 England 1694 8t. Petersburg 1786
Genoa 1407 Scotland 1695 In the East Indies 17S7
Amsterdam .... 1607 Copenhagen .... 1736 In North America . J 70i
Hamburg 1619 Berlin 1765 France* .... 1 80J
BANK of England was projected by William Paterson, a Scotch merchant (see
Darien), to meet the difficulty experienced by William III. in raising the supplies for the
war against France. By the influence of Paterson and Michael Godfrey, 40 merchants sub
scribed 500,0002. towards the sum of 1,200,000/. to be lent to the government at 8 per cent.,
in consideration of the subscribers being incorporated as a bank. The scheme was violently
opposed in parliament, but the bill obtained the royal assent April 25, 1694, and the charter
was granted July 27 following, appointing sir John Houblon the first governor, and Michael
Godfrey the first deputy governor. The bank commenced active operations on Jan. 1, 1695,
at Grocers* hall, Poultry,!* issuing notes for 20/. and upwards, and discounting bills for 44
to 6 per cent. The charter was renewed in 1697, 1708, 1713, 1716, 1 721, 1742, 1746, 1749,
1764, 1781, 1800, 1808, 1816, 1833, 1844. Lawson.
Run on the bank : its notes at 20 per cent, dis 2 ; Bristol, July 12 ; Leeds, Aug. 23 ; Exeter,
count; capital increased to 2,201,171/. 10*., Dec. 17 1827
Nov. 1696 The bank loses 360,000/. by Fauntlcroy"s forgeries 1830
The bank monopoly established by the prohibi Statements of tho bank affairs published
tion of any company exceeding six persons quarterly 1833
acting as bankers (Scotland not included in Peel's bank charter act : renews charter till
the act) 1708 Aug. 1, 1855, and longer, if the debt due from
Capital raised to 5,550,995/. iot. . . . 1710 tho public to the bank (11,015,100/.), with in
Bank post bills issued (1st record) . Dec. 14, 1738 terest, &c., bo not paid after due notice ;
Run for gold through rebellion in the North ; established tho issue department ; requires
bank bills paid in silver ; the city support weeklyof returns
issue notes toto14,000,000/.,
be published&c.; limited
■. July the
19, 1844
the bank Sept. 1745
Richard Vaughanhangedforforging bank-notes, Commercial panic : lord John Russell autho
May 1, 1758 rises relaxation of restriction of issuing
10/- notes issued 1759 notes (not acted on); bank discount 8 per
Gordon riots ; since, the bank has been pro cent Oct 23, 1847
tected by the military 17&0 Bank clerks establish a library and fidelity
5/. notes issued 1793 guarantee fund .... March, :8so
Cash payments suspended, in conformity with Gold bullion in tho bank (consequent on dis
an order in council . . . Feb. 26, 1797 covery of gold in Australia), 21,845,390/.
it. and 2/. notes issued . . . March, „ July 10, 1852
Bank restriction act passed (continued by other Branch bank, Burlington-gardens, London, W.,
acts) May 3, opened Oct. r, 1856
Voluntary contribution of 200,000? to tho go Committee on the bank acts appointed July, 1857
vernment 1798 Bank discount 9 per cent. ; lord Palmcrston
Loss by Aslett's frauds (sec Exchequer) 342,697!. 1803 authorises addition to issue of notes [to the
Resignation of Abraham Ncwland, 50 years amount of 2,000,000/. were issued' Nov. 12, ,,
cashier Sept. 18, 1807 Committee on tho bank acts appointed in Dec.
The bank issues silver tokens for 31. and 1*. 6d. , 1, 1857 ; report recommending continuance
Julyo, 1811 of present state of things . July 1, 1858
Peel's act for the gradual resumption of cash Bank discount, 3 per cent. Feb. 1858; 6 per
payments July, 1819 cent, (demand for gold in France), Nov. 15,
Cash payments for notes to be in bullion at the i860 ; 7 per cent. Jan. 7 ; 8 percent (demand
mint price, May 1, 1821 ; in the current coin for money in Franco, India, and United States,
of the realm May i, 1823 Ac), Feb. 14 ; 3 per cent Nov. 7, 1861 ; 2$ per
Great commercial panic—many 1/. notes (acci cent. Jan. ; 3 per cent April ; 24 per cent
dentally found in a box) issued with moBt July ; 2 per cent July 24 ; 3 per cent. Oct—
beneficial effects Dec. 1825 Dec 1ZC2
Tho act for the establishment of joint-stock Much alarm through tho announcement of tho
banks breaks up the monopoly . . . 1826 bank solicitor that a quantity of bank paper
By the advice of the government, branch banks had been stolen from the makers (forged
opened at Gloucester, July 19; Manchester, notes soon appeared) . . Aug. 16, ,,
Sept. 21 ; Swansea, Oct. 23 . . . - , Tho culprits, soon dotectcd, were tried and con
And at Birmingham, Jan. 1 ; Liverpool, July victed (see Trials), . . . Jan. 7—12, 1863
* Instituted by laws passed April 14, 1803, and April 22, 1806. The statutes were approved Jan. 16,
1808. In 1810, Napoleon said that its duty was to provide money at all times at 4 per cent, interest
t The foundation of tfcc bank in Threadneedle-street was laid, Aug. 1, 1732, by sir Edward Bellamy,
governor ; it was erected by G. Sampson, architect. Great additions have been made from time to time
by successive architects : sir Robert Taylor, sir John Soane, and Mr. C. R. Cockerell. It now occupies
the site of the church, and nearly all the parish of St Christopher-le-S'tocks. Tho churchyard is now
termed '' the garden. "
BAN 78 BAN
BANK, continued.
Bank discount, 1863, raited to 4 per cent., Jan. to 7, May 26 ; to 6, June 16; raised to 7, July 25 ;
16 ; to 5, Jan. 28 ; reduced to 4, Feb. ; to 3J and to 8, Aug. 4; to 9, Sept. 5 ; reduced to 8, Nov. 10;
3, April; raised to 4, May; raited to 5, 6, in to 7, Nov. 24,
Nov. ; to 7 and 8, and reduced to 7, in Dec. Bank discount, 1865, reduced to 5J, Jan. 12; to c,
Bank discount, 1864, raited to 8, Jan. 20; reduced Jan. 20 ; raised to 54, March 2 ; reduced to» 4,* March
'to 7, Feb. 12; to 6, Feb. 25; rai*e»Z to 7, April 30 ; raised to 4$, May 4; retluced to 34, June 1 ; to
16 ; to 8, May 2 ; to 8, May 5 ; reduced to 8, May 19 ; 3, June 15 ; raised to 34, July 27 ; to 4, Aug. 3.
AVERAGE AMOUNT OF BANK OF ENGLAND NOTES IN CIRCULATION.
1718 . . £1,829,930 ' l8lO . £23,904,000 1835- £18,215.220 1-55 £19,616,627
1778 7,030,680 Si 5 26,803,520 17,231,000 21,036,430
1790 . . 10,217,000 1820 . 27,174,000 1845. . 19,262,327 1859 22,705,780
. 15,450,000 1830 . 20,620,000 1S50 19,776,814
Dec. 27, 1856. Nov. ir, 1857. (Time of Panic.)
—Securities . £29,484,000 Assets- ■Securities . . £35,480,281 ) « -
Bullion . . . 10,105,000 J- £39.589,000 Bullion . . . 7,\7o,5o%\ £42.650,789
Liabilities . . 36,329,000 Liabilities 39,286,433
Balance £3,260,000 Balance £3.364,356
Sept. 14, 1859. Assets.—Securities, 30,099,179?. Bullion, 17,120,822?. Liabilities, 43,503.214/. Balance, 3,716,787/.
Feb. 14,1861. „ ' „ 29,095,172?. „ 11,571,332?. ,, 37,167,336?. „ 3,499,168?.
Aug. 30, 1S62. 30,106,295?. ,, 17,678,698?. ,, 44,453,778^. „ 3,331,215!.
Aug. 9, 1865. „ ,, 31,823,0661. „ 14,223,390?. 42,528,577?. „ 3.517,879/.
PUBLIC DEBT TO THE BANK OF ENGLAND.
£1,200,000 1731 £9,100,000 1 St'", . £14,686.000
. 2,175,027 1742 .... 10,700,000 1844 11,015,100
17x6 . 4,175,027 1746 11,686,000
BANK OF Ireland. On Deo. 9, 1721, the Irish house of commons rejected a bill for
establishing a national bank. Important failures in Irish banks occurred in 1727, 1733, and
1758 : this le'd gradually to the establishment of the bank of Ireland at St. Mary's-abbey,
Dublin, Juno I, 1783. The business was removed to the late houses of parliament, in
College-green, in May, 1808. Branch banks of this establishment have been formed in most
of the provincial towns in Ireland, all since 1828. Irish banking act passed, July 21, 1845.
BANKS of Scotland. The old bank of Scotland was set up in 1695, at Edinburgh, and
began Nov. I, tho second institution of tho kind in these kingdoms : lending money to the
crown was prohibited. The Royal bank was chartered July 8, 1727; the British Linen
Company's bank, 1746 ; the Commercial bank, 1810 ; National bank, 1825 ; Union bank,
1830. The first stono of the present bank of Scotland was laid June 3, 1801. The Western
bank of Scotland and tho Glasgow bank stopped in Nov. 1857, causing much distress.
Scotch banking act passed, July 21, 1845.
BANK of Savings. See Havings' Banks.
BANKS, Joint Stock. Since the act of 1826, a number of these banks have been esta
blished. In 1840, the amount of paper currency issued by joint-stock banks amounted to
4,138,618/. ; the amount in circulation by private banks, same year, was 6,973,613/.—the
total amount exceeding eleven millions.* In Ireland similar banks have been instituted,
the first being the Hibernian bank, in 1825. The note-circulation of joint-stock banks, on
* The Royal British Bank whs established in 1849, by Mr. John McGregor, M.P., and others, under
sir R. Peel's joint-stock banking act. 7 & 8 Vict. c. 113(1844); as an attempt to introduce the Scotch
banking system of cash credits into England. On Sept. 3, 1856, it stopped jiayment, occasioning much
distress and nun to many small tradesmen and others. In consequence of strong evidence of thecxistence
of fraud in tho management of the bank, elicited during tho examination before the court of bankruptcy,
tho government instructed the attorney-general to file rx-<£icio informations against the manager, Mr. H.
Inuos Cameron, and several of the directors. They were convicted Feb. 27, 1S58, after 13 days' trial, and
sentenced to various degrees of imprisonment. Attempts to mitigate the punishment failed (May, 1S58) ;
but all were released except Cameron and Esdaile, in July, 1858. In April, i860, dividends had been paid
to the amount of 1 5*. in the pound. The attorney-general brought in a bill called the Fraudulent Trustees'
Act, 20 ii 21 Viet. c. 54, to prevent the recurrence of such transactions.—On April 10, i860, a deficiency of
263,000/. was discovered in the Union Bant 0/ London. Mr. George Pullingcr, a cashier, confessed himself
guiity of forgery and fraud, and was sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment.—1% Feb. 18, 1861, it was dis
covered that John Durdou, a clerk of the Commercial hank of London.had robbed his employers of 67,000!.,
of which 46.000/. might bo recovered.—In Dec. 1864, J. W. Terry and Thomas Burch, manager and secre
tary of tho Unity Hank, wore committed on a charge of conspiracy for fabricating accounts ; but acquitted
on thoir trial.
BAN 79 BAN
Oct. I, 1855, was, in England, 3,990,800?. ; in Scotland, 4,280,000?. ; and in Ireland,
6,785,000?. ; total, with English private banks, about 19,000,000/. : and with tho bauk of
England, above 39,000,000/.
Chief London Bants. . Founded Chief London Bankr. Found' d\
Loudon and Westminster 1834 London and County . . 1839
London Joint-Stock 1836 City Bank . • "855
Union Bank of London 1839 Bank of London .
Commercial IBank of London . . . . „
Joint-Stock Bonis. Jan. i860 :— Ireland . .
England and Wales (including London) . 94 British and foreign colonial banks with offices
Scotland 15 in London
BANKRUPT (signifying either bank or bench broken), a trader declared to be tmablo
to pay his just debts. The laws on the subject (1543, 1571 ct sen.) were consolidated and
amended in 1825, 1840, 1852, 1854, and 1861.
Lord chancellor Thurlow, refused a bankrupt c. 134 (1861), by which great changes were
his certificate, bocause he had lost five pounds made ; tho court for reliefof insolvent debtors
at one time in gaming . July 17.. 1 7S3 was abolished, and increased powers given to
Enacted that members of tho house of com the commissioners in bankruptcy, &c. ; tho
mons becoming bankrupt, and not paying new orders were issued . . Oct. 12, 1S61
their debts in full, should vacate their scats [This act has not produced public satisfac
Present Bankruptcy Court was erected by 2 tion (1865).!
Will. IV. cap. 56, 1 831 ; bills for reforming The Irish bankruptcy laws consolidated in
bankruptcy law were in vain brought before 1836, and further amended in 1857
parliament. 1859. i860 ; at length in 1861 was The Scotch bankruptcy laws consolidated in
passed the hill brought in by tho lord chan 1856, and further amended in . „
cellor (formerly sir R. Bothcil), 24 <fc 25 Vict.
NUMBER OF BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN" AT DIFFERENT TERIODS.
1700 . . 38 1800 .... 1339 1830 .... 1467 1857 England . . 1488
1725 . . . 416 1810 . 2000 1840 . . . . 1308 1859 ditto . . 959
1750 . . -432 1820 .... 1358 1845 England . . 1028 i860 ditto . . 1268
1775 . . . 520 1825" .... 2683 1850 ditto . . 1298 1863 ditto . . 8470
In 1857 there were in Scotland, 453 ; Ireland, 73 ; in the United Kingdom, 2014.
i860 „ 445 „ 113 „ 1826.
BANNA.TYNE CLUB, named after George Bannatyne (the publisher), was established
in 1823 by sir Walter Scott and others, for printing works illustrative of the history,
antiquities, and literature of Scotland, of which about 1 13 volumes were issued.
BANNERET, a personal dignity between baron and knight, anciently conferred by tho
king under the royal standard. Its origin is of uncertain date : Edmondson says 736; but
it was probably created by Edward I. John Chandos is said to have been made a banneret
by the Black Prince and the king of Castile atNajara, April 3, 1367. The dignity was con
ferred on John Smith, who rescued the royal standard at Edgehill fight, Oct. 23, 1642.
It fell into disuse, but was revived by Geo. III. in the person of sir William Erskiuc, in
1764.
BANNERS were common to all nations. The Jewish tribes had standards or banners —
Num. ii. (1491 B.C.) The standard of Constantino bore the inscription, In hoc sir/no vinces—
" By this sign thou shalt conquer, " tinder the figure of tho cross. See Cross. The magical
banner of the Danes (said to have been a black raven on a red ground) was taken by Alfred
when he defeated Hubba, 878. St. Martin's cap, and afterwards the celebrated auriflamma,
or oriilamme, were the standards of France about 1 100. Seo Auriflamma, Standards, &c.
BANNOCKBURN (Stirlingshire), the site of the battle between Hubert Bruce of Scotland
and Edward II. of England, June 24, 1314. The army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 ; that
of Edward of 100,000 men, of whom 52,000 were archers. The English crossed a rivulet to
the attack, and Bruce having dug and covered pits, they fell into them, and were thrown
into confusion. The rout was complete : the English king narrowly escaped, and 50,000
were killed or taken prisoners. At Sauehieburn, near here, James II. was defeated and
slain on June 11, 1488, by his rebellious nobles. —A national monument was founded here,
June 24, 1 86 1.
* According to a return to parliament made at the close of February, 1826, there had become bankrupt
in the four numlftf preceding, 59 banking-houses, comprising 144 partners ; and 20 other banking establish
ments had boon declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy to a hundred
merchants, traders, and manufacturers to tho bankrupt list. This was, however, the period of bubble
speculation, and of unprecedented commercial embarrassment and ruin.
BAN BAR
BANNS, in the feudal law, wero a solemn proclamation of any kind : hence arose the
present custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage ; said to have been intro
duced into the church about 1200.
BANQUETING-HOUSE, Whitehall, London, built by Iuigo Jones, about 1607.
BANTAM (Java), where a rich British factory was established by captain Lancaster, in
1603. The English aud Danes wero driven from their factories hy the Dutch in 16S3.
Bantam surrendered to the British in 181 1, but was restored to the Dutch at the peace in
1814. It was not worth retaining, the harbour being choked up and inaccessible.
BANTINGISM. See Corpulence.
BANTRY BAY (S. Ireland), where a French fleet, bringing succour to the adherents of
James II., attacked the English under admiral Herbert, May 1, 1689 : the latter retired to
form in line and were not pursued. A French squadron of seven sail of the line and two
frigates, armed en flute, and seventeen transports, anchored here for- a few days, without
effect, Dec. 1796. MirrixY of the Bantry Bay squadron under admiral Mitchell was in
Dec. 1801. In Jan. 1802, twenty-two of the mutineers were tried on board the Gladiator, at
Portsmouth, when seventeen were condemned to death, of whom eleven were executed ; the
others wero sentenced to receive each 200 lashes. The executions took place on board the
Majestic, Centaur, Formidable, Ttmtraire, and L'Achille, Jan. 8 to 18, 1802.
BAPTISM, the ordinance of admission into the Christian church, practised by all sects
frofessing Christianity, except Quakers. John the Baptist baptized Christ, 30. (Matt, iii.)
nfant baptism is mentioned by Irenams about 97. In the reign of Constantine, 319,
baptisteries wero built and baptism was performed by dipping the person all over. In the
west sprinkling was adopted. Much controversy has arisen siuce 1831 (particularly in 1849
and 1850), in tlio church of England, respecting the doctrine of baptismal regeneration,
which the Arches' Court of Canterbury decided to be a doctrine of the church of England.
See Trials, 1849, and note.
BAPTISTS (see Anabaptists). A sect distinguished by their opinions respecting (1) the
proper subjects, and (2) the proper mode of baptism : the former they affirm to be those who
are able to make a profession of faith ; the latter to bo total immersion. There are seven
sections of Baptists—Armininn, Calvinistic (or Particular), Ac. The first Baptist church
formed in London was in 1608. They published a confession of faith in 1689. In 1851
they had 130 chapels in London and 2789 (with sittings for 752,353 persons) in England and
Wales. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Baptists in 1635.
BARBADOES, discovered by the Portuguese, was the first English settlement in the West
Indies. About 1605 it gave rise to tho sugar trade in England ; and was, with other
Caribbee islands, settled by charter granted to James, earl of Marlborough, 2 Charles I.,
1627. Barbadoes has suffered severely from elemental visitations ; in a dreadful hurricane,
Oct. 10, 1780, more than 4000 of the inhabitants lost their lives. A large plantation with
all its buildings was destroyed, by the land removing from its original site to another,
and covering everything in its peregrination, Oct. 1784. An inundation, Nov. 1795; and
two great fires, May and Dec. 1 796. Bishopric established, 1824. Awful devastation, with
the loss of thousands of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane, Aug. 10, 183 1.
Nearly 17,000 persons died of cholera here in 1854. On Feb. 14, i860, property to the
amount of about 300,000^. was destroyed by a fire at Bridgetown, the capital.
BARBARY, in N. Africa, considered to comprise Algeria, Morocco, Fez, Tunis, and
Tripoli, with their dependencies. Piratical states (nominally subject to Turkey) were
founded on the coast by Barbarossa, about 15 18.
BARBERS existed at Rome in the 3rd century B.C. In England, formerly, the business
of a surgeon was united to the barber's, and he was denominated a Baubeh-Surgeon. A
London company was formed in 1308, and incorporated, 1461. This union was partially
dissolved in 1540, and wholly so in 1745. "No person using any shaving or barbery in
London shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, except only drawing of
teeth." 32 Henry VIII. 1540.
BARCA (N. Africa), tho Greek Barce, a colony of Gyrene. It was successively subju
gated by the Persians, Egyptians, and Saracens. In 1550 the sultan Solyman combined
Barca with the newly conquered pashalik of Tripoli.
SI BAR
BARCELONA, an ancient maritime city, (N. E. Spain), said to have boon rebuilt by
Hamilcar Barca, father of the great Hannibal, about 233 B.C. With the surrounding
country', it was held by the Romans, Goths, Moors, and Franks, and, with the province of
which it is the capita), was made an independent county about a.d. 864, and incorporated
iutoAragon in 1164, the last count becoming king. The city has suffered much by war. The
siege by the French, in 1694, was relieved by the approach of the English fleet, commanded
by admiral Russell ; but the city was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1706. It was
bombarded and taken by the duke of Berwick and the French in 1714, and was taken by
Napoleon in 1808, aud retained till 1814. It revolted against the queen in 1841, and was
bombarded and taken in Dec. 1842, by Espartero.
BARCLAY, Captain. See Pedestriaiiism.
BARDESANISTS, followers of Bardesanes, of Mesopotamia, who embraced the errors of
Valentinus, after refuting them, and added the denial of the incarnation, the resurrection,
&c, about 175.
BARDS. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; and we find bards, according
to Strabo, among the Romans before tho ago of Augustus. The Welsh bards formed an
hereditary order, regulated, it is said, by laws, enacted about 940 and 1078. They lost their
privileges at the conquest by Edward I. in 1284. The institution was 'revived by the Tudor
sovereigns ; and their Eisteddfodds (or meetings) have been and are frequently held ; at
Swansea, Aug. 1863 ; at Llandudno, Aug. 1864 ; and in the vale of Conway, Aug. 7, 1865.
The Gwyneddigion Society of Iiards was founded in 1770. Turlogh O'Carolan, the last of
the Irish bards, died in 1737. Chambers.
BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT. Cromwell, supreme in the three kingdoms, summoned
122 persons, such as he thought he could manage, who with six from Scotland, and five from
Ireland, met, and assumed the name of parliament, July 4, 1653. It obtained its appellation
from a nickname given to one of its members, a leather-seller, named " Praise-God Ilarbon,"
a great haranguer and frequent in prayer. Although violent and absurd propositions were
made by some of the members, the majority evinced much sense and spirit, proposing to
reform abuses, improve the administration of the law, &c. The parliament was suddenly
dissolved, Dec. 13, 1653, at the instance of Sydenham, an independent, and Cromwell was
invested with the dignity of Lord Protector.
BAREILLY, province of Delhi (N. W. India), ceded to the East India company by the
ruler of Oude in 1801. A mutiny at Bareilly, the capital, was suppressed in April, 1816.
On May 7, 1858, it was taken from the sepoy rebels, who had here committed many
enormities.
BARFLEUR (N. France), where William, duke of Normandy, equipped the fleet by
which he conquered England, 1066. Near it, prince William, son of Henry I., in his
passage from Normandy, was shipwrecked, Nov. 25, 1120.* Barflcur was destroyed by
the English in the campaign in which they won the battle of Crecy, 1346. The French
navy was destroyed near the capo by admiral Russell, after the victory of La Hogue, in 1692.
BARI (S. Italy), the Barium of Horace, was, in the 9th century, a stronghold of the
Saracens, and was captured by the emperor Louis II., a descendant of Charlemagne, in 871.
In the 10th century it became subject to the eastern empire, and remained so till it was
taken by Robert Guiscard, the Norman, about 1060. A great ecclesiastical council was held
here on Oct. 1, 1098, when the filioquc article of the creed and the procession of the Holy
Spirit were the subjects of discussion.
BARING ISLAND, Arctic Sea, discovered by captain Penny in 1850-1, and so named by
him after sir Francis Baring, first lord of tho admiralty in 1849.
BARIUM (Greek, barys, heavy), a metal found abundantly as carbonate and sulphate.
The oxide baryta was first recognised as an earth distinct from lime by Schecle, in 1774; aud
the metal was first obtained by Humphrey Davy, in 1808. Walts.
BARK. See Jesuits' Bark:
• In this shipwreck perished his legitimate son, William, duke of Normandy, and his newly married
bride, Matilda, daughter of Fulke, earl of Anjou ; the king's natural son, Richard; Lis niece, Lucia;
the earl of Chester, and tho flower of the nobility, with 140 officers and soldiers, and 50 sailors, most
ft the latter being intoxicated, which was the cause of their running upon tho rocks near Barflcur.
This lamentable catastrophe had such nn effect upon Henry that ho was never afterwards seen to smile.
llcuault : Hume.
1;
BAR 8'2 BAR
BARMECIDES, a powerful Persian family, celebrated for virtue and courage, were
massacred through the jealousy of the caliph Haroun-al-Raschid, about 802. His visir Giafar
was a Barmecide. The phraso Barmecide (or imaginary) feast originated in the story of the
barber's sixth brother, in the Arabian Nights' Entertainments.
BARNAB1TES, an order of monks, established in Milan about 1530, wcro much engaged
in instructing youth, relieving the sick and aged, and converting heretics.
BARNARD'S, Sir John, Act (7 Geo. II., cap. 8), entitled, "an act to prevent the
infamous practice of stock-jobbing," was passed in 1734, and repealed in i860. Sir John
Barnard (born 1685, died 1764) was an eminent and patriotic lorn mayor of London.
BARNET, Hertfordshire. Here Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lancas
trians, on Easter-day, April 14, 1471, when the earl of Warwick and his brother the marquis
of Montacute, or Montague, and 10,coo men were slain. A column commemorativo of this
battle has been erected at the meeting of the St. Alban's and Hatfield roads.
BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, having discovered that no principle of suction
existed, and that water did not rise in a pump through nature's abhorrence of a vacuum,
imitated the action of a pump with mercury, and made the first barometer, about 1643.
Pascal's experiments (1646) enhanced the value of the discovery by applying it to the measure
ment of heights. Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668 ; pendent barometers in 1695 ;
marine in 1700, and many improvements have been since made. In the Aneroid barometer
(from a, no, and neros, watery) no liquid is employed ; the atmospheric pressure being
exerted on a metallic spring. Its invention (attributed to Cont<5, in 179S, and to Vidi, about
1844) excited much attention in 1848-9. Barometers were placed at N.E. coast stations in
i860, by the duke of Northumberland and others.
BARON, now the lowest title in our peerage, is extremely ancient. Its original name in
England, Vavasour, was changed by the Saxons into Thane, and by the Normans into Baron.
Many of this rank are named in the history of England, and undoubtedly had assisted in, or
had been summoned to parliament (in 1205) ; but the first precept found is of no higher date
than the 49 Henry III. 1265. The first raised to this dignity by patent was John do Beau-
champ, created baron of Kidderminster, by Richard II., 1387. The barons took arms against
king John, and compelled him to sign the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of
our forests, at Runnymede, near Windsor, Juno, 1215. Charles II. granted a coronet to
barons on his restoration.
BARONETS, the first in rauk among the gentry, and the only knighthood that is here
ditary, were instituted by James I. 161 1. The rebellion in Ulster seems to have given rise
to this order, it having been required of a baronet, on his creation, to pay into the exchequer
as much as would maintain "thirty soldiers three years at eightpenco a day iu the province
of Ulster in Ireland." It was further required that a baronet should be a gentleman born,
and have a clear estate of 1000/. per annum. The first baronet was sir Nicholas Bacon (whose
successor is therefore styled Primus Baronetiorum Angliai), May 22, 161 1. The baronets of
Ireland were created in 1619 ; the first being sir Francis Blundell.—Baronets of Nova Scotia
were created, 1625 ; sir Robert Gordon the first baronet—All baronets created since the Irish
union in 1801 are of the United Kingdom.
BARONS' WAR, arose in consequence of the faithlessness of king Henry III. and the
oppression of his favourites. The barons, headed by Simon de Moutfort, earl of Leicester,
and Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, met at Oxford in 1262, and enacted statutes to
which the king objected. In 1263 their disputes were in vain referred to the decision of
I/mis IX. of France. War broke out, and on May 14, 1264, the king's party were totally
defeated at Lewes : and De Montfort become the virtual ruler of the kingdom. Through
treachery the war was renewed ; and at the battle of Evesham, Aug. 4, 1265, Dc Montfort
was slain, and the barons were defeated. They, however, did not render their final sub
mission till 1268. A history of this war was published by Mr. W. H. Blaauw in 1844.
BARRACKS (from "Baroque—Iluitc que font les soMats cn campagnc pour so mettre a
convert") were not numerous in these countries until about 1789. A superintendent-general
was appointed in 1793, since when commodious barracks have been built in the various
garrison towns and central points of the empire.—A report, censuring the condition of many
barracks, was presented to parliament in 1858 ; and great improvements were effected under
the direction of Mr. Sydney Herbert. See Aldcrslwt.
BARRICADES, mounds formed of trees and earth, and for military defence. During
the wars of the League in France, in 1588, the people made barricades by means of chains,
BAH S3 BAH
casks, &c, and compelled the royal troops to retire. Barricades composed of overturned
vehicles, &c, were erected in Paris in the insurrections of July, 27-30, 1830, and Juno 23,
184S.
BARRIER TREATY, by which the Low Countries wero ceded to tho emperor Charles VI.,
was signed by the British, Imperial, and Dutch ministers, Nov. 5, 1715.
BARRISTERS are said to have been first appointed by Edward I., about 1291, but there
is earlier mention of professional advocates in England. They arc of various rank, as
King's or Queen's Counsel, Serjeants, &c, which see. Students for the bar must keep a
certain number of terms at tho Inns of Court, previously to being called ; and by tho
regulations of 1853 must. pass a public examination. Irish students must keep eight terms
in England.
BARROSA, or Barossa (S. Spain), where a battle was fought on March 5, 181 1, betweon
the British army, commanded by major-general sir Thomas Graham, afterwards lord
Lynedoch, and the French under marshal Victor. After a long conflict, the British achieved
one of the most glorious triumphs of the Peninsular war. Although they fought at great
disadvantage, the British compelled tho French to retreat, leaving nearly 3000 dead, six
pieces of cannon, and an eagle, the first that the British had taken ; tho loss of the British
was 1 169 men killed and wounded.
BARROW ISLAND (N. Arctic Sea), discovered by captain Penny in 1850-51, and named
by him in honour of John Barrow, Esq., son of sir John.
BARROW'S STRAITS (N. Arctic Sea), explored by Edwd. Parry, as far as Melville
Island, lat. 74° 26' N., and long. 113° 47' W. The strait, named after sir John Barrow, was
entered on Aug. 2, 1819. The thermometer was 55° below zero of Fahrenheit.
BARROWISTS, a name given to the Jiroimiists, which sec.
BARROWS, circular mounds found in Britain and other countries, were ancient
sepulchres. Sir Richard Hoare caused several barrow3 near Stonehenge to be opened ; in
them were found a number of curious remains of Celtic ornaments, such as beads, buckles,
mid brooches, in amber, wood, and gold : Nov. 1808.
BARS in music appear in the madrigals of Bonini, 1607. Their common use in this
country is attributed to Henry Lawes, about 1653. Eng. Cyc.
BARTHOLOMEW, ST., martyred, 71. The festival (on Aug. 24, O.S., Sept. 3, N.S.)
is said to have been instituted in 1130.* The monastery and hospital of St. Bartholomew
(Austin Friars), founded in the reign of Henry I., by Rahere, about 1 100. On the dissolution
the Hospital was re-founded, 1539, and was incorporated in 1546-7. It was rebuilt by
subscription in 1729. In 1861 it contained 580 beds, and relieved about 70,000 patients :
it has since been considerably enlarged. The Massacre commenced at Paris on the night of
the festival of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 1572. According to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, or
French Protestants, including women and children, were murdered throughout the kingdom
by secret orders from Charles IX., at the instigation of his mother, the queen dowager,
Catherine de Medicis.f
BARTHOLOMEAV, ST., a West Indian island, held by Sweden. It was colonised by
the French in 1648 ; and has been several times taken and restored by the British. It was
ceded to Sweden by France in 1785.
BARTHOLOMITES, a religious order of Armenia, settled 1307, at Genoa, where is pre
served in the Bartholomite church the imago which Christ is said to have sent to king
Abgarus. The order was suppressed by pope Innocent X. 1650.
BARTON AQUEDUCT (near Manchester) was constructed by James Brindley, to carry
thc Bridgewater canal over the Irwell, which was done at a height of 39 feet abova the river.
It is said to be in as good a state now as it was on the day it was completed, in 1 761.
• The charter of the Fair was granted by Honry II., and was held on the ground which has been the
former scene of tournaments and martyrdoms. The shows at the fair were discontinued in 1850, and
the fair was proclaimed for the last time in 1855. In 1858 Mr. H. Morlcy published his " HiBtory of Bar
tholomew Fair," with many illustrations. See timithllel'l.
t The number of the victims is differently stated by varioilB authors. La Popclioncrc calculates the
whole at 20,000 ; Adriani, Do Serrcs, and De Thon say 30,000 ; Davila states them at 40,000 ; and PereTixo
makes the number 100,000. Abovo 500 persons of rank, and 10,000 of inferior condition, perished in Paris
alono, besides those slaughtered in tho provinces. Tho pope, Gregory XIII., ordorcd a TtDeutn to be per
formed on the occasion, with other rejoicings.
o 2
BAS 84 NAT
BASLE, a rich city in Switzerland. Tho 18th general council sat hero from 1431 to
1443. Many important reforms in tho church were proposed, but not carried into effect :
among others the union of the Greek and Roman churches. The university was founded in
1460. Treaties of peace between France, Spain, and Prussia were concluded here in 1795.
BASHI-BAZOUKS, irregular Turkish troops, partially employed by the British in the
Crimean war, 1854-6.
BASIENTELLO (S. Naples). Here the army of the emperor Otho II. fell into an
ambuscade, and was nearly cut to pieces by the Greeks and Saracens on July 13, 9S2 ; the
emperor himself barely escaped.
BASILIANS, an order of monks, which obtained its name from St. Basil, who died 380.
The order was reformed by pope Gregory, in 1569. —A sect, founded by Basil, a physician
of Bulgaria, held most extravagant notions ; they rejected the books of Moses, the eucharist,
and baptism, and are said to have had everything, even their wives, in common, 1 1 10. Basil
was burnt alive in 1 1 18.
BASILIKON DORON (Royal Gift), precepts on the art of government, composed by
James I. of England for his son, and first published at Edinburgh in 1599. Tho collected
works of this monarch were published at London, 1616-20, in one vol. fol.
BASQUE PROVINCES (N. W. Spain, Biscay, Guipuscoa, aud Alava). The Basques,
considered to be descendants of the ancient Iberi, were termed Vascones by the Romans,
whom they successfully resisted. They were subdued with great difficulty by the Goths
about 580 ; and were united to Castile in the 13th and 14th centuries. Their language,
distinct from all others, is conjectured to be of Tartar origin.
BASQUE ROADS. Four French ships of the line, riding at anchor here, were attacked
by lords Gambier and Cochrane (the latter commanding the fireships), and all, with a great
number of merchant and other vessels, were destroyed, April 12, 1809. Cochrane accused
Gambier of neglecting to support him, and thereby allowing the French to escape. At a
court-martial (July 26—Aug. 4), lord Gambier was acquitted.
BASSORAH, Basrah, ok Bussorah (Asia Minor), a Turkish city, founded by the caliph
Omar, about 635. It has been several times taken aud retaken by the Persians and Turks.
BASS ROCK, an isle in the Firth of Forth (S. Scotland), was granted to the Landers,
1316 ; purchased for a state-prison, 1671 ; taken by the Jacobites, 1690 ; surrendered, 1694 ;
granted to the Dalrymplcs, 1706.
BASS'S STRAIT, Australia. Mr. Bass, surgeon of the Reliance, in an open boat from
Port Jackson, in 1 797, penetrated as far as Western Port, and affirmed that a strait existed
between New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. Lieutenant Flinders circumnavigated
Van Diemen's Land, and named tho strait after Mr. Bass, 1 799.
BASSET, or Bassette, or Pour el Conire, a game at cards, said to have been invented
by a noble Venetian, in the 15th century ; introduced into France, 1674.
BASTARD, a child not born in lawful wedlock. An attempt was made in England, in
1236, to make- bastard children legitimate by the subsequent marriage of the parents, but it
failed, and led to the memorable answer to the barons assembled in the parliament of
Morton : Nolumus leijcs Analia> mulari—" We will not have the laws of England changed."
Women concealing their children's birth deemed guilty of murder, 21 James I., 1624.
Viner's Statutes. In Scotland bastard children had no"t the power of disposing of their
moveable estates by will, until 6 Will. IV. 1836. A new act, facilitating tho claims of
mothers, and making several provisions for proceeding in bastardy cases, was passed 8 Vict,
cap. 10(1845).
BASTILLE, Paris, a castle built by Charles V., king of France, in 1369, for the defence
of Paris against tho English ; completed in 1383. It was afterwards used as a state prison,
and became the scene of much suffering. Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in
vain iu tho siege of Paris, during the war that desolated France between 1587 and 1594.
On July I4ri5, 1789, it was pulled down by tho infuriated populace; tho governor and
other officers were seized, conducted to the Place do Greve, and had their hands and heads
cutoff. Tho heads fixed on spikes were carried in triumph through the streets.—" The
man with the iron mask," tho most mysterious prisoner ever known, died here, Nov. 19,
1703. Seo Iron Mask.
BATAVIA and Batavian Republic. See Holland.
65
BATAVIA, the capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East Indies, built
by that people about 1619. Taken by the English, Jan. 1782. Again, by the British, under
general sir Samuel Auchmuty, Aug. 26, i8n ; restored in 1814.
BATH (Somerset), a favourite station of the Romans. About 44 B.C. was remarkable
then for its hot springs. Coel, a British king, is said to have given this city a charter, an d
the Saxon king Edgar was crowned here, a.d. 973.
Bath plundered and burnt in the reign of Wil Theatre, Beaufort-square, opened . . . 1805
liam Rufus, and again in .... 1137 Bath philosophical society formed . . . 1817
The abbey church commenced in 1405 ; finished 1606 Victoria park opened by princess Victoria . . 1830
Assembly-rooms built 1771 British association met here . . Sept. 14, 1864
Pump room erected ...... 1797
BATH and WELLS, Bishopric of. The see of Wells, whose cathedral church was
built by Ina, king of the West Saxons, in 704, was established in 909. The see of Bath was
established' in 1078. John de Villula, the sixteenth bishop, having purchased the city of
Bath for 500 marks of Henry I., transferred his seat from Wells to Bath in 1088. Disputes
arose between the monks of Bath and the canons of Wells about the election of a bishop,
which were compromised in 1 135. Henceforward the bishop was to be styled from both
places ; the precedency to be given to Bath. The see is valued in the king's books at
531?. is. $d. per annum. "Present income, 5000Z.
* RECENT BISHOPS OF BATH AND WELLS.
1802. Richard Beadon, died . . April 21, 1824 I 1845. Richard Bagot, died . . . May 15, 1854
1824. George Henry Law, died . . Sept. 22, 1845 | 1854. Robert John, baron Auckland (present bishop),
BATH ADMINISTRATION. Mr. Pelham and his friends having tendered their resigna
tion to the king (George II.), Feb. 10, 174&, the formation of a uew'ministry was undertaken
by William PuTteney, earl of Bath ; but it expired on Feb. 12, while yet incomplete, and
received the name of the "Short-lived" administration. The members of it actually
appointed were : the earl of Bath, first lord of Uic treasury ; lord Carlisle, lord pririj seal ;
lord Winchilsea, first lord ofthe admiralty ; and lord Granville, one of the secretaries of state,
with the seals of the other in his pocket, "to be given to whom he might choose." Mr.
Pelham and his colleagues returned to power. Cox's Life of Pellvam.
BATH, Order of TnE, said to be of early origin, but formally constituted Oct. II,
1399, by Henry IV., two days previous to his coronation in the Tower ; he conferred the'
order upon forty-six esquires, who had watched the night before, and had bathed. After
the coronation of Charles II. the order was neglected until May 18, 1725, when it was
revived by George I., who fixed the number of knights at 37. On Jan. 2, 1815, the prince
regent enlarged the order, forming classes of knights grand crosses (72), and knights com
manders (180), with an unlimited number of companions. By an order published May 25,
1847, all the existing statutes of this order were annulled j and by the new statutes, thu
order, hitherto exclusively military, was opened to civilians. In 1851, Dr. Lyon Plajfair,
and other promoters of the Great Exhibition of that year, received this honour.
Constitution :— 1jt Clan. Knights grand cross, 50 military, 25 civiL
2nd Class. Knights commanders, 100 „ 50 ,,
3rd Ctass. Companions, 525 „ 200 ,,
BATHS were long used in Greece, and introduced by Agrippa into Pome. The thermfe
of the Romans and gymnasia of the Greeks (of which baths formed merely an appendage)
were sumptuous. The marble group of Laocoon was found in 1506 in the baths of Titus,
erected about 80, and the Farnese Hercules in those of Caracalla, erected, 211. See Bath.
BATHS XN LONDON. PUBLrC BATTIS AND WASH-II0U8E8.
In London, St. Agnes Lo Celre, in Old-streot- The first established by Mr. Bowie in the neigh
road, was a spring of great antiquity ; baths bourhood of tho London docks . . . 1844
said to have been formed in 1502. Acts were passed to encourage theestabtishment
St.Chad's-well, Grey's-inn-road, derives its name of public hatha and wash houses, "for the
from St. Chad, the fifth bishop of Lichfield . 667 health, comfort, and welfare of the inhabi
Old Bath-house, Coldbath-square, in use . . 1697 tants of populous towns and districts," in
A bath opened in Bagnio-court, now Bath-street, England ana Ireland 1846
Newgate-street, London, is said to have been In the quarter ending Sept. 1854, 537,345
the first bath in England for hot bathing . 1679 bathers availed themselves of the baths in
Peerless (Perilous) Pool, Baldwin-street, City- London, and iu this period there wero 85,260
road, mentioned by Stow (died 1605) ; en washers.
closed as a bathing placo 1743 Public lKiths and waah-houscs have sinco been
Turkish sweating-baths very popular in . .i860 established throughout the empire.
Tho Oriental baths in Victoria-street, West
minster, were completed in . . . . 1862
BAT 86
BATON, a truncheon borne by generals in tbo French army, and afterwards by the
marshals of other nations. Henry III. of France, before he ascended the throne, was made
generalissimo of the army of his brother Charles IX., and received the b&ton as the mark of
the high command, 1569. Hinault.
BATTERIES along the coasts were constructed by Henry VIII. (who reigned 1509-47).
The famous floating batteries with which Gibraltar was attacked, in the memorable siege of
that fortress, were the scheme of D'Arcon, a French engineer. There were ten of them, and
they resisted the heaviest shells and 32-pound shot, but ultimately yielded to red-hot shot,
Sept. 13. 1782. See Gibraltar.
BATTERING-RAM, Tcstudo Arietaria, with other military implements, some of which
are still in use, are said to have been invented by Artemon, a Lacedaemonian, and employed
by Pericles, about 441 B.C. These ponderous engines (from 85 to 120 feet long) by their
own weight exceeded tho utmost effects of the battering cannon of the early part of the last
century. Desaguliers. Sir Christopher Wren employed a battering-ram in demolishing the
old walls of St. Paul's church, previously to rebuilding the edifice in 1675.
BATTERSEA PARK originated in an act of parliament passed in 1846, which
empowered Her Majesty's commissioners of woods to form a royal park in Battersea-
fields. Acts to enlarge the powers of the commissioners were passed in 1848, 1851, and
1853. The park and the new bridge connecting it with Chelsea were opened in April, i§5S.
BATTLE-ABBEY, Sussex, founded by William I., 1067, on the plain where the battle
of Hastings was fought, Oct. 14, 1066. It was dedicated to St. Martin, and was given to
Benedictine monks, who were to pray for the souls of the slain. Tho original name of the
plain was Hethcland. See Hastings. After the battle of Hastings, a list was taken of
William's chiefs, amounting to 629, and called the Battel-roll ; and amongst these chiefs
the lands and distinctions of the followers of the defeated Harold were distributed.
BATTLE, Wager of, a trial by combat formerly allowed by our laws, where the defen
dant in nn appeal of murder might fight with tho appeUant, and make proof thereby of his
guilt or innocence. See Appeal.
BATTLE-AXE, a weapon of the Celtm. The Irish were constantly armed with an axe.
Bums. At the battle of Bannockburn king Robert Bruce clove an English champion down
to tho chine at one blow with a battle-axe, 13 14. Hume. The battle-axe guards, or beau-
fetiers, who are vulgarly called beef-eaters, and whose arms are a sword and lance, were first
raised by Henry VII. in 1485. They were originally attendants upon tho king's buffet. See
Yeoman of the Guard.
BATTLEFIELD, Battle of. Seo Shrewsbury.
BATTLES. Palamedes of Argos is said to have been the first who ranged an army in a
regular line of battle, placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the soldier's vigilance by-
giving him a watchword. Lcnglct. See Naval Battles, British.. The following are the most
memorable battles, arranged in chronological order. The fifteen battles marked by a f arc
termed " decisive by Professor Creasy ; n. signifies naval.
BEFORE CHRIST. *Arginusre (Conon defeats Spartans) . . B.C. 406
Abraham defeats kings of Canaan (Geo. xiv.) . 1913 "jfcgospotamos n. (Atluniav fleet destroyed) . .. 405
Joshua aubdvies five kings of Canaan (Josh, x.). 1451 *Cunaxa(Cjrn<j defeatedand killctl by Artaxerxes) 401
Gideon defeats the Midianitca (Judges vii.) . 1245 Cnidus, n. (Canon defeats Spartans) . . . 394
Trojan war commenced 1103 "Coronea (Argesilaus defeats Athenians and allies) „
Troy taken and destroyod .... 1184 *AUin ( Brennus and the Gauls defeat Roma ns) . 390
Jophthah defeats Ammonites . . . . 1143 VolseJ defeated by Camillus 381
Ethiopians defeated hy Asa (2 Chvon. xiv.) . 941 Volsci defeat the Romans 379
•Horatii vanquish Curiatii 669 Naxus (Chabrias defeats Laeedermtmians) 376 or 377
•Halys (Medes and Lydians, stopped by eclipse) . 585 •Leuctra ( Ihebans defeat Sj/artans) . . . 371
f'Marathon (Greeks defeat Persians) Sept. 28, 490 Camillus defeats the Gauls
defeat Thessalians) . 367
*Thcrmopylai (heroism of Leonulas) Aug. 7-9, 480 •Cynocephalas (lhebans 364
♦Salamis, n. (Greeks defeat Persian*) . Oct. 20, „ •Mantinea (lltebans victors: Epaminondtis slain) 362
•Mycale (ditto) .... Sept. 22, 479 *Criracsus (Timoleon defeats Carthaginians) . 339
•Plataea (ditto : Pausanias) . . Sept. 22,
•Eurymedon n. (ditto: Cimon) .... 466 "Ctueronea (Philip defeat* Athenians, etc.) . . 338
Thebes destroyed by Alexander . . . 335
•Coronca (Beeotians defeat Athenians) . . . 447 'Granieua (Alexander defeats Darius) May 22, 334
Romans totally defeat Vcientes . 437 * Issus (dittoi Oct 333
Toronc (Ctom killed: Athenians defeat Spartans) 422 "Pandosia (Alexander of Epirns dftd. and slain) 33a
•Mantinca (Spartans defeat Athenian*) . . . 418 •Cranon \*\rlK\n (Antipater
(Alexanderdefeats
defeatsGreeks)
Darius). . . Oct.. 1,. 331
f Athenians dofeated before Syracuse . 413 322
*Cyzicus n. (Alcibiades defeats Spartans) . . 410 tCaudinc Forks (Roman army cajttured) . . 321
[Tho battles which are thus marked « are more fully described in their alphabetical order ]
S7 BAT
BATTLES, continued.
fGasa (Ptolemy defeat* Bemetrius) . . B.O. Ravennadefeated
•Franks taken bybyAspar
Aetius . . . a.d. 425 428
Fabius defeats tho Tuscans ....
"Himera (Gelon defeats Agathocles) . . . Genseric takes Carthage .... 439
"Ipsus (SeUucus defeat* Anttgonus, v?io is slain) . t*Chalons-sur-Marnc (Atilla defeated by Aetius) 451
"Scntinum (Rotmim defeat Samnites) . . Aylesford (Briton* defeat Stixon*) . . 455
Asculum (Pyrrhus defeats Romans) . . . Crayford,(Clovis
•Soissons Kent (Hengitt defeat* Briton*)
defeat* Syagriu*) . . . . .. 486 457
Benevcntuni (Romans defeat Pyrrhus) •Tolbiach or Zulpich (Clovis defeats Alcmanai) . 496
'Punic Wars begin
" Mylm, «. (Romans defeat Cartliagitiians) . Saxons defeat Britons 508
Xantippua defeats Regulus Victories of Bolisarius 533*4
"Panorama (Asdrubal defeated by Jdetellus) Norses defeats Totila 553
tDrepanum it. (Cartiwginian* defeat Romans) . Hcraclius defeats the Persians (Chosroes) . fo*
n. (Romans defeat Carthaginians). Beder (first victory of Mahommed) . . . 623
Churium Muta (Mahometan* defeat Roman/') . . . 629
Sellasia | (daub defeated)
■ donian - defeat Spartans) Hatfield (Heathfield ; Penda defeats Edwin) . 633
Caphya) (Achtrans defeat JEtoliajis) . . . SaracenB subdue Syria 636-8
.Saguutuin taken by Hannibal .... Kadscah (Arabs defeat Persians) . . . 638
"2nd Punic War.—Ticinus (Hannibal defeats •Near Oswestry (Penda defeats Oswald of North 640
SaracenB take Alexandria
Roman*)
'Trebia (ditto) umberland)
•Leeds (Osvey defeats Ptnda, uho is slain) . . 655 642
Thrasymenes (ditto) •Saracens defeated by Wambo, in Spain . . 675
Haphia (Antiochu* defeated by Ptol. Philopater)
*Cannw (Victory of Hannibal) . . Aug. 2, 216 •Xeres (Saracens defeat Roderic) . . . . 711
Scipio defeats Hasdrubal in Spain . . . 215 t "Tours (Chas. Martel defeats tke Saracen*) . 732
Marcellus and Hannibal (former killed) . 209 Victories of Charlemagne . . . 775-800
t'Metaurus (A>ro defeats Asdrubal, ulto is killed) 707 •Roncesvalle (death of Roland) . . . . 778
\Zama (Scipto defeats Hannibal) . 20? Clavijo (Moors defcat'tt)
■2<}0 Albaida 844
Abydos (siege (Romans
•Cynocephahe of) defeat Macedonians) (Musa and Moors defeated) . . . 85a
197
^Magnesia [Scijiio defeat* Antiochu*) . . . I90 DANI8II INVASIOX, ETC.
^Pydna (Romans defeat Perseus) . . June 22, 168 Hengestdown (Banes defeated by Egbert) . . 835
'Punic War (Me Third) Charinouth (Ethelwotf defeated by the Ban'*) . 840
'Carthage taken by Publius Bcipio . i46 Danes defeat King Edmund of East Anglia . 870
Mummiua takes Corinth Assendon or Aahdown (Bancs defeated) . . 871
*Metellus defeats J ugurtha . 109 Morton (Banes victorious)
Aqwe Sextia; (Aix ; Idarius defeat*
•Ciinbri and. Romans (defeated by Mariun) . Vie Tevtonet) 102 Wilton (Banes victorious over Alfred) . , . 872
I'.n fAndernach (Charles the Bald defeated) Oct. 8, 876
*Chajronea (Sylla defeat* Mithridates' army) . . 86 Ethandun (Alfred defeats Bane*) . . . . 878
Marius defcatod by Sylla 82 Furnham (Bane* defeated) .... 894
Tigranocerta (LucuUus defeats Tigranes) . . <-> Bury (Edward defeats Ethelwald and Bams) . 905
Pistoria (Catiline defeated) (>>
Cesar defeats Cassiyclaunua . . . . "Soissons (king Robert victor, killed) . . . 933
Carrhai (Crassus defeated by the Parthian*) 54 "Semiucas (Spaniarils defeat Moors f) . 934 or 938
June g, Nicophorus Phocas defeats Saracens . . 962
*Pharsalia
•Zela (Casar
(Casar defeats
defeat* Pompey) vrites,
Pharnaces; . . Aug." Veni,9, Bosientello (Otho II. defeated by Greeks, d-c.)
July 13, 982
vidi, vici ") [The Saxons and Danes fought with different
Thapsus (Casar defeat* Pompey s friends) . . success from 638 to 1016.]
Muuda, in ^pain (Pompeys sons subdued) Assingdon,
■Clontarf Ashdon
(Bane* (Canute defeats Edmund) , 1014
defeated) 1016
•Philippi (Brvtus and Cassius defeated) \Mar. . 17,. Civitella (Norman* defeat Leo IX) . . . 1053
Agrippa defeats
•Actiuui, Pompey
n. (Octaviu* theAntony)
defeats Younger. Sept.. 2, *Dunsinano (MacbeOi defeated) .... 1056
Stanford Bridge (Harold defeats Tostig) Sept. 25, 1066
t'Hastiags(iri//mm /. defeat* Harold) Oct. 14, ,.
tVarus defeated by Herman (or Arminius) . Fladenhcim
•Alnwick (emperor
(Scots dtfeatedtHenry defeated)
Malcolm slain). . . .. 1080
1093
"Drusua
•Shropshiredefeats Germanstaken)
(Caractacus .... ... •Crusades commence 1096
Sunbury (Romans defeat Boadicea) . •Ascalon (Crusaders victoriou*) . . Aug. 12, 1099
•Jerusalem taken •Tinchebray (Robert of Normandy defeated) 1 106
Agricola conquers Mona .... BrenneviHe, Normandy (Henry I. victoriou*) . 1x19
Ho defeats Galgacus and Caledonians . 84 *Northallerton, or Battle of the Standard,
Dacians defeated and Dcccbalus slain 106 •Ourique (Bavid (Alfonso
I. and Scot*
of defeated) . Aug.
Portugal defeats 22, 1x38
Moor*,)
Issus (Niger slain) 104
Lyons (Severn* defeats Albinu*) . . 197 •Lincoln (Stephen defeated) . . Feb. a, July 25,
Naissus (Ctaiuiius defeats Goths, 300,000 flain) ii 11
Verona (emperor Philip defeated) B49 •Alnwick (tt'illiam the lion defeated) . July 13, 1174
•Legnano (Italians defeated Frd. Barbaroasa),
Decius defeated and slain by Goths 251
■J:x)
Valerian defeated and captured by Sapor . May ao, 11 76
Chalons (Aurelian victor orer rival*) . Ascoli (Tancred
27* •Ascalon surrendersdefeats cmpeiorI.)Henry. VI.)'.
(Richanl Sept 7,. 1190
1191
Alectus defeated in Britain 296
Constantino def. Maxentius(see Cross),
•Adrianople (Conxtantine defeat* Licinius) . Oct. 27 31a Arcadiopolis (Bulgarian* defeat Emp. Isaac) . 1194
•Aquileia (C.nxtantine II. slain) 323 Alarcos (Moors defeat Spaniard*) . ,Julyi9, 1195
•Argentaria (Oration defeats Gauls) • "Gisors (Richard I defeats French) . Oct 10, 1198
•Aquileia • .'•/ slain) ^ "Arsoul (Richard I. defeats Saracen*) Sept. 7, 1199
Tolosa (Mows defeated) 1212
*Aquileia (Eugenin* slain) .... •Bouvines
:>•-) \ •Lincoln (French defeat Germans)
I'ollentia (Stilicho defeats Alaric) . Mar. 29, 403 (French defeated) May 19, 1217
Home taken by Alaric . , , Aug. 24, 410 1 "Mausourah (Loui* IX. and CrvAadtrs defeated) . 1250
[Tho battles which are thus marked * are more fully described in their alphabetical order.]
BAT
BATTLES, continued.
•Lowes (English baron» victorious) . May 14, 1264 •Marignano (French defeat Swiss) Sept. 13-15, 1 51 5
•Evesham (Baron* defeated) . Aug. 4, 1265 Bicocca, near Milan (Lautrec defeated)
•Benevento (Chat, of Anjou defeats Manfred) •Pavia (Francis I. defeated) . . Feb. 24, 1'5-5 5jj
Feb. 2326, 1266 •Mohatz (Turks defeat Hungarians) Aug. 29, 1 - ■
•Tagliacozzo (Charles defeats Conradin) Aug. *Cappol (Zwinglius slain) . . . Oct. 11, 1 531
"yi&rch(eld(Att*trwH>defeat Bohemian*) Aug. 26 1278 Assens (Christian III. defeats Danish rebels) 1 S3?
Llandcwyer (Llewellyn of Wales defeated) . Solway Moss (English defeat Scots) Nov. 25, 1542
Dunbar (King of Scott taken) . . April 27 I296 tCeresuolu (Froich defeat Imperialists) April 14,
Cambuskcnneth ( Wallace defeats English) I297 * Mtthlberg( Chas. V. defts. Protestants) April 24,
"Falkirk (Wallace
•Courtray (Flemingsdefeated) . July 2211, 1302
deft. Count afArtois)July I 2 # Pinkey (English defeat
•Kct's rebellion Scots) by .Warwick,
suppressed . Sept.Aug. 10,
•St. Quintin (Spanish and English defeat French), '54 )
Roslin, Scotland .... Feb. 24, 1303
tCephisus (Duke of Athens defeated) . . . 1311 Aug. 10,
*Bannockburn (Bruce defeats English) . Juno 24,. 1314 'Calais (taken) Jan, 7, 1553
•Morgarton (Swiss defeat Austrian*) „ Gravelines (Spanish andEnglisli defeat French),
•Foughardor Dundalk(£</. Bruce defd.) Oct. 5, 1318
•Boroughbridge (Edward II. defeats Barons) . 1322 'Dreux, in Franco (Huguenots defeated), Dec. 12,, July
19,
St. Denis (Mary
(ditto) of Scotland
. . defeated). . Nov. I--- :-
'Muhldorf (Bavarian* defeat Austrians) . . ,. •Langside
Duplin (Edward Baliol defeats Mar) Aug. 11, 1332 May 10,
13, 1 v 4
•Halidon Hill (Edward III. deft. Scots) July 19, 1333 •Jarnac (Huguenots defeated) . . March 13,
Aubcrocho (earl of Derby defeats French) . i 145 Moncontour (Cotigny defeated) . Oct. 3,
*Cressy (English defeat French) . Aug. 26, 1346 •Lepanto n. (Don John defeats Turks) Oct. 7, 1 571
•Durham, Nevil's Cross (Scots defeated) Oct. 17, •Alcazar (Moors defeat Portuguese) Aug. 4, 1573
La ttoche Darien (Charts of Blois defeaOd) . 1347 •Zutphen (Dutch and English defeat Spaniards)
*Poiticrs (English defeat French) . Sept. 19, 1356 •Coutras (Henry IF. defeat* League) Sept. Oct 22,
20, 15S0
•-
Cocherel(Da(DuGuesclin
•Auray Quesclinelefeated)
defeat* Navarre) . Sept. May 29,16, 1364
t"Spanish
•Arques Armada
(Henri/ IV. defeated,
defeats n.
League) . . .
Sept Aug.
21, 1 5 :S
*Najara (Black Prince defts. Henry of Trastamare)
April 3, 1367 •Ivry (W:nry IV. defeats League) . March 14, I15S9.3
•Montiol (Peter of Castile defeated) March 14, 1369 Blackwater (Tyrone defeats Bagnal) i V)&
•Kosbecquc (French defeat Flemings) . Nov. 17, 1382 Nieuport (Maurice defe.ats Austrians) . . . !'->■;
*8empach (Swiss defeat Austrians) . . July 9, 1386 Kinsale (Tyrone reduced by Mountjoy) 1 ''■ : :
•Otterburn (Chevy Chase ; Scots victors) Aug. 10, 1388 Kirchholm (Poles defeat Swedes) , . . . 16 ■
•Nicopolis f Turks defeat Christians) . Sept. 28, 1396 Gibraltar (Dutch defeat Spaniards) . . . 1Co7
* Ancyra (Timour defeats Bajazet) . . July 28, 1402 "Prague (king of Bohemia defeated) . Nov. 8, 1'r ■-:
"Homeldon Hill (English etc.,defeat Scots). Sept. 14, ., Mtochellc (taken)
•Shrewsbury (Perries, defeated) July 23, 1403 *Leipsic (Gusta^u* defeats Tilly) . Sept. 7, lOjii
•Harlaw (Lord of the hies defeated). . . May
Monmouth (Glcndowcr defeated) 11, 1405 'Xxscli (Imperialist* defeated; Tilly killed) April 5,
July 24, 1 41 1 •Lippstadt, Lutzingen, or Lutzcn (Swedes vic
•Agincourt (English defeat French) torious ; Guttavu*
•Anjou, !')• . . <: < E olisl deft, by Scots) March 22, 1415
Oct. 25, 1421 •Nordlingen (Swedesslain)
defeated). . . . Aug. Nov. 27,
16,
Crcv.mt (English deft. French
•Verneull (ditto) .... Aug. 27, 1424 and Scots), June 11, 1423 Arras (taken by the French) .... 1640
"Herrings (English defeat French) . Feb. 12, 1429 CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND COMMENCES . 1 J2
t'Patny (English defeated, Joan ofArc), June 18, „ Worcester (prince Rupert victor) . Sept 23,
KunobitzaScotland
•Brechin, (Huniadet defeatsdefeats
(Uuntly Vie Turks), Doc. 24,. 1443
Crawford) 1452 *"I^eipsic
Edgehill fight (issue doubtful) . Oct 23,
•Castillou, Chatillon (French defeat Talbot) or Breitenfeld($ir«&a victors), Oct. 13.
"Chalgrove (Hampden killed) . . June 18, 1643
Bntmham
July 23, 1453 •"Stratton (Royalists Moor (Fairfax ilefealed) . March 29,
victorious)
WAR OF THE ROSES—YORKISTS AND LANCASTRIANS. *Rocroy (French defeat Spaniards) May 16,
May I9>
*St Alban's (YorkUts victorious) . May 22 or 23, 1455
•Belgrade (Mahomet II. rcpultcd) . Sept. 10, 1456 Round-away-down (ditto) *Lansdown (Royalists victorious) July 5,
•Dlorehcath (Yorkists victors) . . 8cpt*23, 1459 * Newbury (Royalists defeated) July 13.
♦Northampton (ditto Henry VI. taken) July 10, 1460 Chenton or Alresford (ditto) . Sept 20,
•Wakefield (Lancastrians victors) . Dec. 31, March 29, 1044
Friedburg (Turenne victor)
Mortimer's Cross (Yorkist* victorious) Feb. 2, 1461
•St. Alban's (Lancastrians victors) . Feb. 17, „ "Marston Moor (Rupert defeated)Croprcdy Bridgo (Charles I. victor) June 29,
July 2,
* Towton ( Yorkists victorious) . . March 29, , , 'Newbury (indecisive) . . Oct. 27,
•Hexham (Yorkists victors) , May 15, 1464 *Naseby (king totally defeated) June 14, v-45
*Banbury (ditto) .... July 26, 1469 •Alford (Montrose defeats Covenanters) July 2,
Stamford (Lancastrian*
•Barnct (ditto) defeated) March 13, 1470 Kilsyth (ditto)
April 14, 1471 Nordlingen (Turanne defeats Austrians) Aug. 15,
•Tewkesbury (ditto) .... May 4,
•Dungan-hill (Irish defeated) . . July 10,5, 1'-47
"Benburb (O'Neill defeats English) . June -.'-<
•Granson (Swiss defeat Charlis the Bold) April 5, 1476 •Proaton (Cromwell victor) . . . Aug. 17, 1643
•Morat (ditto) Juno 22, •Rftthminee (Irish Royalists defeated) Aug. 2, 4 1
*Nancy
•Bosworth(Chart's the Bold
(Richard killed) . . Jan. 4, M77 *Drogheda
III defeated) •Corbiesdalc(taken by storm)
(Montrose, . . . April
defeated) Sept. 37,
12,
Aug. 22, 14$5 •Dunbar (Cromwdl defeat* Scots) . Sept. 3,
Stoke (Lambert Simnel taken) 14S7
8t. Aubin fBretons
•Blackheath (Cornishdefeated) .
rebels defeated) 1488 'Worcester(Cromwell defeat* Charles II.\ Sept. 3, 1 " v 1
•Corignola (Cordova defeats French) April June 22, 1497 [End of the civil war in England.]
•Agnadello (French defeat Venetians) May 14, 1509 Galway 28, 1503 (surrendered) 1*5=
*•Novara
Itavcnna(Papal
(GastonSwiss
de Foix, victor, killed) April 1512 •Dunkirk (ditto)(Turenne defeats Conde) June
Arras, France . . 14,. TO54
defeat French) June 1
•Guinogate (Spurs) (Frenc/t defeated) Aug. 16, 1513 Estremoz (Don John defeated by Schombero\ June 8,
•Flodden (English defeat Scots) Sept. 9, 1 515 Candia (taken by Turks) . . . Sept. €>,
[The battles which are thus marked * are moro fully described in their alphabetical order.]
BAT SO BAT
BATTLES, continued.
Choczim (Sobieski defeat) Turks and Con>lS) . 1673 I St. Lizzaro (Sardinians def. Austrian*) June 4, 1746
Senefle (indecisive) .... Aug. i, 1674 Rocoux (Saxe defeats Allies) . . Oct i, ,,
Mulhauscn (Turemie defeats Allies) Dec. 31, ,,
Saltzbach (Turcnue killed) . . July 27^, 1675 1 •Borgon-op-Zoon (taken) . . . Sept 16, 1747
*Druniclog (Covenanters defeat Claverhous'\ Laffcldt (Saxe defeats Cumberland) . June 20,
June t, 1679 Exillcs (Sardinians defeat French) July 8, ,,
*Bothwell Brigg (Monmouth defca't1 Co Covenaliters), Fort du Quesuo (Bvaddock kilte<l) . July 9, 1755
June
♦Vienna (Turks defeated by Sobieski) Sept. 12, 1683 22, „ "Calcutta (taken) .... June 18, 1756
*3edgeraoor (Monmouth defeated) July 6, 1685 •Praguo (Frexlerick SEVEN defeats
TEARS'Allies)
WAR, 1 756-63.
>Mohatz ( Turks defeated) . Aug. 12, 1687 •Koliin (Frederick defeated) . . . . June May "757
Killiecr.uikio (Highlanders defeat Mackay),
July 27, 1689 •Plassoy (Clivers victory) . . June
*Newton-butler (James II. 's adherents defeated) Norkitten(Frederick
•Kosbach (Russiansdefeats
defeated)
French). . . Aug. Nov.
•Boync ( )VUliani III. defeats James II.), July July30,1, 1690 •Breslau (Austrian* victor.*) . . . Nov.
*Fltmrus (Charleroi, Luxembourg victor), July 1, „ •Lissa (Frederick defeat* Austrian*) . Doc.
*Aughrim (James II.'* cause ruined) . July 12, 1691 •Crcveldt (Ferdinawl defeats French) . June ■753
^Salcnckemen (Louis of Baden defeats Turks), Zorndorff (Frederick defeats Russians) Aug.
Aug. 18, „ •Bergen *11ocbkirchen
(French(Austrian* def Prussians)
defeat Allies) . . April Oet
'Enghcin (Stcenkirk, William III. defeated),
July 24, 1692 •Niagara (English 'take Fort). . . July
*Landen (William III. defeated) . July 19, 1693 •Minden (Ferdinand defeat* French). Aug. 1,
Marsaglia (Pignerol) (French victors) Oct. I, „ •Cunnersdorf (Russians def. Prussians) Aug. 12,
"Zenta (prince Huff&ne defeats Turks) . Sept. 11, 1697 •Quebec ( Wolfe, victor, killed) . . Sept. 13,
1Narva (Charles XII. defeats Russians) Nov. 30, 17°° Wandewash (Coote defeats Lolly) . Jan. 22, 1 760
Carpi, Modena (Allies defeat French) July 9, 1701 Landshut, Silesia (iYuwiaju d-feateif) Juno 23,
Chiari (Austrians defeat French) . Sept. 1, Warburg (Ferdinand defeat* French) July 31,
Santa Vittoria (French victors) . . July 26, 1702 •Pfaffendorf (Frederick def. Austrians) Aug. 15,
"Pultusk (Swedes defeat Poles) . May 1, 1703 •TorgauCampen(Frederick
(French defeat
defeatsRussians)
Danes) . . . Oct. Nov. 15,3,
'Hochstadt (French defeat Austrians) Sept. 20,
Sehellonberg (Marlborough victor) . July 2, 1704 Johannisberg (French defeat Prussians) Aug. 30, 1 76 *
"Gibraltar taken by Booko . . July 24, „
t'Blenheim (Marlborough defeats French), Aug. *Bnxxr (Munro defeats army ofOude) . Oct 23, 1764
13. N. S. ,. Choczim (Russians defeat Turks) . . -j . 1769
Mittau (taken by Russians) . . Sept. 14, 1705 Silistria (taken) 1774
CassLno (prince Eugene ; indecisive) Aug. 16,
Tirlemont (Marlborough successful) July 18, AMERICAN WAR.
'RamilicH (Marlborough defeats French) May 23, 1706 •Lexington (Gage victor, uiith gr.at loss) April 19,
•Bunker's IliU (Americans repulsed) June 17, 1775
Turin (French
•Almanza defeated)
(French . ' April
defeat Allies) . . 14Sept.
or 25,7, 1707
„ •Long Island (Ainerican* tlefcated) . Aug. 27, 1776
"Oudenarde (Marlborough defeats French), July •Whito Plains (Howe defeats Americans) Oct. 28,
ii, 1708 •Rhodo Island (taken fry Royalists) . Dec. 8,
•Brandywino(//oiM defeat* Washington)Bapt. n, 1 ;;7
Liesna, Lenzo (Russians defeat Swedes) autumn,
Lisle [taken by the Allies) . . Dec. „ ♦•Saratoga (he is(Burgoyne's
•Germanstown victory) . Oct 3, 4,
compeiled to surrender) Oct. 17,
t*Pultowa (Peter defeats Cfutrles XII.) July 8, 1709 •Briar's
Dobro (Russians defeat Sicedes) . Sept. 20, „ •Camden (CornvaUis defeats Gate*) . March
Creek (Americans defeated) 16, 177-)
Aug. 16, 17X0
*Maiplaquet (Marlborough defeats French), Sept •Guildford (ditto) .... March 16,
11, • 7S1
*Almenara (Austrians defeat French) July 28, 1710 •York £11tawTown
Spring3(^»i0f<t(&/ Americans)
(Cornieallis surrenders) Sept.19,8,
. Oct
Saragossa (>iitto) .... Aug. 20, „
Villa Viciosa (Austrians defeatei) . Doc. 20, „ [Many inferior actions with various success.
Arleux (Marlborough forces French tines), Hvdor Ali defeated by Coote. . . July 1, 1
Aug. s, 1711 Bcdnore (taken by Tippern Saib) . April 30,
Bouehain (taken by Marlborough) . Sept. 13, „ "Martincsti (Austrians
by storm deft. Turks) . Sept. Dec. 22,
22, 17^
* Denain ( Villars defeats Allies) . July 24, 171 2 •Ismael (taken by Sutcarrow) 179J
Friburg (taken by Fiench) . . Nov. 26, 1713 •Seringapatam (Tippoo defeated) May 15, 1790,
* Freston (rebels defeated) . . Nov. T2, 13, 1715 Feb. 6, 1792
'Duniblane; Sheriff-Muir (indecisive) Nov. 13,
'■"Belgrade
Peterwardein(taken(Eugene defeats Turks)
by Eugene) . . Aug. Aug.22,5, 1 7 16 FRENCH REVOU7TIONARY WAR BEGINS.
Quiovrain (French repulted) April 28, 1792
^Bitonto (Sftaniards defeat Germans) May 26, 173* Munin (French defeat Austrian*) . June 20,
*Parma (Austrians and French, indecisive), Juno t'Valmy
•Jeniappcs (French
(Frenchdefeat Prussians)
victorious) Sopt. 20,
GuastUla (Austrians defeated) . . Sept. 39, 19, . Nov. 6,
Neerwindcn (French beaten) . March 18, '7 .'3
Krivan (Sadir Shah defeats Turks) . Juno, 1735 St. Amand (French defeated)
Krotika (Turks defeat Austrians) . July 22, •Valenciennes (ditto) . May 23, July 26,8,
May
*Molwitz (Prussian* defeat Austrians) April 10, 1741 •Linoelles (Lake defeatsFrench) . Aug. 18
'Dettipgcn (George II. defeats French) June 16, 1743 •Dunkirk (Duke of York defeated)
'Fontenoy (Saxe defeats Cumberland) April 30, 1745 *Quosnoy (reduced by Austrians) . Sept 7, 8,
Sept. 11,
Friedberg (Prussians defeat Austrians), June 4, „ Wattiguies (French defeat Cotntrg) . Oct 16,
•Toulon (evacuated by British) . Dec. 17,
•Cambray (French defeated) April 24, 1/94
80OT3* RERELLION.—OEORGE II. TrolsviUe, Landrccy (taken byAllies)
Allies)May, April 30,
'Preston Pans (rebels defeat Cope) . Sept. 21, 1745 •Tourcoing (Moreau deftali 18-22,
Clifton Moor (rebels defeated) . Dec. 18, „ •Espierros (taken by Atiict). . . May 22,
* alkirk (rebels defeat llawU1,) . Jan. 17, 1746 Howe's naval victory. . . . Juno 1,
CuUodon (Cumberland defeats rebels) April 16, „ "Charleroi, Fleurus (French defeat Allies) June 26,
[The battles which arc thus marked * arc more fully described in their alphabetical order.]
BAT 00 BAT
BATTLES, continued.
"Bois-le-Due (duke of York defeated) Sept.
•BoxtelfdiMo) Sept. 14,
17, 170,4
„ *Austerlitz {Napoleon defeats Austrian*) Dec. 2, 1805
•Warsaw or Macicjowice (Poles defeated) Oct. 4, ,, * Buenos Ayrcs (taken by Popham) . June 28, iSo6
•Niincguen . . . Oct. 28, and May 4, „ *Maida (Stuart defeats French) . . July 4,
'Warsaw {taken by Suwarroie) . . Nov. 4, „ •jJST*** \ (Fr*Kh defeat Prussians) Oct. 14.
Bridport's victory of L'Orient, it. Juno 22, 1795 *l\iltusk. (French and Allies, indecisive) Dec 26,
*Quiberon
•Mannheim,(Emigrants
(taken) defeated)
. . , . Sept. July 21,
20, „,, Mohrungou (French defeat Russians ami
Prussians) Jan. 25, 1807
•Montenutte (Bonaparte victorious) . April 12, ■ 1796
Eaono (French defeat Austrian*) . Nov. 23, „ 'Eylau (indecisive) .... Feb. 7, 8,
'Friedland (French defeat Russians) June 14,
,,
'Mondovi (ditto) .... April 22, „ "Buenos Ayres (Wnitelock defeated) . July 7, „
* Lodi (ditto) Hay 10, Copenhagen
•Baylcn (Spaniards(bombarded
defeat byFrench)
Cathcart)
. Sept.July6-8,
20, 180S
Altenkircben (Austrian* defeated) . June 4,
and Sept. 16,
Bassano (French
•Biberach (ditto) defeat Austrians) . Oct. Sept.10,8, ., PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN BEGINS.
•\im\era. (Wellesley defeats Junnt) . Aug. 21, 1808
•Castiglione ana Lonato . . . Aug. 3-5, ,, Tudcla (French
•Neresueim (Aforeau def. Archd. Charles) Aug. 10, ,, •Corunna (Mooredefeat
defeatsSpaniards)
French) . . Nov. Jan 23,
16, „
iSog
•Areola (Bonaparte victorious) . Nov. 15-17, ,, Landshut (Davoust
(Austriansdefeats
defeated) . April
April 22,
21,
RivoliSt.(ditto) Jan.Feb.14, 14,
15, 1797 •Eckniuhl Austrians)
•Cape Vincent, n. (French defeated) ,, Oporto (taken) . . . March 29, May 12, „
•Tagliainento (Bonaparte defeats Austrians) •EaSing 1 (^poUon defeated) . May 21, 22, „
March 16, „ •Wagram (Austrians defeated) . . July 5. 6,
'Cainperdown n. (Duncan defeats Dutch) Oct. •Talavcra ( Wellesley defeats Victor) July 27, 28,
IRISH REBELLION BEGINS . . . May, 1798 Ocana Silistria (ruri-s defeat Russians) . Sept. 26,
(Mortier defeats Spaniards) . Nov. 19,
"Kilcullen (Rebels successful) . May 23, 1798 *Busaco (Wellington repulses Massena) Sept. 27, It IO
•Naaa (Rebels defeated) .... May 24,
•Tara (ditto) May 26, „ 'Barrosa (Graham defeats Victor) . March 5,
'Badajos (taken by the French) . March 11,
1S11
•Oulart (Rebels successful) . . . Hay 27, ,, * Fuentes d'Onoro ( Wellingt. def. Massena) May 5,
•Gorey, *Ross [ditto) . . . June 4, •Albuera (Beresfard defeats Soult) . May 16,
tArklow (Rebels(Nugent
beaten) defeats. Rebels)
. . Juno yCiudad Rodrigo (stormed by English) . Jan 19,
•Ballynahinch Juno io,
13, „„ *Badajos (taken by Wellington) . April 6,
181 -
,,
"Vinegar Hill (Lake defeats Rebels) . June 21, „ "Salamanca( •Mohilow (French II cltmgton
defeat tlefts. Marmont)3\i\y
Russians) , July 22,23, „,,
fNilo (Nelson defeatsauxiliaries
Frenchfleet) *Polotzk (French and Russians) . July 30,31, T.
•Castlobar (French defeated). Aug.
Aug.28,1,
*.Smolensko (French defeat Russians) Aug. 17-19,
Balliuainuck (French and Rebels defeated)
Sept 8, „ S, } («« • • • • "I* *
•Queenstown (Americans defeated), Oct. 13,
•Pyramids (Bonaparte defeats Mamelukes) July 'Moscow (burnt by Russians) . . Sept. 14. ..
•Jaffa (Stormed by French) . . March 7, 1799 *Pulotzk (retaken by Russians) . Oct. 20, „
Malo-Jaroslawatz, or Winkowa . . . Nov. Oct. 24, „„
Stokach (Austrians defeat French) March 27, „ •Witepsk (French defeated)
•Krasnoi (ditto) .... Nov. 16-18,
14,
„
Verona (Austrians defeat French) March 28-30,
Naguano (Kray defeats French) . . Aprils, *Beresina (ditto) .... Nov. 25-29, ,,
Mount Thabor
•Cassano ......
(Suwarroie defeats Moreau) April 16, „„ •French Town (taken by Americmu) . Jan. 22,
April 27,
1813
*Kalitsch (Saxons defeated) . . Feb. 13, „
*Scringapatam Castella (Sir J. Murray defeats Suchet) April 1 3, „
{relieved :(Ttppoo killed)Smith). . . May May20,4, ,,„
•Acre Sir Sydney 'Lutzen (Napoleon checks Allies) . . May 2, „
Adda (Suwai-row defeats French) . . May 27, * Bautzen (Nap. and Allies; indecisive) May 20, ,,
•Zurich (French defeated) . . . June 5, „ *Wurtzchen (ditto) . . . . May 21,
"Trobia (Suwarraw. 18, 19,2, „ *\ittoria.(Weiling. defeats king Joseph) June 21, „
{takendefeats French) . June. July
•Alessandria by French) 'Pyrenees (Wellington defeats Soult) . July 28, „
■Aboukir (Turks defeated by Bonaparte) July 25, ,, Katzbach (BlUchcr defeats Ney) . Aug. 26, .,
•Novi (Suwarrow defeats French) . Aug. 15, ,, 'Dresden (Napoleon checks Allies) Aug. 25, 27, „
*Bergon and Alkmaer (Allies defeated) Sept. ig, St. Sebastian (stormed bji Graham) . Aug. 31, T,
25, „ '"Mockern
Oct. 26, Dennewitz (Ney defeated) . . Sept. 6, M
♦Zurich (Massena defeats Russians) . Sept. (indecisive) . . . . Oct. 14,
Engen (Moreau defeats A ustriayis) . May 3, 1800 •Leipsio (Napoleon defeated) . . Oct. 16-18, ,,
Mceskirch (ditto) May 5, „ "Hanau (Napoleon defeats Bavarians) Oct. 30, .,
*Biberach (ditto) May 9, *St. Jean do huz(Welling. defeats Soult)Hov. iq,
'Montebello (Austrians defeated) . . June 9, ,, [Passage of the Neve ; several engagements
-Marengo (Bonaparte defeats Austrians) June 14, ,, between the Allies and French, Dec. 10 to 13,
•Hochstadt (Moreau defeats Austrians) June 19, ,, 1813 ]
*Hohenlinden (ditto) .... Dec. 3, "St. Dizior, France (French defeated) . Jan. 27. 1S14
Mincio (French defeat Austrians) . Dec. 26, *Brienno (ditto) Jan. 29, „
•Alexandria (Abercrombie's victory) March 21, 1801 ^La Rothierc (Napoleon defeats Allies) Feb. i,
fCopenhagen (bombarded by Nelson) April 2, ,, Bar-BUr-Aube (Allies victors) . . . Feb. 7, „
Ahmednuggur.( Mincio (pr. Engine defeats Austrians) Feb. 8, .,
(ditto, hisWellesley
first greatvicloi°\Qus) Aug. 23,
12, 1803
♦Assaye victory) . Sept. t, Champ Aubert (FroicA defeat Allits) Feb. 10-12, „
*Argaum ( Wellesley victor) . . . Nov. 29, ,, Hontmirall (ditto) .... Fob. 11, ..
Furruckabad (Lake defeats Holkar) . Nov. 17, 1804 Vauchainps (ditto) . . . Feb. 14, „
"Bhurtporo {taken by Lake) . . April 2, 1805 "Fontainobleau (ditto) . . . Feb. 17. „
•Uhn surrond. (Ney defeats Austrians) Oct. 17-20, „ *Montereau (ditto) . . . . Feb. 18, „
"Trafalgar (Nelson destroys French fleet, killed) 'Orthoz (Wellington defeats Soult) . Feb. 27, .,
Oct. 21, *Bergcn-op-Zoom (Graham defeated) March 8, ,,
[The battles which are thus marked * arc more fully described in their alphabetical order.]
91 BAT
BATTLES, continued.
*Laon (Frtnch defeated) . . . March 9-10, 1814 Chuen-po (English victors) . . Jan. 7, 1" ;i
Rheitns (Napoleon defeats St. Priest) March 13, ,, Canton (English take Bogut fort*) . Fob. 26,
'"Tnrbea (Wellington defeats Soult) . March 20, Amoy (taken) Aug. 27,
' Fere Champenotso {French deftate-f) March 95, ,, Chin-hae (taken) Oct. 10,
Paris, Montinartro, Romainville (ditto) Mar. 30, „ Candabar (Afghans defeated) . . March 10, 1S4?
Battle of the Barriers—Marmont evacuates •Jellalabad (Khyber Passforced) . April 5,10,6,
Ningpo (Chinese defeated) . . March
Paris, and the allied armies enter that capital,
•Toulouse (Wellington defeats Sotdt) . March
April 31,
jo, „ Chin kcang
•Ghiznee (taken)defeated)
[Afghans . . . . . . July Sept.21,6,
"Mceanee
■ Mahurajpoor(Ifapier defeats Ameers) .
defeats Mahraltas), Dec. 29, Feb. 17, ■ s43
AMERICAN WAR.
Fort George (token by Americans) . May 27, 1813 Isly (French defeat Moors) . .
•Moodkee (Hardinge defeats Sikhs) . Dec. 18, •■ -Vi Aug. 14,
Burlington Height* (Americans routed) June 6, - 45
Chrysler's Point, Canada . . . Nov. n, „ *•Aliwal
Fcrozeshah
(Smithtditto) . . . . . Dec.Jan.
defeats Sikhs) 21, 22,
28, isV>
Black-rock,
•Craonne America
(Mucker defeated) . . . , . March
Dec. 38,7, 1814
,, •Sobraon (Gough defeats Sikhs) . . Feb. 10,
,n..
Clnppawa lljwrica^asfeated) . July 25, M»
M„, \(British defeated) . .Julys, •Montery (Mexicans defeated by Americans)
•Fort Krie (British repulsed) . . Aug. 15, ,, Sept, 21-23,
Palo Alto (Taylor defeat* Mexican*) May 8, 9,
'Bladensburg
•Bcllair (ditto) (Americans
.... defeated) . Aug. 14, „,,
Aug. 30, llueno\ist&(Ameri£ansdeft. Mexicans), Feb. 22, tS47
•Baltimore (British defeated, and victorious) St. VbeB (Portugal) . . . May 9,
Ozontero (Americansdef. Mexicans), Aug. 19, 20,
•New Orleans (British repulsed) Jan. 8, Sept. 11, 1815
12, & 13, "Curtalono (Austrian! defeat Italians) May 29, i'-'r;
Custoza (ditto) .... July 23,
■Tolentinofifttralffr/fafftQ . . May 3, „ * Velencre (Croats and Hungarians) . Sept. 29,
Mooltan (Sikks repulsed) . . . Nov. 7,
■Ligny (Sticker repulsed) , . June 16, ,, "Chilianwallah (Govghdefeats Sikhs) Jan. 13,
\'Quatro
•WaterlooBras (A>y repulsed)
(Najxileon . . June
finally beaten) June 18,
16, ,,,, "Goojerat (ditto)
*Xovara>(Radetzky defeats Sartlinians) March 23,
Feb. 21,
■Algiers (bombarded by Ermoutk) . . Aug. 27, 1816 Acs (Hungarians repulsed) . . . July sx,
Pered (Russians defeat Hungarians) June
10,
Kirkee (Hastings defeats Pindarrees) Nov. 5, 1817 Waitzeu (taken by Russians) . July 17,
Maheidpore (Ilislop defeats Holkar) . Dec si, Schassberg (Russians defeat Bern) . July 31,
Dragaschan (Ipsilanti defeated) . . June 19, 1821 •Temoswar(i/uymiu defeats Hungarians) Aug. 10,
Valtezza (Turks defeated) . . May 27, „ Idstodt (Danes defeat Holsteiners) . July 25,
Tripolitza (stormed by Greeks) . . Oct. 5, „
Thermopylae (Greeks defeat Turks) . July 13, 1822 •Oltenltm (TurksRUSSO-TURKI3H repulse Russians) WAR. . Nov. 4,
•Ayacucho(taken)
Corinth (PeruiHans ....
defeat Spaniards)SeptDec.16,5, 1824
„ •Citate (Turks defeat Russian) . . Jan. 6, 1853 ■S54
•Bhurtpore (taken by Combermere) Jan. 1826 'Silistria (ditto) .... June 13-15,
Athena (taken) .... May 17, 1827 Giurgevo (ditto) .... July 8,
"Navarino (Allies destroy Turkish fled) Oct. 20, Bayazid (Russians defeat Turks). . July 30,
Brabilow (Russians and Turks) . June 18, 1828 * Kuruk-Dcrek (ditto) . . . . Aug. 5,
Akhalzikh (ditto) ....
•Varna (surrenders to Russians) . Aug. 27. „ *Alma (Allies defeat Russians) . . Sept. 20,
•Silistria (ditto) Oct 11, .. 'Balaklava(Ji/(o) Oct 25,
June 30, Mnkermann (dt/to) .... Nov. 5,
Kainly (Russians defeat Turks) . July 1, Eupatoria (Turks defeat Russians) . Feb. 17,
'Balkan (pasted
•Adrianople by Russians)
(Russian* enter) . July 26, *Malakoff Tower (Allies and Russians)
•Algiers (conquered by French) Aug. 20, May 22, 23, 24, „
July 5. Capture of the Mamelon, Arc. . June 7,
*Pmis (Days ofJuly) . . July 27, 28, 29, Unsuccessful attempt on Malakoff tower, and
"Grochow (Poles defeat Russians). . Feb. . 1831 Redan (Allie* and Russians) . . June 18, „
Praga (Poles and Russians) Fob. 25, ,, 'Tchcrnaya or Bridge of Traktir (Allies defeat
'Waws (Skrrynecki defeats Russians) March 31, Russians) Aug. 16, ,,
\Seidlke (Poles
■Ostrolcnka defeat....
(ditto) Russians) . April 10, ,, *Malakoff taken by the French . Sept. 8,
May 26, *Ingour f Turks defeat Russians) . . Nov. 6, „
Wilna (Poles and Russians) . June 18, „ Baidar (French defeat Russians) . . Dec. 8, ,,
'Warsaw (taken by Russians) . Sept. 7, ,,
Reylau (Ibrahim defeats Turks) . . July 29, 1832 •Busbiro (Englisli defeat PERSIAN WAR. . Dec. 10, 1S56
Persians)
"Antwerp (taken by Allies) Dec. 23,
'Konich (Egyptians defeat Turks) . Dec. 21, „ Kooshab (d<(ro) Feb. 8, 1857
Hcrnani
♦St. (CarliMs
Sebastian defeated)
(ditto) . . May 5, IS/, Mohammerah (ditto) . . . March 26, „
■Bilboa («itpe raised; British Legion) . Dec. Oct, 1.
24, TNnrAN mutiny. (Seo India.)
Hemani March 15, 1837 "•Conflicts before Delhi. May 30, 31 ; June 8 ;
*lrun (British Legion defeats Carlxsts) May 17, July 4, 9, 18, 23, 1857
Valentia(Don
•Hercra (Carlists
CarlosatUtckcd)
defeats Buereno) Aug. July 15, ■ Victories
pore Julyof11,General
Cawuporo, Ilavclock,
&c. Julynear 12 to Futteh-
Aug 16, ,,
•Constantina (Algiers ; taken by French) Oct. 13 24,
•St Eustace (Canadian rebels defeated) Dec. 14, Pandoo Nuddec (victory of Nail) . Aug. 15, „
Nujuffghur (death of Ificholson, victor) Aug. 25, „
Pennecerrada
■Prescott (Carli*ts
(Canadian defeated)
rebels defeated) Juno 22, 1838 Assault and capture of Delhi . Sept. 16-20, ,,
•Ghiznee (taken by Keane) . Nov. 17, „ Conflicts before Lucknow, Sept, 25, 26 ;
■Sidon (taken by Stopford) July 23, 1839 Nov. 18, 2s, .,
*Heyraxit(Alties defeat Egyptians) . Oct. 10, „ ''Cawnpore (victory of Campbell) . Dec. 6, ,.
Sept 26, 1840 Victories of Col. Greathed, Rcpt 27; Oct. 10,
Afghan War. Seo India. Futtcghur (ditto) Jan. 2, 1858
'Acre (Mtormed by Allies) . .
Kotriah (Scinde ; Englis)i victors) . . Nov. Dec. 1,
3, „ Calpi;(Victory of IngMs) , . . Feb. 4, n
"Alumbagh (victory ,f Outram) . Feb. 21,
[The battles which are thus marked ' aro more fully described in their alphabetical order ]
BAT 92 BAY
BATTLES, continued.
Conflicts at Lucknow {taken) . March 14-19, 1858 Turks defeat Montenegrins . Oct. 19, Nov. ai, 1861
.1 ii;in-i ' A' victorious) ■ April 4, „ * Ball's Bluff (Federals defeated) . Oct, 21, „
Koonoli (ditto) ■ May 11, „ Mill Springs, Kentucky (Confederates defeated
Gwalior (ditto) .... June 17, ,, and their general Zollicojfer killed) Jan ip, 1S62
Rajtfhurujtitchell defeats Tantia Topee),Hc\itis, „ Roanoke island, N.C. (Federals victors) Feb.
DhoodcaKbera (Clydedef. BeniMahdo)Sov. 24, ,, 7,8. »
Ocn. Horsford defeats the Begum of Oudo, Sugar Creek, Arkansas (Confederates defeated)
Feb. io, 1859 Feb. 8, „
Fort Donnolson (taken by Federals) . Feb. 16, „
Italian war. (See Ha ly.) Pea Ridgo, Arkansas (Federals vict.) March 6, 7,
Austrians cross the Ticino . . April 27, 1859 Uanrpton roads (Merrimac and Monitor used)
French troops enter Piedmont . . May, „ March 9, ,,
*Montebello (Allies victorious) . May 20, ,, "Pittsburg landing, or Shiloh (indecisive) April
Palestro (ditto) .... May 30, 31, „
"Magenta (ditto) Juno 4, „ Williamsburg (Federals repulsed) . May6, 7,5, m
'Malcgnano (ditto) .... Juno 8, Puebla (Mexicans defeat French) . May 5, ..
'Solferino (ditto) June 24, „ Successful sortie of Confederates from Rich
(Armistice agreed to, July 6, 1859 ) mond May 14, „
Orizaba (Mexicans defeat FrencJi) . May iS, ,,
*Taku, at tho mouth of the Pciho or Tien- Winchester (Federals repulsed) . Mayas, ».
Tsin-ho (Rjiglifh attack on the Chinese Forts Near Orizaba (French defeat Mexicans) June 13,
defeated) June 25, ,, *Fairoaks (before Richmond, indecisive) May 31,
"Castillejo (Spaniard* defeat Moors) . ' Jan 1, i860 June 1, „
"Totuun ( 'Uto) - Feb. 4, *Severe conflicta between Federals and Con
*Guad-el-Ras (ditto) .... March 23, „ federates before Richmond—the former re
Calatifimi (Garibaldi deft. Neapolitans) May 15, ., treat . • . . June 26 to July 1,
"Melazzo (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) July 21, „ Cedar Mountain (favourable to Confederates)
Taku forta taken (see China) . . Aug. 21, ,, Aug. a, „
'Oastel Fidardo (Sardinians defeat Papal troops) Severe conflicts on tho Rappahannock
Sept 18, Aug. 23-20* „
Insurrection in New Zealand; English re "Bull Run (defeat of Federals) . . Aug. 29,
pulsed, March 14, 28 ; Juno 27; Sept. 10, 19 ; Aspromonte (Garibaldi and his volunteers cap
Oct 9, 12, tured by Royal Italian Troops) . Aug. 29, „
Maohetia(Maoris defeated) . . Nov. 6, *Antietam (severe; Confederates retreat) Sept, 17, ,,
Chang-kia wan, Sept 18 ; and Pa-li-chiau Perryville (Confederates -worsted) . . Oct. 8, „
(Chinese defeated) .... Sept. 21, ' Fredericksburgh (Federals defeated by Lee)
Tolturno (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) Oct. 1, ,, Dec. 13, „
Isernia (Sardinians tlefeat Neapolitans) Oct. 17, *Murfrcesburg (indecisive) . . Dec. 29-3r»
'Garigliano (ditto) . . . Nov. 3, „ Nashville (Confederates defeated) . . Jan. 2, 1S63
Sardinians defeat Neapolitan re-actionistH, *Ctaancelloravillo (Confederates victors) May 2-4,
Winchester (Fwell defeats Confederates)June 13, ,,
*Gaeta taken by tho Sardinians . Jan. Feb. 22,
13, 1861
,, flChicamauga(Ctm/erfcrfl(e#
*Gettysburg(«i-ere but indecisive) . July19-20,
inebrious)Sept. 1-3 „
CIVIL WAR IK UNITED STATES BEGUN, f Campbell's Station, ic. (Longstreet defeats
*Big Bethell (Federals repulsed) . . June 10, Burntide) ..... Nov. 14-17,
"Carthage(Federal victory) . . July 10, „ Spottsylvania, &c., in tho Wilderness, near
Rich Mountain (ditto) . . July 11. ,, Chancellorsville (indecisive) . May 10-12, 1S64
"Bull Run or Manassas (Federal defeat and panic) Petersburg, near Richmond (indecisive, but
July 21. „ Grant advances) . . June 15-18, ,,
Wilson's Creek (Federals, victors, loseGtn. Lyon) Petersburg (Lee defeated; Richmond evacuated)
Aug. io, „ March 31; April 2, 1S65
Carnifcx ferry (Rosencrans defeats Floyd, Con TarmvUlc (Leefinally defeated) . . April 6,
federate) Sept. 10, „
Lexington (taken by Confederates) . Sept, 20. ,, Oeversee (Banes and Alius) . Feb. 6, „
Pavon, South America (Mitra defeats Vrquita) Duppcl (taken by the Prussians) . . April 18, „
Sept. 17, „ Alson (ditto) J uue 29, „
[The battles which arc thus marked * arc more fully described in their alphabetical order.]
BAUGfi. • SeeAnjoH.
BAUTZEN and WTJRTZCHEN (in North Germany), the sites of battles fought May 20,
and 21, 1813, between the French commanded by Napoleon, and the allies under the
emperor of Russia and the king of Prussia. The struggle commenced on the 19th with a
contest on the outposts, which cost each army a loss of above 2coo men. On the 20th (at
Bautzen) the French were more successful ; and on the 21st (at Witrtzchen) the Allies
were compelled to retire ; but Napoleon obtained no permanent advantage from these san
guinary engagements. Duroc was among the killed at Bautzen, to the great sorrow of the
emperor and the French army.
BAVARIA (part of ancient Noricum and Vindelicia), a kingdom in South Germany,
conquered from the Celtic Gauls (Boii) by the Franks between 630 and 660. The country
was afterwards governed by dukes subject to the French monarchs. Tassillon II. was
deposed by Charlemagne, who established margraves in 788. ■ The first duke was Leopold I.
t We have no space for the numerous smaller conflicts, of which the accounts are very uncertain.
BAY 93 BAY
895. Guelf of the house of Este was made duke by the emperor Henry IV. in 1071. His
descendant Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, Bavaria, and Brunswick (ancestor of the
present Brunswick family, see Brunsvrick), was dispossessed in 11 80 by the emperor Frede
rick Barbarossa (who had been previously his friend and benefactor). Otho of Wittelsbach
became duke, whoso descendants reigned till 1777, when the elector palatine acquired
Bavaria, which was made an electorate 1623. In Dec. 1805, Bavaria was erected into a
kingdom by Bonaparte, and obtained by the treaty of Presburg the incorporation of the
whole of the Italian and German Tyrol, the bishopric of Anspach, and lordships in Germany.
Bavaria suffered much by its alliances with France against Austria in 1726 and 1805. The
king joined the Allies in Oct. 1813. Population, Dec. 1861, 4,689,837.
DPKES. 1596. Maximilian the Great ; tho first Elector ot
1071. Guelf I., an illustrious warrior. Bavaria, 1623 ; the palatinate restored, 1648.
iioi. GueU II. 1651. Ferdinand and Mary.
1120. Henry tho Black. 1679. Maximilian Emanuel ; allies with France,
u26. Henry the Proud. He competed with Conrad 1702; defeated at Blenheim, 1704; restored
of Hohenstaufen for tho empire and failed, to his dominions, 1714
and was deprived of Bavaria. 1726. Charles Albert ; elected emperor of Germany
1 138. Leopold of Austria. in 1742 ; defeated, 1744.
1142. Henry of Austria. 1745. Maximilian-Joseph I., as elector. The house
1 154- Henry the Lion (son of Honry the Proud), of Wittelsbach extinct at his death, 1778.
restored by the emperor Frederick BarlKL- 1778. Charles Theodore (the elector palatine of tho
rossa, but afterwards expelled by him ; and Rhine since 1743). The French take Munich ;
1180. Otho, count of Wittclsbach, made duke. treats with them, 1796.
1 185. Louis of Wittelabach. 1799, Maximilian-Joseph II., as elector; territories
1231. Otho II., the Illustrious: his son Louis was changed by treaty of Luncville, 1801 ; mado
rawed to the electoral dignity. king, by treaty of Presburg, Dec, 1805.
1253. Hcury and Louis the Severe. j
1294. Louis III. (the palatinate separated). KINGS OF BAVARIA.
1347. Stephen I. 1805. Maximilian-Joseph I. deserts Napoleon, aud
1 375. John. has his enlarged territories confirmed to him,
1397. Ernest. Oct. 1813; grants a constitutional charter,
1438. Albert I. 181 8.
1460. John II. and Sigismund. 1825. Louis-Charles,Oct. 13 ; abdicated March 20.*
1465. Albert II. 1848. Maximilian-Joseph II. (son) born Nov. 28,
1508. William I. 1811 ; dies March 10, 1864.
1550. Albert III. 1664. Louis II. (son) March 10; born, Aug. 25, 1845 :
1579. William II. I Heir; his brother Otho, born April 27, 1848.
BAYEUX TAPESTRY, said to have been wrought by Matilda, queen of William I. It
is 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into compartments snowing the events, from
the visit of Harold to the Norman court, to his death at Hastings ; it is now preserved iu
the town house at Rouen. A qppy, drawn by C. Stothard, and coloui'ed after the original,
was published by the Society of Antiquaries in 1821-3.
BAY ISLANDS (the chief, Ruatan), in the Bay of Honduras, Central America, belonged
to Spain till 1 82 1, then to Great Britain, which formed them into a colony iu 1852, but
ceded them to Honduras, Nov. 28, 1859. See Honduras.
BAYLEN (S. Spain), where on July 20, 1808, the French, consisting of 14,000 men
commanded by generals Dupont and Wcdel, were defeated by the Spaniards under Reding,
Coupigny, and other generals, whose force amounted to 25,000. Tho French had nearly
3000 killed and wounded, and the division of Dupont (about 8000 men) was made pri
soners.
BAYONET, the short dagger fixed at the end of fire-arms, said to have been invented at
Bayonne, in France, about 1647, 1670, or 1690. It was used at Killiecrankie in 1689, and
at Marsflglia by the French, in 1693, "with great success, against the enemy unprepared for
the encounter with so formidable a novelty." The ring bayonet was adopted by tho British,
Sept. 24, 1693. Aspin,
BAYONNE (S. France), an ancient city. It was held by the English from 1265 till it
was taken by Charles VII. The queens of Spain and Franco met here in 1565 the cruel
duke of Alva, it is supposed to arrange the massacre of St. Bartholomew. Charles IV. of
Spain abdicated here in favour of "his friend and ally" the emperor Napoleon ; and Ferdi
nand, prince of Asturias, and Don Carlos and Don Antonio renounced their rights to the
Spanish throne, May 5, 1S08. In the neighbourhood of Bayonne was much desperate
fighting between the French and British armies, Dec. 10, 1 1, and 13, 1813. Bayonne was
• Tho abdication of Charles-Louis was mainly cauaed by his attachment to an intriguing woman,
known throughout Europe by tho assumed name of Lola Montes, who, in tho end, was expelled the king
dom for her interference in state affairs, and afterwards led a wandering life. She delivered lectures in
London, in 1859, and thence proceeded to the United States. She died at New York, Jan. 17, 18G1.
BAY BEA
invested by the British, Jan. 14, 1814 ; on April 14 the French made a sally, and attacked
the English with success, but were at length driven back. The loss of the British was con
siderable, and lieut.-gen. sir John Hope was wounded and taken prisoner. —A Franco-Spanish
industrial and fine-arts exhibition was opened at Bayonne in July, 1864.
BAYREUTH (N. Germany), a margraviate, held formerly by a branch of the Branden
burg family, was with that of Anspach abdicated by the reigning prince in favour of the
king of Prussia, 1790. The archives were brought (in 1783) from Plassenburg to the city of
Bayreuth, which was incorporated with Bavaria by Napoleon in 1806.
BAZAAR, or Covered Market, a word of Arabic origin. The bazaar of Ispahan is magni
ficent, yet it is excelled by that of Tauris, which has several times held 30,000 men in order
of battle. In London, the Soho-squarc bazaar was opened by Mr. Trotter in 1816 to relieve
the relatives of persons killed in tho war. The Queen's bazaar, Oxford-street, a very exten
sive one, was (with the Diorama) burnt down, and the loss estimated at 50,000/., May 27,
1829. It was rebuilt, and converted into the Princess's Theatre, opened Sept. 30, 1841.
The St. James's bazaar was built by Mr. Crockford in 1832. There are also the Pantheon,
the Western Exchange, &c. The most imposing sale termed a bazaar was opened for the
benefit of the Anti-Corn-Law league, in Covent-garden theatre, May 5, 1845 ; in six weeks
25,000/. was obtained, mostly by admission money.
BEAC1IY HEAD, a promontory on the S.E. coast of Sussex, where the British and
Dutch combined fleet, commanded by tho earl of Torrington, was defeated by a superior
French force, under admiral Tourville, June 30, 1690 ; tho allies suffered very severely.
The Dutch lost two admirals, 500 men, anil several ships—sunk to prevent them from
falling into the hands of the enemy ; the English lost two ships and 400 men. The
admirals on both sides were blamed ; ours, for not fighting ; the French, for not pursuing
the victory.
BEACONS. See Lighthouses.
BEADS were early used in the East for reckoning prayers. St. Augustin mentions them,
366. About 1090, Peter the Hermit is said to have made a series of 55 beads. To Dominic
de Guzman is ascribed the invention of the Rosary (a series of 15 large and 150 small beads),
in honour of the Blessed Virgin, about 1202. Beads soon after were in general use. The
Bead-roll was a list of deceased persons, for the repose of wkose souls a certain number of
prayers was recited, which the devout counted by a string of beads. Beads appear to have
been usod by the Druids, being found in British barrows. 9
BEAM and Scales. The apparatus for weighing goods was so called, "as it weighs so
much at the king's beam." A public beam was set up in London, and all commodities
ordered to bo weighed by the city officer, called the weigh-mastcr, who was to do justice
between buyer and seller, statute 3 Edw. II. 1309. tSlow. Beams and scales, with weights
and measures, were ordered to be examined by tho justices at quarter sessions, 35 Geo. III.
1794. See Weights and Measures.
BEANS, Black and White, were used by the ancients in gathering the votes of the
people for the election of magistrates. A white beau signified absolution, and a black one
condemnation. The precept of Pythagoras to abstain from beans, abslinc a fabis, has been
variously interpreted. " Beans do not favour mental tranquillity." Cicero. The finer
kinds of beans were brought to these countries at tho period of the introduction of most
other vegetables, in Henry VIII. 's reign.
BEAR-BAITING, an ancient popular English sport, prohibited by act of parliament in
I835-
BEARDS.* The Egyptians did not wear beards ; tho Assyrians did. They have been
worn for centuries by the Jews, who were forbidden to mar their beards, B.C. 1490. Lev.
xix. 27. The Tartars waged a long war with the Persians, declaring them infidels, becauso
they would not cut their beards, after the custom of Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards
• A bearded woman was taken by the Russian* at the U'lttle of Pultowa, and presented to the citar,
Peter I., 1724 : her beard measured ii yard. A woman is said to have )>cen seen at Paris with a bushy
beard, and her whole body covered with hair. 2>icl. <lr Trevox.r. Tho great Margaret, governess of the
Netherlands had a very long stiff board. In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfms, a virgin had a long black
beard. Mdllo. 13ois dc'Chcnc, borne at Geneva (it was said) in 1834, was exhibited in London, in 1852-3,
when, consequents, eighteen years of ago : she had a profuse head of hair, a strong black beard, large
whiskors, and thick hair on her arms and down from her neck on her back, and masculine features.
BEA 95 BEE
till the time of Alexander, who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved, lest the beard should
give a handle to their enemies, 330 B. c. Beards were worn by tho Romans, 297 B. c. The
emperor Julian wrote a diatribe (entitled " Misopogon") against wearing beards, a.d. 362.—
Jn England, they were not fashionable after the Conquest, 1066, until tho 13th century, and
were discontinued at the Restoration. Peter the Great enjoined the Russians, even of rank,
to shave, but was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut off the beard by force. Since 1851
the custom of wearing the beard has gradually increased.
BEAUGE". See Anjou.
BEAUXIEIT, Abbey of, founded by king John, in the New Forest, Hampshire, in 1204.
It was dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, had the privilege of sanctuary, and was devoted to
monks of the reformed Benedictine order. It afforded an asylum to Margaret, queen of
Henry VI., after the defeat of the earl of Warwick at Barnet, April 14, 147 1. Here, too,
Perkin Warbeck obtained refuge in the reign of Henry VII., in 1497.
BEAUVA1S (N. France), the ancient Bellovaci, and formerly capital of Picardy. On the
town being besieged by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, at the head of 80,000 men, tho
women under the conduct of Jeanne Fourquet, or Laine", also Do la Hachette, from her using
that weapon, particularly distinguished themselves, and the duke was obliged to raise tho
siege, July 10, 1472. In memory of this, the women of Beauvais walk first in tho procession
on the anniversary of their deliverance. Uenault.
BECKET'S MURDER.* Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at
the altar, Dec. 29, 1 170. The king was absolved of guilty knowledge of the crimo in 1172,
and did penance at the tomb in 1 1 74. The bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and
jewels in 1220 ; but were burned in the reign of Henry VIII. 1539.
BED. The ancients slept on skins. Beds were afterwards mado of loose rushes, heather,
or straw. The Romans are said to have first used feathers. Feather-beds were in use in
England in the reign of Henry VIII. The bedsteads of the Egyptians and later Greeks, like
modern couches, became common among the Roman upper classes. The ancient great bed
at Ware, Herts, capable of holding twelve persons, was sold, it is said, to Charles Dickens,
Sept. 6; 1864. A bedstead of goid was presented to the queen on Nov. 2, 1859, by the
Maharajah of Cashmere. Air-beds and water-beds have been made since the manufacture of
india-rubber cloth by Clark in 1813 ; and by Macintosh in 1823. Dr. Arnott's hydrostatic
bed was invented in 1830.
BED of Justice, a French court presided over by tho king, whoso seat was termed
a " bed." It controlled the ordinances of the parliament. The last was held by Louis XVI.
at Versailles in 1787.
BEDER (Arabia). Here Mahomet gained his first victory (over tho Koreish of
Mecca), 623. It was considered to be miraculous.
BEDFORD, a town, N.N.W. London, renowned for its many free educational establish
ments endowed in 1561 by sir \Vm. Harpur, a London alderniau. Here John Bunyau
preached, wrote " The Pilgrim's Progress," and died (in 1688).
BEDFORD LEVEL, a portion of the great fen districts in the eastern counties, drained
in the early part of the 17th century by the earl of Bedford, aided by the celebrated Dutch
engineer, sir Cornelius Vermuyden, amid great opposition. See Levels.
BEDLAM. See Sctklehem.
BEDOUINS, wandering tribes of Arabs, living on the plunder of travellers, &c. They
profess a form of Mahomeuanism, and are governed by sheikhs. They are said to be descen
dants of Ishmael, and appear to fulfil the prophecy respecting him, Gen. xvi. 12, 191 1 B.C.
BEEF-EATERS. See BaUU-axi.
* Thomas Bocket was born in 1119. His father Gilbert was a London trader, and his mother is stated
to have been a convert from Mabomcdanism. He was educated at Oxford, and made archdeacon by Theo
bald, archbishop of Canterbury, who introduced him to the king Henry II. Ho bccaine chancellor in 1155,
but on being elected archbishop of Canterbury in 1162, he resigned tho chancellorship, to the great offence
of the king. Ho opposed strenuously tho constitutions of Clarendon in 1164, and fled the country ; and,
in 1166, excommunicated all tho clergy who agreed to abide by them. Ho and the king met at Fretvillc,
in Touraine, on July 22, 11 70, and wore formally reconciled. On his return ho re-commenced his struggle
with the king, which led to his tragical death. The Merchant-Adventurers were at one time termed " the
Brotherhood of 8t. Thomas a Becket."
BEE 90 BEL
BEEF-STEAK SOCIETY, the members of which dine together in a room behind the
Lyceum theatre, was founded in 1735 by John Bich, patentee of Covent-garden theatre, and
George Lambert, the scene-painter, in whose work-room the society originated. Beef-steak
clubs existed iu 1709 and 1733.
BEER. See A le, Porter, Victuallers,
BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odoriferous flowers, thyme, and abundance of
honey, lias been poetically called the "empire of bees." Hymettus, in Attica, was also
famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was admired in the earliest ages ; and
Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on bees, 741 B. c. There are 292 species of the bee or
apis genus, and 1 1 1 in England. Bees wero first introduced into Boston, New England, by
the English in 1670, and have since spread over the whole continent. Mandevillc's satirical
" Fable of the Bees" appeared in 1723. Huber published his observations on bees in 1792.
The Apiarian Society had an establishment at Muswell Hill, near London (1860-2). The
Ligurian variety of the honey-bee was successfully introduced into England in i860.
BEET-liOOT is of recent cultivation in England. Beta vulgaris, red beet, is used for
the table as a salad. Margraff first produced sugar from the white beet-root in 1747., M.
Achard produced excellent sugar from it iu 1799 ; and the chemists of France, at the
instance of Bonaparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. 60,000 tons of
sugar, about half the consumption, are now manufactured in France from beet. It is also
largely manufactured in other countries. A refinery of sugar from beet-root has been erected
at the Thames-bank, Chelsea.
BEGGARS were tolerated in ancient times, being often musicians and ballad-singers. In
modern times severe laws have been passed against them. Iu 1572, by 14 Eli2. c. 5, sturdy
beggars were ordered to be "grievously whipped and burnt through the right ear." By the
Vagrant Act (1824), 5 Geo. IV. c. 83, all public beggars arc liable to a month's imprisonment
See Poor Laws and Mendicity Society. The " Beggar's Opera," by John Gay, a satire
against the government of sir Robert YTalpole, was produced at the Lincoln's-inn-fieUls
theatre, 1727, and had a run of 63 nights.
BEGLINES, a congregation of nuns, first established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle,
in 1207, some say 1226. The "Grand Beguinage" of Bruges was the most extensive. Some
of these nuns imagined that they could in this life arrive at impeccability. The council of
Vienne condemned this error, and abolished a branch of the order in 131 1. They still exist
in Germany and Belgium, acting as nurses to tho sick and wounded, &c.
BEHEADING, tho Decollatio of the Romans, introduced into England from Normandy
(as a less ignominious mode of putting high criminals to death) by William the Conqueror,
1076, when Waltheoff, earl of Huntingdon, Northampton, and Northumberland, was first so
executed. Since then this mode of execution became frequent, particularly in tho reigns of
Henry VIII. and Mary, when even women of the noblest blood thus perished.*
BEHISTUN, in Persia. At this place is a rock containing important inscriptions in
three languages, in cuneiform (or wedge-shaped) characters, which were deciphered and
translated by sir H. Rawlinson iu 1844-6 and published in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society. Each paragraph commences with " I am Darius the Great King."
BEHRING'S STRAIT, discovered by captain Vitus Behring, a Danish navigator in the
service of Russia. He thus proved that the continents of Asia and America are not united,
but are distinct from each other about thirty-nine miles, 1728. He died at Bchring's island
in 1741. The current from the west between tho shores is very inconsiderable, the depth
not being more than from twelve to thirty fathoms. In 1788 captain James Cook accurately
surveyed the coast of both continents.
BELFAST, capital of Ulster, Ireland, First mentioned about 1315 ; its castle, supposed
to have been built by John de Courcy, was then destroyed by the Scots under Edward Bruce.
Sec Orange.
* Among other instances (besides queens of England) may Ik mentioned tlic lady Jane Grey, beheaded
Feb. 12, 1554; and the venerable countess of Salisbury,—the Jattor remarkablo for her resistance of the
executioner. When he directed her to lay her head on the block, she refused to do it : telling him that
sbo knew of no guilt, and would not submit to die liko a criminal. He pursued her round and round tho
scaffold, aiming at her hoary head, and at length took it off, alter mangling tho neck and shoulders of the
illustrious victim in a horrifying manner. Khe was daughter of Georgo, duke of Clarence, and last of the
royal line of Plautagcnet May 37, 1541. l!v.me.
BEL 97 BEL
BELFAST, continued.
Belfast granted by James I. to sir Arthur I was inaugurated in Belfast . . . Oct. 1849
Chichester, then lord deputy, 1612 ; and (See Colleges in Ireland.)
erected into a corporation .... 1613 1 Much rioting at Belfast through Mr. Hanna
The long bridge with 21 arches, 2562 feet long, I persisting in open-air preaching, July, Aug ,
built 1682-6 I and Sept 1857
The first edition of the Biblo published in Ire j Victoria chambers wero burnt down ; the loss
land, printed here 1704 j was estimated at ioo,cooi. . . July 2, 1859
The castle burnt April, 1708 1 Exciting religious revivals . . Sept. l(
The bank built 1787 Fierce conflicts between Roman Catholics and
The mechanics' institute established . . . 1825 Protestants on account of the foundation of
The Queen's bridge (5 arches) built on site of the O'Connell monument at Dublin—9 lives
the long bridge . 1841 lost and 150 persons injured . Aug. 10—27, 1S64
Of threo colleges established in Ireland under Rioting again April 1865
the act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66, passed in 1845, one Election riots
BELGIUM, late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and anciently
the territory of the Belgse, who were finally conquered by Julius Caesar, 51 b.c. Its size is
about one-eighth of Great Britain. The population, December 31, 1862, was 4,836,566. Its
government is a liberal constitutional monarchy, founded in 183 1. For previous history,
see Flanders, Netherlands, and Holland.
The revolution commences at Brussels, Aug. 25, 1830 The king and his son visit England . Oct. 1852
The Provisional Government declares Belgium Increase of army to 100,000 men voted May 10, 1853
independent Oct. 4, Opposition to religious charities' bill t June, 1857
Antwerp taken .... Dec. 23, A new ministry under M. Charles Rogier Nov. 9, „
Belgian independence acknowledged by the The chambers dissolved ; re-assembled Dec 10, „
allied powers Doc. 26, The king proclaims Belgium neutral in the
Duke de Nemours elected king (his father, the Italian war Mav, 1859
French king, refused bis consent) . Feb. 3, iSjr Death of M. Potter .... July 22, „
Surlet de Chokier is elected regent Feb. 24, The king visits England . . . June, i860
Leopold, prince ofCoburg, elected king, July 12, Vaguerumoxirs of annexation to France produce
enters Brussels .... July 19, warm loyal addresses to the king . June 13, „
The king of the Netherlands commences war The octrois abolished . . July sz, „
Aug. 3, Successful military volunteer movement Aug.
Conference of ministers of the five great powers Commercial treaty with France signed May 1, 1861
held in London : acceptance of 24 articles of Continued illness of the king ; with occasional
pacification Nov. 15, amendment .... May, June, 1862
Franco sends 50.000 troops to assist Belgium, Commercial treaty with Great Britain adopted
and an armistice ensues . . Aug. 1S52 by the chamber .... Aug. 22, „
Antwerp besieged, Nov. 30 ; and taken by the Great distress through decay of trade Aug. „
French Dec. 23, Fierce dissensions between Roman Catholics,
The French army returns to France Dec, 27, Jan. ; the ministry resigns, but resumes
Riot at Brussels (see BrusstU) . April 6, 1834 office, Feb. 4 ; dissolution of the chambers,
Treaty* between Holland and Belgium signed July 17 ; tho Protestants superior in the
in London April 19, 1839 election Aug. 1864
Queen of England visits Belgium . . Aug. 1852
KING OF THE BELGIANS.
1831. Leopold,{ first king of the Belgians ; born tho French; she died Oct. 11, 1850. The
Dec. 16, 1790; inaugurated July 21, 1831, at present king, 1865. *
Brussels ; married Aug. 9, 1832, Louise, Heir : his son Leopold, duke of Brabant ; born
eldest daughter of Louis Philippe, king of April 9, 1835 ; married archduchess Maria
of Austria, Aug. 22, 1853.
BELGRADE, an ancient city in Servia, on the right bank of the Danube. It was taken
from the Greek emperor by Solomon, king of Hungary, in 1086 ; gallantly defended by
John Huniades against the Turks, under Mahomed II., July to Sept. i486, when the latter
was defeated with the loss of 40,000 men. Belgrade was taken by sultan Solyman, 1522, and
retaken by the Imperialists in 1688, from whom it again reverted to the Turks in 1690. It
was besieged in May, 1717, by prince Eugene. On Aug. 5 of that year, the Turkish army,
200,000 strong, approached to relieve it, and a sanguinary battle was fought at Peter*
waradein, on August 22, in which the Turks lost 20,000 men ; after this battle Belgrade
surrendered. In 1739 it was ceded to the Turks, after its fine fortifications had been
demolished. It was again taken in 1789, and restored at tho peace of Reichenbach, in
1790. The Servian insurgents had possession of it in 1806. In 1815 it was placed under
* This treaty aroso out of the conference held in London on the Belgian question : by the decision
of which, the treaty of Nov. 15, 1831, was maintained, and the pecuniary compensation of sixty millions of
francs offered by Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland, was declared inadmissible.
t At tho revolution in 1830, the Roman Catholic clergy lost the administration of the public charities,
which they have struggled to recover ever since. In April, 1857, M. Decker, the head of the ministry,
brought in a bill for this purpose ; the principle of which was carried. This led, however, to so much
agitation that ttfe ministry were compelled to withdraw the bill, and eventually to resign.
J Leopold married, in Mav, 1816, the princess Charlotte of Wales, daughter of tho prince regent,
afterwards George IV. of England ; she died in childbed, Nov. 6, 1817.
BEL P8 15EL
prince Miloscli, subject to Turkey. The fortifications were restored in 1820. On June 19,
1862, the Turkish pacha was dismissed for firing on tho town during a riot. University
established by private munificence, 1863. See Sergio-.
BELL, Book, and Candle : in the Romish ceremony of Excommunication (which, set),
the bell is rung, the book is closed, and candle extinguished ; the effect being to exclude the
excommunicated from the society of tho faithful, divine service, and the sacraments. Its
origin is ascribed to the 8th century.
BELL-ROCK LIGHTHOUSE, nearly in front of the Frith of Tay, one of the finest in
Great Britain ; it is 115 feet high, is built upon a rock that measures 427 feet in length
and 200 feet in breadth, and is about 12 feet under water.* It was erected in 1806-10 ; it is
provided with two bells for hazy weather.
BELLAIR, in North America. The town was attacked by the British forces under sir
Peter Parker, who, after an obstinate engagement, were repulsed with considerable loss ;
their gallant commander was killed, Aug. 30, 1814.
BELLEISLE, an isle on the south coast of Brittany, France, was erected into a duchy iu
favour of marshal Bclleisle, in 1742, in reward of his brilliant military and diplomatic
services, by Louis XV. Belleislc was takeu by the British forces under commodore Keppel
and general Hodgson, after a desperate resistance, June 7, 1761, but was restored to France
in 1763-
BELLES-LETTRES, ok Polite Learning. See A eadem Us and Literature.
BELLMEN, appointed in London to proclaim the hour of the night before public
clocks became general, were numerous about 1556. They were to ring a bell at night and
cry " Take care of your fire and candle, be charitable to the poor, and pray for the dead."
BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have been the inventor of them, about
569 B.C. ; to him is also ascribed the invention of tinder, the potter's wheel, anchors for
ships, &c. Bellows were not used in the furnaces of the Romans. Tho production of the
great leviathan bellows of our foundries (suggested by the diminutive domestic bellows) must
have been early, but we cannot trace the time. See Blowing-Machines.
BELLS were used among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. The responses of the Dodoniean
oracle were in part conveyed, by bells. Strabo. The monument of Porseuna was decorated
by pinnacles, each surmounted by bells. Pliny. Introduced by Paulinus, bishop of Nola,
in C'ampagna, about 400. First known in France in 550. The army of Clothaire II., king of
France, was frightened from the siege of Sens by the ringing of the bells of St. Stephen's
church. Tho second excerption of our king Egbert commands every priest, at the proper
hours, to sound the bells of his church. Bells were used in churches by order of pope John
IX., about 900, as a defence, by ringing them, against thunder and lightning. First cast in
England by Turkctel, chancellor of England, under Edmund I. His successor improved tho
invention, and caused the first tuneable set to be put up at Croyland abbey, 960. Stow.
The celebrated " Song of the Bell," by Schiller (died 1805), has been frequently translated.
The following list is that given by Mr. E. Beckett Denison in his discourse on bells at the
Royal Institution, March 6, 1857.
Weight—Tons Cwt. Weight—Tons Cwt. Weight-Tom Cwt.
Moscow, 1736; f broken, Three others . 16 to 31 Vienna, 1711 . . 17 14
1737 250 ? Novgorod . . . . 31 o Westminster, 18564 " Big
Another, 1817 . • . 110 ( Olmutz 17 18 Ben" . . . . 15 SI
• Upon this rock, tradition says, the abbots of tho ancient monastery of Aberbrothock Biiccoedod in
fixing a. bell in such a manner that it was rung by the impulse of the sea, thus warning mariners of their
impending danger. Tradition also tells us that this apparatus was carried away by a Dutchman, who was
afterwards lost upon the rock, with his ship and crew.
t The metal has been valued, at the lowest estimate, at 66,565?. Gold and silvor aro said to have bocn
thrown in as votive offerings,
} The largest bell in England (named Big Ben, after sir Benjamin Hall, the then chief commissioner
of works), cast at Houghton lc-Spring, Durham, by Messrs. Warner, under the superintendence of Mr. K.
Beckct Denison and tho rev. W Taylor, at an expense of 3343'. 14*. yd. The composition was 23 parts
copper and 7 tin. Tho diameter was 9 ft. si in. ; the height 7 ft. 104 iu. The clapper weighed 13 cwt.
Rtv. W. Tat/lor.
BEL 99 BEX
BELLS, continued.
Weight—Tons Cwt. -Tons Cwt. Weight—Tons Cwt.
Erfurt, 1497 ■ . . 13 15 York, 1S45 10 15 Lincoln, 1834 . ..■58
"Westminster, iB858,* "St. Bruges, 1680 . Jo 5 St, Paul's, i7i6f - . 54
Stephen " . . 13 to} St. Peter's, Rome . 8 0 Ghent 4 iS
Sens . . . . ,3 1 Oxford, 1680 . 7 12 Boulogne, new . . . 4 18
Paris, 1680 . . 12 l6 Lucerne, 1636 . • 7 11 Exeter, 1675 . . . 4 10S
Montreal, 1847 . • 12 15 Halberstadt, 1457. 7 10 Old Lincoln, 1610 . .48
Cologne, 1448 . . II 3 Antwerp . Fourth quarter-bell,West
Brenlau, 1507 ■ . II O Brussels . 77 3ij minster, 1857 . ..40
GGrlitz . Dantzic, 1453 . . 6 1
Baptism of Bells.—They were anointed and Ringing op Bells, in changes of regular peals,
baptized in churches it is said from the 10th century. is almost peculiar to the English, who boast of
Du Fresnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dun- having brought tho practice to an art. There
mow, in Essex, were baptized by the names of St. wore formerly societies of ringers in London.
Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity, tx., Holden. A sixth bell was added to the peal of
in 1501. Wtever. The great bell of Notre Dame, in five, in tho church of St. Michael, 1430. Stow.
Paris, was baptized by the naroo of Duke of Angou- Nell Gwynno left the ringers of the bells of St.
leme, 1816. On the continent, in Roman Catholic MartinVin-the-fields money for a weekly entertain
states, they baptize bells as wo do ships, but with ment, 1687, and many others have done the same.
religious solemnity. Athe.
BELOOCHISTAN, the ancient Gedrosia (S. Asia). The capital was taken by the British
in the Afghan war, in 1839 ; abandoned in 1840 ; taken and held for a short time in 1841.
BELVIDERE EXPLOSION. See Gunpowder (note).
BENARES, in India, a holy city of the Hindoos, abounding in temples. It was ceded
by the nabob of Oude, Asoph-ud-Dowlah, to the English in 1775. An insurrection took
place here, which had nearly proved fatal to the British interests in Hindostan, 1781. The
rajah, Cheyt Sing, was deposed in consequence of it, in 1783. Mr. Cherry, capt. Conway,
and others, were assassinated at Benares, by vizier Aly, Jan. 14, 1799. In June, 1857, col.
3Scil succeeded in suppressing attempts to join the Sepoy mutiuy. See India.
BENBURB, near Armagh (N. Ireland). Here O'Neill totally defeated the English under
Monroe, June 5, 1646. Moore says that it was " the only great victory since the days of
Brian Boru, achieved by an Irish chieftain in the cause of Ireland."
BENCOOLEN (Sumatra). The English East India Company mado a settlement here
which preserved to them the pepper trade after the Dutch had dispossessed them of Bantam,
1682. Anderson. York Fort was erected by the East India Company, 1690. In 1693 a
dreadful mortality raged here, occasioned by the town being built on a pestilent morass :
among others the governor and council perished. The French, under count D'Estaign,
destroyed the English settlement, 1760. Bencoolen was reduced to a residency under the
government of Bengal, in 1801, and was ceded to the Dutch in 1825, in exchange for their
possessions in Malacca. See India.
BENDER (Bessarabia, European Russia) is memorable as the asylum of Charles XII. of
Sweden, after his defeat at Pultowa by the czar Peter the Great, July 8, 1709. The peace of
Bender was concluded in 171 1. Bender was taken by storm, by the Russians, in Sept.
1770 ; was again taken by Potemkin in 1789, and again stormed in 1809. It was restored
at the peace of Jassy, but retained at the peace of 1812.
BENEDICTINES, an order of monks founded by St. Benedict "(lived 480—543^ who
introduced the monastic life into western Europe, in 529, when he founded the monastery
on Monte Cassino in Campania, and eleven others afterwards. His Regula Monacliorum (rale
of the monks) soon became the common rule of western monachism. No religious order has
been so remarkable for extent, wealth, and men of note and learning, as the Benedictine.
Among its branches the chief were the Cistercians, founded in 1098, and reformed by St.
Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, in 1 1 16 ; and the Carthusians, from the Chartreux (henco
Charter-house), founded by Bruno about 1084. The Benedictine order was introduced into
England by Augnstin, in 596 ; and William I. built an abbey for it on the plain where the
* The bell "Big Ben," having been found to be cracked on Oct 24, 1857, *t was broken up and another
bell cast with the same metal, in May, 1858, by Messrs. Mears, Whitechapel. It is rather different in shape
to its predecessor, " Big Ben," and about 2 tons lighter. Its diameter is 9 ft. 6 in. ; the height 7 ft. 10 ill.
It was struck for the first time, Nov. 18, 1858. The clapper weighs 6 cwt.—half that of the former bell.
Tbe note of the bell is E natural; the quarter-bells being G, B, E, F. On Oct. 1, 1859, this bell was also
found to bo cracked. It remains in this state (Sept. 1865).
t Ths clapper of St. Paul's bell weighs 180 lbs. ; the diameter of the bell is 10 feet, and its thickness 10
inches. Tho hour strikes upon this bell, the quarters upon two smaller ones. See Clods.
H 2
BEX 10 - BEO
battle of Hastings was fought, 1066. See Battle-Abbey. William de Warrenne, earl of
Warrenne, built a convent at Lewes, in Sussex, in 1077. "At Hammersmith is a nunnery,
whose inmates are denominated Benedictine dames." Leigh. Of this order it is reckoned
that there have been 40 popes, 200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishops, 4600 bishops,
4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 kings, 41 queens, and 3600 saints. Their founder was
canonised. Baroniiis. The Benedictines have taken little part in politics, but have
produced many valuable works : especially the congregation of St. Maur, who published the
celebrated VArt de Verifier les Dales, in 1750, and edited many ancient authors.
BENEFICE (literally a good deed or favour), or Fief. Clerical benefices originated in
the 12th century, when the priesthood began to [imitate the feudal lay system of holding
lands for performing certain duties : till then the priests wero supported by alms and oblations
at mass. Vicarages, rectories, perpetual curacies, and chaplaincies, are termed benefices, in
contradistinction to dignities, bishoprics, &c. A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; a vicar,
to a small part or to none. —All benefices that should become vacant in the space of six
months, wero given by pope Clement VII. to his nephew, in 1534. Notitia Monastica. An
act for the augmentation of poor benefices, by the sale of some of those in the presentation
of the lord chancellor, was passed in 1863.
BENEFIT OF CLERGY. See Clergy.
BENEFIT SOCIETIES. See Friendly Societies.
BENEVENTUM (now Benevento), an ancient city in South Italy, said to have been
founded by Diomedes the Greek, after the fall of Troy. Pyrrhus of Macodon, during his
invasion of Italy, was totally defeated near Beneventum, 275 B.C. Near it was erected
the triumphal arch of Trajan, A.D. 1 14. Benevento was formed into a duchy by the
Lombards, 571. M a battle fought here, Feb. 26, 1266, Manfred, king of Sicily, was
defeated and slain by Charles of Anjou, who thus became virtually master of Italy. The
castle was built 1323 ; the town was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 1688, when the
archbishop, afterwards pope Benedict XIII., was dug out of the ruins alive, and contributed
to its subsequent rebuilding again, 1703. It was seized by the king of Naples, but restored
to the pope 011 the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Talleyrand do Perigord, Bonaparte's
arch-chancellor, had the title of prince of Benevento conferred upon him. Benevento was
restored to the pope in 18 14.
BENEVOLENCES (Aids, Free Gifts, actually Forced Loans) appear to have been claimed
by our Anglo-Saxon sovereigns. Special ones were levied by Edward IV. 1473, by Richard
III. 1485 (although a statute forbidding them was enacted in 1484), by Henry VII. 1492 ;
and by James I. in 1613, on occasion of the marriage of the princess Elizabeth with the king
of Bohemia. In 1615 Oliver St. John, M.P., was fined 5000Z., and chief justice Coke
disgraced, for severely censuring such modes of raising money. Benevolences were declared
illegal by the bill of rights, Feb. 1689.
■wasBENGAL, the chief delegated
presidencybyof the
British India, containing Calcutta, the capital. It
ruled by governors sovereigns of Delhi, till 1340, when it became
independent. It was added to the Mogul empire by Baber, about 1529. See India and
Calcutta.
The English first permitted to trade to Bengal 1534 I India Bill ; Bengal made the chief presidency ;
They establish ft settlement at Hooghly about 1652] supreme court of judicature established
Factories of the French and Danes set up . . 1664 I June 16, 1773
Bengal made a distinct agency . . . . 1680 \ Bishop of Calcutta appointed . . July 31, 1813
The English settlement removed to Hooghly . 16981*'Railway
'' opened " 15,
Aug. 1854
Imperial grant vesting the rovenucs of Benifal
in the companv, by which it gained the See Indie.
sovereignty of the country . . Aug. 12, 2765
BENZOLE, a compound of hydrogen and carbon, discovered by Faraday in oils (1S25),
and by C. B. Mansfield in coal tar (1849), the latter of whom unfortunately died in con
sequence of being severely burnt while experimenting on it (Feb. 25, 1855). Benzole has
become useful in the arts. Chemical research has produced from it aniline (which set), the
sourco of the celebrated modern dyes, mauve, magenta, &c.
BEOWULF, an ancient Anglo-Saxon epic poem, describing events which probably
occurred in the middle of the 5th century, and supposed to have been written subsequent
to 597. An edition by Kemble was published in 1833. It has been translated by Kemble,
Thorpe, and Wackerbath.
ber 101 .-** - :BEjt;-----
BERBICE (British Guiana, S. America), settled by the Dutch, who surrendered it to the
British, April 23, 1796, and again Sept 22, 1803. It was finally ceded to England in
1814.
BERENGARIANS, followers of Bcrenger, or Berengavius, archdeacon of Angers, a
learned man, who about 1049 uttered opinions opposed to the Romish doctrine of transub-
stantiatiou or the real presence in the Lord's supper. Several councils of the church were
held condemning his doctrine. After much controversy he recanted about 1058. Ho
died grieved and wearied in 1088.
BERESINA, a river in Russia, crossed by the French main army after its defeat by the
Russians, Nov. 25-29, 1812. The French lost upwards of 20,000 men, and their- retreat was
attended by great calamity and suffering.
BERG (W. Germany), on the extinction of the line of its counts, in 1348, was incorporated
with Juliers. Napoleon I. made Murat grand-duke in 1806. The principal part is now held
by Prussia.
BERGEN (in Germany), Battle of, between the French and allies, the latter defeated,
April 13, 1759.—(In Holland) The allies under the duke of York were defeated by the
French, under gen. Bruno, with great loss, Sept. 19, 1799. In another battle, fought Oct.
2, same year, the duke gained the victory over Brune ; but on the 6th, the duke was
defeated before Alkinaer, aud on the 20th entered into a convention, by which he exchanged
his army for 6000 French and Dutch prisoners in England.
BERGEN- OP-ZOOM, in Holland. This place, whoso works were deemed impregnable,
was taken by the French, Sept. 16, 1747, anil again in 1794. An attempt made by the
British under general sir T. Graham (afterwards lord Lynedoch), to carry the fortress by
storm, was defeated ; after forcing an entrance, their retreat was cut off, and a dreadful
slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners, March 8, 1814.
BERKELEY CASTLE, Gloucestershire, was begun by Henry I. in 1 108, and finished in
the next reign. Here Edward II. was cruelly murdered by the contrivance of his queen
Isabella (a princess of France), and her paramour, Mortimer, earl of March, Sept. 21, 1327.
Mortimer was hanged at the Elms, near London, Nov. 29, 1330 ; and Edward III. confined
his mother in her own house at Castle Rising, near Lynn, in Norfolk, till her death.
BERLIN (capital of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg), was founded by the mar
grave Albert, suruauied the Bear, about 1163. Its five districts were united under one
magistracy, in 1714 ; and it was subsequently made the capital of Prussia. It was taken by
au army of Russians, Austrians, and Saxons, in 1 760 ; but they were obliged to retire in a
few days. On Oct. 27, 1806, after the battle of Jena (Oct. 14), the French entered Berlin ;
and from this place Napoleon issued the famous Berlin decree or interdict against the com
merce of England, Nov. 20. It declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade,
and ordered all Englishmeu found in countries occupied by French troops to be treated as
prisoners of war. On Nov. 5, 1808, Napoleon entered into a convention with Prussia, by
which he remitted to Russia the sum due on the war-debt, and withdrew many of his troops
to reinforce his armies in Spain. An insurrection commenced here in March 1848. Berlin
was declared in a state of siege, Nov. 1848. The continuation of this state of siege was
declared to be illegal without its concurrence by the lower chamber, April 25, 1849. The
railway to Magdeburg was opened, Sept. 10, 1841. The first constituent assembly was held
here on Juno 21, 1842.
BERMUDAS, or Somehs' Isles, a group in the North Atlantic ocean, discovered by
Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1522 or 1527, but not inhabited until 1609, when sir George
Somers was cast away upon them. They were settled by a statute 9 James I. 1612. Among
the exiles from England during the civil war, was Waller, the poet, who wrote, while resi
dent here, a poetical description of the islands. There was an awful hurricane here, Oct. 31,
1780, and another, by which a third of the houses was destroyed, and all the shipping driven
ashore, July 20, 1813.
BERNAL COLLECTION of articles of taste and virtu, formed by Ralph Bernal, Esq.,
many years chairman of committees of ways and means in the house of commons. He died
Aug. 26, 1854. The sale in March, 1856, lasted 31 days, and enormous prices were given.
The total sum realised was 62,680?. 6j. &ti.
BERNARD, MOUNT ST., so called from a monastery founded on it by Beruardine
Menthon in 962. Velan, its highest peak, is about 8000 feet high, covered with perpetual
snow. Hanuibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginian army by tins pass into Italy
102 BHO
(218 B.C.) ; and it was by the same route, in May, 1800, that Bonaparte led his troops to
the plains of Lombard)-, before the battle of Marengo, fought June 14, 1800. On the
summit of Great St. Bernard is a large community of monks, who entertain travellers in
their convent.
BERNARDINES, a strict order of Cistercian monks, established by St. Bernard, of
Clairvaux, about 1 1 1 5. He founded seventy-two monasteries.
BERNE, the sovereign canton of Switzerland, joined the Swiss League 1352 ; the town
Berne surrendered to the French under general Brnne, April 1 2, 1 798. The town has bears
for its amis, and some of these animals are still maintained 011 funds specially provided for
the purpose.
BERRY, an aucient province (Biturigum regis), central France, held by the Romans
since the conquest of Gaul by Ca?sar (58—50 B.C.) till it was subdued by the Visigoths ;
from whom it was taken by Clovis in 507. It was erected into a duehy by John in 1360,
and was not incorporated into the royal domains till 1601 ; since then the title of duke has
been merely nominal.
BERSAGLIERI, the sharpshooters of the Sardinian army, first employed about 1848.
BERWICK-ON-TWEED, a fortified town on the north-east extremity of England. It
has been the theatre of many bloody contests between the English and Scots ; and while
England and Scotland remained two kingdoms, was always claimed by the Scots as belonging
to them, because it stood on their side of the river. It was taken from the Scots, and annexed
to England in 1333 ; and after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded
to England in 1482. In 1551 it was made independent of both kingdoms. The town
surrendered to Cromwell in 1648, and afterwards to general Monk in 1659. Since the union
of the crowns (James I. 1603), the fortifications, which were formerly very strong, have been
much neglected.
BESSARABIA, a frontier province of European Russia, part of the ancient Dacia. After
being possessed by the Goths, Huns, &c, it was conquered by the Turks in 1474, and ceded
to Russia in 1S12.
HETHLEHEM (Syria) now contains a large convent, enclosing, as is said, the very birth
place of Christ ; a church erected by the empress Helena, in the form of a cross, about
325 ; a chapel, called the Chapel of the Nativity, where they pretend to show the manger in
which Christ was kid ; another, called the Chapel of Josepfi ; and a third, of the Holy
Innocents. Bethlehem is much visited by pilgrims.—The Bethlehemite monks existed in
England in 1257.
BETHLEHEM HOSPITAL (so called from having been originally the hospital of St.
Mary of Bethlehem), a royal foundation for the reception of lunatics, incorporated by Henry
VIII. in 1546. The old Bethlehem Hospital, Moorfields, erected in 1675, pulled down in 1S14,
was built in imitation of the Tuileries at Paris. The present hospital in St. George's-fields
was begun April, 1812, and opened in 1815. In 1856 extensive improvements were
completed under the direction of Mr. Sydney Smirk, costing between nine and ten
thousand pounds.
BETTING-HOUSES, affording much temptation to gaming, and consequent dis
honesty, in the lower classes, were suppressed by an act passed in 1853 (16 & 17 Vict. c. 119),
iv penalty of \ool. being enforced on the owners or occupiers.
BEYROUT (the ancient Berytus), a seaport of Syria, colonised from Sidon. It was
destroyed by an earthquake, 566 ; was rebuilt, and was alternately possessed by the
Christians and Saracens ; and after a frequent change of masters, fell into the power of
Amurath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman empire up to the revolt of Ibrahim
Pacha, in 1832. The total defeat of the Egyptian army by the allied British, Turkish, and
Austrian forces, and evacuation of Beyrout (the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded,
and prisoners, and twenty pieces of cannon), took place Oct. 10, 1840. Sir C. Napier was
the English admiral engaged. Beyrout suffered greatly in consequence of the massacres in
Syria in May i860. In Nov. i860 above 27,000 persons were said to be in danger of starving.
See Syria.
BHOOTAN, a country north of Lower Bengal, with whom a treaty was made April 25
1774. After fruitless negotiations, Bhootan was invaded by tho British in Dec. 1864, in.
consequence of injurious treatment of an envoy. Sec India, 1864-5.
BHU 103 BIB
BHURTPORE (India), capital of Bhurtpore, was besieged by the British, Jan. 3, 1805,
and attacked five times up to March 21, without success. The fortress was taken by general
Lake, after a desperate engagement with Holkar, the Mahratta chief, April 2, 1805. The
defeat of Holkar led to a treaty, by which the rajah of Bhurtpore agreed to pay twenty lacs
of rupees, and ceded the territories that had been granted to him by a former treaty,
delivering up his son as hostage, April 17, 1805. On the rajah's death, during a revolt
against his son, Bhurtpore was taken by storm, by lord Combermere, Jan. 18, 1826. See
India.
BIANCHI (Whites), a political party at Florence, in 1300, in favour of the Ghibelines
or imperial party, headed by Vieri de' Cerchi, opposed the Ncri (or Blacks), headed by
Corso de' Douati. The latter expelled their opponents, among whom was the poet Dante,
in 1301.
BIARCITY. When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, died, ho left two sons, twins, Eury-
sthene3 and Procles ; and the people not knowing to whom precedence should be given,
placed both upon the throne, and thus established the first biarchy, 1102 B.C. The descen
dants of each reigned alternately for 800 years. Herodotus,
BIARRITZ, a bathing-place, near Bayonne. Here resided the comtcsse de Montijo and
her daughter Eugenie, now empress of the French, till her marriage Jan. 29, 1853 ; since
when it has been annually visited by the emperor and empress.
BIBERACH (Wurtembcrg). Here Moreau twice defeated the Austrian*,—under Latour,
Oct. 2, 1796, and under Kray, May 9, 1800.
BIBLE (from the Greek biblos, a book), the name especially given to the Holy Scriptures.
The Old Testament is said to have been collected and arranged by Ezra between 458 and
450 n.c. The Apocrypha are considered as inspired writings by the Roman Catholics, but
not by the Jews and Protestants.* See Apocrypha.
OLD TESTAMENT, f Hosea . about 785—725 ■ Luke, and John. B.C. 5—a.d. 33
contains tho history Amos about 787 Acts of the Apostles . a.d. 33—65
of the world from B.C. 4004—1635 Isaiah . about 760—698 Epistles—istand 2ndtoThcs-
Exodus . . . 1635—1490 Micah about 750—710 salomans . . about 54
Leviticus . . . 1490 Xahum . about 713 Galatians . . . . 58
Numbers . . . 1490—1451 Zcphaniah about 630 1st Corinthians . » . 59
Deuteronomy. . . 1451 Jeremiah about 629—588 2nd Corinthians . . . 60
Job . . about 1520 Lamentations . about 588 Romans .... 60
Joshua . . from 1451—1420 Habakkuk . about 626 Of James 60
Judges .... 1435—1 120 Daniel from 607—534 1st of Peter .... 60
Ruth . . . . 1322—1312 Ezokiel To Ephesians, Philippians,
ist and 2nd Samuel . 1171—1017 Obadiah . about 595—574
587 Colossians, Hebrews,
1st and 2nd Kings . , 1015— 562 Ezra about 536—456 Philemon . . .64
1st and 2nd Chronicles 1004— 536 Esther about 521—495 Titus and 1st to Timothy 65
Book of Psalms (princi Haggai . about 520 and to Timothy . . . 66
pally by David) . . 1063—1015 Zcchariah about 520—518 and of Peter . . . .66
Proverbs written about 1000— 700 Nohemiali alx>ut 446—434 Of Jude . . . . . 66
Song of Solomon about 1014 Malachi . about 397 1st, 2nd, and 3rd of John
Ecclesiastcs . about 977 after 90
Jonah. . . about 862 NEW TESTAMENT. Revelation . . . . 96
Joel . . . about 800 Gospels by Matthew, Mark,
The most ancient copy of the H<brew Scriptures 1628. It has been printed in England, edited by
existed at Toledo, called tho Codex of Hiliel ; it Woide and Babor, 1786—1821.—Codex Ephracml,
was of very early date, probably of the 4th century or Codex Regius, ascribed to the 5th century, in
after Christ, some say about 60 years before Christ. the Royal Library, Paris : published by Tischen-
The copy of Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made dorf in 1843.
about 1 100. The Hebrew Psalter was printed at Bologna in 1477.
The oldest copy of the Old and New Testament in The complete Hebrew Bible was first printed by
Gretk, is that in the Vatican, which was written Soucino in Italy in 1488, and tho Grcok Testament
in the 4th or 5th century, and published in 1586. (edited by Erasmus) at Rotterdam, in 1516. Aldus's
The next in age is the Alexandrian Codex (referred edition was printed in 1518 ; Stephens' in 1546;
to the 5th century) in the British Museum, pre and the textus receptiu. (or received text) by the
sented by the Greek patriarch to Charles L in Elzevirs in 1624.
* In April, 1865, was published a proposal for raising a fluid for oxploring Palestino in order to
illustrate the Bible by antiquarian and scientific investigation. The first meeting was held June 22, 1865,
the archbishop of York in the chair.
t The division of the Bible into chapter* has been ascribed to archbishop Lanfranc in tho itth and to
archbishop Langton in the 13th century ; but T. Hartwell Home considers the real author to have been
cardinal Hugo do Sancto Caro, about the middle of the 13th century. The division into sections was
commenced by Rabbi Nathan (author of a Concordance), about 1445, and completed by Athras, a Jew, in
1661. The present division into rent* was introduced by the celebrated printer, Robert Stephens, in his
Greek Testament (1551) and in his Latin Bible (1556-7).
BIB 104
BIBLE, continued.
TRANSLATIONS. Versions (from the Vulgate) by Wickliffe and
The Old Testament, in Greek-, termed the Septuagint his followers about 1380-
(which g€(), generally considered to have been made
by order of Ptolemy Philadclphus, king of Egypt, [Part published by Lewis, 1731 ; by Baber, 1810;
about 28.6 or 285 B.C. ; of this many fabulous* ac the whole by Madden and Forshall, 1850.)
counts are given
Origen, after spending twenty-eight years in col William Tyndalc's version of Matthew and Mark
lating MBS., commenced his polyglot Bible at from the Greek, 1524 ; of the whole NewTestv
Ca^sarea in a.d. 231 ; it contained the Greek ver ment 1525 or 1526
sions of Aquila, Kymmachus, and Theodotion, all Miles Covcrdalo's version of the whole Bible . 1535
made in or about the and century after Christ. [Ordered by Henry VIII. to be laid in the choir
Tho following are ancient versions :—Syriac, ist or of every church, " for every man that woiUd
and century ; the old Latin version, early in to look and read therein."]
tho 2nd century, revised by Jerome, in 384 ; who, T. Matthews' (fictitious name for John Rogers)
however, completed a new version In 405, now version (partly by Tyndale f and Coverdale) . 1537
called the Vulgate, which see ; the first edition Cranmer's Great Bible (Matthews' revised) . 1539
was printed in 1462 ;—Coptic. 2nd or 3rd century ; Geneva version (the first with figured verses)
EOiiopic ; Armenian, 4th or 5th century ; Sclavonic, 1540—155?
gth century ; and tho Maso-Gothic, by Ulfilas, Archbish op Parker's, called "The Bishop's
about 370, a manuscript copy of which, called tho Bible " (eight of the fourteen persons cm-
Codex Argentcus, is at Upsil. The Psalms were ployed being bishops) 156S
translated into Saxan by bishop Aldhelm, about King James' Bible,} the present authorised ver
706; and the Gospels by bishop Egbert, about sion—Translation began 1604 ; published . i6ti
721 ; tho whole Bible by Bcde, in the iotU Roman Catholic authorised version : New Tes
century. tament, at Rheims, 1582 ; Old Testament, at
Douay ........ 1609-10
ENGLISH VERSIONS AND EDITIONS.* Dr. Benjamin Blayney's revised edition . . 1769
MS. paraphrase of the whole Bible at tho Authorised Jewish English version . . . 1S51 61
Bodleian Library, Oxford, dated by Usher . 1290
N. TEST. BIBLE. N. TEST. BIBLE. N. TEST. BIBLE
Flemish .... a.d. 1477 Italian . . Irish 160a 1686
Spanish (Valencian) 1478 Spanish . . . '543 '47' 1569 Georgian . 174:
Gormau . . . 1522 1530 Russian (parts) 1519 1822 Portugueao . 1712 J 748
English . . . 1526 1535 Welsh . . 1567 1588 Manks . . 1748 ,-f7
French . . . 151a 1530 Hungarian . 1574 IS8q Turkish . . 1666 1S14
Swedish . . . 1526 1541 Bohemian . . . 1488 Sanscrit . . 1808 I0--2
Danish . . . 2524 1550 Polish . 1561 Modern Greek 1638 iS:i
Dutch . . . 1560 Virginian Indians . 1661 1663 Chinese . .. 1814
Tho British and Foreign Bible Society continue to make and print translations of the Bible
in all the dialects of the world. See Polyglot.
BIBLE DICTIONARIES. The most remarkable are Calmet's " Dictionary of the Bible,"
1722-8 ; Kitto's " Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature," 1843 > all(l Smith's "Dictionary of
the Bible,"' i860. See Concordances.^
BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and oldest societies which have made the
dissemination of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object, are the following :—The
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was formed 1698 ; Society for Propagating the
Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701 ; Society in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Knowledge,
1709 ; Society for Promoting Religious Knowledge among the Poor, 1750 ; Naval and
Military Bible Society, 1780; Sunday School Society, 1785 ; French Bible Society, 1792 ;
British and Foreign Bible Society, 1804 ;§ Hibernian Bible Society, 1806 ; City of London
Auxiliary Bible Society, 1812. A bull from the Pope against Bible Societies appeared in 1817.
BIBLIA PAUPERTJM (the Bible for the Poor), consisting of engravings illustrating
scripture history, with texts, carved in wood, a "block book," printed early in the 15th
century, was compiled by Bonaventura, general of the Franciscans, about 1260. A fac
simile was published by J. Russell Smith, in 1859.
BIBLIOGRAPHY, the Science of Books. Gesner's " Bibliotheca Universale " appeared
in 1545 : and D« Bine's " Bibliographic Instructive" in 1763. The following works on this
subject are highly esteemed : Peignot, Manuel, 1823 ; Home, Introduction to the Study of
• " The Bible of Beery land," cd. i860, published by Messrs. Bagsters, London, is full of information
respecting ancient and modern versions of the Bible.
t He was strangled at Antwerp in 1536, at the instigation of Henry VIII. and his council. His last
words were, " Lord, open the king of England's eyes ! " 14 editions of his Testament had then been
published.
t An " Index to the Persons, Place?, and Subjects occurring in the Holy Scriptures," by B. Vincent,
editor of the present work, is sold by the Queen's printers.
§ At tho end of 1850 this society had i«sued 24,247,667 copies of the Bible or parts of it ; in May, 1S63,
43.044, 334. In 1857 they published
the number had risen to 43.04. 1,1 1 a catalogue
* ' of their' library,
'' which contains a
large number of remarkalMe editions of the Bible.
BIB ] 05 BIL
Bibliography, 1814 ; Scriptural, Orme, Bibliotheca Biblica, 1824 ; Darling. Cyclopedia
Bibliographica, 1854-8 ; Classical, the works of Fabricius, Clarke, and Dibdin ; English,
Watts' Bibliotheca Britannica, 1824 ; Lowndes, Manual, 1834 (new edition by Bohn,
1857-64) ; Frcncli, Querard, 1828-64 ; Brunet's Manuel du Libraire (first published in 1810)
is exceedingly valuable : the 5th edition, 1862-5 British Catalogues, by Sampson Low,
1835-62..
BIBLIOMANIA (or book-madness) very much prevailed in 181 1, when Dr. Dibdin's
work with this title was published. See Boccaccio.
BIDASSOA. The allied army under lord Wellington, having driven the French from
Spain, effected the passage of this river, Oct. 8, 1813, and entered France.
BIDDENDEN MAIDS. A distribution of bread and cheese to the poor takes place at
Biddenden, Kent, on Easter Sundays, the expense being defrayed from the rental of twenty
acres of land, the reputed bequest of the Biddenden maids, two sisters named Chalkhurst,
who, tradition states, were born joined together by the hips, and shoulders, in 1 loo, and
having lived in that state to the age of thirty-four, died within six hours of each other.
Cakes, bearing a corresponding impression of the figures of two females, are given on Easter
day to all who ask for them. Hasted deems this tale fabulous, and states that the print on
the cakes is of modem origin, and that the land was given by two maiden ladies named
Preston. See Siamese Twins.
BIGAMY. The Romans branded the guilty party with an infamous mark ; with us
the punishment of this offence, formerly, was death. The first act respecting it was passed
5 Edw. I. 1276. Vincr's Statutes. Declared to be felony, without benefit of clergy, 1 James
I. 1603. Subjected to the same punishments as grand or petit larceny, 35 Geo. III. 1794.
Now punished, according to circumstances, by imprisonment or transportation.
BIG BETHEL (Virginia, U.S.). On June 10, 1861, the Federals were defeated in an
attack on some Confederate batteries at this place.
BILBOA (N.E. Spain), was taken by the French in 1795. This place, which had
been invested by the Carlists under Villareal, and was in considerable danger, was delivered
by the defeat of the besiegers by Espartero, assisted by British naval co-operation, Dec. 24,
1836. Espartero entered Bilboa in triumph next day.
BILL OF EXCEPTIONS. The right of tendering to a judge upon a trial between parties
a bill of exceptions to his charge, his definition of the law, or to remedy other errors of the
court, was provided by the 2nd statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 1284. Such biUs are
tendered to this day.
BILL OF PAINS, &c. See Queen Caroline's Trial. BILL of Rights, &c. Sec Rights.
BILLIARDS. The French ascribe their invention to Henrique Devigne, an artist in
the reign of Charles IX., about 1571. Slate billiard tables were introduced in England
in 1827.
BILLINGSGATE, the celebrated market-place for fish in London, is said to have derived
its name from Belinus Magnus, a British prince, the father of king Lud, 400 B.C., but Stow
thinks from a former owner. Mortimer. It was the old port of London, and the customs
were paid hereunder Ethelred II., a.d. 979. Stow. Billingsgate was made a perfect free market,
1669. Chamberlain. Fish by towi-earriage, as well as seaborne, now arrives daily here.
In 1849, the market was very greatly extended and improved, and is now well cleaned,
lighted, and ventilated.
BILLS OF EXCHANGE were invented by the Jews as a means of removing their
property from nations where they were persecuted, 11 60. Anderson. Bills are said to have
been used in England, 1307. The only legal mode of sending money from England, 4
Richard II. 1381. Regulated, 1698; first stamped, 1782; duty advanced, 1797; again,
June, 1801 ; and since. It was made capital to counterfeit bills of exchange in 1734. In
1825, the year of disastrous speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there were
400 millions of pounds sterling represented by bills of exchange and promissory notes. The
present amount js npt supposed to exceed 50 millions. The many statutes regarding bills of
exchange were consolidated by act 9 Geo. IV. 1828. An act regulating bills of exchange
passed 3 Vict. July, 1839. Great alterations were made in the law on the subject by 17 &
18 Vict. c. 83 (1854), and 18 & 19 Vict. c. 67 (1855).
BILLS OF MORTALITY Fort London. These bills were first compiled by order of
Cromwell, about 1538, 30 Hen. VIII., but in a more formal and recognised manner in
BIN 106 BIR
1603, after the great plague of that year. No complete series of them has been preserved.
They are now superseded by the weekly returns of the registrar-general. The following
show the numbers at decennial periods : —
Christening!. JJuriali. Christenings. Burials. Chi-istenings. Burials.
1780 ■ 16,634 . . 20,507 1810. • ■ 19.930 ■ I9.893 1840 . . 30,387 . . 26,774
1790. . . 18,980 . 18,038 1820 . 26,158 . • 19.348 1850. . . 39.973 • - 36,»47
1800 . . 19,176 • . 23,068 1830. . . 27,028 ■ 23,524
rN ENGLAND AND WALES.
Births. Deaths. Births. Deaths. Births. Deaths.
1840 . 5°2,3°3 • ■ 356,634 1856 . . 657,453 ■ • 390.506 1861 . . 696,406 . . 436,114
1845 543. 5" • 349.366 1858 . . 655.481 . . 449,656 1862 • . 712,684 . . 436,573
1849 . 578.159 • ■ 440,839 1859 . . 689,881 . . 441,790 1863 . . 729,399 . " . 475,582
1853 612,391 . 421,097 1860 ' . . 684,048 . . 422,721 1864 . . 739,763 . . 495.5"
IN LONDON AND SUBURBS.
Births. Deaths. Births. Deaths.
1854 .... 84,684 • 73.697 Bsg(Females, 45,367). 92,556 (Females, 30,166) 6r,6r7
1856 . ... 86,833 • • • . 57.786 862 . . . .97,114 . . . 66,950
1858 (Females, 43,400). 88,620 (Fei tales, 31,319) 63,882 S64 . . . . 102,187 • • • • 77.7a3
BINARY ARITHMETIC, that which counts by twos, for expeditiously ascertaining the
property of numbers, and constructing tables, was invented by Baron Leibnitz of Leipsic,
the celebrated statesman, philosopher, and poet, 1694. Moreri.
BINOMIAL ROOT, in Algebra, composed of only two parts connected with the signs
plus or minus ; a term iirst used by Recorda, about 1550, when he published his Algebra.
The celebrated binomial theorem of Newton was first mentioned in 1688. HvMon.
BIOGRAPHY (from the Greek bios, life, and graphii, I write), defined as history teaching
by example. The book of Genesis contains the biography of the patriarchs ; and the Gospels
that of Christ. Plutarch wrote the Lives of Illustrious Men ; Cornelius Nepos, Lives of
Military Commanders ; and Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars (all three in the first
century after Christ); Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Philosophers (about 205). —BosweU's
Life of Johnson (published in 1790) is the most remarkable English biography.
BIOLOGY, a name given to the science of life and living things, by Treviramis, of
Bremen, in his work on Physiology, published 1802-22. Biology includes zoology, anthro
pology, and ethnology, which see.
BIRCH TREE. The black (Bctula nigra), brought from North America, 1736. The
birch tree known as the Bctula pumila, introduced into Kew-gardens, England, by Mr.
James Gordon, from North America, 1762. The tree known as the Birch is now largely
cultivated in all the countries of Europe. Hardy's Annals.
BIRDS wcro divided by Linnaras into six orders (1735) ; by Blumenbach, into eight
(1805) ; and by Cuvier, into six (1817). The most remarkable works on birds are those
published by John Gould, F.R.S. ; they are to consist of about 31 folio volumes of coloured
plates, &c. Each set bound will cost about 500I.
BIRKENHEAD (Cheshire), a prosperous modern town on tho Mersey, immediately
opposite to Liverpool. The great dock here was projected by Mr. John Laird, constructed
by Mr. Rendcll, and opened in Aug. 1847 by lord Morpeth. In 1861 Birkenhead was made
a parliamentary borough, and Mr. Laird was elected first representative. Population in 1831,
200; in 1861, 51,649. See Wrecks, 1852.
BIRMAN EMPIRE, or Empire of Ava. See Burmese Empire and India.
BIRMINGHAM, formerly Bromwicham and Brummegem (Warwickshire), existed in the
reign of Alfred, 872 ; and belonged to the Bermengehams, at Domesday survey, 10S6.
There were "many smythes " here in the time of Henry VIII. (Leland), but its great
importance commenced in the reign of William III. It has been styled "the toyshop of
Europe. "
Grammar school founded. . . . . - 1552 Theatre destroyed by fire . Aug. 17, 1792.
Besieged and taken by prince Rupert . . . 1643 Moro commotions . Not.
No 1800
Button manufactures established . . . 1689 Theatre burnt Jan. 7, 1 820
Soho works established by Matthew Boulton Political Union, headod by T. Attwood, formed,
about 1764 ; and steam engine works about . 1774 Feb. 1831
Birmingham canal was originated . . . . 1768 Birmingham made a borough by Reform Act . 1833
Riots against persona commemorating the
French revolution .... July 14, 1791 Political Union dissolved itself . . May 10, »S33
Town-hall built
1834
BIR 107 BIS
BIRMINGHAM, cotUinucd.
Birmingham and Liverpool railway opened as 100,000 persons present (ground given by
the Grand Junction . . . July 4, 1837 lord Calthorpe) . . June 1, 1857
London and Birmingham railway opened its Death of G. F. Muntz, MP.. . July 30, „
entire length .... Sept 17, 1838 J. Bright olected M.P., Aug. 10, 1857, & April, 1859
Great Chartist riot ; houses burnt . July 15, 1839 The Queen and Princo Consort visit Birming
Town incorporated, and Police Act passed . „ ham, Warwick, &c., for the first time, and
Meeting of British Association . Aug. 39, „ open Aston park . . . June 14-16, 1858
Queen's College incorporated 1843 The Free Library opened . . April 4, 1861
Corn Exchange opened . . . Oct. 2jf 1847 Dreadful factory explosion ; 9 killed and many
Meeting of British Association (and time) injured June 23, 1862
Sept i2, 1849 The people's park purchased by the corpora
Queen's College organised . . . Jan. 1853 tion Sept. 1864
Public park opened (ground virtually given by New Exchange solemnly opened . . Jan. 2, 1865
Mr. Adderley) Aug. 3, i8«;6 The bank of Attwoods and 8pooner stop pay
New music-hall opened .... Sept. 3, ment and cause much distress *. March 10,
Anotherpark opened by the dukeof Caml ' 1 Meeting of British Association (3rd time)
Sept 6, „
BIRTHS. The births of children were taxed in England, viz. , birth of a duke 30/. , of a
common person 2$., 7 Will. III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The instances of four children
at a birth are numerous ; but it is recorded that a woman of Konigsberg had live children at
a birth, Sept. 3, 1784, and that the wife of Nelson, a journeyman tailor, of Oxford-Market,
London, had also five children at a birth, in Oct. 1800, See Bills of Mortality and Registers.
The Queen usually presents a small sum of money to a poor woman giving birth to three or
more children at one time.
BISHOP (Greek episcopos, overseer), a name given by the Athenians to those who had
the inspection of tho city. The Jews and Romans had also like officers. Tho bishop has
the government of church affairs in a certain district. St. Peter, styled tho first bishop of
Rome, was martyred 65. The episcopate became an object of contention about 144. The
title of pope was anciently assumed by all bishops, and was exclusively claimed by Gregory
TIL (1073-85).
BISHOPS in England* were coeva^with the introduction of Christianity. The see of
London is said to have been founded by Lucius, king of Britain, 179.
Bishops mode barons 1072 they remained deprived of their votes, Dec. 28, 1641
The Conge1 U'Slire of tho king to choose a bishop The order of archbishops and bishops abolished
originated in an arrangement of king John. by the parliament .... Oct, 9, 1646
Bishops were elected by the king's Congi Bishops regain their scats . . . Nov. iC6x
d'Elire, 25 Hen. VIII. t 1534 Seven sent to the tower for not reading the
Bishops to rank as barons by stat. 31 Hen. king's declaration for liberty of conscience
VIII. 1540 (intended to bring tho Koman Catholics into
Seven were deprived for being married . . 1554 ecclesiastical and civil power;, June 8, and
Several suffered martyrdom under queen Mary, tried and acquitted . . Juno 29-30, i638
See Cranmer. 1555-6 The archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Bancroft)
Bishops excluded from voting in the house of and five bishops (Bath and Weils, Ely, Glou
peers on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I. . 1640 cester, Norwich, and Peterborough) sus
Several committed for protesting against tho pended for refusing to take the oaths to
legality of all acts of parliament passed while William and Mary, 1689 ; deprived , . 1690
ENGLISH BISHOrillCS.
Sees. Founded. Sees. Founded. Sees. Founded Sees. Founded,
London (abpc ) - (?) *79 East Anglia (after- Hereford . . . 676 Bath . . . zo88
York (abpe.) 4th cent. wds. Norwich, 1091) 630 Worcester . . . 680 Ely . . 1 108
Senior and Man . 4th cent. Lindisfarne, or Holy Lindisse (afterwards Carlisle . . 1132
Llandaff . 5th cent. Island (afterwards Lincoln, 1067) . . „ Peterborough • I54X
St David'B . . 5th cent, Durham, 995) , 634 Sherborne(q/Vfrwards Gloucester §
Bangor t . about 516 West Saxons (after Salisbury, 1042) . 'OS Bristol § . ■ I54a
St. Asaph . . about 560 wards Winchester, Cornwall (afterwards Chester
Canterbury , • 598 70s) 635 Devonshire, after- Oxford .
Ixmdon (see abave) . 609 Murcia (afterwards icrds, Exeter, 1050) 909 Ripon . 1836
Ucchcstcr 604 Lichfield, 669) . 656 Wells . ,f Manchester 1847
* Bishops have tho titles of Lord and Right Rev. Father in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and
York, taking place of all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester
have precedence of all bishops ; the others rank according to seniority of consecration.
t Retirement of Bishops. In 1856 the bishops of London and Durham retired on annuities. The new
bishops held their sees subject to future provision. In 1857 tho bishop of Norwich also resigned.
1 An order in council, Oct. 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St, Asaph to be united on the next
vacancy in either, and Manchester, a new soe, to be created thereupon ; this order, as regarded the union
of the sees, was rescinded 1846.
5 The sees of Bristol and Gloucester were united, 1856.
BIS ICS BIS
BISHOPS in Ireland are said to have been consecrated in the 2nd century.
Prelacies were constituted, and divisions of the [By this statute, of the four archbishoprics of
bishoprics in Ireland made, by cardinal Pa- Armagh, Dublin, Tuam, and Cashel, the last
paro, legate from pope Eugene III. . . 1151 two were to bo abolished on the decease of the
Several prelates deprived by queen Mary . . 1554 then archprelates which has since occurred ; and
Bp. Atherton suffered death ignominiously . 1640 it was enacted that eight of the then eighteen
Two bishops deprived for not taking the oaths bishoprics should, as they became void, be
to William and Mary 1691 henceforth united to other sees, which was ac
Church Temporalities Act, for reducing the complished in 1850: so that the Irish Church
number of bishops in Ireland, 3 tfc 4 Will. IV. establishment at present consists of two arch
c. 37, passed Aug. 14, 1833 bishops and ten bishops.]
IRISH BISHOPRICS.
Ossory . . . 402 Connor . about 500 Ferns . . about 598 Cashel, before 901 ;
Killala . about 434 Tuam, about 501 ; Cloyne . before 604 abpe. . . . 1 152
Trim . . . 432 abpe. . .1152 Cork . . about 606 Killaloc, abpe. . . 1019
Armagh, 445; abpe. 1152 Dromore . about 510 Glandalagh . beforo 612 Waterford . . . Z096
Emly . . about 448 Kildare . before 519 Derry before 618 Limerick . before 1106
Elphin . . -450 Meath . . . . 520 Kilmacduach, about 620 Kilmore . . . 1136
Ardagh . . . 454 Achonry . . . 530 Lismore . about 631 Dublin, af/pe. . . 1152
Clogher . before 493 Louth . . . . 534 Lcighliu . . . 632 Kilfcnora . before 1254
Down . . about 499 Clonmacnois . . 548 Mayo . . about 665 (For the new combina
Ardfert and Aghadoo Clonfort . . . 558 Raphoe . before 865 tions, see the sepa
beforo 500 Hoss . . about 570 rate articles.)
BISHOPS in Scotland were constituted in the 4th century. Episcopacy was abolished
in 1638 ; hut restored by Charles II. 1661, which caused an insurrection. Episcopacy was
again abolished in Scotland in 1689.*
SCOTCH BISHOPRICS.
Orkney . Uncertain. Brechin . before 1155 Brechin . . . 1731
Isles . . . 360 Moray . , . . 1 1 1 5 POST-REVOLUTION Glasgow (and Gallo
Galloway . lieforo 500 Ross .... 1124 BISHOPS. way) • . . „
St. Andrew's, 800 ; Aberdeen . . . 1125 Edinburgh . . 1720 St. Andrew's (Dun
abpe. . . 1470 Dunkeld . . . 1130 Aberdeen and the keld, Dunblane,
Glasgow, about 560 ; Dunblane . before 1153 Isles . . 1721 A©.) . . . . 1733
abpe. . . . 1488 Argyll . . . 1200 Moray^and Ross) . 1727 Argyll and the Isles 1847
Caithness . about 1066 Edinburgh . . . 1633
BISHOPS, Colonial. The first was Samuel Seabury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut
by four nonjuring prelates, at Aberdeen, in Scotland, Nov. 14, 1784. The bishops of New
York and Pennsylvania were consecrated in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury, Feb.
4, 1787, and the bishop of Virginia in 1790. The first Roman Catholic bishop of the United
States was Br. Carroll of Maryland, in 1789. By 15 & 16 Vict. c. 52, and 16 & 17 Vict,
c. 49, the colonial bishops may perform all episcopal functions in theue United Kingdom,
but have no jurisdiction.
COLONIAL bishoprics.
Nova Scotia . <7S7 Now Zealand . 1841 Australia) . 1847 Brisbane . 1859
Quebec 1 793 Antigua . . . 184a Rupert's Land 1849 British Columbia
Calcutta . 1814 Guiana Victoria . . Goulburn
Barbadoos . 1824 Huron. . . . Sierra Leone 1852 St. Helena . . . »
Jamaica . Tasmania Graham's-town X853 Waiapu . . - »•
Madras iS35 Colunibo . . . 1845 Natal . Melanesia!. Islands . i860
Australia Frcdcricton . Mauritius 1854 Kingston, Canada . 1S61
Montreal . Adelaide . . . 1S47 Labuan Ontario, Canada .
Bombay . 1837 Capo Town Christchurch . 1856 Nassau, Bahamas . - -
Newfoundland 1839 Melbourne Perth . Central Africa . . 1863
Toronto . . Newcastle . . . Wellington IS58 Grafton, Australia
Gibraltar .. 1841 Sydney (formerly Nelson Niger territory . 1864
BISMUTH was recognised as a distinct metal by Agricola, in 1529. It is very fusible
and brittle, and of a yellowish white colour.
BISSEXTILE. Sec Calendar and Leap Year.
* Bishop "Rose connected tho established episcopal church of Scotland with that form of it which ia now
merely tolerated, he having been bishopof Edinburgh from 1687 till 1720, when, on his death. Dr. Fullarton
became the first post-revolution bishop of that see. Fife (now St. Andrew's, so called in 1844) now unites
the bishopric of Dunkeld (re-instituted in 1727) and that of Dunblane (re-Instituted in 1731}. Ross (of
uncertain date) was united to Moray (re-instituted in 1727) in 1838. Argyll and the Isles never existed
independently until 1847, baving been conjoined to Moray and Ross, or to Ross alone, previously to that
year. Galloway has been addod to tho see of Glasgow.
BIT 109 BLA
BITHYNIA, a province in Asia Minor, previously called Bebricia, is said to have been
invaded by the Thracians under Bitliynus, son of Jupiter, who gave it the name of Bithynia.
It was subject successively to the Assyrians, Lydians, Persians, and Macedonians. Most of
the cities were built by Grecian colonists.
Dydalsus revolted and reigned about . B.C. 430—440 He receives and employs Hannibal, then a
Botyras, his son, succeeds 378 fugitive 187
Baa, or Bias, son of Botyras, 376 ; repulses the Who poisons himself to escape betrayal to tho
Greeks 328 Romans 183
Zipo-'tas, son of Bias, resists Lysimachus . . 326 Prusiaa II. succeeds ..... 180
He dies, leaving four sons, of whom the eldest, Nicomedes II. kills his father Prusiaa and
Nicomedes 1., succeeds (he invites the Gauls reigns 149
into Asia) 278 Nicomedes III., surnamed Philopator . . 91
He rebuilds Astacus, and names it Nicomedia . 264 Doposcd by Mithridates, king of Poutus . . 88
Zielas, son of Nicomedes, reigns . . . Restored by the Romans ... 84
Intending to massacre the chiefs of the Gauls -43 Bequeathe hia kingdom to the Romans . . 74
at a feast, Zielas is detected in hia design, Pliny the younger, pro-conaul . . a.d. 103
and is himself put to death, and hia son The Oghusian Tartars settle in Bithynia . .1231
Prusiaa I. made king, about .... 22S Tho Othman Turks take Pniaa, the capital (and
Prusiaa defeats the Gauls, and takes cities . . 223 make it tho seat of their empire till they
Pnisias allies with Philip of Maccdon, and poaaess Constantinople) 1327
marries Apamea, hia daughter 20S
BITONTO (Naples). Here Montemar and the Spaniards defeated the Germans, on May
26, 1730, and eventually acquired the kingdom of the Two Sicilies for Don Carlos.
BLACK ASSIZES. See under Oxford.
BLACK BOOK* (L\h",r Niger), a book kept in tho exchequer, which received the orders
of that court. It was published by Hearn in 1728.
BLACKBURN, Lancashire, so called in Domesday-book. The manufacture of a cloth
called Blackburn cheque, carried on in 1650, was superseded by Blackburn greys. In 1767,
James Hargreaves, of this town, invented the spinning-jenny, for which he was eventually
expelled from the county. About 1810 or 1812, the townspeople availed themselves of his
discoveries, and engaged largely in the cotton manufacture, now their staple trade.
BLACK DEATH. See Plagues, 1340.
BLACK FRIARS. See Dominican.
BLACKFRIAKS BRIDGE, London. The first stone was laid Oct. 31, 1760, and it was
completed by Mylne, in 1770. It was the first work of the kind executed in England, in
which arches, approaching to the form of an ellipsis, were substituted for semicircles. It was
repaired in 1834, and in 1837-1840. Since 1850 the bridge gradually sank. The old bridge
was pulled down : and a new temporary one opened for use in 1864. The foundation stone
of the new bridge (to be erected according to a design by Mr. J. Cubitt) was laid by the lord
mayor, Hale, July 20, 1865. The first railway train (London, Chatham, and Dover) entered
the city of London over the new railway bridge, Blackfriars, Oct. 6, 1864.
BLACKHEATH, near London. Here Wat Tyler and his followers assembled June,
1381 ; and here also Jack Cade and his 20,000 Kentish men encamped, June 1, 1450. See
Tyler and Cade. Battle of Blackheath, in which the Cornish rebels were defeated and
Flannock's insurrection quelled, June 22, 1497. The cavern, on the ascent to Blackheath,
the retreat of Cade, and the haunt of banditti in the time of Cromwell, was re-discovered
in 1780.
BLACK-HOLE. See Calcutta.
BLACK LEAD. See Graphite.
BLACK LETTER, employed in the first printed books in the middle of tho 15th
century. The first printing types were Gothic ; but they were modified into the present
Eoman type about 1469 ; Pliny's Natural History being then printed in the new characters.
BLACK-MAIL, a compulsory payment made in parts of Scotland by the lowlanders
to the highlanders, for the protection of their cattle, existed till within a few months
of the outbreak of the rebellion, 1745. It rendered agricultural improvement almost
impossible.
* A book was kept in the English monasteries, wherein dotalls of the scandalous enormities practised
in religious houses were entered for the inspection of visitors, under Henry VIII. 1535, in order to blacken
them and hasten their dissolution : hence possibly the phrase, " I'll aet you down in the black book."
BLA no BLE
BLACK MONDAY, Easter Monday, April 6, 1351, "when the hailstones are said to
have killed both men and horses, in the army of onr king Edward III. in France." Bailey.
"This was a memorable Easter Monday, which in the 34th of Edward III. happened to be
full dark of mist and hail, and so cold that many men died on their horses' backs with the
cold," 1351. Stow. In Ireland, Black Monday was tho day on which a number of the
English were slaughtered at a village near Dublin, in 1209.
BLACK ROD has a gold lion at the top, and is carried by the usher of the Order of the
Knights of tho Garter (instituted 1349), instead of the mace. He also keeps the door when
a chapter of the order is sitting, and during the sessions of parliament attends the house of
lords and acts as their messenger to tho commons.
BLACK SEA, tub Euxine (Pontus Euxinus of the Ancients), a large internal sea
between the S. \V. provinces of Kussia and Asia Minor, connected with the sea of Azoff by
the straits of Yenikale, and with the sea of Marmora by the channel of Constantinople.
This sea was much frequented by the Greeks and Italians, till it was closed to all nations by
tho Turks after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The Russians obtained admission by the
treaty of Kainardji, in 1774. In 1779 it was partially opened to British and other traders,
since which time the Russians gradually obtained the preponderance. It was entered by the
British and French fleets, Jan. 3, 1854, at the requisition of the Porte, after the destruction
of the Turkish fleet at Sinope by the Russians, Nov. 30, 1853. A dreadful storm in this
sea raged from Nov. 13 to 16, 1854, and caused great loss of life and shipping, and valuable
stores for the allied armies. See Rosso-Turkish War. By the treaty of 1856 the Black Sea
was opened to the commerce of all nations.
BLACKWALL (London). The site of fine commercial docks and warehouses. See
Docks. The Blackwall railway was opened to the public, July 4, 1840 ; the eastern terminus
being at Blackwall wharf, and the western in Feiichurch-street.
BLACK WATCH, armed companies of the loyal clans (Campbells, Monros, &c.)
employed to watch the Highlands from about 1725 to 1739, when they were formed into the
celebrated 42nd regiment, which was formally enrolled " The Royal Highland Black 'Watch, "
in 1861. Their removal probably facilitated tho outbreak in 1745. They wore dark tartans,
and hence were called Black Watch.
BLACKWATER, Battle of, in Ireland, Aug. 14, 1598, when the Irish chief O'Neal
defeated the English under Sir Henry Bagnall. Pope Clement VIII. sent O'Neal a conse
crated plume, and granted to his followers the same indulgence as to crusaders.
BLADENSBURG. See Washington, 1814.
BLANK VERSE. See Verse.
BLANKETEERS. A number of operatives who on March 30, 1817, met in St. Peter's
field, near Manchester, many of them having blankets, rugs, or great coats rolled up and
fastened to their backs. This was termed the Blanket meeting. They proceeded to march
towards London, but wore dispersed by the magistracy. It is stated that their object was
to commence a general insurrection. Sec Derby. Eventually the ringleaders had an inter
view with the cabinet ministers, and a better understanding between the working classes and
the government ensued.
BLANKETS are said to have beon first made at Bristol by T. Blanket, about 1705.
BLASPHEMY was punished with death by tho law of Moses (Lev. xxiv. 1491 B.C.) ;
and by the code of Justinian, a.d. 529. It is punishable by the civil and canon law of
England, regulated by 60 Geo. III. c. 8 (1819). In Scotland the blasphemer's tongue was
cut out ; he was punished with fine and imprisonment by law, 1696-7. Daniel Isaac Eaton
was tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, March 6, 1812. Robert Taylor, a protestant
clergyman, was tried twice for the same crime. He was sentenced to two years' imprison
ment, and largely fined, July, 1831. In Dec. 1840, two publisher of blasphemous writings
were convicted.
BLAZONRY. Bearing coats-of-arms was introduced and became hereditary in France
and England about 1 192, owing to the knights painting their banners with different figures,
thereby to distinguish them in the crusades. Dugdale.
BLEACHING was known in Egypt, Syria, India, and Gaul. Pliny. An improved
chemical system was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in
1768. There are largo bleach-fields in Lancashire, Fife, Forfar, and Renfrew, and in tile
vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The application of the gas chlorine to bleaching is due
to Berthollet about 1785. Its combination with lime (as chloride of lime) was devised by
BLE 111 BLO
Mr. Tennant, of Glasgow, who took out a patent for the process in 1798, and by his firm it
is still extensively manufactured. In 1822 Dr. lire published an elaborate series of experi
ments on this substance. In i860 bleaching and dyeing works were placed under the regu
lations of the Factories' Act.
BLENHEIM, or Blindheim, in Bavaria, the site of abattle fought Aug. 2 (new style, I3)>
1 704, between the English and confederates, commanded by the duke of Marlborough, and
the French and Bavarians, under marshal Tallard and the elector of Bavaria, The latter
were defeated with the loss of 27,000 killed, and 13,000 prisoners (including Tallard).
Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. The British nation gave Marlborough the
honour of Woodstock aud hundred of Wotton, and erected for him the house of Blenheim.*
BLIND. The first public school for the blind was established by Valentine Haiiy, at
Paris, in 1784. The first in England was at Liverpool, in 1791 ; in Scotland, in Edinburgh,
in 1 792 ; and the first in London in 1 799. Frintiiig in raised or embossed characters for the
use of the blind was begun at Paris by Haiiy in 1786. The whole Bible was printed at
Glasgow in raised Roman characters about 1848. A sixpenny magazine for the blind, edited
by the rev. W. Taylor, F.R.S., so eminent for his exertions on behalf of these sufferers, was
published in 1855-6. There is hardly any department of human knowledge in which blind
persons have not obtained distinction, t Laura Bridgman, bora in 1829, became dumb and
blind two years after : she was so well taught by Dr. Howe, of Boston, U.S., as to become
an able instructor of blind and dumb persons. By the census of 1851, there were in Great
Britain, 21,487 blind persons, 11,273 miles ; 10,214 females : about one blind in 975.
BLINDING, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, was a punishment
inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the middle ages the penalty
was frequently changed from total blindness to a diminution of sight. A whole army was
deprived of their eyes, by Basil, in the nth century. See Bulgarians. Several of the
eastern emperors had their eyes torn from their heads.
BLISTERS, used by Hippocrates (460-357 B.C.), made, it is said, of cantharides, vliichscc.
BLOCK BOOKS. See Printing.
BLOCKADE is the closing an enemy's ports to all commerce ; a practice introduced by
the Dutch about 1584. The principle recognised by the European powers is that every
blockade, in order to be binding, must be effective. The Elbe was blockaded by Great
Britain, 1803 ; the Baltic, by Denmark, 1848-49 and 1864 ; the gulf of Finland, by tho
Allies, 1854 ; and the ports of the Southern States of North America by president Lincoln,
April 19, 1861. See Orders in Council, and Berlin.
BLOCKS employed in the rigging of ships were much improved in their construction by
Walter Taylor, about 1781. In 1801, Mark I. Brunei invented a modo of making blocks
which was put into operation in 1808, and in 1815 was said to have saved the country
20, coo?, a year.
BLOOD. Tho circulation of tho blood through the lungs was 'known to Michael
Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1553. Csesalpinus published an account of the general
circulation, of which he had some confused ideas, improved afterwards by experiments, 1569.
Paid of "Venice, or Father Paolo (real name Peter Sarpi), discovered tho valves which serve for
the circulation ; but the honour of the positive discovery of the circidation belongs to
William Harvey, between 1619 and 1628. Frcind.
Eatixo Blood was prohibited to Noah, Gen. ix., to TRANSFX-81SO into their voins the blood of young
the Jew*, Lee. xvii., tic, and to tho Gentile con persons. It was countenanced in franco by tho
verts by the apostles at an assembly at Jerusalem, physicians about 1668. and prevailed for many
a.d. 5a, Acts xv. years, till the most fatal effects having ensued, it
Blood-Drinking was anciently tried to give vigour was suppressed by an edict. It was attempted
to the system. Louis XI., in his last illness, drank again in France in 1797, and more recently there,
the warm blood of infants, in tho vain hope of in a few cases, with success ; and in England (but
restoring his decayed Rtrongth, 1483. Renault. the instances are rare) since 1823. Med. Journ.
In the 15th century an opinion prevailed that the "An English physician (Louver, or Lower) prac
declining vigour of tho aged might bo repaired by tised in this way ; he died in 1691." Freind.
* On Fob. 5, 1861, a fire broke out at this place, which destroyod the " Titian Gallery" and tho
pictures ; tho latter, a present from Victor Amadcus, king of Sardinia, to John, the great duke of
Marlborough.
t James Holman, the "blind traveller'' (bom 1786, died 1857), visited almost every place of note in the
world. His travels were published in 1825. In April, 1858, a blind clergyman, rev. J. Sparrow, was
elected chaplain to the Mercers' Company, London, and read tho service, &c.,from embossed books.
Viscount Cranbourne (blind) was the author of many interesting historical essays. He died in June,
1865. On July 13, 1865, Henry Fawcctt, the blind professor of political economy at Cambridge, was elected
M. P. fur Brighton.
BLO 112 BOD
BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded officer of Oliver Cromwell's household,
■with his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his coach, and had got him to Tyburn,
intending to hang him, when he was rescued by his friends, Dec. 4, 1670. Blood afterwards,
in the disguise of a clergyman, attempted to steal the regal crown from the Jewel-office in
the Tower, May 9, 167 1 ; yet, notwithstanding these and other offences, he was not only
pardoned, but had a pension of 500Z. per annum settled on him by Charles II., 1671. He
died in 1680, in prison, for a libel on the duke of Buckingham.
" BLOODY ASSIZES," held by Jeffreys in the west of England, in Aug. 1685, after the
defeat of the duke of Monmouth in the battle of Sedgmorc. Upward of 300 persons were
executed after short trials ; very many were whipped, imprisoned, and fined ; and nearly
1000 were sent as slaves to tho American plantations.
BLOOMER COSTUME. See a note to article Dress.
BLOOMSBURY GANG, a cant term applied to an, influential political party in the
reign of George III., in consequence of the then duke of Bedford, the chief, being the
owner of Bloomsbury square, &c. The marquess of Stafford, the last survivor, died Oct.
26, 1803.
BLOREHEATH (Staffordshire), Battle or, September 23, 1459, in which the earl of
Salisbury and the Yorkists defeated the Lancastrians, whose leader, lord Audley, was slain
•with many Cheshire gentlemen. A cross commemorates this conflict.
BLOWING-MACHINES, the large cylinders, used in blowing-machines, were erected
by Mr. Smeatou at the Carron iron works, 1760. One equal to the supply of air for forty
forge fires was erected at the king's dock-yard, Woolwich. The hot-air blast, a most
important improvement, was invented by Mr. James B. Neilson, of Glasgow, and patented
1111828. He died Jan. 18, 1865. It causes great economy of fuel.
BLOW-PIPE. The origin is unknown. An Egyptian using a blow-pipe is among the
paintings on the tombs at Thebes. It was employed in mineralogy, by Andrew Von Swab, a
Swede, about 1733, and improved by Wollaston and others. In 1802, professor Robert Hare,
of Philadelphia, increased the action of the blow-pipe by the application of oxygen and
hydrogen. By the agency of Newman's improved blow-pipes, in 1816, Dr. E. D. Clarke
fused the earths, alkalies, metals, &c. The best work on the blow-pipe is by Plattner and
Muspratt, 1854.
BLUE was tho favourite colour of the Scotch covenanters in the 16th century. Bine
and orange or yellow, became tho whig colours after the revolution in 1688 ; and were
adopted on the cover of the whig periodical, the "Edinburgh Review," first published in
1802. The Prussian blue dye was discovered by Diesbach, at Berlin, in 1710. Fine blues
are now obtained from coal-tar, 1864. See Aniline. Blue-coat Schools, so called in
reference to the costume of the children. The Blue-coat school in Newgate-street, London,
was instituted by Edward VI. in 1552. Seo Christ's Hospital. Blue-stocking, a term
Applied to literary ladies, was originally conferred on a society comprising both sexes
(1760, el scq.). Benjamin Stillingfleet, the naturalist, an active member, wore blue worsted
stockings ; henco the name. Tho beautiful Mrs. Jerningham is said to have worn blue
stockings at the conversaziones of lady Montagu.
BOARD OF ADMIRALTY, Control, Green-Cloth, Health, Trade, &c See
under Admiralty, &c.
BOATS. Flat-bottomed boats, made in England in tho reign of William I. ; again
"brought into use by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690. See Life-Boat. A mode of
building boats by the help of the steam-engine was invented by Mr. Nathan Thompson
of New York in i860, and premises were erected for its application at Bow, near London,
in 1861.
BOCCACCIO'S DECAMERONE, a collection of a hundred stories or novels (many
very immoral), severely satirising the clergy, feigned to have been related in ten days, during
the plague of Florence in 1348. Boccaccio lived 1313—75. A copy of the first edition
(that of Valdarfer, in 147 1) was knocked down at the duke of Roxburgh's sale, to the duke
of Marlborough, for 2260?., June 17, 1812. This identical copy was afterwards sold by
public auction, for 875 guineas, June 5, 1819.
BODLEIAN LIBRARY, Oxford, founded in 1598, and opened in 1602, by sir Thos.
Bodley (died, 1612). It is open to the public, and claims a copy of all works published in
this country. For rare works and MSS. it is said to be second only to the Vatican.
IKK 113 BOH
BCEOTIA, a division of Greece, north of Attica, known successively as Aonia, Messapia,
Hvantis, Ogygia, Cadmcis, and Bceotia. Thebes, the capital, was celebrated for its exploits
and misfortunes of its kings and heroes. The term Boeotian was used by the Athenians as a
synonym for dulness ; but unjustly, —since Pindar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, Epami-
noudas, and Corinna, were Bceotians. The early dates are doubtful. See Thebes.
Arrival of Cadmus, founder of Cadmca (Half*, Battle of Coronea, in which the Thebans defeat
1494; Clinton, 1313) .... B.c. 1493 the Athenians ..... b.c. 447
Reign of Polydore 1459 The Thebans, under Epaminondas and Pclopi-
Labdachus ascends the throne .... 1430 das, enrol their Sacred Band, and join Athens
Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, and de against Sparta
throne Laius 1388 Epaminondas defeats the Lacedaemonians at ,>77
(Edipus, not knowing his father Lalus, kills Lcuctra.and restores Thebes to independence 373
him in an affray, confirming tho oracle fore r%lopidas killed at the battle ofCynoscephahe .
telling his death by tho hands of his son . 1276 Epaminondas gains the victory of Mantinea, 3' '4
(Edipus resolves the Sphinx's enigmas . . 1266 but is slain 3&i
War of the Seven Captains .... 1225 Philip, king of Maccdon, defeats tho Thebans
Thebes besieged and taken 1213 and Athenians near Chieronea . . . 338
Thersandcr reigns 1 198 ; slain .... 1193 Alexander destroys Thebes, but spares the
The Thebans abolish royalty (ages of obscurity house of Pindar
follow) about xiao Bceotia, henceforth partook of tho fortunes of 335
The Thebans fight with tho Persians against Greece ; and was conquered by the Tvirks
the Greeks at Plata-a 479 under Mahomet II. .... a.d. 145G
BOGS, probably tho remains of forests, covered with peat and loose soil. An act for
the drainage of Irish bogs, passed March, 1S30. The bog-land of Ireland has been estimated
at 3,000,000 acres ; that of Scotland at upwards of 2,000,000 ; and that of England at near
1,000,000 of acres. In Jan. 1849, Mr. Bees Recce took out a patent for certain valuable
products from Irish peat. Candles and various other articles produced from peat have bceu
since sold in London.
BOHEMIA, formerly the Hcrcynian Forest (Boiemum, Tacitus), derives its name from
the Boii, a Celtic tribe. It was governed by dukes, till Ottocar assumed the title of king,
1198. The kings at first held their territory from the empire, but at length threw off
the yoke : and the crown was elective till it came to the house of Austria, in which it is
now hereditary. Prague, the capital, is famous for sieges and battles. Population in 1857,
47705.525- See Prague.
The Slavonians seize Bohemia about . . 550 the king of Poland, and George Podiebrad, a
City of Prague founded 795 Protestant chief 1440-1458
Introduction of Christianity .... 894 Ladislas, king of Poland, elected king of Bo
Bohemia conquered by the emperor Henry hemia, on tho death of Podiebrad . . . 1471
III., who spreads devastation through tho The emperor Ferdinand I. marries Anno, sister
country 1041 of Louis the late king, and obtains the crown 1517
Ottocar (or Premislas) I., first king of Bohemia 1 198 The emperor Ferdinand II., oppressing the
Ottocar II., rules over Austria, and obtains Protestants, is deposed, and Frederic tho
Styria, ic, 1253; refuses the imperial crown 127a elector-palatine, elected king Sept 5, 1619
Ottocar vanquished by the emperor Rudolph, Frederic, totally defeated at Prague, flies to
and deprived of Austria, Styria, and Car- Holland Nov. 9, 1620
niola, 1277 ; killed at Marchfeld . . . 1278 Bohemia secured to Austria by treaty . . 1648
King John (blind), slain at the battle of Crecy 1346 Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia . . . 1742
John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two of the Prague taken bv tho Prussians .... 1744
first Reformers, are burnt for heresy, which The Prussians defeat the Austrians at Prague
occasions an insurrection . . 1415, 1416 May 6, 1757
Ziska, learler of the Hu&sites, takes Prague, Revolt of tho peasantry 1775
1419; dies of the plague 1424 Edict of Toleration promulgated . . . 1781
Albert, duke of Austria, marries the daughter The French occupy Prague 1806
of the late emperor and king, and receives Insurrection at Prague, June 12 ; submission,
the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary . . 1437 state of siege raised . . . . July 20, 1848
The succession infringed by Ladislas, son of
c.
CABAL (from Italian and Spanish, cabala, secret knowledge). In English history, the
term was applied to the cabinet of Charles II. in 1 670 ; the word Cabal being formed from tho
initials of their names : sir Thomas, afterwards lord Clifford (C) ; the lord Ashley (A),
(afterwards earl of Shaftesbury) ; George Villiers, duke of Buckingham (B) ; Henry, lord
Arlington (A) ; and John, duke of Lauderdale (L).
CABBAGE. Varieties were brought to these realms from Holland about 15 10. To sir
Arthur Ashley of Dorset the first planting in England is ascribed. It was introduced into
Scotland by the soldiers of Cromwell's army. See Gardening.
CABBALA, a Hebrew word, signifying recension or tradition, applied to a mystical mode
of interpreting the Scriptures as well as natural things, said to have been given to Adam by
angels, and transmitted from father to son by his descendants. It is said to have been lost
at the Babylonian captivity (587 B.C.), but to have been revealed again to Ezra. The
Cabbalists were opposed by the philosophers and by Talmudists, which see.
CABINET COUNCIL. There were councils in England as early as the reign of Ina,
king of the West Saxons, 690 ; Offa, king of the Mercians, 758 ; and in other reigns of the
Heptarchy. State councils are referred to Alfred the Great. Spelman. See Adminis
trations, p. 8.
CABLES. A machine was invented in 1792, for making the largest, by which human
labour was reduced nine-tenths. Chain cables were introduced into the British navy
about 1812.
CABRIOLETS (vulgo Cabs), one-horsed vehicles, were introduced into the streets of
London in 1823, when the number plying was twelve. In 183 1 they had increased to 165,
and then tho licences were thrown open. Tho number in 1862 running in the metropolis
exceeded 6000 (of which about 1800 only plied on Sunday). Previous to throwing open the
trade, the number of hackney carriages was limited to 1200, when there were few omnibuses,
which see.
i
CAH 139 C.K
CABRIOLETS, continued.
Cab Strike.—On Juno 28, 1853, an act (called Cabmen's clubs began at Paddington in . Feb. 1859
Mr. FitJsRoy's act) was passed for "the bet A London General Cab Company published its
ter regulation of metropolitan stage and prospectus, professing a reformed system,
hackney carriages, and for prohibiting the July,
use of advertising vehicles," by which tho Cab Tragedy.—S. n. Hunt, a servant of Butler
cab fares wero reduced to 6d. a mile. It came and MacCulltteh's, seedsmen, Covent-gardcn,
into operation July 11, and on the 27th a London, poisoned bis wife and children in a
general striko of the London cabmen took cab, on Nov. 7, 1863 ; and himself on Nov. 9,
place. Much inconvenience was felt, and at his own house, just before his apprehen
every kind of vehicle was employed to sup sion.
ply the 'deficiency. Some alterations (pre The cabmen in Paris strike against a company ;
viously agreed on) having been made in the above 3000 vehicles stopped, June 16 ; fierco
act, the cabs ro-appeared on tho stands on attack on mon who givo in ; striko subsides,
the 30th. June 33, 1865
CABTJL, ok Cabool, ft city of Afghanistan, taken 977 by Subuctajeen, grandfather of
Mahomed, founder of the Gaznevide dynasty. It was taken by Nadir Shah in 1738. It was
the capital of the Durani empire at the end of the last century. In 1809 tho sovereign Shah
Soojah was expelled, and eventually Cabul came into the hands of Dost Mahomed, a clever and
ambitious chieftain. In 1839 the British restored Shah Soojah ; but in 1842 a dreadful out
break took place. The chief British civil officer, sir Win. M'Naghten, was massacred, and
the British commenced a most disastrous retreat. Of 3849 soldiers, and about 12,000 camp
followers, only one European, Dr. Drydcn, and four or five natives escaped. In the same
year (Sept. 16) general afterwards sir George Follock retook the town, and rescued lady Sale
and many of the prisoners. After destroying many public buildings, ho left Cabul to its
fate, Oct. 12, 1842.
CADDEE, on League of God's House, the celebrated league of independence in Swit
zerland, formed by the Orisons to resist domestic tyranny, 1400 to 1419. A second league
of the Orisons was called the Grisc or Gray League, about 1424. A third league, called the
League of Ten Jurisdictions, was formed in 1436.
CADE'S INSURRECTION. Jack Cade, an Irishman, a fugitivo on account of his
crimes, assumed the name of Mortimer, and headed about 20,000 Kentish men, who armed
" to punish evil ministers, and procure a redress of grievances." He defeated and slew sir
Humphrey Stafford, at Sevenoaks, June 27, 1450 ; entered London in triumph, and beheaded
the lord treasurer, lord Sayc, and several other persons of consequence, July 3. The insur
gents at length losing ground, a general pardon was proclaimed ; and Cade, deserted by his
followers, fled. A reward was offered for his apprehension : he was discovered, and refusing
to surrender, was slain by Alexander Iden, sheriff of Kent, July II.
CADIZ (W. Spain), anciently Gadiz, tho Roman Gades ; said to have been built by the
Phoenicians.
One hundred vessels of tho Spanish armada a frigate surrender to the Spaniards and
destroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake . 1587 British June 14, 1808
Cadiz was taken by the English, under the earl Besieged by the French, but the Bicge was
of F.ssex, and plundered . . Sept. 15, 1596 raised after the battle of Salamanca . July, 1812
Vainly attacked by sir George Rooko .. . 1702 Massacre of a thousand inhabitants by tho
Bombarded by tho British in . . . 1797 soldiery Mar^h 10, 1820
Blockaded by lord St. Vincent for two years 1797-9 Taken by the French ia 1823, and held till . 1828
Again bombarded by the British . . Oct. 1800 Declared a free port ...... 1829
A French squadron of five ships of the line and
CADMIUM, a metal, discovered by Stromeyer in 1818.
CAEN (N. France), a place of importance beforo 912, when it became tho capital of the
possessions of tho Normans, under whom it flourished. It was taken by the English in 1346
and 141 7 ; but was finally recovered by tho French in 1450.
CAERNARVON (N. Wales). In the castle (founded in 12S3 or 1284) Edward II. was
horn, April 25, 1284; and the town was chartered by Edward 1. in the same year. Tho
town surTcred by the civil war of Charles, but was finally retained for the parliament.
CESAREAN SECTION, which, it is said, first gave tho name of Crcsar to tho Roman
family, is performed by cutting the child out of the womb, when it cannot otherwise be
delivered. The case of Alice O'Neal, an Irishwoman, who survived tho section, which was
performed by a female, is authenticated by Dr. Gabriel King, of Armagh, and surgeon Duncan
Stewart, of Dungannon. In Jan. 1847, the operation was performed in St. Bartholomew's
hospital, London, on a young woman of diminutive stature, under tho influence of ether :
HO CAL
but she died the next day. On Dec. 9, i860, a similar operation was successfully performed
by Dr. James Edmunds at Bethnal Green. On the continent the operation is said to have
been more frequent and more successful. Cooper's Surgical Dictionary (ed. i860 contains
a table, which, out of 2009 cases, gives a mortality of 55 '4 per cent, of the mothers and
29 45 per cent, of the children.
CiESARS. See Rome : Emperors. The Era of the Cassars or Spanish Era, is reckoned
from the 1st of Jan. 38 B.C., being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus,
It was much used in Africa, Spain, and the south of France ; but by a synod held in 1 180
its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV. of Arragon
abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John of Castile did the same in 1383. It
was used in Portugal till 1415, if not till 1422. The months and days of this era are
identical with the Julian calendar ; and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty-
eight from the year ; but if before the Christian era, subtract thirty-nine.
CESIUM (Latin, bluish), a rare alkaline metal, found in some mineral waters by Bunsen
in 1861, by means of the "Spectrum analysis," which see.
CAFFRARIA, and Caffre War. See Kaffraria.
CAGLIARI. See Naples, note.
C'A IRA ! the burden of a popular song, during the French revolution, 1791 :
"Ah! ca ira, ca ira, ca ira ! Les Aristocrates i\ la lanteme !" (" Itwill proceed ! &c. ITang the aristocrats.")
CAI-FONG (China), was besieged by 100,000 rebels, in 1642. The commander of the
relieving forces, in order to drown the enemy, broke down its embankments. All the
besiegers perished ; but 300,000 of the citizens also.
CAIRO, on Grand Cairo, the modern capital of Egypt, remarkable for the minarets of
its mosques, and the sepulchres of its caliphs, in what is called the " city of the dead."
It was built by the Saracens .... 969 when 40,000 persons perishod . . June, 1754
Burnt to prevent its occupation by the Cru- Taken by the French under Napoleon Bona-
saders . . m 1220 parte; they enter tho city . July 23, 179S
Taken by tho Turks from the Egyptian sultans 1517 Taken by the British and Turks, whon 6000
Ruined by an earthquake and a great fire, French capitulated . . . June 27, 1801
CALABRIA (the ancient Messapia, S.E. Italy), was conquered by the Romans, 266 B.C.
It formed part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths under Thcodoric, A.D. 493 ; was re-con
quered (for the Eastern empire) by Belisarius, 536 ; subdued by tho Lombards and joined
to the duchy of Benevento, 572. After various changes, it was conquered by Robert
Guiscard, the Norman, 1058, who obtained the title of duke of Calabria, and eventually
that of king of Naples. See Naples.
CALAIS (N. W. France), taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, Aug. 4, 1347, and
held by England 210 years. It was retaken by tho duke of Guise, in the reign of Mary,
Jan. 7, 1558, and its loss so deeply touched the queen's heart, as to cause some to say it
occasioned her death, which occurred soon afterwards, Nov. 17, same year. "When I am
dead," said the queen, "Calais will be found written on my heart." It was held by the
Spaniards, 1594-6 ; and was bombarded by the English, 1694. Here Louis XVIII. landed
after his long exile from France, April 1814.
CALATRAVA. See Knighthood.
CALCIUM, the metallic base of lime, was discovered at the Royal Institution, London,
by Humphrey Davy in 1808.
CALCULATING MACHINES. With the utmost care, errors in computation and in
printing will always occur in logarithms and tables of figures. To avoid them, machines to
calculate and print have been devised. Pascal, when nineteen years of age, invented one
about 1650. The construction of Mr. C. Babbage's machine was commenced at the expense
of government, in 1821, and continued till 1833, when the work was suspended after an
expenditure of above 15,000?. The portion completed is in the library of King's College,
London. In 1857, Messrs. E. and G. Scheutz, two Swedish engineers, published in London
specimen tables, calculated and printed by machinery constructed between 1837 and 1843,
after a study of tho account of Mr. Babbage's machine. Messrs. Scheutz brought their
machine to England in 1854. It was bought for 1000Z. by Mr. J. F. Rathbone, an American
merchant, to be presented to Dudley observatory in his own town, Albany. In 1857, Messrs.
CAL HI CAL
Scheutz were engaged to make one for the British government, which is now completed.
Mr. Wiberg's machine, exhibited at Paris, Feb. 1863, was much commended.
CALCUTTA, capital of Bengal and British India, The first settlement of the English
here was made in 1689.
It was purchased as a zemindary, and Fort Wil Supreme court of judicature established . . 1773
liam built, in 1698 Collego founded 1801
Made the head of a separate presidency . . 1707 Bishopric of Calcutta instituted by act . July, 1813
The fort attacked and taken by an army of An industrial exhibition held in . Jan. 1855
70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants (146 Great cyclone, followed by a *' bore " or spring
of the British crammed into tho " Black-bolo tide in the Hooghly ; water rises 30 feet high ;
prison," a dungeon, about 18 feet square, immenso damage dono to shipping and
from -whence 23 only came forth the next houses ; 43 lives lost in Calcutta (see Cvclone)
morning alive) .... June 18, 1756 Oct 5, 1864
Calcutta retaken by Clive, and the Soubah put Population in 1850, 413,582.
to death Jan. 2, 1757 Bee Bengal and India.
CALEDONIA (now Scotland). The name is supposed by some to be derived from Gael,
or Gael-men, or Gadel-doine, corrupted by the Romans. Tacitus, who died 99, distinguishes
this portion of Britain by the appellation of Caledonia. Venerable Bede says that it
retained this name until 258, when it was invaded by a tribe from Ireland, and called Scotia.
The ancient inhabitants appear to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts,
who passed over from the opposite coast of Gaul. About the beginning of the fourth
century of the Christian era they wero invaded (as stated by some authorities) by the
Scuvths or Scythins (since called Scots), who, having driven the Picts into the north, settled
in the Lowlands, aud gave their name to tho whole country. Hence the remarkable
distinction of language, habits, customs, and persons between the Highlanders and tin-
southern inhabitants. See Scotland.
Caledonian monarchy, said to have been The Caledonians* invade South Britain, 207;
founded by Fergus I. , about . B.C. 330 repelled by the ompcror Scverus, who ad
The Picts from England settle in tho south . 140 vances to the Moray Frith .... 20.,
Agricola carries the Roman amis into Cale Caledonia invaded by the Scuths, or Scotti,
donia, in the reign of Galdus (Corbred II.) from Ireland, about 300
A.D. 79 Caledonian monarchy revived by Fergus II. . 41!
lie defeats Galgacus, and builds a wall between After many wars, Kenneth II. /"king of the
the Frith and Clyde 84 Scotti, subdues the Caledonians and Picts,
Wall of Antoninus built 140 and unites the country undor ono monarchy,
Ulpius Marccllus repels their incursions . . 184 then named Scotland . . 838 to 843
Christianity introduced in the reigu of Donald 1. 901
CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North Sea to tho Atlantic Ocean. The act for its
construction received the royal assent July 27, 1803 ; and the works were commenced same
year. The nautical intercourse between the western ports of Great Britain aud those also of
Ireland to the North Sea and Baltic, is shortened in some instances 800, and in others 1000
miles. A sum exceeding a million sterling was granted by parliament from time to time ;
and the safe navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was opened Nov. 1, 1822. It has
not paid. Annual income from tonnage, May I, 1859, 5080?. ; expenditure, 6951/.
CALENDAB. The Roman Calendar, which has in great part been adopted by almost all
nations, was introduced by Romulus, who divided the year into ten months, comprising 304
days, 738 n.o. This year was of fifty days' less duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-
one less than the solar year, and its commencement did not of course correspond with any
fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 713 B.C., corrected this calendar, by adding two months ;
and Julius Cajsar, 45 B.C., desirous to make it more correct, fixed the solar year at 365 days
and 6 hours, every fourth year being bissextile or leap year. See Leap Year. This almost
perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed generally throughout
the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII. The calendar of Julius Ctesar was
defective in this particular, that the solar year consisted of 365 days, 5 hours, and 49
minutes; and not of 365 days 6 hours. This difference, then, amounted to 10 entire days,
the vernal equinox falling on the I Ith instead of the 21st of March. To obviate this error,
Gregory ordained, in 1582, that that year should consist of 356 days only (Oct. 5 became
Oct. 15) ; and to prevent further irregularity, it was determined that a year beginning a
century should not be bissextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century ;
thus, 1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so : but the year 2000 will be
a leap year. In this manner three days are retrenched in 400 years, because the lapse of
eleven minutes makes three days in about that period. The year of the calendar is thus
made as nearly as possible to correspond with the true solar year, and future errors of
chronology are avoided. See New Style and French Revolutionary Calendar.
CAL 142 CAL
CALENDAR, continued.
CORRESPONDENCE OF CALENDARS WITH A.D. 1865.
Year of the world (Jewish) .... 5625 Foundation of Rome (Varro) .... 2616
Julian perio<l 6578 United States' independence . . . 89-90
Hegira, 1282 (began May 27, 1865 ; ends, May Year of Queen Victoria 29-30
15, 1866;. Vcar of Napoleon III 14
CALENDER, a machine used in glazing various kinds of cloth, was introduced into
England hy the Huguenots, who were driven hy persecution from France, Holland, and the
Netherlands to these countries, about 1685. Anderson.
CALENDS were the first day of the Roman months. The Nona of March, Hay, July,
and October, fell on the 7U1 ; and their Ides on the 15th. The other months had the Nones
on the 5th and tho Ides on the 13th. As the Greeks had no Calends, ad Greccas Calendas,
"on the Greek Calends," meant never.
CALICO, tho well-known cotton cloth, is named from Calicut, a city of India, which
was visited by the Portuguese in 1498. Calico was first brought to England by the East
India Company in 1631. Calico-printing and tho Dutch loom engine were first used in
1676, when a Frenchman established a factory at Richmond, near London. Anderson.
Calicoes were prohibited to be printed or worn in 1700 ; and again in 1721, a penalty of 57.
was laid on the wearer, and 20?. on the seller of calico. In 1831, by the exertions of Mr.
Poulett Thompson, afterwards lord Sydenham, and others, the consolidated duty of 3jrf. on
the square of printed calico was taken off. Since 1834, the manufacture has been greatly
increased by the applications of science. Cylinders for printing are now engraved by
galvanism, and new dyes have- been introduced by the discoveries of Liebig, Hoffmann,
Perkin, &c. See Cotton and Dyeing.
CALIFORNIA (from the Spanish, Calienle Fornallh, hot furnace, in allusion to the
climate) was discovered by Cortez in 1537 ; others say by Cabrillo in 1542 ; and visited by
sir Francis Drake, who named it New Albion, in 1579. California was admitted into the
United States in 1850. It is advancing rapidly in wealth and importance, but society is still
in a very disorganised state. The population in 1856 was 506,067 ; in i860, 700,000.
The Spanish establish missionary and military Coded to tho United States .... 1846
stations . 1698 Gold discovered in great abundance by Capt.
California becomes subject to Mexico . . . 1823 Sutter and Mr. Marshall . . . Sept. 1847
After a bloodless revolution, it becomes virtu Mado a sovereign state 1850
ally independent 1 836 Numerous murders in San Francisco—Lynch
Occupiod by the army of the United States . 1846 law prevails 1853-60
CALIPER COMPASS, whereby founders and gunners measure the bore or diameter of
cannon, small arms, &c. : shot is said to have been invented by an artificer of Nuremberg
in 1540.
CALIPH (Arabic), Vicar, or Apostle, the title assumed by the sophi of Persia, as suc
cessor of Ali, and, since 1517, by the sultan of Turkey, as successor of Mahomet. The
caliphat began with Abubeker, the father of the prophet's second wife.
Caliphs of Arabia. 655. Ali. In 775 they were Btyled caliphs of
632. Abubeker. 661. Hassan. Bagdad.
634. Omar I. The Ommtades ruled 661—750. Haroun-al-Raschid ruled 786—809.
644. Othman. The Abbasides ruled 750—1258. Sec Ommiadtt and Abbasides.
CALIPPIC PERIOD, invented by Calippus, to correct tho Metonic cycle, consists of
four cycles, or of seventy-six years, at the expiration of which ho imagined the new and full
moons returned to the same day of tho solar year ; which is incorrect. This period began
about the end of June, in tho third year of the 112th Olympiad, in the year of Rome 424,
and 330 B.c.
CALIXTINS, a sect derived from the Hussites, about 145 1, demanded the cup (Greek,
Kalix) in the Lord's supper. Also the followers of George Calixtus, a Lutheran, who died in
1656. He wrote against the celibacy of the priesthood, and proposed a re-union of Catholics
and Protestants based on the Apostles' creed.
CALI YUGA, the Hindoo era of tho Deluge, dates from 3101 b.c. (according to some,
3102), and begins with the entrance of the sun into the Hindoo sign Aswin, now on April
II, N.S. In 1600 the year began on April 7, N.S., from wljich it has now advanced four
days, and from the precession of the equinoxes is still advancing at the rate of a day in sixty
years. The numbor produced by subtracting 3102 from any given year of the Cali Yuga era
will be the Cliristian year in which the given year begins.
CAL 143 CAM
CALLAO (Peru). Here, after an earthquake, the sea retired from the shore, and returned
in mountainous waves, which destroyed the city in 1687, and on Oct. 28, 1746.
CALLIGRAPHY (beautiful writing). Callicrates is said to have written an elegant
distich on a sesamum seed, 472 B.C. In tho 16th century Peter Bales wrote the Lord's
Prayer, Creed, and Decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, motto, day of the
month, year of our Lord, and of the reign of Queen Elizabeth (to whom he presented them
at Hampton-court), all within the circle of a silver penny, enchased in a ring and border of
gold, and covered with crystal, so accurately done, as to be plainly legible. Holinshcd.
CALMAR, Union of. The treaty, whereby Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, were united
under one sovereign ; Margaret of Waldemar, "tho Semiramis of the North," being the first,
June, 1397. The deputies of the threo kingdoms assembled at Calmar for the election of a
king ; and Margaret, having defeated Albert of Sweden (whose tyranny had caused a revolt
of his subjects) in 1393, was made choice of to rule over Deumark, as well as Sweden and
Norway, of which she was then queen. This union was dissolved by Gustavus Yasa in 1523.
CALMUCKS. See Tartary.
CALOMEL ("beautiful black"), a compound of mercury, sulphuric acid, and chloride of
sodium, first mentioned by Crollius early in the 17th century. The first directions given for
its preparation were by Beguin in 1608.
CALORESCENCE. In Jan. 1865 Professor Tyndall rendered tho ultra-red rays of the
spectrum of the electric light visible by causing them to impinge on a plate of platinum
raised to a white heat. He termed the phenomenon Calorescence. See Fluorescence.
CALORIC. See Heat.
CALOTYPE PROCESS (from the Greek kalos, beautiful), by which negative photographs
are produced on paper, is the invention of Mr. Henry Fox Talbot, about 1840.
CALOYERS (meaning good old men). The monks of the Greek church, of the order
of St. Basil. Their most celebrated monastery in Asia is at Mount Sinai, endowed by
Justinian (died 565) ; the European oue is at Mount Athos.
CALVARY, Mount, the place where the Redeemer suffered death, April 5, a.d. 30;
(Halts, 31 ; Clinton, 29, others, 30). See Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian, at the time of his per
secution of the Christians, erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount Calvary, and a temple of
Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, 142. The empress Helena built a church here about
326. See Holy Places.
CALVES' HEAD CLUB, noblemen and gentlemen, who exposed raw calves' heads at
the windows of a tavern, Jan. 30, 1735, the anniversary of the execution of Charles I. An
incensed mob was dispersed by soldiers, and the club was suppressed.
CALVI (Corsica). The British forces besieged the fortress of Calvi, June 12, 1794.
After fifty-nine days it surrendered on Aug. 10. It surrendered to the French in 1796.
CALVINISTS, named after John Calvin (or Chauvin), who was born at Noyon, in
Pieardy, July 10, 1509. Adopting the reformed doctrines, he fled to Angouleme, where he
composed his Institutio Christiana; Rcligionis in 1 533 ; published in 1536. He retired to
Basle, and settled in Geneva, where he died, May 27, 1564. Ho was instrumental in burn
ing Servetus for denying the Trinity in 1553. A formal separation between the Calvinists
and Lutherans first took place after the conference of Poissy in 1561, where the former
expressly rejected the tenth and other articles of the confession of Augsburg, and took tho
name of Calvinists. In France (see Huguenots) they took up arms against their persecutors.
Henry IV., originally a Calvinist, on becoming king, secured their liberty by the Edict of
Nanks in 1598 (which see). Calvinistic doctrines appear in the Articles of the Church of
England and in tho Confession of the Church of Scotland, and are held by many Protestant
sects.
CAMBIUM REGIS. See Royal Exchange.
CAMBRAY (N. France), an independent archbishopric in 1007, and lordship in 1076,
gives name to cambric. It was taken by the Spaniards by surprise in 1595 ; and has been
taken and retaken several times. Fenelon was archbishop in 1695.
It was invested by the Austrians, Aw. 8, when I by Clalrfait, the Austrian general, on
the republican general, Declay, replied to tbe Sept 10, 1703
imperial summon! to surrender, that "he Tho French wore defeated at Cmsar'a camp, in
knew not how to do that, but his soldiers I the neighbourhood, by the allied army under
knew bow to fight." It was, however, taken I the duke of York .... April 24, 1794
CAM 111 CAM
CAMBRAY, continued.
Cambt-ay seized by tho British, under sir Charles V. of Germany (called Paiz de*
Charles Celville .... June 24, 1815 Damet, because negotiated by Louisa of
League of Cumbray against the republic of Savoy, mother of the French king, and Mar
Venice, comprising pope Julian II., the em garet of Austria, aunt of tbo emperor) . . 1529
peror Maximilian, and Louis XII. of France, Treaty betwoen tho emperor Charles VI. and
and Ferdinand of Spain, entered into Dec. 10, 1508 Philip V. of Spain 1724-5
Treaty between Francis I. of France and
CAMBRIA, ancient name of Wales (which ace).
CAMBRICS were first worn in England, and accounted a great luxury, 1580. Stoic.
Their importation was restricted in 1745 ; and prohibited in 1758 ; re-admitted in 1786.
CAMBRIDGE, the Roman Camboricum and the Saxon Granta, frequently mentioned by
the earliest British historians, was burnt by the Danes in 870 and 1010. Roger de Mont
gomery destroyed it with fire and sword to be revenged of king William Rufus.
The univtrtHy, Raid to have been commenced Jesus College, by John Alcock, bishop of Ely . 1496
by Sigcbcrt, king of the East Angles, about St. John's College, endowed by Margaret,
a.d. 630; lay neglected during the Danish countess of Richmond 151 t
invasions, from which it suffered much ; was Magdalen College, by Thomas, baron Audley . 1519
restored by Edward the Elder in 915; and Trinity College, by Henry VIII. . . 1546
began to revive about 1110 Emmanuel College, by sir Walter Mildmay . 1584
Henry I. bestows many privileges . . „ Sidney-Sussex College, founded by Frances
Henry III. granted a charter to the university, Sidney, countess of Sussex . . . . 159S
1230 or 1231 Downing College, by sir George Downing, by
Incorporated by Elizabeth in . . 1571 will, U11717; its charter .... i8co
In Wat Tyler's and Jack Straw's rebellion, the
rebels entered the town, seize the university THBKE HALLS.
records and burn them in the market-place . 1381 Clare Hall, or College, first by Dr. Richard
University press was set up . . . .1534 Baden, in 1326 ; destroyed by fire and re
' Letters patent granted by Henry VIII. . . „ established by Elizabeth de Burg, sister to
The university refuses the degree of M.A. to Gilbert, earl of Clare .... about 1342
father Francis, a Benedictine monk, recom Trinity Hall, by Wm. Bateman, bp. of Norwich 1350
mended by the king ; and tho presidency of St. Catherine's College or Hall, founded . . 1473
Magdalen college to Farmer, a Roman Catho [Cambridge University Calendar].
lic, notwithstanding tho king's mandate . 1687
Cambridge Fhilosopliical Society established CHANCELLORS.
in 1819, and chartered in .... 183a Charles, duke of Somerset, elected . . .1688
Railway to London opened . . June, 1845 Thomas, duke of Ncwcastlo 1748
Commissioners were appointed for the govern Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton . . 1768
ment and cxttnsion of this university and H.R.H. William Frederick, duke of Gloucester 1811
Eton college, by 19 k 20 Vict. c. 88 . . 1856 John, marquess Camden . - - 1834
New statutes confirmed by the Queen . . . 1858 Hugh, duke of Northumberland . . 1840
British Association met hero, 1833, 1845, 1862. Tho Prince Consort [died Dec. 14, i86x.] Fob. 38, 1847
Fitzwilliam museum, endowed 1816; founded Duke of Devonshire .... Dec. 31, 1861
1837; completed 1847
PROFESSORSHIPS FOUNDED.
FOIRTEEN COLLEGES. Divinity 150*
Peterhouse College, by Hugo de Balsham, Laws, Hebrew and Greek 154°
bishop of Ely, founded 1257 Arabic 1632
Pembroke College, founded by the countess of Mathematics ■ . 1663
Pembroke 1347 Music 1684
Gonville and Caius, by Edmund Gonvillo . . 1348 Chemistry 1702
Enlarged by Dr. John Caius in . . . 1558 Astronomy 1704, 1749
Corpus Cbristi, or Benct 1352 Anatomy I7°7
King's College, by Henry VI 1441 Modern History, Botany 17*4
Christ's College, founded 1442 ; endowed by Natural and Experimental Philosophy . . 1783
Margaret, countess of Richmond, mother of Mineralogy i8o3
Henry VII 1505 Political Economy 1863
Queen's College, by Margaret of Anjou . . 1448
CAMBUSKENNETH (Central Scotland). Here Wallace defeated the English in 1297.
CAMDEN (N. America). A battlo was fought here Aug. 16, 1780, between general
Gates and lord Cornwallis, the former commanding the revolted Americans, who were
defeated. At a second battle, between general Greene and lord Rawdon, the Americans
were again defeated, April 25, 1781. Camden was evacuated and burnt by the British, May
13, '78i.
CAMERA LrciDA, invented by Dr. Hooke about 1674 ; another by Dr. Wollaston in
1807. Camera Obscuba, or dark chamber, constructed, it is said, by Roger Bacon in
1297 ; and improved by Baptista Porta, about 1500 ; and remodelled by sir Isaac Newton.
By the invention of M. Daguerre, in 1839, the pictures of the camera are fixed. See
Photography.
CAM 1 If, CAN
CAMERONIANS, a name frequently given to the Reformed Presbyterian Church
of Scotland, the descendants of the covenanters of the 17th century, the established
church, 1638-50.* Charles II. signed the League and Covenant in 1650, in hopes of
recovering his kingdoms, but renounced it in 1661, and revived episcopacy. A revolt
ensued in 1666, when many covenanters were slain in battle (in the I'entland hills, &c),
and many refusing to take the oaths required, and declining to accept the king's indulgence,
died on the scaffold, after undergoing cruel tortures. The name Camcronian is derived from
Richard Cameron, one of their ministers, who was killed in a skirmish, in 1680. In 1689
they raised a body of soldiers to support William III., who enrolled them under the
command of lord Angus, as the 26th regiment, since so famous. In 1712 they renewed the
public covenants, and are described in one of their tracts as "the suffering anti-popish, and
nntiprclatical, anti-erastian, true presbytcrian church of Scotland." They have now between
thirty and forty congregations in Scotland. —The 79th regiment {Cameron Highlanders),
raised in 1793 by Allan Cameron, has no connection with the Cameronians.
CAMISARDS (from chemise, a shirt, which they frequently wore over their dress in night
attacks), a name given to the more warlike French Protestants in the neighbourhood of the
Ccvennes (mountain chains in S. France), who defended themselves and attacked their
enemies after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685. They were suppressed in 1704.
Their leader, Cavalier, is said to have been made governor of Jersey by William III.
CAMLET, formerly made of silk and camel's hair, but now of wool, hair, and silk.
Oriental camlet first came here from Portuguese India, in 1660. Anderson.
CAMP. The Hebrew encampment was first laid out by divine direction, 1490 n.o.
(Numbers ii. ) The Romans and Gauls had intrenched camps in open plains; and vestiges
of such exist to this day in England and Scotland. A camp was formed at Hyde Park in
1745 and 1814. See Chobham and Aldcrshott.
CAMPANIA (S. Italy), was occupied by Hannibal and declared in his favour 216 B.C.,
but regained by the Romans, 213. Its capital was Capua (which sec).
CAMPBELL'S ACT, introduced by lord Campbell, in order to compel railway companies
to grant compensation for accidents, was passed in 1846 ; amended in 1864. In accordance
with it the family of a gentleman killed through the breaking of a rail, obtained a verdict
for 13,000?. from the Great Northern Railway Company. On appeal the sum was reduced.
CAMPEACHY-BAY (Yucatan, Central America), discovered about 1520, and settled in
1540; was taken by the English in 1659 ; by the buccaneers, in 1678 ; and by the free
booters of St. Domingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up the citadel. The
English logwood-cutters made their settlement here about 1662.
CAMPERDOWN : south of the Texel, Holland, near which admiral Duncan defeated
the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral De Winter; the latter losing fifteen ships, either
taken or destroyed, Oct. 11, 1797. The British admiral obtained a peerage. He died sud
denly on his way to Edinburgh, Aug. 4, 1804.
CAMPO FORMIO (N. Italy). Here a treaty was concluded between France and
Austria ; the latter yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islauds to France, and Milan,
Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic, Oct. 17, 1797. By a secret article the
emperor gained the Venetian dominions.
CAMPO SANTO (Holy Field), a burial-place at Pisa, surrounded by an arcade erected
by archbishop Ubaldo, about 1300, which is celebrated for the frescoes painted on the walls
by Giotto, Memmi, and others.
CANAAN (Palestine), is considered to have been settled by the Canaanites, 1965 B.C.
(Clinton, 2088). The land was divided among the Israelites by Joshua, 1445 (Hales, 16021.
CANADA (N. America), was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, in June, 1497 ;
in 1535 Jacques Carticr (a Breton mariner), ascended the St. Lawrence as far as where
Montreal now stands. Sec Montreal and Quebec.
Qu ebec founded 1608 by the pence
Cansda taken by the English 1628 ; restored . 163a Legislative council established ; the French
War begins in 1756 ; Canada conquered by Iho lrtws confirtnod, «nd religions liberty given to
English 1 759 (see Quti/ec\ confirmed to them Roujan Catholics 1774
• They were frequently called hill-men or mountain-men, and fciety people (from tlie places and modes of
worship to which tboy wero frequently reduced), und McMillanite*, from John McMillan, their first
minister, aflcr their secession from the Vhurch of Scotland on account of its subsorvioiicy to the English
government, and its declining from its original rigid principles.
CAN U6 CAN
CANADA, continued.
The Americans under Montgomery invade visit Halifax July 30 ; Quebec Aug. 18 ;
Canada, nml surprise Montreal, Nov. 1775 ; Montreal An*. 25; Ottawa Sept. 1; leave
cxpcllod by Oarleton * . March 1776 Canada Sept. 20 ; after visiting the United
Canada divided into Upper and Lower . . 1791 States, embark at Portland Oct. 20 ; and
The " clergy reserves" established by parlia arrive at Plymouth . . . Nov. 15, 1S60
ment—one seventh of the waste lands of the Lord Motick assumes office as gov.-gen.,Nov. 28, 1861
colony appropriated for the maintenance of In consequence of the "Trent" affair (see
the Protestant clergy United States, 1861), 3000 British troops were
During the debates on this bill the quarrel sent to Canada ; aud warlike preparations
between Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose. Mr. were made .... Dec. „
Fox seemed anxious for a reconciliation, but Brit.N.American Assoc. founded in London Jan. 1862
Mr. Burko rejected it with disdain . . „ Cartier's ministry defeated on MiUtia bill ; Mr.
Canada made a bishopric 1793 J. Sandfield Macdonald becomes premier
The Americans invade Canada at different May 20-23, »»
points, with 30,000 men, but are forced to The assembly vote only 5000 militia and 5000 re
retire after several sanguinary battles . . 1812 serve towards tho defence of tho country ;
Beginning of opposition to the clergy reserves this causes discontent in England . July, ,,
1817-30 Political changes ; Mr. J. Macdonald again pre
First railway in Canada opened . . July, 1836 mier May 20, 1863
The Papineau rebellion commences at Montreal New Militia bill passed . . . Sept. ,,
by a body called Fih th hi Lihrtt1 . . . 1837 Military measures in progress . . Sept. 1S64
The rebels defeated at St. Eustaco . Dec. 14, „ Meeting of about 20,000 volunteers ; delegates
Kepulsed at Toronto, by sir F. Head . Jan. 5, 1838 from N. American colonies at Quebec, to de
Earl of Durham appointed gov. -gen. . Jan. 16, „ liberate on the formation of a confederation,
I.ouut and Mathews (rebels) hanged April 12, „ Oct. 10 ; agree on the bases . . Oct. 20,
Lord Durham resigns his government . Oct 9, „ Between 20 and 30 armed confederates quit
Rebellion appears in Beauharnais Nov. 3; the Canada and enter the littlo town of St. Al-
insurgents at Napierville, under Nelson, are ban's, Vermont ; rob the banks, steal horses
routed with great loss Nov. 6 ; the rebellion and stores, fire, and kill one man, and wound
suppressed . . . . . Nov. 17, „ others, and return to Canada, Oct. 19 ; 13 are
Acts relating to government of Lower Canada, arrested, Oct. 21 ; but are discharged, on
passed in Feb. 1838, and . . Aug. 1839 account of some legal difficulty by Judge
Upper and Lower Canada reunited . July 23, 1840 Coursol Dec. 14,
Lord Sydenham apix>inted governor . Feb. 10, 1841 Great excitement in the United States, general
The Canada clergy reserves, after much discus Dix proclaims reprisals ; volunteers called
sion, abolished by the British parliament out in Canada to defend tho frontiers ; presi
May 9, 1S53 dent Lincoln rescinds Dix's proclamation
Lord Elgin gov.-general (1846-54) concluded an Dec. „
important treaty with United States Juno 7, 1854 Lord Monck opens the last Canadian parlia
The grand trunk railroad of Canada, 850 miles ment Jan. 19, 1865
long, from Quebec to Toronto, opened Nov. 12, 1S56 Tho confederation scheme rejected by New
On reference having been made to the queen, Brunswick March 7, , ,
Ottawa, formerly Bytown, appointed the The British parliament grant 50,000'. for de
capital ; this deeihion was unpopular ; a fence of Canada .... March 23,
federal union of the N. American colonies The St. Albau's raiders discharged by justice
has been since proposed . . August, 1858 Smith March 30, „
Canada raises a regiment of soldiers (made one Mr. Seward gives up claim for their extradi
of the line, and called tho 100th) . tl tion April
TheShorncliff
prince of Wales
. . presents
■ . . the. colours
Jan. 10,at 1859 Messrs. Gait and Cartier visit England to advo
cate confederation .... April,
The prince of Wales, the dukoof Newcastle.&c, Population in 1857: Lower Canada, 1,220,514;
arrived at St. John's, Newfoundland, July 24 ; Upper Canada, 1,350,923.
CANALS (artificial watercourses). A canal in Cliina, commenced in the 10th century,
is said to pass over 2000 miles, and to 41 cities.
The canal of Langucdoc, which joins the Medi BRITTKH CANALS.
terranean with the Atlantic Ocean, was com The first was by Henry L, when the Trent was joined
pleted in 1681 to the Witham, 1134.
Tilat of Orleans from the Loire to the Seine, Francis Mathew in "1656, and Andrew Yarranton in
commenced in . . . . . . . 1675 1677, in vain strongly urged improvement in in
That between the Baltic and North Sea, at ternal navigation.
Kiel, opened 1785 In England there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500
That of Bourbon, between the Seino and OIsc, miles of rivers, taking tho length of those only
commenced ....... 1790 that are navigable—total, 5300 miles, (Mr. Porter,
That from the Cattcgat to the Paltic . 17^4-1800 in 1851. says 4000 miles.)
The great American Erie canal, 363 miles in In Ireland there arc 300 miles of canals ; 150 of navi
length, was commenced in .... 1817 gable rivers ; and to miles of the Shannon, navi
That of Amsterdam to the sea . . . 1819-25 gable below Limerick ; in all, 510 miles. William*.
(Sec CniMjts Canal, the most stupendous mo The prosperity of canals, for a time largely checked
dern one.) by the formation of railways, is now greatly re
vived.
REMARKABLE CANALS.*
New river canal, commenced 1608 I Kennct navigable to Reading 1715 Puke of Bridgewater's navi
Brought to London . . 1614 Lagan navigation commenced 1 755 gation (first great canal),
Thames made navigable to Cacrmarthcnshire canal .•1756 comni enced (seo Brid$<-
Oxford .... 1624 Droitwieh to the Severn . ,, wat(r) 1759
CAN 147 CAN
CANALS, continued.
Northampton navigation . 1761 Runcorn to Manchester I77r, ' Thames to Fenny Stratford . 1800
Dublin to the Shannon (the Trent and Mersey, opened . «777 Buckingham canal . . 1801
Grand) . . . 1765-17S8 Chesterfield to the Trent Grand Surrey, Act passed . „
Stafford and Worcester, com Belfast to Lough Neagh Brecknock canal . . 1802
menced . . . . „ Severn to tho Thames, com 1783 Caledonian canal begun . . 1803
Grand Trunk commenced by pleted 1789 Kllesmerc aqueduct . . 1805
Brindley ... 1766 Forth and Clyde, completed . '77' Ashby-de la-Zotich, oi>cued . 1805
Forth to Clyde, commenced . 1768 Bradford comploted Aberdeen, completed . 1807
Birmingham to Bilaton . Grand Junctku canal . . Glasgow and Ardrossan,
Oxford to Coventry, com Birmingham and Coventry . opened .... 1S11
menced .... 1769 Monasterevcn to Athy . . Leeds and Liverpool, opened 1816
Leu made navigable from Worcester and Birmingham . Wye and Avon . . . .
Hertford to Ware, 1739; to Manchester, Bolton, and Edinburgh andGIasgowUnion 18:8
Lou-Ion .... 1770 Bury Sheffield, completed . . . 1819
Leeds to Liverpool . . „ Warwick and Birmingham . Regent's canal . 1820
31onkland (Scotland), com Barnsley, cut 17 *4 Caledonian canal, completed
menced ,, Rochdale, Act passed . . Oct. 30, 1823
Kllesmerc and Cheater . . 1772 Huddersficld, Act passed Birmingham and Liverpool,
Basingstoke canal begun . „ Derby, completed . . . begun 1S26
Liverpool to Wigau . . . 1774 1 Hereford and Gloucester 1 f, GloucestcrandBerkclcy.shlp-
Stroud to the Severn . . 1775 Paddington canal begun canal, completed . . . 1827
Staffordshire canal, begun . 1776 Kennet and Avon, opened Norwich and Lowestoft navi
Stourbridge canal, completed „ Peak-forest canal, completed gation opened . . . 1831
CANARY ISLANDS (N. W. Africa), known to the ancients as the Fortunate Isles.
The first meridian waa referred to the Canary Isles by Hipparchus, about 140 B.C. They
wore re-discovered by a Norman named Betheneourt, about 1400 ; his descendants sold them
to the Spaniards, who became masters, 1483. The canary-bird, a native of these isles,
brought to England about 1500. Teneriffe is the largest island.
CANCER HOSPITAL, West Brompton, near London, was founded by Miss Burdett
Coutts, May 30, 1859. A temporary hospital began in 1851.
CANDIA, the ancient Crete, an island in the Mediterranean Sea, celebrated for its 100
cities, its centre Mount Ida ; and the laws of its king Minos, and its labyrinth to secure the
Minotaur (about 1300 B.C.). It was conquered by the Romans 68 n.c. It was seized by the
Saracens a.d. 823, when they changed its name ; taken by the Greeks in 960 ; sold to tho
Venetians, 1204, and held by them until the Turks obtained it, after a twenty-four years'
siege, during which more than 200,000 men perished, 1669. It was ceded to the Egyptian
pacha in 1830, but was restored to Turkey in 1840. An insurrection, which broke out here in
May, 1858, when a reduction of taxation was demanded, soon subsided on the adoption of
conciliatory measures. A persecution of the Christians took place, July 31, 1859.
CANDLEMAS DAY, Feb. 2, is kept in the church in memory of the purification of the
Virgin, who presented the infant Jesus in the Temple. From the number of candles lit (it
is said in memory of Simeon's song, Luke ii. 32, 4la Light to lighten tho < leiitilos,"' &c),
this festival was culled Candlemas, as well as the Purification. Its origin is ascribed by Bede
to pope ("iclasius in the 5th century. The practice of lighting the churches was forbidden by
order of council, 2 Edw. VI. 1548 ; but it is still continued in the church of Rome.
CANDLES.* The Roman candles were composed of string surrounded by wax, or dipped
in pitch. Splinters of wood fatted were used for light among the lower classes in England,
about 1300. At this time wax candles were little used, and esteemed a luxury ; dipped
candles were usually burnt. The "Wax-Chandlers* company was incorporated 1484. Mould
candles are said to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez, of Paris. Spermaceti candles are
of modern manufacture. The Chinese make candles from wax obtained from the berries of
a tree, which wax is fragrant, and yields a bright light. + The duty upon candles made in
England, imposed in 1709, amouuted to about 500,000/. annually, when it was repealed in
1831. Very great improvements in the manufacture of candles are due to the researches on
oils and fats, carried on by *'the father of the fatty acids," Chevreirl, since 181 1, and
published in 1823. At Price's manufactory at Lambeth, tho principles involved in many
patents arc carried into execution ; including those of Gwynne (1840), Jones and Price (1S42),
* The custom of selling at public auctions by inch of candle is said to have been borrowed from tho
church of Ilomc, where there is an excommunication by inch of candle, and tho sinner i» allowed to
come to repentance before final excommunication, while yet the candle burns.
t The candlebury myrtle (Mi/rim enfa-u), at Nankin, in China, flourishes with beautiful blossoms and
fruit. The latter, when "ripe, is gathered and thrown into boiling water ; the white unctuous substance
which covers the kernels is thereby detached, and swims at tho top ; it is skimmed off and purified by a
second boiling, when it becomes transparent, of a consistence between tallow and wax, and is converted
into candUs. It is said that specimens of this tree were brought to England from America in i(x>q. Its
cultivation in America in a commercial point of view has been recommended.
L 2
CAN 148 CAN
and Wilson in 1844, for candles which require no snuffing (termed composite). Falm and
cocoa-nut oils are now extensively used. In i860, at the Helmont works 900 persons were
employed, and in winter 100 ions (7000/. worth) of candles are manufactured weekly.
Candles are manufactured at Belmont from the mineral oil or tar brought from Rangoon in
the Burmese empire and from Trinidad.
CANDLESTICKS (or lamp-stands) with seven branches were regarded as emblematical
of the priest's office, and were engraven on their seals, cups, and tombs. Bezalcel made
*' a candlestick of pure gold " for the tabernacle, B.C. 1491 (Exod xxvii. 17). Candlesticks
were used in Britain in the days of king Edgar, 959, ( " silver candelabra and gilt candelabra
well and honourably made ;") but in 1388 they were not common.
CANDY (Ceylon), was taken by a British detachment, Feb. 20, 1803, who capitulated
June 23 following, anxious to evacuate the place on account of its unhealthiness : on the
third day many were treacherously massacred at Columbo. The war was renewed in October,
1814 ; the king was made prisoner by general Brownrigg, Feb. 19, 1815; and the sovereignty
vested in Great Britain, March 2, 1815.
CANN/E (Apulia). Here on Aug. 2, 2t6 B.C., Hannibal with 50,000 Africans, Gauls,
and Spaniards, defeated Paulus ^milius and Terentius Varro, with 88,000 Romans, of whom
40,000 were slain. The victor sent to Carthage three bushels of rings, taken from the
Roman knights. The place is now denominated by some "the field of blood."
CANNI BA LISM. See A nth ropopkagi.
CANNING ADMINISTRATION.* The illness of lord Liverpool, led to the formation
of this Administration, April 24—30, 1827. See Goderich.
Georgo Canning, first lord of the treamry and chan Lord Palmerston, recretary at var.
cellor of the ejcneqtur. Lord Bcxley, chancellor of the dwhy of Lancaster.
Lord Harrowby, pr<t>ident of the council. Duke of Clarence, (ord high admiral.
Duke of Portland, lord y/riry ftnl. Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor, &c.
Lord Dudley, viscount Goderich, and Mr. Sturgcs Marquess of Lansdowne, without office ; afterwards
Bnurne, secretaries of ftate, home ftcrttary.
W . W. Wynn, j rendrnt of the India board. On Mr. Canning's death (Aug. 8) the cabinet was re
Win. Huskisson, board of trade. constructed.
CANNON. See Artillery. Gibbon described a cannon employed by Mahomet II. at the
siege of Adrianoplc, in 1453 ; the bore was 12 palms wide, and the stone balls weighed each
600 lb.
At Ehrenbreitstein castle, one of tho strongest 21 tons 17 cwt. 1 qr. 141b. Its cost was
forts in Germany, opposite Coblentz on the 3,500*. With a charge of 25 lb. it struck a
Hhinc, is a prodigious cannon, eighteen feet target 2000 yards' distance. It has been
and a half long, a foot and a half in diameter since presented to government.
in the bore, and three feet four inches in the Of lute years very great improvements have
breech. Tho ball made for it weighs 180 lb., been made in the construction of cannon, by
and its charge of powder 94 lb. The in Messrs. Whitworth, Mal'et, Aimstrong, and
scription on it shows that it waa made by others. Mr. Wm. G. Armstrong knighted
one Simon 1529 Feb. 18, 1859
In Dover castle is a brass gun called queen He had been working for four years on gun-
Elizabeth's pocket pistol, which was pre making, and had succeeded in producing " a
sented to her by the btatcs of Holland ; this broech loading rifled wrought-iron gun of
piece is 24 feet long, mid is beautifully orna great durability and of extreme lightness,
mented, bavii g on it the anna of the states, combining a great extent of range and ex
and a motto in Dutch, importing thus— traordinary accuracy." The range of a 32-Ib.
" Charge me well, and sponge mo clean—I'll gun, charged with 5 lb. of powder, was a
throw a ball to Calais green." little more than smiles. The accuracy of
Some fine specimens are to bo seen in tho the Armstrong gun is said at equal distances
Tower. 1 to be fifty-seven times more than that of our
A le.ithern cannon was fired three times in the common artillery, which it greatly exceeded
King's park, Edinburgh—Phillips . Oct. 23, 1788 also in destructive effects. The government
Ti e Turkish piece now in St. James's park, engaged the services of sir W. Armstrong
was taken by the French at Alexandria ; but for ten years (commencing with 1855) for
waa retaken, and placed in the park March, 1803 20,000/., as consulting engineer of rifled ord
Messrs. Hersfall's monster wrought-iron gun nance. ...... Feb. 23, „
was completed in May, 1856, at Liverpool. A parliamentary committee on ordnance waa
Its length is 15 icet 10 inches, and its weight appointed Feb 20, and reported on July 23, i860
* George
fought a duelCanning was bom April
with Castloreagh it, 1770in; became
»iid resigned foreign secretary
1809 ; president in thoinPitt
of the council 1820administration,
; disapproved of1807
tho:
queen's trial and resigned in 1821; appointed governor-general of India in 1822, but became soon after
foreign secretary, and remained such till 1827, when he became premier. He died Aug. 8, same year.
CAN 119 CAN
CANNON, continued.
Sir W.Armstrong resigned theappointrnt. Feb. 5, 1863 inch iron plates and the wood-work behind
The Armstrong gun was said to be very effec it Nov. ia, i86a
tive in the attack on the Chinese forts at Armstrong's gun " Big Will " was tried and
Taku Aug. ai, i860 pronounced to be a perfect specimen of work
Mr. Whitworth'sguns and rifles have also been manship. It weighed 22 tons ; its length,
greatly commended. 15 feet; ran^e with shot weighing 510 lb.,
An American cannon, weighing 35 tons, stated 748 to 4187 yards Nov. 19, 1863
to bo the largest in the world, cist in . . ,, Clark's target was destroyed . . July 7, ,,
Great endeavours made to improve the con Reed's target was tried successfully . Dec. 8, „
struction of cannon, to counterbalance the The competitive trial between the Armstrong
strength given to ships of war by iron plates, and Whitworth guns l>egan . . April 1, 1864
and trials at Shocburyness, EIs.scx . . i36a The Iron-plate commission experiments closed
Target* of the thickness of the iron sides of on Aug. 4, .,
the Warrior, three 5-inch plates of wrought Capt. Palliser, by experiment, has shown that
iron bolted together,were pierced three times iron shot cast in cold iron moulds instead of
by 156 lb. shot from an Armstrong gun hot sand, is much harder and equals steel ;
smooth bore, 300 lb., muzzle-loaded with ho also suggested the lining cast iron guns
charges of 40 lb. of powder, twice, aud once with wrought iron exits, which is stated to
of 50 lb April 8, „ be successful.
The Uorsfall gun mentioned above, with a The competitive trials of Armstrong's and
charge of 75 lb. of powder and a shot of 270 Whitworth's cannon upon the Alfred target-
lb. totally smashed a Warrior target ship at Portsmouth closed . Nov. 15,
Sept 16, „ "Hercules target," 4ft. 2 in. thick, 11 J inches
Mr. Whitworth's shells were sent through 5$ of iron, resists 300 pounders . . June, 1865
CANON of SCRIPTURE. See Bible.
CANONISATION, of pious men and martyrs as saints, was instituted by pope Eeo III.,
800. Tallent. Every day in the calendar is now a saint's day. The first canonisation was
of St. Udalricus, in 993. Hhiaxdi. On Juue 8, 1862, the pope canonised 27 Japanese, who
had been put to death on Feb. 5, 1597, near Nagasaki
CANONS, Apostolical, ascribed by Bellarmin and Baronius to the Apostles ; by others
to St. Clement, arc certainly a forgery of much later date (since 325). The Greek church
allows 85, the Latin 50 of them. The first Ecclesiastical Canon was promulgated 380.
Usher. Canon laic was introduced into Europe by Gratian, the canon law author, about
1 140, and into England in 1 1 54. Stow. See Decretals. The present Canons and Consti
tutions of the Church of England, collected from former ordinances, were established in 1603
by the clergy in convocation, and ratified by king James I. An intermediate class of reli
gious, between priests and monks, in the 8th century, were termed canom, as living by a rule.
CANOS3A, a castle in Modena, celebrated on account of the degrading penance submitted
to by the emperor Henry IV. of Germany, in deference to his greatest enemy, pope Gregory
VII. (Hildebrand), then living at the castle, the residence of the great countess Matilda.
Henry was exposed for several days to the inclemency of winter, Jan. 1077, till it pleased
the pope to admit him. Matilda greatly increased the temporal power of the papacy by
bequeathing to it her large estates, to the injury of her second husband, Guelph, duke of
Bavaria.
CANTERBURY (Kent), the Durovcrnum of the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, king
of Kent, who reigned 560—616. He was converted to Christianity by Augnstin, 596, upon
whom he bestowed many favours, giving him laud for an abbey and cathedral, which was
dedicated to Christ, 602.* St. Martin's church was the first Saxon Christian church in
Britain. The riot at Bonghton, near Canterbury, produced by a fanatic called Tom or Thorn,
who assumed the name of sir William Courtenay, occurred May 31, 1838. See Thomiies.
The railway to London was completed in 1846. —The Archbishop is primate and metropo
litan of all England, and the first peer in the realm, having precedency of all officers of state,
and of all dukes not of the blood royal. Canterbury had formerly jurisdiction over Ireland,
and the archbishop was styled a patriarch. This see has yielded to the church of Rome 18
saints and 9 cardinals; and to the civil state of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord
treasurers. The sec was made superior to York, 1073. See York. The revenue is valued
in the king's books at 2S16Z. ys. gd. Beaton. Present income, 15,000^.
* Th3 cathedral was sacked by the Danes, ion, and burnt down 10G7 ; rebuilt by Lanfranc and Anselm,
and the choir completed bv the prior Conrad in 1130, and in which Socket was murdered, 11 70, was burnt
1174. It was rebuilt by William of Sens (1174-73) and by " English William," 117S-84. A new nave was
built aud other parts. 137S-1410. The great central tower was erected by prior Qoldstone about 1495. The
gorgeous shrine of Backet was stripped at the reformation, and his bones burnt. Here were interred
Edward the Black Prince, Henry IV., cardinal Pole, and other distinguished person*. Daring the civil
war, Cromwell's dragoons used the cathedral as a stable.
CAN 150 CAO
CANTERBURY, continued.
ARCHBISHOPS OF CANTERBUItY-
A.D. A.D. A.D.
602-605. St Augustine, or Aus 1162-1170. Thomas Bocket: mur 1399-1414. Tho. Arundel (restd).
tin, died May 26. dered Dec 29. J414-1443. Henry Chicheley.
6o5-6r<). St. Lawrence. [See vacant. J 1443-1452. John Stafford.
619-634. St. Mellitus. 1174-1184. llichard. 1452-1454. John Kemp.
624-630. Justus. 1 1 84- 1 190. Baldwin. 1454-1486. Thomas Bouchier.
631-653. St. Ilonorius. 1 191. Reginald Fitz-Joccline, 1486-1500. John Morton.
655-664. Deusdedit (Adeodatus). died Dec. 26. 1501-1503. Henry Deauc or Denny.
668-690. Theodore oli>f Tarsus. [See vacant. ] 1503-1532. Wm. Warham.
693-731. Horhtuald. 1193-1205. Hubert Walter. [Regi 1533-1556, Thos. Cranmer (burnt,
731-734- Taetwine. nald the sub-prior, and March 21).
735-741- Nothelm. John Grey, bishop of 1 556-15 58. Reginald Polc,d. Nov. 17.
74I"758- Cuthbert. Norwich, wore succes 1559-1575. Matt. Parker.d. May 17.
759-762. Breogwine. sively chosen, but set 1576-1583. Edm.Grindal.d. July 6.
763-790. Jaenbehrt, or Lambert. aside ] 1583-1604. JohnWhitgift^d.Feb.29.
790 803. JEthelheard. 1206-1228." Stephen Langton, died 1604-16:0. Ild. Bancroft, d. Nov. 2.
803-829. Wulfred. * July 6. 1611-1633. Geo. Abbot, d. Aug. 4.
329. Flcogild. 1229-1231. Richard Weathershed. 1633-1645. Win. Laud (beheaded,
830-870. Ceolnotb. 1233-1240. Edmund dc Abingdon. Jan. 10).
870-889. jKthelred. 1240-1270. Boniface of Savoy. [Sec vacant 16 years.]
891-923. Plegemund. 1272-1278. Robert Kilwarby (re- 1660-1663. Wm. Juxon, d. June 4.
923 jflithelm.
CO Wulfelm. signed). 1663-1677. Gilb. Sheldon, d. Nov.9.
928-041. 1279-1292 Jo] John Peckham. 1678-1691. Win. Simcroit(deprived
941-958. Odo. 1893-13x3 Robert Winchclsey. Feb. 1), d. Nov. 24,1693.
959-988. St. Dunstan, d. May 19. 1311-1327. Walter Reynolds. 1691-1694. JohnTillotson.d.Nov.22
988-989. /Ethelgar. Simon de Mepham. 1695-1715. Thos.Tcnison. d. Dec. 14.
990-995 Sigeric. i333"I348 John Stratford. 1715-1737. Wm. Wake, d. Jan. 24.
995-1006 jELfric. I34^'I349- John de Ufford. 1737-1747. John Potter, d. Oct. 10.
1006-101 1. St. *Elphagc, murdered 1349. Thomas Bradwardin. I747-I757- Thos.Herring.d. Mar. 13.
by the Danes, April 19. 1349-1366. Simon Islip. 1757- 1758. MattHutton, d.Mar. 19.
1013-1020. Lyfing, or iElfstun. 1366-1368. Simon Langham (re 1758- 1768. Thos. Seeker, d Aug. 3.
1020-1038. ^Etholnoth. signed). 1768-1783. Fred. Cornwallis, died
103S-1050. St. Eadsige. 1368-1374. Wm. Whittlesey. Mar. 19.
1050-1052. Robert of Jumicgcs. 1375-1381. Simon Sudbury, be 1783-1805. John Moore, d. Jan. 18.
1052-1070. Stigand : deprived. headed by the rebels, 1805-1828. Ghas. Manners Sutton,
1070-1089. St. Lanfranc, d. May 24. June 14. died July 21.
1093-1109. Anselm. 13S1-1396. William Courtcnay. 1828-1848. Wm.IIowlcy, d. Feb.n.
[See vacant 5 years.] 1397"1 39s- Thos. Fitzalan or Arun 1848-1862. John Bird Sumuer.died
1114-1122. Radulphus dc Turbine. del (attainted). Sept. 6.
1123-1136. William do Curbsllio. 1398. Roger Walden (ex 1862. Chas. Thos. Longlcy, 1
1139-1 161. Theobald. pelled). abp.
CANTERBURY TALES, by Geoffrey Chaucer, were written about 1364; aud first
printed about 1475 or 1476 (by Caxton).
CANTHA RIDES, venomous green beetles (called Spanish flies), are used to raise blisters.
This use is ascribed to Aretseus of Cappadocia, about 50 B.C.
CANTON", tho only city in China with which Europeans were allowed to trade, till the
treaty of Aug. 29, 1842. Nearly every nation has a factory at Canton, but that of England
surpasses all others in elegance and-extent. Merchants arrived here in 1 5 1 7. Afire destroy
ing 15, 000, houses, 1822. An inundation swept away 10,000 houses and 1000 persons,
Oct. 1833. Canton was taken by the British in 1857 ; restored, 1861. See China 1835,
1839, 1856, 1861. Population estimated at 1,000,000.
CANULEIAN LAW, permitting the patricians and plebeians to intermarry, was passed
at Rome 445 B.C.
CAOUTCHOUC, on India Ruimer, an elastic resinous substance that exudes by
incisions from several trees that grow in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils, the HwHa caout
chouc and Siphonia elastica (vulgarly called syringe trees). It was first brought to Europe
from South America, about 1 730.
In 1770, Dr. Priestley said that he had seen "a of Mackintosh and Co.). and patented . . 1843
substance excellently adapted to the purpose Mr. Goodyear invented tho hard rubber
of wiping from paper tho marks of a black (termed Ebonite) as a substitute for burn
lead pencil." It was sold at the rate of 3a. and tortoiso-shell, for combs, paper-knives,
the cubic half-inch. veneer, walking-sticks, Ac 1849
India rubber cloth was made by Samuel Peal A mode of retaining India rubber in its natu
and patented 1791 ral fluid state (by applying to it liquid am
Vulcanised rubber formed by combining India monia) was patented in England, on behalf
rubber with sulphur, which process removes of th« inventor, Mr. Henry Lee Norris, of
the susceptibility of the rubber to change New York 1853
under atmospheric temperatures, was pa Caoutchouc imported in 1850, 7617 cwts. ; in
tented in America, by Mr. C. Goodyear . . 1830, 1856, 28,765 cwts. ; in 1864, 71,027 cwts.
Invented also by Mr. T. Hancock (of" the firm
CAP 151 CAP
CAP. The general use of caps and hats is referred to 1449. See Caps ami Hals.
CAPE BRETON, a large island, W. coast of N. America, said to have been discovered
by the English in 1584; taken by the French in 1632, but was afterwards restored ; and
again taken in 1745, and re-taken in 1748. It was finally captured by the English in 175S,
wben the garrison of 5600 men were made prisoners, and eleven French ships were captured
or destroyed. Ceded to England in 1763.
CAPE-COAST CASTLE (S. "W. Africa). Settled by the Portuguese in 1610 ; but it
soon fell to the Dutch. It was demolished by admiral Holmes in 1661. All the British
factories and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the Dutch admiral, De Huyter, in
1665. It was confirmed to the English by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. See A shantees.
CAPE DE VERDE ISLANDS (N. Atlantic Ocean), were known to the ancients as Gor-
gades ; but not to the moderns till discovered by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator iu tho
service of Portugal, 1446, 1450, or 1460. The Portuguese possess them still.
CAPEL COURT. See under STOCKS.
CAPE LA HOGUE. See La Hoguc.
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, a promontory on the S.W. point of Africa, called "Cabo
Tormentoso " (the stormy cape), the " Lion of tho Sea, "and the " Head of Africa," dis
covered by Bartholomew de Diaz in i486. Its present name was given by John 11. of
Portugal, who augured favourably of future discoveries from Diaz having reached the
extremity of Africa. Population iu 1856, 267,096.
Tbc capo was doubled, and tho passage to The constitution granted to tbe colony promul
India discovered by Vaseo de Gama, Nov. 20, 1497 gated and joyfully received on . July 1, 1853
Cape Town, the capital, planted by the Dutch 1651 General Pnetorius, the chief of the Trans-Vaill
Colony taken by the English, under admiral republic, died in . , Aug. ,,
Elphinstono and general Clarke Sept 1795 The British having given up its jurisdiction
Restored at the peace in ... 1802 over tho Orange river territory, a free state
Taken by sirD. Bairdand sir II. Popham, Jan.8, 1806 was formed (See Orange river) . March 29, 1854
Finally ceded to England in 1814 Tho first parliament meets at Cape-Town July 1, ,,
British emigrants arrive in . . March, 1820 The Kaflros were much excited by a prophet
The KafTrcs make irruptions on the British set named Umhla-kaza. By the exertions of sir
tlements ; and ravage Grahamstown. (Seo George Grey, tho governor, tiunquillity was
Kajfraria) . .... Oct. 1834 maintained Aug. 1856
Bishopric of Cape Town founded . 1847 The cape visited by prince Alfred in . July, i860
The inhabitants successfully resist the attompt The first railway from Capo Town, about 58
to make the cape a penal colony . May 19, 1849 miles long, opened . . about Dec. ,,
CAPE ST. VINCENT (S. W. Portugal). Sir George Rooke, with twenty-three ships of
war, and the Turkey fleet, was attacked by Tourville, with 160 ships off Cape St. Vincent,
when twelve English and Dutch men of war, and eighty merchantmen, were captured or
destroyed by the French, June 16, 1693. —Sir John Jervis, with the Mediterranean fleet of
fifteen sail, defeated the Spanish fleet of twenty-seven ships of the line off this cape, taking
four ships and destroying others, Feb. 14, 1797. For this victory sir John was raised to the
peerage, as earl St. Vincent. Nelson was engaged in this battle.
CAPET (or Capevigians), the third race of the kings of France, named from Hugo Capet,
count of Paris and Orleans, who seized the throne on the death of Louis V., called the Indo
lent, 987. HiiuiuJL The first line of the house of Capet expired with Charles IV., in 132S,
when Philip VI. of Valois ascended the throne. See France.
CAPILLARITY (the rising of liquids in small tubes, and the ascent of the sap in plants)
is said to have been first observed by Niccolo Aggiunti of Pisa, 1600—35. The theory has
been examined by Newton, La Place, and others. Dr. T. Young's theory was put forth in
1805, and Mr. Wertheim's researches in 1857.
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. See Death.
CAPITATION TAX. See Poll-tax.
CAriTOL, so called from a human head (caput) being found when digging the founda
tions of the principal fortress of Rome, on Mons Tarpeius, on which a temple was built to
Jupiter, thence called Jupiter CapUolinus. The foundation was laid by Tarquinius Priscus,
616 B.C. The building was continued by Servius Tullius, and completed by Tarquinius
Superbus, but was not dedicated till 507 B.C. by the consul Horatius. It was burnt during
the civil wars, 83 B.C., rebuilt by Sylla, and dedicated again by Lutatius Catulus, 69 b.c.
The Roman consuls made large donations to this temple, and the emperor Augustus licstowed
on it 2000 pounds weight of gold, of which metal the roof was composed : its thresholds were
of brass, and its interior was decorated with shields of solid silver. It was destroyed by
CAP 1.V2 CAR
lightning 188 B.C. ; by firo, A.D. 70, and rebuilt by Domitian. The Capiloline games, insti
tuted 387 B.C., were revived by Domitian, A.D. 86. The Campidoglio contains palaces of the
senators, erected on the site ot' the Capitol by Michael Angelo soon after 1546.
CAPITULARIES, the laws of the Frankish kings, commencing with Charlemagne (801 ).
Collections have been published by Baluze (1677) and others.
CAPPADOCIA, Asia Minor. Its early history is involved in obscurity.
Br Roman senate declares the country free, and
Phamaecs paid to have founded the kingdom . 744 appoints Ariobarzaues I. king . B.C. 93
Cappadoeia conquered by Pcrdiceas, regent of Ho is several times expelled by Mithridates,
Macrdon ; the king, Ariarathes I., aged 82, &c, but restored by the Romans; dies . 64
crucified ........ 322 Ariobarzanes II. supports Pompey,and is slain
Recovers its independence . . . 315 by Crassus 42
Conquered by Mithridates of Pontus . 291 Ariarathes VII. deposed by Antony . . 36
Held by Seleucus Nicator 280 Archelaus is favoured by Augustus, 20 B.C. ;
Ariarathes V. , Philopator, reigns, 162 ; dethroned but accused by Tiberius, he comes to lioiuo
by Holophernes, 130, but lestored by the and dies there, oppressed with ago and infir
Romans, 158 ; kilted with Crassus iu the war mities . . . . . A.D. 17
against Aristouicus 130 Cappadoeia becomes a Roman province . . 15
Ilia queen, Lnodice, poisons five of her sons; Invaded by the Huns 515
the sixth (Ariarathes VI.) is saved; she is And by the Saracens 7x7
put to death „ Recovered by the emperor Basil I. 876
Ariarathes VI. murdered by Mithridates Eu- Conquered by Soliman 1074
pator ; who sets up various pretenders. The Annexed to Turkish Empire .... 1360
CAPPEL (Switzerland). Here the reformer Zwinglius was slaiu iu a conflict between
the catholics and the men of Zurich,- Oct. II, 1 53 1.
CAPRI (Caprete), an island near Naples, the sumptuous residence of Augustus, and par
ticularly of Tiberius, memorable for the debaucheries he committed during the seven last
years of his life, 27. Capri was taken by sir Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806.
CAPS and Hats.* About 1750 Sweden was much distracted by two factions thus
named, the former in the interest of the Russians, and the latter in that of the French.
They were broken up and the names prohibited by Gustavus III. in 1 771, who desired to
exclude foreign influence. His assassination by Ankarstrom, March 16, 1792, set asido all
his plans for the improvement of Sweden.
CAPUA (Naples), capital of Campania, took the part of Hannibal when his army
wintered here after the battle of Canua;, 216 B.C., and it is said became enervated through
luxury. In 211, when the Romans retook the city, they scourged and beheaded all the
surviving senators ; the others had poisoned themselves after a banquet previous to the
surrender of the city. Only two persons escaped degradation, a woman who had prayed for
the success of the Romans, and another who succoured some prisoners. During the middle
ages Capua was in turn subjugated by the Greeks, Saracens, and Normans, and Germans.
It was restored to Naples iu a.d. 1424, and was taken Nov. 2, i860, by Garibaldi.
CAPUCHIN FRIARS, Franciscans, so named from wearing a Capuchon, or cowl hang
ing down upon their backs. The Capuchins were founded by Matthew Baschi, about 1525.
CAR. The invention is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, about i486 B.C. Covered
cars (cumcs arcuati) were used by the Romans. The lectica (a soft cushioned car), next
invented, gave place to the carpenium, a two-wheeled car, with an arched covering, hung
with costly cloth. Still later were the enrrucce., in which the officers of state rode. Tri
umphal cars, introduced by Tarquin the Elder, were formed like a throne.
CARACAS (S. America), part of Venezuela, discovered by Columbus 1498. It was
reduced by arms, and assigned as property to the Welsers, German merchants, by Charles
V. ; but from their tyranny, they were dispossessed in 1550, and a crown governor appointed.
The province declared its independence of Spain, May 9, 1810. The city Leon de Caracas,
on March 26, 1812, was visited by a violent earthquake, and nearly 12,000 persons perished.
See Venezuela.
CARBERRY HILL (S. Scotland). Here on June 15, 1567, lord Hume and the con-
* None allowed to sell any bat for above sod. nor cap for above 2*. 8d. 5 Henry VII. 1489. It was
enacted iu 1571 that every person above seven years of age should wear on Sundays and holidays, a cap of
wool, knit, mado, thickened, and dressed in England by some of the trade of cappers, under the forfeiture
of three farthings for every day's neglect, 1571. Excepted ; maids, ladies, and gentlewomen, and every
lord, knight, and gontlcman, of twenty marks of lancf, and thoir heirs, and such as had bomo office of
worship, in any city, town, or place, and the wardens of London companies.
CAR 153 CAR
federate barons dispersed the royal army under Bothwell, and took Mary queen of Scots
prisoner. Bothwell fled.
CARBOLIC ACID (or phcnie acid), obtained by the distillation of pit-coal, is a powerful
antiseptic. It is largely manufactured for medical purposes, and has been advantageously
used at Carlisle and Exeter in the deodorisation-of sewage (1S60-1).
CARBON was shown to be a distinct element by Lavoisier in 178S. He proved the
diamond to be its purest form, and converted it into carbonic acid gas by combustion.
Gmelin.
•
CARBONARI (colliers, or charcoal-burners), n powerful secret society in Italy, which
derived its origin, according to some, from the Waldenses, and which became prominent
early in the present century. It aimed at the expulsion of foreigners from Italy, and the
establishment of civil and religious liberty. In March. 1820, it is said that 650,000 joined
the society, and an insurrection soon after broke out in Naples, general Pepj taking the com
mand. The king Ferdinand made political concessions, but the allied sovereigns at Laybach
assisted Ferdinand to suppress the liberal party. The Carbonari were henceforth denounced
as traitors. The society since 1818 spread in "France, and doubtless hastened the fall of the
Bourbons in 1830 and 1848. It has been frequently but incorrectly confounded with free
masonry.
CARBONIC ACIU GAS, a compound of carbon and oxygen, which occurs in the air,
and is a product of combustion, respiration, and fermentation. The Grotto del Cane yields
200,000 lbs. per annum. No animal can breathe this gas. The briskness of champagne,
beer, &c., is due to its presence. It was liquefied by atmospheric pressure by Faraday in
1823. On exposing the liquid to the air for a short time it becomes solid, in the form of
snow.
CARDIFF CASTLE (S. Wales). Here Robert, duke of Normandy, eldest son of "William
I., was imprisoned from 1106 till his death, 1 135.
CARDINALS, ecclesiastical princes in the church of Rome, the council of the pope, and
the conclave or sacred college, at first were the principal priests or incumbents of the
parishes in Rome, and were called cardinalcs in 853. They began to assume the exclusive
power of electing the popes in 1181. They first wore the red hat to remind them that
they ought to shed their blood for religion, if required, and were declared princes of the
church by Innocent IV., 1243 or 1245. In 1586 Sixtus V. fixed their number at 70; but
there are generally vacancies. In i860 there were 69 cardinals, in 1861, 63, in 1864, 59.
Paul II. gave the scarlet habit, 1464 ; and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1623 or
1630. Jhtcange.
CARDROSS CASE. See Trials, 1861.
CARDS (referred to the Chinese, Hindoos, and Romans), are said to have been invented
in France in 1391, to amuse Charles IV. during the intervals of a melancholy disorder.
Piquet and all the early names are French. —Cards first taxed iu England 1710. 428,000
packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800. In 1825, the duty being then 2s. 6d.
per pack, less than 150,000 packs were stamped ; but in 1827 the stamp duty was reduced
to is., and 310,854 packs paid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs in the year
ending 5th Jan. 1840 ; and on near 300,000, year ending 5th Jan. 1850. By an act passed
iu 1862 the duty on cards was reduced to 3d. per pack, and the sellers were required to take
out a licence.
CARIA, Asia Minor, was conquered by Cyrus, 546 B.C. ; by Dercyllidas, a Lacede
monian, 397; his successor Hecatomnus became king, 385 B.C.; for his son Mausolus the
Maiaoleum was erected (which sec). Caria was absorbed into the Turkish empiro.
CARICATURES. Bufalmaco, an Italian painter, about 1330, drew caricatures and put
labels to the mouths of his figures with seutences. The modern caricatures of Gilray, Row-
landson, H. B. (John Doyle J° = B6;, Richard Doyle, John Leech, and John Tenniel are
justly celebrated. The well-known " Punch " was first published in 1841. The most eminent
writers of fiction of the day and others. (Douglas Jerrold, Thackeray, A'Becket, Professor E.
Forbes, &c.) have contributed to this amusing periodical.
CARINTHIA, a Bavarian duchy, was annexed to Austria, 1363.
CAR 154 CAR
CARISBROOKE CASTLE (Isle of Wight), said to have been a British and Roman
fortress, was taken 530, by Cerdic, founder of the kingdom of the West Saxons. Its
Nornum character lias been ascribed to William Fitz-Osborne, earl of Hereford in William
I.'s time. Here Charles 1. was imprisoned in 1647. Here died his daughter Elizabeth,
aged fifteen, too probably of a broken heart, Sept. 8, 1650.
CARLAVEROCK CASTLE (S. Scotland), taken by Edward I. July, 1300, the subject of
a contemporary poem published, with illustrations, by sir Hams Nicolas in 1828.
CARLISLE (Cumberland), a frontier town of England, wherein for many ages a strong
garrison was kept. Just below this town the famous ricts' wall began, which crossed the
whole island to Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and here also ended the great Roman highway. The
great church, called St. Mary's, is a venerable old pile ; a great part of it was built by St.
David, king of Scotland, who held Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Northumberland, in
vassalage from the crown of England. The castle, restored in 1092 by William II., was the
prison of Mary queen of Scots in 1568. —Taken by the parliamentary forces in 1645, and by
the young Pretender, Nov. 15, 1 745: retaken by the duke of Cumberland, Dec. 30, same
year. The see was erected by Henry I. in 1132, and made suffragan to York. The cathe
dral had been founded a short time previously, by Walter, deputy in these parts for William
Rufus. It was almost mined by Cromwell, and has never recovered its former great beauty,
although repaired after the Restoration. It has been lately renovated at a cost of 15,000/.
and was reopened in 1856. The see has given to the civil state one lord chancellor and two
lord treasurers; it is valued in the king's books at 530/. 4s. lid. per annum. Present
income 4500/.
RECENT BISHOPS OF CARLISLE.
VQi- Edward Venables Vernon, trans, to York, 1807. 1856. Hon. H. Montagu Villicrs, trans, to Durham
1808. Samuel Goodeiiough, died Aug. 12, 1827. May, i860.
1827. Hugh Percy, died Feb. 1856. i860. Hon. Samuel TValdcgrave (present bishop).
CARLISLE ADMINISTRATION. See Halifax.
CARLOVINGIANS, the second dynasty of the French kings. See France.
CARLOW (S. E. Ireland). The castle, erected by king John, surrendered after a
desperate siege to Rory Oge O'Moore, in 1577 ; again to the parliamentary forces, in 1650.
Here the royal troops routed the insurgents, May, 1798.
CARLSBAD (or Charles's Bath), in Bohemia, the celebrated springs, discovered by the
oniperor Charles IV. in 1358. —On Aug. 1, 1819, a congress was held here, when the great
powers decreed measures to repress the liberal press, &c.
CARMAGNOLE, a Piedmontese song and dance, popular in France during the reign of
terror, 1793-4. The chorus was " Dansons la Carmagnole : vive lo son du canon ! "
CARMATHIANS, a Mahometan sect. Cannath, a Shiite, about 890, assumed the title
of "the guide, the director," 4c, including that of the representative of Mahomet,
St. John the Baptist, and the angel Gabriel. His followers subdued Bahrein in 900, and
overran the east. Dissensions arose amongst themselves, and their power soon passed away.
CARMELITES, or White Friars, of Mount Carmel, one of the four orders of mendi
cants with austere rules, founded by Berthold about 1 156, and settled in France in 1252.
Hcnaull. These rales were moderated about 1540. They claimed descent from Elijah.
They had numerous monasteries in England, and a precinct in London without the Temple,
west of Blackfriars, is called Whitefriars to this day, after a community of their order,
founded there in 1245.
CARNATIC, a district of Southern Hindostan, extending along the whole coast of Coro-
mandel. Hyder Ali entered the Carnatic with 80,000 troops, in 1780, and was defeated by
the British under sir Eyre Coote, July 1, and Aug. 27, 1 781 ; and decisively overthrown,
June 2, 1782. The Carnatic was overrun by Tippoo in 1790. The British have possessed
entire authority over the Carnatic since 1801, See India.
CARNATION, so called from the original species being of a flesh colour (carnis, of
flesh). Several varieties were first planted in England by the Flemings, about 1567. Stow.
CARNEIAN GAMES, observed in many Grecian cities, particularly at Sparta (instituted
about 675 B.C. in honour of Apollo, surnamed Carneus), lasted nine days.
CARNIVAL (Carni vale, Italian, i.e. Flesh, farewell J), a festival time in Italy, parti
cularly at Venice, about Shrove-tide, or beginning of Lent.
CAR 155 CAR
CAROLINA (N. America). Said to have been discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1498,
or by De Leon in 1512. A body of English, about 850 persons, landed and settled here
about 1660 ; and Carolina was granted to lord Berkeley and others a few years afterwards.
The cultivation of rice was introduced by governor Smith in 1695, and subsequently cotton.
The province was divided into North and South in 1719. See America. The Carolinas
were slave states. Great excitement prevailed in them in Nov. 1860, on account of Jlr.
Abraham Lincoln's election to the presidency of the United States, he being strongly
opposed to slavery. South Carolina began the secession from the United States, Dec. 20,
i860: North Carolina followed, May 21, 1861. See United Stales, 1861-5.
CAROLINE ISLANDS were discovered by the Spaniards in the reign of CharUis II. 16S6.
CARP, a fresh-water or pond fish, was, it is said, first brought to these countries about
1525. Walton. It is mentioned by Lady Juliana Berners in 1496.
CARPETS are of ancient use in the East. The manufacture of woollen carpets was
introduced into Franco from Persia, in the reign of Henry IV., between 15S9 and 1610.
Some artizans who had quitted France in disgust established the English carpet manufac
ture, about 1750. A cork-carpet company was formed in 1862.
CARRACK, or Karrack (Italian, Caracca), a large ship in the middle ages. The Santa
Anna, the property of the knights of St. John, of about 1700 tons, sheathed with lead, was
built at Nice about 1530. It was literally a floating fortress, and aided Charles V. in taking
Tunis in 1535. It contained a crew of 300 men and 50 pieces of artillery.
CARRIAGES. Erichthonius of Athens is said to have produced the first chariot about
i486 B.C. Rude carriages were known in France in the reign of Henry II. a.d. 1547 ; in
England in 1555 ; Henry IV. of France had one without straps or springs. They were made
in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and then called whirlicotes. The duke of Bucking
ham, in 1619, drove six horses ; and the duko of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight.
Carriages were let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre ; hence the name, fiacre.
See Car, Cabriolets, and Coaches.
CARRICKFERGUS (Antrim, Ireland). Its castle is supposed to have been built by
Hugh de Lacy, in 1 1 78. The town surrendered to the duke of Schomberg, Aug. 2S, 16S9.
The castle surrendered to the French admiral Thurot, 1760. See Thurol.
CARRON IRON-WORKS, on the banks of the Carron, in Stirlingshire, established in
1760. The works in 1852 employed about 1600 men. Here since 1776 have been made the
pieces of ordnance called carrunades.
CARROTS and other edible roots were imported from Holland and Flanders, about 1540.
CARTESIAN DOCTRINES, promulgated by Rene Des Cartes, the French philosopher,
in 1637. His metaphysical principle is, "I think, therefore I am ;" his physical principle,
" Nothing exists but substance." He accounts for all physical phenomena on his theory of
vortices, motions excited by God, the source of all motion. He was born 1596", and died at
Stockholm, the guest of queen Christina, in 1650.
CARTES DE VISITE. The small photograph portraits thus termed are said to have
been first taken at Nice, by M. Fen-ier in 1857. The duke of Parma had his portrait placed
upon his visiting cards, and his example was soon followed in Paris and London.
CARTHAGE (N. coast of Africa, near Tunis), founded by Dido or Elissa, sister of
Pygmalion, king of Tyre, B.C. 878 (869, Blair; 826, Niebulir). She fled from that tyrant,
who had killed her husband, and took refuge in Africa. Carthage became a great com
mercial and warlike republic, and disputed the empire of the world with Rome, which
occasioned the Punic wars. The Carthaginians bore the character of a faithless people,
hence the term Punic faith. Cato the censor (about 146 B.C.) ended his speeches in the
senate with Cartliago dclcndal "Carthage must be destroyed I "
B.C. Defeated by Agathoclcs, they immolate their B.C.
First alliance of Carthaginians and Romans . 509 children on the altar to Saturn . . . 310
The Carthaginians in Sicily defeated at Himera The first Punic war begins (lasts 23 years) . . 264
by Gelo ; the elder Homilcar perishes . . 480 The Carthaginians defeated by the Roman con
They enlarge their territories .... 410 sul Duilius in a naval engagement . . . 260
They send 300.0a-. men into Sicily . . . . 407 Xantippus defeats Regulus 255
Take Agrigentum 406 Hasdrubal defeated by Metellus at Panormus 251
The siege of Syracuse 396 Regulus put to death 250
The Carthaginians land in Italy .... 379 Romans defeated before Lilybajum . . . 250
Their defeat by Timoleon 339 The great Hannibal bom 247
CAR 1 .',0 CAS
CARTHAGE, continued.
B.C. Mctaurus B.c. 207
End of first Punic war; Sicily lost by Carthage 241 The Carthaginians expelled Spain . . 206
War between the Carthaginians and African Scipio arrives in Africa, and lays siege to Utica . 204
mercenaries 241 Hannibal recalled from Italy .... 203
Harnilcar Bareas is sent into Spain : he takes Hannibal totally defeated at Zama (which see) . 202
with him his son, tho famous Hannibal, at End of the second Punic war . . . 201
the age of nine years, having first made him The third Punic war : Scipio invades Africa . 149
swear an eternal enmity to the Romans . . 237 Carthage taken and burned, by order of tho
Ilasdrubal founds Now Cartilage (Carthagena) . 229 senate 146
Ilasdrubal is assassinated 220 Colony sottlcd at Carthago by C. Gracchus . 12a
Hannibal subjects Spain, as far as tho Ibcrus . 219 Its rebuilding planned by Julius Caesar . . 46
The second Punic war begins (lasts 1 7 years) . 218 And executed by his successors.
Hannibal crosses the Alps, and euters Italy with It becomes an important Christian bishop
100.000 men 218 ric A. D. 215
He defeats the Roman consuls at the Ticinus and And Cyprian holds a council here . . . 252
Trcbia, 218 ; at the Like Thrasymenus, 217, Taken by Qenseric tho Vandal . . . . 439
and at Cannae (which tte) . . . Aug. 2, 216 Retaken by Belisarius 533
Publius Scipio carries war into Spain and takes Taken and destroyed by Hassan the Saraconic
New Carthage 210 governor of Egypt 698
Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal, arrives with Carthaginian antiquities brought to tho British
an army, and is defeated and slain at the Museum 1861
CARTHAGENA, 011 New Carthage (S. E. Spain), built by Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian
general 229 B.C. ; was taken by Scipio, 210. The modern Carthagena was taken by a British
force under sir John Leake in 1706, but was retaken by tho duke of Berwick, 1707.—
Carthagena, in Columbia, South America, was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1585 ; was
pillaged by the French of 1,200,000/. in 1697 ; and was bombarded by admiral Vernon
in 1 740- 1.
CARTHUSIANS, a religious order (springing from the Benedictines) founded by Bruno
of Cologne, who retired with six companions from the converse of the world about 1080, to
Chartreuse (which see), in the mountains of Dauphind Their austere rules were formed by
Basil VII., general of the order. They appeared in England about 1 180, and a Carthusian
monastery, founded by sir William Manny, 137 1 , was the site of the present Charter-house,
London. See ChaHcr-house. The Carthusian powder, of father Simon, at Chartreuse, wu
first compounded about 1715.
CARTOONS. Those of Raniael (twenty-five in number) were designed (for tapestries)
in the chambers of the Vatican under Julius II. and Leo X. about 1510 to 1516. The seven
preserved were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of England, for Hampton
court palace in 1629. They represent— 1, the Miraculous draught of Fishes ; 2, the Charge
to Peter ; 3, Peter and John healing the Lame at the Gate of the Temple ; 4, the Death of
Ananias ; 5, Elymas the Sorcerer struck with blindness ; 6, the Sacrifice to Paul and
Barnabas, at Lystr.i ; 7, Paul preaching at Athens. —The cartoons wero removed to
South Kensington, April 28, 1865. —The tapestries executed at Arras from these designs aro
at Rome. They were twice carried away by invaders, in 1526 and 179S, and were restored
in 1815. —The Cartoons for the British Houses of Parliament wore exhibited in 1843.
CARVING. See Sculptures. CASH-PAYMENTS. See Sank of England.
CASIIEL (Tipperary, Ireland). Cormack CuiRinan, king and bishop of Cashel, was tho
reputed founder or restorer of the cathedral, 901. In 1 152, bishop Donat O'Danergan was
invested with the pall. See Pallium. Cashel was valued in the king's books, 29 Henry
VIII., at 661. 13s. 4<f. Irish money. By the Church Temporalities act, 1833, it ceased to be
archiepiscopal, and was joined to Waterford and Lismore.
CASHMERE, in the Himalayas ; was subdued by the Mahometans in the 16th century ;
by the Affghans in 1754 ; by the Sikhs in 1819 ; and was ceded to the British in 1846 ; wlio
gave it to the Maharajah Gholab Singh, with a nominal sovereignty. The true Cashmere
shawls were first brought to England in 1666 ; but arc Well imitated at Bradford and
Huddersfield. Shawls of Thibetian wool, for the omrahs, cost 150 rupees each, about 1650.
licrnier.
CASSATION, Court of, the highest court of appeal in France, was established in 1790
by the national assembly.
CASSITERIDES. See Stilly Isles.
CASTEL FIDARDO, near Ancona, Central Italy. Near here general Lamoriciere and
the papal army of 11,000 men were totally defeated by the Sardinian general, Cialtiini, Sept.
18, i860. Lamoriciere with a few horsemen fled to Ancona, then besieged. On Sept. 29,
he and the garrison surrendered, but were shortly after set at liberty.
CAS 157 OAT
CASTES, a distinct section of society in India. In the laws of Menu (see Menu), th»
Hindus are divided into the Bnihmans, or sacerdotal class ; the Kshatrya or Chuttrce,
military class ; the Vaisya, or commercial class ; and the Sudras, or sooders, servile class.
CASTIGLIONE (N. Italy). Here the French under Augercau defeated the Austrians,
commanded by Wurmser, with great loss, Aug. 3—5, 1796.
CASTILE (Central Spain). A powerful Gothic government was established here about
800. —Ferdinand, count of Castile, became king, 1035. Ferdinand of Arragon married
Isabella of Castile in 1474, and formed one monarchy, 1479. Sec Spain.
CASTILLEJOS (N. Africa). Here on Jan. I, i860, was fought the first decisive action
in the war between Spain and Morocco. General Prim, after a vigorous resistance, repulsed
the Moors under Muley Abbas, and advanced towards Tetuan.
CASTILLON, in Guiennc. Here the army of Henry VI. of England was defeated by
that of Charles VII. of Fiance. An end was put to the English dominion in France, Calais
alone remaining, July 23, 1453. Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, was killed.
CASTLEBAR (Ireland). French troops, under Humbert, landed at Killala, and assisted
by Irish insurgents here, compelled the king's troops to retreat, Aug. 28, 1798.
CASTLEPOLLARD (Ireland). Fatal affray at a fair here between some peasantry and a
body of police, when thirteen persons lost their lives, and more than twice that number were
wounded, May 23, 1831. The chief constable, Blake, and his men, escaped punishment.
CASTLES. The castle of the Anglo-Saxon was a tower keep, either round or square,
and ascended by a flight of steps in front. William I. erected 48 strong castles. Several
hundreds, built by permission of Stephen, between 1 135 and 1 154, were demolished by
Henry II., 1154. Many were dismantled in the civil wars.
CATACOMBS. The early depositories of the dead. The first Christians at Rome met
for worship in the catacombs ; and here are said to have been the tombs of the apostles
Peter and Paul. Belzoni in 1815 and 1818 explored many Egyptian catacombs, built 3000
years ago. He brought to England the sarcophagus of Psanimetichus, formed of oriental
alabaster, exquisitely sculptured. In the Parisian catacombs (formerly stone quarries),
human remains from the cemetery of the Innocents were deposited in 1785 ; and many of
the victims of the revolution in 1792-4, are interred in them.
CATALONIA (W. Spain), was settled by the Goths and Alani, about 409 ; conquered by
the Saracens, 712 ; recovered by Pepin and Charlemagne. It formed part of the Spanish
marches and the territory of the count of Barcelona (which see). The natives were able
seamen : being frequently unruly, their peculiar privileges were abolished in 17 14.
CATALYTIC FORCE. The discovery in 1819 by Thenard of the decomposition of
peroxide of hydrogen by platinum, and by Dbbcreiner in 1825 of its property to ignite a
mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, formed the groundwork of the doctrine of Catalytic Force,
also termed " action of contact or presence," put forth by Berzelius and Mitscherlich.
Their new has not been adopted by Liebig and other chemists.
CATAMARANS (or carcases), fire-machines for destroying ships ; tried in vain by sir
Sidney Smith, Oct. 2, 1 804, on the Boulogne flotilla destined by Bonaparte to invade England.
CATANIA, a town near Etna, Sicily, was founded by a colony from Chalcis, about 753
B.C. Ceres had a temple here, open to none but women. Catania was almost totally over
thrown by an eruption of Etna in 1669, and in 1693 was nearly swallowed up by an earth
quake : in a moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were buried in the ruins. An earth
quake did great damage, Feb. 22, 1817. In Aug. 1862, the town was held by Garibaldi and
his volunteers, in opposition to the Italian government. He was captured on Aug. 29.
CATAPHRYGIANS, heretics in the 2nd century, who followed the errors of Mon-
tanus. They are said to have baptized their dead, forbidden marriage, and mingled the
bread and wine in the Lord's supper, with the blood of young children.
CATAPULTS, military engines of the cross-how kind, for throwing huge stones as well
as darts and arrows ; invented by Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, 399 B.C. Josephus.
CATEATJ CAMBRESIS (N. France), where, on April 2, 3, 1559, peace was concluded
between Henry II. of France, Philip II. of Spain, and Elizabeth of England. France ceded
to Philip Savoy, Corsica, and nearly 200 forts in Italy and the Low Countries.
CATECHISMS. The catechism of the church of England in the second book of Edward
CAT his CAU
VI., 1552, contained merely the baptismal vow, the creed, the ten commandments, and the
Lord's prayer, with an explanation : but James I. ordered tho bishops to enlarge it by adding
an explication of the sacraments, 1612. It was increased subsequently by the doctrinal
points of the established religion. The catechism of the council of Trent was published in
1566 ; that of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster in 1648.
CATHARI (from the Greek katharos, pure), a name given to the Novatians (about 251),
Moutauists, and other early Christian sects.
CATHERINE. The order of knights«of St. Catherine was instituted in Palestine, 1063.
The order of nuns called Catherines was founded in 1373. An order of ladies of the highest
rank in Russia was founded by Catherine, empress of l'eter the Great, 1714. They were to
be distinguished, as the name implied (from katharos, pure), for purity of life and manners.
CATHOLIC MAJESTY. This title was first given by pope Gregory III. to Alphonsus I.
of Spain, 739. Liccnciado. The title was also given to Ferdinand V. and his queen in 1474
by Innocent VIII. on account of their zeal for the Roman Catholic religion, and their
establishment of the Inquisition in Spain.
CAT ISLE. See Salvador. CATHOLICS. See Roman Catholics.
CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. L. Sergius Catiline, a Roman of noble family. Laving
squandered away bis fortune by debaucheries and extravagance, and having been refused the
consulship (B.C. 65), meditated the ruin of his country, and conspired with many of the
dissolute aristocracy to extirpate the senate, plunder the treasury, and set Rome on fire.
This conspiracy was timely discovered and frustrated. A second plot (in 63), was detected
by the consul Cicero, whom he had resolved to murder. Catiline's daring appearance in the
senate-house, after his guilt was known, drew forth Cicero's celebrated invective, "Quousque
tandem, Catilina !" on Nov. 8. On seeing five of his accomplices arrested, Catiline retired
to Gaul where his partisans were assembling an army. Cicero punished the conspirators at
home, and Petreius routed Catiline's ill-disciplined forces ; the conspirator being killed in
the engagement, December, 62 B.C.
CATO, Suicide of, termed the "era destructive of the liberties of Rome." This Roman
philosopher, considering freedom as that which aloue "sustains the name and dignity of man,"
and unable to survive the independence of his country, stabbed himself at Utica, 46 B.C.
CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY, a gang of desperate politicians, formed by Arthur
Thistlcwood, which assembled in Cato-strcet, Edgware-road, proposed the assassination of
the ministers of the crown, at a cabinet dinner, and the overthrow of the government. They
were betrayed by one of their number, and arrested Feb. 23, 1S20, and the principals,
Thistlcwood, Brunt, Davidson, Ings, and Tidd, were executed with the horrors adjudged to
the punishment of traitors, on May 1, following.
CATTLE. The importation of horned cattle from Ireland and Scotland into England
was prohibited by a law, 1663 ; but the export of cattle from Ireland became very extensive.
In 1842 the importation of cattle into England from foreign countries was subjected to a
moderate duty, and in 1846 they were made duty free.— In 1850, were imported of all sorts
of cattle, 217,247 ; in 1854, 397,430 ; in 1859, 347,341 ; in 1864, 727,977. In 1849, 53,480
honied cattle were imported; in 1863, 150,898; in 1864, 496,243 from all countries. I11
April, 1857, great disease arose among cattle abroad, but by great care it was almost excluded
from this country. The cattle-plague now raging iu England (Sept., 1865) appeared in
June. The nature and origin of the disease caused much dispute. It is generally considered
to be a typhoid fever, and of foreign origin. Active preventive and remedial measures have
been adopted, under the authority of the privy council. The importation of cattle from
England into Ireland was prohibited Aug. 25, 1865. See Metropolitan Cattle-market and
Smilhficld.
CAUCASUS, a lofty mountain, a continuation of the ridge of Mount Taurus, between the
Euxine and Caspian seas. Prometheus was said to have been tied on the top of Caucasus by
Jupiter and continually devoured by vultures, (according to ancient authors, 1548 B.C.). The
passes near the mountain were called Caucasia Porta:., and it is supposed that through them
the Sarmatians or Huns invaded the provinces of Rome, A.n. 447. See Circassia.
CAUDINE FORKS, according to Livy, the Furculcc Caudince (in Samnium, S. Italy),
were two uarrow deliles or gorges, united by a range of mountains ou each side. The
Romans went through the first pass, but found the second blocked up ; on returning they
found the hrst similarly obstructed. Being thus hemmed in by the Samnites, under the
command of C. Pontius, they surrendered at discretion, 321 B.C. (altera fruitless contest,
according to Cicero). Tho Roman senate broke the treaty.
CAU 159 CEL
CAULIFLOWER, said to have been first planted in England about 1603 ; it came from
Cyprus.
CAUSTIC in Painting, a method of burning colours into wood or ivory, invented by
Gausias of Sicyon. He painted his mistress Glycere sitting on the ground making garlands
with flowers ; the picture was hence named Stephanoplocon. It was bought by Lucullus for
two talents, 335 B.C. Pliny.
CAUTIONARY TOWNS (Holland), (the Briel, Flushing, Rammekins, and Walcheren),
were given to queen Elizabeth in 1585 as security for their repaying her for assistance in
their struggle with Spain. They were restored to the Dutch republic by James I. in 1616.
CAVALIER. The appellation given to the supporters of the king during the civil war,
from a number of gentlemen forming themselves into a body-guard for the king in 1641.
They were opposed to the Roundheads, or friends of the parliament. Hume.
CAVALRY. The Romans were celebrated for the discipline and efficiency of their
cavalry. Attached to each Roman legion was a body of 300 horse, in ten turmse ; the com
mander always a veteran. The Persians had 10,000 horse at Marathon, 490B.C. ; and 10,000
Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 B.C. Plutarch. In the wars with
Napoleon I. the Britisli cavalry reached to 31,000 men. Our cavalry force, in 1S40, was,
in household troops, 1209; dragoons, hussars and lancers, 9524; total, 10,733. ^u '856
the total was stated to be 21,651 ; in 1861, 23,210. See Horse Guards, <tr.
CAVENDISH EXPERIMENT. In 1798 the hon. Henry Cavendish described his
experiment for determining the mean density of tile earth, by comparing the force of terres
trial attraction with that of the attraction of leaden spheres of known magnitude and
density, by means of the torsion balance. Brando.
CAWNPORE, a town in India, on the Doab, a peninsula between the Ganges and
Jumna. During the mutiny in 1857 it was garrisoned by native troops under sir Hu"h
Wheeler. These broke out into revolt. An adopted son of the old Peishwa Bajee Rao,
Nana Sahib, who had long lived on friendly terms with the British, came apparently to their
assistance, but joined the rebels. He took the place after three weeks' siege, June 26 ■ and
in spite of a treaty massacred great numbers of the British, without respect to age or sex, in
the most cruel manner. General Havelock defeated Nana Sahib, July 16, at Ftittehporo,
and retook Cawnpore, July 17. A column was erected here, in memory of the sufferers, by
their relatives of tho 32nd regiment. In Dec. 1860, Nana was said to be living at Thibet ;
and in Dec. 1861 was incorrectly said to have been captured at Kurraehee. See India, 1857.
CAYENNE, French Guiana (S. America), settled by the French 1604-35. It afterwards
came successively into the hands of the English (1654), French, and Dutch. The last were
expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, Jan. 12, 1809, but was
restored to the French in 1 814. Here is produced tho capsicum, baccatum, or cayenne pepper.
Many French political prisoners have been sent here since 1848.
CECILIAN SOCIETY. See under Music.
CEDAR TREE. The red cedar (Juniperus Virginiana) came from North America
before 1664 ; the Bermudas cedar from Bermudas before 1683 ; the cedar of Lebanon (Pinus
Crdrus) from the Levant before 1683. In 1850 a grove of venerable cedars, about 40 f'eot
high, remained on Lebanon. The cedar of Goa (Cuprcssus Lusitanica) was brought to
Europe by the Portuguese about 1683. See Cypress.
CELERY is said to have been introduced into England by tho French marshal, Tallard,
during his captivity in England, after his defeat at Blenheim by Marlborough in 1704.
CELESTIAL GLOBE. See Globes.
CELIBACY (from mils, unmarried), was preached by St. Anthony in E?ypt about
305. His early converts lived in eaves, &c., till monasteries were founded. The doctrine
was rejected in the council of Nice, 325. Celibacy was en joined to, bishops only in 692.
The Romish clergy generally were compelled to a vow of celibacy by pope Gregory VII. in
1073-85. The decree was opposed in England, 958-978. Its observance was finally estab
lished by the council of Placentia, held in 1095. The privilege of marriage was restored to
tho English clergy in 1547. The marriage of the clergy was proposed, but negatived at the
council of Trent (1563).
CEL 160
CELL THEORY (propounded by Schwann in 1839) supposes that the ultimate particles
of all animal and vegetable tissues are small cells. Some of the lowest forms of animal and
vegetable life are said to be composed of merely a single cell, as the germiual vesicle iu
the egg and the red-snow plant.
CELTIBERI. See Numantinc War. CELTS, a group of the Aryan family. See Gauls.
CEMETERIES. The burying-placcs of the Greeks and Romans were at a distance from
their towns; and the Jews had their sepulchres in gardens and in fields. (John xix. 41 ;
Matthew xxvii. 60.) Public cemeteries planted after the manner of the great cemetery at
Paris, named Perc La Chaise* have been opened in all parts of the kingdom. See Catactmibs.
Kensal-green cemetery, 53 acres ; consecrated Nunhead cemetery, about 50 acres ; conse-
Nov. 2, 1832 crated July 29, 1840
South Metropolitan and Norwood cemetery; 40 City of London and Tower Hamlets cemetery,
acres; consecrated . . Dec. 6, 1837 | 30 acres ; consecrated 1841
Highgatcand Kentish-town ccinetery,22 acres; London Necropolis and National Mausoleum,
opened and consecrated . . May 20, 1839 at Woking, Surrey, 2000 acres ; the compauy
Abncy Pnrk cemetery, Stoke Nowington, 30 incorporated in July 1852 : opened . Jan. 1855
acres ; opened by the lord mayor . May 20, 1840 City of London cemetery, llford ; opened
Westminster, or West Loudon cemetery, Ken- I June 24, iS^f*
Bington-road ; consecrated . June 15, 1840
CENIS, Mount. See under Alps.
CENSORS, Roman magistrates, whose duty was to survey, rate, and correct the manners
of the people. The two first censors were appointed 443 B.C. Plebeian censors were first
appointed 131 B.C. The office, abolished by the emperors, was revived by Decius, 251 a.d.
See Press.
CENSUS. The Israelites were numbered by Moses, 1490 B.C. ; and by David, 1017 B.C. :
and Demetrius Thalereua is said to have taken a census of Attica, 317 B.C. In the Romnn
polity, a general estimate of every man's estate and personal effects, delivered to the govern
ment upon oath every five years ; established by Senilis Tullius, 566 B.C. In England the
census, formerly not periodical, is now taken at decennial periods, of which the latest were
in 1801, 181 1, 1821, 1831, 1841, 1851 and 1861 (April 7). For the latest census taken in
other countries, see Table, p. viii., after the preface.
CENTRAL AMERICA. See America. A large American steamer of this name was
wrecked during a gale in the gulf of Mexico, Sept. 12, 1857. Of about 550 persons onlv
152 were taved : several of these after drifting orr rafts above 600 miles. The loss of about
24 million dollars in specie aggravated the commercial panic at New York shortly after.
The captain and crew behaved heroically.
CENTRAL CRIMINAL COURT, established in 1834. Commissions are issued to the
fifteen judges of England (of whom three attend in rotation at the Old Bailey) for the
periodical delivery of the gaol of Newgate, and the trial of offences of greater degree,
committed in Middlesex and parts of Essex, Kent, and Surrey ; the new district is considered
as one county.
CENTUUION, the captain, head, or commander of a subdivision of a Roman legion
which consisted of 100 men, and was called a anturia. By the Roman census each hundred
of the people was called a centuria, 556 B.C.
CENTURY. The Greeks computed time by the Olympiads, beginning 776 B.C., and the
Roman chinch, by Indictions, the first of which began Sept. 24, A.i). 312. The method of
computing time by centuries commenced from the incarnation of Christ, and was adopted in
chronological history first in France. JJvpin.
CEPH ALONIA, one of the Ionian islands, was taken from the iEtolians by the Romans,
189 B.C., and given to the Athenians by Hadrian, A.D. 135. See Ionian Isles.
CEPHESUS, a river in Attica, near which Walter dc Brienne, duke of Athens, was
defeated and slain by the Catalans, 131 1.
CERBERE, French brig, mounted nine large guns, had a crew of eighty-seven men, and
was lying at Port Louis. The harbour was entered in a ten-oared cutter manned with onlv
eightcen men, commanded by lieut. Paddon, who cut out and made good their prize, July
29, 1800.
* rfcrc La Chaise was the favourite end ccnfessor'of Louis XIV. who made him superior of a erea*
establishment of the Jesuits on this spot, then named Mint Louis. The house nnd grounds were lougUt
for a national cemetery, which whs laid out by M. Brongniart, and first used on May 21, 1804.
CER 161 CHA
CEREMONIES, Master of the, an office instituted for the more honourable reception
of ambassadors and persons of quality at court, I James I. 1603. The order maintained
by the master of the ceremonies at Bath, "Beau Nash," the "King of Bath," led to the
adoption of the office in ordinary assemblies : he died in his 88th year, 1761. Ashe.
CERES, a planet, 160 miles in diameter, was discovered by M. Piazzi, at Palermo, Jan. 1,
1 801 ; he named it after the goddess highly esteemed by the ancient Sicilians.
CERES UOLA (N. Italy). Here Francis de Bourbon, count d'Enghien, defeated the
imperialists under the marquis de Guasto, April 14, 1544.
CERIGNOLA (S. Italy). Here the great captain Gonsalvo de Cordova and the Spaniards
defeated the due de Nemours and the French, April 28, 1503.
CERINTHIANS, followers of Cerinthus, a Jew, who lived about £0, are said to have
combined Judaism with pagan philosophy.
CERIUM, a very rare metal, discovered by Klaproth and others in 1803.
CEUTA (the ancient Septa), a town on N. coast of Africa, stands on the site of the ancient
Abyla, the southern pillar of Hercules. It was taken from the Vandals by Belisarius for
Justinian 534 ; by the Goths 618; by the Moors (about 709), from whom it was taken by
the Portuguese 1415. With Portugal, it was annexed iu 1580 to Spain, which power still
retains it.
CEYLON (the ancient Taprobane), an island in the Indian Ocean, called by the natives
the seat of paradise. It was discovered by the Portuguese Almeyda, 1505 ; but it was known
to the Romans iu the time of Claudius, 41. The Dutch landed in Ceylon in 1602; they
captured the capital, Colombo, in 1603. Frequent conflicts ensued between the Candians
and the Europeans, and peaceful commercial relations were established only in 1664. Inter
course with the British began in 17 13. A large portion of the country was taken by them
in 1782, but was restored in 1783. The Dutch settlements were seized by the British;
Trincomalee, Aug. 26, 1795, and Jeffnapatam, in Sept. same year. Ceylon was ceded to
Great Britain by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The British troops were treacherously
massacred or imprisoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The com
plete sovereignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815. The governor, lord Tor-
rington, was absolved from a charge of undue severity iu suppressing a rebellion, May 1851.
The prosperity of Ceylon greatly increased under the administration of sir H. Ward,
1855-60. Sir J. E. Tennent's work, "Ceylon," appeared in 1859.
CHjERONEA (Bceotia). Here Greece lost its liberty to Philip ; 32,000 Macedonians
defeating 30,000 Thebans, Athenians, &c, Aug. 6 or 7, 338 B.C. Here Archelaus, lieutenant
of Mithridates, was defeated by Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians were slain, 86 B.C. See
Coronea.
CHAIN-BRIDGES. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the world is said to be that
at Kingtung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from the top of one mountain to the
top of another. Mr. Telford constructed the first chain-bridge on a grand scale in England,
over the strait between Anglesey and the coast of Wales, 1818-25. See Menai Straits.
CHAIN-CABLES, Pumps, and Shot. Iron chain-cables were in use by the Veneti, a
people intimately connected with the Belgce of Britain in the time of Caesar, 55 B.C. These
cables came into modem use, and generally iu the royal navy of England, in 1812. An Act
for the proving and sale of chain-cables and anchors was passed in 1864.—Chain-shot, to
destroy the rigging of an enemy's ship, were invented by the Dutch admiral, De Witt, iu
1666.—Chain-Pumps were first used on board the Flora, British frigate, in 1787.
CHAINS, Hanging in. By the 25th Geo. II. 1752, it was enacted that the judge should
direct the bodies of pirates and murderers to be dissected and anatomised, or hung in chains.
The custom of hanging iu chains was abolished in 1834.
CHALCEDON, Asia Minor, opposite Byzantium, colonised by Megarians, about 684 B.C.
It was taken by Darius, B.C. 505 ; by the Romans, 74 ; plundered by the Goths, A.D. 259 ;
" Synod of the Oak," 403 ; and the fourth general council, which annulled the act of the
. "Robber Synod," Oct. 8, 451.
CHALCIS. See Eubosa.
M
CHA VV2 CHA
CHALDJ5A, the ancient name of Babylonia, bnt afterwards restricted to the S. W. portion.
Tlie Chaldaians were devoted to astronomy and astrology. See Dan. ii. &c. —The Chaldean
Registers of celestial observations were commenced 2234 B.C., and were brought down to the
taking of Babylon by Alexander, 331 B.C. (a period of 1903 years). These registers were
sent by Callisthenes to Aristotle.—Challlean Chaiiacters : the Bible was transcribed from
the original Hebrew into these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra, about 445 B.C.
CHALGROVE (Oxfordshire). At a skirmish here with prince Rupert, June 18, 1643,
John Hampden, of the parliament party, was mortally wounded. A column was erected to
his memory June 18, 1843.
CHALONS-SUE-MARNE (N. E. France). Here the emperor Aurclian defeated Tetricus,
the last of the pretenders to the throne, termed the Thirty Tvrants, 274; and here in 451
Aetius defeated Attila the Hun, compelling him to retire into Pannonia.
CHAMBERLAIN, early a high court officer in France, Germany, and England. The office
of chamberlain of the exchequer was discontinued in 1834. The chamberlain is also a civic
officer, as in London, of ancient origin.
Lord Great Chamberlain of England.—Tho under the degreo of a knight, who, if his majesty
sixth great officer of state, whose duties, among approved of him, might officiate accordingly. Beat-
others, relate to coronations and public solemnities. ton. The office is now held by the present lord Wil
The rank long appertained to the family of De Vere, loughby d'Eresby (1S65).
carls of Oxford, granted to it by Henry I. in 1101. Lord Chamberlain of the Household. — An
On tho death of John De Vere, the sixteenth earl, ancient office. The titlo is from the French Cham-
Mary, his sole daughter, marrying lord Willoughby l*tl<w, in Latin Camerariut. He has the oversight
d'Eresby, the right was established in that noble of tho king's chaplains, tho officers of the standing
man's family by a judgment of the house of peers, and removing wardrobes, beds, tents, revels, music,
2 Charles I. 1625. On the death of his descendant, hunting, and of all the physicians, surgeons, apo
unmarried, in July 1779, the house of lords and thecaries, messengers, tradesmen, and artisans re
twelve judges concurred that tho office devolved to tained in his majesty's service. Sir William Stanley,
lady Willoughby d'Eresby, and her sister the lady knt., afterwards beheaded, was lord chamberlain,
Georgina Charlotta Bertie, as heirs to their brother 1 Henry VII. 1485. A vice-chaniberlain acts in the
Robert, duke of Aucastcr, deceased ; and that they absence of the chief ; the offices arc co-existent.
had jxjwcrs to appoint a deputy to act for them, not Beatson.
CHAMBERS. See Commerce, Agriculture.
CHAMBERS' JOURNAL was first published in Feb., 1832.
CHAMBRE ARDENTE (fiery chamber), an extraordinary French tribunal so named
from the punishment frequently awarded by it. Francis I. in 1535 and Henry II. in 1549
employed it for the extirpation of heresy, which led to the civil war with the Huguenots in
1560 ; and in 1679 Louis XIV. appointed one to investigate the poisoning cases which arose
alter the execution of the marchioness Brinvilliers.
CHAMP DE MARS,* an open square in front of the Military School at Paris, with
artificial embankments on each side, extending nearly to the river Seine. Here was held,
July 14, 1790, the " ftSde"ration, " or solemnity of swearing fidelity to the "patriot king"
and new constitution : great rejoicings followed, public balls were given by the municipality
in the Champs Elysics, and Paris was illuminated. On July 14, 1791, a second great meeting
was held here, directed by the Jacobin clubs, to sign petitions on the " altar of the country,"
praying for the abdication of Louis XVI. A commemoration meeting took place July 14,
1792. Another constitution was sworn to here, under the eye of Napoleon I., May I, 1815,
at a ceremony called the Champ de Mai. The prince president (now Napoleon 111.) had a
grand review in the Champ de Mars, and distributed eagles to the army, May 10, 1852.
CHAMPAGNE, an ancient province, N.E. France, formed part of the kingdom of
Burgundy, and was governed by counts from the 10th century till it was united to Navarre,
count Thibaut becoming king, in 1234. The countess Joanna married Philip V. of France
in 1284 ; and in 1361 Champagne was annexed by their descendant king John.
CHAMPION of the King of England, an ancient office, which since 1377 has been
attached to the manor of Scrivelsby, held by the Marmion family. Their descendant, sir
Henry Dymoke, the seventeenth of his family who has held the office, died Apr. 28, 1865,
and was succeeded by his brother John. At the coronation of the English kings, tho
champion used to challenge any one that should deny their title.
CHAMPLAIN. See Lake Champlain.
* The ancient assemblies of the Frankish people, the germ of parliaments, held annually in March, •
received this name. In 747, Fepin changed the month to May.
J
CIIA 1(33 CHA
CHANCELLOR OF ENGLAND, Lord High, ranks after the princes of the blood royal
as the first lay subject. Anciently the office was conferred upon some dignified ecclesiastic
termed cancellarius, or doorkeeper, who admitted suitors to the sovereign's presence. Arfastus
or Herefast, chaplain to the king (William the Conqueror) and bishop of Elmham, was lord
chancelloi in 1067. Hardy. Thomas a Becket was made chancellor in 1154. The first
Serson qualified by education, to decide causes upon his own judgment, was sir Thomas
lore, appointed in 1529, before, which time the office was more that of a high state func
tionary than the president of a court of justice. Sir Christopher Hatton, appointed lord
chancellor in 1587, was very ignorant, on which account the first reference was made to a
master in 158S. In England, the great seal has been frequently put in commission; in
1813 the office of Vice- Chancellor was established.* See Keeper, and Vicc-C!ianccUor.
LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND.
1487. John Morcton, archbishop of Canterbury. 1710. In commission.
1504. William Warham, aft. archbshp. of Canterbury. „ Sir Simon Harcourt, cr. lord Harcourt, keeper.
I5I5- Thomas Wolsey, cardinal and abp. of York. 1713. Simon, lord Harcourt, lord chancellor.
15*9- Sir Thomas More. 1714. William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor.
Sir Thomas Audley, keeper. 1718. In commission.
1533- Sir Thomas Audley, chancellor, aft. Id. Audley. „ Thomas, lord Parker, lord chancellor ; after
1544- Thomas, lord Wriothesley. wards carl of Macclesfield.
J547- William, lord St. John, keeper. 1725. In commission.
Richard, lord Rich, lord chancellor. ,, Sir Peter King, cr. lord King, chancellor.
X55I. Thomas Goodrich, bishop of Ely, keeper. I 1733. Charles Talbot, created lord Talbot, chancellor.
I552- The same ; now lord chancellor. 1737. Philip Yorke, lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor.
1553- Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. 1756. In commission.
*556. Nicholas Heath, archbishop of York. 1757. Sir Robort Henley, afterwards lord Henley,
1558. Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper. Itist lord keeper.
1570. Sir Thomas Bromley, lord chancellor. 1761. Lord Henley, lord chancellor, afterwards earl
1587- Sir Christopher Hatton. of Northington.
1591- The great seal in commission. 1766. Charles, lord Camden, lord chancellor.
1592. Sir John Puckering, lord keeper. 1770. non. Charles Yorke, lord chancellor.
1596. Sir Thomas Egerton, lord keeper. [Created lord Mordan ; died within three days,
1603. Sir Thomas Egerton, now lord Ellcstncre, lord and before tho seals were put to his patent of
chancellor. peerage. ]
1617. Kir Francis Bacon, lord keeper. 1770. In commission.
1618. SirFrancisBacon,cr.lordVerulam,ld.chancellor. 1771. Hon. Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley ; succecdod
162J. The great seal in commission. as carl Bathurst.
1635. John, bishop of Liucoln, lord keeper. 1778. Edward Thurlow, created lord Thurlow.
Sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards lord Coven 17S3. Alexander, lord Loughborough, and others,
try, lord keeper. commissioners.
1640. Sir John Finch, afterwards lord Finch. ,, Edward, lord Thurlow, again.
1641. Sir Edward Lyttelton, afterwards lord Lyttel- 1792. In commission.
ton, lord keeper. 1793. Alexander Wedderburne, lord Loughborough,
1643. The great seal in the hands of commissioners. lord chancellor.
i*545- Sir Richard Lane, royiil keeper. 1801. John Scott, lord Eldon.
1646. In the hands of commissioners. 1806. Hon. Thomas Erskine, created lord Erskino.
1649- In commission for the commonwealth. 1807. John, lord Eldon, again.
Sir Edward Herbert, king's lord kecj>or. 1827. John Singleton Copley,created lord Lyndhurst.
1654- In commission during the remainder of the 1830. Henry Brougham, created lord Brougham.
commonwealth. 1S34. Lord Lyndhurst, again.
1660. Sir Edward Hyde, lord chancellor, afterwards 1835. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, master of the
created lord Hyde, and earl of Clarendon. rolls, vice-chancellor Shadwell, and Mr.
1667. Sir Orlando Bridgman, lord keeper. justice Rosauquet, C. P., commissioners.
1672. Anthony Ashley, carl of Shaftesbury, lord 1836. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, created lord
chancellor. Cottenham, lord chancellor. Jan. 16.
1673. Sir Hencage Finch, lord keeper. 1841. Lord Lyndhurst, a third time. Sept. 3.
1675- Hencage, now lord Finch, lord chancellor, 1846. Lord Cottenham, again lord chancellor. July 6.
afterwards earl of Nottingham. [His lordship on signifying his intention to
1682. Sir Francis North.cr. lord Guilford, Id. keeper. retire, June 19, 1850, was created earl of
1685. Francis, lord Guilford; succeeded by Cottenham.]
George, lord Jeffreys, lord chancellor. 1850. Lord Langdalo, master of the rolls, Sir Laun-
1689. In commission. celot Shadwell, vice-chancellor of England,
1690. Sir John Trevor, knt., sir William Rawlinson, and sir Robert Mousey Rolfe, B.E., commis
knt., and sir George Hutchins, knt, commis sioners of the great seal. June 19.
sioners or keepers. Sir Thomas Wilde, lord Truro. July 15.
Sir John Somers, lord keeper. 1852. Sir Edward Sugden, lord St. Leonards. Feb. 27.
1697. Sir John Somers, cr. lord Soincrs, chancellor. 1858. Robt. Monsey Rolfe, lord Cranworth. Dec. 28.
1700. Lord chief justice Holt, sir George Treby, chief 1859. Sir Frederic Thcsiger.lordChelmsford. Feb. 26.
John, lord Campbell, June 18 ; died Juno 23,
justice C. P., and chief baron sir Edward
Ward, lord keepers. 1861.
Sir Nathan Wright, lord keeper. 1861. Richard Bethell, lord Westbury, Juno 2G.
1705- Right hon. William Cowper, lord keeper, after 1865. Thomas, Resigned July 4, 1S65.
wards lord Cowper. lord Cranworth, again. July 6.
1707. "William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor.
* In 1863 was passed the Lord Chancellor's Augmentation Act. It enabled him to sell tho advowson
of certain livings in his gift for the augmentation of poor benefices.
M 2
CHA 164 CHA
CHANCELLOR OF IRELAND, Lord High. The earliest nomination was by Richard I.,
1 1 89, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this rank. The office of vice-chancellor was
known in Ireland in 1232, Geoffrey Turvillo, archdeacon of Dublin, being so named.
LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS OF IRELAND.
the Revolution.
PaterU. PataU.
1690. Dec. 29. Sir Charles Porter. 1789. June 20. John, baron Fitzgibbon, afterwards
1697. Jan. 13. Sir John Jeffreyson, Thomas Coote, earl of Clare ; died Jan. 28, 1802.
and Ncherniab Donellan, lords keepers. 1802. March 15. John, baron Redesdale ; resigned
,, March n. J. Mcthuen. Feb. 1806.
„ Dec. 91. Edward, earl of Meath, Francis, earl 1 806. Mar. 25. George Ponsonby ; resigned Ap. 1807.
of Longford, and Murrough, viscount Bles- 1807. May. Thomas, lord Manners, previously an
sington, lcrd keepers. English baron of tho exchequer ; resigned
1702. Aug. 26. Lord Methuen, lord chancellor. Nov. 1827.
1705. Aug. 6. Sir lliehd Cox, bart. ; resigned in 1707. 1827. Nov. 5. Sir Anthony Hart, previously vice-
1707. June. Rtchard Freeman. chancellor of England ; resigned Nov. 1830,
1710. Nov. 28. Robert, earl of Kildaro, archbishop 1830. Dec. 23. William, baron Plunket ; resigned
(Hoadley) of Dublin, and Thomas Koightley, Nov. 1834.
commissioners. 1835. Jan. 13. Sir Edward Burtenshaw Hug-den,
1 71 1. Jan. 22. Sir Constantino Phipps; resigned resigned April 1835.
Sept. 1714. It April 30. William, baron Plunket, a second
1714. Oct. n. Alan Brodrick, afterwards viscount time; resigned June, 1841.
Middloton ; resigned May, 1725. 1841. June. John, baron Campbell ; resigned Sept.
1725. June.* Kit-hard West. 1841.
1726. Dec. 21. Thomas Wyndham, afterwards lord „ Oct. Sir Edward Sugdcn, afterwards lard St.
Wyndham of Finglas. Leonards, a second time; resigned July, 1S46.
1739. Sept. 7 Robert Jocelyn, afterwardslord New 1846. July 16. Maziere Brady ; resigned Fob. 1852.
port and visct. Jocelyn ; diod Oct. 25, 1756. 1852. March. Francis Blackburn ; resigned Dec
1757. March 22. John Bowes, afterwards lord Bowes 1853. ^an- Maziere Brady, again.
of Clonlyon ; died 1767. 1858. Feb. Joseph Napier.
1763. Jan 9. James Hewitt, afterwards viscount 1859. June. Maziere Brady, again. The
Lifford ; died April 28, 1789. lord chancellor of Ireland (1865).
CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND, Lord. In tho laws of Malcolm II., who reigned
1004, this officer is thus mentioned -.—"The chancellar sail at al tymes assist the king in
giving him counsall mair secretly nor the rest of the nobility. . . The chancellar sail be
ludgit rteir unto the kingis Grace, for keiping of his bodie, and the seill, and that he may be
readie, baith day and nicht, at the kingis command." Sir James Balfour. Evan was lord
chancellor to Malcolm III., surnamed Canmore, in 1057 ; and James, earl of Scafield, after
wards Findlater, was the last lord chancellor of Scotland, the office having been abolished in
1708, after the union. See Keeper t Lord.
CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER. See Exchequer.
CHANCELLORSVILLE, Virginia, U. S., a large brick hotel, once kept by a Mr.
Chancellor, was the site of severe sanguinary conflicts, on May 2, 3, and 4, 1863, between
the American federal army of the Potomac under general Hooker, and the confederates
under general Lee. On Apr. 28, the federal army crossed the Rappahannock ; on May 2,
general "Stonewall" Jackson furiously attacked and routed the right wing, but was
unfortunately mortally wounded by his own party firing on him by mistake. Gen. Stuart
took his command, and after a severe conflict on May 3 and 4, with great loss to both
parties, the federals were compelled once more to retreat across the Rappahannock. The
struggle has been compared to that at Hougomont during tho battle of Waterloo. Jackson
died May 9.
CHANCERY, Cotjrt of. According to some, instituted as early as 605, to others, by
Alfred, in 887 ; settled upon a better footing by William I., in 1067 (Stow) or 1070. This
court had its origin in the desire to render justice complete, and to moderate the rigour of
other courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. It gives relief to or against
iufants, notwithstanding their minority : and to or against married women, notwithstanding
their coverture ; and all frauds, deceits, breaches of trust and confidence, for which there is
no redress at common law, are relievable here, blockstone. See Chancellors of England.
The delays in chancery proceedings having long given dissatisfaction, the subject was brought
before parliament in 1825, and frequently since ; which led to the passing of important acts
in 1852, 1853, and 1855, to amend the practice in the court of chancery. See County Courts.
CHANDOS CLAUSE. See Counties.
CHANTING the psalms was adopted by Ambrose from the pagan ceremonies of the
Romans, about 350. Lenglct. About 602, Gregory the Great addea tones to the Ambrosian
chant, and established singing schools. Chanting was adopted by some dissenters about 1859.
CHA 105 CHA
CHANTRY, a chapel endowed with revenue for priests to sing mass for the souls of tho
donors. See Chanting. Chantries were abolished in England in 1545.
CHAPEL. There are free chapels, chapels of ease, the chapel royal, &c. Covxl. Tho
gentlemen pensioners (formerly poor knights of Windsor, who were instituted by the direc
tion of Henry VIII. in his testament, 1546-7) were called knights of tho chapel. See Poor
Knights of Windsor.—The place of conference among printers, and the conference itself, are
by them called a chapel, it is said because the first work printed in England by Caxton was
executed in a ruined chapel in Westmiuster-abbey.
CHAPLAIN, a clergyman who performs divine service in a chapel, or who is retained by
a prince or nobleman. About seventy chaplains are attached to tho chapel royal. The chief
personages invested with the privilege of retaining chaplains are the following, with tho
number that was originally allotted to each rank, by 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13 (1529) :—
Archbishop . . .8 Earl . . . .5 Knight of the Garter . 3 Baroness . .2
Duke . . . 6 Viscount . . . . 4 Duchess . . .2 Master of the Rolls . 2
Bishop . . . .6 Baron . . . .3 Marchioness . . . 2 Almoner . . . . a
Marquess . . . 5 Chancellor . . . 3 Countess . .2 Chief Justice . . x
CHAPLETS, the string of beads used by tho Eoman Catholics in reciting the Lord's
prayer, Ave Maria, &c. See Beads.
CHAPTER, Anciently the bishop and clergy lived in the cathedral, the latter to assist
the former in performing holy offices and governing the church, until the reign of Henry VIII.
The chapter is now an assembly of tho clergy of a collegiate church or cathedral. Cowel,
The chapter-house of Westminster-abbey was built in 1250. By consent of the abbot, tho
commoners of England held their parliaments there from 1377 until 1547, when Edward VI.
granted them the chapel of St. Stephen.
CHARCOAL AIR-FILTERS were devised by Dr. John Stenhouse, F.R.S., in 1853.
About the end of the last century Lowitz, a German chemist, discovered that charcoal
(carbon) possessed the property of deodorising putrid substances, by absorbing effluvia and
gases. Air-filters, based on this property, have been successfully applied to public build
ings, &c. Dr. Stenhouse also invented charcoal respirators.
CHARING CROSS, so called from one of the crosses which Edward I. erected to the
memory of his queen Eleanor, who died 1291 ; Charing being the name of the village in which
it was built. Some contend that it derived its name from being the resting-place of the chin
reync, dear queen. It was yet a small village in 1353, and the cross remained till the civil
wars in the reign of Charles I., when it was destroyed as a monument of popish superstition.
A new cross was erected by the South Eastern Railway Company in 1865.—Charing-cross
was built about 1678, nearly as it appeared before the new buildings were commenced in
1829. The first stone of Charing-cross hospital was laid by the duke of Sussex, Sept. 15,
1831. Hungerford-bridge (or Charing-cross bridge) was opened May 1, 1845; taken down
July, 1862, and the materials employed in erecting Clifton suspension bridge, beginning
March, 1863. See Clifton. The Charixo-Cross Railway. The first train passed over it
Dec. 2, 1863, and it was opened to the public on Jan. II, 1864. The new Hungerfoid rail
way bridge is built of iron with brick piers. It was constructed by Mr. Hawkshaw.
CHARIOTS. Chariot racing was one of the exercises of Greece. The chariot of the
Ethiopian officer (Acts viii. 27), is supposed to have been in the form of our chaise with four
wheels. Ccesar relates that Cassibelaunus, after dismissing all his other forces, retained no
fewer than 4000 war-chariots about his person. See Carriages, Coaches, &c.
CHARITABLE BEQUESTS, &c. Boards for their recovery were constituted in 1764
and 1800, and a board for Ireland (chiefly prelates of the established church), in 1825. Tho
Roman Catholic Charitable Bequests act passed in 1844, and an act for the better adminis
tration of Charitable Trusts in 1853, when commissioners wero appointed, who have from
time to time published voluminous reports. The law relating to the conveyance of land for
Charitable Uses was amended in 1861.
CHARITABLE BRETHREN, an order founded by St. John of God, and approved by
pope Pius V. 1572 ; introduced into France, 1601 ; settled at Paris, 1602. Henault.
CHARITIES and Charity Schools are very numerous in this country. The Charity
Commission reported to parliament that the endowed charities alone of Great Britain
amounted to 1,500,000?. annually, in 1840. Pari. Rep. Charity schools were instituted in
London to prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James
CHA CHA
II., 1687. Rupin. See Education. Mr. Low's " Charities of Loudon " (2nd edition) was
published 1862.
CHAULEROI, in Belgium. Great battles have been fought near this town in several
wars ; the principal in 1690 and 1794. See Pleurus. Charleroi was besieged by the prince
of Orange in 1672, and was again invested by the same prince with 60,000 men, in 1677 ;
but he was soon obliged to retire. Near here, at Liguy, Napoleon attacked the Prussian
line, making it fall back upon Wavres, June 16, 1815.
CHARLES-ET-GEORGKS. Two French vessels of this name, professedly conveying free
African emigrants (but really slaves), were seized by the Portuguese, in Conducia Bay,
Nov. 29, 1857, sent to Lisbon, and condemned as slavers. They were demanded haughtily
by the French government, who, on the hesitation of the Portuguese, sent two ships of war
to the Tagus. The captured vessels were then surrendered under protest. The conduct of
the Uritish government (that of Lord Derby), to whom the Portuguese had referred the dis
pute, was considered more prudent than dignified. The emperor of France, however, gave
up the free emigration scheme.
CHARLESTOWN (Massachusetts) was burnt by the British forces under general Gage,
June 17, 1775. Charleston taken by the British, May 7, 1779.
CHARLESTON (South Carolina). The English fleet here was repulsed with great loss,
June 28, 1776. It was besieged by the British troops at the latter end of March, 1 780, and
surrendered May 13 following, with 6000 prisoners ; it was evacuated April 14, 1783. Great
commotion arose here on Nov. i860, through the election of Mr. Lincoln for the presidency,
ho being opposed to slavery. On April 12, 1861, the war began, by the confederates capturing
Fort Sumter. See United Slates, 1863. In Dee. 1861, the federals sank a number of vessels
laden with stone in order to choke up the entrance to Charleston harbour. On Feb. 17, 1865,
the confederates were compelled to retire from Charleston, and the federals replaced their
standard ou Fort Sumter, April 14, the day on which president Lincoln was assassinated.
"CHARTE," the French political constitution acknowledged by Louis XVIII. in 1814.
The infraction of this constitution led to the revolution of 1830. The " Charte " was
sworn to by Louis-Philippe, Aug. 29, 1S30 ; but set aside by the revolution of 184S.
CHARTER-HOUSE (a corruption of Chartreuse, which see), London, formerly a Carthu
sian monastery, founded in 1371 by sir Walter de Manny, one of the knights of Edward III.,
now an extensive charitable establishment. The last prior, John Houghton, was executed
as a traitor, for denying the king's supremacy, in 1535. After the dissolution of monasteries
in 1539, it passed through various hands till Nov. 1, 161 1, when it was sold by the earl of
Suffolk to Mr. Thomas Sutton for 13,000/., who obtained letters patent directing that it
should be called "the hospital of king James, founded in the Charter-house," and that
"there should be for ever 16 governors," &c. On the foundation are 80 poor brothers, and
44 poor scholars. Sutton died Dec. 12, 1611. The expenditure for 1853-4 was 22,396?. ;
the receipts 28,908?.
CHARTER-PARTY, a covenant between merchants and masters of ships relating to the
ship and cargo, is said to have been first used in England about 1243.
CHARTERS granted to corporate towns to protect their manufactures by Henry II. in
1 132 ; called in and modified by Charles II. in 16S2 ; the ancient charters restored in 1698.
Alterations were made by the Municipal Reform Act in 1835. See Magna Charta and
Boroughs.
CHARTISTS, the name assumed by large bodies of the working people, shortly after the
passing of the Reform Bill in 1832, from their demanding the people's Charter, the six
points of which were Universal Suffrage, Vole by Ballot, Annual Parliaments, Payment of
the Members, the Abolition of Die Property Qualification, (which was enacted, Juue, 185S),
and Equal Electoral Districts. In 1838 the Chartists assembled in various parts of the
country, armed with guns, pikes, and other weapons, and carrying torches and lings. They
conducted themselves so tumultously, that a proclamation was issued against them, Dec. 12,
Their petition (agreed to at Birmingham, Aug. 6, 183S) was presented by Mr. T. Attwood,
June 14, 1839. They committed great outrages at Birmingham, July 15, 1839, and at
Newport (which sec), Nov. 4, 1839. They held for some time a sort of parliament called
the " National Convention," the leading men being Fccrgus O'Connor, Henry Vincent, Mr.
Stephens, &c. On April 10, 184S, they proposed to hold a meeting of 200,000 men on
Kennington Common, London, to march thence in procession to Westminster, and present
a petition to parliament ; but only about 20,000 came. The bank and other establishments
CHA 167 CHA
were fortified by military ; and the preventive measures adopted by the government proved
so completely successful, that the rioters dispersed after some slight encounters with the
police. The monster petition, in detached rolls, was sent in cabs to the house of commons,
and not less than 150,000 persons of all ranks (including Louis Napoleon, now emperor)
were voluntarily sworn to act as special constables. From this time the proceedings of the
Chartists became insignificant.
CHARTREUSE, La Grande, famous as the chief of the monasteries of the Carthusian
order, is situated among the rugged mountains near Grenoble, in France. It was founded by
Bruno of Cologne about 1084. At the revolution in 1792, the monks were expelled and
their valuable library destroyed. They returned to the monastery after the restoration in
1814.
CHARTS and MAPS. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical and
celestial charts, about 570 B.C. Modern sea-charts were brought to England by Hartholomew
Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent, 1489. The first
tolerably accurate map of England was drawn by George Lilly, who died in 1559. Gerard
Mercator published an atlas of maps in 1595. See Mcrcalor.
CHASTITY. The Roman laws justified homicide in defence of one's self or relatives ;
and our laws justify a woman for killing a man in defence of her chastity ; and a husband or
a father in taking the life of him who attempts to violate his wife or daughter. In 1000
years from the time of Numa, 710 B.C., to the reign of Theodosius the Great, a.d. 394, only
eighteen Roman vestals had been eoudemned for incontinence. See Vcslals, Acre, and
Coldhujham.
CHATHAM (Kent), a principal station of the royal navy. Its dockyard, commenced by
queen Elizabeth, contains immense naval magazines. The Chatham Chest, for the relief of
wounded and decayed seamen, originally established here by the queen and admirals Drake
and Hawkins, in 15S8, was removed to Greenwich in 1S03. In 1667, on the 10th June, the
Dutch fleet, under admiral De Ruytcr, sailed up to this town and burnt several men-of-war ;
but the entrance into the Medway is now defended by Sheerness and other forts, and
additional fortifications were made at Chatham. On Feb. 8, 1S61, a violent outbreak of the
convicts was suppressed by the military, and many of the rioters severely flogged. About
iooof. worth of property was destroyed, and many persons were seriously hurt.
CHATHAM ADMINISTRATION.* Formed Aug. 1766; terminated Dec. 1767.
Earl of Chatham, first minister and lord priey seal. Sir Charles Saunders (sueceoded by sir Edward
Duke of Grafton, jir*t lord of the treasury. Hawke), admiralty.
Lord Camden, lord chancellor. Marquess of Granby, ordnance.
Charles Townshend, chancellor of the exchequer. Lord Hillsborough,.tfrat lord of trade.
Earl of Northington, lard president. Lord Harrington, secretary at war.
Earl of Sbclburne and general Conway, secrttarie* of Lord North and Sir George Cooke, joint paymasters.
state. Viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy.
Duko of Ancaster, lord lo Despenser, &c.
CHATILLON (on the Seine, France). Here a congress was held by the four great
powers allied against France, at which Caulaincourt attended for Napoleon, Feb. 5, 1814 ;
the negotiations for peace were broken off on March 19, following.
CHAT MOSS (Lancashire), a peat bog twelve miles square, in most places so soft as to
be incapable of supporting a man or horse, over which George Stephenson, the railway
engineer, carried the Liverpool and Manchester railway, after overcoming difficulties con
sidered invincible. The road (literally a floating one) was completed by Jan. 1, 1830, when
the first experimental train, drawn by the.Rocket locomotive, passed over it.
CHATTANOOGA (Tennessee). Near here the federal generals, Sherman and Thomas,
defeated the confederate general Bragg, after storming the entrenchments, Nov. 25, 1863.
The result was very injurious to the confederates. Bragg retreated into Georgia, and Long-
street into Virginia.
CHAUMONT (on the Marne, France), Treaty of, entered into between Great Britain,
Austria, Russia, and i'russia, and signed by these powers respectively, March 1, 1S14. This
* William Pitt, carl of Chatham/called the great commoner), was born Nov. T5, 1708, entered parliament
in 173s; became secretary of state" (but virtually the premier) in the Devonshire administration, Nov.
1756, and secretary in the Newcastle administration, Jan. 1757. In 1766 he became premier, lord privy
seal, and earl of Chatham, which lord Chesterfield called a fall upstairs. He opposed the taxation of the
American colonies, but protested against the recognition of their independence, April 7, 1778, and died
May 1 1 following.
CHE 1G3 CHE
treaty was succeeded by the celebrated treaty of Paris, April II following, by which
Napoleon renounced his sovereignty over France. See Paris.
CHEATS are punishable by pillory (since abolished), imprisonment, and fine, I Hawk.
L.C. 188. A rigorous statute was enacted against them in 1542. Persons cheating at play,
or winning at any time more than 10/. or any valuable thing, wero deemed infamous, and
were to suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 171 1. Blackstone.
CHEESE. It is supposed by Camden and others that the English learned cheese-
making from the Romans about the Christian era. Wilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire make
vast quantities ; the last alone, annually, about 31,000 tons. In 1840 we imported from
abroad about 10,000 tons ; and in 1864, 41,742 tons. The duty on foreign cheese, pro
ducing annually about 50,000?., was taken off in i860.
CHELSEA. On the site of a college founded by James I. in 1609 for theological dispu
tations against popery, but converted by Charles II. in 1682 to its present purpose, stands
C/telsea college, an asylum for wounded and superannuated soldiers.—The erection was
earned on by James II., and completed by William III- in 1690. The real projector was sir
Stephen Fox, grandfather of the orator C. J. Fox. The architect was sir Christopher Wren,
and the cost 150,000?. In 1850 there were 70,000 out- and 539 in-pensioners. —The body of
the duke of Wellington lay here in state, Nov. 10— 17, 1852. —The physic garden of sir
Hans Sloane, at Chelsea, was given to the Apothecaries' company in 1721. The Chelsea
waterworks were incorporated 1722. The first stone of the Military Asylum, Chelsea, was
laid by Frederick, duke of York, June 19, 1801. —The bridge, constructed by Mr. T. Page
to connect Chelsea with Battcrsea-park, was opened in the spring of 1858.
CHELTENHAM (Gloucestershire). Its celebrated mineral spring was discovered in
1718. The kiug's-well was sunk in 1778 ; and other wells by Mr. Thompson in 1806.
Magnesian salt was first found in the waters iu 1811. The theatre was erected in 1804.
CHEMICAL SOCIETIES. One formed in London in 1780, did not long continue.
The present chemical society was established in 1841. The Chemical Society at Paris was
established in 1857.
CHEMISTRY was introduced into Europe by the Spanish Moors, about 11 50 ; they had
learned it from the African Moors, and these from the Egyptians. Iu Egypt they had, in
very early ages, extracted salts from their bases, separated oils, and prepared vinegar and wine ;
and embalming was a kind of chemical process. The Chinese also claim an early acquaint
ance with chemistry. The first chemical students in Europe were the Alchemists (see
Alchemy); but chemistry could not be said to exist as a science till the 17th century ;
during which its study was promoted by the writings of Bacon and the researches of Hooke,
Mayow, and Boyle. In the early part of the 18th century, Dr. Stephen Hales laid the
foundation of Pneumatic Chemistry, and his contemporary Boerhaavo combined the study of
chemistry with medicine. These were succeeded by Black, Bergman, StahL, &c. In 1772,
Priestley published his researches on air, having discovered the gases oxygen, ammonia, 4c. ;
and thus commenced a new era iu the history of chemistry. He was ably seconded by
Lavoisier, Cavendish, Scheele, Chaptal, &c. The 19th century opened with the brilliant
discoveries of Davy, continued by Dalton, Faraday, Thomson, &c. Organic Chemistry has
been very greatly advanced by the labours of Berzelius, Liebig, Dumas, Laurent, Hofmanu,
Cahours, FTankland,* Ac, since 1830. See Pharmacy, Electricity, Galvanism, For the
analytical processes termed "Spectrum analysis," invented by Kirchhoff and Bunscn (1861),
and "Dialysis" (1861), and " Atmolysis" (1863), invented by Mr. T. Graham, see those
articles. The Royal College of Chemistry, Oxford Street, London, was established in 1845.
The publication of Watt's great " Dictionary of Chemistry " began in April, 1863.
CHEQUES. See Drafts.
CHERBOURG, the great naval fortress and arsenal of Fiance on the coast of Brittany,
about 60 or 70 miles equi-distant from Portsmouth and Plymouth. It was captured by our
Henry V. in 1418, and lost in 1450. Under tho direction of Louis XIV., some works were
erected here by the great Vauban, which with some shipping, &c, were destroyed by the
British, Aug. 6, 7, 1758. The works were resumed on a stupendous scale by Louis XVI. ;
* In 1828 Wohlcr succeeded in producing artificially urea, a body hitherto known only as a product of
the animal organism. Since then, acetic acid, alcohol, grape sugar, various essential oils, similar to those
of the pine upplo, pear, garlic, die, have been formed by combinations of the gases, oxygen, hydrogen, and
carbonic acid\ The barrier formed by chemists between organic and inorganic bodies is thus broken down,
though tho names arc Btill retained.
CHE 109 CHI
but their progress was interrupted by the revolution. The breakwater, commenced in 1783,
resumed by Napoleon I. about 1803, and finally completed in 1813, is a magnificent work,
forming a secure harbour, capable of affording anchorage for nearly the whole navy of
France, and protected by strong fortifications, increased by the present emperor. On Aug.
4, S> '858, the railway and the Grand Napoleon docks were opened, the latter in the
presence of the queen of England and court. The British fleet visited Cherbourg, Aug.
15-17, 1865, and the officers and men were treated with much hospitality.
CHERITON DOWN (Hants). Here sir Wm. Waller defeated the royalists under lord
Hopton, May 29, 1644.
CHERRY, the Prunm Cerasus (so called from Cerasus, a city of Pontus, whence the
tree was brought by Lucullus to Rome, about 70 B.C.), was first planted in Britain, it is said,
about 100. Fine kinds were brought from Flanders, in 1 540, and planted in Kent, with
much success.
CHERSON. See Kherson. CHERSONESTJS. See Crimea.
CHESAPEAKE. At the mouth of this river a contest took place between the British
admiral Greaves and the French admiral De Grasse, in the interest of the revolted states of
America; the former was obliged to retire, 178 1. The Chesapeake and Delaware wero
blockaded by the British fleet in the American war of 1812, and the bay was, at that
period, the sceue of great hostilities of various results. —The Chesapeake American frigate,
commanded by capt. Lawrence (50 guns, 376 men), struck to the Shannon British frigate
(49 guns, 330 men), commanded by capt. Philip Vere Broke, after a severe action of eleven
minutes, June I, 1813. Capt. Lawrence, who had invited the contest, died of his wounds.
CHESS, a game invented, according to some authorities, by Palamcdes, 680 n.c. ; and
according to others, in the fifth century of our era. The learned Hyde and sir William Jones
concur in stating that the origin of chess is to be traced to India. The automaton chess
player (a piece of machinery) was exhibited in England in 1 769. * A chess congress was
field at New York in 1857, and an international one in London in June and July, 1862.
CHESTER (England, N. W.), the British Caerleon and the Roman Deva, the station of
the twentieth legion, Valeria Victrix, quitted by them about 476. The city wall was
first built by Edelfleda, 908 ; and Hugh Lupus, the earl, nephew of William I., rebuilt the
Saxon castle in 1084, and the abbey of St. Werburgh. Chester was incorporated by
Henry III. and mado a distinct county. It was ravaged by the Danes, 980 ; and nearly
destroyed by an accidental fire in 147 1. A fatal gunpowder explosion occurred Nov. 5,
1772. The exchange and town hall were burnt Dec. 30, 1862. —The see was anciently part
of Lichfield, one of whose bishops, Teter, removing the seat hither in 1075, occasioned his
successors to be styled bishops of Chester ; but it was not erected into a distinct bishopric
until the dissolution of monasteries. Henry VIII. in 1542 raised it to this dignity, and
allotted the church of the abbey of St. Werburgh for the cathedral. This see is valued in
the king's books at 420Z. is. 8d. per annum. Present income 4500^
BECEN'T BISHOPS OF CHESTER.
1800. Henry Wm. Majendie, trans, to Bangor, 1809. 1828. John Bird Sumner, trans, to Canterbury, 1848.
1810. Bowyer Edward Sparkie, trans, to Ely, i8ia. 1848. John Graham, died June 15, 1865.
1812. George Honry Law, translated to Bath, 1824. 1865. William Jacobson (present bishop).
1824. Chas. J. Blomfield, trans, to London, Aug. 1828.
CHEVALIER D'EON. See B'Eon. CHEVY CHASE. See OtUrbunu.
CHICAMAUGA ("the stream of death"), near the Chattanooga, Tennessee, North
America. Near here the confederates under general Bragg, aided by Longstreet, totally
defeated the federals under Rosencrans, Sept. 19, 20, 1863. The loss was severe on both
sides. The credit of the victory is attributed to Longstreet ; its fruitlessness is assigned to
Bragg.
CHICHESTER (Sussex), built by Cissa, about 540. The cathedral was completed
about 1088, burnt with the city in 11 14, and rebuilt by bishop Seffrid about 1 187. Tho
present cathedral was erected during the 13th century. The spire fell Feb. 2o„ 1861, and the
foundation of a new one was laid May 2, 1865. The bishopric originated thus : Wilfrida,
archbishop of York, compelled to flee by Egfrid, king of Northumberland, preached the
gospel in this country, and built a church in the Isle of Selsey, about 673. In 68 1 Selsey
* A chess-club was formed at Slaughter's coffee house, St. Martin's lane, in 1747. M. F. A. Danican,
known as PhiUidor, played three matches blindfold at the Salopian ; he died in 1795. The London Chess-
club was founded in 1807, and St George's in 1833. In Dec. 1861 Herr Paulsen played ten games at once,
of which he won five, and lost one ; three were drawn, and ono not played out
CHI 170 CHI
became a bishopric, and so continued until it was removed to Chichester, then called Cissan-
C aester, from its builder, Cissa, by Stigand, 1070. This see has yielded to the church two
saints, and to the nation three lord chancellors. It is valued in the king's books at
677Z. is. 3</. per annum. Present income, 4200?.
RECENT BISHOPS OF CHICHESTER,
179S. John Buckner, died May 2, 1824. 1836. Charles Otter, died Aug. ao, 1840.
1824. Robert J. Gtrr, trims, to Worcester, Sept. 1831. 1840. Philip Nicholas Shuttleworth, died Jan. 7,1842.
1831. Edward Malt-by, translated to Durham, 1836. 1842. Ashurst Turner Gilbert (present bishop).
CHICKAHOMINY BATTLES. See Fairoaks.
CHICORY, the wild endive, or Cichorium Tntybus of Linnaeus, grows wild in calcareous
soils. It has been raised to some extent in England as herbage, its excellence in this respect
having been much insisted upon by Arthur Young.*
CHILDERMAS DAY, Dee. 28, observed by the Roman church, in memory of the
slaughter of the Holy Innocents. (Malt, ii.)
CHILDREN. Many ancient nations exposed their infants,—the Egyptians on the banks
of rivers, and the Greeks on highways,—when they could not support or educate them ; in
such cases, they were taken care of, and humanely protected by the state. The custom,
which long previously existed, of English parents selling their children to the Irish for
slaves, was prohibited in the reign of Canute, about 1017. Mat. Paris. See Foundling.
CHILI (S. America), discovered by Diego do Almagro, one of the conquerors of Peru,
1535. When Almagro crossed the Cordilleras, the natives, regarding the Spaniards on
their first visit as allied to the Divinity, collected for them gold and silver amounting to
290,000 ducats, a present which led to the subsequent cruelties and rapacity of the invaders.
Chili was subdued, but not wholly, in 1546. Population in 1857, 1,558,319.
Tho Chilians declare their independence of Insurrection headed by Pedro Gallo, Dec.
Spain Sept. 18, 1810 1858, suppressed .... April, 1859
Fight with varying success ; decisive victory Jose1 Perez, president . . Sept! 18, 1861
gained by San Martin over the royal forces, Conflagration of tho Jesuits' church at San
Feb. 12 ; the province was declared inde tiago (see Santiago), more than 2000 persons
pendent 1817 perished Dec. 8, 1863
Present constitution established in . . 1833 Rupture between ChUi and Bolivia respecting
Manuel Montt elected president . Oct 18, 1856 tho " Guano " isles . . . March 1, 1864
CHILLIANWALLAH, Battle of, India, between the Sikh forces in considerable
strength, and the British commanded by lord (afterwards viscount) Gough, fought Jan. 13,
1S49. The Sikhs were completely routed, but the loss of the British was very severe : 26
officers were killed and 66 wounded, and 731 rank and file killed, and 1446 wounded. The
Sikh loss was 3000 killed and 4000 wounded. t On Feb. 21, lord Gough attacked the Sikh
army, under Sliere Singh, in its position at Goojerat, with complete success ; and the whole
of the enemy's camp fell into the hands of the British.
CHILTERN HUNDREDS (viz. Burnham, Desborough, and Stoke), an estate of the
crown on the chain of chalk hills that pass from east to west through the middle of
Buckinghamshire, the stewardship whereof is a nominal office, with a salary of 20s., conferred
011 members of parliament when they wish to vacate their seats, as, by accepting an office
under the crown, a member becomes disqualified, unless he be again returned by his con-*
stituents. The strict legality of the practice is questioned.
CHIMNEY-TAX. See Hearth.
CHIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous to the invention of chimneys, which
were first introduced into these countries, in 1200, when they were confined to the kitchen
and large hall. The family sat round a stove, the funnel of which passed through the
* Chicory had been for many years so largely mixed with coffee in England, that it became a matter
of serious complaint, the los.s of revenue being estimated at 100,000/. a-year. An excise order was issued,
Aug. 3, 1852, interdicting the mixture of chicory with coffee. The admixture, however, has since been
permitted, provided the word " chicory " bo plainly printed on each parcel sold. In t86o a duty of 3s. per
ewt. was put upon Fjiglisk-frrown chicory until April 1S61 ; after that date to be 5*. 6d. per cwt.
f Tho duke of Wellington (commander in chief) did not think the victory complete. Gough was
superseded, and sir C. Napier sent out (March 1849), who did not arrivo in India till Gough had redeemed
his reputation.
CHI 171 CHI
ceiling, in 1300. Chimneys were general in domestic architecture in 1310. Act to regulate
chimney-sweeping, 28 Geo. III. 1789. The chimney-sweeping -machine was invented
by Smart in 1805. A statute regulating the trade, the apprenticeship of children, the
construction of flues, preventing calling "sweep" in the streets, &c, passed 1834. By
5 Vict. 1840, it is not lawful for master sweeps to take apprentices under sixteen years
of age : and since July I, 1842, no individual under twenty-one may ascend a chimney. In
1864, the enforcement of this law was made more stringent, it having been neglected. At
the chemical works, Glasgow, is a chimney (there termed a stalk) 420 feet in height ; the
height of the Monument in London being 202 feet ; of St. Paul's, 404 feet.
CHINA, the "Celestial Empire," in Eastern Asia, for which the Chinese annals claim an
antiquity of from 80,000 to 100,000 years B.C., is allowed to have commenced about 2500 B.C. ;
by others to have been founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of tho Bible, 2240 b.c.
We are told that the Chinese were acute astronomers in the reign of Yao, 2357 b.c.
Towards the close of the 7th century B.C., the history of China becomes more distinct.
Twenty-two dynasties have reigned, including the present. In the battle between Phraates
and the Scythians, 129 B.C., the Chinese aided the latter, and afterwards ravaged the coasts
of the Caspian, which is their first appearance in history. LengleL The population of
China was estimated at 190,348,228 in 1757 ; and at 414,607,000 in i860.
The Chinese state their first cycle to have com Exclusive rights of the E. I. Co. cease April 22, 1834
menced ....... B.c. 2700 Opium dispute begins
The first dates fixed to his history, by Se-ma- Free-trade ships sail for England . April 25,
tsien, begin * . . 651 Lord Napier arrives at Macao, to superintend
Supposed ago of Confucius (Kungfutzo), the British commerce .... July 15,
Chinese philosopher 530 Affair between the natives and two British
Stupendous wall of China completed 298 or 211 ships of war; several Chinese killed, Sept. 5,
The dynasty of Han .... 202 or 206 Lord Napier dies, and is succeeded by Mr.
Literature and tho art of printing encouraged!,?) 202 (afterwards sir John) Davis . . Oct. ir,
Religion of Tao-tse commenced Opium trade interdicted by the Chinese, Nov. 7,
Religion of Fo commenced . . about a.d. *5 60 Chinese seise the Argyle and crew . Jan. 31,
Pretended embassy from Rome if 6 Opium burnt at Canton by tho Chinese, Feb. 23, 1 S35
Nankin becomes the capital 420 Captain Elliot becomes chief British commis
The atheistical philosopher, San-Shin, flourishes 449 sioner . .... Dec. 14,
The Nestorian Christiana permitted to preach 635 Admiral Maitland arrives at Macao . July 12, i8^>
They arc proscribed and extirpated . . . 845 Commissioner Lin orders seizure of opium,
China ravaged by Tartars, 9th to nth centuries March 18 ; British and other residents for
Scat of government transferred to Pekin . . 1260 bidden to leave Canton, March 19; the fac
Marco Polo introduces missionaries . . . 1275 tories surrounded, and outrages committed,
Canal, called the Yu Ho, completed . about 1400, March 24 ; captain Elliot requires of British
Europeans first arrive at Canton . . . . 1517 subjects their surrender to him of all opium,
Macao is granted to the Portuguese . . . 1536 promising them on tho part of government
Jesuit missionaries are sent from Rome . . 1575 the full value of It, March 27; half of it is
Tho country is conquered by the eastern or given up as contraband to the Chinese, April
Mantchou Tartars, who establish the present 20 ; the remainder(2o,283cheats)surrendered,
reigning houso 1616-47 May 21 ; captain Elliot and the British mer
Tea brought to England 1660 chants leave Canton, May 24 ; the opium
An earthquake throughout China,buries 300,000 destroyed by tho Chinese . . June 3,
persons at Pekin alone 166a Affair between the British and American sea
Commerce with East India Company begins . 1680 men and the Chinese ; a native killed, July 7,
Jesuit missionaries preach 1692 Hong-Kong taken .... Aug. 23,
Commercial relations with Russia . . 1719-27 The British boat Black- Joke attacked, and the
The Jesuits expelled 1724-32 crew murdered, Aug. 24 ; the British mer
Another general earthquake destroys too,000 chants retire from Macao . . Aug. 26,
persons at Pekin, and 80,000 in a suburb . 1731 Affair at Kow-lung between British boats and
In a salute by one of our India ships in China, Chinese junks Sept 4,
a loaded gun was inadvertently fired, which Attack by 28 armed junks on the British
killed a native ; the government demanded frigates Volage and Hyacinth : several junks
the gunner to be given up ; he was soon blown up Nov. 3,
strangled.—Sir George Staunton . July 2, 1785 The British trade with China ceases, by an
Earl Macartney's embassy* arrives at Pekin edict of tho emperor, and the last servant of
his reception by the emperor . Sept. 14, the company leaves this day . . Dec. 6,
He is ordered to dej>art . . . Oct. 7, Edict of tho emperor interdicting all trade and
And arrives in England . , . Sept 6, 1794 intercourse with England for ever . Jan. 5, 1S40
The affair of the Company's ship Neptune, when The Bdtai ship attacked by armed junks. May
a Chinese was killed 1807 22 ; blockade of Canton by a British fleet,
Edict against Christianity ... r812 by orders from sir Gordon Bremer, June
Lord Amherst's embassy ; f he leavos England 28; tho 5/<mrfewitha flag of truce fired on
Fob. 8, 1S16 at Amoy, July 2; Tiug-hai, in Chusan, sur-
* This ombassy threw some light on the political circumstances of the empire ; it appeared to be
divided into 1 5 provinces, containing 4402 walled cities ; the population of the whole was given at 333,000,000 :
its annual revenues at 66,ooo,ooo£. : and the army, including the Tartars, 1,000.000 of infantry, and 800,000
cavalry ; the religion Pagan, and the government absolute. Learning, and tho arts and sciences, were
encouraged, and ethics studied.
t His lordship failed in tho objects of his mission, having refused to make the prostration of the
kou-tou, lest ho should thereby compromise the majesty of England.
CHI 172 CHI
CHINA, continued.
renders, July 5 ; blockade established along Chinese attack Ning po and Chin-hae, and are
the Chinese coast, July 10; Mr. Staunton repulsed with great loss, March to ; 8000
carried, off to Canton .... Aug. 6, 1840 Chinese are routed near Tsze-kee March 15, 1843
Captain Elliot, on board a British steam-ship, Cha-pou attacked ; its defences destroyed,
enters the Peiho river, near Pckin, Aug. 11, M May 18, „
Tho ship Kite lost on a sand-bank, and the cap The British squadron enters the river Kiang,
tain's wife and a part of the crew are eayjtured Juno 13 ; capture of Woosung, and of 230
by the natives, and confined in cages Sept. 15, guns and stores, June 16 ; Shang-hae taken.
Lin finally degraded ; Kcshin appointed im- June 19 ; the British armament anchors near
penal comniissioner, Sept. 16 ; capt. Elliot's tho " Gulden Isle," July 20; Chin Keang
truce with him Nuv. 6, „ taken ; the Tartar general and many of the
British plenipotentiaries arrive off Macao, garrison commit suicide, July 21 ; the ad
Nov. 20, vanced ships reach Nankin,Aug. 4 ; the wholo
Admiral Elliot's resignation announced,Nov.29, „ fleet arrives, and the disembarkation com
Mr. Staunton released . . . Dec. 12, „ mences, Aug. 9 ; Keying arrives at Nankin, „
Negotiations cease, owing to breaches of faith with full powers to treat for peace . Aug. 12.
on tho part of the Chinese emperor . Jan. 6, 1841 Treaty of peace signed before Nankin, on board
Chuen-pe and Tae-coc-tow, and 173 guns (some the Comwaltu by sir Henry Pottinger for
sent to England), captured . Jan. 7, England, and Keying Elepco* and Neu-Kien
Hong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Croat Britain, on the part of the Chineso emperor—[Con
and 6,000,000 dollars agreed to l>c paid within ditions :lasting peace and friendship between
ten days to the British authorities . Jan. 20, „ the two empires; China to pay 21,000,000 of
Hong-Kong taken possession of . Jan. 26, „ dollars ; Canton, Amoy, Foochoofoo, Ning-
The omperor rejects Keshin's treaty, Feb. 11 ; po, and Shang-hae to be thrown open to the
hostilities resumed, Feb. 21 ; Chusan evacu British, and consuls to reside at these cities ;
ated, Feb. 24 ; rewards proclaimed at Canton Hong-Kong to l>e ceded in perpetuity to Eng
for the bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive ; land, &c. ; Chusan and Ku-lang-.su to be held
50,000 dollars to be given for ringleaders and by the British until the provisions are ful
chiefs Feb. 25, „ filled] t Aug. 29, ,,
Bogue forts taken by sir G. Bremer ; admiral The ratifications signed by queen Victoria and
Kwan killed ; 450 guns captured . Feb. 26, „ the emperor formally exchanged, July 22 ;
The British squadron proceeds to Canton Canton opened to the British by an imperial
March 1 ; sir 11. Gough takes command of the edict July 27, 1843
army, March 2 : hostilities again suspended, Appointment of Mr. Davis in the room of sir
March 3 ; and again resumed, March 6 ; Henry Pottinger .... Feb. 16, 1844
Keshin degraded by the emperor March 12, „ Bogue forts captured by the British . April 5, 1847
Flotilla of boats destroyed, Canton threatened, Hong-Kong and the neighbourhood visited by
the foreign factories seized, and 461 guns a violent typhoon ; immense damago done to
taken by the British forces . March 18, ,, the shipping ; upwards of 1000 boat-dwellers
New commissioners from Pckin arrive at on the Canton river drowned . . Oct. 1843
Canton April 14, t, I H.M. steam ship Medea destroys 13 pirate
Hon;; Kong Gazette first published . May 1, „ junks in the Chinese seas . . March 4, 1S50
Capt. Elliot prepares to attack Canton May 17, „ Rebellion breaks out In Quang-si . . Aug.
Heights behind Canton taken . May 25, ,, Appearance of the pretender Tien-teh,{ March 1851
The city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars ; Defeat of Leu, the imperial commissioner, and
5,000,000paid down ; hostilities cease May 31, ,, destruction of half the army Juno 19, 1852
British forces withdrawn, June 1 ; and British Successful progress of tho rebels ; the emperor
trade re-opened ... July 16, „ applies to tho Europeans for holp, without
Arrival at Macao of sir Henry Pottinger, who, success .... March and April, 1853
as plenipotentiary, proclaims the objects of The rebels take Nankin, March 19, 20 ; Amoy,
his mission ; capt. Elliot superseded Aug. 10, May 19 ; Shang-hae . . . Sept. 7,
Amoy taken, and 296 guns destroyed . Aug. 27, ,, And besiege Canton without success Aug.-Nov. 1854
The Bogue forts destroyed . . Sept 14, „ Tho scanty accounts are unfavourable to the
Ting-hae taken, 136 guns captured, and Chusan rebels, the imperialists having retaken Shang-
re-occupied by the British, Oct. 1 ; they take hae, Amoy, and many important places . . 1855
Chin-hae, Oct. 10; Ning-po,Oct. 13 ; Yu-yaou, ; Outrage on the British lorcha A}*row, in Canton
Tazc-kce,and Foong-hua . . Dec. 28, I river I Oct. 8, 1856
* He took part (it was said without authority) in arranging the treaty of Tien-sin in June, 1S58. He
was in consequence condemned to death—by suicide.
t Tho non-fulfilment of this treaty led gradually to the war of 1656-7.
t The emperor Taou-Kwang, who died Feb. 25, 1850, during tho latter part of his reign, became liberal
In his views, and favoured the introduction of European arts ; but his son, the late emperor, a rash and
narrow-minded prince, quickly departed from his father's wise policy, and adopted reactionary measures,
particularly against English influence. An insurrection broke out in consequence, Aug. 1850, and quickly
became of alarming importance. The insurgents at first proposed only to expel the Tartars ; but in March
1851, a pretender was announced among tbcm, first by the name of Ticn-teh (Celestial Virtue), but after
wards assuming other names. He is stated to have been a native of Quang-si, of obscure origin, but to have
obtained some literary knowledge at Canton about 1835, and also to have become acquainted at that time
with the principles of Christianity from a Chinese Christian, named Leang-afa, and also from the mis
sionary Roberts in 1844. He announced himself as tho restorer of the worship of tho true God, Shang-ti,
but has derived many of his dogmas from the Bible. He declared himself to bo the monarch of all beneath
tho sky, the true lord of China (and thus of all tho world), the brother of Jesus, and the second son of God,
and demanded universal submission. He made overtures for alliance to lord Elgin, in November, i860.
His followers are termed Taepings, " princes of peace," a title utterly belied by their atrocious deeds.
Tho rebellion was virtually terminated July 18, 1864, by tho capture of Nankin, tho suicide of the
Tion-wang, and the execution of the military leaders.
9 It was boarded by the Chinese officers, 12 men out of the crew of 14 being carried off, and the national
ensign taken down. Sir J. Bowring, governor of Hong-Kong, being compelled to resort to hostilities.
CHI 173 CHI
CHINA, continued.
After vain negotiations with commissioner Yeh, bazon, Mr. De Norman, Mr. Bowlby (the
Canton forts attacked and taken . Oct, 23, 185G Time$' correspondent), and 14 others (Euro
A Chinese fleet destroyed and Canton bom peans aud Sikhs), advance to Tung-chow, to
barded, by sir M. Seymour Nov. 3, 4, „ arrange conditions fur a meeting of the minis
Imperialists defeated, quit Shang-hae Nov. 6, ters, and are captured by San-ko-lin-sin ;
The Americans revenge an attack by capturing capt. Brabazon and abbe" de Luc beheaded,
three forts .... Nov. 21—23, „ and said to be thrown into the canal ; others
Rebels take Kunking . . . Nov. 25, ,, carried into Pekin . . Sept. ai, i860
Other forts taken by the British . . Dec. Tho allies march towards Pekin ; the French
Tho Chinese burn European factories Dec. 14, „ lavage the emperor's summer palace, Oct. 6 ;
And murder tho crew of the ThUtlt . Dec. 30, Mr. Parkes, Mr. Loch, and others, restored
A-lum, a Chinese baker, acquitted of chargo of alive, Oct. 8 ;capt. Anderson, Mr. De Norman,
poisoning the bread .... Feb. 2, 1857 . and others die of ill-usage . Oct 8-1 if „
Troops arrive from Madras, and England ; and Pekin invested ; surrenders, Oct 12 ; severe
lord Elgin appointed envoy . March, „ proclamation of sir Hope Grant Oct 15, „
No change on either side : Yeh said to be The bodies of Mr, De Norman and Mr. Bowlby
straitened for money ; the imperialists seem buried with great solemnity in tho Russian
to be gaining ground upon the rebels May, ,, cemetery in Pekin, Oct. 17; the summer
Total destruction of the Chinese fleet by com palace (Yuen-iuing-yuon) burnt by the
modore Elliot, May 25, 27 ; and sir M. Sey British, in memory of the outraged prisoners
mour and commodore Keppel . . June 1, Oct. 18, „
Blockade of Canton .... Aug. „ Convention signed in Pekin by lord Elgin and
Stagnation in the war—lord Elgin departs to the prince of Rung, by which the treaty of
Calcutta, with assistance to the English Tien-sin is ratified ; apology made for tho
against the Sepoys, July 16 ; returns to Hong- attack at Pei-ho (Juno 25, 1859); a large in
Kong Sept. 25, „ demnity to be paid immediately, and com
Gen. Ashburnham departs for India, and gen. pensation in money given to the families of
Straubenzee assumes the command Oct. 19, ,, the murdered prisoners,4c. ; Kow-loon ceded
Canton bombarded and taken by English and in exchange for Chusan, and the treaty and
French, Dec. 28, 29, 1857 ; who enter it Jan. 5, 1858 convention to be proclaimed throughout the
Yeh* sent a prisoner to Calcutta . Jan. empire Oct 24, „
Tho allies proceed towards Pekin, and take the Allies quit Pekin .... Nov. a P|
Pei-ho forte ..... May 20, Treaty between Russia and China—the former
The expedition arrives at Tien-Sin . May 20, „ obtaining free trade, territories, &c. Nov. 14, „.
Negotiations commence June 5 ; treaty of peace Mr. Loch arrives in England with the treaty
signed at Tim-tnn by lord Elgin, baron Gros, Dec. 27, „
and Keying(who signed the treaty of 1842)— First instalment of indemnity paid . Nov. 30, „
[Ambassadors to be at both courts ; freedom Part of the allied troops comfortably settled at
of trade ; toleration ofChristianity ; expenses Tien-sin Jan. 5, 1861
of war to be paid by China; a revised tariff; Adm. Hope examines Yang-tseKiang, *c. Feb.
term I(barbarian) to be no longer applied to English and French embassies established at
Europeans] .... June 26, 28, 29, „ Pekin March, ,,
Lord Elgin visits Japan, and concludes an im The emperor Hienfung dies . . Aug. 24, „
portant treaty with the emperor . Aug 28, „ Canton restored to the Chinese . Oct ax, M
The British destroy about 130 piratical juuks Ministerial crisis ; several ministers put to
in tho Chinese seas . . Aug. and Sept. M death ; Rung appointed regent Dec. 13, ,f
Lord Elgin proceeds up the Yang-tsc-Kiang to Advance of the rebels ; they seize and desolato
Nankin, Jan. ; returns to England . May, 1859 Niug-po and Hang-chow . . Dec. ,,
Mr. Bruce, the British envoy, on his way to They advance on Shang-hae, which is placed
rekin, is stopped in the river Pei-ho (or Tien- under protection of the English and French,
Bin); admiral Hope attempting to force a and fortified Jan. 1862
passage, is repulsed with the loss of 81 killed, Rebels defeated in two engagements . April, ,,
and about 390 wounded . . . June 25, „ English and French assist the government
The American envoy Ward arrives at Pekin, against the rebels—Ning-po retaken May 10, „
and refusing to submit to degrading cere French admiral Protet killed in an attack on
monies, does not see the emperor, July 29 ; rebels May 17, „
the commercial treaty with America is con Captain Sherard Osborne permitted by tho
cluded Nov. 24, „ British government to organise a small fleet
The English and French prepare an expedition of gun-boats to aid tho imperialists to
against China Oct „ establish order ... . July, „
Lord Elgin and baron Gros sail for China, April Imperialists gaining ground, tike Kah-sing,Ac.
26 ; wrecked near point de Galle, Ceylon,
May 23 ; arrive at Shang-hae . June 20, i860 Commercial treaty with Prussia ratified Jan.Oct „
14, 1863
The war begins : the British commanded by sir The imperialists under Gordon, defeat the
Hope Grant, the French by general Montau- Taepiugs under Burgevino, &c. . Oct „
bun. The Chinese defeated in a Bkirmish Gordon, commanding the imperialists, captures
near the Pei-ho .... Aug. 12, n Sow-chow (after a severe attack on Nov. 27.
The allies repulse the Tae-ping rebels attacking 28) ; tho rebel chiefs treacherously butcherca
Shang-hae, Aug. 18-20 ; and take the Taku- by the Chinese .... Dec. 4, 5, w
forts, losing 500 killed and wounded ; the Tar Capt Osborne came to China ; but retired in
tar general San-ko-lin-sin retreats Aug. ai, „ consequence of the Chinese government de
After vain negotiations, tho allies advance to parting from its engagements . Dec. 31, „
wards Pekin ; they defeat the Chinese at Gordon's successts continue . Jan. to April, 1864
Chang-kia-wan and Pa-li-chiau Sept. 18 & 21, After a severe repulse he takes Chang-chow-f00,
Consul Parkes, captains Anderson and Bra- Mar. 23, „
applied to India and Ceylon for troops. On March 3, 1857, the house of commons, by a majority of 19,
censured sir John for tho " violent measures " he had pursued. The ministry (who took his part) dissolved
tho parliament ; but obtained a large majority in tho new one.
* Ho died peacefully at Calcutta, April 9, 1859. He is said to have beheaded above 100,000 rebels.
174 CHO
CHINA, continued.
He takos Nankin (a heap of ruins) ; the Tien- CHINESE EXP£RORS.
wang, the rebel emperor, commits suicide 1627. Chwang-lei.
by eating gold leaf. Chang-wang and Kan- 1644. Shun-che (first of the Tsing dynasty).
wang, tlie robel generals, arc " cut into a 1669. Kang-he.
thousand pieces ;" . . . . July 18, 1864 1693. Yung-ching.
The Taepings hold Ming-chow ; the Mahome 1735. Keen-lung.
tan rebellion progressing in Iionan March, 1865 1795. Kea-king.
Tacpings evacuate Ming-chow . . May 23 ,, 1820. Taou-Kwang.
A rebellion in the north, headed by Nien-fei ; 1850. Hieng-fung, Feb. 25.
Pekin in danger Inly „ 1861. Ki-tsiang, Aug. 22 ; born April 5, 1855.
The Chinese general San-ko-lin-sin defeated
and slain ; his son more successful . July „
CHINA PORCELAIN introduced into England about 1531. Sec Pottery.
CHINA ROSE, &c. The Rosa indica was brought from China, and successfully planted
in Englaud, 17S6 ; the Chinese apple-tree, or Pyrut spectabilis, about 1780.
CHIOS (now Scio), an isle in the Greek Archipelago, revolted against Athens, 412 B.c.
It partook of the fortunes of the Greeks, being conquered by the Venetians, a.d. 1 124; by
the Crusaders, 1204 ; by the Greek emperor and Romans, 1329 ; by the Genoese, 1329, anil
by the Turks in 1459. A dreadful massacre of the inhabitants by the Turks took place April
11, 1822, during the Greek insurrection.*
CHIPPAWA (N. America). Here the British under Riall were defeated by the
Americans under Browne, July 5, 1S14. The Americans were defeated by the British,
under generals Drummoml and Riall, July 25 following, but the latter was wounded and
taken prisoner.
CHIVALRY arose out of the feudal system in the latter part of the 8th century
(chevalier, or knight, being derived from the caballarius, the equipped feudal tenant on
horseback). From the 12th to the 15th century it tended to refute manners. The knight
swore to accomplish the duties of his profession, as the champion of God and the ladies ;
to speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protect the distressed, to practise courtesy, to
fulfil obligations, and to vindicate in every perilous adventure his honour and character.
Chivalry, which owed its origin to the feudal system, expired with it See Tournaments.
By letters patent of James I. the carl-marshal of England had " the like jurisdiction in the
courts of chivalry, when the office of lord high constable was vacant, as this latter and the
marshal did jointly exercise," 1623. See Knighthood.
CHLORINE (Greek chloros, pale green), a gas first obtained by Scheele in 1774, by
treating manganese with muriatic (hydrochloric) acid. Sir H. Davy, in 1810, proved this
gas to be an element, and named it chlorine. Combined with sodium it forms common
salt (chloride of sodium), and combined with lime, the bleaching powder and disinfectant—
chloride of lime. The bleaching powers of chlorine were made known by Berthollet in 1785.
In 1823 clilorine was condensed into a liquid by Faraday.
CHLOROFORM (the ter-chlorido of the hypothetical radical formyl) is a compound of
carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine, and was made from alcohol, water, and bleaching powder.
It was discovered by Soubeirau in i83i,and its composition was determined by Dumas iu
1834. The term " chloric ether" was applied in 1820 to a mixture of chlorine and defiant
gas. Chloroform was first applied as an ana-sthetic by Dr. Simpson of Edinburgh ; it was
first administered in England on Dec. 14, 1848, by Mr. James Robinson, surgeon-dentist.+
CHOBHAM COMMON, in Surrey. A military camp was formed here on June 14, 18;
by a force between 8000 and 10,000 strong. The last field-day took place Aug. 17, i~
Only one serious case of misconduct was reported during all the time.
CHOCOLATE, made of the cocoa berry, introduced into Europe (from Mexico and the
Brazils) about 1520, was sold in the Loudon collce-houses soon after their establishment, 1650.
* The slaughter lasted 10 days : 40,000 of both sexes falling victims to the sword, or to the fire, which
raged until every house, save those of the foreign consuls, was burned to the ground. 7000 Greeks, whi>
had fled to the mountains, were induced to surrender by a promise of amnesty, guaranteed by the consuls
of England, France, and Austria : yet even they were all butchered ! The only exception made during the
massacre was in favour of the young and more beautiful women and boys, 30,000 of whom were reserved
for the markets.
t A committee of the Royal Medical and Chirurgieal Society in July, 1864, after examining statistics,
reported that the uso of anaesthetics had in no degreo increased the rate of mortality.
CHO 175 CHR
CHOIR. This was separated from the nave of the church in the time of Constautiue.
The choral service was first used in England at Cauterbuiy, 677. See Chanting.
CHOLERA MORBUS, known in its more malignant form as the Indian cholera, made
great ravages in the north, east, and south of Europe, and in Asia, where alone it carried off
more than 900,000 persons, in 1829-30. lu England and Wales in 1848-9, 53,293 persons
died of cholera, and in 1854, 20,097.
Cholera appears at Sunderland . . Oct. 26, 1831 and other northern towns, suffer much from
And at Edinburgh .... Feb. 6, 183a cholera Sept. 1853
First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, It rages in Italy and Sicily ; above 10,000 are
London, Feb. 13 ; and in Dublin . March 3 „ said to have died at Naples ; it was also very
The mortality very great, but more so on tho fatal to the allied troops at Varna, autumn, 1854
Continent ; 18,000 deaths at Paris, between Cholera very severe for a short time in the
March and August, 1832 southern parts of London, and in Soho and
Cholera rages in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, St. James's, Westminster . Aug. and Sept. ,,
Berlin. &c, in . . July and August, 1837 Raging in Alexandria, June ; abated . July, 1865
Another visitation of cholera in England : the Prevailing in Ancona (S43 deaths) Aug., sxib-
number of deaths in London, for tho week siding Sept, ,,
ending Sept 15, 1849, was 3183 ; the ordinary Very severe in Constantinople, nearly 50,000
average 1008 ; and the number of deaths deaths, Aug. ; subsides after the great fire,
by cholera from Juno 17 to Oct. 2, in London Sept. 6 „
alone, 13,161. The mortality lessened and Cases at Marseilles, Toulon, and Southampton,
the distemper disappeared . Oct 13, 1849 end of Sept. ,.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Hexham, Tyneniouth,
CHORAGUS, a Greek officer who regulated the chorus in the public feasts, worship,
Jfcc. Stesichorus (or Tysias) received this name, he having first taught the chorus to dance
to the lyre, 556 B.c. Quintil.
CHORUS-SINGING was early practised at Athens. Hypodicus, of C'halcidcs, carried
off the prize for the best voice, 508 B.C. Parian marbles. See Music.
CHOUANS, a nam© given to the Bretons during the war of La Vendee in 1792, from
their chief Jean Cottereau, using the cry of the Chat-haunt, or screech-owl, as a signal. He
was killed in 1794. Georges Cadoudal, their last chief, was connected with Pichegru in a
conspiracy against Napoleou when first consul, and was executed in 1804.
CHRISM, consecrated oil, was used early in the ceremonies of tho Roman and Greek
churches. Musk, saffron, cinnamon, roses, and frankincense, are mentioned as used with the
oil, in 1541. It was ordained that chrism should consist of oil and balsam only ; the one
representing the human nature of Christ, and the other his divine nature, 1596.
CHRIST. See Jesus Christ. Chhist's Hospital (the Slue-Coal school) was established
by Edward VI. IS53, on the site of the Grey Friars monastery. A mathematical ward was
founded by Charles II., 1672, and the city of London and the community of England have
contributed to render it a richly endowed charity. The Times ward was founded in 1841.
Large portions of the edifice having fallen into decay, it was rebuilt : in 1822 a new infirmary
was completed, and in 1825 (April 25) the duke of York laid the first stone of the magnificent
new halL—On Sept. 24, 1854, the master, Dr. Jacob, in a sermon, in the church of the
hospital, censured the system of education and the general administration of the establish
ment, and many improvements have since been made. The subordinate school at Hertford,
for 416 younger boys and 80 girls, was founded in 1683. Christ's-tiiorx, conjectured to
bo the plant of which our Saviour's crown of thorns was composed, came hither from tho
south of Europe before 1596.
CHRISTIAN Era. See Anno Domini. Christian Knowledge Society was founded
in 1698 to promote charity schools, and to disperse bibles and religious tracts. It has an
annual revenue of about 100,000/. Most Christian King ; Christianissimus Rex, a title
conferred by pope Paul II. in 1469 on the crafty Louis XI. of France.
CHRISTIANIA, the capital of Norway, built in 1624, by Christian IV. of Denmark, to
replace Opslo (the ancient capital founded by Harold Haardrade, 1058), which had been de
stroyed by fire. On April 13, 1858, Christiania suffered by fire, the loss being about 250,000/.
The university was established in 181 1. New Storthing (parliament house) built 1861-2.
CHRISTIANITY. The name Christian was first given to the believers and followers of
Christ's doctrines at Antioch, in Syria, 43 (Acts xi. 26, 1 Peter iv. 6). The first Christians
were divided into cpiscopoi (bishops or overseers), prcsbytcroi (elders), diaconoi (miuisters or
deacons), and pisloi (believers) ; afterwards were added catechumens, or learners, and ener-
gumens, who were to bo exorcised. See Persecutions.
CHR 170 CHR
CHRISTIANITY, continued.
Christianity said to be taught in Britain, about Into Russia, by Swiatoslaf . . about 940
64 . and propagated with some bucccss (Btdt) 156 Into Poland, under MeicislaUs I. 99a
Christianity said to be introduced into Scotland Into Hungary, under Gcisa 994
in the reign of Donald I., about . . 212 Into Norway and Iceland, under Olaf I. . . 998
Constantino the Great professes the Christian Into Sweden, between 10th and nth centuries.
religion . . . . . 312 Into Prussia, by the Teutonic knights, when
Frumcntius preaches in Abyssinia about 346 they were returning from the holy wars . 1227
Introduced among the Goths by Ulfilas . . 376 Into Lithuania; paganism was abolished about 1386
Into Ireland in the second century, but with Into Guinea, Angola, and Congo, in the 15th
more success after the arrival of St. ratrick in 432 century.
Christianity established in France by Clovis . 406 Into China, where it made some progress (but
Conversion of the Saxons* by Augustin . . 597 was afterwards extirpated, and thousands of
Introduced into Helvetia, by Irish missionaries 643 Chinese Christians were put to death) . . 1575
Into Flanders in the 7th century. Into India and America, in the 16th century.
Into Saxony, by Charlemagne .... 785 Into Japan, by Xavier and the Jesuits, 1549;
Into Denmark, under Harold . . . . 827 but the Christians were exterminated in . 1638
Into Bohemia, under Borzivoi . . . 894 Christianity re-established in Greece . . . 1628
CHRISTMAS-DAY, Dec. 25 (from Christ and the Saxon mcesse, signifying the mass
and a feast), a festival in commemoration of the nativity of our Saviour, said to have been
first kept 98 ; and ordered to bo held as a solemn feast, by pope Telesphorus, about 137. t
In the eastern church, Christmas and the Epiphany {which sec) are deemed but one and the
same feast. The holly and mistletoe used at Christmas are said to be the remains of the
religious observances of the Druids. Sec Anno Domini.
CHRISTMAS ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, so named by captain Cook, who landed
here on Christmas-day, 1777. He had passed Christmas-day at Christmas-sound, 1774. On
the shore of Christmas^Harbour, visited by him in 1776, one of his men found a piece of
parchment with this inscription : " Ludovico XV. Galliarum rege, et d. Boyncs regi a secretin
ad res maritimas, annis 1772 et 1773." On the other side of it captain Cook wrote:
" Naves Resolution et Discovery de reyc Magna Britannia;, Dec. 1776," and placed it in a
bottle safely.
CHRISTOPHER'S, St. (or St. Kitt's), a West India island, discovered in 1493, by
Columbus, who pave it his own name. Settled by the English and French 1623 or 1626.
Ceded to England by the peace of Utrecht, 17 13. Taken by the French in 1782, but
restored the next year. The town of Basseterre suffered from a fire, Sept. 3, 1776.
CHROMIUM (Greek, chrome colour^, a rare metal, discovered by Vauuuclin in 1797. It
is found combined with iron and lead, and forms the colouring matter of the emerald.
CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY. See Printing in Colours.
CHRONICLES. The earliest are those of the Jews, Chinese, and Hindoos. In Scrip
ture there are two " Books of Chronicles." Collections of the British chroniclers have been
published by Camden, Gale, &c, since 1602 ; in the present century by the English Historical
Society, &c. In 1858, the publication of "Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and
Ireland during the Middle Ages," commenced under the direction of the Master of the Rolls.
Macray's 41 Manual of British Historians" was published 1845.
CHRONOLOGY (the science of time) has for its object the arrangement and exhibition
of the various events of the history of the world in the order of their succession, and the
ascertaining the intervals between them. See Eras and Epochs. Valuable works on the
subject are V Art de Verifier ks Dates, compiled by the Benedictines (1783—1820). Play-
fair's Chronology, 1784 ; Blair's Chronology, 1753 (new editions by sir H. Ellis, in 1844,
and by Mr. Rossc, in 1856). The Oxford Chronological Tables, 1838. Sir Harris Nicolas'
Chronology of History, 1833; new edition, 1852. Hales' Chronology, 2nd edition, 1830;
Mr. H. Fynes-Clinton's Fasti Hellenici and Fasti Roniani (1824-50),
CHRONOMETER. See Clocks and Harrison.
* It is, traditionally, said that Gregory the Great, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair,
chanced one day to pass through the slave-market at Rome, and perceiving some children of great beauty
who were set up for sale, he inquired about their country, and finding they were English pagans, he is said
to have cried out in the Latin language, " Son Anyti sed Amjeli forenl, « e**tnt Christiani ;" that is, "They
would not be English, but angels, if they wore Christians." From that time ho was struck with an ardent
desire to convert that unenlightened nation, and ordered a monk named Austin, or Augustin, and others
of the same fraternity, to undcrtako the mission to Britain in the year 596.
■weret assembled
Diocletian,onthethisRoman
day inemperor, keeping his
great lmiltitudes court at Nicomedia,
to celebrate being ordered
Christ's nativity, informedthethat tbetoChristians
doors be shut,
and the church to be set on fire, and 600 perished in the burning pile. This was tho commencement of the
tenth persecution, which lasted ten years, 303.
CHR 177 CHU
CHRONOSCOPE, an apparatus invented by professor Wheatstono in 1S40, to measurd
small intervals of time. It has been applied to the velocity of projectiles, and of the electric
current. Chronoscopes were invented by Pouillct, and others in 1844.
CHUNAR, Treaty of, concluded between the nabob of Oude and governor Hastings,
by which the nabob was relieved of all his debts to the East India Company, on condition of
his seizing the property of the begums, his mother and grandmother, and delivering it up to
the English, Sep. 19, 1781. This treaty enabled the nabob to take the lands of Fyzoola
Khan, a Kohilla chief, who had settled at Rampoor, under guarantee of the English. The
nabob presented to Mr. Hastings 100,000/.
CHURCH (probably derived from the Greek kyriakos, pertaining to the Lord, Kyrios),
signifies a collective body of Christians, and also the place where they meet. In the New
Testament, it signifies "congregation," in the original ckklcsia. Christian architecture
commenced with Constantine, who, after he was settled in his government, erected, at Rome,
churches (called basilicas, from the Greek basileus, a king) ; St. Peter's being erected about
330. His successors erected others ; and adopted the heathen temples as places of worship.
Several very ancient churches exist in Britain and Ireland. See Architecture; Choir and
C/ianting ; Rome, Modem : and Popes.
CHURCH of England.* The following are important facts in her history : for details,
refer to separate articles. — See Clergy.
Britain converted to Christianity ("Christo " Declaration of Indulgence " published . 1687
subdita," Tertullian) . . 2nd century Acquittal of the seven bishops on a charge of
Invasion of the Saxons, 477 ; converted by " seditious libel " 16S8
Augustin and his companions . . . 596 The Non-juring bishops and others deprived ;
Dunstau establishes the supremacy of the mo (they formed a separate communion) Feb. 1, 1691
nastic orders, about 960 " Queen Anne's Bounty," for the augmentation
The aggrandising policy of the Church, fostered of poor livings 1704
by Edward the Confessor, was checked by Act lor building 50 new churches passed . . 1710
William I. and his successors . . 1066 ft uq. Fierce disputes between the low church and
Contest between Henry II. and Becket re high church ; trial of Sachevercll . . .
specting the " Constitutions of Clarendon," The Bangoriau controversy begins . . . 1717
1164-1170 John Wesley and George Whitefield commence
John surrenders his crown to the papal legato 1213 preaching 173S
Rise of the Lollards—Wickliffe publishes tracts Rise of the Evangelical party in the church,
against the errors of the Church of Rome, under Newton, Homaine, and others, in the
1356 ; and a version of the Bible, about . 1383 latter part of the 18th century.
rhe clergy regulated by parliament, 1529 ; they Church of England united with that of Ireland
lose the first fruits 1534 1 at the Union 1800
The royal supremacy imposed on the clergy by Clergy Incapacitation Act passed . . . 1S01
Henry VIII., 1531 ; many suffer death for re Acts for building and enlarging churches 1828, i8j3
fusing to acknowledge it 200 new churches erected in the diocese of
Covcrdale's translation of the Bible commanded '535 London during the episcopate of C. J. Blom-
to be read in churches field 1828-56
" 8ix Articles of Religion '* promulgated . 1530 "Tracts for the Times" (No. 1-90) pubUshed
First Iwok of Common Prayer issued . . . 1543 (much controversy ensued) . . . 1833-41
The clergy permitted to marry 154'* Ecclesiastical Commission established . . 1S34
" Forty-two Articles of Religion " issuod . . '55- New Church Discipline Act (364 Vict. c. £6) . 1S41
Restoration of the Roman forms, and fierce ** Essays and Reviews " published, i860 ; nume
persecution of the Protestants by Mary . 1553-8 rous Replies issued (see Jissayt and Reviews) 1S61-2
The Protestant forms restored by Elizabeth ; of England is now said to be
the Puritan dissensions begin . . 1558- 1603 [The Church
" Thirty nine " Articles published . . . 1563 divided Broad
into High, Low (or Evangelical), and
Church : the List including persons
Hampton Court conference with the Puritans 1604 who hold the opinions
New translation of tbe Bible published . 161 1 the Rev. F. D. Maurice,ofand the late Dr. Arnold,
others.]
Book of Common Prayer suppressed and Direc
tory established by parliament . . . 1644 Dr. Colenso, bishop of Natal, publishes his work
Presbyterians established by the Common on '*Tho Pentateuch," about Oct., 1862;
wealth 1649 great cry against it ; the bishops, in convo
Act of Uniformity (14 Chas. II. c. 4) passed— cation, dechire that it contains "errors of
2000 nonconforming ministers resign their the gravest and most dangerous character,"
livings 1663 May 20, 1
Attempts of James II. to revive Romanism ; A Church Congrttt at Manchester, Oct. 13, 14, 15,
• The church of England consists of throe order* of clergy—bishops, priests, and deacons; viz., two
archbishops and twenty-five bishops, exclusive of the see of Sodor and Man. The other dignities arc
chancellors, deans (of cathedrals and collegiate churches), archdeacons, prebendaries, canons, minor canons,
and priest-vicars : thc-e and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages, and chapclries, make the number
of proferments of the established church, according U> official returns, 12,327. Tho number of bt-rjictt in
England and Wales, according to parliamentary returns, in 1844, was 11,127, and tu0 number of glebe-
houses 5527. The number of parishes is 11,077, aud of churches and chapels about 14.100. The number of
benefices in Ireland was 1495, to which there were not more than about 900 glebe-houses attached, the rest
having no glebe-houses. An act was passed in i860 for the union of contiguous bcncf.ccs. See ChurCh of
England.
H
CHU ITS CIL
CHURCH of England, continued.
Bishop Colcnso deposed by his metropolitan, I are said to have signed ; it was presented to
Dr. Gray, bishop of Capetown . April 16, 1864 the archbishop of Canterbury . May 12, 1864
Bishop Golenso's appeal came before the privy ; " Bishop of London's Fund," for remedying
council, which declared bishop Gray's pro- spiritual destitution in London, established ;
ceedings null and void (since a colonial the Queen engages to give (in three years)
bishop can have no authority except what ' 3000!., and prince of Wales 1000/. . March 7, „
is aruuted by parliament or by the colonial 100.456/. received ; 72,003/. promised, Dec. 31, „
legislature) .... March 21, 1865 The Queen engages to give 15,oool. in 10 years,
Church congress at Bristol . . . Oct. 1864 April, 1865
" Oxford Declaration" (authorship ascribod to New form of clerical subscription proposed by
archdeacon Denison and Dr. Puscy), respect- a commission in 1864 ; adopted by parliament,
ins beltof in eternal punishment, drawn up ' July, ,,
and signed on Feb. 25, and sent by post to Church congress met at Norwich . Oct. 3-7 „
the clergy at large for signature : about 3000 Congress to be at York in .... iSftj
CHURCH OF IRELAND is now in connection with that of England—the United
Church of England and Ireland. Previously to the Church Temporalities Act of Will. IT.
in 1833, there were four archbishoprics and eighteen bishoprics in Ireland, of which two
archbishoprics and eight bishoprics have ceased ; that act providing for the union or abolition
of certain sees, according as the possessors of them died. See Bishops.
CHURCH of North Amf.rica. The Episcopal church was established in Nov. 1784,
when bishop Seabury, chosen by the churches in Connecticut, was consecrated in Scotland.
The first convention was held at Philadelphia in 1785. On Feb. 4, 1787, two more American
bishops were consecrated at Lambeth. In 1851 there were 37 bishops.
CHURCH of Scotland. See Bishops in Scotland. On the abolition of Episcopacy in
Scotland in 1638, Presbyterianism became the established religion. Its distinguishing tenets
were first embodied in the formulary of faith, said to have been compiled by John Knox, in
1560, which was approved by the parliament and ratified in 1567, finally settled by an act of
the Scottish senate in 1696, and secured by the treaty of union with England in 1707. The
church of Scotland is regulated by four courts—the general assembly,* the synod, the presby
tery, and kirk sessions. Sec Presbyterians. A largo body seceded from this church in
1843, and took the name of the " Free Church of Scotland," which sec.
CHURCH-RATES. The maintaining the church (i. e. the [building) in repair belongs
to the parishioners, who have the sole power of taxing themselves for the expense when
assembled in vestry. The enforcement of payment, which is continually disputed by dis
senters and others, belongs to the ecclesiastical courts. Many attempts have been made to
abolish church-rates. A bill for tliis pnrposo has passed the commons only several times
sinco 1855 ; one was thrown out in May, 1861. See Brainlree. .
CHURCH-SERVICES were ordered by pope Vitellianus to bo read in Latin 663 ; by
queen Elizabeth in 1558 to be read in English.
CHURCH-WARDENS, officers of the church, appointed by the first canon of the synod
of London in 1 127. Overseers in every parish were also appointed by the same body, and
they continue now nearly as then constituted. Johnson's Canons.
CHURCHING of Women is the act of returning thanks in the church by women after
child-birth. It began about 214. Wheallcy. See Purification.
CHUSAN, a Chinese isle. Seo China, 1840, 1841, 1S60.
CIDER IZidcr, German), when first made in England, was called wine, about 1284. The
earl of Manchester, when ambassador in France, is said to have frequently passed off cider
for a delicious wine. It was subjected to the excise in 1763 el seq. A powerful spirit is
drawn from cider by distillation. —Many orchards were planted in Herefordshire by lord
Scudamore, ambassador from Charles I. to France. John Philips published his poem
" Cider " in 1706.
CILICIA, in Asia Minor, partook of the fortunes of that country. It became a Roman
province 67 B.C., and was conquered by the Turks, a.d. 1387.
* The first general assembly of the church was held Dec. 20, 1560. Tho general assembly constitutes
the highest ecclesiastical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in Edinburgh in May, and sits about
ten days It consists of a grand commissioner, appointed by the sovereign, and delegates from presbyteries,
royal boroughs, and umv.rsitics. some being laymen. To this court all appeals from the inferior ecclesias
tical courts lie, and its decision is final.
CIM 179 CIR
CIMBRI, a Teutonic race, who came from Jutland, and invaded the Roman empire about
1 20 B.C. They defeated the Romans, under On. Paperius Carbo, 1x3 B.C. ; under tlie consul,
Marcus Silanus, 109 B.c, and under Maulius, on the banks of the Rhine, where 80,000
Romans were slain, 105 B.C. Their allies, tho Tcutones, were defeated by Marius in two
battles at Aqute Sextiaj (Aix) in Gaul ; 200,000 were killed, and 70,000 mado prisoners,
102 B.c, The Cimbri were defeated by Marius and Catulus, as they were again endeavouring
to enter Italy; 120,000 were killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, 101 B.C. They were
afterwards absorbed into the Teutones or Saxons.
CIMENTO (Italian, experiment). The "Accademia del C'imento," at Florence, held its
first meeting for making scientific experiments, June 18, 1657. It was patronised by
Ferdinand, grand duke of Tuscany. Its establishment was followed by the foundation of
the Royal Society of London in 1660, and the Academy of Sciences at Paris in 1666.
CINCINNATI. A society established in the American army soon after the pence of
1783, "to perpetuate friendship," and to raise a fund for relieving the widows and orphans
of those who had fallen during the war." On the badge was a figure of Cincinnatus. Tho
people dreading military influence, the officers gave up the society.
CINNAMON, a species of laurel in Ceylon, is mentioned among the perfumes of the
sanctuary, Exodus xxx. 23. It was found in the American forests, by Don Ulloa, in 1736,
and was cultivated in Jamaica and Dominica in 1788.
CINQUE-OENTO (five hundred) ; ter-ccnto, &c, see note to article Italy.
CINQUE PORTS, on the south coast of England, were originally five (hence the name)
—Dover, Hastings, Hythe, Romney, and Sandwich : Winchelsea and Rye were afterwards
added. Jeake. Their jurisdiction was vested in barons, called wardens, for the better security
of the coast, these ports being nearest to France, and considered the keys of the kingdom ;
instituted by William I. in 1078. Itapin. The latest lord-wardens were the duke of
Wellington, 1828-52 ; the marquess of Dalhousio, 1852-60 ; lord Palmerston, appointed
March, 1861.
CINTRA (Portugal). The convention of Cintra was concluded between the British army
under sir Hew Dalrymple, and the French under marshal Junot. By this compact, on Aug.
30, 1808, shortly after the battle of Vimeira (Aug. 22), the defeated French army was allowed
to evacuate Portugal in British ships, carrying with them all their spoil. The convention
was publicly condemned, and in consequence a court of inquiry was held at Chelsea, which
exonerated the British commanders, who, however, were never again employed. Wellington
and Napoleon both justified sir Hew Dalrymple.
CIRCASSIA (Asia, on N. side of the Caucasus). The Circassians arc said to be descended
from the Albanians. They were unsubdued, even by Timour. In the 16th century the
greater part of them acknowledged the authority of the czar, Ivan II. of Russia, and about
1 745, the princes of Kabarda took oaths of fealty. Many Circassians became Mahometans iu
the 18th century.
Circassia surrendered to Russia by Turkey by tinople, and suffer much distress, and are
the treaty of Adrianople (but the Circassians, relieved i860
under Schamyl, long resisted) . . . 1830 Tho last of the Circassian strongholds cap
Victories of Orbelliani over them tured, and the grand duke Michael declares
June, Nov., Dee., 1857 the war at an end . . . Juno 8, 1864
He subdues much of the country, and expels Above a million Circassians emigrate into
the inhabitants .... April, 1858 Turkey, and suffer many privations, par
Sehamyl, their great leader, captured, and tially relieved by the sultans government,
treated with much respect . . Sept. 7, 1859 June, tl *tq. ,,
About 20,000 Circassians emijfrate to Constan
CIRCENSIAN GAMES were combats in the Roman circus (at first in honour of Census,
the god of councils, but afterwards of Jupiter, Neptune, Juno, and Minerva), instituted by
Evander, and established at Rome 732 B.C. by Romulus, at the time of the rape of the
Sabincs. They were an imitation of the Olympian games among the Greeks, and, by way
of eminence, were called the Great games, but Tarquiu named them Circensian ; their
celebration continued from Sept. 4 to 12.
CIRCLE. The quadrature, or ratio of the diameter of the circle to its circumference,
has exercised the ingenuity of mathematicians of all ages. Archimedes, about 221 B.C.,
gave it as 7 to 22 ; Abraham Sharp (1717) as 1 to 3 and 72 decimals, and Laguy (1719) as
1 to 3 and 122 decimals.
x 2
CIR 180 CIR
CIRCLES of Germany (formed about 1500, to distinguish the members of the diet of
the empire) were, in 1512, Franconia, Bavaria, Upper and Lower Rhine, Westphalia, and
Saxony ; in 1789, Austria, Burgundy, Westphalia, Palatinate, Upper Rhine, Suabia, Bavaria,
Franconia, and Upper and Lower Saxony. In 1804 theso divisons were annulled by the
establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine, in 1806 (which see).
CIRCUITS in England were divided into three, and three justices were appointed to
each, 1 1 76. They were afterwards divided into four, with fivo justices to each division,
1 180. Rapin. They have been frequently altered. England and Wales are at present
divided into eight— each travelled in spring and summer for the trial of civil and criminal
cases ; the larger towns nro visited in winter for trials of criminals only : this is called
"going the circuit." There are monthly sessions for the city of London and county of
Middlesex.
CIRCULATING LIBRARY. Stationers lent books on hire in the middle ages. The
public circulating library in England, opened by Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister
of Salisbury, about 1 740, failed ; but similar institutions at Bath and in London succeeded,
and others were established throughout the kingdom. There was a circulating library at
Crane-court, London, in 1748, of which a catalogue in two vols, was published. —No books
can be token from the British Museum except for judicial purposes, but the libraries of the
Royal Society and the principal scientific societies, except that of the Royal Institution,
London, arc circulating.—The London Library (circulating) was founded in 1841, under the
highest auspices, and is of great value to literary men. — Of the subscription libraries
belonging to individuals, that of Mr. C. E. Mudie, in New Oxford-street, is the most
remarkable for the large quantity and good quality of the books : several hundreds, some
times thousands, of copies of a new work being in circulation. It was founded in 1842, and
grew into celebrity in Dec. 1848, when the first two volumes of Macaulay's History of
England were published, for which there was an unprecedented demand, which this library
supplied. The hall, having the walls covered with shelves filled with new books, was
opened in Dec. i860. The "Circulating Library Company" was founded in Jan. 1862.
CIRCULATION of the Blood. See Mood.
CIRCUMCISION (instituted 1897 B.C.) was the seal of the covenant made by God with
Abraham. It was practised by the ancient Egyptians, and is still by the Copts and sonic
oriental nations. The Festival of the Circumcision (of Christ), originally " the Octave of
Christmas," is mentioned about 487. It was introduced into the Liturgy in 1550.
CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the most daring human enterprises at the period
when it was first attempted, was the circumnavigation of the earth in 1519.*
Magellan first entered tho j Tasman, Dutch . . . 1643 James Cook .... 1768
Pacific Ocean . . . 1519 Cowley, British . . . 1683 On his death the voyage was
Groalva, Sjianiard . . . 1537 Dainpicr, English . . 1689 continued by King . . 1779
Avalradi, Spaniard . . ,, ; Cooke, English . . . . 1700 Bougainville, French . . 1776
Mendauu, Spaniard' . . . 1567 Clipperton, British . 1719 Portlocko, British . . . 178.
Sir Francis Drako, first Eng- 1 Roggowein, Dutch . . . 1721 King and Fitzroy, British 1826-36
lish 1577 Anson (afterwards lord) . 1740 Belcher, British . . 1836-42
Cavendish, first voyage . . 1586 Byron, English . . . . 1764 Wilkes, American . . 1838-42
Lo Mairo, Dutch . . . 1615 Wallis, British . . . 1766 See North- Wtal Pastage.
C^uiros, Spaniard . . . 1625 Carteret, English
CIRCUS. There were eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at Rome ; the largest,
the Circus Maximus, was built by the elder Tarquin, 605 B.C. It was an oval figure ; length
three stadia and a half, or more than three English furlongs; breadth 960 lioman feet. It
was enlarged by Julius Cresar so as to seat 150,000 persons, and was rebuilt by Augustus.
Julius Csesar introduced in it large canals of water, which could be quickly covered with
vessels, and represent a sea fight. Pliny. See Amphitheatres. In the 5th and 6th centuries
after Christ, Constantinople was greatly disturbed by the white, red, green, and blue factions
of the circus. In 501, about 3000 persons were killed. In Jan. 532 a fierce conflict between
the blue and green factions lasted five days, and was only suppressed by the efforts of
Belisarius after a frightful slaughter. The watchword was " Nika ! " (conquer).
CIRRHA, a town of Phocis (N. Greece), razed to the ground in the Sacred War, 586 B.C.,
for sacrilege.
• Tho first ship that sailed round the earth, and hence determined its being globular, was Magellan's,
or Magelhaon's ; he was a native of Poitugal, in the service of Spain, and by keeping a westerly course ho
i-L-tunioil to tho same place he had set out from in 1519. The voyage was completed in 3 years and 29 days;
but Magellan was killed on his homeward passnge, at tho Philippines, iu 1521.
CIS 181 CIV
CISALPINE REPUBLIC (N. Italy) was formed by the French in May, 1797, out of the
Cispadane and Transpadanc republics, acknowledged by the emperor of Germany to bo
independent, by the treaty of Campo Formio (which see), Oct. 17 following. It received
a new constitution in Sept. 1798 ; but merged into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805.
See Italy.
CISTERCIANS, an order of monks founded by Robert, a Benedictine, abbot of Citeaux
(the order of Citeaux), in France, near the end of the 1 ith century. For a time it governed
almost all Europe. The monks observed silence, abstained from flesh, lay on straw, and
wore neither shoes nor shirts. De Yilri. They were reformed by St. Bernard. See
Bernardines.
CITATE. The Russian general Gortschakoff, intending to storm Kalafat, threw up
redoubts at Citate, close to the Danube, which were stormed by the Turks under Omer
Pacha, Jan. 6, 1854. The fighting continued on the 7th, 8th, and 9th, when the Russians
were compelled to retire to their former position at Krajowa, having lost 1 500 killed and
2000 wounded. Tho loss of tho Turks was estimated at 338 killed and 700 wounded.
CITY. (French eiU, Italian cittd, Latin civitas.) Tho word has been used in England
only since the conquest, when London was called Londonburgh. Cities were first incorporated
1079. A town corporate is called a city when mado tho seat of a bishop and having a
cathedral church. Camden.
CITIZEN. It is not lawful to scourge a citizen of Rome. Livy. In England a citizen
is a person who is freo of a city, or who doth carry on a trade therein. Camden. Various
privileges have been conferred on citizens as freemen in several reigns. —The wives of citizens
of London (not being aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) were obliged to wear
minever caps, being white woollen knit three-cornered, with the peaks projecting three or
four inches beyond their foreheads ; aldermen's wives made them of velvet, I Lliz. 1558.
Stow. On Oct. 10, 1792, the convention decreed that "citoyen"and "citoyenne" should
be the only titles in France.
CIUDAD RODRIGO, a strong fortress of Spain, invested by the French, June II, 1810,
and surrendered to them July 10. It remained in their possession until it was stormed by
the British, under Wellington, Jan. 19, 1812.
CIVIL ENGINEERS. See Engineers.
CIVIL LAW. A body of Roman laws, founded upon the laws of nature and of nations,
was first collected by Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, who flourished about 66 B.C. ; and a
digest of them was made by Servius Sulpicius, tho civilian, 53 B.C. The Gregorian code
was issued A.D. 290 ; the Theodosian in 438. Many of the former laws having grown out of
use, the emperor Justinian ordered a revision of them (in 529-534), which was called the
Justinian code, and constitutes a large part of the present civil law. Civil law was restored
in Italy, Germany, &c. 1127. Blair. It was introduced into England by Theobald, a
Norman abbot, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury in 1138. It is now used in the spiritual
courts only, and in maritime affairs. See Doctors' Commons, and Laws.
CIVIL LIST. This now comprehends the revenue awarded to the kings of England in
lieu of their ancient hereditary income. The entire revenue of Elizabeth was not more than
600,000?., and that of Charles I. was about 800,000?. After tho revolution a civil .list
revenue was settled on the new king and queen of 700,000?., the parliament taking into its
own hands the support of the forces both maritime and military. The civil list of George II.
was increased to 800,000?. ; and that of George III. in the 55th year of his reign, was
1,030,000?.
In 1831, the civil list of the sovereign was fixed Sir H. Pnrnell's motion for inquiry into the
at 510,000!., and in Doc., 1837, the civil list civil list led to tho resignation of the Wel
of the queen was fixed at 385,000!. lington administration Nov. 15, 1830
Prince Albert obtained an exclusivo sum from A select committoo was appointed by the house
parliament of 30,000!. per an. on . Feb. 7, 1840 of commons for tho purposo . Feb. a, i86j
CIVIL SERVICE. Nearly 17,000 persons arc employed in this service under the
direction of tho treasury, and the home, foreign, colonial, post, and revenue offices, &c. In
1855 a commission reported most unfavourably on tho existing system of appointments,
and on May 21 commissioners were appointed to examine into tho qualifications of tho
candidates, who report annually. The civil service superannuation act passed in April,
1859. Civil service for the year (ending March 31) 1855, cost 7,735,515?. ; 1865, 10,205,413?.
CIV 182 CLA
CIVIL WARS. Sec England, France, &c.
CLANSHIPS were tribes of the same race, and commonly of the some name, and
originated in feudal times. See Feudal Laws. They are said to have arisen in Scotland, in
the reign of Malcolm II., about 1008. The legal power of the chiefs of clans and other
remains of heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scotland, and the liberty of the English
was granted to clansmen in 1747, in consequence of the rebellion of 1745. The following
is a list of all the known clans of Scotland, with the badge of distinction anciently worn by
each. The chief of each respective clan was, and is, entitled to wear two eagle's feathers in
his bonnet, in addition to the distinguishing badge of his clan. Chambers. A history of the
clans by Wm. Buchanan was published in 1775.
Name. Bmhje. Name. Badge. Name. Badge.
Buchanan . Birch. Turnout . . Cral>-apple tree. I M'Ncil . . Sea-ware.
Cameron . Oak. M'Alister . Five-lcaved heath. I M'Quarrie . Blackthorn.box-wd.
1 M'Pherson . Variegated
Campbell . Myrtle. M'Donald . Bell-heath.
Chisholm . Alder. M'Dnnnoll . Mountain heath. I M'Rjte . . Fir-club moss.
Colquhoun . Hazel, M'Dougall . Cypress. Menzies . Ash.
dimming . Common sallow. M'Farlane . Cloud-borry bush. Munro . . Eagle's feathers.
Drumniond . Holly. M'Gregor . Pine. Murray . Juniper.
Farquharson Purplo foxglove. M'Intosh . Box-wood. Ogilvie . . Hawthorn.
Ferguson . Poplar. M'Kay . . Bull-rush. Oliphant . Groat maple.
Forbes . . Broom. M'Kenzio . Deer-grass. ! Robertson . Fern, orbrechana.
Frazer . , Yew. M Kinnon . St. John's wort Roso . . Briar-rose.
Gordon . . Ivy. M'Lachlan . Mountain- ash. Ross . . Bear-berries.
Graham . Laurel. M'Loan . . Blackberry heath. '■ Sinclair . . Clover.
Grant . . Cnmberry heath. M'Leod . Bed whortlo-berries. Stewart . Thistle.
Gun . . Rosewort. M'Nab . . Roso blackberries. 1 Sutherland . Cats-tail grass.
CLARE and Clarence (Suffolk). Richard de Clare, earl of Gloucester, is said to have
seated here a monastery of the order of Friars Eremites, the first of this kind of mendicants
who came to England, 1248. Tanner. Lionel, third son of Edward III. becoming possessed
of the honour of Clare, by marriage, was created duke of Clarence. The title has ever since
belonged to a branch of the royal family.*—Clare was the first place in Ireland for 140
years that elected a Roman Catholic member of parliament. See Roman Catholics. At the
election, held at Ennis, the county town, Mr. Daniel O'Connell was returned, July 5, 1828.
He did not sit till after the passing of the Catholic Emancipation Act, in 1829, being re
elected July 30, 1829.
CLARE, Nuns of St., a sisterhood, called Minoresses, founded in Italy about 1212.
This order settled in England, in the Minories without Aldgate, London, about 1293.
by Blanche, queen of Navarre, wife of Edmund, earl of Lancaster, brother of Edward i.
At the suppression, the site was granted to the bishopric of Bath and "Wells, 1539. Tanner.
CLAREMONT (Surrey), the residence of the princess Charlotte (daughter of the prince-
regent, afterwards George IV.), and the scene of her death, Nov. 6, 1817. The house was
originally built by sir John Vanbrugh, and was the seat successively of the earl of Clare,
afterwards duke of Newcastle, of lord Clive, lord Galloway, and the earl of Tyrconnel. It
was purchased of Mr. Ellis by government for 65,000?. for the prince and princess of Saxe-
Coburg ; and the former, now king of Belgium, assigned it to prince Albert in 1840. The
exiled royal family of France took up their residence at Clarcmont, March 4, 1848 ; and the
king, Louis-Philippe, died there, Aug. 29, 1850.
CLARENCIEUX, the second king-at-arms, formerly subject to the duke of Clarence;
his duty was to arrange the funerals of all the lower nobility, as baronets, knights, esquires,
and gentlemen, on the south side of the Trent, from whence he is also called sur-roy or
south-roy.
CLARENDON, Constitutions of, were enacted at a council held Jan. 25, 1164, at
Clarendon, in "Wiltshire, the object of which was to retrench the then enormous power of the
clergy. They were the ground of Beckct's quarrel with Henry II., and were at first con
demned by the pope, but afterwards agreed to in 11 73.
* Ppke9 of Claiienok: 1362. Lionel, born 1338, died 1369. See York, dvlrn of. —1411, Thomas (second
son of Henry IV.), horn 1389, killed at Dau^e" 1421.-1461, Georpre (brother of Edward IV.), murdered 1478.
—1789, William (tbird son of George 111 ), afterwards William IV.
CLA 183 CLE
CLARENDON, Constitutions of, continued.
I. All suits concerning advowsons to bo deter jectod to tho burthens bolonging to that rank.
mined in civil courts. X. Churchos belonging to tho king's seo not to bo
II. The clergy accused of any crime to bo tried by granted in perpetuity against his will.
civil judges. XI. Excommunicated persons not to bo bound to
III. No person of any rank whatever to be per give security for continuing iu their abode.
mitted to leave the realm without the royal licence. XII. No inhabitant in demesne to be excommuni
IV. Laics not to bo accused in spiritual courts, cated for non-appearance in a spiritual court.
except by legal and reputable promoters and wit- XIII. If any tenant in capiie should refuse sub
mission to spiritual courts, the case to be referred
V. No chiof tenant of the crown to be excommu to the king.
nicated, or his lands put under interdict. XIV. Tho clergy no longor to pretend to tho right
VI. Revenues of vacant seos to belong to the kiug. of enforcing dobts contracted by oath or promise.
VII. Goods forfeited to the crown not to be pro XV. Caused between laymen and ecclesiastics to
tected in churches. bo determined by a jury.
VIII. Sons of villains not to bs ordained clerks XVI. Appeals, , . to. be ultimately carried to tho king,
without the consent of their lord. and no further without his consent.
IX. Bishops to be regarded as barons, and be aub-
CLARENDON PRINTING-OFFICE, Oxford, erected by sir John Vanbrugh, in 1711-13,
the expenso being defrayed out of the profits of lord Clarendon's History of the Rebellion,
the copyright of which was given by his son to the university. Tho original building has
been converted into a museum, lecture-rooms, ftc, and a new printing-office erected by
Blore and Robertson, 1826-9. Sharp.
CLARION, it is said by Spanish writers, invented by tho Moors in Spain, about 8oo, was
at first a trumpet, serving as a treble to trumpets sounding tenor and baas. Ashe. Its tube
is narrower and its tone shriller than the common trumpet. Pardon.
CLARIONET, a wind instrument of the reed kind, invented by Joseph Denner, in
Nuremberg, about 1690.
' CLASSIS. The name was first used by Tullius Servius (the sixth king of ancient Rome),
in making divisions of tho Roman people, 573 B.C. The first of the six classes were called
classici, by way of eminence, and hence authors of the first rank (especially Greek and Latin)
came to be called classics.
CLAVICHORD, a musical instrument in the form of a spinnet (called also a manichord) ;
much in use in France, Spain, and Germany, in the 17th century.
CLEARING-HOUSE. In 1775, a building in Lombard-street was set apart for the use
of bankers, in which they might exchange cheques, bills, and securities, and thereby savo
labour and curtail the amount of floating cash reqnisi te to meet the settlement of the dill'creut
houses, if effected singly. By means of transfer tickets, transactions to the amount of
millions daily are sottled without the intervention of a bank note. In 1861, the clearing
house was used by 117 companies, and on May, 1864, it was joined by the Bank of England.
The railway clearing-house in Scyniour-streut, near Euston-square, is regidated by an act
passed in 1850.
CLEMENTINES, apocryphal pieces, attributed to Clemens Romanus, a contemporary of
St. Paul, and said to have succeeded St. Peter as bishop of Rome. He died 102. Jficerim.
Also the decretals of pope Clement V. who died 13 14, published by his successor. Boimjcr.
Also Augustine monks, each of whom having been a superior nine years, then merged into
a common monk. Clemf-ntines were the adherents of Robert, son of the count of Geneva,
who took the title of Clement VII. on the death of Gregory XL, 1378, and Urbanists,
those of pope Urban VI. All Christendom was divided by the claims of these two pontill's :
Franco, Castile, Scotland, &c, adhering to Clement ; Rome, Italy, and England, declaring
for Urban. The schism ended in 1409, when Alexander V. was elected pope, aud his rivals
resigned. See Anti-Popes.
CLEPSYDRA, a water-clock. Sec Clocks.
CLERGY (from tho Greek kleras, a lot or inheritance) in tho first century were termed
presbyters, elders, or bishops, and deacons. The bishops (episcopoi or overseers), elected from
tho presbyters, in the second century assumed higher functions (about 330), and, under
Constantino, obtained the recognition and protection of the secular power. Under the Lombard
and Norman kings in the 7th and 8th centuries, the clergy began to possess temporal power,
as owners of lands ; and after the establishment of monauhism, a distinction was made
184 CLI
between the regular clergy, who lived apart from the world, in accordance with a regula or
rule, and the secular (worldly) or beneficed clergy. Sec Ch urch of England. *
CLERGY CHARITIES. The Clergymen's Widows' and Orphans' Corporation was
established in England, 1670, and incorporated 1678. William Assheton, an eminent theo
logical writer, was the first proposer of a plan to provide for the families of deceased clergy.
Walls's Life of Assheton. The festival of the " Sons of the Clergy," held annually at St.
Paul's cathedral, was instituted about 1655 ; the charity called the "Sons of the Clergy"
was incorporated July I, 1678. There are several other charities for the relatives of the
clergy.
CLERICAL SUBSCRIPTION.ACT, passed July, 1865.
CLERK. Sec Clergy.
CLERKENWELL, a parish near London, so called from a well (fons clericorum) in Ray-
street, where the parish-clerks occasionally acted mystery plays ; once before Richard II. in
1390. Hunt's political meetings in 181 7 were held in Spa-fields in this parish. In St.
John's parish are the remains of the priory of tho knights of St. John of Jerusalem.
Clerkemvell prison was built in 1615, in lieu of the noted prison called the Cage, which was
taken down in 16 14 ; the then Bridewell having been found insufficient. The prison called
the House of Detention, erected in 1775, was rebuilt in 1818 ; again 1844. At Clerkenwell-
close formerly stood the house of Oliver Cromwell, where some suppose the death-warrant of
Cliarles I. was signed, Jan. 1649.
CLERMONT (France). Here was held the council under pope Urban II. in 1095. in
which the first crusade against the infidels was determined upon, and Godfrey of Bouillon
appointed to command it. In this council the name of pope was first given to the head of
the Roman Catholic Church, exclusively of the bishops who used previously to assume the
title. Philip I. of France was (a second time) excommunicated by this assembly. IJenault.
CLEVES (N.E. Germany). Rutger, count of Geres, lived at the beginning of tho nth
century. Adolphus, count of Mark, was made duko of Cleves by the emperor Sigisinund,
14 1 7. John William, duke of Cleves. Berg, Juliers, &c, died without issue, March 25, 1609,
which led to a war of succession. Eventually Cleves was assigned to the elector of Brandenburg
in 1666 ; seized by the French in 1757; restored at the peace in 1763, and now forms part of
the Prussian dominions.
CLIFTON SUSPENSION-BRIDGE, over the Avon, connecting Gloucestershire and
Somersetshire, constructed of the removed Hungerford-bridge, was completed in Oct. 1864 ;
opened Dec. 8, 1864. It is said to have the largest span (702 feet) of any chain bridge in
the world. In 1753 alderman Vick of Bristol, bequeathed 1000/. to accumulate for the
erection of a bridge over tho Avon. In 1831 Brunei began one which was abandoned after
the expenditure of 45,000/.
CLIMACTERIC, the term applied to certain periods of time in a man's life (multiples of
7 or 9), in which it is affirmed notable alterations in the health and constitution of a person
happen, and expose him to imminent dangers. Cotgrave says, "Every 7th or 9th or 63rd
year of a man's life, all very dangerous, but the last most." The grand climacteric is 63.
Hippocrates is said to have referred to these periods in 383 B.C. Much misemployed
erudition has been expended on this subject.
* The clergy were first styled clerks, owing to tho judges bein^r chosen after the Xorman custom from
the sacred order, and the officers being clergy : this gave tliem that denomination, which they keep to this
day. lltaekrtom'* Comm. " As the Druids," says Pasquier, " kept tho keys of their religion and of letters,
so did the pricste keep both these to themselves ; they alone made profession of letters, and a man of letters
was called a clerk, and hence learning went by the name of clerkship." Tho English clergy add " clerk" to
their namo in legal documents.— In 992, the distinction began in France. lNnault.—Tho Benefit of Clergy,
Prieileinum Clericale, arose in the regard paid by Christian princes to the church, and consisted of: ist, an
exemption of places consecrated to religious duties from criminal arrests, which was the foundation of
sanctuaries ; 2nd, exemption of the persons of clergymen from criminal process beforo the secular judge,
in particular cases, which was tho original meaning of the privilettiuin cUricalr. In the course of time, how
ever, tho beiiejlt of clergy extended to every one who could read, which was thought a great proof of learn
ing ; and it was enacted, that there should be a prerogative allowed to the clergy, that if any man who
could read wero to be condemned to death, the bishop of tho diocese might, if he would, claim him as a
clerk, and dispose of him in some places of the clergy as he might deem meet. Tho ordinary gave tho
prisoner at the bar a Latin book, in a black Gothic character, from which to read a verso or two ; and if the
ordinary said, " Lepit ut Clericu* " (" He reads like a clerk "), tho offender was only burnt in the hand;
otherwise he suffered death, 3 Edw. I. (1274). This privilege was restricted by Honry VII. in 1489, and
abolished, with respect to murderers and other great criminals, by Henry VIII., 1512. Stow. The reading
was discontinued by 5 Anno, c. 6 (1706). Benefit of clergy was wholly repealed by statute 7 & 8 Geo. IV.
e. 28 (1827).
CLI IS;3 CLO
CLIO. The initials C. L. I. 0., forming the name of the muse of history, were rendered
famous from the most admired papers of Addison, in the Spectator, having been marked by
one or other of them, signed consecutively, in 1713. Ctbber.
CLOACA MAXIMA, the chief of the celebrated sewers at Rome, the construction of
which is attributed to king Tarquinius Priseus (588 B. c.) and his successors.
CLOCK. The clepsydra, or water-clock, was introduced at Rome about 158 B.C. by
Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesibius, about 140 B.c. Said to
have been found by Ctesar on invading Britain, 55 B.C. The only clock supposed to be then
in the world was sent by pope Paul L to Pepin, king of France a.d. 760. Pacifieus, arch
deacon of Genoa, invented one in the 9th century. Originally the wheels were three feet in
diameter. The earliest complete clock of which there is any certain record was made by
a Saracen mechanic in the thirteenth century. Alfred is said to have measured time by wax
tapers, and to have invented lanterns to defend them from the wind about 887.
The scapement ascribed to Gerbert . . . 1000 ' lum. about 1659
A great clock put up at Canterbury cathedral, Repeating clocks and watches invented by
cost 30I. ........ 1292 Barlow, about 1676
A clock constructed by Richard, abbot of St. The dead beat, and horizontal escapements, by
Alban's, about ...... 1326 Graham, about 1700
John Visconto sets up a clock at Genoa . . 1353 The spiral balance spring suggested, and the
A striking clock in Westminster . . . 1368 duplex scapement, invented by Dr. Hooke ;
A perfect one made at Paris, by Vick . . . 1370 pivot holes jewelled by Facio ; the detached
The first portable one made . . . 1 530 scapom'int, invented by Mud(?e, and ira proved
In England no clock went accurately before by Berthould. Arnold, Earnshaw, and others
that set up at Haniptou-court (maker's in the 18th century,
initials, N.O.) 1540 narrison's time-piece {which kc) constructed . 1735
Richard Harris (who erected a clock at St. Clocks and watches taxed, 1707 ; tax repealed 1798
Paul's. Covent-garden) and the younger The Horulosrical Institute established . . 1858
Galileo constructed the pendulum . . 1641 The great Westminster clock set up . May 30, 1859
Christian Huygens contested this discovory, 266,750 clocks and 88,621 watches imported into
and made his pendulum clock some time pre the United Kingdom ill 1857 ; the duty came
viously to 1658 off in 1861.
Fromantil, a Dutchman, improved the pendu- 1 (See Electric Clock, under Electricity.)
CLOGHER (Ireland). St. Macartin, a disciple of St. Patrick, fixed a bishopric at
Clogher, where he also built an abbey "in the street bofore the royal seat of the kings of
Krgal." He died in 506. Clogher takes its name from a golden stone, from which, in times
of paganism, the devil used to pronounce juggling answers, like the oracles of Apollo Pylhius.
Sir James Ware. In 1041 the cathedral was built anew and dedicated to its founder.
Clogher merged, on the death of its last prelate (Dr. Tottenham), into the archiepiscopal see
of Armagh, by the act of 1834.
CLONFERT (Ireland). St. Brendan founded an abbey at Clonfert in 558 : his life is
extant in jingling monkish metre in the Cottonian library at Westminster. In his time tho
cathedral, famous in ancient days for its seven altars, was erected ; and Colgan makes St.
Brendan its founder and the first bishop ; but it is said in the Ulster Annals, under tho
year57i, "Mania, bishop of Clonfert-Brenain, went to rest." Clonfert, in Irish, signifies a
wonderful den or retirement. In 1839 the see merged into that of Killaloe. See Bishops.
CLONTARF (near Dublin), the site of a battle fought on Good Friday, April 23, 1014,
between the Irish and Danes, the former headed by Bryan Boroiinhe, monarch of Ireland,
who signally defeated the invaders, after a Ion" and bloody engagement, but was wounded,
and soon afterwards died. His son Murchard also fell with many of the nobility ; 1 1,000 of
the Danes are said to have perished in the battle.
CLOSTERSEVEN (Hanover), Contention of, was entered into Sept. 8, 1757, between
the duke of Cumberland, third son of George II., and the duke of Richelieu, commander of
the French armies. By its humiliating stipulations, 38,000 Hanoverians iaid down their
arms, and were dispersed. The duke immediately afterwards resigned all his military
commands. The convention was soon broken by both parties.
CLOTH. See Woollen Cloth and Calico.
CLOUD, St., a palace, near Paris, named from prince Clodoald or Cloud, who became a
monk there in 533, after the murder of his brothers, and died in 560. The palace was built
in the 16th century, and in it Henry II. was assassinated by Clement in 1589.
CLOUDS consist of minute particles of water, often in a frozen state, floating in tho air.
In 1803 Mr. Luke Howard published his classification of clouds, now generally adopted,
consisting of three primary forms—cirrus, cumulus, and stratus ; three compounds of these
CLO 186 COA
forms ; and the nimbus or black rain-elonds (cumulo-cirro-stratus). A new edition of
Howard's Essay on the Clouds appeared in 1865.
CLOVESHOO (now Cliff), Kent. Here was held an important council of nobility and
clergy concerning the government and discipline of the church, Sept. 747 ; and others were
held here 800, 803, 822, 824.
CLOYNE (S. Ireland), a bishopric, founded in the 6th century by St. Coleman, in
143 1 united to that of Cork, and so continued for 200 years. It was united with that of
Cork and Ross, 1834. See Bishops.
CLUBMEN, associations formed in the southern and western counties of England, to
restrain the excesses of the armies during the civil wars, 1642-9. They professed neutrality,
but inclined towards the king, and were considered enemies by his opponents.
CLUES, originally consisted of a small number of persons of kindred tastes and pursuits,
who met together at stated times for social intercourse. The club at the Mel-maid tavern,
established about the end of the 16th century, consisted of Kaleigh, Shakspcare, and
others. Ben Jonson set up a club at the Devil tavern. Addison, Steele, and others, fre
quently met at Button's coffee-house, as described in tho SjKctalor. The present London
clubs, some comprising 300, others about 15CX3 members, possess luxuriously furnished
edifices, several of great architectural pretensions, in or near Pall Mall. The members
obtain the choicest viands and wines at very moderate charges. Many of the elubs possess
excellent libraries, particularly the Athenaeum (which, sec). The annual payment varies from
6/. to ill. us. ; the entrance fee from gl. 9s. to 314 11*. The following are the principal
clubs :—
Kit-Cut (zehieh sti) . . . 1703 United Scrvico . . . 1815 Ablwtaford, Edinburgh . . 1835
Beef-Steak (which see) . . 1735 Travellers' 1819 Reform (Liberal) . . . 1836
White's ( Tory), established . 1736 Union 1821 Parthenon . . . ...
Boodle's 1762 United University . . . 1822 Army and Navy . . . 1837
Literary Club (ichich tee), Bannatyno, Edinburgh . . 1823 Etching, London . . . 1838
termed also " The' Club," Athcnreum (irhkh get) . . 1824 Spalding, Aberdeen . . . 1S39
and Johnson's Club . . 1763 Oriental 1 Conservative .... 1840
Brooke's (Whig) . . . 1764 United Servico (Junior) . 1827 Whittington (founded by-
Alfred 1808 Wyndham 1828 Douglas Jcrrold and others) 1S46
Guards* . . . May 1, 1810 Maitland. Glasgow . . .
Arthur's 1811 Oxford and Cambridgo . . 1829 Sec Working Men's Clubs.
Roxburghc, London . . . 1812 Carlton (ConservtUive) . . 1832
CLUBS, French. The first of these arose about 1782. They were essentially political,
and were greatly concerned in the revolution. The Club Breton became the celebrated Club
des Jacobins, and the Club des Cordeliers comprised among its members Danton and Camille
Desmoulins. From these two clubs came the Mounlain party which overthrew the Giron
dists in 1793, and fell in its turn in 1794. The clubs disappeared with the Directory in
1799. They were revived in 1848 in considerable numbers, but did not attain to their
former eminence, and were suppressed by decrees, in Juno 22, 1849, and June 6, 1850.
Bouillct.
CLUB-FOOT, a deformity produced by the shortening of one or more of the muscles,
although attempted to be cured by Lorenz in 1784, by cutting the tendo Achillis, was not
effectually cured till 1831, when Stromeyer of Erlangen cured Dr. Little by dividing the
tendons of the contracted muscles with a very thin knife. Judicious after-treatment ia
required.
CLUGNY, on Cluny, Abbey op, in France, formerly most magnificent, founded by
Benedictines, under the abbot Bern, about 910, and sustained afterwards by William, duke
of Berry and Aquitainc. English foundations for Cluniac monks were instituted soon after.
CLYDE and FORTH "Wall was built by Agricola 84. The Forth and Clyde Canal
was commenced by Mr. Smcaton, July 10, 1768, and was opened July 28, 1790. It forms a
communication between the seas on the eastern and western coasts of Scotland.
CNIDUS, in Caria, Asia Minor ; near here Conon the Athenian defeated the I,acede-
monian fleet, under Peisander, 394 B.C.
COACH (from couchcr, to lie). Beckmann states that Charles of Anjou's queen entered
Naples in a caret/a (about 1282). Under Francis I. there were but two in Paris, ono
belonging to the queen, the other to Diana, the natural daughter of Henry II. There were
but three in Paris in 1550; and Henry IV. had one without straps or springs. John de
Laval de Bois-Dauphin set up a coach on account of his enormous bulk. The first coach
seen in England was about 1553. Coaches were introduced by Fitz-Allen, earl of Arundel,
COA 187 COA
in 1580. State. A bill was brought into parliament to prevent the effeminacy of men
riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601.* Carte. Ke pealed 1625. The coach-tax commenced in
1747. Horace Walpole says that the present royal state coach (first used Nov. 16, 1762)
cost 7528/. See Car, Carriages, Chariots, Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c.
COAL.+ It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coal, although not mentioned
by the Romans in their notices of Britain, was yet in use by the ancient Britons. Brandt.
Henry III. is said to have granteda licence to dig coals near Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1234;
some say earlier, and others in 1239. Sea-coal was prohibited from being used in and near
London, as being "prejudicial to human health ; " and even smiths were obliged to burn
wood, 1273. Stow. In 1306 the gentry petitioned against its use. Coal wns first made an
article of trade from Newcastle to London, 4 Rich. II. 1381. JRi/rner's Fcedcra. Notwith
standing the many previous complaints against coal as a public nuisance, it was at length
generally burned in London in 1400 ; but it was not in common use in England until the
reign of Charles I. 1625.
COAL CONSUMED IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YFAIIS.
1700 ■ ■ . 317,000 chald. I 1810 .... 980,372 chald. I 1835 •. . . 2,299,816 tons.
1750 . . . . 510,000 ditto. 1820. . . . 1,171,178 ditto. 1840 . . . . 2,638,356 ditto.
1800 . . . 814,000 ditto. I 1830 . . . 1,588,360 ditto. I 1850 . . . 3,638,883 ditto.
1860.—Coal brought to London, 3,573,377 tons coast ways ; 1,499,899 tons by railways and canals.
1861.— „ „ 5,232,082 tons; in 1862, 4,973,823 tons.
The coal-fields of Great Britain arc estimated at" An act for tho regulation and inspection of
5400 square miles ; of Durham and Northum mines was passed In . . . ; . . i860
berland, 723 Bquare miles. Bakewell. In Coal-pitmen's strikes frequently occur ; a long
1857 about 654 millions of tons were ex and severe one arose in Staffordshire in . 1864
tracted (value about 16,348,676/.) from 2095 0
collieries ; about 25 millions are consumed Accidksts. —About 1000 lives are lost annually by
annually in Great Britain. accidents in coal-mines.
Coal obtained in Great Britain and Ireland :— In 1858, by explosions in coal-mines, 52 persons
In 1 861, 86,417,941 tons ; in 1862, 81,638,338 perished at Bardsley ; 20 at DufTryn, near Newport ;
tons ; in 1863, 86,292,215 tons (valued at 52 at Tyldesley, near Leeds ; and about 36 in different
51,000,0000 ; in 1864 (from 3268 collieries), parts of the country.
92,787,873 tons. On April 5, 1859*, 26 lives were lost at tho chain
Mr. Sopwitb, in 1855, computed tho annual colliery, near Neath, through the irruption of water.
product of tho coal-mines of Durham and In i860, 76 lives were lost on March 2, at Burra-
Northumberland at 14 million tons :—6 mil don, near Killingworth ; 145 at the Risca mine, near
lions for London, 24 millions exported, 2$ Newport, Dec. 1 ; aud 22 at the Hotton mine, North
millions for coke, 1 million for colliery en umberland, Dec. 20.
gines, &c, and 2 millions for local consump On June 11, 1861, 21 lives were lost through an
tion. inundation in the Claycross mines, Derbyshire.
By a stipulation in tho commercial treaty ot In 1862, 47 lives wtro lost at Cethin mine, Merthyr
i860, in consequence of the French govern TydviU, H. Wales, Feb. 19 ; at Wulker, near New
ment greatly reducing the duty on imported castle on-Tyne, 1 s lives lost, Nov. 22 ; Edmund's
coal, the British government (it is thought Main, near Barnsley, 60 lives lost, Dec. 8.
by many imprudently) engaged to lay no In 1863, 13 lives lost atCoxbridg«\ near Newcastle,
duty on exported coal for ten years. In 1859 March 6 ; 39 lives lost at Margam, S. Wales, Oct. 17 ;
about 7,000,000 tons of British coals were 14 lives lost at Moestig, S. Wales, Doc. 26.
exported, of which 1,391,009 tons went to In 1S65, 6 lives lost at Claycross, May 3; 24 at
France. New Bodwclty pit, near Tredegar, Juno 16.
The first ship laden with Irish coal arrived in (For still more fatal accidents, see Lundhill and
Dublin from Newry 1742 Hartley.)
Sale of Coal Regulation Act 1831 85 lives were lost at Lallo coal mine, in France, in
The duties on the exportation of British coal, Oct. 1861.
which had existed since tho 16th century,
were practically repealed 1834 Coal Exchange, London, established by 47
Geo. III. c. 68(1807). 'II10 present building
Sir R. Peel imposed a duty of 4*. a ton in 1842 ; (to most interesting structure) was erected by
caused much dissatisfaction ; repealed . . 1S45 Mr. J. B. Bunning, and opened by prince
Women were prohibited from working in Eng Albert Oct. 30, 1849
lish collieries in 1842
The consumption of coal in France, in 1780 only CoAL-wniPPERs' Board, to protect the men
400.000 tons, rises to 6,000,000 tons in 1845. employed in unloading coal-vcsselB from pub
The United States produced between 8 and 9 licans, formed by an act of parliament in
millions of tons; Belgium, 5,000,000; and 1843, LiRted till 1856, when the coal-owncra
France, 4,500,000, in . 1855 themselves established a whipping-office.
* In the beginning of the year 1619. tho earl of Northumberland, who had been imprisoned over since
the gunpowder plot, obtained his lilwration. Hearing that Buckingham was drawn about with six horses
in his coach (being tho first that was so), tho earl put on eight to his, and in that manner passed from tho
Tower through the city. Rapin.
t There are five kinds of fossil fuel : anthracite, coal, lignite, bituminous shale, and bitumen. No satis
factory definition of coal has yet been given. The composition of wood is 491 carbon, 6 3 hydrogen, 44-6
oxygen ; of coal 82 6 carbon, 5^6 hydrogen, 118 oxygen.
COA 1SS coc
COALITIONS against France generally arose through England subsidising the great
powers of the continent. They were entered into as follows : —
Austria, Pnissi-i, and Great Britain . . .1793 Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony,
Great Oct. 6, 1806
■ - tugal,Britain, Germany, Russia,
and Turkey, signed . Naples,
JunoPor-
22, 1799 England and Austria . . . April 6, 1809
Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Naples, Russia and Prussia ; the treaty ratified at
Aug. 5, 1805 Kalisch March 17, 1813
See Trtatia.
COALITION MINISTRY. See Portland.
COAST GUARD. In 1856, the raising and governing this body was transferred to the
admiralty. A coast brigade of artillery was established in Nov. 1859.
COAST VOLUNTEERS. See under Navy of England.
COBALT, a rare mineral found among the veins of ores, or in the fissures of stone, at an
early date, in the mines of Cornwall, where the workmen call it mundic Hill. It was
distinguished as a metal by Brandt, in 1733.
COBURG. See Saxc-Coburg. \ .
COCCEIANS, a small sect founded by John Cocceius, of Bremen, about 1665, who held,
amongst other opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this world, after a general
conversion of the Jews and all other people to the Christian faith.
COCHIN (India), held by the Portuguese, 1503; by the Dutch, 1663 ; taken by the
British, 1735 ; ceded to them 1814.
COCHIN CHINA or ANAM, which see.
COCHINEAL INSECT {Coccus cadi), derives its colour from feeding on the cactus, and
became known to tho Spaniards soon after their conquest of Mexico in 1518. Cochineal
was brought to Europe about 1523, but was not known in Italy in 1548, although the art of
dyeing then flourished there. In 1858 it was cultivated successfully in Teneriffe, the
vines having failed through disease. 260,000 lbs. of cochineal were imported into England
in 1830 ; 1,081,776 lbs. in 1845 ; 2,360,000 lbs. in 1850 ; and 3,034,976 lbs. in 1859. Duty
repealed 1845.
COCKER'S ARITHMETIC. Tho work edited by John Hawkins, first appeared in 1677.
COCK-FIGHTING, practised by the Greeks. It was introduced at Rome after a victory
over the Persians, 476 B.C. ; and was brought by the Romans into England. William Fitz-
Stephen, in the reign of Henry II., describes cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on
Shrove-Tuesday. It was prohibited by Edward III. 1365 ; by Henry VIII.; and by
Cromwell, 1653. Part of the site of Drury-lane theatre was a cock-pit in the reign of James
I. ; and the cock-pit at Whitehall was erected by Charles II. Till within these few years
there was a Cock-pit Royal in St James's Park ; but the governors of Christ's Hospital would
not renew the lease for a building devoted to cruelty.* Cock-fighting is now forbidden
by law.
COCK-LANE GHOST, an imposition practised by William Parsons, his wife, anil
daughter, by means of a female ventriloquist, during 1760 and 1761, carried on at No.
33, Cock-lane, London, was at length detected, and the parents were condemned to the
pillory and imprisonment, July 10, 1 762.
COCOA, or Cacao, the kernel or seed of the tree Theobroma cacao (Linn.), was introduced,
into this country shortly after the discovery of Mexico, where it forms an important article
of diet. From cocoa is produced chocolate. The cocoa imported into the United Kingdom,
chiefly from the Uritish West Indies and Guiana, was in 1849, 1,989,477 lbs. ; in 185 1,
4,349,051 lbs.; in 1855, 7,343,458 lbs.; in 1859, 6,006,759 lbs.'; in 1861, 9,080,288 lbs. ;
in 1864, 7,920,912 lbs., about half for homo consumption. -
* Mr. Ardesoif, a gentleman oflarge fortune and great hospitality, who was almost unrivalled in the
splendour of his equipages, had a favourite cock, upon which ho had won many profitable matches. The
last wager he laid upon this cock he lost, which so enraged him, that in a fit of passion he thrust the bird
into the fire. A delirious fever, the result of his rago and inebriety, in threo days put an end to his life.
He died at Tottenham, near London, April 4, j788.—On April 22, 1865, 34 persons wero fined at Marl-
borough-street police-office, for being present at a cock-fight.
coc 1S9 COH
COCOA-NUT TREE (Cocoa nucifera, Linn.), supplies the Indians with almost all they
need, as bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles, clothes,
thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, cordage, nails, covering
for their houses, 4c. Say. In Sept. 1829, Mr. Soamcs patented his mode of procuring
stearine and elnine from cocoa-nut 01L It is said that 32 tons of candles have been made in
a month from these materials at the Belmont works, Lambeth.
CODES, see Laws. Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, first collected tho Roman laws about
66 B.C. ; and Servius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them about 53 B.C. The Gregorian
and Hermoginian codes were published a.d. 290 ; the Theodosian code in 438 ; the celebrated
code of the emperor Justinian, in 529—a digest from this last was made in 533. Alfred's
code of laws is the foundation of the common law of England, 887. The Code Napoleon,
the civil code of France, was promulgated from 1803 to 1810. The emperor considered it
his most enduring monument. It was prepared under his supervision by the most eminent
jurists, from the 400 systems previously existing. It has been adopted by other countries.
CODFISH. See Holland, 1347.
COD-LIVER OIL was recommended as aromedy for chronic rheumatism by Dr. Pcrcival
in 1782, and for diseases of the lungs about 1838. De Jongh's treatise on coa-liver oil was
published in Latin in 1844 ; in English in 1849.
CQ5UR de LION, or the Lion-Hearted, a surname given to Richard I. of England,
on account of his courage about 1192 ; and also to Louis VIII. of France, who signalised
himself in the crusades, and in his wars against England, about 1223.
COFFEE. The tree was conveyed from Mocha in Arabia to Holland about 1616 ; and
carried to the West Indies in 1726. First cultivated at Surinam by the Dutch, 1718. The
culture was encouraged in tho plantations about 1732, and the British and French colonies
now grow the cotfee-treo abundantly. Its use as a beverage is traced to the Persians. It
came into great repute in Arabia Felix, about 1454 ; and passed thence into Egypt and Syria,
and thence (in 151 1) to Constantinople, where a coffee-house was opened in 155 1 . M.
Thevenot, the traveller, was the first who brought it into France, to which country he returned
after an absence of seven years, in 1662. Chambers.
Cuffcc was brought into England by Mr. Natha Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant,
niel Canopus, a Cretan, who mado it his brought home with him a Greek servant,
common beverage at lialliol college, Oxford, named Pasquct, who opened the first coffee
in 1641. Anderson. house in London, in George-yard, Lombard-
The quantity of coffee imported into these street 1652
realms and entered for home consumption in Pasquet afterwardswent to Holland, and opened
1843 was 29,979,404 lbs. ; in 1850, 31,166,358 the first house in that country. Anderson.
Sfcs. ; in 1857, 34,367,484 lbs. ; in 1859, The Rainbow coffco-houso. nearTemple-bar.was
34,492,947 lbs. ; in i860, 35,674,381 lbs. (duty represented as a nuisance to the neighbour
3d. per lb. raw coffee; 40". roasted.) Totid hood 165;
imported in 1861, 83.532,525 lbs. ; m 1863, Coffee-houses wero suppressed by proclamation
117,354.217 lbs. ; in 1864, 109,370,213 lbs. in 1675 ; but the order was revoked in 1676,
The first coftec-bouse in England was kept by on the petition of the traders in tea and
a Jew, named Jacobs, in Oxford . 1650 coffee.
COFFERER of the Household, formerly an officer of state, and a member of the
privy council, who had special charge of the other officers of the household. Sir Henry
Cocks was cofferer to queen Elizabeth. Some of the highest statesmen tilled the office up to
1782, when it was suppressed by act of parliament, and tho duties of it ordered to be dis
charged by tho lord steward and the paymaster of tho household. Beatson.
COFFINS. Athenian heroes were buried in coffins of cedar ; owing to its aromatic and
incorruptible qualities. Thucydidcs. Coffins of marble and stone were used by the Romans.
Alexander is said to have been buried in one of gold ; and glass coffins have been found in
England, dough. The earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us is that of the burial of
king Arthur in an entire trunk of oak hollowed, a.d. 542. Asscr. Patent coffins were
invented in 1796. Air-tight metallic coffins were advertised at Birmingham in 1S61.
COHORT. A division of the Roman army consisting of about 600 men. It was the
sixth part of a legion, and its number, consequently, was under the same fluctuation as that
of tho legions, being sometimes more and sometimes less. The cohort was divided into
centuries. In the time of the empire the cohort often amounted to a thousand men.
COI
COIF. The Serjeant's coif was originally an iron skull-cap, worn by knights under their
helmets. The coif was introduced before 1259, and was used to hide the tonsure of such
renegade clergymen as chose to remain advocates in the secular courts, notwithstanding
their prohibition by canon. Blackstotic. The coif was at first a thin linen cover gathered
together in the form of a skull or helmet, the material being afterwards changed into wliite
silk, and the form eventually into the black patch at the top of the forensic wig, which is
now the distinguishing mark of the degree of serjeant-at-law. Foss's Lives of tiie Judges.
COIMBRA was made the capital of Portugal by Alfonso, the first king, 1139. The only
Portuguese university was transferred from Lisbon to Coimbra in 1308 ; but only and finally-
settled in 1527. In a convent here, Alfonso IV. caused Inez de Castro, at first mistress and
afterwards wife of his son Pedro, to be cruelly murdered in 1355.
COIN. Homer speaks of brass money as existing 1184 B.C. The invention of coin is
ascribed to the Lydians, who cherished commerce, and whoso money was of gold and silver,
lioth were coined by Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, 862 B.C. Money was coined at Rome under
Servius Tullius, about 573 b.c. The most ancient known coins are Macedonian of the fifth
century b.c. ; but others are believed to be more ancient. Brass money only was in use at
Rome previously to 269 B.C. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver), a proof that little correspon
dence was then held with the east, where gold and silver were in use long before. Gold was
coined 206 b.c. Iron money was used in Sparta, and iron and tin in Britain. Vufresnoy.
Julius Cffisar was the first who obtained the express permission of the senate to place his
portrait on the coins, and the example was soon followed. In the earlier days of Home the
heads were those of deities, or of those who had received divine honours. The gold and
silver coinage in the world is about 250,000,000/. silver, and 150,000,000/. gold. Times,
June 25, 1852. See GoUt, Silver, and Copper.
COIN OF ENGLAND.
The first coinage in England was under the The first gold coins on certain record, struck
Romans at Camalodunum, or Colchester. 42 Hen. III. 1357
English coin was of different shapes, as Gold florin first struck, Edw. III. (Camden)
square, oblong, and round, until the middle He introduced gold 6>. pieces, and nobles of 1337
ages, when round coin only was used. 6>. Bd. (hence the lawyer's fee), afterwards
Coin was made sterling in 12 16, before which half and quarter nobles.
time rents were mostly paid in kind, and Old sovereigns first minted .... M94
money was found only in the coffers of the Shillings first coined (Dr. Kdly) . . . .
barons. State. Edw. IV. coined angels with a figure of Michael
Queen Elizabeth caused the base coin to be re and the dragon, the original of George and
called and genuine issued in 1560. During the dragon.
the reigns of the Stuarts the coinage was- Hen. VIII. coined sovereigns and half-sove
greatly debased by clipping, kc. reigns of the modern value.
A commission (lord Somere, sir Isaac Newton, Crowns and half-crowns coined . 1553
and John Locke) was appointed by William Irish shilling struck
III. to reform the coinage, an act WM Milled shilling of Elizabeth .... 1560
passed, withdrawing the debased coin from First large copper coinage, putting an end to 1562
circulation, and 1,200,000?. was raised by a the circulation of private leaden pieces, 4c. . 1620
house duty to defray the expense . . 1696 Modern milling introduced . , . «
English and Irish money were assimilated Halfpence and farthings coined
Jan. 1, 1826 By the government, 23 Car. II 167a
The coin of the realm was valued at about Guineas first coined, 25 Car. II. ... 1673
12,000,000?. in 1711. Davenant. At 16,000,000?. Double guineas
in 1762. Anderson. It was 20,000,000?. in Five guineas
1786. Chalmtr*. 37,000,000/. in 1800. Phil Half-guineas
lip*. The gold is 28,000,000?., and the rest Quarter-guineas coined, 3 Geo. L . • 17x6
of the metallic currency is 13,000,000/., while Seven-shilling pieces coined *797
paper largely supplies the place of coin. Two-penny copper pieces
Duke of Wellington, 1830. The metallic cur Gold 78-pieces authorised . . Nov. 29,
rency calculated as reaching 45,000,000?., Sovereigns, new coinage 1817
1840; and was estimated as approaching Half-farthings 1S43
in gold and silver 60,000,000? 1853 Silver florin 1849
Napier's coin-weighing machino at the bank of Bronze coinage issued . Dec. j iSto
England was constructed in . . . . 1844
The law respecting coinage offences was con
solidated in 1861 i
* S9me persons (about 65 out of ii54> cannot distinguish between colours, andare termed Colour blind.
Tn 1859, professor J. Clerk Maxwell invenfc-n spectacles to remedy this defect, which is also called " Dalton
ism," after John Dalton, the chemist, 10 whom scarlet appeared drab-coloured.
t This beautiful comet, moving with immense swiftness, was seen in London ; its tail stretched across
the heavens, like a prodigious luminous arch, 36,000,000 miles in length. The computed length of that
which appeared in 1S11, and which was so remarkably conspicuous, was. on October 15, accoraiufr to tho
late Dr. Herschel, upwards of 100,000,000 miles, and its apparent greatest breadth,- at the same time,
15,000,000 miles, rhtfot. Tram. Royal. Hoc. for 18x3.
COM 195 COM
COMETS, continued.
derful resemblance to the comets described as being then calculated to be 238,000,000 miles from
having appeared in those years: Halley, there our earth. It was very brilliant in England in the
fore, nrst fixed the identity of enmets, and pre end of September and October following, when
dicted their periodical returns. Vince's Astronomy. the tail was said to be 40,000,000 miles long. On
The revolution of Halley's comet is performed in the 10th of October it was nearest to the earth ; on
about 75 years ; it appeared in 1759, and came to the 18th it was near coming into collision with
its perihelion on March 13; its last appearance Venus. Opinions varied as to this comet's bril
was 1835. liancy compared with that of 181 1.
EsfCKE's Comet. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. The Great Comet of 1861 was first scon by Mr.
26, 1818, but justly named by astronomers after Tebbutt, at Sydney, in Australia, May 13 ; by M.
professor Encke, for his success in detecting its Goldschmidt and others in France and England
orbit, motions, and perturbations ; it is, like the on June 29, 30, The nucleus was about 400 miles
f, one of the throe comets which have in diameter, with a long busb-like tail, travelling
according to prediction, and its revolu- at the rate of 10,000,000 miles in 24 hours. On
made in 3 years and 15 weeks. Juno 30 it was suggested that we were in the
Biela's Comet has been an object of fear to many tail,—there being "a phosphorescent auroral
on account of the nearness with which it has ap glare." *
proached, not the earth, but a point of the earth's A tailless comet was discovered in the constellation
path ; it was first discovered by H. BielA, an Cassiopojia, by M. Seeling, at Athens, on July 2,
Austrian officer, Feb. 28, 1836. It is one of the and by M. Tempel, at Marseilles, July 2 & 3, 1862.
three comets whose re appearance was predicted, M. Rosa (at Rome) discovered a comet on July 25,
Its revolution being performed in 6 years and 38 1862. It was visible by the naked eye in August
weeks. Its second appearance was in 1832, when and September.
the time of its perihelion passage was Nov. 27 ; its Six telescopic comets were observed in 1863, and
third was in 1839 ; its fourth in 1845 ; and its fifth several in 1864.
in 1852. A fine comet appeared in tho southern hemisphere,
Bonati's Comet, so called from its having been first and was visible in South America and Australia,
observed by Dr. Donati, of Florence, Juno 2, 1858, in Jan., Feb., 1865.
COMMANDER-IK-CHIEF. This office in tho British army has been very frequently
vacant, and sometimes for several years consecutively. When the duke of Wellington
resigned the office, on becoming minister, in 1828, his grace's successor, lord Hill, assumed
the rank of commander of the forces, or general commanding in chief.
captains-gexeral. Lord Ligonier 1757
Duke of Albemarle 1660 Marquess of Granby 1766
Duke of Monmouth 1678 Lord Amherst, general on the staff , . . 1778
Duke of Marlborough 1702 Gen. Seymour Conway . 1782
DukeofOrmond 17x1 Lord Amherst, again 1793
Duke of Marlborough, again . . • -1714 Frederick, duke of York 1795
Duke of Cumberland 1744 Sir David Dundas .... March 25, 1809
DukoofYork < . 1799 Frederick, duke of York, again . May 29, 1811
Duke of Wellington . Jan. 22, 1827
COMMAJfDERS-IN CHIEF. Lord LIill. general commanding in chicf.Feb.25, 1828
Duke of Monmouth 1674 Duke of Wellington, again . . Dec. 28, 1843
Duke of Marlborough 2690 Viscount Hardingo (dit-d Sept. 24, 1856), gene
Duke of Schomberg . . 1691 ral commanding in chief Sept. 28, 1852
Duke of Ormond .... 1711 Duke of Cambridge, commander-in-chief {tho
Earl of Stair *744 — 1865) , July 15, 1856
Field-Marshal Wade .... i/45
COMMENDAM. By 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77 (1836), future bishops were prohibited from
holding in commendam the livings, &c. they held when consecrated.
COMMERCE flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and among the Phoenicians in the earliest ages.
In later times it was spread over Europe by a confederacy of maritime cities, 1241. See
Hansc Towns. The discoveries of Columbus, and the enterprises of the Dutch and Por
tuguese, enlarged the sphere of commerce, and led other nations, particularly England, to
engage extensively in its pursuit,f See the various articles connected with this subject through
tfie volume.
The first treaty of commerce made by England Collection, in 10 vols. 8m, published 1827-59,
with any foreign nation was entered into with has a copious index.
the Flemings, 1 Edw. I. 1272. The second An important commercial treaty was con
was with Portugal and Spain, 2. Edw. II. | eluded
cluded with France in • .• . i860
1308. Anderson. See Treaties. Hertsletfs
• M. Bablnet, on May 4, 1857, considered that comets had so little density that the earth might pass
through the tail of one without our being aware of it
t Chambers 0/ Commerce originated at Marseilles in the 14th century, and similar chambers were insti
tuted in all the chief cities in Franco about 170a These chambers were suppressed in 1791, but afterwards
restored, and their great utility was recognised by a decree of Sept. 3, 1851. The chamber of commerce at
Glasgow was established 1783 ; at Edinburgh, 1785 ; Manchester, 1820 ; Hull, 1837 ; and at other important
places. On Feb. 21, 1865, 27 of these chambers of commerce (not including Liverpool, Manchester, and
Glasgow) met at Westminster for interchange of opinions on various questions.
0 2
COM l'j.J COM
COMMISSION. See High Court of Commission.
COMMISSIONAIRES. The street messengers thus named (pensioners wounded either in
the Crimea or India) were first employed in tho west-end of London. They were appointed
by a society, founded in Feb. 1859 by eapt. Edward Walter, which is now under the
patronage of the queen and tho commander-in-chief. The charges arc regulated by a tariff.
In Jan. 1861 the society commenced the gratuitous issue of a Monthly Advertising Circular.
In March, 1864, there were 250 commissionaires in London. In June 17, 1865, enpt,
Walter resigned the superintendence, and a permanent system of administration was formed.
In 1865 commissionaires began to be employed in London as private night watchmen. Com
missionaires have long existed iu France.
COMMON COUNCIL of London. Its organisation began about 1208. The charter
of Henry I. mentions the folk-mot*, this being a Saxon appellation, and which may fairly be
rendered the court or assembly of the people. The general place of meeting of the folk-mote
was in the open air at St. Paul's Cross, St. Paul's churchyard. It was not discontinued till
after Henry III.'s reign ; when certain representatives were chosen out of each ward, who,
being added to the lord mayor and aldermen, constituted the court of common council. At
first only two wero returned for each ward ; but the number was enlarged in 1347, aud
since. This council became the parent of similar institutions throughout the realm. It is
elected annually on Dec. 21, St. Thomas's day. A Common Hall is held occasionally. The
common council supported the prince of Orange in 1688 ; and queen Caroline in 1820.
COMMON LAW of England, an ancient collection of unwritten maxims and customs
(Leges non sci-ipta-), of British, Saxon, and Danish origin, which has subsisted immemorially
in this 'kingdom ; and although somewhat impaired by the rude shock of the Norman con
quest, has weathered the violence of the times. This endeared it to the people in general,
as well because its decisions were universally known, ns because it was found to be excel
lently adapted to the genius of the English nation ; and accordingly, at the famous parlia
ment of Me'rtpn*, 1236, "all the earls and barons," says tho parliament roll, "with one voice
answered, that they would not change the laws of England, which have hitherto been used
and approved ;" eminently tho law of the land. See Bastard. The process, practice, and
mode of ple'adin'g.in the superior courts of common law, were amended iu 1852 and 1854.
COMMON PLEAS, Court of, in England. This court in ancient times followed the
king's person, and is distinct from that of the King's Bench ; but on tho confirmation of
Magna Cliarta by king John, in 1215, it was fixed at Westminster, where it still continues.
In 1833 the mode of procedure in all the superior -courts-was made uniform. In England,
no barrister under the degree of a Serjeant could plead in the court of common pleas ;
but in 1846 the privilege' was extended to barristers ' practising in the superior courts at
Westminster.
chief justices of the common fleas of England (from the reign of Elizabeth).
1558. fir Anthony Browne. 1689. Sir nenry Pollexfen. 1804. SirJamoa Mansfield, Apr. 11.
J559. Sir James Dyer. 1692. Sir George Trcby. 1814. Sir Vicary Gibbs, Fob. 24.
1582. Sir Edmund Anderson. 1701. Sir Thomas Trevor, after 1818. Sir Robert Dallas, Nov. 5.
1605. Sir Francis Gawdy. wards lord Trevor. 1824. Sir Robert Gifford, Jan. 9
1606. Sir Edward Cuke. 1714. Sir Peter King, afterward* (lord Gifford); aft. master
1613. Sir Henry Hohart. lord chancellor King. of the Rolls. .
1626. Sir Thomas Richitrdson. 1725. Sir Robert Kvre. „ Sir William Draper Best, aft.
1631. Sir Robert Heath. 1736. Sir I'bomas Reeve. lord Wynford, April 15.
1634.' Sir John Finch. 1737. S-r.Tolm Willes. 1829. Sir Nicolas, C. TindaL,
1639.. Sir Edward Lyttleton. 1761. Sir Charles Pratt, afterward* Juno 9 ; died July 1846.
J640. Sir John Bankos, lord chancellor Camden. 1846. Sir Thomas Wilde, July it ;
1648. Oliver St. John. 1766. Sir John Eardley Wilmot. aft. lord chancellor Truro.
1660. Sir Orlando Bridg-man, afttr- 1771. Sir Williim do Grey. a.fler- 1850. Sir John Jcrvis, July 16;
ward* lord keeper. ward* lord Walsingham. died November 1, 1856.
i633. Sir John Vaughon. 1780. Alexander Wedderbunie, 1856. Sir Alexander Cockbum,
1675. Sir Francis North, after afterward* lord chancellor Nov. 15; made chief jus
ward* lord keeper Guilford Loughborough. tice of the Queen's Bench,
1633. Sir Francis Pomberton. 1793. Sir Jamos Eyre. June, 1859.
Sir Thomas Jours 1799. Sir John Scott, afterxeard* 1859. Sir William Erie, June. The
1686. Sir Henry Dc-tingficld. lord chancellor Eldon. tresesit (1865) chief jus
1697. Sir Robert Wright. 1S01. Sir Richard Pepper Anion tice.
Sir KdwArd Herbert. (lord Alvanlcy), May 22.
COM 107 COM
COMMON TLEAS, continued.
chief justices OF THE common PLEAS ix iueland (since the Revolution).
1691. Richard Pyno, Jan. 5. 1727. James Reynolds, Nov. 8. 1S00 John Tolcr, afterward* lord
1695. Sir John Holy, May 10. 1740. Henry Singleton, May n. Norlmry, Oct 22.
1701. Sir Richard Cox. May 4. 1754. Sir William Yorko, Sept. 4. 1827. Lord Plunket, June 18.
1703. Robert Doyne, Dec. 27. 1 761. William Aston, May 5. 1830. John Doherty, Dec. 23.
1 714. John Foratcr, Sept. 30. 1765. Richard Clayton, Feb. 21. 1850. James Henry Monahan,
1720. Sir Richard Lcvinge, Oct. 13, 1770. Marcus Patterson, June 18. Sept. 23. The present
1734. Thomas Wyndham, Oct. 27. 17S7. Hugh Carleton, aft. viscount (1865) chief justice.
1726. William Whitshcd, Jan. 23. Carleton, April 30.
COMMON PRAYER, Book of, was ordered by parliament to bo printed in the English
language in April I, 1548. It was voted out of doors by parliament, and the Directory
{which see) sot up in its room in 1644, and a proclamation was issued against it in 1647.
With a few changes the English Common Prayer-book is used by the episcopal churches in
Scotland and North America.
The king's primer published ' 3 45 The State tervice* (which had never -tVmied part of
First Iwok of Edward VI. printed
pi
Second book of Edward VI 1552 the Prayer-book, but were annexed to it at the be
First hook of Elizabeth ..... 1559 ginning of every reign) for November 5 (Gunpowder
King James's book 1604 treason), January 30 (Charles I. 'a execution), and
Scotch May 29 (Charles 1 1.'s restoration), were ordered tv»
Charlesbook
II. 'a of Charlos
book (SavoyI. Conference)
. . .■ . . .. 1637
1662 be discontinued 011 January 17, 1859.
(The one, with alterations, now in use.)
COMMONS, House of, the great representative assembly of the people of Great Britain,
originated with Simon do Montfort, earl of Leicester, who by the Provisions of Oxford
ordered returns to be made of two knights from every shire, and deputies from certain
boroughs to meet such of the barons and clergy as were his friends, with a view thereby to
strengthen his own power in opposition to that of his sovereign Henry III., 125S. Stoic*
See Parliament. The following is the constitution of the house of commons since the
passing of the Reform Bill in 1832 :—
English.—County members 144 English and Welsh 5* '2
Universities 4 Scotch.—County members 30
Cities and boroughs 325—473 Cities and boroughs 23— 53
Welsh.—County members 15 ■ qq jj Irish.—County
University members 64
Cities and boroughs
Cities and boroughs 39—105
English and Welsh
Total (sco Parliament) f. o'
CONSTITUENCY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 1851.
[Population, 27,452,252.]
Electors. Elcdort.
England.—County . • -461,463 England and Wales . 887,866
Borough . 378,384-839,847 Scotland.—County . . . . 48,456
Wales.—County ■ 36,984 Borough 41,840— 90,305
Borough 11,035— 48,019 Irei-and.—County . . . . 31,832
Borough 40,234— 72,066
England and Wales 887,866
Constituency . . . 1,050,237
In 1859, Mr. Ncwmarch estimated the constituency of England and Wales at 934,000
COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND. The term is applied to the interregnum between
the death of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. The form of the government was
changed to a republic on tho execution of Charles I., Jan 30, 1649, —a new oath called the
"Engagement" was framed, which the people were obliged to take.t Salmon. Oliver
Cromwell was made Protector, Dec. 16, 1653. Richard Cromwell was made Protector, Sept.
* In 1848 8udbury, and in 1852 St. Alban's were disfranchised for bribery and corruption ; each having
previously returned tw o membcra ; tho aggregato number of the house thon became 656. In 1861, the
forfeited seats wore thus distributed by act of parliament—two additional to the west riding of York, one
additional to south Lancashire, and ono to a newly-created borough, Birkenhead.
t Bv this oath they swore to bo truo and faithful to the commonwealth, without kinfr or houso of
lords. The statues of Charles were next day demolished, particularly that at the Royal Exchange, and ono
at the west end of St. Paul's; and in their r<mm the following inscription was conspicuously set up :—
" Exit Ti/rannut Regum ultimun, Anno Libertaiii AnfflUx Rcstituttv Primo, Anno J)om. 1.648, Jan. 30."
COM 193 COM
3, 1658. Monarchy was restored in the person of Charles II. , who entered London, May
29, 1660. See Rome.
COMMUNION, one of the names given to the ordinance of the Lord's supper, in the
primitive church. Communicatiug under the form of bread alone is said to have had its
rise in the West, under pope Urban II., 1096. The fourth Lateran council, 12 15, decreed
that every believer should receive the communion at least at Easter. The cup was first
denied to the laity by the council of Constance, 1414-18. The communion service, as now
performed in tho church of England, was instituted in 1548.
COMMUNISTS. See Socialists. COMORN. See Komom.
COMPANIES.* Among the earliest commercial companies in England may be named
the Steel-yard Society, established 1232. The second company was the merchants of St.
Thomas & Becket, in 1248. Stow. The third was tho Merchant Adventurers, incorporated
by Elizabeth, 1564. The following are the city companies of London, in the order of pre
cedence ; the first twelve are the chief, and are styled 11 the Honourable." Several com
panies are virtually extinct, and many of the dates are doubtful.
t. Mercers . . 1393 25. Saddlers . . 1280 49. Upholders . 1627 73. Wheelwrights . 1670
2. Groccra. . . 1345 26. Carpenters . • 1344 50. Musicians. 1604 74. Distillers . . * *
3. Drapers . . 1439 27. Cordwainers . 14x0 51. Turners 75. Hatband-makrs. 1638
4. Fishmongers . 1284 28. Paper-stainers . 1580 52. Baskot-makors ,&4 76. Pattern-makers 1670
5. Goldsmiths . . 1327 29. Curriers
__ Masons . . . 2605 53. Glaziers 1*37 77. Glass-sellers . 1664
6. Skinners . . „ 30. • 1677 54. Homers . 78. Tobacco-pipe
7. Merchant-Taylors 1416 3r. Plumbers . . 1611 55. Farriers makers . . 1G63
i6'3 79. Coach
8. Haberdashers . 1447 32. Inn-holdors . ■ 1515 56. Paviors and Har
9. SUlten . . 1558 33. Founders . , 1614 57. Lorimers . 1488 ness makers . 1677
10. Ironmongers . 1464 34. Poulterers . ■ 58. Apothecaries l6l 7 80. Gunmakers . 1638
ix. Vintners . . 1437 35. Cooks . . 1481 59. Shipwrights . l6lO 81. Gold and silver
12. Clothworkers . 1482 36. Coopers . . 1501 60. Spectacle-makrs. 1630 wire-drawers 1623
13. Dyers . . . 1469 37. Tilers and Brick 61. Clock-makers . 1632 82. Bowstring-
14. Brewers . . 1438 layers . . 1568 62. Glovers . . 1556
15. Leather-sellers .■ 1442 38. Bowyers . . 1620 63. Comb-makers . 1650 83. Card-makers makers . . * *
. 1629
16. Pewtercrs. . 1474 39. Fletchers . . 1536 64. Felt-makers . 1604 84. Fan-makers . . 1700
17. Barber Surgeons 1308 40. Blacksmiths. • 1577 65. Framework-knit 85. Wood-mongers . * *
18. Cutlers. . . 1417 41. Joiners . 1564 ters . . . 1664 86. Starch-makers . 1632
19. Bakers . . 1307 42. Weavers 1• 164* 66. Silk-throwsters 1629 87. Fishermen , . 16S7
20. Wax-chandlers . 1484 43. Woolmon . 67. Silk-men . . 1608 88. Parish clerks . 1332
21. Tallow-chandlers 1463 44. Scriveners . '. 1616 68. Pin-makers . . 1636 89. Carmen . . * *
22. Armourers and 45. Fruiterers. . 1604 69. Noedle-makers . 1656 90. Porters. . . * *
Braziers . . 1463 46. Plasterers . 1500 70. Gardeners . . 1616 91. Watermen. . 1556
23. Girdlers . . 1448 47- Stationers . 1556 71. Soap-makers . 1638
24. Butchers . . 1604 48. Embroiderers ■ JS91 72. Tinplate-workrs. 1670
COMPASS, MARINER'S, is said to have been known to the Chinese, 1115 B.C. ; and
is ascribed to Marco Polo, a Venetian, a.d. 1260 ; and to Flavio Gioja, of Amain, a navi
gator of Naples. + Until this time the needle was laid upon a couple of pieces of straw, or
small split sticks, in a vessel of water ; Cioja introduced the suspension of the needle,
1302. It is also said to have been known to tho Swedes in the time of king Jarl Birger,
12J0. Its variation was discovered first by Columbus, 1492 ; afterwards by Sebastian
Caoot, 1540. The compass-box and hanging compass used by navigators were invented by
William Barlowe, an English divine and natural philosopher, in 1608. See Magnetism. The
measuring compass was invented by Jost Bing, of Hesse, in 1602.
COMPIEGNE, a French city north of Paris, the residence of the Carlovingian kings.
During tho siege, Joan of Arc was captured by tho English, May 24, 1430. The emperor
Napoleon III. and the king of Prussia met here on Oct. 6, 1861.
COMPLUTENSIAN BIBLE. See Polyglot.
COMPOSITE ORDER, principally a mixture of the Corinthian and Ionic, and .also called
the Roman order, is of uncertain date.
COMTE PHILOSOPHY. See Positive Philosophy.
* Bubble companies have been formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's bubble, in 1790-1, was
perhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South Sea Bubble, in the same year, was scarcely less
memorable for its rain of thousands of families. Many companies were established in these countries in
1824 and 1825, and turned out to be bubble*. Immense losses were incurred by individuals, and the families
of thousands of speculators wore totally ruined. Many railway enterprises (1844-5) mny bo termed
bubbles. Seo Law's Bubble ; South Sea ; Railway* ; Joint'Stock Companies.
t The statement that thojUur-de-lis was made the ornament of the northern point of tho compass in
compliment to Charles, the king of Naples, at the time of the discovery, has been contradicted.
CON 199 CON
CONCEPTION, Ihmacctlate. A festival (on Dec. 8) appointed in 1389, is observed
with great devotion in the Roman Catholic Church in honour of the Virgin Mary's having
been conceived and born immaculate, or without original sin. Pope Paul V. in 161 7 forbade
any one to stand up against the opinion of the immaculate conception ; this order was
confirmed by Gregory XV. and by Alexander VII. HlnauU. On December 8, 1854, the
pope, Pius IX., promulgated a bull with great solemnity, declaring this dogma to be an
article of faith, and charging with heresy those who should doubt it or speak against it.—
The Conceptionists were an order of nuns in Italy, established in 1488. See Santiago.
CONCERTINA, a musical instrument invented by prof. Wheatstone, about 1825, and
improved by Mr. G. Case. The sounds are produced by free vibrating metal springs.
CONCERTS. The Filarmonia gave concerts at Vicenza in the 16th century. The first
public subscription concert was performed at Oxford in 1665. The first concert in London
is said to have been in 1672. The Academy of Ancient Music began in 1710 ; the Concerts
of Ancient Music in 1776; and the present Philharmonic Society in 1813. See Music;
Crystal Palace and Handel.
CONCHOLOGY, the science of shells, is mentioned by Aristotle and Pliny. It was first
reduced to a system by John Daniel Major, of Kiel, who published his classification of tho
Ttstacea in 1675. Lister's system was published in 1685 ; and that of Largius in 1722.
Johnston's Introduction (1850) and Sowerby's Manual of Conchology (1842), are useful.
Forbes and Hanley's "British Mollusca and their Shells " (1848-53) is a magnificent work.
CONCLAVE. This term is derived from tho conclave, a range of small cells in the hall
of the Vatican, or palace of the pope of Rome, whero the cardinals usually meet to elect a
pope, and is also used for the assembly of the cardinals shut up for the purpose. The
conclave had its rise in 1271. Clement IV. having died at Viterbo in 1268, the cardinals
were nearly three years unable to agree in the choice of a successor, and wcro on tho point
of breaking up, when the magistrates, by tho advice of St. Bonaventure, then at Viterbo,
shut the gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals in the pontifical palace till they
agreed. Hence the custom of shuttinjyip the cardinals while they elect a pope.
CONCORDANCE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all the words and also a chrono
logical account of all the transactions in the Bible. The first concordance was made under the
direction of Hugo de St. Charo, who employed as many as 500 monks upon it, 1247. Abb&
Lenglct. Cruden's well-known Concordance was published in London iu 1737. The Index
to the Bible, published by the Queen's printers, was prepared by B. Vincent, editor of this
volume, and completed in May, 1848.*
CONCORDAT. The name is given to an instrument of agreement between a prince and
the pope, usually concerning benefices. The concordat between the emperor Henry V. of
Germany and pope Calixtus II., in H22, has been regarded as the fundamental^ law of tho
church in Germany. The concordat between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., signed
at Paris, July 15, 1801, re-established the Catholic church and the papal authority in
France. Napoleon was made in effect the head of the Gallican church, as bishops were to
have their appointments from him and their investiture from the pope. Another concordat
between tho same persons was signed at Fontaincbleau, Jan. 25, 1813. These were almost
nnllified in 1817 and 1819. A concordat, signed Aug. 18, 1855, between Austria and Rome,
by which a great deal of tho liberty of the Austrian church was given up to tho Papacy,
caused much dissatisfaction.
CONCUBINES were tolerated among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, but strictly
forbidden by Christ {Mark x. 1 Cor. vii. 2). They are mentioned as having been allowed
to the priests, 1 132. See Morganitic Marriage.
" CONDOTTIERI, conductors or leaders of mercenaries and their bands, became so
troublesome in Italy in the middle ages, that the various cities formed a league to suppress
them in 1342.
CONDUITS. Two remarkable conduits, among a number of others in London, oxistcd
early in Cheapside. The Great Conduit was tho first cistern of lead erected in the city, and
was built in 1285. At the procession of Anna Boleyn, on tho occasion of her marriage, it
ran with white and claret wine all the afternoon, June I, 1533. Stow.
* Verbal indexes accompany good editions of the ancient classics. An index to Shal-specre, by
Ayscough, appeared in 1790; another by Twiss in 1805 ; and Mrs. Cowdon Clarke's (late Mary Novello)
complete concordance to Shalapcare (on which she spout 16 years" labour) la 1847. Todd's verbal index to
Milton wa& published in 180a
CON 200 CON
CONFEDERATE STATES of America. The efforts of the Southern States for the
extension of slavery, and the zeal of the Northern States for its abolition, with the conse
quent political dissensions, led to the great secession of 1860-1. On Nov. 4, i860,^Abraham.
Lincoln, the Republican or Abolitionist candidate, was elected president of the United States.
Hitherto, a president in the interest of the South had been elected. On Dec. 20, South
Carolina seceded from the Union ; and Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana,
Texas, Virginia (except West Virginia), Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina also-
seceded early in 1861. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated president of the Southern Con
federacy at Montgomery in Alabama, Feb. 18, 1861. For the events of tho war which
ensued, and the restoration of the Southern States to the Union, see United States, 1S61-5.
CONFEDERATION at Paris, July 14, 1790. See Champs de Mars, and Bastilc.
CONFEDERATION of the Rhine. The League of the Germanic States, formed by
Napoleon Bonaparte, July 12, 1806, when he abolished the Holy Roman Empire, and the
emperor of Germany became emperor of Austria. It consisted of the kingdoms of Bavaria,
Wnrtemberg, Saxony, and Westphalia ; seven grand duchies ; six duchies ; and twenty
principalities. The German princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in
case of war, and established a diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806. This league terminated
with the career of Bonaparte in 1814, and was replaced by the Germanic Confederation,
{which sec).
CONFERENCES. One was held at Hampton Court Palace, between the prelates of the
church of England and the dissenting ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the
instance of the king, James I. Jan. 14-16, 1604. It led to a new translation of the Bible,
that now in general use in England ; executed in 1607- 11. Some alterations in the church
liturgy were agreed upon ; but these not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was done. —
Another conference of the bishops and presbyterian ministers, with the same view, was hehl
in tho Savoy, April 25 to July 25, 1661. The dissenters' objections were generally disallowed,
but some alterations were recommended in the Prayer-book. See Weskyans.
CONFESSIONAL. See Auricular Confession.
CONFESSIONS of Faith, or Creeds. See Apostles', Nicenc (325), and Atluinasian
(about 434) Creeds.
The confession of faith of the Greek church was ticles :—42 in 1552 ; reduced to 30 . . . 1563
presented to Mahommcd II. in 1453. This The confession of Augsburg (that of the
gave way in 1643 to one composed by Mogila, Lutherans) was drawit up principally by
metropolitan of Kiev, which is tho present Mclanchthon, in 1530, and has since under
standard of the Russo-Greek church. gone modifications, the last of which is called
The creed of Pius VI., composed of tho Nicone the " Form of Concord " .... 1579
creed, with additional articles which embody The Westminster confession was agroed to in
all the peculiar dogmas of the Roman Catho 1643 ; and adopted by the presbyterian
lic clmrcb, published by the Council of Trent 1564 church of Scotland. See Westminster . . 1647
The church of England retains tho Apostles', Tho congregational dissenters published a de
Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, with Ar claration of faith 1833
CONFIRMATION, or Laying on Hands, was practised by the apostles in 34 and 56
<^4rfs viii. 17; xix. 6), and was general, according to some church authorities, in 190. In
the church of England it is the public profession of the Christian religion by an adult person,
who has been baptized in infancy. It is made a sacrament by the church of Rome.
CONFLANS (near Paris), Treaty of, between Louis XI. of France and the dukes of
Bourbon, Brittany, and Burgundy, 1465. By its provisions Normandy was ceded to the duke
of Berry, and an end was put to the "War of the Public Good." It was confirmed by that
of Pcronne in 1468.
CONGfi D'fiLIRE (pel-mission to elect), the licence of the sovereign as head of the
church, to chapters and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops, asserted by
Hcnry VIII. 1535. After the interdict of the pope upon England had been removed in 1214,
king John made on arrangement with the clergy for the election of bishops.
CONGELATION, the act of freezing. Ico was produced in summer by means of chemical
mixtures, by Mr. Walker, in 1783. The congelation of quicksilver was effected without
snow or ice, in 1787. In 1810 Leslie froze water in an air-pump by placing a vessel of
sulphuric acid under it. Numerous freezing mixtures have been discovered since. Intense
cold is produced by the aerification of liquefied carbonic acid gas. In 1857 Mr. Harrison
patented a machine for manufacturing ice for commercial purposes, by means of ether and
CON 201 CON
salt water, and made largo blocks. In i860, M. Carre" devised a method of freezing to 60°
below zero by making water in a close vessel absorb and give ofT the gas ammonia. Sicbe's
ice-making machine, exhibited at the International Exhibition of 1862, excited much
admiration.
CONGREGATION or the Lord. A name taken by the Scotch Reformers, headed by
John Knox, about 1546. Their leaders (the duke of Argyle, &c.) were called Lords of the
Congregation about 1557.
CONGREGATIONALISTS. See Independents.
CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers for the settlement of the affairs of
nations or of a people. * The following are the most remarkable congresses of Europe :—■
Munster 1648 Rastadt . . Dec. 9, 1797 Laybach . . . May 6, 1821
Nimegucn 1678 Chatillon . Feb. 5, 1814 Vorona . . . Aug. 25. 1822
Ryswick 1697 Vienna . Nov. 3, ,, Paris . Jan 16—April 22, 1856
Utrecht 1713 Aix-la-Chapclle . Oct 9, 1818 Frankfort (soo Germany)
Soissons 1728 Carlsbad . . Aug. 1, 1819 Aug. 16-31, 1863
Antwerp . April 8, 1793 Troppau . Oct. 20, 1820 Soo AlUancti, Convention*, tte.
The first general congress of the United States constitution, was held at New York ; George
of America, preparatory to their declaration Washington, president . . . March, 17S9
of independence, when strong resolutions The first congress of tho socediug southern
were passed, also a petition to the king, and states was held at Montgomery, Alabama,
an address to the people of England, was held Fob. 4 ; it elected Jefferson Davis president
Sept. 5, 1774. The second was held May 10, of the confederate states on Feb. 9. For
1775 ; tho third, when the independence was political reasons it adjourned on May 24, hi
declared July 4, 1776 meet at Richmond, in Virginia, on . July 20, 1861
The first federal American congress, under tho
'^CONGREVE ROCKETS. Invented by general sir William C'ongreve, in 1S03. They
were used with great effect in the attack upon Boulogne, Oct. 8, 1806, when they set a part
of the town on fire, which burned for two days : they were employed in various operations
in the French war with much success, by a corps called rocket-men.
CONIC SECTIONS. Their more Remarkable properties wore probably known to the
Greeks, four or five centuries before the Christian era. The study of them was cultivated in
the time of Plato, 390 n. c. The earliest treatise on them was written by Aristams, about
330 B.C. Apollonius's eight books were written about 240 n.c. The parabola was applied
to projectiles by Galileo, who died 1608 ; the ellipse to the orbit of planets by Kepler,
about 1609. '
CONJURATION. See Witchcraft.
CONNECTICUT granted to lords Say and Brooke, 1631. See America, and VnUcd Slates.
CONNOR, Bishopric of, in Ireland. The see was united to that of Down, 1442. The
first prelate was iEngus Macnisius, who died 507. The united sees were added to Dromore on
the death of the last bishop of the latter, 1 842, in accordance with the provisions of the
Irish Church Temporalities' Act, passed 1833.
CONQUEST. The memorable era in British history, when William duke of Normandy
overcame Harold II. at the battle of Hastings, Oct. 14, 1066, and obtained the crown which
had been most unfairly bequeathed to him by Edward the confessor (for Edgar was the
rightful heir). William has been erroneously styled the Conqueror, for he succeeded to the
crown of England by compact. He defeated Harold, who was himself a usurper, but a large
portion of the kingdom afterwards held out against him ; and he, unlike a conqueror, took
an oath to observe the laws and customs of the realm, in order to induce the submission of
the people. Formerly our judges were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at tBe bar
who said casually William the conqueror instead of William I. Sektcn. Maclise exhibited
forty-two drawings on the events 01 the Norman conquest, in May, 1857.
CONSCIENCE, Courts of, or Reqtjf,sts, first constituted by a statute of Henry VII.
1493, and re-organised by statute 9 Hen. VIII. 15 17. These courts were improved and
amended by various acts ; their jurisdiction iu London reached to $1. and (until superseded
by county-courts) to 40s. in other towns. The practice was by summons, and if the party
did not appear, the commissioners had power to apprehend and commit. See County Courts.
—James II. proclaimed Liberty of Conscience in 1687. Conscience Clause, see Education.
* In 1862, tho emperor Napoleon invited the sovereigns of Europe to a congress ; which was decline 1
by England Nov. 75, and only conditionally acceded to by other powers.
CON 202 CON
CONSCRIPT FATHERS {patres conscripti) was the honourable designation given to the
Roman senators, because their names were writton in the registers of the senate.
CONSCRIPTION, a mode (derived from the Romans) adopted for recruiting the French
and other armies. On Sept. 5, 1798, a military conscription was ordained in France, com
prehending all the young men from 20 to 25 years of ago : from these selections were
made. The present law of 1818 (modified in 1824 and 1832) requires a certain annual
contingent from each department, —for all the country, 80,000 men, —which may bo
increased. The duration of service is seven years. Substitutes and exemptions are permitted.
A conscription for 350,000 men took place in Jan. 1813, after tho disastrous Russian
campaign, and in Dec. same year, another for 300,000 after tho battle of Leipsic.
CONSECRATION. Aaron and his sons were consecrated priests, 1490 B.C. (Lev. viii.).
Tho Jewish Tabernacle was dedicated 1490 B.C., and Solomon's Temple, 1004 B.C.
(1 Kings, viii.). The consecration of churches was instituted in the 2nd century, the temple
of worship being dedicated witli pious solemnity to God and a patron saint. Anciently the
consecration of popes was deferred until the emperor had given his assent to their election.
Gregory IV. desired to have his election confirmed by the emperor Louis, in 828. Hlnavlt.
The consecration of churches, places of burial, &c, is admitted in the reformed religion.
Tho consecration of bishops was ordained in the church of England in 1 549. Stow.
CONSERVATION OF FORCE. Tho philosophical doctrine that no physical force
can bo created or destroyed, but may be transferred, is maintained by Grove, Faraday,
Helmholtz, Tyndall, and other philosophers. See Correlation.
CONSERVATIVES, a name of modern date, is given to, aud accepted by a political
party, whose leading principle is the conservation of our ancient national institutions. It
sprung up in England at the time when the Orango Societies and lodges were discouraged,
1836, and was substituted for Orangemen as a loss obnoxious term, and as indicative of
nuldor, but equally constitutional opinions. Conservative has, however, in some measure,
changed its signification, and in popular parlance is now opposed to Liberal. Sir Robert
Peel acknowledged himself a conservative when reproached by the Irish party in parliament
with being an Orangeman ; but tho party that afterwards separated from him called their
principles conservative in contradistinction to his,—his policy and measures being changed.
—The Conservative Club was founded in 1840. See Protectionists.
CONSERVATOIRES, a namo given to schools for the cultivation of music on the
continent. The celebrated Conservatoire de Musiquc at Paris began in 1793.
CONSERVATORS of the Public Liberties. Officers chosen in England to inspect
the"treasury and correct abuses in administration, 28 Hen. III. 1244. Rapin. Conservators
were appointed to see the king's pcaco kept. Pardon. Conservators were formally
appointed in every sea-port to take cognizance of all offences committed against the peace
upon tho main sea out of the liberty of tho Cinque Ports. Bailey.
CONSISTORIES for regulating ecclesiastical discipline and divine worship in the
Lutheran church in Germany, were established at the reformation—tho first at Wittenberg
in 1542 ; other consistories were established after the peace of Augsburg in 1555.
CONSISTORY COURT, anciently joined with the hundred court; and its original, as
divided therefrom, is found in a law of William I., 1079, quoted by lord Coke. The chiei
and most ancient consistory court of tho kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, and is
called the Court of Arches (which see).
CONSOLIDATED FUND was formed of the other funds in 1786. On Jan. 5, 1816, the
exchequers of Great Britain and Ireland, previously separate, were amalgamated.
CONSOLS. See Stocks.
CONSPIRACIES and Insurrections in Great Britain. Among the recorded con
spiracies, real or supposed, tho following are the most remarkablo :—
Of the Norman barons and Walthoof against Of Lambert Simnol (1487) and Perkin Warbcck
William I. the Conqueror . . . . 1074 against Henry VII. . . ' . . 1493
Dishop Odo, &c. , against William IT. . . . 1088 Insurrection of the London apprentices. (See
Against Henry 11. by his queon and children . 1173 Evil May-day) . . . . . 1317
ThoWar)
barons against Honry III. (See Baronf • . 12j8 OfAnthony Babington and othora against Eliza
Of barons against Henry IV. .... 1400 beth. (Soo Babington) 1586
Of the earl of Cambridge and others against Of Lopez, a Jew, and others . . . . 1594
Henry V I4,5 Of Patrick York, an Irish fencing-master, hired
by the Spaniards to kill the queen . . ,,
CON 203 CON
CONSPIRACIES, continued.
Of Walpole, a Jesuit, and squiro . . . . 1598 Of lord Preston, the bishop of Ely, and others
Tyrone's Insurrection in Ireland . ,, to restore James II. 1691
The Gunpowder Plot (which see) . . . . 1605 Of Granville, a French chevalier, to murder
Tyrone's conspiracy to surprise tho castle of king William in Flanders 1692
Dublin 1607 The assassination plot (which sec) . . . 1696
Of Sindercomb and others to assassinate Oliver Of Simon Fraser, lord Lovat, against queen
Cromwell ........ 1656 Anne. (See Rebellions) 1703
Insurrection of the Puritans .... 1657 Of the marquess Guiscard 17 10
Insurrection ofthe Fifth-monarchy men against Of James Sheppard, an enthusiast, to assassi
Charles II. 1661 nate George 1 171 8
Of Blood and his associates, who seized the duke Of counsellor Layer and others, to bring in tho
of Ormond, wounded him, and would have Pretender 1722
hanged him ; and who afterwards attempted Of the Corresponding Society, &c. (which tet) 1796-8
to steal the regalia 1671 Of colonel Despard 1802
The pretonded conspiracy of the French, Of Robert Emmett, in Dublin, when lord Kil-
Spanish, and English Jesuits to assassinate warden was killed . . . July 23, 1803
Charles II., revealed by tho infamous Titus Of Thistlewood and others, to assassinate the
Oates, Dr. Tongue, and othors . . . 1678 king's ministers. (See Calo-strtct) . . 1820
The Meal-tub plot (which tee) . . . . 1679 Of the Sepoys in India. (Sco India) . May 10, 1857
The Rye-house plot to assassinate the king on See Rebellions, Chartists, &c.
bis way to"Newmarket (See Rye-honsc Plot) 1683
CONSTABLE of England, Lord High. The seventh great officer of the crown, and,
with the earl marshal, formerly a judge of the court of chivalry, called, in the time of
Henry IV., curia militaris, and subsequently the court of honour. The power of this officer
was so great, that in 1389 a statute was passed for abridging it, and also the power of the
earl marshal (which see). The office existed before the conquest, after which it went by
inheritance to the earls of Hereford and Essex, and next in the line of Stafford. In 1521 it
became forfeited to the king in the person of Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, that
year attainted' for high treason, and has never since been granted to any person, otherwise
than pro h&c vice (for this occasion), and that to attend at a coronation or trial by combat.
The only instance of a trial by combat being ordered since this office fell into the hands of
the crown, was that commanded between lord Beay and sir David Ramsay, in Nov. 1631 ;
but the king prevented it*
CONSTABLE of Scotland, Lord High. The office was instituted by David I. about
1 147. The holder had the keeping of the king's sword, which the king, at his promotion
delivered to him naked (and hence the badge of the lord high constable is a naked sword) ;
and the absolute command of the king's armies whilo in the field, in the absence of tho king.
The jurisdiction of this office .came at last to be exercised only in dealingwith crimes during
the time of parliament, which some extended likewise to all general conventions. The
office was conferred heritably in 132 1 on sir Gilbert Hay, created earl of Erroll, by Robert
Bruce, and with his descendants it still remains, being expressly reserved by the treaty of
nnion in 1707. The present earl of Erroll is the twenty-second lord high constable (1865).
CONSTABLES of Hundreds and Franchises, instituted in the reign of Edward I., 1285,
are now called high constables. There are three kinds of constables, high, petty, and special;
the high constable's jurisdiction extends to the whole hundred ; the petty constable's to the
parish or liberty for which he is chosen ; and tho special constable is appointed for particular
occasions and emergencies (as in April, 1848, on account of tho Chartists).
CONSTABULARY FORCE. For that of London, see Police. The Constabulary of
Ireland act passed in 1823, when this species of force was embodied throughout the country.
Several subsequent acts were consolidated in 1836.
CONSTANCE, a city in Baden (S. Germany). Here was held tho seventeenth general
council, 1414, which condemned John Huss ; and hero he was burnt, July 6, 1415. See
Hussites.
CONSTANTINA, the ancient capital of Numidia, was taken by the French, Oct. 13,
1837. During the assault on Oct. 12, the French general Damremont was killed. Achmet
Bey retired with 12,000 men, as tho victors entered Constantino.
CONSTANTINOPLE, formerly Byzantium (which see), derives its name from Constantino
the Great, who removed the seat of the Eastern Empire hero in 330. It was continually
* The lord high constable at tho coronations respectively of—queen Anne, Wriothesley, duke of Bed
ford, 1702;—of Goorgo I., John, duko of Montagu, 1714 ;—of Goorge II., Charles, duko of Richmond,
1727;—of George III., John, duke of Bedford, 1761 :—of George IV., 1821, William IV., 1831, and Victoria.
1838, Arthur, duke of Wellington. '
CON 204 CON
convulsed by factions and religious dissensions. General Ecclesiastical councils were held
here in 381, 553, 680, and 869. See Eastern Empire and Turkey.—The Era of Constan
tinople lias the creation placed 5508 years B.C. It was used by the Russians until the time
of Peter the Croat, and is still used in the Greek church. The civil year begins Sept. I,
and the ecclesiastical year towards the end of March ; the day is not exactly determined. To
reduce it to our era subtract 5508 years from January to August, and 5509 from Sept. to the
end. Nicolas.
CONSTELLATIONS. Arcluriis, Orion, the Pleiades, and Mazzaroth, are mentioned in
the book of Job, ix. 9, and xxxviii. 31, about 1520 B.C. Homer and Hesiod notice constel
lations ; but though some mode of grouping the visible stars had obtained in very early ages,
our first direct knowledge was derived from Claudius Ptolemreus, about A. D. 140. Hipparchus
(about 147 B.C.) made a catalogue of forty-eight constellations. Others were added by Tycho
Brahe, Hevelius, Halley, and others. The number at present acknowledged is 29 northern,
45 southern, and 12 zodiacal.
CONSTITUENCIES. See Commons.
CONSTITUTION of England. It comprehends the whole body of laws by which tho
British people arc governed, and to which it is presumptively held that every individual has
assented. Lord Somcrs. This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term government
in this respect— that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign ought to govern at
all times ; and government is that by which he does govern at any particular time. Lord
Bolingbrote. The king of England is not seated on a solitary eminence of power ; on the
contrary, he sees his equals in the co-e.xisting branches of tho legislature, and he recognises
his superior in the law. Sheridan. Hallam's " Constitutional History of England " was
first published in 1827.
CONSULS. These officers were appointed at Rome, 509 B.C., when the "Tarquins were
expelled. They possessed regal authority for the space of a year; Lucius Junius Brutus,
and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, the latter the injured husband of Lucretio, were the first
consuls. A consular government was established in France in 1799, when the directory w.is
abolished : on Nov. 10, Bonaparte, SiCyes, and Roger Ducos were made provisional consular
commissioners ; and on Dec. 13, Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Lebrun were made consuls.
tinguished by the name of consuls in Italy in 1485, being appointed by Richard III. A
British consul was first appointed in Portugal in 1633.
CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, the name given to Napoleon's plan to exclude the British
merchandise from the entire continent. It began with his Berlin decree in 1806, and
occasioned by the Orders in Council (which see).
CONTRABAND of War, a term said to have been first employed in the treaty of
Southampton between England and Spain in 1625. During the struggle between Spain and
Holland both powers acted with much rigour towards ships of neutrals conveying goods to
the belligerents. This provoked the resistance of England. A milder policy was adopted by
the treaty of Pyrenees, 1650 ; and by the declaration of Paris, April 26, 1856. The subject
has been much discussed during the North American conflict, 1861-4.
CONTRACTORS with Government, disqualified from sitting in parliament, 1782.
CONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntary, to a vast amount have been several times made by
the British people in aid of the government. The most remarkable of these in 1798, to
support the war against France, amounted to two millions and a half sterling. Several men
of wealth, among others Sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, subscribed each 10,000/. ;
and 200,000/. were transmitted from India in 1799. See Patriotic Fund.
CONTROL, Board of. Mr. Pitt's bill, establishing this board for the purpose of aiding
and controlling the executive government of India, and of superintending the territorial
concerns of the company, was passed May 18, 1784. Act amended and the board remodelled,
1793. The president of the board was a chief minister of the crown, and necessarily one
of the members of the cabinet. This board was abolished in 1858, when the government of
India was transferred from the company to the crown. Sec India Sills, and India.
CONVENTICLES, private assemblies for religious worship, held by dissenters from the
established church ; but first applied to the schools of Wickliff. They were strictly forbidden
by Elizabeth in 1593, and by Charles II., 1664 ; and persons attending them were liable to
severe punishment. The statutes were repealed by William 111. in 1689.
CON 203 COO
CONVENTION PARLIAMENTS. Two memorable parliaments (especially distinguished
by this term), assembled without the king's writ upon extraordinary occasions. The first
held on April 25, 1660, voted the restoration of Charles II. ; the second, held Jan. 1689, by
a majority of two voices, declared for a new sovereign William III. (and Mary), in preference
to a regent, which had been proposed. See National Convention.
CONVENTIONS. The following are the principal conventions between Great Britain
and foreign powers, and by foreign powers with each other. They are more fully described
in their respective places through the volume :—
Of Closterseven Sept. 8, 1757 1 Of England and United States ^ . Nov. 26. 1836
Of Armed Neutrality . . . July 9, 1780 Of h'pain, for satisfying the claims of British
Of Pilnits July 20, 1791 merchants Juno 26, 1828
Of Paris (French National) instituted Sept. 17, 1792 Of the Vicoroy of Egypt and air E. Codrington,
Of Cintra Aug. 30, 1808 for restoring Greek captives, <fcc. . Aug. 6, ,,
Of Berlin Nov. 5, „ Of France with Brazil . . . Aug. 14, ,,
Of Petcrswalden July 8, 1813 Convention between Holland and Belgium,
Of Paris April 23, 1814 signed in London . . . April 19, 1S39
Of the Dutch with England . Aug. 13, „ Of England with Austria, Russia, Prussia, and
Of Vienna ; Saxony placed under the control Turkey, for the settlement of the Eastern
of Prussia Sopt. 28, question July 15, 1810
Of Zurich, signed . . . May 20, 1815 Of France and England, respecting the slave
Of Capua, with Murat . May 20, „ trade ..... May 29, 1845
Of St. Cloud, between Davoust, and Wellington, Of England with the Argentine Republic
and Blucher July 5, „ Oct. 24, 1849
Of Pari*, with the allies . . . April 25, 18x8 Of Franco and Italy, respecting the occupation
Of Aix-U-chapclle .... Oct. 9, „ of Romo Sept. 15, 1864
OfAustria, with England : the latter agrees to Of Austria and Prussia, respecting Holstein,
accept 2,500,000/. as a composition for claims Schleswig, and Lauonburg (see Gasteut)
00 Austria, anjountingto 30,000,000?. sterling 1824 Aug. 14, 18G5
Of England with Russia . Feb. 28, 1825 See Treaties.
CONVENTS were first founded, according to somo authorities, 270. The first in
England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 630. Camden. The first in Scotland
wis at Coldingham, where Ethelreda took the veil in 670. They wero founded earlier than
this last date in Ireland. They were suppressed in England in various reigns, particularly
in that of Henry VIII., and few existed in Great Britain till lately.* A very great
number have been suppressed in Europe in the present century. The emperor of Russia
abolished 187 convents of monks by an ukase dated July 31, 1832. The king of Prussia
followed his example, and secularised all the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro
put down 300 convents in Portugal in 1834 ; and Spain has abolished 1800 convents. Many
were abolished in Italy and Sicily in i860 and 1861 ; and in Russia in Nov. 1864.
CONVICTS. See Transportation.
CONVOCATION. A general assembly of the clergy iu the nation, convened by the
sovereign's writ, to consult on the affairs of the church, and directed to the archbishop of
each province, requiring him to summon all the bishops, deacons, archdeacons, &c. The
convocation is divided into two houses, called the upper, consisting of tho bishops ; and
lower, consisting of the deans, prebendaries, archdeacons, and members elected from tho
lower clergy. The clergy were summoned to meet the king by writ, 23 Edw. L 1295. The
power of the convocation was limited by a statuto of Henry VIII., in whose reign tho
convocation was reorganised. The two houses of convocation were deprived of various
privileges in 1716. Formal meetings of the clergy have been held annually since 1854, and
attempts have been made to obtain the power of dealing summarily with ecclesiastical affairs,
but without effect.
CONVOLVULUS. The Canary Convolvulus (Convolvulus Canaricnsis) came to England
from the Canary Isles, 1690. The many-flowered convolvulus in 1779.
COOKERY, an art connected with civilised life. Animals were granted as food to Noah,
2348, B.C., the eating blood being expressly forbidden (Gen. ix. 3, 4). In 1898 B.C. a calf was
cooked by Abraham to entertain his guests (Gen. xviii. 7, 8). " The Forme of Cury " (i.e.
cookery) is dated 1390. An English cookery-book was printed 1498. t Seo Cottager's Stove.
• In 1597, lady Mary Percy founded a convent at Bmssols, which nourished there till 1794, when tha
nuns were compelled to remove to England. They were received by bishop Milner, and placed at Winches
ter, at which place they remained till their removal to East Bcrgholt, in Suffolk, June, 1857. This was
the first English conventual establishment founded on the continent after the Reformation.—It is stated
that there wero 16 convents in England in 1841, 53 in 1861, and 189 in 1865.
t Military Cookery.—Capt Grant devised a systom of cooking for the camp at Aldorshot, which has
continned in successful operation for the service of botween 12,000 and 14,000 men. From April to August,
in 1857, tho plan was subjected to the severe test of cookinif for 92.000 men, wbo marched in and ovit of tho
encampment during that period. The consumption of fuel requisite for this systom of cooking is one half-
coo 206 COP
COOK'S VOYAGES. James Cook, accompanied by sir Joseph Banks, sailed, from
England in the Endeavour on his first voyage, July 30, 1768 ; * and returned home after
having circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Spithead July 13, 1771. Captain Cook sailed
to explore the southern hemisphere, July, 1772, and returned in July, 1775. In his third
expedition he was killed by the savages of Owhyhee, Feb. 14, 1779. His ships, the Reso
lution and Discovery, arrived home at Sheerness, Sept. 22, 1 780.
COOPERAGE, an ancient art, probably suggested for preserving wine. The coopers of
London were incorporated in 1501.
CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES are composed of working men, having for their object
the salo cf articles of daily consumption to the members at low prices. The Rochdale
Equitable Pioneers Society begau in 1844, with a capital of 2%l. In i860, the business done
amounted to 152,063/., the profits being 15,906/. These societies (in 1862, 332) are registered
pursuant to 13 Sc 14 Vict. c. 115 (1849).
COOUG, a province (S. India). War broke out between the rajah and the East India
Company, 1832, which ended by col. Lindsay defeating and deposing the rajah, April 10,
1834 ; his territories were soon after annexed to tho British possessions. In 1853 the rajah
brought his daughter to be educated in England, where she was baptized.
COPENHAGEN' (Denmark), built by Waldemar I., 11 57, and made the capital 1443 ;
university founded 1479. In 1728, more than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were
burnt. Its palace, valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100
persons lost their lives. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arsenal, admiralty, and
fifty streets were destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bombarded by the English under lord
Nelson and admiral Parker ; and in their engagement with the Danish fleet of twenty-three
ships of tho line, eighteen were taken or destroyed by the British, April 2, 1801. Again,
after a bombardment of three days, the city and Danish fleet surrendered to admiral Gambier
and lord Cathcart, Sept. 7, 1807. Tho capture consisted of eighteen sail of the line, fifteen
frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun-boats, and immenso naval stores. See Denmark.
COPENHAGEN FIELDS (N. London). Here the Corresponding Society met on
Oct. 26, 1796 ; and the Trades' Union, April 21, 1834. The fields are now occupied by the
Metropolitan Cattle-market, opened June 13, 1855.
COPERNICAN SYSTEM, so called from its author Nicolas Copernicus, born at Thorn,
Feb. 19, 1473, died May 2, 1543. A few days before his death, the printing of his book on
the " Revolution of the Celestial Bodies" was completed. The system, which resembles tliat
attributed to Pythagoras, was condemned by a decree of pope Paul V. in 1616, which was
not revoked till 1821 by Pius VII. The sun is supposed to be in the centre and immoveable,
and the earth and tho rest of the planets to move round it in elliptical orbits. The heavens
and stars are imagined to be at rest, and the diurnal motion which they seem to have from
east to west, is imputed to the earth's motion from west to east.
COPLEY MEDAL. See Royal Society.
COPPER One of tho six primitive metals, said to have been first discovered in Cyprus.
Pliny. Wo read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine copper (or brass), "precious as
gold," 457 b.c. (Ezra viii. 27). The mines of Fohlun, in Sweden, are the most surprising
artificial excavations in the world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and
copper now forms an immense branch of trade : there are upwards of fifty mines in Cornwall,
where mining has been increasing since the reign of William III. In 1857, 75,832 tons of
copper ore wero imported, and 25,241 tons extracted. The Burra-Burra copper-mines, iu
S. Australia, were discovered in 1842. They have brought great prosperity to that colony. The
pound of coal per man per day, and tho official report states the cost to bo one halfpenny per man per
week for tho throe dally meals.—Self-supporting Cooking DepoU for the working classes were set up at
Glasgow (by Mr. Thomas Corbett), Sept 21, i860; and proved successful in Manchester, London, and other
places
* Asoon after. was presented to the king by tho Royal Society In 1768, setting forth the advantage*
memorial
which would be derived to science if an accurate observation ofthe then approaching transit of Venus over
the sun wore taken in tho South Sea. The ship Endtavovr was, in consequence, prepared for that pur
pose, and the command of her piven to lieutenant James Cook. He sailed in July, 1768, touched at Madeira
and Rio do Janeiro, doubled Cape Horn, and after a prosperous voyage reached Otaheitc, the place of desti
nation, in April, 1769. By a comparison of the observations made on this transit (June 3, 1769) from the
various parts of tho globe on which it was viewed by men of science, tho system of the universe has, in some
particulars, been better understood ; tho distanco of the sun from the earth, as calculated by this »nd
the transit in 1761, was settled at 108,000,000 miles, instead of the commonly received computation of
95,000,000. Sutler, it is now computed to bo 95,298,260 miles (1865).
COP 207 COP
first ship towhich a sheathing ofcopper was applied was hismajesty's ship Alarm, at Woolwich,
in 1 761, "to preserve her from worms in southern climates: "it gave great satisfaction, and
in 1780 all ships in the British navy were coppeT-hottomed. —About 1850 the electro-type
process was first employed to face with copper printing types and casts from woodcuts.
CopperMonev. The Romans, prior tothereign of Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively
Scrvius Tullius, used rude pieces of copper for issued, 1797- The half-farthing was coined
money. See Coin. In England, copper money In, but disused (see Farthing) . . . 1843
was made at the instance of sir Robert Cotton, io,oooi. voted towards replacing tho copper
in 1609 ; but was first really coined (when Miss coinage July» 1855
Stewart sat for the figure of Britannia) . . 1665 See Bronze.
Its regular coinage began in 1672, and it was
largely issued in 1689 Coppib-Plate Printing was first invented in
In Ireland, copper was coined as early as 1339 ; Germany, about 1450; and rolling presses for
in Scotland, in 1406; in France, in . . . 1580 working the plates about .... 1545
Wood's coinage (which set) in Ireland com Messrs. Porkins, of Philadelphia, invented a
menced in 1723 modo of engraving on soft steel, which, when
Tho copper coinage was largely manufactured hardened, will multiply copper-plates and
at Birmingham, by Boulton and Watt, in . 1792 fine impressions indefinitely (see Enjraving) 1819
COPPERAS, a mineral composed of copper or iron combined with sulphuric acid (vitriol),
found in copper-mines, commonly of a green or blue colour ; first produced in England by
Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587.
COPPERHEADS, a name given about 1863 to such members of tho Democrat party in
the United States as were in favour of peace with the South on any terms.
COPTS, in Egypt, the supposed descendants of tho ancient Egyptians, mingled with
Greeks and Persians. Their religion is a form of Christianity derived from the Eutychians.
COPYHOLDERS, who hold an estate by a copy of the rolls of a manor made by a
steward of the lord's court. They were enfranchised by 5 Vict. c. 35, 1841. By the Reform
Act in 1832, copyholders to the amount of 10/. became entitled to a vote for the county. Tho
copyhold acts were amended by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 94 (1858).
COPYRIGHT. Decree of the Star-chamber regarding it, 1556. Every book and publi
cation ordered to be licensed, 1585.
Ordinance forbidding the printing of any work ia months' copyright granted to designs ap
without the consenttofth.
of the owner . . 1649 plied to all tissues except laco and those
The firstt copyrigT
copyright act (for 1 4 years, and for tho already provided for; for the modelling, em
author's life if then living) was that of 8 bossing, and engraving of any manufacture
Anne ........ *i7og not being a tissue ; and for the shape or con
Protection of copyright in prints and engrav figuration of any article .... 1839
ings, 17 Geo. Ill 1777 By 5 & 6 Vict. c. 100, tho existing designs acts
Copyright protection act (for 38 years, and the all repealed (except that for sculpture), and
remainder of the author's life if then living), provision made for including alt ornamental
54 Geo. III. designsterms
18x4 •them underof 13protection,
classes, and conferring
varying from upon
uino
Pramatic authors' protection act, 3 Will. IV.
?S • • *. . ■. • l833 months to three years 184a
Act fur preventing the publication of lectures [Fees on registration vary from u. to xi.]
without consent, 0 Will. IV. c. 65 1835 Tho " non-ornamental designs act," securing
International copyright bill, xt Vict. the configuration of articles of utility (fee
5 & 6 Vict. c. 45 (Talfourd s or lord Mahon's joL), passed in 1843
act),t to amend the copyright act Vict,
passedc.95,. 1842 By the ' designs act," tho Board of Trado is
The colonics' copyright act, 10 & 11 empowered to extend tbe copyright for an
passed additional term of tbree years . . . 1850
J1847 Copyright of photographs secured by tho act,
COPYRIGHT FOR DEMONS. protecting works of art, passed in . July, 186a
Protection granting security for two months to
new designs applied by printing to linens, INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT.
calicoes, and muslins 2787 In 1838 and 1852 acts were passed to secure to
Extended to three months 1794 authors, in certain cases, the benefit! of inter
A copyright of 14 years conferred on sculpturo 1798 national copyright (1 & a Vict. c. 59, and 15
and 1814 Vict. c. 12), and conventions have, in conse
The designs act of Geo. ITT. made to embrace quence, been entered into with Franco, Prus
printed designs on wool, silk, and hair ; and sia, &c.
* This act was confirmed by a memorablo decision at tho bar of the bouse of lords, and the claim of
perpetual copyright was overruled, Feb. aa, 1774. The statute declared the author to have an exclusive
right for 14 years, and if at tho end of that term ho were living, tho right to return to him again for the
same term of years. Later acts extended tho author's right to 28 years, and if living at the end of that
time, then to tho remainder of his life.
t By this act, the right is to endure for the life of the author, and for seven years after bis death ; but
if that time expire earlier than 4a years, the right is still to endure for 4a years, for which term also any
work published after the author's death is to continue the property of the owners of tho manuscript.
t Tho important question of a foreigner possessing a copyright in this country was finally decided In
the negative by tho house of lords, in August, 1854, which reversed the decision of the court of exchequer,
COR COR
CORRIESDALE, Caithness (N. Scotland). Hero, on April 27, 1650, the gallant mar
quess of Montrose, was defeated by the Covenanters. He was taken soon after, treated with
great contumely, and hanged at Edinburgh, on May 21.
CORCYRA (now Corfu, chief of the Ionian Isles), a colony founded by the Corin
thians about 734 B.C. It had frequent wars with the mother country, one about the
possession of Epidamnus (431 B.C.) led to the Peloponnesian war. It was subdued by the
Spartans in 373, and by the Romans, 230. At the decline of the eastern empire it fell into
the hands of the Venetians about A.i). 1149. Tho Turks attacked Corfu iu 1716, but were
gallantly repulsed. It was subdued by the Russian and Turkish fleets in 1799, and formed
(with the other isles) into tho Ionian republic. See Ionian Isles.
CORDELIERS, friars of the order of St. Francis d'Assisi (the Minorites) instituted about
1223. Tliey are clothed in coarso grey cloth, with a small cowl and cloak of tho same
material, having a girdle of cord or rope, tied with three knots, and hence the name, which
was first given to them by St. Louis of France, about 1227. Several members of tho French
revolutionary party, termed " Cordeliers," established at Paris in 1790, Hebert Cloots, &o. ,
were executed March 24, 1794.
CORDOVA, the ancient Corduba, a Roman city in Spain, taken by the Goths in 572,
and made the capital of an Arab kingdom by Abderahnian in 757. It became eminent
for its learned men, and was the birthplace of Seneca ami Lucan under the Romans, and of
the great Arabian physician Averrhoes. It was rescued from tho Arabs by Ferdinand III.,
of Castile, in 1236, and was taken by the French in 1809 ; but abandoned by them in 1S13.
CORFU. See Corcyra.
CORINTH (Greece), a city, said to have been built, 1520 B.C., on the ruins of Ephvra.
It was defended by an elevated fortress called Acrocorinth, surrounded with strong walls.
Its situation was so advantageous, that Cicero named it the Eye of Greece, and declared, that
of all the cities known to the Romans, Corinth alone was worthy of being tho seat of a great
empire. —For Corinth, in North America, see United States, 1862, 1863.
Tho Isthmian games instituted, it is stated, by The Corinthians engaged in tho Persian war B. c. 480
* Sisyphus, who founded a kingdom . B.C. 1326 War with the Corcyrcans 435
Return of the Hcraclidie 1107 Tho Corinthian war (which fee) .... 395
Their dynasty established by Alctcs . . 1074 Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus, and an
Tho Corinthians invent ships called triremes, nexed to the Acbajan Leaguo . . . . -4;
with three benches of oars . . 786 or 758 Tho Roman ambassadors first appear at Corinth 2 23
Reign of Bacchis, 925 ; oligarchy of tho Bacehidas Corinth destroyed by Lucius Mummius, who
747-657 sends to Italy the first fine paintings there
Thelostes deposed, and tho government of tho seen, they being part of tho spoil (£iry) I4«
Prytancs instituted : Autornenes is tho first Rebuilt by Julius Cffisar
on"whom this dignity is conferred, about 745 Visited by St. Paul (Acts xviii.) . . a.d. ?4
A colony goes to Sicily, and founds the colonics ULs two epistles to tho Corinthians . 59, 60
of Syracuse and Corcyra, about . . . Ravagod by Alaric 396
Revolt of the Corcyrcans : they dofeat the 734 Plundered by Normans from Sicily . . . 1146
Corinthians at soa 664 Taken by Turks, 1446 ; by Venetians, 1687; by
Cypselua, a despot, sets aside tho Prytanos 655 Turks, 1715 ; from whom it was finally taken
His son Periandor rules, and favours genius by the Greeks in 1823
and learning 627-585 Corinth noarlv destroyed by an earthquako
•Fob. 21, 1858
Fsammetichus deposed, and a republic formed 580
CORINTHIAN ORDER, the richest of tho orders of ancient architecture, called by
Scamozzi, the virginal order, is attributed to Callimachus, 540 B.c. See Abacus.
CORINTHIAN WAR, which began 395 B.C., received this name, because the battles
were mostly fought in the neighbourhood of Corinth, by a confederacy of the Athenians,
Thobans, Corinthians, and Argives, against the Lacedaemonians. It was closed by the
peace of Antalcidas, 387 B.C. Tho most famous battles were at Coronea and Leuctra
{which sec).
CORK, S. Ireland, built in tho 6th century. The principality of the M'Cartys was
converted into a shire by king John, as lord of Ireland. The foundation of the see is
ascribed to St. Barr, or Finbarr, early in the 7th century. About 143 1, this see and that of
Cloyne were canonically united ; but on the death of bishop Synge, iu 1 678, they were separated,
the see of Ross having been added to Cork about a century before, 1582. No valuation is
returned of this see in the king's books ; but in a manuscript in Marsh's library, it is taxed 31
on an appeal by the defendant in tbo caso of Boosoy v. Jeffrey. (In 1831, Mr. Boosoy purchased the copy-
right 01 Bellini's opera, La Sonnambula, from which Mr. Jeffrey published a cavatiiia, Six of tho judges
woro for protecting foreign copyrights, and seven of a contrary opinion.)
COR 20!) COR
Eliz. at 40/., sterling ; and in a MS. in the college library at 25Z. The sees of Cork and
Cloyne were again united in 1833. A chapter was granted to the city by Henry III. in
1242 ; its great charter was granted by Charles I.
A large part of the town was consumed by an Explosion of gunpowder here . Not. 10, 18x0
awful fire in 1 for One of the three colleges, endowed by govern
Taken by Cromwell in 1649 ment pursuant to act 8 &9 Vict. c. 66, passed
The earl of Marlborough besieged and took July 31, 184s. was inaugurated in this city.
Cork from king James's army, when tbe See Queen'i ColUget. . . Nor. 7, 1849
duke of Grafton, a natural son of Charles II., Railway to Dublin finished in . . . . 1850
was slain t6go Cork industrial exhibition opened, June 10,
The cathedral was rebuilt by the produce of a and closed Sept. xx, 185a
coal duty, between the years . . 1725 & 1735
CORK-TREE, Qutrcus sitber, a species of the oak ; part of its bark is the cork used for
stopping bottles. The Egyptians made coffins of cork. The tree grows in great abundance
on the Pyrenean mountains, and in other parts of Spain, in France, aud in the north
of New England. It was brought to England about 1690. A cork carpet company was
formed in 1862.
CORN. The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who, having taught the art
to the Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 B.C. Arundcli&n Marbles. The art of
husbandry, and the method of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, is attributed
by the Chinese to Ching Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch of China, 1998
B.c. Univ. Hist. Corn provided a common article of food from the earliest ages of the
world, and baking bread was known in the patriarchal ages. See Exodm xii. 15. Wheat
was introduced into Britain in tho 6th century by Coll ap Coll Frewi. Roberts's Hist. Anc.
Britons. The first importation of corn, of which we have a note, was in 1347. A law
restricting it was made in 1361. Bounties were granted on its importation into England in
1686. —The new London Corn Exchange, Mark-lane, London, erected at an expense of
90,000/., replacing one established in 1747, was opened June 24, 1828.
CORN-LAWS. defeated in the house of lords by a clause,
The restrictions on the importation of corn are proposed by tbe duke of Wellington, which is
felt, in consequence of the increase of manu carried by a majority of 4 . June 1, :1827
factures, about 1770 ; they wore relaxed in . 1773 Tho act (called the tluting acalc) whereby who tt
Mr. Robinson'h act passed, permitting its im was allowed to be imported on payment of a
portation when wheat should bo 80*. per duty of if, 5*. 8d. per quarter, whenever the
quarter 1815 averago price of all England was under 62*. ;
During the discussions on this bill, mobs as from 62*. to 63*., ii. 4a. 8d. ; and so gradually
sembled in London, and many of the houses reduced to is., when the average price was
of its supporters were damaged, Jan. 28 ; and 731. and upwards, passed July 15, 1828
a riot in Westminster continued several days The act 5 Vict. c. 14, passed 29th April, 1842,
and occasioned much mischief, March 21, tt the second " sliding scale act," regulated the
duty on wheat as follows, with sliding duties,
The corn bill, after passing In the commons, is also, on other articles of corn :—
Average per quarter.
Arrragt per quarter.
£Duty.
Average per quarter.
«. d Shilling: 8kiUina».\ £Duty.
: d. X.ngt. Stilting, £Duty.d.
under 51 IOC 59 and under 60 o 13 o 66 and under 69 060
51 and under 52 o 19 ( Go and under 61 O 12 O 69 and under 70 050
52 and under 55 o 18 c 61 and under 62 O II o 70 and undor 71 040
55 and under 56 o 17 ( 62 and under 63 oxoo 71 and under 72 030
56 and under 57 o 16 c 63 and under 64 72 and under 73 020
57 and under 58 o 15 < 64 and under 65 73 and upwards OIO
58 and under 59 o 14 ( 6s and under 66 070
Tho Cobn Importation Bill (introduced by sir quarter only, on all kinds of grain imported
Robert Peel), 9 & 10 Vict. c. 22 (by which the into the United Kingdom, at any prices), re
duty on whtat was reduced to 4*. when im ceived the royal assent . Juno 26, 1846
ported at or above 53*.. until 1st Fob. 1849; so Anti-Corn-Law League.
after which day the duty became 1$. per
CORNWALL, S.W. extremity of England, originally called Kernou, a term connected
with the Latin cor?iuf a horn, in allusion to its numerous promontories or projecting points.
On the retreat of the ancient Britons, Cornwall is said to have been formed into a kingdom,
and to have existed many years under different princes, among whom were Ambrosius
Aurclius, and the celebrated Arthur. It was erected into a dukedom by Edward III. March
17, 1337, and the heir to the crown of England, if a prince, is born duke of Cornwall, but is
immediately afterwards created prince of Wales. The Cornish insurgents, under Thomas
Hammock, were defeated at Blackheath, June 22, 1497. A powerful insurrection on account
of the establishing the Protestant liturgy in place of the mass, began in Cornwall and Devon
in June, and was suppressed, after much bloodshed, in December, 1549. The last person
l'
COR 210 COR
who spoke the Cornish dialect is said to have been Dolly Pentreath, who died aged 102 at
Penzance in 1778. The prince and princess of Wales visited Cornwall in July, 1865. See
Stannary Courts.
CORONATION. The first coronation by a bishop was that of Majocianus, at Constan
tinople, 457. Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the west by the pope, Leo III., Dec.
25, 800. The ceremony of anointing at coronations was introduced in England in 872, and
into Scotland in 1097. The coronation of Henry III. took place, in the first instance,
without a crown, at Gloucester,. Oct. 28, 1216. A plain circle was used on this occasion iu
lieu of the crown, which had been lost with the other jewels and baggage of king John, in
passing the marshes of Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach. At the eoronatiou of William
and Mary, the bishop of London put the crown on the king's head, as Dr. Sancroft, arch
bishop of Canterbury, would not take the oaths to their majesties. George IV. was crowned
July 19, 1821. William IV. crowned, with his queen, Sept. 8, 1831 : and Victoria, June
28, 1838.
Coronation Chair. In the cathedral of Cashel, Scone ; and in 1396, it was removed by Edward I.
formerly tho metropolis of the kings of Munster, from Scono to Westminster.
was deposited the Lia Fail, or Fatal Stone, on The Coronation Oath was first administered to the
which they were crowned. In 513, Fergus, a kinps of England by Dunston (archb shop of Can
prince of tho royal line, having obtained the Scot terbury), to Ethelred II., in 978. An oath, nearly
tish throne, procured the use of this stone for his corresponding with that now in use, was adminis
coronation at Dunstaffnage, where it continued tered in 1377, and was altered in 16S9.
until tho time of Kenneth II., who removed it to
CORONEA, Battlf.8 of. I. (or Chaeronea). Tho Athenians were defeated and their
general Tolmidos slain in a battle with tho Bteotians at Coronca near Chaeronea, 447 B.C.
2. The Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians having entered into a league, offensive
and defensive, against Sparta, Agesilaus, after diffusing the terror of his arms, from his many
victories, even into Upper Asia, engaged tho allies at Coronea, a town of Bocotia, and
achieved a great victory over them, 394 B.C.
CORONERS, officers of the realm in 925. Coroners for every county in England were
first appointed by statute of Westminster, 4 Edw. I. 1276. Stow. They are chosen for life
by the freeholders, and their duty is to inquire into the cause of violent or unnatural death,
upon view of the body. Coroners were instituted in Scotland in the reign of Malcolm II..
about 1004. By an act passed in 1843, coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act
for them in case of illness. — 20,531 coroners' inquests were held in England and Wales
in 1859 ; 21,178 in i860 ; 21,038 in 1S61 ; 50,591 iu 1862 ; 22,757 in 1863 ; and 24,787
in 1864.
CORONETS, caps or inferior crowns, of various forms, that distinguish tho rank of the
nobility. The coronets for carls were first allowed by Henry III.; for viscounts by Henry
VIII. ; and for barons by Charles II. Baker. But authorities conflict. Sir Robert Cecil,
earl of Salisbury, was the first of the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 1604. It is uncer
tain when the coronets of dukes and marquesses were settled. Beatson.
CORPORATIONS arc stated by Livy to have been of very high antiquity among the
Romans, by whom they were introduced into other countries. They were first planned by
Numa, in order to break the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, by insti
tuting separate societies of every manual trade and profession. Plutarch.
CORPORATIONS, Municipal, in England. Bodies politic, authorised by the king's
charter to have a common seal, one head officer, or more, and members, who are able, by
their common consent, to grant or receive in law any matter within the compass of their
charter. Cowcl. Corporations were formed by charters of rights granted by the kings of
England to various towns, first by Edward the Confessor. Henry I. granted charters, 1 100 :
and succeeding monarchs gave corporate powers, and extended them to numerous large
communities throughout the realm, subject to tests, oaths, and conditions. Blackstone. The
Corporation and Test act, passed in 1661, was repealed in May, 1828. The Corporation
Reform act, for the regulation of municipal corporations iu England and Wales, 5 & 6 WiR.
IV. c. 76 (1835). The Irish Municipal Corporation act, 4 Vict. c. 108, passed in 1840, was
amended in 1861.
CORPULENCE. In Germany some fat monks have weighed eighteen stone. Sender.
Of modern instances known in this country was Mr. Bright, a tallow-chandler and grocer,
of Muldon, in Essex, who died in the 29th year of his age. Seven persons of the common
size were with ease enclosed in his waisti-oat. He was buried at All Saints, Maldon, Nov.
12, 1750. Daniel Lambert, supposed to have been the heaviest man that ever lived, died
COR 211 COR
in his 40th year, at Stamford, in Lincolnshire, weighing ten stone more than Mr. Bright,
June 21, 1809. He is said to have weighed 52 stone, n pounds. James Mansfield died at
Debden, Nov. 9, 1856, aged 82, weighing 34 stone.*
CORPUS CHRISTI, a festival in the Roman catholic church, in honour of the doctrine
of transubstantiation, kept on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. It was instituted by
pope Urban IV. between 1262 and 1264, and confirmed by the council of Viennc in 1311.
"CORRELATION of tiie PHYSICAL FORCES" is the title of a book by Mr. "W. R.
Grove, F.R.S., who in 1842 enunciated the theory of the correlation or mutual dependence
and convertibility into each other of all the forces of nature (viz. heat, light, electricity,
magnetism, chemical affinity, and motion).
CORRESPONDING SOCIETY of LONDON, was formed about 1791 to spread liberal
opinions and check the tyranny of the British government, then much alarmed by the
French revolution. Home Tooke and other members wcro tried and acquitted, Oct. 1794.
See Trials, 1794. The meetings of the society at Copenhagen-fields and elsewhere, in Oct.
and Nov. 1796, were termed treasonable. —On April 21, 1798, Messrs. O'Connor, O'Coigley,
and others, wero tried for corresponding with the French directory ; and James O'Coigley
was executed as a traitor (protesting his innocence) ou June 7th.
CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. Seo Mercury.
CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT, respecting elections for members of parliament, was
passed in 1854, and continued in 1861.
CORSICA, an island in the Mediterranean Sea, called by the Greeks Cynios. The
ancient inhabitants were savage, and bore the character of robbers, liars, and atheists,
according to Seneca when he lived among them. Corsica was colonised by Phocseans 564
B.C., and afterwards held by the Carthaginians, from whom it was taken by the Romans,
231 B.C. In modern times, it was nominally dependent upon Genoa, until 1768, when it
was ceded to France. During a revolt it was erected into a kingdom under Theodore, its
first and only king, in 1 736. t The celebrated Pascal Paoli was chosen for their general by
the Corsicans, in 1753. He was defeated by the count de Vaux, and fled to England, 1769.
The people acknowledged Geo. III. of England for their king, June 17, 1794, when sir
Gilbert Elliott was made viceroy, who opened a parliament in 1795. A revolt was sup
pressed in June, 1796 ; and the island was relinquished by tho British, Oct. 22, same year,
when the people declared for the French, who still retain it. Napoleon I. was born at
Ajaccio in Corsica on Aug. 15, 1769. A statue to his memory was inaugurated by prince
Napoleon Jerome, May 15, 1865.
CORTES, the Spanish parliament, originating in the old Gothic councils. The cortes
were assembled after a long interval of years, Sept. 24, 1810 ; and settled the new constitu
tion, March 16, 1812. This constitution was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who banished
many members of the assembly in May, 1814. The cortes were opened by him in 1820, and
dissolved in 1823 ; again assembled in 1834, and have since been regularly convened. Tho
cortes of Portugal assembled by virtue of don Pedro's charter, Oct. 30, 1826 ; they were
suppressed by don Miguel in 1828, and restored in 1833.
CORUNNA (N.W. Spain). The British army, about 15,000 men, under the command
of sir John Moore, had just accomplished a safe retreat when they were attacked by the
French, whose force exceeded 20,000 : tho enemy were completely repulsed, but the loss of
the British in the battle was immense, Jan. 16, 1809. Sir John was struck by a cannon-
ball, which carried away his left shoulder and part of the collar-bone, leaving the arm hang
ing by the flesh ; he died universally lamented. The remains of the army hastily embarked
at Corunna, Jan. 1 7, under sir David Baird.
* 101863, Mr- Banting published a letter on corpulence, recommending, from bis own experience),
as a remedy, great moderation in the use of sugar and starch in diet 50,000 copies of this letter were
speedily sold or given away.
t Ho came to England, where he was imprisoned in tho King's Bench prison for debt, and for many
years subsisted on the benevolence of private friends. Having been released by an act of insolvency, in
1756, he gave in his schedule tho kingdom of Corsica as an estate to his creditors, and died the same year
at bis lodgings in Soho. The earl of Oxford wrote the following epitaph, on a tablet near his grave in St.
Anne's church, Doan-street :—
" The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings
Heroes and beggars, galley-si ives and kings.
But Theo-'oro this moral lcarn'd ore datd ;
Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head,
Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread. "
F 2
COB 212 COT
OORUS (or Corupedion), a plain in Phrygia, Asia Minor, where the aged LyBimachus
was defeated by Seleucus, and slain, 281 B.c. These two were the only survivors of the
warlike companions of Alexander the Great.
CORYPHAEUS, the principal person of the chorus in the ancient tragedy. The name
was given to Tysias, afterwards named Stesichorus, who first instructed the chorus to dance
to the lyre, 556 b.c.
COSMOGRAPHY. See Astronomy and Geography.
COSSACKS, the warlike peoplo inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia, Tartary, and
Turkey. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleys and the people of Natolia :
but were formed into a regular army by Stephen Bathori, in 1576, to defend the frontiers of
Russia from the incursions of the Tartars. They joined the Russians in 1654, and in the
great war of Europe against France (1813-15), they formed a valuable portion of the Russian
army.
COSTA RICA, a republic in Central America, established in 1848. It has been much
disturbed by the American filibusters. See Nicaragua and America, Central. On Aug. 14,
1859, the president Juan Mora was suddenly deposed, and Dr. Jos6 Montealegre made
president. Population in 1861, 131,000.
COSTERMONGERS, itinerant dealers in fruit, vegetables, fish, 4c, deriving their name,
it is said, from costard, a favourite apple. The London costermongers are useful frequently
in relieving the markets when glutted ; and it was said, in i860, that 3,000,000/. passei
through their hands annually. Previous to fasting and thanksgiving days, they sell th
appointed forms of prayers in great numbers. On Nov. 22, 1 860, they held a meeting in
order to represent to the city authorities the hardships they felt by the police restricting
their means of livelihood.
COSTUME. See Dress.
COTTAGE. The term was originally applied to a small house without land, 4 Edw. I.
1275. "No man may build a cottage, except in towns, unless he lay four acres of laud
thereto." &c, 31 Eliz. 1589. This statute was repealed, 15 Geo. III. 1775. By returns to
the tax office, in 1786, the number of cottages was 284,459. The number in 1800 was
428,214 ; the number in 1840 was about 770,000. Iu i860 the public attention was much
drawn to the deplorable state of cottages in many parts of the country, and the law of
settlement was altered in 1865.*
COTTON, a vegetable wool, the produce of the Gomjpium, a shrub indigenous in the
tropical regions of India and America. Indian cotton cloth is mentioned by Herodotus, was
known in Arabia in the time of Mahomet, 627, and was brought into Europe by his followers.
It does not appear to have been in use among the Chinese till the 13th century ; to them wc
are indebted for the cotton fabric termed nankeen. Cotton was the material of the principal
articles of clothing among the Americans when visited by Columbus. It was grown and
manufactured in Spain in the 10th century ; and in the 14th century was introduced into
Italy. Indian muslins, chintzes, and cottons were so largely imported into England in the
17th century, that in 1700 an act of parliament was passed, prohibiting their introduction.
Cotton became the staple commodity of England in the present century. About 1841 the
"cotton" or "Manchester" interest began to obtain political influence, which led to the
Tepeal of the corn laws in 1846. See Calico, Muslin, &c,
PROGRESS OF THE COTTON MANUFACTURE IN ENGLAND.
Tvstian and Velveteen made of cotton, about 1641. British Mwlin (totally superseding that of India) is
Calico, Sheeting, «fcc. The fly-shuttle was invented by due mainly to the invention of the Mole (xhich
John Kay, of Bury, 1738 ; the drop box by Robert «e) by Samuel Crompton, 1774-9; and to the self-
Kay, 1760 ; spinning by rollers (also attributed to acting mule of Mr. Roberts, 1S25.
John Wyatt) patented by Louis Paul, 1738 ; the Calico Printing commenced 1764.
spinning-jenny, by Hargreaves, 1767 ; the water- The Stcam-Engine first applied to the cotton manu
frame, by Arkwright, 1769 ; the power-loom, by facture (by Boulton and Watt) 17S5.
Rev. Dr. Edmund Cartwright, 1785 ; tho dressing Bleactdnn by means of chlorido of lime introduced by
machine, byJohnson and Radclino, 1802-4: another Mr. Tennant, of Glasgow, 1798.
power-loom, by Horrocks, 1803-13. A combing ma Stockings. The stocking-frauie was invented by
chine was patented by Joshua Heilmann, in 1845. William Loo, in 1589. Cotton Stockingt wero first
• The Cottager't Stove was designed by captain John Grant, registered Dec., 1849, and presented by Mm
to tho metropolitan association for improving the dwellings of the industrious classes. It requires no
fixing, is extremely simple in its construction, and all the operations of cooking may be carried on with
any description of fuel. 100 lb. of meat and 1151b. of vegetables have been cooked in one of these stoves
with less than ao lb of coal. See Cookery.
COT 213 cou
COTTON, continued.
made by hand about 1730; Jcdidiah Strutt ob Cotton Last— Bobbin-net, Tho stocking-frame of Lee
tained a patent for Derby ribbed stockings in was applied to lace-making by Hammond, about
1759; and Horton patented bis knotter frame in 1768; uie process perfected by John Hoathcoat,
1776 ; Crompton's mule was employed in making 1809.
thread for the stocking manufacture about 1770.
COTTON FIBRE IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM.
lb. lb. lb. lb.
1697. 1.976,359 1782 11,828,039 1820 151,500,000 1861 1,256,984,736
17x0 715,008 1790 . 31,500,000 1830 264,000,000 523,973,296
1730. 1,545.47* 56,000,000 1*40 592, 500,000 669.583,264
•704 3,870,392 1810 . 132,500,000 1S60 1,390,938,752 1864 893,304,720
American Cotton. Previous to 1795, our cotton fibre Australian Cotton is said by Manchester manufac
came from the East and West Indies, tho Levant, turers to be superior to the best American cotton,
and a little from tho United States. About 1786, Jan., 1861. A company was formed at Manchester
the growth of cotton began in Goorg In 1 in Sept., i860, to endeavour to obtain cotton from
Eli Whitney, an American, invented the saw-gin, India, Africa, and other places. It arose out of the
a machine by which cotton wool is separated from Cotton Supply Association, formed in 1857. Since
the pod and cleaned with great caso and expedi 1861, the cultivation of cotton in India, Egypt,
tion. This led to such increased cultivation that Italy, Arc. , has greatly increased.
the United States soon exported 1 , 500,000 lb. of cot Cotton Factories were regulated by acts of parliament
ton ; in 1795, 5,250,000 lb. ; in 1820, 89,999,174 lb. ; passed in 1825, 1831, 1833, and 1844. The hours of
in 1830, 210,885,3581b.; in 1840, 487,856,5041b.; labour were limited, and tho employment of chil
in 1847, 364,599,291Tb. ; in 1859, 961,707,264 Tb.; dren under nine years of age prohibited. In 1846,
in i860, 1, 1 1 5. 890,608 lb. ; in 1861, 819,500,528 Tb. 1724 cotton mills employed 197,500 persons. In
Cotton imported from other countries : In 1847, 1862, the persons employed were stated to be
110,208,324 Tb.; in 1859, 264,281,808 Tb.; in i860, 451,000: 315,000 in I
215,048,144 ft. ; in 1861, 437,481,208 Tb.
EXPORTS OF COTTON GOODS, YARN, &C. FROM UNITED KINGDOM.
Official Value Official Value. Official Value.
1697 1800 . £5,406,501 1861 . £46,872,489
1 701 • • £s,9"5 23,253 18.10 1S62 • 3s.75o.971
■75" 45,986 ■847 • 23,333.225 1863 . 47,§87,i88
1780 • • 355,coo 1859 . 48,202,225 1864 . 54,856,389
1790 . 1,662,369 i860 ! • 52,012,430
In i860, 12,419,096 cwt. of raw cotton was imported, there were receiving parish relief, Sept. i86r,
of which 9,963,309 cwt. came from the United 43.500 persons; in Sept, 1862, 163,498. Earl of
States, and. 1,823,689 cwt- frora India. Derby, Dec. 2, 1862.
The supply of cotton from North America has nearly In July, 1863, about the value of 700,000?. remained
ceased, in consequence of tho secession of tho of the donations which had been received in money
southern states from the union in 1860-61. In and goods, amounting to about 1,900,0001.
1852, Mr. T. Bazley warned tho country on tho On Feb, 9, 1863, tho *'Georgo Griawold" arrived,
danger of trusting to this source. In May, 1862, containing contributions of provisions, 4c,, from
he stated that through its failure the loss of the North America, for tho relief of the sufferers in
labouring classes was i2,ooo,ooo£. sterling a year, Lancashire.
and that the loss, including the employing classes, The Union Relief Act (passed in 1862, and continued
might be estimated at nearly 4o,ooo,ooof. a year. in 1863) gave much relief by ouabling overseers to
At a meeting of the noblemen and gentlemen con borrow money to be expended in public works to
nected with the cotton manufacturing districts at be executed by the unemployed workmen.
Bridgewater-houso, St. James's, on July 19, 1862, In Oct. 1864, much distress still existed, and fears
the earl of Derby in the chair, io.ooof. were sub wore entertained for tho approaching winter—
scribed to the Cotton District Relief fund. Tho 90,000 more paupers than ordinary in cotton dis
viceroy of Egypt, in London at the time, gave tricts. Times, Jan. 18, 1865.
looot and the queen gave 2oooi, on July 24. Libe In June, 1865, Mr. Farnail, the special commissioner,
ral subscriptions flowed in from all parts. On Aug. was recalled by the poor-law board, and the famine
38, the lord mayor had received 41,902^ was declared to be ended. 1,000,000L had been
In the Lancashire district-(population about 4,00-0,000) expended in two years.
COTTONIAN LIBRARY, formed with great labour and judgment by sir Robert Cotton,
1600, et seq. It was with difficulty rescued from the fury of the republicans during the pro
tectorate, and was secured to the public by a statute in 1700. It was removed to Essex-
house in 1712; and in 1730 to Dean's-yard, Westminster, where on Oct. 23, 1731, a part
of the books sustained damage by fire. The library was removed to the British Museum
in 1757.
COUNCILS. King Alfred, in about 886, is said to have so arranged the business of the
nation, that all resolutions passed through three councils. The first was a select council, to
which those only high in the king's confidence were admitted ; here were debated all affairs
that were to be laid before the second council, —bishops and nobles appointed by the king
like the present privy council. The third was a general assembly of tne nation, called, in
Saxon, Wittenagcmot, to which quality and offices gave a right to sit, independent of the
king. In these three councils we behold the origin of the cabinet and privy councils and
the antiquity of parliaments. See Cabinet, Common and Privy Councils, «c.
cou cou
COUNCILS of the Chukch. The following arc among the most memorable. Those
numbered are the General Councils. Sir Harris Nicolas in his 11 Chronology of History "
enumerates 1604 councils, and gives an alphabetical list.
Of the church at Jerusalem (Acts xv.) . . » by treaty between pope Calixtus II. and the
Of the western bishops at Aries, In France, to emperor Henry V. . March 18 to April 5, 1x23
suppress the Donatists ; three fathers of the X. Second Lateran : Innocent II. presided ;
English church attended .... preservation of temporalities of ecclesiastics,
I. First (Ecumenical or General, at Nice (Con the principal subject ; 1000 fathers of the
stantino the Great presided), decreed the con- church attended . . . April 20,
substantiality of the Son of God, condemned XI. Third Lateran, against schismatics,
Arianism, and composed the Nicene creed . 325 March 5 to 19, 1179
At Tyre, against Athanaalus . . . . XII. Fourth Lateran : 400 bishops and 1000
The first at Constantinople, when the Arian 335 abbots attended ; Innocent III- presided ;
heresy gained ground against Albigenses, &c. . Nov. 1 1 to 30, 12x5
At Rome, in favour of Athanasius . . . 33T 34a XIII. Lyons ; under pope Innocent IV. : em
At Sardis : 570 bishops attonded ; Arians con peror Frederick II. deposed,
demned June 28 to July 17, 1245
At Rimini : 400 bishops attended ; Constantino 347 XIV. Lyons ; under Gregory X. : temporary
obliged them to sign a new confession . . 359 union of Greek and Latin churches,
II. Constantinople : 350 bishops attended, and May 7 to June 17, 1274
pope Damasus presided May to July, XV. Vienne In Dauphine* : Clement V. pre
III. Ephesus, when pope Celestino presided ; 38i sided, and tho kings of France and Aragxm
Pelagius censured . June 22 to July 31, attended ; the order of the, Knighta Tem
IV. Chalcodon : Marcian and his empress at 431 plars suppressed,
tended ; Eutychianism censured . Oct. 8, 45> Oct. 16, 1311 ; April 3 and May 6, 13*2
V. Constantinople : popo Vhrilius presided ; XVI. Pisa: Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII.
against errors of Orlgon . May 4 to June 2, 553 deposed, and Alexander elected,
VI. Constantinople, when pope Agatho pro- March 5 to Aug. 7, 1409
sided ; against Monothelites, XVII. Constance : Martin V. is elected pope ;
Nov. 7, 680, to Sept. 16, 68l and John Huss and Jerome of Prague con
Authority of the six general councils re-estab demned to bo burnt .... 1414 1418
lished by Tbeodosius 715 XVIII. Basil 1431 »443
VII. Second Niceno council; 350 bishops at XIX. Fifth Lateran : begun by Julius II. I5>2
tended ; against Iconoclasts, Continued under Loo X. for the suppression of
Sept 24 to Oct. 23, the pragmatic sanction of France, against the
VIII. Constantinople : the emperor Basil at council of Pisa, &c, till . . , ...
tended ; against Iconoclasts and various XX. Trent : the last styled (Ecumenical ; was
heresies . Oct. 5, 869, to Feb. 28, 870 held to condemn the doctrines of the re
At Clermont, convened by Urban 11. to autho formers, Luther, Zuinglius, and Calvin. (See
rise tho crusades : 310 bishops attonded "095 Trent.) . . Dec. 13, 1545, to Dec. 3, 1 563
IX. First Lateran ; right of investiture settled
COUNCILS, French Republican. Tho council of Ancients was an assembly of
revolutionary France, consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris, Nov. I, I795t together
with tho council of Five hundred : the executive was a Directory of Five. Bonaparte
dispersed the council of Five hundred at St. Cloud, Nov. 9, 1799, declaring lumself, Roger
Ducos, and Sidyes, consuls provisoires. Sec France.
COUNSEL are supposed to be coeval with the curia regis. Advocatesare referred to the
time of Edward I., but earlier mention is made of them. Counsel who were guilty of deceit
or collusion were punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 1284. Counsel were
allowed to persons charged with treason by act 8 Will. III. 1696. Tho act to enable persons
indicted for felony to make their defence by counsel, passed Aug. 1836. See Barristers and
King's Counsel.
COUNT, from tho Latin comes, a companion, and French comic ; somewhat equivalent
to the English earl, whose wife is still termed a countess. Count corresponds to the German
graf. See Champagne and Toulouse.
COUNTERPOINT (in music), writing the chords to a melody. The earliest specimen of
contrapuntal writing extant is by Adam do la Halle in the 12th century.
COUNTIES OR Shires. The division of this kingdom into counties began, it is said,
with king Alfred ; but some counties boro their present names above a century before. The
division of Ireland into counties took place in 1562. Lord-lieutenants were appointed in
1549 in England and in 1831 in Ireland. Counties first sent members to parliament, before
which period knights met in their own counties, 1285. Chandos Clause, Sect 20 of the
Reform act, 2 Will. IV. c. 45 (1832), inserted by the motion of the marquis of Chandos.
By it occupiers as tenants of land paying an annual rent of 50/. became entitled to a vote for
the knight of tho shire. It had the effect of increasing tho number of tory voters, and
in consequence several vain attempts have been made to repeal the clause.
COUNTRY PARTY. See Court Party.
cou 215 COU
COUNTY-COURTS* for the recovery of debts nnder 2oi., superseding courts of requests,
were instituted in 1846 by 9 & 10 Vict. o. 95. The counties of England and Wales are
divided into sixty districts, each district having a county-court, and a barrister as judge,
and juries sworn when necessary. These courts having been found to work well, their
jurisdiction was extended by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 61 (1850), to sums not exceeding 50/., an<>
their proceedings were facilitated in 1852 and 1854. There are now (1865) 59 county-
courts in England and Wales. In 1850 the number of plaints entered at tho courts of the
sixty circuits was 306,793 for 1,265,115?. ; in 1857, 744,652 plaints for 1,937,745?. ; of the
217,173 causes tried, 4297 were for sums between 20I. and $ol. Official Returns. From
1847 to 1858 judgment was obtained in these courts for 8,309,236/. An act passed in 1865
conferred on these courts equity powers, like those of the court of chancery, in cases relating
to sums under 500/., to begin on Oct. 1, 1865.
COURIERS. Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus ; and Herodotus says that
they were common among the Persians. The Greeks or Romans had no regular couriers till
the timo of Augustus, when they travelled in cars, about 24 B.C. Couriers or posts are said
to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne about A.D. 800. The couriers for letters
were employed in the early part of the reign of Louis XI. of France, owing to this monarch's
extraordinary eagerness for news. They wero the first institution of the kind in Europe,
1463. Henault. See Post-office.
COURLAND, a duchy of Livonia, subjected to Poland in 1582, conquered by Charles
XII. of Sweden in 1701 ; afterwards restored to Sweeden, but annexed to Russia in 1795.
COURT PARTY—COUNTRY PARTY, classes of politicians of fluctuating numbers and
varying power in the parliaments of England, beginning about 1620. At the end of the 17th
century the latter embodied toryism and high church principles with a strenuous mainten
ance of the assumed rights of "the land," as opposed to the innovations of whiggism and
the corruptions of the trading interests. Its most distinguished statesman was sir Thomas
Haniner (the Montalto of Pope's Satires), who died in 1746. Ashe.
COURTRAI (Belgium). Here Robert, count of Artois, who had defeated the Flemings
in 1297, was defeated and slain by them, July 11, 1302. The conflict was named tho
''Battle of Spurs," from the number of gilt spurs collected.
COURT BARON, an ancient court which every lord of a manor may hold by prescrip
tion in some part of the manor. It is supposed to have originated with tho nobility. In it
duties, heriots, and customs arc received, and estates and surrenders are passed. Its
jurisdiction was restricted in 1747 and 1833.
COURT LEET, an ancient court of record, belonging to a hundred, instituted for
punishing encroachments, nuisances, and fraudulent weights and measures, and also offences
against the crown. The steward is the judge, and all persons residing within the hundred
(peers, clergymen, &c, excepted) are obliged to do suit within this court.
COURT OF HONOUR. In England the court of chivalry, of which the lord high
constable was a judge, was called Curia Militaris, in the timo of Henry IV., and subse
quently the Court of Honour. In Bavaria, to prevent duelling, a court of honour was
instituted in April, 1819. Mr. Joseph Hamilton for many years ardently laboured to
establish a similar institution in Britain.
COURT OF SESSION, tho highest civil tribunal in Scotland, was instituted by
James V. by statute, May 17, 1532. It consisted originally of 14 judges and a president,
and replaced a committee of parliament, In 1830 the number of judges was reduced ; and
the court now consists of the lord president, the lord justice clerk, and 11 ordinary
judges (1865).
COURT OF REQUESTS (also called a Court of Conscience) was first instituted in tho
reign of Henry VII. 1493, and was remodelled by Henry VIII. in 1517. Stoiv. Established
for the summary recovery of small debts under forty shillings ; but in tho city of London
the jurisdiction extends to debts of five pounds. Ashe. The courts of requests in the
principal towns of the kingdom were superseded in 1847 (those of tho city of London only
excepted) by the County-Courts (which see).
* Coujtty-courts, or schyremotes, are of such remote antiquity that their origin is lost. Iu tho tirao
of tho Saxons thoy wore the most important tribunals in this country. Alfred is said to have divided Eng
land into countios, and counties into hundreds ; but the county-courts, the creation of which is generally
attributed to him. in 896, seem to have existed at a period long anterior to his reign, and to have been an
essential part of the Saxon judicial system.
cou 216 CRA
COURTS OF JUSTICE were instituted at Athens, 1507 B.C. (see Areiopagus) ; by
Moses, 1491 B.c. (Exod. xviii. 25). They existed under various denominations in Rome.
For these realms, see Chancery, Common Pleas, Exchequer, King's Bench, Ac. The citizens
of London were privileged to plead their own cause in the courts of judicature, without
employing lawyers, except in pleas of the crown, 41 Hen. III. 1257. Stoic. The rights of
the Irish courts were established by the British parliament in April, 1783.
COURTS MARTIAL are regulated by the Mutiny act, first passed in 1690.
COUTRAS (S.W. France). Here Henry of Navarre totally defeated the due de Joyeuse
and the royalists, Oct 20, 1587.
COVENANTERS, a name particularly applied to those persons who in the reign of
Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby mutually engaging to stand by each
other in opposition to the projects of the king ; it was entered into in 1638. The covenant
or league between England and Scotlaud (the preceding one modified) was adopted and
solemnly received by the parliament, Sept. 25, 1643 !* an^ was accepted by Charles II.
Aug. 16, 1650, but repudiated by him on his restoration in 1661, when it was declared to
be illegal by parliament, and copies of it ordered to be burnt all over England. See
Cameronians.
COVENT GARDEN (London), so called from having been the garden of St, Peters
convent. The square was built about 1633, and the piazza on the north side and the
church were designed by Inigo Jones. The fruit and vegetable markets were rebuilt in
1829-30, from designs by Mr. Fowler (on about three acres of ground belonging to the duke
of Bedford).
COVENT GARDEN THEATRE sprang out of one in Lincolu's-inn-fields, through a
patent granted 14 Chas. II. 1662, to sir William Davenant, whose company was denominated
the " duke's servants, " as a compliment to the duke of York, afterwards James II. See
under Theatres.—The present theatre by Barry was opened May 15, 1858. The .Fforaf Ilall
adjoining it was opened in March 17, i860, with the volunteers' ball.
COVENTRY ACT. Sir John Coventry, K.B., M.P., was maimed and had his nose slit
in the streets of London, by sir Thomas Sandys and others, the adherents of the duke of
Monmouth, Dec. 21, 1670. This outrage caused the Coventry act to be passed, to prevent
malicious maiming and wounding, March 6, 1671 : repealed in 1828.
COVENTRY (Warwickshire). Lcofric, earl of Mercia, lord of Coventry, is said to have
relieved it from heavy taxes, at the intercession of his wife Godiva, on condition of her
riding naked through the streets, about 1057. Processions in her memory took place in
1851, and on June 23, 1862. A parliament was held here in the reign of Henry IV. called
parliamenium indoctum, or the unlearned parliament, because lawyers were excluded ; and
in the reign of Henry VI. another met here afterwards called parliamenium diabolicum,
from the acts of attainder passed against the duke of York and others. The town was
surrounded with strong walls, three miles in circumference, and twenty-six towers, which
were demolished by order of Charles II. in 1662. The ribbon-makers here suffered much
from want of work in the winter of 1860-1. —The Bishopric was founded by Oswy, king of
Mercia, 656, and had the double name of Coventry and Lichfield, which was reversed by
later bishops. It was so wealthy, that king Offa, by the favour of pope Adrian, made it
archicpiscopal ; but this title was laid aside on the death of that king. In 1075 the see was
removed to Chester ; in 1102 to Coventry ; and afterwards to its original foundation, Lich
field, but with great opposition from the monks of Coventry. Coventry has lately merged
into the bishopric of Lichfield. Bealson. See Lichfield.
COW-POCK INOCULATION. See Small Pox, and Vaccination.
CRACOW (a city in Austrian Poland). The Poles elected Cracus for their duke, who
built Cracow with the spoils taken from the Franks, 700 el acq. Cracow was taken by
Charles XII. in 1702. Taken and retaken several times by the Russians and other confede
rates. The sovereign was crowned at Cracow until 1764. Kosciusko expelled the Russians
from the city, March 24, 1794 ; but it surrendered to the Prussians, June 15, same year,
• It consisted of six articles : 1, the preservation of the reformed church in Scotland, and the reforma
tion of religion in England and Ireland ; a, the extirpation of popery, prelacy, schism, Ac. ; 3, the preser
vation of tho liberties of parliament and the king's person and authority ; 4, the discovery and puiisnment
of all malignanta, &c. ; 5, the preservation of "a blessed peace between these kingdoms ;" 6, the assisting
all who enter into the covenant : " TMimll tec do at in iUt tight o/Qod."
CRA 217
and] in 1795 was awarded to Austria. Cracow was formed into a republic in 1815.
Occupied by 10, coo Russians, who followed here the defeated Poles, Sept. 1831. Its inde
pendence was extinguished : and it was seized by the emperor of Austria, and incorporated
with his empire, Nov. 16, 1846, which was protested against by England, France, Sweden,
and Turkey. See Poland. A dreadful fire laid the greater part of the city in ashes, July
18, 1850.
CRANES are of very early date, for the engines of Archimedes may be so called. In
1857 a crane had been erected at Glasgow capable of lifting 50 tons.
C'RANIOLOGY (or Phrenology), names given to the study of the external form of the
human skull, as indicative of mental powers and moral qualities. Dr. Gall, the first pro-
poundcr, was a German physician, born March, 1758. His first observations were among
his schoolfellows. Afterwards he studied the heads of criminals and others, and eventually
reduced his ideas to a system, marking out the skull liko a map. His first lecture was
given at Vienna in 1796 ; but in 1802 the Austrian government prohibited his teaching. Iu
1800 he was joined by Dr. Spurzheim ; and in 1810-12 they published at Paris their great
work on the "Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System, and of the Brain in par
ticular." Gall died in 1828. Whatever opinion may be entertained of phrenology, there is
no doubt that the researches of Gall and Spurzheim have contributed greatly to physiological
science, animal and mental. Combe's " Phrenology," first published in 1819, is the popular
English work on this subject. Phrenological societies were formed early iu London and
Edinburgh.
CRANMER, Latimer, and Ridley, Martyrdom of, see Persecutions, note.
CRANON, Thcssaly, N. Greece. Tho Macedonians under Antipater and Craterus
defeated the confederated Greeks, twice by sea, and once by land, near Cranon. The
Athenians demanded peace, and Antipater put their orators to death, among whom was
Hypcrides, who, that he might not betray the secrets of his country when under torture,
cut out his tongue, 322 B.C. Demosthenes is said to have taken poison shortly after.
Dufresnoy.
CRAONNE, (N. France). Here Victor and Ney defeated the Prussians under Bluchcr,
after a severe contest, March 7, 1814.
CRAPE, a light kind of stuff like gauze, made of raw silk gummed and twisted on the
mill. Its manufacture is of very early date, and it is said some crape was made by St.
Badour, when queen of France, about 680. It was first made at Bologna.
CRAYFORD (Kent). Hengist the Saxon is said to have defeated tho Britons here, 457.
CRAYONS, coloured substances made into paste, and dried into pencils, were known in
France about 1422 ; and were improved by L'Oriot, 1748.
CREASOTE, or Kreasote (discovered by Reichenbach about 1833), a powerful anti
septic and coagulator of albuminous tissue, is obtained from the destructive distillation of
wood and other organic matters. It is successfully applied to the preservation of meat,
timber, 4c.
CREATINE (from the Greek kreas, flesh), the chemical principle of flesh, was discovered
in 1835 by E. Chevrenl, and has been fully investigated by Liebig and Gregory.
CREATION OF the World. The date given by the English bible, and by Usher, Blair,
and others, is 4004 B.C. There are about 140 different dates assigned to the Creation, vary
ing from 3616 years to 6984. Dr. Hales fixes it at 541 1.
CRECY, or Ceessy (N. France), where Edward III. and his son, Edward the Black
Prince, and an army of about 36,000, obtained a great victory over Philip, king of France,
with about 130,000, Aug. 26, 1346. John, king of Bohemia (nearly blind) ; James, king
of Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes) ; and a number of French nobles,
together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while the loss of the English was very small.
The crest of the king of Bohemia (three ostrich feathers, with tho motto Ich Dien—in Eng
lish, " I serve,") has since beon adopted by princes of Wales.
CRfiDIT FONCIER. A plan of providing loans to landowners was introduced by
Frederick the Great of Prussia, in 1763, in some of the Prussian provinces, as the best
method of alleviating the distresses of the landed interest caused by his wars. The system
consists of lending money to landowners on the security of their estates, and providing the
loan capital by the issue of debentures charged upon the aggregate mortgaged estates.
CRfi 218 CRI
There are two modes of carrying out this scheme : (i) by means of an association of laud-
owners ; (2) by means of a proprietary public company. The former obtains in Eastern
Prussia, but the latter is exclusively found in Western Europe. Cridil Ponder companies
have been founded in Hamburg (1782), Western Prussia (1787), Belgium (1841), France
(1852), England (1863). Similar companies are now formed, or in course of formation, in all
the states of Europe, in India, and in our colonies and dependencies. JJenriques.
CREDIT MOBILIER : a joint-stock company with this name was established at Pans,
Nov. 18, 1852, by Isaac and Emilo Pereire, and others. It takes up or originates trading
enterprises of all kinds, applying to them the principle of commandite, or limited liabilities ;
and is authorised to supersede or buy in any other companies (replacing their shares or
bonds in its own scrip), and also to carry on the ordinary business of banking. The funds
were to be obtained by a paid-up capital of 2$ millions sterling, the issue of obligations at
not loss than 45 days' date or sight, and the receipt of money on deposit or current account.
The society apparently prospered ; but is, nevertheless, considered by experienced persons
as a near approach to Law's bank of 1716. In Sept. 1857, several of the directors failed ;
and in May, 1858, no dividend was paid. The system still exists, and many companies
based on its principles were established in London in 1863.
CREEDS. See Confessions of Faith.
CUEMERA, Battle of. See Fabii.
CREMONA (N. Italy), a city founded by the Romans, 221 B.C. It became an inde
pendent republic in 1 107, but was frequently subjugated by its neighbours, Milan and
Venice, and partook of their fortunes. In 1859 it became part of the kingdom of Italy.
CRESCENT, a symbol of sovereignty among the Greeks and Romans, and the device of
Byzantium, now Constantinople, whence the Turks adopted it The crescent has given
linine to three orders of knighthood ; founded by Charles I. of Naples, 1268 ; by Rene of
Anjou, in 1448 ; by the sultan Selim, in 1801 ; the last is still in existence.
CRESTS are ascribed to the Carians. There are several representations of Richard I.
(1 189), with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume of feathers. The English kings had
generally crowns above their helmets ; that of Richard II. 1377, was surmounted by a lion
on a cap of dignity. See Crecy. Alexander 111. of Scotland, 1249, had a plume of feathers ;
and the helmet of Robert I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306 ; and that of James I. by a
lion, 1424. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the crest was described to be a figure placed
upon a wreath, coronet, or cap of maintenance. GxMlim.
CRETE, now Candia (which see).
CREVANT-SUR-YONNE (N. France). John Stuart, earl of Buchan, with a French
army, was besieging this place in July, 1423, when it was relieved by the earl of Salisbury
with an army of English and Burgundians ; after a severe contest, the French were totally
defeated.
CREVELDT, near Cleves (W. Prussia). Here, on June 23, 1758, prince Frederick of
Brunswick defeated the French under the count of Clermont.
CRICKET, an ancient English national game, said to be identical with "club ball"
played in the 14th century. The present rules of the game were laid down in 1774 by a
committee of noblemen and gentlemen, including the duke of Dorset and sir Horace Mann.
In 1861 the All England Eleven gained and lost games in Australia.
CRIME. About 1856 it was computed that a fifteenth part of the population of the
United Kingdom lived by crime. The increase in education and manufactures is gradually
reducing this proportion. From 1848 to 1865 there has been no commitment for political
oircnees, such as treason or sedition. See Executions and Trials.
CONVICTIONS (BY TEIAL) IN ENGLAND AND WALES.
Periont. Capital Offences. Persons. Capital Offences. Persons. Capital Offences.
1847 . . 31,54" *8s4 • • 33,<>47 49 1860 . . 13.068 43
1849 . . 31,001 66 1855 . . 19,971 50 1861 . . 13,879 50
1850 . . 30,537 49 1856 . . 14,734 69 1863 . . 15,312 =9
1851 . . 31,579 ■857 • • 15.307 54 1863 . . 15.799 =9
1853 . . 31,304 1: 1858 . . 13,346 53 1864 . . 14,726
1853 . . 30.756 55 1859 . . 12,470 5i
Convictions, in 1847 : Scotland, 3558 ; Ireland, 15,233. In 1861 : Scotland, 2428 ; Ireland, 3271.
CEI 219 CRI
CRIME, continued.
The Criminal Justice act of 1855 authorises justices, with tho consent of the prisoners, to pass sen
tence for short periods, instead of committing thorn to trial.
In 1856, the expenses for criminal prosecutions were 194,^x21. 4*. 8a\ 16 persons were executed for
murder in 1856 (four foreigners), 14 in 1857, 11 in 1858 (four foreigners), and 0 (four for wife-murder) in 1859.
2,666 persons wore liberated on tickets-of-leave in 1856. On Feb. 17, 1857, of 126 persons thus liberated, 58
were believed to be living honestly. But in 1861, 1862, and 1863, the system was considered to have failed
through the numerous crimes committed by tickel-of-leavers ; it was modified by the renal Servitude act,
In 1864,
"Judicial Statistics" of crime, police, and law, with a report, wore first published by government,
in 1857.
CRIMEA, or Crim Tartart, a peninsula in the Euxine or Black Sea, tho ancient
Taurica Chersonesus, colonised by the Greeks about 550 B.C. The Milesians founded the
kingdom of Bosporus, now Kertch, which about 108 B.C. formed part of the dominions of
Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose descendants continued to rule the country under Roman
protection till the irruption of the Goths, Huns, &c, about a.d. 258. About 1237, it fell
into the hands of the Mongols under Genghis Khan ; soon after the Venetians established
commercial stations, with a lucrative trade, but were supplanted by the Genoese, who were
permitted to rebuild and fortify Kaffa, about 1261. In 1475 Mahomet II. expelled the
Genoese, and subjected the peninsula to the Ottoman yoke ; permitting the government to
remain in the hands of the native khans, but closing the Black sea to Western Europe. In
1774, by the intervention of the empress Catherine II., the Crimea recovered its inde
pendence : but on the abdication of the khan iu 1 783, the Russians took possession of the
country, after a war with Turkey, and retained it by a treaty of peace in 1792. The Crimea
(now Taurida), was divided into eight governments in 1802. War having been declared
against Russia by England and France, March 28, 1854, large masses of troops were sent to
the East, which, after remaining some time at Gallipoli, and other places, sailed for Varna,
where they disembarked May 29th. An expedition against the Crimea having been deter
mined on, the allied British, French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000 men (25,000
British), commanded by lord Raglan and marshal St. Arnaud, sailed fron Varna, Sept. 3rd,
and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th, without opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria,
about 30 miles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they attacked tho Russians, between 40,000
and 50,000 strong (under pnnce Menschikofl), entrenched on the heights of Alma, supposed
to be unassailable. After a sharp contest the Russians were totally routed. See A Una and
Russo-Turkish War. Peace was proclaimed in April, 1856, and the allies quitted the
Crimea July 12 following.
CRIMESUS, a river in Sicily, near which Timoleon defeated the Carthaginians, 339 b.c.
CRIMINAL LAWS of ENGLAND. Their great severity, pointed out by sir Samuel
Romilly, sir James Mackintosh, and others, about 1818, was considerably mitigated by sir
K. Peel's acts, passed 1826-8. The criminal law was consolidated in six acts passed in 186 1.
CRIMPING-HOTJSES were used to entrap persons into the army ; hence the name of
" crimp sergeant." In a riot in London, some of these receptacles were destroyed by the
populace, in consequence of a young man who had been enticed into one being killed in
endeavouring to escape, Sept. 16, 1794.
CRINOLINE (a French word, meaning stuff made of crin, hair) is the modern name of
the "fardingale " of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-like petticoats made of whalebone,
&c, revived in France and England since 1855. They have frequently occasioned loss of
life, by coming in contact Taller, published
Jan. 5, 1710, is an amusing trial of the hoop-petticoat then in fashion.
CRIPPLEGATE (London), was so-called from the lame beggars who sat there, so early
as the year 1010. The gate was new built by the brewers of London, in 1244 ; and was
pulled down and sold for9ii. in July, 1760. The poet Milton was buried in the church
near it, Nov. 12, 1674. See London Gates.
CRISPIN and CrispiAntjs are said to have been two saints, born at Rome, from whence
they travelled to Soissons, in France, to propagate the Christian religion. Not to be charge
able to others, they worked as shoemakers ; but the governor of the town discovering them
to be Christians, ordered them to be beheaded, about 28S. On this account, the shoemakers
chose them for their tutelar saints. Their day is Oct. 25.
CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 276 b.c. Blair. Of this class were
CRO 220 CKO
Varro, Cicero, Apollonius, and many distinguished men. In modem times, the Journal des
Sfavans was the earliest work of the system of periodical criticism, as it is now known. It
was originated hy Denis do Sallo, ecclesiastical counsellor in the parliament of France, and
was first published at Paris, May 30, 1655, and is still continued. The first work of this
kind in England was the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term being invented by himself),
published in Feb. 1703. The Waies of Literature was commenced in 17 14, and was dis
continued in 1722. See Reviews.*
CROATIA was conquered by Coloman, king of Hungary, in 1 102, and was with that
country united to Austria in 1526. The Croatian diet was abolished in Nov. 1861.
CROCKERY-WARE. See Earthenware.
CROCODILES were fed well and reverenced as divinities by the Egyptians. The
emperor Augustus is said to have collected twenty-five at one time in his amphitheatre,
where they were killed by gladiators. A fossil crocodile was found at Doddridge, Gloucester
shire, in 1806.
CROIX, ST., a W. India Island, purchased from the French by Christian VI., king of
Denmark, in 1733 ; taken by sir Alexander Cochrane, Dec. 22, 1807 ; restored in 1814.
CROPREDY-BRIDGE, near Banbury, Oxfordshire. Here the royalists defeated sir
William Waller and the army of the parliament, June 29, 1644.
CROSIER, a staff surmounted by a cross, borne before an archbishop. The pastoral staff
or bishop's staff, with which it is often confounded, was in the form of a shepherd's crook,
intended to admonish the prelate to be a true spiritual shepherd. The bearing a crosier
before ecclesiastics is mentioned in the life of St. Ctesarea of Aries, about 500.
CROSS. That on which the Redeemer suffered on Mount Calvary, was said to have
been found at Jerusalem, deep in the ground with two others, by St. Helena, May 3, 328 ;
Christ's being distinguished from thoso of the thieves by a sick woman being cured by
touching it. It was carried away by Chosroes, king of Persia, on the plundering of Jeru
salem ; but was recovered by the emperor Heraclius (who defeated him in battle) Sept. 14,
615, and that day has since been commemorated as "the festival of the Exaltation of the
Cross," established in 642. —It is asserted by church writers that a shining cross, two miles
in length, was seen in the heavens by Constantine, and that it led him to adopt it on his
standurds, with the inscription " In hoc signo vinces ;" "in this sign thou shalt conquer."
With these he advanced to Rome, where he vanquished Maxentius, Oct 27, 312. Lenglel.
Signing with the Crou was first practised by Crosses in honour of queen Eleanor wore set up
Christians to distinguish theinsclvos from in the places whero her hoarse rested, be
the Pagans, about no; and in the time of tween 1206 (when she died) and . . 1307
Tcrtullian, 260, it was deemed efficacious Crosses and idolatrous pictures were removed
against poison, witchcraft, &c. from churches, and crosses in the streets de
Ci-oue* in churcltts and chambers were intro molished by order of parliament . . . 1641
duced about 431 ; and set up on steeples about 568 The order of Ladiu of the Star of the Crou was
Maids 0/ the Crou were a community of young instituted by tho empress Eleonora do Gon-
women who made vows of poverty, chastity, coga, queen of Leopold I., in , • . . 1668
and obedience, instituted in . . . 1265
CROSSED CHEQUES. See Drafts.
CROTONA (S. Italy), a city founded by the Achsean Greeks about 710 B.c. Here Pytha
goras taught about 520 B.C.
CROWS. An act passed for their destruction in England (which breeds more of them,
it is said, than any other country in Europe), 24 Hen. VIII. 1532. Crows were anciently
employed as letter-bearers, as carrier-pigeons are now.
CROWN. An Amalekite brought Saul's crown to David, 1056 a c. (2Sam. L) The first
Roman who wore a crown was Tarquin the Elder, 616 B.C. The crown was first a fillet tied
round the head ; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and also of stuffs adorned
with jewels. See Tiara.
* Tho legality of fair criticism was established in the English courts, in Feb., 1794, when .inaction that
excited great attention, brought by an author against a reviewer for a severe critique upon his work, was
determined in favour of tho defendant, on tho principle that criticism is allowable, however sharp, if just,
sud not malicious.
CRO 221 CRY
CROWN, continued.
The crown of Alfred bad two little bells attached The crown and regalia of England were pledged to
(87a) ; it is said to bare been long preserved at the city of London by Richard II. for aoooi. in
'Westminster, and may have been that described 1 386. See the king's receipt on redeeming them.
in the parliamentary inventory taken in 1649. Rymer.
A thelstan's crown resembled an earl's coronet, 929. The Imperial State Crovn of England was made by
William I. wore his crown on a cap, adorned with Rundcll and Bridges, in 1838, principally with
points, 1066. jewels taken from old crowns. It contains 1 large
Richard III. introduced the crosses, 1483. ruby, 1 large sapphire, 16 sapphires, n emeralds,
Henry VII. introduced the arches, 1485. 4^ rubies,
1 uuioB, 1363
lyj} brilliants,
ui 1273 rose diamonds. **7
The crown of Charles II. , made in 1660, is the oldest table diamonds, 4 drop-shaped pearls, and. 373
existing in our day. See Blood'* Con*piracy. pearls. Profeuor T<'enntuU.
CROWN LANDS. The revenue arising from those in England is now nearly all subject
to parliament, which annually provides for the support of the sovereign and government.
The annual revenue now arising from crown lands is about 284,500/. The revenues of
the duchies of Cornwall and Lancaster belong to the prince of Wales, and accumulate
during his minority. Henry VII. (1485) resumed those which had been given to their
followers by the sovereigns of the house of York. The hereditary estates of the crown were
largely bestowed on their courtiers by the sovereigns—especially by the Stuarts.
CROWNS and Half-crowns were coined in England by Edward VI. in 1553. None
were coined in 186 1, and they will gradually be withdrawn from circulation.
CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the Syrians, Egyptians, Persians,
Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans, esteemed the most dreadful on accouut of the shame
attached to it ; it was usually accompanied by other tortures. Ariarathes of Cappadocia,
aged 80, when vanquished by Perdiccas, was discovered amon^ the prisoners, and by the
conqueror's orders was flayed alive, and nailed to a cross, with his principal officers, 322 b.c.
Jesus Christ was crucified April 3, a.d. 33 Bible. (April 15, a.d. 29, Clinton; March 28,
a.d. 31. Bales). Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Constantine, 330. Lcnglet.
See Heath, Punishment of.
CRUELTY to ANIMALS, Royal Society for the Prevention of, was instituted iu
1824. Through its exertion hundreds of cases of cruelty are annually prosecuted. Acts for
the protection of animals were passed in 1835 and 1839. A similar society exists in Paris.
In i860 both societies endeavoured to repress vivisection (physiological experiments on
living animals).
CRUSADES (French Croisades), wars undertaken by the Christian powers to drive the
infidels from Jerusalem and the adjacent countries, called the Holy Laud. They were
projected by Peter Gautier, or Peter the Hermit, an enthusiastic French officer of Amiens,
who turned pilgrim. Having travelled in the Holy Land, ou his return, he deplored to pope
Urban II. that infidels should be in possession of the city where Christ had taught. Urban
convened a council of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the
chief Christian potentates assisted, and gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe
to a general war, 1094. The first crusade was published ; an army of 300,000 men was raised,
Peter had the direction of it, and Godfrey de Bouillon the command, 1095. Voltaire. The
warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulder, with the name of Croises, Crossed, or
Crusaders; their motto was Volonti de Dieu, (< God's will."—The French government arc
publishing the Western Historians of the Crusades in a magnificent form (1844-60).
I. Crusade (1096) ended by Jerusalem being taken by VI. In 1228, by emperor Frederick II., whoobtained
assault, July 15, 1009, and in establishing God possession of Jerusalem on a truce for ten years.
frey de Bouillon as king. In 1240, Richard, earl of Cornwall, arrived at
II. Preached by St. Bernard In 1146, headed by Palestine, but soon departed.
emperor Conrad It., and Louis VII. of France. VII. By Louis IX. (St. Louis), who was defeated and
Crusaders defeated ; Jerusalem lost in 1187. taken prisoner at Mansourah, Aprils, 1250; re
III. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, &c, in 1188, leased by ransom ; truce of ten years.
joined by Philip II. of France and Richard I. of VIII. And last, in 1270, by the same prince, who died
England, in 1190. Glorious, but fruitless. on his way uf a contagious disease, at Carthage, in
IV. iiq5, by emperor Henry VI. ; successful till his Africa. Other princes followed him, among others
death in 1 107. prince Edward, afterwards our Edward I. In 1291 ,
V. Proclaimed by Innocent III., 1198. Baldwin, the soldan took Acre, and the Christians were
count of Flanders, attacked the Greeks, and took driven out of Syria.
Constantinople in 1202. His companions returned.
CRYOPHORUS, an instrument (invented by Dr. Wollaston about 1812) to demonstrate
the relation between evaporation at low temperatures and the production of cold.
CRY 222 cue
CRYPTOGRAPHIC MACHINE, for carrying on secret correspondence, patented 1S60.
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY is the science relating to the symmetrical forms assumed by
substances passing from tbe liquid to the solid state. Rome" de Lisle published his "Essai
de Cristallographie," iu 1772 ; but Rene-Just Haiiy is justly regarded as the founder of the
modern school of crystallography (1801), Whewell. Dana, Dufresnoy, and Miller, are
eminent modern writers on this subject.
CRYSTAL PALACE, Hyde Park, London. See Exhibition of 1851.
CRYSTAL PALACE, Sydenham. The Exhibition building of 185 1 having been
surrendered to Messrs. Fox & Henderson on Dec. 1, 185 1 ; the materials were sold for
70,000/. to a company (formed by Mr. Leach), who soon after commenced erecting the present
Crystal Palace on its present site, near Sydenham in Kent (300 acres having been purchased
for the purpose) under the direction of sir Joseph Paxton, Messrs. Owen Jones, Digby Wyatt,
and other gentlemen engaged in the erection of the preceding structure. The proposed
capital of 500,000/. (in 100,000 shares of 5/. each) was increased in Jan. 1853 to a million
pounds. In addition to the permanent exhibition, there are extensive gardens, with
magnificent fountains, &c, illustrations of zoology, geology, botany, ethnology, &c.
First column raised by B. Laing, M.P., Aug. 5, 1852 476/. were collected, to which tho C. P. com
During tbe progress of tbe works as many as pany added 200L .... :Oct. 7, 1857
6400 men were engaged at one time. By tbe Centenary of the birth of Robert Burns cele
full of scaffolding, 12 men killed . Aug. 15, 1S53 brated : tho directors awarded 50/ to a prize
Dinner given to professor Owen and a party of poem on the subject, which was obtained by
savans in the interior of the model of the Miss Isa Craig .... Jan. 25, 1859
iguanodon, constructed by Mr, Waterhouae Festival kept in honour of Schiller, Nov. 10,
Hawkins Dec. 31, ,, 1859; of Mendelssohn . May 4, i860
The palace opened by the quoen . Juno io, 1854 London charity children sing here . June 6, ,,
Grand musical fete on behalf of the Patriotic 3000 Orpheonistcs (French musical amateurs)
Fund Oct. 28, „ perform choral music, June 25 ; the imperial
Tho palace visited by the emperor and empress band of Guides perform, June 26; both dino
of tho French, tic. . . . April 20, 1855 in tho palace .... June 30, „
First grand display of the great fountains, in About 100 English brass bands perform, July 10, ,,
presence of the queen and 20,000 spectators, North wing injured by a gale of wind, Feb. 21, i86x
Juno 18, 1856 Haydn's "Creation" performed (Costa, con
The receipts were 1 15,6271 ; tho expenditure, ductor) May 1, „
87,872*. ; not including payments for pre Blondin's performances on an elevated rope
ference shares, &c, in the year ending begin here (ho plays on violin, cooks, simu
April 30, 1857 lates falling, &c.) .... Juno r, ,,
The preliminary Handel festivals, June 15, 17, Another successful Handel festival : a new
10, 1857 ; and July 2, 1858 (see Handel) ; tbe arched roof constructed for the orchestra ;
Handel festival itself took place on about 4000vocal and instrumental performers,
June 20, 22, and 24, 1859 June 23, 25, 27, 1863
On tho Fast day (for the Indian mutiny) rev. Successful Handel festival . June 26, 28, 30, 1865
C. Bpurgeon preached hero to 23,000 persons;
CUBA, an island (W. Indies) discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, Oct. 28, 1492,
conquered by Velasquez, 15 11, and settled by the Spaniards.
The buccaneer Morgan took the Havannah. See Cuba again invaded by Lopez and his followers,
Buccaneer* 1669 Aug. 13, 1851
The fort of Havannah erected by admiral Ver Tljey were defeated and taken ; 50 were shot,
non 1741 and Lopez garrotted at Havannah. Bee Lone
The Havannah taken by admiral Pococke and Star Sept. 1, „
lord Albemarle, in 1 762 ; but restored at the The president of the United States again issued
Kaco . . 1763 a proclamation against an intended expedi
ne Star " society (vhich we), for the acqui tion against Cuba . . . May 31, 1854
sition of Cuba, &c., formed . . . 1848 Messrs. Buchanan, Mason, and Soule", United
Expedition, under general Lopez and a large States envoys, met at Ostend and Aix-la-
body of Americans, with tho view of wresting Chapelle, and reported, recommending the
this island from tho dominion of Spain, purchase of Cuba .... Oct.
landed at Cuba (defeated) . May 17, 1850 The Spanish minister in cortes declared tliat
The president of tbe United States (Taylor) had the sale ofCuba would be " the sale of Spanish
previously published a strong proclamation, honour itself " .... Pea tg, ,t
denouncing the object of the invaders,
Aug. n, 1849
CUBIT, a measure of the ancients, by which the ark of Noah was measured (n.c. 2448).
Holden. Tbe Hebrew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven English
feet. Originally, it was the distance from the elbow, bending inwards, to the extremity of
the middle finger. Calmet.
CUCUMBERS, noticed by Virgil and other ancient poets, were brought to England
from the Netherlands about 1538.
CUD 223 CUN
CUDDALORE (India), on the coast of the Carnatic, was acquired hy the English in
1681. It was reduced by the French in 1758, hut was recaptured in 1760 hy sir Eyre
Coote. Again lost in 1781, it underwent a destructive siege by the British under general
Stuart, in 1783, which was continued until peace was signed, when it reverted to them, 1784.
CUIRASS, a part of armour much in use by the Greeks and Romans. Tacitus. The
skins of beasts, and afterwards tanned leather, formed the cuirass of the Britons until the
Anglo-Saxon era. It was afterwards made of iron and brass, and covered the warrior from
neck to waist before and behind. The cuirass was worn hy the heavy cavalry in the reign of
Henry III. 1216 et scq* Napoleon had several regiments of cavalry wearing cuirasses.
CULDEES (said to derive their name from cullorcs Dei, worshippers of God,) monks of
simple and peaceful lives in Scotland and Ireland in early times. They had their principal
scat at St. Andrew's ; and it is said that in 1185 at Tipperary there was a Cnldean abbey
whose monks were "attached to simple truth and pure Christian worship, and had not yet
conformed to the reigning superstition." They were eventually subjected to the papal yoke.
CULLENS-WOOD (Ireland) : a horrible slaughter of the English by the Irish took place
at a village near Dublin, on Easter or Black Monday, so called from this massacre, March 30,
1209. The English were a colony from Bristol inhabiting Dublin, whence they went to
divert themselves at Cullen's-wood, when the O'Byrnes and O'Tooles fell upon them, and
destroyed 500 men, besides women and children.
CULLODEN, near Inverness, where the English, under William, duke of Cumberland,
defeated the Scottish rebels headed by the young Pretender, the last of the Stuarts, April 16,
1746. The Scots lost 2500 men in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred
in the pursuit, while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. After the battle, the
duke's army practised great cruelties upon the vanquished and the defenceless country
people. Smollett. Prince Charles fled, and wandered among the wilds of Scotland for six
months, while 30,000?. were offered for taking him, and tho troops of the conqueror were
constantly in search. He at length escaped from Uist to Morlaix, and died at Rome in
1788.
CULVERINS, ordnance so called from the French coulevrine, introduced into England
from a French model in 1534. It was originally five inches and a quarter diameter in tho
bore, and carried a ball of eighteen pounds. Bailey.
CUMBERLAND, a N.W. county of England, was granted to Malcolm I. of Scotland in
945, by king Edmund, " on condition that he should be his fellow-worker." It was seized
by William I., but restored to Malcolm III., "who became his man," 1072. William tho
Lion, after his defeat at Alnwick, resigued Cumberland to Henry II., and it was finally
annexed to England in 1237.
DUKES OF CUMBERLAND.
1726. William Augustus, second son of George II., 1799. Ernest Augustus ; became king of Hanover
died Oct. 13, 1765. June 20, 1837 ; died Nov. 18, 1851.
1766. Henry Frederic, son of Frederic, princo of 1851. George V., tho present king of Hanover
Wales, died Sept. 18, 1790. (1865).
CVM.M (S. Italy), an old Greek colony, 1050 B.C., said to have been the residence of
the ancient Sibyl, was taken by the Samnites 420 B. C, and annexed and enfranchised hy the
Romans, 338 B.c.
CUMBERLAND, The. See Naval Battles, xStx.
CUNAXA, in Mesopotamia, near the Euphrates, where Cyrus the younger was defeated
and slain by his brother Artaxerxes II., against whom he had conspired (b.c. 401), narrated
in Xenophon's Anabasis. His Greek auxiliaries in the battle were successful. See Retreat
of the Greeks.
CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS (from cuwus, Latin for a wedgo), in characters rcscm'-
hling arrow-heads, found at Babylon, Behistun, tc, have lately been deciphered by English
and foreign scholars, who date some of them as far back as 2000 B.C. This is impugned by
other scholars. See Assyria, Babylon, Behistun.
* The use of.cuirasFes and helmets, as wtll as tho use of bows and Arrows, which had been hardly-
known under tho first race of the kings of France, became ft military law under the second race. (Capit. of
Charl'.m.) Chivalry at this time begun to be introduced ; the knight, who was cailed Miltt, held a rank in
the army, independently of his military rank. Reign of Louie V. , year 987. Uinuv.lt.
CUN 224 CUS
CUNNERSDORF (in Prussia), Battle of. The king of Prussia, with 50,000 men,
attacked the Austrian and Russian army of 90,000 in their camp, and at first gained con
siderable advantages ; but pursuing them too far, the Austrians and Russians rallied, and
gained a complete victory. The Prussians lost 200 pieces of cannon and 20,000 men in
killed and wounded, Aug. 12, 1759.
CUPOLA SHIPS. See Navy of England.
CUPPING, a mode of blood-letting. The skin is scarified by lancets, and a glass cup in
which the air has been rarified by flame, is immediately applied to it, when the blood usually
flows into the cup. This operation was well known to the ancients, and is described by
Hippocrates (B.C. 413) and Celsus (B.C. 20), who highly commend it. It was common in
England about 1 820, but is not much employed in the present day.
CURACOA, an island in the Caribbean sea, settled by the Spaniards about 1527, was
seized by Holland in 1634. In 1800, the French having settled on part of this island,
quarrelled with the Dutch, who surrendered it to a single British frigate. It was restored
to the Dutch in 1802 ; taken from them by the British in 1807, and again restored in
1814.
CURATES were of early appointment as coadjutors in the Romish church, and are men
tioned in England in the 7th century. Among the acts passed for the relief of this laborious
class of the clergy, are the 12th Anne, 1713, and 36th, 53rd, and 58th Geo. III., and
especially the beneficent act 2 "Will. IV. Oct. 1831. It appeared by parliamentary reports
on ecclesiastical revenues, that there were in 1831, 5230 curates in England and Wales,
whose stipends amounted to 424,695?. The greatest number of curates in one diocese was
Lincoln, 629 ; and the smallest that of St. Asaph, 43.
CURFEW BELL (from the French aniiyre feu), was introduced into England by Will. I.
1068. On the ringing of the curfew at eight o'clock in the evening all fires and candles
were to be extinguished under a severe penalty. Jtapin. The curfew was abolished I Hen.
I. 1 100. A curfew bell was rung at West Ham so lately as Nov. 1859.
CURRANTS, from Corintii, whence, probably, the tree was first brought to us about
1533. The name is also given to a small kind of dried grape, brought from the Levant and
Zante. The duty on these currants (44s. 41/. per cwt. in 1834) has been reduced to 7s. The
hawthorn currant (Eibes Oxyacantlioides) came from Canada in 1705.
CURRENCY ACTS. Those of sir Robert Peel were passed in 1819 and in 1844.
CURTATONE, near Mantua, N. Italy. Here the Austrians, under Radetzky, crossed the
Mincio, May 28, 1848, and defeated the Italians after a severe conflict.
CUSHEE PIECES, invented by Richard Leake, the master-gunner of the Royal Prince
man-of-war, renowned for bravery shown in the engagement with the Dutch admiral Van
Tromp, in 1673.
CUSTOM is a law, not written (kx non scrijita), established by long usage and consent,
and it is distinguished from Ux scripta, or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is
derived from 1189 downwards. Sixty years' custom is binding in the civil law, and forty
years' in ecclesiastical cases.
CUSTOMS were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethclrcd II. in 979.
The king's claim to them by grant of parliament was established 3 Edw. I. 1274. The
customs were farmed to sir Thomas Smith for annual sums varying from 14,000/. to 50,000/.
in the reign of Elizabeth. Simp. . They were farmed by Charles II. for 390,000/. in 1666.
Davcnant. In 1671 commissioners were appointed. The customs were consolidated by Mr.
Pitt in 1787. Between 1820 and 1830 so many reductions and consolidations were made in
the customs department, that above a quarter of a million was saved in salaries, though the
work has enormously increased.—Acts consolidating the customs duties were passed in 1853,
1854, and i860, whereby the number of articles in the tariff and the amount of the customs
were greatly reduced. See Revenue. Custom-house officers and officers of excise were dis
qualified from voting for the election of members of parliament, in 1782.
Customs in Customs in Customs in Customs in
1580 . . . £14,000 1684 . . . £530,000 1830 . . £17,540,323 1858 1855 . . . £21,630,081
1592 . . . 50,000 1720 . . 1,555,600 1835 . . . 18,612,906 . . 23,109,105
1614 . . . 148,000 1748 . . . 2,000,000 1840 . . 19,915,296 i860 . . . .. 24,460,901
162a . . . 168,000 1808 . . 9.973,240 1845 . . . 20,196,856 1862 23.674,000
1642 . . . 500,000 1823 . . . 11,498,762 1850 . . 20,442,170 1864 . . . 23,232,000
cus 225 CYP
CUSTOMS, continued.
The customs in Ireland, in 1224, a sack ofwool, I The custom-house once more burnt down, and
3d. ; a last of hides, (xl. ; a barrel of wine, id. immense property aud valuable records des-
The customs business of Ireland was transferred I troyed Feb. 12, 1814
to the London board . . . Jan. 6, 1830 I The present edifice opened . . May 12, 1817
Ciistom-houu. A custom-house was erected in Dublin custom-house commenced in 1781 ;
London on a large scale, 1304; and a yet j opened in 1791. The eastern wing 01 its
larger in 1559. The Lost was burnt down in . 1666 warehouse was destroyed by fire, with pro
A new one, built by Charles II., was burnt perty to the amount of 400,000^. . Aug. 9, 1833
down in 1718, and again rebuilt.
CUTLERY. See Steel
CUTTING-OUT MACHINES. Wearing apparel was first cut out by machinery in
England in the factory of Messrs. Hyams in 1853. The machine, invented by Mr. Fre
derick Osbourn, consists of a reciprocating vertical knife working through a slot in the
table that supports the pile of cloth to be cut. The cloth bein<» pressed up to the edge of
the knife by the attendant, the knife will sever it in the direction of the lines marked on
the upper layer. This system of cutting out is now generally adopted in the slop-work
trade, and, with the aid of the sewing-machine (which see), has tended greatly to improve
the condition of the persons employed in the manufacture of wearing apparel for the home
and foreign markets.
CYANOGEN, a colourless gas (composed of nitrogen and carbon), irritating to the nose
and eyes, derived from Prussian blue, was discovered by Gay Lussac in 1814.
CYCLE of the sun is the twenty-eight years before the days of the week return to the
same days of the month. That of the moon is nineteen lunar years and seven intercalary
mouths, or nineteen solar years. The cycle of Jupiter is sixty years, or sexagenary. The
Paschal cycle, or the time of keeping Easter, was first calculated for the period of 532 years
by Victorius, 463. Blair. See Heionic Cycle, Calippic Period.
CYCLONES, circular whirlwinds, or hurricanes, common in tho East and West Indian
and Chinese seas, varying from 200 to 500 miles in diameter. Many details respecting them
will be found in Rcid s " Law of Storms," first published in 1838. By the great cyclone of
Oct. 5, 1864, immense damage was done on sea and land. About 100 ships are said to have
been lost, and about 60,000 persons perished, and whole towns were nearly destroyed. See
Calcutta. Captain Watson, of the " Clarence," observing the barometer falling, and fore
telling the approach of the cyclone, saved his ship by steering out of its range.
CYCLOPAEDIA. Sec Encyclopedia.
CYCLOPEAN MASONRY, a term given to very ancient buildings in Greece, Italy, and
Asia Minor, probably the work of the Pelasgi, more than 1000 B.C.
CYMBAL, the oldest known musical instrument, was made of brass, like a kettle-drum.
Xenophon mentions the cymbal as invented by Cybele, who, we are told, used it in her
feasts, about 1580 b.c.
CYMRI or Kymiu (hence Cambria), the name of the ancient Britons who belonged to the
great Celtic family, which came from Asia and occupied a large part of Europe about 1 500
ii.c. About A.D. 640 Dyvnwal Moelmud reigned " King of die Cymry." Sec Wales.
CYNICS, a sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes (about 396 B.C., Diog. Lacrl.,
Clinton), who professed to contemn all worldly things, even all sciences, except morality ;
were very free in reprehending vice ; lived in public, and practised great obscenities without
blushing. Diogenes was one (died 323 B.C.).
CYNOSCEPHALjE {dogs' heads, so named from the shape of the heights), in Thessaly,
where Pelopidas and the Thebans defeated Alexander tyrant of Tliera: and the Thessalians,
364 B.C. (Pelopidas being slain) ; and where the consul Flaminius totally defeated Philip V.
of Macedon, 197 B.C., and ended the war.
CYPRESS, Cupressus Sempervirens, a tree originally found in the isle of Cyprus. The
Athenians buried their heroes in coffins made of this wood, of which many of the Egyptian
mummy-chests were also fabricated. The ancients planted it in cemeteries. The cypress
was brought to England about 1441. The deciduous cypress, or Cuprcssm disticha, came
from North America before the year 1640.
CYP 226 DAH
CYPRUS, in island in the Mediterranean, was divided among several petty kings till tho
time of Cyrus of Persia, who subdued them. It was taken by the Greeks 477 B.C., and
ranked among the proconsular provinces in the reign of Augustus. Conquered by the Sara
cens, a.d. 648 ; but recovered by the Greeks, in 957. Cyprus was reduced by Richard I. of
England, in 1 191. He gave it to Guy de Lusignan, who became king in 1192, and whose
descendants reigned till the last, Catherine de Cornano, sold it to the Venetians, 1489, from
whom it was taken by the Turks, 1571. They still retain it.
CYR, St., near Versailles, where a conventual college for ladies was founded by Madame
De Maintcnon, in 1686. It is now a military college.
CYRENAIC SECT, founded by Aristippus the Elder, 365 B.C. They maintained tho
doctrino that the supreme good of man in this life is pleasure, particularly that of the
senses ; and said that even virtue ought to be commended only because it gave pleasure.
CYRENE (N.W. Africa), a Greek colony, founded by Battus about 630 B.C. Aristcrus,
who was chief of the colonists here, gave the city his mother's name. It was also called
Pentapolis, on account of its five towns ; namely, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apollonia,
and Arsinoe. It was conquered by Ptolemy Soter I., who placed many Jews here (286 B.C.).
Cyrene was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans, 97 B.C. It is now a desert. Some-
Cyrenaic sculptures were placed in the British Museum in July, 1861.
CYZICUS (Asia Minor). In the Peloponnesian war, the Lacedemonian fleet under the
command of Mindarus, assisted by rharnabazus, the Persian, was encountered by the
Athenians under Alcibiades, and defeated with great slaughter, near Cyzicus. Mindarus
was slain 410 b.o. Pluiarcli. 408 B.C. Lengkt.
CZAR. Ivan Basilowitz, having severely defeated the Tartars, took the title of Tzar or
Czar about 1482. The eldest son is called Czarowitz, and the empress Czarina.
D.
DACIA, a Roman province, part of Hungary, and the adjoining provinces, after many
contests finally subdued by Trajan, 106, when Dccebalus, the [Dacian leader, was killed.
Dacia was abandoned to the Goths by Aurelian, in 270 ; subdued by the Huns, 376 ; by
Scythians, 566 ; by Charlemagne, and by the Magyars, in the 9th century.
DAGHISTAN (S.W. Asia), was conquered by the czar Peter, 1723 ; restored to Persia,
1735 ; but re-annexed to Russia by Alexander I., 1813.
DAGUERREOTYPE PROCESS, invented by Daguerre, 1838. See Photography.
DAHLIA. This beautiful flower was brought from Mexico, of which it is a native, in the
present century. It was first cultivated by the Swedish botanist, professor Dahl, and soon
became a favourite in England. In 1815, about two months after the battle of Waterloo, it
was introduced into France, and the celebrated florist Andre Thouine suggested various
practical improvements in its management. The botanist Georgi shortly before introduced
it at St. Petersburg ; hence the dahlia is known in Germany as the Georgma.
DAHOMEY, a negro kingdom, "West Africa, became known to Europeans early in the
last century, when Trudo Andati or Guadjor Trudo, a man of energy and talent, was king.
He died in 1732, and was succeeded by a series of cruel tyrants : a large part of whose
revenue was derived from the slave trade. Abbcokuta, which was a robber's cave in 1825, is
now a strong-walled populous town, inhabited by free blacks ; and is consequently opposed
by the king of Dahomey. His army has been severely defeated in its attacks on this place,
and in one on March 16, 1864, a great number of his Amazons were slain. During the last
few j'ears this kingdom has been visited by Captain Burton and other travellers, who have
described the sanguinary customs of the royal court.
DAHRA (Algeria). On June 18, 1845, above 500 Kabyles at war with the French were
suffocated in a cave by smoke, the fire having been kindled by order of general Pelissier,
afterwards duke of Malakoff. They had fired on the messenger bearing an offer of a truce.
The massacre was condemned by marshal Soult, the minister of war, but justified by marshal
Bugeaud.
DAK 227 DAN
DAKOTA (North America) was organised as a territory of the United States on March 2,
1861.
DALECARLIANS (Sweden), revolted against Christian of Denmark, 1521, and placed
Gustavus Vasa on the throne of Sweden.
DALMATIA, an Austrian province, N. E. of the Adriatic Sea, was finally conquered by
the Romans, 34 B.C. The emperor Diocletian erected his palace at Spalatro, and retired
there, a.d. 305. Dalmatia was held in turns by the Goths, Hungarians, and Turks, till its
cession to Venice in 1699. By the treaty of Campo Formio in 1797 it was given to Austria.
In 1805 it was incorporated into the kingdom of Italy, and gave the title of duke to marshal
Soult, but in 1814 it reverted to Austria.
DALTONISM. See Colour, note.
DAMASCUS (Syria), a city in the time of Abraham, 1913 B.c. {Gen. xiv.), consequently
one of the most ancient in the world, now the capital of a Turkish pachalic.
Taken by David (1040 B.C.), but retaken shortly that people, which caused remonstrances from
after, and made the capital of Syria under many states of Europe.
Denhadad and his successors . . B.C. 951 Damascus was restored to Turkey . . 1841
Taken by Tiglath-Pilcscr, king of Assyria . 740 In consequence of a dispute between the Druses
From the Assyrians it passed to the Persians, and Maronitcs, the Mahommedans massacred
and from them to the Greeks, under Alex above 3000 Christians and destroyed tho
ander ; and afterwards to the Romans, about 70 houses, rendering vast numbers of persons
Paul, converted, preaches here (Acts ix.) a.d. 52 homeless and destitute ; a largo number
Taken by the Saracens, 633 ; by the Turks in were rescued by Abd-el-Kadcr,* who held
1075 ; destroyed by Tamerlane . . . . 1400 the citadel .... July 9, 10, 11, 1S60
Taken by Ibrahim Pacha in ... 1832 Summary justice executed for these crimes by
The disappearance of a Greek priest, named Fuad Pacba : 160 persons of all classes exe
father Tommaso, from here, Feb. 1, 1840, led cuted, including the Turkish governor ; and
to the torture of a number of Jews, suspected 11,000 persona made soldiers by conscription,
of his murder, and to a cruel persecution, of Aug. Sept ,,
DAMASK LINENS and SILKS, first manufactured at Damascus, have been beauti
fully imitated by the Dutch and Flemish. The manufacture was brought to England by
artisans who fled from the persecutions of the duke of Alva, 1571-3. The Damask Rose was
brought here from the south of Europe by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., about
154c-
DAMIENS' ATTEMPT. Louis XV. of France was stabbed with a knife in the right
side by Damiens, a native of Arras, Jan. 5, 1757. The culprit endured the most excruciating
tortures, and was then broken on the wheel, March 28.
DAMIETTA (Lower Egypt), was built about 1250. Here, it is said, was first manufac
tured the cloth termed dimily.
DAMON and PYTHIAS (or Phintias), Pythagorean philosophers. When Damon was
condemned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, about 387 B.C., he obtained leave
to go and settle some domestic affairs, on the promise of returning at the appointed time of
execution, and Pythias became surety for the performance of his engagement. When the
fatal hour approached, Damon did not appear, and Pythias surrendered himself, and was led
away to execution ; but at this critical moment Damon returned to redeem his pledge.
Dionysius was so struck with their fidelity that he remitted the sentence and entreated them
to permit him to share their friendship.
DANAI : an ancient name of the Greeks derived from Danaus king of Argos, 1474 ac.
DANCE OF DEATH. The triumph of death over all ranks of men was a favourite
subject with the artists of the middle ages, and appears in rude carvings and pictures in
various countries. The Chorea Machabceorum or Danse Macabre was the first printed repre
sentation, published by Guyot Marchand, a bookseller of Paris, in 1485. Holbein's cele
brated Dance of Death (concerning the authorship of which there has been much contro
versy), was printed at Lyons in 1538, and at Basil, 1594. Since then many editions have
appeared ; one with an introduction and notes was published by Mr. Russell Smith in
1849.—The term Dance of Death was also applied to the frenzied movements of the Flagel
lants, who had sometimes skeletons depicted on their clothing, about the end of the 14th
century.f
* Abd-el-Kader visited England in August 1865.
t The Dancing Mania, accompanied by aberration of mind and distortions of the body, was vorypreva-
lent In Germany in 1374, and in the t6th century in Italy, where it was termed Tarantiam, and erroneously
supposed to be caused by the bite of the Tarantula spider. Tho music and songs employed for its cure are
fluXl preserved.
43
DAN 223 DAN
DANCING to the measure of time was invented by the Curetes, 1534 B.C. Euscbius.
The Greeks were the first who united the dance to their tragedies and comedies. Pantomimic
dances were first introduced on the Roman stage, 22 B.C. Usher. Dancing by cinque paces
was introduced into England from Italy, a.d. 1541. In modern times the French were the
first who introduced ballets analogues in their musical dramas. The country dance (contre-
danae) is of French origin, but its date is not precisely known. Spelman. The waltz and
quadrille were introduced into England about 1813. See Moricc Dances,
DANE-GELD, or Danegelt, a tribute paid to the Danes to stop their ravages in this
kingdom ; first raised by Ethelred II. in 991, and again in 1003 ; and levied after the
expulsion of the Danes to pay fleets for clearing the seas of them. The tax was suppressed
by Edward the Confessor in 105 1 ; revived by William the Conqueror, 1068 ; and formed
part of the revenue of the crown, until abolished by Stephen, 1136. Every hide of land,
i.e. as much as one plough could plough, or as Bede says, maintain a family, was taxed at
first is., afterwards as much as Js. Camden says that once 24,360^. was raised.
DANES. See Denmark. During their attacks upon Briton and Ireland they made a
descent on France, where, in 895, under Rollo, they received presents under the walls of
Paris. They returned and ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They
attacked Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his
Normans (North-men), hence Normandy, in 911. The invasions of England and Ireland
were as follows :—
First hostile appearance of the Danes . . . 783 Ravage Cornwall, Devon, and Dorset . . . 983
They land near Purbeek, Dorset . . 787 And ravage Essex and Suffolk .... 990
Descend in Northumberland : destroy tho S:iid to assume the title lord dane about . . 991
church at Lindisfaruo ; are repelled, and Their fleet defeated after a breach of treaty,
perish by shipwreck 794 purchased by money 992
They invade Scotland and Ireland . 795, 796 They land in Essex, and in the west, and aro
They enter Dublin with a fleet of 60 sail, and paid a sum of money (i6,ooof.) to quit tho
possess themselves of Dublin, Fingal, and kingdom 994
other places 79S A general massacre of tho Danes, by order of
They take tho Isle of Sheppey .... 832 Ethelred II Nov.
Swein revenges the death of his countrymen, •13, 1002
Defeated at Hengeston, in Cornwall, by Egbert S3S
They land in Kent from 350 vessels, and take and receives 36,000*. (which ho afterwards
Canterbury and London P51 demands as an animal tribute) to depart T CO-
Tliev descend on Northumberland, and take Their fleet anchors at I»le of Wight . . , i c-.y ■
York V-7 1 hey make fresh inroads, and defeat the Saxons
They defeat the Saxons at Mcrton . . . i7z in Suffolk
They take Waroham and Exeter 876 They sack Canterbury, imprison the archbishop,
They take Chippenham : but 120 of their ships and kill the inhabitants
arc wrecked .... . . 877 They receive 48,000/. as tribute, and murder
Defeated : Guthrum, their leader, becomes Alphegc, archbishop of Canterbury 10,:
Christian, and many settle in England 878 Vanquished at Clontarf, Irehmd (see Clontarf). 10x4
Alfred cntors into a treaty with them . . . Their conquest of England completed ; Canute
Their fleet totally destroyed by Alfred at Apple- king 1017
doi S94 They settle in Scotland 1020 .
Defeated near Isle of Wight 897 They land a^ain at Sandwich, carrying off
They invade and w;islo Wales . . • , 900 much plunder to Flanders . . . . 1047
Defeated by Edwan! the Elder . . . . 922 They burn York, and kill 3000 Normans . . 1069
They defeat the people of Lcinster, whose king Unci- more invade England to aid a conspiracy ;
is killed 956 but compelled to depart .... 1074
DANGEROUS ASSOCIATIONS (IRELAND) BILL. See Soman Catholic Association.
DANNEWERKE, or Daunawirke, a series of earthworks, considered almost impregnable,
stretching across tho long narrow peninsula of Schleswig, Holstein, and Jutland—said to
have been constructed during tho "stone age," long before the art of metal-working. It was
rebuilt in 937 by Thyra, queen of Gormo the old, for which she was named " Dannabod,"
the pride of the Danes. It was repaired by Olaf Tryggveson between 995 and 1000. The.
retreat of the Danes from it Feb. 5, 1864, occasioned much dissatisfaction in Copenhagen.
DANTE'S DIVINA C0MHEDIA was first printed in 1472. He was born May 14,
1265, and died at Ravenna, Sept. 14, 1321. A festival in his honour, at Florence, was
opened by the king, May 14, 1865, when a large statue of Dante by Pazzi of Ravenna was
uncovered.
DANTZIC (N. Germany), a commercial city in 997 ; but according to other authorities,
built by Waldemur I. in 1165. Roland obtained the sovereignty of it in 1454. It was
seized by the king of Prussia, and annexed in 1793. It surrendered to the French, May,
1807 ; and by the treaty of Tilsit was restored to independence, under the protection of
Prussia and Saxony. Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812 ; and surrendered to them,
DAN 229 DAR
Jan. I, 1814. By the treaty of Paris it again reverted to the king of Prussia. By an inunda
tion here, owing to tho Vistula breaking through its dykes, 10,000 head of cattle and 4000
houses were destroyed, and a vast number of lives lost, April 9, 1829.
DANUBE (German, Donan ; anciently Ister, in its lower part). Except the Wolga, the
largest river in Europe, rising in the Black Forest and falling into the Black Sea. Its
navigation has been considered an object of great importance, from the time of Trajan to the
present time. Part of Trajan's bridge at Gladova still remains. It was destroyed by Adrian,
to prevent the barbarians entering Dacia. Steam navigation was projected on this river by
count Szenechyi in 1830, and in that year the first steam-boat was launched at Vienna, and
the Austrian company was formed shortly after. The Bavarian company was formed in
1836. Charlemagne, in the 8th century, contemplated uniting the Danube and Rhine by a
canal. At the peace of 1856 the free navigation of the Danube was secured.
DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES; Wallachia and Moldavia; capitals, Bucharest
and Jassy. United, as Roumania, under the government of prince Alexander Coosa in 1859.
Population of the two i860, 4,200,000. These provinces formed part of the ancient Dacia,
which was conquered by Trajan about 106, and abandoned by Aurclian about 270. For some
time after they were alternately in the possession of the barbarians and tho Greek emperors ;
and afterwards of the Hungarians. In the 13th century they were subdued by the Turks,
but permited to retain their religious customs, &c.
Part of Moldavia coded to Russia . . . 1812 be preserved) .... Aug. 19, 1858
The provinces having participated in the Greek Alexander Ouusa was elected hospodar of Mol
insurrection in 1821, were severely treated by davia, Jan. 17 ; of Wallachia . Feb. 5, 1859
the Turks ; but by the treaty of Adrianople The election acknowledged by the allies as an
were placed under the protection of Russia . 1829 exceptional caso .... Sept 6, „
The Porte appointed as hospodars prince Stir- Tho definitive union of the provinces (under
bey for Wallachia, arid prince Ghika for Mol the name of Roumania) acknowledged by the
davia June, 1849 Porto Dec. 1861
They retire from their governments when tho M. Catargi, the president of the council of
Russians enter Moldavia. See Ru»stt-Tarki*A ministers, assassinated as he was leaving the
War July 2, 1S53 chamber of deputies . . . June 20, 1862
The Russians quit the provinces and the Aus The united chambers of the two principalities
trian! enter Sept. 1854 meet at Bucharest . . . Feb. 5, „
The Austrians retire .... March, 1857 Coup d'etat of prince Cousa against tho aristo
The government of the principalities finally crats: a plebiscite for a new constitution,
settled at tho Paris conference (there were to May 2 ; which is adopted . May 28, 1864
be two hospodars, elected by elective assem A law passed enabling the peasant to hold land,
blages, and the suzerainty of Turkey was to Aug. ,,
DARDANELLES, The, are two castles (Sestos, in Romania, and Abydos, in Natolia),
commanding the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli, built by the sultan Mahomet IV. in 1659,
and named Dardanelles from the contiguous town Dardanus.—The passage of the Dardanelles
was achieved by the British squadron under sir John Duckworth, Feb. 19, 1S07 ; but the
admiral was obliged to repass them, which he did with great loss, March 2, following, the
castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down stones of many tons weight, upon the British
ships. The allied English and French fleets passed the Dardanelles at the sultan's request,
Oct. 1853. See Hellespont.
DARIC, a Persian gold coin, issued by Darius, hence its name, about 538 B.c. About
556 cents. KnowUs. It weighed two grains more than the English guinea. Dr. Bernard.
DARIEN, Isthmus of, central America, discovered by Columbus, 1494. About 1694,
William Paterson, founder of the Bank of England, published his plan for colonising Darien.
In consequence a company was formed in 1695 and three ill-fated expeditions sailed there in
1698 and 1699, from Scotland, where 400,oool. had been raised. The first consisted of 1200
young men of all classes, besides women and children. The enterprise not having been
recognised by the English government, the settlements were threatened by the Spaniards, to
whom they were finally surrendered, March 30, 1700. Paterson and a few survivors from
famine and disease, had set off shortly before the arrival of the second expedition. Several
years after, a sum of 398,085/. was voted by parliament to the survivors as "Equivalent
money." A sum of money was also voted to Paterson ; but the bill was rejected in the
house of lords. See Panama.
DARK AGES, a term applied to the period of time called the Middle Ages ; according
to Hallam, comprising about 1000 years—from the invasion of France by Cloris, 486, to
that of Naples by Charles VIII. 1495. During this time learning was at a low ebb.
DARMSTADT. See Uesse Darmstadt.
DAR 230 DAY
DARTFORD (Kent). Here commenced the insurrection of Wat Tyler, 1381. A oon-
vent of nuns, of the order of St. Augustin, endowed here by Edward III., 1355, was converted
by Henry VIII. into a royal palace. The first paper-mill in England was erected at Dartford
by sir John Spielman, a German, in 1590 (Stow), and about the same period was erected here
the first mill for splitting iron bars. Tho powder-mills here were blown up four times
between 1730 and 1738. Various explosions have since occurred, in some cases with loss of
life to many persons : Oct. 12, 1790 ; Jan. I, 1795 ; and more recently.
DARTMOUTH (Devon). Burnt by the French in the reigns of Richard I. and Henry
IV. In a third attempt (1404), the invaders were defeated by the inhabitants, assisted by
the valour of tho women. The French commander, Du Chastel, three lords, and thirty-two
knights were made prisoners. In the war of the parliament, Dartmouth was taken after a
siege of four weeks, by prince Maurice, who garrisoned the place for the king (1643) ; but
it was retaken by general Fairfax by storm in 1646.
DATES were affixed to grants and assignments 18 Edw. I. 1290. Before this time it
was usual at least to pass lands without dating the deed of conveyance. Lewis. Numerous
instruments of assignment enrolled among our early records establish this fact. The date is
determined by the names of the parties, particularly that of the grantor : the possession of
land was proof of the title to it. Hardie. A useful^ glossary of the dates given in old
charters and chronicles will be found in Nicolas's " Chronology of History."
DAUPHIN. It is a vulgar error to suppose that, by the treaty of 1343, which gave the
full sovereignty of Dauphiny to the kings of France, it was stipulated that the eldest son of
the king should bear the title of dauphin. So far from it, the first dauphin named in that
treaty was Philip, second son of Philip of Valois. IUnault. The late duke of Orleans,
eldest son of Louis-Philippe, was not called the dauphin.
DAVID'S, St. (S.W. Wales), the ancient Menapia, now a poor decayed place, but once
the metropolitan see of Wales, and archiepiscopal. When Christianity was planted in
Britain, there were three archbishops' seats appointed, viz. London, York, and Caerleon upon
Usk, in Monmouthshire. That at Caerleon being too near the dominions of the Saxons, was
removed to Menew, and called St. David's, in honour of the archbishop who removed it, 519.
St. Sampson was the last archbishop of the Welsh ; for he, withdrawing himself on account
of a pestilence to Dole, in Brittany, carried the pall with him ; but his successors pre
served the archiepiscopal power, although they lost the name. In the reign of Henry I.
these prelates were forced to submit to tho see of Canterbury. Bcalson. Present income
4500?.
RECENT BISHOPS OF ST. DAVID'S.
1800. Lord Georgo Murray, died June 3, 1803. 1825. John Banks Jenkinson, died July 7, 1840.
1803. Thomas Burgess, translated to Salisbury, Juno 1840. Connop Thirlwall (present bishop, 1865.)
1825.
DAVID'S DAY, St., March I, is annually commemorated by the Welsh, in honour of
St. David. Tradition states that on St. David's birthday, 540, a great victory was obtained
by the Welsh over their Saxon invaders ; that tho Welsh soldiers were distinguished by order
of St. David by a leek in their cap.
^ DAVIS'S STRAIT (N. America), discovered by the English navigator.JJohn Davis, on
his voyage to find a N. W. passage, between 1585 and 1587. He made two more voyages
for tho same purpose, and afterwards performed five voyages to the East Indies. In tho
last he was killed by Japanese pirates, in the Indian seas, on the coast of Malacca, Dec.
27, 1605.
DAVY LAMP. See Safety Lamp.
DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the northern nations, and at sunset among
the Athenians and Jews. Among the Romans, day commenced at midnight, as it now does
among us. The Italians in many places, at the present time, reckon the day from sunset to
sunset, making their clocks striko twenty-four hours round, instead of dividing the day, as
is done in all other countries, into equal portions of twelve hours. This mode is but partially
used in the larger towns of Italy ; most public clocks in Florence, Rome, and Milan, being
set to the hour designated on Fronch or English clocks. The Chinese divide the day into
twelve parts of two hours each. Our civil day is distinguished from the astronomical day,
which begins at noon, is divided into twenty-four hours (instead of two parts of twelvo
DEA 231 DEB
hours), and is the mode of reckoning nsed in the Nautical Almanack. At Rome, day and
night were first divided in time by means of water-clocks, the invention of Scipio Nasica,
158 B.C.
DEACON'S (literally servants), an order of the Christian priesthood, which took its rise
from the institution of seven deacons by the Apostles, which number was retained a long
Fsriod in many churches, about 53. (Acts vi) Tho original deacons were Stephen, Philip,
rochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parmenas, and Nicolas. The qualifications of a deacon are
mentioned by St. Paul (65), 1st Timothy iii. 8—14.
DEACONESSES, or ministering widows, are mentioned in early Christian history. Their
qualifications are given in 1 Tim. v. 9, 10 (65). Their duties were to visit the poor and sick,
assist at the agap« or love feasts, admonish the young women, &c. The office was discon
tinued in the Western church in the 5th and 6th centuries, and in the Greek church about
the 1 2th, but has been recently revived in Germany.
DEAD, Pbayebs for, began about 190. Euscbius. See Prayer.
DEAD WEIGHT LOAN acquired its name from its locking up the capital of the Bank
of England, which in 1823 advanced 11,000,000?. to the government (to construct new
ordnance, &c). The latter engaged to give an annuity of 585,740*. for 44 years ; which
ceases in 1867.
DEAF and DUMB. Tho first systematic attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb was
made by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, about 1570. Bonet, also a monk,
published a system at Madrid in 1620. Dr. Wallis published a work in England on the
subject in 165a The first regular academy for the deaf and dumb in Britain was opened in
Edinburgh in 1773. In modern times the abbd de l'Epee (1712-89), and his friend and pupil
the abbe Sicard of Paris (1742—1822) ; the rev. Mr. Townsend and Mr. Baker, of London ;
Mr. Braidwood of Edinburgh ; and surgeon Orpen, of Dublin, have laboured with much
success in promoting the instruction of the deaf and dumb. The asylum for deaf and
dumb children was opened in London through the exertions of Mr. Townsend, in 1792 ; one
in Edinburgh by Mr. J. Braidwood, in 1810 ; and one in Birmingham by Mr. T. Braidwood,
in 1815. The asylum at Claremont, Dublin, was opened in 1816. In 1851, there were in
Great Britain, 12,553 deaf and dumb out of a population of 20,959,477.
DEAN, Forest op, Gloucestershire. Anciently it was wooded quito through, and of
great extent ; and in the last century, though much curtailed, was twenty miles in length
and ten in breadth. It was famous for its oaks, of which most of our former ships of war
were made. The memorablo riots in this district, when more than 3000 persons assembled
in the forest, and demolished upwards of fifty miles of wall and fence, throwing open 10,000
acres of plantation, took place on June 8, 1831.
DEATH, Punishment of. The ancients inflicted death by crucifixion, and even women
suffered on the cross. Mithridates, a Persian soldier, who boasted that he had killed Cyrus
the Younger, at the battle of Cunaxa, was by order of Artaxerxes Mnemon eighteen days in
a state of torture exposed to the action of the sun. Drowning in a quagmire was a
punishment among the Britons, about 450 B.C. Stow. Maurice, the son of a nobleman,
was hanged, drawn, and quartered for piracy, the first execution in that manner in England,
25 Hen. III. 1241. The punishment of death was abolished in a great number of cases by
sir R. Peel's acts, 4 to 10 Geo. IV. 1824-9 i and by the criminal law consolidation acts of
1861, was confined to treason and wilful murder. See Bavaillac, Boiling, Burning,
Hanging, Forgery, and Execution. A parliamentary commission respecting capital punish
ment was appointed early in 1864. Capital punishment was restricted in Italy in
April, 1865.
DEATHS, Registers of. See Bills 0/ Mortality and Registers.
DEBT. See National Debt, Bankrupts and Insolvents. Debtors have been subjected to
imprisonment iu almost all countries and times ; and until the passing of the later bankrupt
laws and insolvent acts, the prisons of these countries were crowded with debtors to an extent
that is now scarcely credible. It appears by parliamentary returns that fn the eighteen
months, subsequent to the panic of Dec. 1825, a3 many as 101,000 writs for debts were issued
from the courts in England. In the year ending 5th Jan. 1830, there were 71 14 persons
sent to the several prisons of London ; and on that day, 1547 of tho number were yet
confined. On the 1st of Jan. 1840, the number of prisoners for debt in England and Wales
was 1732 ; in'Ireland the number was under 1000 ; and in Scotland under 100. The operation
of statutes of relief, and other causes, considerably reduced the number of imprisoned
HE DEE
debtors. When the new Bankruptcy Act (abolishing imprisonment for debt except when
fraudulently contracted) came into operation, in Nov. 1861, a number of debtors who had been
confined, were released.* Arrest of Absconding Debtors bill, 14 & 15 Vict. c. 52, 1852.
Sec Arrest and King's Bench.
DEBUSCOPE, an instrument of French origin, somewhat similar to the kaleidoscope,
said to be useful for devising patterns for calico-printers, &c, made its appearanco in i860.
DECAMERONE (10 days). See Boccaccio.
DECAPITATION. See Bc/icading.
DECEMBER (from decern, ten), the tenth month of the year of Romulus, commencing
in March. In 713 b.c. Numa introduced January and February before March, and thence
forward December became the twelfth of the year. In the reign of Commodns, A.I). 181—
192, December was called by the way of flattery, Amazonius, in honour of a courtesan whom
that prince had loved, and had painted like an Amazon. The English commenced their
year on the 25th December, until the reign of William the Conqueror. See Year.
DECEMVIRI, or Ten Men, who were appointed to draw up a codo of laws, and to whom
for a time the whole government of Rome was committed, 451 B.C. The laws they drew
up were approved by the senate and general assembly of the people, written on ten metallic
tables, and set up in the place where the people met (comilium), 450 B.C. The Decemviri
at first ruled well, but the tyranny of Appius Claudius towards Virginia occasioning an
insuirection, they were forced to resign ; and consuls were again appointed, 449 B.C.
DECENNALIA, festivals instituted by Augustus, 17 B.C., celebrated by the Roman
emperors every tenth year of their reign, with sacrifices, games, and largesses. Livy. And.
celebrated by Antoninus Pius, A.n. 148. They do not appear to have been continued after
the reigns of the Ca'sars.
DECIMAL SYSTEM of Coin-age, Weights, &c. See Metric System.
DECLARATION of Rights. See Rights.
DECORATIVE ART. The true principles of decoration enunciated by A. W. Pugin,
in his "Designs," published in 1835, have since been greatly advanced by Owen Jones,
Redgrave, and others. Owen Jones's elaborate "Grammar of Ornament" was published in
1856. A Decorativo Art society, founded in 1844, existed for a short time only.
DE COURCVS PRIVILEGE, that of standing covered before the king, granted by king
John, to John de Courcy, baron of Kingsale, and his successors, in 1203. He was the first
nobleman created by an English sovereign, 27 Hen. II. 1 181 ; and was entrusted with the
government of Ireland, 1185. The privilege has been exercised in most reigns, and was
allowed to the baron of Kingsale by Will. III., Geo. III., and by Geo. IV. at his court hold
in Dublin, in Aug. 1821. The present baron is the 29th in succession.
DECRETALS. The decretals formed the second part of the canon law, or collection of
the pope's edicts and decrees and the decrees of councils. The first of these acknowledged
to be genuine is a letter of Siricius to Himerus, the bishop of Spain, written in the first
year of his pontificate, 385. Ilmccl. Certain false decretals wero used by Gregory IV. in
837. The decretals of Gratian, a Benedictine (a collection of canons), were compiled in
1150. IKnault. Five books were collected by Gregory I X. 1227; a sixth by Boniface VIII.
in 1297 ; the Clementines by Clement V. in 13 13 ; employed by John XXII. in 13 17 ; the
Extravagantes range from 1422 to 1483.
DEDICATION of the Jewish tabernacle took place 1490 B.C. ; of the temple, 1004 B.C. ;
of the second temple, 515 B.C. The Christians under Constantino built new churches and
dedicated them with great solemnity, in a.d. 331, el seq. The dedication of books (by
authors to solicit patronage or testify respect) began in the time of Maecenas, 17 B.C. Ho
was the friend and counsellor of Augustus Ca»sar, and a patron of genius and learning ;
hence it is customary to style any nobleman, imitating his example, a Majcenas.
DEED, a written contract or agreement. The formula, " I deliver this as my act and
deed," occurs in a charter of 933. Fosbrookc. Deeds in England were formerly written in
the Latin and French languages : the earliest known instance of the English tongue having
been used is the indenture between the abbot of Whitby and Robert Bustard, dated at York
in 1343. See English.
• Imprisonment for del)t stilt continues. In 1863 nearly 18,000 porsons wero imprisoned by order of
tho county courts : average time, 15 days, amount of'debt, 3*. 10s.
DEF 233 DEL
DEFAMATION. The jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts on this subject was
abolished by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 41 (1855).
DEFENCE op the REALM ACT was passed in Aug. i860, in consequence of the
unsettled state of Europe, aggravated by the doubtful policy of the emperor Napoleon. See
Fortification.
DEFENDER of the FAITH (Fidei Defensor), a title of the British sovereign, conferred
by Leo X. on Henry VIII. of England, for his tract on behalf of the Church of Kome, then
accounted Domicilium fidei Catholicce, against Luther, in Oct. II, 1521.
DEFENDERS, a faction in Ireland, which arose out of a quarrel between two residents of
Market-hill, July 4, 1784. Each was soon aided by a large body of friends, and many battles
ensued. On Whit-Monday, 1785, an armed assemblage of one of the parties (700 men),
called the Nappagh Fleet, prepared to encounter the Sawn Fieri, but the engagement was
prevented. They subsequently became religious parties, Catholic and Presbyterian, distin
guished as Defenders and Pccp-o'-day-boys : the latter were so named because they usually
visited the dwellings of the Defenders at daybreak in search of arms. Sir Ricltard Musrjrave.
DEGREES. Eratosthenes attempted to determine the length of a geographical degree
about 250 B.c. Sncllius. See Latitude and Longitude. Collegiate Agrees are coeval with
universities. Those in medicine are traced up to a.b. 1384 : iu music to 1463. In Oct.
1863, women were permitted to compete for degrees.
DEI GRATIA. See Grace of God.
DEIRA, a part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. See Britain.
DEISM or THEISM (Greek, theos, Latin, dcus, God), the belief in a God. About the
middle of the 16th century some gentlemen of France and Italy termed themselves
deists, to disguise their opposition to Christianity by a more honourable appellation than that
of Atheism (which see). Deists reject revelation, and profess to go by the light of nature,
believing that there is a God, a providence, vice, and virtue, and an after-stafe of punishments
and rewards : they are sometimes called free-thinkers. The most distinguished deists were
Herbert, baron of Cherbury, iu 1624 ; Hobbes, Tindal, Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Gibbon,
Hume, Holcroft, Paine and Godwin.
DELAWARE, one of the United States of North America, named after lord de la Wnrre,
governor of Virginia, who entered the bay 1610. It was settled by Swedes, sent there by
Gustavus in 1627.
DELEGATES, CouitT of. Appeals to the pope in ecclesiastical causes having been
forbidden (sec Appeals), thoso causes were for the future to be heard in this court, established
by stat. 24 Henry VIII. 1533 ; soon afterwards the pope's authority was susperseded
altogether in England. Slow. This court was abolished ; and appeals now lie to the Judicial
Committee of the Privy Council, as fixed by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 41 (1833). See Arches.
DELFT (S. Holland), a town founded by Godfrey 1c Bossu, about 1074 ; famous for
the earthenware known by its name ; first manufactured here about 1310. The sale of
Dutch delft greatly declined after the introduction of potteries into Germany and England.
Delft was an important place during the straggle against Spain. The renowned Grotius was
born here, April 10, 1583 ; and here the great William prince of Orange was assassinated,
July io, 1584, by Gerard.
DELHI, the once great capital of the Mogul empire, and chief seat of the Mahomedan
power in India ; it was taken by Timour in 1398. It is now iu decay, but contained a
million: of inhabitants in 1700. In 1739, when Nadir Shah invaded Hindostan, he entered
Delhi ; 100,600 of the inhabitants perished by the sword, and plunder to the amount of
62,000,000/. sterling is said to have been collected. The same calamities were endured in
1761, on the invasion of Abdalla king of Candahar. In 1803, the Mahrattas, aided by
the French, took Delhi ; but were afterwards defeated by general I^ake, and the aged Shah
Aulum, emperor of Hindostan, was restored to his throne with a pension. See India, 1803.
On May 10, 1857, a mutiny arose in the sepoy regiments at Meerut. It was soon checked ;
but the fugitives fled to Delhi, and combined with other troops there, seized on the city ;
proclaimed a descendant of the Mogul as king, and committed the most frightful atrocities.
The rebels were anxious to possess the chief magazine, but after a gallant defence it was
exploded by order of lieutenant Willoughby, who died of his wounds shortly after. The
other heroes in this exploit were lieutenants Forrest and Rayner, and the gunners Buckley
and Scully. Delhi was shortly after besieged by the British, but was not taken till Sept. 20,
DEL 2:31 DEL
following. The final straggle began on the 16th ; brigadier (since sir Archdale) Wilson being
the commander. Much heroism was shown ; the gallant deaths of Salkeld and Home at the
explosion of the Cashmere gate created much enthusiasm. The old king and his sons were
captured soon after : the latter were shot, and the former after a trial was sent for life to
Rangoon. See India, 1857.
"DELICATE INVESTIGATION," TnE, into the conduct of the princess of Wales
(afterwards queen of England, as consort of George IV.), was commenced by a committee of
tho privy council, under a warrant of inquiry, dated May 29, 1806. The members were lord
Grenville, lord Erskine, earl Spencer and lord Elleuborough. Tho inquiry, of which the
countess of Jersey, sir J. and lady Douglas, and other persons of rank were the prompters,
and in which they conspicuously figured, led to the publication called "The Book;"
afterwards suppressed. The charges against the princess were disproved in 1807, and again
in 1813 ; but not being permitted to appear at court, she went on the continent in 1814.
DELIUM, Bccotia, N. Greece, the site of a celebrated temple of Apollo. Here, in a
conflict between the Athenians and the Boeotians, in which the former were defeated,
Socrates the philosopher is said to have saved the life of his pupil Xenophon, 424 B.C.
DELLA CP.USCA ACADEMY of Florence merged into the Florentine in 1582.—The
Della Ciit'SCA School, a term applied to some English persons residing at Florence, who
wrote and printed a quantity of interior sentimental poetry and prose in 1785. They came
to England where their works were popular for a short time, but were severely satirised by
Gifford in his " Baviad and Ma;viad ' (1794-5).
DELOS, a Greek isle in the vEgean sea. Hero the Greeks, during the Persian war,
477 B.C., established their common treasury, which was removed to Athens, 461.
DELPH I (N. Greece), celebrated for its enigmatical oracles delivered by the Pythia, in the
temple of Apollo, which was built, some say, by the council of the Amphictyons, 1263 B.c.
The priestess delivered the answer of the god to such as came to consult the oracle, and was
supposed to be suddenly inspired. The temple was burnt by the Pisistratida?, 548 B.C. A
new temple was raised by the Alcmfeonida;. The Persians (480 B.C.) and the Gauls (279 B.c.)
were deterred from plundering the temple by awful portents. It was, however, robbed and
seized by the Phocians, 357 B.C., which led to the sacred war, and Nero carried from it 500
costly statues, a.d. 67. The Pythian games were first celebrated 586 B.C. Tho oracle was
consulted by Julian, but silenced by Theodosius.
DELPHIN CLASSICS, a collection of thirty-nine of the Latin authors in sixty volumes,
made for the use of the dauphin (in usum Delphini) son of Louis XIV., and published in
1674-91. Ausonius was added in 1730. The due de Montausier, the young prince's governor,
proposed the plan to Huet, bishop of Avranches, the dauphin's preceptor ; and he, with
other learned persons, including Madame Dacicr,* edited all the Latin classics except Lucan.
Each author is illustrated by notes and an index of words. An edition of the Dolphin
Classics, with additional notes, &c, was published by Mr. Valpy of London, early in the
present century.
DELUGE. The deluge was threatened in the year of the world 1536 ; and began Dec. 7,
1656, and continued 377 days. Genesis vi. vii. viii. The ark rested on Mount Ararat, May
6, 1657 ; and Noah left the ark Dec. 18 following. The year corresponds with that of
2348 b. c. Blair. The following are the epochs of the deluge, according to Dr. Hales :—
Septuogint B.C. 3246 Persian . B.C. 3103 Clinton . .B.C. 2482 Petavius . B.C. 2329
Jackson ■ • 3'7° Ilindoo . . 3103 Playfair . . . 2352 Btrauchius • • =■'■'93
Hales • 3155 Samaritan • =998 Usher & Eng. Bible 2348 Hebrew . . 2288
Josephua . • • 3'46 Howard . . 2698 Marsham . . . 2344 Vulgar Jewish . . 2x04
In the reign ot Ogypcs, king of Attica, 1764 b.c, a but considered to be merely a local inundation,
deluge so Inundated Attica, that it lay waste for occasioned by the overflowing of the river Pineus,
nearly 200 years. Blair. Buffon thinks that the whoso course was stopped by an earthquake be
Hebrew and Oreoion deluges wore the same, and tween the mounts Olympus and Ossa. Deucalion,
arose from the Atlantic and Bosphorus bursting who then reigned in Thessaly, with bis wife
into tho valley of the Mediterranean, f Pyrrha, and some of their subjects, are stated to
Tho deluge of Deucalion, in Thessaly, is placed 1503 have saved themselves by climbing up mount
B.C. according to Biuebius. It was often con
founded by tho ancients with tho general flood ;
• This beautiful and gifted woman translated Callimachut at the age of 23 ; and also Anatrem, Sappho,
l'laulu$, Terence, and Homer. Sho died in 1 720. '
t A general deluge was predicted to occur in 1524, and arks were built ; but the season happened to
00 a fine and dry one.
DEM 235 DEN
DEMERARA and Essequibo, colonics in Guiana, South America, founded by the
Dutch, 1580, were taken by the British, under major-general "VVhyte, April 22, 1796, but
were restored at the peace of 1802. They again surrendered to the British under general
Grinfield and Commodore flood, Sept. 1803, and became English colonies in 1814.
DEMOCRATS, advocates for government by the people themselves {demoSj people, and
kratein, to govern), a term adopted by the French republicans in 1790 (who termed their
opponents aristocrats, from aristos, bravest or best). The name Democrats was adopted by
the pro-slavery party in N. America (the southern states), and the abolitionists were called
Republicans. Into these two great parties a number of smaller ones were absorbed at
the presidential election in 1856. In i860, the Republicans formed " Wide-awake " clubs
for electioneering purposes, and succeeded in getting their candidate, Abraham Lincoln,
elected president, Nov. 4. See United States, i860.
DENAIN (K. France). Here marshal Villars, by his skill, defeated the Imperialist army,
July 12, 1712.
DENARIUS, the chief silver coin among the Romans, weighing the seventh part of a
Roman ounce, and value 7je£. sterling, first coined about 269 B.C., when it exchanged for ten
ases (see As). In 216 b.c. it exchanged for sixteen ases. A pound weight of silver was
coined into 100 denarii. Digby. A pound weight of gold was coined into twenty denarii
aurei in 206 b.c. ; and in Nero's time into forty-five denarii aurei. Zempriere.
DENIS, St., an ancient town of France, near Paris, famous for its abbey and church,
the former abolished at the revolution : the latter the place of sepulture of the French kings,
from its foundation, by Dagobert, in 613; is a small beautiful Gothic edifice. On the 12th
October, 1793, the republicans demolished most of the royal tombs, and emptied the leaden
coffins into the dunghills, melting tho lead for their own use. By a decree of Bonaparte,
dated Feb. 20, 1806, the church (which had been turned meanwhile into a cattle-market !)
was ordered to be cleansed out and redecorated as " the future burial place of the emperors
of France." On the return of the Bourbons, more restorations were effected, and when tho
due de Berri and Louis XVIII. died, both were buried there.
DENMARK (N. Europe). The most ancient inhabitants were Cimbri and Teutones,
who were driven out by the Jutes or Goths. The Teutones settled in Germany and Gaul ;
the Cimbrians invaded Italy, where they were defeated by Marius. The peninsula of Jutland
obtains its name from the Jutes ; and tho name of Denmark is supposed to be derived from
Dan, the founder of the Danish monarchy, and mark, a German word signifying country.
For their numerous invasions of Britain, Ac, see Danes. Population of the kingdom of Den
mark in i860, 1,600,551 ; of the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg, 1,004,473 !
of the colonies, 120,283. By the treaty of peace, signed Oct 30, 1864, the duchies were
taken from Denmark. Schleswig and Holstein were to be made independent, and Lauenburg
was to be incorporated, by its desire, with Prussia. For the result, see Gastrin.
Reign of Sciold, first king . . . B.C. 60 and Matilda (sister of our George III. and
The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings to the queen of Christian VII., a weak monarch).
time of Ragnor Lodbrog, a.d. 750, killed in Matilda, entrapped into a confession of
an attempt to invade England . . . 794 criminality to save the life of her supposed
Canute the Great conquers Norway . 1016-28 lover Struenzeo, condemned to imprison
Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are united into ment for life in the castle of Zoll . Jan. 18, 1772
one kingdom under Margaret . . . 1397 Count Stmenzec and Brandt beheaded, Apr. 28, , ,
Copenhagen mado the capital . . . . 1440 Queen Matilda dies, aged 24 ... 1775
Accession of Christian I. (of Oldenburg), from Christian VII. becomes deranged, and prince
whom the late royal family sprang . 1448 Frederick is appointed regent . . 1784
Christian II. is deposed ; independence of One-fourth of Copenhagen burnt . June 9, 1795
Sweden acknowledged under Gustavus Vasa 1523 Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard Copen
Lutheranism introduced in 1527 ; established hagen, and engage the Danish fleet, taking or
by Christian III. 1536 destroying 18 ships of tho line, of whose crews
Danish East India Company established by 1800 aro killed. (Confederacy of the North,
Christian IV 1612 see Armed Neutrality, dissolved.) . April 2, 1801
Christian IV. chosen head of tho Protestant Admiral Gambier and Lord Cathcart bombard
league against the emperor . . . . 1629 Copenhagen, Aug. 23 ; the Danish fleet of 18
Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades Den ships of the line, 15 frigates, and 37 brigs,
mark, besieges Copenhagen, and makes &c, surrender .. .. Sept. 8, 1807
conquests 1658 Peace of Kiel : Pomerania and Rugen are
The crown made hereditary and absolute . . 1665 annexed to Denmark in exchange for Norway
Frederick IV. takes Holstoin, Schleswig, Ton- Jan. 14, 1814
ningen, and Stralsund ; reduces Weismar, Commercial treaty with England . . . 1824
and drives the Swedes from Norway 1716 et teq. Frederick VI. grants a new constitution . . 1831
Copenhagen nearly destroyed by a fire, which Christian VIII. declares the right of the crown
consumes 1650 bouses, 3 churchos, the uni to Schleswig, Holstein, Arc. . . July n, 1846
versity, and 4 colleges 1728 Accession of Frederick VII. Jan. 20; he pro
The peaceful reign of Christian VI. . . 1730-46 claims a new constitution, uniting the
Plot of the queen dowager against tho ministers duchies more closely with Denmark, Jan. 28, 1848
DEN 230 DEN
DENMARK, continued.
Insurrection in the duchies : a provisional Further diplomatic correspondence . May, 1863
government formed . March 23, i3(S The king accepts the crown of Greece for his
The rebels seize the strong fortress of Rcnds- relative, prince William-George, and gives
burg March 24, him sound political advico . June 6, t,
They are defeated near Flensburg . April 9, Death of tho crown prince Frederick-Ferdi
The Dunes defeated by the Russians (helping nand, the king's uncle . June 29, ,,
the duchies) at Schleswig . April 23, The German diet demands annulment of tho
Tho North sea blockaded by Denmark Aug. 1, patent of March 30, and that Holstein and
Hostilities suspended: the European powers Schleswig should be united with tho same
recommend peace . . . Aug. 26, rights ; and threatens an army of occu
Hostilities re commence . March 25, 1849 pation July 9,
Victory of tho Danes over the Holsteiucrs and The king replies that he will consider occupa
Germans April 10, 1849 tion to be an act of war Aug. 27,
Several conflicts with varying success, . June, • < Vain efforts for a defensive alliance with Sweden
Armistice signed at Malnio . . July 10 Aug. „
Separate peace with Prussia . July 2, 1850 Extraordinary levy to strengthen the army do-
Integrity of Denmark guaranteed by England, creed Aug. 1,
France, Prussia, and Sweden . July 4, New constitution (uniting Schleswig with Den
Battle of Idstcdt, and defeat of tho Schleswig- mark) proposed in the Rigsraad . Sept 29, „
Holstciners by tho Danes . . July 25, Death of Frederick VII. and accession of
Protocol signed in London by the ministers of Christian IX Nov. 15, „
all the groat powers . . . Aug. 23, Prince Frederick of Augustenburg claims tho
Bombardment of Friedrichstndt by tho Hol- duchies of Schleswig and Holstcin Nov. 16,
steiners,
not takenand the
■ town
. almost
. Sept.dostroyod.
29 to Oct.but6, Great excitement in Holstoin ; many officials
refuse to take oath to Christian, Nov. 21 el aeq. ,,
Proclamation of the stadtholdcrs of Schlcswig- Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse, and other German
Holstein placing the rights of tho country powers resolve to support the prince of
under tho protection of the Germanic con Augustenburg .... Nov. 26 sea. „
federation Jan. 10, 1851 New constitution affirmed by the Rigsraaa,
The integrity of the Danish monarchy and the Nov. 13 ; signed by king, Nov. 18; published,
independence of Schleswig and its old union Dec. 1, a,
with Holstcin guarantocd by treaty, Feb. 18, 1852 The Austrian and Prussian ministers say that
Austrians evacuate Holstcin, izc. . March 2, they will quit Copenhagen if the constitution
Treaty of European powers settling the suc of Nov. 18 is not annulled . . Dec.
cession of the Danish crown . May 8, Great excitoment in Norway : proposals to
[The line of Augustenburg is put aside ; tho support Denmark .... Dec.
succession in the line of Sonderburg-GMcks- Prince Frederick's letter to the emperor Napo
burg settled, and the integrity of the Danish leon, Dec. 2, obtains on ambiguous rejMy,
kingdom guaranteed.] Dec. 10,
The king promulgates a new constitution, July Denmark protests against federal occupation,
29. 1854 ; adopted .... Oct 1, 1 355 Dec. 19,
The sound dues abolished for a compensation 900 representatives of different German states
(see Soun-I) .... March 14, 1857 meet at Frankfort, and resolve to support
Fortification of Copenhagen decreed March 27, 1S5S Prince Frederick as duko of Schleswig and
Dissension between the government and the Holstcin, and the inseparable union of those
duchies Oct. 1857- 862 duchies Doc. ar, „
New ministry appointed Dec. 3, 1859; resigns, The federal execution takes place ; a Saxon
Feb. 9 ; Bp. Monrad forms a ministry, Feb. 24, : 800 regiment enters Altona, Doc. 24; and the
The assembly of Schleswig complain that tho federal commissioners assume administrative
promise of equality of national rights in 1852 powers Doc. 25,
has not been kept, Feb. n ; protest against Hall's ministry resign, but soon after reassume
the annexation to Denmark . March r. office Doc. 28,
The Prussian chamber of deputies receive a The Danes retire from Holstein, to avoid col
petition from Schleswig, and declare that lision with federal troops . Doc. 24 etug. „
they will aid tho duchies, May 4 ; at which Prince Frederick enters Kiel, and is pro
tho Danish government protests . May 16, claimed duke of Schioswig and Holstein,
Correspondence ensues between the Prussian, Dec. 30, ,,
Danish, and British governments ; tho Danish The Danes evacuate Rondsburg . Dec. 31,
government declare for war, if tho forces Ministerial crisis : Hall retires, and bishop
of tho Germanic confederation enter the Monrad forms a cabinet . . Doc. 31,
duchies Jan. Dissension among the Germans ; the Austro-
Energetic warlike preparations in Denmark, Prussian proposition rejected by the diet ;
Feb. the former declare that tbey will settle the
Decimal coinage adopted . . . June, question if the diet exceeds its powers,
Agitation in favour of union of Denmark with Jan. 14. 1S64
Sweden, June ; the king of Sweden visits Austria and Prussia domand the abrogation of
Denmark, and is warmly received . July 17, : the constitution (of Nov. 18) within 2 days,
Earl Russell recommends the government to Jan. 16 ; the Danes require 6 weeks' time,
give to Holstcin and Laucnburg all that tho Jan. 18,
Germanic confederation desire for them, and The German troops, under marshal Wrangel,
to give self-government to Schleswig, Sept 24, enter Holstein .... Jan. 21,
31. Hall, tho Danish minister, declines to ac Tho Prussians enter Schioswig, and tike Ecken-
cede ; stating that to do so would imperil the forde Feb. 1,
existence of the monarchy itself . Nov. 20, They bombard Missuntfe, Feb. 2 ; which is
Princess Alexandra of Denmark married to the burnt Feb. 3,
Prince of Wales at Windsor . March 10, The Danes defeated by Wrangel, at Over-selk,
The king grants, by patent, independent rights 1S63 Feb. 3.
to Holstcin, but annexes Schleswig March 30, The Danes abandon tho Dannewcrko to save
Austria and Prussia protest against this decree, their army, Feb. 5 ; great discontent in Copen
April 17, hagen Feb. 6,
DEN 237 DEN
DENMARK, continued.
Schleswig taken ; prince Frederick proclaimed, Agreement for an armistice for one month from
Feb. 6, 1864 May 12 . . - . . May 9, 1S64
The allies occupy Flensburg, Feb. 7 : com Jutland subjected to pillage for not paying a
mence their attack on DUppel Feb. 13, war contribution to Prussians, May 6 et teq. „
The federal commissioners protest against the The Danes defeat the allies in a naval battle oil"
Prussian occupation of Altona . . Feb. 13, Heligoland ..... May 9, ,,
The Prussians enter Jutland, and take Hol The armistice prolonged for a fortnight, from
ding, Feb. 18 ; the Danes fortify Alsen, June 9, ,,
Feb. 18 etseq. ,, The conference ends . . June 22, ,,
A conference on Danish affairs proposed by Hostilities resumed, Juno 26 ; the Prussians
England ; agreed to by allies . Feb. 23, bombard Alsen ; take the batteries and 2400
A subscription for the wounded Danes begun prisoners June 29, „
in London Feb. 24, The Monrad ministry resigns ; count Moltki
The Rigsraad vote a firm address to the king, forms an administration . July 8-10, „
Feb. 26 ; adjourned . . March 22. ,, Alson taken;—Jutland placed under Prussian
The Prussians bombard and take the village of administration ;—Princo John of Denmark
DUppel, or Dybbol, March 16, 17 ; and bom sent to negotiate at Berlin . . July 9,
bard Fredericia, March 20 ; repulsed in an Formation of the Bluhme administration,
attack on the fortress, March 28 ; bombard July 11, „
Sonderberg : much slaughter, April 23 ; which Armistico agreod to July 18,
causes bishop Monrad to appeal to European Beginning of conference for peace at Vienna,
powers ....... April 9, „ July 26,
The opening of the conference adjourned from Treaty of peace signed at Vienna ;—the king of
April 12 to 20, ,, Denmark resigns the duchies to the disposal
The Prussians take the fortress of DUppel, of the allies, and agrees to a rectification of
April 18, „ his frontier, and to pay a large sum of money
Meetings of the conference at London ; result to defray the expenses of the war . Oct. 30. „
unfavourable to Denmark . April 25 et teq. Proclamation of the king to the inhabitants of
The Danes retreat to Alsen ; and evacuate tho duchies, releasing them from their alle
Fredericia and the fortresses of Jutland, giance Nov. 16, „
April 29, Project of a new constitution published, Dec. 30, ,,
SOVEREIGNS OF DENMARK.
805. Sigurd Snogoje. 1448. Christian I. count of Oldenburg ; elected king
824. Hardicanute I. of Denmark, 1448 ; of Sweden, 1457 ; succeeded
855. Gormo, the Old; reigned 53 years. by his son,
9 }6. Harold It., surnamed Blue Tooth. 1481. John; succeeded by his son,
985. Suenon, or Sweyn, the Forked-beard. 1513. Christian II. called the Cruel, and the '*Nero
1014. Harold III. of the North ;" among other enormous crimes
1016. Canute II. the Great, king of Denmark and he caused all the Swedish nobility to be mas
England. sacred : dethroned for his tyranny in 1523;
I035- Canute III.'s son, Hardicanute of England. died in a dungeon in 1559.
1042. Magnus, surnamed the Good, of Norway. [In this reign Sweden succeeded in separating
1047. Suenon or Sweyn II. itself from tho crown of Denmark.]
1073. [Interregnum.]
1076. Harold, called the Simple. 1523. Frederick I. duke of Holstcin, son of Christian
1080. Canute IV. I. ; a liberal ruler ; king of Denmark and Nor
1086. Olaus IV. the Hunj .ngry. way.
1095. Eric I. styled thet Good. 1534. Christian III. son of Frederick; established
1 103. [Interregnum.1 the Lutheran religion ; esteemed the '* Father
1 105. Nicholas I. killed at Sleswick. of his People."
"35- Eric II. surnamed Harefoot. 1559. Fredorick II. son of Christian III.
Eric III. the Lamb.
"37- Suenon, or Sweyn III : beheaded. 15S8. Christian IV. son.
1147. \< Canute 1648. Frederick III. ; changed the constitution from
V. until 1157. an elective to an hereditary monarchy,
"57- Waldemar, styled the Great. vested in his own family, 1665.
1182. Canute VI. surnamed the Pious. 1670. Christian V. son of Frederick 1 ; succeeded
" III.
1202. Waldemar II. the Victorious. by his son,
1241. Eric IV. 1699. Frederick IV. ; leagued with the czar Peter
1250. Abel : assassinated his elder brother Eric ; and the king of Poland against Charles XII.
killed in an expedition against the Prisons. of Sweden.
1252- Christopher I. : poisoned. 1730. Christian VI. his son.
1259. Eric V. 1746. Frederick V. his son : married the princess
1286. Eric VI. Louisa of England, daughter of George II.
1320. Christopher II. 1766. Christian VII. his son. See p. 235.
13 34 [Interregnum of seven years.] 1784. Princo Frederick declared regent, in conse
1340- Waldemar III. quence of the mental derangement of his
1375- [Interregnum.] father.
1376. Olaus V. 1808. Frederick VI. previously regent, now king.
1387. Margaret, styled the 11 Semiramis of tho 1839. Christian VIII. (son of Frederick, brother of
North," queen of Sweden, Norway, and Den Christian VII.) king of Denmark only.
mark. 1848. Frederick VII. son of Christian VIII. ; Jan. 20 ;
1397- Margaret and Eric VII. (Eric XIII. of Sweden ) bom Oct. 6, 1808; sepn rated from his first
1412. Eric VII. reigns alone; obliged to resign both wife, Sept. 1837 ; from his second wife, Sept.
crowns. 1846; married morganaticaUy Louisa, coun
1438. [Interregnum.) tess of Dannor, Aug. 7, 1850 ; died Nov. 15,
1440. Christopher III. king of Sweden. 1863.
DEN 2SS DER
DENMARK, continued.
1863. Christian IX. son of William, duke of Sleawig- April 8, 1818; married princesa Louisa of
Holstein-Sondorburg-GlUcksburg ; Nov. 15 Hesse Cossel, May 26, 1842. [He Is descended
(succeeded by virtuo of the protocol of Lon- from Christian 111. and Bhe from Frederick
don, May 8, 1852, and oftho law of the Danish V. ; both from George II. of England.]
succession, July 31, 1853). Ho was born
DENNEWITZ (Prussia), where a remarkable victory was obtained by marshal Bernadotte
(afterwards Charles XIV., king of Sweden), over marshal Ney, Sept. 6, 1813. The loss of
the French exceeded 13,000 men, several eagles, and much cannon, &c. ; of the allies, 6000.
The defeat of Napoleon at Leipsie, on the 18th of October following, closed his disastrous
campaign.
DENOMINATIONS, The Three (presbyterians, congregationalists or independents,
and baptists), were organised in 1727 as an association, with the privilege of direct appeal to
the reigning sovereign of Great Britain.
DEODAND (Latin, " to be given to God ") : formerly, anything (such as a horse, carriage,
&c. ), which had caused the death of a human being became forfeit to the sovereign or lord
of the manor, and was to be sold for the benefit of the poor. The forfeiture was abolished
by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 62 (1846).
D'EON, Chevalier, who had' acted in a diplomatic capacity in several countries, and
been minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was affirmed to be a. female, at a trial
at the King's Bench in 1771, in an action to recover wagers as to his sex. He subsequently
wore female attire : but at his death it was fully manifested that he was of the male sex.
DEPARTMENTS. See France.
DEPTFORD (near London). The hospital here was incorporated by Henry VIII., and
called the Trinity-house of Deptford Strond ; the brethren of Trinity-house hold their
corporate rights by this hospital. Queen Elizabeth dined at Deptford on board the Pelican,
the ship in which Drake had made his first voyage round the globe, April 4, 1581. The
Deptford victualling-office was burnt Jan. 16, 1748-9; the store-house, Sept, 2, 1758 ; the
red-house, Feb. 26, 1761 ; and the king's-mill, Dec. 1, 1755. Peter the Great of Russia
lived at Evelyn's-house, Say's-court, while learning ship-building, &c. in 1698.
DEPUTIES, Chamber of, the title given to the French legislative assembly, from the
restoration of the Bourbons in 1814 till 1852 ; when it took the name of Corps Lcgislatif.
DERBY was made a royal burgh by Egbert (about 828). Alfred expelled the Danes
from it and planted a colony in 880. His heroic daughter, Ethelfleda, again expelled the
Danes in 918. William I. gave Derby to his illegitimate son William Peveril. Lombe's
silk-throwing machine was set up in 1718 ; and in 1756, Jcdediah Strutt invented the Derby
ribbed stocking-frame. The young Pretender reached Derby Dec. 3, 1745, and retreated
thence soon after.*—The Derby day (see Races) is the second day (Wednesday) of the Grand
Spring Meeting at Epsom in the week preceding Whitsunday.
DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS : the first formed after the resignation of lord John
Russell, Feb. 21, 1852 : the second after that of lord Palmerston, Feb. 19, 1858.
FIRST ADMINISTRATION, Feb. 27, 1852. Chancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli.
First lord of the treasury, earl of Derby, t Board of control, John Charles Herries.
Lord chancellor, lord St. Leonards (previously fiir Board of trade, Joseph Warner Henley.
Edward Sllgden). Postmaster-general, earl of Hardwicke.
President of the council, earl of Lonsdale. Secretary-at-war, William Beresford.
Lord privy seal, marquess of Salisbury. First commissioner of vorks and public buildings, lord
Home, foreign, and colonial scrctaries, Mr. Spencer John Manners.
Horatio Walpole, earl of Molmesbury, and sir John Robert Adam Christopher, lord Colchester, Ac.
Fakington.
* Derby Trials. Braiidreth, Turner, Ludlam senior, Ludlam junior, Weiphtmon, and others, con
victed at this memorable commission of high treason, Oct. 15, 1817 ; and Brandrcth, Turner, and the elder
Ludlam executed, Xov. 7, following. 23 were tried, and 12 not tried. Phillips. 21 prisoners were indicted
at Derby for the murder of several miners in the Red-soil mine ; but were acquitted on the ground that
the mischief was not wilful, March 23, 1834.
t Born 1709; M.P. for Stockbndge (as hon. E. G. 8. Stanley) in 1820; chief secretary for Ireland
2830-33 ; secretary for tho colonieB, 1833-4, oad 1841-5.
DER 239 DIA
DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS, continued.
SECOND ADMINISTRATION. Feb. 25, 1858. of lord Canning to the Oudo insurgents ; tho
First lord of the treasury, earl of Derby. government hardly escaped a vote of censure) ; 2,
Jerd chancellor, lord Chelmsford (previously sir F. in June, 1858, lord Stanley;—board, of trade, Mr.
Thesiger). Joseph W. Henley (resigned in March, 1859) ', eaI"l
Chancellor of the exchequer, B. Disraeli. of Donoughmore ;—board of works, lord John
Secretaries—foreign, earl of Malmesbury ; home, Manners.
Spencer H. Walpole (resigned March, 1859), T. Lord privy gealt earl of Hardwicke.
Sotheron Estcourt ; colonies, lord Stanley—in First lord of the admiralty, sir John S. Pakington.
June, 1858, sir E. Bulwer Lytton ; var, coL Jona Postmaster, lord Colchester.
than PeeL Chancellor oftfte duchy ofLancaster, duke of Montrose.
Presidents—of the council, marquess of Salisbury; of
board of control (India), 1, earl of Ellenborough [This ministry resigned in consequence of a vote of
(who resigned in May, 1858 ; ho had sent a letter, want of confidence, June 11, 1859 ; it was succeeded
on his own authority, censuring the proclamation by tho Palmcrston-Russoll cabinet (which tee)].
DERRICKS are lofty, portable, crane-liko structures, used on land and water for lifting
enormous loads, and in some cases depositing them at an elevation. They are extensively
used in the United States, and were introduced into England as floating derricks for raising
sunken vessels, by their inventor, A. D. Bishop, in 1857.
DERRY (N. Ireland), a bishopric first planted at Ardfrath ; thence translated to
Maghera ; and in 1 158 to Derry. The cathedral, built in 1164, becoming ruinous, was
rebuilt by a colony of Londoners, who settled here iu the reign of James I., The see is
valued in the king's books at 250?. sterling ; but it has been one of the richest sees in
Ireland. Beatson. The see of Raphoe was united to Derry, 1834. See Bishops;
Londonderry.
DESIGN, Schools of, established by government, began at Somerset-house, London,
in 1837.
DESPARD'S CONSPIRACY. Colonel Edward Marcus Despard, a native of Ireland,
and Broughton, Francis, Graham, Macnamara, Wood, and Wrattan, conspired to seize the
king's person on the day of his meeting parliament, Jan. 16, 1803, to destroy him and
overturn the government. A special commission was issued on Feb. 7, and they suffered
death on the top of Horsemonger-lane gaol, Southwark, Feb. 21, 1803. Between thirty and
forty persons of inferior order (some soldiers in the foot-guards) were taken into custody on
Nov. 16, 1802, for this conspiracy, which caused great consternation at the time.
DETROIT (N. America), tho oldest city in the west, was built by the French about 1670.
DETTINGEN (Bavaria), Battle of, June 16, 1743, between the British, Hanoverian,
and Hessian army (52,000), commanded by king George II. of England and the earl of Stair,
and tho French army (60,000), under marshal Noailles and the due de Grammont. The
French passed a defile, which they should have merely guarded. The due de Grammont
with his cavalry charged the British foot with great fury, but was received with such intre
pidity, that ho was obliged to give way, and to repass the Maine, losing 5000 men.
DEVONPORT. See Dockyards and Plymouth.
DEVONSHIRE and PITT ADMINISTRATION, formed Nov. 16, 1756, and resigned
April 5, 1757.
First lord of the treasury, William, duke of Devon Secretaries of state, earl of Holdemesse and Wm. Pirr
shire. (afterwards earl of Chatham, the virtual premier).
Chancellor of the exchequer, hon. Henry Bilson Leggo. George Grcnvillo, earl of Halifax, dukes of RutUnd
Lord president, earl Granville. and Grafton, carl of Rocbfort, viscount Barringtou,
Privy seal, earl Gower. 4c. The great seal in commission.
DEW, the modern theory respecting its formation was put forth by Dr. Wells in his
treatise published in 1814.
DIADEM, the band or fillet worn by the ancients instead of the crown, and consecrated
to the gods. At first it was made of silk or wool, set with precious stones, and was tied
round the temples and forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and let fall on the neck.
Aurelian was tne first Roman emperor who wore a diadem, 272. Tillemxmt.
DIALS. Invented by Anaximandcr, 550 B.C. Pliny. The first dial of the sun seen at
Rome was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. Papirius Cursor, when time was divided
into hours, 293 B.C. Blair. In the times ol the emperors almost every palace and public
building had a sun-dial. They were first set up in churches in A.D. 613. Bcnglct. Dial of
Ahaz, Isaiah xxxviii. 8.
DIA 240 DIC
DIALYSIS, an important method of chemical analysis, depending on the different
degrees of dill'usibility of substances in liquids, was made known in 1861, by its discoverer,
professor Thomas Graham, the Master of the Mint.
DIA-MAGNETISM, the property possessed by certain bodies of behaving differently to
iron, when placed between two magnets. The phenomena, previously little known, were
reduced to a law by Faraday in 1845.
DIAMONDS were first brought to Europe from the East, where the mine of Sumbulpoor
was the first known, and where the mines of Golconda were discovered in 1534. This
district may be termed the realm of diamonds. The mines of Brazil were discovered in 172S.
From these last a diamond, weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen ounces, was sent to the court
of Portugal, and was valued by Mr. Romeo de l'lsle at the extravagant sum of 224 millions ;
by others it was valued at 56 millions ; its value was next stated to be 3$ millions, but its
true value (it not being brilliant) was 400,000/.
The great Ri'ssian diamond weighs 193 carats, or Inflammability of Diamonds.
1 oz. 12 dwts. 4gr. troy. The empress Catherine II. Boetius de Boot conjevtured that tho diamond waa
offered for it 104. i6ftf. 13*. ^d, besides an annuity inflammable, 1609. Boyle.
for life to the owner of 1041/. 13*. 4f/. which was Discovered that when exposed to a high temperature
refused ; hut it was afterwards sold to Catherine's it gave an acrid vapour, in which a part of it waa
favourite, count Orloff, for the first-mentioned sum, dissipated, 1673. Boyle.
without the annuity, and was by him presented to , Sir Isaac Newton concluded from its great refracting
the empress on her birthday, 1772 ; it is now in power, that it must be combustible, 1675.
the sceptre of Russia. Averani demonstrated, by concentrating the rays of
The Pitt diamond weighed 136 carats, and after the sun upon it, that the diamond was exhaled in
cutting 106 carats : it was sold to the king uf France vapour, and entirely disappeared, while other
for T25,cooi. in 1720. precious stones merely grow softer, 1695.
The Pioott diamond was sold for 9500 guineas, Slay It has been ascertained by Guyton, Davy, and others,
10, 1802. that although diamonds are the hardest of all
The diamond called the Mountain of Light, or known bodies, they yet contain nothing more than
K0111N00R, was found in the minos of Gokouda. in pure charcoal, or carbon. Diamonds wero charred
15S0, and is said to have belonged in turn to Shah by the intense heat of tho voltaic battery—by M.
Jehan, Aurungzebe, NadirShah, the Afghan rulers, Dumas, in Paris, and by Professor Faraday, in
and afterwards to the Sikh chief Hunieet Sinuh. London, in 1848.
Upon the abdication of Dbulccp Singh, the last
ruler of the Punjab, and the annexation of his Diamond Necklace Affair.—Tn 178s, Bcehmer, the
dominions to tho British empire, in 1849, the court jeweller of France, offered the queen, Marie
Kohinoor was surrendered to the queon. It was Antoinette, a diamond necklace, for 64,ooof. Tho
accordingly brought over and presented to her, queen desired the necklace, but feared the ex
July 3, 1850. It was shown in tho Great Exhibi pense. The countess de la Motte (of the ancient
tion, 1851. Its original weight was nearly 800 house of Valois) forged the queen's signature, and
carats, but it was reduced by the unskilfuluess of by pretending that the queen had an attachment
the artist, Hortensio Borghesc, a Venetian, to 279 for him, persuaded the cardinal do Rohan, the
carats. A general idea may be formed of its shape queen's almoner, to concludo a bargain with tho
and size by conceiving it as the pointed half (rose jeweller for the necklace for 56,000^. De la Motte
cut) of a small hen's egg. The value ia scarcely thus obtained tho necklace and made away with
computable, though two millions sterling have it. For this she was tried in 1786, and sentenced
been mentioned as a justifiable price, if calculated to be branded on tho shoulders and imprisoned
by tho scale employed in the trade. This diamond for life. She accused in vain the celebrated Italian
was re-cut in London in 1852, and now weighs adventurer, Cagliostro, of complicity in the affair,
102I carat*. he being then intimate with the cardinal She
The Sanci diamond, which belonged to Charles the made her escape and came to London, where she
Bold, duke of Burgundy, was bought by sir C. was killed by falling from a window-sill, in at
Jejeebhoy from the Deniidoff family for 2o,oooi. in tempting to escape an arrest for debt.—De Ro
Feb. 1865. han was tried and acquitted, April 14, 1786. The
A diamond, termed the Star op the Sodth, was public in France at that time suspected the queen
brought from Brazil in 1855, weighing 254J carats, of being a party to the fraud. Talleyrand wrote
half of which was lost by cutting. at the time, " I shall not be surprised if this miser
able affair overturn the throne."
DIANA, Temple of (at Ephesus), long accounted one of tlio seven wonders of the
world, was built at the common charge of all the Asiatic states, 552 B.C. The chief archi
tect was Ctesiphon ; and Pliny says that 220 years were employed in completing this rich
temple. It was 425 feet long, 225 broad, and was supported by 127 columns (60 feet high,
each weighing 150 tons of Parian marble), furnished by so many kings. It was set on
fire, on the night of Alexander's nativity, by an obscure individual named Eratostratus,
who confessed on the rack, that the sole motive which had prompted him to destroy so
magnificent an edifice was the desire of transmitting his name to future ages, 356 B.C. The
temple was rebuilt, but again burnt by the Goths, in their naval invasion, A.D. 256 or 262.
Univ. Hist.
DICE. The invention of dice is ascribed to Palamedes, of Greece, abont 1244 B.C. The
game of Tali and Tessera among the Romans was played with dice. Stow mentions two
DIC 211 DIE
entertainments given by the city of London, at which dice were played.* Act to regulate
the licences of makers, and the sale of dice, 9 Geo. IV. 1828.
DICHKOOSCOPE, an optical apparatus, described by the inventor, professor Dove' of
Berlin, in i860, who intended it to represent interferences, spectra in different coloured
lights, polarisation of light, &c.
DICTATORS were supreme and absolute magistrates of Rome, appointed to act in
critical times. Titus Lartius Flavus, the first dictator, was appointed, 501 B.C. This office
became odious by the usurpations of Sylla and Julius Caesar ; and after the death of the
latter, the Roman senate, on the motion of the consul Antony, passed a decree, which for
ever forbad a dictator to exist in Rome, 44 B.C., but Augustus became perpetual dictator, 27
B.C., as Imperator.
DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the Chinese language, containing about 40,000
characters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representations, somewhat like our signs of
the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, who lived about 1100 b.c. Morrison.
Tho oldest Greek dictionary is the Onomastikon Schwan's great German-French dictionary ap
of Julius Pollux, written about 120 B.C. ; a peared in . . 1782
Latin one was compiled by Varro, born B.C. 116 Richardson's English dictionary appeared In . 1836
The first noted polyglot dictionary, perhaps tho Lempricre's Classical dictionary, which first
first, is by Ambrose CalepinL a Venetian friar, appeared in 1788, is now superseded by Dr.
in Latin ; he wrote one in eight languages. W. Smith's classical series .... 1842-57
Niceron. about a.d. 1300 The Philological Society of London issuod
John E. Avenar's Dictionarinm Hebraicum was " proposals for a new English dictionary" . 1859
published at Wittenberg in 1589. Buxtorfs The great German dictionary, by Jacob and
great work, Lexicon Hettrairum, sc., appeared 1621 Wilhelm Grimm .... 1854 et seq.
The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published by Ed Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood's Dictionary of
mund CastelL in 1659 English Etymology .... 1859-62
The groat dictionary of the English language, Smith's Dictionary of the Bible was published 1860-3
by Samuel Johnson, the " Leviathan of Lite The earliest known English- Latin dictionary is
rature," appeared in 1755 the Promptorium Parvulorum, compiled by
Francis Grose's Dictionary ofthe Vulgar Tonguo Galfridus Grammaticua, a preaching friar of
wa? compiled in ...... 1768 Norfolk, in 1440 ; and printed by Pynson, as
The following academics bare published large Promptoriui Pxtirorum. in 1499 A now
dictionaries of their respective languages : edition, carefully edited by Mr. Albert Way,
tho French acadomy, first in 1694 ; the Spa from MSS. was published by the Camden So
nish, 1726; tho Italian academy (della Crusca), ciety 1843-65
1 729 ; and the Russian .... 1789-94 See Encyclopedia.
DIDYMIUM, a rare metal, discovered by Mosander in 1841. It appears to be always
associated with lanthanum and cerium.
DIEPPE (N. France). This town was bombarded by an English fleet, under admiral
Russell, and laid in ashes, July 1694. It was again bombarded in 1794 ; and again, together
with the town of Granville, by the British, Sept. 14, 1803.
" DIES IRjE" ("Day of Wrath "), a Latin medireval hymn on the day of judgment, is
ascribed to various authors, amongst others to pope" Gregory the Great (died about 604) ; St.
Bernard (died 1153); but is generally considered to have been composed by Thomas of
Celano (died 1255), and to have been used in the Roman service of the mass before 1385.
DIET of the German Empire (in which the supreme court of authority of tho empire
may be said to have existed) was composed of three colleges : one of electors, one of princes,
and one of imperial towns, and commenced with tho edict of Charles IV. 1356. See Golden
Bull. Diets otherwise constituted had long previously been held on important occasions.
The diet of Wurtzburg, which proscribed Henry the Lion, was held in 1 180 ; that of Worms,
at which Luther was present, in 1521 ; that of Spires, to condemn the Reformers, in 1529 ;
and the famous diet of Augsburg, in 1530. Tfte league of the German princes, called the
Confederation of the Rhine, fixed the diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806. Germany was
governed by a diet of 38 members, having votes varying from four to one each, till 1864,
when Schleswig and Holstcin were included. Diets wore held in 1848 and 1850, at Frank
fort (which sec).
4 In 1357, the kings of Scotland and France, being prisoners, and the king of Cyprus on a visit to
Edward ifl , a great tournament was held in Smithficld, and afterwards Henry Picard, mayor of London,
" kept his ball against all comers that were willing to play at dice and hazard. Tho lady Margaret, his
wife, did keepe her chamber to the same intent." The mayor restored to the king of Cyprus 50 marks
which he had won from him, saying, 41 My lord and king, be not aggrieved ; for I covet not your gold ; but
your play," &c. Stow.
R
DIE DIP
" DIEU-DONN&," the name given in Iris infancy to Louis It Grand, king of France,
because the French considered him as the gift of Heaven ; the queen, his mother, having
been barren for 23 years previously, 1638. Voltaire. One of the popes of Rome, who
obtained the tiara in 672, was named Adeodalus or God's gift, and had the character of a
DIEU ET MON DROIT ("God and my right"), the royal motto of England, was the
parole of the day, given by Richard I. of England to his army at the battle of Gisors, i;i
France, Sept. 20, 1 198, when the French army was signally defeated. " IXeu et mon droit "
appears to have been first assumed as a motto by Henry VI. (1422— 1461).
DIFFERENTIAL ENGINE. See Calculating Machine.
DIFFUSION of Gases. For our present knowledge of the laws regulating this pheno
menon, which performs so important a part in respiration and other natural processes, we
are greatly indebted to the researches of professor T. Graham, published in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society for 1850.
DIFFUSION of Useful Knowledge Society, which published a number of books
relating to history, science, and literature, and a useful atlas, ridiculed as the " Sixpenny
Sciences," in a cheap form, was established in 1827, by Lord Brougham, Mr. William
Tooke, Mr. Charles Knight, and others. It patronised the publication of the Penny Magazine
and the Penny Cyclopaedia. The Royal Institution of Great Britain was established in
1800, for "the Promotion, Diffusion, and Extension of Science and Useful Knowledge."
DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws under this title was prepared by Alfrenus
Varus, the civilian, of Cremona, 66 B.C. Qjuinlil. The Digest, so called by way of emi
nence, was the collection made by order of the emperor Justinian, 529 : it made the first
part of the Roman law and the first volume of the civil law. Quotations from it are marked
with a ff. Pardon. A digest of the statute law of England is now strongly recommended
(1865).
DIGITS. Any whole number under 10 : I, 2, 4c, are the nino digits. Arithmetical
figures were known to the Arabian Moore about a.d. 900; and were introduced by them
into Spain in 1050, and thence into England about 1253. In astronomy, the digit is a
measure used in the calculation of eclipses, and is the twelfth part of the luminary eclipsed.
See Figures.
DILETTANTI, Society of, was established in 1734 by several noblemen and gentlemen
(viscount Harcourt, lord Middlesex, duke of Dorset, &c), who had travelled and who were
desirous of encouraging a taste for the fine arts in Great Britain. The society published, or
aided in publishing, Stuart's Athens (1762— 1816), Chandler's Travels (1775-6), and several
other finely illustrated works, having aided the authors in their investigations. The members,
dine together from time to time at tlie Thatched-house tavern, St. James's.
DIMITY. See Damietta.
DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman empire into dioceses, at that period civil
governments, is ascribed to Constnntine, 323 ; but Strabo remarks that the Romans had the
departments called dioceses long before. In England the principal dioceses are coeval with
the establishment of Christianity ; of 28 dioceses, 20 are suffragan to the diocese of Canter
bury, and six to that of York. Seo Bishops, and the sees severally.
DIOCLETIAN ERA (called also tho era of Martyrs, on account of the persecution in hip
reign) was used by Christian writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the 6th
century, and is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on
which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, Aug. 29, 284.
DIOPTRIC SYSTEM. See Lighthouses.
DIORAMA. This species of exhibition, which had long been admired at Paris, was
first opened in London by MM. Bouton and Daguerre, Sept. 29, 1823. The diorama differs
from the panorama in this respect, that, instead of a circular view of tho objects repre
sented, it exhibits the whole picture at once in perspective. It was not successful com
mercially, and was sold in 1848. The building in Regent's Park was purchased by sir S.
M. Peto, in 1855, to be used as a Baptist chapel. It is the handsomest dissenters' chapel
in London.
DIPHTHERIA (from the Greek diphthera, a membrane), a disease which has the
essential character of developing a false membrane on any integument, particularly on tho
DIP 243 D1S
mucous membrane of the throat. It was so named by Bretonneau of Tours in 1820. From
its prevalence in Boulogne, it has been termed the Boulogne sore-throat ; many persons
were affected with it in England at the beginning of 1858.
DIPLOMACY, the art of managing the relations of foreign states by means of ambas
sadors, envoys, consuls, &c. Sue Ambassadors. New regulations for the British diplomatic
service were issued Sept. 5, 1862.
DIPLOMATICS, the foreign term for the science of Palaeography or ancient writings.
Valuable works on this subject have been compiled by Mabillon (1681), De Vaines (1774),
Astle (1781), De Wailly (1838), and other antiquaries.
"DIRECTORY foe the Public Worship of God" was drawn np at the instance of
the parliament by an assembly of divines at Westminster in 1644, after the suppression of
the Book of Common Prayer. The general hints given wore to be managed with discretion ;
for the Directory prescribed no form of prayer or manner of external worship, and enjoined
the people to make no responses except Amen. It was adopted by the parliament of Scotland
in 1645, and many of its regulations are still observed.
DIRECTORY, The French, established by the constitution of Aug. 22, 1795, and
nominated Nov. 1, was composed of five members (MM. Lipeaux, Letourneur, Rewbel,
Barras, and Carnot). It ruled in conjunction with two chambers, the Council of Ancients
and Council of Five Hundred (which sec). It was deposed by Bonaparte, who, with
Cambaceres and Sieyes, assumed the government as three consuls, the first as chief, Nov. 10,
1 799. See Consuls.
DIRECTORY, the first London, is said to have been printed in 1677. The " Post-office
Directory" first appeared in 1800.
DISCIPLINE, Ecclesiastical, originally conducted according to the divine commands
in Matt, xviii. 15, 1 Cor. v., 2 Thcss. iii. 6, and other scripture texts, was gradually
changed to a temporal character, as it now appears in the Roman and Greek churches. Tha
" First Book of Discipline " of the presbyterian church of Scotland was drawn up by John
Knox and four ministers in Jan. 1560-1. The more important "Second Book" was prepared
with great care in 1578 by Andrew Melville and a committee of the leading members of the
general assembly. It lays down a thoroughly presbyterian form of government, defines the
position of the ecclesiastical and civil powers, &c.
DISCOUNT. See Bank of England.
DISPENSARIES, to supply the poor with medical advice and medicines, began in London
with the Royal Geueral Dispensary, established in St. Bartholomew's Close, in 1770. It
relieved about 20,000 persons in 186 1. Low's Charities.
DISPENSATIONS, Ecclesiastical, were first granted by pope Innocent III. in 1200.
These exemptions from the discipline of the chnrch, with indulgences, absolutions, 4c, led
eventually to the Reformation in Germany in 151 7, and in England in 1534, ct teq.
DISPENSING POWER of the Crown (for setting aside laws), asserted by some of our
sovereigns, especially by James II. in 1686, was abolished by the bill of rights, 1689.
However it has been on certain occasions exercised, as in the case of embargoes upon ships,
the Bank Charter act, &c. See Indemnity.
DISSECTION. See Anatomy.
DISSENTERS, the modern name of the Puritans and Nonconformists (which sec). In
1851, in London alone, the number of chapels, meeting-houses, &c, for all classes of
dissenters amounted to more than 554. (The Church of England had 458 ; Roman
Catholics, 35.) The great act (9 Geo. IV. c. 17) for the relief of dissenters from civil and
religious disabilities was passed May 9, 1828. By this act, called the Corporation and Test
Repeal act, so much of the several acts of preceding reigns as imposed the necessity of
receiving the sacrament of the lord's Supper as a qualification for certain offices, &c, was
repealed. By 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 85 (1836), dissenters acquired the right of solemnising
marriages at their own chapels or at a registry office. See Worship.
DISTAFF, the staff to which hemp, flax, wool, or other substances to be spun is
fastened. The art of spinning with it at the small wheel, first taught to English women by
Anthony Bonavisa, an Italian. Slow. The distaff is used as an emblem of the female sex.
x2
DIS 244 DOC
DISTILLATION, and the various chemical processes dependent on the art, are generally
believed to have been introduced into Europe by the Moors about 1150 ; their brethren of
Africa had them from the Egyptians. See Alcohol, Brandy. The distillation of spirituous
liquors was in practice in Great Britain in the 16th century. Burns. The processes were
improvements. 118 licencesto distillers were granted in the year ending March 31, 1858, for
the United Kingdom.
DIVINATION. In the Scriptures and ancient authors different kinds of divination are
mentioned. See Augury, Delphi, Magi, Witchcraft, etc.
DIVINE EIGHT of Kings, the absolute and unqualified claim of sovereigns to the
obedience of their subjects, a doctrine which is totally foreign to the genius of the English
constitution, was defended by many persons of otherwise opposite opinions, e.g. , by Hobbes
the free-thinker (1642), by Salmasius (1640), by sir Robert Filmer, in his Palriarcha in
1680, and by the High Church party generally about 1714 ; but opposed by Milton (1651),
Algernon Sydney, and others.
DIVING-BELL (first mentioned, though obscurely, by Aristotle, about 325 B.C.) was
used in Europe about a.d. 1509. It is said to have been used on the coast of Mull, in
searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish Armada, before 1662. Halley (about 1721)
greatly improved this machine, and was, it is said, the first who, by means of a diving-bell,
set his foot on the ground at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton made use of the diving-bell in
improving Ramsgate harbour, 1779-88. Mr. Spalding and his assistants going down in a
diving-bell in Ireland were drowned, June I, 1783. The Royal George man-of-war, which
was sunk off Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of a diving-bell in May, 1817.
Latterly it has been employed in submarine surveys. The first diving-o«i/e was the wife of
captain Morris, at Plymouth, who descended in one a few years ago.
DIVINING ROD (virgula divina, baculatorius), formed of wood or metal, was formerly
believed, even by educated persons, to have the property of indicating the position of
minerals and springs of water. Instances were alleged in 1851 by Dr. H. Mays, in his
work on " Popular Superstitions."
DIVINITY. See TJicology.
DIVORCE for Advltery (of early institution). It was permitted by the law of Moses
(Deut. xxiv. 1), 1451 B.C., but was forbidden by Christ except for adultery (Malt. v. 31).
It was put in practice by Spurius Carvilius Ruga at Rome, 234 B.C. At this time morals were
so debased that 3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Divorces are of two kinds ;
one, a vinculo matrimonii (total divorce) ; the other, a mensA et thoro (from board and bed).
Divorces were attempted to be made of more easy obtainment in England in 1539. The bill
to prevent women marrying their seducers was brought into parliament in 1801. In April,
1853, the commissioners on the law of divorce issued their first report.* By 20 & 21 Vict,
c. 85 (1857), the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts respecting divorce, 4c, was abolished,
and the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes court was instituted, to consist of three judges, the
judge of the Probate court to be one (if possible). On May 10, 1858, a full court sat, viz.
lord Campbell, chief baron Pollock, and sir Cresswell Cresswell, judge of the Probate court,
when five marriages were dissolved. The above-mentioned act was amended by acts passed in
1858-60, in consequence of the increase of the business of the court. See Marriage. An
act respecting divorces in Scotland was passed in 1861. Sir Cresswell Cresswell died in
July, 1863, and sir James P. Wilde was appointed his successor in Sept. following.
DIZIER, St. (N.E. France). Here a siege was sustained for six weeks against the army
of the emperor Charles V., 1544. The allies here defeated the French under Napoleon, Jan.
27 and March 26, 1814.
DOBRUDSCHA, the N.E. corner of Bulgaria ; in 1854, the scene of the earlier incidents
of the Russo-Turkish war {which see).
DOCETJ?, a sect of the 1st century, said to have held that Jesus Christ was god, but
that his body was an appearance, not a reality.
• In 1857, there had been In England, since the Reformation, 317 divorces by act of parliament ; In
Scotland, by the law, 174 divorces since 1846. From the establishment of the divorce court, to March,
i**59. 37 divorces had boon granted out of 388 petitions ; from Nor. i860 to July, 1861, 164. They are now
very frequent.
DOC 245
DOCKS of ENGLAND. They are said to be the most extensive and finest in the world.
The following are the principal commercial docks :—
Commercial Docks, Rotherhithe, originated about East India Docks wore commenced in 1803 ; and
1660. opened Aug. 4, 1806.
West India Docks were commenced, Feb. 3, 1800; St. Katherino's Docks began May 3, 1827 ; and 2500
and were opened Aug. 27, 1802, when the " Henry men were daily employed on them until they were
Addington," West Indiaman, first entered them, opened, Oct. 25, 1828.
decorated with the colours of the different nations Victoria Docks (in Plaistow marshes) were completed
of Europe. in 1855.
London Docks were commenced June 26, 1802, and Magnificent docks at Liverpool and Birkenhead
opened Jan. 20, 1805. I erected, 1810-57.
DOCK-YARDS, Roval. There are seven chief dock-yards in England and Wales, and
others in various of our colonies.
Woolwich was an extensive ono in 1500* at Chatham in 1667. A fire occurred at Sheer-
Deptford dock-yard founded about 1513. ness dock-yard, on board the CamperUotcn, Oct. 9,
Chatham dock-yard was founded by queen Elizabeth. 1840.
Portsmouth dock-yard established by Henry VIII. Milford-Haven dock-yard, 1793 ; removed to Pem
Plymouth dock, now Devonport, * about 1689. broke in 1814.
Sheemess dock-yard was built by Charles II. after The Dock-yard battalions have been named since 1847.
the insult of the Dutch, who burnt our men-of-war
DOCTOR. Doctor of the Church was a title given to Athanasius, Basil, Gregory,
Nazianzen, and Chrysostom in the Greek church ; and to Jerome, Augustin, Ambrose, and
Gregory the Great, in the Romish church, 373, tl teq. In later times the title has been
conferred on certain persons with distinguishing epithets: viz. Thomas Aquinas (Angelicus),
Bonaventura (Seraphicus), Alexander de Hales (lrrefragabilis), Duns Scotus (Subtilis), Roger
Bacon (Mirabilis), William Occam (Singularis), Joseph Gerson (Christianissimus), Thoma.s
Bradwardine (Profundus), and so on. Doctor of the law, was a title of honour among the
Jews. The degree of doctor was conferred in England, 8 John, 1207. Sprlman. Some give
it an earlier date, referring it to the time of the venerable Bede and John de Beverley, the
former of whom, it is said, was the first that obtained the degree at Cambridge about 725.
DOCTORS' COMMONS, the college for the professors of civil and canon law residing in
London ; the name of commons is given to it from the civilians commoning together, as in
other colleges. It was founded by Dr. Henry Hervie in 1568 ; but the original college was
destroyed in the great fire of 1666* in 1672 it was rebuilt on the old sitc.t After the
great fire, and until 1672, the society held its courts at Exeter house in the Strand. It was
incorporated by charter in June, 1768. Cook. Till 1857 the causes taken cognizance of
here were blasphemy, divorces, bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, probate of
wills, Ac. See Ecclesiastical Courts, Civil Law, &c.
DOCTRINAIRES, a name given since 1814 to a class of politicians in France (Guizot,
due de Bioglie and others), who upheld the constitutional principles, as opposed to arbitrary
monarchical power. The party came into office in 1830 under Louis Philippe, and fell with
him in 1848. The term has been applied in this country to the writers in the " Westminster
Review" (1824, cl scq.), Bentham, Molesworth and others.
DODONA, Epirus. The temple of Jupiter here, renowned for its oracle, was destroyed
by tho JStolians, 219 B.C.
DODSON S ACT (brought forward by Mr. John G. Dodson, and passed Aug. 1, 1861)
provides that votes for electing members of parliament for the universities may be recorded
by means of polling papers.
DOG. Buffon considers the shepherd's dog as "the root of the tree," assigning as his
reason that it possesses from nature the greatest share of instinct. The Irish wolf-dog is
* Great fire in the dock-yard at Devonport, by which the Talavera, of 74 guns, the l»iogent frigate, of
28 guns, and immense Btorcs, were destroyed ; tho relics and figure heads of the favourite ships of Bos-
cawen, Rodney, Duncan, and other naval heroes, which were preserved in a naval museum, were also
burnt, Sept. 27, 1840 ; the loss was estimated at 2oo,oooi.
t In February, 1568, Dr. Henry Hervie, doan of tho arches and master of Trinity-hall (a seminary
founded at Cambridge chiefly for the study of the civil and canon laws) procured from tho dean and chapter
of the diocese of London a lease of Montjoy-house and other buildings in the parish of St. Bene't, Paul's
wharf, for the accommodation of the society. The courts over which he presided, the prerogative court of
Canterbury, that of the bishop of London, and also the court of admiralty (except for criminal cases), were
thenceforward holden in the buildings thus assigned, and the whole place, for an obvious reason, received
the appellation of " Doctor*,' Commons." Coote't English Civiliant.
DOG 245 DO II
supposed to be the earliest do;* known in Europe, if Irish writers be correct. Dr. Gall
mentions that a dog was taken lrom Vienna to England ; that it escaped to Dover, got on
board a vessel, landed at Calais, and, after accompanying a gentleman to Mentz, returned to
Vienna. Statute against dog stealing, 10 Geo. III. 1770. Dog-tax imposed, 1796, and
again in 1808 ; now (1865) 12s. a year. The omployment of dogs in drawing carts, &c, in
London was abolished, 1839 ; in the United Kingdom, 1854. Dog slwws have been held in
London in 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, and 1865, latterly at the Agricultural Hall, Islington.
DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days, commence on the 3rd of July and end on the
nth of August. The rising and setting of Sirius or the dog-star* with the sun has been
erroneously regarded as the cause of excessive heat and of consequent calamities.
DOGE, the title of the duke of Venice, which state was first governed by a prince so
named, Anafesto Paululio, or Paoluccio, 697. See Venice. The Genoese chose their first
doge, Simone Boccanegra, in 1339. Muraiori.
DOGGERBANK (German Ocean). Here a gallant but indecisive battle was fought
between the British, under admiral sir Hyde Parker, and the Dutch, Aug. 5, 1781.
DOGGET'S COAT and BADGE. The annual rowing match upon the Thames, thus
called, originated in this way : Mr. Thomas Dogget, an eminent actor of Drury-lane, on the
first anniversary of the accession to the throne of George I., Aug. 1, 1 715, gave a waterman's .
coat and silver badge to be rowed for by six young watermen in honour of the day, and
bequeathed at his death a sum of money, the interest whereof was to be appropriated
annually, for ever, to the same purpose. The candidates start, at a signal given, at that
time of the tide whon the current is strongest against them, and row from tho Old Swan,
London Bridge, to the White Swan at Chelsea.
DOIT. A silver Scottish penny, of which twelve were equal to a penny sterling. *3ome
of those struck by Charles I. and II. are in the cabinets of the curious. The circulation of
" doydekyns" (small Dutch coins) was prohibited by statute in 1415.
DOLLAR, the German thaler (the h not sounded). Stamped Spanish dollars were issued
from the Mint in March, 1797, but called in Oct. following. The dollar is the principal
silver coin in the United States of North America.
DOM-BOC or Doom-Book (Liber Judicialts), the code of law compiled by king Alfred
from the West-Saxon collection of Ina and other sources. Alfred reigned from 871 to got.
DOME'S-DAY BOOK or DOOM'S-DAY (Liber Ccnsualis AnyUa), a book of the
general survey of England, commenced in the reign of William I. 1080 (some say 1085), and
completed in 1086. It was intended to be a register whereby to determine the right in the
tenure of estates ; and from it the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not, is some
times still decided. The book is still preserved in the Chapter-house, Westminster-abbey,
fair and legible, consisting of two volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the counties of
England, except Northumberland, Durham, Westmoreland, and Cumberland, are surveyed.
" This Dome's-day book was the tax-book of Kinge William." Camden. It was printed in
four vols, folio, with introductions, "sc., 1783 —1816. The taxes were levied according to
this survey till 13 Hen. VIII., 1522, when a more accurate survey was taken, called hy the
people the New Doom's- Day Book. Photographic copies of various counties have been
DOMINGO, St., a city in Hayti, the seat of the Dominican republic, independent from
1844-61. It has been much troubled by the emperors of Hayti, especially by Faustin I.,
dethroned in 1858. Its last president, General Jose' Valverde, was elected in 1858. Popu
lation 200,000. See Hayli. In March, 1861, a number of Spanish emigrants landed in St.
Domingo ; a cry for its annexation to Spain was raised, and St. Domingo was incorporated
with that monarchy, May 20, 1861. An insurrection against the Spaniards broke out on
Aug. 18, 1863, and tho rebels had gained nearly all the island in Tsov. when the Spanish
government proclaimed it in a state of blockade. A Spanish force was sent and several
conflicts ensued, in which tho insurgents were generally worsted. In Dec. 1864 the British
government recognised tho Haytians as belligerents ; and in 1865 tho Spanish government
retired from tho contest.
* Mathematicians assort that Sirius, or tho dog-star, is the nearest to 113 of all the fixed stars : and
they compute ita distanco from our oarth at 2,200,000 millions of miles. Thoy maintain that a sound would
not reach our earth from Sirius in 50,000 years ; and that a cannon-ball, flying with ita usual velocity of
480 miles an hour, would consume 523,211 years in its passage thence to our globe.
DOM 217 DOU
DOMINICA (W. Indies), discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, on Sunday,
Nov. 3, 1493. It was taken by the British in 1 761, and was confirmed to them by the
peace of 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the subsequent peace
in 1783. It suffered great damage by a tremendous hurricane iu 1806.
DOMINICAL
■week, LETTER, on
reckoned a3 beginning noting
the 1sttheof Lord's
Jan. areday, or Sunday.
designated by theThe
first seven days ofof the
seven letters the
alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G ; and the one of these which denotes Sunday is the Dominical
letter. If the year begin on Sunday, A is the Dominical letter ; if on Monday, G ; on
Tuesday, F ; and so on. Generally to find the Dominical letter call New Year's day A, the
next B, and go on thus until you come to the first Sunday, and the letter that answers to it is
the Dominical letter ; in leap yeare count two letters. The letter for 1865 U A, for 1866, G.
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. See Domingo.
DOMINICANS, formerly a powerful religious order (called in Franco, Jacobins, and in
England Black friars), founded in order to put down the Albigenses and other heretics by
St. Dominic, approved by Innocent III. in 1215, and confirmed by Honorius III. in 1216,
under St. Austin's rules and the founder's particular constitution. In 1276 the corporation
of London gave the Dominicans two whole streets near the Thames, where they erected a
large convent, whence that part is still called Blackfriars.
DONATISTS, an ancient puritanical sect, formed about 313 —318, by an African bishop,
Donatus, who was jealous of Ca?cilian, bishop of Carthage : it became extinct in the 7th
century. The Donatists held that the Father was above the Son, and the Son above the
Holy Ghost ; and that there was no virtue in the form of the Church. Their discipline was
severe, and those who joined their sect were re-baptized.
DONKEY SHOW. An exhibition of donkeys and mules belonging to the upper and
lower classes took place at the Agricultural Hall, Islington, in Aug. 1864.
DON QUIXOTE, by Saavedra Miguel de Cervantes (born 1547 ; died 1616). The first
part of this work appeared in 1605, and the second part in 1608. It is said that upwards
of 12,000 copies of the first part were circulated before the second could be made ready for
the press. Waits.
DOOM'S-DAY BOOK. See Dome's-day Book.
DORADO. See El Dorado.
DORCHESTER (now a village near Oxford) was once a bishopric, said to have been
founded about 636. The first Bishop, Birinus, was called the apostle of the West Saxons.
In 1070, Remigius, its last prelate, transferred it to ■ Lincoln (tehich see). —Much excitement
was caused by six labourers of Dorchester (in Dorsetshire) being sentenced to transportation,
March 17, 1834, for administering illegal oaths.
DORIANS, a people of Greece, claimed their descent from Dorus, son of Hellen. See
Greece. Their return to the Peloponnesus took place 1104 B.C. They sent out many
colonies. To them we owe the Doric architecture, the second of the five orders. It is lighter
than the Tuscan.
DORT, or Dordrecht, an ancient town in Holland, where the independence of the
thirteen provinces was declared in 1572, when William prince of Orange was made stadt-
holder. Here happened an awful inundation of the Mouse in 1421, through the breaking
down the dykes. In the territory of Dordrecht 10,000 persons perished ; and more than
100,000 round Dnllart, in Friesland, and in Zealand. In the last two provinces upwards of
300 villages were overflowed, and the tops of their towers were Ion" after seen rising out
of the water. A Protestant synod was held at Dort in 1618 and 1619; to which deputies
were sent from England, and the reformed churches in Europe, to settle the difference between
the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, principally upon points of justification and
grace. This synod condemned the tenets of Arminius.
DOUAY (N. France), the Roman Duacum, was taken from the Flemings by Philip the
Fair in 1297 ; restored by Charles V. in 1368. It reverted to Spain, from whom it was
taken by Louis XIV. in 1667. It was captured by the duke of Marlborough in 1710 ; and
retaken by the French next year. This town gives its name to the Roman Catholic edition
of the Bible in use, by the consent of the popes, as the only authorised English version ;
DOU 248
its text is explained by the notes of Roman Catholic divines. The Old Testament was first
published by the English college at Douay in 1609 ; the New had been published at Rheims
in 1582. The English college for Roman Catholics was founded in 1568 by William Allen,
afterwards cardinal. Dodd.
DOURO, a river (separating Spain and Portugal), which, after a desperate struggle
between Wellington's advanced guard under Hill, and the French under Soult, was success
fully crossed by the former on May 12, 1809. So sudden was the movement, that Wellington
at 4 o'clock sat down to the dinner prepared for the French general. A lison.
DOVER (Kent), the Roman Dnbris. Near here Julius Ctesar made his first landing iu
England, Aug. 26, 55 B.C. Its original castle is said to have been built by him soon after ; but
this is disputed. The works were strengthened by Alfred and succeeding kings, and rebuilt
by Henry II. The earliest named constable is Leopoldus de Bertie, in the reign of
Ethelred II., followed by earl Godwin, Odo the brother of William I., &c. In modern
times, this office, and that of warden of the Cinque Ports, has been frequently conferred
on the prime minister for the time being, —e.g., lord North, Mr. Pitt, lord Liverpool, and
the duke of Wellington : the earl of Dalhousie, late governor-general for India, was
appointed in Jan. 1853, rand died Dec. 19, i860. Lord Palmerston, appointed constable
March, 1861, died Oct. 18, 1865.
Tho priory was commenced by archbishop Cor- A large part of the cliff fell, Nov. 27, 1810 ; and
boyl, or Corbois, about 1130 Jan. 13, 1853
At Dovor, king John resigned bis kingdom to Railway to London opened . . May 6, 1854
Pandolf, tho pope's legate . May 13, 1213 A telegraph wire laid down experimentally
The pier was projected by Henry VIII. in . 1533 between Dover and Calais (see Submarine
Charles II. landed hero from his exile, May 35, 1660 TeUffraph), Aug. 28, 1850 ; telegraph opened,
The foot barracks were burnt down by an acci Nov. 13, 1851
dental firo July 30, 1800
DOWER, the gifts of a husband for a wife before marriage (Genesis xxxiv. 12). The
portion of a man's lands or tenements which his wife enjoys for life after her husband's
death. By the law of king Edmund, a widow was entitled to a moiety of her husband's lands
or tenements for her life, 941. The widows of traitors, but not those of felons, are debarred
their dower by statute 5 Edw. VI. 1551. The last dower act passed in 1833.
DOWN (N.E. Ireland), BrsHoriiic of. An ancient see, whose first bishop was St.
Cailan, in 499. At the instance of John de Courcy, the conqueror of Ulster, the cathedral,
although previously consecrated to the Trinity, was dedicated to St. Patrick about 1 183.
The sepulchre of St. Patrick (who was buried here in 493, in tho abbey of Saul, founded by
himself) brought this place into great repute. The see was united with that of Connor in
1441 (see Connor) ; and the see of Dromore was united to both by the provisions of the Irish
Church Temporalities act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37, Aug. 14, 1833. The cathedral of Down-
patrick was destroyed by lord Grey, lord deputy of Ireland ; lor this and other crimes ho
was impeached and beheaded in 1541. Beatson.
DRACO'S LAWS (enacted by him when archon of Athens, 621 B.C.), on account of
their severity, were said to be written in blood. Idleness was punished with as much
severity as murder. This code was set aside by Solon's, 594 B.C.
DRAFTS (or cheques). In 1856, drafts crossed with a banker's name were made
payable only to or through the same banker. This act was passed in consequence of a
decision to the contrary in the case of Carlon v. Ireland, Dec. 12, 1855. In 1858 the
crossing was made a material part of a cheque, but bankers are not held responsible when
the crossing does not plainly appear, * and a penny stamp was ordered to be affixed to drafts
on bankers, commencing May 25.
DRAGOONS. The name is supposed to have been derived from dragon, "because
mounted on horseback with lighted match he scemeth like a fiery dragon." Meyrick. The
Draconarii were horse-soldiers, who bore dragons for ensigns. The first regiment of
dragoons was raised in England, it is believed, in 1681. " King Charles II. at the Restora
tion established a regiment of Life Guards, to which ho added a regiment of Horse Guards,
and two regiments of Foot Guards ; and a third regiment of Foot Guards was raised at
Coldstream, on the borders of Scotland." Captain Curling.
* In the case of Simmonds v. Taylor, May, »8s8, it was decided, on appeal to the court of exchequer,
that the crossing formed no part of the draft. The crossing had been erased, and the money paid to tho
holder of the draft who had stolen it.
DRA 219 DRA
DRAINAGE of Land, in England, is of early date—remains of British works being still
extant in tke Fens district. The truly national works began in 1621, when Cornelius
Vermuyden, the Dutch engineer, was invited to England. Amidst much opposition, he
and his successors drained the districts termed the Great Levels. See Levels. In the
present century great progress has been made in drainage. In 1861 was passed "an act
to amend the laws relative to the drainage of land for agricultural purposes." See Sewers.
DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Falmouth Dec. 13,
1577, and sailing round the globe, returned to England, after many perilous adventures,
Nov. 3, 1580. He was vice-admiral under lord Howard, high admiral of England, in the
conflict with the Spanish Armada, July 19, 1588.
DRAMA, Ancient, Both tragedy and comedy began with the Greeks.
The first comedy performed at Athen*, by Susa- Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet who
rion and Dolon, on a movable scaffold . b.c. 562 introduced intrigues upon the stage ; he com
The chorus introduced 556 posed about 100 plays, of which 10 obtained
Tragedy first represented at Athens by Thespis, S3r> the prize ; he died B.C.
on a waggon (Anind. Marb.) .... Subsequently came satires, accompanied with
Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tragedy, per music set to the flute ; and afterwards plays
formed at Athens '* Alceatis," and was re were represented by Livius Andronicus, who,
warded with a goat (Pliny) . . . . abandoning satires, wrote plays with a regular
JKschylus introduced suitable dresses and a and connected plot. He first gave sinking and
stage 48'". dancing to different performers ; he daneed
The drama was first introduced into Rome on himself, and gave the singing to a younger
occasion of a plague which raged during the exhibitor
consulate uf C. Sulpicius Peticus and C. The greatest ancient dramatic writers were—
Licinius Stolo : the magistrates, to appease Greek, .dischylus, Sophocles, Euripides (tra
the incensed deities, instituted the games gedy), and Aristophanes (comedy), 525—427 ;
called the " Scenici," which were amusements Litiin, Plautus and Terence (comedy), 184—
entirely new; actors from Etruria danced, j 160; Seneca (tragedy) . . 7 B.C.—a!d.b.c.—a.d. 65
after the Tuscan manner, to the flute . . 364 !
DRAMA, Modern, arose early in the rude attempts of minstrels and buffoons at fairs in
France, Italy, and England. Stories from the Bible were represented by the priests, and
were the origin of sacred comedy. Warton.
Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the A liconco granted to Shakespeare and his a
Church, is said to have constructed a drama ciates in 1603
on the Passion of Christ, to counteract the Plays were opposed by the Puritans in 1633,
profanities of the heathen stage, about . . 364 and were afterwards suspended until the
Fitzstephen, in his " Life of Thomas a Becbet," Restoration, in 1660
asserts that—" London had for its theatrical Two companies of regular performers were
exhibitions holy plays, and the representa licensed by Charles II., Killigrcw's and sir
tion of miracles, wrought by holy confessors ;" William Davenant's. The first was at the
he died about 1 190 Bull, Vere-street, Clare-market, which was
The Chester Mysteries* were performed about 1270 immediately afterwards removed to Drury-
Plays were performed at Clerkenwcll by the lane ; the other in Dorset-gardens, 1662. Till
parish clerks, and ' ' miracles " were repre this time, boys performed women's parts ; but
sented In the fields, in 1397 Mrs. Coleman (the first female on the stage)
Allegorical characters were introduced in the had performed IaiUhe, in Davenant's " Siege
reign of Henry VI. of Rhodes," in 1656
Individual characters were introduced in Henry Sir William Davenant introduced operas, and
VII. 's reign. both companies united, 1684, and continued,
Skelton and others wrote "Moralities" about 1500 together till 1694, when a schism under Bet-
The first regular drama acted in Europe was the terton led to the opening of a theatre in
'* Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the Lincoln's-inn-fields, the parent of Covent-
presence of pope Loo X. (Voltaire) . . 1515 garden 1695
The first royal licence for the drama in England Act for the revision of plays and for licensing
was to master Burbage, and four others, ser them previously to being performed . . 1737
vants to the earl of Leicester, to act plays at Author's Dramatic Copyright Protection act, 3
the Globe, Bankside 1574 Will IV. c. 15 Juno, 1833
Shakespeare began to write about . , . 1590 See Theatres, Coventgarden, Drury-lanet and Copyright.
DRAMATIC COLLEGE, for the benefit of distressed actors and their children, was
proposed July 21, 1858, at the Princess's theatre, by Messrs. C. Dickens, Thackeray, C.
Kean, B. Webster, and others. Mr. Henry Dodd's offer of land and money, with certain
stipulations, was declined. The Queen is the patron. The first stone of the building was
laid "by the Prince Consort, June 1, i860; and on Sent. 29, 1862, seven annuitants were
installed. The central hall was opened by the Prince ot Wales, June 5, 1865.
* The Coventry, Chester, Townley, and other mysteries have been printed during the present century.
DRA 2o0 DRI
DRAPIER'S LETTERS, by dean Swift, published in 1724, against Woods Halfpence
(which see).
DREAMS arc mentioned in Scripture, e.g., Joseph's and Pharaoh's, 1715 B.C. (Gen.
xxxvii. and xli.), and Nebuchadnezzar's, 603 and 570 B.C. (Daniel ii. and iv.). The first
attempt to interpret dreams and omens is ascribed to Amphictyon of Athens, 1497 B.C. A
remarkable modern instance is attested in the life of Thomas, lord Lyttelton.*
DRED SCOTT CASE. See United States, 1857.
DREPANUM (Sicily). Near this place the Carthaginian admiral Adherbal totally
defeated the Roman fleet under P. Claudius, 249 B.C.
DRESDEN, termed the German Florence, became the capital of Saxony in 1548. Peace
of Dresden, between Saxony, Prussia, and the queen of Hungary, confirming the treaties of
Berlin and Breslau, signed Dec. 25, 1745. Dresden was taken by Frederick of Prussia in
1756 ; by the Austriansin 1759 ; and bombarded in vain by Frederick, in July, 1760. Here
severe contests took place between the allied army under the prince of Schwarzenberg, and
the French army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27, 1813. The allies, 200,000
strong, attacked Napoleon in his position at Dresden, and the event had nearly proved fatal
to them, but for an error in the conduct of general Vandamme. They were defeated with
dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia ; but Vandamme pursuing them too
far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself and all his staff made prisoners. In this
battle, general Moreau received his mortal wound, while in conversation with the emperor
of Russia. Marshal St. Cyr, and 25,000 B'rench troops, surrendered Dresden to the allies,
Nov. 11, 1813. During a political commotion, the king of Saxony resigned the royal
authority, and prince Frederick, his nephew, was declared regent, Sept. 9, el seq. 1830. See
Saxony. An insurrection here on May 3, 1849, was repressed on the 6th. +
DRESS. The attire of the Hebrew women is censured in Itaiah iii., abont 760 B.C. Excess
in dress among the early Romans was restrained by sumptuary laws ; and also in England by
numerous statutes, in 1363, 1465, 1570, &c. (see Cap) ; and in the reign of Elizabeth,
1574. % Stow. Fairholt's " Costume in England " contains a history of dress with numerous
illustrations derived from MSS., the works of Strutt, &c. A "Dress-making Company"
was established in London, Feb. 6, 1865, with the view of improving the condition of the
workwomen.
DREUX (N.W. France). Here Montmorenci defeated the Huguenots under Cond<5,
Dec. 19, 1562.
DRINKING-FOUNTAINS. Many were erected in Liverpool in 1857. An association
for their erection in London was formed in April, 1859, by lord John Russell, the earl of
Carlisle, Mr. S. Gurney, and others. The first of the numerous fountains since erected is
that near St. Sepulchre's church, Skinner-street, on April 21, 1859. The magnificent foun
tain in Victoria-park, London, was inaugurated by the donor, Miss Burdett Coutts,
June 8, 1862.
DRI LLING-MACHINES, in agriculture. One was invented by Jethro Tull, early in the
last century.
* Lord Lyttelton dreamt that a young female, dressed in white, solemnly warned him of his dissolu
tion in three days from that time. On the third day his lordship had a party to spend the evening with
him, and about the time predicted, ho observed to the company present, that "he believed bo should
jockey the ghost ;" but in a few mimites afterwards he was seized with a sudden faintness, carried to
bed, and roRe no more. He died in 1779, aged 35. Some assert that ho committed suicide.
t The fine porcelain ware known as Dresden china was invented by M. Boeticher, at tho time an
apothecary's boy, about 1700. Hard porcelain was made there in 1709. Services of this ware have cost
many thousands of pounds each. A costly service, each pioco exquisitely painted, with battles, &e, was
presented to the duke of Wellington by the king of Prussia, in 1816, and was the finest in England.
t Sir Walter Raleigh, we are told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, close-sleeved to the wrist, and over
the body a brown doublet finely flowered, and embroidered with pearls, and in the feather of his hat a large
ruby and pearl drop at the bottom of tho sprig in place of a button. His breeches, with his stockings and
ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white ; and buff shoes, which, on great court days, wore so gorgeously
covered with precious stones as to have oxcoeded the value of 6600/. : and ho had a suit of armour of solid
silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls. King James's favourite, the duke
of Buckingham, could afford to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when ho chose to shake a few
off on the ground, he obtained all the fame ho desired from the pickers-up, who were generally Um Dam«»
<lt la Cour. We may here mention a novel dress, tbo Bloomer Costume, introduced into America in . 1849,
by Mrs. Ann Bloomer, and worn there by many of tho women. It resembled male attire, being an open-
fronted jacket and loose trousers, the latter wide like those of tho Turk, but gathered in at the ankles. Tho
Bloomer dress was first adopted by a few females in the western parts of London, in August, 1851 ; but
though it was recommended by some American ladies in popular lectures, it was soon aftorwards totally
discontinued.
DRO 251 DRU
DROGHEDA (Central Ireland, E.), formerly Tredagh, a place of great importance,
having the privilege of coining money. In the reign of Edward VI., an act, yet unrepealed,
was passed for the foundation of a university here. The town was besieged several times in
the contests between 1641 and 1691. Cromwell took it by storm, and put the governor, sir
A. Aston, and the whole of the garrison, to the sword, Sept. 11, 1649. More than 3000
men, most of them English, perished. It surrendered to William III. in 1690.
DROMORE, BisnopRic of (N.E. Ireland), founded by St. Coleman, first bishop, about
556. By an extent returned 15 James I., this Bee was valued in the king's books at 5oi.
Jeremy Taylor was bishop of Down and Connor in 1660, and of this see in 1661. Dromoro
has boon united to Down through the Irish Church Temporalities act, 1833.
DROWNING, as a punishment, is very ancient. The Britons inflicted death by drown
ing in a quagmire, before 450 B.C. Slow. It is said to have been inflicted on eighty intrac
table bishops near Nicomedia, a.d. 370 ; and to have been adopted as a punishment in France
by Louis XI. The wholesale drownings of the royalists in the Loire at Nantes, by command
of the brutal Carrier, Nov. 1793, were termed Noyades. He was condemned to death in
Dec. 1794. Societies for the recover;/ of drowning persons were first instituted in Holland,
in 1767. The second society is said to have been formed at Milan, in 1768 ; the third in
Hamburg, in 1771 ; the fourth at Paris, in 1772 ; and the fifth in London, in 1774. The
motto of the Royal Humane Socioty in England is : Latent, scinlillula forsan—"A small
spark may perhaps lie hid."
DRUIDS. Priests, among the ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britons, so named from their
veneration for the oak (Brit. derw). They administered sacred things, were the interpreters
of the gods, and supreme judges. They headed the Britons who opposed Caisar's first landing,
55 B.c, and were exterminated by the Roman governor, Suetonius Paulinus, A.D. 61.
DRUM : the invention is ascribed to Bacchus, who, according to Polysenus, "gave his
signals of battle with cymbals and drums." It was brought by the Moors into Spain, 713.
Le Clerc. The drum, or drum-capstan, for weighing anchors, was invented by sir S. Norland,
in 1685. Anderson.
DRUMMOND LIGHT. See Lime-light.
DRUMCLOG (W. Scotland). Here tho Covenanters defeated Graham of Claverhousc,
on June 1, 1679. An account of the conflict is given by Walter Scott, in "Old Mortality."
DRUNKARDS wcro to be excommunicated in the early church, 59 (1 Cor. vii.) In
England, a canon law forbade drunkenness in the clergy, 747. Constantine, king of Scots,
punished it with death, 870. By 21 James I., c. 7, 1623, a drunkard was liable to a penalty
of five shillings, or six hours in the stocks.
DRURY-LANE THEATRE derives its origin from a cock-pit, which was converted into
a theatre in the reign of James I. It was rebuilt, and called the Phoenix ; and Charles II.
granted an exclusive patent to Thomas Killigrew, April 25, 1662. The actors were called
the king's servants, and ten of them, who were called gentlemen of the great chamber, had
an annual allowance of ten yards of scarlet cloth, with a suitable quantity of lace. The
theatre, with sixty adjoining houses, was burnt down in 1672 ; and a new edifice was built
in its room by sir Christopher Wren, in 1674. The interior was rebuilt by Mr. Adams, and
was re- opened Sept. 23, 1775. The Drury-lane Theatrical Fund was originated by David
Garrick in 1777. In 1791, the theatre was pulled down ; it was rebuilt and opened March
12, 1794. It was totally destroyed by fire, Feb. 24, 1809; and was rebuilt and opened
Oct. 10, 1812. See Theatres and Drama.
DRUSES, a warlike people dwelling among tho mountains of Lebanon, derive their
origin from a fanatical Mahometan sect which aroso in Egypt about 996, and fled to Palestine,
to avoid persecution. They now retain hardly any of the religion of their ancestors : they
<lo not practise circumcision, pray, or fast, but eat pork and drink wino. In the middle of
i860, in consequence of disputes (in which doubtless both parties wero to blame), the Dru3cs
attacked their neighbours the Maronites (which see), whom they massacred, it was said,
without regard to ago or sex. Peace was made in July ; but in the meantime a religious
fury seized the Mahometan population of the neighbouring cities, and a general massacre of
Christians ensued. See Damascus and Syria. Fuad Pacha with Turkish troops ; and
general Hautpoul with French auxiliaries, invaded Lebanon in Aug. and Sept. Tho Druses
surrendered, giving up their chiefs, several of whom were tried and condemned to die, in
Jan. 1861.
DUB 252 BUB
DUBLIN, capital of Ireland, anciently called Ashcled, said to have been built 140. It
obtained its present name from Alpiuus, a lord or chief among the Irish, whose daughter,
Auliana, having been drowned at the ford where now Whitworth-bridge is built, he changed
the name to Auliaua, by Ptolemy called Eblana (afterwards corrupted into Dublana), that
she might be had in remembrance. Alpinus is said to have made this place his residence,
about 155, when he brought "the then rude hill into the form of a town." See Ireland.
Christianity established here on the arrival of Bank transferred to College-green 180S
St. Patrick, about 432 Dublin institution founded . 1S1 1
[St Patrick's cathedral founded about this Riot at the theatre Dec. 16, iSr +
timo. ] Visit of George IV. ... Aug. 12, 1S21
Dublin environed with walls by the Danes 798 The " Bottle conspiracy " . Dec. 14, 1822
Named by king Edgar in the preface to his Hibernian academy Aug. 16, 1S2 ;
charter " fiobtissima Civitat" . . 964 Dublin lighted with gas Oct. 5l 1S25
Battle of Clontarf (which see) April 23, 1014 Rd. Whately archbishop (very active in
Dublin taken by Itaymond lo Gros, for Henry education) 1S;t
II. who soon after arrives ... . . 1171 Great custom-house fire . . Aug. 9,
Charter granted by this king .... 1173 Railroad to Kingstown . . . Aug. 17, 1834
Christ church built, 1038 ; rebuilt . . . 1190 British Association meet here . Aug. 6,
Slaughter of 500 British by tho Irish citizens Dublin new police act . . . July 4,
near Dublin (see CuIUhs Wood) . . . 1209 Cemetery, MountJerome, consecrated, Sept. i.
Assemblage of Irish princes, who swear alle Royal arcade burnt April 25, 1 S3 7
giance to king John 1210 Poor-law bill passed . . July 31,
Foundation of Dublin castle laid by Henry de Awful storm raged . Jan. 6, /
Loundres, 1205 ; finished .... 1213 O'Connell's arrest (see Trials) . Oct. 14, .S45
John lo Decer first provost ; Richard de St. He is found guilty Feb. 12, iS-44
Olave and John Stakebold first bailiffs (see His death at Genoa May 15, 1S47
Mayor) 1308 Arrest of Mitchell, of the United Irish uzm news-
Thomas Cusack, first mayor (idem) . . 1409 paper May 13.
Besieged by the sou of tho earl of Kildare, lord State trial of Wni. Smith O'Brien and Meagher
deputy 1500 in Dublin May 15,
Christ church made a deanery and chapter by [These persons were afterwards tried at Clon-
Henry VIII. (see Christ Church) . 1541 mel, and found guilty.]
Name of bailiff changed ; John Ryan and Thomas Trial of Mitchell ; guiltu . May 36,
Comyn, first sheriffs 1548 Irish Ftlon newspaper first published July 1,
Trinity college founded 1591 A'atiou and Irish Ftlon suppressed July 29,
Charter granted by James L .... 1609 Conviction of O'Dohcrty . Nov. 1,
Convocation which established the Thirty-nine Tho queen visits Dublin . Aug. 6, 1S49
articles of religion 1614 Royal exchange opened as a city hall, Sept. 30, 1
Besieged by the marquis of Ormond, and battle Dublin industrial exhibition, which owed its
of Rathmines (which s*e) 1649 existence to Mr. Dargan, who advanced
Cromwell arrives in Dublin with 9000 foot and 8o,oooi. for the purpose, was erected by Mr.
400 horse Aug. „ (afterwards sir) John Benson, in the Dublin
Chief magistrate honoured with the title of lord Bociety'B grounds, near Merrion-square. It
while holding office 1665 consisted of one large and two smaller halls,
Blue coat hospital incorporated . . . . 1670 lighted from above It was opened by earl
Essex bridge built by sir H. Jervis . . . 1676 St. Germains, the lord-lieutenant, May 12;
Royal hospital, Kilmainham, founded . . . 1683 was visited by the queen and prince Albert,
James 11. arrives in Dublin .... 1688 Aug. 30; and closed on . Nov. i( 1853
Great gunpowder explosion 1693 Acts passed to establish a national gallory,
Lamps first prected in the city .... 1698 museum, Ac. Aug. 10, 1854 ; and July 2, 1655
Infirmary, Jervis-street, founded . . . . 1728 Arrival of lord Eglinton—disgracefid contest
Parliarr.ent-house began 1729 between tho Trinity college students and the
Foundling hospital incorporated . . . . 1739 police ; the latter severely blamed, March 12, 1858
St. Patrick's spire erected (see St. Patrick) . 1749 Demonstration at the funeral of the rebel
Royal Dublin Society originated, 1731 ; incor M'Manus Nov. 10-12, 1861
porated „ Fino art exhibition proposed, July 20, i860;
Lock hospital opened 1758 opened by the lord-lieutenant, the earl of
Hibernian society 1 765 Carlisle, May 34, 1861 : visited by the prince
Marine society 1766 of Wales, July 1 ; and by the queen and
Queen's bridge first erected, 1684 ; destroyed prince consort .... Aug. 22,
by a flood, 1763 ; rebuilt 1768 National association for social science met,
Act for a general pavement of tho city . . 1 773 Aug, 14-22, „
Royal exchange begun, 1769; opened . . . 1779 Lord RoBse installed as chancellor of the uni
Order of St Patrick instituted . . . . 1783 versity Feb. 17, 1S63
Bank of Ireland instituted (see Bank) . . . „ Abp. Whately dies, Oct. 8 ; succeeded by Rd.
Police established by statute .... 1786 Chenevix Trench .... Nov. „
Royal academy incorporated Statue of Oliver Goldsmith inaugurated by tho
Custom house begun, 1781 ; opened . . .1791 lord-lieutenant, Jan. 5 ; who opens the
Dubin library instituted M national gallery of Ireland . . Jan. 30, 1864
Fire at the parliament house . . . . 1 792 New Richmond hospital, to be called the
Carlisle bridge erected 1794 "Carmichael School of Medicine," founded
City armed association 1 796 (Mr. Carmichael, the surgeon, bequeathed
New law courts opened , io,ooof. for the purpose) . March 29, ?,
The rebellion ; arrest of lord Edward Fitzgerald, Industrial exhibition opened by the lord chan
in Thomas-street .... May 19, 1798 cellor May 25, ,,
Union with England (see Union) . Jan. 1, 1801 The O'Connell monument founded . Aug. 8, 1 864
Emmett's insurrection . . . July 23, 1803 St. Patrick's cathedral restored by Mr. Guin
Hibernian Bible society 1806 ness ; re opened .... Feb. 24, 1865
DUB 253 DUE
DUBLIN, continued.
The international exhibition opened by the several Fenians taken in custody. (See
prince of Wales .... May 9, 1865 Fenian*, and Ireland.) . Sept. 15, 186s
The newspaper The Irish People seized, and International exhibition to be closed. on Nov. o,
DUBLIN, Archbishopric of. It was united to Glendalaghin 1214. It is supposed that
the bishopric of Dublin was founded by St. Patrick, in 448. Gregoiy, bishop in 1 121,
became archbishop in 1152. George Browne, an Augustine friar of London (deprived by
queen Mary in 1554), was the first Protestant archprelate of this see. Dublin has two
cathedrals, Christ Church, and St. Patrick's. The revenue was valued, in the king's books,
30 Hen. VIII. at 534/. 15s. 2d. Irish. Kildare, on its last avoidance, was annexed to
Dublin, 1846. See Bishops.
DUCAT, a coin so called because struck by dukes. Johnson. First coined by Longinus,
governor of Italy. Procopius. First struck in the duchy of Apulia, 1140. Du Cangc.
Coined by Robert, king of Sicily, in 1240.
DUELLING took its rise from the judicial combats of the Celtic nations. The first duel
in England, William count of Eu and Godfrey Baynard, took place 1096. Duelling in civil
matters was forbidden in France, 1305. The present practice of duelling arose in the chal
lenge of Francis I. to the emperor Charles V. 1528. The fight with small swords was intro
duced into England, 29 Eliz. 1587. Proclamation that no person should be pardoned who
killed another in a duel, 30 Charles II. 1679.* Duelling was checked in the army, 1792 :
and has been almost abolished in England, by the influence of public opinion aided by the
prince consort. A society " for the discouraging of duelling " was established in 1845. See
Battel^ Wager of, and Combat.
MEMORABLE DUELS. Mr. Harvey Aston and lieut. Fitzgerald ; the
Between the duke of Hamilton and lord former severely wounded . June 25,
Mohun, fought .... Nov. 15, 171a Mr. Stevens and Mr. Anderson ; the former
[This duel was fought with small swords, in killed Sept. 20,
Hydo-park. Lord Mohun was killed upon Mr. Graham and Mr. Julius ; the former killed,
the spot, and the duke expired of his wounds July 19, 1 79 1
as he was being carried to his coach.] Mr. John Kemble and Mr. Aiken ; no fatality,
Capt. Peppard and Mr. Hayes ; latter killod 1728 March 1, 179a
Messrs. Hamilton and Morgan ; former killed 174S Earl of Lonsdale and captain Cuthbert ; no9,
Mr. S. Martin and Mr. Wilkes. M.P. "763 fatality ■ June
Lord Townsbend and lord Bellamont ; lord M. de Chauvigny and Mr. Lameth ; the latter
Bellamont wounded . . Fet 1773 wounded Nov. 8,
The count d'Artois and the duke of Bourbon, Mr. Carpenter and Mr. Pride ; the former killed,
March 2 1778 Aug. 20, 1796
Mr. Donovan and capt. Hanson; the lattor Lord Norbury and Mr. Napper Tandy ; an affair,
killed Nov. 13 no meeting ..... Aug. 21,
Charles James Fox and Mr. Adam ; Mr. Fox "779 Lord Valentia and Mr. Gawlor ; the former
wounded Nov. 30, wounded June 28, 1798
Colonel Fullerton and lord Shelburne : the Win. Pitt and George Tierney May 27,
latter wounded . . . March 22, 1780 Isaac Corry and Henry Grattan Jan. 15, 1 800
Bev. Mr. Allen and Lloyd Dulany ; the latter Lieut. Willis and major Impey ; the major
killed June 18, 1782 killed lug. 26, 1801
Colonel Thomas, of the Guards, and colonel Rt. hon. George Oglo and Bernard Coyle, 8
Gordon; colonel Thomas killed . Sept. 4, 1783 shots ; no fatality x8oa
Lord Macartney and major-gen. Stuart ; the Sir Richard Musgrave and Mr. Todd Jones ; sir
former wounded .... June 8, 1786 Richard wounded .... June 8, „
Mr. Harrington and Mr. M'Kcnzie; the former Colonel Montgomery and captain Mac Namara ;
killed on the ground by general Gillespie, the the former k illed . . .April 6, 1803
second of the latter 1788 General Hamilton and colonel Aaron Burr ;
Mr. M'Keon and George Nugont Reynolds ; the the general killed, greatly lamented (in
latter murdered by the former . Jan. 31, „ America) 1804
Mr. Purefoy and col. Roper ; the latter killed, Lord Camelford and captain Best ; lord Camel-
Dec. 17, „ ford killed .... March 10, „
Duke of York and col. Lenox, afterwards duke Surgeon Fisher and lieut. Torrens ; the latter
of Richmond (for an insignificant cause), killed March 22, 1806
May 27, 1789 Baron Hompesch and Mr. Richardson ; the
Sir George Ramsay and captain Macrca ; sir latter severely wounded . . Sept. ax, ,,
George killed 1790 Sir Francis Burdett and Mr. Paull ; the former
Mr.
" Curran
*■ and major Hobart . r killed, April 1, „ wounded May 5, 1807
Mr. Macduff and Mr. Prince ; latter 1 Mr. Alcock and Mr. Colclough ; the latter killed ;
June 4, M the Burvivor lost his reason . June 8, ,,
* "As many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought during my grand climacteric. " Sir J.
Barrington. A single writer enumerates 172 duets, in which 63 individuals were killed and 96 wounded ;
in three of these cases both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sentence of
the law. Hamilton.
DUE
DUELLING, continued.
M. de Granpree and M. Le Piquo, in balloons, Mr. Westall and captain Gourlay ; the latter
near Paris, and the latter killed May 3, 1808 killed 1824
Major Campbell and captain Boyd ; latter Mr. Beamont and Mr. Lambton . July 1, 1826
murdered (former hanged, Oct. 2, 1808), Mr. Brie, barrister, and Mr. Hayes ; the former
June 23, killed Dec. 26, „
Lord Paget and captain Cadogan ; neither Rev. Mr. Hodson and Mr. Grady; the latter
wounded May 30, 1809 wounded Aug. 1827
Lord Castlercagb and Mr. George Canning ; the Major Edgeworth and Mr. Henry Grattan ; an
latter wounded .... Sept. 22, , affair, and no meeting .... Sept.
Mr. George Payne and Mr. Clarke ; the former Mr. Long Wellesley and Mr. Crospigny ; neither
killed Sept. 6, 1S10 wounded 1828
Captain Boardman and ensign do Balton ; the Duke of Wellington and the earl of Winchilsea ;
former killed .... March 4, 181 1 no injury March ai, 1820,
Lieut. Stewart and lieut Bagnal ; the latter Lieut. Crowther and captain Helsham ; the
mortally wounded .... Oct. 7, 1812 former killed April 1, „
Mr. Edward Maguire and lieut. Blundell ; the Mr. William Lambrecbt and Mr. OlivorClayton ;
latter killed .... July 9, 1813 the latter killed .... Jan. 8, 1830
Mr. Hatchcll and Mr Morley . . Feb. 12, 1814 Captain Smith and Mr. O'Grady ; the latter
Captain Stackpole (of "Statira" frigate) and killed March 18, „
lieut. Cecil ; the captain killed (arose on ac Mr. Storey and Mr. Mathias ; the lattcrwounded
count of words spoken four years previously), ' Jan. 22, 1833
April, „ Mr. Maher and Mr. CoUes . . Jan. 22, „
Mr. D. O'Connell and Mr. D'Esterre ; Mr. D Es- Sir John W. Jeffcott and Dr. Hennis ; the latter
terro killed Feb. 1, 1815 mortally wounded, and died on the 18th,
Colonel Quentin and colonel Palmer Feb. 7, May zo, „
Mr. O'Connell and Mr. Peel ; an affair, no meet Charles Wellesley Ashe and sir Charles Hamp
ing Aug. 31, „ ton Sept. ir, 1834
Major Greene and Mr. Price, in America ; the Lord Alvanley and Mr. Morgan O'Connell ; 2
latter killed, greatly lamented . . . 1816 shots each May 4, 1835
Captain Fottrell and colonel Rosa ; 5 shots each, Sir Colquhoun Grant and lord Seymour ; no
but no fatality .... Dec. 181 7 fatality May 29.
Lieut. Hindes and liout. Gilbert Conroy ; the Mr. Roebuck, M.P., and Mr. Black, editor of
former killed March 6, the Morning Ckroniclt ; 2 shots each Nov. 19,
Mr. John Sutton and major Lockyer ; the Mr. Ruthven and Mr. Scott ; and Mr. Ruthven
former killed .... Dec. ro, „ and Mr. Close (Mr. Scott's second) ; thelatter
Mr. O'Callaghan and lieut. Bayley ; tho latter wounded May 23, 1836
killed Jan. 12, 1818 The earl of Cardigan and captain Tuckett, ntn
Mr. Grattan and the earl of Clare . Juno 7, 1820 regt. ; 2 shots each ; the latter wounded (for
Mr. Heushaw and Mr. Hartingcr; both despe this the earl was tried in the bouse of lords
rately wounded .... Sept. 18, „ and acquitted, Fob. 16, 1841) . Sept. 12, 1840
Mr. Scott and Mr. Christie ; the former killed, Captain Boldero and hon. Craven Berkeley ; no
Feb. 16, 1821 fatality July 15, 1842
M. Manuel and Mr. Beaumont . . April 9, ,, Colonel Fawcctt and captain Munroe ; former
Sir Alexander Boswell and Mr. James Stuart ; killed July rf 1843
tiie former killed . March 26, 1822 Lieut. Seton and lieut. Hawkey ; tho former
The duke of Buckingham and the duke of killed May 20, 1845
Bedford ; no fatality . . May 2, „ Due de Grammont Caderousse kills Mr. Dil
General Pepe" and general Carascosa ; the latter lon at Paris, for a newspaper attack . Oct. 1862
wounded Feb. 28, 1823
DUKE, Latin dux, a title first given to generals of armies. In England, during Saxon
times, the commanders of armies were called dukes, duces. Camden. In Genesis xxxvi.
some of Esau's descendants are termed dukes. Duke-duke was a title given to the Louse of
Sylvia, in Spain, on account of its possessing many duchies.
Edward the Black Prince made duke of Corn duke of Rothesay, a title which afterwards
wall 1337 belonged to the king's eldest son, 1398, and
Robert de Vcrc was created marquess of Dub is now borne by the prince of Wales.
lin and duke of Ireland, 9 Rich. II. . . . 1385 Cosmo de Medici created grand-duke of Tus
Robert III. created David, prince of Scotland, cany, the first of the rank, by pope Pius V. . 1569
DULWICH COLLEGE (Surrey), called GodVgift College, founded by Edward AUeyn,
an eminent comedian, was completed and solemnly opened Sept. 13, 1619. Alleyn was its
first master, and died in 1626. A fine gallery to contain the Bourgeois collection of pictures,
bequeathed by sir Francis Bourgeois, was annexed in 1813, In 1857, an act was passed by
which the college was reconstituted. Two schools were established ; and the number of
the almspeoplo increased. In i860 the annual income was 11,482/.
DUMB. See Deaf and Dumb.
DUMBLANE or Dunblane (Perth), near which took place a conflict called the battle
of Sheriffmuir, between the royalist army and the Scots rebels, tho former commanded by
the duke of Argyle, and the latter by the earl of Mar, Nov. 13, 1715. Both sides claimei
the victory.
DUN ■2r,r, DUR
DUNBAR (Haddington). Here the Scottish army and John Baliol were defeated by the
earl of Warrenne, and Scotland was subdued, April 27, 1296. Here also Cromwell obtained
a signal victory over the Scots, in arms for Charles II., Sept. 3, 1650.
DUNCIAD, the celebrated satirical poem by Alexander Pope, was published in 1728.
DUNDALK (Louth, Ireland). In 1318, at Foughard near this place, was defeated and
slain Edward Bruce, who had invaded Ireland in 13 15. The walls and fortifications of
Dundalk were destroyed in 1641. It was taken by Cromwell in 1649. The first cambric
manufacture in Ireland was established in this town by artisans from France in 1727.
DUNDEE (E. Scotland), on the Tay. The site was given by William the Lion (reigned
1165— 1214), to his brother David, earl of Huntingdon, who built or strengthened the
castle, and erected a large church, the tower of which, 156 feet high, still remains. The
town was taken by the English in 1385 ; pillaged by Montrose, 1645 ; stormed by Monk in
1651 ; and was visited by queen Victoria in 1844. It has thriven since 1815, through its
extensive linen manufactories ; at one of these (Edwards's) a steam explosion took place on
April 15, 1859, when twenty persons were killed. Claverhouse, viscount Dundee (killed
1689), had a house here. The Baxter park, the gift of sir David Easter, was opened by
earl Russell, Sept. 9, 1863. Population in 1861, 90,425.
DUNGAN-HILL (Ireland). Here the English army, commanded by colonel Jones,
signally defeated the Irish, of whom 6000 are said to have been slain, while the loss on the
side of the English was inconsiderable, July 10, 1647.
DUNKELD (Perthshire) was made a bishopric by David I. in 1127 ; the ancient Culdee
church, founded by king Constantine III., becoming the cathedral. The beautiful bridge
over the Tay, erected by Thos. Telford, was opened in 1809.
DUNKIRK (N. France), founded in the 7th centuiy, was taken from the Spaniards by
the English and French, and put into the hands of tho English, June 1658. It was sold by
Charles II. for 500,000?. to Louis XIV., Oct. 17, 1662. Dunkirk was one of the best
fortified ports in the kingdom ; but all the works were demolished in conformity with the
treaty of Utrecht in 1713. The French resumed the works, but they were ordered to be
demolished at the peace of 1 763 ; in 1 783 they were again resumed. The English attempted
to besiege this place ; but the duke of York, who commanded, was defeated by Hoche, and
forced to retire with loss, Sept. 7, 1793. It was made a free port in 1816.
DUNMOW (Essex), famous for the tenure of the manor (made by Robert Fitz-Walter,
1244), "that whatever married couple will go to the priory, and kneeling on two sharp-
pointed stones, will swear that they have not quarrelled nor repented of their marriage
within a year and a day after its celebration, shall receive a flitch of bacon." *
DUNSINANE (Perthshire). On the hill was fought the battle between Macbeth the
thane of Glammis, and Siward, earl of Northumberland. 1054. Edward the Confessor had
sent Siward on behalf of Malcolm III., whose father Duncan, the thane and usurper had
murdered. Macbeth was defeated, and it was said was pursued to Lumphanan, in Aberdeen
shire, and there slain, 1056.
DUPPEL or DtbbOl. See under Denmark, 1864.
DUPPLIN (Perthshire). Hero Edward Baliol and his English allies totally defeated tho
Scots under the earl of Mar, Aug. 11/1332, and obtained the crown for three months.
DURBAR, an East Indian term for an audience-chamber or reception. On Oct. 18,
1864, a most remarkable durbar was held at Lahore by the viceroy of India, sir John Law
rence, at which 604 of tho most illustrious princes and chieftains of tho north-west province,
were present, magnificently clothed.
DURHAM, an ancient city, the Dunholme of the Saxons, and Dur(me of the Normans.
The bishopric was removed to Durham from Chester-le-street in 995 ; whither it had been
transferred from Lindisfanio or Holy Islaud, on the coast of Northumberland, in 634, in
* Tho earliest recorded claim for the bacon was in 1445, since when to 1855 it had only been demanded
five times. The lost claimants previous to 1855 were John tihakeehanks and his wife, who established their
right to it, June 20, 1751 ; they made a lurge sum by selling slices of the Hitch to those who wero witnesses
of the ceremony, there being 5000 persons present. The claim was revived on July 19, 1855, when flitchcH
were awarded to Mr. and Mr*. Barlow, of ChippinK-On^ar, and the Chevalier Chatcia-ne and his lady. Tho
lord of the manor opposed the revival, but Mr. W. Harrison Ainsworth, the novelist, and some friends,
defrayed the expense, and superintended the ceremonials. Endeavours have been made to perpetuate the
custom. A flitch was awarded in i860.
DUR 256
consequence of the invasion of the Danes. The bones of St. Cuthbert, the sixth bishop,
were brought from Lindisfarne, and interred in Durham cathedral. The palatine privileges,
granted to the bishop by the Danish Northumbrian prince Guthrum, were taken by the
crown in June 1836. Durham was ravaged by Malcolm of Scotland in 1070, and was occu
pied by the Northumbrian rebels in 1569; and by the Scots in 1640. In 1650 Cromwell
quartered his Scotch prisoners in the cathedral. Near Durham on Oct. 17, 1346, was
fought the decisive battle of Neville's cross (which see). This see, deemed the richest in
England, was valued in the king's books at 2821/. Present income, 8000?. The college,
founded in 1290, was abolished at the Reformation. In 1657 Cromwell established a college,
which was suppressed at the Restoration. The present University was established in 183 1,
opened in 1833, and chartered in 1837. Certain reformed ordinances, recommended by a
commission, were set aside in 1863.
BECENT BISHOPS OF DURHAM.
1791. Hon. Shute Barrlngton, died in 1826. 1856. Charles Thomas Longley, became abp. of York,
1836. ■ Wm. Van MHdert (the last prince-bishop), died May, i860
Feb. 21, 1836. 1860. Hon. H. Montagu Villiers (trans, from Carlisle),
1836. Edward Maltby, resigned in 1856; diedJuly 3, died Aug. 10, 1861.
1859, aged 90. 1861. Charles Baring (present bishop).
DURHAM LETTER. See Papal Aggression.
DUTCH REPUBLIC. See Holland.
DUUMVIRI, two Roman patricians appointed by Tarquiu the Proud 520 B.C. to take
care of the books of the Sibyls, which were supposed to contain the fate of the Roman empire.
The books were placed in the Capitol, and secured in a chest under tho ground. The number
of keepers was increased to ten (the Decemviri) 365 B.C., afterwards to fifteen ; the added
five called quinque viri.
DWARFS : Ancient. Philetas of Cos, distinguished about 330 B.C., as a poet and
grammarian, was so diminutive that he always carried leaden weights in his pockets, to
prevent his being blown away by the wind. He was preceptor to Ptolemy Philadelphus.
jElian. Julia, niece of Augustus, had a dwarf named Coropas, two feet and a hand's breadth
high ; and Andromeda, a freed-maid of Julia's, was of the same height. Pliny. Aug.
Csesar exhibited in his plays a man not two feet in stature. Sueton. Alypius of Alexandria,
a logician and philosopher, was but one foot five inches and a half high ; " he seemed to be
consumed into a kind of divine nature. " Vos. Instil.
Modern Dwarfs. —John d'Estrix, of Mechlin, was in England, where he residod many years, was
brought to tho duke of Parma, in 1592, when he born in Nov. 1739. His growth was at one year
was 35 years of age, having a long beard. He was of age, 14 inches ; at six, 17 inches ; at twenty, 3?
skilled in languages, and not more than three feet inches ; and at thirty, 39 Ho had a sister, named
high. Auastasia, seven years younger than himself, and
Jeffrey Hudson, an English dwarf, when a youth of so much shorter that she could stand under his
18 inches high, was served up to table in a cold arm. He visited many of tho courts of Europe,
pie, before the king and queen, by the duchess of and died in England, at tho great age of 98, in 1837.
Buckingham, in 1626. He challenged Mr. Crofts, Charles Stratton (tormed general Tom Thumb), an
who had offended him, to fight a duel, but the American, was exhibited in England, 1846. In
latter came to tho ground armed only with a squirt . Feb. 1863, in New York, when 25 years old and 31
This led to another meeting, when the dwarf (shot inches high, he married Lavinia Warren, aged 21,
his antagonist dead, 1653. 32 inches high. He, his wife, and child, and com
Count Borowlaski, a Polish gentleman, of great ac modore Nutt, another dwarf, came to England in
complishments and elegant manners, well known Dec. 1864, and remained there some time.
DYEING is attributed to the Tyrians, about 1500 B.C. The English sent their goods to
be dyed in Holland, till the art was brought to them in 1608. " Two dyers of Exeter were
flogged for teaching their art in the north (of England), 1628. A statute against abuses in
dyeing passed in 1783. The art has been greatly improved by chemical research. A dis
covery of Dr. Stenhouse in 1848, led to M. Mamas procuring mauve from lichens ; and Dr.
Hofmann's production of aniline from coal-tar, has led to the invention of a number of
beautiful dyes (mauve, magenta red, 4c). See Aniline.
257 EAR
E.
EAGLE, an ancient coin of Ireland, made of a base metal, and current in the first years
of Edward I. about 1272 ; was so named from the figuro impressed upon it. The American
gold coinage of eagles, half eagles, and quarter eagles, began Dec. 6, 1792 ; an eagle is of the
value of 10 dollars, or about two guineas. —The standard of the cayle was borne by the Per
sians, at Cunaxa, 401 B.C. The Romans carried gold and silver eagles as ensigns, and some
times represented them with a thunderbolt in their talons, on the point of a spear, 102
B.C. Charlemagne added the second head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the
empires of Koine and Germany were united in him, A.D. 802. The eagle was the standard
of Napoleon I., and is that of Napoleon III. ; as well as of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. —
The White Eagle, an order of knighthood, was instituted in 1325, by Uladislaus, king of
Poland ; that of the Black Eagle in 1701, by the elector of Brandenburg, Frederick 1., on
his being crowned king of Prussia ; and that of the Rbd Eagle in 1705 and 1712 by George,
prince of Brandenburg-Anspach.
EARL, or comes, introduced at the conquest, superseded the Saxon earldorman, and con
tinued the highest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes in 1337 and 1351, and
Richard II. created marquesses (1385), both above earls. Alfred used the title of earl as a
substitute for king. William Fitz-Osborn was made earl of Hereford by William the
Conqueror, 1066. Gilchrist was created earl of Angus, in Scotland, by king Malcolm III.
in 1037. Sir John de Courcy created baron of Kinsale and earl of Ulster in Ireland, by
Henry II. 1181.
Earl Marsha!, of England, the eighth great officer Earl Marischal of Scotland was an officer who
of state. This office, until it was made hereditary, commanded the cavalry, whereas the constable
always passed by grant from the king. Gilbert de commanded the whole army ; but they seem to
Clare was created lord marshal by king Stephen, have had a joint command, as all orders were ad
1135. The last lord marshal was John Fitz-Allan, dressed to "our constable and marischal." Tho
lord Maltravers. Camden. Richard II. in iyft office was never out of tho Keith family. It was
granted letters patent to the earl of Nottingham reserved at the Union, and when the heritable
by the style of earl marshal. In 1672, Charles II. jurisdictions were bought, it reverted to the
granted to Henry lord Howard the dignity of crown, being forfeited by the rebellion of George
hereditary earl marshal. The earl marshal's court Keith, earl marischal, in 1715.
was abolished in 1641. (See Howard.)
EARRINGS were worn by Jacob's children, 1732 B.C. (Gen. xxxv. 4).
EARTH. See Globe. EARTHENWARE. See Pottery.
EARTHQUAKES. Anaxagoras supposed that earthquakes were produced by subter
raneous clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the vaults that confined them, 435
B. c. Diog. Laert. Kircher, Des Cartes, and others, supposed that there were many vast
cavities under ground which have a communication with each other, some of which abound
with waters, others with exhalations, arising from inflammable substances, as nitre, bitumen,
sulphur, &c. Dr. Stukeley and Dr. Priestley attributed earthquakes to electricity. It
appears probable that steam generated by subterraneous heat contributes to occasion them.
An elaborate Catalogue of Earthquakes, with commentaries on the phenomena, by R. and J.
W. Mallet, was published by the British Association in 1858-9. In i860 the velocity of
their propagation was estimated by Mr. J. Brown at between 470 and 530 feet per second.
The following are quoted from the best sources :*
One which made Eubcea an island . B.c. 425 1 Lysimaehia and its inhabitants totally buried B.c.283
Ellico and Bula in Peloponnesus swallowed up 372 j Ephesus and other cities overturned . a.d. 17
One at Rome, when, in obedionce to an oraclo, One accompanied by the eruption of Vesuvius :
M. Curtius, armed and mounted on a stately the cities of rompeli and Herculancum
horse, leaped into the dreadful chasm it oc 358 I Four buriod 79
casioned (Livy) citios in Asia, two in Greece, and two in
Duras, in Greece, buried, with all its inhabi- Galatia overturned . . ... 107
and 12 cities in Campania also buried 345 1 Antioch destroyod 115
* Mrs. Somerville states that about 255 earthquakes have occurred in the British isles ; all slight. To
avoid tho effects of a shock predictod by a madman, for the 8th of April, 1750, thousands of persons,
particularly those of rank and fortune, passed the night on the 7th in their carriages and in tents in
Hyde-park.
8
EAR 25S EAR
EARTHQUAKES, continued,
Nicomedia, Ciesarea, and Nice* overturned a.d. 126 At Tauris ; 15.000 houses thrown down, and
In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 cities and multitudes buried .... A.D. 1780
towns damaged 357 Messina and other towns in Italy nnd Sicily
Nicomedia again demolished, and its inhabi overthrown ; 40,000 ]>ersons perished Feb. 5, 1783
tants buried in its ruins 358 Arcbindschan wholly destroyed, and 12,000 per
One felt by nearly the whole world . . . 543 sons buried in its ruins 17S4
At Constantinople ; its edifices destroyed, and At Borgo di San Sepolcro ; many houses and
thousand! perished 557 1000 persons swallowed up . . Kept 30, 17S9
In Africa ; many cities overturned . . 560 Another fatal one in Sicily 1791
Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia ; more In Naples ; Vesuvius overwhelmed the city of
than 500 towns were destroyed, and tho loss Torre del Greco .... June, 1794
of life surpassed all calculation . . . . 742 In Turkey, where, in three towns, 10,000 per
In France, Germany, and Italy . . . .801 sons lost their lives . . . . . „
Constantinople overturned ; all Greece shaken 936 The whole country between Santa Fe and
One felt throughout England . . . . 1089 Panama- destroyed, including Cusco and
Ono at Antioch ; many towns destroyed, among Quito ; 40,000 people buried in one second,
them Mariseum ana Mamistria . .1114 Feb. 4 to 20, 1797
Catania, in Sicily, overturned, and 15,000 per At Constantinople, which destroyed the royal
sons buried in the ruins 1 137 palace and an immensity of buildings, and
One severely felt at Lincoln . . . .1142 extended into Romania and Wallachia,
At Calabria ; one of its cities and all its inhabi Sept. 26, 1S00
tants overwhelmed in the Adriatic sea . . 1186 A violent one felt in Holland . . . Jan. 1804
One again felt throughout England ; Glaston At Frosolone, Naples ; 6000 lives lost July 26, 1805
bury destroyed . ... 1274 At the Azores ; a village of St Michael's sunk,
In England ; tho greatest known there, and a lake of boiling water appeared in its
Nov. 14, 1318 place Aug. 11, 1810
At Naples ; 40,000 persons perished . . . 1456 Awful one at Caracas (which get) . March 26, 1812
At Lisbon ; 1500 houses and 30,000 persons Several throughout India ; district of Kutch
buried in the ruins ; several neighbouring sunk; 2000 persons buried . . June, 1819
towns engulfed with their inhabitants Feb. 1531 Genoa, Palermo. R*.*mc, and many other towns
One felt in London ; part of St. Paul's and the " greatly damaged ; thousands perish , . . .
Temple churches fell 1580 One in Calabria and Sicily .... Oct. 1S26
In Japan ; several cities made ruins, and thou In Spun ; Mercia and numerous villages devas
sands perish 1596 tated *. 6000 persons perish . March 21, 1829
Awful one at Calabria 1638 In tho duchy of Parma ; no less than 40 shocks
One in China, when 300,000 persons were buried were experienced at Uorgotaro ; and at
in Pekin alone 1662 Pontrcmoli many houses were thrown down,
One severely felt in Ireland .... 1690 and not a chimney was left standing,
One at Jamaica, which totally destroyed Port Feb. 14, 1834
Royal, whose bouses were engulfed 40 fathoms In Calabria, Cosenza and villages destroyed ;
deep, and 300 persons perished . . . . 1692 1000 persons buried . . . April 29, 1835
One in Sicily, which overturned 54 cities and In Calabria ; 1000 buried at Rossano, &c. , Oct 1 2, 1836
towns, and 300 villages. Of Catania and its In many cities of Southern Syria, by which
38,000 inhabitants, not a trace remained ; hundreds of houses were thrown down, and
more than 100,000 lives were lost . Sept 1693 thousands of lives lost .... Dec. yf
Palermo nearly destroyed ; 6000 lives lost . 1726 At Martinique ; nearly half of Port Royal de
Again in China ; and 100,000 people swallowed stroyed ; nearly 700 persons killed, and the
up at Pekin 1731 whole island damaged . Jan. 11, 1839
In Hungary ; a mountain turned round . . 1736 At Ternate ; the island made a waste, and
One at Palermo, which swallowed up a con thousands of lives lost . . . Feb. 14, 1840
vent ; but the monks escaped . . . . 1740 Awful and destructive earthquake at mount
Lima and Callao demolished ; 18,000 persons Ararat, in one of the districts of Armenia ;
buried in the ruins . . Oct 28, 1746 3137 hoxises were overthrown, and several
In London, a slight shock, Feb. 8 ; but severer hundred persons perished . July 3,
shock March 8, 1750 Great earthquake at Zante, where many per
Adrianople nearly overwhelmed . . . 1752 sons perished .... Oct. 30.
At (Jrand Cairo : half of the houses and 40,000 At Cape Haytien, St. Domingo, which destroyed
persons swallowed up 1754 nearly two-thirds of the town ; between 4000
Quito destroyed April, 1755 aud 5000 lives were lost . . . May 7, 1842;
Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about tight At Point k Pitrc, Guadaloupe, which was en
minutes most of the houses and upwards of tirely destroyed . . . . Feb. 8, 1843.
50,000 inhabitants were swallowed up, and At Rhodes and Maori, when a mountain fell in
whole streets buried. The cities of Coimbra, at the latter place, crushing a village, and
Oporto, and Braga, suffered dreadfully, and destroying 600 persons . . . March, 1851
St Ubes was wholly overturned. In Spain, At Valparaiso, where more than 400 houses
a large part of Malaga became ruins. Ono were destroyed .... April 2, „
half of Fez, in Morocco, was destroyed, and In South Italy; Mclfi almost laid in ruins;
more than 12,000 Arabs perished thero. 14.000 lives lo^t .... Aug. 14, „
Above half of the island of Madeira became At Philippine isles ; Manilla nearly destroyed,
waste ; and 2000 houses in the inland of Mete- Sept. and Oct. 1852
lino, in tho Archipelago, were overthrown. In N.W. of England, slight . . Nov. 9, „
This awful earthquake extended 5000 miles ; Thebes, in Greece, nearly destroyed . Sept. 1853
oven to Scotland .... Nov. 1, n St. Salvador, S. America, destroyed April 16, 1854
In Syria, extended over 10,000 square miles ; Anasaca, in Japan, and Simoda. in Niphon,
Bubee destroyed 1759 destroyed ; Jeddo much injured . Dec. 23, ,,
At Martinico ; 1600 persons lost their lives, Broussa, in Turkey, nearly destroyed Feb. 28, 1855
At Guatemala, which, with 8000 inhabitants, Aug. 1767 Several villages in Central Europe destroyed,
was swallowod up . , . , July 7, 1773 July 25, 26, „
A destructive one at Smyrna . . . . 1778 Jeddu nearly destroyed . . . Nov. n,
At tho island of Great Sanger, one of tho
EAR 250 EAS
EARTHQUAKES, continued.
Moluccas, volcanic eruption and earthquake; At Mendoza, South America : about two-thirds
nearly 3000 lives lost . . . March 12, 1856 of the city and 7000 lives lost . March 20, 1861
In the Mediterranean : at Candia, 500 lives lost ; In Greece; N. Morea, Corinth, and other places
Rhodes, 100 ; and other islands, 150 Oct. 12, injured Dec. 26,
In Calabria,* Montemurro and many other Guatemala ; 150 buildings and 14 churches de
towns destroyed, and about 22,000 lives lust stroyed Dec 19, 1862
in a few second** .... Dec. 16, 1857 Rhodes ; 13 villages destroyed, about 300 per
Corinth nearly destroyed . . . Fob. 21, 1858 sons perished, and much cattle and property
At Quito ; aboxit 5000 persons killed, and an lost April 22, 1863
immense amount of property destroyed, Manilla, Philippine isles ; immense destruction
March 21, 1859 of property ; about 10,000 persons perish,
At Eraeroum, Asia Minor ; above 1000 persons June 3, „
said to have perished . . June 2, „ Central, west, and north-west of England, at
At San Salvador ; many buildings destroyed, 3 k. 22 m. a.m. Oct. 6,
no lives lost Pec. 8, ,, At Macchia, Bondinella, &c, Sicily ; 200
In Cornwall, slight, . Oct. 21, 1859; Jan. 13, i860 houses destroyed, 64 persons killed July 18, 1865
At Perugia, Italy ; several lives lost . May 8, 1861
EAST ANGLES. This kingdom (the sixth of the Heptarchy) was commenced by Ufla,
575, and ended with Ethelbcrt in 792. See Britain. The ancient see founded by St. Felix,
who converted the East Angles in 630, was removed to Norwich (which see).
EAST INDIES, &c. See India.. EAST SAXONS. See Britain.
EASTER, the festival observed by the church in commemoration of Our Saviour's resur
rection, so called in England from the Saxon goddess Eostre. It was instituted about 68,
and the day for its observance in England was fixed by St. Austin, iu 597. After much
contention between the eastern and western churches it was ordained by the council of Nice,
325, to be observed on the same day throughout the whole Christian world. " Easter-day
is the Sunday following that fourteenth day of the calendar moon which happens upon or
next after the 21st March : so that, if the said fourteenth day be a Sunday, Easter-day is
not that Sunday but the next" Easter-day may be any day of the five weeks which com
mence with March 22 and end with April 25. The dispute between the old British church
and the new Anglo-Saxon church respecting Easter was settled about 664.—Easter Sunday,
in 1866, April 1 ; in 1867, April 21 ; in 1868, April 12.
EASTER ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, was discovered by Davis in 1686 ; it was visited
by Roggewein, in 1722, and from him obtained the name it now bears ; it was visited by
captain Cook, in 1 774. At the south-east extremity is the crater of an extinguished volcano,
about two miles in circuit and 800 feet deep.
EASTERN (or GREEK) Church. See Greek Church.
EvVSTERN EMPIRE. After the death of the emperor Jovian, in Feb. 364, the generals
at Nice elected Valentinian as his successor : in June, ho made his brother Valens emperor
of the West. The eastern empire ended with the capture of Constantinople, and death of
Constantine XIII., May 29, 1453. See Turkey.
Theodosius X. tho Great, succours Valentinian career of Belisarius, the imperial goneral . 529-531
II., the western emperor, and defeats the ty He suppresses the " Nika "(" conquer ") insur
rant Maximus, at Aquiloia 388 rection of the circus factions ; 30,000 Greens
Valentinian II. slain by Arbogastcs the Frank, slain » 53a
who makes Eugenius emperor His victories hi Africa, Italy, and the East . 533-541
Eugenius defeated and slain by Theodosius, Recalled through Justinian's jealousy, 542 ;
who re- unites the two empires . 8ept. 6, again, 548 ; again, 549 : disgraced . . . 562
Death of Theodosius ; the empire finally divided Beginning of the Turkish power in Asia .
between his sons—Arcadius receives the east, The Slavonians ravage Illyria . . . . 545 551
Honotius the west . . . Jan. 17, Narses defeat* Totila and the Goths near Romo 553
Alaric the Goth begins to ravage tho empire . Death of Belisarius, aged 84 ; ofJustinian, aged
Violent religious dissensions ; Theodosius II. 565
establishes schools, and «udeavoura to revive Victories of Maurice and Narses in the East,
learning 57g ct seq.
The Thcodoflian code promulgated Disaffection of Narses 591
The councils of Ephem . 43i. 449 ; of Cbalcedon, Severe contests with the Avars . . 594-620
Frequent sanguinary conflicts between the Nurses burnt at Constantinople . . . 606
Blues and Greens, circus factions, at Constan The flight (Hejra) of Mahomet from Mecca to
Thetinople
Justinian code published . 529 Medina,
. ■ 498-520 where he establishes himself as a
prophet and prince . . July 16, 622
War with Persia; beginning of the victorious Victorious career of Hcraclius II. . 622 tl scq.
• In the course of 75 years, from 1783 to 1857, the kingdom of Naples lost, at least, 1:1,000 inhabitants
by the effect* of earthquakes, or more than 1500 per year, out of an average population of 6,oco,cool
S 2
EAS 260 EAS
EASTERN EMPIRE, continued.
Tie recovers his lost territories . . . 627 crusadors tike Constantinople, and restore
The Saracens invade the empire, 632 ; defeat Isaac and his son Alexis IV 1203
HeracliuB at Airaadin, 633 ; take Alexandria, Alexis Ducas murders Alexis IV. and usurps the
640 : and the Greek provinces in Africa, 648 ; throne ; the crusaders take Constantinople,
Constans purchases peace with thera . . 660 kill Alexis, and establish the Latin empire,
They besiege Constantinople seven times . 672-677 under Baldwin,
Kingdom of Epiruscount
and of-•Etolia
Flanders . .. 1208
established 1204
The Bulgarians establish a kingdom in Mcesia
(now Bulgaria), 678 ; they ravage the country The Greek empire re established by Michael
up to Constantinople 711 Palaeologus 1261
The Saracens vainly invest Constantinople, 716, Establishment of the Turkish empire in Asia,
718 ; defeated 720 under Othman 1 1299
Leo III. the Isaurian, forbids the- worship of The Genoese trade in the Black sea . . . 1303
images : (this leads to the Iconoclast contro The Turks ravage Mysia, Ac., 1340 and 1345;
versy, and eventually to the reparation of the and settle in the const of Thrace . . . 1353
eastern and western churclies) . . . . 726 Tho sultan Aniurath takes Adrianople, and
A great invading Arab force (90,000) defeated makes it his capital, 1362 ; and, by treaty,
by Acronius ....... 739 greatly reduces the emperor's territories . 1373
The monasteries dissolved 770 All the Greek jtossessions in Asia lost . . . 1390
Destruction of images throughout the empire The sultan Bajazut defeats the Christian army,
decreed, 754; image-worship restored by the under Sigisniund of Hungary, at Nicojwlis,
empress Irene (for which she was canonized) 787 Sept. 28, 1396
The empire loses the exarchate of Italy, 752 ; The emperor Manuel vainly solicits help from
Dalmatia, 825 ; Sicily ami Crete . . . 827 the western sovereigns 1400
Image-worship persecuted, 830 ; restored, 843 ; A Turkish pacha established at Athens . .1401
forbidden at Constantinople by one council, The Greek empire made tributary to Timour,
869 ; restored by another 879 1402 ; who subjugates the Turkish sultan,
South Italy annexed to the empire . . . 890 and dismembers his empire, 1403 ; death of
Five emperors reigning at one time . . . 942 Timour, on his way to China .... 1405
Naples added to the empire . . . ,, Dissension amongst the Turks defers the fall
Basil subdues the Bulgarians . . . 987, 1014 of Constantinople, 1403-12 ; Mahomet I. aided
Bulgaria annexed to the empire . . . 1018 by the emperor Manuel, becomes sultan . 1413
The Turks invade Asia Minor . . . . 1068 Amurath II. In vain besieges Constantinople,
The Normans conquer South Italy . . . 1080 1422 ; peace made 1425
The first crusade ; Alexis I. recovers Asia John Palajologiis visits Rome and other places,
Minor 1097 soliciting help in vain .... 1437-40
The Venetians victorious over the Greeks . 11 25 Accession of Constantino XIII. the last em
The Hungarians repelled, 115a; pe;ice made peror 1448
with the Normans in Sicily . , . 1156 Accession of Mahomet II. 1451 ; he begins the
Wars with the Turks and the Venetians . . 1172 siege of Constantinople, April 6, and takes it,
Cyprus lost to the empire . ... 1190 May 29, 1453
The fourth crusade begins ..... 1202 (He granted to the Christians personal security
Revolt of Alexis against his brother Isaac ; the and the free exercise of their religion.) See
Turkey.
EMPERORS OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE.
364. Valens. 713. Anastasius II. : fled on the election of Theo
379 Theodosius I. the Great. dosius in 716; afterwards delivered up to
305- Arcadius, the sou of Thoodosius. Leo III. and put to death.
408. Theodosius II. succeeded his father. 716. Theodosius II I.
45'-'-Marcian, a Thracian of obscure family. 718. Leo III. the Isaurian.
457- Leo I. the Thracian. [In this reign (726) commences the great
474- Leo tho Younger, died the same j*car. Iconoclastic controversy ; the alternate pro
Zeno, called the l uurion. hibition and restoration of images involves
491. Anastasius I. an Illyrian, of mean birth. the peace of several reigns.]
518. Justin I. originally a private soldier. 741. Constantino IV. Copronymus, son of the pre
527- Justinian, founder of the Digest. ceding ; succeeded by his son,
5*5. Justin II. nephew of Justinian. 775. Leo IV.
37*- Tiberius II. renowned for his virtues. 780. Constantino V. and hie mother Irene.
582. Maurice, tho Cappadocian : murdered with all 790. Constantino, alone, by the desire of the people,
his children, by his successor, Irene having become unpopular.
6o3. Phooas, the Usurper, a centurion, whose 792. Irene again, jointly with her son, and after
wards alone, 797 ; deposed for her cruelties
crimes and cruelties led to his own assas
sination In 610. aud murders, and exiled.
6lO. Heraclius, by whom Phocas was dethroned. 802. Nicephorus I. surnamed Logothetes : slain.
641. Hcracleouas-Constantine, reigned a few 811. Staurachius : reigns a few days only.
months ; poisoned by his step-mother ,, Michael I. : defeated, in battle, abdicates the
Martina. throne, and retires to a monastery.
Constans II. ; assassinated in a bath. 813. Leo V. the Armenian : killed in the temple at
668. Constantino III. Pogonatus. Constantinople on Christmas-day, 820, by
685. Justinian II. son of the preceding ; abhorred for conspirators in the interest of his successor,
his exactions, debaucheries, and cruelties : 820. Michael II. the Stammerer.
dethroned and mutilated by his successor, 829. Thcophilus, son of Michael.
695. Leontius : dethroned and mutilated by Tiberius 842. Michael III. surnamed Porphyrogenitua, and
Aspimar. the Sot, son of the preceding; murdered by
698. Tiberius III. Aspimar. his suet ossor,
705. Justinian II. restored. Leontius and Tiberius 867. Basilius I. the Macedonian.
degraded in the Hippodrome, and put to 886. Leo VI. styled the Philosopher.
death. Justinian slain in 7x1. git. Alexander and Constantino VI. Porphyroge-
Philippic us-Bardanes : assussina'ud. nitus, brother and pod of Leo, tho latter
EAS 261 ECC
EASTERN EMPIRE, continued.
only six years of ago ; the former dying in bo strangled, and seizes tho throne : put to
912, Zoo', mother of Constantino, assumes death by
the regency. 1185. Isaac II- Angelus-Comneuus, who is deposed,
919. Romanus Lccapenus usurps the imperial imprisoned, and deprived of his eyes by his
power, and associates with him his sons : brother,
920. Christopher, and 1195. Alexis III. Angelus, called the Tyrant: this
928. Stephen and Constantino VII. last deposed .in his turn, and his eyes put
[Five emperors now reign : of these, Chris out; died in a monastery.
topher dies in 931 ; Romanus is exiled by his 1203. Isaac II. again, associated with his son, Alexis
sons, Constantino and Stephen, who aro IV. : deprived.
themselves banished tho next year.]
945. Constantino VII. now reigns alone : poisoned LATIN' EMPERORS.
by his daughter-in-law, Theophania, 959. 1204. Baldwin I. earl of Flanders, on the capture of
959. Roinanus II. son of the preceding : this mon Constantinople by the Latins, elected em
ster, who had contrive I his father's death, peror : made a prisoner by the king of
bauishos hi* mother, Helena. Bulgaria, and never heard of afterwards.
963. Nioephorus II. Phocas : marries Theophania, 1206. TIenry I. his brother : dies in 1217.
his predecessor's consort, who has him as 1'iG. Peter do Cmirtenay, his brother-in-law.
sassinated. 1 221. Robert de Courtcnay, his son.
969. John I. Zomisces, celebrated general ; takes i_-j8. Baldwin II. his brother, a minor, and John de
Bosilius II. and Constantino VIII nuns of Bricnne, of Jerusalem, regent and associate
Roinanus II. as colleagues ; John dies, tup- emperor.
posed by poison, and 1261. [Constantinople recovered, and the empire of
976. Basilins II. and Constantino VIII. roign alone: the Franks or Latins terminates.]
the former dies in 1025 ; the latter in 1028.
1028. Roinanus III. Argyropulus ; poisoned by his CREEK EMPERORS AT NICE.
profligate consort Zoo", who raises 1204. Theodore Lascaris.
1034. Michael IV. the Paphla^onian, to the throne : 1222. John Ducis, Vataces.
on his death Zoe places 1255. Theodore Lascaris II., his son,
1041. Michael V. surnamed Calaphates, as his suc 1259. John Lascaris, and
cessor : ZoU dethrones hini, has his eyes put 1260. Michael VIII. Palreologus.
out, and marries
1042. Constantino IX. Monomachus ; ho and Zoe EMPFROR8 AT CONSTANTINOPLE.
reign jointly : Zoe dies in 1050. 1261. Michael VIII. now at Constantinople: he put*
1054. Theodora, wid >w of Constantino. out the eyes of John, and reigns alone.
1056. Michael VI. Stratiotca, or Strato : deposed. 1282. Andronicus II. Palseologus the Elder, son of
1057. Isaac L Comnenus : abdicates. the preceding : deposed by
1059. Constintiua X. surnamed Ducas. 1328. Andronicus tho Younger, his grandson.
1067. Eudocia, consort of the preceding, and Ro 1332. Andronicus III. the Younger.
inanus IV. surnamed Diogenes, whom she 1341. John PaLeologus, undor the guardianship of
marries, reign to tho projudice of Michael, John Cantacuzenus : the latter proclaimed
Constantino's son. emperor at Adrianoplo.
1071. Michael VII. Parapimiccs, recovers his throne, 1347. John Cantacuzenus abdicates.
and reigns jointly with Constantino XI. 1355- John Paleologus, restored.
1078. Nicephorus III. ; dethroned by 1391. Manuel Palaxtlogus, his son : succeeded by his
io8r. Alexis or Alexius I. Comnenus, sueceedo.i by son and colleague,
1118. John Comnenus, his son, surnamed Kidos : 1425. John Palajologus II. The throne claimed by
died of a wound from a ]>oidoncd arrow. his three brothers.
1143. Manuel I. Comnenus, son of John. 1448. Constantino Palaxtlogus XII. (XIII. or XIV
1180. Alexis II. Conjnenus, son of tho preceding, some of tho other emperors being called
undor the regency of the empress Maria, his Constuiitine by some writers) killed, when
mother. Constantinople is taken, May 29, 1453.
1183. Andronicus I. "Comnenus, causes Aloxis to
EBIONITES, heretics, in the 2nd century, who seem to have been a branch of the
Nazarcnes, were of two kinds : one believed that our Saviour was born of a virgin, observed
all the precepts of the Christian religion, but added the ceremonies of the Jews ; the other
l»elievea that Christ was born after the manner of all mankind, and denied his divinity.
Pardon. Photinus revived the sect in 342.
EBONITE (vulcanised india-rubber). See Caoutchouc.
EBRO, a river in Spain—the scene of a signal defeat of the Spaniards by the French,
under Lannes, near Tudela, Nov. 23, 1808 ; and also of several important movements of the
allied British and Spanish armies during the Peninsular war (1809 and 1813).
ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONS. One was appointed by queen Elizabeth, 1584 ;
by James I. in Scotland, 1617 ; by the English parliament in 1641 ; and by James II. to
coerce the universities in 1687. The present Ecclesiastical Commissioners (bishops, deans,
and laymen) were appointed in 1835, and incorporated in 1836.
ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and ecclesias
tical courts in England until after the Norman conquest, 1066. See Arches and Consistory
Courts. Till the establishment of the Divorce and Probate courts {which sec) in 1857, the
following were the causes cognisable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, apostasy from
ECC 202 EDD
Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to benefices, matrimony, divorces,
bastardy, tithes, incests, fornication, adultery, probate of wills, administrations, &c.
ECCLESIASTICAL STATE, or States of the Church. See Rome, Modern.
ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES BILL. See Papal Aggression.
ECHOES. The time which elapses between the utterance of a sound and its retnrn must
be more than one-twelfth of a second, to form an echo. The whispering gallery of St. Paul's
is a well-known example.
ECKMOHL (Bavaria), the site of a battle between the main armies of Franco (75,000)
and Austria (40,000) ; Napoleon and marshal Davoust (hence prince d'Eckmiihl) defeated
the archduke Charles, April 22, 1809.
ECLECTICS (from Greek, tklego, I choose), ancient philosophers (called Anahgetici,
and also Philalcthcs, or the lovers of truth), who, without attaching themselves to any sect,
chose what they judged good from each : of them was Potamon of Alexandria, about
A.D. 1. Dryden. Also a Christian sect, who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable to
the spirit of Christianity.
ECLIPSE (the race-horse). See Races.
ECLIPSES. Their revolution was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian, 336 B.C.
The Egyptians said they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of the sun, and 832 of the
moon, in the period from Vulcan to Alexander, who died 323 B.C. The theory of eclipses
is said to have been known to the Chinese before 120 B.O. The first eclipse recorded hap
pened March 19, 721 B.C., at 8A. 40m. p.m., according to Ptolemy ; it was lunar, and was
observed with .accuracy at Babylon. A list of eclipses to the year A. J>. 2000 is given in
' ' L'A rt de Verifier les Dates. "
REMARKABLE ECI.ir.SES :—
OF THE StTN. Remarkable one, central and annular in the a.d.
That predicted by Thales * Sec Hah/n (Pliny, B.C. interior of Europe ... Sept. 7, 1802
lib. li. 9), believed to have occurred May 28, 585 Total eclipses of the sun—July 17, 1833 ;
One at Athens (Thucydida, lib. iv.) . . 424 July 8, 1842 ; July 28, 1851.
Total one : three days' supplication decroed at An annular eclipse ; it was seen and photo
Rome (Livy) 188 graphed at Oundle ; but not seen well at
One general at the death of Josus Christ a.d. other places .... March is, 1858
(Jostphui) 33 Total eclipse of the sun ; well seen by Mr. G. B.
One observed at Constantinople . . . . 968 Airy, astronomer royal, and others in Spain ;
in Franco, when it was dark at noon-day (Dh Mr. Warren de la Rue took photographs,
Frcxnoy) ...... Juno 20, 1033 July 18, i860
In England; a total darkness ( Wm. Malmsb.) [The samo eclipses (about 70) recur in a pe
March 20, 1140 riod of 18 years io\ days.J
Again ; the stars visiblo at ten in the morning
(Camden) ...... June 23, 1191 OF THF MOOS.
The true sun, and the appearance of another, The first, observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon 'B.C.
so that astronomers alono could distinguish (Ptolemy iv.) 721
the difference by their glasses . . . ,, A total one observed at Sardis (Thttcydidel vii.) 413
Again ; total darkness ensued . . . . 1331 Again, in Asia Minor (Polybius) . . . . 219
A total one ; the darkness so great that the I One at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius GalluB
stars shone, and the birds went to roost (Liey xliv.) 16S
at noon (Oldmixm't Annait of George I.) One terrifiod the Roman troops and quelled A.D.
April 22, 1715 I their revolt (Tacitus) 14
ECONOMIC MUSEUM (or Museum of Domestic and Sanitary Economy), at Twicken
ham, open free, was established chiefly by the agency of Mr. Thos. Twining, in i860. It
originated from the Paris exhibition of 1855.
ECUADOR, See Equator.
EDDAS, two books containing the Scandinavian mythology (or history of Odin, Thor,
Frea, 4c.), written about the nth and 12th centuries. Translations have been made into
French, English, &c. MSS. of the Eddas exist at Copenhagen and Upsal.
EDDYSTONE LIGHT-HOUSE, off the port of Plymouth, erected by the Trinity-house
to enable ships to avoid tho Eddystone rock. It was commenced under Mr. Winatanley, in
1696 ; was finished in 1699 ; and was destroyed in the dreadful tempest of Nov. 27, 1703,
when Mr. Winstanlcy and others perished. It was rebuilt by act of parliament, 4 Anne,
1706, and all ships wcro ordered to pay one penny per ton inwards and outwards towards
* Mr. Airy thinks tho dat« should be 6io: others say 603 or 584, B.C. It is the one recorded by
Herodotus as interrupting a battle between the Mcdes and Lydians.
EDE 203 EDI
supporting it. This light-house was burnt in 1755 ; and one on a better plan, erected by
Mr. Smeaton, was finished Oct. 9, 1759. The woodwork of this, burnt in 1770, was replaced
by stone.
EDESSA (now Orfat), a town in Mesopotamia, said by some to have been built by
Nimrod ; by Appian, to have been built by Seleucus. It became famous for its schools of
theology in the 5th century, and in 1184, when it was taken by the Saracens, it contained
fifteen large churches. Its kings or rulers were named Abgarus and Manuus.
EDGEHILL FIGHT (Oct. 23, 1642), Warwickshire, between the royalists and the
parliament army, was the first engagement of importance in the civil war. Charles I. was
present. Prince Rupert commanded the royalists, and the earl of Essex the parliamentarians.
The earl of Lindsay, who headed the royal foot, was mortally wounded, and taken prisoner.
The king lost 5000 dead. Owing to the great loss on both sides the action proved indecisive,
though the parliament claimed the victory.
EDICTS, public ordinances and decrees, usually set forth by sovereigns ; the name origi
nated with the Homans. The Pekpetual Edict : Salvius Julianus, of Milan, a civilian at
Rome (the author of several treatises on public right), was employed by the emperor Adrian
to draw up this body of laws for the Praetors, promulgated 132.
EDICT OF Nantes, by which Henry IV. of France granted toleration to his Protestant
subjects, April 13, 1598, was confirmed by Louis XIII. in 1610, and by Louis XIV, in
1652. It was revoked by Louis XIV. Oct 22, 1685. This unjust and impolitic act cost
France 50,000 Protestant families, and gave to England and Germany thousands of indus
trious artisans who carried with them the art of manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalfields,
where their descendants yet remain ; others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's and
pursued the art of making crystal glasses and various tine works in which they excelled ;
among these, jewellery, then little understood in England.
EDINBURGH, the metropolis of Scotland, derives its name—in ancient records Dun
JSdin, "the hill of Edin"—from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin, king of Northum-
bria, who having greatly extended his dominions, erected it for the protection of his newly
acquired territories from the incursions of the Scots and Picts, 626. But it is said the castle
was first built by Camelon, king of the Picts, 330 B.C. It makes a conspicuous appearance,
standing at the west cud of the town, on a rock 300 feet high, and, before the use of great
guns, was a fortification of considerable strength.
Christianity introduced (reign of Donald I.) . 201 Mary marries James, earl of Bothwell, May 15, 1567
Edinburgh taken by the Anglo-Saxons . . 483 Civil war on account of Mary's forced resigna
Retaken by the Picts 695 tion 1570
City fortified, and castle rebuilt by Malcolm Death of John Knox
Canmoro 1074 University chartered. See Edinburgh Unirrrsity
Besieged by Donald Bain 1093 April 24, 15S2
Holyroodabbey founded by David I. . . . «a8 Bothwoll's attempt on Holyrood-house Dec. 27, 1501
Edinburgh constituted a burgh . . .* * Riot in the city ; the mob attacks the king
Castle surrendered to Henry II. of England . 1174 James VI. leaves Edinburgh as king of England, 1 5 fi>
A parliament held here under Alexander II. . 1215 April 5, 1603 ; ho revisits it . May 16, 1617
City taken by the English 1296 George Heriot's Hospital founded by his will . 1 <?i 4
Grant of tho town of Iveith to Edinburgh . . 1329 Charles I. visits Edinburgh .... i*V,
Surrenders to Edward III. ..... 1356 Parliament hovtse finished
St. Giles's cathedral built 1359 Charles again visits the city .... 1641
Burnt by Richard II 1385 Tho castle is surrendered to Cromwell by
And by Henry I V 1401 Dundas ........ [f>50
James II. first king crowned hero . . 1437 Coffee-houses first opened 1677
Execution of tho oarl of Athol . . . . „ Merchants' Company incorporated . . . 16S1
Annual fair granted by James 1 1. . 1447 Collego of Physicians incorporated . .
City strengthened by a wall 1450 Earl of Argyll beheaded . . . Juno 30, I0S5
Charter of James III. . .... 1477 African and E 1st India Company incorporated
Edinburgh mado the metropolis by James III. 1482 Bank of Scotland founded
Royal College of Surgeons incorporated . . 1505 Union of the kingdoms
Charter of James IV 1508 Royal bank founded . . . . . . K'7
[The palace of Holyrood is built in the reign Board of trustees of trade and manufactures
of James IV.] appointed
High school founded 1518 Royal Infirmary incorporated . . . , 1736
A British forco, landing from a fleet of 200 Affair of captain Porteous (see Portion*) Sept. 7, 11
ships, burns both Edinburgh and Lcith, May, 1544 Medical Society instituted 17.; 7
Leith is again burnt, but Edinburgh is spared . 1 547 Tho young Pretender occupies Holyrood . . 1745
Tolbooth built 1561 Modern improvements commenced . , •75J
Marriage of queen Mary and lord Damley . 1565 Magistrates assigned gold chains . . . . 17 4
David Rizzio murdered 1566 Royal Exchange completed . i7hi
Lord Daruley blown up in a privato house by Foundation of the North Bridge . Oct. 21,
gunpowder Feb. 10, 1567 Tnoatro Royal erected i;o>
KOI EDU
EDINBURGH, continued.
Great fire in the Lawn-market . . . 1771 Queen Victoria visits Edinburgh, <tc. Aug. 31-
Register-office, Princes-street, commenced . 1774 Sept 15, 1842
Caltou-hill observatory founded . July 25, 1776 Secession, and formation of the Freo Church,
Great commotion against jwpery . . . 1779 May 18, 1843
Society of Antiquaries 1780 New College instituted ,,
Royal Society of Edinburgh instituted . . 1783 North British Railway commenced . . . 1844
South Bridge commenced . . . . 1785 The monument to the j>olitical martyrs of
Royal College of Surgeons incorporated . . 1 788 1793-4, laid by Mr. Hume . Aug. 21, ,.
First stone of the presentj university laid, Walter Scott's monument completed . 1845
Nov. 1O, 1789 British Association meets again . July 31, 1850
Robertson, the historian, dies here . June 11, 1793 The Queen again visits Edinburgh (one of her
Bridewell, Calton-hill, erected . . . . 1796 many visits to Scotland), and holds her court
Holyrood, an asylum to Louis XVIII. and his at the ancient Holyrood-house . Aug. 30, „
brother, afterwards Charles X. . . 1795 to 1799 Prince Albert Lays the foundation-stone of the
New Bank commenced . . . June 3, 1801 Scotch national gallery . . . Aug. 31, ,,
Edinburgh Review (by Francis Jeffrey, Rev. Meeting for vindication of Scottish rights, &c.
Sidney Smith, Henry Brougham, and others) Nov. 2, 1853
pxiblishcd Oct 10, 1802 Old buildings in Lawn-market burnt . Aug. 5, 1857
New system of police established . . . . 1805 Act passed for building new Post-office July, 1858
AlazWng riots here .... Dec. 31, 1811 National Gallery opened . . March 21, 1859
Nelson's monument completed . . . . 1815 Agitation against Ministers' Annuity tux Sept. ,,
Gas company incorporated .... 1818 Lord Brougham elected chancellor of the uni
Water company incorporated . . . 1819 versity, Edinburgh . . Nov. r, ,,
Professor Playfair dies . . . July 20, Ministers' tax abolished, and other arrange
Society of Arts instituted 1821 ments made which did not give satisfaction :
Union Canal completed 1822 riots were renewed .... Nov. i860
George IV.'a visit; foundation of the national 20.000 Vuluntoers revicwod by the Queen in
monument .... Aug. 14-29, Queen's Park .... Aug. 7, ,,
Royal Institution erected 1823 Industrial Museum Act passed . . Aug. 28,
Destructive fires . . . June and Nov. 1824 Edinburgh visited by empress Eugenie Nov. 20, „
Scottish Academy founded .... 1826 The Prince Consort Lays the foundation of the
Lord Melville's monument erected . . . 1828 new Post Office and the Industrial Museum,
Edinburgh and Dalkeith Railway opened, July, 183: Oct 23. 1861
Statue of George IV. erected . . . . 1832 Fall of a house in High-street, 35 persons killed
Death of sir Walter Scott . . . Sept. ai, „ Nov. 24, „
Chambers's Edinburgh Journal published . Accident on Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway—
Association of the Fine Arts . ... 1833 17 killed; above 100 wounded . Oct. 13, 1862
The British Association meets here . Sept. 8, 1834 I/ird Palmcrston's visit . March 31-April 4, 1864
Edinburgh, Leith, and Granton Railway com Theatre Royal burnt: George Lorimer, dean of
menced 1836 guild, and seven other persons, killed by fall
Art-union of Scotland 1837 of wall, while endeavouring to extricate
Monument to f-ir Walter Scott commenced . 1840 others Jan. 13, 1865
Society of Arts, founded 1821 ; incorporated .' 1842 Statues of Allan Ramsay and John Wilson in
Edinburgh, and Glasgow Railway o]>eued, augurated March 25, ,,
Feb. 91, „
EDINBURGH, Bishopric of, was created by Charles I. when that monarch was in
Scotland in 1633 ; and William Forbes, one of the ministers of Edinburgh, was made first
bishop. The king allotted tho parishes of the shires of Edinburgh, Linlithgow, Haddington,
and a part of Berwick and of Stirlingshire, to compose the see. The sixth and last prelate
was Alexander Ross, who was ejected on the abolition of episcopacy, at the period of the
revolution, in 1689. Edinburgh became a post-revolution bishopric in 1720. See Bishops.
EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. A college was commenced by the town council of
Edinburgh, in 1581, for which queen Mary had given the site of ancient religious houses,
and Robert Reid, bishop of Orkney, the funds in 1558. In 1582 the university was chartered
by James VI. afterwards James I. of England. Tho first principal was appointed in 1585.
The foundation-stone of the new buildings was laid by Francis, lord Napier, grand-master
of the masons of Scotland, Nov. 16, 1 789. In 1845, tu0 library contained upwards of 80,000
volumes, besides numerous curious and rare MSS. and documents.
EDOM. See Idumo?a.
EDUCATION, -the art of developing the physical, intellectual, and moral faculties of
man, has occupied the greatest minds in all ages, such as Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian,
Bacon, Milton, Locke, Rousseau, Arc. In England the earliest schools for the lower classes
were those attached to the monasteries ; for the higher classes halls and colleges were
gradually founded (see Oxford and Cambridge).
William of Wykeham planted the School at education was greatly prom oted, and many .
Winchester, whence arose his colleges at that grammar schools were erected and endowed
place and Oxford 1373 by Edward VI. and Elisabeth . . 1535-65
Eton College was founded by Henry VI. . . 1440 Westminster school founded by Elizabeth . 1560
In the thirty years following the reformation Foundation of Rugby school by Lawrence
EDU 263 EGY
EDUCATION, continued.
Sheriff, 1567; of Harrow school, by John for education. Tho grant for education,
Lyon 1 57 1 science, and art, in 1861, was 1,758,996/.
Queen Anne was the zealous friend of educa i In 1836, the Hume and Colonial School Society
tion. While princess, she founded the Grey was instituted, and about 1843 were formed
coat school, Westminster, in 1698, and cor tho Voluntary School Society and the Con
dially supported tho setting up parochial gregational Board of Education. In 1851.
chanty schools (one of which had been esta out of a population of 17,927,609, there were
blished in 1688 at St. Margaret's, West 2.466,481 day scholars. Primary schools in
minster). Great Britain, 1854, 3825 ; 1863, 7739.
Nearly 2000 of these schools were established Ragged School Union established . . . 1844
in Great Britain and Ireland, principally by A great educational conference took place at
the instrumentality of the Society for the Willis's Rooms, the Prince Consort in the
Promotion of Christian Knowledge . . 1741 chair June 22-24, 1857
Mr. Robert Raikes originated Sunday Schools Tho Industrial Schools act passed in . . .
about 1 781 Middle Class Examinations from the University
In 1833 there were 16,828 of these schools, with of Oxford began, June, 1858. The examiners
1,548,800 scholars. granted the degree of A. A. to many persons
Sunday School Union was formed in . . . 1802 at Liverpool, Leeds, &c. ; similar examina
Joseph Lancaster, a young Quaker, began to tions from Cambridge took place in the
instruct the cluldrcn of the poor . . 1796 autumn, and arc to be continued . . . 1858
He had 90 pupils- before he was 18 years old, Report of commissioners on popular education
and 1000 pupils in , 1793 (appointed 1858), published March 18, 1861.
To provide teachers he invented the monitorial led to tho Minute of tho Committee of the
system. In consequence of his exertions the Privy Council on Education, establishing a
present British and Foreign School Society Revised Code of Regulations, adopted July 21,
was founded with the name of the *' Royal 1861, to come into operation, after March 31,
Lancasterian Institution," &c. . . . 1805 1862. It decreed regular examinations of tho
This being unoxclusive, was followed by the in pupils, payment by results, evening schools
stitution ofthe Church of England ''National lor adults, and other changes, which raised
Society for Educating tbc Poor," on Dr. Bell's a storm of opposition from the clergy and
system 181 1 schoolmasters. Tho subject was much agi
Infant Schools began .... about 1815 tated in parliament (March 25, 28, 1862) ; but
The Charity Commission, appointed at the eventually a compromise was effected Mays, 1862
instanco of Mr. (now lord) Brougham, pub Official instructions for the administration of
lished their reports on Education, in 37 the Revised Code issued . . . Sept.
volumes folio 1819-40 College and Public ScImxiI Commission Report,
Irish National School System (to accommodate signed Feb. 16, 1864
both Roman Catholics and Protestants) or Royal Commission appointed, to inquire into
ganised mainly by archbishop Whately and the state of Education in Scotland. First
the Roman Catholic archbishop Murray . 1831 meeting at Edinburgh . . Nov. 14, ,,
In 1834, the government began annual grants " Conscience-clause," introduced by Committee
(the first 20.000/..), which continued till 1839. of Council on Education, freeing children of
when the Committee of the Privy Council on Dissenters from being taught Church Cate
Education was constituted for the distribu chism, or being sent to church, early in „
tion of the money. The grant for Public- Miss Burdett Coutts proposes the establish
Education in Great Britain, in 1852, was ment of small village schools, to be taught
150,000/. ; 1856-7, 451,213/. ; i860, 708,951/. ; by " ambulatory " teachers . . Jan 1865
1861, 803,794/. ; 1864, 705,404/. For Ireland, Parliamentary Committee appointed to inquire
i860, 270,722/.; 1861, 285,377/.; 1863, 316,770/. into the best mode of benefiting schools un
From 1839 to i860, 3,655,067/. were granted assisted by the state . . . Feb. 28, ,,
EGALITfi (Equality). See Orleans.
EGGS. The duty on imported eggs was repealed in i860, whereby the revenue lost about
20,000/. a year.
EGLINTOUN TOURNAMENT. See Tournament.
EGYPT.* The early seat of political civilisation. First epoch ; the dynasty of its
Pharaohs, or " great kings," commenced with Mizraim, the son of Ham, second son of Noah,
2188 B.C. to the conquest by Cambyses, 525 B.C. 2nd epoch, to the death of Alexander the
Great, and establishment of the Ptolemies, 323 B.C. 3rd epoch, to the death of Cleopatra,
and the subjugation of the Romans, 30 B.C.
Dynasty of Menes (conjectural) B.C. 2717 or 2412 ] Busiris builds Thebes (Uther) . . . B.C. 21 11
Mizraim builds Memphis (Blair) . . . . 2188 I Osymandyas, the first warlike king, passes into
Egypt made four kingdoms, viz.y Upper Egypt, | Asia, conquers Bactrla.and causes hisexploits
Lower Egypt, This, and Memphis (Abbi 1 to bo represented in sculpture and painting
Lenglet, Blair) 2126 (Usher, Lenglet) 2100
Athotcs invents hieroglyphics . . . . 2122 \ The Phoenicians invade Lower Egypt, and hold
* Three most magnificent works on Egypt have boon published : in France (commenced by Napoleon,
and the savans who accompanied him to Egypt), Description de VEfrypte, 1809-22 ; in Italy, Roscllini's
Monumcnta delV Egitto, 1832-44 ; and in Prussia, Lepsius* Denkin&lcr aus Afyypttn, 1848-56. All these are in
the Library of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, London. -
k;;v EGY
EGYPT, continued.
it 260 years (Usher) ; the dynasty of Shepherd Egypt again reduced by Ochus, king of Persia,
kings begins B.C. 2080 and its temples pillaged (Usher) . b.c. 350
The Lake of Mccris constructed by him . . 1938 Alcxandor the Great enters Egypt, wrests it
The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt . . 1920 from tho Persians, and builds Alexandria
Syphoas introduces the use of the common lot- (Blair) 332
tors (Usher) 1891 Ptolemy I. Lagus, or Sotcr 323
Memnon invents the Egyptian letters (Blair, Philadelphus, Ptolemy 11. reigns (under whom
Lengtet) 1822 Egypt flourishes) : he completes the Pharos
Amenophis I. is acknowledged the king of all of Alexandria (Blair) f,
Egypt (Lenalet) 1821 The Scptuagint version of tho Old Testament
Joseph is sold into Egypt as a slave . . . 1728 made about this time M
He interprets the king's dreams . . . 1715 The famous library of Alexandria also dates
His father and brethren settle hero . . . 1706 about this period (Blair) 283
llameses III., or Sesostris, reigns : he extends Ambassadors first sent to Rome . . . . 269
his dominion by conquest over Arabia, Per Ptolemy III. Euergctes reigns, 247; overruns
sia, India, and Asia Minor (Lenglet) * . . 1618 Syria, and returns laden with rich spoils and
Settlement of the Ethiopians (iffair) . . . 1615 2500 statues and vessels of gold and silver,
Ranieses, who imposed on his subjects the which Cambyses had takenfrom the Egyptian
building of walls and pyramids, and other temples (Blair) 246
labours, dies (JUnglet) 1492 Ptolemy IV. Philopator 222
Amenophis II. is overwhelmed in the Red Sea, Ptolemy V, Epiphanes 205
with all his army (Lengltt, Blair) . . . ,, Ptolemy VI. Philonietor 1S1
Eoign of iEgyptus, from whom the country, At tho death of Philometor, his brother Phys-
hitherto called Mizraim, is now called Egypt con (Ptolemy VII.) marries his queen, and on
(Blair) 1485 the day of bis nuptials murders the infant
Reign or Thuoris (the Proteus of the Greeks), son of Philometor in its mother's arms . . 146
who had the faculty of assuming whatever He repudiates his wife, and marries her
form he pleased, as of a lion, a dragon, a tree, daughter by his brother (Blair). . . . 130
wator, tire 1189 His subjects, wearied by his cruelties and
[These fictions were probably intended to mark crimes, demolish his statues, set fire to his
the profound policy of this king, who was palace, and he flies from their fury (Blair) . 129
eminent for his wisdom, by which his do He murders his son by hisnew queen ; also his
minion flourished. Blair.] son by her mother, sending the head and
limbs of the latter as a present to the parents
Tseusennes (Shishak) enters Palestine, ravages on a feast-day
Judea, and carries off the sacred vessels of Yet, defeating the Egyptian army, he recovers
the temple 971 his throne; and dies 128
The dynasty of kings called Tanite* begins with Pestilence from the putrefaction ofvast swarms
Petubastes (Blair) 825 of locusts ; 800,000 perish in Egypt . , „
The dynasty of Saitcs (Blair) 781 Ptolemy VIII. Sotcr II 117
Sebacon (the Ethiopian) invades Egypt, sub Alexander I. ....... 107
dues the king, Bocchoris, whom ho orders Ptolemy VIII. restored 89
to be roasted alive (Utker) 737 Revolt in Upper Egypt ; Thebes destroyed
The Dodckarchy (12 rulers) expelled by Psani- after a siege of three years (Diod, Siculat) . 82
motichtis the Powerful . ... 650 Alexander II. and Cleopatra 1 81
He invests Azoth, which holds out for 19 years, Ptolemy IX. Auletcs 80
the longest siege in the annals uf antiquity Berenice and Tryphama 58
(Usher) 647 Auletos restored, 55 : leaves his kingdom to
Necho begins the famous canal between the Ptolemy and Cleopatra (Blair) ... 51
Arabic gulf and the Mediterranean sea (Blair) 610 During a civil war between Ptolemy and Cleo
This canal abandoned, after costing the lives of patra 11., Alexandria is besieged* by Cjbmu*,
120,000 men (Herodotus) ..... 6og and tho library nearly destroyed by fire
Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposos Apries . 581 (Blair) 47
Apries taken prisoner and strangled in his Caesar defeats the king, who. In crossing tho
palace (Diod. Siculus) 571 Nile, is drowned ; and the younger Ptolemy
The philosopher Pythagoras comes from Samos and Cleopatra reign 46
into Egypt, and is instructed in the mysteries Cleopatra poisons her brother, and reigns alone 43
of Egyptian theology (Ushtr) .... 535 She appears before Marc Antony, to answer
The lino of the Pharaohs onds in the murder for this crime. Fascinated by her beauty,
of Psammenitus by Cambyses (Blair) , . 526 ho follows her into Egypt 40
Dreadful excesses of Cambyses ; ho puts the Antony defeated by Octavius Ca;sar at tho
children of the grandees, male and female, battle of Actium (Blair) 31
to death, and makes the country a waste Octavius outers Egypt ; Antony and Cleopatra
(Herodotus) 524 kill thomsclves ; and the kingdom becomes
ne wends an army of 50,000 men across the a Roman province 30
desert to destroy the temple of Jupiter Egypt wrested from the eastern emperor Hera- a. d.
Animon, but they all perished in the burning clius, by Omar, caliph of the Saracens . . 639
sands (Justin) Saladin establishes the dominion of tho Mame
Egypt revolts from the Persians ; again sub lukes 1 171
dued by Xerxes (Blair) 487 Sclim I. emperor of the Turks, takes Egypt . 1517
A revolt under lnarus (Blair) .... 463 It is governed by beys till a great part of the
Successful revolt under Amyrtaeus, who is pro country La conquered by tho French, under
claimed king (Lengltt) 414 Bonaparte 1799
* The epoch of tho reign of Sesostris is very uncertain : Blair makes it fall 133 years later. As to the
achievements of this monarch, they are supposed to have been the labours of 8cvoral_kings attributed by
the Egyptian priests to Sesostris alone, whose very existence, indeed, is doubted.
EGY •207 ELE
EGYPT, continued.
The invaders dispossessed by the British, and Stopford, Nov. 3 ; the Egyptians quit Syria,
the Turkish government restored . . . 1801 Nov. 21 ft teq. 1840
Mehemet AU massacres the Mamelukes, and Peace restored by treaty ; Mehemet is made
obtains the supreme power . . March, 1811 heroditury viceroy of Egypt, but is deprived
Arrival of Belzoni, 1815; he removes young of Syria July 15, 1841
Memnon, 18 16 ; explores the ancient temples, Ibrahim Pacha dies (see Sua) . Nov. 10, 1848
Ac 1817 Tho Suez canal begun 1858
Formation of the Mahmoud canal, connecting Malta and Alexandria telegraph'opened Nov. 1, 1861
Alexandria with the Nile .... 1820 The vicoroy Said visits Italy, Franco, and Eng
Mehemet Pacha revolts and invados Syria . . 1831 land, May to Sept. ; returns to Alexandria,
His son Ibrahim takes Acre, May 27 ; over-runs Oct. 1, 1862
Syria, and defeats the Turks at Konieh, Sultan of Turkey visits Egypt April 7-17, 1S63
Dec. 2i, 1832 Greatly increased cultivation of cotton in Egypt,
He advances, on Constantinople, which is en 1863-C4
tered by Russian auxiliaries, April 3 ; the At tho demand of the sultan, tho viceroy sends
war ends with the convention of Kutayah, troops to repress the insurgents in Arabia,
May 4, 1833 May. 1864
Mehemet again revolts, claiming hereditary hereditary VICEROYS (nearly independent).
power ; Ibrahim defeats the Turks at Nezib, 1806. Mehcmot Ali Pacha ; abdicated Sept 1848 ; dies
June 24, 1839 Aug. 2, 1849
England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia under 1848. Ibrahim(adopted son), Sept. ; dies Nov. 10,1848.
take to expel Ibrahim from Syria ; Napier ,, Abbas (his son), Nov. 10 ; dies July 14, 1854.
bombards Beyrout, Sept. 10 ; Acre taken by 1854. Said (brother), July 14 ; dies Jan. 18, 1863,
the British and Austrian fleets, under air R. 1863. Ismail (brother), Jan. x8.
EGYPTIAN ERA. The old Egyptian year was identical with the era of Nabonassar,
beginning Feb. 26, 747 B.C., and consisted of 365 days only. It was reformed 30 B.C., at
which period the commencement of the year had arrived, by continually receding to the
29th of Aug., which was determined to be in future the first day of the year. To reduce to
the Christian era, subtract 746 years 125 days.
EHRENBREITSTEIN (Honour's broadstone), a strong Prussian fortress on the Rhine,
formerly belonged to the electors of Treves. It was often besieged. It surrendered to the
French general Jourdain, Jan. 24, 1799. The fortifications were destroyed on its evacuation,
Feb. 9, 1801, at the peace of Luneville. The works have been restored since 1814.
EIDER, a river, separating Scldeswig from Holstein, was passed by the Austriaus and
Prussians, Feb. 4, 1864.
E1KON BASILIKfi (" the Portraiture of His Sacred Majesty in his Solitudes an
Sufferings"), a book of devotion formerly attributed to king Charles I., but now generally
believed to have been written partially, if not wholly, by bishop Gauden, and possibly
approved by the king : it was published in 1648, and sold with great rapidity.
EISENACH DECLARATION. See Germany, 1859. EISTEDDFODD. See Bards.
ELBA, Isle of (on the coast of Tuscany), taken by lord Nelson in 1796 ; but abandoned
1797. Elba was conferred upon Napoleon (with the title of emperor) on his relinquishing
the throne of Franco, April 5, 1814. He secretly embarked hence with about 1200 men in
hired feluccas, on the night of Feb. 25, 1815, and landed in Provence, March 1, to recover
the Imperial crown. See France, 1815. Elba was resumed by the grand duke of Tuscany,
July, 1815.
ELDERS (in Greek, jrrcsbuteroi), in the early church equivalent with episcopoi, or
bishops (see 1 Tim. iii. and Tilus i.), who afterwards became a distinct and superior order.
Elders in the Presbyterian churches are laymen.
ELDORADO (the "Gilded Man"). When the Spaniards had conquered Mexico and
Peru, they began to look for new sources of wealth, and having heard of a golden city i-uled
by a king or priest, smeared in oil and rolled in gold dust (which report was founded on a
merely annual custom of tho Indians), they organised various expeditions into the interior
of South America, which were accompanied with disasters and crimes, about 1560. Raleigh's
expeditions in search of gold in 1596 and 1617 led to his fall.
ELEATIC SECT, founded at Elea in Sicily, by Xenophancs, of Colophon, about 535 B.C.
He had been banished to Sicily on account of his wild theory of God and nature. He
supposed that the stars were extinguished every morning and rekindled at night ; that
eclipses were occasioned by a partial extinction of the sun ; that there were several suns and
moons for the convenience of the different climates of the earth, &c. Strabo. Zeno (about
364) was an Eleatic.
ELECTOR PALATINE. See Palatinate.
ELE ELE
ELECTORS for members of parliament for counties were obliged to have forty shillings
a-year in land, 8 Hen. VI. 1429. Among the acts relating to electors are the following :
Act depriving excise and custom-house officers and contractors with government of their
votes, 1782. Act to regulate polling, 1828. Reform in parliament act (see Reform Bill),
1832. County elections act, 1836. See Bribery. The forty shilling freeholders in Ireland
lost their privilege in 1829. By Dodson's act, passed in 1861, university electors arc per
mitted to vote by sending balloting papers.
ELECTORS OF GERMANY. The empire became electoral about 619. In the 13th
century seven princes (the archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, the king of Bohemia,
the electors of Brandenburg and Saxony, and the elector Palatine), who possessed the greatest
power, assumed the exclusive privilege of nominating the emperor. Ilobertson. An eighth
elector (Bavaria) was made in 1648 ; and a ninth (Hanover) in 1692. The number was
reduced to eight in 1777 ; and was increased to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801. On
the dissolution of the German empire, the crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1S04-
1806. See Germany.
ELECTRICITY,—from the Orcek Zhktrony electrum, amber. The electrical properties
of rubbed amber are said to have been known to Thales, 600 B.C. Sec Magnetism.
FRRTIONAI. OR STATIC ELECTRICITY. heating pieces of copper and bismuth soldered
< Jilbert records that other bodies besides amber together, 1823; the thcrmo-electrometer in
generate electricity when nibbed, and that vented by Snow Harris, 1827; thcthermo-
all substances may be attracted . . . j 600 multiplier constructed by Melloni and Xobili,
Otto von Guericke construct* the first electric 1831. [Marcus constructed a powerful ther
machine (a globe of sulphur), about . 1647 mo-electric battery in 1865. J
IJoylo publishes his electrical experiments 1<:76 Faraday produces a spark by the sudden sepa
Stephen Grey, aided by Wheeler, discovered ration of a coiled keeper from a permanent
that electricity
that the humanactsbody
at aconducts electricity,
distance (motion in magnet (see Magntto-Electricity, below) . . 183 1
Whcatatone caleulatesthe velocity ofelectricity,
light bodies being produced by frictional elec on the double fluid theory, to be 288,000 miles
tricity at a distance of 666 feet), the fact of a second ; on the single fluid theory, 576,000
electric induction, and other remarkable phe miles a second ....... 1834
nomena ....... 1720 36 Armstrong discovers, and Faraday explains,
Dufay originates his dual theory of two electric tho electricity of high pressure steam, which
fluids: one ritreoits, from rubbed glass, &c., produces the hydro-electric machino . . 1840
the other rc*inoi'a, from rubbed amber, resin. Elixtric Machines. Otto von Guericke ob
&c. ; and showed that two bodies similarly tained sparks by rubbing a globe of sulphur,
electrified repel each other, and attract bodies about 1647 ; Newton. Boyle, and others used
oppositely electrified, about . . . glass, about 1675 ; Ilawksbee improved the
The Leyden jar (vial or bottle) discovered by machine, about 1709 ; Bose introduced a
Kleist, 1745, and by Cumeus and Muschen- metallic conductor, 1733; Winckler contrived
brock, of Leyden ; Winckler constructed the tho cushion for the rubber, 1741 ; Gordon
Leyden battery .... [74f> employed a glass cylinder, 1742 ; for which a
Desaguliors classifies bodies as olectrics and plate was substituted about 1770 ; Canton
non-electrics 1742 introduced amalgam for the rubber, 17^1 ;
Important researches of Watson, Canton, Boc Van Mamm constructed an electric macbinc
caria, and Nollet 1740-7 at Haarlem, said to have been the most
Franklin announces his theory of a single fluid, powerful ever made. 1785 ; Dr. H. M. Noad
terming tho vitreous electricity positive, and set up at the Panopticon, Leicester-square,
tho resinous negative, 1747 ; and demonstrates Loudon, a very powerful electric machine
the identity of the electric spark and light and Leyden battery [in possession of Mr.
ning, drawing down electricity from a cloud Edwin Clark, 1862] 1855
by means of a kite* .... June, 1752 The Hydro-Electric machine, by Armstrong, was
Professor Richmann killed at St Petersburg, constructed 1840
while repeating Franklin's experiments Aug. 175;, The Electrophorus, a useful apparatus for
Beccaria publishes his researches on atmo obtaining frictional electricity, was invented
spheric electricity, 175S ; and JSpitms his by Volta in 1775, and improved by him in . 1782
mathematical theory 1759 Electrometer and Electroscope, as the terms
Electricity developed by fishes investigated by signify, are apparatus for ascertaining the
Ingenhousz, Cavendish, and others, about <773 presence and quantity of electrical excita
Lichtenberg produces his electrical figures 1777 tion. Pith-balls were employed in various
Electrostatic* : Coulomb applies the torsion ways as electroscopes by Gilbert, Canton, and
lxuancc to the measurement of electric force 1785 others. Dr. Milner invented an electrometer
Electro-chemistry—water decomposed by Caven similar to Peltier's, 1783. The gold leaf elec
dish, Fourcroy, and others . . . 1787-90 trometer was invented by rev. A. Bcnnet,
Discoveries of Galvaui and Volta (see Voltaic 1789, and improved by Singer, about 1810 ;
Electricity, below) ..... 1791-3 Lane's discharging electrometer is dated
OErstod, of Copenhagen, discovers electro-mag 1767 ; Henley's, 1772; Bohuenberger's electro
netic action (ace Electro-Magnetitm, below) . 1819 scope. 1820; Peltier's induction electrometer,
Thermo-Electricity (currents produced by heat) about 1848
discovered by Scebeck : it was produced by
* In 1748, at a pie-nic, he "killed a turkey by the electric spark, and roasted it by an electric jack
beforo a fire kindled by the electric bottle."—Penny Cyclopaedia.
ELK ELK
ELECTRICITY, continued,
GALVANISM, OR VOLTAIC-ELECTRICITY, AND Recquerel invents an electro-magnetic Ixdanco
ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. Breguct uses electro-magnetic force to manu
facture mathematical instruments, about 1S54
Sulzer noticed a peculiar sensation in tho MAONETO-ELEtTRiciTY(thc converseof (Erstcd's
tongue when silver and lead were brought discovery of electro-magnetism), discovered
into contact with it and each other . . . 1762 by Faraday, who produced an electric spark
Madame Galvani observed the convulsion in by suddenly separating a coiled keeper from
tho muscles of frogs when brought into con a permanent magnet ; and found that an elec
tact with two metals, in 1789 ; and M Gal tric current existed in a copper disc rotated
vani, after studying the phenomena, laid the between the poles of a magnet . . . . 1? ;i
foundation of the galvanic battery . . 1791 The Magneto-Electric machine arose out of Fara
Yolta announced bis discovery of the " Voltaic day's discovery, and was first made at Paris
pile," composed of discs of zinc and silver, by Pixii, 1832 ; and in London by Saxton
and moistened card 1800 Ruhmkorff*s magneto-electric induction coil
By the voltaic pilo, Nicholson and Carlisle de constructed, about 185c
compose water, and Dr. Henry decomposes
nitric acid, ammonia, &c ELECTRIC TELEORAPH.*
Bchrens forms a dry pile of 80 pairs of zinc, The transmission of electricity by an insulated
copper, and gilt paper 1805 wire was shown in the middle of the last
By means of the large voltaic battery of tho century, by Watson and others.
Royal Institution, London, Davy decom Telegraphic arrangements were devised by Lo-
poses the alkali potash, and evolves the metal sarg 1744 ; Retancourt, 1787 ; Cavallo, 1795 ;
potassium Oct. 6, 1807 Salv 1796; Soemmering, exhibited, Aug. 29,
Zamboni constructs a dry pile of paper discs, 1809; Ronalds i3r
coated with tin on one side and peroxide of Ampere invents his telegraphic arrangement,
manganese on the other 1809 employing the magnetic needle and coil, and
Children's battery fuses platinum, &c. . . „ the galvanic battery
Davy exhibits the voltaic arc .... 1813 F. Ronalds publishes an account of his electri 1S2C
Wollaston's thimble battery ignites platinum telegraph 1823
wiro 1 81 5 Professor Wbeatstone constructs an electro
Galvanometer invented by Ampero and by magnetic apparatus, by which 30 signals are
Schweigger, 1820 : by Cumming, 1821 ; De la conveyed through nearly four miles of wire,
Rive, 1824 ; Ritchie (torsion), 1830 ; Joule June, 1836
(magnetic), 1843. Telegraphs invented by Schilling, Gauss, and
Ohm enunciates his formulas relating to tho Weber (magneto-electric), 1833 ; by Stcinheil '
galvanic current 1827 and by Masson, 1837; by Morse 1S37
Improvement in constructing the voltaic bat The magnetic needle telegraph patented by W.
tery made by Wollaston, 181 5 ; Becquerel, F. Cooke and C. Wbeatstone June 12,
1829; Sturgeon, 1830; J. F. Daniell, 1836; Mr. Cooke set up the telegraph line on tho
Grove (nitric acid, Ac ), 1839; JocobL 1840; Great Western Railway, from Paddington to
Smee, 1840 ; Bunsen (carbon, &e.X 1842 ; West Drayton, 1838-9 ; on the Blackwall line,
Grove (gas battery), 1842. 1840 ; and in Gla _
Faraday demonstrates the nature of electro Professor Wheatstone's alphabetical printing 1841
chemical decomposition, and tho principle telegraph patented ......
that the quantity and intensity of electric The first telegraph line in America set up from
action of a galvanic battery depends on the SVoshington to Baltimore .
size and number of plates employed . . 1834 The murderer Tawell apprehended by means of 1844
Whcatstone invents his electro-magnetic chro- the telegraph
noscope 1840 The electric telegraph company established 1845
Electro-Maonetihm begins with G2rsted's dis (having purchased Cooke and Wheatstone's
covery of the action of the electric current telegraphic inventions) ....
on the magnetic needle, 1810, ; proved by Gutta-percha suggested as an insulator by 1846
Ampere, who exhibits the action of the vol Faraday
taic pilo upon the magnetic needle, and of Over-houM electric telegraphs (first erected at 1847
terrestrial magnetism upon the voltaic cur Paris) set up between their premises in the
rent ; he also arranges the conducting wiro City and West-end by Messrs. Watorlow, in
in the form of a helix or spiral, invents a gal 1857 ; extended throughout Loudon . . 1859-62
vanometer, and imitates tho magnet by a House's printing telegraph, 1846; Rain's electro
spiral galvanic wire 1820 chemical telegraph, 1846; Hughes's system,
Arago magnetised a needle by the electric cur 1855 ; the American combination system (of
rent, and attracted iron filings by the con tho preceding), which can convey 2000 words
necting wire of a galvanic battery . . . an hour, adopted by the American telegraph
Induction of electric currents discovered by company Jan. 1859
Faraday and announced 1S31 Wheatstone's automatic printing telegraph
Faraday discovers the electro-magnetic rotative patented i860
force developed in a magnet by voltaic elec Professor Charles Wbeatstone, in 1840, drew
tricity, 1831 ; experiments on the induction plans of a projected tubmcrhie telegraph bc-
of a voltaic current 1834 tween Dover and Calais. In 1847, Mr. John
Sturgeon makes a bar of soft iron magnetic In* Watkins Brett submitted a similar plan to
surrounding it with coils of wire, and send Louis Philippe without success ; but 111 1850,
ing an electric current through the wire . 1837 he obtained permission from Louis Napoleon
* The Electric Telegraph may bo said to have run a race with Time, 9nd beaten him. New Orleans, is
westward of New York, and tho clocks are thus later in the former city than in the latter, in proportion to
the difference of longitude. When the Atlantic made her first return voyage from Liverpool, a briefabstract
of her news was telegraphed to New Orleans at a few minutes after noon (New York time) ; it reached its
destination at a few minutes before noon (New Orleans time), and was published in the New Orleans papers
on the evening of the very day when the ship arrived at New York : the evening papers of New York and
New Orleans gave the Fame news at the same hour (April, 1S50).
ELE ELE
ELECTRICITY, continued.
to make a trial This took place on Aug. 28, into tho gutta pcrcha coating, which wcro
1850. The connecting wires (27 miles long) immediately repaired) finally ceased on
were placed on tho government pier in Dover Aug. 2. The apparatus for raising the wire
harbour, and in the Goliath steamer were proving insufficient, the vessel returned, and
coiled about 30 miles in length of telegraphic arrived at the Medway . . . Aug. ig, 1865
wire, enclosed in a covering of gutta-percha, It was stated that there are in work 15,000 miles
half an inch in diameter. The Goliath started of electric telegraph wire in Great Britnin ;
from Dover, unrolling the telegraphic wire as 80,000 on the continent of Europe ; and
it proceeded, and allowing it to drop to tho 48,000 in America ; and altogether about
bod of tho sea. In tho evening the steamer 150.000 miles laid down in the world . July, 1862
arrived on the French coast, audtbc wire was Bonclli's typo-cloctric telegraph, made known
run up tho cliffat cape GrisneE to its terminal and company established, 1S60 : and adopted
station, and messages were sent to and fro between Liverpool and Manchester, 1863 ;
between England and the French coast. But premised revival .... June, 1S64
the wire, in settling into its place in the sen- An " electric telegraph " conference, at which
bottom, crossed a rocky ridge, and snapped . 16 states (not Great Britain) were represented,
In two, and thus tho enterprise for that time met first at Paris .... March, 1865
failed. New arrangements were soon made, Electric Clock, &c. Professor Wheatstono
and on a scale of greater magnitude ; and invented an electro-magnetic telegraph clock
the telegraph was opened, Nov. 13, 1851. On in 1840. Clocks worked by electricity, in
that day the opening and closing prices of tho vented by Mr. Alexander Bain. Mr. Shepherd,
funds in Paris were known on the London and others, appeared In tho exhibition of
stock exchange within business hours, and 1851. An electric clock, with four dials, illu
guns were tired at Dover by communication minated at night, was set up in front of the
from Calais. office of the electric telegraph company, in
Communicationswere complete between Dover the Strand, London, July, 1852. A time ball
and Ostcnd, and between Portpatrick and was set up by Mr. French, mCornbill, in 1856.
Douaghadcc, in May, 1853; Holyhead and In i860. Mr. C. V. Walker so connected tho
Howth, June, 18S4; Paris and Bastia, Nov. clock of the Greenwich observatory with that
1854 ; London and Constantinople, Mav, 1858; of the South-eastern station, London, that
Cromer and Emden, 1858; Aden una Sues, they could be controlled by electricity.
May, 1859; Malta and Alexandria, Sept. 28, Electric Light. Apparatus for regulating the
1861 ; England and Bombay, opened March electric light were devised in 1846, and shown
1, 1865 (engineer, sir C. T. Bright); Marsala, by Staite and Petrie in 1848 ; by Foucault
Sicily, and La Calle, Algeria . June 21, 1865 soon after. Jules Duboscq's Eltctrie Lamp
Atlantic Telegraph. A plan to unite Europe (the most perfect of the kind) appeared at
and America by telegraph was entered at the the Paris exhibition in 1855; and was first
government registration office in June, 1845, employed by professor Tyndall, at the Koyal
by Mr. J. Watkins Brett, who made proposals Institution, London, for illustrating lectures
to tho government, which were not accepted. on light and colours, in 1856. The works of
This plan was attempted to be carried out by new Westminster bridge were illuminated
a company in 1857 ant* T^5^> with the con by Watson's electric light, in 1858. M. Serrin,
currence of the British and American govern of Paris, exhibited his improved electric
ments. 2500 miles of wire were manufactured, lamp, in 1862. The Magneto-Electric light
and tested in March, 1857. The laying it (the most brilliant artificial light yet pro
down commenced at Valentin, in Ireland, on duced), by means of apparatus devised by
August 5. Tho vessels employed were tho professor Holmes, was successfully tried in
JfiOftara and Susquehanna (American vessels), 1858 and 1859, at tho South Foreland light
and the leopard and Agamemnon (British house, Dover. In April, 1861, the French
vessels). Aftor sailing a few miles tho cable government ordered eight lighthouses on
snapped. This was soon repaired ; but on their coast to be illuminated by electric light.
Aug. 11, after 300 miles of wire had been MM. Dumas and Benoit constructed an elec
paid out, it snapped again, and the vessels tric safety lamp in i86a
returned to Plymouth. In 1858, a second Electric Loom. M. Bonelli, of Turin, in 1854,
attempt to lay the cable failed through a vio devised a plan of employing magnets and
lent storm, on June 20-21 ; but the third electro-magnets in weaving, thereby super
voyage was successful. On Aug. 5, the junc seding the tedious and costly Jacquard
tion oetween tho two continents was com system of cards. His loom was set up in
pleted by the laying down of 2050 miles of London in 1859, and lectured upon at the
wire from Valentia, in Ireland, to Newfound Royal Institution by professor Faraday, on
land. Tho first two messages, on Aug. 5, June 8. i860
were from the quoen of England to tho Electro-Physiology was not much cultivated
president of the United States, and his reply. after the discoveries of Galvani in 1700, till
This event caused great rejoicing in both about 1830, when the researches of Matteucci
countries ; but, unfortunately, the insulation commenced ; all the phenomena of electro-
of tho wire gradually became more faulty, physiology or animal electricity being con
and on Sept. 4 the power of transmitting in sidered by Volta as due to an ordinary electric
telligence utterly ceased. A now com]>auy current. Fowler experimented on animals
was formed, i860. The Great Eastern steamer, with galvanism, 1793 ; and Aldini, 1796, who
engaged to lay down 2300 miles of wire, with produced muscular contractions in a criminal
25,000 tons burden, sailedforValentia, 1reland, recently executed, 1803; Uro did the same,
from tho Thames, July 15, 1865: commanded 1818 ; Du Bois Reymond lectured on animal
by capt. Anderson, accompanied by professor electricity at the Royal Institution, and
WuX. Thomson and Mr. Cromwell F. Varlcy, showed the existence of an olectric cur
to superintend the paying out the cable. rent, developed by action of the human
Aftor connecting the wire with the lnnd, tho muscles .... in 1855
Great Eastern sailed from Valentia, July 23. Electro-Tint. Mr. Palmer, of Newgate-street,
Telegraphic communication with the vessel London, patented inventions by which en
(interrupted by two faults, due to defective gravings may not only be copied from other
insulation, caused by pieces of metal pressed engraved plates, but tho engraving itself
ELE 271 ELP
ELECTRICITY, continued.
actually produced, by electrical agency, and and tho process is now largely adopted in
one process he termed glyphography . 1841-2 the arts.
Electro-Type or Deposit. Mr. Spencer, in Messrs. C. Wheatstonc and F. A. Abel experi
England, and professor Jacobi, in Russia, ment on the application of electricity to mili
made the first successful experiments in this tary purposes in 1861
art in 1837 and 1838. Since then, Mr. A. Smec
and others have perfected the processes. In The Electro-block company established, i860;
1840, Mr. Rob. Murray applied blAck-lead to by their processes the enlargement and reduc
non-metallic bodies as a conducting surface. tion of engravings, obtained by india-rubber,
In 1840, Mr. Ruolz and Mr. Elkington applied can be immediately transferred to a litho
it to gilding and silver plating. Since 1850, graphic stone, and multiplied at pleasure.
printing-types and woodcuts, and casts from Leech's engravings, so enlarged, werecoloured
them,' have been electrotyped with copier, by himself, and exhibited in . . . . 1862
ELEGY. Elegiac verse was the first variation from the hexameter or epic measure, as
Tised for various subjects by Tyrtseus and other early poets. The elegies of Ovid and
Catullus are celebrated. Gray's " Elegy, written in a country churchyard, " was published
in 1749.
ELEMENTS were formerly reckoned as four : earth, air, fire, and water. The chemical
elements now are about 51 (1865).
ELEPHANT, in the earliest times trained to war. The history of the Maccabees informs
us, that " to every elephant they appointed 1000 men armed with coats of mail, and 500
horse : and upon the elephants were strong towers of wood, &c." The elephants in the army
of Antiochus were provoked to fight by showing them the " blood of grapes and mulberries."
The first elephant said to have been seen in England was one of enormous size, presented by
the king of France to our Hen. III., in 1238. Baker's Chron. But Polyamus states that Cfesar
brought one to Britain 54 B.C., which terrified the inhabitants greatly.
ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. The institution of these celebrated religious ceremonies
at Athens, are generally attributed to Eumolpus, 1356 B.C. If any one revealed them, it
was supposed that he had called divine vengeance upon him, and he was* put to death.
They were introduced from Eleusis into Rome, and lasted about 1 800 years, and were at last
abolished by Theodosius the Great, a.d. 389. The laws were— 1. To honour parents ; 2.
To honour the gods with the fruits of the earth ; 3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty.
Cicero makes the civilisation of mankind one of the beneficial effects of the Eleusinian
mysteries.
ELGIN MARBLES were derived chiefly from the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva, on
the Acropolis at Athens, of which they formed part of tho frieze and pediment, the work of
Phidias under the government of Pericles, about 500 B.C. Thomas lord Elgin began the
collection of these marbles during his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802 ; they were
purchased of him by the British government for 35,000?. and placed in tho British Museum,
in 1816.*
ELIS, a Greek state termed the "Holy Land," in the Peloponnesus, founded by the
Heraclidse, 1103 B.C. Here Iphitus revived the Olympic games, 884, which were regularly
celebrated after Corcebus gained the prize in 776. The city of Elis was surrendered to the
Spartans in a war, 399. Elis joined the Achiean league, 274 ; and with the rest of Geeece
was subjugated by the Romans in 146 B.c.
ELL (so named from ulna, the arm) was fixed at 45 inches, by king Henry I. in IIOI.
The old French ell, or aunt, was 46 790 inches.
ELLISON GALLERY. In April, i860, Mrs. Elizabeth Ellison presented to the South
Kensington Museum a series of 50 original water-colour drawings, by the first masters.
ELOPEMENT. A wife who departs from her husband, loses her dower by the statute
of "VVestm. 1285—unless her husband, without coercion of the church, be reconciled to her.
Earlier laws punished elopement with death when adultery followed.
ELPHIN (Ireland). St. Patrick founded a cathedral near Elphin, "by a river issuing from
two fountains," in the 5th century, and placed over it St. Asicus, whom he created bishop, and
who soon after filled it with monks. After many centuries, Roscommon, Ardcarn, Drumclive,
and others of less note, were also annexed to Elphin, which became one of the richest sees in
* The ship conveying tbcm was wrecked near Cerigo. Mr. W. R. Hamilton, who was on board, re
mained several months at Ccrigo, and succeeded in recovering them from the sea.
ELY •27-2 EME
Ireland. It is valued in the king's book, by an extent returned 28 Eliz., at 103?. i&s.
sterling. The see was united to Kilmore in 1841, under the provisions of tho Church
Temporalities act, passed Aug. 1833.
ELY, an island in Cambridgeshire, on which a church was built about 673, by Etheldreda,
queen of Egfrid, king of Northumberland ; she also founded a religious house, filled it with
virgins, and became herself first abbess. The Danes ruined the convent about 870 ; but a
monastery was built in 879, and filled with monks, on whom king Edgar and succeeding
monurchs bestowed great privileges and giants of land ; whereby the abbey of Ely became
the richest in England. Richard, the eleventh abl>ot, wishing to free himself from the bishop
of Lincoln, made great interest with Henry I. to get Ely elected into a bishopric, 1 108 His
successor Herva'us was the first prelate, 1109. It is valued in tho king's books at
2134?. 18s. 5<?., present stated income, 5500/.
KECEXT BISHOPS OF ELY.
1S36. Joseph Allen, died March 20, 1845.
1845. Thomas Turton, died Jan. 7, 1864-
1&64. Edward Harold Browne (paesENT bishop).
ELZEVIRS, a celebrated family of printers, in Holland, whose reputation is based on
fino pocket editions of the classics. Their first book is dated 1683.
EMANCIPATION. See Roman Catholics and Slavery.
EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians believing that their souls, after many thousand
years, would reinhabit their bodies, if these were preserved entire, embalmed the dead.
Some of the bodies, called mummies, buried 3000 years ago, are perfect to this day.
"Tho physicians embalmed Israel," 1689 B.C. Gen. 1. 2. See Mummici.*
EMBANKMENTS of earth were erected by the ancients, for preservation from their
enemies and the inundations of the tide. Those of the Egyptians are described by Hero
dotus and Stralra. To the Romans are attributed the first dykes of Holland, and the
embankments of Romney Marsh, considered to be the oldest in Britain. Ill 1250
Henry III. issued a writ enforcing the support of these valuable works ; and his succes
sors followed his example, .lames I. greatly encouraged the embankment of the Thames.
Sir W. Dugdale's "History of Embanking" first appeared in 1662. Sec Drainage and
Levels. Since 1830, many millions of pounds have been expended in embankments for
railways.
EMBARGO, from the Spanish cmbargar, to detain, applied to the restraining ships from
sailing. This power is vested in the crown, but is rarely exercised except in extreme cases,
and sometimes as a prelude to war. The. most memorable instances of embargo were those
for the prevention of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766; and for the detention of all
Russian, Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the kingdom, owing to the
armed neutrality, Jan. 14, 1801. See Armed Neutrality.
EMBER WEEKS, ordained in the Christian church in the 3rd century, to implore the
blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and fasting, in which penitents used
to sprinkle tho ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. In the English church the
Ember days are the Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday, after—the first Sunday in Lent,
Whit-sunday, Sept. 14 (Holy Cross), and Dec. 13 (St Lucia).
EMBROIDERY is usually ascribed to the Phrygians; but we learn from Homer, and
other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particularly excelled in this species of needlework.
Mention is made of this art in 1491 n.c. Exodus xxxv. 35, and xxxviii. 23. See Bayenx
Tapestry. Embroidery is now done by machinery. The first embroidery machine is said
to have been invented by John Duncan of Glasgow in 1804. Heilman's machine was
exhibited in Paris in 1834.
EMERALD, a precious stone, of a green colour, found in the East and in Peru. It has
been erroneously alleged that there wore no true emeralds in Europe before the conqnest of
Peru ; but there is one in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of pope Julius II. who
died in 15 13, and Peru was not conquered till 1545.
• Tho most perfect specimens of modern embalminrt are preserved in the museum of the royal college of
surgeons, one being the body of tho wife of Van Butchell, preserved by John Hunter by injecting campho
rated spirits of wine, &c, into tho arteries and veins ; and the other, the body iffa younff woman, who died
about 1780 of consumption, in the Lock hospital. The method of embalming royal personages in modern
times is fully described in " Hunter's Posthumous Works." He died in 1793.—During the American war
(1861-5) many soldiers' bodies were embalmed and sent home.
EMI 271 ENA
EMIGRANTS. The French aristocracy and clergy began to leave their country in July,
1789, at the breaking out of the revolution : their estates were confiscated in Dec. A large
number returned in 1802, after the peace of Amiens. Many were indemnified after the
restoration in 1815.
EMIGRATION. Phoenician and Greek emigrants colonised the coasts of the Mediter
ranean and the Black Sea (see Magna Oraxia, Marseilles, tic.). The discovery of America
opened a vast field for emigration, which was restrained by Charles I. in 1637. It has been
greatly encouraged since 1819. Regulations for emigration were made in 1831, and in Jan.
1840, the Colonial Land and Emigration Board was established.
Emigration from the United Kingdom, in i8rs, 2081 ; Indies, Cape of Good Hopo, New South Wales,
in 1820, 25,729; in 1830, 56,907; in 1S40, 90,743; Swan River, Van Diemcn's Land, &c., iu 1820-30,
in 1850, 280,843. according to official returns, 154,291 ; in 1830-40,
Emigrations to North American colonies. West 277,695-
In 1846, From England . 87,611 From Ireland . • 38,813 From Scotland 3.4*7 Total, 129,851
In 1847, Ditto . ■ 153.898 Ditto . • 95,75<j Ditto . 8,616 Total, 258,270
In 1848, Ditto . 176,883 Ditto ■ 59.701 Ditto 11,505 Total, 248,089
In 1849, Ditto . . 212,124 Ditto . • 70,247 Ditto . '7,"7 Total, 299,498
In 1850, Ditto . 214,612 Ditto • 51.083 Ditto 15,154 Total, 280,849
Iu 1851, Ditto . ■ 254.070 Ditto . ■ 62,350 Ditto . 18,646 Total, 335,966
From the United Kingdom.
In 1852 368,764 I In 1855 . 176,807 I In 1859 . 120,432 I In 1862 . 121,214 I 1Q '864 . • 208,900
In 1854 . 323,429 J In 1857 . . 212,875 I ln 1861 • ■ 9li77° I In '863 . . 223,758 |
To A*or/7{ American Colonies, iu 1842, 54.123 ; in 1847, To Australia and h'ne Zealand, in 1842, 8534 ; in
109,680 ; in 1856, 16,378 ; in 1857, 21,001 ; in 1861, 1845, 830; in 1850, 16,037; in 1852 (gold discovery),
12,707; in 1863, 18,083; m 1864, 12,721. 87,881; in 1853, 61,401 ; in 1854. 83,237 ; in 1855,
To United States, in 1842, 63,852 ; in 1847, 142,154 ; in 52,309; in 1856, 44,584 ; in 1857, 61,248; in 1861,
1857, 126,905; in [861, 49.764 ; in 1862, 58,706; in 23,738 ; in 1863, 53,054 ; in 1864, 40,942.
1863, 146,813 ; in 1864, 147,042.
EMILY ST. PIERRE. See United Slates, 1862.
EMINENCE, a title conferred upon cardinals by pope Urban VIII. Jan. 10, 1631, as
more honourable than "Excellency." Previously cardinals had the title of Jllustrissimi.
Ashe. The grand-master of Malta also obtained this title. Pardon.
EMIR, a title of the caliphs amon» the Turks and Persians, first awarded to the descend
ants of Mahomet's daughter Fatima, about 650. Ricaut. To such only was originally given
the privilege of wearing the green turban.
EMLY, an Irish see, said to have been founded by St. Patrick. Emly was called Imclaca-
Ibair : St. Ailbe was the first bishop in 448. It is now an inconsiderable village. In 1568,
the see was united to Cashel. See Cashel.
EMPALEMENT. This mode of executing criminals, mentioned by Juvenal, and often
inflicted in Rome, is still used in Turkey and Arabia. In England the dead bodies of mur
derers were sometimes staked in this manner, previously to being buried.
EMPEROR, from Imperator (ruler), a title conferred on victorious Roman generals, and
taken by Julius Ca?sar as perpetual dictator, B.C. 46.
Augustus Csesar the first Roman emperor b o. 37 The Czar the first emperor of Russia
Valentinian I. first emperor of tho west, and a.d. Napoleon Bonaparte first emperor of the French 1 804
Valcns first emperor of the east . . . . 364 Don Pedro IV. of Portugal the first emperor of
Charlemagne first emperor of Germany,crowned Brazil 1825
by Leo III 800 Faustin I. tho first emperor of Hayti, in 1849 ;
Othman I. founder of the Turkish empire, the deposed 1859
first emperor of Turkoy 1296 Maximilian I. first emperor of Mexico, April 10, 1864
EMPIRICS, a sect of physicians, formed in the 3rd century before Christ, who contended
that all reasoning respecting the animal economy was useless, and that experience and
observation alone were the foundation of medicino. The sect adopted the principles of
Acron of Agrigentum, who flourished about 430 B.C.
ENAMELLING was practised by tho Egyptians, Chinese, and other nations, and was
known in England in the time of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel, which
belonged to Alfred, and which, as appears by the inscription, was made by his order, in his
reign, about 887. Limoges enamelled ware was popular in the 16th century. On June 19,
1862, Madame Rachel sued captain Carnegie for 928/. fur enamelling his wife's face; and
was non-suited. See Mosaic.
T
ENC 274 ENG
ENC/ENIA, Greek festivals kept on Jays on which cities were built and temples con
secrated ; and in later times, as at Oxford, at the celebrations of founders and benefactors.
Oldistcorth. They were the origin of church-wakes in England, about 600. They were also
feasts celebrated by the Jews on the 25th of the ninth month, in commemoration of the
Maccabees cleansing the- temple which had been polluted by Autiochus Epiphanes, 131 B.C.
_ ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, the art of enamelling or painting by fire. Bailey. Painting
with burnt wax is said to have been known to Praxiteles about 360 B.C. This art, after
having been lost, was revived by M. Bachelier, 1749, by count Caylus, 1765, and by Miss
Greenland, 1785 and 1792.
ENCRATITES, followers of Tatiau, about 170, denounced marriage, and abstained from
flesh, and from wine even at the Lord's supper.
ENCUMBERED ESTATES ACT, passed in July 1849, to enable owners of land, or of
a Jease of land, subject to oncrrmbrance, to apply to commissioners appointed under it to
direct a sale of such property. These commissioners held their first court in Dublin,
Oct. 24, 1849, and their last July 28, 1858. A new court was established under the
Landed Estates act (1858). The number of estates sold up to 1858 was 2380, producing
twenty-two millions of pounds. In 1854 a similar act was passed for the West Indies.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA, or Cyclopaedia, a general dictionary of art, science, and literature.
This nam# has been given to a work by Abulpharagius in the 13th century. Alsted's
Encyclopaedia appeared in 1620, Hofmann's Lexicon Universale in 1677, and Bayle's
Dktionnaire in 1696. The earliest English encyclopaedia is the Lexicon Teclinicum of John
Harris, 1704; supplements, 1710, 1741.
Louis Moreri's Dietlonnairo Ilistoriquo . . 1673 Encyclopedic Mtfthodique (hy Pancouck) 1782-183Z
Comeille's Rictionnairc doa*Arts . * . 1694 Chambers' Cyclopaedia (edited by Rees) . . 1786
Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopa-dia . . . . 1728 Rees* Cyclopaedia ..... 1802-19
Zedier's Universal Lexicon . . 1732-50 Brockhaus'B Conversations-Lexicon, 1st edition 1818
Encyclopedic (by Diderot and D'Alembcrt) 1751-80 (New editions frequent]
[The contributorswere termed Encyci-opedistes, Encyclopaedia Mctropulitana . . 1829-45
and their bold writings aro believed to havo Cabinet Cyclopaedia (a collection of treatises) 1829-46
hastened the outbreak of the French revolu Penny Cyclopaedia 1833-46
tion in 1780.] Knight's English Cyclopaedia (4 divisions) . 1853-61
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1st edition (by Wm. Chambers' Cyclopaedia (now publishing) began 1859
Snjellic) 1778 Ersch and Gruber's Allgeineino Encyelopadie,
[The 8th completed, 1861.J began 1818 ; 125 vols, published . . . 1S61
ENDERBY LAND. See Southern Continent.
ENDOSMOSIS. M. Dutrochet, about 1826, found that if two fluids, gases or vapours,
of unequal density, are separated by an animal or vegetable membrane, the denser wjjl
attract the less dense through the medium. This property he called cvdosmose, when tho
attraction is from the outside to the inside, and exosmose, when it operates from the inside
to the outside. By this discover}- many natural phenomena aro more clearly understood.
Brandt.
ENFIELD MUSKET. See Fire arms.
ENGEN, Baden. Here Moreau defeated tho Austrians, May 3, 1S00.
ENGHIEN, or Steenkibk (S.W. Belgium). Here the British under William III. were
defeated by the French under marshal Luxemburg, July 24. 1692. — A victory obtained here
by the great Conde first gave the ducal title to a prince of the house of Bourbon Conde.
Their descendant, tho due d'Enghien, was seized in Baden by order of Bonaparte, conveyed
to Vincennes, and, after a hasty trial, shot by torch-light, immediately after condemnation,
March 20, 1804. The body was exhumed, March 20, 1816.
ENGINEERS. This name is of modern date, as engineers were formerly called Trench-
masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as Trench-master in 1622. The chief engineer was
called camp-master general in 1634. Captain Thomas Rudd had the rank of chief engineer
to the king about 1650. Tho corps of engineers was formerly a civil coins, but was made a
military force, and directed to rank with the artillery, April 25, 1787. It has a colonel-in-
chief, 16 colonels-commandant, and 16 colonels. Civil Engineering began to be eminent in
the middle of the last century, when Smeaton began the Kddystone lighthouse, and Brindley
the Bridgewater canal. Since then the Rennics, Telford, the Stephensons and Brunels,
Locke, and others have constructed the breakwaters, docks, bridges, railways, tunnels, &c,
which are the marvel of our age.
EXG 275 ENG
ENGINEERS, continual.
The first society of Civil Engineers formed by has its head-quarters in Birmingham, cstab
Smeaton and others, afterwards termed the lished
Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers . . 1793 Isanibard Kicgdon Brunei, projector of the \7
Institution of Civil Engineers established in Qrcat Eastern, aged 53, died Sept. 15 ; Rul>ert
1818 ; obtained a charter in .... 1828 1 Stephenson, railway engineer, aged 59, died
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, which Oct 12, 1859
ENGLAND, so named by order of Egbert, first king of England, in a general council
held at Winchester, 829. This appellative had been used as for back as 688, but had never
been, until then, ratified -by any assembly of the nation. It came from Angle*, a tribe of
Saxons, ami land, the Saxon for country. See Anglo-Saxons. England and Wales were
united 1283 : Scotland was united under the same sovereign in 1603, and the same legis
lation in 1707, when the three were styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated with
them, by the act of legislative union, Jan. 1, 1801, and the whole was called the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. For previous history see Britain, and for Anther
details, population, revenue, &c, see separate articles. Histories of England, by Rapin (in
English), 1725-31 ; Thomas Carte,, 1747-55 ; David Hume, 1755-62 ; Tobias Smollett,
I757"65 ; John Lingard, 1819-30; Charles Knight, 1856-62.
Egbert, " king of the English," 827 ; defeats the Magna Charta signed June 15, 1215
Welsh, Danes, &c. , at Hengestdown . . 835 Henry III. crowned . Oct. 28, 1216
Alfred, king, 871 ; after many vicissitudes, van Cold first coined in England , - - ■ ia57
quishes the Danes 871 896, The Barons' war (which $e't) . 1262-8
lie frames a code of laws, 800 ; forms a militia Tbe first regular parliament . . . . 1265
and navy, surveys and subdivides the coun Edward I. crowned Nov. 20, 1272
try, and promotes education .... Rr/3 Wales united to England . . 1283
Athelstau's great victory over the Danes, Scots, Death of Roger Bacon 1292
«tc 937 Scotland subdued, 1296 ; revolts . . . ^iV?
Predominance of Dunstan ; he promotes tnona- Edward II. crowned .... July S, 1307
ehisin and the celibacy of the clergy, about . 95a Defeated by Robert Bruce at Bannoekburn,
Ethelred compound* with the Danes for peace 991 June 24, 1314-
And treacherously causes their general massacre Insurrection of the barons against his favourites-
Nov. 13, 1002 1325
Which is avenged by Swoyn, king of Denmark ; Edward III. crowned . Jan. M-7
Ethelred flees to Normandy .... 1003 Defoats the Scots at Hallidown-hill .
Sweyn dies, and Ethelred returns, 1014; dies . toio Invades France ; victorious at Crecy Aug. 26, 1346
Canute the Dane sole monarch . . . . 1017 Takes Calais '347
Edward the Confessor king; Saxon dynasty Order of the Garter instituted .... 1350
restored Victory at Poictiers . . . Sept. 19, 1 56
Harold II. ci*owned, Jan. 6; defeats the Nor Law pleadings in English ..... 1362.
wegians, Sept. 25 ; defeated and slain at Has Richard II. crowned June 22, 1377
tings by William of Normandy . Oct. 14. IC//J Insurrection of Wat Tyler suppressed . . 1381
William l crowned . . Dec 25, Death of Wickliffe 1385
The northern counties rebel ; ravaged from the Henry IV. crowned .... Sept. 30, 1399
Humber to the Tyne .... 1069 70 Insurrection Order of the Bath instituted by Henry IV. .
of the Percics and the Welsh . i403:5h",,
Introduction of the feudal system, about . 1070
Justices of peace appointed 1076 Henry V. crowned . March 21, 1413
Domesday book compiled .... 1085-6 Franco invaded by Henry V. who gains the
William II. crowned . . . Sept. 26, 1087 battle of Agincourt- . . . Oct. 25, 1415
The crusades begin 1096 Treaty of Troyea ; the French crown gained by
Henry I. crowned ; grants a charter restoring^-'— Henry 1420
Saxon laws, &c. ... . . Aug. 5, 1100 Henry "VI. crowned at Paris . . Dec. 1430
Defoats * his brother Robert, and gains Nor Appearance of the maid of Orleans ; the French
mandy tio6 conquests lost, except Calais . . . 1429-31
Stephen crowned .... Dec. 26, Edward IV. deposes Henry VI. March 4, 1461,
Civil war between the empress Maud, Henry's "35' War of the Roses. (Sec Roses and Battle*) . 1455-71'
daughtor, and Stephen ; her friends tho Printing introduced by Caxton .... 1471
Scots defeated at the battle of the Standard, Edward V. accession . . . April 9, 1483
Aug. 22, 1138; she hind-« in England, jmd is Richard III. deposes Edward V. . June 25.
successful, 1 1 39; crowned at Winchester, Henry VII. accession ; Richard defeated and
March 3, 1141 ; is defeated ; retires to France, slain at Bosworth field . . Aug. 22, 14S5
1147; concludes a peace with Stephen . . "53 nenry marries Elizabeth, daughter of Edw. IV. i486
Henry II. crowned . . . Dec. 19, 1154 Insurrection of Lambert Simnel quelled . i486 7
Constitutions of Clarendon enacted . Jan. 1164 Court of Stir Chamber instituted . . . 1487.
Arrogance of Bccket; murdered . Dec. 29, 1170 Yeomen of tho guard, the first appearance of a
Conquest of Irehind 1 172 standing army in England, instituted . . 1488^
England divided into six circuits for the ad Henry sells the sovereignty of Krance . . 1492
ministration of justice 1 1 76 Insurrection of Perkin Wafbeck quelled . 1492-8
English laws digested by Glanville, about it Si Gardening introduced into England, principally _ ...
Richard I. crowned . ' . . Sept. 3, 1 1 Bg from tho Netherlands . . . about 1502
He joins tho crusades, 1191 ; defeats Saladin, Death of prince Arthur . . April 2, „
1192; made prisoner by Henry VI. of Ger Henry VIII. accession . . . April 22, 1509
many, Dec. 1 192; is ransomed by his sub Rise of Wolsey 1514
jects for 400,000*. . , 1194 Henry VIII.'s interview with Francis I at
John crowned May 27, 1199 Ardrcs. (See " Field of the Cloth of Gold. ")
Normandy lost to England 1204 June 4-25, j 520
England put under an interdict . . . 1208 First map of England drawn by G. Lilly, about 15:0
T 2
ENG KNG
ENGLAND, continued.
Henry VIII. becomes ** Defender of the Faith " 1531 "Rye-house plot;" lord Russell (July 21) and
F.ill of Wolscy : ho dies . . Nov. 99, 1530 Algernon Sydney (Nov. 21) executed . .
Henry VIII. "marries Anne Boloyn ; divorces James II. accession .... Feb. 6,
Catherine Slay 23, 1533 Duke of Monmouth's rebellion defeated at Sedg-
Henry VIII. is style " Head of the Church " . 1534 moor, July 6 ; ho is beheaded . • July 15,
The pope's authority in England is abolished . ,, Acquittal of the seven bishops . . June 30,
Sir Thomas More beheaded . July 6, 1535 Abdication of James II. . . . Dec. it,
Queen Anne Boleyn beheaded . May 19, 1536 William III. and Mary proclaimed by the con
Queen Jane Seymour dies . . . Oct. 24, 1537 vention parliament . . Feb. 13, 1*? )
Monasteries suppressed 1538 National debt begins
Statute of Six Articles' passed .... 1539 Bulk of England incorporated . April 25,
Abbots of Glastonbury, Reading, &e., executed „ Death of tho queen regnant, Mary . Dec. 28,
The first authorised edition of the Bible (Cran- Peace of Ryswick 1097
nicr's) printed , Death of James II. in exile . . Sept. 16, 1 70 1
Cromwell, lord Essex, beheaded . . . 1540 Anne, accession .... March 8, 1702
Anne of Clevcs divorced . . . July 9, Victory of Marlborough at Blenheim . . . 17 '4
Queen Catherine Howard beheaded , . 1542 Union of the two kingdoms under tho title of
The title of " king of Ireland " confirmed to the Great Britain . . . . May 1, I 707
English sovereigns 1543 Sacheverell riots 171'■
Henry marries Catherine Parr . . July 12, „ Treaty of Utrecht, advantageous to Great
Edward VI. accession, Jan. 28 ; promotes the Britain April 11, 17*3
Reformation (Somerset, protector) . . 1547 George I. ; accession of the house of Hanover,
Somerset deprived of power, 1549; bohoaded . 1552 Aug. 1,
liook of Common Prayer established The Scots' rebellion quelled .... *7»4 1715
Mary, accession July 6 ; restores popery . 553. 1 South sea bubble 1720
Execution of lady Jane Grey and her friends >554 * Death of the duke of Marlborough . 1 7 - -'
Mary marries Philip of Spain ; persecutes the Order of the Bath revived (ir/tirA see) . . . 1 72 s
Protestants ,, George II. accession . . . Juno 11, 17^7
Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmcr burnt 1555 &, 1556 Death of Newton .... March 20,
Calais retaken by the French .... 1558 George II. present at the victory of Dcttingen,
Elizabeth, accession Nov. 17 ; the church of June 16, 1743
England re-established . . . . . Second Scots* rebellion : prince Charles-Edward
Mary, queen of Scots, lands in England, 1 568 ; gains Edinburgh, Sept. 17 ; victor at Preston:
executed ...... Feb. 8, 1587 pans, Sept. 2r. 1745 ; at Falkirk, Jan. 18 ; de-
The Spanish armada 1588 featcd totally at Culloden . . April 16,
Devercux, carl of Essex, beheaded . . . 1601 Death of prince Frederick Louis, son of George 17C'
James I. accession ; union of the two crowns, II. and father of George HI
March 24, 1G03 New style introduced into England,
Assumes the stylo of " king- of Great Britain," Sept. 3 (mode 14)
Oct. 24, 1604 Seven years' war begins 1750
The Gunpowder plot 1605 Conquest of India begins, under colonel (after
The present translation of the Bible completed . 161 1 wards lord) dive. (See India) , . . . 1757
Baronets first created . . . May, ,, Death of general Wolfe. (Sec Quebec) 1 759
The Ovcrbury murder . . Sept. 15, 1613 George III. accession . . . Oct. 25, 1
Shakspeare dies . , . . .April 23, 1616 His nuptials with Charlotte Sophia, of Meck
Raleigh behoaded 161 8 lenburg Strclitz, Sept. 8 ; crowned, Sept. 22,
Book of Sports published . . . Ma; Peaco of Paris
Charles I. accession March 27, 1625 1 Isle of Man annexed to Great Britain
Death of lord Bacon April 9, 1626 I Doath of the Old Pretender, the " chevalier do '7'>:
Duke of Buckingham assassinated Aug. 23 1628 St. George " Dec. 30,
Hampdm's trial respecting "ship money " 1637* Royal marriage act passed
Coutc.-it Iwtwecn the king and parliament ; im Commencement of American war
peachment and execution of lord Strafford , 1 64 1 Death of carl of Chatham . May :x,
" Arrest of the five members," Jan, 4 ; the civil " No Popery" riots .... June 2-7, 1 7So
warbagius : battlo of Edgchill (sec Battle*), Separation of America from England Nov. 30. 17S2
Oct, 23 1642 Margaret Nicholson's attempt on the life of
Archbishop Laud bohcaded . . Jan. 10 ■"45 George III Aug. a, i7Sf
CuarU-s defeated at Naseby . . Juno 14, Trial of Warren Hastings begins Feb. 13, 17SC
He floes to the Scotch, May 5 ; who give him up Death of the Young Pretender, at Rome,
Sept. 21, 1646 March 3,
Execution of Charles I. Jan. 30, 1649 The king's illness made known . Oct. 12,
Cromwell s victory at Worcester . Sept. 3, 1651 He recovers, and goes to St Paul's to make
Oliver Cromwell made protector of tho Com thanksgiving .... April 23. I7S9
monwealth 1G53- First coalition against Franco . . June 26, 179-'
Richard Cromwell, protector . Sept. 3, 1658 Habeas Corpus act suspended . May 23, " 7V4
Jtich «rd resigns Mayas, 1659 Howe's victory Juno 1,
Charles II. : monarchy re-established, May 29, 1660 Marriage of the prince of Wales with the piin-
Act of uniformity passed ; church of England cess Caroline 1 >f Brunswick April 8, '79s
restored ... Warren Hasting trial ends uittcd,
The great plague if/>5 April 17,
The great fire of London . . Sept. 2, 3, 1 666 Princess Charlotte born . Jan. 7, 1796
Disgr .co of lord Clarondon .... 1667 Cash payments suspended . Feb. 25, '797
Death of Milton .... Nov. 8, 1674 Death of Edmund Burke July 8,
O.itos's "Popish plot" creates a panic, Aug. 13, 1078 Battlo of the Nile Aug. i, '798
Sir Edmondbury Godfrey found murdered, Habeia Corpus act again suspended - Aug.
Oct. 17, „ Hatfield's attempt on th« king's life May 11, 1 -' ■
Many Roman Catholics executed . . 1678-9 Union of Great Britain with Ireland Jan. 1, 18. 1
Tho habeas corpus act, for protecting English Nelson's victory at Copenhagen April 2,
subjects against f;dsc arrest and imprison Habeas Corpus act again suspended April 19,
ment, passed 1679 Peace of Amiens . . . Oct. 1,
ENG 277 KNG
ENGLAND, continued.
War against Bonaparte . . . Ifay 18, 1S03 King of Prussia visits England . J;:n. 24, 1842
Nelson's victory aud death at Trafalgar Oct. 21, 1805 John Francis fires at the queen . . May 30, ,,
Death of Mr. Pitt .... Jan. 23, 1806 Bean presents a pistol at her . . July 3, ,,
*' Delicato investigation " . . . May 22, Income tax act passed . . . Aug. ,,
Lord Melville impeached, April 29 : acquitted, Queen embarks for Scotland (1st visit) Aug. 29, ,,
Juno la, „ Peace of Nankin (with Chinaj . . Dec. ,.
Death of Charles James Fox . Sep^. 13, ,, Deal h of duke of Sussex . . . April 21, 1^43
Orders in council against the Berlin decree, Queen's visit to tho Orleans family at chateau
Jan. 7, 1807 d'Eu Sept. 2,
Abolition of the slave tniilo . March 25, ,, Emperor of Russia visits England . June x, 1844
Death of sir J. Moore. (See C<.runua) Jan. 16, 1809 King Louis Philippe's visit . . Oct 7,
Duke of York impeached by col. Wardle Jan. „ Tractarian or Puseyito controversy . . 1844-5
Jubilee celebrating king's accession . Oct. 25, ,, Anti-corn-law agitation .... . 1845
Unfortunate Walcheren expedition Aug.-Nov. ,, Queen's visit to Germany . . . Aug. 9, „
Sir Francis Burdctt's arrest, and riots April 6, 1810 Peel's new tariff, 1845 ; railway mania, Nov.
Death of princessAmelia ; king's malady returns 1845; panic March, 1S46
Nov. 2. „ Corn laws repealed .... June 26,
Great commercial embarrassment . Dec. Chartist demonstration in London . April io, 1848
Regency.—The prince of Wales prince regent, Cholera re-appears in Kngland in . 1848 and 1849
Feb. 5, 181 1 Queen embarks on her visit to Ireland, Aug. 1, „
Luddite riots Nov. „ Adelaide, queen dowager, dies . Dec. 2,
Assassination of Mr. Perceval, premier, May 11, 1812 *' Exhibition of 1851 " announced . Jan. 3, 1850
Earl of Liverpool premier . . . Juno 9, ,, Death of Wordsworth (aged 80) . April 23, „
War with America commenced June 18, ,, Pate's assault on the queen . . June 27, ,,
Peace with Franco, &c. . . April 14, 1S14 Death of sir Robert Peel (aged 02) . July 2, ,,
Visit of tho emperor of Russia and king of Duke of Cambridge dies . . . July 8, „
Prussia to England . . June 7, „ Queen's visit to Belgium . . Aug. 21, „
Centenary of the house of Hanover . Aug. 1, M Great cxcitemenV occasioned by the pope's
War with America Aug. ,, establishment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy
Peace with America (treaty of Ghent) Doc. 24, „ in England Nov.
Battle of Waterloo (close of French war),June 18, 1815 Census of United Kingdom. (See Poirtdation)
Princess Charlotte marries prince Leopold, of March 30, 1851
Saxe-Coburg May 2, 1816 The first "Great Exhibition" opened May x, „
Death of R. B. Sheridan . July 9, ",, Australian gold arrives . . . Dec. ,.
Sjia-fields meeting {tchich wt) Dec. 2, „ Death of the poet Thomas Moore . Feb. 26, 1852
Green-bag inquiry (ichu-h $te) . Feb. 2, 181 7 Slight earthquake at Liverpool, Ac. Nov. 9, ,,
Habeas Corpus act suspended Feb. 2r, „ Death of Wellington (aged 83), Sept. 14 ; funeral,
Cash payments resumed Sept. 22, „ Nov. 18, ,,
Princess Charlotte dies in childbirth . Nov. 6, Camp at Chobham . . June 14—Aug. 19, 1853
Queen Charlotte dies at Kew . Nov. 17, 1818 Death of sir Charles Napier, conqueror of
Queen Victoria born May 24, 1819 Seindo Aug. 29, ,,
Manchester reform meeting Aug. 16, ,, English and French fleets enter Bosphorus,
Duke of Kent dies Jan. 21, 1820 Oct 22, ,,
George IV. accession Jan. 29, „ Protocol signed between England, Franco,
Cato-street conspirators arrested Feb. 23, „ Austria, and Prussia, for rc-ostiblishment of
Trial of queen Caroline Aug. 19 to Nov. 10, „ peace between Russia and Turkey Dec. 5, ,,
Coronation of George IV. Jxily 19, 1821 Many meetings on eastern question, favourable
Queen Caroline dies at Hammersmith Aug. 7, to Turkey .... Sept. to Dec. „
Lord Byron dies .... Ap] April 19, 1824 Great strike at Preston ; 14,972 hands unem
Commercial panic 1825-6 ployed at one time Oct 15, 1853, to May 1, 1854
Duke of York, dies .... Jan. 22, 1827 Queen reviews Baltic fleet . March 11, „
Mr. Canning, first minister, April 30 ; dies, Treaty of alliance between England, France,
Aug. 8, „ and Turkey signed . . March 12, ,,
Battle of Navarino .... Oct. 20, „ War declared ygainst Russia. (See /iuwo-
Roman Catholie Relief bill passed . April 13, 1829 Turkish War) .... March 28, „
Political panic in London ; riots . Nov. 9, Fast day on account of the war . April 26, „
William IV. accession . . . June 26, 1830 Marquis of Anglesey dies . . May 28,
Mr. Huskisson killed at the opening of the King of Portugal visits England . June, ,,
Liverpool and Manchester railway Sept. 15, „ Crystal Palace opened by the queen June 10, ,,
Grey administration formed . . . Nov. ,, Cholera prevails in the south aud west of
King opens new London bridge . . Aug. 1831 London .... Aug. and Sept. , ,
The cholera morbus in England . Oct. 26, „ Thanksgiving for abundant harvest . Oct. 1, „
Reform bill rejected by the lords, Oct. 7 ; fatal Great oxplosion and fire at Gateshead and
Bristol riots Oct. 29, Neweastlo Oct. 6, ,,
Reform act passed .... June 7, 1832 Meeting of Parliament . . . Dec. 12, ,,
Sir Walter Scott dies . Sept. Resignation of Aberdeen ministry . Jan. 29, 1855
Assault on Wilham IV. by a discharged pen Formation of Palmerston ministry . Feb.
sioner at Ascot .... Juno 19, „ Death of Joseph Hume (aged 78) . Feb. 20,
S. T. Coleridge dies .... July 25, 1834 Sebastopol Inquiry Committee nominated,
Slavery ceases in the cololiies . . Aug. i, „ Feb. 23, ,,
Corporation reform act passed . . Sept. 9, 1835 Visit of omperor and empress of French,
Qveen Victoria, accession ; Hanover separated April iG to 21, „
from Great Britain . . . June 20, T837 Loan of 16 millions agreed to . April, „
Coronation of Victoria . . . Juno 28, 1838 Distribution of Crimean medals . May 18, ,,
Beginning of war with China . . March, 1839 Metropolitan cattle market opened June 13, „
Penny postage begins . . . Jan. 10. 1840 Agitation and rioting concerning Sunday
Marriage of the queen with prince Albert of trading bill, which is withdrawn , July 2, ,,
Saxe-Coburg (see p. 281) . . Feb. 10, „ The queen and prince visit Paris . Aug. 18, ,,
Oxford's assault on the queen . . Juno 10, „ Peace with Russia proclaimed, April 19 ; thanks
Prince of Wales bom . . Nov. g, 1841 giving day, May 4; illuminations, &c. May 29, 1856
ENG 27S ENG
ENGLAND, continued.
War with China (which aee) . . . Oct 1856 Charter granted for Exhibition of 1862, Feb. 14, 1S61
Wmr with Persia (trAirA ««) . . . Nor. „ Excitement Death of duchess
aboutof■' Kent
Essays(aged
and 75), March
Reviews *' 16,. „
Dissolution of parliament, March 21 ; new
parliament meets . . April 30, 1857 Seventh census taken . . Aprils, ,,
Death of duchess of Gloucester (aged 8t), the Great excitement through capt. Wilkes (of U. 8.
last of George III.'s children April 30, „ navy) forcibly taking Messrs. Slidell and
Mutiny of Indian army begins. (Seo ln>tia) M;tson from tho Rowil British innil steamer
March, „ Trent. (See Un'dtd i#aU») . Nov. 8, „
Educational conference in London, prince King of Sweden and his son visit London Aug.
Albert in the chair . . June 22, ,, Death of tho prince consort of " typhoid fever,
Victoria erodes (which *«) distributed by the duration 21 days," Dec. 14 ; buried (sec JlWrt
queen in Hyde-park . . . June 26, „ Manorial) , Dec. 23,
Meetings for relief of sufferers by the mutiny Tho United States* government release Messrs.
in India [by Nov. 15, 260,000/. raised] Aug. 25, ,, Slidell and Mason . . . Dec. 28, „
Great commercial panic ; relieved by suspension International Exhibition opened by the duke
of Bank Charter Act of 1844 Nov. 1a, of Cambridge May i, 186;
Parliament meets . . . Dee. 3, Prince Alfred declared king of Greece at Athens
Marriage of princess royal to prince Frederick- (declined) Oct. 23,
William of Prussia . . . Jan. 25, 1858 Final closing of international exhibition,Nov. 15,
Excitement respecting attempted assassination j Remains of tho prince consort transferred to
of Louis Napoleon, Jan. 14; indiscreet ad tho mausoleum at Frogmoro . Dec. 18, „
dresses of French colonels, published, Jan. 27, „ Great distress in tho cotton manufacture dis-
"Conspiracy to Murder" bill (introduced by I tricts begins, April : contributions received,
lord Palmorston, Feb. 8) rejected, Feb. 19; central relief fund, 407,830/. ; Mansion-honso
Palmerston ministry resigns . Feb. 22, fund, 236,926/ Dec. 20, „
Derby-Disraeli administration formed, Feb. 26, „ Princess Alexandra of Denmark enters London,
Dr. Simon Bernard acquitted of conspiracy March 7 ; married to the prince of Wales,
against tho lire of Louis Nai>olcon April 17, March 10, 1S63
The Jewish Disabilities bill piissed . July 12, ,, The British, French, and Austrian governments
The India bill passed . July 23, remonstrate with llussiaou cruelties in Poland
The queen visits Birmingham, June 15; Cher April 7, „
bourg, Aug. 4, 5 ; tho princess royal (at Pots Inauguration of the Great Exhibition memorial
dam), Aug. i2, kc, ; and Leeds . Sept. 1, ., to the prince consort in the Horticultural
Excitement about the confessional ; public gardens, London . . June 11, ,,
meetings held against it, July 12 & Sept. 18. ,, Arrival of captains Grant and Speka from cx-
The Association for tho Promotion of Social l pluring the source of the Nile . June, ,.
Science meet at Liverpool . . Oct. 12, ,, I Great decreasoof distress in cotton districts,Oct.
Excitement respecting the Italian war; pro j Earthquake in central & N.W. England Oct. 6, „
clamation for manning the navy . April 30, 1859 I The government declines the French emperor's
Declaration of neutrality of England May 12, „ 1 pr>>]M)sal for a congress of sovereigns Nov. M *
Proclamation for the organisation of volunteer ! D'.-atb of William Thackeray (aged 52) Dec. 24, ,,
rifle corps : many formed . May—Oct. ,. 1 Birth of prince Albert-Victor of Wates Jan. 8, 1864
The Derby ministry defeated on tho Reform - Final judgment of the judicial committee of
bill ; dissolve parliament, April 23 ; again ' the privy council that the government had
defeated, they resign, Juno 11 ; and the no authority to seize the ^/tjrtfjitira (Confede
Palmerston-Russell administration is formed rate) steamer Feb. 8, „
June 18, „ Garibaldi's visit to England causes great enthu
The Handel commemoration . Juno 20, 22, 24, „ siasm April 3-27, „
Tho income-tax increased to provide for the The Ionian isles made over to Greece June 1, „
defences of tho country . . . July, „ European conference at Loudon on the Schles-
I^ord Macaulay dies (aged 59) . Dec. 28, ,, ! wig-Holstein question . April 24—June 25,
Commercial treaty with France, signed Jan. 23 ; Great excitement through the murder of Mr.
approved by parliament . . . March, i860 liriggs in a first-class carriage on tho North-
Sir Charles Barry dies (aged 65) . May 12, London railway . July 9,
The queen reviews 18,000 volunteers in Hyde- Great explosion of gunpowder at the Belvedere
Park June 23, „ magazine, near Woolwich . . Oct. 1, „
Great failures in tho leather trade . July. <tc. ,, Death of John Leech (aged 47) . Oct 29, ,,
National rifle shooting match at Wimbledon, Death of Richard Cobden (aged 61) . April 2, 1865
July 2-7, „ IVince George of Wales born . June 3,
The earl of Derby reviews about 11,000 Lanca General election ; majority for Palmerston ad
shire volunteers at Knowsley . Sept. 1, ,, ministration .... July 10, Ac. ..
The queen and prince • visit. their
Prussia ■ . daughter
. Sept.In ,, Visit of Abd-cl-Kadcr ; departs . " Aug. 6,
Prevalence of a cattle plague, Juno—Oct.
Peace with China signed . . . Oct. 24, ,, Royal commission appointed, met Oct. 10, „
Thos. Cochrane, earl of Dundonald, dies (aged 82) English fleet visits Cherbourg, Aug. 15 ; French
Oct. 31, „ fleet visits Portsmouth . . Aug 30,
Prince of Wales visits Canada and United Pine Art and Industrial exhibitions opened in
States, July 24—Oct. 20 ; returns to England Loudon and tho provinces . July—Sept. ,,
Nov. 15, ,, Death of Lord Palmerston . . Oct. 18, ..
-Severe cold. (See Cold) . Dec. i860, and Jan. 1S61 His public funeral .... Oct. 27,
': The regnal-dates are those given by sir H. Nicolas. The early Norman and Plantagenot kings reckoned
their reigns from the day of their coronation ; tho later Plantagencts from the day after the death of their
predecessor. With Edward VI. began the present custom of beginning the reign on the death of the
preceding sovereign.
ROYAL ARMS OT ENGLAND.
William I. William II. and Henry I.—two lions or England and France (ist and 4th quarter); 2nd,
leopards passant : Stephen—Sagittarius, tho archer the Hon rampant of Scotland ; 4th, the harp of
of the signs of the Zodiac (Traditional). Ireland.
Henry II. to Edward II. Three lions passant. George I. Goorgc II. and George III. introduced the
Edward III. and his successors quartered the pre arms of Brunswick.
ceding with flours do lys, the arms of France. In 1801 the arms of Franco were omitted. In 1816
Houry V. used only 3 fieurs de lys. tho arms wcro modifiod through Hanover being
Mary I. quartered tho preceding with the arms of made a kingdom.
her husband Philip II. of Spain. Victoria. In 1837 tho arms of Hanover were omitted
and the arms are now : 1st and 4th quarters, 3
UNITED KINGDOM. lions passant for England ; 2nd, lion rampant for
James I. and his successors combined the anus of Scotland ; 3rd, harp tor Ireland.
KNG 280 ENG
ENGLAND, continual.
1382; died Aug. 3, 1394. 2. Isabella, daughter rine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas Parr, and
of Charles V. of France ; married when only widow of Nevill, lord Latimer ; married July
seven years old, Nov. 1, 1396. On the 12, 1543 ; survived the king, after whose
murderof her husband she returned Uj her death she married sir Thomas Seymour,
father. created lord Sudley ; died Sept. 5, 1548.
1547. Edward VI. son of Henry VIII. (by Jane Sey-
HOUSE OF LANCASTER. mourj ; died July 6, 1553.
1399. Ilenry IV. cousin of Richard II. ; reign began 1553. Jane, daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and
Sept. 30 ; died March 20, 1413. wife of lord Guildford Dudley ; proclaimed
Queens, Mary, daughter of the earl of Hereford queen on the death of Edward ; ten days
she died, before Ilenry obtained the crown, afterwards returned to private life ; was
in 1394. 2. Joan of Navarre, widow of the tried Nov. 13, 1553 ; beheaded Feb. 12, 1554,
duke of Brctagne ; married 1403; survived when but 17 years of age.
the king ; died 1437. Mary, daughter of Henry (by Catherine of
1413. Henry V. his son ; reign began March 21 ; Aragon) ; married Philip of Spain, July 25,
died Aug. 31, 1422. 1554; uied Nov. 17, 1558.
Queen, Catherine, daughter of the king of 1558. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry (by Anne
France; married May 30, 1430. She outlived Boleyn), died March 24, 1603.
Henry, and was married to Owen Tudor,
grandfather of Henry VII., in 1423; died HOUSE OF STUART.
H37- VI. his eon; reign began Sept. 1;
1422. Henry 1603. James I. of England and VI. of Scotland, son
deposed March 4, 1461 ; murdered by Richard, of Mary, queen of Scots : died March 27. 1625.
duke of Gloucester, in the Tower, Juno 20, Queen, Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of
1471. Frederick II. ; married Aug. 20, 1590 ; died
Queen, Margaret, daughter of the duke of March, 1619.
Anjou ; married April 22, 1445 ; survived 1625. Charles I. his son ; beheaded at Whitehall,
the king ; died Aug. 25, 1481. Jan. 30, 1649.
Queen, Henrietta-Maria, daughter of Henry IV.
HOUSE OF YORK. king of France; married June 13, 1625;
1461. Edward IV. ; died April 9, 1483. survived the king; died in France, Aug. 10,
Qu*m, Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of sir 1669.
Richard Woodville, and widow of sir John
Grey, of Groby ; married March 1, 1463, or 1649. Commonwealth. Oliver Cromwell made pro
1464- Suspected of favouring the insurrec tector, Dec. 12, 1653; died Sept. 3, 1658.
tion of Lambert Simnel ; and closed her life 1658. Richard Cromwell, his son, made protector,
in confinement June 8, 1492. Sept. 4 ; resigned April 22, 1659.
1483. Edward V. bis son; deposed Juno 25, 1483,
and murdered in tho Tower by Gloucester; 1G60, Charles IT. son of Charles I. ; died Feb. 6, 1685.
reigned two months and thirteen days. Queen, Catherine of Braganzo, infanta of Por
,, Richard III. brother of Edward IV. ; began to tugal, daughter of John IV. and Bister of
reign June 26 ; slain at Bosworth, Aug. 22, Alfonso VI. ; married May 21, 1662 ; sur
1485. vived the king ; returned to Portugal ; died
Quern, Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick, Dec. 21, 1705.
and widow of Edwnrd, prince of Wales, 16S5. James II. bis brother; abdicated by flight,
whom Richard had murdered, 1471. She is Dec. 11, 1688 ; died in oxile, Aug. 6, 1701.
supposed to have been poisoned by Richard Queen. [Ann Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde,
(having died suddenly, March 16, 1485), to earl of Clarendon ; married Sept. 1660 ; died
make way for his intended marriage with before James ascended the throne, 1671
princess Elizabeth of York. mother of queens Mary and Anne. ] Mary
Beatrice, princess of Modena, daughter of
HOUSE OF TUDOR. Alphonzo d'Este, duke; married Nov. 21,
1485. Henry VII.; began to reign Aug. 22; died 1673; at the revolution in 1688, she retired
April 21, 1509. with James to France ; died at St. Gcrmains,
Queen, Elizabetli of York, princess of England, 1718.
daughter of Edward IV. ; married Jan. 18, 1689. William III. prince of Orange, king, and Mary,
i486; died Feb. 11, 1503. queen, daughter of James; married Nov. 4,
1509. Henry VI H. his son ; began to reign, April 22 ; 1677 ; began their reign, Feb. 13, 1689 ; Mary
died Jan. 28, 1547. died Dec. 28, 1694 ; William died of a fall
Queens, Catherine of Amgon, widow of Henry's from his horse, March 8, 1702.
elder brother, Arthur, prince ofWales ; mar 1702. Anno, daughter of James II. ; marriod George,
ried June 3, 1509; was the mother of queen prince of Denmark. July 28, 1683 ; succeeded
Mary ; was repudiated, and afterwards for to the throne, March 8, 1702 ; had thirteen
mally divorced, May 23, 1533; died Jan. 7, children, all of whom died young ; lost her
1536. 2. Annc,Boleyn, daughter ofsir Thomas husband, Oct. 28, 1708 ; died Aug. t, 1714.
Bolcyn, and maid of honour to Catherine ;
was private ly married, before Catherine was house of Hanover. (Sec Srunstcick and £*U.)
divorced, Nov. 14, 1532 ; was the mother of 1714. George I. elector of Hanover and duke of
queen Elizabeth ; was beheaded at the Tower, Brunswick-Luneburg ; son of Sophia, who
May 19, 1536. 3. Jane Seymour, daughter of was daughter of Elizabeth, the daughter of
sir John Seymour, and maid of honour to James I ; died June 11, 1727.
Anno Boleyn ; was married May 20, 1536, Queen, Sophia-Dorothea, daughter of the duke
tho day after Anne's execution ; was the of Zell ; she died in prison, Nov, 2, 1726.
mother of Edward VI. of whom she died in 1727. George II. his sou ; died Oct. 25, 1760.
childbirth, Oct. 24, 1537. 4. Anne of Cleves, Qneen, Wilhelmina Caroline Dorothea, of Bran
nistor of William, duke of Cleves ; married denburg-Anspach ; married 1705; died Nov.
Jan. 6, 1540; divorced July 10, 1540; died 20, 1737.
1 557. 5. Catherine Howard, niece of the duke 1760. George 111. grandson of George II ; died Jan.
of Norfolk ; married July 28, 1540 ; be 29, 1820.
headed on Tower-hill, Feb. 12, 1542. 6. Cathe Quttit, Charlotte Sophin, daughter of the duke
ENG 2S1 ENG
ENGLAND, continued.
of Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; married Sept. 8, 1830. William IV. brother of George IV. ; died June
1761 ; died Nov. 17, 1818. 20, 1837.
1820. George IV. his son ; died June 26, 1830. Queen,Adelaide Amelia LouisaTheresaCaroline,
Queen, Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of sister of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen ; mar
the duke of Brunswick ; married, April 8, ried July it, 18x8; died Dec. 2, 1849.
1795, died, Aug. 7, 1821. (Sec article Quein 1837. Victoria, the reigning queen, wuom god pre-
Caroline.) servk.
THE PRESENT ROYAL FAMILY OF GREAT BRITAIN.
The Queen*,* Alexandria Victori a, only daughter of Edward, duke of Kent ;t born May 24. 1819: suc
ceeded to the throne on the decease of her uncle, William IV. June 20, 1837 ; crowned at Westminster,
June 28, 1838 ; married (Feb. 10, 1840) to her cousin,
Francis-Albert-Augustus Charles-Emmanuel, duke of Saxc, princo of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha ; born Aug.
26, 1819 (ordered June 20, 1857. to be styled Prince Contort) ; elected chancellor of the university of
Cambridge, Feb. 28, 1847; died Dec. 14, 1861.
IKSUE. 3. Alice-Maud-Mary, born April 25, 1843 • married
Victoria-Adelaide-Mary-Louisa, princess royal, prince Louis of Hesse-Darmstadt, July 1, 1S62
born Nov. 21, 1840; married to prince Fredonck- (dowry 30,000^, annuity ooooi.). Itme : Victoria,
William of Prussia, Jan. 25, 1858 (dowry 40,000/. April 5, 1863 ; a princess, Nov. r, 1864.
and annuity of 8000/.). l&tue : B'rederick-William, 4. Alfred-Ernest, born Aug. 6, 1844; entered the
born Jan. 27, 1859; Charlotte, July 24, i860; Euryaltut ;is midshipman, Aug. 31, 1858.
Henry, Aug. 14, 1862; Sigismond, Sept. 15, 1864. 5. Helena-Augusta-Victoria, born May 25, 1846.
Albert-Edward, prince of Wales, duke of Saxony, 6. Louisa-Carolina-Alberta, lw>m March 18, 1848.
duke of Cornwall and Rothsay, earl of Cheater 7. Arthur-Patrick-Albert, born May 1, 1850.
and Carrick, baron of Renfrew, and lord of the 8. Leopold-George-Duncan-Albert, born April 7,
Isles, born Nov. 9, 1841 ; married princess Alex 1853.
andra of Denmark, March 10, 1863. Issue: Al- 9. Beatrice-Mary-Victoria Fcodore, born April 14,
bort Victor, born Jan. 8, 1864 ; George Frederick, 1857.
June 3, 1865. (Sec Wales.)
The Queen's Aunt and Cousins, Augusta, duchess (widow of the late duke) of Cambridge, born July 25,
1797. Her ton, George, duke of Cambridge, commander-in-chief, born March 26, 1819 ; and her
dawthters, Augusta, grand duchess of Mocklenburg-Strehtz, born July 19, 1822 ; and the princess Mary
of Cambridge, born Nov. 27, 1833.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE is traced from the Frisian variety of the Teutonic or Germanic
branch of the great Indo-European family.
Celtic prevailed in England . . . a.d. i ordered to bo used in Ireland, 28 Hen. VIII. . 1536
T-atin introduced i-45° The English was ordered to bo used in all law
Saxon prevails (Beowulf, Cajdinon, Alfred) 450-1066 suits, and tho Latin disused . . May, 1731
Latin re-introduced by missionaries . . 596 Per-centage of Anglo-Saxun words in the
Norman French combining with English} (Orm, English Bible, 97 ; Swift, 89 ; Shakspeare
Robert of Gloucester, Layamon, Havelok) 1066-1350 and Thomson, 85 ; Addison, 83; Spenser and
English in course of formation . . . 1209-1500 Milton, 81 ; Locke, 80 ; Young, 79 ; Pope, 76 ;
English formed , 1550 Johnson, 75 ; Robertson, 68 ; Hume, 65 ;
Law pleadings were made in English by order Gibbon, 58. Marsh.
of Edward III. instead of the French lan Of 100,000 English words, 60.000 are ofTeutonic
guage 136*2 origin ; 30,000 Greek and Latin ; and 10,000
Tho English tongue and English apparel were from other sources.
PRINCIPAL BRITISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS.
Born. Died. ' Soriu Died. Bom. Died.
John Gowcr . about 1320 1402 Walter Raleigh . ■ 1552 1618 John Locke • 1632 1704
Geoffrey Chaucer . 1328 1400 Francis Bacon . . 1561 1626 Joseph Addison . 1672 "7*9
Paston Letters . . 1460 1482 George Herbert . • 1593 1635 Matthew Prior . 1664 1721
Wm. Caxton . 1421 1491 Ben Jonson • 1574 1637 Richard Steele . ■ 1671, 1729
Sir Thomas Moro . 1482 1535 Philip Massingcr . 1584 1640 Daniel Do Foe . 1663 -731
Sir Philip Sidney . 1554 1586 KTeremy Taylor . . 1613 1667 John Gay . »73a
Holinshed's Chronicles, 1586 John Milton . 1608 1674 Alexander Pope . 1688 '744
John Fox . . .1517 isBf Isaac Barrow . ■ 1630 1677 Jonathan Swift . 1667 '74-,
Edmund Spenser . 1553 1598 Samuel Butler . 1612 1680 James Thomson . 1700 1748
Richard Hooker . . 1553 1600 John Bunyan . . 1628 7 633 Henry Fielding • *7»7 175 I
Wm. Shakspeare . 1564 1616 John-Dryden . 1631 1700 Samuel Richardson . 16S9 1761
* On Nov. 1, 1858, the queen was proclaimed throughout India as " Victoria, by the grace of God, of
the united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of tho colonies and dependencies thereof, in Europe,
Asia, Africa, America, and Australasia, Queen, defender of tho faith," Ac.
t Ho was bom Nov. 2, 1767 ; and died Jan. 23, 1820 ; he married Victoria-Maria-Louisa (widow of tho
prince of Leiningen, sister ot Leopold, king of the Belgians, and aunt to the prince consort), May 29, 1818.
She was born Aug. 17. 1786 ; and died March 16. 1861.
% William I and bis successors used English in their laws, Ac. ; it was superseded by Latin in the
reign of Henry IF. Norman French was not used in law-doods till the reign of Henry III.
ENG 2S2 ENT
ENGLISH LANGUAGE, continued.
Born. DirtL Bom, Ditil. Bom. Ditd.
Bdward Young. 1681 176* George lord Byron 1788 1824 Samuel Rogers 1763 1855
Laurence Sterne . , 1713 1768 Walter Scott . '77' 1832 Henry Hallam . 1778 1859
M:irk Akcuside 1721 '77° Samuel T. Coleridge 1772 1834 Thomas Do Quincey . 1786 1859
Thomas Gray 1716 '77' Charles Lamb ' . 1834 Washington Irving . ■783 1859
Tobias Smollett 1720 William Cobbott . '775I7&. '835 T. B. Macaulay. 1800 1859
< Mivcr Goldsmith . . 1728 '77' ■774 Robert Southey '774 1843 Abp. Richd. Whately 1787 1863
Il.ivid Hume . 1711 1776 Thomas Campbell '777 1844 Win. M. Thackeray . 1811 1863
S:imuol Johnson . 1709 1784 Sidney Smith . * '77' 1845 Thomas Carlylo
Monjamiu Franklin 1706 1790 William Wordsworth 1770 1850 George Bancroft . . '795 1800
William Bobertoon 1721 '793 J. Fenimore Cooper . 1798 '85. Edwd.Bulwer Lytton 1805
Edward Gibbon . ■737 '794 Joanna Baillio . 1763 1851 Benjamin Disraeli 1805
Robert Bums . 1759 William Prescott . 1796 1859 Alfred Tennyson . . 1809
AVUliam Cowper , ■73' 1796 1800 : Thomas Moore . 1780 1852 Charles Dickons 1812
TVrcy B. Shelley 1793 iSii ! John Wilson . . . 178s 1854 John Ruskin . . 1819
ENGRAVING on signets is mentioned Exod. xxviii. II., B.C. 149 1. Engraving on plates
iml wood began about the middle of the 15th century. Engraving on glass was ]>erfected by
1 lourdier, of Paris, 1 799. The copyright to engravings has been protected by several statutes;
among the principal are the acts 16 & 18 Geo. 111. 1775 and 1777 ; and the acts 7 & 8 Vict.
Aug. 6, 1844, and 15 Vict. May 28, 1852. A process of enlarging and reducing engravings
by means of sheets of vulcanised india-rubber, was shown by the electro-printing block
company in i860. See Lithography and Photo-Galranography.
Engraving on Coppeti. Prints from engraved ing which has reached our times is one represent
copper-plates made their appearance about 1450, ing St. Christopher carrying the infant Jesus over
and were first produced in Germany. Masso, sur- the sea ; it bears data 1423.
named Flnigucrra, is considered to have been the En shaving on Soft Steel, to be hardened after
first Italian engraver, about 1440. Theearliestdatc wards, was introduced into England by Messrs.
known of a copper plate engraving is 1461. Roll Perkins and Heath, of Philadelphia, 1819.
ing-presses for working the plates were invented Mezzotinto is said to have been discovered by coL
in 1545. Of the art of etching on copper by means do Sicgen, who engraved a portrait of princess
of aqt'.a-fortif, Francis Mazzuoli, or Parmegiano, is Amelia of Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643 ; it was im
the reputed inventor, about 1532. DePiUt. Etching proved by prince Rupert in 1648 ; sir Christopher
was practised by Albert Durer. The etching Wren further improved it In 1662.
club was established in 1838. Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is
Engraving on Wood, long known in China, began produced, was invented by tho celebrated French
in Europe with the brUf madder*, or manufacturers artist, St. Non, about 1662 ; ho communicated his
of playing cards, about 1400. (See Printing.) The invention to Le Prince. Barabbe of Paris was dis
art is referred by some to a Florentine," and by tinguished for his improvements in this kind of
"thers to Reuss, a German ; it was greatly im engraving, 1763. Chiar'-otcuro engraving origi
proved by Durcr (1471-1528) and Lucas Van Leyden nated with the Germans, and was first practised
(1497). It was much improved in England by by Mair, one of whoso prints bears date 1491. (See
Licwick and his brother, and pupils, Ne.sbett, An Zinc, Ac.)
derson, &c.y 1789, et acq. The earliest wood engrav
ENLISTMENT. No persons enlisting as soldiers or sailors are to be sworn in before a
magistrate in less than twenty-four hours after, and then they arc arc at libei'ty to withdraw
upon their returning the enlistment or bounty money, and 215. costs. Enlistment is now
entirely voluntary. In 1847 the term of enlistment was limited to ten years for the infantry,
and twelve years for the cavalry, artillery, and royal marines.
ENNISKILLEN (N.W. Ireland). This town made an obstinate defence against the army
of Elizabeth, 1595, and against James II., 1689. 1500 Eimiskilleners met general M'Carthy
with 6000 men (of whom 3000 were slain, and nearly all the rest made prisoners), they
losing but twenty men, July 30, 1689. The dragoon regiment, the (< Inniskilliugcrs," is
recruited here.
ENOCH, Book of, an apocryphal work, quoted by the fathers, disappeared about the
8th century. A MS. Ethiopic version was found in Abyssinia by Bruce, and brought to
England in 1773. Of this archbishop Lawrence published an English translation in 1821,
and the Ethiopic text in 1838.
ENTAIL of estates began with the statute of Westminster, 1285. Subsequent legislation
broke the entail in cases of treason (1534), when the estate is to revert to the crown, and of
bankruptcy (1833 and 1849), when it is to be sold.
ENTOMOLOGY, the science of insects, mainly based upon the arrangement of Linnauis,
1739. Ray's 4 * Method of Insects'' was published in 1705. The Entomological Society of
London was instituted in 1833.
* In " Lyra Germanica," miblished in 1861, are illustrations engraved upon blocks photographed from
negatives taken by John Lcighton, F.S. A,
ENV 2S3
ENVELOPES for letters came into general use shortly after the establishment of the
penny postal system in 1840. Machinery for their manufacture was patented by Mr. George
Wilson in 1844 ; and by Messrs. E. IX ill and Warren de la Rue in 1845.
ENVOYS at Courts, in dignity below ambassadors, enjoy the protection, but not the
ceremonies of ambassadors. Envoys Extraordinary are of modem date. Wicquefort. The
court of France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court in the royal
carriages, 1639.
EPACT (Greek, added) is tho excess of the solar month above the lunar synodical month,
1 day, 11 hours, 15 minutes, 57 seconds, tho lunar mouth being only 29 days, 12 hours,
44 minutes, 3 seconds ; and the excess of the solar year abovo the lunar synodical year
(nearly 11 days), tho lunar year being 354 days. The number of the Gregorian cpact for
1865, "is 3 ; for 1866, 14 ; for 1867, 25.
EPHESUS (in Asia Minor), a city founded by the Ionians about 1043 B.C. It was
subdued by Cyrus in 544 B.C. ; it revolted from the Persians 501 B.C. and was destroyed by
an earthquake in a.d. 17. Paul preached here A.D. 55, 56 (Acts xviii. xix.). His epistle to
the Ephesians is dated a.d. 64. See Diana, Temple of, and Seven Churches. The third
general council was held here in 431.
EPHOBI, powerful magistrates of Sparta, five in number, said to have been first created
by Thcopompus to control the royal power, about 757 B.c.
EPIC POEMS (from Greek epos, a song), narratives in Terse. Eminent examples :-
Homer's " Iliad " and "Odyssey'' (Grteh\ be Camoens' " Lusiad " (Portuguese)
tween 8th and 10th century B.C. (Sec Hoiaev) Tasso, "Jerusalem Delivered" (Italian) . . 1581
Virgil's " ^Kneid" (Latin), about . . B.C. Spenser's " Faery Queen " . 1590 6
Ovid's " Metamorphoses " (Latin), about . A.D. Milton's " Paradise Lost "... . . 1667
Dante (died 1321), " Divina Commcdin" (Italian) Voltaire, " Henriado " (French) . . 1728
published . . 1472 Walter Scott, "Lay of the Last Minstrel," ic. 1805
Ariosto, " Orlando Furioso " (Italian) . . . 1 516
EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, about 300 b.c,
taught that tho greatest. good consists in peace of mind springing from virtue, as tending to
prevent disquiet ; but the name epicurean is given to those who derive happiness from sensual
pleasure.
EPIGRAMS derive their origin from the inscriptions placed by the ancients on their
tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin epigrammatist, who flourished about
a.d. 83, is allowed to have excelled all others ancient or modern. The following Latin
epigram on the miracle of Our Savour, in turning water into wine atCana (John iii.) is given
as an example :—
" ViditetorubuitlymphapudlcaDouin." " The modest water saw its God, and blushed." Crathaic, d. 1650.
EPIPHANY (appearance), a feast (Jan. 6), vulgarly called Twelfth Day, celebrates the
manifestation of the Saviour, by the appearance of the star which conducted the Mogi to
the place whero he was to be found ; instituted 813. Wheally.
EPIRUS (Northern Greece). Its early history is very obscure.
The first Pyrrhus (Kooptolemus) settled in Ho takes Macodon from Antigonus . . b.c
Epirus, afcer tho Trojan war, 1170B.C, and He unsuccessfully invados Sparta ; enters
was killed in tho temple of Delphi, about B.C. 1165 Argos, and is killed by a tile, thrown by a
Fyrrhus the Great roigns, 295 ; he takes Mace- woman 272
don from Demetrius, 290 ; compelled to yield Philip unites Epirus to Macedon 2-iO
it to Lysimachus 287 Its conquest by tho Romans I67
He invades Italy : defeats the Romans, 280 ; «*#*••
again, 279 ; subdues Sicily .... 278 Epirus annexed to tho Ottoman empire a d.
He invades Italy again, and is totally defeated An insurrection put down ■351
by Curius Dentatus 274
EPISCOPACY. See Bishops.
EPITAPHS were inscribed on tombs by the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Mr. T. J.
Tettigrew published a collection entitled "Chronicles of the Tombs," in 1857.
EPITHALAMIUM, a nuptial song at marriage. Tisias, tho lyric poet, is said to have
been the first writer of one. He received the name of Stesichorus, from the alterations
made by him in music and dancing. 536 B.C. Bossucl.
EPO 2SJ ESC
EPOCHA, a point of time made remarkable by some event, from which subsequent years
are reckoned by historians and chronologers. See Eras.
Creation B.c. 4004 ] Building of Rome B c. 753
Dolugo 2348 The birth of Christ .... a.d. i
1st Olympiad 776 | The Hetfira (or flight of Mahomet) . . . 622
EPSOM (Surrey). The mineral springs wore discovered in 1618.' The races began about
1711, and have been held annually sinco 1 730.
EQUATOR (or Ecuador), a South American republic, founded in 183 1, when the Colum
bian republic was divided into three ; the other two being Venezuela aud New Granada.
The population of Equator is about 1,040,400, of which 76,000 are in Quito, the capital,
d'tneral Franco, president, Aug. 21, 1859 ; defeated in battle by general Florcs, Aug. i860.
President (elected in 1861) G. G. Moreno.
EQUINOX. When the sun in his progress passes through the equator in one of the
equinoctial points, the day aud night are equal all over the globe. This occurs twice in the
year; about March 21, the vernal equinox, and Sept. 22, the autumnal equinox. The
equinoctial points move, backwards about 50 seconds yearly, requiring 25,000 years to
accomplish a complete revolution. This is called the precession of the equinoxes, which is
said to have been observed by the ancient astronomers.
EQUITY, Courts of, are those of the lord chancellor, the vice-chancellors, and the
master of the rolls, their office being to correct the operations of the literal text of the law,
and supply its defects by reasonable construction not admissible in a court of law. The
supreme court of session in Scotland combines the functions of law and equity. In 1865
equity powers were conferred on the county courts for cases respecting sums uuder 500Z.
ERAS. Notices of the principal eras will be found in their alphabetical order ; a few
only need be mentioned here.
Km of Nabonatmr, after which the astronomical The Romans reckoned from the building of
observations made at Babylon were reckoned, their city, 753 B.C.; and afterwards from
began Feb. 26, B.C. 747 the 16th year of the emperor Augustus (see
Era of the Sclcucidte (used by the Maccabees), Caaars), which reckoning was long used by
commenced 312 the Spaniards.
The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and dute The Mahometans began tlicir era from the
from the year 776 B.C. ; they subsequently Jlfgira, or flight of their prophet from Mecca,
reckoned by indictions, tho first beginning A.D.
a.d. 313; these, among chronologers, arc still Sec Calendar, Creation, Anno Domini,
used. (See Indictiont )
ERASTIANISM, the opinions of Thomas Lieber (latinised Eraslus), a German physician
(1523-84), who taught that the church had no right to exclude any person from church
ordinances, or to inflict excommunication, &c. Persons who acknowledge the jurisdiction of
the civil power in spiritual matters and the law of patronage, are now termed Erastians.
ERASURES. By order of sir John Romilly, master of the rolls, in 1855, no document
corrected by erasure with the knife is to be henceforth received in the court of chancery.
The errors must be corrected with the pen.
ERFURT (Central Germany), was founded in 476 ; and its university established about
1390. Erfurt was ceded to Prussia in 1802. It capitulated to Murat, when 14,000 Prussian
troops surrendered, Oct. 16, 1806. In this city Napoleon and Alexander met, and offered
peace to England, Sept. 27, 1808. The French retreated to Erfurt from Lcipsic, Oct. 18,
1S13. A German parliament met here in March and April, 1850.
ERICSSON'S CALORIC ENGINE. See neat, note.
ESCHP'ATS. Land or other property that falls to a lord within his manor by forfeiture
or death. The eschcator observes the rights of the king in the county whereof he is cschcator.
Vowel. In London a court of escheats was held before the lord mayor to recover the property
of a bastard who died intestate, for the king ; such a court had not been held in the city for
150 years before—July 16, 1771. Phillips.
ESCURIAL (or Escorial, 25 miles N.W. of Madrid), the magnificent palace of the
sovereigns of Spain, was commenced by Philip II. in 1563 and completed in 1586, at a cost
of 6,000,000 of ducats. It is built in the form of a gridiron in honour of St. Lawrence, on
whose day (Aug. 10, 1557) the Spaniards gained the victory of St. Quentin. According to
Francisco dc los Santos, the total length of all its rooms and apartments, is above 120 English
miles. Alvarez dc Colmenar asserts that there are 14,000 doors, and 11,000 windows.
»
* Industrial exhibitions began with the French ; Exposition* having been organised and opened at Paris
in 1798, 1801, 1802, 1806, 1819, 1823, 1827, 1834, 1839, 1844, and 1849, the last, being the eleventh, exceeding
all the preceding in extent and brilliancy. The first exhibition of the kind in this country was the National
Repository, opened under royal patronage in 1828, near Charing-cross. It was not successful Other ex
hibitions were opened at Manchester in 1837, at Leeds in 1839, and at Birmingham in 1849. Exhibitions
have since been held at Cork, Dublin, Manchester, New York, Paris, Montreal, Florence, Constantinople,
Bayonne, &c. (which gee).
t The palace, with the exception of the flooring and joists, was entirely of glass and iron. It was de
signed by Mr. (since sir Juseph) Paxtou (who died June 8, 1865), and the contractors were Messrs. Fox and
Henderson, to whom it was agreed to pay 79,800?., or 150,000^ if the building were permanently retained
It cost 176,030?. 13*. Bd. Its length was 1851 feet, corresponding with the year ; the width 408 feet, with an
additional projection on the north side, 936 feet long, by 48 wide. The central portion was 120 feet wide
and 64 feet high, and the great avenues ran east and west through the building ; the transept near tho
centre was 72 feet wide and 108 feet high. The entire area was 772,784 square feet, or about 19 acres. Four
galleries ran lengthways, and others round the transept. The ground-floor and galleries contained 1 ,000,000
square feet of flooring. There were altogether 4000 tons of iron in the structure, and 17 acres of glass in
the roof, besidos about 1500 vertical glazed sashes.
J The main building occupied about 16 acres of ground, and the annexes 7 acres. The south front was
1150 feet long and 55 feet high, and over the east and west fronts rose tho two domes 260 feet high. The
EXO 29 1 FAB
EXODUS (Greek, way out), a twin applied to the departure of the Israelites from Egypt
149 1 B.C.; and described in tho book of Exodus. Chronologers vary in the date of this
event: the LXX. give 1614 ; Hales, 1648; Wilkinson, 1495 ; Bunsen, 1320 or 1314.
EX OFFICIO INFORMATIONS are those filed by the attorney-general, by virtue of
his office, without applying to tho court where they are filed for leave, or giving the defendant
an opportunity of showing cause why they should not be filed. Cabinet Lawyer. They
were used by the Liverpool administration a at 1817—19. William Hone was tried on
criminal information, Dec. 18-20, 181 7, and quitted. The British bank directors were
thus tried, 1857.
EXPEDITIONS, British. Many are described under their respective heads : e.g.
Franco, near Port l'Orient Oct. 1. t74G Ferrol, in Spain . Aug. 1S00
Cherbourg . Aug. 7. 175S Egypt (-4bercrombie) . March, 1S01
St. Malo ; 4000 men lost . . Sept. ■758 Copenhagen Sept. i?<>7
Quiberon Bay (Frairh emigrants) 1796 Walcheren (unfortunate) July, 1809
Ostend (all made prisoners) May, 1798 Bcrgen-op-Zoom March 8, 1814
Holder Point and Zuyder Zeo Stpt. 1799 Crimea . Sept. 1854
EXPENDITURE. See under Revenue..
EXPORTS. Edward III. by his encouragement of trade turned the scale so much iu
favour of English merchandise, that by a balance taken in his time, the exported commo
dities amounted to 294,000?. anil tho imported to only 38,000/. See Revenue. Tho declared
value is of much less amount than the official.
OFFICIAL VALUE OF EXPORTS FB.OM GREAT BRITAIN TO ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD, VIZ. :—
1700 .... £6,097,120 1810 • £45.869,839 1840 . £97,402,726
1750
1775 . . • . . 10,130,991 16,326,363 1820 • 5i,733,"3 1845 . 131,564,503
1S30 • 66,735,445 1 8 50 . 175,126,706
1800 ..... 38,220,120 'S35 • 78,376,732 .85 1 . 190,397,810
TOTAL DECLARED VALUE OF BRITISH AND IKISH PRODUCE EXPOKTED.
1851 ■ £74.448,722 £115,826,948 i860 £135.891,227 1863 . £146,602,342
1853 ■ 98,933.78i .857 122,155,237 iSflt 125,102,814 1864 . 160,436,302
1855 . 95,688,085 ■859 '30.440,427 1862 123.992,264
EXTREME UNCTION. See Anointing.
EYLAU (Prussia), where on Feb. 7, 8, 1807, tho French defeated the Russians, in one
of the most bloody contests of the war. Napoleon commanded in person. Both armies by
this and other battles were so much reduced, that the French retired to the Vistula, and the
Russians on the Pregel. The victor lost 15,000 men ; tho Russian loss in slain alone was
20,000.
EYRE (old French for ire, to go). Tho itinerant court of justices, the justices in eyre,
was instituted by Henry II. 11 76 ; and when the forest laws were in force, its chief justice
had great dignity. These justices were to go their circuit every third year, and punish all
abuses committed in the king's forests. The last instauce of a court being held in any of
the forests is believed to have been in 1671. Bcatson.
F.
FABII. A noble and powerful family at Rome, who derived their name from /aba, a
bean, because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulso ; they were said to be descended
from Fabius, a supposed son of Hercules, and were once so numerous that they took upon
themselves to wago war against the Veientes. They came to a general engagement near the
Cromera, in which all the family, consisting of 306 men, were slain in a sudden attack,
477 B.C. There only remained one, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, and from
him arose the noble Fabii in the following ages. Fabius Cunctator (tho delayer) kept
Hannibal in check for some time without coming to an engagement, 217, 216 B.C.
interior was decorated by Mr. John O. Cmce. The building was given up to Messrs. Kolk and Lucas on
inDoe.>• down
31, 1862, the houseonofJuly
commenced commons
6. Thehaving
domesrefused to purchase
and other parts of ittheforstructure
8o,ooof. were
July purchased
2. 1863 : and
for tho pull-
erection
in Alexandra-park, Muswcll-hil!, near London (north).
FAB 205 FAL
FABLES. " Jotham's fuble of the trees (Judges ix., about 1209 B.C.) is the oldest extant,
and as beautiful as any made since." Addison. Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam. xii.,
about 1034 B.C.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collection of fables extant is of eastern
origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo Sarma, called Pilpay, are the
most beautiful, if not the most ancient in the world. Sir William Jones. The well-known
jEsop's fables (which see), supposed to have been written about 565 or 620 B.C., were versified
by Babrius, a Greek poet, about 130 B.C. (Coray), and turned into prose by Maximus
Planudes, a Greek monk, about 1320, who added other fables and appended a worthless life
of JSsop. The fables of Lafoutaiue (1700) and Gay (1727) are justly celebrated.
FACTIONS, among the Romans, were parties that fought on chariots in the circus, and
who were distinguished by their colours, as green, blue, red, and white ; to which Domitian
added two others, gold and scarlet, about 90. At Constantinople, the higher ranks took
part in the games, and the einperors and people generally favoured one colour. *
FACTORIES, supplied with machinery for producing manufactures, have immensely
increased in this country since 181 5. The Factory act, regulating the hours of labour, &<*.,
was passed in 1833. No child is to be employed uuder nine years of age, except in silk
factories. Similar acts have been passed since.
FAIRLOP OAK, with a trunk 48 feet in circumference, the growth of five centuries, in
the forest of Hainault, Essex, was blown down in Feb., 1820. Beneath its branches a fail-
was annually held on the first Friday in July, which originated with the eccentric Mr. Day,
a pump and block maker of Wapping, who, having a small estate in the vicinity, annually
repaired here with a party of friends, to dine on beans and bacon.
FAIROAKS, near the Chickahominy, Virginia, the site of two sanguinary indecisive
battles between the Confederates, under general Joseph Johnson, and the Federal army of
the Potomac, under general M'Clellan, May 31, and June 1, 1862.
FAIRS and Wakes, of Saxon origin, were instituted in England by Alfred, 886.
Spelman. "Wakes were established by order of Gregory VII. in 1078, and termed Feriiv, at
which the monks celebrated the festival of their patron saint : the vast resort of people
occasioned a great demand for goods, wares, &c. Fairs were established in France about 800
"by Charlemagne, and encouraged in England about 1071 by William the Conqueror.
FALCONRY in England cannot be traced with certainty until the reign of king Ethel-
T)crt, the Saxon monarch, 850. Pennant. The grand seignior at one time kept six thousand
falconers in his service. Recents attempts have been mado to revive falconry.
FALCZI, Peace of, concluded between Russia and Turkey, July 2, 171 1, the Russians
giving up Azoph and all their possessions on the Black Sea to the Turks. The Russians
were saved from imminent destruction by the address of Catherine the empress. In 1 7 1 2 the
war was renewed, and terminated by the peace of Constantinople, April 16, 1712.
FALERNIAN WINE, celebrated by Virgil and Horace, was the produce of Falernus, or,
as called by Martial, Mons Massicus, in Campania. Horace in his Odes boasts of having
drunk Falernian wine that had been, as it were, born with him, or which reckoned its age
from the same consuls, 14 B.C. The Opimian wine is said to have been kept for 200 years.
FALKIRK (Stirlingshire, Scotland), the site of a victory by the English under Edward I.
over the Scots, commanded by Wallace, part of whose forces deserted him. It is said from
20,000 to 40,000 of the latter were slain, July 22, 1298. A battle was fought here between
the royal forces and prince Charles Stuart, in which the former were defeated, Jan. 1 7, 1 746.
FALKLAND ISLANDS, a group in the South Atlantic, belonging to Great Britain.
Seen by Amcricus Vespucius ; and visited by Davis, 1592. Taken possession of by France,
1764. The French were expelled by the Spaniards ; and in 1 77 1, Spain gavo up the sove
reignty to England. Not having been colonised by us, the republic of Buenos Ayres assumed
a right to these islands, and a colony from that country settled at Port Louis ; but owing to
a dispute with America, the settlement was destroyed by the latter in 1831. In 1S33 the
British flag was hoisted at Port Louis, and a British officer has since resided there.
M'Culloch.
* In Jan. 532, a conflict took place, when about 30,000 lives were lost, and Justinian was mainly in
debted for his life and throno to tne heroism of his empress Theodora, formorly a courtesan. Tho blues
and greens united for a day or two against the emperor, taking Nita ! (overcome) for a watchword, from
which the sedition has been name i. The blues soon repented, and massacred nearly all tho greens. The
games wero suppressed for a time.
FAM 296 FAS
FAN. The use of the fan was known to the ancients ; Cape hoc flabcllum, el vcnluluin
kuic sic faeilo. " Take this fan, and give her thus a little air." Terence, Eunuchus, B.C.
166. —Fans, together with muffs, masks, and false hair, were first devised by the harlots in
Italy, and were brought to England from France. Stvw. The fan was used by females to
hide their faces at church. Pardon. In the British Museum are fan-handles and other
articles of Egyptian manufacture, used anciently by women.
FARCE, a short comic drama, usually of one or two acts. One by Otway is dated 1677.
The best English farces (by Foote, Garrick, Bickerstaff, &c.) appeared from about 1740 to
1780. These species of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll shows which were
exhibited by charlatans and their buffoons in the open street. See Drama.
FAIiNESE FAMILY became important through the elevation of Alexander Farnesc
to the papacy as Paul III. He gave his natural son Peter the duchy of Parma, and his
descendants ruled there till the death of Antony without issue in 1 731 . Alexander prince of
Parma was governor of the Netherlands in 1579.
FARRINGDON-MARKET, erected by the corporation of London, near the old Fleet-
market, was opened Nov. 20, 1829.
FARTHING, an early English coin. Farthings in silver were coined by king John ; the
Irish farthing of his reign is of the date of 1210, and is valuable and rare. Farthings were
coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. First coined in copper by Charles II. 1665;
iind again in 1672, when thero was a large coinage of copper money. Half-farthings were
first coined in the reign of Victoria, 1843. See Queen Anne's Farthings.
FASTS, observed by most nations from the remotest antiquity ; by the Jews (2 Citron.
xx. 3) ; by the Ninevites (JonaJi iii. ). A fast was observed by the Jews on the great day of
atonement, Lev. xxiii. 1490 B.C. The first Christian ministers were ordained with fasting
(45), Acts xiii. 2. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other stated times, and on par
ticular occasions to appease the anger of God, began in the Christian church, in the second
century, 138. The Mahometan fast is termed Ramadan (which sec). Fast days are
appointed by the Reformed churches in times of war and pestilence (as March 21, 1855),
for the Russian war, and Oct. 7, 1857, for the Indian mutiny). See Abstinence.
FAT 2<>7 FEN
FATHERS of the CHURCH. The following are the principal :
SECOND CENTURY. Greek. Latin I Athanasius, d. . . 373 Cyril of Alexandria,!*. 444
Justin Martyr, d. abt 166 Tertullian . t1. abt. 220 ; Ephrem Syrus, ti.abt. 378
Irenfeus . . d. abt 200 Minutius Felix,Jt. abt. 230 , Basil . d 379 latin.
Athenagoras. Cyprian . . d. abt. 258 i Cyril of Jerusalem, </. 386 Aruobius . ft- 3°3
Gregory Nozianzcn,ff. 389 Lictantius d. abt. 330
THIRD CKNTURY. - Greek. KOURTn AND FIFTH CEN GrcgoryNyssen.d.abt. 394 Ambroso • <<• 397
Clements . . a*, abt. 217 TURIES. Greek. Kpiplianius . d. 402 Jerome . d. 420
Origen . . d. abt. 253 . Eusebius . d. abt. 340 Chrysostom if. 407 Augustine . d. 430
FATIM1TES. See Alt and Mahometanism.
FATS are oils solid at ordinary temperatures. The researches of Chevrcul since 181 1 on
their chemical nature are very important. See Caivilcs.
FAUSTUS, a professor of magic, renowned in cheap-books, flourished about the end of
the 15th century. Goethe's poem, " Faust," appeared in 1790.
FEASTS and FESTIVALS. The "Feasts of the Lord," viz., those of the Passover,
Pentecost, Trumpets, and Tabernacles were instituted 1490 B.C. [Leviticus, ch. xxiii.).
The Feast of the Tabernacles was celebrated with the greatest magnificence for fourteen
days, upon the dedication of the temple of Solomon, 1004 B.C. Hezekiah (726 B.C.) and
Josiah (623) kept the feast of Passover in a most solemn manner. In the Christian Church
the feasts of Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and the Pentecost or Whitsuntide, arc said to
have been ordered to be observed by all Christians, in the 1st century. Rogation days were
appointed in 469. Jubilees in the Romish Church were instituted by Boniface VIII. in
1300. See Jubilees. For fixed festivals observed in the Church of England, as settled at
the Reformation, etseq,, see Book of Common Prayer. For Feasts of Charily, see Agapce.
FEBURARY (from Februus, an Italian divinity), the second month of the year, in which
were celebrated Februa, feasts on behalf of the manes of deceased persons. This month,
with January, was added to the year by Numa, 713 B.c.
FECIALES, or Fetiales, heralds of Rome, twenty in number, to denounce war or pro
claim peace, appointed by Numa, about 712 B.C. •
FEDERAL STATES are those united by treaty as one state, without giving up self-
government—as in Switzerland. The term Federal was given to the Northern of the United
States of America during the great conflict in 1861-5.
FEEJEE ISLANDS, or Fiji, in the Pacific Ocean, about 1500 miles from Sydney.
There are 80 islands, the largest about 360 miles in circumference, with 20,000 inhabitants.
The islands were offered by the chiefs to the British government, July, 1859 ; but not
accepted. In i860 the house of commons granted 1680J. for expenditure in them.
FELONY, in English law (says Blackstone, in 1765) comprises every species of crime
which occasions the forfeiture of land and goods.
FENCIBLE LIGHT DRAGOONS, a body of cavalry raised voluntarily in various
counties of England and Scotland in 1 794, to serve during the war in any part of Great
Britain. This force (between 14,000 and 15,000), which did its duty with much judgment
during a period of intense popular excitement, was disbanded in 1800.
FENCING was introduced into England from France. Fencing-schools having led to
duelling in England, were prohibited in London by statute 13 Edw. I. 1285. In 1859 there
were eight teachers of fencing in London.
FENIANS, a secret society in the United States of America, which became known early
in 1863, formed with the professed object of invading Ireland and establishing a republic.
Attempts to enlist supporters in Dublin in Jan. 1864, were discountenanced by the Roman
Catholic clergy, but secret drilling went on till Sept. 1865. John O'Mahony, termed the
"head-centre," resides at New York. The principal agent in Ireland is Stephens, who was
concerned in the movement in 1848. See Ireland.
Riot between the Fenians and their opponents A ship laden with gunpowder seized at Liver
at the Rotondo, Dublin . . Fob. 22, 1864 pool Sept. 1865
25 persons arrested in Dublin, and tho news Allocution of tho pope, condemning secret
paper the lrith People (established Sept. 1863) societies Sept 30 ,,
seized Sept 15, 1865 Evidence adduced that 5000/. and 2000 pike-
Other persons, principally of the lower classes heads had been rccelvod from America in
of society, arrested . Sept. 17-30 ,, Sept.
The Fenians in America published an address, O'Donovan and 5 others committed for high
stating that officers wore going to Ireland to treason Oct a, ,,
organise an army of 200,000 men . Sept. „ 33 Fenians committed for trial, up to Oct 14, „
Fenians arrested at Manchester Sept. 21, ,, Many arriving from America are arrested Oct. ,,
FEU ■2:<H FET
FERE-CHAMPENOISE (France). Here tlie French army under Marmont, Mortier,
and Arrighi, were surprised and defeated by the Austrians under the prince of Sehwartzen-
berg, March 25, 1814, after a heroic resistance. Paris surrendered to the allies six days
after.
FERLE LATINiE were solemn festivals at Rome, instituted by Tarquin the Proud,
about 534 B.C. The principal magistrates t)f forty-seven towns of Latium assembled on a
mount neat Rome, where they and the Roman authorities offered a bull to Jupiter Latialis.
FERMENTATION, by Gay-Lnssac, termed one of the most mysterious processes in
nature : he showed that in the process, 45 lbs. of sugar are resolved into 23 of alcohol and 22
of carbonic aeid. His memoir appeared in 1810. In 1861 Pasteur brought forward
evidence to show that fermentation depends on the presence of minute organisms in the
fermenting fluid, and that the source of all such organisms is the atmosphere.
FERNS (Ireland), an ancient bishopric, once archiepiscopal. St. Edsen was seated here
in 598. Lcighlin and Ferns were united in 1600 ; and by the Church Temporalities' act,
passed Aug. 1833, both were united to the bishopric of Ossory. See Ossory. — Ferns, an
order of cryptogamous plants, now much cultivated in/Wardian cases, which see, and also
Nature-Printing.
FEROZESIIAH (India). The British, commanded by sir Hugh Gough, attacked the
entrenchments of the Sikhs, and carried by storm their first line of works, Dec. 21, 1845 ;
but night coming on, the operations were suspended till daybreak next day, when their
second line was stormed by general Gilbert, and 74 guus captured. The Sikhs advanced
to retake their guns, but wero repulsed with great loss, and retreated towards the Sutlej,
Dec. 22 ; and recrossed that river unmolested, Dec. 27. The British loss was reckoned
at 2415.
FERRARA, a city in the Papal States, formerly part of the Exarchate of Ravenna, under
the emperors of the East. It was subdued by the Lombards in the 8th century, and taken
from them about 752 by Pepin, who gave it to pope Stephen II. About 1208 it fell into the
hands o? the house of Este (which see), and became the principal seat of the literature and
fine arts in' Italy. Pope Clement VIII. obtained the long-claimed sovereignty in 1598, on
the death of the duke Alphonso family. His
illegitimate nephew, Csesar, became duke of Modena. The French under Massena took
Ferrara in 1796 ; but it was restored to the pope in 1814. An Austrian garrison held it from
1849 ; it retired in June, 1859, and the people rose and declared for annexation to Sardinia,
which was accomplished in Starch, i860.
FERRARS' ARREST. In March, 1542, Mr. George Ferrars, a member of parliament,
being iu attendance on the house, was taken in execution by a sheriff's officer for debt, and
committed to the Compter prison. The house despatched their Serjeant to require his
release, which was resisted, and an affray taking place, his mace was broken. The house in
a body repaired to the lords to complain, when the contempt was adjudged to be very
great, and the punishment of the offeuders was referred to the lower house. On another
messenger being sent to the sheriffs by the commons, they delivered up the senator, and the
civil magistrates and the creditor were committed to the Tower, the inferior officers to
Newgate, and an act was passed releasing Mr. Ferrars from liability for the debt. The king,
Henry VIII., highly approved of all these proceedings, and the transaction became the basis
of that rule of parliament which exempts members from arrest. Holinshcd.
FERRO, the most western of the Canary isles, from whose west point some geographers
have taken their first meridian, was known to the ancients, and was re-discovered in 1402.
FERROL (N."\V. Spain). Upwards of 10,000 British lauded near Ferrol under the
command of sir James Pulteney, in Aug. 1800. They gained possession of the heights ;
notwithstanding which the British general, despairing of success, on account of the strength
of the works, re-embarked his troops. His conduct, which was in opposition to the opinion
of his officers, was very much condemned in England. The French took seven sail of the
line here, Jan. 27, 1809.
FESCENNINE VERSES were rude extemporary dialogues, frequently licentious, in
favour among the ancient Etruscans, and still popular in Italy.
FESTIVALS. See Feasts.
FETE de DIEU, a feast of the Roman church in honour of the real presence in the
Ix)rd's Supper, kept on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. See Corpus Christi, Berengarius,
FfiT 209
archbishop of Angers, was opposed to the doctrine of transubstantiation when it was
propagated, and to atone for his crime a yearly procession was made at Angers, which was
called la fete de I>ieu, 1019.
FETE de VERTU, an annual assemblage, chiefly of young persons, to whom wero
adjudged rewards for industry and virtue. These fetes, held at Nuucham, in Oxfordshire,
begun by lady Harcourt in 1789, continued till her death.
FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land by suit anil service to the lord or owner was
introduced into England by the Saxons, about 600. This slavery was increased in 1068.
The kingdom was divided into baronies, which were given on condition of the holders
furnishing the king with men and money. Tho vassalage, restored, but limited by Henry VII.,
1495, was abolished by statute 1660. The feudal system was introduced into Scotland by
Malcolm II. in 1008, and the hereditary jurisdictions were finally abolished in that kingdom,
1746-7. The feudal laws, established in France by Clovis I. about 486, were discountenanced
by Louis XI. in 1470.
FEUILLANTS, a religious order founded by Jean de la Barriere in 1577 at the abbey of
Feuillant, near Toulouse, and settled in Paris in 1587. The Feuillant club, formed in Paris
by La Fayette and others in 1789, to counteract the intrigues of the Jacobins, was so
named from tho convent, where they met. A body of Jacobins burst into their hall and
obliged them to separate, Dec. 25, 1791 ; and the club was broken up in 1792.
FEZ (in the ancient Mauritania, Africa), founded by Edris, a descendant of Mahomet,
about 787, was long capital of the kingdom of Fez. After long-continued struggles, it was
annexed to Morocco about 1550. Leo Africanus describes it as containing more than seven
hundred temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the 12th century.
FICTIONS. See Romances.—Fictions in Law wero invented by the lawyers in the
reign of Edward I. as a means of carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the
courts became checks to each other. Hume. Lord Mansfield, in the court of King's
Bench, emphatically declared, that "no fiction of law shall ever .so fa 11 prevail
AGAINST THE REAL TRUTH, AS TO PREVENT THE EXECUTION OF JUSTICE," May 3 1, I784.
FIEF. See Feudal laws.
FIELD of March and May. See Champ. Field of the Cloth of Gold, a plain
near Ardres, near Calais, in France, on which Henry VIII. met Francis I. of France, June,
7-25, 1520. The nobility of both kingdoms displayed their magnificence, and many
involved themselves in debt. Paintings of the embarkation and interview are at Windsor
castle.
FIERY CHAMBER. See Chambrc Ardente.
FIESCHI'S ATTEMPT on Louis-Philippe. See France, 1835.
FIFTH-MONARCHY MEN about 1643 supposed the period of the Millennium to bo
just at hand, when Jesus should descend from heaven, and erect the fifth universal monarchy.
They proceeded so far as to elect Jesus Christ king at London. Cromwell dispersed them,
1653. Kearsley. Another rising with loss of life was suppressed in Jan. 1661.
FIG-TREE (Ficus Carica). Brought from the south of Europe, before 1548. The
Botany-Bay Fig, Ficus Australis, brought from N.S. Wales in 1789.
FIGURES. See Arithmetic, and Digits.
FILES are mentioned (1 Sam. xiii. 21) B.c. 1093. Tho manufacture of them has
attained to great perfection, by means of file-cutting machinery. That set up by Sir. T.
Greenwood of Leeds, in 1859, was invented by M. Bernot of Paris. It is said that the price
of files made by it are reduced from 32^. to 4<i. per dozen.
FILIBUSTERS, a name given to tho freebooters who plundered the coasts of America
in the 1 7th century. See Buccaneers and Nica.ragua.
FILTERERS. A plan for purifying corrupted water was patented by Wm. Wollcott in
1675. Other modes followed. James Peacock's method of filtration was patented in 1791.
FINE ARTS. See Arts, Paintings, Sculpture, Engraving, &c.
FINES and RECOVERIES, conferring the power of breaking ancient entails and
alienating estates, began in the reign of Edward lv., but was not, properly speaking, law,
till Henry VII., by correcting some abuses that attended tho practice, gave indirectly a
sanction to it, 1487. Fines and recoveries were abolished in 1833.
FIN Fill
FINLAND, a Russian grand-duchy, in the middle of the 12th century was conquered
by the Swedes, who introduced Christianity. It was several times conquered by the Russians
(1714, 1742, and 180S), and restored (1721 and 1743) ; but in 1809 they retained it by treaty.
See Abo. Its political constitution was confirmed by the czar in 1809, 1825, and 1855.
Population iu 1862, 1,746,229.
FXNNIAN. See Fenians.
FIRE is said to have been first produced by striking flints together. The poets supposed
that fire was stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Heraclitus about 596 B.C. maintained that
the world was created from fire, and deemed to be a god omnipotent.
FIRE-ANNIHILATOR, an apparatus invented by Mr. T. Phillips, and made known by
him in 1849. "When put in action, steam and carbonic acid are formed, which extinguish
flame. It was not successful in practice.
FIRE-ARMS. (See Artillery a.u<l Cannon.) The first small fire-arms were a species of
cannon, borne by two men. See Revolver.
Fire-arms made at Perugia, in Italy . . . 1364 All these wore of very rude construction, being
Employed by the Burgundians in the defence i first discharged by a lighted match, after-
oi Arras 1414 I wards, about 1517, by a wheel-lock, then by
Edward IV., when ho Landed at Kavenspur, is the flint,
said to have been accompanied by 300 j The match-lock and wheel-lock superseded by
Flemings, armed with hand-guns . . . 1471 the flint-lock, about 1692
At the battle of Morat, the Swiss are said to The rev. Mr. Forsytho patented tho percussion
have had 10,000 men armed with fire-arms . 1476 1 principle of igniting gunpowder in muskets
Fire-arms were used at the siege of Berwick . 1521 by means of detonating powder . . . . 1807
The petronel (from poilrim, the chest) or ar- Percussion caps came into use between 1820 & 1830
quebus came into use, 1480 ; and the musket The old musket (Broteu Btu) was superseded by
employed in the armies of the emperor the Enfield rifle, which is likely to give way
Charles V. about „ \ to Lancaster's smooth-bored rifle . . . 185B
SMALL ARMS OP THE BRITISH SERVICE, 1854.
Percussion musket ; pattern,sm, 1842. Enfield rifle musket, adopted for the service in 1853,
Victoria carbine (for cavalry).
Iry). after experiments at the royal manufactory, En
Regulation rifle musket ; pattern, 1851. field Lock.
Artillery carbine ; pattern, 1842.
FIRE-BRIGADE was established in London in 1832 by Mr. R. Bell Ford, director of the
Sun fire-office. It then had 80 men and 19 stations. In 1863 it had 130 men and 20
stations. In May, 1862, a commission recommended the establishment of a Police fire-
brigade, which was effected by an act of parliament in 1865. It was to be supported by a
\d. rate and by contributions from government and from the insurance offices.
FIRE-DAMP INDICATOR, is a small apparatus, abont the size of a chronometer,
invented by Mr. G. F. Ansell, and patented by him in 1865, by which the presence of very
small quantities of fire-damp or light carburetted hydrogen gas may be detected in mines.
It is an application of the law of the diffusion of gases.
FIRE-ENGINES are said to have been invented by Ctesibius 250 n.c. They are
mentioned by Pliny, a.d. 70. A "Water-bow" was patented by Thos. Grent in 1632, one
was constructed by John Vander Hoyden, about 1663. Bramah's engine was patented in
1 793, and many others since. Mr. John Braithwaite constructed a steam fire-engine in
1830. A trial of steam fire-engines took place at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, on July,
1, 2, 3, 1863 ; when prizes were awarded to a large one by Merryweather and a small one by
.Shand and Mason.
FIRE-ESCAPES have been patented by David Marie (1766), Joachim Smith (1773), and
by many other persons. The Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire was first
established in 1836 ; it object was not fully attained till 1843, when it was re-organised,
beginning with six escape stations in London ; in March, 1859, it possessed 67. In 1861 it
was stated that 84 lives had been saved by the conductors. In 1858, 504 fires had been
attended, and 57 persons rescued. Versniann's composition for rendering washing dresses
fire-proof vans published about i860.
FIRE INSURANCE. See Insurance.
FIRE-SHIPS were first used in the 13th century. Among the most formidable con
trivances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to destroy a bridge of boats at
the siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of them in the British navy was by Charles,
lord Howard of Effingham, in the engagement of the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. Rajnn.
FIR 301 FIK
FIRE-WATCH, or Fire-Guard of London, was instituted Nov. 1791.
FIRE-WORKS* are said to have been familiar to the Chinese in remote ages. They were
invented in Europe at Florence about 1360 ; and were exhibited as a spectacle in 1588.
Macaulay states that the fire-works let off in Eng The display of fireworks, under the direction of sir
land at the peace of Ryswick.in 1697, cost 12,000/. Win. Congrcve, on the celebration of tho general
Verygrand fire- works were let of! from a magnificent peace, and to commemorate tho centenary acces
building erected in the Green-park, London, at the sion of the family of Brunswick to the British
peace of Aix-la-Chapellc, signed April 30, 1748. throne, surpassed all previous exhibitions, Aug. 1,
At an exhibition of fire-works in Paris, May 31, 1770, 1814.
in honour of the marriage of the dauphin, after A grand display of this kind (at a cost of 10,000/.) to
wards Louis XVI., nearly 1000 persons perished celebrate the peace with Russia, May 29, 1856.
by pressure and drowning, through a panic.
FIRES in London. The conflagration of a city, with all its tumult of concomitant
distress, is one of the most dreadful spectacles which this world can offer to human eyes.
Dr. Johnson. See Santiago, Liverpool, &c. (1862).
REMARKABLE FIRES IN OR NEAR LONDON.
A great part of tho city destroyed, including St. At Shadwell, 20 houses burnt . Nov. if 1796
Paul's cathedral .... 962 & 1087 In the Minories, 30 houses . . March 23, 1797
One at London-bridge, l>cgan on the Southwark In tho King's Bench, 50 residences July 14, 1799
side, and was communicated tothe otherside, Near the Customs, three West India ware
and hemmed in a numerous crowd. Of those houses ; loss 3oo,oooi. . . . Feb. 11, 1800
who threw themselves into boats and barges, At Wapping, 30 houses . . . Oct. 6, „
about 3000 were drowned. A great part of In Store-street, Tottenham-court-road, immense
the city, north and south, was burned, 14 property destroyed .... Sept. 27, 1802
John . 1212 The great tower over the choir of Westminster
The Great Fire, wbofe ruins covered 436 acres, abbey burnt July 9, 1803
extended from the Tower to the Temple- Astlcy s again, and 40 houses . . Sept. 1, „
church, and from the north-east gato to Frith-street, Soho, lasted several days, many
Holborn-bridge. It began at a baker's house houses destroyed .... Dec. 2, „
in Pudding-lane, behind Monument-yard, and Surrey theatre Aug. 12, 1805
destroyed, in the space of four days, 89 Covent-gardcn theatre . . Sept. 20, 1808
churches (including St. Paul's), the city gates, Drury-lanc theatre .... Feb. 24, 1809
the Royal Exchange, the Custom-house, In Conduit-street ; Mr. Windham, in aiding to
Guildhall, Sion college, and many other favo Mr. North's library, received an injury
public buildings, besides 13,200 houses, lay which caused his death . . July 9, „
ing waste 400 streets. About 200,000 persons In Bmy-street, St. Mary-axo, hah* the street
encamped in Islington and Highgate fields. made ruins June 12, 1811
(See Monument.) . . Sept. 2-6, 1666 Custom house, warehouses, and public records
In Southwark, 60 houses burnt . . 1676 destroyed Feb. 12, 1814
In Wapping, 1 50 houses burnt, 50 lives lost . 1715 At Rotherhitho, 60 houses and several ships
Customs-house burnt 1718 ' destroyed; loss 80,000/. . . March 16, 1820
At ShadwcU, 50 houses burnt . Sept. 10, 1736 At Mile-end ; loss 200,000/. . . Jan. 22, i8ai
In CornhiU ward, 200 houses burnt ; this fire In Smithficld; loss 100,000/. . Aug. 14, i8aa
began in Change alley, and was the mast Royalty theatre destroyed . . April 11, 1S26
terrible since the great fire of 1666, March 25, 1748 In *Rcd Lion-street, 15 houses . . June6, 1828
At Covent-garden, 50 houses . . . . 1759 Argyle rooms destroyed . . . Feb. 5, 1830
In Smithficld, 28 houses burnt .... 1761 English opera-houso, &c., burnt . Feb. 16,
At Shadwell, 30 houses burnt . . . • ,» Houses of parliament consumed . Oct. 16, 1834
In Throgmorton-street, 20 houses . . . 1774 Fenning's-wharf, London-bridge, Ac. ; loss
At Wapping, 20 houses 1775 250,000/ Aug. 30, 1836
At Hermitage-stairs, 31 houses .... 1779 The Royal Exchange destroyed Jan. 10, 1838
At Horselydown, 30 houses, besides many At Wapping, 12 houses . . June 16, 1840
warehouses and ships April 30, 1780 Camberwell church .... Feb. 7, 1841
Newgate, Ac. , by tho Gordon mob . June, „ Astlcy's theatre again .... Juno 8, ,,
In the Strand, 40 houses 1781 At tho Tower ; the armoury and 280,000 stand
In Aldcrsgatc street, 40 bouses ; the loss exceed of arms, &c. destroyed . Oct 30, 1841
ing 100,000/. Nov. 5, 1783 Raggett'shotel, Dover-street, Piccadilly; several
The Opera-house .... June 17, 1789 eminent persons perished . . May 27, 1845
At Rothcrhithe, 20 houses . . . Oct. 12, 1790 Several houses in Now-square, Lincoln's inn,
Again, when many ships and 60 houses were Jan. 14, 1849
consumed Sept. 14, 1791 Olympic theatre .... March 29,
Pantheon, Oxford-street . June 14, 1792 One in St. Martin's-lano (at a publican's named
At Wapping, 630 houses, and an East India Ben Caunt), three lives lost . . Jan. 15, 1851
warehouse, in which 35,000 bags of saltpetre Fire at Duke-street, London-bridge ; property
were stored : the loss 1,000,000/. ^ufy 2I» *794 lost estimated at 60,000/. . . Feb. 19,
Astloy's amphitheatre Sept. 17, At the Rose and Crown, Lovo-lano, City, four
St. Paul's church, Covent-gardcn Sept. 11, 1795 lives lost May 18, „
* In consequence of explosions frequently occurring at fire- work makers (particularly one on July 12,
T858, at Mr. Bonnett's, in the Westminster-road, Lambeth, when five lives were lost, and about 300 persons
seriously injured, and much property destroyed), it was determined to enforco 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 7 (1697),
an act to prevent the throwing and forming of squibs, serpents, and other fire-works. An act regulating
the making of fire-works was passed in i860.
FIR 302 FIS
FIRES, continued.
Foot of London-bridge, four large hop combustible substances, took fire about half-
hoxiscs burnt; loss 150,000k . . June 23, 1851 past 4 p.m., June 22, and continued bu
Collard and Co., pianoforte makers, Camden- for a month. Several persons were kilh
town ; loss 60,000*. . . . Dec. 19, „ including James Braidwood, the able super-
The warehouses of Messrs. Pawson, St. Paul's intendant of the London fire-brigade ; the
churchyard, burnt . . . Feb. 24, 1853 loss of property was estimated at 2,000,000*. 1861
Works pi Gutta Percha Company, near City- Davis's wharf, Horselydown, burnt ; loss about
road ; loss 100,000?. . . . June 5, ,, 15,000/ Aug, 1,
Kirkman's pianoforte manufactory . Aug. 10, Near Paternoster-row ; Messrs. Longman's,
Messrs. Scott Russell and Co. 's works, Millwall ; booksellers, Messrs. Knight's, tallow-meIters,
loss 100,000*. .... Sept. 10, „ and others ; loss alxive 50,000*. . Sept. 4, ,,
Premises of Messrs. Savill and Edwards, Mr. Price's, Fountain-court, Strand, three
printers, Chandos-street, destroyed, Sept. 30, „ lives lost Jan. 3, 1862
Premises of Towncnd and Co., Bread-street, At Campden-house, Kensington, pictures and
destroyed ; loss about 100,000*. . Dec. 31, ,, other valuable property of Mr. Woolley de
Messrs. Cubitt's premises, Pinilico Aug. 17, 1854 stroyed .... March 23,
Wbittington club-house . . Dec. 3, Mr. Dean's, Berkeley-street, Clerkenwell, threo
Premises of Messrs. Routledge, Messrs. Rennie, lives lost May 5,
&c\, Blackfriars-road ; loss, one life and Mr. Joel's, Fore-street, City, four lives lost,
150,000* Feb. 16, 1855 May 21, ,,
Of Etua steam battery at Messrs. Scott Russell's Mr. Boor's, druggist, Bishopsgate-stroet ; ex
works ; loss about 120,000*. . . May 3, plosion ; two lives lost . . . June 7, ,,
Pavilion theatre .... Feb. 13, 1856 Great Cumberland-street, Hyde-park ; Mr. S.
Covent-garden theatre . . . March 5, ,, Barrett and two daughters burnt Aug. 15,
Messrs. Scott Russell's (third fire), much valu Messrs. Price's oil-mills, Blaekfriars, burnt
able machinery destroyed . March 12, down ; great loss of property, but no lives
Messrs. Dobbs' premises, Fleet-street, April 1, lost . - . . . . Nov. 20. „
Shad Thames flour mill ; loss about 100,000*. The ancient Austin-friars church, City, partially
July 17, „ destroyed Nov. 22, ,,
Messrs. Broadwood's, pianoforte makers, West Mr. Chard's, Portland-street, Soho, six lives
minster . . Aug. 12, „ lost Dec. 26, „
Premises of Messrs. Almond's, army accoutre Messrs. Capcl's, Scetbing-lane, City ; great de-
ment makers, and others, in St. Martin's- . struction of property . . . April 18, 1S63
laue ; estimated loss :o,ooo*. Nov. 9, ,, Warehouses of Messrs. Grant and others be
Messrs. Pickford's premises, at Chalk Farm tween Wood-street and Milk-street ; property
station June 9, 1857 worth about 100,000/. destroyed . Dee. 19, .,
Gilbert-street, Bloomsbury; 15 lives lost, Meriton's wharf, JJockhead; immense loss of
March 28, 1858 proj)erty June 7, 1864
Limehousc ; Messrs. Forest. Dixon's. &c, pre Royal Savoy chapel, Strand, destroyed July 7. „
mises destroyed, and BlackwaU railway Haberdashers' hall and Messrs. Tapling and
arches ; insured . July 19*20, ,, others' warehouses . . . Sept. 19,
Fresh wharf ; 25,000/. worth of silk June 21, Messrs. Barry, Sufferance wharves, Dockhcad ;
London docks ; great explosion ; man killed by great loss .... Nov. 25, 26, ,,
fright ; loss about 150,000/. . June 29, ,, Surrey theatre destroyed . Jan. 30, 31, 1865
Great Jaines-street, Marylcbono ; six lives lost, Savillo house (where Gcorgo III. was born),
Feb. 26, 1859 Leicester-square .... Feb. 28,
Messrs. Hubbuck and Co., Lime-street; one Poulterers' arms, Loadenhall market ; two
life and a largo amount of property. May 20, „ lives lost June 13, ,,
West Kent wharf and New Hibernia wharf; Messrs. Meeking's and Co., Holborn ; damage
destroyod property valued at 200,000*. ; fire 30,000/. ...... June 24, ,,
lasted nearly a month ; commenced Aug. 17, i860 Messrs. Sotheby and Co. auctioneers ; valuable
St. Martin's-hall, built for Mr. Hullah, and library destroyed .... June 29,
other promises, destroyed . . Aug. 26, ,, There were 953 fires in 1854 ; 1113 In 1857 ; 1114
Thames iron-works, Blackwall . Aug. 31, ,, in 1858 (38 lives lost) ; 1183 in 1861. 1303 fires
Kilburn church, Maida-hill, destroyed, Nov. 29, ,, in 1862 ; 1404 in 1863 ; and 1715 in 1864. In
Surrey music hall destroyed . . June 11, 1861 but few cases were the premises totally
Cotton's wharf and depot and other wharves destroyed. Several fires were occasioned
near Tooley-strcct, containing oil and other by careless use of coal oils in 1861-2.
FIRE-WORSHIPPERS. See Parsees.
FIRST-FRUITS were offerings which made a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew
priesthood. First-fruits (called Ansates, from annus, a year), in the Roman church,
originally the profits of one year of every vacant bishopric, afterwards of every benefice,
were first claimed by pope Clement V. in 1306, and were collected in England in 1316 :
but chronologers differ on this point. The exaction was submitted to till the 26th of
Hen. VIII. 1534, when the first-fruits were assigned, by act of parliament, to the king and
his successors. Mary gave up the Annates once more to the popes (1555) ; but Elizabeth
resumed them (1559). They were granted, together with the tenths, to increase the incomes
of the poor clergy, by queen Anne, in 1703. The offices of First-fruits, Tenths, and queen
Anne's Bounty were consolidated by 1 Vict. c. 20, 1838. See A ugmailalion of Poor
Livings. Annates were long resisted in France, but not totally suppressed till 1 7S9.
FISHERIES. Laws for their protection were enacted by Edward I. in 1284, and by
bis successors. The rights of the English and French fishermen were defined by treaty
in 1839. See Herring, Whale, and Newfoundland Fisheries.
FIS 303 FLA
FISHERIES, continued.
Fishmongers' company of London incorporated 1384 set up an establishment for this purpose at
Fishing towns regulated by an act passed in . 1542 Huningue, under M. Coumes.
Fishing on our coast forbidden by statute to In i860 great progress had been made by M.
strangers . 1609 Coste and others.
The Dutch paid 30,000!. for permission to fish Commissions to examino into British fisheries
on the coasts of Britain 1636 were appointed in i860, and acts to amend
Corporation of Free British Fisheries instituted 1750 the Law relating to fisheries in Great Britain
Fish-machines, for conveying fish by l'ind to and Ireland were passed in 1861-2-3
London, set up in 176: ; and supported by The subject has excited since much attention
parliament 1764 in Britain.
The British Society of Fisheries established in In April, 1863, Mr. Ponders placed in the
London in 1786 Thames 76,000 young fish (salmon, trout,
The Irish Fishery Company formed in . Dec. 1818 char, ana grayling); and on April 17, Mr.
In 1840, two peasants, Remy and Gehin, ob Frank Buckland demonstrated tbe import
tained medals for their exertions in culti ance of fish culture before the members of
vating fish in France, and the government the Royal Institution, London.
FISHGUARD (Pembroke). On Feb. 22, 1797, 1400 Frenchmen landed near this place.
On Feb. 24, they surrendered to lord Cawdor, and some countrymen, armed with scythes
and pitchforks.
FITZWILLIAM MUSEUM (Cambridge), founded by Richard viscount Fitzwilliam, who
died in 1816, and bequeathed his collection of books, pictures, &c, to the university, with
100,000/. to erect a building to contain them. This was begun by G. Basevi in 1837, and
finished by Cockerell some years after.
FIVE HUNDRED, Council of, established by the new French constitution, Aug. 22,
1795, was unceremoniously dissolved by Napoleon Bonaparte, Nov. 10, 1799.
FIVE-MILE ACT, an oppressive statute passed in the 17th year of Chas. II., Oct.
1665. It obliged non-conformist teachers, who refused to take the non-resistance oath, not
to come within five miles of any corporation where they had preached since the act of
oblivion (unless they were travelling), under the penalty of 50/. They were relieved by
Will. III. in 1689.
FLAG. The flag acquired its present form in the 6th century, in Spain ; it was pre
viously small and square. Ashe. It is said to have been introduced there by the Saracens,
before whose time the ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of wood. Pardon. The
flag at sea denotes to what country a ship belongs, and the rank of its commander. The
homour-of-the-flag salute at sea was exacted by England from very early times ; but it
was formerly yielded by the Dutch in 1673, at which period they had been defeated in many
actions. Louis XIV. obliged the Spaniards to lower their flag to the French, 1680.
Hlnault. After an engagement of three hours between Tourville and the Spanish admiral
Papachin, the latter yielded by firing a salute of nine guns to the French Hag, June 2, 1688.
Idem. See Salute at Sea and Union Jack.
FLAGELLANTS. A fatal plague gave raiso to this fanatic sect. Hlnault. They
established themselves at Perouse, about 1268. They maintained that there was no remission
of sins without flagellation, and publicly lashed themselves. Clement VI. declared them
heretics in 1349 ; anil 90 of them and their leader, Conrad Schmidt, were burnt, 1414. In
1574, Henry III. of France became a flagellant for a short time.
FLAGEOLET. See Flute.
FLAMBEAUX, Feast of. See Argos.
FLAMMOCK'S BEBELLION. See Rebellions, 1497.
FLANDERS, the principal part of the ancient Belgium, which was conquered by Julius
Ctesar, 51 B.C. It became part of the kingdom of France in 843, and was governed by
counts subject to the king, from 862 till 1369, the first being Baldwin, Bras dc Per, who is
said to have introduced the cloth manufacture. In 1204, Baldwin IV. became emperor at
Constantinople. In 1369, Philip duke of Burgundy married Margaret, the heiress of count
Louis II. After this, Flanders was subjected alternately to Burgundy (1384), Austria (1477),
and Spain (1555). In 1580 it declared its independence, but afterwards returned to its
allegiance to the house of Austria. In 1713 it was included in the empire of Germany.
France obtained a part of Flanders by treaty in 1659 and 1679. See Burgundy, Netherlands,
and Belgium.
FLAT-BUSH, Battlf. of. See Long Island.
FLA 301 FLO
FLATTEKY CAPE (\V. coast of North America), so named by captain Cook, because at
a distance it had the deceptive appearance of a harbour, 1 778.
FLAVIAN C3S8ARS were the Roman emperors Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, who
reigned 69—96.
FLAX was brought from Egypt to Gaul about 1 B.C. ; and was ordered to be grown in
England, by statute 24 Hen. VIII., 1533. For many ages the core was separated from the
flax, the bark of the plant, by the hand. A mallet was next used ; but the old methods
of breaking and scutching the flax yielded to a water-mill which was invented in Scotland
about 1750. See Hemp. In 1851, chevalier Claussen patenteda method of " cottoning" flax.
FLEECE. See Golden Fleece.
FLEET-PRISON MARKET, &c. (London), were built over the small river Fleta, now
used as a common sewer. In the reign of Henry VII. this river was navigable to Holborn-
bridge ; and the obelisk in Fleet-street denotes the extent of it in 1775. The prison was
founded in the first year of Richard I., and was allotted for debtors, 1640, and persons were
committed here who had incurred the displeasure of the Star Chamber, and for contempt of
the court of Chancery. It was burnt by the prisoners, Juno 7, 1780.* It was pulled
down in 1845 (and the debtors removed to the Queen's Bench prison). The site was
sold to the London, Dover, and Chatham railway company for 60,000?. on June 2, 1864.
Fleet- market, originally formed in 1737, was removed, and the site named Farringdon-street
in 1829. A new (Farringdon) market was opened Nov. 20, 1829. The granite obelisk in
Fleet-street, to the memory of alderman Waithman, was erected June 25, 1833.
FLEUR-DE-LIS, the emblem of France, said to have been brought from heaven by an
angel to Clovis, he having made a vow that if he proved victorious in a pending battle with
the Alemanni near Cologne, he would embrace Christianity, 496. It was the national emblem
■ till the revolution in 1789, when the tricolor (white, red, and blue) was adopted.
FLEURUS (Belgium), the site of several battles : (1.) On Aug. 30, 1622, between the
Catholic league under Gonzales de Cordova, and the Protestant union (indecisive). (2.)
"When the prince of Waldeck was defeated by Luxembourg, July I, 1690. (3.) Between the
allies under the prince of Coburg, and the French revolutionary army commanded by
Jourdan. The allies, with an army of 100,000 men, had for their object the relief of
Charleroi, when they were met on the plains of Fleurus, and signally defeated. Between
8000 and 10,000 were killed, wounded, and taken prisoners ; and Jourdan was enabled to
form a junction with the French armies of the Moselle, the Ardennes, and the north. In
this memorable battle the French made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the enemy's army, an
experiment which it is said contributed to the success of the day, June 26, 1794. (4.)
The battle of Ligny (which sec) is also called the battle of Fleurus.
FLIES. There was an extraordinary fall of these insects in London, covering the clothes
of passengers in the streets, 1707. Chamberlain. In the United States of America the
Hessian fly, from the notion of its having been brought there by the Hessian troops in the
service of England in the war of independence ; ravaged the wheat in 1777. Before and
during the severe attack of cholera at Newcastle in Sept. 1853, the air was infested with
small flies.
FLINTS, in form like arrow-heads, and considered by him to have been shaped by human
hands, were found in 1847, near Amiens, by M. Boucher de Perthes. His theory, which
gives a much higher anticmity to man than is usually received, was much opposed ; but
latterly has been received by some eminent geologists. Many have been since discovered in
other countries ; in Java, in 1865.
FLOATING BATTERIES. Sec Batteries, and Gibraltar, Siege of, 1781.
FLODDEN FIELD (Northumberland). The site of a battle on Sept. 9, 1513, between
the English and Scots ; in consequence of James IV. of Scotland having taken part with
Louis XII. of France against Henry VIII. of England. James, many of his nobles, and
* Fleet Marriages. Illicit marriages were colcbrated hore to an amazing extent. Between the 19th
of October, 1704, and Feb. 12, 1705, there were celebrated 2954 marriages in the Fleet, without licence or
certificate of banns. 20 or 30 couple were sometimes joined in one day, and their names conccalod by pri
vate marks, if they chose to pay an extra fee. Pennant, at a later period, describes the daring manner in
which this nefarious traffic was carried on. He says, that in walking by the prison in his youth, ho has
been often accostod with, " Sir, will you please to walk in and bo married?" And be states that painted
signs, of a male and female hand conjoined, with the inscription, "Marriages performed within," were
common along the building. This glaring abuse was put an end to by the marriage act in 1753.
FLO 305 FLO
upwards of 10,000 of his army were slain ; while the English, who were commanded by the
earl of Surrey, lost only persons of small note.
FLOGGING. Tm. Cobbctt in 1810, and John Drakard in 181 1, were punished for
publishing censures on flogging in the army. By orders issued Nov. 9, 1859, this mode of
punishment was very much diminished in the army (see Army) ; and on Dec. following it
was ordered that first-class seamen should not be flogged, except after a trial. In 1863,
flogging was made a punishment for attempts at garrotting.
FLOODS. See Inundations.
FLOItAL HALL, adjoining Covent-garden theatre, is a largo conservatory, 220 feet long,
75 feet wide, and 55 feet high, erected from designs by Mr. E. M. Karry, and was opened
with the volunteers' ball, March 7, i860. It was opened as a flowur-market, May 22, 1861.
FLORALIA, annual games at Rome in honour of Flora, instituted about 752, but not
celebrated with regularity till about 1 74 B. u.
FLORENCE (Florenlia), capital of Tuscany (which see). It is said to have been founded
by the soldiers of Sylla (80 B.C.), and enlarged by the Roman Triumviri. This city is truly
the seat of the arts. In its palaces, universities, academies, churches, and libraries, are to
be found the rarest works of sculpture and painting in the world. The Florentine academy
and Accadcmia delta Cmsca (established 1582) were instituted to enrich literature and
improve the language of Tuscany ; the latter was so named, because it rejects like bran all
words not purely Tuscan : both are now united under the former name.
Destroyed by Totila, about .... 541 I Annexation to Sardinia voted by the people,
Rebuilt by Charlemagne 781 I March 11, 12 ; the king enters Florence,
Becomes an independent republic, about . 1198; April 7, i860
Dante bom here .... 31ay 14, 1265 The king opens tho exhibition of the iudxistrial
Savonarola burnt 1498 products of Italy . . . .Sept. 15, 1861
The power of the Medici begins, about 1420 ; ' Florence decreed to be the capital of Italy,
the liberty of Florence was lost by the ap- Dec. 11, 1864
pointment of Alexander de' Mtdici as per- ! The king and court remove there May 13, 1865
petunl governor 1530 The Dante festival (the 600th anniversary of
Cosmo do' Medici created grand-duko of Tus- I his birth) opened by the king . May 14. „
cany 1569 Inauguration of a national rifle meeting ; the
Revolution at Florence . . April 27, 1859 1 king fires the first shot . . . June 18, ,,
FLORES, or Isle of Flowers (one of the Azores, which sec), discovered by Vauderberg
in 1439 ; and settled by the Portuguese in 1448.
FLORIDA, a peninsula, one of the southern states of North America, first discovered by
Sebastian Cabot in 1497. It was visited by Ponce de Leon, the Spanish navigator, April 2,
1512, in a voyage he had absurdly undertaken to discover a fountain whose waters had the
property of restoring youth to the aged who tasted them ! Florida was conquered by the
Spaniards under Ferdinand de Soto in 1539 ; but the settlement was not fully established
until 1565. It was plundered by sir Fraucis Drake in 1585 ; and by Davis, a buccaneer, in
1665. It was invaded by the British in 1702; and again by general Oglethorpe in 1740;
ceded to the British crown in 1763 ; taken by the Spaniards in 1781 ; and guaranteed to them
in 1783. Revolution in 1810, when the American government took means for occupying the
country ; and after a tedious negotiation it was filially ceded* by Spain to the United States
in 1820-21 ; and admitted into the Union in 1845, from which it seceded in Dec. i860.
Reunited in 1865. See United States.
FLORIN, a coin first made by the Florentines. A florin was issued by EJward III.
which was current in England at the value of 6s. in 1337. Ca>ndtn. This English coin
was called floren after the Florentine coin, because the latter was of the best gold. Ashe.
The florin of Germany is in value 2S. 4d. ; that of Spain, 4s. 4^d. ; that of Palermo and
Sicily, 2s. 6d. ; that of Holland, 2s. Ayliffc. A silver coinage of florins (value 2s.) was
issued by proclamation of queen Victoria, August, 1849.
FLOWERS. Our present common flowers were for the most part introduced into England
from the reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth (1485— 1603). The art of preserving
flowers in sand was discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them from the ctfects of frost
in winter, and hastening their vegetation in summer, was invented in America, by Geo. Morris,
* In 1801, the American government purchased Louisiana from tho French, of which they contended
West Florida formed a part. On the revolution, and in cunsequciieo of this purchase, S]>uiii, unable to
defend the country, ceded the whole of Florida to the United States, to which it was finally unnt-xed after
the negotiation above meutioned.
X
r
r
. * Population of France in 1700, 19,669,320 ; in 1762, 21,769,163 ; in iSqi, 27,349,003 ; in 1S20, 30.451,187 ;
in 1836, 33,540,910; in 1846, '35,401,761 ; in 1856, 36,039,364; in 1861, including the new departments,
37,382,225. Population of the colonies (in Asia, Ponchcherry, &c. ; Africat Algeria, ic. ; America, Mar
tinique, Guadaloupe, &c. ; Oceania, the Marquesas, fee), in 1858, 3,641,226. In May, 1S62, the Monitcur
asserted the effective army to bo 447,000, with a reserve of 170,000.
F1U 811 F1IA
FRANCE, continued.
League of England with the emperor Charles Meeting of the assembly of notables, Feb. 22,
V. ; Henry VIII. invades France . - 1544 1787; again Nov. 9, 1788
Successful defence of Metzby the duko of Guise 1552 Opening of the states general (308 ecclesiastics,
He takes Calais (whidi see) .... 1558 285 nobles, and 621 deputies, tiers (Stat)
Religious wars ; massacre of protcstants at May 1789
Vassy March 1, 1562 The tiers ^tat constitute themselves the National
Guise defeats tho Huguenots at Dreux Dec. 19, ,, Assembly June 17,
Guise killed at siege of Orleans, fob. 18; tem The French revolution commences with tbe de
porary peace .... March 19, 1563 struction of the Bastille (which nee) July 14,
Huguenots defeated at SfDenis, Nov. 10, 1567; The National Assembly decrees that the title of
and at Jam.a-, March 13; at Moncontour, tho "king of France" shall be changed to
Oct. 3, 1569 that of the *' king of the French " Oct. 16, ,,
Massacre of St. Bartholomew . Aug. 24, 1572 The plate and other property of the clergy is
The " Holy Catholic League " established . . 1576 confiscated Nov. 6, ,,
Duke of Guise assassinated by command of the Confederation of tho Champ tie Mars : France is
king, Dec. 23 ; and bis brother, the cardinal, declared a limited monarchy; Louis XVI.
Dec. 24, 1588 takes the oath to maintain tho constitution,
Henry III. murdered by Jacques Clement, a July 14, 1790
friar Aug. 1, 1589 The silver plate used in the churches trans
Heny IV. becomes a Roman Catholic July 25, 1593 ferred to the mint and coinod . March 3, 1791
The league leaders submit to him . Jan. 1596 Death of Mirabeau .... April 2, „
He promulgates the edict of Nantes April 13, 1598 Tho king, queen, and royal family arrested
Silk and other manufactures Introduced by him at Varennes, in their flight from Paris,
and Sully 1606-1610 June 21,
Quebec in North America settled . . . 1608 Louis (now a prisoner) sanctions the National
Murder of Henry IV. by Ravaillac May 14, 1610 Constitution .... Sept. 15,
Regency of Mary de' Medici . T610-14 The Jacobin club declare their sittings perma
The states general meet and complain of the nent 1 June 18, 1792
management of the finances Oct. 27, 1614 Tho multitude, bearing the red bonnot of
Rise of tho Concinis, i6ro; and their fall . . 1617 liberty, march to the Tuilcries to make
Navarre annexed to France ... . . . 1620 demands on the king . . . June 20, „
Vigorous and successful- administration of First coalition against Franco : commencement
Richelieu, begins with finance . . . . 1624 of the great French war . . . June,
Rochelle taken after a long siege . . . 1628 [See Battles, 1792 to 1815.]
Richelieu organises the AcwMiuie de France . 1634 The royal Swiss guards cut to pieces ; massacre
His death (aged 58) .... Dec. 4, 1642 of 5000 persons .... Aug. 10,
Accession of Louis XIV., aged four years (Anno Decree of the National Assembly against the
ofAustria regent) .... May 14, 1643 priests ; 40,000 exiled . Aug. 26, ,,
Administration
Turonno of • Mazarine
. . ; victories
. . -of1643-6 Dreadful massacre in Paris ; the prisons broken
open, and 1200 persons (100 priests) slain, ,,
Civil wars of tho Fronde . . . 1648, &c. Sept. 2-5, „
Colbert becomes financial minister . . 1661 Murder of the princess do LambaUc* Sept. 3, „
War with Holland, &c 1671 The National Convention opened . Sept 17, ,.
Canal of Lauguedoc constructed . . 1664-81 Tho Convention abolishes royalty and esta
Edict of Nantes revoked . . . Oct 12, 1685 blishes a republic . . . Sept. 20-22, ,,
Louis marries Madame de Maintcnon . . . 1686 The French people declare their fraternity with
War with William III. of Englaud . . 1689, ic. all nations who desire to be free, and offer
Peace of Ryswick .... Sept. 20, 1697 help Nov. 19, ,,
War of the Spanish succession .... 1701 Decree for the perpetual banishment of the
French defeated at Blenheim . Aug. 13, 1704 Bourbon family, those confined in the Temple
At Ramillies May 23, 1706 excepted Dec. 20, „
Peace of Utrecht (which tee) 1713 Louis imprisoned in the Temple distinct from
Accession of Louis XV. ; stormy regency of the the queen, and brought to trial, Jan. ; con
duke of Orleans . . . Sept 1, 1715, &c. demned to death, Jan. 20 ; beheaded in the
Law's bubble in France. (Sec Laic) . . 1716 Place de Louis Qainze . . Jan. 21, 1793
French defeated at Dettingen . . June 16, 1743 War with England declared . . . Feb. 1, „
Successful campaign of marshal Saxe . . 1746 Insurrection in La Vendee . . March,
Peaco of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . Oct. 1748 Reign of terror—proscription of the Girondists,
Seven years' war begun 1756 May 3: ; establishment of the convention,
Damiens' attempt on the life of Louis XV. June 23, M
5» '757 Marat stabbed by Charlotte Corday . July 13, ,,
Canada lost—battle of Quebec . . Sopt. 13, 1759 The queen beheaded . . Oct 16, „
The Jesuits banished from France, and their Philip Kgalite, the duke of Orleans, who had
effects confiscated 1762 voted for the king's death, is himself guillo
Peace of Paris '; Canada ceded to England . 17G3 tined at Paris (see Orleans), Nov. 6 ; and
Louis XV. enslaved by Madame du Barry . . 1769 madame Roland .... Nov. 8,
Death of Louis XV May 10, 1774 Execution of Danton and others, April 5 ; of
Louis XVI. assists America to throw off its madame Elizabeth . . . March 10, 1794
dependence on England, at first secretly . . 1778 Robespierre and 71 others guillotined July 28, „
Torture abolished in French judicature . . 1780 Tx>uis XVIL dies in prison . . . Juno 8, 1795
Peace with England . . . . Sept. 3, 1783 French directory chosen . . . Nov. 1,
The diamond-necklace affair . . ' . . 1785 Bonaparte's successful campaigns in Italy, 1796, &c.
* The multitude hurried to the Temple hearing the mutilated body of Madamo de Lamballo, in order
to exhibit the " impious head " of their relative to the royal family : the queen and tho princess Elizabeth
manifested the deepest emotion and sensibility ; but the king said with assumed apathy (while shrinking
at the sight) to tho person by whom it was shown to him, " Vow avez roiwH, Monsieur," " You are right,
Sir 1 " These assassins were termed the Septembriscrs («hich set).
FKA 312 FRA
FRANCE, continued,
Babcuf's conspiracy suppressed . . May 12, I 7 r> Seventy-six new peers created . Nov. 5, 1S-7
Piehegru's conspiracy fails . . . May, 1797 The ViUele ministry replaced by the Martignac,
Council of Five Hundred deposed by Bonaparte, Jan. 4, iSrS
who is doclared First Consul . . Nov. 10, Beranger coudemed and imprisoned for his
He defeats the Austrians at Marengo June 14, 180 , Songs ....... Dec. 10, 1 •-• ,
His life attempted by the infernal machine, Polignac administration formed . . Aug. 8,
Dec. 24, Chamber of Deputies dissolved May 16,
Peace of Amiens (with England, Spain, and Algiers taken .... July 5,
Holland) signed . March1 27,; ] 802 Tho constitutional charter of July published
Amnesty to the emigrants . April, Aug 14,
Legion of Honour instituted . May 19, The obnoxious ordinances regarding the press,
Bonaparte made consul for life . . Aug. 2, and reconstruction of the chamber of
The bank of France established April 14, i8oj deputies July 26,
Declaration of war against England May 22, Revolution commencingwithbarricades,July 27,
Conspiracy of Moreau and Pichcgru against Conflicts in Paris between the populace (ulti
Bonaparte, Feb. 15 ; the latter was found mately aided by the National Guard) and the
strangled In prison. (Soo Qeorgr*) April 6, 1 B m army July 28-30.
Duke d'Knghlen shot . . March 20, Charles X. retires to Rambouillet: flight of tho
France formed into an empire ; Napoleon pro ministry, July 31 ; Charles X. aMicated
claimed emperor .... May 18, Aug. 2,
He is crowned king of [taly . May 26, 1805 Tho duke of Orleans accepts the crown as
He defeats the allies at A u-tcrlitz . . Dec. 2, Louis-Philippe I Aug. 7,
And the Prussians at Jena . . Oct. 14, 1 " '. Charles X. retires to England Aug. 17,
New nobility of France created March i, Polignac and other ministers tried andsentenced
Divorce of the emperor and empress Josephine to perpetual imprisonment . . Dec. 21,
decreed by the senate . . . Dec. 16, 1 Sex, The abolition of the hereditary peorage decreed
Holland united to France . . . July 9, 1810 by both chambers ; tho peers (36 new peers
War with Russia declared . . June 22, 1 S 1 2 being created) concurring by a majority of
Victory at Borodino .... Sept. 7, 103 to 70 Doc. 27, 1831
Disastrous retreat Oct. Tho A. B. C. (abaUatt) insurrection In Paris sup 1 S3 ■•
Triplo alliance of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, pressed June 5, 6,
against Franco Sept. 9, 1S1 ; Charles X. leaves Holyrood-house for the Con
The British pass the Bidasaoa, and enter France, tinent Sept. :8,
Oct. 7, Ministry of marshal Soult, duke of Dalmatia,
Surrender of Paris (see Battle/) to the allied Oct 11,
armies March 31, 1814 Bergeron and Benoit tried for an attempt on
The constitutional charter established June 4-10, the life of Louis-Philippe ; acquitted March 18,
Abdication of Napoleon . . April 5, The duchess of Berry, who has been delivered
Bourbon dynasty restored, and Louis XVIII. of a female child, and assorts her secret
arrives in Paris May 3. marriage with an Italian nobleman, is sent
Napoleon arrives at Elba . . . May 3, off to Palermo Judo 9,
Quits Elba, and lands at Cannes . March i, 1815 Death of La Fayetto .... May 20, 1634
Arrives at Fountainebleau . March 20, Marshal Gerard takes office . . July 15,
Joined by all the army , . March 22, M. Dupuytren dies .... Feb. 8,
The allies sign a treaty for his subjugation, Due do Broglie, minister . . . Feb. M
March 25, Fieschi attempts tho king's* life . July 28,
He abolishes the slave-trade . . March 29, Ho is executed Feb. 6, 1836
I^eaves Paris for tho army . . . June 12, Louis Alibaud fires at tho,king on his way from
Is defoated at Waterloo . . Juno 18, the Tuilcries, June 25; guillotined July it,
Returns to Paris, Juno 20; and abdicates in Ministry of count Mote, in room of M. Thiers,
favour of his infant son . . June 22, Sept. 6,
Intending to embark for America, ho arrives at Death of Charles X Nov. 6,
Rochefort July 3, Attempted insurrection at Strasburg by Louis
Louis XVIII. enters Paris . July 3, Napoleon (now emperor), Oct 30 ; he is sent
Napoleon surrenders to capt. Maitland, of tho to America Nov. 13,
Btllerophan July 15, Prince Polignac and others set at liberty from
Transferred at Torbay to tho Northumberland, Ham, and sent out of France . Nov. 23,
and with admiral sir George Cockburn sails Meunier fires at the king on his way to open
for St. Helena Aug. 8, the French Chambers . . Doc. 27,
Arrives at St. Helena to remain for life, Oct. 15, Amnesty for political offences . . May 8, 1837
Execution of marshal Ney . . Doc. 7, " Idees Napoleennes," by tho present emperor,
The family of Bonaparte excluded for ever from were published
France by the law of amnesty . Jan. 12, 1S1G Talleyrand dies May 17,
Duke of Berry murdered . . Feb. 13, 1820 Marshal Soult at tho coronation of the queon
Death of Napoleon I. (See WUU) . . May 5, 1821 of England Juno 28,
Louis XVIII. dies; Charles X. succeeds, Birth of the count of Paris . Aug. 24,
Sept 16, 1824 Death of tho duchess of^Wurtemberg (daughter
National Guard disbanded . April 30, 1827 of Louis-Philippe), a good sculptor . Jan. 2,
War with Algiers ; the dcy*s fleet defeated, M. Thiers, minister of foreign affairs March 1, 1S4O
Nov. 4, The chambers decree the removal of Napoleon's
Election riots at Paris; barricades; sevoral remains from St. Helena to Francet May 12,
persons killed .... Nov. 19, 20, Descent of prince Louis Napoleon, general
• He fired an infernal machine as the king rode along tho linos of tho National Guard, on tho Boulevard
du Temple, accompanied by his three sons and suite. The machine consisted of twenty-five barrels, charged
with various 8)>ecics of miasiles, and lighted simultaneously by a train of gunpowder. The king and his
sons escaped : but marshal Mortier, duke of Treviso, was shot dead, many officers were dangerously
wounded, and upwards of forty persons killed or injured.
t By the permission of tho British government, these were taken from the tomb at St Helena, and
FRA 313 FRA
FRANCE, continued.
Montholon, and 50 followers, at Vimeroux, barricades thrown up, and firing continues
near Boulogno, Aug. 6 ; the prince sentenced in all parts of Paris during the night June 23, 1848
to imprisonment for life . . Oct. 6, 1S40 The troopB under generals Cavaignac and La-
Purines fires at the king . . . Oct. 15, nioriciere succeed, with immense loss, in
M. Guizot, minister of foroign affairs Oct. 29, driving tho insurgents from the left bank of
Project of law for an extraordinary credit of the Seine June 24, ,,
140,000,000 of franca, for erecting the fortifi Paris declared in a state of siege . June 25,
cations of Paris .... Pec. 15, The Faubourg du Temple carried with cannon,
The duration of copyright to 30 years after the and the insurgents surrender . . June 26, ,,
author's death, fixed . . March 30, [The national losses caused by this dreadful
Bronze statue of Napoleon placed on the column outbreak were estimated at 30,000,000 francs ;
of the grandc armec, Boulogno . Aug. 15, 16,000 persons killed and wounded, and 8000
Attempt to assassinate the duke of Aumale prisoners were taken. The archbishop of
(son of the king) on his return from Africa, Paris was killed. J
Sept. 13, Gen. Cavaignac mado president of the council,
The duke of Orleans, heir to the throne, killed June 28, „
by a fall from his carriage . . July 13, 1842 Louis Napoleon takes his seat in the National
Xho queen of England visits the royal family at Assembly Sept 26,
Chateau d'Eu .... Sept. 2 to 7, 1843 Paris relieved from a state of siege, which had
Attempt of Lecompte to assassinate the king continued four mouths . Oct, 20, „
at Fontainebleau .... April 16, 1846 Solemn promulgation of the constitution of
Louis Napoleon escapes from 11am . May 25, Nov. 4, in front of the Tuilerics . Nov. 13, „
The seventh attempt on the life of the king : Louis Napoleon elected president of the French
by Joseph Henri .... July 29, republic, Pec. 11 ; proclaimed Dec. 20,
Marriage of the due de Montpensicr with the [He had 6,048,872 votes; Cavaignac, 1,479,121;
infanta of .Spain .... Oct. 10, Ledru-Rollin, Raspail, and Lamartine hid
Pt*astrous inundations in the south Oct 18, but few.3
The Praslin murder (see Pratlin) . Aug. 18, 1847 Military demonstration to stifle an anticipated
Peath of marshal Oudinot (duke of Reggio) at insurrection Jan. 29, 1849
Paris, in his 91st year, Sept. 13; Soult made Peath of king Louis-Philippe, at Claromont, in
general of France, in his room . Sept. 26, England Aug. 26, 1850
Jerome Bonaparto returns to France after an Liberty of the press restricted Sept. 26,
exile of 32 years .... Oct. 10, Gon. Changurnier deprived of tho command of
Peath of the ex-emprcss, Maria Louisa, Pec 17 ; the national guard . . Jan. 10, 1851
and of madame Adelaide . . . Pec. 30, Peath of the
of Louis XVIduchess of AngoulSras,
, at Frohsdorf . . daughter
Oct. 19, „•
The proposed grand reform banquet at Paris,
suppressed Feb. 21, 1848 Peath of marshal Soult . , . Oct. 26,
Violent revolutionary tumult in consoquence ; Electric telegraph between England and Franco
impeachment and resignation of Guizot, opened Nov. 13, „
Feb. 22 ; barricades thrown up. the Tuilcries Coup d'etat ; the legislative assembly dissolved ;
ransacked, the prisons opened, and fright j universal suffrage established, and Paris
ful disorders committed by the populace, I declared in a state of siege : the election of a
Feb. 23, 24, I president for ten years proposed, and a second
Louis-Philippe abdicates in favour of his infant chamber or senate .... Pec. 2, „
grandson, the comte do Paris, who is not MM. Thiers, Chongarnicr, Cavaignac, Bedcau,
accepted ; the royal family and ministers Lamoriciere, and Charrcs arrested, and sent
escape Feb. 24, to the castle of Vinccnncs . Pec, 2, „
A republic proclaimed from the steps of the i About 180 members of the assembly, with M.
H6tel de VUle .... Feb. 26, Berryer at their head, attempting to meet
The ex-king and queen arrive at Ncwhavon in are arrested, and Paris is occupied by troops,
England March 3, Pec. 2, „
Grand funeral procession in honour of tho conflicts in Paris ; tho troops
victims of tho revolution March 4, ious Dec. 3, 4, „
The provisional government, which had been Consultative commission founded . Pec. 12.
formed in tho groat public commotion, Voting throughout France for the election of
resigns to an executive commission, elected a president of the republic for ten years ;
by the National Assembly of the French affirmative votes 7,481,231, negative votes
Republic May 7, 640,737 Pec. si, 22,
[The members of this new government were : Installation of the prince-president in the
M M. Pupont de l'Eure, Arago, Garnicr- cathedral of Notrc-Pamo : the day observed
Pages, Marie, Lamartino, Ledru-Rollin, and as a national holiday at Paris, and Louis
Crcnneux. The secretaries: Louis Blanc, Napoleon takes up his residence at tho
Albert Flocon, and Marrast] Tuileries Jan. 1, 1852
Perpetual banishment of Louis Philippe and Gens. Changaraier, Lamoriciere, and others,
his family decreed .... May 26, conducted to the Belgian frontier . Jan. 9, „
Election of Louis Napoleon for tho department 83 members of the legislative assembly
of the Seine and three other departments to banished ; 575 persons arrested for resistance
the National Assembly . . . June 13, to the coup WAat of Dec. 2, and conveyed to
Rise of the red republicans; war against tho Havro for transportation to Cayenne, Jan. 10,
troops and national guard ; more than 300 ' [The inscription " Liberty, Equality, Fraternity,"
embarked on the 16th of October, 1840, on board the Belle Poole French frigate, under tho command of the
prince do Joinville ; tho vessel reached Cherbourg on November 30th ; and on Oecembcr 15th the body
was deposited in the Hotel dos Invalides. The ceremony was witnessed by 1,000,000 of persons ; 150,000
soldiers assisted in the obsequies : and the royal family and all the high personages of tho realm were
present ; but it was remarkable that all the relatives of tho emperor were absent, being proscribed, and in
exile or in prison. The body was finally placed in its crypt on March 31, 1861.
FKA 314 FKA
FRANCE, continued.
ordered to bo forthwith erased throughout Reconciliation of the two branches of the Bour-
Fnince, and the old names of streets, public bom at Forhsdorf . . Nov. 20,
building, jukI places of resort to be restored. Marshal Ney's statue inaugurated exactly 38 1853
The twos of liberty arc everywhere^ hewn years after his death on the sj»ot where it oc
down and burnt.] curred I>ec. 7,
The national guard disbanded, and reorganised War declared against Russia (see Rv.*$o-Turki$k
anew, and placed under the control of the War) March 27,
executive, the president appointing the Visit of prince Albert at Boulogne . Sept. 5,
officers ...... Jan. 10, 1852 Death of marshal St. Arnaud Sept. 29,
A new constitution published . Jan 14, ,, Tho emjHsror and empress visit London.
Decree obliging the Orleans family to sell all April 16-31,
their real and personal property in France Industrial exhibition at Paris opened May 15,
within a year Jan. 22, ,, Attempted assassination of the emperor by
Second decree, annulling the settlement made Pianori, April 28 ; by Bellemarro . Sept. 8,
by Louis-Philippe upon his family previous Queen Victoria and prince Albert visit France, II
to his accession in 1830, and annexing the Aug. 18-27,.
projicrty to the domain of the state, Jan. 22, ,, Death of count Mole" . Nov. 24,
The birthday of Napoleon I. (Aug. i5)tol>e the Birth of the imperial prince ; ty granted
only national holiday . . Feb. 17, „ to 1000 political prisoners . March 16, 18=6
The departments of France released from a Peace with Russia signed . March 30, I*
state of siege .... March 27, ,, Awful inundation in the south" . Juno, »
Installation of the legislative chambers, Distress in money market . Oct. 6,
March 29, „ Sibour, archbishop of Paris, assassinated by »>
A permanent crystal palace authorised to be Verger, a priest Jan. 3, 1857
erected in the Champs Elysccs at Paris, Elections (3,000,000 voters to elect 257 deputies);
March -30, „ gen. Cavaignac elected deputy, but declines
Plot to assassinate tho prince-president dis to take the oath . . June 21, 22,
covered at Paris .... July 1, „ Conspiracy to assassinate the emperor in Paris
President's visit to Strasburg . July 19, ,, detected July 1 1,
M. Thiers and other exiles permitted to return Death of Beranger .... July 16,
to France Aug. 8, ,. Longwood, the residence of Napoleon I. at St.
The French senate prays "there-establishment Helena, bought for 180,000 francs .
of the hereditary sovereign power in the Tho conspirators Grilli, Bartolotti, and Tibaldi,
Bonaparte family " . Sept. 13, tried, convicted, and sentenced to transporta
Enthusiastic reception of the prince-president tion, iic. Aug. 6, 7,
at Lyons Sept 19, „ Tho emperor and empress visit England,
Infernal machine, intended to destroy tho Aug. 6-10,
prince-president, seized at Marseilles, Tho emperor meots the emperor of Russia at
Sept. 23, ,, Stutgardt Sept. 25,
Prince-president visits Toulon, Sept. 27 ; and Death of Eugene Cavaignac (aged 55) Oct. 28,
Bordeaux, where ho says "the empire is Death of Mdllc. Rachel (aged 38) . Jan. 4, 185:
peaco " (ISEmpire e'eti la jtaix) Oct. 7, ,, Attempted assassination of the emperor by
He releases Abd-el-Kador (soo Algiers), Oct. 16, ,, Orsini.t Fieri, Rudio, Gomez, &c., by the ex
He convokes the sonato for November to deli plosion of three shells (two persons killed,
berate on a chango of government, when a many wounded) .... Jan. 14,
' seitatus consulturn will ne proposed for tho Public safety bill passed—bold protest against
ratification of the French people . Oct. 19, „ it by Ollivier .... Feb. 18,
Protest of comto de Chambord . Oct. 25, France divided into five military departments;
Id his message to the senate, the prince-presi general Espinasse becomes minister of the
dent announces the contemplated restoration Ulterior Feb.
of the empire, and orders tho people to be " Napoleon III. et VAnalderre " published,
consulted upon this chango . . Nov. 4, ,, March n,
Votes for the empire, 7,839,552 ; noes, 254,501 ; Intemperate speeches in France against Eng
null, 63.699 Nov. 21, ,, land—misconceptions betweon the two coun
The prince-president declared emperor; as tries removed in . . . March,
sumes the title of Napoleon III. Dec. 2, ,, A republican outbreak at Chalons suppressed,
Marriage of the emperorwith Eugenie, countess March 9,
of Ttfba, at Notre-Dame . . Jan. 29, 1853 Orsinl and Pieri executed . . March 13,
4312 political offenders pardoned . Feb. 2, „ Simon Bernard triod in London as their accom
Bread riots Sept plice, and acquitted . April 12-17,
Military camp at Satory, near Paris . Sept. ,, Marshal Pelissier sent as ambassador tojLondon,
Emperor and empress visit tho provinces April 15,
(many political prisoners discharged) . Oct. Espinasse retires from ministry of the interior
Francis Arago, astronomer, Ac, died Oct. 2, ,, [ho was killed at the battle of Magenta, June
Attempted assassination of the emperor ; ten 4, 1859] '. ; June,
persons condemned to transportation for life, Queen of England meets the emperor visits
Nov. „ Cherbourg Aug. 4, 5,
* The subscriptions in London to relieve tho sufferers amounted to 43,000/. Sir Jamsetjce Jejeobhoy,
of Bombay, gave 500/. for the same purpose.
t Folix Orsini, a man of talent and energy, intensely devoted to endeavouring to obtain Italian inde
pendence, was born Dec. 1819; studied at Bologna in 1837 ; joined a secret society in 1843; was arrested
and condemned to the galleys for Hfo in 1844 ; was released in 1846 ; took part in the Roman revolution in
1848, when he was elected a member of the assembly; and on the fall of tho republic, fled to Genoa in 1849,
and came to England in 1853. Entering into fresh conspiracies, ho was arrested in Hungary, Jan. 1855,
and sent to Mantua; he escaped thence and came to England in 1856, where he associated with Kossuth.
Mazzini, &c. ; delivored lectures, and where he devised tho plot for which he suffered. In his will he
acknowledged the justice of his sentence.
FKA 315 FBA
1'llANCE, continued.
Conference fit Paris respecting tho Dannbian Six bishoprics vacant .... Dec. i sr. ,
principalities closes . . . Aug. 19, 1858 Persigny relaxes the bondage of the press, Dec.
Dispute with Portugal respecting the Charlen et 11 ; (but for a short time] . . Dec. 20,
George* {which tee) settled . . Oct. 23, „ The emperor advises the jx.»pe to surrender his
Trial of comte de Montulombert* . Nov. 25, ,, revolted provinces . . . Den. 31,
Emperor's address to the Austrian ambassador "Home tt les Eviqves" published . Jan. 6, 1 sr.1
(nee Austria) Jan. 1, 1859 Jerome (son of Jerome Bonaparte and Eliza
Marriage of prince Napoleon to princess Cio- beth Paterson, an American ladyt) claims his
tilde of Savoy . ' . . . Jan. 30, „ legitimate rights ; non-suited after a trial
Publication of "Napoleon 111. tt VItalic," Feb. ,, Jan. 25—Feb. 15,
On the Austriana invading Sardinia, France Purchase of the principality of Monaco for
declares war, and the French enter Sardinia ; 4,000,000 francs, Feb. 2 : announced, Feb. 5,
the empress appointed regent ; the emporor Meeting of French chambers, Feb. 4 ; Btormy
arrives at Genoa .... May 12. „ debates in the chambers . Feb and March,
Loan of 20,000,000 francs raised . May 21, „ " La France, Rome, tt rItalic" published, Feb. 15,
Victories of the allies (French and Sardinians) Angry reply to it by the bishop of Poitiers, who
at Montetallo, May 20 ; Palestro, May 30, 31 ; compares the cm]>eror to Pilate . Feb. 27,
Magenta, June 4; Mclognano (Marignano), Failure of Mires, a railway banker and loan
June 8 ; Napoleon enters Milan, June 8 ; vic contractor. &c. ; he is arrested . Feb. 17,
tory of allies at Solferino . . June 24, ,, Many influential persons suspected of partici
Armistice agreed on July 6, pating in his frauds : the government promise
Meeting of emperors of France and Austria at a searching inquiry and strict justice
Vilia Franca July 11, ,, Feb. and March,
Peace agreed on July 12, Eugene Scribe, dramat ist, dies (aged 80) Feb 20,
Louis Napoleon returns to Paris . July 17, „ Eloquent speech of prince Napoleon in favour
The emperor addresses the senate, July 19; of Italian unity, the English alliance, and
and the diplomatic boiy . . . July 21, against the temporal government ofthe pope,
Reduction of the army and navy ordered, Aug. March 1,
Conference of Austrian and French envoys at Strong advocacy of the temporal government
Zurich (see Zurich) . . Aug. 8—Nov. „ of the popo in the chambers ; the Freuch
Amnesty to political offenders . Aug. 17, 18, army stated to consist of 687,000 men, March,
Violent attacks of the Freuch press on Eng Circular forbidding tho priests to meddle with
land repressed . ... Nov. politics April ir,
*' Le Pape et U Congrcs" published ; 50,000 sold Liberal commercial treaty with Belgium signed
in a few days Dec. , , May 1,
Count Walewski, tho foreign minister, resigns ; Publication in Paris of the due d'Aumale's
M. Thouvenel succeeds him . . Jan. i860 severe letter to prince Napoleon, April 13;
The emperor announces a free-trade policy ; printer and publisher fined and imprisoned.
Mr. Cobdcn at Paris .... Jan. 5, „ May,
Commercial treaty with England signed,Jan. 23, „ Declaration of neutrality in tho American con
L'fJrdver* suppressed for publishing tho pope's flict June 11,
letter to the emperor . . . Jan. 29, „ Official recognition ofthe kingdom of Italy
Treaty for the annexation of Savoy and Nice June 24,
signed March 24, Visit of king of Sweden . . , Aug. 6,
The press censured for attacking England Conflict between French and Swiss soldiers at
April 7, „ Ville-la-Grande .... Aug. 18,
The emperor meets the German sovereigns at Mires, the speculator, sentenced to five years'
Baden June 15-17, „ imprisonment .... Aug. 29,
Jerome Bonaparte, the emperor's uncle, dies Pamphlet " La Franc:, Rome, et VItalic " appears
(aged 76) June 24, ,, Sept.
The emperor, in a letter to count Persiguy, "dis Commercial treaty between France, Great
claims hostility to England . July 25, „ Britain, and Belgium comes into operation
The emperor and empress visit Savoy, Corsica, Oct r,
and Algiers Sept 1-17, „ Meeting of the emperor and king of Prussia at
New tariff comes into operation . Oct. r, ,, Compiegnc, Oct. 6 ; and king of Holland,
Public levying of Peter's pence forbidden, and Oct. T2,
free issue of pastoral letters checked . Nov. French troops enter the valley of Dappcs (Swit
The empress visits London, Edinburgh, Glas zerland) to prevent an arrest . Oct. 27,
gow, he Nov.—Dec. ,, Convention between France, Great Britain, and
Important ministerial changes ; greater liberty Spain, respecting intervention in Mexico,
of speech granted to the chambers ; two sets signed (see Mexico) .... Oct 31,
of ministers appointed—speakers and admi Embarrassment in the government finances ;
nistrators ; Pelissier madegovornor of Algeria; Achille Fould becomes finance minister, Nov.
Persigny, minister of the interior ; FLihault, 14 ; with enlarged powers . . Dec. 12,
Knglish ambassador . . Nov. and Dec. „ The emperor reminds the clergy of their duty
Passports for Englishmen to cease after Jan. 1, " towards Cnjsar " .... Jan. 1, iSCv
1861 - Dec. 16, „ French army lands at Vera Cruz . Jan. 7,
* In Oct. 1858, tho comte published a pamphlet entitled " Vn What sur VInde" In which lie eulogised
English institutions and depreciated those of Franco. He was condemned and sentenced to six months'
imprisonment and a fine of 3000 francs, but was pardoned by the emperor, Dec. 2. Tho comte appealed
against the sentence of the court, and was again condemned : but acquitted of a part of the charge. The
sentence was onco more remitted by the emporor (Dec. 21). In Oct. 1859, the comto published a pamphlet
entitled " Pit IX. et la France en 1849 et 1859," in which England is severely censured for opposition to
popery.
t The marriage took place in America, on Dec. 24, 1803 : but was annulled, and Jerome married the
princess Catherine of Wurtembcrg, Aug. 12, 1807 ; their children are tho prince Napoleon and the princess
Mathilde (see p. 318).
FRA 316 FRA
FRANCE, continued.
The French masters of the provinco of Biou- Death of M. Billault (born 1805), the "speaking
hoa, in Annam Jan. 20, 1S62 minister" in the legislative assembly, Oct
Fruitless meeting of French and Swiss com- 13; succeeded by M. Kouher . Oct. 18, 1S63
missioners respecting tbe Ville-hi-Grandc The emperor proposes the convocation of a
conflict Feb. 3, „ Europ3an congress, and invites the sovereigns
Fould announces his finance scheme, includes or their deputies by letter . . Nov. 4,
reduction of 4$ per cent, stock to 3 per cent, Thiers and his friends form the centre of a new
and additional taxes and stump duties, opposition ..... Nov. 9, ,t
Feb. 24, „ The invitation to the congress declined by Eng
Fierce debate in the legislative chamber, in land Nov. 25,
which prince Napoleon takes part Feb. 27, Thiers speaks in the chamber . . Dec. 24,
French victories in Cochin-China (6 provinces Arrest of Grego and other conspirators against
ceded to France) . . . March 28, ,, the emperor's life. Jan. 3 ; tried and sen
The Spanish and British plenipotentiaries de tenced to transportation and imprisonment
cide to quit Mexico ; the French declaro war Feb. 27, 1S64
against the Mexican government (for the Convention Ixstwesn France, Brazil, Italy, For-
events, see Mexico) . . . April 16, t-ug~.U, and Hayti for establishing a tele
Sentence against Mires oxaminel and reversed graphic line between Europe and America
at Douai ; he is released . . April 21, May 16, „
Treaty of peace between France and Annam Death of marshal Pelissior, duke of Malakhoff,
signed ...... June 3, governor of Algeria (born 179,4) May 22, ,,
Duke Pasquier dies (aged 36) . . July 5, „ Convention between Franee and Japan signed
New commercial treaty with Prussia signed by Japanese ambassadors at Paris June 20,
Aug. 2, „ Convention of commerce, &c., bctweon France
Newspaper La France, opposed to Italian unity, and Switzerland signed . . June 30, ,,
set up by Lagueronniero . . Aug. Prince Napoleon Victor, son of prince Napoleon
Ship Prince Jerome, containing reinforcements Jerome and princess Clotilde, born July 16, ,
for Mexico, burnt near Gibraltar ; crew saved Gamier-Pages and 12 others who had met at
Aug. „ his house for election purposes, convicted as
Camp at Chalons formed on account of Gari members of a society " of more than 20 mem
baldi's movements in Sicily ; broken, when bers" Dec. 7, M
he is taken prisoner . . . Aug. 29, Death of the emperor's private secretary and
Great sympathy for him in France . Sept. ,, old friend, Mocquard . . . Dec. it,
Treaty of commerce with Madagascar Sept 12, „ Death of Proudhon (born 1809), who said
Drouyn de Lbuys made foreign minister in " Propridte* e'est vol " . . Jan. 19, 1865
room of Thouvenol . . . Oct. 15, The clergy prohibited from reading the pope s
Baron Gros becomes ambassador at London in encyclical letter of Dec. 8 in churches ; creates
the room of the comte de Flahault, resigned much excitement, and the archbishop of
Nov. 18, „ Besancon and other prelates disobey . Jan. „
Serjeant Glover brings an action in the court of The prince Napoleon Jerome appointed vice-
queen's bench against the comto do Persigny president of tne privy council . . Jan.
and M. Billault, claiming 14,000/. for subsi Decree for an international exhibition of the
dising the Morning Chronicle and other news products of agriculture and industry, and of
papers Nov. 22, ,, the fine arts, at Paris, on May, 1, 1867, Fob. 1,
The emperor inaugurates Boulevard Prince Treaty with Sweden signed . . Feb. 15, ,,
Eugene, Paris .... Dec. 7, The minister Duruy's plan of compulsory edu
Great distress in the manufacturing districts cation rejected by the assembly . March 8,
through the cotton famine and the civil war Death
brotherof the
of thedueemperor
de Moruy,. said■ . toMarch
be half-
10, ,,
in America Doc. ,,
Treaty of commerce with Italy signed, Jan. 17, 1863 Loi des suspects (or of public safety) suffered
Revolt in Annam suppressed . Feb. 26, „ to expire March 31, ,.
Convention regulating the French and Spanish A secretary at the Russian embassy assassinated
frontiers concluded .... Feb. 27, ,, April 24, ,,
llt-i^nation of M. Magno, the "speaking minis Tho emperor visits Algeria . . May 3-27, ,,
ter " in the assembly . . . April 1, ,, Inauguration of tho statue of Napoleon L at
Dissolution of the Chambers . . May 8, ,, Ajaccio, with an imprudent speech by prince
Persigny issues arbitrary injunctions to electors Napoleon Jerome, May 15 ; censured by
May, the emperor; the prince resigns his offices
Thiers, Ollivicr, Favre, and other opposition June 9, ,,
candidates elected in Paris, May 31—June 15, „ Tho English fleet entertained at Chcrlwurg and
Changes in the ministry—resignation of Per Brest Aug. i$et»eq. ,,
signy, Walewski, and RouUnd . June 23, „ The French fleet entertain*! at Portsmouth
The empress visits queen of Spain at Madrid,Ot. Aug. 29—Sept 1, „
Baron Gros resigns, and the prince Tour Death of general Lamoriciero . Sept 11, „
d'Auvorgno becomes ambassador at London Tho queen of Spain visits the emperor at
Oct 14, ,, Biarritz Sept. 11,
KINGS OF FRANCE.
MEROVINOIAN RACE. 511. Clodomir ; Orleans.
Pharamond (his existence doubtful). Thierry; Metz; and
428. Clodion the Hairy ; his supposed son : king , , Clotaire ; Soissons.
of the Salic Franks. 534. Theodebort ; Metz.
447. Merovanis, or Me"rove"e ; son-in-law of Clodion. 548. Thcodebald, succeeded in Metz.
458. Childeric; son of Me*roveo. 558. Clotaire ; now solo nilor of France. Upon his
481. Clovis the Great, his son, and the real founder death the kingdom was again divided be
of the monarchy. lie left four sons, who tween his four sons : viz.,
divided the empire : 561, Charibert, ruled at Paris.
511. Childebert ; Paris. Gontram, in Orleans and Burgundy.
FRA 317 FRA
FRANCE, continued.*
561.
„ Sigcbert,
Chilperic,atat Metz, and jJ B h ^-.oiiiuivu.
Soissous. . ^ England, by whom he had a son, who was
afterwards king
575. Childebert II. 922. Robert, bi-otber of Eudes ; crowned at Rhcims ;
584. Clotaire II. ; Soissous. but Charles marched an army against him,
596. Thierry II., sou of Childebert ; in Orleans. and killed him in battle. JlcnauU.
„ Theodebert II. : Metz. 923. Rudolf, duke of Burgundy ; elected king, but
613. Clotaire II.;; became solo king. he was never acknowledged by the southern
628. Dagobert the Great, son of Clotaire II. ; he provinces. Htnault.
divided the kingdom, of which ho had be 936. Louis IV. d'Outmner, or Transmarine (from
come sole monarch, between his two sons : having been conveyed by his mother Into
638. Clovis II. has Burgundy and Neustria, England), son of Charles III. (or IV.) and
Higebert II. has Australia. Edgiva ; died by a fall from his horse.
656. Clotaire III., son of Clovis II. 954. Lothaire, his son ; he had roigned jointly with
670. Childeric II.; he became king of the whole his father from 952, aud succeeds him, at 15
realm of France ; assassinated, with his years of age, under the protection of Hugh
queen and his son Dagobert, in the forest of the Great ; poisoned.
Livri. HMautt ] 986- Louis V., the Indolent, son of Lothaire ; also
[At this time Thierry III. rules in Burgundy poisoned, it is supposed by his queen,
and Neustria, and Dagobert II., son of Sige- Blanche. In this prince ended the race of
bert, in Australia. Dagobert is assassinated, Charlemagne.
and Thierry reigns alone. Henault.
691. Clovis III. Pepin, mayor of the palace, rules TtlE CAPETS.
the kingdom in the namo of this sovereign, 987. Hugh Capet, the Great, count of Paris, 6c.,
who is succeeded by his brother, eldest son of Hugh the Abbot, July 3; he
695. Childebert III., surnamed the Just ; in this seizes the crown, in prejudice to Charlos of
reign Pepin also exercises the royal power. Lorraine, uncle of Louis Transmarine. From
711. Dagobert III., son of Childebert. him this race of kings is called Capevingians
716. Chilperic II. (Daniel); he is governed, and at and Capetians. He dies Oct. 24,
length deposed, by Charles Martel, mayor 996. Robert II., surnamed the Sage; son; died
ofthe palace, whose sway is now unbounded. lamented July 20,
719, Clotaire IV. , of obscure origin, raised bv Charles 1031. Henry I., son ; dies Aug. 29,
Martel to the throne ; dies soon after, and
Chilperic is recalled from Aquitaine, whither 1060. Philip I. the Fair, and I'Amovreux ; succeeded
it 8 years of age, and ruled at 14 ; son ; dies
he had fled for refuge. Iknault.
720. Chilperic II. restored ; he shortly afterwards 08
dies at Noyon, and is succeded by ins \ I.3. , surnamed the Lusty, or le Grot ;
,, Thierry IV., son of Dagobert III., surnamed son ; dies Aug. 1,
dt Chtlles ; died in 737. ■ Charles Martel now I "37- Louis VII. ; son ; surnamed the Young, to dis
reigns under the new title of " duke of the tinguish him from his father, with whom he
French." Jlenault. was for some years associated on the throne ;
737. Interregnum, till the death of Charles Martel, nSo. dies Sept. iS,
in 741 ; and until Philip II. (Augustus); son ; succeeds at 15;
742. Childeric III., son of Chilperic II., surnamed crowned at Rheims in his father's lifetime ;
the Stupid. Carloman and Pepin, the sons dies July 14,
of Charles Martel, share the government of 1223. 1 226.
Louis VIII., Vccur de Lion ; son ; dies Nov. 8,
Louis IX. ; son ; called St. Louis; ascended
the kingdom in this reign. the throne at 15, under the guardianship of
THE CARI.OVINGIANS. his mother, who was also regent ; died in
752. Pepin the Short, son of Charlos Martel; he is 1270. his camp before Tunis, Aug. 35,
Philip III., the Hardy ; son ; died at Pcrpig-
768. •Charlemagnebyand
succeeded his Carloman
two sons, ; the former, sur nan, Oct. 6.
named the Great, crowned Emperor of the 1385. Philip IV., the Fair; son ; ascended the throne
West, by Leo. III. in 800. Carloman reigned 1314. in his 17th year ; dies Nov. 29,
but three years. Louis X. ; son ; surnamed Hutin, an old French
814, Louis I. le Dtfjonnairc, Emperor ; dethroned, word, signifying headstrong, or mutinous ;
but restored to his dominions. died June 5.
840. Charles, surnamed the Bald, Kino ; Emperor 13x6. John, a posthumous son of Louis X. ; born
111 875 ; poisoned by Zedeehias, a Jewish 1 516, Nov. 15 ; died Nov. 19,
physician. Philip V. the Long (on account of his stature) ;
877. Louis II., the Stammerer, son of Charles the 132a. brother of Louis ; died Jan. 3,
Bald. Kino. Charles IV., the Handsome ; brother; died
879. Louis III. and Carloman II. ; the former died Jan. 31, T328.
in 882, and Carloman reigned alone. HOCSE OF VALOIS.
884. Charles III. U Grog; a usurper, in prejudice to
Charles the Simple. 1328. Philip VI., do Valois, grandson of Philip the
887. Eudes, or Hugh, couut of Paris. Hardy ^(called the Fortunate) ; died Aug.
898. Charles III. (or IV.), the Simple; deposed, 33.
and died in prison in 920 ; he had married 135°. John II., the Good; son; died suddenly in
Edgiva, daughter of Kdward the Elder, of the Savoy in Loudon, April 8,
* This great prince vore only a plain doublet in winter, made of an otter's el-in, a tcooltcn tunic, fringed
with silk; and a blue coat or cassock ; hie host consirttd of trantverte bands or fillet* 0/ different colours. He
would march with the greatest rapidity from the Pyrenean mountains into Germany, and from Germany
into Italy. The whole world echoed his name. He was the tallest and the strongest man of his time. In
this respect he resembled the heroes of fabulous story; but he differed from them, as he thought that
force whs of use alone to conquer, and that laws were necessary to govern. Accordingly, he enacted several
laws after the form observed in those days, that is, in mixed assemblies, composed of a number of bishops
and the principal lords of the nation. Bginhart.
Fit A 31S FRA
FRANCE, continued.
Charles V., sumamcd the Wise ; son ; died dethroned, July T4, 1789; guillotined, Jan.
Sent, 16, 21, 1793,* and his queen, Oct. 16 following.
1380. Charles VI., tho Beloved; son ; died Oct. 21, 1793. Louis XVlI., son of Louis XVI. Though num
1422. Charles VII. , the Victorious; son; died July bered with tho kings, this prince never
reigned : ho 8,died
poison, June 1795, inagedprison, supposed
iojTears by
2 mouths.
j461. Louis XI. ; son ; able but cruel ; died Aug. 30,
148 > Charles VIII., the Affable ; son ; died April 7,
1498. Louis XII., Duke of Orleans; the Father of his THE REPUBLIC.
People ; great-grandson of Charles V. ; died 1792. The National Convention (750 members),
Jon. 1, first sitting, Sept. ix.
Francis I. of AngonUme ; called the Father of 1795. The_DiRKCT0RY (Larevcillere Le*paux, Letour-
Letters ; great-great-grandson of Charles neur, Rewbcll, Barras, and Carnot) nomi
V. ; died March 31, nated Nov. 1 ; abolished, and Bonaparte,
1547- Henry II. ; son ; died of a wound received at Ducos, and Sieyes appointed an executive
a tournament, when celebrating the nuptials commission, Nov. 1799.
of his sister with the duke of Savoy, acci 1799. The Consulate. Napoleon Bonaparte, Cam-
dentally inflicted by the eointe de Montmo baceres, and Lebrun appointed consuls, Dec.
rency, July io, 24. Napoleon appointed consul for 10 years,
1559. Francis II. ; son ; married Mary Stuart, May 6, 1802 ; for life, Aug. 2, 1802.
afterwards queen of Scots ; died Dec. 5,
1560. Charles IX. ; brother ; Catherine of Medicts, FRENCH EMPIRE, t
his mother, obtained the regency ; died [Established by the senate Slay 18, 1804.]
May 30, 1804. Napoleon (Bonaparte) I. ; born Aug. 15, 1769.
1574. Henry ill. ; brother; elected king of Poland ; He married, first, Josephine, widow of
last of tho house of Valois, murdered by Alexis, vicomte do Beauharnais, March 8,
Jacques Clement, a Dominican friar, Aug. 1796 (who was divorced Dec. 16, 1809, and
i. 15*9- died May 29, 1814); and, Maria-Louisa of
Austria, April 2, 1810 (she died Dec. 17,
HOUSE OF BOURBON. 1847). He renounced the thrones of Franco
1589. Henry IV., the Great, of Bourbon, king of and Italy, and accepted the isle of Elba for
Navarro ; son-in-law of Henry II. ; murdered his retreat, April 5, 1814 ; again appeared
by Francis Ravaillac, May 14, in France, March 1, 1815; was defeated at
**iolo. Louis XIII., tho Just ; son ; died May 14, Waterloo ; finally abdicated in favour of his
1643. Louis X I V. , tho Great, styled DUudanne'; infant son, June 22, 1815 ; banished to St.
son ; died Sept. 1, Helena, where he dies, May 5, 1821. (See
■note, p. 312).
1715. Louis XV., the Well-beloved ; great-grandson :
died May 20,
1774. Louis XVI., his grandson ; ascended the throne BOURBONS RESTORED.
in his 20th year ; married the archduchess 1814. Louis XVII I (comte de Provence), brother of
Marie-Antoinette, of Austria, in May, 1770; Louis XVI.; born Nov. 17, 1755; married
* On Monday, the 21st of January, 1793, at eight o*clock in the morning, this unfortunate monarch
was summoned to his fate. He ascended the scaffold with a firm air and step ; and raising his voice, be
said. " Frenchmen, I die innocent of the offences imputed to mo. I pardon all my enemies, and I implore
Of Ileaven that my beloved France :" At this instant the inhuman Santerre ordered the drums to
beat, and the executioners to perform their office. When the guillotine descended, the priest exclaimed,
11 Son of St Louis ! ascend to heaven." The bleeding head was then held up, and a few of tho populace
shouted " Vive la Rtfpublique ! " The body was interred m a grave that was immediately afterwards filled
up with quick lime, and a strong guard was placed around until it should be consumed. Hist. French
Revolution.
f THE BONAPARTE FAMILY. Charles-Louis-Napoleon, bom April 20. 1808:
[The name appears at Florence and Genoa in the 13th educated under the care of his mother at
century : in the 15th a branch settles in Corsica. J Arembcrg. Switzerland, and at Tbun, under
Chahlfs Bonaparte, born March 29, 174/S, died Feb. general Dufour ; took part in the Carlwnari
24. 1785. He married in 1767, Letitia Ramolina lnMirrection in the Papal States in March,
(born Aug. 24, 1750, diod Feb 1836); issue, 1831 ; Attempted a revolt at Strasburg, Oct. 30.
Joseph, bom Jan. 7, 1768, made king of Two Sicilies, 1836; sent to America, Nov. 13, 1836; repairs
1805; of Naples alone, 1806; of Spain, 1808; re to London, Oct. 14, 1838; lands at Boulogne
sides in United States, 1815 ; comes to England, with fifty followers, Aug. 6, 1840 ; condemned
183a ; settles In Italy, 1841 ; dies at Florence, July to imprisonment for life, Oct. 6, 1840 ; escapes
28, 1844. from Ham, May 25, 1846; arrivesat Boulogne,
Napoleon I., emperor, born Aug. 15, 1769 (see March 2, 1848 ; elected deputy, Juno 8 ; and
abovo). takes his seat, Aug. 27 ; his coup d'etat, Dec.
Lucien, prince of Canino, born 1775 : at first aided 2, 1851 ; elected president of tho republic,
his brother Napoleon, but opposed his progress Dec. 10; for 10 yeai-s, Dec. st, 32, 1851 ;
towards universal monarchy. He was taken by elected emperor, Nov. 21, 1852 ; declared
tlm English on his way to America, and resided in emperor, as Napoleon III., Dec. 2, 1852.
England till 1814. lie died at Viterbo, June 30, Jerome, born Nov. 15, 1784; king of Westphalia,
1840. His son Charles (born 1803, died 1857) was Dec. 1, 1807—1814; made governor of the In-
an eminent naturalist. valides, 1848: and marshal, 1850; died June 24,
Louis, born Sept. 2, 1778; made king of Holland, i860 : his children are
1806; died July 15, 1846. By his marriage with Napoleon, born Sept. 9, 1822; married princess
Hortcnse Beauharnais (daughter of the empress Clotilde of Savoy. Jan. 30, 1859 : issue.
Josephine), in 1802, he had three sons : Napoleon Napoleon-Victor-Jerome, born July 18. 1863 ;
Louis (born 1803, died 1807); Louis Napoleon (born Napoleon-Louis-Joseph, born July 16, 1864.
1804, died 1831); and Mathildo, born May 27, 1820 ; married to prince
A. Demidoff in 1841.
FRA 310 FRA
FRANCE, continued.
Marie-Josephine-Louise of Savoy ; entered by flight to England, a provisional government
Paris, and took possession of the throne, was established, monarchy abolished, and Franco
May 3, 1814 ; obliged to flee, March 20, 1815 ; declared a republic.
returned July 8, sojjne year; diod without Charles-Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, declared by the
issue, Sept. 16. National Assembly (Dec. 19) phfsident of the
1824. Charles X. (cmnte d'Artoia), his brother; born republic of France ; and proclaimed next day,
Oct. 9, 1757; married Marie-Therese of Dec. 20 ; elected for ten years, Jan. 15, 1852.
Savoy ; deposed July 30, 1830. He resided
in Britain till 1832, and died at Gratz, in FRENCH EMPIRE REVIVED.
Hungary, Nov. 6, 1836. [1821. Napoleon 1 1.* (Napoleon-Joseph), son of Napo
[Rtir : Henry, due dc Bordeaux, called comte leon I. and Maria Louisa, archduchess of
de Chanibord, son of the due de Berry ; born Austria; born March 20, 181 1 ; created king
Sept. 29, 1820.] of Rome. On the abdication of his father
he was made duke of Reichstadt, in Austria ;
house of orluans. (See Orleans.) and died at the palace of Sehoenbrunn,
1830. Louis-Philippe, son of Louis-Philippe, duke of July 22, 1832. aged at.]
Orleans, called EgalUe", descended from 1852. Napoleon (Charles-Louis) III., Dec. 2 (formerly
Philippe, duke of Orleans, son of Louis president), the present (1865) emperor of
XIII. ; born Oct. 6, 1773; married Nov. 25, the French. (See note, p. 318.)
1809, Maria-Amelia, daughter of Ferdinand Emprena Eugenic-Marie fa Spaniard, formerly
I. (IV.) king of the Two Sicilies. Raised to countess ofTeba), born May 5, 1826 ; married
the throne as king of the French, Aug. 9, Jan. 29, 1853.
1830: abdicated Fob. 24, 1848. Died in Heir ; Nnpoleon - Eugene - Louis - Jean-Joseph,
exile, in England, Aug. 26, 1850. born March 16, 1856.
[On Dec. 18, 1852, the succession, in default
NKW REPUBLIC, 1848. of issue from the emperor, was determined
The revolution commenced in a popular insurrection in favour of prince Jerome-Napoleon and
at Paris, Feb. 22, 1848. The royal family escaped his heirs male. ]
FRANCE, Isle of. See Mauritius.
FRANCHE COMTfi, successively part of the kingdom and duchy of Burgundy and the
kingdom of France, was given to Philip II. of Spain as the dowry of Isabella of France,
whom he married in 1559. It was conquered and retained by Louis XIV. in 1674.
FRANCHISE. A privilege or exemption from ordinary jurisdiction ; and anciently an
asylum or sanctuary where the person was secure. In Spain, churches and monasteries were,
until lately, franchises for criminals, as they were formerly in England. See Sanctuaries.
In 1429 the Elective franchise for counties was restricted to persons having at least 40s.
a year in land, and resident. See Reform.
FRANCIS' Assault on the Qiteen. John Francis, a youth, fired a pistol at queen
Victoria, as she was riding down Constitution-hill, in an open barouche, accompanied by
prince Albert, May 30, 1842. The queen was uninjured. Previous intimation having
reached the palace of the intention of the criminal, her majesty had commanded that none
of the ladies of her court should attend her. Francis was condemned to death, June 17
following, but was afterwards transported for life.
FRANCISCANS, Roman Catholic friars, called also Grey friars, founded by Francis do
Assisi, about 1209, or 1220. Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, aud very austere
regimen. In 1226 they appeared in England, where, at the time of the dissolution of
monasteries by Henry VIII., they had fifty-five abbeys or other houses, 1536-38.
FRANKFORT-on-the-Main (Central Germany), many ages a free city ; was taken and
retaken several times during the French wars, and held by Bonaparte from 1803 to 1813,
when its independence was guaranteed by the allied sovereigns.
The diet of the princes of Germany established burg, &c, here constitute themselves the
here by the Rhenish confederation . . . 1806 council of the Germanic diet Sept. r, 1850
Appointed capital of the Germanic confede Tho German sovereigns (excepting the king of
ration 1815 Prussia) met at Frankport(at the invitation
The Frankfort diet publish a federative consti of the emperor of Austria), to consider a plan
tution March 30, 1848 of federal reform, Aug. 17 ; the plan was not
The plenipotentiaries of Austria, Bavaria, accepted by Prussia . . . Sept. 22, 1863
Saxony, Hanover, Wurtemberg, Mecklen Population in 1859, 67,975. See German}/.
FRANKFORT-ON-niE-ODEit (N. Germany) ; a member of the Hanseatic league, suffered
much from marauders in the middle ages, and in the thirty years' war. The university
was founded in 1506, and incorporated with the Breslau in 181 1. Near Frankfort, on
Aug. 12, 1759, Frederick of Prussia was defeated by the Russians and Austrians. See
Cunnersdorf.
• Decreed to bo so termed by the present emperor on his accession.
FRA 320 FRA
FRANKING LETTERS, passing letters free of postage, was claimed by parliament
about 1660. The privilege was restricted in 1837, and abolished on the introduction of
the uniform penny postage, Jan. 10, 1840. The queen was among the first to relinquish
her privilege.
FRANKLIN, the English freeholder in the middle ages. See "the Franklin's Tale,"
in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (written about 1364).
FRANKLIN'S ARCTIC EXPEDITION. Sir John Franklin, with captains Crozier and
Fitzjames, in H.M. ships Erebus and Terror (carrying in ull 138 persons), sailed on an arctic
expedition of discovery and sunrey, from Greeuhithe, on May 24, 1845. Their last despatches
were from the AVhnlefish islands, dated July 12, 1845. Their protracted absence caused
intense anxiety throughout Europe, and numerous expeditions were sent from England and
elsewhere in search of them to various parts of the liolar regions. Quantities of coals, pro
visions, clothing, and other necessaries, were deposited in such places in the Arctic seas as the
crews of the Erebus and Terror discovery ships might visit, so as to afford them immediate
relief, by our own and by the American government, by lady Franklin, and numerous private
persons. The Truehrc, captain Parker, which arrived at Hull, Oct. 4, 1849, from Davis's
Straits, brought intelligence (not afterwards confirmed) that the natives had seen sir John
Frankliu's ships as late as the previous March, beset or frozen up by the ice in Prince
Regent's inlet. Other accounts were equally illusory. Her Majesty's government, on
March 7, 1850, offered a reward of 20,000! to any party of any country, that should render
efficient assistance to the crews of the missing ships. Sir John's first winter quarters were
found at Becchy island by captains Ommanney and Penny.
1. H.M.S. Pforer, capt. Moore (afterwards under suaded from proceeding by the Russian
capt. Maguire), sailed from Sheerness to government Nov. 18, 1851
Behring's Straits, in search . . Jan. 1, 1S48 [The Enterprise and Investigator (see No. 4
2. Land expedition under sir John Richardson above) not having been heard of for two
and Dr. Rae, of the Hudson's Bay Company, years,]
left England .... March 25, 11. Sir Edward Belcher's ex]>edition, consisting
[Sir John Richardson returned to England of—Assistance, sir Edward Belcher, C. B. ;
in 1849, and Dr Rue continued his search Resolute, capt. Kellett, C.B ; North Star, capt.
till 1851.] Fullen ; Intrepid, capt. M 'Clintock ; and
3. Sir James Ross, with the Enterprise and In Pioneer, capt. Sherard Os\.orn, sailed from
vestigator (June 12, 1848), having also sailed Woolwich April 15, 1852
in search to Barrow's Straits, returned to [This expedition had arrived at Bcechy
England (Scarborough) . . . Nov. 3, Island Aug. 14, 1852. The Assistance and
4. Tho Enterprise, capt. CollinBon, and Investi Pioneer proceeded through Wellington
gator, commander M'Clnre, sailed from Ply Channel, and the Resolute and Intrepid to
mouth for Behring's Straits . . Jan. 20, 1850 Melville Island ; the North Starremaining
[Both of these ships proceeded through to at Becchy Island.]
the eastward.]
5. Capt. Austin's expedition, viz. : Resolute, LADY FRANKLIN'S EQUIPMENTS.
capt. Austin, C.B. ; Assutance, capt. Omman
ney ; Intrepid, lieut. Bertie Cator; and Pioneer, Lady Franklin, from her own resources, aided
lieut. Sherard Osborn, bailed from England by a few friends (and by the "Tasmanian
for Barrow's Straits . . , April 25, Tribute" of 1500/.), equipped four separate
[Returned Sept. 1S51.] private expeditions :
6. The Lady Franklin , capt. Fenny ; and Sophia, 12. Tho Prince A Iba-t, capt . Forsyth, sailed from
capt. Stewart, Railed from Aberdeen for Bar Aberdeen to Barrow's Straits June 5, 1850
row's Straits .... April 13, [Returned Oct. 1, 1850.]
[Returned home Sept. 1851.] 13. The Prince Albert, Mr. Kennedy, accompa
7. The American expedition in tho Advance nied by lieut. Bcllot, of the French navy, and
and Rescue, under lieut. De Haven and Dr. John Hepburn, sailed from Stromne^s to
Kane (son of the judge), towards which Mr. Prince Regent's Inlet . , . June 4, 1851
Grinnell subscril.>ed 30,000 dollars, sailed for [Returned Oct. 1852 ]
Liincaster Sound and Barrow's Straits ; after 14. The Isabel, commander Ingleficld, sailed for
drifting in tho pack down Baffin's Bav, the the head of Baffin's Bay, Jones's Sound, and
ships were released in 1851 uninjured, May 25, the Wellington Channel, July 6 ; and returned
8 The FdU, sir John Ross, fitted out chiefly by Nov. 1852
the Hudson Bay Company, sailed to the same 15. Mr. Kennedy sailed again in tho Isabel, on
locality ... . May 22, a renewed soarch to Behring's Straits . . 1853
[Returned in 1851.] 16. H.M.S. Rattlesnake, commander Trollope,
9. H.M.S. North Star, commander Saunders, despatched to assist the Plover, capt. Maguire
which had sailed from England in 1849, win (who succeeded capt. Moore), at Point Barrow
tered in Wolstenholme Sound, and returned in April ; met with it Aug. „
to Spithead Sept. 28, 17. The second American expedition, the Ad
10. H.M 8. Herald, capt. Kellctt, C.B., which vance, under Dr. Kano, early in . . June, ,,
had sailed in 1848, made three voyages to iS. The P/urnix (with the Breadalbane trans
Behring's Straits, and returned in . port}, commander Ingleficld, accompanied
Lieut. Pirn went to St. Petersburg with tho by lieut. Bellot, sailed in May : he returned,
intention of travelling through Siberia to the bringing despatches from sir E. Belcher, Ac.
mouth of the river Kolyma ; but was dis- Oct. „
FRA 321 FRA
FRANKLINS EXPEDITION, continual.
The Investigator and sir E. Belcher'a squadron Clarence in Aug. 21, 1854, and had sailed
were safe ; but no traces of Franklin's party immediately, in hopes of getting up with
had been met with. Lieut. Bellot* was unfor capt. Maguire in the Plover (i\ which had
tunately drowned in August while voluntarily sailed two days previously. Capt. Collinson
conveying despatches to sir E. Belcher Capt. having failed ingetting through the ice in 1850
M'Clure had left the Herald (10) at Capo with capt. M'Clure, returned to Jlong- Kong to
Lisburnc, July 31, 1850. On Oct. 8, the ship winter. In 1851 he passed through Prince of
was frozen in, and so continued for nine Wales's Straits, and remained in the Arctic
months. On Oct. 26, 1850, while on an ex regions without obtaining any intelligence of
cursion party, the captain discovered an Franklin till July, 1854, when, being onco
entrance into Barrow's Straits, and thus more released from the ice, he sailed for Fort
established the existence of a N.E —N.W. Clarence, where ho arrived as above men
passage. In Sept. 1851, the ship was again tioned. Captains Collinson and Maguire
fixed m ice, and so remained till lieut. Pim arrived in England in . . . . May, 1855
and a party from capt. Kellett's ship, the 20. The third American expedition in search of
Resolute (ri), fell in with thorn in April, 1853. Dr. Kane, in the Advawe, consisted of the
The position of the Enterprise (^Xwas still un Release and tho steamer Arctic, the barque
known. Bringo, and another vessel under tho com
Dr. Kae, in the spring of 1853, again proceeded mand of lieut. H. J. Hartstene, accompanied
towards the magnetic pole ; and in July, 1854, by a brother of Dr. Kane as surgeon, May 31, „
he reported to the Admiralty that he had. [On May 17, 1855, Dr. Kane and his party
purchased from a party of Esquimaux a num quitted the Advance, and journeyed over the
ber of articles which had belonged to sir J. ice, 1300 miles, to the Danish settlement ; on
Franklin and his party—namely, sir John's thoir way home in a Danish vessel, they fell
star or order, part of a watch, .silver spoons, in with lieut. Hartstene, Sept 1 8 ; and
and forks with crests, &c. He also reported arrived with him at New York, Oct. 11, 1855.
the statement of the natives, that they had Dr. Kane visited England in 1856; he died in
met with a party of white men about four 1857-]
winters previous, and had sold them a seal ; The Hudson's Bay Company, under adviee of
and that four mouths later, in the samo Dr. Rae and sir G. Back, sent out an overland
season, they had found the bodies of thirty expedition, June, 1855, which returned Sept
men (some buried), who had evidently following. Some more remains of Franklin's
perished by starvation ; the place appears, party were discovered.
from the description, to have been in the 21. The 18th British expedition (equipped by
neighbourhood of the Great Fish river of lady Franklin and her friends, the govern
Back. Dr. Rae arrived in England on Oct. ment having declined to fit out another)—
22, 1854, with the melancholy relies, which the Fox. screw steamer, under capt (since
have since been deposited in Greenwich hos sir) F. L. M'CUntock, R.N. (see No. n)—
pital. He and his companions were awarded sailod from Aberdeen July t, 1857 ; returned
io,ooof. for their discovery. Sept. 22, 1859
19. Tho Phoenix, Worth Star, and Talbot, under On May 6, 1859, lieut Hobson found at Point
the command of capt. Inglefield, sailed in Victory, near Cape Victoria, besides a cairn,
May, and returned in ... Oct. 1854 a tin case, containing a paper, signed April
SirE. Belcher (No. u). after mature delibera 25, 1848, by captain Fitzjames, which certi
tion, in April, 1854, determined to abandon fied that tho ships Erebus und Terror, on Sept.
his ships, and gave orders to that effect to all i2, 1846, were beset in lat. 70" oy N., and
the captains under his command ; and capt. long. 98" 23' W. ; that sir John Franklin died
Kellett gave similar orders to capt. M'Clure, June 11, 1847; and that the ships were de
of tho Investigator. The vessels had been serted April 22, 1848. Captain M'CUntock
abandoned in Junef when the crews of the continued the search, and discovered skele
Phoenix and Talbot (under capt. Inglefield) tons and other relics. His journal was pub
arrived (19). On their return to England tho lished in Dec. 1859; and on May 28, 1860,
captains were all tried by court-martial and gold medals were given to him and to lady
honourably acquitted . . Oct. 17-19, „ Franklin by tho Royal Geographical Society.
Capt. Collinson's fate was long uncertain, and Mr. Hall, the arctic explorer, reported, in Aug.
another expedition was in contemplation, 1865, circumstances that led him to hope
when intelligence came, in Feb 1855, that that capt. Crozier and others were surviving.
he had met the Rattlesnake (16) at Fort
FRANKS (or freemen), a name given to a combination of the North-western German
tribes about 240, which invaded Gaul and other parts of the empire soon after with various
success. Sec Gaul and France.
FRATRICELLI (Little Brethren), a sect of the middle ages, originally Franciscan monks
of the stricter sort. Their numbers increased, and they were condemned by a papal bull in
1317 ; and suffered persecution ; but were not extinct till the 16th century. They resembled
the " Brethren of the Free Spirit."
* A monument to his memory was erected at Greenwich. His "Journal" was published in 1854.
t Capt. Kellett's ship, the Resolute, was found adrift 1000 miles distant from where she was left by a
Mr. George Henry, commanding an American whaler, who brought her to New York. The British
government having abandoned their claim on the vessel, it was bought by order of the American congress,
thoroughly repaired and equipped, and entrusted to capt. H. J. Hartstone, to be presented to queen
Victoria. It arrived at Southampton Dec. 12, 1856 ; was visited by her Majesty on the 16th ; and formally
surrendered on the 30th,
Y
FRA 322 FRE
FRAUDULENT TRUSTEES ACT, 20&21 Vict, c. 54, was passed in 1857, in conse
quence of the delinquencies of sir John D. Paul, the British Bank frauds, &c. It was brought
in by sir R. Bethel], then attorney-general, and is very stringent.
FRAUNHOFER'S LINES. See Spectrum.
FREDERICKSBURG (Virginia, N. America). On Dec. 10, 1862, general Burnside
and the federal army of the Potomac crossed the small deep river Rappahannock. On Dee.
II, Fredericksburg was bombarded by the federals and destroyed. On the 13th com
menced a series of most desperate yet unsuccessful attacks on the confederate works,
defended by generals Lee, Jackson, Longstreet, and others. General Hooker crossed the
river with the reserves, and joined in the conflict, in vain. On Dec 15 and 16 the federal
army recrossed the Rappahannock. The battle was one of the most severe in the war.
FREDERICKSHALD (Norway), memorable by Charles XII. of Sweden being killed by
a cannon-shot before its walls, while examining the works. He was found with his hand
upon his sword, and a prayer-book in his pocket, Dec. II, 1 7 1 8.
FREE CHURCH (of Scotland*) was formed by an act of secession of nearly half the
body from the national church of Scotland, May 18, 1843. The difference arose on the
question of the right of patrons to nominate to livings. The Free Church claims for the
parishioners the right of a veto. Much distress was endured the first year by the ministers
of the new church, although 366,719/. 14s. 3c?. had been subscribed. In 1853 there were
850 congregations. A large college was founded in 1846. In 1856 the sustentation fund
amounted to 108,638/., from which was paid the sum of 13S/. each to 700 ministers.
FREEHOLDERS. Those under forty shillings per annum were not qualified to vote for
members of parliament by 8 Hen. VI. c. 7, 1429. Various acts have been passed for the
regulation of the franchise at different periods. The more recent were, the act to regulate
polling, 9 Geo. IV. 1S28 ; act for the disqualification of freeholders in Ireland, which deprived
those of forty shillings of this privilege passed April 13, 1829 ; Reform Bill, 2 & 3 Will. IV.
1832. County elections act, 7 Will. IV. 1836. See Chandot Clautc,
FREE TRADE principles, advocated,by Adam Smith in his ' ' Wealth of Nations " (1776),
triumphed in England when the corn laws were abolished in 1846, and the commercial
treaty with France was adopted in i860. Mr. Richard Cobden, who was very instrumental
in passing these measures, has been termed " The Apostle of Free Trade." Since 1830 the
exports have been tripled.
FREEMASONRY. Writers on masonry, themselves masons, affirm that it has had a
being " ever since symmetry began, and harmony displayed her charms." It is traced by
some to the building of Solomon's temple ; and it is said the architects from the African
coast, Mahometans, brought it into Spain, about the 6th century. Its introduction into
Britain has been fixed at 674 ; many of our Gothic cathedrals are attributed to freemasons.
The grand lodge at York was founded 926. Freemasonry was interdicted in Eugland,
1424. In 1 71 7, the grand lodge of England was established ; that of Ireland in 1730 ; and
that of Scotland in 1736. Freemasons were excommunicated by the pope in 1730; again
condemned, Sept. 30, 1865. The Freemasons' hall, London, was built 1775 ; the charity
was instituted 1788.
FRENCH LANGUAGE is mainly based on the rude Latin which prevailed in the nations
subjugated by the Romans. German was introduced by the Franks in the 8th century.
In the 9th the Gallo-Romanic dialect became divided into the Langue d'oc of the south and
the Langue (toil of the north. The French language as written by Froissart assimilates
more to the modern French, and its development was almost completed when the Academic
Francaisc, established by Richelieu in 1634, published a dictionary of the language in 1674.
The French language, laws, and customs were introduced into England by William I. 1066.
Law pleadings were changed from French to English in tho reigu of Edward 111. 1362.
Stow.
T-MNCIl'AL FRENCH AUTHORS.
Born Died Jli>rn DM Bom Died
Joinvillo, thirteenth century. Marot . ■ ■ M65 ■544 Dcs Cartes . . . 1596 1650
FroUuart . . . 1337—1400? Rabelais . • 1483 '553 Pascal . 1623 1662
Monstrelet . . . 1453 Muntaiguo - • 1553 ) 592 Moliere. . . . 1622 1673
Comities . . . 1509 Malherbe . • 1556 162S Hochefoucault . . 1613 x68t>
* The rev. IT. Hampton, <">nc of the curates of Islington, having l>ecn dismissed, a part of his congre
gation erected a tenijfomry church. The bishop of London, after inquiry, refused to lk-unso it. On this
the congregation declared itself to be the Fne Church of England. Eventually, he left tho neighbour
hood, and re-entered the establishment.
FRE 3-23 FRI
FRENCH LANGUAGE, continued.
Bom Died Earn Died Born
Comeillo . 1606 16S4 J. J. Rousseau . 1712 177? A. G. Do Baranto 178a
La Fontaino . 1621 1695 D'Aleml>crt • '7'7 ■ 7?; F. Guizot . '787
La Bruyero . • '644 i6<7r] Buffou . • 1707 17! f A. F Villeraain 1790
Racine • i639 1699 Marmontel • 1723 i~'f, A. Do la Martuio j790
Bossuet . 1627 1704 Do Stael . 1766 1817 Victor Coupin 179Z
Bayle • '647 1 706 Dc Gcnlia . ■ '746 1830 Ameclee Thierry '797
Boileau • 1636 1711 Sismondi ■ '773 "184a L. A. Thiers I--.7
Fenfflon . . 1651 1715 Chateaubriand . • 17G9 iB4a Jules Michelet I7y3
Rollin . . 1661 '74' Angustin Thierry ■ '795 1856 Victor Hugo ISoJ
Le Sago . . 1668 ■747 Berangcr 1S57 P. Merimea
. 1780 ■s=7 1803
Montesquieu . 1689 "755 F.ugcne Sue, aged 53 Louis Blanc 1813
Voltaire . i773 Eugene Scribe, aged 80 lib:
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR. In 1792, the French nation adopted a
new calendar professedly founded on philosophical principles. The first year of the era of
the republic hegan at midnight, between Sept. 21 and 22, 1792 ; but its establishment was
not decreed until the 4th Frimairc of the year II., Nov. 24, 1793. The calendar existed
until the 10th Nivose year of the republic XIV., Dec. 31, 1805, when the Gregorian mode
of calculation was restored by Napoleon.
AUTUMN. SPRING.
Vendemiaire . Vintage month, Sept. 22 to Oct. 21. Germinal . . Sprouts' month. Mar. 21 to April 19.
Brumaire . . Fog month . . Oct. 22 to Nov. 20. Floreal . . Flowers' month, April 20 to May 19.
Frimaire . . Sleet month . Nov. 21 to Dec. 20. Prairial . . Pasture month, May 20 to June 18.
WINTER. SUMMER.
Nivose . . Snow month . Dec. 21 to Jan. 19. Messidor . Harvest mouth, Juno 19 to July 18.
Pluviose Rain month . Jan. 20 to Feb. 18. Ferridor, or
Ventoso Wind month . Feb. 19 to Mar. 20. Thermidor . Hot month . . July 19 to Aug. 17.
Fructidor . Fruit month . Aug. 18 to Sept. 16.
SANSCUL0TIDE8, OR FEASTS DEDICATED TO
Les Vertua The Virtues . . Sept. 17. 1 L'Opinion . . . . Opinion Sept. 20.
Lc Genie . Genius . . Sept. 18. Les Recompenses . Rewards. Sept. 21.
Le Travail Labour . . . Sept. 19. |
FRENCH TREATY, the term given to tho treaty of commerce between Great Britain
and France, signed Jan. 23, i860, at Paris by lord Cowley and Mr. Richard Cobden and by
the ministers MM. Baroche and Rouher. The beneficial results of this treaty compensated for
the depression of trade occasioned by the civil war in North America (1861-5).
FRENCHTOWN (Canada), was taken from the British by the American general
Winchester, Jan. 22, 1813, during the second war with the United States of America. It
was retaken by the British forces under general Proctor, Jan. 24, and the American com
mander and troops were made prisoners.
FRESCO PAINTINGS are executed on plaster while fresh. Very ancient ones exist in
Egypt and Italy, and modem ones in the British houses of parliament, at Berlin, and other
places. The fresco paintings by Giotto and others at the Canipo Santo, a cemetery at Pisa,
executed in the 13th century are justly celebrated. See Slercochromy.
FRIDAY, the sixth day of the week ; so called from Friga, tho Scandinavian Venus.
She was the wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, and riches ; and with Thor and
Odin composed the supreme council of tho Gods. See Good Friday.
FRIEDLAND (Prussia). Here the allied Russians and Prussians were beaten by the
French, commanded by Napoleon, on June 14, 1807. The allies lost eighty pieces of
cannon and about 18,000 men ; the French about 10,000 men. The peace of Tilsit followed,
by which Prussia was obliged to surrender nearly half her dominions.
FRIENDLY ISLES, in the Southern Pacific, consist of a group of more than 150
islands, forming an archipelago of very considerable extent. These islands were discovered
by Tasmau, in 1642 ; and visited by Wallis, who called them Keppel Isles, 1767 ; and by
captain Cook, who gave them their present name on account of the friendly disposition of
the natives, 1773. Subsequent voyagers describe them as very ferocious.
FRIENDLY SOCIETIES originated in the clubs of the industrious classes, about 1793,
and have been regulated by various legislative enactments. In 1850, preceding acts were
consolidated, and other acts have since passed.
FRIENDS. See Quakers.
v 2
FRI 324 FRO
FRIENDS of the People associated to obtain parliamentary reform, 1792.
FRIESLAND : East (N. Germany), formerly governed by its own counts. On the death
of its prince Charles Edward, in 1744, it became subject to the king of Prussia ; Hanover
disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was annexed to Holland by Bonaparte, in
1806, and afterwards to the French empire ; but was awarded to Hanover in 1814. The
English language is said to be mainly derived from the old Frisian dialect.— Frieslakd,.
"West, in Holland, was part of Charlemagne's empire in 800. It passed under the counts of
Holland about 936, and was one of the seven provinces which renounced the Spanish yoke in
1580. The term Chevauxde Frise (sometimes, though rarely, written Cheval de Frise, a
Friesland Borse) is derived from Friesland, where it was invented.
FROBISHER'S STRAITS, discovered by sir Martin Frobisher, who tried to find a north
west passage to China, and after exploring the coast of New Greenland, entered this strait,
Aug. II, 1576. He returned to England, bringing with him a quantity of black ore,
supposed to contain gold, which induced queen Elizabeth to patronise a second voyage.
The delusion led to a third fruitless expedition. He was killed at the taking of Brest
in 1594-
FRONDE, Civil Wars of the, in France, in the minority of Louis XIV. (1648-53),
during the government of the queen Anne of Austria and cardinal Mazarine, between the
followers of the court and the nobility, and the parliament and the citizens. The latter were
called Frondeurs (slingers), it is said, from an incident in a street quarrel. In a riot on
Aug. 27, 1648, barricades were erected in Paris.
FROSTS. The following are some of the most remarkable :—
The Euxine Sea frozen over for 20 days . . his whole army, horse and foot, with large
A frost at Constantinople, when the two seas trains of artill?ry and baggage . i65s
there were frozen a hundred miles from the The furest trees, and even the oaks in England,
shore Oct. 763—Feb. 764 split by the frost ; most of the hollies were
A front in England on Midsummer-day is said killod ; the Thames was covered with ice
to have destroyed the fruits of the earth eleven inches thick ; and nearly all the birds
Thames frozen for 1 4 weeks .... 1103 s perished*
063 1684
Dreadful frosts in England from Nov. to April, 1076 The wolves, driven by the cold, entered Vienna,
The Catcgat entirely frozen 1 294 and attacked the cattle, and even men . . 1691
Baltic passable to travellers for six weeks Three months' frost, with heavy snow, from
The Baltic frozen from Pomerania to Denmark, i3a3 4O'2 Dec. to March, 8 Anne 1709
In England, when all the small birds perished, I[4O7 A fair held on the Thames, and oxen roasted ;
The ice bore riding upon it from Lubeck to this frost continued Iram Nov. 24 to Feb. 9 . 1716
Prussia 1426 One which lasted 9 weeks, when coaches plied
Severe frost, when the large fowl of the air upon the Thames, and festivities and diver
soxight shelter in the towns of Germany sions of all kinds were enjoyed upon the ice.
The river frozen below London-bridge to >433 This season was called the ''hard winter" . 1740
Gravesend, from Nov. 24 to Feb. 10 . . . M34 From Dec. 25 to Jan. 16, and from Jan. 18 to
The Baltic frozen, and horse passengers crossed 22 ; most terrible in its effect .... 1766
from Denmark to Sweden .... Z460 One general throughout Europe. The Thames
The winter so severe in Flanders that the wine was passable opposite the Custom House, Irom
distributed was cut by hatchets. . . . Nov. to Jan. 1789
Carriages passed over from Lambeth to West 1468 One from Dec. 24, 1794, to Feb. 14, 1795, with
minster the intermission of one day's thaw Jan. 33, 1795
Wine in Flanders frozen into solid lumps . . *S1S Intense frosts all Dec. 1796
Sledges drawn by oxen travelled on the sea »544 Severe frost in Russiaf 181a
from Rostock to Denmark .... Booths erected on the Thames ; the winter very
Diversions on the Thames . . Dec. ax, Ac. severe in Ireland Jan. 18 14
The Scheldt frozen »o hard as to sustain loaded 1564 The frost bo intense in parts of Norway, that
waggons quicksilver' freezes, and persons exposed to
The Rhine, Scheldt, and Venice frozen 1594 the atmosphere lose their breath . Jan. a, 1849
Fires and diversions on the Thames . . . 1607 Very severe frost in London, Jan. 14 to Feb. 24;
The rivers of Europe and the Zuyder Zee frozen ; and very cold weather up to Juno 26f ■ • 1855
ice covers the Hellespont .... Very severe frost from Dec. 20, i860, to Jan. 5,
Charles X. of Sweden crossed the Little-Belt 1622 1861.J See Cold.
over the ice from Holstein to Denmark, with
* " The frost this year was terrible. It began in the beginning of Dec. 1683. The people kept trades
on the Thames as in a fair, till Feb. 4, 1684. About forty coaches daily plied on the Thames as on drye
land. Bought this book at a shop upon the ice in the middle of the Thames."—Entry in the memoranda 0/
a Citizen.
t The frost in Russia in 1812 surpassed In intenseness that of any winter in that country for many
preceding years, and was very destructive to the French army in its retreat from Moscow, at the close of
that memorable year. Napoleon commenced his retreat on the 9th Nov, when the frost covered the
ground, and the men perished in battalions, and the horses fell by hundreds on the roads. What with the
loss in battle, and the effects of this awful and calamitous frost, France lost in the campaign of this year
more than 400,000 men.
t On Feb. 22, fires were made on the Serpentine, Hyde Park. A traffic on the ice of 35 miles long,
was established in Lincolnshire —During the frost of iE6o-i, bonfires were lit on the Serpentine, dancing
took place, fireworks were let off, Ac.
FRO 325 FUN
FROST'S INSURRECTION. See Newport,
FRUITS. Several varieties of fruit are said to have been introduced into Italy, 70 B.C.
et scq. Exotic fruits and flowers of various kinds, previously unknown in England, were
brought thither between the years 1500 and 1578. See Oard:nUuj and Flowers.
Almond-tree, Barbary, about 1548 Limes, Portugal . , .1554 Poars, uncertain . . * *
Apples, Syria. . . 1522 Lime, American, before , . 1752 ; Pine-apple, Brazils . . 1568
Applo, custard, N. America . 1736 Melons, before . . . 1540 ' Pippins, Netherlands . . 1525
Apple, osage, ditto . . 1818 Mulberry, Italy. , , . 1520 Plums, Italy .... 1522
Apricots, Epirus . . . 1540 Mulberry, white, China, abt. 1596 ! Pomegranate, Spain, before . 1548
Chorry-trees, Pontus . . 100 Mulberry, the red, N. Ame- I Quince, Austria . . . . 1573
Cherries, Flanders . . . 1540 rica, before .... 1629 ! Quince, Japan . . . 1796
Cornelian cherry, Austria . 1596 Mulberry, the paper, Japan, I Raspberry, the Virginian, be-
Currant, the hawthu., Canada 1705 before 1754 I fore- 1696
Fig-treo, S. Europe, before . 1548 Nectarine, Persia . . . 1562 ; Strawberry, Flanders . . 1530
Gooseborries, Flanders, bo- Olive, Cape .... 1730 ' Strawberry, the Oriental, Le-
fore 1540 Olive, the sweet scntd. China 1771 I vant 1724
Grapes, Portugal . . . 1528 I Oranges 1595 I Walnut, the black, N. Ame-
Lemons, Spain . . . . 1554 I Peaches, Persia . ... 1562 j rica, before .... 1629
FUCHSIA, an American plant named after the German botanist Leonard Fuchs, about
1542. The fuchsia fulgens, the most beautiful variety, was introduced from Mexico, about 1830.
FUENTES D'ONORE (Central Spain). On May 2, 181 1, Massena crossed the Agueda,
with 40, 000 in fantry, 5000 horse, and about 30 pieces of artillery, to relieve Almeida. He
expected every day to be superseded in his command, and wished to make a last effort for
his own military character. Wellington could muster no more than 32,000 men, of which
only 1200 were cavalry. He however determined to fight rather than give up the blockade
of Almeida. After much fighting, night came on and put an end to the battle. Next day,
Massena was joined by Bessieres with a body of the Imperial guard ; and on May 5, the
enemy made his grand attack. In all the war there was not a more dangerous hour for
England. The fight lasted until evening, when the lower part of the town was abandoned
by both parties—the British maintaining the chapel and crags, and the French retiring a
cannon-shot from the stream. Napier.
FUGGER, a illustrious German family (the present head being prince Leopold Fugger
Babenhanser), derives its origin from John Fugger, a master weaver in Augsburg in 1370 ;
and its wealth by trade, and by money-lending to monarchs, especially the emperors.
FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL, pissed by the American legislature in 1S50. It imposed a
fine of 1000 dollars and six months' imprisonment on any person harbouring fugitive slaves
or aiding in their escape. This law was declared to be unconstitutional by the judges of the
superior court on Feb. 3, 1855. It was carried into effect with great difficulty, and was not
received by Massachusetts. It was repealed June 13, 1864. See Slavery in America.
FULDA (W. Germany), the scat of an abbey, founded by St. Boniface, the apostle of
Germany, in 744. It was made a bishopric in 1752, and a principality in 1803. Napoleon
incorporated it with Frankfort in 1810 ; but in 1815 it was ceded to Hesse-Cassel.
FUMIGATION. Acron, a physician of Agrigentum, is said to have first caused great
fires to be lighted and aromatics to bo thrown into them to purify the air ; and thus to nave
stopped the plague at Athens and other places in Greece, about 473 B.C.
FUNDS. See Slocks and Sinking Fund.
FUNERALS. A tax was laid on funerals in England, 1 793. The Romans pronounced
harangues over their dead, when eminent for rank, great deeds, and virtues. Theopompus
obtained a prize for the best Funeral Oration in praise of Mausolus, 353 B.C. Popilia was
the first Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her funeral, which was done by her
son, Crassus ; and it is observed by Cicero that Julius Csesar did the like for his aunt Julia
and his wife Cornelia, In Greece, Solon was the first who pronounced a funeral oration,
according to Herodotus, 580 B.C. David lamented over Saul and Jonathan, 1056 B c, and
over Abner, 1048 B.C. 2 Sam. i. and iii. —Funeral Games, among the Greeks, were chiefly
horse-races ; and among the Romans, processions, and mortal combats of gladiators around
the funeral pile. These games were abolished by the emperor Claudius, A. D. 47.
Punuc FraEKAL-s voted by parliament :— I Richard Brunley Sheridan . . . July 13, 1816
Duke of Rutland, in Ireland . . Nov. ij, 1787 j George Canning .... Aug. 16, 1827
Lord Nelson (see AVkoa) . . . Jan. 9, 1806 ' Duke of Wellington .... Nov. 18, 1852
We Pitt Feb. 22, ,, Viscount Palmorston (at Her majesty's re-
Chas. Jag. Fox Oct. 10, „ I quest; Oct. 27, 1865
FUR GAL
FURRUCKABAD (N. India), a province acquired by the East India Company, in June,
1802. Near the capital of the same name, on Nov. 17, 1804, lord Lake totally defeated
the Mahratta chief Holkar, and about 60,000 cavalry, himself losing 2 killed and about 20
wounded.
FURS wero worn by Henry I., about 1125. Edward III. enacted that all persons who
could not spend looi. a year, should be prohibited this species of finery. March 28, 1336-7.
G.
GA BELLE (from Gain, a gift), a term applied to various taxes, but afterwards restricted
to the old dutv upon salt, first imposed by Philip the Fair on the French in 1286. Duruu.
Our Edward ill., termed l'hilip of Valois, who first levied the tax, the author of the Salic
law (from sal, salt). The assessments were unequal, being very heavy in some provinces and
light in others ; owing to privileges and exemptions purchased from the sovereigns in early
periods. The tax produced 38 millions of francs in the reign of Louis XVI. It was a
grievous burden, and tended to hasten the revolution ; during which it was abolished (1790).
GAELIC is the northern branch of the Celtic languages, Irish, Erse, or Highland Scottish,
and Manx. The " Dean of Lismore's book" (written 1511-51) contains Gaelic poetry; speci
mens were published with translations in 1862, by rev. T. M'Lachlan.
GAETA (the ancient Cajeta), a strongly fortified Neapolitan seaport, has undergone
several remarkable sieges. It was taken by the French in 1799 and 1806, and by the
Austriansin 18 15 and 182 1. Here the pope, Pius IX., took refuge in 1848, and resided more
than a year. Here also Francis II. of Naples, with his queen and court, tied, when Garibaldi
entered Naples, Sept. 7, i860 ; and here he remained till the city was taken by the Sardinian
general Cialdini, Feb. 13, 1861, after a severe siege, uselessly prolonged by a French fleet
remaining in the harbour. Cialdini was created duke of Gaeta.
■ GAGGING BILL, properly so called, meant to protect the king and government from
the harangues of seditious meetings, was enacted in 1795, when the popular mind was much
excited. In Dec. 1819, soon after the Manchester allray, a bill for restraining public
meetings and cheap periodical publications was popularly called "a gagging bill." Statutes
coercing popular assemblies, particularly in Ireland, have been also so designated.
GALAPAGOS, islands ceded to the United States by Ecuador, Nov. 3, 1854, the British,
French, and other powers protesting against it.
GALATIA, an ancient province of Asia Minor. In the 3rd century B.C. the Gauls under
Brennus invaded Greece, crossed the Hellespont, and conquered the Troas 278 ; were checked
by Attalus in a battle about 239 ; and then settled in what was called afterwards Gallogrrecia
and Galatia. The country was annexed to the Roman empire B.C. 25, on the death of the
king Amyntas. Paul's Epistle to the Galatiaus was probably written A.D. 58.
GALICIA, a province, N.W. Spain, was conquered by D. Junius Brutus, 136 B.C., and
by the Vandals, a.d. 419 ; and was frequently subdued by successive invaders. In 1065, on
the death of Ferdinand I. king of Castilo and Leon, when his dominions were divided, his
son Garcia became king of Galieia. Ruling tyrannically, he was expelled by his brother
Sancho ; returned at his death in 1072 ; was again expelled by his brother Alfonso, 1073 ;
and died in prison in 1091. Alfonso, son of Urraca, queen of Castile, was made king of
Galieia by her in 1 109. He defended his mother, a dissolute woman, against her husband,
Alfonso VII., and at her death in 1126, acquired Castile, and once more re-united the
kingdoms. — Galicia in Poland. East Galieia was acquired by the emperor of Germany at
the partition in 1772 ; and West Galicia at that of 1795. The latter was ceded to the grand-
duchy of Warsaw in 1S09 ; but recovered by Austria in 181 5. Sec Poland, note.
GALLERIES. See National, Louvre, and Versailles.
GALL, ST. (in Switzerland). The abbey was founded in the 7th century, and was sur
rounded by a town in the 10th. St. Gall became a canton of the Swiss confederation
in 1815.
GALLEYS with three rows of rowers, iri-rem.es, wero invented by the Corinthians, 7S6
B.C. lilair. The terms "galley slave," and "condemned to the galleys," arose from these
sea vessels having from 25 to 30 benches on each side, manned by four or five slaves to each
bench. In France they had a general of galleys, of whom the baron de la Garde was the
first, 1544- Henault.
GAL GAO
GALLIPOLI, a sea-port in Turkey in Europe, 12S miles west of Constantinople. It was
taken by the Turks in 1357, and fortified by Bajazet I. The first division of the French
and English armies proceeding against the Russians landed here in March and April, 1854.
GALOCHES, French for overshoes, formerly of leather ; but since 1S43 made of vulcanised
India rubber. The importation of Galoches was prohibited by 3 Edw. IV. c. 4 (1463).
GALVANISM and GALVANO-PLASTICS. See under Electricity,
GALWAY (W. Ireland). The ancient settlers here were divided into thirteen tribes, a
distinction not yet forgotten. It was taken by Richard de Burgo in 1232. In 1690 Gahvay
declared for king James, but it was invested and taken by general Ginckel immediately after
the decisive battle of Aughrim, July 12, 1691. Here is one of the new colleges, endowed by
government for the advancement of learning in Ireland, pursuant to act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66
(1845), inaugurated Oct. 30, 1849. See Colleges*
GAMBOGE, a medicine and pigment, brought from India by the Dutch, about 1600.
Hermann in 1677 announced that it was derived from two trees of Ceylon, since ascertained
to belong to the order Guttiferte.
GAME LAWS are a remnant of the forest laws imposed by William the Conqueror, who,
to preserve his game, made it forfeiture of property to disable a wild beast ; and loss of eyes,
for a stag, buck, or boar. The clergy protested against ameliorations of these laws, under
Henry III. The first Game act passed in 1496. Game certificates were first granted with a
duty in 1784. Several statutes to prevent the destruction of game have been passed. Tho
Game act (I & 2 Will. IV. c. 32) greatly modifying all previous laws, was passed in 1831.
By it the sale of game is legalised at certain seasons. By the Game Poaching Preventive
act, passed in 1862, greatly increased powers were given to the county police.
GAMES. The candidates for athletic games in Greece were dieted on new cheese, dried
figs, and boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The games were leaping, foot-races,
darting, quoits, wrestling, and boxing. See Capitolinc, Isthmian, Olympic, Pythian, Secular
games, &c.
Gaming waa introduced into England by tho Three ladies of quality convictod in penalties of
Saxons ; the loser was often made a slave to 5of. each for playing at Para March 11, 1797
the winner, and sold in traffic like other mer Gaming houses wcro licensed in Paris until . 1836
chandise. Camden. Any person losing, by betting or playing, mora
Act prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and than 100/. at any one time, is not conipellablo
interdicting tennis, cards, dice, bowls, Ac., to to pay tho same, 16 Chas. II 1663
inferior people, except at Christmas time), Bonds or other securities given for money won
33 Heu. VIII 1541 at play not recoverable ; and any porson
Gaming-houses licensed in London . . . 1620 losing more than xof. may sue the winner to
Act to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, recover it back, 9 Anne 1710
when all private lotteries and tho games of Amended laws respecting gamos and wagers,
Faro, Basset, and Hazard were suppressed, 8 & 9 Vict. c. 109 (1845) ; by 3 Geo. IV. c. 114,
13 Geo. IL 1739 a gaming-house keeper is to be imprisoned
Tho profits of a well-known gaming-house in with hard lalwur ; and by 2*3 Vict gaming
London for one season havo been estimated houses may bo entered by the police, and all
at 150,000* In one night a million of money persons present taken into custody.
is said to have changed hands at this place. Betting-houses suppressed .... 1853
Leigh. The lord chancellor refused a bank Public gaming tables suppressed at Wiesbaden
rupt his certificate because ho had lost si. at and other places in Germany . . . 1861-3
ono time In gaming . . . July 17, 1788
GAMUT. The invention of the scale of musical intervals (commonly termed do or tit,
re, mi, fa, sol, la, to which si was added afterwards), for which tho first seven letters of tho
alphabet are now employed, is mentioned by Guido Aretino, a Tuscan monk, about 1025.
GANGES CANAL, for irrigating the country between the Ganges and the Jumna. The
main liue (525 miles long) was opened April 8, 1854. When completed, it will be 900 miles
in length, and will irrigate not less than 1,470,000 acres. It is tho greatest work of the
kind in the world. Its estimated cost is 1,555,548/. The immense difficulties in its execution
were overcome by the skill and perseverance of its engineer, sir Proby Cautley. In Oct. 1S64,
sir Arthur Cottou asserted that the work was badly done, and the investment only paid
3 per cent.
GAOL DISTEMPER. See Old Bailey.
* In 1858 tho sailing of mail steam packets from Galway to America begun ; but tho subsidy ceased in
May, 1861, through the company's breach of contract, which occasioned much discussion in parliament. In
July, 1863, the contract for tho conveyance of mails from Galway to America was renewed, 75,000!. having
been voted for the purpose. The scheme was not successful. On Nov. 9 the steamer Amjlia struck ou
the Black rock, and tho mails were taken to Dublin. The last packet sailed in Feb. 1864.
GAR 328 GAS
GARDENING. The first garden, Eden, was planted by God. See Gen. ii. Gardening
was one of the first arts that succeeded the art of building houses. Waljxile. Gardens
were highly valued by the ancients. The Scriptures abound with allusions to them, particu
larly the Song of Solomon and the Prophets ; and Christ's agony took place in a garden.
Xenophon describes the gardens at Sardis ; and Epicurus and Plato taught in gardens.
Theophrastus's History of Plants was written about 322 B.C. Horace, Virgil, and Ovid
derive many images from the garden (50 B.C. to a.d. 50); and Pliny's Tusculan villa is circum
stantially described (about A.D. 100). The Romans doubtless introduced gardening into
Britain (about A. i>. 100), and it was kept up afterwards by the various religious orders. Its
cultivation as an art in England is dated from the commencement of the 16th century, when
many Flemings came to England in consequence of the persecutions of Philip II. Miller's
valuable dictionary was published in 1724 ; the Horticultural Society (which see) was estab
lished in 1804 : Loudon's valuable Encyclopaedia of Gardening was first published in 1822,
and his Encyclopedia of Plants in 1829. See Botany, Flowers, Fruits. An act for the
protection of gardens, and ornamental grounds in cities was passed in 1863.
GAROTTE, a machine for strangling criminals, used in Spain. The term "garotters"
was applied to the attempts to strangle made by thieves, very prevalent in the winter of
1862-63. ^n ac' was passed in 1863 to punish these acts by flogging.
GARTER, Order of the, owes its origin to Edward III., who, with a view of recovering
France, was eager to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and thereupon,
projecting the revival of king Arthur's round table, he proclaimed a solemn tilting, to invite
foreigners and others of quality and courage to the exercise. The king, upon New Year's
day, 1344. published royal letters of protection for the safe coming and returning of such
foreign knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at the joust and tournaments
about to be held. A table was erected in Windsor castle of 200 feet diameter, and the
knights were entertained at the king's expense. In 1346 Edward gave his garter for the
signal of a battle that had been crowned with success (supposed to be Cressy), and being
victorious on sea and land, and having David, king of Scotland, a prisoner, he, in memory of
these exploits, is said to have instituted this order, April 23, 1349. The following were the
ORIGINAL KKIOHTS, I350. Sir John Lislo. Sir Thomas Wale.
Edward, prince of Wales Barth, lord Burghorsh. Sir Hugh Wrottesloy.
(called the Black Prince). John, lord Beauehamp. Sir Nele Lorin.
Henry, duke of Lancaster. John, lord Mohun, of Uunstar. John, Lord Chandos.
Thomas, earl of Warwick. Hugh, lord Courtenay. Sir James Audley.
Piers, captal de Buch. Thomas, lord Holland. Sir Otho Holland.
Ralph, earl of Stafford. Lord Grey, of Codnore. Sir Henry Earn.
William, carl of Salisbury. Sir Richard Fitz-Siinon. Sir San Daubrichcourt
Roger, earl of Mortimer. Sir Miles Stapleton. Sir Walter Paveley.
Edward gave the garter pre-eminence among the ensigns of the order ; it is of blue velvet
bordered with gold, with the inscription in old French— " lloni soil qui mal y pense,"—Evil
be to him who evil thinks. The knights are installed at Windsor ; and were styled Equiles
aurtcc Periscelitlis, knights of the golden garter. Beatson. The honour was conferred on the
sultan of Turkey in 1856. The office of Garter Kino at Arms was instituted by Henry V.
in 1420, and is one of considerable honour ; he carries the rod and sceptre at every feast of
St George.* Spclman. The order of the garter in Ireland was instituted in imitation of that
of England, by Edward IV. in 1466 ; but was abolished by an act of parliament, 10 Hen. VII.
1494. Asfanole's Instil. The number of knights was increased in 1786. Many knights
were admitted in 1814.
GASCONY (S.W. France) a duchy, part of Aquitaine (which see).
GAS-LIGHTS : tho inflammable aeriform fluid, carburetted hydrogen, evolved by the
combustion of coal, was described by Dr. Clayton in 1739. Phil. Trans.
Application of coal gas to the purposes of illumi 1807; Pall Mall, 1809; geuorally through
nation tried by Mr. Murdoch, in Cornwall . 1792 London 1814
Gaslight introduced at Boulton and Watt's Mr. David Pollock, father of the chiof baron,
foundry in Birmingham in . . .1 798 was governor of tho first "chartered" gas
Permanently used at the cotton-mills of Phillips company 1812
and Lee, Manchester (1000 burners lighted) 1805 Lycoum Theatre lit with gas as an experiment
Introduced in London, at Golden-lane, Aug. 16, by Mr. Winsor, 1803 ; the Haymarket not till 1853
* The patron saint of England. The order, until Id Edward VI. 's time, was called tho order of St.
George. His figure on horseback, presented as holding 1 pear, and killing the dragon, was first worn by
tho knights of the institution. It is suspended by a blue ribbon across the body from the shoulder.—St.
George was a tribune, in the reign of Diocletian ; and being a man of great courago, was a favourite ; but
complaining to the emperor of his severities towards the Christians, and arguing in their defence, he was
put In prison, and beheaded, April 23, 290 —On that day, In 1192, Richard I. defeatod Saladin.
GAS 329 GAIT
GAS-LIGHTS, continued.
Gas first used in Dublin, 1818; the streets gene Processes to obtain illuminating gas from water
rally lighted Oct. 1825 have been patented by Cruickshauks (1839),
Gas-lighting introduced in Paris, 1819 ; ten gas White (1S49), au(l others.
companies in Paris .... July 1865 Gas-meters patented by John Malam (1820), sir
Sydney, in Australia, was lit with gas May 35, 1841 W. Congruve (1824), Samuel Clegg (1830), Na-
The gas-pipes in and round London extend up than'Defries (1838), and others.
wards of 2000 miles, and are daily increasing. Explosion of a large gasometer at the London
It was said in i860, that of the gas supply of Gas-light Company's works at Nine-clms : 10
London a leakage of 9 j>er cent, took place persons killed, and many injured (first acci
through the faulty joints of the pipes.—The dent of the kind) .... Oct 31, 1S65
sale of gas is regulated by acts passed in . i860
GASES, in chemistry, permanently elastic aeriform fluids. See Oxygtn, Hydrogen, and
Nitrogen. Prof. Thos. Graham's paper on the law of the diffusion of gases appeared in 1834.
Furnaces in which gases are used as fuel were devised by Mr. C. W. Siemens, and employed
in glass works, etc., in 1861. Lenoir's gas-engine, in which the motive power is obtained by
the ignition of combined gases by electricity, was patented by him in 186 1. In Dec. 1864,
143 of these engines were working in Paris. They were introduced into England in 1864.
GASTEIN (Salzburg, Austria). The long discussion between Austria and Prussia
respecting the disposal of the duchies conquered from Denmark, was closed by a provisional
convention signed here by their ministers (Blum for Austria and Bismarck for Prussia),
Aug. 14, 1865.* This convention was severely censured by the other powers.
GATESHEAD, a borough in Durham, on the Tyne, opposite Newcastle. At Gatcsheadr
fell, William I. defeated Edgar Athcling in 1068. It was made a parliamentary borough by
the reform bill in 1832. Between twelve and one o'clock, Oct. 6, 1854, a fire broke out in
a worsted mannfactory here, which shortly after set fire to a bond warehouse containing a
great quantity of nitre, sulphur, Ac, causing a terrific explosion, felt at nearly twenty miles'
distance, and totally destroying many buildings, and burying many persons in the ruins.
At the moment of the explosion, large masses of blazing materials flew over the Tyne and
set fire to many warehouses in Newcastle. About fifty lives were lost, and very many persons
were seriously wounded. The damage was estimated at about a million pounds.
GAUGES (in railways). Much discussion (termed "the battle of the gauges") began
among engineers about 1833. Mr. I. M. Brunei approved of the broad, adopted on the
Great Western railway ; and Mr. R. Stephenson, Joseph Locke, and others, of the narrow,
that now almost universally adopted, even by the Great Western.
GAUGING, measuring the contents of any vessel of capacity, with respect to wine and
other liquids, was established by a law 27 Edw. III. 1352.
GAUL, Gallia, the ancient name of France and Belgium. The natives, termed by the
Greeks Galatae, by the Romans Galli or Celtse, came originally from Asia, and invading
Eastern Europe, were driven westward, and settled in Spain (in Gallicia), North Italy (Gallia
Cisalpina), France and Belgium (Gallia Transalpina), and the British isles (the lands of the
Cymry or Gaels),
re Phocmans found Massilta, now Marseilles And by Probus a d. 375. 277
B.C. 600 Who Introduces the culture of the vine . . 280
The Gauls under Brcnnus defeat the Romans Maximian defeats the Franks . .
at the river Allla, and sack Rome ; are de Constantino proclaimed emperor in Gaul . . 281
feated and expelled by Camillus, July 13, b.c. 300 Julian arrives to relieve Gaul, desolated by bar 306
The Gauls overrun Northern Greece, 280 B.C. ; barians ; defeats the Alcmanni at Strasburg . 357
are beaten at Delphi, 279 ; and by Sosthenes, — Julian proclaimed emperor at Paris, 360; dies 363
king of Hacedon 277 Gaul harassed by the Alemannl . 365-377
They assist Hannibal 218, &c. Invasion and settlement of tho Burgundians,
The Romans conquer Gallia Cisalpina, 220 : in Franks, Visigoths, sic 378- 450
vade Gallia Transalpina, with various success, Clodion, chiof of tho Salian Franks, invades
121-58 Gaul ; is defeated by Aetius . . 4-17
They colonise Aix (123 B.C.) ; and Narbonno . 118 The Huns under Attila dofeated by Atttius near
Julius Ciesar subdues Gaul in 8 campaigns . . 58-50 Chalons 4? 1
Lyons founded 41 JSgidius, the Roman commander, murdered .
Druids' religion proscribed by Claudius a.d. 43 Childeric the Frank takes Pari-* . . . . 4'>4
AdrLin visits and favours Gaul, hence called All Gaul, west of the Rhone, ceded to tho
Restorer of the Gauls 120 Visigoths
Introduction of Christianity 160 ' End of tho Roman empiro of tho West, and 475
Christians persecuted . 177, 202, 257, 286, 288 j establishment of tho kingdom of the Franks 476
The Franks and others defeatedi by Aurolian . 241 (See Fraiice.)
* Austria was to have the temporary government of Ilolstofn, and Prussia that of Sleswig ; the
establishment of a German fleet was proposed, with Kiel as a federal harbour, held by Prussia ; Lauen-
burg was absolutely ceded to Prussia, and the king was to pay Austria as a compensation 2,500,000
Danish dollars.
GAU 330 GENT
GAUNTLET, an iron glove, first introduced in the 13th century, perhaps about 1225.
It was a part of the, full suit of armour, being the armour for the hand. It was commonly
thrown down as a challenge to an adversary.
GAUZE, a fabric much prized nniorg the Roman people. "Brocades and damasks
and tabbies and gauzes, have been lately, brought over" (to Ireland). Dean Swift, in 1698.
The manufacture of gauze and articles of a like fabric at Paisley, in Scotland, was commenced
about 1759.
GAVEL-KIND. The custom of dividing paternal estates in land equally among male
children, without any distinction, is derived from the Saxons about 550. This usage is
almost universal in Kent, whore it was first practised. By the Irish law of gavel-kind, even
bastards inherited. Davics. Not only the lands of the father wore equally divided among
all his sons, but the lauds of the brother also among all his brethren, if he had no issue of
his own. Law Diet.
GAZETTES. See Newspapers.
GAZA, a city of the Philistines, of which Samson carried off the gates about 1120 B.C.
(Judges xvi.) It was taken by Alexander after a long siege, 332 ; and near to it Ptolemy
defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes, 312 B.C. It was taken by Saladin A.D. 11 70; and by
Bonaparte, March 1799.
GEMS. The ancient Greeks excelled in cutting precious stones, of which many speci
mens are extant. Tho art was successfully revived in Italy in the 15th century. In Feb.
i860, Herz's collection of gems was sold for io.oooZ. The rev. C. King published his
"Antique Gems" in i860, and the "Natural History of Precious Stones and Gems" in
1865. Artificial gems have been recently produced by chemists (Ebelmen, Deville, Wbhler,
and others), 1858-65.
GENEALOGY (from the Greek genea, birth, descent), tho art of tracing pedigrees, &c.
The earliest pedigrees are those contained in the 5th, 10th, and 1 Ith chapters of Genesis.
The first book of Chronicles contains many genealogies. The pedigree of Christ is given
in Matt. i. and Luke iii. Many books on tho subject have been published in all European
countries ; one at Magdeburg, Theatrum Genealogicum, by Heuninges, in 1598. Anderson,
Royal Genealogies, London, 1732. — Sims' Manual for the Genealogist, &c, 1856, will be
found a useful guide. The works of Collins (1756 el scq.), Edmondson (1764-84), and Nicolas
(1825 and 1857), on the British peerage, aro highly esteemed. The Genealogical society,
London, was established in 1853.
GENERAL ASSEMBLY. See Church of Scotland.
GENERAL COUNCILS. Sec Councils.
GENERAL "WARRANTS. See Warrants.
GENERALS. Matthew de Montmorency was the first officer honoured with the title of
general of the French armies, 1203. U6nav.ll. It is observed by M. Balzac that cardinal
Richelieu first coined the word Generalissimo, upon his taking tho supreme command of the
French armies in Italy, in 1629. See Cmnmandcrs-in-Chief.
GENEVA, a town of the Allobroges, a Gallic tribe, 58 B.C. ; became part of the empire
of Charlemagne, about A. D. 800 ; and capital of the kingdom of Burgundy 426.
The Republic founded In 1512 came to Ireland in July, 1783, but they soon
Emancipated from Savoy ..... 1526 after abandoned it ; many Gencvcse settled
Allied to the Swiss Cantons in . . . .1584 in England 1784
Calvin settling here, and obtaining imich in Another revolution .... July, 1794
fluence, Geneva was termed tho " Komo of Geneva incorporated with Franco . April 26, 1 79S
Calvinism " about 1533 Admitted into tho Swiss Confederation, ]3ec. 30, 1S13
Through him Servctus burnt for heresy . . 1553 Revolution, through an endeavour of the Catho
Insurrection, Feb. 17 81 : about 1000 Gcnevese, lic cantons to introduce Jesuits as teachers ;
in consequence, applied, in 1782, to earl a provisional government set up . Oct. 7, 1S43
Templo, lord-lieutenant of Ireland, for per [Tho scheme was withdrawn.]
mission to settle in that country : the Irish Election riots, with loss of life, through the
parliament voted 50,000/. to defray the ex- indiscretion of M. Fazy . Aug. 22, 1864
pensu of their journey, and to purchase them 49th annual meeting of tho Helvetic Society of
lands near Watcrfori Many of the fugitives Natural Sciences held . . Aug. 21-23, 1865
GENOA (N. Italy). Its ancient inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the
Romans 115 B.C. It underwent tho revolutions of the Roman empire till A.D. 950.
GEN 381 GEO
GENOA, continued.
Genoa becomes a free commercial state, about . 1000 pendencc of bis country 1628
Wars with Pisa ..... 1119-1284 Genoa bombarded by the French, 16S4 ; by the
Frederic II. captures 22 galleys, and vainly British, 1745; taken by the imperialists, who
besieges Genoa 1241 are soon after expelled, Nov. 9, 1746 ; another
The families of Doria and Spinola obtain as siege raised June 10, 1747
cendency ...... about 1270 The celebrated bank fnilcd 1750
The Genoese destroy the naval power of Pisa at Genoa made the Lunarian republic . . . 1796
Melora Aug. 13, 1284 The city, blockaded by a liritish fleet and Aus
"War with Venice 1293-99 trian army, until literally starved, was evacu
Rufaelo Doria and Galeotto Spinola, appointod ated by capitulation, May and June; but it
captains was surrendered to the French soon after
Simon Boccanegra made the first doge, 1339 <335 their victory at Marengo . . June 14, 1 Soo
set aside by the nobles, 1344 ; rc-appointed . 1356 Genoa annexed to the French empire, June,
Great discord ; many doges appointed . . . *394 1805 ; surrenders to the English and Sicilians
Genoa successively under the protection of April 18, 1S14
France, 1396 ; of Naples, 1410 ; of Milan, 1419 ; United to the kingdom of Sardinia . . Dec.
it loses and regains its freedom frequently, The city seized by insurgents, who, after a
1421 -1512 murderous struggle, drove out the garrison
Taken and sacked by the Spaniards and Italians and proclaimed the Litnirian republic, April
under Prosper C'olonna ..... 3, but surrendered to general La Marmora,
Andrew Doria, with the fleet, restores the indo April 11, 1849
GENS-D'ARMES were anciently the king's horse-guards only, but afterwards the king's
gardes-du-corps ; the musquctecrs and light-horse were reckoned among them. There was
also a company of gentlemen (whose number was about 250) bearing this name. Scots
guards were about the person of the kings of France from the time of St. Louis, who
reigned in 1226. They were organised as a royal corps by Charles VII. about 1441. The
younger sons of Scottish nobles were usually the captains of this guard. The name gens-
d'amies was afterwards given to the police ; but becoming obnoxious was changed to
"municipal guard " in 1830.
GENTLEMAN (from gentiles, of a gens, a race or clan). The Gauls observing that during
the empire of the Romans the Scutarii and Gentiles had the best appointments of all the
soldiers, applied to them the terms Ceuycrs and gentihhommes. This distinction of gentlemen
was much in use in England, and was given to the well descended about 1430. Sidney.
Gentlemen by blood were those who could show four descents from a gentleman who had been
created by the king by letters patent.
GENTLEMEN-AT-ARMS (formerly styled the Band of Gentlemen Pensioners) is the
oldest corps in England, with the exception of the Yeoman of the Guard. The band was
instituted by Henry VIII. in 1509, and was originally composed entirely of gentlemen of noble
blood, whom he named his pensioners or spears. William IV. commanded that it should be
called his Majesty's Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Anns, March 7, 1834. Curling.
GEOGRAPHY. The first records we have of geographical knowledge are in the Penta
teuch, and in the book of Joshua. Homer describes the shield of Achilles as representing
the earth surrounded by the sea, and also the countries of Greece, islands of the Archipelago,
and site of Troy. Iliad. The priests taught that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the
centre of the world. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical maps, about
568 B.C. Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to a mathematical basis, about 135 B.C.
It was first brought to Europe by the Moors of liarbary and Spain, about A. p. 1201. Lenglet.
The invention of the mariner's compass is the important connecting link between ancient
and modern geography. The modern maps and charts were introduced into England by
Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent,
A.D. 1489. Geography is now divided into mathematical, physical, and political. The study
has been greatly promoted during the present century by expeditious at the expense of various
governments and societies. The Royal Geographical Society of London was established in
1830 ; that of Paris in 1821.
GEOLOGY, the science of the earth, has been the subject of philosophical speculations
from the time of Homer ; and it is said to have been cultivated in China many years before
the Christian era. It occupied the attention of Pliny, Avicenna, and the Arabian writers.
In 1574 Mercati wrote concerning tho fossils in the certain tokens of antiquity than coins or medals,
popo's museum : Cesalpino, Majoli, and others and, though dithenIt, it would not bo impossible
to raUe a rhronohurt/ o*U of them."
(1597), Steno (1669), Scilla (1670), QuirinI (1676), Burnet's
Plot and Lister (1678). Leibnitz (1680) recorded " Theory of tho Earth," appeared in 1690,
observations, and put forth theories on the various Winston's in 1696.
changes in tho crust of the earth. Buffon's geological views (1749) were censured by
nooko (1668), in his work on Earthquakes, said that the Sorbonnein 1751, and recanted in consequence.
fossils, "as monuments of nature, were more The principle he renounced was that the prosent
GEO 332 GEO
GEOLOGY, continued.
condition of tho earth is due to secondary canscR, establishing a school of mines there in 1804-7, wjl*
and that these same causes will produce further declined.
changes. His more eminent fellow-latMjurors and In 1807 the Geological Society of London w;» estab-
successors were Gesner (1758), Michcll (1760J, lishe'd, which By collecting a great m i*s of new
Kaspe 01762-73). Pallas and Saussurc (1793-1800). data greatly tended to check tho disposition to
Werner (1775) ascribed all rocks to an nqn.e>>us origin, theorise, and led to the Introduction of views
and even denied the existence of volcanoes in midway between thoso of Werner and Hutton.
primitive geological times, and had many followers, In 1835 Mr. (afterwards sir Henry) Da la Beche
Kirwan, Do Luc, &c. —Hutton (17S8) supported suggested the establishment of the present Miseurn
by Playfair (1801 ), warmly opposed Werner's views, of Geology, which began at Craig's Court, and
and asserted that the principal changes in the which was removed to its present position in
earth's crust are due to the energy of fire. The Jormyn-street. To him is also due the valuable
rival parties were hence termod Neptunists and geological mips formed on the ordnauce survey.
Vulcanists. The building was erected by Mr. Ponnethorne, and
William Smith, tho father of British geology (who opened in 1851. Attache i to the museum are the
had, walked over a large p.irt of England) drew up Mining Records office, a lecture theatre, labora
a Tabular View of British Strata, in 1709, and pub tories, Ac. Sir H. De la Beche, the first director,
lished it and his Geological Map of England and died April 13, 1855, and was succeeded by sir R
Wales, 1812-15. I. Murchison. A similar institution was estab
In 1803 tho Royal Institution possessed the best lished at Calcutta, In 1840, by the E. I. Company
geological collection in London, collected, by II. Tho English standard works on Geology at tho
Davy, C. Uatchett, and others ; tho proposal of present time are [those of Lyoll, Phillips, De la
sir John St. Aubyn, sir Abraham Ilumc, and the Beche, Murchison, Mantell, and Ansted (1865).
right hon. C. F. Greville, to aid the government in
The strata composing the earth'scrust may be divided into two great classes: 1st, those generally
attributed to the agency of water; 2nd, to the action of fire, which may be subdivided as follows :
Aqueous formation, stratified, rarely crystalline Sedementary or Fossiliferous rocks.
Metamorphic or Unfossilifcrous.
Igneous formations, unstratified, crystalline Volcanic, as Basalt, Ac.
Plutonic, as Granite, &c.
Fossiliferous, or Sedimentary, rocks are divided into three great series :—
The Palaeozoic (most ancient forms of life), or I The Neozoic or Cainoeoic (more recent forma of life),
Primary. or Tertiary.
The Mosozoic (middle life period), or Secondary, j
TABULAR VIEW OF FOSSILIFEROUS STRATA.
NEOZOIC ; rag ; Woald Clay ; Hastings Sand.
I. Post Tertiary : [Iguanodon, Hylaosaurn .<, <fcc ]
A. Pott-Pliocene ; F. 12. Oolite : Upper ; Purbeek beds, Portland
x. Recent: Marine strata; with human Stone and Sand, Kimmeridge Clay ;
remaint; Danish peat; kitchen-mid Lithographic Stone of Solenhufen with
dens ; bronze and stone implements ; Archatopteryx. [Fish.]
Swiss lake-dwellings ; temple of Serapis 1 13. Middle: Calcareous Grit, Coral Rag,
at PuzzuolL Oxford Clay, Kelloway Rock. [Betem-
2. Pott-Pliocene ; Brixham cave, with flint nites and Ammonites.]
knives, and bones of living and extinct 14. Lower: Cornbrash, Forest Marble. Brad-
quadnipeds ; ancient valley gravels ; _ ford Clay, Great Oolite, Stonesficld Slate,
glacial drift; ancient Nile mud; post Fuller's Earth, Inferior Oolite. [Ichthyo-
glacial N. American deposits; remains taurur, Plesiosaurus, Pterodactyl.]
of mastodon; Australian breccias. G. 15. Lias: Lias Clay and Marl Stone. [Ammo
nites, Equisetum, Amphibia, Laby-
II. Tertiary or Cainozoic Series: rinthodon.]
B. Pliocene : H. 16. Trias : Upper ; White Lias, Red Clay,
3. Jfewer Pliocene(prJPleistoccne) Mammalian with Salt in Cheshire, Coal Fields in
beds, Norwich Crag. [Marine shells.] Virginia, N. A [Fish, Dromatherium.]
4. Older Pliocene : Red and Coralline Crag 17. Middle or Muschelkalk (wanting in
(Suffolk, Antwerp). England). [Encrinus ; Plaeodus
C. 5,6, Miocene: Upper and Lower ; Bordeaux ; ffiffas,]
Virginia sands and Zouraine beds ; 18. Lower: New Red Sandstone of,Lanca
Pikcrme* deposits near Athens ; vol shire and Cheshire. [Labyrinthodon ;
canic tuff and limestone of the Azores, Footprints of Birds and Reptiles.]
Ac. ; brown coal of Germany, <fcc.
[Mastodon, Gigantic BIL; Salaman IV. Primary or Palaeozoic Series :
der, Szc] I. 19. Permian : MagneMan Limestone, Marl
D. 7, 8, 9. Eocene : Upper, Middle, and Lower ; Slates, Red Sandstone and Shale, Dolo
Freshwater and Marine beds ; Barton mite ; kupferschlefer. [Firs, Fishes,
Clays ; Bracklesham Sands ; Paris Amphibia.]
Gypsum ; London Plastic, and Thanet K. 20, 2i. Carboniferous, Upper and Lower :
Clays. [Palms, Birds,&c] Coal Measures, Millstone Grit, Mountain
Limestone. [Ferns, Catamites, Coat.]
III. Secondary or Mesozoic Series: L. 22, 23, 24. Devonian, Uppor, Middle, and
E. 10. Cr>taeeo%u: Upper; British Chalk; Lower: Tilestonos, Cornstones, and
Maestricht beds.—Chalk with and with Marls, Quartzosc Conglomerates.
out Flints, Chalk Marl, Upper Green /*, Fish, Trilobite*.]
[Shells,
Sand, Gault, L-jwerGreen Sand. [Mcso- 35, 26, 27. Silurian, Upper, Middle and
saurus; Fish, Molt usks, &c.] Lower : Ludlow Shales, Aymestry
ix. Lower (or Neocomian or Wea'den); Kentish Limestone, Wenlock Limestone, Wen-
GEO 333 GER
GEOLOGY, continued.
lock Shale, Caradoc Sandstone, Llan- I and Cryptogamia.]
deilo Flags ; Niagara Limestone. 1 O. 30 Lfiurrii'iuin, Upper Gneiss of the Heb
[Sponges, Corals, Trilobites, rides (?) : l^abradcrite Series, N. of tho
Shrlls.) St. Lawrence ; Adirondack Mountains,
N. 28, so. Cambrian, Upper and Lower : Bala New York.
Limestone, Festiniog Slates, Bangor 31, Lower : Gneiss and Quartettes, with
Slates and Grits, Wicklow Rock, Intorstratified Limestones, in one of
Haslccts Grits, Huronian Series of which, 1000 feet thick, occurs a fora-
Canada, [Zoophytes, Lingula, Ferns, minifor, £020611 Canudense, the
Sigillaria, Stigmaria, Catamites, oldest known fossil.
GEOMETRY, bo termed from its original application to measuring the earth. Its origin
is ascribed to the Egyptians ; tho annual inundations of the Nile having given rise to it
by carrying away tho landmarks and the boundaries of farms. Thales introduced geometry
into Greece, about 600 B.C. Euclid's Elements were compiled about 300 B.C. The doctrine
of curves originally attracted the attention of geometricians from the conic sections, which
were introduced by Plato about 390 n. c. The conchoid curve was invented by Nicomedcs,
220 B.C. The science of geometry was taught in Europe in the 13th century. Books on
geometry and astronomy were destroyed in England as infected with magic, 7 Edw. VI.
1552. Stow. Simson's celebrated edition of Euclid first appeared in 1756.
GEORGE. A gold coin current at 6s. Sd. in the reign of Henry VIII. Leake.
GEORGE, ST. The tutelary saint of England, and adopted as patron of the order of
the garter by Edward III. His day is April 23. See Knighthood.
GEORGES' CONSPIRACY, in France. General Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges
Cadoudal, who was commonly known by the name of Georges, and others, were arrested at
Paris, charged with a conspiracy against tho life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of
Louis XVIII., Feb. 1S04. Pichegru was found strangled in prison, April 6. The conspirators
were tried, June 9, when seventeen were sentenced to death, and many to imprisonment.
Moreau was suffered to leave France, and was escorted from the Temple to embark for
America, June 22. In 1813 he was killed before Dresden (which sec).
GEORGIA, the ancient Iberia, now a province of S. Russia, near the Caucasus, submitted
to Alexander, 323 B.C., but threw off the yoke of his successors. It was subjugated to Rome
by Pompey, 65 B.C., but retained its own sovereigns. Christianity was introduced into it in
the 3rd century. In the 8th century, after a severe straggle, Georgia was subdued by the
Arab caliphs ; by the Turkish sultan Alp-Arslan, 1068 ; and by the Tartar hordes, 1235.
From the 14th to the 18th centuries. Georgia was successively held by the Persian and
Turkish monarchs. In 1740 Nadir Shah established part of Georgia as a principality, of
which the last ruler, Heraclius, surrendered bis territories to the czar in 1799 ; and in 1802
Georgia was declared to be a Russian province.—Georgia, ix North America, was settled
by gen. Oglethorpe, in 1732. Separating from the congress of America, it surrendered to
the British, Dec.,1778 ; and its possession was of vast importance to the royalists in the then
war. Count d'Estaing joined the American general Lincoln, and made a desperate attack on
Georgia, which failed, and the French fleet returned home ; the colony was given up to the
Union by the British in 1783. It seceded from the Union, by ordinance, Jan. 18, 1861, and
was overrun by Sherman in 1864-5. See United States. — Georgia, in the Pacific, was visited
by captain Cook in 1775.
GEORGIUM SIDUS, the first name of the planet Uranus (which see).
GERMAINS, ST. near Paris, where James II. of England resided in state after his abdi
cation, in 1689, and where he died, Sept. 16, 1701.
GERMANIC CONFEDERATION, constituted by the Allies, 1815, in place of tho
Confederation of the Rhine (which see), now consists of—
The empire of Austria ; the kingdoms of Prussia, Lubock) ; the lato Danish duchies (Schleswig and
Hanover, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtemberg; 7 Holstein) ; the duchies of Luxemburg and Lem-
grand-duchies (Baden, Hesse, &c); 8 duchiea burg belonging to Holland. Population of tho
(Brunswick, &c.) ; 12 princiiwlities and 1 lordship ; whole, in 1853, about 43! millions.—Baron Kubeck,
4 free cities (Frankfort, Hamburg, Bremen, and President since May 29, 1859.
GERMANY (Germania Alcmania), anciently, as now,, divided into several independent
states. The Germans long withstood the attempts of the Romans to subdue them ; and
although that people conquered some parts of the country, they were expelled before the close
of the 3rd century. In the 5th century tho arms of the Huns and otlicj tribes prevailed
over the greater portion of Germany. These were subjugated by Charlemngnc in the latter
GER 331 GEIl
part of the 8th century. He took the title of emperor, entailing the dignity upon his family ;
but after his race became extinct in 911, the rank was made elective. A member of the
house of Austria was elerteil (almost uninterruptedly) from 1437 until 1S04. Germany was
divided into circles in 1512 ; formed into the Confederation of the Rhine, in 1804, and iuto
the Germanic Confederation in 1815. See both articles, Austria^ &c.
The Teutonoi united with tho Cymry, defeat John Sobicski, king of Poland, after defeating
the Romans in lllyria . B.C. 113 the Turks obliges them to raise tho siege of
After varying success aro defeated by Marius . 10a Vienna Bept. 12, 1683
Hermann or Arminius, tho German hero, The peace of Carlowitz (with the Turks) Jan. 26, 1699
destroys the Itoman legion under Varus a.d. 9 War with Franco, A*c. ; Marlborough's victory
Great irruption of Germanic tribes into Gaul 450, <tc. at Blenheim Aug. 13, 1704
, Charlemagne after a long contest subdues tho Peace of Utrecht .... April 11, 1713
( Saxons, who bocome Christians , . 772^785 The Pragmatic Sanction (which *t%) . . . 1722
\j!o is crowned emperor oi" the West at Rome . 800 Francis I., duke of Lorraine, marries tho
He adds a second head to the eagle to denote heiress of Austria, Maria-Theresa, queen of
that the empires of Rome and Germany are Hungary (1736J. She succeeds her father,
united in him 803 and becomes queen of Hungary . . Oct. 20, 1740
Louis (Ic IMtHmnaire) separates Germany from The elector of Bavaria elected emperor as
France 839-840 Charles VII. Jan. 22, 1742 ; he dies. Jan. 20;
The German princes assert their independence, Francis I. duke of Lorraine, elected emperor
and Conrad I. of Franconia reigns . . 911 Sept. 15, 1745
[The electoral character assumed about this Tho seven years' war between Austria and
time. See Electors.] - Prussia and theirrespective allies begins, Aug.
Reign of Henry I. [king], sumamed the Fow 1756; ends with tho peaco of Hubcrtsburg
ler : he vanquishes the Huns, Danes, Vandals, Feb. 15, 1763
and Bohemians 918*934 Joseph II. extends his dominions by the dis
Othit I. extends his dominions, and is crowned memberment of Poland, 1772; many civil
emperor by the pope 962 reforms and liberal changes .... 1782
Henry III. conquers Bohemia ^642 {"Francis I. juins iu the second partition of Poland 1795
Contest between Henry IV. and Gregory VII. . 1075 [In the ruinous wars between Germany and
Henry's humiliation at Canossa (which tee) . . 1077 , France, tho emperor loses tho Netherlands,
He takes Rome, 1804; and Gregory dies in all his territories west of the Rhine, and his
exile at Salerno 1085 states in Italy, 1793, el teg.]
Disputes relating to ecclesiastical investitures Francis II. assumes the title of emperor of
with the popo 1073-1123 Austria Aug. 11, 1804
Hie Guelph and the Ghibelino feuds ticgin . 1140 Napoleon establishes the kingdoms of Bavaria
Conrad III. leads an army to the holy wars ; and Wurtcmberg, 1805 ; and of Westphalia,
it was destroyed by Greek treachery . . 1147 1807; dissolution of the German empire; " *!
Frederick Barbarossa's wars with the Italian formation of the confederation of the Rhine
republics "54-77 July 12, 1806
He destroys Milan 1162 Commencement of tho war of independence
He ruins ilenry the Lion (see Bavaria) . . 1180 March, 1813
He is drowned during tho crusade in Syria . . 1190 Congress of Vienna . . Nov. 1,1814—May 25, 1815
Teutonic order of Knighthood . . . „ The Germanic confederation (Khieh see) formed
Hanseatic league established 1245 June 8, 181 5
lieign of Rodolph, count of Hapshurg, chosen Tho Zollvercin (rch ich see) formed . . . 1S1S
Dy the electors 1273 Insurrection at Vienna and throughout Ger
The famous edict, called the Golden Bull, by . — many (see Austria, Hungary, ic.) . . . 1848
Charles IV 1356 The king of Prussia takes the lead asan agitator,
Sigismund, king of Bohemia, elected emperor. to promote the rcconsolidation of the German
He betrays John Huss and Jerome of Prague, empire, by a proclamation . March 27, „
who are burned alive (see Bohemia) . 1414-16 German national assembly meet at Frankfort,
Sigismund being driven from the throne, Albert May 18, „
II., duke of Austria, succeeds . . . 1437 Revolt in Schleswig and Holstein(Bee Denmark)
Era of the Reformation, (see Luthtr) . . 1517 March, „
German bible and liturgy published by Luther 1522-46 German national assembly elects the king of
Luther excommunicated by tho diet at Worms, Prussia emperor of Germany • March 28, 1849
April 17, 1521 He declines the honour . . April 3, ,,
War with the pope—tho Germans storm Rome 1527 He recalls the Prussian members of the assem
Diet at Spires 1529 bly May 14, „
Confession of Augsburg published . Jan. 25, 1530 The Frankfort assembly transfers its, sittings
Protestant League of Smalcalde .... 1531 to Stutgardt . May 30,
The anabaptists seize Minister, 1534 ; but are Treaty of Vienna between Austria and Prussia
suppressed, and John of Lcyden slain . 1536 for the formation of a new central power for
Death of Luther 1546 a limited time ; appeal to be made to the
War with protestants 1546-52 governments of Germany . Sept. 30,
Who are helped by Henry II. of France—Peace Protest of Austria against the alliance of Prus
of Religion at Passau . . . July 31, 1552 sia with some of the smaller German states
AlKlieation of Charles V. . . Aug. 27, 1556 Nov. 12,
The thirty years' war lxsgins between the Treaty of Munich between Bavaria, Saxony,
Evangelic union imder elector palatine, and and Wurtemberg, for a revision of the Ger-
the Catholic league under the duke of Bavaria 1618 m;in union Feb. 27, 1850
Battle of Prague, which ruined the elector Parliament meets at Erfurt . . . March,
palatine ... ... Nov. 8, 1620 The king of Wurtcmberg denounces the insi
Gu>lavu.--Adolphns of Sweden invades Germany dious ambition of Prussia . March 15, ,,
June, 1630 German diet meets at Frankfort . May 10,
Death of Gustavus-Adolphus, victor at Lutzen Hesse-Cassel refuses to send a representative to
Nov. 16, 1632 Erfurt June 7
End ofthe thirtyylars' war : treaty of Westpha Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from tho Prussian
lia, establishing religious toleration Oct. 24. 1648 league ...... June 20, „
GEU 335 GER
GERMANY, continued.
Austria calls an assembly of the Gorman con The National Association meet at Berlin : they
federation at Frankfort . . . July 19, 1850 recommend the formation of a united Federal
Which meets at Frankfort . Sept. 2, government, with a central executive, under
Austrian, Bavarian, and Prussian forces enter the leadership of Prussia . . March 13, 1862
HesseCasscl. See Hesst-Casgtl . Nov. 12, „ Meetings of plenipotentiaries from German
Conferences on German affairs at Dresden states respecting Federal reform
Dec. 23, 1850, to May 15, 1851 July 8—Aug. 10, ,,
Conference of tho diet of Nuremberg relative to Deputies from the German states meet at
a general code of commerce for Germany Weimar, and declare that the greatest want
Jan. 15, 1857 of Germany is its formation into one Federal
Great excitement in Germany at the French state Sept. 28, 29, „
successes in Lombardy ; warlike preparations Congress of deputies from German states on
in Bavaria, &c. . .May and June, 1859 national reform .... Aug. 22, 1863
Meeting of new liberal party in Eisenach, in Tho emperor of Austria invites the Germ;in
Saxe-Weimar. Seven resolutions put forth sovereigns to a congress at Frankfort, July
recommending that the imperfect federal 31 ; king of Prussia declines, Aug. 4; nearly
constitution be changed ; tbat the German all the sovereigns meet, Aug. 16, 17; they
diet be replaced by a strong central govern definitively approve the Austrian plan of
ment ; that a national assembly be sum Federal reform, Sept. 1 ; which is rejected by
moned ; and that Prussia be invited to tike Prussia Sept. 22,
the initiative Aug. 14, „ Tho diet determine to have recourse to federal
This proposal not accepted by Prussia, and execution in Holstein if Denmark docs not
warmly opposed by Hanover . . Sept. fulfil her obligations . . Oct. 1,
The Austrian minister, Hechbcrg, severely cen 50th anniversary of tho battle of Leipzig celo-
suring the duke of Saxe Ootha, for a liberal brated Oct. 18, „
speech, Sept. 4 ; and accusing the Prussian Death of Frederick VII. king of Denmark
government or favouring tho liberalfl, meets Nov. 15, „
with cutting retorts .... Sept. „ German troops enter Holstein as *• Federal exe
The Federal diet maintain the Hosse-Caseel con cution." (See Denmark for following events )
stitution of 1852 against Prussia . March 24/ i860 Dec. 23,
Meeting of the French emperor and the Ger Death of Maximilian II. king of Bavaria
man sovereigns at Baden, June 16, 17; and March 10, 1864
of the czar and the emperor of Austria and Prussia retains the duchios ; discussion be
the regent of Prussia at Toplitz July 26, &c. tween Austria and Prussia ; the diet adopt
Meeting at Coburg in favour of German unity tho resolution of Bavaria and Saxony request
against French aggression . . Sept. 5, ,, ing Austria and Prussia to give up Holstein
Dispute with Denmark resecting the rights of to the duke of Augustenburg ; rejected,
Holstein and Schleswig . . Nov. ,, April 6, 1S65
First meeting of a German national shooting The Gastcin convention (which tee) signed,Aug. 14, „ ■
match at Gotha . . . July 8-1 1, 1861
Meeting of tho German National Association at Severely censured by tho diet at Frankfort,
Heidelberg; it decides to form a German Sept. „
fleet ... ... Aug. 23, „
Subscriptions received for the fleet See Austria, Denmark, Prussia, &c.
Sept and Oct „
KINGS AND EMPERORS OF GERMANY.
CARLOVINGIAN RACE. 1002. Honry II., duke of Bavaria, surnamed tho
800. Charlemagne. Holy and the Lame.
814. Louis le Diboanaire, king of France. 1024. Conrad II., surnamed the Salique.
840. Lothaire, or Lothcr, son of Louis ; died In a 1039. Henry III., the Black, son of Conrad II.
monastery at Troves. 1056. Henry IV., son of the preceding; a nunor,
855. Louis II., son of Lothaire. under the regency of his mother Agnes ; de
875. Charles II , called the Bald, king of France; posed by his son and successor. (Several
poisoned by his physician, Zedechias, a emperors nominated by the pope.)
Jew. Mtnault. 1106. nenry V. ; married Maud or Matilda, daughter
877. [Interregnum. ] of Henry I. of Kngland.
880. Charles III. U Grot, crowned king of Italy; 1125. Lothaire II., surnamed the Saxon.
deposed ; succeeded by 1 138. [Interregnum. ]
887. Arnulf, or Arnoul ; crowned emperor at Homo
in 896. HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN, OR OF 9UABTA.
899. Louis III. called IV. ; tho last of tho Carlo- ,, Conrad 111., duke of Franconia.
vingian race in Germany. 1 152. Frederick I. Barbarossa ; one of the most splen
did reigns in tho German annals ; drowned
SAXON DYNASTY. by his horse throwing him into the river
91X. Otho, duke of Saxony ; refuses the dignity on Saleph.
account of his ago. 1 190. Henry VI., his son, surnamed Asper, or the
„ Conrad I. duke of Franconia. Sharp; it was this emperor that detained
918. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, eon of Otho, Richard I. of England a prisoner in his
duke of Saxony ; king. dominions; died 1197. Interregnum and
936. Otho I., styled the Great, son of Henry. Many contest for tho throno between Philip of
writers withhold the imperial title from Suabta and Otho of Brunswick.
him until crowned by pope John XII. in 962. 1198. Philip, brother to Henry; assassinated at
973. Otho II., the Bloody, so stigmatised for his Bamberg by Otto of Wittelsbach.
cruelties ; massacred his chief nobility at an 1208. Otho IV., surnamed tho Superb recognised as
entertainment to which he had invited them; king 01 Germany, and crowned as emperor
wounded by a poisoned arrow. the next year ; excommunicated and de
983. Otho 111., surnamed the Red, his son, yet in posed.
his minority ; poisoned. 1215. Frederick II., king of Sicily, the son of Henry
GER GET
GERMANY, continued.
VI. ; deposed by his subjects, who elected 1439. [Interregnum.]
Henry, landgrave of Thuringia. Frederick 1440. Frederick IV. (or III.) surnamed the Pacific;
died in 1250, naming his son Conrad his elected emperor Feb. 2, but not crowned
successor, but the pope gave the imperial until June, 1442.
title to William, carl of Holland. 1493. Maximilian I. son of Frederick ; died In 15 19.
1250. Conrad IV.* sou of Frederick. In 1477 he married Mary of Burgundy.—
1256. [Interregnum.] Francis I. of France and Charles I. of Spain
1257. Richard, carl of Cornwall, and Alphonso, of became competitors for the empire.
Castile, nominated emperors. 1519. Charles V. (I. of Spain) son of Joan of Castilo
and Philip of Austria, elected ; resigned both
HOUSES OF HAPSBURO, LUXEMBURG, AND BAVARIA.. crowns, 1 556 ; and retired to a monastery,
1273. Rodolph, count of Hapsburg. where he died soon after.
1291. J Interregnum.] 1 556. Ferdinand I. brother to Charles ; succeeded
1292. Adolphus, count of Nassau, to the exclusion by his son,
of Albert, son of Rodolph ; deposed ; slain 1564. Maximilian II. king of Hungary and Bohemia ;
at the battle of Spires. succeeded by his son,
1298. Albert, dxike of Austria, Rodolph's son ; killed 1576. Rodolph II.
by his nephew at Rheinfels, May 1, 1306. 1612. Matthias, brother of Rodolph.
1308. Henry VII. of Luxemburg. 1619. Ferdinand II. his cousin, son of tho archduke
1313. [Interregnum.] Charles ; king of Hungary.
1314. Louis IV. (III.) of Bavaria, and Frederick III. 1637. Ferdinand III. son of the preceding emperor ;
of Austria, son of Albert, rival emperors ; succeeded by his son,
Frederick died in 1330. 1658. Leopold I.
133a Louis reigns alone. 1705. Joseph I. son of the emperor Leopold.
1347. Charles IV. of Luxemburg. In this reign was 1711. Charles VI. brother to Joseph ; succeeded by
given at Nuremberg, in 1356, the famous his daughter,
Golden Bull, which became tho fundamental 1740. Maria-Theresa, queen of Hungary and Bohe
law of tho German empire. „ mia, whose right to the empire was sustained
1378. "Weuceslas, king of Bohemia, son of Charles ; by England.
twice imprisoned, and at length forced to 1742. Charles VII. elector of Bavaria, whose claim
resign ; but continued to reign in Bohemia. was supported by Franco ; rival emperor,
1400. Frederick III. duke of Brunswick ; assassi and contested succession.
nated immediately after his election, and [This competition for the throne of Germany
seldom placed in the list of emperors. gave rise to an almost general war. Charles
„ Rupert, count palatine of the Rhine ; crowned died in Jan. 1745.]
at Cologne ; died in 1410.
141a Jossus, marquess of Moravia ; chosen by a 1745. Francis I. of Lorraine, grand-duke of Tuscany,
party of tho electors ; died the next year. consort of Maria-Theresa.
„ Sigisniund, king of Hungary ; elected by 1765. Joseph II. son of the emperor Francis and of
another party. On the death of Jossus ho is Maria-Theresa.
recognised by all parties ; king of Bohemia 179a Leopold II. brother to Joseph ; succeeded by
in 1419. his son,
1792. Francis II. In 1804 this prince became empe
HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. ror of Austria only, as Francis I.
1438. Albert II., surnamed tho Great, duke of
Austria, and king of Hungary and Bohemia ; See Austria.
died Oct. 27, 1439.
PRINCIPAL GERMAN AUTHORS.
Born Died Born Died Born Pied
Ulfilas (Gothic bible) J. G. von Herder ■ 1744 1803 B. G. Niebuhr . . 1776 1831
about a.d. 360. Fred. T.Klopstock . 1724 1803 J. W. von Goethe . 1749 1832
Martin Luther(Germ. Im. Kant 1724 1804 Wm. von Humboldt 1767 1835
bible, Ac. 1522-34). 1483 J.C.Fred, von Schiller 1759 1805 A. Wm. Schlegel . . 1767 1845
Hans Sachs . . 1494 1578 Ch. M. Wieland 1733 1813 L. Tieck . . . 1773 1853
Godf. Leibnitz . . 1646 1 7 1 ^> C. T. Korner . 1813 H. Heine . . . 1797 1856
G. F. Gellert . .1715 1 769 Jean Paul Richtcr 1 7'\i 1825 Alex, von Humboldt 1769 1859
G. E. Lessing . . 1729 17S1 J. H. Voss . 1826 Chr. Carl J. Bunsen 1791 i860
G. A. Burger . . 1748 1794 F. SchJegel . 177a 1829 ! F. C. Schlosser. . 1776 1861
GERONA (N.E. Spain), an ancient city, frequently besieged and taken. In June, 1808,
it successfully resisted the French, but after suffering much by famine, surrendered
Dec. 12, 1809.
GETTYSBURG (Philadelphia). Here three days' severe fighting took place on July 1—3,
1863, between the invading confederate army under generals Lee, Longstreet, and Ewell,
nnd the federals under general G. Meade. The confederates were long successful, but
eventually were compelled to retire from Pennsylvania and Maryland. The killed and
wounded on each side were estimated at about 15,000.
* His son Conrodin was proclaimed king of Sicily, which was, however, surrendered to his undo
Manfred, 1254 ; on whose death it was given by the j»opc to Charles of Anjou in 1263. Conradin, on tho
invitation of the Ghi1>clinc party, entered Italy with a large army, and was defeated at Tagliacozzo, Aug.
33, 1268, and beheaded at Naples Oct. 29, tLus ending the Iioheuhtaufen family.
GHE 337 GIB
GHENT, an ancient city in Belgium, built about the 7th century. Duriug the middle
ages it became very rich. John, third son of Edward III. of England, was born here in 1340
(hence named John of Gaunt), during the revolt under Van Artevelde, a brewer, against the
earl Louis, 1379-83. Ghent rebelled against the emperor, Charles V., 1539, for which it was
severely punished in 1540. The "Pacification of Ghent" (when the north and south
provinces of the Netherlands united against Spain) was proclaimed, Nov. 8, 1576, and broken
up in 1579. Ghent was taken by Louis XIV. of France, March 9, 1678, and by the duke of
Marlborough in 1706, and afterwards several times taken and retaken. The Peace OF Ghent,
between Great Britain and America, was signed Dec, 24, 1814.
GH1BELINES. See Gwlphs.
GHIZNEE, or GHUZNEE (East Persia), the seat of the Gaznevides, who foundod the
city, 969. They were expelled by the Suljuk Tartars in 1038. The British under sir J.
Keane, attacked the citadel of Ghiznee, at two o'clock in the morning, July 23, 1839 ; it was
one of the strongest fortresses in Asia, and was commanded by a son of the ex-king of Cabul.
At three o'clock the gates were blown in by the artillery, and under cover of a heavy tire,
the infantry forced their way into the place and succeeded at five o'clock in fixing the British
colours on its towers.—It capitulated to the Afghans, March 1, 1842, who were defeated
Sept. 6, 1842, and general Nott re-entered Ghiznee next day.
GHOSTS are now produced by optical science. Mr. Dircks described his method at the
British Association meeting in 1858. Dr. John Taylor exhibited scientific ghosts in March,
1863, Mr. Pepper exhibited the ghost illusion at the Royal Polytechnic institution,
July, 1863. See Cotk-laiie Ghost.
GIANTS. Giants' bones, 17, 18, 20, and 30 feet high wTerc once reported to have been
found ; but geologists now prove them to be the remains of colossal animals. —The battle of
Marignano (1515) has been termed the "battle of the Giants."
Og, king of Bashan, of the remnant of the giants : the middlo finger, measured 12 inches, and his
his bedstead was 9 cubits long (about i6£ feet). shoe was 17 inches long ; he died in Sept. 1806, in
B.c. 1451. (Ztaifc iii. 11.) his 46th year.
Goliath of Gath's "height was 6 cubits and a span." Big Sam, the porter of the prince of Wales, at Carl-
about 1063 b.c. (1 Sam. xvii. 4.) ton-palace, was near 8 feet high, and performed as
The emperor Maxiinin (a.d. 235) was 84 feet in a giant in the romance of '* Cymon," at the Opera-
height, and of great bulk. Some say between 7 house, while the Drury-lanc company had the UbO
and 8 feet ; other* alx>ve 8. of that the;.tie until their own was rebuilt in 1809.
" The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was M. Brice, a native of the Vosgcs, in Londou in Sept.
one named Gabara, who, in the days of Claudius, 1862, 7 feet 6 inches high.
the late emperor, was brought out of Arabia. He Robert Hales, the Norfolk giant, died at. Great Yar
was 9 feet 9 inches high." Pliny. mouth Nov. 22, 1863 (aged 43). He was 7 feet 6
John Middleton, of Hale, in Lancashire, born in inches high, and weighed 452 lb.
1578, was 9 feet 3 inches high.* , Chung-Woo Gow, a Chinese, aged 19, 7 feet 8 inches
Patrick (Jotter, the celebrated Irish giant, born in high, exhibited himeclf in London in Sept. Ac. 1865.
1 761, was 8 feet 7 inches in height ; hishand.from A giant styled "Anak" was exhibited in London,
the commencement of the palm to the extremity of Nov. 1865.
GIAOUR, Turkish for infidel, a term applied to all who do not believe inMahomedanism.
—Byron's poem, " The Giaour/' was published in 1813.
GIBRALTAR. The ancient Calpe (which, with Abyla, on the opposite shore of Africa,
obtained the name of the Pillars of Hercules), a town on a rock in South Spain, on which is
placed a British fortress, considered impregnable. The height of the roek, according to
Cuvier, is 1437 English feet. It was taken by the Saracens under Tarik, whence its present
name (derived from Gibcl-cl- Tarik, Mountain of Tarik), in 71 1.
It was taken from the Moors in 1309 ; retaken by Besieged by the Spanish and French ; they lose
them, 1333 ; and finally taken from them by 10,000 men, and the victorious English but 400
Henry IV. of Castilo, in 1462 Oct. 11, 1704
Gibraltar attacked by the British under sir Ceded to Great Britain by tho treaty of Utrecht
George Rooke, the prince of Hesse- Darm April ii, 1713
stadt, sir John Leake, and admiral Byng, The Spaniards again attack Gibraltar, and are
July 21at, and taken on the 24th . . . 1704 repiUsed with great loss 1720
* It is reported that one of the Trclands took him to London, and introduced him, dressed up in a
very fantastic style, to king James the Firat. On bin return from I^ndon, a portrait was taken of him,
which is preserved in the library of Brazenose college, at Oxford ; and Dr. Plot gives the following
account of him :—" John Middletou, commonly called the child of Hale, whose hand, from the carpus to
the end of his middle finger, was 17 inches long ; his palm 8i inches broad ; and his whole height 9 feet
3 inches, wanting but 6 inches of the sizo of Goliath."—Kat. Hut. of Stajfordihxre, p. 295.
Z
GIB 3:J3
GIBRALTAR, continued.
They asjain attack it with a forco of 20,000 men, ships, each of 112 guns, blew up, with their
and lose 5000, whilothe loaa of the English is | crews, at night-time, in the straits here, and
only 300 Fob. 22, 1727 all on board perishod . . July 12, 1801
Memorable siege by the Spaniard*) and French, A malignant disease caused a great mortality
whose prodigious armaments* (the greatest here in 1804
ever brought against a fortress) wore wholly A dreadful plague raged 1805
overthrown July 16, 1779, to Feb. 5, 1783 A malignant fever raged . . Aug. 1814
Royal hattery destroyed by fire . . Nov. 1800 Again, when a proclamation issued for closing
Engagement between the French and English th-j courts of justice and places of public
fleets in the bay ; H.M.S. Hannibal, 74 guns, worship Sept. 5, 1828
lost July 6, 1801 The fatal epidemic ceased . . Jan. 12, 1829
Tho Royal Carlos and St. Hanaenigildo Spanish
GILDIXG was practised at Rome, about 145 B.C. Tho capitol was tho first building on
which this enrichment was bestowed. Pliny. Of gold leaf for gilding the Romans made but
750 leaves, four fingers square, out of a whole ounce. Pliny. It consequently was mora
like our plating. Truster. A single grain of gold may now be stretched out under the
hammer into a leaf that will cover a house. Dr. Halley. Gilding with leaf gold on bole
ammoniac was first introduced by Margaritono in 1273. Gilding 011 wood formed part of the
decorations of the Jewish tabernacle {Exod. xxv. 11.); and was improved in 16S0. See
Electrotype.
GIN, ardent spirit, flavoured with the essential oil of the juniper berry. The " gin act,"
laying an excise of 5*. per gallon upon it, passed July 14, 1736, when it had been found, in
the preceding year, that in London alone 7044 houses sold gin by retail ; and it was so cheap
that the poor could intoxicate themselves for one penny. Salmon. About 1700 gin-shops
were suppressed in London in I7S°' Clarke.
GIPSIES. See Gypsies.
GIRAFFE, or Camki.oparo, a native of the interior of Africa, was well known to 'the
ancients. In 1827 one was brought to England for the first time as a present to George IV.
It died in 1S29. On May 25, 1835, four giraffes, obtained by it. Thibaut, were introduced
into the Zoological gardens, Regent's park, where a young one was born in 1839.
GIRONDISTS, an important party during the French revolution, principally composed of
deputies from the Gironde. At first they were ardent republicans, but after the cruelties of
Aug. and Sept. 1792, they laboured to restrain the cruelties of the Mountain party, to which
they succumbed. Their leaders, Brissot, Vergniaud, and many others, were guillotined
Oct. 31, 1793, at the instigation of Robespierre. Lamartine's "Histoire des Girondins,"
published in 1847, tended to hasten the revolution in 1S48.
GISORS, Battle of (France), on Sept. 20, 28, or Oct. 10, 1 198, between the armies of
France and England. The former was signally defeated by Richard I., who commanded
the English, and his parole for the day, " Dicu ct mem droit"—"God and my right," after
wards became the motto to the arms of England.
GLADIATORS were originally malefactors, who fought for their lives, or captives who
fought for freedom. They were exhibited at the funeral ceremonies of the Romans, 263 B.C.,
probably following the Greek custom of sacrificing to the manes of deceased warriors, the
prisoners taken in battle. Gladiator tights afterwards exhibited at festivals, about 215 B.C.
When Daeia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 gladiators fought at Rome in celebration of his
triumph, for 123 days, A.D. 103. These combats were suppressed in the East by Constantino
the Great, a.i>. 325, and in the West by Theodoric in 500. Lewjlet.
GLANDELAGH, Bishopric of (Ireland), has been united to the arch-prelacy of Dublin
since the year 12 14. St. Keiven seems to have been the founder of this see ; he resigned in
612. Glendalagh is now commonly known by the name of the Seven Churches, from the
remains of so many buildings contiguous to the cathedral.
* In ono night their floating batteries wero destroyed with red-hot. balls, and their whole line of works
annihilated by a sortie from the garrison, commanded by general Elliot, Nov. 27, 1781. The enemy's loss
in munitions of war, 011 this niglit alone, was estimated at upwards of 2,000,000/ sterling. The army
amounted to 40,000 men. But their grand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British occurred Sept. 13,
1782. The duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best troops of France. 1000 pieces of artillery were
brought to bear against the fortress, besides which there were 47 sail of the line, all three-deckers ; lopreat
floating batteries, esteemed invincible, carrying 212 guns ; innumerable frigates, xel»eques, boml*-ketclies,
cutters, and gun and mortar boats ; while small craft for disembarking the forces covered tho hay. For
weeks together 6000 shells were daily thrown into the town ; and on a single occasion 8000 barrels of
gunpowder wero expended by the enemy.
OLA
GLASGOW (Lanarkshire), the largest city in Scotland. Its prosperity was immensely
increased after the union in 1707, in consequence of its obtaining some of the American
trade. Population in 1707 about 12,000 ; in 1861, 394,857.
The cathedral or high church, dedicated to St. Great fire, loss 150,000/. . . Jan. 14, 183.'
Kentigern or Muugo, wu built iu the nth The Glasgow lotteries, the last drawn in Britain,
century. were granted by licence of parliament to the
Erected into a burgh 11 80 commissioners for the improvement of Glas
Charter was obtained from James II. . . . 1451 gow. The third and final Glasgow lottery
University founded by bishop Turnbull about 1454 was drawn iu London, at Coopers' Hall, Aug.
Made a royal burgh by James VI. . . . 161 1 28, 1834. Their repetition was forbidden by
Town wasted by a great fire 1652 4 Will. IV. c. 37 1834
Charter of William and Mary .... 1690 British Association meet hero . . . . 1840
Glasgow Covrant published 1715 Wellington's statue erected . . Oct. 8, 1844
First vessel sailed to America for its still great False alarm of fire at the theatre, when 70
import, to*>acco 1718 persons are crushed to death . Feb. 17, 1849
Great Shawfield riot 1725 Failure of Western Bank of Scotland, and City
Calico printing begun 1742 of Glasgow banks, and other firms . Nov. 1857
Plundered by rebels 1745 In which great frauds were discovered Oct. 1858
Theatre opened 1764 New water-works at Loch Katrine opened by
Power-loom introduced 1773 the queen Oct, 14, 1859
Theatre burnt 1782 [To supply 50,000,000 gallons daily : engineer,
Chamber of commerce formed . ... 1783 J. F. Bateman ; cost about 1,000,000/. inde
Trades' hall built 1791 pendent of tho price paid for old works. ]
Spinning machinery by steam introduced . 1795 First self-supporting cooking establishments
Anderson's university founded . . . . 1796 for working classes begun by Mr. Thos. Cor-
New college buildings erected .... 181 1 bett Sept. 21, i860
Great popular commotion . . . April, „ Glasgow visited by tho empress of the French
Trials for treason followed. . . J»ly, » Nov. 27,
Theatre again burnt .... Jan. 1829 Theatre burnt asrain .... Jan. 31, 1863
Tho royal exchange, a most sumptuous edifice, Visited by lord Palmerston . . March, „
opened Sept. 3, ,,
GLASGOW, BiSHOPBlC of. Rennet, in his Antiquities, says it was founded by St.
Kentigern, alias Alungo, in 560 ; while others affirm that Alungo was a holy man who had a
cell here, whose sanctity was held in such veneration that the church was dedicated to him.
Dr. Heylin, speaking of the sec of St. Asaph, iu Wales, says that thai see was founded by
St. Kentigern, a Soot, then bishop of Glasgow in 583. This prelacy became archiepiscopal
in 149 1, and ceased at the Kcvolution. Glasgow is now a post-revolution bishopric. The
cathedral was commenced in II2I, and has been beautified and improved at various periods
since. It has a noble crypt. See Bishops.
GLAS1TES (in Scotland) and Sandemaktans (in England), names given to a small body
of Christians, whose tenets (professedly derived from the Holy Scriptures alone) are set forth
in the "Testimony of the King of Martyrs" published by John Glas, a minister of the
Church, of Scotland in 1727, and in his son-in-law, Robert Sandeman's '* Letters on Theron
and Aspasio" (1755). Churches were first formed by them on what were considered the
primitive models, in Scotland, about 1728, and in England about 1755, some of which still
exist. They hold that true faith is the gift of God, and not to be taught or acquired by man ;
and that it produces love to God and good works. They partake weekly of the Lord's
supper and love-feasts (see Arjapai), avoid eating blood, and maintain the primitive disci
pline. They erected a new meeting-house at Banisbury, London, N., in 1862.
GLASS. The Egyptians arc said to have been taught the art of making glass by Hermes.
The discovery of glass took place in Syria. Pliny. Glass-houses were erected in Tyre,
"where glass was a staple manufacture for many ages. This article is mentioned among tho
Romans in the time of Tiberius ; and we know from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows
were formed of glass before 79. Italy had the first glass windows; next Franco, whence
they came to England.
Glass is said to have been brought to England Painting on Glass, a very early art. waB prac
by Benedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth, in 676 tised at Marseilles in a beautiful stylo, about 1500
The manufacture established in England at It reached to a state of great perfection about 1530
Crutehed-friars, and in Savoy in (Stow) . . 1557 Glass-Plate, for coach-windows, mirrors, &c,
Great improvements have been made in the made at Lambeth by Venetian artists, under
manufacture, through the immense increase the patronage of ViUiers duke oi Buckingham 1673
of chemical knowledgo in the present cen The manufacture was improved by the French,
tury. Professor Faraday published his re who made very large plates ; and further
searches on the manufacture of glass for improvements in it were mado in Lancashire
opt ical purposes in . . . . . 1830 in 1773, when the British Plate Glass Com
The duties on glass, first imposed 1695, were pany was established.
finally remitted 1845 Manufacture of British sheet glass introduced
by Messrs. Chance, of Birmingham, about . 183a
z 2
GLA 340 GLO
GLASTONBURY, said to have been the residence of Joseph of Ariinathea, and the site
of the first Christian church in Britain, about 60. A church was built here by Ina about'7i8.
The town and abbey were burnt, 1184. An earthquake did great damage in 1276. Richard
Whiting, the last abbot, who had 100 monks and 400 domestics, was hanged on Tor-hill in
his pontificals, with the abbots of Reading and Colchester, for refusing to take the oath of
supremacy to Henry VIII., Nov. 1539.
GLENCOE MASSACRE of the unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, merely fur
not surrendering before the time stated in King William's proclamation, Dec. 31, 1691.
Sir John Dalrymple the master, afterwards carl of Stair, their inveterate enemy, obtained a
decree "to extirpate that set of thieves," which the king is said to have signed without
perusing. Every man under 70 was to be slain. This mandate was executed with the
blackest treachery. The 120 soldiers were hospitably received by the Highlanders. On
Feb. 13, 1692, the massacre began. About 60 men were brutally slain ; and many women
and children, their wives and offspring, were turned out naked in a dark and freezing night,
and perished by cold and hunger. This black deed was perpetrated by a part of the earl of
Argyle's regiment. It excited great indignation in England ; and an inquiry was set 011
foot in 1695, but no capital punishment followed.
GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the five zones, some of the principal circles of
the sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true causes of lunar eclipses, were taught, and
an eclipse predicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 640 B.C. Pythagoras demonstrated, from
the varying altitudes of the stars by change of place, that the earth must be round : that
there might be antipodes on the opposite part of the globe ; that Venus was the morning and
evening star ; that the universe consisted of twelve spheres— the sphere of the earth, the
sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the sphere of fire, the spheres of the moon, the
sun ; Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the sphere of the stars j about 506 B.C.—
Aristarchus, of Samos, maintained that the earth turned on its own axis, and revolved about
the sun ; which doctrine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd, that the philosopher
nearly lo:st his life by his theory, 280 B.C. To determine the figure of the earth, a
degree of latitude has been measured in different parts of the world by eminent philosophers ;
for this purpose Bouguer and La Condamine were sent to Peru, and Maupertuis and others
to Lapland, in 1735. France and Spain were measured by Mechain, Delambre, Biot, ami
Arago, between 1792 and 1821. Measurements were made in India by col. (now sir George)
Everest, and published in 1830. Experiments have been made by pendulums to demonstrate
the rotation of the earth by Foucault in 185 1 ; and to determine its density by Maskelyne,
Bailly, and others ; and in 1826, 1828, and 1854, by Mr. G. B. Airy, the astronomer Royal.
See Circumnavigators.
Artificial Globes. It Ls said that a celestial | Olcarius, and was planned after a dcsign_found
globe was brought te Greece from Egypt, 368 B.C., among the papers of the celebrated Tycho Brahe.
and that Archimedes constructed a planetarium Frederick IV. of Denmark presented it to Peter
about 212 B.C. the Great in 1713. It was nearly destroyed by firo
The globe of Gottorp is a concave sphere, eleven feet in 1757 ; but it was afterwards reconstructed.
in diameter, containing a table and seats for Caxe.
twelve persons, and tho inside representing tho Tho globe at Pembroke-hall was erected by Dr.
visible surface of tho heavens, the stars and con Long ; it far surpasses the other, being eighteen
stellations all distinguished according to their res feet in diameter, and thirty persons can sit con
pective magnitudes, and being turned by means of veniently within it while it is in motion,
curious mochanism, their true position, rising, I In 1851 Mr. Abrahams erected in Leicester-square,
and setting, aro fhown. The outside is a terrestrial ] for Mr. Wyld, a globe 60 feet 4 inches in diameter,
globe. This machine is called tho globe of Gottorp, lit from the centre by day, and by gas at night It
from the original ono of that namo, which, at the was closed in July, 1861 ; tho models were sold,
expense of Fredoriek II. duke of Holstein, was and the building eventually taken down,
erected at Gottorp, under tho direction of Adam
GLOBE THEATRE, Bankside (London). See Shakespeare's Theatre.
GLOIRE, French steam frigate. See Navy, French.
GLORY, the nimbus drawn by painters round the heads of saints, angels, and holy men,
and the circle of rays on images, adopted from the Caesars and their flatterers, were used
in the 1st century. The doxology of the prayer Gloria Patri was ordained in the church
of Rome, and was called doxology because it began with doxa, glory, 382.
GLOUCESTER, a Roman colony (Glcmm), built by Arviragus, 47, in honour of Claudius
Caesar, whose daughter he had married. In 1278-9 the statutes of Gloucester were passed at
a parliament held by Edward I. This city was incorporated by Henry III. ; it was fortified
by a strong wall, which was demolished after tho Restoration, in 1660, by order of
Charles II., as a punishment for the obstinate resistance of the city to Charles I., in 1643,
OLO 341 GOD
under col. Massey. The Gloucester and Berkeley canal was completed in April, 1827.
Gross bribery took place here at the election for the parliament in 1859. — It was one of
the six bishoprics erected by Henry VIII. in 1 541, aud was formerly part of Worcester. It
was united to that of Bristol in 1836. The church, which belonged to the abbey, and its
revenues, were appropriated to the maintenance of the see. The abbey, which was founded
by king Wulphere about 700, was burnt in 1102, and again in 11 22. In it are the tombs
of Robert, duke of Normandy, and Edwanl II. In the kiug's books, this bishopric is valued
at 315/. 17s. 2d. per annum. Present income, 5000/.
RECENT BISHOPS OF GLOUCESTER.
1803. George Isaac Huntingford, translated to Here- ] 1856. Charlos Baring, translated to Durham, Sept.
ford, June, 18:5. 1 1861.
1815. Hon. Hen. Ryder, translated to Lichfield, 1824. i 1861. Wm. Thomson, translated to York, 1862.
1824. Christopher Betbell,translated to Exotor, 1830. 1863. Charles J. Ellicutt (present bishop, 1865).
183a James Henry Monk, died.
GLOVES. In the middle ages, the giving a glove was a ceremony of investiture in
bestowing lands and dignities ; and two bishops were put in possession of their sees by each
receiving a glove, 1002. In England, in the reign of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves
was a ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company of London was incorporated in
1556. Embroidered gloves were introduced into England in 1580, and are still presented to
judges at maiden assizes.
GLUCINUM (from glufais, sweet). In 1798 Vauquelin discovered the earth ghicina (so
termed from the sweet taste of its salts). It is found in the beryl and other crystals. From
ghicina Wohler and Bussy obtained the rare metal glucinum in 1828. Gmcliti.
GLUCOSE. See Sugar.
GLUTEN, an important ingredient of grain, particularly wheat, containing nitrogen,
and termed the vegeto-animal principle. lt» discovery is attributed to Beccaria in the
1 8th century.
GLYCERINE, discovered by Scheele, about 1779, and termed by him the " sweet principle
of fats," and further studied by Chevreul, termed the "father of the fatty acids." It ia
obtained pure by saponifying olive oil or animal fat with oxide of lead, or litharge. Glycerine
is now much employed in medicine and the arts.
GNOSTICS (from the Greek gnosis, knowledge), a sect who soon after the preaching of
Christianity, endeavoured to combine its principles with the Greek philosophies. Among
their teachers were Saturnius, III; Basilidcs, 134; and Valentine, 140. I'riscillian, a
Spaniard, was burnt at Thebes as a heretic, in 384, for endeavouring to revive Gnosticism.
GOA (S.W. Hindostan), was taken by the Portuguese under Albuquerque in 1510, aud
made their Indian capital.
GOBELIN-TAPESTRY, so called from a house at Paris, formerly possessed by wool-
dyers, whereof the chief (Giles Gobelin) in the reign of Francis I., is said to have found the
secret of dyeing scarlet. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. for a manufactory of
works for adorning palaces, under the direction of Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for
which were drawn by Le Bran, about 1666.
"GOD BLESS YOU!" "We are told that in the time of pope Pelagius II. a plague
raged at Home of so fatal a nature, that persons seized with it died sneezing and gaping ;
whence came the custom of saying " God bless you I " when a person sneezes, and of Roman
Catholics making the sign of the cross upou the mouth when any one gapes ; 582.
A'ouv. Did.
" GOO SAVE THE KING." This melody is said to have been composed by John Bull,
Mns. D., in 1606, for a dinner given to James I. at Merchant Taylors' Hall ; others ascribe it
to Henry Carey, about 1743. It has been claimed by the French. The controversy on the
subject is summed up in Chappell's "Popular Music of the Olden Times" (1859).
GODERICH ADMINISTRATION. Viscount. Goderich* (afterwards earl of Ripon)
became tirst minister on the death of Mr. Calming, Aug. 8, 1827 ; resigned Jan. 8, 1828.
* Born 1782 ; held various inferior appointments from 1809 to 1818, when he became president of the
board of trade ; wa* chancellor of the exchequer from 1818 to April, 1827, when he became colonial
secretary, which office he held in the Grey cabinet, Nov. 1830 ; created earl of Ripon, 1833 ; diod 1859.
GOD 342 OOL
GODEKICH ADMINISTRATION, continued.
Viscount Godorich, frst lord of the treasury. Lord Pulmerston, eecretary-at-vmr.
Duke of Portland, president ofthe council. Mr. Wynn, president of the India board.
Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards lord Glenelg), board
Karl of Carlisle, lord privy seaL of trade.
Viscount Dudley, Mr. Huskisson, and tbo marquess Mr. ITcrries, chancellor of the erchequer.
of Lansdowne, /oreiy/i, colonial, and home necre- Mr. Tieruey, master of the mint, <fce.
tarits.
GODFATHERS and Godmothers. The Jews are said to have had godfathers in the
circumcision of their sons ; hut there is no mention of them in scripture. The custom
was first ordained, according to some by pope Alexander ; according to others by Sixtus ;
others refer it to Telosphorus, about 130, and others to Hyginus about 140. In Roman
Catholic countries bells have godfathers and godmothers at their baptism.
GODOLPHIN ADMINISTRATIONS, 1684 and 1690. The earl of Godolphin became
prime minister to queen Anne, May 8, 1702 ; received the treasurer's stair two days after
wards ; resigned Aug. 8, 1710 ; and died 1712. See Administrations.
Sidney, lord (afterwards carl) Godolphin, treasury. Hon. Henry Boylo, chancellor of the exchequer.
Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, lord Sir Charles Hedges and the carl of Nottingham (the
presUltnt. lattor succeeded by the right hon. Robert Harley,
John Sheffield, marquess of Norrn.mby (afterwards created oarl of Oxford in 1704), stcretarict of state,
duke of Normanby and Buckingham), privy teal. &c.
GODWIN'S OATH. "Take care yon are not swearing Godwin's oath." This caution,
to a person taking a voluntary and intemperate oath, or making violent protestations, had
its rise in the following circumstance related by the monks : Godwin, carl of Kent, was tried
for the murder of prince Alfred, brother of Edward the Confessor, and pardoned, but died at
the king's table while protesting with oaths his innocence of the murder ; supposed by the
historians of those times to have been choked with a piece of bread, as a judgment from
Heaven, having prayed it miglit stick in his throat if he were guilty of the murder ; 1053.
GODWIN" SANDS, sand-banks off the east coast of Kent, occupy land which belonged
to Godwin, earl of Kent, the father of king Harold II. This ground was afterwards given to
the monastery of St. Augustin at Canterbury ; but the abbot neglecting to keep in repair
the wall that defended it from the sea, the tract was submerged in 1 100, leaving these sands,
upon which many ships have been wrecked. Salmon.
GOLD.* The purest and most ductile of all the metals, for which reason it has, from
the earliest ages, been considered by almost all nations as the most valuable. It is too soft
to be used pure, and to harden it it is alloyed with copper or silver : our coin consists of
twenty-two carats of pure gold, and two of copper. In the early ages no metals were used
but those found pure, as gold, silver, and copper. By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 {1854), gold
wares are allowed to be manufactured at a lower standard than formerly ; wedding rings
excepted, by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 60 (1855). The present stated price is 3/. 17s. io^d. per oz.
See Coin of England and Guineas.
GOLD cone. Act for weighing gold coin passed . . Juno 13, 1774
First certain record of gold coined in England, 1257 Proclamation for issuinggoid 7*. pieces Nov. 20, 1797
First regular gold pieces struck . . . 1344 "The quantity of gold that passed through the
The florin struck, and the method of assaying Mint, since tho accession of queen KUxaheih to the
gold established, 1354; the standard altered, 1537 throno, in 1558, to the beginning of 1840,1s 3.353,561
All the gold money called in, and re-coined, and pounds weight, troy. Of this, nearly one-half wus
the first window-tax imposed to defray tbo coined in tboreignofGeorgcIII., namely, 1,593.078
expense and deficiency in the ro-coinago,
7 WiU. Ill 1695 pounds weight, troy. The value of the gold coined
in tbo reign of that sovereign was 74,501,586/."
Guineas first coined in 1673; reduced in cur Professor Faraday.
rency value from 22s. to 21s. in . 1717
Broad-picccs called in, and rc-coined into Tho weight of gold coined in Victoria's reign, from
guineas. 1732 June, 1837 to Jan. 1848. was 746,452 lb. ; the value
The gold coin brought into the Mint by pro of this amount coined was 29,886,457/. Gold
clamation in 1 77 3-6, amounted to about corned in 1853 (when Australian gold came in),
15,563,593?. ; the expense of collecting, melt 12,664,125/. ; in 1854, 4,354,201/. ; in 1855,
ing, and re-coining it, was 754,019?. 9,245,264/. ; in 1856, 6,476,060/.
* The amalgamation of gold is described by Pliny (about 77) and VitruvIviB (about b.c 27). The
alchemist Basil Valentine (in the 15th century) was acquainted with the solution of the chloride of gold and
fulminating gold Andreas Casslus in 1685, described the preparation of gold purple, which was then
adapted by Kunkel to make red pints, and to other purposes. Gmelin, Gold has been subjected to tho
researches of eminent chemists, such as Berzclius and Faraday, up to the present day.
GOL GOO
GOLD, continued.
Gold Mines. Gold was found most abundantly in [ Gold discovered in New Zealand, and in.Novo
Africa, Japan, juul South America, in which Last | Scotia in 1861.
gold w;is discovered by the Spaniards in 1492, from Gold Wire was first made in Ttaly about 1350. An
which time to 1731 they imported into Europe ounce of gold is sufficient to gild a silver wiro
Gooo millions of pieces of eight, in register gold 1 above 1300 miles in length ; and such is its tenacity
and silver, exclusively of what were unregistered. that a wire the one-eighteenth part of an inch
A piece of gold weighing ninety marks, equal will bear the weight of 500 lb. without breakiug.
to sixty pounds troy ( the mark being eight, Fourcroy.
ounces;, was found near La Paz, a town of Peru, | A single grain of gold may be extended into a
1730. 1 leaf of fifty-six square inches, and gold leaf can
Gold was discovered in Malacca in 1731 ; in New be reduced to the 300,000 part of an inch, and
Andalusia in 17S5 ; in Ceylon, 1800; 2887 oz. of gilding to the ten-millionth part. Ketly'tt Cambist.
gold, value o?:ji/.. obtained from mines in Britain Gold Robberv. Three boxes, hoo]>ed and sealed,
and Ireland 111 1864 ; has been found in Cornwall, containing gold in bars and coin to the value of
and in the county uf Wieklow in Ireland. l>etween 18,000/. and 20,000/. were sent from Lon-
The Ural or Oural mountains of Russia long pro- dou, May 15, 1855. On thoir arrival in Paris.it
duccd gold in lar^o qiumtity. was found that ingots to the value of 12,000/. had
Gold discovered in California, 1847 ; and in Aus- been abstracted, and shot substituted, although
tralio, 1851 On April 28, 1858, a nugget, said to the boxes bore no marks of violence. Many pcr-
wcigh 146 pounds, was shown to the queen. It is sons were apprehended on suspicion ; but tho
estimated that between 1851 and 1859 gold to police obtained no trace till Nov. 1856. Three men
the value of 88,889,435/. was exported from named Pierce, Burgess, and Testor, were tried and
Victoria alone. See California aud Australia convicted Jau. 13-15, 1857, on the evidence of
severally. , Edward Agar, an accomplice. They had been pre-
Gftld discovered in what is now termed New paring for the robbery for eighteen months pre-
Colunibia in 1856; much emigration thcro iu 1858. , vious to its perpetration.
GOLD FISH. Brought to England from China in 1691 ; but not common till 1723.
GOLDEN BULL. See Bulls.
GOLDEN FLEECE (see Argonauts). Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1429,
instituted the military older of " Toison d'or" or "golden fleece." The number of knights
was thirty-one. The king of Spain afterwards became grand master of the order, as duke of
Burgundy. It was said to have been instituted on account of the immense profit the duke
made by wool. The first solemnities were performed at Burgos, at this duke's marriage
with Isabel of Portugal. The knights wore a scarlet cloak lined witli ermine, with a collar
opened, and the duke's cipher, iu the form of a B, to signify Burgundy, together with flints
striking fire, with the motto "Ante ferit, quam flamma micat." At the end of the collar
hung a golden-fleece, with this device, " Prctium non rile laborum." The order afterwards
became common to all the princes of the house of Austria, as being descended from Alary,
daughter of Charles the Bold, last duke of Burgundy. Tho order now belongs to both
Austria aud Spain, in couformity with a treaty made in 1725.
GOLDEN HORDE, a name given to the Mongolian Tartars who established an empire
in Kaptchak (or Kibzak), now S. E. Russia, about 1224, their ruler being Baton, grandson
of Gengis Khan. They invaded Russia, and made Alexander Newski grand-duke, 1252.
At the battle of Bielawisch, in 1481, they were crushed by Ivan III. and his allies the Nogai
Tartars.
GOLDEN NUMBER, the cycle of nineteen years, or the number which shows the years
of the moon's cycle ; its invention is ascribed to Aleton, of Athens, about 432 B.C. Pliny.
To find the golden number or year of the lunar cycle, add one to the date and divide by
nineteen, then the quotient is the number of cycles since Christ, and the remainder is tho
golden number. The golden number for 1865, is 4 ; for 1866, 5 ; for 1867, 6 ; for 1868, 7.
GOLDSMITHS' COAIPANY (London) began about 1327, and incorporated 16 Rich. II.
1392. The mark or date of the Goldsmiths' company wherewith to stamp standard silver
and gold wares is made by letters from A to U, changed every year, commenced in 1796.
The old hall was taken down in 1829, and the present magnificent edifice was opened in
1835. See Assay, and Standard, The first bankers were goldsmiths.
GOOD FRIDAY (probably God's Friday). From early time this has been held as a
solemn fast, in remembrance of the crucifixion of our Saviour on Friday, April 3, 33, or
April 15, 29. Its appellation of good appears to be peculiar to the church of England ; our
Saxon forefathers denominated it Long Friday, on account of the great length of the offices
observed and fastings enjoined on this day. Good Friday, 1866, Alarch 30 ; 1867, April 19 ;
186S, April 10.
GOODWIN. See Qodurin.
000 GOT
GOOJERAT (8. India). Near this place, on Feb. 21, 1849, lord Gondii totally defeated
the Sikhs after a very severe conflict. Some of the enemy'a guns, and the whole of their
ammunition and camp equipage, fell into the hands of tho British. Shere-Singh escaped
with only 8000 men. Goojerat was taken.
GOOSE. Sec Michaelmas.
GORDIAN KNOT. The knot is said to have been made of the thongs that served as
harness to the waggon of Gordius, a husbandman, afterwards king of Phrygia. Whosoever
loosed this knot, the ends of which wore not discoverable, the oracle declared should be ruler
of Persia. Alexander the Great cut away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of
it, and thus, in a military sense at least, interpreted the oracle, 330 B.C.
GORDON'S "NO POPERY" RIOTS, occasioned by tho zeal of lord George Gordon,
June 2—5, 1780.*
GOREE, a station near Cape Verd, AV. coast of Africa, planted by tho Dutch, 1617. It
was taken by the English admiral Holmes in 1663 ; and was ceded to France by the treaty
of Nimeguen in 1678. Goree was again taken by the British in 1758, 1779, 1800, ami
1804. Governor Wall, formerly governor of this island, was hanged in London, Jan. 28,
1802, for the murder of sergeant Armstrong, committed while at Goree in 1782.
GOREY (S. E. Ireland). Near hero the king's troops under colonel Walpole were
defeated, and their leader slain, by the Irish rebels, June 4, 1798.
GORGET, the ancient breast-plate, was very large, varying in size and weight. The
present diminutive breast-plate came into use about 1660. See Armour.
GORILLA, a powerful ape of West Africa, from about five feet six, seven, or eight
inches high. It is a match for the lion, and attacks the elephant with a club. It is con
sidered to be identical with tho hairy people called Gorullat by the navigator Hanno, in his
Periplus, about 400 or 500 B.C. In 1847 a sketch of a gorilla's cranium was sent to Professor
Owen by Dr. Savage, then at the Gaboon river. Preserved specimens have been recently
brought to Europe, and a living one died on its voyage to France. In 1859 Professor Owen
gave an able summary of our knowledge of this creature at the Royal Institution, London ;
and in 1861 several skius and skulls were there exhibited by M. Du Chaillu, who stated that
he killed 21 of them in his travels in Central Africa. The gorilla was not known to Cuvier.
GOSPELLERS, the name given to the followers of Wickliffe, who first attacked the
errors of popery, about 1377. Wickliffe opposed the authority of the pope, the temporal
Jurisdiction of bishops, &c, and is called the father of the Reformation.
GOSPELS (Saxon god-spell, good story). Matthew's and Mark's are conjectured to have
been written between A.D. 38 and 65 ; Luke's, 55 and 65 ; John's, about 97. Dr. Kobert
Bray was one of the authors of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign
Countries, incorporated in 1701. A body termed "Bray's Associates" still exists; its
object being to assist in forming and supporting clerical paroclnal libraries. Irenaeus in the
2nd century refers to each of the gospels by name.
GOSPORT (Hampshire), contains the Royal Clarence victualling yard, the bakery in
which can turn out ten tons of biscuit in an hour. The great Haslar hospital, near Gosport,
was built in 1762.
GOTHA, capital of the duchy of Saxe Coburg-Gotha. Here is published the celebrated
Almanack de Gotha, which first appeared in 1764, in German.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE began about the 9th century after Christ, and spread over
Europe. Its great feature is the pointed arch ; hence it has been suggested to call it the
pointed style. "Gothic" was originally a term of reproach giveu to this style by the
* On Jan. 4, 1780, lio tendered the petition of the Protestant Association to lord North, and on June
2, headed the mob of 40,000 persons who assembled in St. George's Fields, tin Jer tho name of the Pro
testant Association, to carry up a petition to parliament for the repeal of the act which granted certain
indulgences to the Roman Catholics. The mob once raised conld not be dispersed, but proceeded to the
most daring outrage, pillaging:, burning, and pulling down the chapels and houses of the Roman Catholics
first, but afterwards of several other persons ; breaking open prisons and setting the persons free ; even
attempting the Bank of England ; and in a word totally overcoming the civil power for nearly six days.
On June 3rd, the Roman Catholic chapels and numerous mansions were destroyed, the Bank attempted,
the gaols opened,—among these were the King's Bench, Newgate, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons; on the
5th, thirty-six fires wore seen blazing at one time. At length by the aid of armed associations of the
citizens, the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several counties, then embodied and marched to
Tjondon, the riot was quelled, in the end, 210 of the rioters were killed, and 248 wounded, of whom 75
. died afterwards in the hospitals. Many were tried, convicted, and executed. Lord George was tried for
high treason, Feb. 5, 1781, but was acquitted, lie died a.prisoner for libel, Nov. 1, 1793.
GOT 345 UKA
renaissance architects of the 16th century. Its invention has been claimed for several
nations, particularly for the Saracens. The following list is from Godwin's Chronological
Table of English Architecture :—
Anglo-Roman—B.C. 55 to about a.d. 250—St. Mar Florid Pointed—a.d. 1377 to 1509—Westminster
tin's church, Canterbury. Hall : King's Collego, Cambridge ; St. George's
Anoi,o-Saxon—a.d. 800 to 1066 -Earl's Barton chapel, Windsor ; Henry Vll.'s chapel, Westmin
church ; St. Peter's, Lincolnshire. ster.
Gothic Anolo-Roman—A.D. 1066 to 1135—Roches Elizabethan—a.d. 1509 to 1625—Northumberland
ter cathedral nave ; St. Bartholomew's, Smithnold ; House, Strand ; Windsor Castle. Hatfield House,
St. Cross, Hants, <fcc. schools at Oxford.
Early English, or Pointed—A.D. 1135 to 1272— Revival of Grecian architecture about 1625, Ban-
Temple
wjhb church, Londonuuuuuu,; partsu-< of
Vi Winchester,
luvumw, , i queting House, Whitehall, &c.
Wells, Salisbury, aud Durham cathedrals, aud The revival of Gothic architecture commenced about
Westminster Abbey. 1825, mainly through the exertions of A. W.
Pointed, called Pure Gothic—a.d. 1272 to 1377— Pugin. Tho controversy as to its expediency was
, Exetor cathedral, Waltham Cross, &c., St. Sto- rifo in i86o-r.
phen's, Westminster.
GOTHLAND, an isle in the Baltic Sea, was conquered by the Teutonic knights, 1397-8 :
given up to the Danes, 1524 ; to Sweden, 1645 ; conquered by the Danes, 1677, aud restored
to Sweden, 1679.
GOTHS, a warlike nation that inhabited the country between tho Caspian, Pontus,
Euxine, and Baltic seas. They entered Miesia, took Philippopolis, massacring thousands of
its inhabitants; defeated and killed the emperor Deciu.s, 251; but were defeated by
Claudius, 320,000 being slain, 269. Aurelian ceded Dacia to them in 272 ; but they long
troubled the empire. After the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the
Ostrogotlis, under Theodoric, became masters of tho greater part of Italy, when? they retained
their dominion till 553, when they were finally conquered by Narses, Justinian's general.
The Visigoths settled in Spain, and founded a kingdom, which continued until the country
was subdued by the Saracens.
GOVERNESSES' BENEVOLENT INSTITUTION, was established in 1843, and incor
porated in 1848. It affords to aged governesses annuities and an asylum ; and to governesses
in distress a temporary home and assistance.
GOVERNMENT Annuities Act. See Annuities. The building of the new Govern
ment Offices began in 1861.
GOWRIE CONSPIRACY. A young Scotch nobleman, John, earl of Gowrie, in 1600,
reckoning on the support of the burghs and the kirk, conspired to dethrone James VI. and
seize the government. For this purpose he decoyed the king into Gowrie house, in Perth,
fin Aug. 6, 1600. The plot was frustrated, and the earl and his brother, Alexander Ruthven,
were slain on the spot. At the time, many persons believed that the young men were rather
the victims than the authors of a plot. Their father, William, was treacherously executed
in 1584 for his share in the Raid of Ruthven, in 1582 ; and he and his father, Patrick, were
among the assassins of Rizzio in 1566.
GRACE at Meat. The ancient Greeks would not partake of any meat until they had
first offered part of it, as the first fruits, to their gods. The short prayer said before, and by
some persons after meat, in all Christian countries, from the earliest times, is in conformity
with Christ's example, John vi. 11, &c.
GRACE, a title assumed by Henry IV. of England, on his accession, in 1399. Excellent
Grace was assumed by Henry VI. about 1425. Till the time of James I. 1603, the king was
addressed by that title, but afterwards by the title of Majesty only. " Your Grace " is the
manner of addressing an archbishop and a duke in this realm. —The term " Grace of God" is
snid to have been taken by bishops at Ephesus, 431 (probably from I Cor. xv. 10), by the
Carlovingian princes in the 9th century, by popes in the 13th century ; and about 1440 it
was assumed by kings as signifying their divine right. It was taken by the king of Prussia
in Oct. 1861, and created much adverse comment.
GRiECIA, MAGNA, colonics planted by the Greeks, 974—748 B.c. See Italy.
GRAFTON'S, Duke of, Administration, succeeded that of lord Chatham, Dec. 1767.
Terminated by lord North becoming prime minister in 1770. See North's Administration.
Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton, first lord of the Sir Edward Hawke, first lord of the admiralty.
treasury [born, 1735; died, 181 1. Marquess of Grauby, matler-gtueral of the ordnanrt.
Frederick, lord North, chancellor of the exchequer. Lords Sandwich aud Le Despencer postmasters-
Earl Gowor. lord president. general.
Earl of Chatham, lord privy seal. Lords Hertford, duko of Ancaster, Thomas Town-
Earl of Hhelburne and viscount Weymouth, secreta- shend, &c.
tries nf state. Lord Camden, lord chancellor.
OKA 346 GRA
GRAFFITI, a term given to the scribblings found on the walls of Pompeii and other
Roman ruins : selections were published by Wordsworth in 1837, and by Garrucci in 1856.
GRAHAM'S DIKE (Scotland). A wall built in 209 by Severus Septimus, the Roman
emperor, or, as others say, by Antoninus Pius. It reached from the Frith of Forth to the
Clyde. The eminent historian Buchanan relates that there were considerable remains of this
wall in his time ; and some vestiges of it are to be seen even to this day.
GRAIN. Henry III. is said to have ordered a grain of wheat gathered from the middle
of the car to be the original standard of weight : 12 grains to be a pennyweight ; 12 penny
weights one ounce, and 12 ounces a pound Troy. Laivson.
GRAMMARIANS. Anciently, the most eminent men in literature were denominated
grammarians. A society of grammarians was formed at Rome so early as 276 n.c. Blair.
Apollodorus of Athens, Varro, Cicero, Messala, Julius Ca-sar, Nieias, /Elius Donatus, Reni-
niius, Palemon, Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenams, and other distinguished men, were of this
class. A Greek grammar was printed at Milan in 1476 ; Lily's Latin grammar (Brcvis
Institutio), 1513; Lindley Murray's English grammar, 1795; Cobbett's English grammar,
1818. —Harris's Hermes was published in 1750, Home Tooke's Epca Pteroenta, or the
" Diversions of Purley," in 1786, both excellent treatises on the plilosophy of language and
grammar. Cobbett declared Mr. Canning to have been the only purely grammatical orator
of his time ; and Dr. Parr, speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's, said, " We threw our wholo
grammatical mind upon it, and could not discover one error."
GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. See Education.
GRAMME. See Metrical System.
GRAMPIAN HILLS (central Scotland). At Ardoch, near the Mons Grampius of
Tacitus, the Scots and Picts under Galgacus were defeated by the Romans under Agri-
cola, 84.
GRAMPOUND (Cornwall). For bribery and corrupt practices in this borough, in 1819,
several persons were convicted, among them sir Manasseh Lopez, who was sentenced by the
c ourt of king's bench to a fine of io,ooo£. and two years' imprisonment. Grampound was
disfranchised in 1821.
GRANADA, a city, S. Spain, was founded by the Moors in the 8th century, and formed
at first part of the kingdom of Cordova. In 1236, Mohammed-al-Hamar made it the capital
of his new kingdom of Granada, which was highly prosperous till its subjugation by the
"great captain," Gnnsalvo de Cordova, in 1492. In 1609 and 1610, the industrious Moors
were expelled from Spain, by the bigoted Philip III., to the lasting injury of his country.
Granada was taken by marshal Soult iu 1810, and held till 1812. See A'av Granada.
GR ANARIES were formed by Joseph in Egypt, 1 715 n.c. (Genesis xli. 48.) There were
three hundred and twenty-seven granaries in Rome. Univ. liist. Twelve new granaries
were built at Bridewell to hold 6000 quarters of corn, and two storehouses for seacoal to hold
4000 loads, thereby to prevent the sudden dearuess of these articles by great increase of
inhabitants, 7 James I. 1610. Stow.
GRAND ALLIANCE betweeu England, the emperor, and the States-General (principally
to prevent the uuion of the French and Spanish monarchies in one person), signed at Vienna,
May 12, 1689, to which Spain and the duke of Savoy afterwards acceded.
GRANDEES. See S}>anish Grandees.
GRAND-DUKE. See Duke.
GRAND JUNCTION CANAL (central England), joins several others, and forms a
water communication between London, Liverpool, Bristol, and Hull. The canal commences
at liraunston, on the west borders of Northamptonshire, and enters the Thames near London.
Executed 1793-1801.
GRAND PENSIONARY, a chief state functionary in Holland, in the 16th century-.
In the constitution given by France to the Batavian republic, previously to the erection of the
kingdom of Holland, the title was revived and given to the head of the government, April
29, 1805, Rutger Jan Schimmelpenuinck being made the Grand Pensionary. Sec Holland.
GRAND REMONSTRANCE. See Remonstrance.
GRANICTJS (a liver, N.W. Asia Minor), near which on May 22, 334 B.C., Alexander the
Great signally defeated the Persians. The Macedonian troops (30,000 foot and 5000 horse),
GRA 817 ORE
crossed the Granicus in the face of the Persian army (600,000 foot and 20,000 horse). Justin.
The victors lost fifty-fivo foot soldiers and sixty horse. Sardis capitulated, Miletus and
Ilalicarnassus were taken by storm, and other great towns submitted to the conqueror.
GRANSON, near the lake of Neufchatel, Switzerland, where Charles the Bold, duke of
Burgundy, was defeated by the Swiss, April 5, 1476.
GRAPES. Previously to the reign of Edward VI. grapes were brought to England in
large quantities from Flanders, where they were first cultivated about 1276. The vine was
introduced into England in 1552 ; being first planted at Bloxhall, in Suffolk. In the gardens
of Hampton-court palace is a vine, stated to surpass any in Europe ; it is 72 feet by 20, and
has in one season produced 2272 bunches of grapes, weighing 18 cwt. ; the stem is 13 iuches
in girth ; it was planted in 1769. Leigh.
GRAPHITE (from the Greek graphein, to write), a peculiar form of mineral carbon, with
a trace of iron, improperly termed black lead and plumbago. In 1809 sir Humphry Davy
investigated into the relations of three forms of carbon, the diamond, graphite, and charcoal.
A rude kind of black lead pencil is mentioned by Gesner in 1565. Interesting results of sir
B. C. Brodie's researches on graphite appeared in the International Exhibition of 1862.
GRATES. There were arched hearths among the Anglo-Saxons, and chafing-dishes were
most in use until the general introduction of chimneys about 1200. See Chimneys and
Stoves.
GRAVELINES (N. France). Here the Spaniards, aided by an English fleet, defeated the
French 011 July 13, 1558.
GRAVITATION, as a supposed innate power, was noticed by the Greeks, and also by
Seneca, who speaks of the moon attracting the waters, about 38. Kepler investigated the
subject about 1615 ; and Hooke devised a system of gravitation about 1674. The principles
of gravity were demonstrated by Galileo at Florence, about 1633 ; but the great law on this
subject was laid down by Newton in his " Principia," in 1687.
GREAT BETHEL. See Big Bethel.
GREAT BRITAIN, the name given in 1604 to England, Wales, and Scotland {which see).—
The stupendous iron steam vessel, Great Britain, commanded by captain Hosken, formerly
a naval officer, sailed from the Mersey, Liverpool, July 26, 1845, and arrived at New York,
Aug. 10. She sailed to the same place in the forenoon of Sept. 22, 1846, with a large cargo
of goods and 185 passengers, the greatest number that had ever sailed to America by steam.
The same evening the passengers were suddenly alarmed by a concussion, as if the vessel had
struck upon a rock, and soon discovered that she was aground in Dundrum bay, in Ireland.
They were landed in safety, but all attempts to get the vessel off were ineffectual, and she
lay stranded until Aug. 27, 1847, when Messrs. I. Brunei, jun., and Brenmer, the engineer,
succeeded in getting her off, she having sustained little damage from the shock, or from the
waves rolling over her for nearly a year.
GREAT EASTERN, &c. See under Steam. The Eastern Counties Railway assumed the
name of Great Eastern in 1862. The Great Northern Railway Company was incorpo
rated in 1846. Their station at King's-cross, London, was opened in Oct. 1852. The Great
Western Railway, between London and Bristol, was opened June 30, 1841.
GREAT SEAL of ENGLAND. The first seal used by Edward the Confessor was called
the broad seal, and affixed to grants of the crown, 1048. Baker's Chron. The most ancient
seal with arms on it is that of Richard I. James II., when fleeing from London in 1688,
dropped the great seal in the Thames. The great seal of England was stolen from the
house of lord chancellor Thurlow, in Great Ormond-street, into which some thieves broke,
and carried it away, with other property, March 24, 1784, a day before the dissolution of
parliament ; it was never recovered. It was replaced on the next day. A new seal was brought
into use on the union with Ireland, Jan. I, 1001. Anew seal for Ireland was brought into
use and the old one defaced, Jan. 21, 1832.
GREECE, anciently termed Hellas. The Greeks are said to have been the progeny of
Javan, fourth son of Japheth. Greece was so called from a very ancient king named Gnecus ;
and from another king, Hellen, the son of Deucalion, the people were called Hellenes. From
Hellen's sons, Dorus and yEolus, came the Dorians and iEolians ; another son Xuthus was
father of Achreus and Ion, the progenitors of the Acha?ans and lonians. Homer calls the
inhabitants indifferently Myrmidons, Hellenes, and Achaians. They were termed Dana'i,
from Dannus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C. Greece anciently consisted of the peninsula of the
Peloponnesus, Greece outside of the Peloponnesus, Thessaly, and the islands. The principal
<;re ORE
states of Groece were Athena, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Arcadia, and afterwards Macedon
\all which see). The limits of modern Greece are much more confined. Greece became
subjoct to the Turkish empire in the 15th century. The population of the kingdom,
established in 1829, 96,810 ; in 1861, with the Ionian isles (added in 1864), 1,326,000.
Picyon founded (Eneebiu*) .... B.C. 2089 Battle of Salamis (which *e< ) . Oct. 2<"S B.c. 480
Uranus arrives iu Greece (Letiglet) . . . 2042 Mardonius defeated and s ain at Plata-a ; Per-
Revolt ofthe Titans; War of the Giants . . * * sian fleet destroyed at M r'cale . . Sept 22, 479
Inachus king of the Arrives .... 1910 Battle of Eurymedou fend of Pei"sian war; . . 466
Kingdom of ArgoH begun (Evmebiux) . . . 1856 Athens begins to tyrannis< over Greece . . 459;
Reigu of Ogyges in Boeotia (Eutebiu*) . . 1796 The first sacred war begun 44 S
Sacrifices to the gods first introduced in Greece I War between Corinth and its colony Coreyra . 435
by Phoroneus 1773 j Leads to the Peloponnesian war . 431-404
The Pelasgi hold the Peloponnesus 1700-1550; I Disastrous Athenian expedition to Syracuse 415-413
(succeeded by the Hellenes , . . 1550-1300 Retreat of the 10,000 under Xeuophou . . 400
According to some authors, Sicyon was now j Death of Socrates 399
begun (Ltngltt) 1773 The sea-fight at Cnidus 394
Deluge of Ogygoa (which fee) .... 1764 I The peace of Antalcidas 387
A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy under R'se and fall of the Theban power in Greece 370-360
CEuotrus : the country first called QSnotria, Battle of Hantinea ; death of Epaminondas 362
afterwards Magna Grada (Eufebrue) . . . 1710 Ambitious designs of Philip of Macedon . . 353
Chronology of the Arundclian marbles com Sacred war ended by Philip, who takes all the
mences (Eunebiita) 1582 cities of the Ph»ceans 343
Cecrops arrives from Egypt . . . about 1550 Battle of Charonea (which /tee) .... 338
Deluge of Deucalion (Eutebiut) .... 1503 Philip assassinated by Pausanias . . . . 335
Panathciiajan games instituted . . . . 1495 Alexander, the son of Philip, enters Greece :
Cadmus with the Phoenician letters settles in subdues the Athenians, and destroys the city
Boeotia, and founds Thebes . about 1493 of Thebes
Lelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards called Alexander conquers the Persian empire . 334-331
Sparta 1490 Greece harassed by his successors ; the ^Etolian
Danaus said to have brought the first ship into and Achaiau leagues revived - . . 284-280
Greece, and to have introduced pumps (see Greece invaded by the Gauls, 280 ; they are
Argue) 1485 defeated at Delphi, 279; and expelled . . 277
Reign of Flellen (Eusehiv*) 1459 Dissensions lead to the intervention of the
First Olympic games celebrated at Elis, by the Romans 200
Ithvi Dactyii, 1453 : who are said to have dis- 1 Greece conquered by Muminius and made a
covered iron 1406 Roman province 147-146
Corinth re-built and so named .... 1384
Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumolpua
(1356) and Isthmian games . . . . 1326 Greece visited and favoured by Augustus,
Kingdom of Myceme created out of Argos. . 1313 B.C. 21 : and Hadrian .... a.d. 122-133
Pelops, from i-ydia, settles in south Greece, Invaded by Alaric 396
about 1283 Plundered by the Normans of Sicily . . .1146
Argonautic expedition (which see) . . . . 1263 Conquered by the Latins, and subdivided into
The Pvthian games begun by Advastus . . „ small governments 1204
War of the seven Greek, captains against Thebes 1225 The Turks under Mahomet II. conquer Athens
The Amazonian war 1213 and part of Greece 1456
Rape of Helen by Theseus „ The Venetians hold Athens and the Morea . 1466
Rape of Helen by Paris 1198 All Greece subject to the Turks . . . . 1540
Commencement of the Trojan war . . . 1193 Great struggle for independence with Russian
Troy taken and destroyed on the night of the help ; fruitless insurrection of the Suliotes .
7th of the month Thargelion (27th of May, or
nth June) ........ 1 184 Secret Society, the Hetairia, established . 1770-1803 . 1815
Mnent Mid to arrive in Italy . . about 1182 Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia, in
Migration of /Eolians who build Smyrna, Ac. . 1133 which the Greeks join, suppressed -. . . 1821
Return of the Heraclidiw . . . about 1103 Proclamation of prince Alexander to shake off
Settlement of the Ionians in Asia Minor . . 1044 the Turkish yoke, March, 1821 ; he raised the
The Rhodians begin navigation laws . . 916 standard of the cross against the crescent
Eycurgus flourishes 924-840 and the warof independence began April 6, ,,
Olympic games revived at Ellis, 884 ; the first The Greek patriarch put to death at Constanti
Olympiad 776 nople April 23,
The Messeuiau wars 743-669 Independence of Greece proclaimed . Jan. 27, 1822
Sea-fight, tlic first on record, between the Corin Siege of Corinth by the Turks . . Jan.
thians and the inhabitants of Coreyra . . 664 Bombardment of Seio ; its capture ; most
Byzantine built 657 horrible massacre recorded in im>dern history
Seven 'sages of Greece (Solon, Periander, Pit- (see Chiott) April,
tacus, Chilo, Thales, Cleobulus, and Bias) The Greeks victors at Thertnopylas, &c. July,
flourish S93 Massacre at Cyprus ..... July,
Persian conquests in Ionia 544 National congress at Argos . . . April 10, 1823
Sybaris in Magna Unecia destroyed : too.ooo Victories of Marco Botzaris . . . June,
Crotonians under Milo defeat 300.000 Sybarites 508 Lord Byron lands in Greece to devote himself
Sardis burnt by the Greeks, which occasions to its cause Aug.
the Persian invasion, 504 ; Thrace and Mace First Greek loan Feb. 1824
donia conquered ....... 496 Death of lord Byron at Missolonghi . April 19, „
Athens and Sparta resist the demands of the
king of Persia 491 Provisional government of Greece set up, Oct. 116,2, „„
Defeat of the Capitan Pacha, at Samoa, Aug.
The Persians defeated at Marathon (which tee), Ibrahim Pacha lands, Felt. 25 ; takes Navarin
Sept. 28, 490 and ravages Greece .... May, 1825
Xerxes invadesby Leouidaa
Greece, but
Thermopylae . is. checked
. Aug.at 480 The Greek fleet defeats the Capitan Pacha, June, „
ORE 349 ORE
GREECE, continued.
The provisional government invite tho protec Blockade of the coast decreed . March 9,
tion of England July, 1825 The insurgents demand reforms and a new
Ibrahim Pacha takes Missolonghi by assault, succession to the throne . . . April,
after a long heroic dofence . April 23, O26 The royal troops enter the citadet of Nauplia ;
70,000/. raised in Europe for the Greeks . . „ insurgents transported to other stations,
Reschid Pacha takes Athens . . June 2, 1827 April 25
Treaty of London, between Great Britain, Russia, Change of ministry : Colocotroni becomes
and Franco, on behalf ofGnjjce, signed July6, premier June 7,
Turkish fleet destroyed at Navarino (which sen), Insurrection begins at Patras and Missolonghi,
Oct. 20, Oct. 17 ; a provisionalgovernment, established
Count Ca;x->d'Ifttria president of Greece, Jan. 18, 1828 at Athens, deposes the kinir, Oct 22 ; he and
The I'anhollenion or Grand Couucil of State the queen fly ; arrive at Corfu, Oct. 27 ; the
established Feb. 2, „ groat European powers neutral ; general sub
National bank founded . . . Feb. 14, mission to the provisional government,
Convention of the viceroy of Egypt with sir Oct, 31,
Edward Codrington, for the evacuation of Great demonstrations in favour of prince
tho Morea, and delivery of captives . Aug. 6, ,, Alfred, who is priKUaimed king at Lamia in
Patras, Navarino, and Modon surrender to the Pbthiotis, Nov. 22 ; great excitement in his
French Oct. 6, „ favour at Athens .... Nov. 23,
The Turks evacuate the Morea . . Oct. ,, The provisional government establish universal
Missolonghi surrenders . . . May 16, 1829 suffrage Dec. 4,
Greek National Assembly commences its sit The national assembly meets at Athens Dec, 22,
tings at Argos .... July 23, The national assembly elects M. Balbis presi
The Porte acknowledges the independence of dent, Jan. 29 ; and declares prince Alfred of
Greece in the treaty of Adrianople Sept. 14, „ England elected king of Greece by 230,016
Princo Leopold declines tho sovereignty May 21, 1830 out of 241,202 votes .... Feb. 3, 1S63
Count Capo de'Istria, president of Greece, assas Military revolt of lieut. Canaris against Bul
sinated by tho brother and son of Mavromi- garia and others, who resign, Feb. 20 ; the as
ch:ielis, a Mainote chief whom he had im sembly appoint a now ministry under Balbis,
prisoned* Oct. 9, 1831 Feb. 23,
Otho of Bavaria elected king of Greece May 7, 1832 The assembly decides to offer the crown to
Colocotroni's conspiracy . . . Sept. ,, prince William of Schleswig-Holstein, March
Otho I. assumes tho government. . . . 1835 18, and proclaim him as king George I.
University at Athens established, 1837 ; build March 30,
ing commenced 1839 Protocol between the three protecting powers,
A bloodless revolution at Athens is consum France, England, and Russia, signed at
mated, establishing a new constitution, en London, consenting to the offer of the crown
forcing ministerial responsibility and na on condition of the annexation of the Ionian
tional representation . . . Sept. 14, 1843 isles to Greece .... June 5,
Tho king accepts the new constitution March, 1844 The king of Denmark accepts from tho aged
Admiral Parker, in commmd of the British admiral Canaris the Greek crown for prince
Mediterranean fleet, blockades the harbour William, and advises him to adhere to the
of the Piraeus, the Greek government having constitution and endeavour to gain and pre
refused the payment of monies due to British serve the love of his people . June 6,
subjects, and to surrender the islands of Military revolt at Athens, suppressed June 30,
Sapienza and Caprera . . . Jan. 18, 1850 Julythe
9,
France interposes her good offices, and the The king arrives at Athens, Oct. 30 ; takes
blockade is discontinued . . March 1, oath to the constitution . . . Oct. 31,
Negotiations terminate, and the blockade of The Balbis ministry formed . . April,
Athens is renewed . . April 25, Protocol annexing tho Ionian isles to Greece, 1864
Dispute with Franco accommodated June 21, „ signed by M. Zaimis and sir H. Storks, May
Insurrections against Turkey in Thessaly and 28 ; the Greek troops occupy Corfu, June 2:
Epims, favoured by the Greek court Jan. the king arrives there . . . June 6,
and Feb. ; lead to a rupture between Greece New ministry under Canaris formed . Aug. 7,
and Turkey March 28, 1854 The assembly recognises the debt of 1824, 5 Sept.
After many remonstrances, the English and After much delay, and a remonstrance from the
French governments send troops which king, Oct. 19, a new constitution (with no
arrive at the Pirams ; change of ministry upper house) is passed by the assembly. Nov.
ensues, and the king promises to observe a 1 ; and accepted by the king . . Nov. 28,
strict neutrality . . May 25, 26, ,, New ministry formed under Coumonndouros
A newspaper in the modern Greek, language March
printed in London, beginning . . July g, i860 The anniversary of the beginning of the war29,
of 1865
Great Britain, France, and Russia remonstrate independence (April 6, 1821; kept with enthu
with the Greek government respecting its siasm April 6,
debts Oct. 18, „ The king visits the eastern provinces; general
Agitation in the Ionian isles for annexation to tranquillity April 20,
Greece ; the parliament prorogued . March. 1861 The king opens the chamber of deputies
The king retires to Bavaria . . . July, „
Attempted assassination of the queen by Darios, ,, Death of Alexander Mavrocordato, oneJune 9,
of the
an insane studentin tho.... early patriots . • . . . . Aug. 18,
Peloponnesus,Sept. 18, „
Great earthquake Dec 26, The king gives up ono-third of his civil list to
Leopold of Bavaria proposed as heir to tho relieve tho treasury . . . Sept. 25,
throne Jan. 1862 An economical financial policy proposed ; a
Military revolt begins at Nauplla . Feb. 13, ,, new ministry formed Nov.
* Tho wretched assasFins (Oct. 29, 1831) were immured within close brick walls, built around thorn up
to their chins, and supplied with food in this lingering torture until they died.
CUE 350 GRE
GREECE, continued.
KINGS OF GREECE.
1832. Otho T., prince of Bavaria, born Juno 1, 1815 ; duke of Oldenburg : deposed, Oct. 23, 1862.
elected king, May 7, 1832: under ft regency 1863. George L, king of the Hellenes, born I)ec. 24,
till June 1, 1835; married Nov. 22, 1836, 1845 ; accepted the crown June 6, 1863 ;
to Maria FredericA, daughter of the grand- declared of age, June 27.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE. See Architecture.
GREEK CHURCH, or Eastern church, claims priority, as using the language in which
the Gospel was first promulgated. Some of its forms and ceremonies are similar to those of
the Roman church ; but it disowns the supremacy of the pope, and is strongly opposed to
many of the doctrines and practices of its rival. It is the established religion of Russia,
The Greek orthodox confession of faith appeared in 1643. See Fathers of the Church.
Catechetical school at Alexandria (Origen, I Tho Paulicians severely persecuted . . . 690
Clemens, &c.) 180-254 Iconoclastic controversy begins • about 726
Rise of Monachism aliout 300 Pope Gregory II. excommunicates the emperor
Foundation of tho churches of Armenia, about Leo, which leads to the separation of tho
300 ; of Georgia or Iberia .... 318 Ea«tcm (Greek) and Western (Roman)
First coxincil of Nice (Seo Council*) . . . 325 churches 729
Ulphilas preaches to the Goths . . about 376 Foundation of the church in Russia : convor-
Ncstorius condemned at the council of Ephesus 431 : sion of princess Olga, 955 ; of Vladimir . . 988
Monophysite controversy ; churches of Egypt, j The Maronitcs join the Roman church . . . 1182
Syria, and Armenia, separate from the church Re-union of the churches at the council of
of Constantinople 461 Lyons, 1274 ; again separated . . . 1277
Closo of the school of Athens ; extinction of The patriarchate of Moscow established, 1582 :
the Platonic theology 529 ; suppressed in 1763
Tho Jacobite sect established in Syria by Tho archimandrite Nilos, representing Constan-
Jacobus Bavada'us 541 tinoplc and 4 patriarchates, visits London on
The struggle with the Mahometans begins . 634 behalf of tho Greek clergy in the Dauubian
The Marouite sect begins to prevail . about 670 principalities, in 1863
GREEK FIRE, a combustible composition (now unknown, but thought to have been
principally naphtha), thrown from engines, said to have been invented by Callinicus, an
ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, in the 7th century, in order to destroy the
Saracens' ships, which was effected by the general of the fleet of Constantine Pogonatus, and
30,000 men were killed. A so-called " Greek Fire," probably a solution of phosphorus in
bi-sulphide of carbon, was employed at the siege of Charleston, U.S., "in Sept., 1803.
GREEK LANGUAGE. It was first studied in Europe about 1450 : in France, 1473 ;
William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, a learned English professor of this language, travelled to
acquire its true pronunciation, and introduced it at Oxford, about 1491, where he had the
honour to teach Erasmus, who himself taught it at Cambridgein 1510. Wood's A then. Ox&n.
England has produced many eminent Greek scholars, of whom may be mentioned Richard
Bentley, died 1742 ; professor Porson, who died in 1808 ; Dr. Parr, who died in 1825 ; and
Dr. C. Barney, who died in 1817.
eminent greek AUTHORS. (See also Fathers and Philosophy.)
Homer flourished abt. B.C. 9O2-027 Plato . . . n-c- 429-347 Strabo . . . a.d. 10
Hesiod . . about 850 lsoeratcs .... 436-338 Dionysius Halicarnassus, abt. 30
Jisop 572 Aristotle .... 384-3" Plutarch . . . about 96
Anacreoiv . . about 559 DenioBthenea . . ■ 382-322 Epictctua . . about :i8
Jischylus . . . . 525-456 Menander . . about 321 Appian . . . about 147
Herodotus . . about 443 ^schinos .... 38o-3'4 Arrian . . about a.d. 148
Pindar 522-439 Theocritus . . about 272 Athennms . . about 194
Aristophanes . . . 427 Epicurus .... 342-270 Lucian . . about 120-200
Euripides . . . . 480-406 Tneoplirastus ... 287 Herodian . . about 204
Sophocles .... 495-405 Archimedes . ■ 287-212 Longinus . . dies 273
. Thucydklcs . . . . 47°4°4 Polybius .... 207-122 Julian, emperor . . 331-363
Xenophon .... 443"359 Diodorus . . B.C. 50-X.D. 13 (See Falhcrt of Die Churilt.)
GREENBACKS, a name'given, from the colour of Borne, to the paper currency first
issued by the United States government, in 1862. They represented sums ns low as l^d.,
2\d., and 5c£., &e. —the precious metals being exceedingly scarce.
GREEN-BAG INQUIRY took its name from a Green Bag, full of documents of alleged
seditions, laid before parliament by lord Sidmouth, Feb. 1817. Secret committees presented
their reports, Feb. 19 ; and bills were brought in on the 21st to suspend the Habeas Corpus
act, and prohibit seditious meetings then frequent.
GRE 351 GEE
GREEN-CLOTH, Board op, in the department of the lord-st ward of the household,
included an ancient court (abolished in 1849), which hit jurisdiction of all offences com
mitted in the verge of the court.
GREENLAND (an extensive Danish colony in North America) was discovered by some
Icelanders, under Eric Raude, aboui ySo, and so named from its verdure, superior to that
of Iceland. It was visited by FroLiisher in 1576. The first ship from England to Greenland
was sent for the whale-.isuery by the Muscovy company, 2 James I. 1604. In a voyage
performed in 1630, eiglit men were left behind by accident, who suffered incredible hardships'
till the following year, when the company's ships brought them home. Tindal. The Green
land Fiiliing company was incorporated in 1693. —Hans Egede, a Danish missionary,
founded a new colony, called Oodhaab, or Good Hope, in 1720-3 ; and other missionary
stations have been since established. Scoresby surveyed Greenland in 1821 ; and capt. Graah,
by order of the king of Denmark, in 1829-30.
GREENOCK (W. Scotland). Charters were granted in 1635 and 1670 to John Shaw, of
the barony of Greenock. Trior to 1697, it was an inconsiderable fishing station ; but during
that year the Scottish Indian and African company resolved to erect salt-works in the Firth,
and thus drew the attention of sir John Shaw, its superior, to the maritime advantages of
its situation. It was made a burgh of barony in 1757, and a parliamentary burgh in 1832.
The erection of the new quay was entrusted, about 1773, to James Watt, who was born here
in 1736. The East India harbour was built 1805-19, and Victoria harbour 1840-50.
GREEN PARK (near Buckingham palace, London), forms a part of the ground enclosed
by Henry VIII. in 1530, and is united to St. James's and Hyde parks by the road named
Constitution-hill. Over the arch at the entrance, the Wellington statue was placed in
1846. On the north side was a reservoir of the Chelsea water-works, which was filled up in
1856.
GREENWICH HOSPITAL stands on the site of a royal residence in the time of
Edward I. (1300) much enlarged by his successors. Here were born Henry VIII. and his
daughters Mary and Elizabeth, and here his son Edward VI. died. The palace was the
favourite summer residence of queen Elizabeth, and Charles II. intended to build a new
palace here on a very grand scale, and accordingly erected one wing of this grand edifice,
but died before any other part of the design was finished. In this state it remained till
Mary and William III. formed the plan of making the palace useful to the kingdom, as an
hospital, which was instituted in 1694. 100 disabled seamen were admitted in. 1705. The
forfeited estate of the attainted earl of Derwentwater (beheaded in 1716) was bestowed upon
it. Sixpence per month was to be contributed by every seaman, and the payment was
advanced to one shilling, from June, 1797. The payment was abolished in 1829, and that of
"the Merchant seamen's" sixpence also in 1834. This hospital lodged 2710 in 1853, and
possessed a revenue of about 150,000?. per annum.* A charter was granted to it in
Dec. 1775. The chapel, the great dining-hall, and a large portion of the buildings appro
priated to the pensioners, were destroyed by fire, Jan. 2, 1779. The chapel was rebuilt in
1789. —Greenwich fair was discontinued, April 1857.
GREENWICH OBSERVATORY was built at the solicitation of sir Jonas Moore and
sir Christopher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flamsteed-hill, so called from the
great astronomer of that name, the first astronomer-royal here. The English began to
compute the longitude from the meridian of this place, 1675 ; some make the date 1679.
This observatory contains among other instruments a transept circle by Troughton ; a transit
instrument of eight feet by Bird ; two mural quadrants of eight feet, and Bradley's zenith
sector. The telescopes are forty and sixty inch achromaties, and a six-feet reflector. In
1852, an electric telegraph signal ball in the Strand was completed, and put in connection
with Greenwich observatory.
ASTRONOMERS-ROYAL.
John Flamsteed 1675 John Fond 181 1
Dr. Haltcy 1719 Goorgo Biddell Airy 1835
Dr. Bradley 1742 (The prkscnt Astronomer Royal, under
Dr. N. Bliss 1762 whoso able superintendence the apparatus have
Dr. Ncvil Maskelyne 1764 been greatly increased and improved.)
* Important changes wero made in October, 1865, in consequence of an act of parliament passed in
that year, based upon the report of a commission. About 900 of the in-door pensioners received additious
to their pay, and were permitted to reside wherever they pleased outside the hospital, which, in future,
will be rather an in6rmary than a residence.
3.V2 GHE
GREGORIAN CALENDAR (see Calendar, and New Style.)
GREGORIAN CHANT received its name from pope Gregory I., who improved the
Ambrosian chaut, about 590.
GRENADA. See Granada and New Granada.
GRENADES, a powerful missile of war, so named from Gronada, Spanish, invented in
1504. It is a small hollow globe, or ball, of iron, about two inches in diameter, which being
filli-d with fine powder and set on fire by a fusee at a touchhole, the case flies into shatters,
to the damage of all who stand near.
GRENADIERS. The Grenadier corps was a company armed with a pouch of hand-
grenades, established in France iu 1667 ; and in England iu 1685. Brown.
GRENVILLE ADMINISTRATIONS. The first succeeded the Bute administration, in
April, 1763 ; and resigned in July, 1765.
George Grenville (born 1712, died 1770), Jlrst lord of Marquess of Granby, ordnance.
the ireantrv and chancellor of the exchequer. Lord Holland (late Mr. 1'oxi, paymaster.
Earl Granville (succeeded by the duke of Bedford), Welbore Elli«, secretary-at^ear.
lord president. Viscount Barrington. treasurer of the navy.
Duke of Marllx>rough, privy seal. Lord Hillsborough, .first lord of trade.
Earls of Halifax and Sandwich, secretaries of state. Lord Henley (afterwards oarl of NorthingtonX lord
Earl Gower, lortt chamberlain. chancellor.
Lord Eginont, admiralty. Duke of Rutland, lords North, Trevor, Hyde, &c.
The Second Grenville administration was formed after the death of Mr. Pitt, on Jan. 23,
1806. from the ability of many of its members, their friends said it contained "All the
Talents," a term which was afterwards applied to it derisively by its opponents. The death
of Mr. Fox, Sept. 13, 1806, led to changes, and eventually the cabinet resigned, March 25,
1806.
Lord Grenville, first lord ofthe treasury. Sir Charles Grey (afterwards viscount Howick and
Lord Henry Petty (afterwards marquess of Lans- earl Grey), OAtniiralty.
down), chonollor of the exchequer. Lord Minto, board of control.
Earl Fitzwilliam, lord president. Lord Auckland, board of trade.
Viecount Sidmouth (late Mr. Addington), privy seal. Lord Moira, mastcr-aeneral of the ordivance.
Charles James Fox,fortign stcretary. R. B. Sheridan, treasurer of tlu navy.
Earl Spencer, home secretary. Richard Fitxpatrick, £c.
William Windham, colonial secretary. Lord Ellenborough {lord cltief justice), had a seat in
Lord Erskine, lord chancellor. the cabinet
GRESHAM COLLEGE (London), founded by sir Thomas Gresham, in 1575. He was
the founder of the Royal Exchange, and left a portion of his property in trust to the City
and the Mercers' Company to endow this college for, among other uses, lectures in divinity,
astronomy, music, and geometry, and readers in civil law, physic, and rhetoric, and to
promote general instruction ; he died 1579. The lectures, commenced iu Greslmm's house,
near Broad-street, June 1597 (where the Royal Society first met in 1645), and continued,
with interrupt on, till 1710. The buildings were pulled down in 1768, and the Excise-office
erected on its site. The lectures were then read in a room over the Royal Exchange for
many years : on the rebuilding of the present exchange, the Gresham committee erected the
present building in Basinghallstreet, which was designed by G. Smith, and opened for
lectures, Nov. 2, 1843. It cost above 7000Z.
GRETNA-GREEN MARRIAGES. Gretna is the nearest and most accessible point in
Scotland from the sister kingdom ; and in its neighbourhood fugitive marriages were long
contracted. The practice was begun by a tobacconist named John Paisley, who lived to a
great age, and died in 1814. His first residence was at Megg's Hill, on the common or green
betwixt Gretna and Springfield, to the last of which villages he removed in 1782. A man
named Elliot was lately the principal officiating person. The General Assembly, in 1826,
vainly attempted to suppress this system, but an act, passed in 1856, made these marriages
illegal after that year, unless one of the persons married had lived in Scotland 21 days.
GREY ADMINISTRATION succeeded the Wellington administration, in Nov. 1830.
It carried the Reform bill (which see), and terminated July, 1834.
GRE 353 GUE
GREY ADMINISTRATION, continued.
Earl Grey,*.first lord of the treasury. Sir James Graham, admiralty.
Lord Brougham, lord chancellor. Lord Auckland and Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards,
Viscount Althorpo, chancellor of the exchequer. 1830, lord Glenclg), board of trade and control.
Marquess of Lunsdowne, president 0/ the council. Lord Holland, duchy of Lancaxter.
Earl of Durham, privy teal. Lord John Russell, paymaster of the forces.
Viscounts Melbourne, Palmerston, and Goderich, Duke of Richmond, earl of Carlisle, Mr. Wynne, tc.
home, foreign, and colonial secretaries.
GREYTOWN. See Mosquito Coast.
GROAT, from the Dutch groat, value of fourpence, was the largest silver coin in England
until after 135 1. Fourpenny pieces were coined in 1836 to the value of 70,884/. ; in 1837,
16,038/. None have been coined since 1861.
GROCERS anciently meant " ingrosscrs or monopolisers," as appears by a statute
37 Edw. III. 1363: "Les Marchauntz nomez engrosscnt totes maners de merchandises
vendables." The Grocers' company, one of the twelve chief companies of London, was
established in 1345, and incorporated in 1429.
GROCHOW, Battle or, near Praga, a suburb of Warsaw, between the Poles and
Russians, Feb. 25, 1831. After an obstinate contest, continuing the whole of one day and
great part of the next, the Poles remained masters of the field of battle. The Russians
shortly after retreated, having been foiled in their attempt to take "Warsaw. They are said
to have lost 7000 men, and the Poles 2000. See Poland, 1861.
GROG, sea-term for rum and water, derived its name from admiral Edward Vernon, who
wore grogram breeches, and was hence called "Old Grog." About 1745, he ordered his
sailors to dilute their rum with water, t
GUADALOUPE, a West India island, discovered by Columbus in 1493. The French
took possession of it in 1635, and colonised it in 1664. Taken by the English in 1759, and
restored in 1763. Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 1810. The allies, in
order to allure the Swedes into the late coalition against France, gave them this island. It
was, however, by the consent of Sweden, restored to Franco at the peace in 1814.
GUAD-EL-RAS (N.W. Africa). Here the Spaniards signally defeated tho Moors,
March 23, i860, after a severe conflict : general Prim manifested great bravery, for which he
was ennobled. The preliminaries of peace were signed on the 25th.
GUANO, or Huano (the Peruvian term for manure), the excrement of sea-birds that
swarm along the coasts of Peru and Bolivia, and also of Africa and Australia. Humboldt
was one of the first by whom it was brought to Europe, in order to ascertain its value in
agriculture. The importation of guano into the United Kingdom appears to have com
menced in 1839. 283,000 tons were imported in 1845 (of which 207,679 tons came from the
western coast of Africa) ; 243,016 tons in 1851 (of which 6522 tons came from Western
Australia), and 131,358 tons in 1864.
GUARDS. The custom of having guards is said to have been introduced by Saul,
1093 B.C.
Body guards wero appointed to attend the kings of guards were the beginning of our standing army.
England, a Hen. VII. 1485. The Horse Grenadier guards first troop, raised iu
Horso Guards were raised 4 Edw. VI. 1550. 1693, was commanded by general Cholmondely ;
The three regiments, ist, and, and 3rd Foot Guards the second troop was raised in 170a, and was com
were raised in 1660, and the command of them manded by lord Forbes ; this corps was reduced in
given to colonel Russell, general Monk, and lord 1783, the officers rotiring on full pay.
Linlithgow. Tho 2nd regiment, or Coldstream, See Horse Guards, Yeoman, Motional, and Imperial
was the first raised. See Coldstream. These
GUATEMALA. A republic in Central America, declared independent March 21, 1847.
President (1862), general Raphael Can-era, elected 1851 ; appointed for life (1854). A war
between Guatemala and San Salvador broke out in Jan. 1863 ; and on June 16 the troops of
the latter were totally defeated. Population, about 850,000.
GUEBRES. See Parsccs.
* Born March 13, 1764; M.P., as Charles Grey, in 1786 ; first lord of the admiralty and afterwards
foreign secretary in 1806 ; resigned In 1806 on account of his favouring Roman Catholic emancipation ;
died July 17, 1845.
t He did great service in the West Indies, by taking Porto Bello, Chagre, &c. ; but by his disagreement
with the commander of the land forces, tho expedition against Carthagena in 1741, is said to have failed.
Ho was dismissed the service for writiug two pamphlets attacking the admiralty ; he died Oct. 30, 1757.
GUE 354 GUI
GUELPHIC ORDEK of knighthood was instituted for Hanover by the prince regent,
afterwards George IV., Aug. 12, 18 1 5. The king of Hanover is grand master.
GUELPHS and GHIBELINES, names given to the papal nnd imperial factions whose
conflicts destroyed the peace of Italy from the 12th to the end of the 15th century (the
invasion of Charles VIII. of France in 1495). The origin of the names is uncertain ; but it
is ascribed to the contest for the imperial crown between Conrad of Hohenstanfen, duke of
Swabia, lord of Wiblingen (hence Ohibeliii), and Henry nephew of Welf, or Guelf, duke of
Bavaria, in 1 138. The former was successful ; but the popes and many of the Italian cities
took the side of his rival. Hie. Guelf and Hie Gibelin are said to have been used as war-cries
in 1 139. The Gliibelines were almost totally expelled from Italy in 1267, when Conradin,
the last of the Hohenstaufens, was beheaded by Charles of Anjou. Guelph is the name of
the present royal family of England. See Brurmcick.
GUERNSEY. See Jersey.
GUEUX (beggars), a name given by the comte de Barlaimont to the 300 Protestant
deputies from the Low Countries, headed by Henri of Brederode and Louis of Nassnu, who
petitioned Margaret, governess of the Low Countries, to abolish the inquisition, April 5, 1566.
The deputies at onee assumed the name as honourable, and immediately organised an armed
resistance to the government. See Holland.
GUIANA (N. E. coast of South America), was visited by the Spaniards in the 16th
century; explored by sir Walter Raleigh in 1596 and 161 7. The French settlements here
were formed in 1626-43 '< a"d tne Dutch, 1627-67. Dcmerara and Essequibo were ceded to
Great Britain in 1814. See Dcmerara.
GUIEXNE, a French province, was part of the dominions of Henry II. after his wife
I'leanor, 1152. Philip of France seized it in 1293, which led to war. It was alternately
held by England and France till 1453, when John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, in vain
attempted to retake it from the latter.
GUILDHALL (London), was built in 141 1. When it was rebuilt (in 1669), after the
,1,'reat fire of 1666, no part of the ancient building remained, except the interior of the porch
and the walls of the hall. The front was not erected until 1789 : a new roof was built in
1S64-5. Beneath the west window are the colossal figures of Gog and Magog, said to
represent a Saxon and an ancient Briton. The hall can contain 7000 persons, and is used
for city feasts. Here were entertained the allied sovereigns in 1814, and Napoleon III.,
April 19, 1855.
GUILDS (of Saxon origin), associations of inhabitants of towns for mutual benefit,
resembling our friendly societies, chartered by the sovereign since the time of Henry II.
The " Guild of Literature and Art " (including sir E. B. Lytton, C. Dickens, and others)
founded an institution (on ground given by sir E. B. Lytton, at Stevenage), consisting of
thirteen dwellings, retreats for an artist, scholar, and man of letters, which wero completed
in July, 1865.
GUILLOTINE invented (about 1785) by Joseph Ignatius Guillotin (an eminent physician
and senator, esteemed for his humanity), designed to render capital punishment less painful
by decapitation. During the revolution he ran some hazard of being subjected to its deadly
operation ; but (contrary to a prevailing opinion) escaped, and lived to become one of the
founders of the Academy of Medicine at Paris, and died in 1814, greatly respected.—A
somewhat similar instrument may be seen in an engraving accompanying the Symbolical
Qua stiones (called the Mannaia). It is said to have been used in Italy, at Halifax in England
(see Halifax), and in Scotland, there called the Maiden and the Widow.
GUINEA (W. coast of Africa) was discovered by the Portuguese about 1460. From their
trade with the Moors originated the slave trade. Sir John Hawkins was the first Englishman
who made a merchandise of the human species. Bell. He was assisted in his enterprise by
a number of English gentlemen, who subscribed money for the purpose, pic sailed from
England in Oct. 1562, with three ships, proceeded to the coast of Guinea, purchased or
forcibly seized 300 negroes, sold thcrn profitably at Hispaniola, and returned home richly
laden with hides, sugar, ginger, and other merchandise, in Sept. 1563. This voyage led to
similar enterprises. Hakluyt. See Slave Trade.
GUINEAS, English gold coin, so named from having been first coined of gold brought
by the African company from the coast of Guinea in 1663, valued then at 20s. ; but worth
jas. in 1695. Reduced at various times ; in 17 1 7 to 21s. In 1810 guineas were sold for
22s. 6d. ; in 1816, for 27s. In 181 1 an act was passed forbidding their exportation, and their
GUI GUT
sale nt a price above the current value, 21s. The first guineas bore the impression of an
elephant ; having been coined of this African gold. Since the issue of sovereigns in July I ,
1817, guineas have not been coined.
GUINEGATE, Battle op. See Spurs.
GUISE, a French ducal family:—
Claude of Lorraine, first duke, a brave warrior, revenged his father's death ; assassinated by
favoured by Francis I. ; died . . April, 1550 Henry III Dee. 23, 15S8
Francis, the great general, born, 1519 ; assaa- [ Charles, first opposed, and then (Submitted to,
Binated Feb. 24, 1563 Henry IV. ; riled 1640
Henry, head of the Catholic league ; born 1550; I Henry, died without issue 1664
GUN-COTTON, a highly explosive substance, invented by professor Schonbein, of Basel,
and made known in 1846. It is purified cotton, steeped in a mixture of equal parts of nitric
acid and sulphuric acid, and afterwards dried, retaining the appearance of cotton wool. Dr.
Bcettger and others also claim the discovery. * See ColUtdion.
GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Bertholdus or
Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Brunswick, in Germany, about
1320. But many writers maintain that it was known much earlier in various parts of the
world.t Some say that the Chinese possessed it a number of centuries before. Its com
position, moreover, is expressly mentioned by Roger Bacon, in his treatise De Niillitate
Magicc. He died in 1292 or 1294.
GUNPOWDER PLOT. The memorable conspiracy known by this name, for springing
a mine under the houses of parliament, and destroying the three estates of the realm—king,
lords, and commons—there assembled, was discovered on Nov. 4, 1605. It was projected by
Robert Catesby, and several Roman Catholic persons of rank were leagued in the enterprise.
Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the house of lords preparing the train for being
fired on the next day. Catesby and Percy (of the family of Northumberland) were killed ;
Guy Faux, sir Everard Digby, Rockwood, Winter, and others, died by the hands of the
executioner, Jan. 30, 31, 1606. Henry Garnet, a Jesuit, was executed as an accomplice,
May 3, following. An anonymous letter sent to lord Monteagle led to the discovery. It
contained the following words, " Though there bo no appearance of any stir, yet I say they
shall receive a terrible blow this parliament, and yet they shall not see who hurts them. "
The vault called Guy Faux cellar, in which the conspirators lodged the barrels of
gunpowder, remained in the late houses of parliament till 1825, when it was converted
into offices.
GUNS. See Artillery.
GUNTER'S CHAIN, used in measuring land, invented by Edmund Guuter, in 1606.
GUTTA PERCHA. This highly useful substance is procured from the sap of the
Isonandra Gutta, a large forest tree, growing in the Malayan peninsula and on the islands
near it. It was made known in England by Drs. D. Almeida and Montgomery, at tire
* The diet of Frankfort voted, Oct. 3, 1846, a recompense of 100,000 florins to professor Sch5nbein and
Dr. Bcettger, as the inventors of the cotton powder, provided the authorities of Maycnce, after seeing it
tried, pronounced it superior to gunpowder as an explosive ; but its use, as a substitute for gunpowder, in
gunnery, is still a matter of uncertainty, as the ignition of the cotton is not under the same control. Of its
utility, however, in blasting and mining operations, not the slightest doubt can exist. Improvements were
made in the manufacture of gun-cotton by an Austrian officer, Baron Von Lenk, about 1852, and it was
tried by a part of the Austrian army in 1855, but did not obtain favour. In 1862 details of the manufacture
were communicated by the Austrian government to our own government, and Mr. Abel, our war-office
chemist, was directed to experiment on the constitution and desirability of gun-cotton. Tho British
Association also appointed a scientific committee to consider its merits. A complete decision has not been
arrived at. The firt*t trinl of English made gun-cotton was made in the spring of 1864, at tho manufactory
at Stowmarket, Suffolk, by Messrs. Prentice.
t A scientific inquirer* W. Hunter, after a careful examination of the question, in 1847, thus states the
result:—"July and August, 1346, may therefore bo s.'ifely assumed to be the time when tho explosive
force of gunpowder was first brought to bear on the military operations of the English nation." On Jan.
16, 1864, above 11 tons of gunpowder on board the Lottie Sleigh, in the Morsey, exploded ; much damage
was done in Liverpool and Birkenhead, but no lives were lost. On Oct. 1, 1S64, about 104,000 lbs. of
gunpowder exploded at the Belvedere powder magazines of Messrs. Hall & Co., at Plumstend, near
Woolwich ; 13 persons perished, and the shock was felt at 50 miles' distance. Searching inquiries were
made into the circumstances, and new regulations for the keeping and transmission of powder issued in
November. See Dart/ord. Mr. Gale, a blind gentleman of Plymouth, on June 22, 1865, patented his
method of rendering gunpowder uninflammable by combining with it finely powdered glass which can be
readily separated by a sieve when the powder is required for use. Successful public experiments were
made, and Gale's Protected Gunpowder Company was formed (Oct.. 1865). Mr. Gale exhibited his process
before the Queen at Windsor, Nov. 10, 1865. The attainment of perfect security is still doubted.
A A 2
GUZ 356 HAB
of Arts, in 1843. As a non-conductor of electricity it lias become an invaluable aid
ucting the submarine telegraph.
GUZERAT, a state in India, founded by Mahmoud the Gaznevide, about 1020, was con
quered by Akbar in 1572 ; and became subject to the Mahrattas 1732 or 1752.
GUY'S HOSPITAL, London. Thomas Guy, a wealthy bookseller, after bestowing
large sums on St. Thomas's, determined to be the sole founder of another hospital. At tho
age of seventy-six, in 1 72 1, he commenced the erection of the present building, aud lived to
see it nearly completed, it costing him 18,793/. In addition, he endowed it with 219,4997.
In 1829, 196, 1 1 5 were bequeathed to this hospital by Mr. Hunt, to provide accommodation
for 100 additional patients.
GWALIOR, a state in Central India ; since 1803, under British protection. The maha-
rajah remained faithful during the revolt of 1857.
GYMNASIUM, a place where the Greeks performed public exercises, and where also
philosophers, poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. In wrestling and boxiug
the athletes were often naked (gymnos), whence the name. A London gymnastic society,
formed 1826, did not flourish. In 1862, M. Ravenstein set up another gymnastic association.
The German Gymnastic Institution, in St. Pancras-road, London, was opened on Jan. 29, 1865,
and a large and perfect gymnasium at Liverpool was inaugurated by lord Stanley,
Nov. 6, 1865.
GYMNOSOPHISTvE, a sect of philosophers in India, who lived naked, as their name
implies. Alexander (about 324 b.c.) was astonished at the sight of men who seemed to
despise bodily pain, and who inured themselves to the greatest tortures without uttering a
groan or expressing any fear. Pliny.
GYPSIES, or EGYPTtANS (French, Boh&mes ; Italian, Zingari; Spanish, Giianos; German,
Zigetmer) ; vagrants, supposed to be descendants of Hindoos expelled by Timour, about
'399' They appeared in Germany and Italy early in the 15th century. In England an act
was made against their itinerancy, in 1530 ; and in the reign of Charles I. thirteen persons
were executed at one assizes for having associated with gypsies for about a month, contrary
to the statute. The gypsy settlement at Norwood was broken up, and they were treated as
vagrants, May, 1797. There were in Spain alone, previously to 1800, more than 120,000
gypsies, and many communities of them yet exist in England. Notwithstanding their inter
course with other nations, they are still, like the Jews, in their manners, customs, visage,
and appearance, almost wholly unchanged, and their pretended knowledge of futurity still
gives them power over the superstitious. Esther Faa was crowned queen of the gypsies at
Blyth, on Nov. 18, i860. The Bible has been translated into gypsy dialects.
GYROSCOPE (from gyrerr, to revolve), the name of a rotatory apparatus popular in
1859, invented by Fessel of Cologne (1852), and improved by professor Wheatstone and
M. Foucault of Paris. It is similar in principle to the rotatory apparatus of Bohnenberger
of Tubingen (born 1765, died 1831). —The gyroscope exhibits the combined effects of the
centrifugal and centripetal forces, and the remarkable results of the cessation of either, and
thus illustrates the great law of gravitation.
H.
HAARLEM, an ancient town, once the residence of the counts of Holland, was taken by
the duke of Alva, in July, 1573, after a siege of seven months. He violated the capitulation
by butchering half the inhabitants. The lake was drained in 1849-51.
HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' Writ of Right, passed "for the better securing the
liberty of the subject," 31 Charles II. c. 2, May 27, 1679.* This act (founded on the old
common law) is next in importance to Magna Ckarta, for so long as the statute remains in
force no subject of Kngland can be detained in prison, except in cases wherein the detention
* By this act, if any person be imprisoned by tho order of any court, or of the queen herself, he may
havo a writ of habeas corpus, to bring him before the court of queen's bench or common pleas, which shall
determine whether his committal be just. Tho constitution of the United States provides that "the
privilege or habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public
safety may require it ;" but does not specify the department of the government having the power of
suspension. A series of contents on this subject between tho legal and military authorities began in Mary
land, May, 1 861. In consequence of the affair of John Anderson (see Slavery in England, note), an act was
Eassed in 1862, enacting thitt no writ of Habeas Corpus should issue out of England into any colony, &c.r
aving a court with authority to grant such writ.
HAC HAL
is shown to be justified by the law. The Habeas Carpus act can alone be suspended by the
authority of parliament, and then for a short time only, and when the emergency is extreme.
In such a case the nation parts with a portion of its liberty to secure its own permanent
welfare, and suspected persons may then bo arrested without cause or purpose being
assigned. Blackstone.
Act suspended for a short time in 1689, 1696, 1708 Suspended in England, Aug 28, 1799 ; and
Suspended for Scots' rebellion . . 1715-6 April 14, 1801
Suspended for twelve months . . . .1722 Again, on account of Irish insurrection . 1803
Suspended for Scots' rebellion in . . . J744-5 Again, owing to alleged secret meetings (see
Suspended for American war . . . 1777-9 Green Bag) Feb. at, 1817
Again by Mr. Pitt, owing to French revolution 1794 Hill to restore the Habeas Corpus brought into
Suspended in Ireland, on account of the great parliament Jan. 28, 1818
rebellion, 1798 Suspended in Ireland (insurrection) July 24, 1848
Restored there March x, 1849
HACKNEY COACHES (probably from the French coche-a-haquenee, a vehicle with a
hired horse, haqueiUe. Their supposed origin in Hackney, near London, is a vulgar error.
See Cabriolets and Omnibuses.
Four were set up in London by a capt. Bailey Two hundred Hackney Chairs were licensed . . 171 1
in 1625 : their number soon increased. Office removed to Somerset-house . . . 1782
They were limited by the star-chamber in 1635 ; Coach-makers made subject to a license . . 1785
restricted to 200 in 1637 and in 1652 Lost and Found Ottico for the recovery of pro
The number was raised to 400, in 1662 ; to 700, perty left in hackney coaches, established by
in 1694 ; to 800, in 1715 ; to 1000, in 1771 , to act 55 Geo. III 1815
ii.-:. in 1814; and finally, to 1300, in . 1815 All public vehicles to be regulated by the act
One-horse hackney carriages (afterwards cab 16 & 17 Vict. cc. 33, 127, by which they ai-e
riolets) permitted to be licensed « • ,, placed under the control of the commissioners
All restriction as to number ceased, by 2 Will. of police June and Aug. 1853
IV., 1831. (The original fare was is. a mile/ 1833
HADRIANOPLE. See Adrianople.
HAGUE, capital of the kingdom of Holland, once called the finest village iu Europe ;
the place of meeting of the States-General, and residence of the former earls of Holland
since 1250, when William II. built the palace here.
Here the states abrogated the authority of posscssk
Philip II. of Spain, 1580, and held u confer 1795 ; favoured by a hard frost, they marched
ence upon the live articles of the remon into Holland, where the inhabitants and
strants, which occasioned the synod of Dort. 16:0 troops declared in their favour, a general
Treaty of the Hague (to preserve the equilibrium revolution ensued, and the stadtholder and
of the North;, signed by England, France and his family were compelled to leave the
Holland May 21, 1659 ' country and escape to England . . . . 1795
Witt torn in pieces here . . . Aug. 20, 1762 The Hague evacuated in .... Nov. 1813
The stadtholder returned here . . Dec.
HAINAULT, a province in Belgium, anciently governed by counts hereditary, after
Regnier I., who died in 916. The count John d'Aresnes became count of Holland in 1299.
Hainault henceforth partook of the fortunes of Flanders.
HAINAULT FOREST (Essex), a celebrated forest, in which stood the ancient Fairlop
oak {which see) ; was disatiorested in 1851.
HAIR. In Gaul, hair was much esteemed, and hence the appellation Gallia comata ; and
cutting off the hair was intlicted as a punishment among the Gauls. The royal family of
France held it as a particular mark and privilege of the kings and princes of the blood to wear
longhair artfully dressed and curled. "The clerical tonsure is of apostolic institution ! '*
Isidorus Hispalensis. Pope Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear long hair, 155. Long hair
was out of fashion during the protectorate of Cromwell, and hence the term Round-heads ;
in 1795 ; and also 1S01. Hair-powder came into use in 1590 ; and in 1795 a tax was laid upon
persons using it, which yielded at one time 20,000/. per annum. The tax is now il. 3s. 6d.
lor each person annually. See Beard,
HAITI. See Hayti.
HALEYBURY COLLEGE (Herts), wherein students were prepared for service in India ;
it was founded by the East India Company in 1806, and was closed in 1858.
HALICARNASSUS, Caria (Asia Minor) ; reputed birth-place of Herodotus, 484 B.C. ;
the site of the tomb of Mausolus, erected 353 ; taken by Alexander, 334. See Mausoleum.
HAL a.r»8 HAN
HALIDON HILL, near Berwick, where, on July 19-20, 1333, the English defeated the
Scots, the latter losing upwards of 14,000 slain; among whom were the regent Douglas and
a large number of the nobility, while a comparatively small number of the English suffered.
Edward III. placed Edward Balliol on the throne of Scotland.
HALIFAX (Yorkshire). The woollen manufactory was established here in the 15th
century, prodigious quantities of cloth, &c, being on the tenters. The town, at its incor
poration, was empowered to punish capitally (by a peculiar engine, which beheaded the
offender in a moment) any criminal convicted of stealing to the value of upwards of thirteen
p ace halfpenny. King James I. in 1620 took this power away. See Guillotine. In 1857,
Mr. J. Crossley announced his intention of founding a college here, and Mr. F. Crossley pre
sented the town with a beautiful park.
HALIFAX ADMINISTRATION. The earl or Halifax became minister, Oct. 1714, and
died in 1715. This ministry was succeeded by Robert Walpole's.
Charles, earl of Halifax, first lord of the treasury J Edward, earl of Oxford, admiralty.
(succeeded on his death by tho earl of Carlisle). James Stanhope, afterwards earl Stanhope, and
William, lord Cowpcr, afterwards earl Cowper, lord Charles. Viscount Townshend, secretarits 0/ state.
chancellor. Sir Richard Onslow, chancellor of the exchequer.
Daniel, earl of Nottingham, lord president. Dukes of Montrose and Marlborough, lord Berkeley,
Thomas, marquess of Wharton, privy seal. Robt. Walpolo, Mr. Pulteney, &c.
HALL, principal apartment in mediaeval mansions. Westminster and Eltham halls are
tine examples. See Westminster Hall.
HALL MARK. See Goldsmiths, and Standard.
HALLELUJAH and AMEN {Praise the Lord, and So be it), expressions used in the
Hebrew hymns ; said to have been introduced by Hnggai, the prophet, about 520 B.C. Their
introduction into the Christian church is ascribed to St. Jerome, about a.d. 390.
HALTS, a river (Asia Minor), near which a battle was fought between the Lydians and
Jledes. It was interrupted by an almost total eclipse of the sun, which occasioned a
conclusion of the war between the two kingdoms, May 28, 585 B.C. (the fourth year of the
48th Olympiad). Pliny, A'at. Hist. ii. Others give the date 584, 603, and 610 B.C.
This eclipse is said to have been predicted many years before by Thales of Miletus.
Herodotus i. 75.
HAMBURG, a free city, N. W. Germany, founded by Charlemagne, about 809. It
joined the Hanseatic League in the 13th century, and became a flourishing commercial city.
Population in i860, 229,941.
It obtained the title of a free imperial city by Russians into Germany r8i3
permission of the dukes of Holstein, 1296; Restored to independence by the allied sove
was subject to them till 1618 ; purchahed its reigns May, 1814
total exemption from their claims . . . 1768 Awful firo here, which destroyed numerous
France declared war upon Hamburg for its. churches and public buildings, aud 2000
treachery in giving up Napper Tandy (see houses ; it continued for thrco days , May 4, 1842
Tandy) . Oct. 1705 Half the city inundated by the Elbe . Jan. 1, 1855
British property sequestrated . . March, 1601 A new constitution demauded by the citizens,
H.trnburg taken by the French after the battlo and granted by the Bcnato . . . July, i860
of Jena, in The new assembly (of 191 members) first met,
Incorporated with France 1810 ■ Dec. 6,
Evacuated by the French on the advance of the The constitution began . . Jan. 1, 1861
HAMPTON-COURT PALACE (Middlesex), built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the
manor-house of the knights-hospitallers, and in 1525 presented to Henry VIII.; perhaps the
most splendid offering ever made by a subject to a sovereign. Here Edward VI. was born,
Oct. 12, 1537; here his mother, Jane Seymour, died, Oct. 24, following; and here Mary,
Elizabeth, Charles, and others of our sovereigns, resided. Much was pulled down, and tie
irrand inner court built by William III. in 1694, when the gardens, occupying 40 acres, were
laid out. Here was held, Jan. 14-16, 1604, the conference between the Puritans and the
clergy of the Established church, which led to a new translation of the Bible. See
Conference.
HANAPER OFFICE (of the court of Chancery), where writs relating to the business
of the subject, and their returns, were anciently kept in hanapcrio (in a wicker hamper) ;
mid those relating to the crown, in parva laga (a little bag). Hence the names Hanaper
and Petty Pag Office. The office was abolished in 1842.
HAN 359 HAN
HANAU (Hesse-Cassel), where a division of the combined .armies of Austria and Bavaria,
of 30,000 men, under general Wrede, encountered the French, 70,000 strong, under
Napoleon 1., on their retreat from Leipsic, Oct. 30, 1813. The French suU'ered very severely,
though the allies were compelled to retire.
HANDEL'S COMMEMORATIONS. The first was held in Westminster abbey, May 26,
1784 ; king George 111. and queen Charlotte, and above 3000 persons being present. The
band contained 268 vocal, and 245 instrumental performers, and the receipts of three
successive days were 12,746/. These concerts were repeated in 1785, 1786, 1790, and 1791.
Second great commemoration, in the presence of 1 were 2765 vocal and 393 instrumental performers
king William IV. and queen Adelaide, when , and the performance was highly successful The
there were 6+4 performers, June 24, 26, and 28, receipts amountod to about 33,000/., from which
183*. This commemoration led to the formation there were deducted i8,coo£. for expenses ; of the
of the Sacred Harmonic Society at Exeter Hall. residue (15,0000, two parts accrued to the Crysfcd
This society, in conjunction with the Crystal Palace Palace Company, and one part to the Sacred Har
Company, projected the Festival of 1859. monic Society. Handel's harpsichord, original
Grand Rehearsal at the Cryatal Palace, June 15, 17, Bcores of his oratorios, and other interesting
19, 1857, and on July 2, 1858. relics, were exhibited.
Great Handel festival (at the Crystal Palace) Handel festival (at the Crystal Palace) : 4000 per
on the centenary of his death. Performances : formers ; highly successful ; June 23, 25, 27,
Messiah, June 20; Selection-*, 22; Israel in Egypt, 1862.
24, 1859, w"^n the prince consort, the king of the Handel festival (at the Crystal Palace) : very suc
Belgians, and 26,827 persons were present. There cessful : June 26, 28, 30, 1865.
HANDKERCHIEFS, wrought and edged with gold, used to be worn in England by
gentlemen in their hats, as favours from young ladies, the value of them being from live to
twelve pence for each in the reign of Elizabeth, 1558. St&w's Chron, Paisley handkerchiefs
were first made in 1743.
HAND'S, imposition of, was performed by Moses in setting apart his successor Joshua
(Num. xxvii. 23), and in Christian ordination by the apostles (I Tim. iv. 14).
HANGING, Drawing, and Quartering, said to have been first inflicted upon William
Marise, a pirate, a nobleman's son, 25 Hen. III., 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the
duke of Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for treason, and at the place of execution
were hanged, cut down alive instantly, stripped naked, and their bodies marked for quar
tering, and then pardoned, 25 Hen. VI. 1447. Stow. The last execution in this.manner in
England was that of the Cato-street conspirators {which see), May 1, 1820. Hanging in
chains was abolished in 1834. See Death.
HANGO BAY (Finland). On June 5, 1855. a boat commanded by lieut. Geneste left
the British steamer Cossack, with a Hag of truce to laud some Russian prisoners. They wero
fired 011 by a body of riflemen, and live were killed, several wounded, and the rest made
prisoners. The Russian account, asserting the irregularity to have been on the side of the
English, has not been substantiated.
HANOVER, a kingdom, formerly an electorate, N. W. Germany. Hanover is composed
of territories which formerly belonged to the dukes of Brunswick (which set). Population in
1859, 1,850,000; iu 1861, 1, 888,070.
Hanover became the ninth electorate . a.d. 1692 Visited by George IV. . . . Oct. 1821
Suffered much during the seven years' war, 1756-63 Ernest, duko of Cumberland, king . June 20, 1837
Seized by Prussia .... April 3, 1801 He granted a constitution with electoral tights,
Occupied by the French . . June 5, 1803 1848 ; which was annulled in obodienee to
Delivered to Prussia in 1805 the decree of the Federal diet . April 12, 1855
Part of it annexed to Westphalia . , . . 1810 The king claims from England crown jewels,
Regained for England by Bernadotte, Nov. 6, 1813 which belonged to George III. (value about
Erected into a kingdom . . . Oct. 12, 1814 120,000^.) 1857
The duke of Cambridge appointed lieutenant- Arbitration : the jeweU given up . . Jan 1858
governor, and a representative government The Stade dues given up for compensation,
established Nov. 18 16 June i2, i86r
ELKOTORS AND KINGS OF HANOVER.
1692. Ernest-Augustus, youngest son of George, heir to the British crown, after William IN,,
that son of William, duko of Brunswick- Anne and their descendants.]
Luncburg, who obtained by lot the right to 1698. George- Lewis, son of the preceding ; married
marry (see BrunacUk ). He became bishop of bis cousin Sophia, the heiress ot the duke
Osnaburg in 1662, and in 1679 inherited the of Brunswick-ZelL Became king of Great
possessions or his uncle Juhn, duke of Calen- Britain, Aug. 1, 1714, as Ueurge I.
berg ; created Electok of Hanover in 1692. 1727. George-Augustus, his son (Geokoe II. of
[He nurried, in 1659, the princess Sophia, England;, June 11.
daughter of Frederick, elector palatine, and 1760. George,- William - Frederick, his grandson
of Elizabeth, the daughter of Jaraes I. of (Geokoe III. of England), Oct. 25.
England. In 1701, Sophia was declared next
HAN 3H0
HANOVER, continued.
kings of hanovkr. See Accatum. 1837. Ernest-Augustus, duke ofCumberland, brother
1 814, George-William-Frederick (the preceding so to William IV. of England, on whose demise
vereign), first king of Hanover, Oct. 12. he succeeded (as a distinct inheritance) to
1820. George-Augustus-Frederick, his son (George the throne of Hanover, June 20.
IV. of England), Jan. 20. 1851. George V. (born May 27, 1819), son of Ernest :
1830. William-Henry, his brother (William IV. of ascended the throne on the death of nia
England), June 26. father, Nov. 18. The present (1865) king of
[Hanover separated from the crown of Great Hanover.
Britain.] Heir : Prince Ernest-Augustus, born Sept. 21,
1845.
HANSE TOWNS. The Hanseatic League (from Kansa, association), formed by a number
of port towns in Germany, against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes : began about
1 140 ; the league was signed 1241. At first it consisted only of towns situate on the coasts
of the Baltic sea, but in 1370 it was composed of sixty-six cities and forty-four confederates.
They proclaimed war against Waldemar, king of Denmark, about the year 1348, and against
Eric in 1428, with forty ships and 12,000 regular troops, besides seamen. This gave umbrage
to several princes, who ordered the merchants of their respective kingdoms to withdraw their
effects. The Thirty years' war in Germany (1618-48) broke up the strength of the association.
In 1630 the only towns of note of this once powerful league, retaining the name, were Lilbeck,
Hamburg, and Bremen. The league suffered also by the rise of the commerce of the Low
Countries in the 15th century. The many privileges they enjoyed by treaty in England were
abolished by Elizabeth in 1578.
HAPSBURG (or Habsburo), House of, the family from which the imperial house of
Austria sprang in the 7th century. Hapsburg was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a
lofty eminence near Schintznach. Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, became archduke of Austria,
and emperor of Germany, 1273. See Austria and Germany.
HARBOURS. England has many fine natural harbours ; the Thames (harbour, dock,
and depOt), Portsmouth, Plymouth, &c. Acts for the improvement of harbours, Ate., were
passed in 1847, 1861, and 1862.
HARFLEUR (seaport, N. W, France, was besieged by Henry V., and taken Sept.
22, 1415.
HARLAW (Aberdeenshire), the site of a desperate indecisive battle between the earl of
Mar, with the royal army, and Donald, the lord of the Isles, July 24, 141 1. This conflict
was very disastrous to the nobility, some houses losing all their males.
HARLEIAN LIBR ARY, containing 7000 manuscripts, bought by secretary Harley, after
wards earl of Oxford and Mortimer, is now in the British Museum. . A large portion of his
life and wealth was spent on the collection. He died May 21, 1724. The Harleian
Miscellany, a selection from the MSS. and Tracts of his library, was published in 1744
and 1808.
HARMONIC STRINGS, said to have been invented by Pythagoras through hearing four
blacksmiths working with hammers, in harmony, whose weights he found to be six, eight,
nine, and twelve ; or rather by squares, as thirty-six, sixty-four, eighty-one, anil one hundred
and forty-four. —The Harmonica, or musical glasses, were first "arranged" by an Irish
gentleman named Puckeridge, and improved by Dr. Franklin in 1 760.
HARMONISTS, a sect, founded in Wurtemburg by Rapp, about 1780. Not much is
known of their tenets, but they held their property in common, and considered marriage a
civil contract. Not finding toleration, they emigrated to America, and built New Harmony
in Indiana in 1815. Robert Owen purchased this town about 1823 ; but failed in his scheme
of a "social " community, and returned to England. See Socialists. The Harmonists removed
to Pittsburg in Pennsylvania in 1822.
HARMONIUM, a keyed wind instrument, resembling the accordion in the tones being
generated by the action of wind upon metallic reeds. The Chinese were well acquainted
with the effects produced by vibrating tongues of metal. M. Biot stated, in 1810, that they
were used musically by M. Ground ; and in 1827-29, free reed stops were employed in organs
at Beauvaia and Paris. The harmoniums best known in England are those of Alexandre and
Debain, the latter claiming to be the original maker of the French instrument. In 1841,
however, Mr. W. E. Evans, of Cheltenham, produced his English harmonium, then termed
the Organ-Harmonica. By a succession of improvements he has produced a fine instrument,
with diapason quality, and great rapidity of speech, without loss of power. English
Cyclopadia.
HAR 361 HAS
HARNESS, the leathern dressings used for horses to draw chariots, and also chnriots,
are said to have been the invention of Erichthonins of Athens, who was made a constellation
after his death, under the name of BoSles, about 1487 B.C.
HARO, Cry of (Clameur dc Haro), derived from Raoul, or Rollo, ancestor of our Norman
princes of England. Rollo had administered justice with such exactness, that those who had
injury done them used to call out A Raoul I This obliged the person who met an adverse party
in the streets to go before the judge, who decided their differences, at least provisionally.
HtnavXt.
HARP. Invented by Jubal, 3875 B.C. (Qen. iv. 21). David played the harp before Saul,
1063 B.C. 1 Sam. xvi. 23. The Cimbri, or English Saxons, had this instrument. The cele
brated Welsh harp was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more ancient harps,
with wire.* Erard's improved harps were first patented in 1795.
HARPER'S FERRY (Virginia). See United States, 1859-62.
HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE. Mr. John Harrison, of Foulby, near Pontefract, was the
inventor. In 1714, the government offered rewards for methods of determining the
longitude at sea ; Harrison came to London, and produced his first time-piece in 1735 ; his
second in 1739 ; his third in 1749 ; and his fourth, which procured him the reward of 20,000/.
offered by the Board of Longitude, a few years after. He obtained 10,000?. of his reward in
1764, and other sums, more than 24,0002. in all for further improvements in following years.
HARROGATE (Yorkshire). The first or old spa in Knaresborough forest was discovered
by capt. Slingsby in 1 571 : a dome was erected over the well at the expense of lord Rosslyn
in 1786. There are two other chalybeate springs, called the Alum well and the Towit spa.
The noted sulphureous well was discovered in 1783. The theatre was erected in 1788. The
Bath hospital was erected by subscription in 1825.
HARROW-ON-THE-H1LL SCHOOL (Middlesex*), founded and endowed by John Lyon
in 1571. To encourage archery, the founder instituted a prize of a silver arrow to be shot
for annually on the 4th of August ; but the custom has been abolished. Lord Palmerston,
sir R. Peel, the statesman, and lord Byron, the poet, were educated here.
HARTLEY COAL MINE (Northumberland). On Jan. 16, 1862, one of the beams at
the mouth of the ventilating shaft broke, and a mass of iron weighing about 12 tons fell
down the shaft, destroyed the brattice, divided the shaft, and carried down sufficient timber
to kill two men who were ascending the shaft, and buried alive 202 persons, men and
boys. Several days elapsed before the bodies could be removed. Much sympathy was shown
by the public, from the queen to the humblest classes ; and about 50,000/. were collected on
behalf of the bereaved families. The coroner's verdict expressed the necessity of there being
two shafts to coal mines, and recommended that the beams of colliery engines should be of
malleable instead of east-iron.
HARTVELL (Buckinghamshire), the retreat of Louis XVIII., king of France, 1807-14.
He landed in England at Yarmouth, Oct. 6, 1807, took up his residence at Gosfield hall,
in Essex, and afterwards came to Hartwell, as the count de Lille. His consort died here in
1810. On his restoration, he embarked at Dover for France, April 24, 1814. See France.
HARUSPICES, priests or soothsayers, of Etruscan origin, who foretold events from
observing entrails of animals. They were introduced to Rome by Romulus (about 750 B.C.),
and abolished by Constantine, a.d. 337, at which time they were seventy in number.
HARVARD COLLEGE (Massachusetts, North America) was founded by the general
court at Boston, on Oct. 28, 1636. It derived its name from John Harvard, who bequeathed
to it a library and a sum of money in 1638.
HASTINGS (Sussex). At Battle, near this place, more than 30,000 were slain in the
conflict between Harold II. of England and William duke of Normandy, the former losing
his life and kingdom, Oct. 14, 1066. The day of this battle was also the anniversary of
Harold's birth. He and his two brothers were interred at Walthain abbey, Essex.
* One of the most ancient harps existing la that of Bryan Boiroimhe, monarch of Ireland : it was
given by his son Donogh to Pope John XVI II., together with the crown and other regalia of his father, in
order to obtain absolution for the murder of his brother Tcig. Adrian IV. alleged this as beingonc of Ms
principal titles to the kingdom of Ireland in his bull transferring it to Henry II. This harp was given
by Leo X. to Henry VI1L, who presented it to the first earl of Clanricarde : it then camo into possession
of the family of De Burgh ; next into that of MacMahon of Clenagh, county of Clare; afterwards into that
of MacXatnara of Limerick ; and was at length deposited by the right hon. William Conyngham in the
College Museum, Dublin, in 1782.
t Charles II. cut short some theological discussion relative to the claims for the titlo of the visible
church, by declaring that it " wus the parish church of Harrow, which could lie seen everywhere."
HAS 362 HAY
HASTINGS' TRIAL. Warren Hastings,* governor-general of India, was tried by the
peers of Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanors. Among other charges was his
acceptance of a present of loo,oooi. from the nabob of Oude (see C/iunar, Treaty of). The
trial lasted seven years and three months ; commencing Feb. 13, 1788, terminating in his
acquittal, April 25, 1795. Mr. Sheridan's speech on the impeachmeut excited great
admiration.
HATFIELD'S ATTEMPT on the Life of Georgf. III. On May 11, 1800, during a
review in Hyde-park, a shot from an undiscovered hand was fired, which wounded a young
gentleman who stood near the king. In the evening, when his majesty was at Drury-lano
theatre, Hatfield fired a pistol at him ; upon his trial he was sentenced to be confined as a
lunatic during his life. He died Jan. 23, 1841, aged 69 years.
HATS. See Caps. First made by a Swiss at Paris, 1404. When Charles VII. made
his triumphal entry into Rouen, in 1449, he w ore a hat lined with red velvet, and surmounted
with a rich plume of feathers. Henceforward, hats and caps, at least in France, began to
take place of chaperons and hoods. HhxauU. Hats were first manufactured in England by
Spaniards in 1510. Stow. Very high-crowned hats were worn by queen Elizabeth's
courtiers ; and high crowns were again introduced in 1 783. A stamp-duty laid upon hats
in 1784, and in 1796, was repealed in 1811. Silk hats began to supersede beaver
about 1820.
HATTERAS EXPEDITION. See United Stales, 1861.
HAU-HAU FANATICS. See New Zealand, 1865.
HAVANNAH (capital of Cuba, West Indies). Founded by Velasquez, 15 11 ; was token
by lord Albemarle, Aug. 14, 1762 ; restored, 1763 ; the remains of Columbus were brought
from St. Domingo and deposited in the cathedral here, 1795.
HAVRE-DE-GRACE (N.W. France) was defended for the Huguenots by the English in
1562 ; who, however, were expelled in 1563. It was bombarded by Rodney, July 6 to 9,
1759 ; by sir Hichard Straclian, May 25, 1798 ; and blockaded, Sept. 6, 1803. The attempts
of the British to burn the shipping here failed, Aug. 7, 1804.
HAWAII. See OiohyKtc.
HAWKERS and Pedlars were first licensed in 1697. Licensing commissioners were
appointed in 1810. The expense of licensing was reduced in 1862.
HAYMARKET (Westminster), opened in 1664, was removed to Cumberland-market,
Jan. 1, 1831, The Haymarket theatre was opened in 1702. See Theatres.
HAYTI, OR Haiti, Indian name of St. Domingo, a West Indian island, discovered by
Columbus in Dec. 1492, and named Hispaniola. Before the Spaniards fully conquered it,
they are said to have destroyed, in battle or cold blood, 3,000,000 of its inhabitants, including
women and children. General Fabre Gellrard became president of the republic of Hayti,
Jan. 15, 1859. Population in 1859, about 572,000.
Hayti seized by the filibusters and French He is assassinated, and the isle is divided,
buccaneers 1630 Oct. 17. 1806
The French government took possession of the Henry Christophe, a man of colour, president
whole colony 1677 in Feb. 1807 ; crowned emperor by the title
The negroes revolt againRt France . Aug. 23, 1791 of Henry I., while Pethion rules as president
And massacre nearly all the whites . . . 1793 at Port-au-Prince .... March, 1811
The French directory recognise Toussaint l'Ou- Numerous black nobility and prelates created . „
verture as general in-chief 1794 Petbion dies, and Boyer is elected president,
The eastern part of the island ceded to France May, 1S18
by Spain 1795 Christophe commits suicide, Oct. 1820 : the
Toussaint establishes an independent republic two Btates united under Boyer as regent for
in St. Domingo .... May 9. 1801 lifo, Nov. 1820 ; who is recognised by France
He surrenders to the French . . May 7, 1802 in 1835
And is conducted to France, where he dies . 1803 Revolution : Boyer deposed 1843
A new insurrection, under the command of St. Domingo declares itself an independent
Dcssalines ; the French quit tho island, Nov. 1803 republic, Feb. 1844; recognised by France . 1848
Dcssalines proclaims the massacre of all the Hayti proclaimed an empire under its lato
whites, March 29 ; crowned emperor as president Solouquc, who takes tho title of
Jacques I. Oct. 8, 1804 Faustin I., Aug. 26, 1849; crowned, April 18, 1852
* He was born in 1732; went to India as a writer in 1750; became governor-general of Bengal in
1772 ; of India, 1773 ; governed ably, but, it is said, unscrupulously and tyrannically, till he resigned in
1785. The expenses of his trial (70,000?.) were paid by the East India Company. He died a privy-coun
cillor in 1818.
HAY HEG
HAYTI, continued.
Faustin attacking tho republic of St. Domingo ' Sixteen persons executed for a conspiracy
repulsed Feb. r, 1856 against Guffrard .... Oct. 1859
Revoluticin in Hayti : general Oeffrard pro- Great firo at Port-au-Princo ; 600 houses de
claimed president of tho republic of Hayti, stroyed Feb. 23, 1865
Dec. 22, 1858 President Geffrord compelled to resign, Sept. a, „
Faustin abdicates Jan. 1859 I See bominyo.
HEAD ACT. See note to article Ireland, 1465.
HEALTH, General Board of, was appointed by the act for the promotion of the
public health, passed in 1848. See Sanitary Legislation. This board was reconstructed in
Aug. 1854, and sir B. Hall was placed at its head, with a salary of 2000/. ; succeeded by
W. F. Cowpcr, Aug. 1855, and by Ch. B. Adderley in 1858. The expenses for the year
1856-7 were 12,325^. In 1858 this board was incorporated into the privy council establish
ment ; Dr. Simon being retained as medical officer.
HEARTH, or CHIMNEY, TAX, on every fire-place or hearth in England was imposed
by Charles II. in 1662, when it produced about 200,000?. a year. It was abolished by William
and Mary at the Revolution in 1689 ; but was imposed again, and again abolished.
HEAT (called by French chemists Caloric). Little progress had been made in the study
of the phenomena of heat till about 1757, when Joseph Black put forth his theory of latent
heat (which heat he said was absorbed by melting ice), and of specific heat. Cavendish,
Lavoisier, and others, continued Black's researches. Sir John Leslie put forth his views on
radiant heat in 1804. Count Rumford espoused the theory that heat consists in motion
nmong the particles of matter, which view he supported by experiments on friction (recorded
in 1802). This theory (now called the dynamical or mechanical theory of heat, and used
to explain all the phenomena of physics and chemistry) has been further substantiated by
the independent researches of Dr. J. Mayer of Heilbronn and of Mr. Joule of Manchester
(about 1840), who assert that heat is the equivalent of work done. In J.854, professor Wm.
Thomson, of Glasgow, published his researches on the dynamical power of the sun's rays.
The minds of philosophers are still engaged on this subject.* See Calorcsce.ncc. Thermo
electricity, produced by heating pieces of copper and bismuth soldered together, was dis
covered by Seebeck in 1823. A powerful thermo-electric battery was constructed by Marcus
of Vienna, in 1865.
HEBREWS. See Jews.
HEBRIDES (the Ebudes of Ptolemy and the Hebwlei of Pliny), Western isles of Scotland,
long subject to Norway ; ceded to Scotland in 1264; and annexed to the Scottish crown in
1 540 by James V.
HEBRON (in Palestine). Here Abraham resided, i860 B.C. ; and here David was made
king of Judah, 1048 B.C. On April 7, 1862, the prince of Wales visited the reputed cave of
Machpelah, near Hebron, said to contain the remains of Abraham and his descendants.
HECATOMB, an ancient sacrifice of a hundred oxen, particularly observed by the Lace
demonians when they possessed a hundred cities. The sacrifice was subsequently reduced
to twenty-three oxen, and goats and lambs were substituted.
HECLA, MOUNT. Its first eruption is recorded as having occurred 1004. About
twenty-two eruptions have taken place, according to Olasson and Paulson. The most
dreadful and multiplied convulsions of this great volcanic mountain occurred in 1766, since
when a visit to the top in summer is not attended with great difficulty. For particulars of
an eruption in 1784-5, see Ice/and. The mount was in a state of violent eruption from
Sept. 2, 1845, to April, 1846. Three new craters were formed, from which pillars of fire rose
to the height of 14,000 English feet. The lava formed several hills, and pieces of pumice
stone and scoria; of 2 cwt. were thrown to a distance of a league and a half ; the ice and
snow which had covered the mountain for centuries melted into prodigious Hoods.
HEGIRA, Era of the, dates from the flight (Arabic liejra) of Mahomet from Mecca to
Medina, on the night of Thursday, the 15th July, 622. The era commences on the 16th.
Some compute this era from the 15th, but Cantemir proves that the 16th was the first day.
33 of its lunar years were equal to 32 of those of the vulgar era.
* Captain Erlcson constructed a ship, in which caloric, or heat, was the motive-power. On Jan. 4,
1853, it salted down the bay of New York, at the rate of 14 miles an hour, it is said at a cost of 80 per cent,
less than steam. Although caloric engines were not successful, captain Ericson continued his experi
ments, and patented an improved engine in 1856.
HEI 3G4 HEL
HEIDELBERG (Germany) was capital of the Palatinate, 1362-1719. The protestaut
electoral house becoming extinct in 1693, a war ensued, in which the castle was ruined, and
the elector removed his residence of Manheim. It was annexed to Baden in 1802. Here
was the celebrated tun, constructed in 1343, when it contained twenty-one pipes of wine.
Another was made in 1 664 which held 600 hogsheads. It was destroyed by the French in
1688 ; but a larger one, fabricated in 1690, which held 800 hogsheads, and was formerly kept
full of the best Rhenish wine, is now mouldering in a damp vault, quite empty.
HELDER POINT (Holland). The fort and the Dutch fleet lying in the Texel surrendered
to the British under the duke of York and sir Ralph Abercrombie, for the prince of Orange ;
540 British were killed, Aug. 30, 1 799. The place was left in Oct. See Bergen.
HELEN, a Grecian princess, according to mythology, daughter of Jupiter and Leda, and
sister of Castor and Pollux. She was demanded in marriage by several Greek princes. She
chose Menelaus, king of Sparta ; but eloped from him with Paris, son of Priam, king of
Troy. This led to the Trojan war, which lasted 1193 to 1183 B.C.
HELENA, St. (an island in the South Atlantic Ocean), was discovered by the Portuguese
under Juan de Nova Castilla, on the festival of St. Helena, May 21, 1502. The Dutch
afterwards held it until 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East
India Company settled here in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by the English,
and Dutch until 1673, when Charles II., on Dec. 12, assigned it to the company once more.
St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's captivity, Oct. 16, 1815 ; and of his death,
May 5, 1821. His remains were removed in 1840, and interred at the HStel des Invalides,
Paris. See France, 1840. The house and tomb have been purchased by the French
government.
HELIGOLAND, an island in 'the North Sea, taken from the Danes by the British,
Sept. s, 1807 ; made a depot for British merchandise ; confirmed to England by the treaty
of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814. Though a mere rock, it is an important possession.
HELIOGRAPHY (from helios, the sun). See Photography.
HELIOMETER, kc., an instrument for measuring the diameters of the sun, moon,
planets, and stars, invented by Savary, in 1743 ; applied by M. Bouguer, in 1747.
HELIOSCOPE (a peculiar sort of telescope, prepared for observing the sun so as not to
affect the eye), was invented by Christopher Seneiner in 1625.
HELIOSTAT, an instrument invented to make a sunbeam stationaiy, or apparently
stationary, invented by Gravesande about 1719, and greatly improved by Malus and others.
One constructed by MM Foucault and Duboscq, was exhibited at Paris in October, 1862.
HELLAS, in Thessaly, the home of the Hellenes and the Greek race, which supplanted the
Pelasgians from the 15th to the nth century B.C., derived their name froin Helen, king of
Phthiotis, about 1600 B.C. They separated into the Dorians, Italians, Ionians, and Achaians.
The present king of Greece is called "king of the Hellenes." See Greece.
HELLESPONT, a narrow arm of the sea betwixt Europe on the west, Asia on the east,
the Propontis, or Sea of Marmora, northward, and the jEgean Sea, now the Archipelago,
southward. The present name is the Strait of the Dardanelles. The Hellespont took its
original name from Helle, daughter of Athamas, king of Thebes, who was drowned here. It
is celebrated for the loves of Hero of Sestus, and Leander of Abydos : Leander was
drowned in a tempestuous night as he attempted to swim across tho Hellespont, and Hero,
in despair, threw herself iuto the sea, 627 B.C. See Xerxes.
HELL-FIRE CLUBS. Three of these associations which existed for some time, were
suppressed by an order in council, 1721. They met at Somerset-house, and at houses in
Westminster, and in Conduit-street.
HELMETS, among the Romans, were provided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise above
the eyes, and beaver to lower for eating ; the helmet of the Greeks was round, that of the
Romans square. Richard I. of England wore a plain round helmet ; but most of the English
kings had crowns above their helmets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had aflat helmet,
with a square grated vizor, and the helmet of Robert 1. was surmounted by a crown, 1306.
Gurillim.
HELOTS, captives, derived by some from the Greek helein, to take ; by others from
Helos, a city which the Spartans hated for refusing to pay tribute, 883 B.C. The Spartans,
it is said, ruined the city, and reduced the Helots to slavery ; and called all their slaves and
HEL 3ii5 HER
the prisoners of war, Helotae. The number of the Helots was much enlarged by the conquest
of Messenia, 668 B.C., and is considered to have been four-fifths ot the inhabitants of Sparta.
In the Peloponnesian war the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, and were rewarded
with their liberty, 431 B.c. ; but the sudden disappearance of 2000 manumitted slaves was
attributed to the Lacedemonian treachery. Herodotus.
HELVETIAN REPUBLIC. Switzerland having been conquered by the French in 1797,
a republic was established in 1798 with this title. See Switzerland.
HELVETII, a Celto-Germanic people, who inhabited what is now called Switzerland.
Invading Uaul, 61 B.c, they were opposed and beaten by Julius Csesar, 58 B.C., near Geneva.
HEMP and FLAX. Flax was first planted in England, when it was directed to be sown
for fishing-nets, 1533. "Bounties were paid to encourage its cultivation in 1783 ; and every
exertion should be made by the government and legislature to accomplish such a national
good. In 1785 there were imported from Russia, in British ships, 17,695 tons of hemp and
flax." Sir John Sinclair. The annual importation of these articles now amounts to about
100,000 tons. The cultivation of flax was revived at the dearth of cotton during the
American civil war, 186 1-4. More than 180,000 lbs. of rough hemp were used in tho cordage
of a first-rate man-of-war, including rigging and sails.
HEPTARCHY* (or government of seven kings) in England was gradually formed from
455, when Hengist became the king of Kent. It terminated in 828, when Egbert became
sole monarch of England. See Britain and Octarchy.
HERACLIDJ5, descendants of Hercules, who were expelled from the Peloponnesus about
1200 B.C., but reconquered it in 1103-4 or 1109 B.C., a noted epoch in chronology, all the
history preceding being accounted fabulous.
HERALDRY. Marks of honour were used in the first ages. Nishet. The Phrygians
had a sow ; the Thracians, Mars ; the Romans, an eagle ; the Goths, a bear ; the Flemings, a
bull ; the Saxons, a horse ; and the ancient French, a lion, and afterwards the fleur-de-lis
(which see). Heraldry, as an art, is ascribed first to Charlemagne, about 800 ; and next to
Frederick Barbarossa, about 1152 ; it began and grew with the feudal law. Mackenzie. The
great English works on heraldry are those of Barcham or Barkham, published by Gwillim
;i6io), and Edmondson (1780).
HEBALDS' COLLEGE.
Edward III. appointed two heraldic ktngs-at- This college has an earl marshal, 3 kings of
arms for the south and north (Surroy, Norroy) 1340 arms (Garter. Clarencieux, and Norroy),
Richard HI. incorporated and endowed the 6 heralds (Richmond, Lancaster, Chester,
college 1484 Windsor, Somerset, and York), 4 pursuivants,
Philip and Mary enlarged its privileges, and and 3 extra heralds. See Barl Marshal, and
confirmed them by letters patent . July 15, 1554 Kings-at-Arms.
Formerly, in many ceremonies, the herald re The building in Doctors' Commons, London,
presented the Icing's person, and thereforo was erected by sir Christopher Wren, after
wore a crown, and was always a knight. the great fire in 1666 ..... 1683
HERAT, on the confines of Khorasan, a strong city called the key of Afghanistan,
capital of a state formed by Shah Mahmoud, in 1818. Population in 1830, 100,000. The
Persians were baffled in an attempt to take it in 1838 ; but took it Oct. 25, 1856, in violation
of a treaty made in 1853. In consequence, war ensued between Great Britain and Persia.
Peace was made in April, 1857 (see Persia). Herat was restored July 27 following. See
Afghanistan.
HERCULANEUM, an ancient city of Campania, overwhelmed, together with Pompeii,
by an eruption of lava from Vesuvius, Aug. 23 or 24, 79. Successive eruptions laid them
still deeper under the surface, and all traces of them were lost until excavations began in
171 1 ; in 1713 many antiquities were found. In 1738 excavations were resumed, and
works of art and monuments and memorials of civilised life, were discovered. 150 volumes
of MSS. were found in a chest, in 1754 ; and many antiquities were purchased by sir
William Hamilton, and sold to the British Museum, where they are deposited ; but the
principal relics are preserved in the museum of Portici. The "Antichita di Ercolano,"
8 vols, folio, were published by the Neapolitan government, 1757-92.
* There were at first nine or ten Saxon kingdoms, but Middlesex soon ceased to exist, and Borntcia.
and Deira were genorally governed by one ruler, as Northumberland.
HER HER
HEREFORD was made the seat of a bishopric about 676, Putta being first bishop.
The cathedral was founded by a nobleman named Milfride, in honour of Ethelbert, king of
the East Saxons, who was treacherously slain by his intended mother-in-law, the queen of
Mercia. The tower fell in 1786, and was rebuilt by Mr. Wyatt. The cathedral was
reopened after very extensive repairs, on June 30, 1862. The see is valued in the king's
books at 768/. per annum. Present income, 420x3/.
RECENT BISHOPS OF HERliFOItn.
1803. Follfott H. W. Cornwall, translated to Wor 1832. Hon. Edward Grey, died June 24, 1837.
cester, :808. 1837. Thomas Musgrave, translated to York, Dec
1808. John Luxmoore, translated to St. Asaph, 1815. 1847
1815. George Isaac Hunting-ford, died April 29, 1832. 1847. Rouu D. Hampden (the present bishop, 1865).
HERERA (Arragon). Here don Carlos, of Spain, in his struggle for his hereditary right
to the throne of that kingdom, at the head of 12,000 men, encountered and defeated general
Bucrens, who had not much above half that number of the queen of Spaiu's troops. Bueiens
lost about 1000 in killed and wounded, Aug. 24, 1837.
HERETICS (from the Greek hairisis, choice). Paul says, "After the way they call
heresy, so worship I the God of my fathers," 60 (Acts xxiv. 14). Heresy was unknown to
the Greek and Roman religions. Simon Magus is said to have broached the Gnostic heresy
about 41. This was followed by the Manichees, Nestorians, Arians, &c. Formerly the term
heresy denoted a particular sect ; now, heretics are those who propagate their private opinions
in opposition to the Roman Catholic Church. Burnet. See Inquisition.
Thirty heretics came from Germany to England ' Certain laws against heretics were repealed,
to propagate tbeiropinions, and were branded 25 Hen. VIII 1534-5
in the forehead, whipped, mid thrust naked The last person executed for heresy in Britain
into tho streets in the depth of winter, where, was Thomas Aikcnhead, at Edinburgh . . 1696
none daring to rcliovo them, they died of [The orthodox MahummedansareSonnites; the
hungor and cold (Speed) heretics arc Shiites, Druses, «fcc. ]
HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS (i.e., feudal rights) in Scotland, valued at 164,232?., were
bought up in 1747 (20 Geo. II. c. 43) and restored to the crown. —Heritable and Movable
Rig/its, in the Scottish law. denote what in England is meant by real and personal property;
real ptoperty in England answering nearly to the heritable rights in Scotland, and personal
property to the movable rights.
HERMANDAD (Spanish for brotherhood), associations of the chief cities of Castile and
Arragon for the defence of their liberties in times of trouble ; began about the middle of the
13th century. The brotherhood was disorganised in 1498, public order having been firmly
established.
HERMAS, author of "the Shepheitl," a Christian apocryphal book, supposed to have
been written about 13 1. Some believe Hennas to be mentioned in Romans xvi. 14.
HERMITS. Sec Monach ism. HERO, British Man-of-War. See Wrecks, 181 1.
HERRING-FISHERY was largely encouraged by the English and Scotch so early as the
8th century. The herring statute was passed in 1357. The mode of preserving heirings by
pickling was discovered about 1397. Anderson. The British Herring-Fishery company
was instituted Sept. 2, 1750. A scientific commission in relation to the fishery was appointed
in 1862
HERRINGS, Battle of the, fought Feb. 12, 1429, when the English were besieging
Orleans, obtained its name from the due de Bourbon attempting to intercept a convoy of salt
fish, on the road to the English camp before Orleans ; he was beaten.
HERSCHEI, TELESCOPE. Sir Wm. Herschel's seven, ten, and twenty-feet reflectors
were made about 1799. He discovered the planet Uranus (which see), March 21, 1781, and
a volcanic mountain in the moon, in 1783 ; and about this time laid the plan of his great
forty-feet telescope, which he completed in 1789, when he discovered two other volcanic
mountains. In 1802, by means of his telescopes, he was enabled to lay before the Royal
Society a catalogue of 5000 nebula? and clusters of stars. The great telescope was taken
down in 1822, and one of 20 feet focal length erected by sir John Hcrschel, who afterwards
took it to the Cape of Good Hope and with it made his observations.
HERULI, a German tribe, which ravaged Greece and Asia Minor in the 3rd century after
Christ. Odoacer, their leader, overwhelmed the western empire and became king of Italy,
476. He was defeated and put to death by Theodoric the Ostrogoth, 491-3.
HER 367
HERZEGOVINA, a province of European Turkey, N. of Mon enegro. In Dec. 1861,
an insurrection against the Turks broke out, fostered by the prince of Montenegro. It was
subdued ; and 011 Sept. 23, 1862, Vucalovitch, chief of the insurgents, surrendered on behalf
of his countrymen to Kurschid Pasha, and an amnesty was granted.
HESSE (W. Germany), the seat of the Catti, formed part of the empire of Charlemagne ;
from the rulers of it in his- time, the present are descended. It was joined to Thuringia till
about 1263, when Henry 1. (son of a duke of Brabant and Sophia, daughter of the landgrave
of Thuringia) beca.ne landgrave of Hesse. The most remarkable of his successors was
Philip the ^liguuuimons (1509), an eminent warrior and energetic supporter of the Refor
mation, who signed the Augsburg Confession in 1530 and the League of Smaleald in 1531.
At his death, in 1567, Hesse was divided into Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt, under
his sons William and George. Their descendants played an eminent part in the convulsions
of Germany during the 17th and 18th century.* In 1803, Hesse-Cassel became an electorate,
and in 1806 Hesse-Darmstadt a grand duchy ; which titles were retained in 1814. In 1806
Hesse-Cassel wns incorporated with the kingdom of Westphalia, but in 1814 the electorate
was re-established.
Hesse-Cassel. (Population, Dec. 1861, 738,476.) Hesse-Darmstadt. (Population, Dec. 1861, 856,007).
1847. The elector Frederic-William l.,t f*ov. 20 1848. The gmnd-duke Louis III., Juue 16 (born
(born Aug. 20, 1 80a). June 9, 1806).
Htir: his sou, Augustus, born Sept. 21, 1859. Heir : his brother Charles (born April 23, 1809),
whose son Louis married the princess Alice,
of England, July 1, 1862.
Itsue ; Victoria-Alberta, born April 5, 1863 ;
and anothor princess, Nov. r, 1864.
HESSE-HOMBURG, a landgraviate, established in the person of Frederic, son of George
of Hesse-Darmstadt, in 1596. His descendant, Augustus Frederic, married May 7, 1818,
Elizabeth, daughter of Georgo III. of England, who had. no issue. The landgraviate was
absorbed into the grand duchy of Hesse in 1806, but re-established in 1815 with additional
territories. The landgrave Ferdinand (born April 26, 1783) succeeded his brother, Sept. 8,
1848. Population (Dec. 1861), 26,817.
HETEROGENY. See Spontaneous Generation.
HEWLEY'S CHARITY. See Unitarians.
HEXAMETER, six measures or feet, each containing two long syllables (a spondee), or a
long one and two short (a dactyl), the form of verse iu which Homer wrote his Iliad and
Odyssey.
HEXHAM (Northumberland). The sec of Hexham was founded in the infancy of the
Saxon church ; it had ten bishops successively, but by reason of the spoil and rapine of the
Danes, it was discontinued ; the last prelate, appointed 810. The Battle of Hexham, in
which the Yorkist army of Edward IV. obtained a completo victory over the Lancastrian
army of Henry VI. was fought May 15, 1464.
HIBERNIA, Ibernia, Ivernia, and Icrne, a name given to Ireland by classical writers
(Aristotle, Ptolemy, &.c). See Ireland. The ship Bibernia, captain Brenn, bound from
* Six thousand Hessian troops"arrived in England, in consequence of an invasion being expected In
1756. The sum of 471,000!. three per cent, stock was transferred to the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian
auxiliaries lost in tho American war, at 30/. per man. Nov. 1786. The Hessian soldiers were agaiu brought
to this realm at the close of the last century, arid served in Ireland during tho rebellion in 1798.
t The elector of Hesse had, in 1850, remodelled the constitution given to his people in 183: (by which
the chamber had the exclusive right of voting the taxes), and did not convene the chamber until tho
usual time for closing the session had arrived, when his demand for money for the ensuing year, 1851, was
laid before it. Tbe chamber called, unanimously, for a regular budget, that it might examine into, and
discuss, its items. The elector dissolved the chamber, and declared the whole of his domiiuous in a state
of siege and subject to martial law, Sept. 7, 1850. In the end ho was obliged to flee to Hanover, and subse
quently to Frankfort ; and on Oct. 14, he formally applied to the Frankfort diet for assistance to ro-establi&h '
his authority in Hesse. On Nov. 6 following, an Austro-Bavarian force of 10,000 men, with 20 pieces of
artillery, entered Hesse-Cassel, under the command of prince Thurn-und-Taxis, who fixed his head
quarters in Hun.in ; and on the next day a. Prussian force entered Casscl. The elector returned to his
capital, Dec. 27, 1850, the taxes having been previously collected under threats of imprisonment. The
Austro-Bavarian and Prussian troops afterwards evacuated the electorate. In 1852, the constitution of 1831
was abolished, and a new one established.—The elector and his chamber are still in a state of disagree
ment. Although the German federal diet affirmed the constitution of 1852, on March 14, i860, the elector
granted a new one on May 30. This, however, did not give satisfaction. Further contests ensued. In
May, 1862, there was danger of an armed Prussian intervention, the king having been insulted by tLe
Hesse ministry. In June a new ministry was formed, and the legislative cLambcrs assembled on Oct .7..
HIE 36S HIP
Liverpool to New South Wales, with 232 persons on board, of whom 208 were passengers
going out as settlers, was destroyed at sea by fire, kindled through the negligence of the
second mate, —in W. long. 22° and S. lat. 40. 150 lives were lost through the insufficiency
of the boats to contain more than a third of the people on board : Feb. 15, 1833.
HIEROGLYPHICS (sacred engravings), picture-writing, the expression of ideas by
representation of visible objects, used chietly by the Egyptians ; said to have been invented
by Athotes, 2112 b.o. Usher. Young, Champollion, Rosellini, and others (in the present
century), have done much to elucidate Egyptian hieroglyphics. See Rosclta Stone,
HIGH and LOW CHURCH. These sections in the Church of England began in the
reign of Anne, and still continue. Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Saviour's, Southwark,
was prosecuted for two seditious sermons (preached Aug. 14, and Nov. 9, 1709), to rouse
the apprehensions of the people for the safety of the church, and to excite hostility against
the dissenters. His friends were called High Church and his opponents Low Church, or
moderate men, 1720. The queen, who favoured Sacheverel, presented him with the valuable
rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. He died in 1724.
HIGH COMMISSION, Court of, an ecclesiastical court, erected by 1 Eliz. c. 1., 1559,
by which all spiritual jurisdiction was vested in the crown. It originally had no power to fine
or imprison ; but under Charles I. and archbishop Laud it assumed illegal powers, was
complained of by the parliament, and was abolished in 1641.
HIGHLANDS (of Scotland), long held by semi-barbarous clans, were greatly improved
by the construction of military roads by general Wade, about 1725-6 ; and by the abolition
of heritable jurisdiction of feudal rights in 1 748, and by the establishment of the Highland
and Agricultural Society in 1784. See Regiments.
HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given to Henry VII.; and this, and sometimes
Your Grace was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; but abotit the close of the reign of
the latter-mentioned king, the title of " Highness " and " Your Grace " were absorbed in
that of "Majesty." Louis XIII. of France gave the title of Highness to the prince of
Orange, in 1644 ; this prince had previously only the distinction of Excellency. Hlnavlt.
Louis XIV. gave the princes of Orange the title of High and Mighty Lords, 1644. Idem.
HIGH PRIEST. See Priest.
HIGH TREASON. In regulating the trials for this was enacted the statute, so favourable
to liberty, the 25th of Edward III., 1352, by which two living witnesses are required : it
arose in the refusal of parliament to sanction the sentence of death against the duke of
Somerset. By the 40th Geo. III., 1800, it was enacted that where there was a trial for high
treason in which the overt act was a direct attempt upon the life of the sovereign, such trial
should be conducted in the same manner as in the case of an indictment for murder.*
HIGHWAYS. See Roads.
HIMERA (Sicily). Here (in 480 B.C.) Theron and Gelon of Agrigentum defeated the
Carthaginians ; and here the latter defeated Agathocles of Syracuse, 310 B.C.
HINDOO ERA (see Cali-yuga) began 3101 B.C., or 756 before the Deluge, in 2348.
The Hindoos count their months by the progress of the sun through the zodiac. The Samoat
era begins 56 B.C. ; the Saca era a.d. 79.
HIPPOPOTAMUS (Greek, river-horse), a native of Africa, known to, but incorrectly
described by ancient writers. Hippopotami were exhibited at Rome by Antoninus Cora-
modus and others, about 138, 180, and 218. The first brought to England arrived May 25,
1850, and is now in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's-park, London ; another, a female, four
months old, was placed there in 1854. Two young ones born at Paris in May, 1858, and
June, 1859, were killed by their mother. One born at Amsterdam, July 29, 1865, was living
in September.
* The last two cases of persona executed for high treason wore, jat, William Cundell, aliat Connell,
and John Smith. They were tried on a special commission, Feb. 6, 1812, being two of fourteen British
subjects taken in the enemy's service in the Isles of France and Bourbon. Mr. Abbot, afterwards lord
Tcnterden and chief justice, and sir Vicary Gibbs, attorney-general, conducted the prosecution, and Mr.
Brougham, now lord Brougham, defended the prisoners. The defence was, that they (the prisoners) had
assumed the French uniform for the purpose of aiding their escape to England. The two above-men
tioned were hanged and beheaded on the lodge of Horsemonger-lane gaol on March 16, 1812. All the
other convicts were pardoned upon condition of serving in colonies beyond the seas, and, the CcUo Strttt
Cintipiratori {which tct), May 1, 1820.
HIP 30 g HOL
HIPPODROME, a circus for horse-riding. One opened by Mr. John "YVhyte, near
Notting-hill. Loudon, on May 29, 1837, was closed in 1841 by the Kensington vestry.
HISPANIA, Latin name of Spain. HISPANIOLA. See HaytL
HISTOLOGY (from kistos, a web), the science which treats of the tissues which enter
into the formation of animals and vegetables ; mainly prosecuted by the aid of the micro
scope. Schwann, Valentin, Kolliker, and Robin are celebrated for their researches. Professor
Quekett's Lectures on Histology were published in 1852 and 1854.
HISTORY. The Bible, tho Parian Chronicle, the histories of Herodotus and Ctcsias,
and the poems of Homer, are the foundations of early ancient history. Later ancient history
is considered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, 476 ; and
modern history dates from the age of Charlemagne, about 800. There was not a professor
ship of modern history in either of our universities until the years 1724 and 1736, when
Regius professorships were established by George I. and George II.
HOBART TOWN, OR Hobaeton, a sea-port and capital of Van Diemen's Land, was
founded in 1S04 by col. Collins, tho lirst lieutenant-governor, who died here in 1810.
HOCHK1RCHEN (Saxony), where, on Oct. 14, 1758, the Prussian army, commanded by
Frederick II., was surprised and defeated by the Austrians commanded by count Daun.
Marshal Keith! a Scotsman, in the Prussian service, was killed. The Austrian generals shed
tears, and ordered his interment with military honours.
HOCHSTADT, a city on the Danube, in Bavaria, near which several important battles
have been fought : (i.) Sept. 20, 1703, when the Imperialists were defeated by the French
and Bavarians, under marshal Villars and the elector of Bavaria. (2.) Aug. 13, 1704, called
the battle of Blenheim (which see). (3.) Juno 19, 1800, when Moreau totally defeated the
Austrians, and avenged the defeat of the French at Blenheim.
HOGUE. See La Rogue.
HOHENLINDEN (Bavaria), Battle of, Dec. 3, 1800, between the Austrians com
manded by archduke John, and tho French commanded by general Moreau. The
Imperialists were defeated with great loss in this hard-fought battle, their killed and wounded
amounting to 10,000 men, aud their loss in prisoners to 10,000 more. The forces opposed
were nearly equal in numbers. The peace of Luneville followed.
HOHENSTAUFEN". See Germany and Guclfs. HOHENZOLLERN. See Prussia.
HOLLAND {Hollow land, or, some say, Wooded land), a kingdom, N.W. Europe, tho
chief part of the northern Netherlands, is composed of land rescued from the sea, and
defended by immense dykes. It was inhabited by the Batavi in the time of Coesar, who
made a league with them. It became part of Gallia Belgica, and afterwards of the kingdom
of Austrasia. From the 10th to the 15th century it was governed by counts under tho
German emperors. In 1861, the population of the kingdom in Europe was 3,521,416 ; of
the colonies, 18,175,910; of both in 1863, 21,805,607.
Thierry (or Dieterieh) I., first count . . . 936 | Tho seven northern provinces contract tho
The parties termed Hooka, (followers of Margaret league of Utrecht . .... 1579
countess of Holland,)and CodJUh, (supporters And declare their independence . Sept. 29, 1580
of her sou William, who endeavoured to Assassination of William of Orange July 10
supplant her,) create a civil war, which lasts (June 30), 1584
many years 1347 Tho ten southern provinces conquered by tho
Holland united to Hainault, 1299 ; and Brabant, prince of Parma 1585
1416 ; annexed to Burgundy by duke Philip, The provinces solicit help from England and
who wrests it from his nieco Jaquelino, of France ; expedition of the e.irl of Leicester ;
Holland, daughter of tho last count, 1436 ; English aud Dutch disagreo . . . 1585-7
annexed to Austria through tho marriage of Battle of Zutphon—sir Philip Sidney killed,
Mary of Burgundy with the archduke Maxi Sept. 22, 1586
milian ........ 1477 Prince Maurice appointed stadtholdcr . . . 15S7
Government of Philip of Austria, 1495 ; of Death of Philip II. His son Philip III. cedes
Margaret of Austria and Charles V., it;o6 ; tho Netherlands to Albert of Austria, and
of Philip II the infanta Isabella
. 1555 Campaigns of Maurico and Spinola . 1599-1604 1598
Philip II. establishes tho Inquisition ; the Hoi-
Landers having zealously embraced the re- Maurice defeats the archduke at Nieuport July 2, 1G00
formod doctrines : the Confederacy of Gueux The independence of tho United Provinces
(Beggars) formed by the nobles against it . 1566 recognised ; truce for twelve years April 9
Comniencemeut of the revolt under William, (March 30), 1609
prince of Orange 1572 Batavia in Java built 1610
The pacification of Ghent—union of the north Fierce religious dissensions between tho Armi-
and south provinces 157G nians and Goniarists 1610-19
B B
IIOL IIOL
HOLLAND, continued.
Maurice favours the latter and intrigues for Unsuccessful campaign of the duke of York. . 1754
royal power 1616 The Batavian republic established in alliance
Synod of Dort : persecution ofthe Armenians, 161 8- 19 with France *795
Execution of the illustrious Barneveldt, May 13, 1619 Battle of Campcrdown, Duncan signally defeats
Renewal of the war ; Maurice saves Bergcn-op- the Dutch Oct. ir, 1797
Zoom 1C22 The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the line,
His tyrannical government ; plot against him ; with thirteen Indiamen, surrenders to tho
sixteen persons executed .... 1623 British admiral, Duncan, without firing a gun,
His death; his brother Frederick succeeds him Aug. 28, 1799.
and annuls the persecution . . . . 1625 A new constitution is civen to the Batavian
Manhattan, now New York. North America, republic; the chief officer (R. J. Schimmel-
founded ; massacre of English at Amboyna, penninek) tikes the titlo of Grind Pen
East Indies 1624 sionary April 26, 1S05
Victories of Van Tromp, who takes two Spanish Holland erected into a kingdom, and Louis
fleets off the Downs . Sopl. 16 and Oct. 21, 1639 Bonaparte declared king . . Junes, 1806
Peace of Westphalia, the republic recognised The ill-fated Walchert-n expedition . . . i2oc>
by Europe 1648 Louis abdicates .... July 1, 18x0
War with England—naval action?)—Blake de Holland united to France . July 9,
feats I)c Ruyter, Oct. 22 ; but is surprised by Restored to tho house of Orange, and Belgium
Van Tromp, who takes some English ships annexed to its dominions . . Nov. 17, 1S13
And sails through the channel with a broom The prince of Orange proclaimed sovereign
at his mast-head .... Nov. 29, 1652 prince of the united Netherlands Dec. 6, „
Indecisive sea-fights, June 12-14 ; death of ^'an Religious discord between Holland and tho
Tromp, July 21 ; peace follows . . . . 1653 southern provinces . . . ' . . 1817, &c.
Victorious war with Sweden .... 1659 1 Tho revolution in Belgium . . Aug. 25, 1830
Another war with England 1665 Belgium separated from Holland . July 13, 1831
Indecisive sea-fights, June 1-4; victory of Monk Holland makes war against Bcljiinm Aug. 3, „
over Do Ruyter .... July 25, 1666 Treaty between Holland and Belgium, signed
Triple alliance of England, Holland, and I In London April 19, 1839.
Sweden against France 1668 Abdication of William I. . . . Oct. 7-10, 1840
Charles II. basely deserts Holland, and unites Death of the ex-king William I. . Dec. 12, 1844
with Franco 1670 Louis Bonaparte, count de St. Leu, ex-king of
The French overrun Holland 1671 Holland, dies of apoplexy at Leghorn. July 25, 1846
Desperate condition of the States—the popu- Tho king agrees to political reform, March ; a
laco massacre the Do Witts—William III. new constitution granted . . April 17, 184S
made stadtholder 1672 Death of William II. . . . March 17, 1849
Tho French repelled by the sluices being opened , , lie-establishment of a Roman Catholic hier
Indecisive campaigns 1673-7 archy announced .... March 12, 1S53.
William marries princess Mary of England . 1677 Great inundations : 40,000 acres submerged
Peace with France (Nimeguen) .... 1678 and nearly 30,000 villagers made destitute,
William becomes king of England. . . . 1689 Jan. and Fob. i86r
Sanguinary war with France . . . 1689-96 Great fire at Endscbed<5, the Manchester of
Peace of Ryswick signed . . Sept. 11, 1697 Holland, loss alwut a million pounds, May 7, 1SO2
Death of WilUum March 8, 1702 The stites-genoral pass a law for the abolition
No stadtholder appointed—administration of of slavery in the Dutch West Indies, Aug. 6, „
ITcinsius 1702 [To commence July 1, 1863.]
War against France and Spain ; campaigns of Treaty for capitalising the Scheldt dues signed,
Marlborough ....... 1702-13 May 12, 1S63
Peace of Utrecht .... March 30, 1714 Slavery ceases in the Dutch West Indies July 1, „
Holland supports the empress Maria-Theresa 1743-8 50th anniversary °f the deliverance from the
Peace of Aix-la-Chapcllo .... Oct 1748 French kept Nov. 17, „
War with England for naval supremacy—Hol Commencement of canal to connect Amsterdam
land loses colonies 1781-4 with the North sea . . . March 8, 1865
Civil wars in the Low Countries. . . 1787-9 The government undertake a canal to connect
The French republican army march into Hol Rotterdam with the sea . . . March
land ; the people declare in their favour . . 1793
* The first English version of the Iliad, by Arthur Hall, appeared in 1581. The most celebrated versions
of Homer's works arc Chapman's, 1616; Hobl>es\ 1675; Pope's, 1715-25; Cowper's, 1791. The translation
of tho Iliad by tho carl of Derby (1864) is much commended.
HOM HOR
with another's wife, sister, daughter, or concubine, or lie that killed a man who, without
just grounds, assaulted another violently, was not deemed a homicide. Among the Jews,
wilful murder was capital ; but for chance-medley the offender was to fly to one of the cities
of refuge, and there continue till the death of the high-priest, 145 1 b.o. {Num. xxxv.).
9 Geo. IV. c. 31 (1828), distinguishes between justifiable homicide and homicide in its
various degrees of guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilfulness. See. Murder.
HOMILIES (Greek) in early Christian times were discourses delivered by the bishop or
presbyter, in a homely manner, for the common people —The Hook of Homilies drawn up
by abp. Cranmer, and published 154"; and another prepared by an order of convocation,
1563, were ordered to be read in those churches that had not a minister able to compose
proper discourses. —Stow.
HOMGiOPATHY, a hypothesis promulgated at the commencement of the present
century by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, of Lcipsic (died 1843), according to which every
medicine has a specific power of inducing a certain diseased state of the system (similia
similibtts curanlur, likes are cured by likes) ; and if such medicine be given to a person suffer
ing under tho disease which it lias a tendency to induce, such disease disappears, because two
similar diseased actions cannot simultaneously subsist in the same organ. Brando. Infini
tesimal doses of medicine, such as the millionth of a grain of aloes, have beeu employed, it is
said, with efficacy. The real merits of the system consist in its inducing the patient to
regulate his diet and habits according to the dictates of common sense. —The Hahnemann
hospital was opened in Blooinsbury-square, Sept. 16, 1850.
HOMOUSION and HOMOIOUSION (Greek, same essence, and similar essence or
being), terms employed with respect to the nature of the Father and the Son in the Trinity.
The orthodox party adopted the lormer term as a party cry at the council of Nice, 325 ; the
Arians adopted the latter at Selcucia, 359.
HONDURAS, one of the republics of Central America (tcJtich set). Great Britain ceded
the Bay Islands to Honduras, Nov. 28, 1859. Its present president, general J. M. Medina,
was elected for four years, Feb. I, 1864. Population, about 350,000 (i860). British
Honcfuras, Central America, was settled by English from Jamaica soon after a treaty with
Spain in 1667. They were often disturbed by tho Spaniards and sometimes expelled, till
1783. Balize or Belize, the capital, is a great seat of the mahogany trade. In 1861, the
population was 25,635, and the revenue, 35,757?.
HONEY-MOON. Among the ancients a beverage prepared with honey, such as that
known as mead, aud as mctheglin, in England. It was a custom to drink of diluted honey
for thirty days, or a moon's age, after a wedding-feast, and hence arose tho term honey-moon,
of Teutonic origin. Attila the Hun drank, it is said, so freely of hydromel on his marriage-
day, that he died of suffocation, 453.
HONG-KONG, an island off the coast of China, was taken by capt. Elliott, Aug. 23, 1839,
and ceded to Great Britain, Jan. 20, 1841. Its chief town is Victoria, built iu 1842, and
erected into a bishopric in 1849. Sir John Bowring, governor from 1854 to 1859, was suc
ceeded by sir Hercules Robinson.
HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PEXSE, "Evil be to him who evil thinks." It is said that
the countess of Salisbury, at a ball at court, happening to drop her garter, the king,
Edward III., took it up, and presented it to her with these words, which afterwards became
the motto of the order of the garter ; but this statement is unsupported by sufficient
authority. —The order is said to have been instituted, April 23, 1349.
HONOUR. Temples were erected to Honour by Scipio Africanus, about 197 B.C. ; and
by C. Marius, about 102 B.C. —The Leyion of Honour was created by Bonaparte in 1802.
HOOKS and CODFISH. Sec Holland, 1347. HOOrS. See Crinoline.
HOPS. Introduced from the Netherlands, into England, about 1524, and used in
brewing ; but the physicians having represented that they were unwholesome, their use was
prohibited in 1528. Anderson. In the year ending Jan. 5, 1853, there were 46, 157J acres
under hops iu England and Wales, chiefly in Herefordshire, Kent, and Worcestershire, which
paid 447,144'. duty; the quantity yielded was 51, 102,494 lbs., whereof 955,855 lbs. were
exported. The duty on hops was repealed iu 1862, after many applications.
HORATII and CURIATII. The Romans and the Albans, contesting for superiority,
chose three champions on each side to determine it. The three Horatii (Roman knights)
overcame the Cunatii (Albans), and thereby united Alba to Rome, about 669 B.C.
1101! 371 HOS
HORN" ; HORNPIPE. The horn is thought to be, next to the reed, tlio earliest wind
instroment, and has been found among most savage nations. It was first made of horn,
hence the name ; afterwards of brass, with keys, for the semi-tones, in the last century. —
The dance called the Hornpipe is supposed to be so named from its having been performed
to the Welsh inb-corn, that is, hornpipe, about 1300. Spencer.
HORNE TOOKE, &c. The trial of Messrs. Hardy, Tooke, Joyce, Thelwall, and others,
on a charge of high treason, caused a great sensation in England. They were taken into
custody on Slay 20, 1794. Mr. Hardy was the first who was put to the bar, Oct. 29, same
year ; and, after a trial which lasted eight days, he was honourably acquitted. John Home
Tooke was next tried, and was acquitted Nov. 20 ; and Mr. Thelwall also was acquitted,
Dec. 5 ; all the other accused persons were discharged. Acts were passed to prohibit Mr.
Thelwall's political lectures in 1795. See Gagging Bills and Thelwall.
HOROLOGY. See Clocks.
HORSE.* The people of Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and probably were the
first, among the Greeks at least, who rode upon horses, and broke them in for service in
war ; whence arose the fable that Thessaly was originally inhabited by centaurs. " Solomon
bad 40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots, and 12,000 horsemen," 1014 B.C. I Kings iv. 26.
The power of the horse is equal to that of five or six men. Smcalun. The Greeks anil
Romans had some covering to secure their horses' hoofs from injury. In the 9th century
horses were only shod in the time of frost. The practice of shoeing was introduced into
England by William I., 1066. In England there are 2,000,000 draught and pleasure
horses, and 100,000 agricultural horses, which consume the produce of 7,000,000 acres.
The horse-tax was imposed in 1784, and was then levied on all saddle and coach horses in
England. Its operation was extended, and its amount increased, in 1796; and again in
180S. The existing duty upon "horses for riding" only, in England, amounts to about
350,000/. per year (1862). f See Race-Uorscs.
HORSE GUARDS. They were instituted in the reign of Edward VI. 1550, and revived
by Charles II. 1661. The first troop of the Horse Grenadier Guards was raised in 1693, aud
was commanded by general Cholmondeley ; and the second troop, commanded by lord Forties,
was raised in 1702. There was a reduction of the Horse and Grenadier Guards, and Life
Guards, as now established, were raised in their room, May 26, 1788. Phillips. The present
edifice called the Horse Guards was erected by Ware about 1 730. In the front are two small
arches, where horse-soldiers, in full uniform, daily mount guard. In a part of the building
is the office of the commander-in-chief.
HORSE-RACING. Sec Racing.
HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES. Horticulture, the art of cultivating gardens, is a
late word in our dictionaries (from horlus and culturo), and was first used by Evelyn. The
(now Royal) Horticultural society of London was founded by sir Joseph Hanks and others
in 1804, and was incorporated April 17, 1809 ; the Edinburgh society in 1809 ; and that of
Dublin in Jan. 1817. The transactions of the London society (1812, &c.) have attracted
great attention. In 1822 the planting of the society's garden at Chiswick was begun. The
annual exhibitions there date from 1831. The society not having been prosperous, in 1S59
the library was sold. In July a proposal for laying out a garden for the society, on the
Brompton estate belonging to the Crystal Palace commissioners, received the support of the
queen, nobility, &c, and Mr. Ncsfield's design was adopted in May, i860. On June 5, 1861,
the new gardens were opened by the prince consort, who planted a Wellington ia giganica
(which secJ. The queen also planted one on July 24 following. On June 10, 1863, the
Albert memorial was uncovered in the presence of the prince and princess of Wales.
HOSIERY. See Stockings and Collon. HOSPITALLERS. See Malta.
HOSPITALS, originally Ilospitia for the reception of travellers. That at Jerusalem,
built by the knights of St. John 11 12, was callable of receiving 2000 guests, and included
* In March. 1S58, Mr. J. S. Ttarey, an American, made a great seusatiou in London by taming vicious
and wild horses, and even a zebra from the Zoological Gardens. His system is founded on a profound
Btudy of tlio disposition of tho animal, and on kindness. He initiated many illustrious persons in his
method (on March 20, 1858, lord Palmerston and twenty others), binding them to secrecy ; from which
they were releasod in Juno, 1858, when his book was reprinted in England without his consent. In July,
1859, he was engaged to instruct cavalry officers and riding ma-ters of the army. On Jan. 12, i860, he gave
a lecture to tho London cabmen, which was well received ; and in May same year he received a present of
20 guine as from the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.
t Great horsa shows were held at the Agricultural Ilall, Islingt on, in July 1S64, and July 1865.
HOS HUE
an infirmary for the sick. The richly endowed " five royal hospitals " under "the pious
care of the lord-mayor of London," &c, are St. Bartholomew's, St. Thomas's, Bridewell,
Bethlehem, and Christ's. See Infirmaries. The Royal Dispensary in Aldersgate-street was
the first established, 1770.
Bethlehem (oldest lunatic Hospital of Surgery . . 1827 Orthopredic .... 1838
asylum in Europe except Idiots' 1847 Samaritan Free, for women
one at Granada) founded . 1547 Incurables .... 1850 and children . . . 1847
Cancer, Bronipton . . . 1851 Jews' 1747 Small Tox 1746
Charing-cross founded rSi8 ; King's College . . . 1839 St. Bartholomew's (see Bar
new hospital built . . . 1831 Lock 1746 tholomew, St.) . . • 1546
City of Londou Lying-in . 1750 London 1740 St. George's . . . . 1733
Consumption, Brompton . . 1841 Lying inn, British . . . 1749 St. Luke's (lunatics) . . 1751
Dreadnought ship . . . 1821 City-road . . i7jo St. Mary's, Faddington . . 1843
Fever 1802 „ Goneral, Lambeth 1765 St. Thomas's (removed 1862). 1553
Freo, Gray's Inn-lane . . 1828 „ Queen Charlotte's 1752 University College . . . 1833
German, Dalstou . . . 1845 ,, Queen Adelaide's 1824 Westminster . . . . 1719
Great Northern . . . 1856 Middlesex .... 1745 Women's, Soho-square . . 1843
Guy's (seo u'uy'a) . . . 1721 Lend. Ophthalmic, Finsbury 1804
Hahnemann .... 1850 „ Gray's Inn-rd. 1S43
HOST, Elevation- of the, introduced into Roman Catholic worship, and prostration
enjoined,'in 1201. Pope Gregory IX. was the first pontiff who decreed a bell to be rung as
a signal for the people to betake themselves to the adoration of the host, 1228, which is
done to this day. Sees. The supposed miracle of the consecrated host being visibly changed
into the body of our Lord, is referred by Henault to 1290.
HOT BLAST. See Blowing Machine.
HOURS. The day began to be divided into hours from the year 293 B.C., when L. Papi-
rius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. Previously to the invention
of water-clocks (which sec), 158 B.C., the time was called at Rome by public criers. The
Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. The Italians reckon twenty-
four hours round, instead of two divisions of twelve hours. In England, the measurement
of time was, in early days, uncertain : one expedient was by wax caudles, three inches burning
an hour, and six wax candles burning twenty-four hours : said to have been invented by
Alfred, a.d. 8S6. For Hours of Prayer, sec Breviary.
HOUSE DUTY was imposed in 1695. Its rate was frequently changed till its repeal in
1S40 (3 & 4 Will. 4, c. 39). It was re-iinposed as a substitute for the window tax, in 1851.
HOUSELESS POOR ACT (Metropolitan) was passed in 1864, and made perpetual in 1865.
See Poor.
HOUSE of Commons, Lords, &c. See Parliament, Lords, and Commons.
HOWARD FAMILY. John Howard, son of Margaret, the heiress of the Mowbrays,
was created earl marshal and the 7th duke of Norfolk in 1483. He was slain with his master,
Richard III., at Rosworth, Aug. 22, 1485. His son was restored to the earldom of Surrey iu
1489, iu reward for having gained the victory of Flodden, Sept. 9, 15 13 ; he was created the
8th duke of Norfolk in 15 14. Thomas, the 10th duke, was beheaded for conspiracy against
queen Elizabeth on behalf of Mary, queen of Scots, in 1572. Henry Fitzalan Howard, now
the 21st duke of Norfolk, and the 18th of the Howard family, premier duke and earl of
England and hereditary earl marshal, was born in 1847.
HOWITZER, a German piece of ordnance, ranking between a cannon and a mortar,
came into use early in the 18th century.
HUDSON'S BAY, discovered by captain Henry Hudson, when in search of a north
west passage to the Pacific Ocean, 1610 ; had been discovered by Frobisher in tho reign of
Elizabeth, although Hudson ventured further north. The latter, passing the winter in this
bay on his fourth voyage, was, with four others, thrown by his sailors into a boat, and left
to perish. The Hudson's-Bay Company obtained a charter1 iu 1670. Their licence expired
in 1859. Tho forts were destroyed by the French in 1686 and 1782. In July, 1863, tho
formation of a new company was proposed.
HUE AND CRY. The old common-law process of pursuing "with horn and with
voice," from hundred to hundred, and county to county, all robbers and felons. Formerly,
the hundred was bound to make good all loss occasioned by the robberies therein committed,
unless the felon were taken ; but by subsequent laws it is made answerable only for damage
committed by riotous assemblies. The pursuit of a felon was aided by a description of
him in the Hue and Cry, a gazette established for advertising felons in 1710. Ashe.
HUG 376 HUN
HUGUENOTS, a term (derived by some from the German Eidgenossen, confederates ; by
others from Hugues, a Genevese Calvinist) applied to the Reformed party in France, followers
of Calvin. They took up arms against their persecutors in 1561. After a delusive edict of
toleration, a great number were massacred at Vassy in 1562 (March 1), when the civil wars
began, which lasted with some intermission till the edict of Nantes in 1598, revoked in 1685.
The massacre of St. Bartholomew's day, Aug. 24, 1572, occurred during a truce. See
Calvinists, Bartlwlmiuw, and Edict.
HULL (E. Yorkshire), a rising commercial place in 1200, was named Kingston-upon-
Hull in 1296 by Edward I., who purchased the town, formed the port, and granted a
charter. Great fire ; damage about 100,000/., Aug. 15, 1S64.
HULSEAN LECTURES (on Theology), were instituted at Cambridge by the will of the
rev. John Hulse, who died in 1790. They began in 1820, when twenty lectures were given
by the rev. Christopher Benson. In 1830 the number was reduced to eight.
HUMANE SOCIETY, ROYAL (London), for the recovery of persons apparently drowned,
was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, Heberden, Towers, Lettsom, Hawcs, and Cogan,
but principally by the last three. The society has 221 receiving-houses, supplied with appa
ratus. The principal one was erected in 1794, on a spot of ground given by George III. on
the north side of the Serpentine river, Hyde-park. The motto of this society is ajipropriate
—"Lateat scinlillula forsau"— "a small spark may perhaps lie concealed." See Drowning.
HUMILIATI, a congregation of religious of the church of Rome, formed by some
Milanese who hail been imprisoned by Frederick I. 1162. The order had more than ninety
monasteries; but was abolished for luxury and cruelty by pope Pius V., and their houses
were given to the Dominicans, Cordeliers, and other communities, in 1570.
HUMMING-BIRDS. Mr. Gould's beautiful collection of the skins of these birds was
exhibited at the Zoological Gardens, Ixmdon, iu'1851. His elaborate work on them in five
folio volumes, with richly coloured plates, was completed in 1862.
HUNDREDS, a Danish institution ; a hundred being a part or division of a shire, so
called, as is supposed, from its having been composed of a hundred families, at the time the
counties were originally divided by king Alfred, about 897. The hundred-court is a court-
baron held for all the inhabitants of a hundred instead of a manor. Law Dictionary.
HUNGARY, part of the ancient I'annonia and Dacia, was subjected to the Romans
about 106, and retained by them till the 3rd century, when it was seized by the Goths, who
were expelled about 376 by the Huns, under Attila. See Huns and Attila. On his death,
in 453, the Ostrogoths, Gepidw, and Lombards at times held the country, which was how
ever acquired by the Avars about 568, and retained by them till their destruction by Charle
magne in 799. About 894 the country was settled by a Scythian tribe, named Vingours or
Ungri (whence the German name Vngarn), and the Magyars of Finnish origin. The chief of
the latter, Arpad, was the ancestor of a line of kings {see below). The progress of the Magyars
westward was checked by their defeat by the emperor Henry the Fowler, 934. The line of
Arpad became extinct in 1309, when Charles Robert of Anjou ascended the throne. In 1526
it accrued to the house of Austria, in which it was made hereditary in 1687. War with
Turkey was frequent from the 15th to the 18th century. The Magyars have of late much
intermingled with the German and Sclavonic races. Population (without the armv) in 1857,
9,900,785. See Austria.
Stephen, founder of the monarchy of Hungary, Sanguinary anarchy : Elizabeth, queen of Louis,
embraces and establishes Christianity and is drowned ; and King* Mary, the daughter,
subdues the slaves, &c., receives the title of marries Sigfsmond, of Brandenburg . . . 1382
Apostolic king from the pope .... 907 They govern with great severity . . 1382-92
The Poles overrun Hungary 1061 Sigismond's atrocious cruelties compel his sub
Dreadful ravages of the Tartars under the sons jects tu invite the assistanco of the Turks . 1393
of Genghis Khan, throughout Hungary, Battle of Nicopolis : Ilajazet vanquishes Sigis-
Bohemia, and Russia, 1241 el Bfq. roond and a largo army . . Sept 28. 1396
Bclu III. introduces the Greek civilisation 11 74, &c. Sigismond obtains the crown of Bohemia, and
Golden Bull of Andrew XI. granting personal is elected emperor of Germany . . . 1410
rights 1222 Albert of Austria succeeds to tho throne of
Victories of Louis the Great in Bulgaria, Sen-la, Hungary M37
and Dalmatia 1344-82 Victories of the great John nunniades (illegiti
Ho marches into Italy and avenges the murder mate son of Sigismond) over the Turks . 1442-4
of his brother, Andrew king of Naples . . 134S Who outlined a truce for 10 years . . . 1444
* The Hungarian people have or had an irreconcilcablo aversion to tho name of qiieen ; and conse
quently whenever a female succeeded to the throne of Hungary, she reigned with the title of ling. Thus
in 1382, when Jlary came to the crown, she was styled Xiini Mary. Pray, Hut. Rfgv.m Hungarian
HUN 377 HUN
HUNGARY, continued.
Which is broken by Ladislas king of Hungary Gorgey and his army surrender to tho Russians,
(at the instigation of the pope). No is de Aug. 1849
feated and slain with a great part of his anny, Kossuth, Bun, Ac, escape to tho Turkish fron
and the papal legate at Varna . . Nov. 10, 1444 tiers, and are placed under the protection of
John Hunniadcs escapes and becomes recent Turkey at New Orsova (see Turkey) Aug. 21, „
(for Ladislas. son of Albert) . . . 1444-53 Komorn surrenders to the Austrians ; close of
lie raises the siege of Belgrade, July 14, and the war Sept. 27,* „
dies ....... Sept. 10, 1456 Batthyany tried at Pcsth, and shot ; many other
The Hungarians insult the Turkish ambas insurgent chiefs put to death . , _ Oct. 6, ,,
sadors, and war ensues : Solyman II. takes Amnesty granted to tho Hungarian insurgents,
Buda 1526 who return home . . . Oct. 16,
Disastrous battle of Mohatz (which ttc) Aug. 29, „ Bern dies at Aleppo .... Doc. 10, 1850
Hungary becomes subject to the house of Tho country remains in an unsettled state ;
Austria (see Germany) many executions 1853-5
Peace of Vienna, granting toleration to pro Crown of St. Stephen and royal insignia dis
tectants 1606 covered and sent to Vienna . . Sept. 8, 1853
John Sebicski defeats the Turks in several Amnesty fur political offenders of 1848-9 July 12, 1856
battles, and raises the siege of Vienna Oct. 1683 During the Italian war in 1S59, an insurrection
Prince Louis of Baden defeats the Turks at in Hungary was in contemplation, and com
Salenckemen Aug. 19, 1691 munications took place between Louis Napo
Prince Eugene defeats them at Zenta Sept. 11, lf^y leon and Kossuth; which circumstances it
The duke of Lorraine retakes Buda (which s>.e) . i636 is said led the emperor of Austria to accede
Peace of Carlowitz 1699 to tho pea :c of Villafranea so suddenly, and
Pragmatic sanction, authorising female succes shortly afterwards to promise many reforms
sion to the throne 1722-3 and to grant more liberty to tho protoatants
Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey at the in Hungary .... Aug.-Oct. 1S59
peace of Belgrade 1739 Recall of archduke Albert, general Beucdek
Tho Hungarians enthusiastically support Maria- appointed governor .... April, xS6o
Theresa against France and Bavaria . 1740 Demand for restoration of the old constitu
The protectants permitted to have churches In tion ; re union of tho Banat and Voivodina
Hungary 1784 with Hungary, ic Oct. ,,
Independence of Hungary guaranteed . . 1790 Chiuter restoring the old constitution promised,
Hungarian academy established . . . . 1825 Oct. 20, „
The people, some timo discontented with their Schmerling appointed minister . . Dec. 13 „
Austrian rulers, at length break out into a National conference at Gran . Dec. ,,
formidable rebellion 1848 Demand for tho constitution of 1848 . . Jan. 1861
Murder at Pcsth of the recently appointed mili Tho craporor promulgates a new liberal consti
tary governor, count Lamberg, by a mob ; tution for the empire . . , Feb. 26,
tho Hungarian diet appoint a provisional Which does not satisfy the Hungarians, March, „
government under Kossuth and Batthyany, Hungarian diet opened . . . April 6,
Sept 28 ; the Hungarians defeat the Ban of Meeting of tho Reichsrath at Vienna : no depu
Croatia Sept. 29, „ ties present from Hungaryor Croatia April 29, „
The diet denounces as traitors all who acknow Count Teleki (see Austria, i860) found dead in
ledge the emperor of Austria as king of his bed at Pesth : intense excitement May 8, „
Hungary Dec. 8, „ Tho diet votes an address to the emperor, desir
The insurgents defeated by the Austrians at ing restoration of the old constitution July 5, „
Szaikszo Dec. ar, ,, The military begin to levy the taxes . July, ,,
They are defeated at Mohr by the ban Jcllachieh, Imperial rescript refusing the entire independ
Dec. 29, M ence of Hungary, July 21 ; the diet protests,
Buda-Pesth taken by WindischgrUtz . Jan. 5, 1849 Aug. 20; and is dissolved . . Aug. 21, „
Bern defeats the Austrians at Hermannstadt, The archbishop of Gran, the primate, indig
Jan. 21 ,, nantly protests against tho act of the imperial
Hungary declares itself a free state ; Kossuth government 8ept.-Oct.
supreme governor . . . April, 14, ,, He is summoned to Vienna, but stands firm,
Tho Hungarians defeat tho Imperialists before Oct. 25, „
Gran April 18, „ The magistrates In the comitat at Pesth resign ;
March of the Russian army through Gallicia to military government established ; passive
assist the Austrians . . May 1, ,, resistance of the nobility . Dec.
The Austro-Russian troops defeat the Hunga Amnesty declared for political offences, and ces
rians, who retreat across the Waag . June ax, ,, sation of prosecutions . . . Nov. 19, 1862
Battle of Acs between the Hungarians and Newspapers confiscated for publishing seditious
Austrians July 10, „ speeches March 29, 1863
Hungarians defeat Jellachich . . July 14, ,, Tho emperor visits Buda-Pesth ; well received ;
The Hungarians defeated by the Russians ; G6r- inauguration of a new policy ; the rights of
goy retroats after three days" battle July 15, ,t Hungary to be restored . . Juno 6-9, 1865
Battle before Komorn, between tho insurgents Imperial rescript, abolishing the representa
and the Austro-Russian army . July 16, ,, tive constitution of tho umpire, with the
Tho insurgents under Bern enter Moldavia, view of restoring Independence of Hungary,
July 23, „ &c Sept. ai,
Again defeated by the Russians . July 31, ,, The Dcak party demand restoration of the
Utter defeat of "the Hungarian army before monarchy, with a responsible government,
Temeswar by gen. Hayuau . Aug. 10, ,, Nov. u, „
SOVEItEIGNS OF HUNGARY.
097- St.hoStephen, duke of Hungary (son of Geisa) ; 1038. Peter, the German : doposcd.
establishes the Roman Catholic religion 1041. Aba or^wen.
(1000). and receives from the pope the title 1044. Peter, again : again deposed, and his eyos put
of Apostolic King, still borne by the emperor out.
of Austria, as king of Hungary. Andrew I. deposed.
HUX 3j S IIUS
HUNGARY, continued.
1061. Bela I. : killed by the fall of a ruinous tower. 1490. Ladislas VI. king of Bohemia: the emperor
1064. Salamon, son of Andrew. Maximilian 1 tid claim to both kingdoms.
1075. Geisa I. Hon of Bela. 1516. Louis II. of Hungary (I. of Bohemia): loses
1077. Ladislas I. surnamed tho Pious. his life at the battle of Mo-bats.
1095. Coloman, son oi Geisa. /"John Zapolski, waivode of Transylvania,
1114. Stephen II. Burnarued Thunder. elected by the Hungarians, and supported
113:. Bela II. : had his eyes put out. by the sultan Solyman ; by treaty with
1141. Geisa II. : succeeded by his son, 1526. ^ Ferdinand, he founds the principality of
1161. Stephen III. : and Stephen IV. (anarchy). Transylvania, 1536.
1 1 73. Bela III. : succeeded by his son, Ferdinand I king of Bohemia, brother to the
j 196. limeric : succeeded by his son, „ emperor Charles V. ; rival kings.
1204. Ladislas II. ; reigned six months only. 1536. Ferdinand alone : elected emperor of Germany
1205. Andrew II. sou of Bela III. in 1558.
1235. Bela IV. 1 561. Maximilian.son of Ferdinand ;emperorin 1564.
1270. Stephen IV. (or V.) his son. T573. Rudolph, son of Maximilian ; omperor in 1576.
1272. Ladislas III. : killed. 1609. Matthias II. his brother ; emperor in 1612.
1290. Andrew III. surnamed tho Venetian, son-in- 1619. Ferdinand II. his cousin, emperor.
law of Rodulph of llapsburg, emperor of 1625. Ferdinand III. son of the preceding ; cmperor
Germany. in 1637.
1 301. Charobert, or Charles-Itobcrt (of Anjou) ; (com 1647. Ferdinand IV. ; died in 1654, throe years before
petitors—WencesLis of Bohemia, aud Utho his father.
of Bavaria, who give way to him, 1309). 1655. Leopold I. son of Ferdinand III. ; emperor in
1342. Louis I. the Great ; elected king of Poland in 1658.
1370. 1687. Joseph I. his son : emperor in 1705.
1382. Mary, called Kinj Mary, daughter of Louis the 1711. Charles VI. (of Germany;, brother of Joseph.
Great. and nominal king of Spain, succeeded by his
1387. Mary and hor consort Sigismond : the latter daughter,
bocanio king of Bohemia, and was elected 1740. Maria-Theresa, empress ; survived hor consort,
emperor in 1410. Francis I., emperor, from 1765 until 1780.
1392. Sigismond alone (on the death of Mary). Sec (ii'Mumy.
1437. Albert, duke of Austria; married Elizabeth, 17S0. Joseph II. her sou, emperor in 1765 : succeeded
daughter of Sigismond, and obtains the to Hungary on the death of his mother.
thrones of Hungary,Bohemia,aud Germany ; 1790. Leopold II. brother of Joseph II., emperor:
dies suddenly. succeeded by his son,
1439. Elizabeth alone : ehe marries 1792. Francis I. (Francis II. as emperor of Ger
1440. Ladislas IV. king of Poland, of which kingdom many) : In 1804 be became emperor of
ho was Ladislas VI. : slain at Varna. Austria only.
1444. fInterregnum ] 1835. Ferdinand V. son of Francis : Ferdinand I. as
1445. John Hunniados, regent emperor of Austria.
1458. Ladislas V. posthumous eon of Albert: 1848. Francis-Joseph, nephow of the preceding.
poisoned. succeeded on the abdication of his uncle,
,, Matthias-Corvinus, sou of Ilunniadcs, an able Dec. 2, 1848. The i-resent king of Hungary
sovereign. and emperor of Austria.
HUNGERFORD BRIDGE,* over tho Thames from Hungerford-stairs to the Belvedere-
road, Lambeth, opened May r, 1845, was taken down in July, 1862, to make way for the
Charing Cross railway-bridge, and transferred to Clifton {which sec). The market (opened
in July, 1833) was removed at the same time.
HUN'S, a race of warlike Asiatics, .said to have conquered China, about 210 B.C., and to
have been expelled therefrom about a.d. 90. They invaded Hungary about 376, and drove
out the Goths. Marching westward, under Attila, they were thoroughly beaten at Chalons
by the consul Aetius, 451. See AUxla.
HUNTING : an ancient pastime. The "Bokys of Hawking and Huntyng," by Dame
Julyana Barnes, was printed at St. Albans, 14S6.
HUSSARS, light cavalry in Poland and Hungary, about 1600 : and as they were more
fitted for a hasty enterprise than a set battle, they arc supposed to have taken their name
from the huzzas or shout they made at their first onset. They were generally opposed to the
Turkish horse, "and were oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers and other wild beasts
hanging on their backs against bad weather, and wore fur caps, with a cock's feather."
Partlon, Hussars became the name of a British force in the last century (1759), very
differently attired.
HUSSITES. After the death of Husa,f many of his followers took up arms, in 1419,
* It was 14 feet wide, and 1342 feet long ; the length of the central span, between the two piers, 676
feet ; the height of the two towers 55 feet above tho foot way, and Ss above high water ; the piers were in
the Italian style, with the chains passing through the attic of each. The cost of the masonry was 60,000/. ;
of the ironwork, exceeding 700 tons fn weight, i-j,ooqL ; of the approaches, 13,000?. ; total 103,245/. Archi
tect, I. K. 11runel.
f The clergy having instigated the po]>e to issue a bull against heretics, John Huss (born in Bohemia
ilJ 1 373)) a zealous preacher of the Reformation, was cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance,
II us 379 II VI)
and formed a political party under John Ziska, and burnt the city of Tabor. They defeated
the emperor Sigismund several times, 1420-22 : but after being worsted in 1434, at Bomisch-
brod, they entered into negotiations, which ended in the Compact of Prague. They were
ngain defeated by Albert of Austria in 1438. The pacilic portion of the Hussites existed in
the time of Luther, and were called " Bohemian Brethren."
HUSTINGS (said to be derived from House Court, an assembly among the Anglo-Saxons),
.111 ancient court of London, being its supreme court of judicature, as the court of common
council is of legislature. The court of Ihistyngs was granted to the city of London, to be
holdcn and kept weekly, by Edward the Confessor, 1052. "Winchester, Lincoln, York, Sc.,
were also granted Hustings courts.
HUTCHINSONIANS included many eminent clergy, who did not form any sect, but
held the opinions of John Hutchinson, of Yorkshire ; they rejected the Newtonian system,
and contended that the scriptures contain a complete system of natural philosophy. His
work, "Moses' Prineipia," was published in 1724. He derived all tilings from the air,
w hence he said proceeded fire, light, and spirit, —typas of the Trinity. In 17 12 he invented
a time-piece for finding the longitude, and died in 1737.
HYDE PARK, AV. (London), the ancient manor of Hyde, belonging to the abbey of
"Westminster, became crown property at the dissolution, 1539. It was sold by parliament
in 1652 ; but was resumed by the king at the restoration in 1661. It comprises about 394
acres, with a large winding sheet of water, called the Serpentine. There are eight entrances.
Colossal statue of Achilles, cast from cannon lord Robert Grosvcnor, which was eventually
taken in the battles of Salamanca, Vittoria, withdrawn Sundiys, June 25, and July 1 <fc 8, 1855
Toulouse, and Waterloo, and inscril>ed to Riotous meetings hold here, on account of tao
" Arthur, Duke of Wellington, and his bravo high price of bread Sundays, Oct. 14, 21, 28, ,,
companions in arms, by their countrywomen," Democratic meetings on tho Reform question,
erected on June 18, 1S22 March, 1859
Hyde Park Comer Entranco erected . . . 1828 The queen reviewed 18,450 volunteers June 23, i860
Marble Arch from Buckingham Palace set up at Great meeting ofadmirers of Garibaldi, Sept. 28 ;
Cumberland Gate . . . . March 20. 1851 who are violently attacked by the Irish ;
Crystal Palace erected for the exhibition of 1851 many persons wounded . . . Oct. 5, 1862
lMrturbancos in consequence of a Sunday bill Public meetings in the park henceforth pro- *
having been brought before parliament by hibited Oct. 9, ,,
I.
IAMBIC VERSE. Iambe, an attendant of Mctanira, wife of Celeus, king of Sparta,
when trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was travelling over Attica in quest of her
daughter Proserpine, entertained her with jokes, stories, and poetical effusions ; and from
her, free and satirical verses have been called Iambics. Apollodorus. Iambic verses were
first written about 700 B. a, by Archilochus, who had courted Neobule, tho daughter of
Lycambes ; but after a promise of marriage the father preferred another suitor, richer than
the poet ; whereupon Archilochus wrote so bitter a satire on the old man's avarice, that ho
hanged himself. Herodotus.
IBERIA. See Georgia.
ICE. Galileo was the first to observe ice to be lighter than the water which composed
it, and therefore to float : about 1597'* See Congelation, where is noticed the ice-making
machines of Harrison and of Siebe. In 1 841 there were sixteen companies in Boston, U.S.,
engaged in exporting ice, brought from Wenham, Fresh, and Spy Ponds, about 18 miles
from that city. The trade was begun by Mr. Tudor in 1806. 156,540 tons were sent from
Boston alone in 1854. In New York, in 1855, 305,00x3 tons were stored up, of which 20,000
were for exportation.
ICELAND (North Sea), discovered by Norwegian chiefs, about 861 ; according to some
accounts, it had been previously visited by a Scandinavian pirate. It was peopled by the
Norwegians in 874, and has belonged to Denmark since 1397. Christianity was introduced
about 996 ; and protestantism about 1551.T
"ICH DIEN," I serve, the motto under the plume of ostrich feathers found in the
helmet of the king of Bohemia after he was slain at the battle of Crcssy, at which he served
as a volunteer in the French army, Aug. 26, 1346. Edward the Black Prince, in veneration
of his father, Edward III., who commanded that day, though the prince won the battle,
adopted this motto, which has ever since been borne with the feathers, by the heirs to tho
crown of England ; but not as prince of Wales, which many have erroneously maintained.
* Rfnidation and other properties, exhibited by professor Faraday, in 1850. are still tho subject of inves
tigation by eminent physicists of the present day, especially Tyndall, J. D. Forbes, and Wm. Thomson.
t In 1 784- 5. there occurred here the most tremendous volcanic eruption on record ; it was accompanied
by violent wind and rain, and a darkness of the heavens ; and it was faired that the island would fall to
pieces. Thrco fire-spouts broke otit on Mount Skapta, which, after rising to ft considerable height in tho
air, formed a torrent of red-hot lava that flowed for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, in
a broken breadth of nearly 12 miles ; 12 rivers were dried up ; 21 villages totally overwhelmed by fire or
water ; and 34 others were materially injured. Sec Ittcla.
ICH 3S1 ILL
ICHNOLOGY, the science of footprints, treats of the impressions made in mud or sand
by the, animals of former ages. Dr. Duncan first discovered the footprints of a tortoise in
the sandstone of Annandale, in 1828 ; since then numerous discoveries have been made by
Owen, Lyell, Huxley, and others.
ICHTHYOLOGY, the science of fish. Eminent writers are "Willoughby, Kay, Valen
ciennes, Cuvier, Owen, Agassiz, &c. Yarrell's "British Fishes" (1836-59) is a classical
work. See Fish.
ICONIUM (Syria). Here Paul and Barnabas preached, 38. Soliman the Seljulc founded
a kingdom here in 1074, which lasted till 1307, when it was conquered by the Turks. It had
been subdued by the Crusaders in 1097 and 1190. See Konieh.
ICONOCLASTS (image-breakers). The controversy respecting images (which had been
introduced into churches for popular instruction about 300) was begun about 726, and occa
sioned many insurrections in the Eastern Empire. Leo Isauricus published two edicts for
demolishing images in churches in that year, and enforced them with great rigour in 736.
The defenders of images were again persecuted in 752 and 761, when Constantine forbade
his subjects becoming monks. The worship of images was restored by Irene in 780. This
schism was the occasion of the second council of Nice, 787. Theophilus banished all the
painters and statuaries from the Eastern Empire, 832. The Iconoclasts were finally excom
municated in S69. This controversy led to the separation of the Greek and Latin churches.
In the contests between the Iconoclasts and their opponents thousands perished. —Many
images in churches were destroyed in England and Scotland during the Reformation and the
Civil war, 1641-8.
IDAHO, a northern "territory" of the United States of North America, was organised
as such on March 3, 1863.
IDES, in the Roman calendar, the thirteenth day of each month, except in March, May,
July, and October, in which it was the fifteenth day ; in these four it was six days before
the nones, and in the other months four days. The Ides of March was the day on which
Julius Ceesar was assassinated in the senate houso by Brutus, Cassius, Casea, and other
conspirator's, 44 B.C.
IDIOTS. About 1855 there were in England, exclusively of lunatics, pauper idiots, or
idiots protected in national institutions, males, 3372 ; females, 3893 ; total, 7265. For
laws relating to idiots, see Lunacy. The Idiot Asylum at Earlswood, near Reigate, Surrey,
began in 1 847.
IDOLS. The public worship of idols was introduced by Ninus, king of Assyria, 2059 B. c.
Vossius. Images are mentioned in Gen. xxxi. 19, 30, 1739 B.c. The Jews frequently deserted
the worship of God for idols till their captivity, 588 b.o. Constantine, emperor of Roine,
ordered all the heathen temples to be destroyed, and all sacrifices to cease, a.d. 330.
Dufrcsnoy. The Saxons re-established idolatry in 473. It gave way in Britain, after the
coming of Augustin, 599. See Iconoclasts, Week.
IDSTEDT (N. Germany). Here the insurgent army of Holstein and Schleswig was
defeated by the Danes, July 25, 1850.
IDUMjEA, the country of the Edomites, the descendants of Esau, the brother of Jacob ;
see Gen. xxxvi., Josh. xxiv. 4.
The Edomitesprevent the Israelites from passing ! They join the Chaldajans against Judah, and
through their country .... B.C. 1453 I are anathematized in Psalm exxxvii. about 570
They are subjugated by David . . . . 1040 John Hyrcauus, the Muccabco, subjugateB and
Thoy revolt against Ahaziah, 893 ; and are se- 1 endeavours Uj incorporate them with the Jews 125
vcrcly defoated by Amaziab. .... 827 Herod the Great, sou 01 Antipater au Indumiean,
I king of Judrca 40
ILIUM (Asia Minor). A city was built here by Dardauus, and called Dardania, 1480 B.C.
Troy ( which see"!, another city, was founded by Troas, about 1341 B.C. ; andllus, his successor,
called the country Ilium.
ILLINOIS, a western state of North America, was settled in 1749, and admitted into the
Union Dec. 3, 1818. Capital, Springfield.
ILLUMINATED BOOKS. The practice of adopting ornaments, drawings, and emble
matical figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of great antiquity. Varro wrote the
ILL 3S2 IMP
lives of 700 illustrious Romans, which he embellished with their likenesses, about 70 B.C.
Plin. Nat. Ills!. Some beautiful missals and other works were printed in the 15th and 16th
centuries, et seq. ; and fine imitations have lately appeared.
ILLUM1NATI, heretics who sprang up in Spain, where they were called Alumbradoe.
about 1575. After their suppression in Spain, they appeared in France. One of their
leaders was friar Anthony Buchet Their chief doctrine was that they obtained grace and
perfection by their sublime manner of prayer. A secret society bearing this name, opposed
to tyranny and priestcraft, was founded at Ingoldstadt, Bavaria, by Dr. Adam Weishaupt,
in May, 1776, and was suppressed in 1784-5.
ILLUSTRATED LOUDON NEWS, the earliest publication of the kind, established by
Mr. Herbert Ingram, M.P., first appeared 011 May 14, 1842. Mr. Ingram was drowned in
Lake Michigan Sept. 8, i860.
ILLYRIA (now Dalmatia, Croatia, and Bosnia), after several wars (from 230 B.C.) wns
made a Roman province, 167 B.C. In 1809 Napoleon I. gave the name of Illyrian provinces
to Carniola, Dalmatia, and other provinces, then part of the French empire, now Carinthia,
Carniola, &c.
IMAGE WORSHIP. See Iconoclasts.
IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. Sec Conception.
IMMORTALS (Greek, atlianatoi), the flower of the Persian army, limited to 10,000 in
number, and recruited from the nobility alone, about 500 B.C. The name was also given to
the body-guard of the emperors at Constantinople in the 4th and 5th centuries.
IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment by the commons house of parliament, ami
the first of a lord chancellor, Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk, was in 1386. By statute
12 St, 13 Will. & Mary it was enacted that no pardon under the great seal shall be pleaded to
an impeachment by the commons in parliament, 1700.
Impeachment of Warren Ilastings, Feb. 13, 1788, to Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of
April 25, 1795 : an acquittal. pains and penalties, before the house of lords,
Impeachniont of lord Melville, April 29 ; acquittal, commenced Aug. 16 ; Mr. Brougham entered on
Juno 12, 1806. her majesty's defence, Oct. 3 : and the Last debate
Inquiry into the charges preferred by colonel Wardlo on the bill took place Nov. 10, 1820. See Quern
against the duke of York, Jan. 27 to March 20, Caroline.
1 809 : acquittal.
IMPERIAL GUARD of France, was created by Napoleon from the Guard of the Con
vention, the Directory, and the Consulate, when he became emperor in 1804. It consisted
at first of 9775 men, but was afterwards enlarged. It was subdivided in 1809 into the old
and young guard. In Jan. 1814, it numbered 102,706. It was dissolved by Louis XVIII.
in 1S15, but revived by Napoleon III. in 1854. It took part in the Crimean war in 1855.
IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT. Sec Commons, Lords, Parliament, and Reform,
IMPORTS of Merchandise. The vast progressive increase of our commercial inter
course with other countries :—
VALUE OF IMPORTS IXTO GREAT BRITAIN', FROM ALL TARTS OF THE WORLD.
In 1710 . ■ £4-753.777 In 1820 . . . .£36,514,564 In 1856 ■ £'72.5-M.i.-i
1750 • 7.289,582 1830 . , . 46,245,241 ,857 .. 179,182.355
187.844.4j'
1775 . 14.815,855 1840 . . . . 62,004,000 ■8=,<j
1 Sm> . 30,570,605 1845 . . . 8s,28r,95S lS6t . 317,455,024
1810 ■ 4I.136.13S 1850 . . . . 95,252,084 1864 ■ =74,863,924
1851 . . . 103,579,582
IMPOSTORS. The names and pretensions of religious, political, and other impostors
would fill a volume ; they have been of every country, of every age. The following arc
among the most extraordinary :—
Aldebert, a Gaul, who, in 743, pretended he had a George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, Rtyled
letter from the Redeem , which fell from heaven bimself tho son of God. sent into the world
at Jerusalem ; he sedn x-d multitudes to follow adopt children worthy uf heaven : he denied the
bim into woods and for *ts. and to live in imita- resurrection, preached against marriage, in favour
tion of John the Baptist Ile was condemned by of a community of women, and taught that the
a council at Rome in 74=: body only could be defiled by sin ; ho had mam-
Mahomet promulgated hi i creed, Bee Mdkome- followers ; died at Basle, 1556, promising to ri*c
taninra.
Gonzalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to bo the Otrefief, ina monk,
again three years.
angel Michael in 1159; he was burnt by the in of Ivan, czar of pretended to be Demetrius the son
Muscovy, whom tho usurper Boris
quisition in Spain in 1360. had put to death ; he* maintained that another
IMP 383 INC
IMPOSTORS, continued.
child had been subertitutcd in his placo : he wan seditious speeches against the queen and tho
supported by the arms of Poland ; his success prince, and also against tho mass and confession,
astonished the Russians, who invited him to the fur which she did penance.
throne, and delivered into his h;inds, VYodor, the William Hacker, a fanatic, personated our Saviour,
reigning czar, and all his family : his imposition and was executed fur blasphemy, 1591.
being discovered, he was assassinated in his palace, Valentine Greatrix, an Irish impostor, whopretended
t6o6. to cure all diseases by stroking the patient : his
Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused the Turks imposture deceived the credulous, and occasioned
and Jews a long time at Constantinople and other very warm disputes in Ireland and England about
places, by personating our Saviour, 1666. 1666. Ro\ le and Flanisteod believed in him.
Dr. Titus Oates. 8eo (kites.
IMPOSTORS EXTRAORDINARY IN BRITISH HISTORY. Robert Young, a prisoner in Newgate-, forged the
A man pretending to bo the Messiah, and a woman hands of the eails of Marlborough, Salisbury, and
assuming to bo the Virgin Mary, were burnt. 1222. other nobility, to a pretended association for re
In 1487, Lambert Sininel, tutored by Richard Simon, storing king James : the lords were imprisoned,
a priest, supported by the duke of Uuryundy, but tho imposture being detected, Young was fined
personated the earl of Warwick. Simnel's army 1000/. , and put in the pillory, 1692. He was after
was defeated by Henry VII., and he was made a wards banged for coining.
scullion in the king's kitchen. Three French refugees pretend to be prophets, and
For Perkin Warbcck's imposture in 1492, see War- raise tumults ; convicted as impostors, Nov. 1707.
btck. Mary Tofts of Godalrning, by pretending she bred
Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy Maid of Kent, rabbits within her, so imposed upon many persons
spirited up to hinder the Reformation, by pretend famong others, Mr. St. Andre, surgeon to the
ing to inspirations from heaven, foretelling that king), thaf they espoused her cauBe, 1726.
the king would have an curly and violent death if The Cock-lane ghost imposture by William Parsons,
he divorced Catherine of Spain, and married Anno Ins wife, and daughter, 1762. See Cock-laiu Ghost.
Boleyn. She and her.coufedcrates were hanged at Johanna Southcote, who proclaimed her conception
Tyburn, 1534. of the Messiah, and had a multitude of followers ;
In 1553 (first year of Mary's reign, after her marriage she died, Dec. 27, 1814.
with Philip of Spain), Elizabeth Croft, a girl 18 W. Thorn. Sec Thomite*.
years of ago, was secreted in a wall, and with a Joseph Smith. See MormoniUs.
whistle, made for tho purpose, uttered many
IMPRESSMENT of Seamen, affirmed by sir M. Foster to be of ancient practice, The
tute 2 Rich. II. speaks of impressment as a matter well known, 1378. The firs
statute first com
mission for it was issued 29 Kdw. 111. 1355. Pressing, either for the sea or land service,
declared to he illegal by the British parliament, Dec. 1641. impressment was not resorted
to in the Russian war, 1854-5.
IMPRISONMENT for DEBT. Sec Arrests, Debtors, and Fcrrars' Arrest
IMPROPRIATION (applying ecclesiastical property to lay purposes). On the suppression
of abbeys in 1539, their incomes from the great tithes were distributed among bis courtiers
by Henry VIII. ; and their successors constitute 7597 lay impropriators.
INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was death by the Saxon laws and Gothic
constitutions. In tho reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to death. This crime was
made high treason by statute 8 Hen. VI. 1429 ; and it was denied benefit of clergy, 21
Hen. VIII. 1528. Great incendiary fires commenced in and about Kent, in August, 1830;
and in Suffolk and other counties since. The punishment of death was remitted, except in
special cases, in 1827. The acts relating to arson were amended in 1837 and 1844.
INCH. Seo Standard. The length was defined in 1824 by the declaration by act of
parliament, that 39*13929 inches is the length of a seconds pendulum in the latitude of
London, vibrating in vacuo at the sea level, at the temperature of 620 Fahrenheit.
INCOME TAX. In 1 5 12, parliament granted a subsidy of two-fifteenths from the
commons, and two-tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war with France.
Jlajrin. In 1798, Mr. Pitt proposed and carried, amid great opposition, increased taxes
"as an aid for the prosecution of the war" with France. On Jan. 9, 1799, this act was
repealed, and graduated duties on income imposed, beginning with 60/. per annum. On
Aug. II, 1803, was passed the "property tax," which levied a rate of 5 per cent, on
all incomes above 150/. and lower rates on smaller incomes. In 1S05, it was increased to 64
per cent. ; and in 1806, was raised to 10 per cent., embracing the dividends at the bank. It
produced—
In tSoo £5.716,572 In 1805 £5.937.500 In 1808 . £16,548,985
In 1S04 4,650,000 In 1806 11,500,00c In 1815 • M.978,557
The tax produced from lands, houses, rcntnges, &c, 3,831.088?. ; and salaries and pensions, 1,174,4567.
8,657,937*. ; from funded and stock properties, RepeaUJed March, 1816.
Zp885,505/. ; the profits and gains of trade, Sir Robert reel's bill imposing the present tax at a
INC 354 IND
INCOME TAX, continued.
rate of in the pound (2I. 18*. 4J. •per cent.) per tax on incomes, derived from lands, tenement;!,
vnn. to subsist for three years, pashed June 22, &c., raised from 3}'/. to for England, and
from z\U. to 4</. for Scotland and Ireland, Julv,
It produced ubont 5,350,000/- a-year ; and enabled sir 1859.
Robert Pool to repeal about 12,000,000/. of indirect The ussessmcnt on incomes raised—to those above
taxes. ioo/. to yd. ; to those above 150/. to lod.
Renewed (or tbree years in March, 1845 : and March, [The object of the increase was to provide for a
1848." deficiency occasioned by extra expenditure for de
Continued for one year in 1851 and 1852. fending the country, April, i860.]
The tax of jd. limited to seven years (till 1S60); to A committee to inquire into the working of the
be gradually reduced in amount ; but all incomes income tax appointed, Feb. 14, 1861.
from toot, to 150/. made liable to 5<f. in the pound Reduction of the last assessment from 71I. to 6rf.,
for all that period : the tax also extended to and from io</. to gd. for three-quarters of the
Ireland, June, 1853. financial year 1861-2.
In consequence of the Crimean war, tho rate was The rates of 01. and <W. to continue, April 1E62.
doubled, 1854, 14(1. The rate of yd. on all chargeable incomes : 3^/. on
sd. more added to tho tax on incomes alwvo 150/., farms, &c., in England ; and 2jd. in Scotland and
and ijrf. on those between 100/. and 150/.; Iho Ireland. Incomes under, tool, a-year exempted ;
former being is. 4c/., the latter njr/. in tho pound, those above 100/. and under 200/. allowed an
1855. abatement on 60/., June 8, 1863.
The former assessment reduced to jd.t tho Litter to The rate of od. on chargeable incomes, with some
5''-. l857- exemptions and abatement. May 13, 1864.
Both become stf., 1858. The rate of 4<f. on chargeable incomes, with some
The former raised to ail, the latter to 63d. ; and the exemptions and abatement. May, 1865.
PRODUCE OF THE INCOME TAX.
1843 .... £571,035 1856 (March 31) . . £15,070,958 1861 (March 31) . . £10,923,186
'844 5. '9".597 1857 ,lt.o8o,933 1862 ,, ... 10,365,000
1846 .... 5-395.391 1858 „ . . 11,586,115 1863 „ . . 10,567,000
1852 5.509.637 1859 „ ... 6,683,587 1864 ,, ... 9,084.000
1855 (March 31) . . 10,642,621 1860 „ . 9,596,106 1865 „ . . 7,958,000
INCUMBERED ESTATES. See Encumbered Estates.
INCURABLES. The Royal Hospital for incurables, founded by Dr. Andrew Reed, at
Carshalton in Surrey, in 1850, has siuce been removed to Putney.
INDEMNITY BILL, by which the minister of the crown or the government generally,
is relieved from the responsibility of measures adopted in extreme and urgent cases, without
the previous sanction of parliament. One was passed April 19, 1801 ; another to indemnify
ministers against their acts during the suspension of the Habeas Corpus act, wns carried in
the commons (principal divisions, 190 to 64) ; and in the lords (93 to 27) ; March 10, 1818.
In 1848 and 1857, bills of indemnity were passed for the suspension of the Bank Charter
act by the ministry. See Oblivion. An indemnity bill is passed at the end of every session
of parliament for persons who transgress through ignorance of the law. The practice began
in 17 15.
INDEPENDENTS, or Congbegationalists, hold that each church or congregation is
independent of all others, and may govern itself in religious matters. They say there is no
absolute occasion for synods or councils, whose resolutions may be taken to be wise and
prudent advice, but not as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; they aflirm that one church
may advise or reprove another, but has no authority to excommunicate or censure. Robert
Brown preached these views in 15S5, but, after 32 imprisonments, he eventually conformed
to the Established Church. A church was formed in London in 1593, when there were
20,000 Independents. They were driven by persecution to Holland, where they formed
several churches ; that at Leydcn was under Mr. Robinson, often regarded ns the author
of Independency. In 1616 Henry Jacobs returned to England and founded a meeting-house.
Cromwell, who was himself of their views, obtained them toleration, in opposition to the
Presbyterians. The Independents published an epitome of their faith, drawn up at a con
ference at the Savoy, in 1658 ; and the Congregational Union of England and Wales, formed
in 1S31, published their "Declaration of Faith, Order, and Discipline," in 1833. In 1851,
they had 3244 chapels for 1,067,760 persons in England and Vales. See WorsJiip. The
first Independents in Scotland were the Glasites, which sec. The first Independent church
in America was founded by John Robinson, at Plymouth, New England, in 1620.
INDEX EXPURGATORIUS, n catalogue of the books prohibited by tho church of
Rome, first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of Trent, 1559. The Index
* Largo meetings assembled in Tra*algar-square, London, March 6, 7, 1848 (for the ostensible purpese
of opposing the Income Tax} ; rioting ensued, which was soon quelled.
IND 335 IND
of heretical books, hy which the reading of the Scriptures was forbidden (with certain
exceptions) to the laity, was confirmed by a bull of pope Clement VIII. in 1595. Most of
the celebrated works of France, Spain, Germany, and England, are prohibited. On
June 25, 1864, Hugo's "Les Miserables" and many other books were added to the number.
INDIA or HINDOSTAN. The Hindoo histories ascribe their origin to a period ages
before the ordinary chronologies. A race of kings is mentioned as reigning 2300 B.C., and
Buddhism is said to have been introduced 956 B.C. Many ancient nations, particularly the
Tyrians and Egyptians, carried on much commerce with India. It was conquered by Darius
Hystaspes, who formed an Indian satrapy, in 512 B.C., and by Alexander, 327 B.C., and sub
sequently the intercourse between India and the Roman empire was much increased. The
authentic history of Hindostan is reckoned to commence with the conquests of Mahmud
Ghazni, A. p. 1004. Renncll. See Bengal, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, and Oudc, for further
details.* For the new route to India, see Waghorn.
Irruption of the Mahometans, under Mahmud died in 1837, and was succeeded by the last
Ghazni about 1004 king of Delhi (his sou), who received a pen
Extinction of the house of Ghazni, 1186; rule sion of about 125,000*. per annum. He joined
of the slave-kings of Delhi, 1206-1288 ; of the the mutiny in 1857 ; was tried in 1858, and
Khilgisand house of Toghlak, 1288-1412; of transported to Rangoon ; died there, Nov. 1 r,
the Syuds, 1412-50 ; of the house of Lodi, 1450-1526 1862.]
Patna, or Afghan empire, founded . . . 1205 BRITISH POWER IN INDIA.
Invasion of Genghis Khan, one of the most Attempt made to reach India by the north-east
bloody conquerors of the world; 14,000,000 and north-west passages 1528
of the human race perish by his sword under Sir Francis Drake's expedition . . 1579
the pretence of establishing the worship of Levant company make a land expedition to
one god, 1222 : he died 1237 India 1589
The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct of the First adventure from England . . . . 1591
celebrated Timour, or Tamerlane, invade First charter to the London company of mer
Hindostan, and take Delhi ; defeat the Indian chants. (See India Company.) . . 1600
r army,
100,0001397; people Hindostan, and butcher1398-9 Factories
of its conquer established at Surat . . . . 1612
Sir Thomas Roe, first English ambassador,
The pasage to India discovered by Vasco de arrives 1615
Gama 1497 Madras made a presidency 1652
The first European settlement (Portuguese) Bombay becomos an English possession . . 1662
established by him at Cochin (3. coast) . . 1502 French company established 1664
Conquest of the country completed by the They settle at Pondicherry .... 1668
sultan Baber, founder of the Mogul empire . 1525 Calcutta purchased 1698
Reign of his son Humayun .... 1530-56 War between the English and French in India 1746-9
Reign of the illustrious Akbar, the greatest English besiege Pondicherry, the seat of the
prince of Hindostan .... 1 556-1605 French Government, without success . . 1748
Arrival of the English in India .... 1589 Clive takes Arcot 1751
Reign of Jehanghir 1605-27 Peace made 1754
Reign of Shah Jehan 1627-58 Severndroog and other strongholds of the pirate
Scvajee establishes the Mahratta power . 1660-80 Angria taken .... Feb. 11, 1756
Aurungzebe dethrones his father : his dominions Capture of Calcutta by Surajah Dowla. (See
extend from 10 to 35 degrees in latitude, and Calcutta and Blackholt) . . June, „
nearly as much in longitude, and his reveuuo Calcutta retaken by Clive ; he defeats the
amounts to 32,000,000^. sterling . 1658-170 Soubah at Plassey . . Juno 20, 1757
Shah Alum succeeds Aurungzebe,
1 "* "lied.7 ; killed, 171 [Colonel Clive's force was but 3000 men, and
1707
Jehaunder Shah dethroned and kill! the Soubah's 50,000- By this victory he ac-j
Feruk Shere assassinated 1717 quired all Bengal, and numerous conquests
Invasion of the Persian Nadir Shah or Kouli followed. ]
Khan : at Delhi he orders a general massacre, Fort William, the strongest fort in India, built, „
and 150,000 persons perish; carries away French successful \inder Lally . . . 1758
treasure amounting to 125,000,000*. sterling, 1739 But lose nearly all their power . . . 1759
Mahomed Shah dies 1747 The French under Lally defeated by sir Eyro
Defeat of the last imperial army by the Rohillas, 1749 Cootc near Wandewash . . July 2, 1760
[The Mogul empirenow became merely nominal, Hyder Ali acquires the sovereignty of Mysore . 1761
distinct and independent sovereignties being Conquest of Patna .... Nov. 6, 1763
formed by numerous petty princes. The em Battle of Buxar (which see) . . . Oct. 23, 1764
perors were of no political consequence from The nabob becomes subject to the English . 1765
this period. In 1761, Shah Alum II. attacking Lord Clive obtains the Dewanny by an imperial
the English was defeated at Patna. In 1764, grant, which constitutes the company the
after the battle of Buxar, he was thrown upon receivers of the revenue of Bengal, Bahar,
the protection of the English, who established and Orissa, and gives the British tho virtual
him at Allahabad. After the victory at Delhi sovereignty of these countries Aug. 12,
in 1803, Ken- Lake restored the aged monarch Treaty with Nizam Ali : tho English obtain the
to a nominal sovereignty, which descended at Northern Circars . Nov. 12,. 1766
his death to his son, Akbar Shah. Akbar Ilydcr Ali ravages the Carnatic . Jan. 1769
• British India extends from 8s to 340 N. lat. and from 70" to 90" E. long, (exclusive of the Burmese
additions). The population is about 50 millions ; that of the whole peninsula about 1 76 millions. Cotton
was planted in 1839, and the tea-plant in 1834. Railways and the electric telegraph are being rapidly
constructed, and canals for irrigation. See Oavgts Canal. The Indian revenue in the year 1854-5 was
20,371,450*. Tho expenditure, 22,915, i6of. In 1858-9, the revenue was 36,060,788*. ; expenditure, 49,642,359/.
C 0
IND IND
INDIA, continued.
Frightful famine in Bengal * . . . 1770 Mutiny at Bnrrackporc, many sepoys killed,
Warren Hastings governor of Bengal, April 13, 1772 Nov. 1824
Treaty with Bhootan ... . 1774 General Campbell defeats tho Burmese near
India Bill : supreme court established. (See Proomo Dec. 25, 18*5
India Bills) 1773 Bhurtpore stormed by Combermere, Jan. 18, 1826
Accusations commence against Warren lias- Peaco with the Burmese . . Feb. 24, „
tings ; he is accused of taking a bribe from a [They pay 1.000,000/. sterling, and cede a great
concubine of Mecr Jaffier. (See J/a*tihy* ) extent of territory.]
May 30, 1775 Abolition of suttees, or the burning of widows.
Nuncomor, a Brahmin, accuses Warren Has (See Suttetti) Dec. 7, 1819
tings of receiving bribes . . March 11, 1776 Act opening the trade to India, and tea trade,
Is hanged for forgery . . . Aug. 5, „ A*c, to China, forming a new era iu British
Fondlcbcrry taken .... Oct. it, 1778 commerce Aug. 28, 1833
The strong fortress of Gwalior taken by Major Rajah of Coorg deposed ; Coorg annexed,
Popham Aug. 4, April 10, 1834
Hyder Ali overrun the Carnatic, and defeats Tho natives first admitted to the magistracy,
the British Sept. 10, 1780 May 1, „
He takes A root Oct. 31, „ The Nawab Shunsoodden put to death for the
Hyder Ali defeated by sir Eyre- Cootc. July i, 1781 murdcrof Mr. Frazer, British resident, Oct. 8, 1835
Warren Hastings accused of taking more bribes.
(See Chunar) .... Sept. 19, ,, AFORAtf WAR.
Bussy lands with a French detachment, March, 178a Proclamation against Doet Mahomed . Oct. t, 183S
War with Hyder Ali aided by the French . . „ The British occiipy Candahar . April 21, i83<>
Hyder Ali overthrown by Cooto . . June 2, ,, Battle of Ghiznce ; victory of sir John (now
Death of Hyder, and accession of his son, l<»rd) Keane. (See G'hizme) . . July 23,
Tippoo Saib Dec. 11, ,, Wade forces the Kbyber pass . . July 26. 1839,
Tippoo, who had taken Cuddaloro, now takes Shah Soujah restored to his sovereignty, and
» Dednore April 30, 1783 he and the British army enter Cabul, Aug. 7,
Pondicherry restored to the French, and Trm- English defeat Dost Mahomed . Oct. 18, 1840
comaleo to the Dutch ,, Kurrock Singh, king of Lahore, dies ; at his
Peace with Tippoo . . March n, 1784 funeral his successor is killed by accident,
War with Tippoo renewed 1790 and Dost Mahomed, next heir, surrenders to
Coniwallis defeats him at Arikera . May 15, 1791 England Nov. 5,
Bangalore taken. (See Bangalore) March 2:, „ General rising against the British at Cabul ;
Definitive treaty with Tippoo; his two eons sir Alexander Burnes and other officers mur
hostages .... March 19, 1792 dered Nov. 2, 1S41
Civil and criminal courts erected . . . 1793 Sir William Macnaghtcn treacherously assassi
Pondicherry again taken „ nated Dec. 25,
Tippoo's sons restored . March 29, 1794 The British under a convention evacuate Cabul,
First dispute with the Burmese; adjusted by placing lady Salo, &c, as hostages in the
general Erskine 1795 hands of Akbar Khan ; a dreadful massacre
Government of lord Mornington, afterwards ensues of about 26,000 men, women, and
marquess Welleslcy . . . May 17, 1798 children .... Jan. 6-13, 1842
Seringapatam stormed by general Bairn ; The Britinh evacuate Ghiznoe . March 6,
Tippoo Saib killed .... May 4, 1799 Sortie from Jellalabad ; general Pollock forces
Mysore divided June 22, „ the Kbyber pass .... April 5,
Victories of tho British ; the Carnatic con Ghiznee retaken by general Nott . Sept. 6,
quered 1800 General Pollock re-enters Cabul . Sept. 16,
The nabob of Furruckabad cedes his territories Lady Sale, Ac., are rescued by sir R. Shak-
to the English for a pension . June 4, 1802 speare, and arrive at general Pollock's camp,
JUakratta tear. Victories of sir Arthur Welleslcy Sept. 21,
and general Lake 1803 Cabul evacuated after destroying the fortifica
Wclleeley's first great victory, at Assayo, tions Oct, 12,
Sept. 23, „
Pondicherry (restored 1801) retaken . Dec. ,, RCINDE WAR.
War with Holkar 1804-5 Ameers defeated by sir Charles Napier at
Capturo of Bhurtpore, and complete defeat of Meanee Feb. 17, 1845
Holkar April 2, 1805 Scindo annexed to tho British empire ; sir
The marquess dies .... Oct. 5, „ Charles Napier governor . . . June,
The Mahratta chief, Scindiah, defeated by the
British ; treaty of peace . . Nov. 23, „ OWALTOR WAP.
Treaty with Holkar . . . Dec. 24, ,, Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar : tho
Sepoy mutiny at Velloro ; 800 executed, July, 1 806 strong fort of Gwalior, tho " Gibraltar of the
Cumoona surrenders . . . Nov. 21, 1807 East, taken Dec. 29, ,,
Mutiny at Seringapatam quelled Aug 23, 1809 Danish possessions in India purchased . . 1845
Act opening the trade to India . .July, 1813
War with N epaul 1814-15 SIKH WAR.*
Holkar defeated by sir T. Hislnp . Dec. ax, 1817 The Sikhs cross the Sutlcj river, and attack the
Pindaree tear. English successful . . 181 7- 18 British at Perozcpore . . . Dec. 14, ,>
Peace with Holkar .... Jan. 6, 1818 Sir H. Hardinge, after a long rapid march,
Murriufe war. The British take Rangoon, May 5, 1824 reaches Moodkoe ; the Sikhs (20,000) make
Lord Combemacro commands in India . . . an attack ; after a hard contest they retire,
Malacca ceded, and Sincapore purchased . . „ abandoning their guns (see Atoodkre), Dec. 18, „
* Runjeet Singh, long the ruler of the Sikhs and the Punjab, lived in amity with the British. After
his death, June 27, 1830, several of his successors (children and grandchildren) were in turn assassinated.
During the minority of his grandson Dhuleep Singh, the favourite of the Maha Ranee, Loll Singh, ruled ;
and finding the army ungovernable, sanctioned the unprovoked attack on the British, as given above.
IND 387 LNL>
INDIA, continued.
Battle of Ferozeshah (which re) . Dec. 21, 22, 1845 A British naval force, arrives before Rangoon,
Battle of Aliwal ; tho Sikhs defeated (see in the Burman empire, and commodore
AIitcal and Stttlrj) .... Jan. 28, 1846 Lambert allows the viceroy thirty-five days
Great battle of Sobraon ; the enemy defeated to obtain instructions from Ava . . Oct, 29, 1851
with immense loss (see Sobraon) . Feb. io, „ The viceroy of Rangoon interdicts communica
Citadel of Lahore occupied by sir Hugh Gough, tion between tho shore and the British ships
and the war terminates . . . Feb. 20, t, of war ; and erects batteries to prevent their
Sir R. Sale dies of hia wounds received at departure Jan. 4, 1852
Moodkee (Dee. 18, 1845) . . Feb. 23, „ [Commodore Lambert blockades tho Irawaddy ;
The governor-general and sir Hugh Gough arc the Fox, Hermes, <fec, attacked by the bat
raised to the peerage, as viscount Hardingc teries, destroy the fortifications, and kill
and baron Gough, and receive the thanks of nearly 300 of the enemy.]
parliament and of the East India company, Martaban (April 5), Rangoon (April 14), and
March 2, 6, „ Bassein, stormed by the British . May 19,
Treaty of Lahore signed . . March 9, „ Pegu captured, afterwards abandoned, June 4, ,,
Vizier Lull Singh deposed . Jan. 13, 1847 Prome captured by capt. Tarleton . July 9,
Mr. Vans Agnow and lieut. Anderson killed Pegu recaptured by general Godwin . Nov. 21,
by the troops of the dewan Moolraj, April 21, 1848 Pegu annexed to our Indian empire by pro
Lieut Edwurdes joins general Courtlaud, and clamation of the governor-general . Dec. 20, „
most gallantly engages the army of Moolraj, Revolution at Ava : the king of Ava deposed
which he defeats after a sanguinary battle of by his younger brother . . . Jan. 1853.
nine hours, at Kennyree . . . Juno 18, „ Rangoon devastated by fire . . Feb. 14,
General Whish raises the siege of Mooltan Capt. Lock and many officers and men killed
through the desertion of Shere Singh, Sept. 22, „ in an attack on the stronghold of a robber-
Shore Singh, entrenched
tho Chenab, with 40,000 on
mentheandright bank of
28 pieces of • chief, Feb. 3, which is taken by sir J. Cheape,
March 19, „
artillery, major-general Thackwoll crosses tho First Indian railway opened (from Bombay to
river with 13 infantry regiments, with cavalry Taunah) April r6, „
and cannon, and operates on his left flank, Termination of the war .... June, „
Nov. 20, „ New India bill passed . . Aug. 20, ,,
Lord Gough, meantime, attacks the enemy's Death of general Godwin . . Oct. 26,
advanced position ; the British suffered great Assassination of captain Latter . . Dec. 8, ,,
slaughter, but finally defeated Shere Singh, Rajah of Nagpoor dies, and his territories fall to
who is driven out of Ramnugger . Nov. 22, „ the E. I. Company .... Dec. u,
Victory of ChilUanwallah (which sec) . Jan. 13, 1849 Opening of Ganges Canal 1854
Unconditional surrender of the citadel of Moot- Opening of tho Calcutta railway . Feb. 3, 1855
tan by Moolraj (see Mooltan) . . Jan, 22, Treaty with Dost Mahomed of Cabul, March 31, „
Victory of Goojerat (which tee) . Feb. 21, ,, Insurrection of the Sonthals (ichich tec), July, „
Sir Charles Napier appointed commander-in- Which is only finally suppressed . . May, 1856
chief March 7, „ Oude annexed (see Oude) . . . Feb. 7, „
The Sikh army surrenders unconditionally,
March 14, „ MUTINY OF THE NATIVE ARMY.
Formal annexation of the Punjab to tho Mutinies in the Bengal Army : at Barrackpore,
British dominions ; Dhuleep Singh obtains a <fcc, several regiments disbanded . March, 1857
pension of 40,0004. . . . March 29. , , " India is quiet throughout."—Bombay Gazette.
Moolraj sentenced to death for the murder of May r,
Mr. Agnew and lieut. Anderson, Aug. ; com Mutiny at Meerut* (near Delhi). The mutineers
muted to transportation for life . Sept. „ seize Delhi, where they commit dreadful out
Sir Charles Napier disbands the 66th Bengal rages, and proclaim the king of Delhi emperor
native infantry, for mutiny . . Feb. 27, 1850 May 10, &c, „
Dr. Healy, of the Bengal army, and his at Three native regiments disbanded at Lahore by
tendants, murdered by the Affredis, March 20, the energy of Mr. Montgomery and brigadier
Embassy from the king of Nepaul to the queen Corbett, who save the Punjab May 12,
of Great Britain arrives in England (see Martial law proclaimed by the British lieut. -
A'epaul) May 25, ,, governor, J. R. Colvin . . . May, „
Resignation of his command in India by sir British troops under general Anson advance on
Charles Napier July 2, „ Delhi ; his death .... May 27, „
His farewelladdress to the Indian army, Dec. 15, „ The mutineers defeated in many attacks
May 30—June 23,
BURMESE WAR. Mutiny at Lucknow . . . May 30, ,,
Death of Bajce Rao, ex-poishwa of the Mah- Neill suppresses the mutiny at Benares, June 3 ;
rattas, [His nephew. Nana Sahib's claim and recovers Allahabad . Juno 4, ,,
for continuance of the pension (80,000/.) Mutiny spreads throughout Bengal : fearful
refused.] Jan. 28, 1851 atrocities committed! . . • June, „
* On the introduction of the improved (Enfield) musket in tho Indian army, greased cartridges had
been brought from England. These were objected to by the native soldiers, and the issue of them was
immediately discontinued by orders in Jan. 1857. A mutinous spirit however gradually arose in the
Bengal native army. In March several regiments were disbanded, followed by others, till in June tho
army had lost by disbandment and desertion, about 30,000 men. On April 5, a sepoy, and on April 20, a
jemadar, or native lieutenant, were executed. At the end of May 34 regiments were lost. In April, 85 of
the 3rd Bengal native cavalry at Meerut refused to use their cartridges. On May 9, they were committed
to gaol. On Sunday, the roth, a mutiny in the native troops broke out ; they fired on their officers,
killing col. Finnis and others; Thoy then released their comrades, massacred many Europeans, and fired
the public buildings. The European troops rallied and drove them from their cantonments. The muti
neerst At
thenthefledend
to Delhi,
of Junewhich
the sec.
native troops at the following places wore in open mutiny ; Meerut, Delhi
Ferozepore, A" air, Roorkce, Cawnpore, Kussetrabad, Necmuch,
Murdaun, Lucknow, ~-~..r - Hansi, Ifittsar., Jhanti,
Mchidporo, J inpore, Barcilly, Shahjehanpore,
dur, Azimghur, Futtehghur, Jaunpore. Allahabad. At tho
IN'D 383 IND
INDIA, cojitinued.
Native troops disbanded at Mooltan, which fs tho Biego commences, March 8 ; taken by
saved June n, 1857 successive assaults ; the enemy retreat :
Ex-kiug of Oude arrested . . June 14, ,, Hodson killed .... March 14-19, 1858
Siege of the residency at Lucknow by the Severe proclamation of governor-general in
rebels, commences July t, „ Oude I March 14, lt
Sir H. Lawrence dies of his wounds at Lucknow, General Roberts takes Kotah . March 30, „
Sir Hugh Rose beats the enemy severely, and
The liberty of the press restricted . July 4, „ takes Jhansi April 4, ,,
Sir H. Barnard commanding before Delhi dies General Wbitelock takes Budaon . April 19, ,,
of cholera, succeeded by general Reed, July 5, „ Death of captain sir W. Feel, of small-pox, at
General Nicholson destroys a large body of Cawnpore April 27, „
rebels at Sealcote .... July 12, „ General Penny killed in Rohilcund . May 4,
Cawnpore surrenders to Nana Sahib, who Kills Bareilly recaptured .... May 7, „
the garrison, &c, June a8 ; he is defeated by ! Sir Hugh Rose defeats the rebels several times
general Havelock, July 16 ; who re-captures I —at Kooneh, May 1 1, and near Calpoe, which
Cawnpore (See Cawnpore) . . July 17, lt ! he retakes May 23, ,,
Mutinies suppressed at Hyderabad, July 18; I Victory of Sir E. Lugard at Jugdesporc, May 29, M
and at Lahore .... July ao, „ j The rebels scire Gwalior, the capital of Scindiah,
Goneral Reed retires and Sir Archdale Wilson who escapes to Agra . June 13, ,,
takes the command before Delhi July aa, The rebels defeated by Sir H. Rose (the heroic
Revolt at Dinaporo : tho British repulsed with Ranee of Jhansi killed^, June 17; Gwalior
severe loss at A rrah . . July 25, retaken andheads
Scindiah reinstated
of the. rebels
June 19,. „,.
Heroic exertions and numerous victories of ■ Tantia Topee a division
general Havelock and his army, although ' Rajahs of Jeyporo, Arc, surrender ; Rohilcund
suffering from disease . July ao* to Aug. 16, and other provinces tranquillised . July,
Lord Canning's so-called 1 ' clomency " procla General Roberts destroys the remains of the
mation July 31, Gwalior rebels Aug. 14, ,,
Victory of Neill at Pandoo Nuddoo . Aug. 15, ,, Many Oude chiefs surrender . Aug. ,.
General Nicholson's victory at Nujuffghur [he An attempt of disbanded regiments to re-take
dies Sept 33) Aug. 35, ,, their arms at Mooltan, suppressed by major
Assault of Delhi took place Sept. 14 ; the city- Hamilton (300 killed on the spot, and 800
taken, Sept. ao ; the king captured, Sept. 21 ; slain or captured afterwards) . . Aug. 31, „
his son and grandson slain by Colonel Hodson
Sept. 23, „ The yovniiment of (he East India CompanySept. etase*t
1, ,,
Sir James Outram joins Havelock and serves
under him Sept. 16, General Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee, near
Havelock marches to Lucknow and relieves the Rajghur Sept 15, ,.
besieged residency : retires and leaves Outram The queen is proclaimed throughout India—
in command ; Neill killed Sept. 35, 26, „ lord Canning to be the first viceroy Nov. i, „
Colonel Greathed defeats the rebels at Bolund- Campaign in Oude begins ; several chiefs sub
shohur, Sept. 27 ; destroys a fort at Molaghur, mit, others subdued Nov. 1-31, „
Sept. 29 ; takes Allyghur, Oct. 5 ; and defeats At Dhooden Kbcra lord Clyde (formerly sir C.
rebels at Agra .... Oct. 10, „ Campbell) defeats Beni Mahdo . . Nov. 94, ,,
Sir Colin Campbell (since lord Clyde) appointed Flight of Tantia Topee—he is beaten in Guzcrat
commander-in-chief, July 11 ; arrives at by major Sutherland . . . . Nov. 25, ,.
Cawnpore Nov 3, Tho ex-king of Delhi sails for the Capo of Good
Marches to Alumbagh, near Lucknow, Nov. 9 ; Hope, Dee. 4-1z ; the colonists refuse to re
and takes Secunderabagh . Nov. 16, ,, ceive him ; he is sent to Rangoon . .
Joined by Havelock, he attacks the rebels and Brigadier John Jacob dies at Jacobabad (greatly
rescues tho besieged in the residency lamented) Dec. 6, „
Nov. 18-35, „ Indecisive skirmishes with Ferozcabah Dec.
Havelock* dies of dysentery at Alumbagh, Who joins Tantia Topee ; they are defeated in
Nov. 25, ,, several small engagements . . . .Jan. 1859
General Windham (at Cawnpore) repulsed with Enforcement of the Disarming Act in the
loss in an attack on tho rebellious Gwalior north-west provinces . . .Jan. ,,
contingent, who take part of Cawnpore . . Tho Punjab made a distinct presidency, Jan. i, „
Nov. 27, M Rebels completely expelled from Oude ; they
Sir C. Campbell arrivos at Cawnpore, which he enter Nepaul Jan. ,,
retakes, Nov. 28 , and defeats the Gwalior Guerilla warfare continues in Rohilcund, Feb. ,,
rebels Dec. 6, „ Tantia Topee hemmed in ; deserted by his
The rebels defeated by Seaton, Dec. 14, 17, and troops, about Fob. 2^, ,.
27 ; at Goruckpore by Kowcroft, Dec. 27 ; and Defeat of the Begum of Oude and Nana Sahib
at Futtehghur by Sir C. Campbell . Jan. 2, 1858 by geueral Horsford . . Fob. 10, ,,
Lucknow strongly fortified by the rebels, Jan. The new Indian tariff creates much dissatisfac
Generals Rose, Roberts, Inglis, and Grant, vic tion » March, „
torious in many encounters Jan. and Feb. Maun Singh surrenders . . April 2, ,,
Trial of king of Delhi ; sentenced to transpor Tantia Topee taken, April 7 ; hanged, April 18, ,.
tation .... Jan. 27 to March 9, „ Thanksgiving in England for pacification of
Sir C. Campbell marches to Lucknow, Feb. 1 1 ; India May 1,
stations printed in italics, European women and children were massacred.—The ReliefFund for the sufferers
in India was commenced Axig. 25, 1857. The queen, Louis Napoleon, and the sultan, gave each 1000/. In.
Nov. 1857, 280,749/. uad bccn collected ; in Nov. 1858, 433,620/. In Dec. 1861. 140,000/. had been distributed
to sufferers in India ; and 100,000/. to those at home ; 246,069/. remained for tho benefit of widows and
orphans. A Fast was observed on Oct. 7.
* Born April 5, 1795 ; educated at the Charterhouse, London, where ho was called "old PhUu;" went
to India, 1823 ; served in the Burmese war, 1824 ; and in the Sikh war, 1845. Ho was a Baptist.
t Lord Ellenborough, tho minister for India, sent, unknown to his colleagues, a despatch severely
censuring this proclamation. This despatch becamo public and led to his resignation and very nearly to
the defeat of the ministry, a vote of censure being moved for in both houses of parliament, but not carried
1ND 389 IND
INDIA, continued.
Mutinous conduct of British troops lately in The rev. James Long, the translator, sentenced
the company's service at Meerut and other to fine and imprisonment . . . Aug. 1861
places ; dissatisfied on account of their trans New Indian council and new high court of judi
fer to the Queen's service without bounty, cature established .... Aug.
May 5, 859 Mr. J. P. Grant, lieut. -governor of Bengal (who
Sir Hope Grant defeats Nana Sahib in the had authorised the translation of " Nil Dar-
Jorwah pass May 23, „ pan ")and Mr. Seton Kerr, his secretary (who
A court of inquiry appointed . . J une, „ had, withoutauthority, distributed copies) are
Sir Charles Wood becomes secretary for India, censured and resign .... Sept. ,,
June 22, „ Law of property in India altered ; sale of waste
Dissatisfaction among the troops at their trans l lands authorised Oct. „
fer from the service ot the company to that Lords Harris and Clyde, sir J. Lawrence,
of the crown, without a bounty, settled by Dhuleep Singh, and others invested with the
discharge being offered to them—which about insignia of the Star of India by the queen,
10.000 accept July, Nov. i, „
Thanksgiving day observed in India July 28, Reported prosperity of Indian finances : licence
An income tax bill (called " The Trades' and tax not to be reiniposed . . Dec. 31, ,,
Professions' Licensing Bill ") passes the legis First meeting of the now legislative council
lative council ; great meetings at Calcutta of India, includes several Indian princes,
and Madras protesting against it Sept. Jan. 18, 1862
Rajah Jey-loll Singh hanged . Oct. 1, Lord Elgin, the new governor-general, arrives
Nana Sahib, in force, in Nepaul on the fron at Calcutta March 12, „
tiers of Oude Oct Lord Canning arrives at Southampton, April 26 ;
Insurgents in Nepaul dispersed Dec. 24, dies June 17,
Important financial changes made by Mr. Mr. S. Laing returns to England through ill
James Wilson, new finance secretary . Feb. health ; censured by sir C. Wood ; he justifies
Company formed to obtain cotton, flax, 6c, himself and resigns .... July, ,(
fn>m India March, High court of judicature at Bengal inaugurated
Paper currency determined on March, July 12, „
Bahadoor Khan, ex-king of Bareilly, hanged Reported suspension of the sale of waste lauds,
for murders caused by him March 2, Aug. „
Sir Charles Trevelyan recalled from Madras, for Rao Sahib hanged for murders during the revolt
publishing a government minute against Mr. Sept. 8, „
Wilson's commercial scheme May, Great increase in the cultivation of cotton in
Sir Hugh Rose takes command of the Indian India, reported Oct.
army, which is amalgamated with the British Sir Charles Trevelyan, new finance minister,
army J"ly» arrives Jan. 8, 1863
Lord Clyde quits India, and arrives in London, First agricultural exhibition at Calcutta,
July 18, Jan. 19-30, ,|
Lord Canning's recommendation that the Rise of Ham Singh, a fanatic, in N. W. provinces,
adopted successors of Indian princes should Oct.
be recognised is adopted by the home govern War with warlike hill-tribes on the N. W. fron
ment July si, tiers, Oct. ; severe conflict. Gen. Chamber
Death of sir H. Ward, the new governor at lain wounded, Nov. 20 ; war ended, Dec. 29, ,,
Madras, Aug. 3 ; and of Mr. James Wilson, The Hindu religion deprived of government
Aug. ir, support Doc.
Nana Sahib, supposed to have died of jungle Death of Lord Elgin, Nov. *o ; sir John Law
fever in Aug. 1858 ; is said to be living in rence appointed his successor . . Dec. ,,
Tibet Dec. He assumes office .... Jan. 13, 1864
Mutiny of 5th European regiment at Dinaporo, Excitement amongst the Hindoos on account
suppressed ; breaks out again, Oct. 5 ; is again of government suppressing funeral rites on
suppressed, one man is shot, and the regiment sanitary grounds .... March, ,,
disbandod Nov. 13, Prosperous financial statement of sir Charles
British troops repulsed at Sikkim . Nov. Trevelyan April, „
Agitation against the income tax suppressed at Mr. Ashley Eden, envoy at Bhootan, seized and
Bombay and other places . . Dec. compelled to sign a treaty giving up Assam,
Great excitement against sir Charles Wood's about April, t>
grant of 520,000^ to the descendants of Tippoo Gold currency (sovereign = 10 rupees) ordered
Saib about Dec. 22, to be introduced at Christmas . . July, „
Mr. Samuel Laing, successor to Mr. James Terrific Cyclone—Immense loss of lifo, property,
Wilson, arrives .... Jan. 10, and ships at Calcutta and elsewhere, Oct. 5, „
Awful famine in N. W. provinces through Grand durbar, held by sir John Lawrence, at
failure of the crops : immense exertions of Lahore; attendance of 604 native princes,
the government and others to relieve the Oct 18, „
sufferers Jan.—June, War with the Bhootaneae—fortress of Dhalim-
Expedition marches against Sikkim : natives cote taken Dec. 12, „
retire Feb. Much commercial speculation at Bombay, Dec.
Disturbances in the indigo districts continue, The Bhootancse attack on Dewangiri repulsed
March, with severe loss .... Jan. 29, 1865
Kootoob-ood-deen, grandson of Tippoo Saib, Opening of tho Indo-European telegraph—a
murdered by his servants March 31, telegram from Kurrachee received, March 1, „
British subscriptions for relief of the famine W. Massey succeeds sir 0. Trevelyan as finance
commence at the Mansion-house, London, minister; he arrives at Calcutta, March 31,
with 40ooi., March 28 ; 52,000/. subscribed Sir Charles Trevelyan declares a large doficit in
April 20; closes with 114,807/. . Nov. the revenue April 1,
Order of tho " Star of India " (which see) con Dewangiri (which had been abandoned) recap
stituted June 25, tured by gen. Tombs . . April 2, ,,
Excitement through the printing and circula Sir Hugh Rose retires from command of tho
tion of ' ' Nil Darpan," a II indu drama libelling army ; which is assumed by sir Win. Mans
the indigo planters .... Juno field April 23, „
1ND ]XD
INDIA, continued.
SirCharlca Trevelvan's plans reversed by sir C. Earl of Moira, afterwards marquess of Hastings,
Wood May, 1865 Oct, 4, 18x3
Death of tho able and beneficent hon. Juggonath Hon. John Adam .... Jan. 13. 1823
Sunkersett, the recognised representative of Rt hon. George Canning, relinquished the
the Hindoo community . . . July 31, „ appointment
Negotiation with the Bhootancso . July, „ William, lord (afterwards earl) Amherst, Aug. 1,
Shipwreck of the Eagle Speed near Calcutta ; Hon. W. Butterworth llayley March 13, 1828
265 coolios perish through cruel neglect, Lord Win. Cavendish Bcntinck July 4, „
Aug. 24, [This nobleman became the first governor-
Peace with the Bhootaneso signed (tfUpram) general of India, under the act 3 if 4 WUX
Nov. 13, ,, IV. c. 85 : Aug. 28, 1833.]
Sir Charles Theophilus Metcalfe (afterwards lord
nOVERNORS-GEXERAL OF INDIA, &C.* Metcalfe) March ^o, 1835
William, lord Heytesbury. Did not proceed.
Warren Hastings assumes tho government in George, lord Auckland (afterwards carl of
India April 13, 1772 Auckland) March 4, 1836
Sir John Macpherson . . . Feb. 1, 1785 Edward, lord Ellenlwrough . . Feb. 28, 1843
Lord Cornwallis .... Sept. 12, 1786 William Wilbcrforce Bird . . . June 15. 1844
Sir John Shore (afterwards lord Teignmouth) Sir Henry (afterwards viscount) Hardinge,
Oct. 28, 1793 July 23, „
Lord (afterwards marquess) Cornwallis again : James-Andrew, earl (afterwards marquess) of
ho relinquished the appointment Dalhousie Jan. 12, 184B
Sir Alured Clarke .... April 6, 1798 Charles John, viscount Canning, appointed
Lord Mornington (afterwards marquess July, 1855. (Proclaimed the first viceroy
WeUesley) May 17, „ throughout India, Nov. 1, 1808.)
Marquess Cornwallis again . . July 30, 1B05 James, earl of Elgin, appointed, Aug. 1861 ; died
Sir George Hilaro Barlow . . . Oct. 10, „ Nov. 20, 1863
Lord Minto July 31, 1807 Sir John Lawrence appointed . . Dec
INDIA COMPANY. The first commercial intercourse of the English with the East
Indies, was a private adventure of three ships fitted out in 1591. Only one of them reached
India ; and, after a voyage of three years, the commander, captain Lancaster, was brought
home in another ship, the sailors having seized on his own ; but his information gave rise to
a mercantile voyage and the company's first charter, in Dec. 1600, which was renewed in
1609, 1657, 1661, 1693, and 1744. Its stock in 1600 consisted of 72,000/., when it fitted
out four ships ; meeting with success, it continued to trade. India stock sold at 500/. for a
share of 100/. in 1683.
A now company (the " English '*)was chartered Mr. Pitt's bill appointing tho Board of Control
in 1698, and the old(the ''London **)suspended {irhich *tt), pas&ed . . May 18, 1784
from trading for three years ; tho two wore The company's charter was renewed for 20 years
united in 1702 in 1793 ; and in (the trade with India thrown
Privileges of tho company continued till 1783 . 1744 open) 1813
AtFatrs of tho comjMuiy were brought beforo The trade to China opened and tho Charter re
parliament, and a committee cxposod a series newed till 1854 1833
of intrigues and crimes . . . Aug. 1772 The government of India was continued in the
As remedial measures, two acts passed (one hands of the company till parliament should
Authorised a loan of 1,000,000*. to tho com otherwise provide 1853
pany ; the other (celebrated as the India bill) In consequence of the mutiny of 1857, and the
effected most important changes in the con disappearance of the company's army, tho
stitution of the comjinny and its relations to government of India was transferred to tho
India. A governor-general was appointed to crown, tho Board of Control was abolished,
reside In Bengal, to which the other presi and a Council of State for India instituted by
dencies were now made subordinate ; a su the act 21 & 22 Vict. c. 106, which received,
premo court of judicature was instituted at tho royal assent .... Aug. a,t 1858
Calcutta : the salary of the governor was The company's political power ceased on Sept.
fixed at 25,000*. per year ; that of the council 1 : and tho queen was proclaimed as Queen
at 10,000/. each ; and of the chief judge at of Great Britain and the Colonies, ire. in tho
8000'. : the affairs of the company were con principal places in India, amid much enthu
trolled ; all tho departments were re-organ siasm Nov. 1, 1858
ised, and all the territorial correspondence The East India-Hocse built 1726 ; enlarged
was hencoforth to bo laid before the British and a new front erected, 1799 ; sold with the
ministry) June, 1773 furniture, 1861 ; pulled down in Sept, and
Oct 1862
INDIA, Council of, established in 1858 m the place of the hoard of control {whicJi see).
It consists of 15 members (salary i20o£. a-ycar), eight of whom are appointed by the queen,
* Several of these appointments are those of governors-general provisionally, having been first in rank
in the council, and holding office on tho resignation of the governors-general, or pending their arrival and
assumption of the government : as, for instance, sir Alured Clarke, sir Georgo Hilaro Barlow, hon. William
Butterworth Bayloy, William Wilberforce Bird, &c. The appointment* of governors-general were, of course,
of earlier date than their assumption of office.
t Lord Palmer*ton brought m a bill for the purpose on Fob. 12, which was accepted by the house on
Feb. 18. Ho resigned on tho following day, and the bill dropped. A similar bill was introduced by Mr.
Disraeli on March 12 ; but many of its details being objected to, it was withdrawn. On lord John Russell's
proposition, the house proceeded to consider the matter by way of resolutions ; on June 17, lord Stanley
brought in tho above mentioned bill, being tho third on the subject introduced during the s
391 INF
and seven elected by the directors of the East India company. The members may not sit
in parliament. The council met first on Sept. 3, 1858, when lord Stanley, secretary of state
for India, presided. In June, 1859, he resigned, and was succeeded by sir Charles Wood.
The members of the first council are here recorded :—
ELECTED. William J. Eastwlck. Sir R. Hussey Vivian.
Charles Mills. Henry T. Prinsep. J. Pollard WiUoughby.
John Shepherd. Sir John Lawrence.
Sir J. Weir Hogg. APPOINTED. Sir Henry Montgomery.
Elliot Macnaghten. Sir Frederick C'lirrie. Sir Proby Cautley, and
KossD. Mangles. Sir Henry Rawlinson. Wm. Arbuthnot.
INDIAN MUSEUM, The, was proposed by sir C. Wilkins and approved by the East
India company in 1798. The valuable collections were removed from Leadenhall-street to
Fife House, behind the chapel royal, Whitehall, and opened July 24, 1861.
INDIANA, a western state of North America, was settled in 1730, and admitted into
the Union Dec. II, 1816.
INDIANS occupying the south-western parts of the United States, in direct connexion
with the government in 1861, were numbered at 239,506. The larger tribes are the
Cherokees (22,000), the Chocktaws (18,000), the Creeks (13,550), and the Chiekasaws (5000),
A large proportion aro in comfortable circumstances, and have schools and churches ; other
tribes are the Delawares, Sacs, Foxes, Shawnees, Sioux, and Ioways. With regard to the
North American civil war in 1861, the Choctaws joined the Confederates, who permitted two
Choctaw delegates to sit in congress ; the first being Sampson Folsom and Eastman Loman ;
but the principal chief of the Cherokees, on May 4, 1861, issued a proclamation of neutrality,
which was maintained with great difficulty.
INDIA RUBBER. See Caoutchouc
INDICTION, a cycle of tributes orderly disposed for fifteen years, not known before
the time of Constantine. The first examples in the Theodosian code are of the reign of
Constantius, who died 361. —In memory of the great victory obtained by Constantine over
Mezentius, 8 Cal. Oct. 312, the council of Nice ordained that the accounts of years should
be no longer kept by the Olympiads, but by the Indiction, which has its epocha 313, Jan. I.
It was first used by the Latin church in 342.
INDIGO. Its real nature was so little known in Europe, that it was classed among
minerals, as appears by letters-patent for erecting works to obtain it from mines in the
principality of Halberstadt, dated Dec. 23, 1705 ; yet what Vitruvius and Pliny called
indicum is supposed to have been our indigo. Beckmann. The first mention of indigo
occurs in English statutes in 1581. Its cultivation was begun in Carolina in 1747. The
quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840 was 5,831,269 R>s. ; in 1845, 10,127488ms. ;
in 1850, 70,482 cwt. ; in 1859, 63,237 cwt. ; in 1861, 83,109 cwt. ; in 1864, 76,214 cwt.
The use of coal-tar dyes will no doubt lessen the consumption of indigo. See Aniline.
INDIUM, a metal discovered in the arsenical pyrites of Freiberg by F. Reich and
T. Richter in 1863. Its name is duo to its giving an indigo blue ray in its spectrum.
INDUCTION of Electric currents, discovered by Faraday, and announced in his
" Experimental Researches," published in 1831-2. Ruhmkorff's magneto-electric induction
coil was constructed in 1850.
INDULGENCES for the pardon of sin, commenced by Leo III. about 800, were granted
in the nth century by Gregory VII., and by Urban II., and others, in the 12th century as
rewards to the crusaders. Clement V. was the first pope who made public sale of indul
gences, 13 13. In 1517, Leo X. published general indulgences throughout Europe, and the
resistance to them led to the Reformation.
INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS ACT, 21 & 22 Vict. c. 48 (1857) was enacted to make better
provision for the care and education of vagrant, destitute, and disorderly children. Another
act was passed, 1861. Forty-seven of these schools had been certified under these acts, up
to Sept. 29, 1864.
INFANTICIDE, Female, was very prevalent in barbarous countries. Lord Macartney
stated that 20,000 infants were killed annually ; it is now gradually decreasing in India.
On Nov. 12, 1851, Mr. Raikes induced the Chohan chiefs to agree to resolutions against it,
and a great meeting in the Punjab was held for the same purpose, Nov. 14, 1853.
INFANTRY, the modern term for foot soldiers, much 'improved during the wars of
3£'2 I NO
Charles V. find Francis I. in the 16th century. The British army comprised 99 regiments
of regular infantry in 1858, when the Canadians raised a regiment which is termed the
100th. The number, now 109, includes the Indian army.
INFANT SCHOOLS began in London in 1818.
INFERNAL MACHINE. See France, 1800—1835 ; and Baltic, note.
INFIRMARIES. Ancient Rome had no houses for the cure of the sick. Diseased
persons were carried to the temple of jEsculapius for cure, as Christians were taken to
churches. Institutions for the accommodation of travellers, the indigent, and sick, and the
first infirmaries or hospitals were built close to cathedrals and monasteries. The emperor
Louis II. caused infirmaries situated on mountains to be visited, 855. In Jerusalem the
knights and brothers attended on the sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Con
stantinople, in the 1 ith century. The oldest mention of physicians and surgeons established
in infirmaries occurs in 1437. Bcckmann. See Hospitals.
INFUSORIA. See Animalcules.
INGOUR, a river rising in the Caucasus and falling into the Black Sea. Omer Pasha,
marching to the relief of Kars, crossed this river on Nov. 6, 1855, with 10,000 men, aud
attacked the Russians 12,000 strong, who, after a straggle, retreated with the loss of 400
men. The Turks had 68 killed and 242 wounded. Kars, however, was not saved.
INK. The ancient black inks were composed of soot and ivory black, and Vitravius and
riiny mention lamp-black ; but they had ink of various colours, as red, gold, silver, and
purple. Red ink was made of vermilion and gum. Indian ink was brought from China,
and must have been in use by the people of the east from the earliest ages, most of the
artificial Chinese productions being of very great antiquity. It is usually brought to Europe
in small quadrangular cakes, aDd is composed of a fine black and animal glue. Bcckmann.
Invisible or Sympathetic inks, fluids which, when written with, will remain invisible until
after a certain operation, were known at early periods. Ovid (A. P. 2) teaches young women
to deceive their guardians by writing to their lovers with new milk, and afterwards making
the writing legible with ashes or soot. Receipts for preparing invisible ink were given by
Peter Borel, in 1653, and by Le Mort, in 1669. Bcckmann.
INKERMANN (Crimen). The Russian army (about 40,000) having received reinforce
ments, and being encouraged by the presence of the granddukes Michael and Nicholas,
attacked the British (8000) near the old fort of Inkermann, before daybreak, Nov. 5, 1854.
The latter kept their opponents at bay for six hours till the arrival of 6000 French. The
Russians were then driven back, leaving behind 9000 killod and wounded. The loss of
the allies was 462 killed, 1952 wounded, and 191 missing. Sir Georgo Cathcart, and
generals Strangways, Goldie and Torrens, were among the slain. On Nov. 15, 1855, an
explosion of about 1 00,000 lbs. of gunpowder occurred near Inkermann, and caused great
loss of life. /
INLAND REVENUE OFFICE was constituted in Feb. 1849. It comprises the excise,
stamps, and taxes.
INNS OF COURT, London, were established at different periods, in some degree as
colleges for teaching the law. The Temple was founded, and the church built by the Knights
Templars, 32 Hen. II. 11 85. The Inner and Middle Temple were made inns of law in the
reign of Edw. III. about 1340; the Outer not until the reign of Elizabeth, about 1560.
Stow's Survey. The following inns were founded, viz. :—
Barnard's Inn, an inn of Chancery . . . 1445 Lyon's Inn 1420
Clement's Inn, 18 Edw. IV 1478 New Inn, 1 Hen. VII 1485
Clifford's Inn, 20 Edw. III. .... 1345 Serjeants' Inn, Fleet street .... 1429
Fumival'8 Inn, 5 Eliz 1563 Serjeants' Inn, Chancery-lane . . . . 1666
Gray's Inn. 32 Edw. Ill 1357 Staples Inn, 4 Hon. V. . . . * . . 14x5
Lincoln's Inn, 4 Edw. II. . . 13100^312 Thavics' Inn, 10 Hen. VIII 1519
INOCULATION. See Small Pox. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inocu
lation from small pox to England from Turkey. In 1718 she had her own son inoculated at
Adrianople, with perfect success ; and she was allowed to have it tried, for the first time in
England, on seven condemned criminals, 7 Geo. I. 1721. In 1722 two of the royal family
were inoculated. The practice was preached against by many of the bishops and other
clergy, from that period until 1760. Dr. Mead practised inoculation very successfully up to
1754, and Dr. Ditnsdale, of London, inoculated Catherine II., empress of Russia, in 1768.
Of 5964 who were inoculated in 1797-99, on'y three died. Inoculation was forbidden by
INQ 393 INS
law in 1840. Vaccine inoculation was introduced by Dr. Jcnner, Jan. 21, 1799 ; lie had
discovered its virtue in 1796, and had been making" experiments during the intermediate
three years. An hospital for inoculation was erected in 1746. See Slucp.
INQUISITION, or Holy Office. Previous to Constantine (306), heresy and spiritual
offences were punished by excommunication only ; but shortly after his death capital
punishments were added, and inquisitors were appointed by Theodosius, 382. Priscillian
was put to death about 385. Justinian decreed the doctrine of the four holy synods as to
the holy scriptures and their canons to be observed as laws, 529 ; hence the penal code
against heretics. About 800 the power of the western bishops was enlarged, and courts
were established for trying and punishing spiritual offenders, even with death. In the 12th
century many heresies arose, and during the crusades against the Albigenscs, Gregory IX. in
1233 established by rules the inquisitorial missions sent out by Innocent III. some years
previously, and committed them into the hands of the Dominicans. Pietro da Verona, the
first inquisitor who burnt heretics, was assassinated by an accused gonfalonier, April 6, 1252,
and was afterwards canonized.
Tho Holy Office was reinstituted in Spain by Never firmly established in France ; totally
Ferdinand and Isabella 1480 abolished by Henry IV. by tboedict of Nantes,
Nearly 3000 persons burnt in Andalusia, and 1598. Louis XIV. revoked the edict, but rc-
17,000 suffer other penalties . . . . 1481 fused to introduce the Inquisition, 1685. Snp-
" Instructions"of the new tribunal promulgated pressed in Spain by Naixileou, Dee. 4, 1808,
New articles were added . . . Nov. 148829,<fc 1484! and by thc^Iortes
1498 ' Ttostorcd . . . Feb. 12, 1813
by Ferdinand VII. . . July 21, 1814
The establishment of tho Inquisition was re Finally abolished by the Cortes . . . . 1820
sisted in Naples, and only introduced into
other parts of Italy with jealous limitations [Lloreute states that in 236
^by the temporal power .... 1546-7 1 amount
»muum> in iu Spain
omuu of puv tow the
years
01 iwinuiu, put uwwitotal
uj
New ordinances in 81 articles compiled by the the Inquisition .waspersons
about 32,000 ;death by
291,000
inquisitor-general, Valdez 1561 wero subjected toother punishments. Tho
Carnesecchi oxeeutcd at Rome, 1567, and Galiloo last porson burnt was at Seville, Nov. 7, 1781,
compelled to abjure his opinions . . . 1634 being a woman accused of making a contract
The tribunal abolishod in Tuscany and Loni-
bardy 1787 with the dovil.J
INQUESTS. See Coroner. INSANITY. See Lunatics.
INSOLVENCY. The first insolvent act was passed in 1649, but it was of limited
operation ; a number of acts of more extensive operation were passed at various Y-eriods, and
particularly in the reign of George III. The benefit of the act known as the Great
Insolvent Act, was taken in England by 50, 733 insolvents from tho time of its passing in
1814, to March, 1827, a period of thirteen years. Since then the acts relating to insolvency
have been several times amended. Persons not traders, or being traders whose debts aro
less than 300/., might petition the court of bankruptcy, and propose compositions, and have
pro tern, protection from all process against their persons and property, by 6 Vict. c. 116
(1842). In 1861, by the New Bankruptcy Act, the business of the Insolvent Debtors'
court was transferred to the court of bankruptcy ; and a number of imprisoned debtors
were released in Nov. 1861.
INSTITUTE of France. On Oct. 25, 1795, all the Royal Academies, viz., the French
academy, tho academy of Inscriptions and Helles Lcttres, that of the Mathematical and
Physical Sciences, of the Fine Arts, and of the Moral and Political Sciences, were combined
in one body, under the title of " Institut National," afterwards Royal, and now Imperial.
INSTITUTES. See Code.
INSTITUTION. See Royal, London, and Civil Engineers.
INSURANCE on Ships and Merchandise. Suetonius conjectures that Claudius was
the first contriver of the insurance of ships, 43.
Insuranco was in general uso in Italy, 1194, i The first regular office set up in London was the
and in England 1560 Himd-in-Hand 1696
Insurance policies first used in Florenco . .1523 First Life Insurance office (the AmicaUt), estab-
Tho first law relating to insurance was enacted 1601 lishcd 17°°"
Insurance of bouses and goods against Fire, in I Sun fire-office established 1710
London, began the year following the Great I Tho first Marine insurance was the Royal
Fire of London 1667 : Exchange Insuranco, and the London In-
An office was set up for insuring houses and : suranco 17*0
buildings, principally contrived by Dr. Barton, Duty first laid on insurances of 1*. 6<l. \kt 100I.
one of the first and most considerable builders insured, 1782 ; duty increased . . . . 1797
of the city of London In 1857, 1,451,110!. were paid as duty for fire
INS 394 INU
INSURANCE, continued.
insurances on property, amounting to founded In consequence of the increased
72,136,585*. charges of the comjianies . Sept. 1861
There were 33 London fire insurance offices ; Rate of tax on insurance, reduced from 3J.to
35 country offices ; 7 Scotch, and 2 Irish . . 1859 ig. 6*i. per cent, on Btock in trade, from May
165 such offices in London „ 13, 1864 ; on household goods .... 1S65
A new Commercial Union fire insurance,
AMOUNT INSURED.
I782 . . . £130,000,000 I 1822 . ... £399,000,000 I 1862 . . . £1,007,000,000
2802 .... 220,000,000 J 1842 .... 652,000,000 I
INSURRECTIONS. See Conspiracies, Massacres, Rebellions, Riots, &c.
INTENDMENT of Crimes. In cases of treason, wounding, burglary, &c, where
intention proved, was made as punishable as crime completed, by 7 Geo. II., 1734. The
rigour of this act was modified by sir Robert Peel's revision of the statutes 4— 10 Geo. IV.
1823—29.
INTERDICT, or Ecclesiastical Censure, seldom decreed in Europe till the time
of Gregory VII., 1073, but often afterwards. When a prince was excommunicated, all his
subjects retaining their allegiance were excommunicated also, and the clergy were forbidden
to perform any part of divine service, or any clerical duties, save the baptism of infants,
and taking the confessions of dying penitents. In 1170, pope Alexander put all England
under an interdict ; and when king John was excommunicated in 1208, the kingdom lay
under a papal interdict for six years. England was put under an interdict, on Henry VIII.
shaking oft' the pope's supremacy, 1535 ; and pope Sixtus V. published a crusade against
queen Elizabeth of England in 1588. See Excommunication.
INTEREST. The word was first used in an act of parliament of the 21st James I. 1623,
wherein it was made to signify a lawful increase by way of compensation for the use of money
lent. The rate fixed by the act was 8/. for the use of 100I. for a year ; in place of usury at
10/. before taken. The Commonwealth lowered the rate to 61., in 1650 ; and by an act of
the 13th of queen Anne, 1713, it was reduced to 5Z. The restraint being found prejudicial
to commerce, it was totally removed by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 90 (1854).
INTERIM of Augsbltrg, a decree issued by the emperor Charles V. in 1548, with t)*e
view of attempting to reconcile the Catholics and Protestants, in which it entirely failed.
It was revoked in 1552. The term Interim has been applied to other decrees and treaties.
INTERNATIONAL. See Copyright and Exhibition.
INUNDATIONS. The following are among the most remarkable :—
An inundation of the sea in Lincolnshire'!aid under A general inundation by the failure of the dikes in
water many thousand acres, a. d. 245. Camden. Holland, 1530 ; the number of drowned said to
Another in Cheshire, by which 5000 persons and an have been 400,000.
innumerable quantity of cattle perished, 351. At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perished, 1617.
An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned more An inundation in Yorkshire, when a rock opened,
than 400 families, 758. Fordun. and poured out water to the height of a church.
The Tweed overflowed its banks, and laid waste the steeple, 1686. Vide Phil. Tram.
country for 30 miles round, 836. Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants were
An inundation on the English coasts, demolished a drowned, and incredible damage was dono at
number of sea-port towns, 1014. Hamburg, 1717.
Earl Godwin's lands, exceeding 4000acres, overflowed At Madrid, several of the Spanish nobility and other
by the sea, and an immense sand-bank formed on persons of distinction perishod, 1723. Fresnoy.
the coast of Kent, now known by the name of the In Yorkshire, a dreadful inundation, called Ripou
Godwin sands, 1100. Camden. Flood, 1771.
Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town and In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their lives by
harbour of Ostend totally immersed, 1 108. the torrents from the mountains, Sept. 1787.
More than 300 houses overwhelmed at Wincholsea Inundation of the Liffey, which did immense
by an inundation of the sea. 1280. damage in Dublin, Nov. 12, 1787. Again, Dec. 2
At the Texel, which first raised the commerce of and 3, 1802.
Amsterdam, 1400. Lorca, a city of Mercia, in Spain, destroyed by the
The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 villages, bursting of a reservoir, which inundated more
and 100,000 people (see Dort), April 17, 1446. than 20 leagues, and killed 1000 persons, besides
The Severn overflowed during ten days, and carried cattle, April 14, 1802.
away men, women, and children, in their beds, At Perth, near Presburg, the overflow of the
and covered the tops of many mountains ; the Danube, by which 24 villages and their inhabitant*
waters settled upon the lands, and were called the were swept away, April, 1811.
Great Waters for 100 years after, 1 Richard III. In the vicinity of Salop, by the bursting of a cloud
1483. HoUimhed. Again 4 James I. 1607, the during a storni, many persons and much stock
waters rose abovo the tops of the houses, and perished, May, 1811.
above 100 persons perished in Somersetshire and Dreadful inundation in Hungary, Austria, and
Gloucestershire. Bwrn*. Poland, in the summor of 1813.
INfJ 305 1NV
INUNDATIONS, continued.
Overflow of the Danube ; n Turkish corps of 2000 and covered 60,000 acres ; Lyons was inundated ;
men, on a small inland near Widdin, surprised, in Avignon 100 houses were swept away ; 218
and met instant death, Sept. 14, 1813. houses were carried away at La Guilloticrc ; and
In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the ruin upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and Xismes ;
of the French army under Macdonald was accele the Saone bad not attained such a height for 238
rated by the floods ; also in Poland 4000 liveB were years, Oct. 31 to Nov. 4, 1840.
supposed to have been lost, same year. Lamentable inundation at Brentford and the sur
At Strabane, Ireland, by the melting of the snow rounding country ; several lives lost, and immense
on the surrounding mountains, most destructive property destroyed, Jan. 16, 1841.
floods were occasioned, Jan. a, 1816. Disastrous inundation in the centre, west, and
In Germany, the Vistula overflowed ; many villages south-west of France ; numerous bridges, with
wore laid under water, and great lass of lifo and the Orleans and Vierzon viaduct, swept away ; the
property was sustained, March ai, 1816. latter had cost 6,000,000 of francs. The damage
In England 5000 acres were deluged in the Fen done exceeded 4,000,000^. sterling. The Loire rose
countries, in June, 1819. twenty feet in one night, Oct. 2a, 1846.
Inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by the Vistula Lamentablo catastrophe at Holmfirth. See Holmjirth
breaking through some of its dikes, by which Flood, Feb. 4, 1852.
10,000 head of cattle and 4000 houses wero de Inundation of the valleys of the Severn and Teme
stroyed, and numerous lives lost, April 9, 1829. after a violent thunderstorm, Sept. 5, 1852.
The "Moray Floods," Aug. 9, 1829, when the Spey Inundations of the Iwiains of the Rhine and the
and Findhorn rose in some places 50 feet above Khone, overflowing the country to a great extent,
their ordinary level, and caused great destruction Sept. 19, 1852.
of property. Many lives were lost, and whole Hamburg half-flooded by the Elbe, Jan. 1, 1855.
families who took refuge on elevated places were Inundations in south of France, with immense
with difficulty rescued. Sir T. D. Lauder. damage (sec France), May and June, 1856.
At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its inhabitants In Holland, nearly 40,000 acres submorged, Jan.
laid under water, Feb. 1830. 1 861.
10,000 houses swept away, and about 1000 persons Great inundation through the bursting of tho out
perished, at Canton, in China, in consequence of fall sluice at St. Germain's, near King's Lynn (sec
an inundation, occasioned by incessant rains. LevtU\ May 4-15, 1862.
Equal or greater calamity was produced by tho Another marshland sluice bursts ; many acres inun
same cause in other jiorts of China, Oct. 1833. dated, Oct. 4, 1862.
Awful inundation in Franco : the Saone potired its Bursting of tho Bradfield reservoir (see Sheffield);
waters into the lthono, broke through its banks, about 250 persons drowned, March 11, 1864.
INVALIDES. The Hotel des Invalides was founded in 1671 by Louis XIV. Its chapel
contains the body of Napoleon l*f deposited there Dec. 15, 1840.
INVASIONS of the British Islands. See Britain and Panes. From the death of
Edward the Confessor, only the following invasions (marked *) have been successful ;—
William of Normandy (*.) Puke of Lancaster (a.) . . 1399 Ireland, Spaniards . 1 Go 1
Tho French . . . . 1416 Duke of Monmouth
Sept. 29, j066 i6Ss
Tho Irish .... 1069 Queen of Henry VI. . . 1462 William of Orange (*.) iMS
The Scots, 1091 ; king Mal Earl of Warwick (#.) . . . 1470 James II., Ireland. 16S9
colm killed Edward IV. (*.) . . . 1471 Old rretendor .
. . 1093 1708
"Robert of Normandy . . 1101 Queen of Henry VI. . . . 1471 Pretender again . *7*S
Tho Scots Earl of Richmond (».) . . 1485 Young Pretender
1 136 1745
The empress Maud . . 1 139 Lambert Simnel . . . 1487 Ireland (see TUurrA) 1760
Ireland, by Fitz-Stephen («.) 1169
Pcrkin Warbeck . . 1495 Wales, tho French .
Ireland, by Edward Hruce . 1315 Spaniards and Italians, Ire- Ireland ; tho French land at -1
Isabel, queenof Edward 11.(«.) 1326
laud 1580 Killala (which tee) . , 1798
Spanish Armada . . .1588
INVERNESS (N.W. Scotland), a city of the Picts up to $43. It was taken by Edward I. ;
retaken by Bruce, 1313 ; burnt by the lord of the Isles, 141 1 ; taken by Cromwell, 1649 ;
and by prince Charles Edward in 1746. He was defeated at Culloden, about live miles from
Inverness, April, 16, 1746,
INVESTITURE, of Ecclesiastics, was a cause of discord between the pope and temporal
sovereigns in the middle ages ; and led to actual war between Gregory VII. and the emperor
Henry IV. 1075 — 1085. The pope endeavoured to deprive the sovereign of the right of
nominating bishops and abbots,- and of investing them with the cross and ring. Henry V.
gave up the right, nil.
INVINCIBLE ARMADA, or Spanish Armada. See Armada.
INVOCATION of THE Virgin and Saints. The practice of the Romish church of
invoking the intercession of saints with God, particularly the prayers to the Virgin, has been
traced to the time of Gregory the Great, 593. Ashe. The Eastern church began (in the 5th
century) by calling upon the dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in the divine
olKces ; and the Western church frequently canonised persons the wickedness of whose
lives gave them no title to any such honour.
IOD
IODINE (from t lie Greek iudes, violet-like), was discovered by M. De Courtois, a manu
facturer of saltpetre at Paris in 1812, and investigated by M. Clement, 1813. On tbe appli
cation of heat it rises in the form of a dense violet-coloured vapour, easily evaporates, and
melts at 220 degrees : it changes vegetable blues to yellow, and a seven- thousandth part
converts water to a deep yellow colour, and starch into a purple.
IONA. One of the Hebrides. In 563 St. Coluinba and his disciples founded a monastery
here, which flourished till the 8th century, when it was ravaged by the Norsemen. Other
religious bodies afterwards were formed, and the isle was long esteemed exceedingly
sacred.
IONIA (in Asia Minor). About 1040 B.C. the Iones, a Pelasgic race, emigrated from
Greece, and settled here and 011 the adjoining islands. They built Ephesus, Smyrna, and other
noble cities. They were conquered by the great Cyrus about 548 B.C. ; revolted in 504, but
were again subdued. After the victories of Cimon, Ionia became independent and remained
so till 387, when it was once more subjected to Persia. It formed part of the dominions of
Alexander and his successors ; was annexed to the Roman empire, and conquered by the
Turks. —Ionia was renowned for poets, historians, and philosophers.
IONIAN ISLANDS (on W. coast of Greece). Corfu, the capital, Cephalonia, Zante,
Ithaca, Santa Maura, Cerigo, and Paxo. They were colonised by the Iones, and partook of
the fortunes of the Greek people ; were subject to Naples in the 13th century, and in tlie
14th to Venice. Population in 1862, 234,123.
The islands ceded to France by the treaty of A university established at Corfu . . . 1823
Cainpo Formio Oct. 17, 797 : The constitution liberalised during the govern
Formed into the republic of the seven islands ment of lord Seaton 1848-9
under the protection of Russia and Turkey, In eousequonco of tho discontent and complaints
March zi, 1800 of the islanders, Mr. W. E. Gbvdstone went
Restored to the French by the treaty of Tilsit, out on a commission of inquiry, Ac, but
July 7, 1807 nothing important ensued . . . Nov. 1853
Taken by the English . . Oct. 3-12, 1809 Sir II. Storks, lord high commissioner, Feb. 2, 1859
Formed into an independent state under the The parliament declare for annexation to Greece,
protection of Great Britain (sir Thos. Mait- March, 1861, and April, 1S62
lnnd, lord high commissioner) . Nov. 5, 1815 The islands annexed to Greece, May 28 ; king
A constitution ratified . . . July 11, 1817 George I. arrives at Corfu (8eo Qntce). June 6, 1864
IONIC ORDER ok Architecture, an improvement on the Doric, was invented by
the Iouians about 1350 B.C. Vitntvius. Its distinguishing characters are the slenderness
and flutings of its columns, and the volutes of rams' horns that adorn the capital.
IONIC Sect of Philosophers, founded by Thales of Miletus, 570 n.c, distinguished
for its abstruse speculations under his successors and pupils, Anaximander, Anaximenes,
Anaxagoras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. They held that water was the origin of
all things.
IOWA, a western state of North America, was organised as a territory, June 12, 1838 ;
and admitted into the Union, Dee. 28, 1846. Capital, Des Moines.
IPSUS (Phrygia\ Battle of, 301 B.C., by which Seleucus was confirmed in his kingdom
by the defeat and death of Antigonus, king of Asia. The latter led into tho field an army
of about 70,000 foot, and 10,000 horse, with 75 elephants. The former had 64,000 infantry,
besides 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. Plutarch.
IPSWICH (Suffolk), the Saxon Gippcswic, was ravaged by the Danes, 991. Wolsey was
born here, 147 1 ; founded a school in 1525. The port was greatly improved by the erection
of wet docks, 1837-42. The railway to London was opened June 25, 1846.
IRELAND is said to have been first colonised by Phoenicians. Some assert that the
Partholani landed in Ireland about 2048 B.c. ; that the descent of the Damuonii was made
about 1463 B.C. ; and that this was followed by the descent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian
princes, from Galicia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and gave to its throne a race of 171
kings. Ireland was not attacked by the Romans or Saxons. The population, by the census
of 1S61, was 5,764,543.
Arrival of St. Tatrick, about . . . a.d. 432 [In the twelfth century Ireland is divided into
Christianity established, about . . . . 448 five kingdoms, viz. : Ulster, Leinster, Meath,
The Danes and Normans, known by the namo Connaught, and Munster, besides a number
of Eastcrlintfs, or Ostmon, invade Ireland . 795 of petty principalities, whose sovereigns con
Tbey build Dublin and othor cities, about . ' 800 tinually warred with each other.]
Brian Boroimhe totally defeats the Danes at* Adrian Iv. jHsrmitted Henry II. to invade
Clontrtrf ; and is killed . . . April 23, 1014 Ireland, on condition that he compelled every
IRE 3i*7 IKE
IRELAND, continued.
Irish family to pay a carolus to the holy see, Massacre and capture of Drogheda Sept. n, 1649
and held it as a fief of tho Church . .1156 Landing of James II March 12, 1689
Dermot Mac Murrough, king of Leinstcr, is 3000 protestants attainted ,,
driven from his throne for his oppression, William III. lands at Carrickfergus . June 14, 1690
mid takes refuge in England, where he takes Battlo of the Boyne ; James defeated . July 1, „
an oath of fidelity to Henry II. who promises Treaty of Limerick. See Limerick . Oct 3, 1691
to restore him 1168 Linen manufacture encouraged . . . . 1696
Invasion of the English under Fitz Stephen . 1169 Thurot's invasion. See Thurot .... 1760
Landing of Strongbow at Waterford . . 1170 Indulgences granted to the catholics . . . 1778
Henry II. lands near Waterford, and receives Ireland admitted to a frco trade . 1779
the submission of tho princes of the country, Released from submission to an English council 1782
settles the government, and makes his sou The Genevese refugees arc received in Ireland,
John lord of Ireland 11 71 and have an asylum given them in the county
Ireland wholly subdued and English laws and of Waterford 1783
customs introduced by king John . . 1210 Order of St. Patrick established . . . . „
Invasion of Edward Bruce, 131 5, who is crowned Orange clubs, &c., formod .... 1795
king, 1316, defeated and slain at Foughart, Memorable Irish rebellion commenced, May 4,
near Dundalk 1318 1798, and not finally Mipprcssed until tho
Lionel, duke of Clarence, third son of Edward noxt year 1799
III., marries Elizabeth de Burgh, heiress of Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland,
Ulster, which had not hitherto submitted to Jan. 1, iSoi
the English authority 1361 Emmet's insurrection . . . July 23, 1803
Richard II. lands at Waterford with a train of English and Irish exchequers consolidated,
nobles, 4000 men at arms, and 30,000 archers, Jan. 5, 1817
and gains tho affection of the people by his Visit to Ireland of George IV. . Aug. 1821
munificence, and confers the honour of knight The cxirrency assimilated . . Jan. 1, 1826
hood on their chiefs 1394 Rouian catholic emancipation . April 13, 1829
Richard again lands in Ireland . . . . 1399 Customs consolidated .... Jan. 6, 1830
The sanguinary Head Act passed at Trim," by Dr. Whately, supporter of the Irish National
the earl of Desmond, deputy .... 1465 School system, ljocomes archbishop of
Apparel and surname act (the Irish to dress like Dublin 1831
the English, and to adopt surnames). . . „ Poor laws introduced 1838
Poynlngs' law, subjecting the Irish parliament Great Repeal movement ; meeting at Trim.
to the English council 140,4 (See Repeal) .... March 19, 1843
Great rebellion of the Fitzgeralds subdued . . 1534 O'Connell's trial. (See Truth) . Jan. 15, 1844
Henry VIII. assumes tho title of king, instead Trial of O'Counoll and others for political con
of lord of Ireland 154a spiracy ; found guilty. (See Trials) Feb. 12, ,,
The reformed religion embraced by the English Appointment of new commissioners of charit
settlers in tho reign of Edward VI. . . . 1547 able bequests (rank of the R. C. bishops
Ireland finally divided into shires . . 1569 recognised) Dec. 18, ,,
Printing in Irish characters introduced by N. Irish National Education Society incorporated,
Walsh, chancellor of St. Patrick's . .1571 Sept. 2i, 1845
700 Italians, headed by Fitzmaurice, land in Failure of the potato crop throughout Ireland, „
Kerry ; they are treacherously butchorod by Committal of William Smith O'Brien to tho
tho earl of Ormond 1580 custody of the sergcant-at-arms, for contempt
O'Neal defeats the English at Blackwater in not obeying an order of tho house of com
Aug. 14, 1598 mons to attend a committee . April 30, 1846
Tho insurrection of Tyrone, who invites over William Smith O'Brien and the "Young Ire
tho Spaniards, and settled them in Kinsale ; land " or physical force party, seccdo from
but they are defeated by tho lord deputy tho Repeal Association . July 2gt „
Mountjoy 1601*2 O'Connell's last speech in tho commons,
In consequence of repeated rebellions and for Feb. 8. 1847
feitures, 511,465 acres of land in the province Grants from parliament, amounting to
of Ulster became vested in the crown, and 10,000,000/. made to reliove the people suf
James I. after removing the Irish from their fering from famine and disease . . . ,,
hills and fastnesses, divides the land among De:ith of O'Counoll at Genoa, on his way to
such of his English and Scottish protcstant Roino, in his 73rd year ; he had bequeathed
subjects as choose to settle there . . 1609-12 his heart to Rome May 15, „
More and Maguiru's rebellion ; tho catholics Deputation from tho Irish people (?)—Smith
enter into a conspiracy to expel the English, O'Brien, Meagher, O'Gorman, &c.—to Lamar-
and cruelly massacre the protestant settlers tine and others, members of the provisional
in Ulster, to the number of 40,000 persons, government at Paris . . April 3, 1 343
commenced on St. Ignatius' day [some doubt Great meeting of "Young Irolanders" at
the massacre] .... Oct 23, 1641 Dublin ... . . April 4,
O'Neill defeats tho English under Monroe at Arrest of Mitchell, editor of tho United IrUhman,
Bonburb June 5, 1646 M«y 13,
Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole island State trials in the Irish queen's bench,
to obedience between . . 1649 and 1656 May 15-27,
* This act ordained, "That it shall be lawful to all manner of men that find any theeves robbing by
day or night, or going or coming to rob or steal, or any persona going or coming, having no faithful man of
good namo and fame in their company in English apparelt, that it shall be lawful to take and kill those,
and to cut off their heads, without any impeachment of our sovereign lord the king. And of any head so
cut off in the county of Meath, that tho cutter and his ayders there to him cause the said hoad so cut off
to be brought to the portreffe to put it upon a stake or spear, upon the castle of Trim ; and that the said
portreffe shall testify the bringing of the same to him. And that it shall bo lawful for the said bringer of
the said head to distrain and levy by his own hand (as his reward) of evory man having one ploughland in
the barony, two-pence ; and of every man having half a ploughland, ono pony ; and of every man having
one house and goods, value forty shillings, one peny ; and of every other cottier having house and eraoak,
one half-peny," &c. Much slaughter is said to have ensued.
I HE 398 IRE
IRELAND, continued.
Mitchell found Ruilty and sentenced to trans- Proclamation against secret societies, Nov., 1S5S
jwrtation for 14 years . . . May 26, 1S4S Arrests of members of Phrtnix Society . Dec.
Arrest of Gnvan Duffy, Martin, Meagher, Proposed demonstration of landlords (headed
Dohony, Ac, fur felonious writings, speeches, by marquess of Downshire) given up, Jan. 27, 18^.9
*c July 8, National Gallery founded . . Feb. „
Confederate clubs prohibited . . July 26, Agitation against the Irish National School
The Habrox Cor/tun act (suspended . July 26, system Sept.
Arrest of Smith O'Brien at Thurlcs ; he is con Religious revival movement in the north, par
veyed to Kilmainham gaol, Dublin Aug. 5, ticularly at Belfast Oct
Arrest of Meagher, O'Douoghue, Ac. Aug. is, Great emigration to America in the spring . i860
Martin sentenced to transportation . Aug. T4, Many Irishmen onlist in the service of tho pope.
Kncumbeicd estates act passed . . Sept. May. Juno : many return dissatisfied July,
Smith O'llrien, Meagher, and the other con Tho remainder taken prisoners by tho Sar
federates tried and sentenced to death, Oct 9, dinians, are released, and return to Dublin,
The Irish court of queen's bench gives judg where they receive an ovation . . Nov. T,
ment on write of error sued out by the pri Attempted revival of Repeal agitation, Dec. ,,
soners convicted of high treason, and con Agrarian outrages; alderman Sheehymurdered
firms thejudgment of the court below Jan. 16, 1S49 Oct 23, ,.
O'Brien,* Meagher, McManus, and O'Douoghue Census taken—population 5,764,543 April 8, *S6i
transported July 9, Suspension of packet service l>ctwecn Galway
Orange and catholic affray at Dolly's Brae ; and America through the company's breach
several lives lost .... July 12, of contract May 23, „
Her mnjesty visits Ireland, and holds her court Visit of the prince of Wales, Juno 29 ; and" the
at Dublin castle .... Aug. 5, queen and prince consort . Aug. 24-31,
First court under the Encumbered estates act Irish Law Courtcommission appointed, Dee. 13, „
(which $tf), held in Dublin . . Oct 24, Numerous agrarian murders ; Gustav Thie-
Queen's University in Ireland csablishcd, bault, April 28 ; Francis Fitzgerald, May 16 ;
Aug. 15, 1850 (and others) ; Michael Hayes shoots Mr. John
Roman catholic university originated, and Braddell July 30, 1862
largo sums subscriljed . . . May 5, [851 Tho primate, J. G. Beresford, abp. of Armagh,
Death of R. Lalor Shell, at Florenco . May 35, dies, aged 89 July 19, ,,
McManus escapes from transportation, and An Orange demonstration at Belfast leads to
arrivesat Sun Francisco, in California, June 5, destructive riots .... Sept 17, „
The Irish Tenant League hold a meeting on the Building for the Catholic University founded,
site of the battle of the Boync June 14, July 20. t.
First meeting of the "Catholic Defence Asso Great agricultural distress ; many murders aud
ciation" Oct. 17, outrages, end of 1862, beginningof . . . 1863
Meagher escapes from Van Dicmen's Land and Galway packet servico restored by subsidy of
arrives at New York . . . May 24, 1S52 70,000/. <8ec Gahtray) . . . Aug. ,,
Cork National Exhibition . . June 10, Insignificant " Natiomalist " meeting Aug. 15,
Irish Industrial Exhibition set on foot; Mr. Death of archbishop Whately . Oct. 8,
Dargan, a railway contractor, contributes to Great emigration of able-bodied labourers in . „
wards it 26,ooo(. .... June 24, Appearance of the Fenians (ic/tick *«) . Jan. 1864
" Tenant Right" demonstration at Warrington Death of Smith O'Brien, descendant of king
dispersed by the magistrates . July 3, Brian Boroimhe .... June 18, „
Fierce religious riots at Belfast . . July 14, Address of tho "National Association" to
Fatal election riot at Six-mile Bridge, July 22, liberate tenant capital ; recover the property
Irish members of parliament found a of the Catholic church, &c . . Jan. 12, 1865
" Religious Equality Association " . Sept. 10, Opening of the International Exhibition at
Cork Industrial Exhibition closed . Sept. 2, Dublin by the prince of Wales May 9,
Income tax extended to Ireland . May, A: General election favourable to the government
Dublin Exhibition opens . . May 12, aud liberal party July
Queen visits Ireland .... Aug 29, Importation of cattle from England prohibited
Tenant Right Leaguo conference . Oct. 4, on account of the plague . . . Aug. 25, „
Dreadful Railway accident near Dublin Oct. 5, Seizure of the newspaper " Irish People "and
Exhibition closed .... Nov. 1, 30 Fenians. (See Ftnians) Sept. 15-17,
Train wilfully upset after an Orange demon More arrests ; 33 committed for trial up to
stration at Londonderry, one person killed Oct. 14, „
anfi many hurt .... Sept. 15, 1854 International Exhibition closed . . Nov. 9,
Religious riots at Belfast .... Sept. James Stephens, the "head centre"* of the
Progress of cardinal Wiseman in Ireland Sept. iS33 Fenians in Ireland, and others, captured,
A packet from Galway reaches N. America in Nov. ii,
six days Sept. See Dublin.^
KINGS AND GOVERNORS OF IRELAND.}
1014. Maol Ceachlin II. restored ; dies 1022 or 1023.
979 or 980. Maol Ceachlin II. (Malachi) deposed. [Disputed succession.]
1001 or 1002. Brian Baromy or Boroimhe ; slain
after totally defeating the Danes at Clontarf, 1058. Donough, or Denis, O'Brian, son.
April 23, 1014. 1072. Tirloch, or Turlough, nephew ; dies 10S6.
* An amnesty was granted to O'Brien, May 3, 1856, and he shortly after returned to Ireland,
f Paupers in Irish workhouses in 1849, 620,000; in 1857, 65,00a
Notes in circulation „ £3.850,450 ,£7,150.000.
Bullion in Irish banks ,, 1,625,000 ,, 2,492,000,
t The list of Irish sovereigns, printed in previous editions, has been omitted to make room for
authentic matter. The Irish writers carry their succession of kings very high, as high as even before the
IRE 399 IKE
IRELAND, continued.
1086—1 132. The kingdom divided; fierce contests de Lisle. 1649, Oliver Cromwell. 1657,
for it. Henry Cromwell. 1662, James Butler, duke
1132. Tordel Vach : killed in battle. of Ormond. 1669, John Rolwrts, lord
1 166. Roderic, or Roger, O'Connor. Roberts. 1670, John, lord Berkeley. 1672,
1 1 72. Henry II. king of England; conquered the Arthur Capel, earl of Essex. 1677, James
country, and became lord of Ireland. Butler, duke of Ormond. 1685, Henry
[The English monarchs were styled " Lords of Hyde, earl of Clarendon. 1687, Richard
Ireland" until the reign of Henry VIII., Talbot, earl of Tyrconnel. 1690, Henry
who first styled himsef lung.} Sydney, lord Sydney. 1695, Henry Capel,
lord Capel.
GOVERNORS OP IRELAND (with various titles).* 1700. Laurence Hyde, earl of Rochester. 1703,
1172. Hnguea de I>asci. 1 173, Richard Fitz Gft»lebert, James Butler, duke of Ormond. 1707,
earl of Pembroke. 1176, Raymond le Gros. Thomas, earl of Pembroke. 1709, Tliomas,
1177, prince John (afterwards king), made carl of Wharton. 1710, James, duke of Or
lord of Ireland. mond, again. 1713, Charles, duko of Shrews
uS+etttq. Justiciars. The changes were so frequent bury. 1717, Chailes, duke of Bolton. 1721,
that the more important officers only are Chailcs, duke of Grafton. 1724, John, lord
given. Carteret. 1 73 1, Lionel, duke of Dorset.
1189, 1203, 1205. Hugues de Lasci. 1737, William, duke of Devonshire. 1745,
1199, 1204. Meiller Fitz Henri (son of Henry II). Philip, earl of Chesterfield. 1747. William,
1215, 1226. Geoff rey de Mantis. carl of Harrington. 1751. Lionel, duke of
1229*32-33. Maurice Fitzgerald. Dorset, again. 1755, William, duko of
1308. Piers Gaveston, earl of Cornwall. 1312, Devonshire. 1757, John, duke of Bedford.
Edmund leBotiller. 1316, Roger de Mortimer. 1761, George, earl of Halifax. 1763, Hugh,
1320, Thomas Fitzgerald. 1 John de earl of Northumberland. 1765, Francis, earl
Bermingham. 1327, earl of kildare. 1328 of Hertford.
and 1340, Prior Roger Uttagh. 1332. sir 1767. George, viscount Townshend, Oct. 14.
John D'Arcy. 1337, sir John de Cherlton. 1772. Simon, earl of Hareourt, Nov, 30.
1344, sir Rasnl d Cfford. 1346, sir Roger 1777. John, earl of Buckinghamshire, Jan. 25.
d'Arcy ; sir John Moriz. 1348, Walter do 1780. Fred., earl of Carlisle. Dec. 23.
Bermingham. 1355. Maurice, earl of Des 1782. Wm. Henry, duke of Portland, April 14.
mond. 1356, Thomas de Rokeby. 1357, „ George, earl Temple, Sept. 15.
Almeric de St. Amand. 1359. James, earl of 1783. Robert, earl of Northington, June 3.
Ormond. 1361, Lionel, duke of Clarence. 1784. Charles, duke of Rutland, Feb. 24 ; died Oct.
1367, Gerald, earl of Desmond. 1369 and 24, 1787.
1374, William de Windsor. 1376, Maurice, 1787. George, 'marquess of Buckingham (late carl
earl of Kildare, and James, earl of Ormond. Temple), again, Dec. 16.
1380, Edmund Mortimer, earl of March. 1790. John, earl of Westmorland, Jan. 5.
1385, Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford. 1380 1795. William, earl Fitzwilliam, Jan. 4.
and 98, sir John Stanley. 1391, James, earl John, earl Camden, March 31.
of Ormond. 1393, Thomas, duke of Glou 1798. Charles, marquess Cornwallis, Juno 20.
cester. 1395, Roger de Mortimer, earl of 1801. Philip, earl of Hardwicke, May 35.
March. 1398, Reginald Grey and Thomas 1806. John, duke of Bedford. March 18.
de Holland. 1807. Charles, duke of Richmond. April ig.
1 401 and 1408, Thomas, earl of Lancaster. 1413, sir 1813. Charles, earl Whitworth, Aug. 26,
John Stanley and sir John Talbot. 1420, 1 817. Charles, earl Talbot, Oct. 9.
James, earl of Ormond. 1423, Edmund de 1821. Richard, marquess Wellesley, Dec. 29.
Mortimer, earl of March. 1425, sir John 1828. Henry, marquess of Anglesey, March 1.
Talbot. 1427, sir John do Grey. 1428, sir 1829. Hugh, duke of Northumberland, March 6.
John Sutton, lord Dudley. 1431 and 1435, 1830. Henry, marquess of Anglesey, again, Dec. 23.
sir Thomas Stanley. 1438, Leon, lord de 1833. Marquess Wollesley, again, Sept 26.
Welles. 1446, John, earl of Shrewsbury. 1834. Thomas, earl of Haddington, Dec. 20^.
1449, Richard, duke of York. 1461, George, 1835. Henry, marquess of Normanby, April 23.
duke of Clarence. 1470, earl of Worcester. 1839. Hugh, earl Fortescuo, April 3.
1478, John do la Pole, earl of Suffolk. 1481, 1841. Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, Sept 15.
Richard, earl of Kildare. 1483, Gerald, earl of 1844. William, lord Hoytesbury, July 12.
Kildare. 1484, John do la Pole, earl of 1846. John William, earl of Bcsborough, July 9 ;
Lincoln. 1485, Jasper, duke of Bedford, died May 16, 1847.
1494, Henry,duke of York, afterwards Henry 1847. George William Frederick, earl of Clarendon,
VIIL (his deputy, sir E. Poynings). 1496, May 26.
Gerald, earl of Kildare, and in 1504. 1521, 1852. Archibald William, earl of Eglinton, Feb. 28.
Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey. 1529, 1853. Edward Granville, earl of St Gormains, Jan.
Henry, duke of Richmond. 1560, Thomas, 1855. George, earl of Carlisle, March.
earl of Sussex. 1599, Robert, carl of Essex. 1858. Archibald, earl of Eglinton, again, Feb.,
1603. Sir Charles Blount, lord Mountjoy, made earl resigned.
of Devonshire. 1640, Thos., viscount Went- 1859. George, earl of Carlisle, again, June ; died
worth, earl of Strafford. 1643 and 1648, Dec. 5, 1864.
James, marquess of Ormond. 1647, Philip ' 1864. John, lord Wodehousc, Nov. 1.
Flood. The learned antiquary, Thomas Innes, of the Scots' Collego of Paris, expressed bis wonder that
" the learned men of the Irish nation have not, like those of other nations, yet published the valuable
remains of their ancient history whole and entire, with just translations, in order to separate what is
fabulous and only grounded on the traditions of their poets and bards, from what is certain history."
" O'Flaherty, Keating, Toland, Kennedy, and other modern Irish historians, have rendered all uncertain,
by deducing their history from the Deluge with as much assurance as they deliver the transactions of
Ireland from St. Patrick's time."—Anderson. The " Annals of the Four Masters," edited by Dr. Donovan,
were published in Irish and English in 1848.
* Lord justices and deputies, and latterly Lords Lieutenant. It has been several times proposed
to abolish the viceroyalty of Ireland, but without success. Tho last time, March 25, 1858.
IRK 400 1RU
IRELAND FORGERIES. In 1796 W. H. Ireland made public the Shakspeare manu
scripts which he had forged, and deceived many critics. The play, Vortigern, was perforated
at Drury-lane theatre on April 2, 1796. He shortly after acknowledged the forgery, and
published his " Confessio 1805. He died in 1835.
IRIDIUM and OSMIUM. In i8o4'Tennaut discovered these two rare metals in the ore
of platinum, in which, in 1845, Claus discovered a third, Ruthenium.
IRON was found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, owing to the forest having been burnt by
lightning, 1432 B.C. Arundelian Marbles. [1407, Hales; 1283, Clinton.] The Greeks
ascribed the discovery of iron to themselves, and referred glass to the Phoenicians. Moses
relates that iron was wrought l>y Tubal-Cain. Iron furnaces among the Romans were
unprovided with bellows, but were placed on eminences with the grate in the direction of
the prevailing winds. Swedish iron is very celebrated, and Dannemora is the greatest mine
of Sweden.
Belgium was an early seat of the iron-manufac- The operation termed puddling, and other very great
turo ; coal said to have beeu employed at Marche- improvements in the manufacture, invented by-
les-damcs, 134a Mr. Uenry Uort. between 1781 and 1826, who ditl
British iron cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baudc, in not reap the due reward of his ingenuity.
Sussex, 1543. ftymere Fadera. Mr. Henry Bessemer made known his method of
Iron mills used for slitting iron into bars for smiths, manufacturing iron and steel, which is considered,
by Godfrey Bochs, 1590. to possess many advantages, 1856.
Tinning of iron introduced from Bohemia, 1681. Strike of thepnddlcrs and lock-out of the masters in
Till about 1730 iron ores were smelted entirely Staffordshire, Northumberland, &c, lasted during
with wood charcoal, which did not wholly give March, April, and May, 1865.
way to coal and cuke till 1788.
IRON" PRODUCED IN GREAT BRITAIN.
1740 59 furnacos 17,350 tons. 1820 . . 260 furnacos 400,000 tons.
1 783 77 »» 61,900 1825 • • 374 5*1.367 ,,
121 ,, 124.789 .> 1840 . • 402 ,, 1,396,400 ,,
168 „ 227,000 ,, 1848 . . 623 „ ■ .998.S58 „
18^6 227 ,| 250,000 ,, 1852 . . . ess 2,701.000 ,,
In 1855, 3,217,154 tons of pig iron were produced ; in 1857, 3,659,447 tons ; in 1864, 4,767,951 tons.
IRON C'KOWN (of Italy) is of gold, having inside a ring of iron, said to have been
forged from the nails of Christ's cross, and was made by order of Theudelinde for her
husband, Agilulf, king of the Longobards, 591. She presented it (to be kept) to the church
at Monza. Charlemagno*was crowned with this crown, and after him all the emperors who
were kings of Lombard)' ; Napoleon 1. at Milan, on May 26, 1805, put it on his head, saying
" Dieu me Va doniUe; gare a qui y tottekcra." (God has given it to me ; woe to him who
shall touch it.) He founded the order of the Iron Crown, which still continues. The crown
was removed from Monza to Mantua by the Austrians, on April 23, 1859.
IRON-MASK, tiik Man with the.* A mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a mask
and closely confined, under M. de St. Mais, at Pignerol, Sainte Marguerite, and afterwards
at the Bastile. He was of noble mien, and was treated with profound respect ; but his
keepers had orders to despatch him if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself always placed
the dishes on his table, and stood in his presence. He died Nov. 19, 1703.
IRON-PLATED SHIPS. See under Navy of England and Untied States, 1S62.
IRUN (a frontier village of Spain). On the 16th May, 1837, the British auxiliary legion
under general Evans, marched from St. Sebastian to attack Irun (held by the Carlists),
which after a desperate resistance, was carried by assault, May 17.
* Somo conjecture this person to have been an Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from Constanti
nople (who diod ton yoars before tho mask) : others that he was the count de Vermandois, son of Louis XIV. ,
although ho was reported to have perished in the camp before Dixmude. More believe him to havo been
the celebrated duke of Beaufort, whose head is recorded to have been taken off beforo Candia ; while still
more assert that he was the unfortunate James, duko of Monmouth, who—in tho imagination of the
Londoners at least—was executed on Towcr-hilL There are two bettor conjectures ; he was said to have
been either a son of Anno of Austria, queen of Louis XIII., his father being the cardinal Mazarine (to whom
that dowagor-queen was private^' married), or the duko of Buckingham : or to havo been the twin
brother of Louis XIV., whoso birth was concealed to prevent the civil dissensions in France, which it
might one day havo caused. The last conjocturc was received by Voltaire and many others. It has been
more recently conjectured that Fouquet, an eminent statesman in the time of Louis XIV., was the Masque
de Fer : and a count Mattliioli, secretary of state to Charles III., duke of Mantua, is supposed by M. Delort,
in a later publication, to have been the victim. The right hon. Agar Ellis (afterwards lord Dover), in an
interesting narrative, endeavours to provo Matthioli to have been the porson. The mask, it seems, was
not made of iron ; but of black velvet, strengthened with whalebone, and fastened bohind the head with
a padlock.
IUV 401 ITA
1RVINGITES, or the followers of the rev. Edward Irving,* who now call themselves the
"Holy Catholic Apostolic Church." They use a liturgy (framed in 1842, and enlarged
'8S3)> an(i have church officers named apostles, angels, prophets, &c. In 1852 lighted
candles were placed on the magnificent altar, and burning of incense during prayers was
prescribed. The Gothic church in Gordon-square was solemnly opened Jan. 1, 1854. It is
said that all who join the church offer it a tenth of their income. They had 30 chapels in
England in 185 1.
ISAURIA (a province in Asia Minor), was retaken from the Saracens by the emperor
Leo III., who founded the Isaurian dynasty, which ended with Constantine VI. in 797.
ISERNIA, S. Italy. Here the Sardinian general, Cialdini, defeated the Neapolitans,
Oct. 17, i860.
ISLAM, or Eslam, submission to God, the name given to Mahometanism {which sec).
ISLE op France. See Mauritius, Man, Ac.
ISLES, Bishopric of. This see contained not only the Hebudes, Hebrides, or Western
Isles, but the Isle of Man, which for nearly 400 years had been a separate bishopric. The
first bishop of the Isles was Amphibalus, 360. The Isle of Ily was in former ages a place
famous for sanctity and learning, and early the scat of a bishop ; it was denominated
Icolumkill from St. Columba, the companion of St. Patrick, founding a monastery here in
the 6th century, which was the parent of above 100 other monasteries in England and Ireland.
Since the revolution (when this bishopric was discontinued) the Isles have been joined to
Moray and Ross, or to Ross alone. In 1847, however, Argyll and the Isles were made a
seventh post-revolution and distinct bishopric. See Bishops.
ISMAIL (Bessarabia). After a long sicgo by the Russians, who lost 20,000 men before
the place, the town was taken by storm, Dec. 22, 1 790 ; when Suwarrow, the most merciless
warrior of modern times, put the brave Turkish garrison (30,000 men) to the sword, and
delivered up Ismail to pillage, and ordered the massacre of 6000 women. By the treaty of
Paris in 1856 Ismail was restored to Turkey. It was ceded to Moldavia in 1856.
ISPAHAN was made the capital of Persia by Abbas the Great, in 1590. It ceased to be
so in 1796, when Teheran became the capital.
ISRAEL, Kingdom of. Seo Jews.
ISSUS (Asia Minor), the site of Alexander's second great battle with Darius, whose queen
and family were captured, Oct. 333 B.C. The Persian army, accoTding to Justin, consisted
of 400,000 foot and 100,000 horse ; 61,000 of the former and 10,000 of the latter were left
dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken prisoners.
ISTHMIAN GAMES received their name from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were
observed : instituted by Sisyphus, about 1406 B.C., in honour of Melicertcs, a sea-god.
Lcnglct. They were re-instituted in honour of Neptune by Theseus about 1239 B.C. ; and
their celebration was held so sacred, that even a public calamity did not prevent it. The
games were revived by Julian, A. D. 362.
ISTRIA was finally subdued by the Romans, 177 B.C. After various changes it came
under the rule of Venice in 1378.
ITALY (either from Italus, an early king, or ilalus, a bull calf) is called the garden of
Europe. The invading Pelasgians from Greece, and the Aborigines (Umbrians, Oscans, and
Etruscans), combined, form the renowned Latin race, still possessing the southern part of
Europe. The history of Italy is soon absorbed into that of Rome, founded 753 B.C. Previous
to the 1 5th century it was desolated by intestine wars and the interference of the German
emperors ; since then, Spain, France, and Germany have struggled for the possession of the
country, which has been divided among them several times. Spain predominated in Italy
during the 16th and 17th centuries : but was compelled to yield to the house of Austria at
the beginuing of the 18th. The victories of Bonaparte in 1797-8 changed the government
of Italy ; but the Austrian rule was re-established at the peace in 1814. In 1848 the Milanese
* Edward Irving was born Aug. 15, 1793, and was engaged as assistant to Dr. Chalmers, at Glasgow,
in 1819. In 182a he attracted immense crowds of most distinguished persons to his sermons at the Scotch
church, Hatton-garden. A new church was built for him in Regent-square in 1837. Soon after bo pro
pounded new doctrines on the human nature of Christ : and the * 1 Utterances of Unknown Tongues " which
began in his congrogation with a Hiss Hall and Mr. Taplin, Oct 16. 1831, were countenanced by him, as of
divine inspiration. He was expelled from the Scotch church, March 15, 1833. His church, "recon
stituted with the threefold cord of a sevenfold ministry," was removed to Newman-street. He died
Dec. 8, 1834.
1) D
ITA 402 ITA
and Venetians revolted and joined Piedmont, but were subdued by Radetzky. The hostile
feeling between Austria and Piedmont gradually increased till war broke out in April, 1859.
The Austrians were defeated, and the kingdom of Italy, comprising Piedmont, Sardiniii,
Lombardy, Tuscany, Modena, Parma, the Romngna, Naples, and Sicily was re-established,
March 17, 1861, by the Italian parliament (consisting of 443 deputies from 59 provinces).
On Oct. 29, 1861, the internal government was re-organized ; the 59 provinces were placed
under prefects, subject to four directors-general. In 1861, the population was 21,728,529. —
Kstimatod revenue, 25,000,000/. ; expenditure, 30,000,000/. For details see Rome and
the various Italian cities throughout the volume.
Italy (Saturnia) fabled to have been ruled by The latter defeated and made prisoner at Pavia 1525
Saturn during the gulden age. Parma and Plaeentia made a duchy for his
Arrival of (Enotrus from Arcadia, 1710B.C. ; and fahiily by po]>e Paul III. (Alexander Faraese) 1545
of Evander about b.c. 1240 Peace of Cateau-Cambresis '559
jKneas the Trojan lands in Italy, defeats and War of tho Mantuan succession . . . 1627-3T
kills Turnus, marries Lavinia, daughter of Catinat and the French defeat tho duke of
king Latinus, and founds Lavinium, in South Savoy at MarsagHa .... Oct. 4, 1693
Italy 1183 &c. War of SpauUk succession commences in Italy 1701
Creek colonies (see Magna Gixrcia) founded 974—443 Battle of Turin Sept 7, 1706
ltomulus builds Rome . .... 753 Division of Italy at tho peace of Utrecht . . 1713
[For subsequent history, see Borne.] Tho Duke of Savoy becomes king of Sardinia . 1718
Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, establishes tho Successful French campaign in Italy . . . 1745
kingdom of Italy ..... a.d. 476 Milan, &c., obtained by the house of Austria,
The Ostrogoths invade Italy, and retain it till . 491 1706 ; confirmed by treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 174S
They are expelled by tho Imperial generals Division of the Venetian states by France and
Narses and Bclisarius ..... 552 Austria by tho treaty of Campo Formio ; Cis
[See Kings of Italy, p. 404, and Iron Croien.] alpine republic founded 1797
Narses, governor of Italy, invites the Lombards Italy overrun, 1796, and Pius VI. deposed by
from Germany, 568 ; who overrun Italy . 596 Bonaparte 179?
Venice first governed by a dogo • 697 The Russians, under Suwarrow, defeat tho
Pepin gives Raveuna to the pope ■ "75T French at Treb'a, Ac *799
Charlemagne invades Italy, 774 ; crowned cm The Italian republic (Bonaparte president) . 1802
peror of the west at Rome- by _/ pope Leo III. Napoleon crowned king of Italy . . May 26, 1805
The Saracens invado_Italy and settle at 13ari . 842 Eugene Beauharnois made viceroy of Italy .
Genoa becomes important ..... 1000 Austria loses her Italian possessions by the
The Saracens expelled by tho Normans . 1016-17 treaty of Presburg ; ratified . . Jan. 1, 1S06
Pope Gregory VII., surnamed Hildcbrand, pre The kingdom ceases on tho overthrow of Napo
tends to universal sovereignty, in which ho leon, 1814; the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom
is assisted by Matilda, countess of Tuscany, established for Austria . . . April 7, 1815
mistress of tho greater part of Italy . . 1073-85 Insurrection in Lombardy and Venice, March ;
Disputes between the popes nnd emperors, supported by tho king of Sardinia, April ;
relative to ecclesiastical investitures, be^in and the pope, Juno 1S43
about 1073, and long agitate Italy and Ger The king defeated at Novara, March 23 ; and
many. Lombardy reverts to Austria, May . . . 1849
Rise of the Lombard cities . . . about 1 120 fSee Sardinia and Austria.]
Who war with each other ..... 1144 " Napoleon UI. et I Italie " published Feb. 1S59
The Venetians obtain many victories over tho The Austrian ultimatum rejected by Sardinia, M
Eastern emperors 1125 April 26,
Wars of the Guvlfs and Ghibelines (which *et) Tho Austrians cross the Ticino, April 27 ; and
begin about 1161 the French enter Genoa . . . May 3, (,
Frederic I. (Barbarossa) interferes : his wars 1154-75 Peaceful revolutions at Florenco, April 27 ;
Lombard league formed 1167 Parma, May 3; Modena Juno 15,
His defeat at Lcguano 11 76 The Austrians defeated at Montebello, May 20;
Peace of Constance 1183 Palestro, May 30-31 ; Magenta, June 4 ;
Civil wars again 1199 Ac. Marignano, Juno 8 ; Solferino . June 24, „
Wars of Frederick II 1236-50 Provisional governments established at Flo
His natural son, Manfred, king of Sicily, de rence, April 27 : Parma, May ; and Modena,
feated and killed at tho battle of Benevento. [The sovereigns retire.] . . Juno 15, ,,
by Charles of Anjou . . Feb. 26, 1266 Insurrection in the Papal States ; Bologna,
Who also defeats Conradin, at Tagliacowo, Ferrara, Arc. .... June 13-15,
Aug. 23, t268 Massacre of tho Insurgents at Perugia by the
The Visconti rule at Milan 1277 Swiss troops .... Juno 20, ,,
The Sicilian vespers, March 30 ; the French ex The Allies cross tho Miucio . . . July 1,
pelled from Sicily 1282 Armistice between Austria and Franco, July 8, „
Clement V. (Pope, 1305), fixes his residence at Preliminaries of peace signed at Villafrnnca ;
Avignon in France 1308 Lombardy surrendered to Sardinia, July n, „
Louis Gonzaga makes himself master of Man Italy dismayed at the peace ; agitation at Milan,
tua, with the title of imperial vicar . . . 1328 Florence, Modena, Parma, &c, resignation
First doge of Genoa appointed .... 1339 of count Cavour as minister . . July. .,
Charles VIII. of France invades Italy, and con The pope appeals to Euroi>e against the king of
quers Naples 1495 Sardinia July 12, ,,
But loses it in 1496 Garibaldi exhorts the Italians to arm . July 19, ,,
Louis XII. joins Venice and conquers Milan Grand duke of Tuscany abdicates . July 2:, (,
(soon lost) 1499 Constitutional assemblies meet at Florence,
League of Cambray (1508) against Venice, Aug. 11, and at Modena . ■ . Aug 16 ,,
which is despoiled of its Italian possessions 509 Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the Ron»agna
Loo. X. pope, patron of literature and art 1513-22 enter into a defensive alliance, Aug. 20 ; de
Wars of Charles V. and Francis I. 1515-21 clare for annexation to Piedmont, Aug 20—
ITA 403 ITA
ITALY, continual.
Sept. 10 ; fiscal restrictions between them 18, which decrees Victor-Emmanuel king of
and Piedmont abolished . . Oct. 10, 1859■ ] Italy Feb. 26, 1861
Assassination of col. Anviti at Parma . Oct. 5, „ I Naples unsettled through reactionary intrigues
Garibaldi appeals to the Neapolitans ; subscrip 1 of the papal party . . March and April,
tions in Italy and elsewhere to supply arms i The new kingdom recognised by Great Britain,
for the Italians Oct. March 31, ,,
Tuscany, &c. , choose the prince Eugene of Carig- ! Order for the levy of 70,000 soldiers . April. „
nan-Savoy, as regent of central Italy, Nov. 5 ; I Cavour forms a new ministry, including niem-
the king of Sardinia refusing bis consent, | bors from all parts of Italy . . April, „
the prince declines the office, but recom The pope protests against the kingdom,
mends the chevalier Buoncammgni, Nov. 14, „ April 15, „
Garibaldi retires from the Sardinian service, Altercation in Parliament between Cavour and
Nov. 18, „ Garibaldi, April 18 ; reconciled . April 25, ,,
New Sardinian constitution proclaimed, Bourbonist bands defeated . May 7, &c,
Dec. 7, Prince of Carignan resigns ; San Martino ap
TheVon{ir£&t'
pope condemns
. the pamphlet ' ' Le Pape et /<
Doc. 31, „ Death pointed lieutenant .... May 13, ,,
of count Cavour, aged 52 ; intense grief
The emperor Napoleon recommends the pope of the king and nation . . . June 6, „
to give up the legations . . Doc. 31, „ Ricasoli forms a ministry to continue Cavour*s
The pope refuses, and denounces the emperor, policy June ix, „
Jan. 8, i860» The kingdom recognised by France .June 24,
Count Cavour charged with the formation of a San Martino resigns the government of Naples ;
ministry Jan. 16, active measures taken against tho insurgents
Annexation to Sardinia voted for (by universal and brigands by Cialdini, his successor, ap
suffrage) in Parma, Modcna and the Bo- pointed July 16,
magna, March 13; Tuscany, March 16; ac The king opens the exhibition of Italian in
cepted by the king . . . March 18-22, ,, dustry at Florence . . Sept. 14, ,,
Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to Franco signed, The kingdom recognised by Portugal and Bel
March 24 ; approved by the Sardinian par gium, Oct. 1 ; divided into fifty-nino pre
liament May 29, ,, fectures, &c. Oct. 13,
The French troops retire from Italy . May, Severe skirmishes in the south with brigands
Vain insurrections in Sicily, April 4 ; May 2, ,, and foreign emissaries in the cause of Francis
Garibaldi lands at Marsala in Sicily, May n ; II Oct. „
and assumes the office of dictator. May 14 ; Cialdini retires, and La Marmora becomes lieu
he defeats the Neapolitans at Calatifimi, tenant-general of Naples . , . Nov. 2, ,,
May 15 ; and at Melazzo, July 20 ; by a con Brigandage still prevailing in the south, aided
vention the Neapolitans agree to evacuate by the king of Naples ; insurgents defeaU d ;
Sicily (see Sicily) .... July 30, „ and many killed . . . . Nov. 19, ,,
Garibaldi lands at Reggio in Calabria, Aug. 18; Jose" Borges, a Spaniard, lands in Calabria, Sept.
enters Naples ; the King, Francis II., retires, 15 ; calls on the people to rise for Francis II.,
Sept. 7, „ Sept. ; taken and shot . . . Dec. 8, ,,
Insurrection in the Papal States, Sept. 8; the The reactionist warfare continues, the cruelties
Sardinians enter them, Sept. 11 ; defeat the of the brigands lead to severe reprisals, Dec. „
papal troops at Castel-fidardo, Sept. 18 ; be • Jan. and Feb. i86\*
siege and take Ancona, Sept. 17-29; Victor- The minister Ricasoli compelled to resign by
Emmanuel takes the command of his army, court influence, March 1 ; Rattazzi forms an
Oct. 4, „ administration .... March 3, ,,
The Sardinians enter the kingdom of Naples, - Tho kingdom recognised by Prussia March 1, ,,
Oct. 15 ; defeat the Neapolitans at Iseroia, Surrender of Civatella del Tronto, the last
Oct 17, „ TriumphantBourbon fortress in Sicily . . March 14, ,,
Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitans at the Vol- progress ofGaribaldithrough Italy,
turno, Oct. 1, i860; meets Victor-Emmanuel, establishing rifle clubs . March and April, ,,
and says, " King of Italy ! " the latter replies, Mr. J. F. Bishop, an active English Bourbonist
"I thank you!" .... Oct. 26, propagandist, captured . . . April 2, „
By universal suffrage, Sicily and Naples vote for Conspiracy among the Neapolitan soldiers at
annexation to Sardinia . . Oct. 21, „ Milan suppressed . . April 19, ,,
Capua bombarded ; the Neapolitans retire, Nov. The king received at Naples with great en
2 ; and arc defeated at thcGarigliano, Nov. 3, „ thusiasm April 28, ,,
Victor-Emmanuel enters Naples as king, Nov. Tho French general Guyon aids in the suppres
7 ; Garibaldi resigns the dictatorship and re sion of the Bourbonist brigands . . April
tires to Caprera Nov. 9, ,, Tho kingdom recognised by Russia . July 3, ,,
Victor-Emmanuel receives homage from the Garibaldi proceeds to Sicily ; at Marsala he
Neapolitan clergy, &c. ; gives money to en calls for volunteers, giving as his watchword
courage education ; appoints a ministry, " Rome or death ! " . . . July rg, „
including Pocrio, &c. . . . Nov. ,, Calls on tho Hungarians to rise . . July 26, ,,
Siege of Gaeta commences ; attack by sea pre The king issues a proclamation against his pro
vented by tho presence of the French fleet, ceedings, as tending to rebellion . Aug. 3, „
Nov. 3, Ac. ,, Garibaldi enters Catania, and organises a pro
Treaty of Zurich signed (see Zurich) Nov. to, „ Sicily visional government . . . Aug. 19, „
Decree in honour of Garibaldi's army, Nov. 16, ,, proclaimed to be in a state of siege, Aug.
Reactionary movements suppressed, Nov.—Dec, „ Garibaldi 21 ; and pvit under general Cialdini, Aug. 22, „
Prince of Carignan-Savoy appointed lieutenant 1 at Catania issues his last proclamation ; embarks
of Naples. Jan. 1861 marches towards ; lands at Melito, in Calabria, and
The French floet retires from Gaeta, Jan. 19; Reggio, Aug. 35; La
after severe bombardment it surrenders ; Marmora proclaims a state of siege, Aug.
Francis II. retires to Rome . . Feb. 13, 26 ; Garibaldi and his followers fall in with,
Monastic establishments in Naples abolished, the royalists, under Pallavicini, at Aspro-
with compensation to the inmates ; schools monte, where, after a short skirmish, he is
established Feb. „ wounded and taken prisoner,Aug. 29 ; removed
Assembly of the first Italian parliament, Feb. to Varignauo, near Spezzia . . Sept. 1,
D I) 2
ITA 404 ITA
ITALY, continued.
Mr. J. F. Bishop sentenced to ten years* im The convention approved by the chamber of
prisonment Bept. 6, 1862 deputies, Nov. 19 ; by tho senate (after an
General Durando issues a diplomatic circular able speech by Cfaldini, Dec. 6) Dec. 9, 1864
condemning Garibaldi's proceedings, yet as Decree for transfer of the capital published
serting the necessity of the Italian govern Dec. 11. ,,
ment possessing Rome . Sept. 10, „ Prince DTumbert resides at Naples . . Dec.
A subscription in England enables profossor Demonstration against the king at Turin ; he
Partridge, of King's College, London, to go to goes to Florence .... Feb. 3,
Garibaldi Bept. 19, Amnesty for political offences published ;
Princess Maria Pia married by proxy to tbo brigandage in the Neapolitan and Roman
king of Portugal .... Sept. 27, „ states increasing * . . . March, , ,
Garibaldi issues a rhetorical appeal to the Fruitier negotiations with the pope respecting
English nation, urging its intervention for the position of bishops in Italy, April to July „
the cause of liberty . . Sept. 28, The king and court proceed to Florence, May
Inflammatory manifesto addressed to the 13 ; ho opens tho Dante festival, the 600th
people of Italy by Joseph Mazzinl . Sept. „ anniversary of the poet's birth . May 14,
Amnesty granted to Garibaldi and his fol Mr. Moens, a British subject, seized and re
lowers Oct. 5, ,, tained by brigands . . . . May 15, „
Sharp reply of M. Drouyn de Lhuya to Du- 45 monks and others arrested at Salerno on
rando's note ...... Oct. 8, charge of a Bourbonist conspiracy, June 12, ,,
State of siege in Naples and Sicily abolished, Inauguration of a National Rifle Meeting at
Oct. 17, „ Florence ; the king fires the first shot June 18, „
Disorderly encounter between Italian and Numerous atrocities committed by brigands;
Austrian troops on the bonks of the Po, Giardullo and 8 brigands captured June 19, „
Nov. 1, „ The kingdom recognised by Spain . . July ,,
Father Passaglia and 10.000 (out of 80,000) Mr. Moens released after a ransom of 5000/. had
Italian priests sign a declaration against tho boon paid Aug. 26, „
temporal authority of the pope . . Nov. „ Bank of Italy established . . Nov. 7, 1S65
Garibaldi removed to Pisa, Nov. 9 ; the ball French troops leaving Italy ; general olection, -
extracted from his foot by Dr. Zanetti, tho moderate party predominate . Nov.
Nov. 23, The new parliament meets at Florence, Nov. 18, , ,
Meeting of parliament : determined opposition
to Rattazzi's ministry* Nov. 18; he resigns, KINGS OF ITALY.
Nov. 30, „
Now ministry formed, with Farina as president 476. Odoacer, king of the Henili, invades Italy, and
of tho council Doc. 9, ,, rules it : he was conquered and slain by
It declines further negotiations with France on 493. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths ; an ablo
tho Roman question Doc. 18, „ prince. Ho put to death the philosophers
Commercial treaty with France signed, Jan. 17, 1863 Boe'thius and Symmachus, falsely accused,
Farina resigns; Minghettf succeeds, March 24, ,, about 525.
Grand Cavour canal for irrigation of Piedmont 526. Athalaric, his grandson dies of the plague.
opened . June 1, ,, 534. Theodatus elected ; ~
Income tax bill passed .... July, „ 536. Vitiges elected.
Tristany and oiher bandits captnred . July, 540. Thoodebald elected ; 1
Commercial treaty with Great Britain signed, 541. Totila, or Badiula, a great prince; killed in
Au*. 6\ „ battle against the imperial army under
Death of Farina .... Sopt. 5, „ Narses.
Several bandits captured on board tho French ■552. Theras falls in battle. Italy subject for a short
ship Aunis ; given up to France, July; re time to the eastern empire.
stored to Italy Sept. 12, ,, 568. Alboln, king of the Lombards, with a hu?e
The army of Piedmont (50.000) consolidated by mixed army, conquers Italy ; poisoned by
La Marmora and expanded into tho " army of his wife Rosamond, for compelling her to
Italy" (250.000) Oct. ,, drink wine out of a cup formed of her father's
The king visits Naples ; reviews National Guard, skull.
Ac Nov. 11-17, „ 573. Cleoph ; assassinated.
General election ; triumph of the moderate 575. Autharis ; poisoned.
party Jan. 1864 491. Agilulph.
Garibaldi's visit to England amidst much en 615. Adaloald; poisoned,
thusiasm April, 625. Arioald.
Franco-Italian convention signed (French troops 636. Rotharis ; married the widow of Arioald ;
to quit Rome in two years [from Fob. 6, published a code of laws.
1865], Florence to be the capital of Italy, &,c), 652. Rodoald (son) ; assassinated.
Sept. 15, „ 653. Aribort I. (uncle).
Riots at Turin in conscquenco ; many persons 661. Bertharit and Godebert (sons) ; dethroned by
killed by the military . . Sept. 21, 22, ,, 662. Grimoald, duke of Bciievento.
Minghetti and his colleagues much blamed ; 671. Bertharit re-established.
resigns ; a ministry formed by La Marmora, 686. Cunibert (son).
Sopt. 24, „ 700. Luitbert ; dethroned by
Tho convention denounced by Gairibaldi. 701. Ragimbcrt.
Oct. 701. Aribert II. (son).
Desperate stato of the finances announced by 712. Ansprand elected.
Sella, the minister; he proposes stringent 712. Luitprand (son), a great prince, and a favourite
remedies Nov. of the church.
Railway direct from Turin to Florence opened, 744. Hildebrand (nephew) ; deposed.
Nov. 4, 744. Rachis, duke of Friuli, elected ; became a monk.
* In Dec. 1864, it was stated that 346 brigands had been killed in action ; 453 taken in action, and 132
surrendered. About 300 remained to be tracked. Many pretend to be subjects of the ex-king Francis 11.
r.f Naples.
ITI 405 JAF
ITALY, continued.
749. Astolph (brother). 894. Burcngcr I. and Lambert.
756. Dcsiderius ; quarrelled with the pope Adrian 921.
who invited Charlomagne into Italy; by 926. Hugh,, of Provence.and Rudolph of Burgundy.
whom Desiderius was deposed, and an end 945. Lothaire II.
put to the Lombard kingdom. 950. Bercnger II. ; deposed in
777. Pepin (son of Charlemagne). 961. By the emperor Otho the Great, who added
Si2. Bernard. Italy to the German empire.
820. Lothaire (son of Louis Io Debonnaire).
MODERN KIMOS OF ITALY.
EMPERORS. 1805. Napoleon proclaimed king of Italy, March 18 ;
875. Charles the Bald. crowned at Milan, May 26 ; abdicated, 1814.
877. Ciuioman. 1S61. Victor-Emmanuel II. (of Sardinia), born
879. Charles the Fat. March 14, 1820. Heir: Humbert, prince of
888. Bercnger I. Savoy, born March 14, 1844.
889. „ and Guy.
PRINCIPAL ITALIAN AUTHORS.1
Born Dkd Born Did Born I>;,.i
Dante . 1265 1 321 Tasso '544 Votta . ■ '745 1826
Pctrarca ■ x3°4 "374 Galileo . 1564 '5951642 Leopardi • 1798 .837
Boccaccio . ■ 1313 Mutastasio 1698 1783 Monti ■ 1754
Ariosto . • 1474 1533 Goldoni 1707 '795 Oiobcrtl . 1801 18S2
Machiavelli . 1469 1527, Parini 1729 ■799 Niculini . 1782 1S61
Guicciardini . 1482 1540 I A16eri . '749 1803 Manzoni ■ 1784
ITINERARIES. The Roman Itinerarium was a table of the stages between two important
places. The "Itineraria Antonini," embracing the whole Roman empire, usually ascribed
to the emperor Aurelius Antoninus, and his successors, a.d. 138-80, was probably based
upon the survey made by order of Julius Cresar, 44 H.c. The " Itinerarium Hierosolymi-
tanum " was drawn up for the use of the pilgrims about 333.
IVRY (near Evreux, N. W. France). Here Henry IV. totally defeated the League army,
March 14, 1590.
IVORY was brought to Solomon from Tarshish, about 992 11 c. (1 Kings x. 22). The
colossal statues of Jupiter, Minerva, &c. , by Phidias, were formed of ivory and gold, B. c. 444.
J.
J was distinguished from I by the Dutch scholars of the 16th century, and introduced
into the alphabet by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1550. Du/remioy.
JACOBINS, the original name of the Dominicans (which see). The Jacobin club (first
called "club Breton ") consisted of about forty gentlemen and men of letters, who met in
the hall of the Jacobin friars, at Paris, in Oct. 1789, to discuss political and other questions.
Fraternal societies were instituted in all the principal towns of the kingdom. Burke. The
club was closed Nov. II, 1794.
JACOBITES, a Christian sect, so called from Jacob Baradieus, a Syrian, about 541. See
Eidychians. The partisans of James II. (Latin, Jacobus II.) were so named after his expulsion
from England in 1688.
JACOBUS. A gold coin, so called from king James I. of England, in whose reign it was
struck, 1603-25.
JACQUARD LOOM. See Loom.
JACQUERI E, a terra applied to bands of revolted peasants : first given to a body of them
(headed by one Caillot, called Jacques Bonhomrac) which ravaged France during the captivity
of king John in 1358.
JAFFA, a seaport of Syria, celebrated in scripture as Joppa, whence Jonah embarked
(about 862 B.C.), and where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead (A.D. 38) ; in mythology the
place whence Perseus delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by the caliph Omar, a.d. 636 j
* The following terms are often used with reference to certain periods in tho history of Italian litera
ture and art. 1. Trecento (three hundred), from the birth of Dante (1265) to tho death 01 Boccaccio (1375),
which two, with Pctrarca, are styled " tho triumvirate of the Trecento." 2. Quattrocento (four hundred;,
from 1375 to the revival of Italian literature by Lorenzo do' Medici in the 15th century. During this period
Latin was revivod, to the prejudice of Italian. 3. Cinquccento (five hundred', from about 1480 to 1590. A
sensuous stylo of art, founded on the heathon mythology, began to prevail. 4. Seicento (six hundred),
from 1590 to 1700. The bad taste which prevailed during this period is ascribed to the influence of the
Spaniards and tho Jesuits throughout Italy. SeictntUli is a term of reproach. The Trecento and Cinquecralo
were the most flourishing periods.
JAG JAN
by tho Crusaders. 1090 ; and by Bonaparte, March 7*io, 1799 ; the French were driven out
by the British in June, the same year. Here, according to sir Robert Wilson, were massacred
3800 prisoners by Bonaparte ; but this is doubted. Jaffa suffered by an earthquake in Jan.
1837, when it is said that 13,000 persons were killed.
JAGELLOXS, a dynasty which at times reigned over Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, and
Bohemia, beginning with Jagellon, duke of Bohemia, 1381. It ended with John II. of
Poland, in 1668.
JAMAICA, a W. India island, discovered by Columbus, May 3, 1494. Tt was conquered
from the Spaniards by admiral Penn, with land forces commanded by Venables, May 3, 1655.
Population in 1861, 13,816 whites ; 81,074 coloured ; 346,374 blacks.
An awful earthquake horo . . . Juno 2, In May, 1853, tho dissension between the colo-
The Maroons (runaway slaves) permitted to niul legislature and sir Charles Grey, the
settle in the north of the island . I73S governor, occasioned his rec:Ul ; his successor,
Desolating hurricanes in 1722, 17 34. ;linl X75I sir II. Barkly, arrived .... Oct. 1853
In June, 179s, the Maroons rose against the Charles Henry Darling, appointed governor . 1857
English, and wore not quelled till . March, 1 f> Edward John*Eyre appointed governor . . 1864
Many transported to Sierra Ltone . . . 1800 Negro insurrection begins at Morant-bay, by-
Slave trade abolishod .... May r, 1807 resisting the capture of a nogro criminal,
Tremendous hurricane, by which tho whole Oct. 7 ; the court house fired on ; baron
island was deluged, hundreds of houses Ketelholdt, rev. V. Herschell, and many others
washed away, vessels wrecked, and a thou cruelly murdered and mutilated, Oct. ir, 12, 1865
sand persons drowned .... Oct. 1 Si 5 Rebellion spreads, and many atrocities are
Insurrection of the nogro slaves ; numerous committed ; it is suppressed by tho energy
plantations burnt; tho governor, lord Bcl- of the goveinor, the military and naval
morc, declared martial law . . Doc. 22, 183, officers, volunteers, the maroons, and the
Emancipation of the slaves . . . Aug. 1, loyal negroes* .... Oct. 13—94,
About 50,000 die of cholera in .... 1850
JAMES'S HALL, ST., near Piccadilly, erected for public meetings, &c, was opened
on March, 25, 1858, with a concert for the benefit of the Middlesex hospital. Mr. Owen
Jones was the architect.
JAMES'S PALACE, ST., London, was built by Henry VIII. on the site of an hospital
of the same name, 1530. It has been the official town-residence of the English court since
the fire at "Whitehall in 1695. The Park was a marsh till Henry VIII. enclosed and laid it
out in walks, 1530.
Much improved by Charles II., who employed The park improved by George IV. 1827, d $eq.
Le Notre to plant lime-tree*, anil to lay out The enclosure first opened to the public in Jan.
' ' the mall " for the purpose of playing a gamo 1829; the opening by Carlton-steps in . . 1831
with a ball called a mall .... 1668 Tho marble arch that fronted Buckingham
William III. granted a passage into it from palace removed to Cumberland-gate, Hyde-
Spring gardens 1699 park March 29, 185 1
A grand display of fireworks took place hero at An iron bridge over the ornamental water con
the peace, when the pagoda bridge erected structed . . - • . . * • .1857
horo by sir W. Congreve was burnt . Aug. 1, 1814
JANISSARTES (Turkish Uni tcMrit new soldiers), an order of infantry in the Turkish
army : originally, young prisoners trained to arms ; were first organised by Orcan, about 1330,
and remodelled by his son Amnrath I. about 1360 ; their numbers were increased by later
sovereigns. In later days they degenerated from their strict discipline, and several times
deposed the sultan. Owing to an insurrection of these troops on June 14, 1826, when nearly
3000 of them were killed, the Ottoman arm}' was re-organised, and a firman was issued on
June 17, abolishing the Janissaries.
JANSENISTS, persons who embraced the doctrines of Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Yores,
who died in 1638. He was a prelate of piety and morals, but his "Auguttinus," a book in
which he maintained the Augustinian doctrine of free grace, kindled a fierce controversy on
its publication in 1640, and was condemned by a bull of pope Urban VIII. in 1642. Through
the Jesuits, its vehement opponents, Jansenism, was condemned by Innocent X. in 1653, and
by the bull ITnigenitus, issued by Clement XI. in 1713. This bull the French church
rejected. Jansenism still exists at Utrecht and Haarlem. See Port Royalists.
JANUARY derives its name from Janus, an early Roman divinity. January was added
to the Roman calendar by Numa, 713 B.C. He placed it about the winter solstice, and made
* The chief instigators, Geo. Wm. Gordon, a coloured member of the legislative assembly, and Paul
Bogle, with many others, were tried and executed in a summary manner. Above 200 rebels were shot ;
and on Oct 24, above 200 men and 65 women remained tube tried. Those proceedings excited severe c
ment in England.
JAN JEA
it the first mouth, because Janus was supposed to preside over the beginning of all business.
In 1 75 1 the legal year in England was ordered to begin on Jan. I, instead of March 25.
JANUS, Temple of, at Home, was erected by Romulus, and kept open in time of war,
and closed in time of peace. During above 700 years it was shut—under Numa 714 b.c. ;
at the close of the first Punic war, 235 B.C. ; and under Augustus, 29, and 25 B.C. ; during
that long period of time, the Romans were continually employed in war.
JAPAN, an Asiatic empire, composed of five large and many small islands (Niphon the
principal). It was visited by Marco Polo, the Venetian traveller, in the 13th century ; and
by Mendez Pinto, a Portuguese, about 1535 or 1542 ; whose countrymen shortly after obtained
permission to found a settlement. The Jesuit missionaries who followed made a great number
of converts, who sent a deputation to pope Gregory XIII. in 1582 ; but a fierce persecution of
the Christians began in 1590, aggravated it is said by the indiscreet zeal and arrogance of
the Jesuits : thousauds of the converts suffered death ; and in 1639, the Portuguese were
utterly expelled from the empire. The Dutch trade with Japan commenced about 1600
under severe restrictions, and lias since been frequently suspended. The learned Engelbert
Kcempfer visited Japan in 1690, and published an account of it with plates.
An American expedition, under commodore cruelly assailed by a Japanose noble and his
Parry, reaches Jeddo, and is favourably re suite Sept. 14, 1862
ceived; but remains only a few days, J11I7 8, 1853 The batteries and vessels of the prince of
A treaty of commercial alliance concluded be Nagato fire on an English and a French vessel
tween the two countries . . . March, 1854 at the entrance of the straits of Simonosaki,
A similar treaty with the British . Oct. Nov. 15, 19, iB6^
Nagasaki and Hakodadi opened to European Some English, French, and American vessels
commerce bombard his forts and his vessels, July 15-19, 1863
Commercial treaty with Russia . Aug. 19, 1858 Reparation demanded ; ioo,ooo£. paid by the
Lord Elgin visits Japan, with a present of a government ; the prince of Satsuma resists
steamer for the emperor, and in honourably payment of 25,000/., his portion; admiral
received, July ; obtains the treaty of Jeddo, Kupcr enters the bay of Kagosinia, and is
opening Japan to British commerce, Aug..z6, ,, fired upon ; whereupon he bombards tho
The secular emperor dies (aged 36) . Sept. 16, „ town and burns the prince 's steamers,
An attempt made to assassinate the regent, Aug. 15, „
March, i860 Tie pays the 25,000!. . . . Dec. 14, „
A Japanese embassy visits Washington, New The Japanese minister announces that the
York, Act in the United States, ports opened by virtue of the treaties will be
May 14—June 30, „ closed June 24,
Received by Napoleon III. at Faris, April 13; The Japanese government refuse to abide by
in London, June ; in Holland, Prussia, &c. the treaties ; a combined fleet enters tho
July—Sept. 1S62 straits of Simonosaki, Sept. 4 ; and attacks
Attack on the British embassy at Jeddo ; some and destroys the Japanese batteries,
persons wounded .... Julys, I86r Sept. 5, 6, 1864
Japan quiet Dec. „ Major Baldwin and liout. Bird murdered, Nov.
Another attack on the English charge d'affaires 20 ; for which two assassins were executed in
frustrated .... June 26, 27, 1S62 Dec. ,,
Foreign ministers transfer the residence from Tho Japanese government are stated to be en
Jeddo to Yokohama . . . June 27, ,, deavouring to reduce the power of the nobles
Mr. Richardson murdered and his companions Aug. 1865
JARNAC (W. France). On March 13, 1569, the duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III.
of France, here defeated the Huguenots under Louis, prince of Conde, who was killed in
cold blood by Montesquieu. The victor (seventeen years of age), on account of his success
here and at Moncontour, was chosen king of Poland.
JASMINE, or Jessamine, Jasminum officinale, a native of Persia, &c, was broiight
hither from Circassia, before 1548. The Catalonian jasmine came from the East Indies, in
1629, and the yellow Indian jasmine in 1656.
JASSY, the capital of Moldavia, frequently occupied by the Russians ; taken by them in
1739 and 1769. A treaty between them and the Turks was bigued here Jan. 9, 1792.
JAVA, a large island in the Eastern Archipelago, is said to have been reached by the
Portuguese in 151 1, and by the Dutch in 1595. Tho latter, who now possess it, built
Batavia, the capital, about 1619. See Batavia. The atrocious massacre of 20,000 of the
unarmed natives by the Dutch, sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects,
took place in 1740. The island capitulated to the British, Sep. 18, 181 1. The sultan was
dethroned by the English, and the hereditary prince raised to the throne, in June, 1813.
Java was restored to Holland in 1814. In Aug. i860, the Swiss soldiers aided by the
natives here mutinied, but were soon reduced, and many suffered death.
JEAN DE LUZ, ST. (S. France, near the Pyrenees). Soult's strong position here was
taken by general Hill and marshal Beresford, Nov. 10, 1813.
.IEII ■i J Ell
.IEDDA, the port of Mecca, Arabia. On June 15, 185s, tlic fanatic Mahommcduns rose
and massacred twenty-six of the Christian inhabitants, among them the English and French
consuls and part of their families ; but many lied to the shipping. On the delay of justice,
commodore Pullcn bombarded the town, July 25 and 26. On Aug. 6, eleven of the assassins
were executed ; the ringleaders also were afterwards executed.
JEDDO, OR Yeddo, the capital of Japan, on the island of Niphon, contains about
2,000,000 inhabitants. The emperor's palace is said to have n hall of audience supported by
pillars of massive gold, and three towers, each nine stories high, covered with gold plates.
On Dec. 23, 1854, and Nov. 11, 1855, severe earthquakes occurred: during the latter,
57 temples, 100,000 houses, and about 30,000 persons were destroyed. See Japan.
JE MA IXTIEXDRA I, "I will maintain." The motto of the house of Nassau . When
William III. came to the throne of England, he continued this, but added " the liberties of
England and the Protestant religion," at the same time ordering that the old motto of the
royal arms, "Dieu el inon droit, ' should be retained on the great seal, 1689.
JEMAPPES (N.W. Belgium), the site of the first pitched battle gained by the French
republicans (under Dumouriez), in which 40,000 French troops forced 19,000 Austrians, who
were entrenched in woods and mountains, defended by redoubts and many cannon, Nov. 6,
1792. The number killed on each side was reckoned at 5000.
JENA AXD Aueustadt (Central Germany), where two battles were fought, Oct. 14, 1806,
between the Flench and Prussians. The French were commanded at Jena by Napoleon, and
at Auerstadt by Davnust : the Prussians by prince llohenlohe at the former place, and the
king of Prussia at the latter. The Prussians were defeated, losing nearly 20,000 killed and
wounded, and nearly as many prisoners, and 200 field-pieces ; the French lost 14,000 men.
Napoleon advanced to Berlin, and issued the Berlin decree {which see).
JENNERIAN INSTITUTION, founded 1S03. See Vaccination.
JERSEY. The chief island of the channel archipelago (which includes Guernsey, Sark,
Alderncy, &c), formerly held by the Romans in the 3rd and 4th centuries after Christ—
Jersey being termed Csesarea. The isles were captured by Rollo, and thus became an
appanage- of the duchy of Normandy, and were united to the crown of England by his
descendant, William the Conqueror. The inhabitants of the Channel Islands preferred to
remain subjects of king John, at the period of the conquest of Normandy by Philip
Augustus, and while retaining the laws, customs, and (until lately) the language of their
continental ancestors, have always remained firm in their allegiance to England. Almost every
war with France has been characterised by an attack on Jersey, the most successful of which,
under the baron de Rullecour, was defeated by the English garrison and Jersey militia,
commanded by major Pierson, Jan. 6, 1781. Mr. J. Bertrand Payne, in his "Armorial
of Jersey" and his "Gossiping Guide" has exhaustively treated the general and family
history of the island. The population of the isles in 1861, was 91,147.
JERUSALEM, called also Salem, 1913B.C (Gen. xiv. 18). Its king was slain by Joshua,
145 1 B.C. It was taken by David, 1048 B.C., who dwelt in the fort, calling it the city of
I )avid. See Jews.
The first temple founded by Solomon, 1012 b.c. ; I Jerusalem taken from the Christians by Saladin 1187
and solemnly dedicated cm Friday . Oct 30, 1004 By tho Turks, who drive away the Saracens,
Jerusalem taken and razed to the ground ny 1217 & 1339
Titus : more than 1,100,000 of the Jews Surrendered to the emperor Frederic II. by
l>erishcd . . . . a.d. Sept. 8, 70 treaty 1228
A city (called *lia) built on the rains by Julius Taken by tho Turks 151;
Severus, in the time of Adrian . 130 Held by the French under Bunaparto Feb. 1799
The walls rebuilt by the ompi ess Eudoxia . 437 The protestant bishopric of Jerusalem erected,
Jerusalem taken by the Persians. 614 ; by the under the protection of Great Britain and
Saracens, 637 ; and by the Crusaders, when Prussia ; S. M. S. Alexander consecrated
70,000 infidels were put to the aword ; a new bishop ...... Nov. 7, 1841
kingdom founded . . . July 15, 1009 Jerusalem and the neighbourhood was sur
Tl:o assise of Jerusalem," a code of laws, es veyed by a party of royal engineers between
tablished by Godfrey of Bouillon . . . 1100 Sept. 1864 & June, 1865
CHRISTIAN KIXOS OF .TEB.CSAT.KSr.
Godfrey of Bouillon 1099 Sibyl, then his son Baldwin V 1x85
Baldwin I. 1100 Guy dc Lusignan 1186
Baldwin II 1118 Henry of Champagne 1192
Folk of Anjou 1131 ' Amauri do Lusignan 1197
Baldwin III 1 1 44 Jeanne dc Bricnne xaso
Amauri (or Almoric) Tida Emperor Frederic II 1229-39
Baldwin IV 1,73 .
"JERUSALEM DELIVERED," the great Italian epic, by Tasso, was published in 1580.
JES 4 09 JKW
JESTER is described as "a witty and jocose person, kept by princes to inform them of
their faults, and those of other men, under the disguise of a waggish story." Several of our
kings, particularly the Tudors, kept jesters. Rayhere, the founder of St. Bartholomew's
priory, West Smithfield, Loudon, 1 133, is said to have been a court jester and minstrel.
There was a jester at court in the reigns of James I. and Charles I., but we hear of no
licensed jester afterwards.
JESUITS, the society or company of Jesus, was founded by Ignatius Loyola, a page to
Ferdinand V. of Spain, subsequently an officer in his army, and afterwards canonised.
Having been wounded in both legs at the siege of Fampeluna, in 1521, he devoted himself
to theology, and renounced the military for the ecclesiastical profession. He dedicated his
life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and on his
return laid the foundation of his society at Paris, Aug. 16, 1534. He presented its insti
tutes, in 1539, to pope Paul III., who made many objections ; but Ignatius adding to the
vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit submission to the holy see,
the institution was confirmed by a bull, Sept. 27, 1540 ; the number of members was not to
exceed sixty. That restriction was taken- off by another bull, March 14, 1543 ; and popes
Julius III., Pius V., and Gregory XIII. granted great privileges. Francis Xavier, and other
missionaries, the first brothers, carried the order to the extremities of the habitable globe,
but it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly in Paris. See Paraguay anil
Jansenists.
The society condemned by the Sorbonne, Paris, Abolished by Clement XIV. (at the meeting of
15^4 ; expelled from France, 1594; read the Bourbon sovereigns) . . July 21, 1773
mitted. 1604 ; but after several decrees is Restored by Pius VI Aug. 7, 1814
totally suppressed in France and its pro Expelled from—Belgium, 1818; Russia, 1820;
perty confiscated 1 764 Spain, 1820, 1835; France, 1831, 1843; Por
Ordered by parliament to be expelled from tugal, 1834 ; Sardinia, Austria, and other
England. 1579, 1581, 1586, 1602 ; and finally states, 1848 ; Italy and Sicily . i860
by the Relief Act in 1829 The chief of the order appeals to the king of
Expelled from—Venice, 1607; Holland, 1708; Sardinia for redross of grievances . Oct 24, „
Portugal, 1759; Spain 1767 1
JESUIT'S BARK, called by the Spaniards fever-wood ; discovered, it is said, by a Jesuit,
about 1535 (and used by the order). It is taken from the cinchona or chinchona tree. Its
virtues wore not generally known till 1633, when it cured of fever the lady of the viceroy
at Peru. It was sold at one period for its weight in silver, and was introduced into France
in 1649 ; and it is said to have cured Louis XIV. of fever when he was dauphin. It came
into general use in 1680, and sir Hans Sloane introduced it here about 1700. The cinchona
plant was largely planted in the Neilgherry hills, India, in 1861, and is thriving greatly.
See Quinine.
JESUS CHRIST, the Saviour of the World, stated to have been bom on Monday,
Dec. 25, a.m., 4004, in the year of Rome, 752 ; but this event should be dated four years
before the commencement of the common era. See Nativity. The following dates are given
by ecclesiastical writers. Christ's baptism by John, and his first ministry, Jt. D. 30. He
celebrated the last passover, and instituted the sacrament on Thursday, April 2, 33 ; was
crucified on Friday, April 3, at three o'clock in the afternoon ; arose April 5 ; ascended to
heaven from Mount Olivet on Thursday, May 14 ; and the Holy Spirit descended on his
disciples on Sunday, the day of Pentecost, May 24. The divinity of Christ, denied by the
Arians, was affirmed by the council of Nice, 325.
JEWELLERY, worn by most of the early nations. Pliny the elder, says he saw Lollia
Paulina (the most beautiful woman of her time, and wife of Cains Caesar, and afterwards of
Caligula) wearing ornaments which were valued at 322,916?. sterling. Jewels were worn in
France by Agnes Sorel in 1434, and extensively encouraged in England about 1685. The
standard of gold for jewellery was lowered by parliament in 1854.
JEWISH ERA. The Jews usually employed the era of the Seleucida; until the 15th
century, when a new mode of computing was adopted. They date from the creation, which
they consider to have been 3760 years and 3 months before the commencement of our era.
To reduce Jewish time to ours, subtract 3761 years.
JEWS, a people who derive their origin from Abraham, with whom God made a covenant,
1898, B.C. Gen. xvii.
CallofAbram B.C. loai The male children of the Israelites thrown into
Is^iac bom to Abraham .... 180/S the Nile; Moses born .... B.O. 1571
Birth of Esau and Jacob 1837 The Passover instituted. The Israelites go out
Death of Abraham 1822 of Egypt, and cross the Red Sea . . . 1491
oseph sold into Egypt 1729 The law promulgated from Mount Sinai . , „
JEW 410 JEW
JEWS, continued.
The tabernacle set up . . b.c. 1490 D.r. King* ofJudah. Kings of'Israel. PropkttM.
Joshua lends the Israelites into Canaan . . 1451 S i4 Athaliah . Jehu.
The first bondage (Othniel, 1405) . . . . 1413 ( Joash
878. I hoahaa. J or Je- \
The second bondage (Ehud, 1325) . . . 1343 Jeboahaz.
The third bondage (Deborah and Barak, 1285) . 1305 857. At maziah
The fourth bondago (Gideon, 1245) . . . 1252 840. Jehoash (839)
The fifth bondage (Jephthah, 1187) . . . 1206 825 Jeroboam II. . Jonah.
The sixth bondage
Samson slays the Philiatinos . . , .1136
1157 810. -;(( Uzziah
Azariah. J
or )
Samuel governs as judge, about . . . . 11 20 784. Anarchy.
Samson pulls down the temple of Dagon . . 1117 773- Zechariah. . . JoeL
Saul made king 1095 J Shallum.
David slays Goliath, about 1063 77*. 1 Menahem.
Death of Saul ; David made king . . . . 1055 761. Pt'kahiab.
David besieges and takes Jerusalem, and makes 75* Pekah.
it his capital I Isaiah and
Solomon lays the .......
foundation of the temple . . 10481012 758. Jntham
Which is dedicated 1004 74* Ahaz.
Death of Solomon ; the kingdom divided . . 975 7i'»- Hoshea.
KINGDOM OF ISRAEL, 726. Hezckiah . . j1 [Captivity, 721.] > Nahum.
Jeroboam establishes idolatry .... 975 rx,8 Manaasch.
Bethel taken from Jeroboam; 500,000 Israel Anion . Jeremiah.
ites slain 957 641. Josiah . . . . Zepbaniah.
Israel afflicted with the famine predicted by (Jehoahaz ")
Elijah 906 Gio. (Shallum), \ . Ilabakkuk.
The Syrians besiege Samaria . . . . 901 Jehoiakim. J
Elijah translated to heaven .... 896 f Jehoakin "i . Daniel.
Miracles of Elisha the prophet . . 895 \ (Coniah), V
The Assyrian invasion under Phul . . .771 ( Zedckiah ) . EzekicL
Pekah besieges Jerusalom 741
Samaria taken by the king of Assyria : the ten BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY.
tribes are carried into captivity, and an end Daniol prophesies at Babylon . . . B.C. 603
is put to the kingdom of Israel . . .721 Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego, refusing
to worship the golden image, are cast into a
KINGDOM OF JUDAH. fiery furnace, but are delivered by the angel 5S7
Shlshak, king of Egypt, takes Jerusalem, and Obadiah prophesies
pillages the temple 971 Daniel declares tho meaning of the handwriting
Abijah defeats the king of Israel ; 50,000 men against Bclsbazzar 538
arc slain in battle 957 He is cast into the Hons' den ; he prophesies
llazael desolates Judah 857 the return from captivity, and the coming of
Pekah, king of Israel, lays siege to Jerusalem ; tho Messiah „
120,000 of the men of Judah are slain in one
day
Sennacherib invades Judea, but the destroying 741 RETURN FROM CAPTIVITY.
angel enters the camp of the Assyrians, ana Cyrus, sovereign of all Asia, publishes an edict
in one night destroys 185,000 of thorn . . 710 for the return of the Jews and rebuilding
Holoferncs hi killed at the siege of Bethulia by, of the temple 536
Haggai and Zechariah prophots
InJudith
repairing the temple, Hflktah discovers tho 656 Tho second temple finished .
The Jews delivered from Haman by Esther
March 10, M5
510
book of thg law, and Josiah keeps a solemn Ezra, the priest, arrives in Jerusalem to reform
Passover 624 abuses
Nebuchadnezzar invades Judea .... 605 Here t>egm the 70 weeks of years predicted by
lie besieges Jerusalem 599 Daniel, being 490 years beforo the crucifixion
Ho again invades Judea, and takes Jerusalem of the Redeemer 457
after a long siege 588 Tho walls of Jerusalem built 445
Jerusalem fired, the temple burnt, the walls Malachi the prophet 4*5
raced to the ground, ana the city reduced to [The Scripture history of the Jews ends, accord
ashes 587 ing to Etwbivs, in 442 B.C. ; and from this
KINGS. prophets. time Josephus and the Roman historians give
Saul began to reign , , B.C. 1095 Samuel. the best account of the Jews.]
David . . 1055 Nathan.
Solomon < . . 1015 THE GRECIAN EMPIRE.
Alexander tho Great passes out of Europe into
B.C. Kings ofJudah. Kings ofIsrael.
975. Rehoboain . Jeroboam I. . Abijah. HeAsiamarches againstJerusalem to besiege it, but 3?5
958. Abijah . it is said, on seeing Jaddus, the high-priest,
955. Asa . Nadab (954) Azariah. clad in his robes, he declares ho had seen
953- »» • . Baasha t, . Hanani. such a figure in a vision fn Macedouia, invit
930. (, . Elah „ Jehu. ing him to Asia, and promising to deliver tho
929. ,, Zimri . Persian empire into his hands ; he now goes
925- » Omri . to the temple, and offers sacrifices to the God
918. „ . Ahab . Elijah. of the Jews
•114.
[4. Jehoshaphat
Jehoshapuat . ,, Jerusalem taken by Ptolemy Soter .
gg7 Ahaziah Elisha. Ptolemy Philadelphus said to employ 7a Jews
( Jehoram or ) to translate the Scriptures
S96. . . I Joram. J Jahaziel. Antiochus takes Jerusalem, pillages the tcmplo,
and slays 40,000 of the inhabitants 1 ?o
889. Jehoram Government of tho Maccabees begins . . . 166
885. Ahaziah.
JEW 411 JEW
JEWS, continued.
Treaty with tho Romans ; the first on record A fatal distemper raging in Europe ; they are
with the Jews B.C. 161 suspected of having poisoned the springs, and
Judas Hyrcamis assumes tho title of " king of numbers are massacred. Lent/let. . . a.d. 1348
the Jews " 107 Jews are banished from Spain, Portugal, and
Jerusalem taken by tho Roman legions under France (considered by them as great a cala
Fompey 63 mity as the destruction of Jerusalem) . 1492-94
Edicts against Jews rescinded by pope Six-
TIOMAX EMPIRE. tusV 1588
Antipater made intendant of Judaja by Julius Jews favoured in Holland 1603
Cn'sar 49 After having been banished England 370 years,
Ilerod, son of Antipater, marries Miriamne, thoy are permitted to return by Cromwell,
daughter of the king 42 who grants a pension to Manasseh Ben Israel 1657
Invasion of the Parthians 40 Statute to compel them to maintain their pro-
Herod employs the aid of the senate ; thoy testant children enacted . . . .1702
decree him to be the king „ Jews acquire right to possess land in England 1723
Jcrusalom taken by Herod, and by the Roman Bill to naturalise the professors of tho Jewish
general Sosius 37 religion in Ireland (where 200 Jews then ro-
Herod rebuilds the temple .... 18 sided) refused the royal assent . . . . 1746
Jesus Cubist, the long-expected Messiah, is Statute to naturalise them passod . . . 1753
said to be born on Monday, Dec. 25, four years This act repealed on the petition of all the cities
before the common era . a.d. 4 in England 1754
Pontius Pilate is made procurator of Judoa . 26 The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and Avignon aro
John the Baptist begins to preach „ declared to be citizens of France . . . 1790
John the Baptist lwheaded 31 Sitting of the great Sanhedrim of Paris con
4'hrist's ministry and miracles .... 31-33 vened by the emperor Napoleon Sept. 18, j8o6
The crucifixion and resurrection of the Re London society for promoting Christianity
deemer 33 among the Jews 1808
The Jews persecuted for refusing to worship Alexander of Russia grants land on the sea of
Caligula 38 Azopb to converted Jews Sept. 1, 1820
Receive the right of Roman citizenship . . 41 Mr. David Salomons elected sheriff of London
CUudius banishes Jews from Rome ... 50 (the first Jewish one) ; an act passed to enable
T.tus takes Jerusalem ; the city and temple are him to act June 24, 1835
wicked and burnt, and 1,100,000 of the Jews Bill for Jewish emancipation in England lost
perish, multitudes destroying themselves . 70 on tho second reading by a majority In the
Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem (calling it .iElia commons, 228 against 165 . . May 17, 1836
Capitolina), and erects a temple to Jupiter . 130 Moses Moutefiore, esq., elected sheriff of Lon
Rebellion of Bar-cochba ; final desolation of don, and knighted by the queen, being tho
Judea 135-136 first Jew on whom that honour has been con
More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain by tho ferred Nov 9, 1837
Romans in 135-136 Ukase of the emperor of Russia, permitting the
| They are now banished from Judea by an edict title of citizen of the first class to b« held by
of the emperor, and are forbidden to return, any Jew who renders himself worthy of it . 1839
or even to look back upon their once flourish Owing to the disappearance of a Greek priest,
ing and beloved city, on pain of death. From a persecution of the Jews began at Damascus.
this period, the Jews have been scattered (See Damatcut) Feb. i, 1840
.among all other nations.] Act to relieve Jews elected to municipal offices
from taking oaths, &c, 9 Vict. . . . 1846
GENERAL HISTORY. Baron Lionel de Rothschild* returned to par
Jews first arrive in England .... 1078 liament for the city of London by a majority
Tlie Rabbi Maimonides lives about . . . * „ of 6619 votes ; his opponent, lord John Man
The Jews massacred in London, on the corona ners, polling only 3104 . . . July 3, 1849
tion day of Richard I., at the instigation of Alderman Salomons* elected raernber for
the priests . ... . . . 1189 Greenwich Juno 28, 1851
500 Jews besieged in York castle by the mob, The Jews' Oaths of Abjuration bill passed tho
cut each other's throats to avoid their fury . 1190 house of commons .... July 3, „
Jews of both sexes imprisoned ; their eyes or Baron Rothschild again returned for the city of
teeth plucked out, and numbers inhumanly London at the general elections, July, 1852 ;
butchered, by king John 1204 March, 1857 ; July, 1857 ; and . July, 1865
Thev circumcise and attempt to crucify a child Violent outbreak against the Jews in Stock
at Norwich ; the offenders are condemned in holm Sept 3, 1852
a fine of 20,000 marks 1235 The Jewish Oath bill passed in commons, April
They crucify a child at Lincoln, for which 15 ; thrown out in the lords . . April 29, 1853
i8 are hanged 1255 Alderman Salomons the first Jewish lora mayor
700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew having of London Nov. 9, 1855
forced a Christian to pay him more than 2*. The Jewish Oath bill several times passed in
per week as interest on a loan of 20*. SUnc. 1262 the commons and thrown out in tho lords . 1854-7
Statute that no Jew should enjoy a freehold, Edgar Mortara, a Jewish child, forcibly taken
passed 1269 from his parents by order of tho archbishop
Every Jew lending monoy on interest com of Bologna, on tho plea of having been bap
pelled to wear a plate on his breast, signi tized when an infant by a Roman Catholic
fying that he was a usurer, or to quit the maid-servant .... June 24, 1858
realm. Stow 1274 An act passed enabling Jews to sit in parlia
267 Jews hanged and quarterod for clipping ment by resolution of the house . July, ,,
coin 1278 Baron Lionel do Rothschild takes his seat as
15,660 Jews banished from England. Jtapin. . 1290 M.P. for London on July 26, ,, f
Much piUagcd and persecuted in France during The French government having in vain urged
the 14th and 15th centuries. Mortara's restoration to his parents, sir Moses
* Neither were permitted to sit.
t To commemorate this event the baron endowed a scholarship in the City of London SchooL
412 JUA
JEWS, continued.
Montefiore proceeds to Rome (but obtains no Oppressive laws againstthe Jewsin the Austrian
redress) Doc. 22, 1858 empire annulled . . Jan. 6, 10, i860
Alderman Salomonsclected M P. forGreenwich, Act passed permitting Jewish M.P.'s to omit
and baron Meyer dc Rothschild for llythe, from the oath the word} "on tbe faith of a
Feb. 15, 1859 Christian " Aug. 6, „
Protest respecting tho seizure of tho boy Mor- Additional political privileges granted to the
tnra signed at London by tho abp. of Canter Jews in Russia, Jan. 36 ; and in Polaud, June, 1862
bury, and bishops, noblemen, and gentlemen, Jews persecuted at Rome .... Dec. 1864
sent to tbe French ambassador, Oct. ; and Alderman Benjamin Samuel Phillips, second
presented to lord John Russell Nov. „ Jewish lord mayor .... Nov. 9, 1865
JOAN of ARC, the maul of Orleans, was horn at Domremy. The English under the
iluke of Bedford closely besieging Orleans, Joan of Arc pretended that she had a divine
commission to expel them, and Charles VII. entrusted her with the command of the French
troops. She raised the siege and entered Orleans with supplies, April 29, 1429 ; and the
English, who were before the place from Oct. 12 preceding, abandoned the enterprise May 8
following. She captured scvend towns in the possession of the English, whom she defeated
in a battle near Patay, June 18, 1429. In her various achievements no unfeminine crnelty
ever stained her conduct. She was wounded several times herself, but never shed any blood
with her own hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne, May 25, 1430 ; and, to the
great disgrace of the English, after a trial, was burnt for a witch at Rouen, May 30, 1431.
A statue of Joan of Arc, chiselled by the late princess Marie of France, was inaugurated at
Orleans, Sept. 13, 1851, and the 435th anniversary of its deliverance was celebrated in the
same city on May 14, 1865. See Patay, Battle of.
JOCKEY CLUB, instituted in the reign of Charles II., is mentioned in Heber's
" Racing Calendar," 1758.
JOHN, ST., Knights of. See Malta.
JOHN'S, ST. See Newfoundland, Cambridge, and Oxford.
JOHN'S GATE, ST., St. John's-square, Clerkenwell, London, a fine vestige of monastic
building, was the gate of the priory of St. John of Jerusalem (suppressed in 1540), and was
tho place where the Gentleman's Magazine was first published, Slarch 6, 1731. The house
was often visited by Dr. Johnson, Garrick, and their friends.
JOHN DOE and Richard Roe, names well known, as standing pledges for the prose
cution of suits. In early times real and substantial persons were required to pledge them
selves to answer to the crown for an amercement or fine set upon the plaintiff, for raising a
false accusation, if he brought an action without cause, or failed in it. And in 1285,
13 Edw. I. sheriffs and bailiffs were, before they made deliverance of the distress, to receive
pledges for the pursuing the suit, and for the return of the beasts, if return were awarded.
But this becoming a matter of form, the fictitious names of Doe and Roe were used until the
form was declared to be no longer necessary by the Common Law Procedure Act, 1852.
JOHN O'GROATS HOUSE, an ancient house formerly situated on Duncan's Bay
Head, the most northerly point in Great Britain, deriving its name from John of Groat, or
Groot, and his brothers, originally from Holland, said to nave settled here about 1489.*
JOHNSON'S CLUB. See Literary Club.
JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES (good and bad) have been very numerous during the
present century (especially in 1825 and 1846). Many acts have been passed for their
regulation ; the most important in 1857 and 1858. t Sec Companies and Limited Liability.
JOURNALS. See Newspapers.
JOURNALS, THE, of the House of Commons, commenced in 1547, first ordered to be
printed in 1752, when 5000?. were allowed to Mr. Hardinge for the execution of the work.
The journals of the House of Peers (commencing 1509) were ordered to be printed in 1767.
JUAN FERNANDEZ, an island in the Pacific, named from its discoverer in 1567.
Alexander Selkirk, a native of Scotland, was left on shore here by his captain for mutiny in
1 705. He lived alone more than four years, till he was discovered by captain Rogers in 1 709.
* This house was of an octagon shape, being one room, with eight windows and eight doors, to admit
eight members of the family, the beads of different branches of it, to prevent their quarrels for precedence
at tabic, which on a previous occasion had nigh proved fatal. Each came In by this contrivance at his owu
door, and sat at an octagon tablo, at which, of course, there was no chief place or head.
t An important act for the incorporation, regulation, and winding-up of trading companies and other
associations was passed in 1862.
JUB 413 JUL
From his narrative De Foo is said to have derived his Adventures of Robinson Crusoe,
published in 1719.
JUBILEES. The Jews were commanded to celebrate a jubilee eveiy fifty years,
1491 B.C. {Lev. xxv. 8). Among the Christians a jubilee every century was instituted by
pope Boniface VIII. in the year 1300, In the 16th century it was celebrated every fifty
years by command of pope Clement VI. ; and was afterwards reduced by Urban VI. tu
every thirty- third year ; and by Sixtus V. to every twenty-fifth year.
Skaktpeare's Jubilee, projected by David Gar- George III. entering into the 50th year of
rick, was celebrated at Shakspeare's birth his reign Oct 25, 1809
place, Stratford-on-Avon . Sept. 6, 7, 8, 1769 Jubilee in celebration of the general peace, and
Another Shakspearo festival at Stratford, of the centenary of the accession of the
April 23, 1836 Brunswick family .... Aug. 1, 1814
National jubilee In EngLuid on account of
JUDAH. See Jews.
JUDGES appointed by Goil, when the Israelites were in bondage, ruled from 1402 B.O.
till the election of Saul as king, 1095. See Jews, Justices, Circuits, Lords Justices, and Vice-
Chancellors.
Judges punished for bribery, and Thomas de Three judges impeached 1680
Weyland banished 1289 Judge Jetteries committed by the lord mayor
William de Thorp hanged for bribory . 1351 to the tower, where ho died .... 1689
John de Cavendish beheaded by the Kentish The judge's office mado tenable for life ("during
rebols 1382 good behaviour) instead of duringtue pleasure
Tresylian, chiefjustice, executed for favouring of the crown (by 13 Will. III. c. 1) . . 1703
despotism, and other judges condemned . 1388 Their commissions made permanent, notwith
The prince of Wales said to have been com standing the demise of the crown (bv 1 Geo.
mitted by judge Gascofgne for assaulting him Ill 17G1
on the bench 1412 Three additional judges appointed, one to each
Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, beheaded, law court, 1784; and again in . . . i8;o
July 6. T53S A new judge took his seat as vico-chancellor.
Judges threatened with impeachment, and May 5, 1 813
Berkeley taken off the bench and committed Two new vice-chancellors appointed . . . 1841
by the commons, on a charge of treason, A third vice chancellor and two new chancery
Feb. 13, 1641 judges (styled lords-justices) appointed . 1851
JUDICIAL COMMITTEE of the Privt Council. Sec Privy Council.
JUDICIAL SEPARATION of married persons may now bo decreed by the tl Divorce
court, established by act of parliament i857 Tho persons separated may not
marry again.
JUGGERNAUT, or " Lord of tho World," one of the incarnations of Krishna, is an idol
formed of an irregular pyramidal black stone, with two rich diamonds to represent eyes ;
the nose and mouth are painted vermilion. The number of pilgrims that visit the god is
stated at 1,200,000 annually ; some are crushed by the wheels of the car (so lately as Aug.
1864) ; a great many never return ; and, to the distance of fifty miles, the way is strewed
with human bones. The temple of Juggernaut has existed above 800 years. The state
allowance to the temple was suspended by the Indian government in June, 185 1.
JUGURTHINE WAR. Jugurtha murdered his cousin Hiempsal, king of Numidia,
and usurped his throne, 118 B.C. He gave him a share in tho government, but killed him
in 112. He then provoked the Romans to war. Cheilitis Metellus was first sent against
him, and defeated him in two battles ; and Marias brought him in chains to Rome to
adorn his triumph, 106 B.C., where he was put to death in 104. This war has been
immortalised by the pen of Sallust.
JULIAN PERIOD (invented by Joseph Scaliger, about 1583), a term of years produced
by the multiplication of the lunar cyclo 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman indiction 15. It
consists of 7980 years, and began 4713 years before our era. It has been employed in
computing time to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attendant on reckoning any period
antecedent to our era, an advantage which it has in common with the mundane eras
used at different times. By subtracting 4713 from tho Julian period, our era is found ;
if before Christ, subtract the Julian period from 4714. For Julian era, see Calendar
and Year.
JULIERS, a Prussian province ; was made a duchy in 1356 ; became the subject of
contention on the extinction of the ruling family in 1609 ; was allotted to Neuburg in
1659 ; seized by the French in 1794 ; and ceded to Prussia in 1815.
JUL 414 JUS
JULY, the seveuth, originally fifth, Roman month, named by Stare Antony from Julivs,
the surname of Cicsar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it.
JUNE, the sixth month, owes its name to Junius, which some derive from Juno, and
others from Juniores, this being for the young, as the month of May was for aged persons.
Ovid, in his Fasti, introduces Juno as claiming this month.
JUNIUS'S LETTERS began in the Public Advertiser, Jan. 21, 1769.*
JUNKER PARTY (Junker, German for young noble), a term applied to the aristocratic
party in Prussia, now in power under Otho von Bismarck-Schbnhausen, appointed prime
minister Oct. 9, 1862. Their political organ is the Kreuz-Zeitung.
JUNO, the planet, discovered by M. Harding, of Lilicnthal, near Bremen, Sept. 1, 1804.
Its distance from the sun is 254 millions of miles, and it accomplishes its revolutions in four
years and 128 days, at the rate of nearly 42,000 miles an hour. Its diameter is estimated
by German astronomers at 1424 English miles.
JUNONIA. Festivals in honour of Juno, celebrated at Rome, and instituted 431 E.c.
JUPITER, known as a planet to the Chaldeans, it is said 3000 n.c. The discovery of
the satellites is attributed to Simon Mayr (Marius) in 1609, but more generally* %>>
Galileo on Jan. 8, 1610. See Planets. Jupiter Ammon's celebrated temple in Libya
was visited by Alexander, 332 B.C. Cambyses' army sent against this temple perished
miserably, 525 b.c.
JURIDICAL SOCIETY was established in Feb. 1855, and opened with an address by
sir R. Bethell on May 12 following.
JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into England during the Saxon heptarchy,
mention being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen appointed to try causes
between the English and Welsh men of property, and made responsible, with their whole
estates real and personal, for false verdicts. Lambard. But by most authorities their
institution is ascribed to Alfred about 886. In Magna Charta, juries are insisted on as the
great bulwark of the people's liberty. When either party is an alien born, the jury shall be
one half denizens, and the other half aliens, statute 28 Edw. III. 1353. By the common
law a prisoner upon indictment or appeal might challenge peremptorily thirty-five, being
uuder three juries ; but a lord of parliament, and a peer of the realm, who is to be tried by
his peers, cannot challenge any of his peers. An act for the trial by jury in civil cases in
Scotland was passed in 1815. An act to consolidate and amend the laws relating to juries
in Ireland was passed 4 Will. IV. 1833. The constitution of 1791 established the trial In
jury in France. An imperial decree abolished trial by jury throughout the Austrian
empire, Jan. 15, l852.t
"JUSTE MILIEU," according to Louis-Philippe (in 1830), is the only principle of
government which can secure the welfare of France.
JUSTICES of the Peace are local magistrates, invested with extensive powers in
minor cases, but subject to supersession and punishment by the King's Bench for an abuse of
their authority. They were first nominated by William I. in 1076. Slow. Persons termed
conservators of the peace in each county were appointed by 1 Edw. III. c. 2, 1327 ; and their
duties were defined in 1360. The form of a commission of the peace settled by the judges,
23 Eliz. 1580. Hawkins. See Eyre.
JUSTICES, LORDS, were appointed by English sovereigns to govern during their
absence. Two lords justices of the court of appeal in chancery were appointed to give more
efficiency to the administration of justice in the court of chancery, having rank next after
* They have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William Gerard Hamilton, commonly called Single-speech
Hamilton," John Wilkes, Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ashburton), Serjeant Adair, the rev. J. Rosenhageu,
John Roberts, Charles Lloyd, Samuel Dyer, general Lee, the duke of Portland, Hugh Boyd, lord George
Sackville, and sir Philip Francis. The last-named is generally considered to have been the author. Junius
said, " I am the depositary of my own secret, and it shall perish with me."
t Coercion of Juries.—About the year 927, the plaintiff and defendant used to feed the Jury em-
pannclcd in their action, and hence arose the common law of denying sustenance to a jury after the hearing
of tho evidence. A jury may bo detained during the pleasure of the judge if they cannot agree upon a
verdict ; and may be confined without meat, drink, or fire, candlelight excepted, till they are unanimous.
—Some jurors have been fined for having fruit in their pockets, when they were withdrawn to consider of
their verdict, though thoy did not eat it. Leon. Dyer, 137. A jury at Sudbury not being able to agree, and
having been some time under duress, forcibly broke from tho court where they were locked up, and went
home, Oct. o, 1791. Phillips. In Scotland, Guernsey, Jersey, and France, juries decide by a majority ; in
France, since 1831, a majority of two-thirds is required.
JUS 415 KAL
the chief baron of the exchequer, from Oct. I, 1851. The rt. hon. J. L. Knight-Bruce and
lord Cranworth (afterwards lord chancellor) were the first lords justices ; the latter was
succeeded by air G. J. Turner in 1853.
JUSTICIARS. In ancient times the kings of England used to hear and determine causes ;
but it is declared by law that if the king cannot determine every controversy, he, to ease
himself, may divide the labour among persons, men of wisdom and fearing God, and out of
such to appoint judges. The Saxon kings of England appointed a judge after this manner,
who was, in fact, the king's deputy. After the Norman conquest, the person invested w ith
that power had the style of Capitalis Justicuc, or Justiciarius Anglitz. These judges con
tinued until the erection of the courts of king's bench and the 'common pleas. The first
justiciars of England were Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and William Fitz-Osborn, in 1067 ; and
the last was Philip Basset, in 1261.
JUSTINIAN CODE (compiled .under tho direction of the emperor Justinian I.),
wherein was written what may be termed tho statute law, scattered through 2000 volumes,
reduced to fifty ; it was promulgated in 528. To this code of laws Justinian added the
Pandects, tlio Institutes, and Novels. These compilations have since been called, collec
tively, the body of civil law (Corpus Juris Civilis). A digest was made in 533. Blair.
JUTE, the fibres of two plants, the chonch and isbund (Corchorus olitorias and corchorus
capsularis), since 1830 extensively cultivated in Bengal for making gunnycloth, &c. Jute
has been much manufactured at Dundee as a substitute for flax, tow, 4c, and in July
1862, assertions were made that it could be employed as a substitute for cotton. In 1853,
275- 578 cwtd., and in 1861, 904,092 cwts. of undressed jute were imported into the United
Kingdom.
. JUTLAND (Denmark). The Jutes settled in our southern counties. South Jutland
was taken by the allies in 18 13, and restored in 1814.
JUVENILE OFFENDERS. In 1838, an act was passed for instituting a prison for
instructing and correcting juvenile offenders, and the military hospital at Parkhurst in the
Isle of Wight was appropriated for this purpose. A similar act was passed in 1854.
K.
KABYLES. Bee Algiers. KADSEAH. See Partccs.
KAFFRARIA, an extensive country in S. Africa, extending from the north of Cape
Colony to the south of Guinea. Our war with the natives befjan in 1798. In 1819, headed
by Mokanna, a prophet, they attacked Grahamstown and were repulsed with much
slaughter.
A savage invasion of tho Kaffirs or CafTros, In and several officers and men of the 74th rogi-
the vicinity of Grahamstown, Capo of Good ment were killed .... Nov. 6, 1851
Hope, was eventually suppressed by tho Wreck of tho Birkenhead with reinforcements
colonial authorities .... Oct. 1831 from England (see Birkenhead) . Feb. 26. 1852
Slighter annoyances to the colonists occurring', The hostilities of the Kaffirs having assumed
sir Harry Smith, the then governor, pro all the features of regular warfare, the go
claimed martial law, and ordered the inhabit- vernor-general, Cathcart, attacked and de
ants to rise en masse for tho defence of tho
Dec. 3r, 1850 Thefeated them Dec. 20, „
frontier conditions offered by Cathcart were ac
Disastrous operations against the Kaffirs in the cepted, and peace was restored . March 9, 1853
Waterkloetf followed, and colonel Fordycc
KAGOSIMA. See/opap, 1863.
KAINARDJI, Bulgaria. Here a treaty was signed, 1774, between the Turks and
Russians, which opened tho Black Sea, and gave the Crimea to the latter.
KALAFAT, on the Danube, opposite the fortress of Widdin. This place was fortified
by tho Turks under Omer Pacha when they crossed tho river, Oct. 28, 1853. In December,
prince GortsehakofT, with the Russian army, determined to storm their entrenchments. The
conflict lasted from Dec. 31, to Jan. 9, 1854, when the Russians were compelled to retire.
Among these conflicts one occurred at Citato, Jan. 6. See CilaU. Kalafat was invested
Jan. 28, and general Schilders attacked it vigorously on April 19, without success, and the
blockade was raised April 21.
KAL 416 KEN
KALEIDOSCOPE, an optical instrument, which, by an arrangement of mirrors, produces
a symmetrical reflection of beautiful images, was invented by Dr. (now sir David) Brewster,
of Edinburgh ; it was suggested in 1814, and perfected in 1617. See Dcbuscope.
KALITSCII ( Poland). Here the Russians defeated the Swedes, Nov. 19, 1706, and here
the Saxons, under the French general Reynier, were beaten by the Russians under Winzin-
gerode, Feb. 13, 1813.
KALMAR. See Calmar. KALMUCK. See Tartar.
KALUNGA FORT (E. Indies^ attacked unsuccessfully by the company's forces, ami
general Gillespie killed, Oct. 31, 1814 ; and again unsuccessfully, Nov. 25. It was evacuated
by the Nepaulese, Nov. 30, same year.
KAMTSCHATKA, a peninsula, E. coast of Asia, was discovered by Morosco, a Cossack
chief, 1690; taken possession of by Russia, in 1697; and proved to be a peninsula by
Behring, in 1728. Four months, commencing at our midsummer, may be considered as the
spring, summer, and autumn here, the rest of the year being dreary winter. The amiable
captain Clarke, a companion of captain Cook, died in sight of Kamtschatka, Aug. 22, 1779,
and was buried in the town of St. Peter and Paul, in the peninsula.
KAMPTULICON, a substance used for flooring, patented by Elijah Galloway in 1843,
and manufactured since 185 1, by Messrs. Tayler, Harvey, and Co. It is composed of India-
rubber and cork, combined by masticating machines.
KANGAROOS, animals indigenous to Australia (first seen by captain Cook, June 22,
1770), were bred at San Donato, the estate of prince Demidoffj in 1853, and since.
KANSAS, a western state in N. America, was organised as a territory, May 30, 1854 ;
admitted into the union, Jan. 29, 1861 ; and was left open to slavery, in opposition to the
Missouri Compromise (see Slavery in America). During the greater part of 1855 this state
was a scene of anarchy and bloodshed through the efforts of the slavery party to make it a
slave state.
KARRACK. See Carrack.
KARS, a town in Asiatic Turkey, renowned for its defence by general (now sir William)
Fenwick Williams, with 15,000 men, and with three months' provisions and three days'
ammunition, against the Russian general Mouravielf, with an army of 40,000 infantry and
10,000 cavalry. The siege lasted from June 18 to Nov. 28, 1855. The sufferings of the
garrison were very great from cholera and want of food. The Russians made a grand assault
on Sept. 29, but were repulsed with the loss of above 6000 men, and the garrison were over
come by famine alone.* Sandwith. Kars was restored to Turkey, Aug. 1856.
KEEPER of the Kino's Conscience. The early chancellors were priests, and out of
their moral control of the king's mind probably grew up the idea of an equity court in
contradistinction to the law courts. A bill in chancery is a petition through the lord chan
cellor to the king's conscience for remedy in matters for which the king's common law courts
afford no redress. The keeper of the king's conscience therefore, at the present day, is tho
officer who presides in the court of chancery. Seo Chancellor and Lord Keeper.
KEEPER (LORD) of the Great Seal of England differed only from tho lord
chancellor in that the latter had letters patent, whereas the lord keeper had none.
Richard, a chaplain, was the first keeper under Ranulph, in 1 1 16. The two offices were
made one by 5 Eliz. 1562. Cornell. See Chancellor. The office of lord keeper of tho great
seal of Scotland was established in 1708, after the union.
KENILWORTH CASTLE (Warwickshire), was built about 11 20, by Geoffrey de Clinton,
whose grandson sold it to Henry III. It was enlarged and fortified by Simon de Montfort,
to whom Henry gave it as a marriage portion with his sister Eleanor, t Queen Elizabeth
* On accepting general Williams' proposal for surrendering, general Mouravieff said .—"General
Williams, you have mado yourself a name in history ; and posterity will stand amazed at the endurance,
the courage, and tho discipline which this siege has called forth in the remains of an army. Let us
arrange a capitulation that will satisfy the demands of war, without outraging humanity." In 1856 tho
genoral was made a baronet, with tho title of sir William Fenwick Williams of Kars, and granted a
pension.
t After the battle of Evesham and defeat and death of Simon de Montfort, by prince Edward (after
wards Edward I.) 1265, Montfort's younger son, Simon, shut himself up in Kenilworth castle, which sus
tained a siege for six months against the royal forces of Henry III., to whom it at length surrendered.
Upon this occasion was issued tho "Dictum de KtnilKorlh," or " ban of Kenilworth," tnacting that all
who took up arms against tho king should pay him the value of their lands for fivo years.
KEN 417 KHE
conferred it on her favourite, Dudley, earl of Leicester. His entertainment of the queen
commenced July 19, 1575, and cost the earl daily ioooJ.
KENNINGTON COMMON (Surrey). The Chartist demonstration, April 10, 1848, took
place on the common ; which was directed to be laid out as a public pleasure ground in 1852.
KENSINGTON PALACE was purchased by William III., from lord chancellor Finch,
who made the road through its park. The gardens were improved by queens Mary, Anne,
and Caroline, who died here. Hore died George, prince of Denmark, and George II. ; and
here queen Victoria was born, May 24, 1819.*
KENT. See Britain and Holy Maid. Odo, bishop of Bayeux, brother of William the
Conqueror, was made earl of Kent, 1067 ; and Henry Grey was made duke of Kent in 1710;
he died without male heirs in 1740. Edward, son of George III., was created duke o'f Kent
in 1799. He was father of queen Victoria, and died in 1820. See England.
KENT, an East Indiaman, of 1850 tons burthen, left the downs Feb. 19, 1825, bound
for Bombay. In the Bay of Biscay she encountered a dreadful storm, by which she was very
much shattered, Feb. 28. On the next day she accidentally took fire, and all were in
expectation of perishing, either by the tempest or the flames. The Cambria, captain Cook,
hound to Vera Cruz, providentially hove in sight, and nearly all on board were saved. The
Kent blew up, March 2.
KENTISH FIRE, a term given to the continued cheering common at the Protestant
meetings held in Kent about 1828 and 1829, with the view of preventing the passing of the
Cathoiic Relief bill.
KENTUCKY, a western state of N. America, admitted 1792. It declared for strict
neutrality in the conflict between the North and South in April, 1861, but was invaded by
the southern troops in August. On their refusal to retire, after much correspondence, tho
legislature of Kentucky gave in its adhesion to the Union, Nov. 27, 1861. In the campaign
that ensued sharp skirmishes took place, and on Jan. 19, 1862, the confederates under
Zollieoffer were defeated and himself killed at Mill Spring, and in March no confederate,
soldiers remained in Kentucky. See United States.
KEROSELENE, a new ausesthetic, derived from the distillation of coal-tar by Mr. W. B.
Merrill, of Boston, U.S., was tried and made known early in 1861.
KERTCH, capital of the ancient kingdom of Bosporus, late a flourishing town on the
straits of Yenikale, sea of Azof. It was entered by the allies (English and French) May 24,
1855 ; the Russians retired after destroying stores, &c. The place was totally dismantled by
the allies, and the inhabitants removed.
KET'S REBELLION: a revolt in July, 1549, instigated by William Ket, a tanner, of
Norfolk. He demanded the abolition of inclosures and the dismissal of evil counsellors.
The insurgents amounted to 20,000 men, but were quickly defeated by the earl of Warwick.
More than 2000 fell ; Ket was tried, and hanged, Aug. 27, 1549.
KEW (Surrey). The "palace was successively occupied by the Capel family and Mr.
Molyueux ; by Frederick, prince of Wales, 1730, and George III. Queen Charlotte died
here, Nov. 4, 1818. A new palace erected by George III., under the direction of Mr. Wyatt,
was pulled down in 1827. The gardens contain a very fine collection of plants, and arc decorated
with ornamental buildings, most of them erected by sir William Chambers, about i76o.t
The meteorological observatory was presented to tho British Association in 1842.
KEYS. The invention is ascribed to Theodore of Samos, by Pliny, about 730 B.C.
KHERSON, an ancient Dorian colony (deriving its name from Chcrsoncsns, a peninsula),
came underthe sway of the great Mithridates about 120 B.C., and afterwards of that of Rome,
a.d. 30. It continued important, and its possession was long disputed by the Russians and
* In Aug. 1855, by permission of the government, a military band played in Kensington gardens on
Sundays, in presence of about 60,000 persons. The practice was discontinued in 1856, being objected to by
many persons ; but bands were ordered to play in other parks during the week.
t The^ botanic gardens contain many magnificent conservatories, Ac. Mr. Alton rotircd from his
office of director of the botanic gardens in 1841 after fifty years' sorvico. Ho was succeeded by sir William
Hooker, at whoso recommendation the gardens were opened to the public daily. In 1847 tho royal
kitchen and forcing gardens were Incorporated with tho botanic gardens. The collections in the Museum
of Economic Botany began with tho privato collection of sir William Hooker given by him in 1847. Under
his charge the gardens were greatly improved. Ho died Aug. 12, 1865, and was succeeded by his son, Dr
Joseph D. Hooker.
r. e
KHI 41 8 KIL
Greeks. It was taken by Vladimir, grand-duke of Russia, in 98S, when he and his army
received Christian baptism, and he married the emperor's sister Anne, who obtained Kherson
as her dowry. The city was destroyed by the Lithuanians ; and the Turks found it deserted
when they took possession of the Crimea in 1475. What ancient remains the Turks and
Tartars had spared, the Russians conveyed away for the construction of Sebastopol. Since
the foundation of Odessa in 1792, Kherson has declined. Potemkin, the favourite of
Catherine, who died at Jassy in 1 791, is buried here, and John Howard, the English philan
thropist, who died here Jan. 20, 1790, is buried about three miles from the town, where an
obelisk has been erected to his memory.
KHIVA, in Turkistan, Asia, governed by a khan. An expedition sent against, it by the
emperor Nicholas of Russia in 1S39 perished through the rigour of the climate iu 1840.
KHYBER PASS, Afghanistan. See India, 1839, 1842.
KIDDERMINSTER (Worcestershire), renowned for its carpet manufactures, Established
about 1735.
KIEL, chief town of Holstein, a seaport, and a member of the Hanseatic league in 1300.
The university was founded in 1665. By a treaty between Great Britain, Sweden, and
Denmark, signed here Jan. 14, 18 14, Norway was ceded to Sweden. Previously, the Norwe
gians had been deserted by the king of Denmark, and had sent a deputation to England, to
interest that country in their favour. On the contrary, the English blockaded the ports of
Norway, and the Swedes entered by land. The Norwegians fought some brave actions, but
they were defeated. The prince of Denmark quitted Norway, and the diet elected the king
of Sweden to be their king. An extraordinary assembly of the revolted provinces, Schleswig
and Holstein, met hero Sept. 9, 1850. By a convention between Austria and Prussia, the
former is to govern Holstein, but Kiel is to be held by Prussia as a German federal port
(Aug. 1865).
KILCULLEN (Kildare). Here a large body of the insurgent Irish defeated the British,
forces commanded by general Dundas, May 23, 1798. The general in a subsequent engage
ment overthrew the rebels near Kilcullen-bridge, when 300 were slain.
KILDARE (E. Ireland). The Curragh or race-course here was once a forest of oaks.
Here was the nunnery of St. Bridget, founded by her in the 5th centuiy, and hero was a
building called the fire-house, where, it is supposed, the nuns kept the inextinguishable fire
which existed till the reformation. The see was one of the earliest episcopal foundations in
Ireland; St. Conleeth, who died 519, the first prelate. The first Protestant bishop was
Thomas Lancaster, in 1550. The see is valued, by an extent returned, 30 Hen. VIII., at
69Z. Hi. 4(i. Irish per year. Kildare was united to Dublin in 1S46. See Dublin. The
insurrection in Kildare, which swelled into the rebellion, commenced in Kildare, May 23,
1798. On that night, licut. Gilford of Dublin, and a number of other gentlemen, were
murdered by insurgents. This rebellion was quelled in 1799.
KILFENORA (Clare), a bishopric, said to have been founded by St. Fachnan. Cardinal
Paparo, in 1 152, rendered it a sutlragan seo to Cashel ; but in 1660 it was annexed to Tuam,
and afterwards united to Killaloe.
KILKENNY (S.E. Ireland), an English settlement about 1071. The Statutes of Kil
kenny enacted, among other things, " that tho alliance of the English by marriage with any
Irish, the nurture of infantes, and gossiprcd with the Irish, bo deemed high treason." And
again, "if anie man of English race use an Irish name, Irish apparel], or anie other guize
or fashion of the Irish, his lands shall bo seized, and his body imprisoned, till he shall
conform to English modes and customs."
KILLALA (Mayo) was invaded by a French force landing from three frigates, under
general Humbert, Aug. 22, 1798. The invaders were joined by the Irish insurgents, ami
the battles of Castlebar and Colooncy followed ; and the French were defeated at Bally-
namuck, Sept. 8, same year.
KILLALA (Sligo), an early see. The author of tho tripartite life of St. Patrick, says,
" that in 434 he came to a pleasant place where the river Muadas (Moy) empties itself into
the ocean ; and on the south banks of tho said river he built a noble church, called Kil-
Aladh, of which he made one of his disciples, Muredach, the first bishop." The see of
Achonry was united to Killala in the 17th century; aud both became united to Tuam in
1839. See Tuam and Bishops.
KILLALOE (Clare), a see supposed to have been founded by St. Molua, whose disciple,
KIL 119 KIN
St. Flannan, son to king Theodorie, consecrated at Rome by pope John IV. in 639, was also
bishop. At the close of the 12th century the see of Roscrea was annexed to Killaloe, and
that of Kilfcnora has been held with it. Clonfert and Kilmacduach were united to them
in 1836.
KILLIECRANKIE (a defile in Perthshire). Here the forces of William III. commanded
by general Mackay were defeated by the adherents of James II. under Graham of Claver-
house, viscount Dundee, who fell in the moment of victory, July 27, 1689.
KILMACDUACH (Galway). This see was held with Clonfert, from 1602. St. Coleman
was its first bishop, in the 7th century. It was valued, 29 Eliz. ISS6, at 13^. 6s. &d. per
annum. It is now united to Killaloe.
KILMAINHAM HOSPITAL (Dublin), the noble asylum of aged and disabled soldiers
in Ireland, built by Wren, was founded by Arthur, earl of Granard, marshal-general of the
army in Ireland, 1675 ; and the duke of Ormond perfected the plan, in 1679.
KILMALLOCK (Limerick). An abbey was founded hero by St. Mochoallog or Molach
about 645, and an abbey of Dominicans was built in the 13th century. Ware. A charter
was granted to Kilmallock by Edward VI., and another by Elizabeth ia 1584. The town
was invested by the Irish forces in 1598, but the siego was raised by the duke of Ormond.
There was much fighting here in 1641 and 1642.
KILMORE (Armagh), an ancient town, whose bishops were sometimes called Brefinienses,
from Brefney, and sometimes Triburnenses, from Triburna, a village ; but in 1454, the
bishop of Triburna, by assent of pope Nicholas V., erected the parish church of St.
Fedlemid into a cathedral. Florence O'Oomiacty, the first bishop, died in 1231. Valued,
15 Jas. I. with Ardagh, at 100I. per annum. The joint see of Elphiu and Ardagh was
united to it in 1841.
KILSYTH (Central Scotland). Here Montrose defeated the Covenanters, Aug. 15, 1645,
and threatened Glasgow.
KINBIXRN, a fort, at the confluence of the rivers Bug and Dnieper, taken by the English
and French, Oct. 17, 1855. Three floating French batteries, said to be the invention of tho
emperor, on the principle of horizontal shell-firing, were very effective. On the 18th the
Russians blew up Oczakoff, a fort opposite.
KINDRED, Table of, in the Book of Common Prayer, was set forth in 1563.
KINDER-GARTEN (children's garden), a system of education devised by Froebcl, but
practically carried out by Mr. and Mrs. Ronge, in Germany in 1849, and in England in
185 1. The system, founded mainly on self-tuition, and enlivened by toys, games, and
singing, is set forth in Rouge's " Kinder-Garten," published in 1858.
KING: German Konig, Latin Rex, Scythian Rets, Spanish Rcy, Italian Re, and French
Roy, all come from tho Hebrew Roseh, chief or head. Ninirod was the first founder
of a kingdom, 2245 B.C. Dufrcsnoy. Misraitn built cities in Egypt, and was the first who
assumed the titlo of king in that division of the earth, 2188 B.C. The " manner of the king"
is set forth in 1 Samuel viii., 1 112 B.C. Saul was tho first king of Israel, 1095 B.C. Most
of the Grecian states were governed by kings ; and kings were the first rulers in Rome.
Kinti of England.— Tho style was first used by Great Britain and Ireland, king, Defender of
Egbert, 828; but the titlo lirx gentU An- the Faith " (France being omitted) Jan, 1, 1801
glorwn, king of the English nation, existed Hanover was omitted in tho queen's style,
during the Heptarchy. See Britain. Juno 21, 1837
The plural phraseology, kc, our, was first The queen was proclaimed in all the important
adopted among our English kings by king places in India, as "Victoria, by tho Grace of
John 1199 God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
The title of " king of France " assumed, and the and Ireland, and tho colonics and dependen
French arms quartered, by Edward 111., ill cies thereof in Europe, Asia, Africa, America,
right of his mother 1340 and Australia, queen," «S:c. . . Nov. r, 1858
Tope Loo X. conferred the title of " defender
of tho Faith " on Henry VIII. . Oct 11, 1521 Tho National Assembly decreed that the titlo
l!enry VIII. changed lord of Ireland into kin^, 1542 of " king of France," should bo changed in
'the style "Great Britain" was adopted at the the person of Louis XVI. to that of " king of
union of England and Scotland, 6 Anno . 1707 the French" Oct. 16, 1789
That of tho " United Kingdom of Groat Britain The royal title abolished 1702
and Ireland " at the union, when tho royal Louis XVIII. styled " by the grace of God king
style and titlo was appointed to run thus :— of France and Navan-e " 1814
"Georgiu.1 Ttrtius, Dei Gratia, flritonjiinmr,t LouLs-Philippc I., the late sovereign, was in
Rex Fidei Difemor," " George the Third, by vited to the monarchy under the style of tho
the grace of God, of the United kingdom of " king of tho Fronch " (sec France) Aug. 9, 183
111
KIN 420 KIN
KING, continued.
The emperors of Germany, in order that their Disbursed vast sums under the promise of
eldest sons might be chosen their successors, being elected next emperor ; he was elected
In their own life-time politically obtained "king of the Romans" (but failed in suc
them tho title of " king of the Romans." The ceeding to tho im]>erial crown) . . . 1256
first emperor so elected was Henry IV. . . 1055 The stvle "king of Rome" was revived by
Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, Napoleon I. who conferred it on his son, upon
was induced to go to Germany, where he bis birth March 2r>, 1S11
K1NG-0F-ARMS : three for England,—Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy; Lyon king-at-
arms for Scotland, and Ulster for Ireland. These offices are very ancient : Clareneieux is so
named from Lionel, third son of Edward III., tho sovereign who founded the order of the
Garter. See Garter. Lionel having by his wife the honour of Clare, was made duke of
Clarence ; which dukedom afterwards escheating to Edward IV., he revived the office of
Clarence king-at-arms. Ulster was substituted, it is said, in lieu of Ireland king-at-arms,
by Edward VI., 1552 ; but the monarch himself named it as a new institution.
KING'S BENCH, or Queen's Bench, Court of, obtained its name from the king
sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the judges, to whom the judicature belongs in
his absence, on a low bench at his feet. This court in ancient times was called Curia
L'omini Regis.
CHIEF JUSTICES OF THE KING'S OR QUEEN'S BENCH IN ENGLAND.
1526. John Fitz James. 1650^ Robert Nicholas. 1733. Sir Philip Yorke, afterwards
1539. Sir Edward Montagu. 1660. Sir Robert Foster. lord Hardwicke and lord
1546. fiir Richard Lyster. 1663. Sir Robert Hyde. chancellor.
1552. Sir Ro^er Cholmely. 1665. Sir John Kelvng. 1737. Sir William I^eo.
1553. Sir Thomas Bromley. 1671. Sir Matthew Hale. 1754. Sir Dudley Ryder.
1554. Sir William Portmun. 1676. Sir Richard Raynsford. 1756. William Murray, lord Mans
1556. Sir Edward Saunders. 1678. Sir William Scrcggs. field, afterwards earl of
'559- Sir Robert Catlyn. 1681. Sir Francis Pemberton. Mansfield.
1573. Sir Christopher Wray. 1683. Sir Edmund Saunders. 1788. Lloyd, lord Kenyon, June 9.
1591. Sir John Popliam. Sir George Jcfferics, after 1803. Sir "Edward Law, April 12 ;
1607. Sir Thomas Fleming. wards lord Jeffcries and created lord Ellenborough.
1613. Sir Edward Coke. lord chancellor. 1818. Sir Charles Ablxitt, Nov. 4 ;
1616. Sir Henry Montagu. 1685. Sir Edward Herbert, afterwardslordTenterden.
1620. Sir James T ey. 1687. Sir Robert Wright 1832. Sir Thomas Denman, Nov. 7;
1624. Sir Ranulph Crewe. 1689. Sir John Holt. created lord Denman : re
1626. Sir Nicholas Hyde. 1709. Sir Thomas Parker, after signed.
1631. Sir Thomas Richardson. wards lord Parker and earl 1850. John, lord Campbell, March
1635. Sir John Brompstun. of Macclesfield and lord 5 : afterwards lord chan
1643. Sir Robert. Heath. chancellor. cellor.
1648. Henry Rolle. 1718. Sir John Pratt. 1859. Sir Alexander Coekbuni,
1655. John'Glyn. 1725. Sir Robert Raymond, after Juno.
1659. Sir Richard Ncwdigate. wards lord Raymond.
CHIEF JUSTICES OF THE KINGS OR QUEENS BENCH IN IRELAND.
1690. Sir Richard Reyncll, Dec. 6. 1764. John Gore, Aug. 24; after- 1803. William Downes, Sept. la ;
ir->5. Sir Richard l'yne, Juno 7. wards carl Annaly. afterwards lord Downcs.
1709. Allan Brodrick, Dec. 24. [ 1784. John Scott, April 29; after- 182a. Charles Kendal Bushe, Feb
1711. Sir Richard Cox, July 5. wards carl of Clonmcl. ruary 14.
1714. William Whitshed, Oct, 14. 1798. Arthur Wolfe, June 13; af 1841. Edward Penuefather, No
1727. John Rogerson, April 3. terwards lord Kilwurdcn vember 10.
1741 Thomas Marlay, Dec. 29. (killed in Emmett's insur 1846. Francis Blackburne, Jan. 23.
17-] St. George Caulfield, Aug. 27. rection, July 23, 1803). 1852. Thomas Lefroy, March.
1760. Warden Flood, July 31.
KING'S BENCH PRISON, Southwark, near tho site of one of the oldest prisons of
London, long used for the confinement of debtors. Here, it is said, prince Henry (afterwards
Henry V.) was committed by justice Gascoigne. The prison was burnt down by the London
rioters, June 3, 1780. See Gordon's Ao-popery Mob. It was built in 1781, and contained
about 230 rooms. Formerly, the debtors were allowed to purchase the liberties, to enable
them to have houses or lodgings without the walls, or to purchase day-rule?, to go out of the
prison under certain regulations. The rules included St. George's Fields, &c. A consequence
of the Bankruptcy Act, 1861, was the release of many insolvent debtors; and an act was
passed in 1862 "for discontinuing the Queen's prison and removal of the prisoners to White-
cross-street prison.*1
KING'S COLLEGES. See Aberdeen and Cambridge. King's College, London, incor
porated Aug. 14, 1829, and opened Oct. 8, 1831. It was incorporated with the university of
London in 1837. The hospital was founded iu 1839.
KIN 421 KNI
KING'S COUNSEL, the first under the degree of Serjeant was sir Francis Bacon, made
so, honoris causd, without patent or fee, in 1604, by James I. The first modern king's
counsel was sir Francis North, afterwards lord keeper, in 1663.
KING'S COUNTY, Ireland, so named from Philip, king of Spain, the husband of queen
Mary of England, in 1556.
KING'S EVIL, formerly supposed to be cured by the king's touch ; the first being
Edward the Confessor, in 1058. In the reign of Charles II. 92,107 persons were touched ;
and, according to Wiseman, the king's physician, they were nearly all cured ! Queen Anne
officially announced in the London Gazette, March 12, 1712, her intention to touch publicly.
The custom was dropped by George I., 1714.
KING'S SPEECH. The first from the throne is said to have been by Henry I., 1107.
KINGSTON TRIAL. The duchess of Kingston was arraigned before the lords in
Westminster-hall, on a charge of bigamy, having married first captain Hervey, afterwards
earl of Bristol, .and next during his lifetime, Evelyn Pierrepoint, duke of Kingston, April
15-22, 1776. She was found guilty, but, on her pleading the privilege of peerage, the
punishment of burning in the hand was remitted, and she was discharged on paying the fees
of office.
KINGSTON. See Hull.
KINGSTON, Jamaica, was founded in 1693, after the great earthquake in 1692 which
destroyed Port Royal, and constituted a city, 1802. An awful fire here ravaged a vast
portion of the town, and consumed 500,000/. of property, Feb. 8, 1782; another fire in
1843. Sec Jamaica.
KINGSTOWN, Dublin. The harbour here was commenced in June, 181 7. The name
was changed' from Dunleary in compliment to George IV., who hero embarked for England
at the close of his visit to Ireland, Sept. 3, 1821. The Kingstown railway from Dubliu was
opened Dec. 17, 1834.
KISSING the hands of great men was a Grecian custom. Kissing was a mode of
salutation among the Jews, 1 S;t»iucl x. i,&c. The "kiss of charity," or "holy kiss,"
commanded in the Scriptures (Itinums xvi. 16, &c), was observed by the early Christians,
and is still recognised by the Greek church and some others. Kissing the pope's foot began
with Adrian I. or Leo III. at the close of the 8th century.
KIT-CAT CLUB, of about thirty noblemen and gentlemen, instituted in 1703, to
promote the Protestant succession. Addison, Steele, and Dr. Garth were members. It
took its name from Christopher Kat, a pastry-cook in King's-stroet, Westminster.
KITTS. See Clirislopher's, St.
KNEELING. The knee was ordered to be bent at the time of Jesus (see Philippians ii. 2)
about the year 1275, by the order of the pope. The ceremony of a vassal kneeling to his
lord is said to have begun iu the 8th century.
KNIGHTHOOD. The word knight is derived from the Saxon Cniht, a servant (i.e.,
servant to the king, &c). The institution of the Roman knights (Equites or horsemen, from
equus, a horse), is ascribed to Romulus, about 750 n.c. Knighthood was conferred in
England by the priest at the altar, after confession and consecration of the sword, during the
Saxon Heptarchy. The first knight made by the sovereign with the sword of state was
Athelstane, by Alfred, A.I). 900. Spelman. The custom of ecclesiastics conferring the
honour of knighthood was suppressed in a synod held at Westminster in 1 100. Ashmole'i
Institutes. All persons having ten pounds yearly income were obliged to be knighted, or pay
a fine, 38 Hen. III. 1254. Salmon. On the decline of the empire of Charlemagne, all
Europe being reduced to a state of anarchy, the proprietor of every manor became a petty
sovereign ; his mansion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a guard, and called a
castle. Excursions were made by one petty lord against another, and the women and
treasure were carried off by the conqueror. At length the owucrs of rich fiefs associated to
repress these marauders, to make property secure, and to protect the ladies ; binding them
selves to these duties by a solemn vow, and the sanction of a religious ceremony. Cervantes'
" Don Quixote," a satire on knight-errantry, was published in 1605. See Chivalry, Tour
naments.
KNI 4-2-2 KXI
KNIGHTHOOD, continued,
PRINCIPAL MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND HONORARY ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD.*
Alcantara, instituted about . 1156 Golden Shield and Thistlo, St. Anne, Holstein, now Rus
Amaranta, Sweden (female) . 1645 Franco .... 1370 sia . . . 1738 or 1-^
Angelic Knights, Greece . 1x91 Golden Spur, by Pins IV. . . 1559 St. Anthony, Hainault . .
Annouciada, Savoy, about . 1360 Golden Stole, Venice, before 737 St. Anthony. Bavaria . 1 -
Annunciada, Mantua . . 1618 Guclphic, Hanover . . 1815 St. Bento d'Avis (seo Avis
Avis, Portugal, atvout . . 1147 Henry the Lion, Brunswick . 1834 above).
Bannerets, England, 1360. Holy Ghost, France . . . 1579 St. Blaise, Armenia, :2th cen
Rent-wed. See Ban ntrcts . 1485 Holy Vial (St. Remi), Franco 499 St.tury. Bridget, Sweden
Bath, England, 1 399. Re Hospitallers (which see), 1099 ; 1366
newed. See Bath . . . 1725 of Rhodes, 1308 ; of Malta, 152* St. Catherine, Palestine . .
Bear, Switzerland . . . 1213 Iron Crown, Lombardy . . 18:6 St. Catherine, Russia (female) 1714
Bee, Franco ■ . . 1703 Iron Helmet, Hesso Cassel . 1814 St. Charles, WUrtemberg . . 1759
Bolgic Lion .... 1815 Jerusalem (see Mal'a) . . 1048 St.nople, Constuntine, Constanti
Black Eaglo, Prussia, insti Jesus Christ, Rome, insti about 313 ; Parma,
tuted by Frederick I. . . 1701 tuted by John XXII., 1320. 1699 ; since removed to
Blood of Christ, Mantua . 1608 Reformed, as Jesus and Naples. 1 /■•■j
Broomflowers, France . . 1234 Mary, by Paul V. . . . 1613 St. Denis, France .
Brotherly (or Neighbourly) Knot, Naples .... 1352 St. Elizabeth. Brazil . . . 1 •- ■ r
Love, Austria . . 1708 \a Cain, Venice, about . . 737 St. Esprit, Franco . 1579
Calatrava, Castile, instituted Lamb of God, Sweden . . 1564 St. Ferdinand, Naples . .
by Sancho III. . . . 1158 Legion of Honour, France, St. Ferdinand, Spain loi I
Charles III. (or the Immacu instituted by Napoleon Bo St. George and tiie Reunion,
late Conception), Spain . 1771 naparte .... 1803 St.Naples 1819
Charles XIII., Sweden . .1811 Leopold, Austria . . . 1806 Georgo, Angelic Knights .
Chase, WUrtemberg . . 1702 Leopold, Belgium . . . .1832 St. George, Austria . 1470, 14 J \
Christ, Livonia . . . . 1303 Lily of Arragon. . . . 1410 St Georgo, Defender of tho
Christ, Portugal . . . 1317 Lily of Navarre . . 1043 1 mmaculate Conception,
Christian Charity, Franco . 1558 Lion and Sun, Persia . . 1808 Bavaria .... '7- j
Cincinnati, America . . . 1783 Lion of Zahringen. Baden . 1812 St. George, England (see Gar
Conception of the Virgin . 1618 Lioness, Naples, about . . 1399 ter)
Concord, Prussia . . 1660 Loretto, Lady of . . . 1587 St. George, Genoa . 147 j
Crescent, Naples, 1268. Re Ijouis, Bavaria . . . . 1827 St. Georgo, Rome . . • 14,-2
vived Louis, Hesse Darmstadt . 1807 St. George, Russia.
1464 Malta 17* v
Crescent, Turkey . . . 1801 (see /.'■■<. -roilers). St. George, Spain . . . 1317
Cross of Christ . . . 1217 Maria lxmisa (female), Spain . 1792 St. Georgo, Venice . 1 ■ ->
Cross of tho South, Brazil . 1822 Maria Theresa, Austria . . 1757 St. Gerion, Germany . . I 1 o
Crown Royal, France (Fries- Maximilian Joseph, Bavaria. 1806 St. Henry, Saxony 173 '
land) 803 Martyrs, Palestine . . . 1014 St. Hermonegild, Spain . . ISI4
Crown, WUrtemberg . . 1818 Merit, Hesse Cassel . . . 1769 St. Hubert, Germany, by the
Danebrog, Denmark, institu Merit, Prussia . . 1740 duke of Julian and Clevos 1444
ted by Waldemar II., 1219; Mexican Eagle . . . 1865 St Isabella, Spain, 1815 ; Por-
revived by Christian V. . 1671 Montjoie, Jerusalem, before . 1180 i tug*! (ftmttU), . . . I;OI
Doath's Head (female), by the Noble Passion, Saxony . . 1704 St. James, Holland I .JO
widow Louisa Elizabeth of Oak of Navarre, Spain . . 722 St. James, Portugal . . . i;m
Saxe Masburg . . . 1709 Our Lady of Montesat . . 1317 St. James, Spain, about I I 70
Dog and Cock, France . . 500 Our Lady of the Conception St. James of the Sword, Spain
Dove of Castile . . . . 1379 of Villa Vicosa . . . 181S and Portugal
Dragon, Hungary . . . 1439 Our Lady of the Lily, Navarre 1043 St Januarius, Naples . . 17
Dragon Overthrown, German 141S Palatine Lion . . 1768 St. Joachim, Germany . ■75 5
Eagle (see Black-, Mexican, Palm and Alligator, Africa, St. John of Aeon, after . . ■377
Red, White). granted toGov. Campbell in 1837 St. John of Jerusalem (see
Ear of Cora and Ermino, Passion of Jesus Christ, Hospitallers) ' -i '"■
Brittany, about . . . 1442 France 1384 St. John, Prussia . . .
Elephant, Denmark, about Peter [., Brazil . . . 1826 St. Joseph, Tuscany
1190; by Christian I. . . 1458 Peter, Frederick Lewis, Old- St. Julian of Alacantara . . '=-'7
[ 1 56
Elizabeth Theresa, Austria cnburgh 1838 St. Lazarus, France, before
(female) .... 1750 Pius, founded by Pius IV. . 1559 1 1 54; united with that of
Fidelity, Baden . . .1715 Polar Star, Sweden. Revived 1748 St Maurice, Savoy . .
Fidelity, Denmark . . 1732 Porcupine, France . 1393 St. Louis, Franco . ■''AS
Fools, Cloves . . . . 1380 Koale, Naples, about . . 1399 St. Mark, Venice, about 828.
Frederick. WUrtemberg . 1830 Bed Eagle, Prussia, 1734. Re Renewed ....
Fricsland (or Crown Royal), vived T 7' I? St Mary de Merced, Spain .
France 802 Redeemcr(orSaviour), Greece 1833 St. Maurice, Savoy . . . H3 +
Garter (tchich fee). England . 1349 Rosary, Spain . . . 1212 St. Michael, Franco
Generosity, Brandenburg . 1685 Rose, Brazil . . 1829 St Michael, Germany . . '4") in 3
Genet, Franco . . . 726 Round Table, England, by St. Nicholas, Naples If-'
Golden Angel (afterwards St. Alfred (see Garter) . 516 or 528 St. Patrick, Ireland . . - >7
George), about . . 312 St. Alexander Nevskoi, Rus St. Paul, Rome 154°
Golden Fleece, instituted at sia 1722 St. Peter, Rome . ...
Bruges by Philip,jjurnamed St. Andrew, Russia . . 1698 St. Remi (or Holy Vial), about 1520 ; ■>
the Good . . . . 1429 St. Andrew, Scotland (sco
Golden Lion, Hesse Casscl , 1770 Thistle) . . 809, 1540, 1687 St. Rupert. Germany . . 1 ;o 1
St Sepulchre, Palestine 10 ^
* Enlarffod and corrected from Edmondson and Carlisle ; tho oarlv d;ites are doubtful. Many orders
were instituted after tho settlement of Europe in 1S15.
KNI 423 ICON
KNIGHTHOOD, continued.
St Stanislas, Poland . • 17*5 Star of the Cross (Jemale), Tower and Sword, Portugal,
St. Stephen, Hungary - *764 Austria .... 1668 1459. Revived . . . 1808
St. Stephen, Tuscany . . i56r Star of India . ... 1861 Tusin, or Hungarian knights,
St Thomas of Aeon, after • 1377 Swan, Flanders . . . 500 about 1562
Saviour, Aragon . 1118 Sword (or Bileuce), Cyprus, Vasa, Sweden . . . 1772
Saviour, Greece 1833 about 1192 Virgin Mary, Italy . . . 1233
Saviour of the World, Sweden 1561 Sword, Sweden, 1525. Re Virgin of Mouut Carmel,
Scale, Castile, about . . • 1316 vived 1748 France 1607
Scarf, Castile, 1330. Revived 1700 Templars (see Templar*} . 1119 White Cross, Tuscany . . 1814
Seraphim, Sweden . 1334 Teste Morte (Death's Head), White Eagle, Poland, about
Ship and Crescent, France . 1269 WUrtemborg . . . 1652 1325. Revived . . . 1705
Slaves of Virtue, Germany Teutonic, Prussia, about 1x90. White Falcon, Saxe Weimar 1732
(female) .... 1662 Renewed . . . . 1522 Wilhelm, Holland . . 1815
Star, France . ... 1351 Thistle of Bourbon . . 1370 Wing of St. Michael, Portu
Star, Sicily .... 1351 Thistle, Scotland, 809. Re gal "7»
vived . . . i54°» *687 Wladimir, Russia . . . 1782
Female Knights. It is said that the first were who still enjoy the distinctions bestowed on
the women who preserved Tortosa from falling into their ancestors by the ancient sovereigns.
the hands of the Moors in 1149, by their stout Knights of the Shire, or of Parliament; sum
resistance. Large immunities and favours were moned by the king's writ and chosen by tho
granted to the women and their descendants. freeholders, first summoned by Simon de Mont-
Several female orders appear in the previous list fort, in 1254, and in a more formal manner, Jan.
Knights of Glyn and Kerry in Ireland. The 20, 1265. Ihere are writs extant as far back as n
heads of two branches of the family of Fitzgerald, Edward I. 1283. The knights are still girded with
a sword when elected, as the writ prescribes.
KNIVES. In England, Hallamshire has been renowned for its cutlery for five centuries ;
Chaucer speaks of the " Sheffield thwyteV* Stow says that Richard Mathews on the Fleet-
bridge was the first Englishman who made fine knives, &c. ; and that he obtained a prohi
bition of foreign ones, 1563. Clasp or spring knives became common about 1650 ; coming
originally from Flanders. Knife-cleaning machi-nes were patented by Mr. George Kent in
1844 and 1852 ; others have been invented, by Masters, Price, &c. See Forks.
KNOW-NOTHINGS, a society which arose in 1853, in tho United States of N. America.
Their principles were embodied in tho following propositions (at New York, 1855) :—They
possessed several newspapers and had much political influence.
1. The Americans shall rulo America. 7. Thorough reform in the naturalisation laws.
2. The Union of thoso States. 3. Free and liberal educational institutions for all
3. No North, no South, no E;ist, no West. sects and classes, with the Bible, God's holy
4. The United States of America—as they are—one word, as an universal text-book.
and inseparable. A society was formed in 1855 in opposition to tho
5. No sectarian interferences in our legislation or above, called Know Sometking*. Both bodies wero
in the administration of American Law. absorbed into the two parties, Democrats and
6. Hostility to the assumptions of the pope, through Republicans, at the presidential election in Nov.
the bishops, &c, in a republic sanctified by 1856.
Frotcstant blood.
KOH-I-NOOR, or " Mountain of Light." The East India Diamond. See Diamonds.
KOLIN or Kollin (Bohemia). Here the Austrian general Daun gained a signal
victory over Frederick the Great of Prussia, June 18, 1757. In commemoration, the military
order of Maria Theresa was instituted by the empress-queen.
KOMORN or Comorn (Hungary), an ancient fortress town, often taken and retaken
during the wars with Turkey. Near it the Hungarians defeated the Austrians, July 11,
1849, but surrendered the town, Oct. I, 1849.
KONIEH (formerly Iconium). Hero the Turkish army was defeated by the pacha of
Egypt, after a long sanguinary tight, Dec. 21, 1832. The grand vizier was taken prisoner.
KONIGSBERG, tho capital of East Prussia, was founded by tho Teutonic knights in
1255, and became the residence of the grand master in 1457. It joined tho Hanseatic league
in 1365. It was ceded to the elector of Brandenburg in 1657, and hero Frederick III. was
crowned the first king of Prussia in 1701. It was held by the Russians 1758-64, and by the
French in 1807. Here the present king and queen were crowned, Oct. 18, 1861.
KONIGSTEIN TUN (Nassau, Germany), most capacious, was built by Frederick
Augustus, king of Poland, in 1725. It was mado to hold 233,667 gallons of wine ; and on
the top, which was railed in, was accommodation for twenty persons to regale themselves.
The famous tun of St. Bernard's holds 800 tuns. See Heidelberg Tun.
koi: 4-J4 LAB
KORAN ob Alcoran (Al-Kuran), the sacred book of the Mahometans, was written
nliout 6lo, by Mahomet, who asserted that it had been revealed to him by the angel Gabriel
in twenty-three years, and published by Abubeker about 635. Its general aim was to unite
the professors of idolatry and the Jews and Christians in the worship of one God (whose
unity was the chief point inculcated), under certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obedience
to Mahomet as the prophet. The leading article of faith preached is compounded of an
eternal truth and a necessary fiction, namely, that there is only one God, and that Mahomet
is the apostle of God. Gibbm. The Koran was translated into Latin in 1 143 ; into French
1647 ; into English, by Sale, 1734 ; and into other European languages 1763 el seq. It is a
rhapsody of 6000 verses, divided into 1 14 sections. See Mahoimlanism, &c.
KOREISH, an Arab tribe which opposed the pretensions of Mahomet, and was defeated
by him and his adherents, 630.
KOSZTA AFFAIR. Martin Koszta, a Hungarian refugee, when in the United States in
1850, declared his intention of becoming an American citizen, and went through the pre
liminary forms. In 1853 he visited Smyrna, and on June 21 was seized by a boat's crew
from the Austrian brig lluzzar. By direction of the American minister at Constantinople,
captain Ingraham, of the American sloop St. Louis, demanded his release ; but having heard
that the prisoner was to be clandestinely transferred to Trieste, he demanded his surrender by
a certain time, and prepared to attack the Austrian vessel on July 2 ; Koszta was then given
up. On August I, the Austrian government protested against these proceedings in a circular
addressed to the European courts, but eventually a compromise was effected, and Koszta
returned to the United States.
KRASNOI (Central Russia). Here the French army under Marshal Davonst, prince of
Eckmuhl, was totally defeated by the Russian army commanded by prince Kutusotf (who
died in 1813).
KREASOTE. See Creosote.
KREMLIN, a palace at Moscow, built by Demctri, grand-duke of Russia, in 1376. It
was burnt down in 1812, and re-built in 1816.
KUNNERSDORF, Battle of. See Cunnersdorf.
KUNOB1TZA, in the Balkan. Here John Hunniades, the Hungarian, defeated the
Turks, Dec. 24, 1443.
KURRACHEE, a flourishing port in N. W. India, was taken by the British, Feb-
3, i839-
KUSTRIN or Ci'STRix (Prussia), a fortified town, besieged and burnt by the Russians,
Aug. 22, 1758 ; taken by the French in 1806 ; given up, 1814.
L
LABORATORY. The Royal Institution laboratory, the first of any importance in
London, was established in 1800. In it were made the discoveries of Davy and Faraday.
Seo Royal Institution.
LABRADOR (N. America), discovered by Sebastian Cabot, 1497 ; visited by Corte Real
in 1500 ; made a Moravian missionary station in 1771.
LABUAN, an Asiatic island if. W. Borneo ; occupied by the British in 1846, and given
up to sir James Brook in 1848. See Ilomco.
LABURNUM, called also the golden chain and Cytisus Laburnum, was brought to these
countries from Hungary, Austria, &c, about 1576. Ashe.
LABYRINTH. Four are mentioned : the first, said to have been built by Da?dalus, in
the island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 b.c. ; the second in Egypt, in the
isle of Mceris, by Psammeticus, king of that place, about 683 u.<;. ; the other, the third, at
Lcmnos, remarkable for its sumptuous pillars, which seems to have been a stalactite grotto ;
and the fourth at Clusium, in Italy, erected by Porsenna, king of Etruria, about 520 B. c.
Pliny. The beauty and art of the labyrinths of Mendes were almost beyond belief ; it had
12 halls and 3000 chambers, with pillars, was encrusted with marble, and adorned with
sculpture. Herodotus. The labyrinth of Woodstock is connected with the story of Fair
Rosamond. See Rosamond. The Maze, at Hampton Court, was formed at the end of the
1 6th century.
LAC 425 LAM
LACE was of very delicate texture in France and Flanders in 1320. Its importation
into England was prohibited in 1483 ; but it was general in the court costume of Elizabeth's
reign. Dresden, Valenciennes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been famous for their fine
lace. An ounce weight of Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four pounds in
London ; and its value, when manufactured has been increased to forty pounds, ten times
the price of standard gobL A dissipated framework knitter of Nottingham, named Hammond,
is said to have invented a mode of applying his stocking-frame to the manufacture of lace
from studying the lace on his wife's cap, about 1768. MacciUloch. So many improvements
have been made in this manufacture, particularly by Heathcote (1809, 1817, &c), Morley
and Leaver (1811, &c), tliut a piece of lace which about 1809 cost 17/. may now be had for
7?. (1853). Urc. The process of "gassing," by which cotton lace is said to be made equal
to fine linen lace, was invented by Samuel Hall of Basford, near Nottingham. He died in
Nov. 1862.
LACEDiEMON. See Sparta.
LACONIA (S.E. Peloponnesus), the ancient name of Sparta ; in the Sth century called
Tzakonia.
LACTEAL VESSELS were discovered in a dog by Jasper Asellius of Cremona, 1622, and
in birds and other animals, by Mr. Hewson of London, about 1770.
LADY. The masters and mistresses of manor-houses, in former times, served out bread
to the poor weekly, and were therefore called Lafords and Lcf-days—signifying bread-given
(from hlaf, a loaf) : hence Lords and Ladies. Tooke considers Lord to signify hijh-born.
Ladies first came into court in France in 1499. —Lady day (March 25), a festival instituted
about 350, according to some authorities, and not before the 7th century according to others.
See Annunciation. The year was ordered to begin on Jan. 1st, in France in 1564 ; and in
Scotland, by proclamation, on Dec. 17, 1599 ; but not in England till Sept. 3, 1752, when
the style was altered.
LADRONE ISLES (N. Pacific), belonging to Spain, discovered by Magellan, in 1520.
He first touched at the island of Guam. The natives having stolen some of his goods, he.
named the islands the Ladroncs, or Thieves. In the 17th century they obtained the name
-of Marianne's islands from the queen of Spain.
LAGOS-BAY (Portugal). Here was fought a battle between admiral Boscawen and the
French admiral De la Clue, who lost both his legs in the engagement, and died next day,
Aug. 17, 18, 1759. Tho Centaur and Modesto were taken, and the lUdoublable and Ocian
run on shore aud burnt : the scattered remains of the French fleet got into Cadiz.
LAGOS, in the Bight of Benin (Africa), was assaulted and taken by the boats of a
British squadron, under commodore Bruce, Dec. 26 and 27, 1851. This affair arose out
of breaches of a treaty for the suppression of the slave-trade. In 1862, the place was ceded
to the British government, and created a settlement : Henry Stanhope Freeman to be the
first governor.
LA HOGUE (N.W. France), Battle of, May 19, 1692, between the English and Dutch
combined fleets, under admirals Russell and Rooke, and the French fleet commanded by
admiral Tourville. The English attacked the French near La Hogue, gaining a splendid
victory, burning thirteen of the enemy's ships, destroying eight more, forcing the rest to fly,
and thus preventing a threatened descent upon England.
LAHORE (N.W. India), was taken by Baber in 1524, and was long the capital of the
Mongol empire. It fell into the power of the Sikhs in 1798. It was occupied by sir Hugh
Gough Feb. 22, 1846, who in March concluded a treaty of peace with them.
LAKE POETS, a term applied to "Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southcy, from their having
resided in the neighbourhood of the hikes of Westmoreland.
LAKE REGILLUS (Italy), where the Romans defeated tho Latin auxiliaries of the
expelled Tarquins, 499 B.C.
LAKES CHAMPLAIN, ERIE, and ONTARIO. These lakes were the scenes of many
actions between the British and Americans in the war of independence (about I 776 and
1777), aud in the war of 1813-14.
LAMAISM, the religion of Mongolia and Thibet, is a corrupt form of Buddhism
(which see).
LAM -i-y, LAN
LAMBETH PALACE. A considerable portion was built in the 12th and 13th centuries,
by Hubert Walter, archbishop of Canterbury. The chapel was erected in 1196. The tower
of the church was erected about 1375 ; and other parts of the edifice in the 15th century.
Simon of Sudbury, archbishop of Canterbury, was barbarously put to death hero by the
followers of Wat Tyler, who attacked the palace, burnt all the furniture and books, and
destroyed all the registers and public papers, June 14, 1381. The domestic portiou of the
palace was greatly enlarged for archbishop Howley (who died 1848), by Mr. Blore, at an
expense of 52,000/. See Canterbury and Articles.
LAMIAN WAR, n.c. 323, between Athens and her allies (excited by Demosthenes, the
orator), and Antipnter, governor of Mucedon. Antipater fled to Lamia, in Thessaly, and was
there besieged. He escaped thence and defeated his adversaries at Cranon, 322 u. c.
LAMMAS-DAY, the 1st of August, one of our four cross quarter-days of the year.
Whitsuntide was formerly tho first of these quarters, Lammas the second, Martinmas the
third, and Candlemas the last ; and such partition of the year was once equally common
with the present divisions of Lady-day, Midsummer, Michaelmas, and Christmas. Some
rents are yet payable at each of these quarterly days in England, and very generally in
Scotland. Lammas comes from the Saxon, hlammassc, loaf-mass, because formerly upon
that day our ancestors offered bread made of.new wheat; anciently, those tenants tnat
held lands of the cathedral church of York were by tenure to bring a lamb alive into church
at high mass.
LAMPETER COLLEGE (Cardiganshire), was founded by bishop Burgess in 1822, and
incorporated 1828.
LAMPS. The earthen lamp of Epictctus the philosopher sold after his death for 3000
drachmas, 161. Lamps with horn sides were the invention of Alfred. London streets were
first lighted with oil-lamps in 1681, and with gas-lamps in 1814. A lamp "constructed to
produce neither smoke nor smell, and to give considerably more light than any lamp hitherto
known," was patented by M. Aime" Argaud in 1784, and was brought into general use in
England early in the present century. On his principle are founded tho lamp invented by
C'arcel about 1803, and since 1825,^110 Moderateur Lamps of Levavasseur, Hadrot, and
Neuburger. See Safety Lamp.
LANARK (W. Scotland), was a Roman station, and made a royal burgh 1103.
LANCASHIRE was created a county palatine by Edward III. for his son John of Gaunt,
who had married tho daughter of Henry, first duke of Lancaster, in 1359, and succeeded
him in 1361. The court of the Duchy Chamber of Lancaster was instituted in 1376.
On the accession of Henry IV. in 1399 the duchy merged into the crown. See under article
Cotton.
LANCASTER, supposed to have been tho Ad Alaunam of the Romans. Lancaster was
granted by William I. or II. to Roger de Poitou, who erected a castle upon its hilL It was
taken by the Jacobites, Nov. i7i5andNov. 1745.
LANCASTERIAN SCHOOLS, on a system of education by means of mutual instruction,
devised by Joseph Lancaster about 1796, but were not much patronised till about 1808.
The system led to the formation of the British and Foreign School Society, in 1805, whose
schools are unsectarian, and use the Bible as the only means of religious instruction. Lancaster
was accidentally killed at New York in 1838.
LAND was let generally in England for is. per acre, 36 Hen. VIII. 1544. The whole
rental of the kingdom was about 6,000,000/. in 1600 ; about 14,000,000/. in 1688 ; in 179S
Mr. Pitt proposed his Income Tax of 10 per cent, on an estimate of 100 millions, taking the
rent of land at 50 millions, that of houses at 10 millions, and the profits of trade at 40 millions ;
but in bis estimate were exempted much land, and the inferior class of houses. The rental
of the United Kingdom was estimated at 59,500,000/. in 1S51.* An act for rendering more
easy the transfer of land was passed in 1S62. See Agriculture.
A species of land-tax was exacted in England in Thcland-tax imposed 1609, grewoutof asubsidy
tho 10th century, which produced 82,000*. schemo of 4*. in the pound, which produced
(sec DantfitH) in iot8 soo.ooot. in 1692
I-md Banki* were proposed by Yarranton in . 1648 A Land Credit Company for Silesia was estab-
* The allotment of land to cottagers began with lord Braybrooke's successful experiment in Essex, of
allotting small portions of land topoor families, to assist them and reliove tho parish poor-rates in 1810. Tho
little colony was first called Pauper Gardens, but aftorwards New VUlagt, and it is calculated that 200L ptr
annum were saved to the parish.
LAN 427 LAN
LAND, continued.
lished by Frederick the Great (see Credits Ministers wcro left in a minority in the FIou^c
Foncieres) 1763 of Commons on the land-tax bill in 1767 ; it
Mr. Pitt miidc the tax perpetual at 4*. in the being the first instance of the kind on a
pound, but introduced hid plan for its re money bill since the Revolution. Its rate
demption Aprils, 1798 varied xu different years from is. to 48. in the
Landed Estates Court, established to "facili pound.
tate the sale and transfer of hmd in Ireland " The tax in 1810 produced 1,418.337/. ; in 1820,
(see Encumbered Estates Act) .... 1853 1,338,420/. ; in 1830, 1,423,618/. ; in 1840,
The Land Registry office was opened in . . 1802 1,298,622/. ; in 1852, 1,151,613/.
From the Revolution to the year 1800, the land-
tax had yielded 227,000,0001.
LANDEN, or Neerwindek, Belgium. Near here the French under marshal Luxembourg
defeated the allies, commanded by William III. of England, chiefly through the cowardice
of the Butch, July 19 (N.S. 29), 1693. The duke of Berwick, illegitimate son of James II.,
fighting on the side of France, was taken prisoner.
LANDGKAVE (from land and grave, a count,) a German title, which commenced in
1 130 with Louis III. of Thuringia, and became the title of the house of Hesse about 1263.
LANDLORD. See Rent.
LANDSHUT (Silesia), where the Prussians were defeated by the Austrians under marshal
Laudohn, June 23, 1760.
LANGSIDE (S. Scotland), where the forces of the regent of Scotland, the earl of
Murray, defeated the army of Mary queen of Scots, May 13, 1568. Mary tied to England
and crossed the Solway Firth, lauding at Workington, in Cumberland, May 16. Soon after
wards she was imprisoned by Elizabeth.
LANGUAGE must either have been revealed originally from heaven, or the fruit of
human invention. The latter opinion is embraced by Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most
of the Greek and Roman writers ; the former by the Jews and Christians, and many profound
modern philosophers. Some suppose Hebrew to have been the language spoken by Adam ;
others say that the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic are only dialects of the, original tongue.
" And the whole earth was of one language and of one speech," Genesis xi 1. The original
European languages were thirteen, viz. : Greek, Latin, German, Sclavonian, spoken in the
cast ; Welsh ; Biscayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish ; Albanian, in the mountains of Epirus ;
Tartarian, the old Illyrian ; the Jazygian, remaining yet in Liburnia ; the Chaucin, in the
north of Hungary ; and the Finnic, in East Friesland. From the Latin sprang the Italian,
French, Spanish, and Portuguese. The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. From
the Teutonic sprang the present German, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch, &c.
There are 3664 known languages, or rather dialects, in the world. Of these, 937 are Asiatic ;
587 European; 276 African; and 1624 American languages and dialects. Adelung.
George I. in 1724, and George II. in 1736, appointed regius professors of modern languages
and of history to each of the universities of England. In 1861 and 1862 professor Max M filler
lectured on the "Science of Language " at the Royal Institution, London.* He divides
languages into three families :—
I. Aryan (in Sanskrit, noble). English. Scandinavian : Old Norse, Danish, Swe
Southern Division. India (Prakrit, and Tali ; Sans dish, Norwegian, Icelandic).
krit ; dialects of India ; Gip!*y).
Iranic (Parsi ; Armenian, &c). II. Semitic: Southern. Arabic (including Ethiopic
and Amharic). Middle. Hebraic (Hebrew, Sama
Northern Division. ritan, Phoenician inscriptions). Northern. Aramaic
Celtic (Cymric: Cornish, Welsh, Manx, Gaelic, Bre Chaldee, Syriac, Cuneiform inscriptions of Baby-
ton, &c). on and Nineveh).
Italic (Oscan; Latin; tlmbrian ;—Italian, Spanish,
Portuguese, French, &c). III. Turanian (from Turn, swiftness).
Illyric (Albanian). Northern Division. Tungusic (Chinese, &c); Mon
Hellenic (Greek, and its dialects). golia : Turkic ; Samoyedic, and Finnic.
Windic (Lottie: Old Prussian: SalvonU dialects,— Southern Division. Taic (Siamese, Ac. ); (Himalayas) ;
Bohemian, Russian. P"lish, Lithuanian, drc). Malayic (Polynesia, iic. ) ; Gangetic ; Lonitic
Teutonic (High German: Modem German; Loic (Burmese, &c.j ; Munda ; Tamulic.
German: Gothic ; Anglo-Saxon ; Dutch; Frisian;
LAXGUE D'OC. See Troubadours.
* Cardinal Giuseppe Mozzofanti (1774-1S43) knew 114 langiinges or dialects ; and Niobuhr knew 20
languages in 1807, and more afterwards.
LAN 4-K LAT
LANSDOWN (Somersetshire). The parliamentary army under sir Wm. Waller was here
defeated, July 5, 1643.
LANTERNS of scraped horn were invented in England, it is said, by Alfred ; and it is
supposed that horn was used for window lights also, as glass was not known in Alfred's
reign, 872-901. Sloic. London was lighted by suspendedlanterns with glass sides, 14 15.
LANTHANUM, a rare metal discovered in the oxide of cerium, by Mosander in 1839.
LAOCOON, an exquisite Grecian work of art, executed in marble, was modelled by
Agesander, Atlienodorus, and Polydorus, all of Rhodes, and about 80 eminent statuaries ; it
represents the death of the Trojan hero, Laocoon, priest of Neptune, and his two sons, as
described by Virgil, Aincia ii. 20a It was discovered in 1505 in the Sette Salle near Rome,
and purchased by pope Julius II. It is now in the Vatican.
LAODICEA. See Seven Churches.
LAON (N. France). Here a succession of actions between the allies (chiefly the
Prussians) and the French, was fought under the walls of the town, which ended in the
defeat of the latter with great loss, March 9, 10, 1814.
LA PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. In 1785 La Perouse sailed from France for the Pacific,
with the Boiissoh and Astrolalie under his command, and was last heard of from Botany Bay,
in March, 1788. Several expeditions were subsequently dispatched in search of Perouse;
but no certain information was had until captain Dillon, of the East India ship Research,
ascertained that the French ships had been cast away on the New Hebrides, authenticated
by articles which captain Dillon brought to Calcutta, April 9, 1828.
LAPLAND, or Sameland, N. Europe, nominally subject to Norway in the 13th
century, and now to Sweden and Russia.
LARCENY. (French, larccn ; Latin, lalrocinium.) See Theft.
LA ROTHIERE (France), Battle of, between the French, commanded by Napoleon,
and the Prussian and Russian armies, which were defeated with great loss after a desperate
engagement, Feb. 1, 1814 This was one of Napoleon's last victories.
LARYNGOSCOPE, an instrument consisting of a concave mirror, by which light is
thrown upon a small plane mirror placed in the posterior part of the cavity of the mouth.
By its means the vocal chords of the interior of the larynx, 4c, are exhibited, and have
been photographed. One constructed by Dr. Tttrck, in 1857, was modified by Dr. Czermak,
who exhibited it in action in London in 1862. A similar apparatus is said to have been
constructed by Mr. John Avery, a surgeon in London, in 1846, and used by M. Garcia.
LATERAN, a church at Rome, dedicated to St. John, was originally a palace of the
Literani, and was given to the bishops of Rome by Constautine, and inhabited by them till
their removal to the Vatican in 1377. Eleven councils have been held here.
LATHAM-HOUSE, Lancashire, was heroically defended for three months ag ainst the
parliamentarians, by Charlotte, countess of Derby. She was relieved by prine e Kupert,
May, 1644. The house was, however, surrendered Doc. 4, 1645, and dismantled.
LATHE. The invention is ascribed to Talus, a grandson of Dredalus, about 1240 B.C.
Pliny ascribes it to Theodore of Samos, about 600 B.c.
LATIN KINGDOM, Empire, &c. See Latium, Eastern Empire 1204, and Jerusalem.
LATIN LANGUAGE (founded on the Oscan, Etruscan, and Greek), one of the original
languages of Europe, and from which sprang the Italian, French, and Spanish. See
Latium. A large portion of our language is derived from the Latin. It ceased to be spoken
in Italy about 581 ; and was first taught in England by Adelmus, brother of Ina, iu the 7th
century. The use of Latin in law deeds in England gave way to the common tongue about
1000 ; was revived in the reign of Henry II. ; and again was replaced by English iu the reign
of Henry III. It was finally discontinued in religious worship in 1558, and in conveyancing
and in courts of law iu 1731 (by 4 Geo. II. c. 25). A orrupt Latin is still spoken in
Roumelia.
PRINCIPAL LATIN WRITERS.
Died 1 Ditd Dial
Flnutus .... B.C. 184 Lucilius . . . B.c. 103 Catullus . . . B.C. 40
Ennius 169 Lucretius 52 Sallust 34
Terence . . (Jtouritlie*) 166 Julius Cwsar . . . . 44 Vitruvius . . (jtourishe*) 27
Cato the Elder . . .149 Cicero 43 Propertius . a6
LAT •129 LAV
LATIN LANGUAGE, continued.
DM Died IKol
Virgil .... B.C. 19 Seneca . A.D. 65 Suetonius (about) A.D. 1:0
Tibullus 18 Pliuy the Elder . • • 79 Juveiml 128
Horace 8 Quintilian (flourishes) 80 Aulus Gcllius . (flourishes) 169
Celsus . (flourishes) A.D. 17 Valerius Flaccus „ . 81 Apuleius . 174
Livy 18 Pliny the Younger „ . TOO Ammianus Marcellinus . . 390
Ovid 18 Statins . (about) 100 Claudian 403
Paterculua 31 Tacitus . • if 100 Macrubius 415
Persius 62 Silius Itulicus . 101 Boethlua 524
Lucan 65 Martial (flourishes) 104 (See FMirs of the Church.)
LATITAT, an ancient writ by which persona were usually called to tho King's Bi-nch
court, had its name from its being supposed that the defendant was linking, or lying hid,
and could not be found in the county to be taken by bill, and the writ is directed to the
sheriff to apprehend him. The writ was abolished by the Uniformity of Process Act, May
23, 1832.
LATITUDE. First determined by Hipparchus of Nice, about 162 B.C. It is the extent
of tho earth, or of tho heavens, reckoned from the equator to either pole. Maupertuis, in
1737, in latitude 66 20, measured a degree of latitude, and made it 60/493 miles. Swan-
berg, in 1803, made it 69 292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 68732 ;
and Lambtou, in latitude 12, made it 61743. Mudge, in England, made it 69148. Cassini,
in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 6g'l2 ; and liiot, 68769 ; while a recent measure in
Spain makes it but 68 63 —less than at the equator, and contradicts all others, proving the
earth to be a prolate spheroid (which was the opinion of Cassini, Bernoulli, Killer, and
others), instead of an oblate spheroid.
LATIUM, now Campania (Italy), the country of Latinus, king of Janiculum, 1240 n.r.
Laiirentum was the capital of the country in the reign of Latinus, Lavinium under iEncas,
and Alba under Ascamus. See Italy and Ronic.
LATTER-DAY SAINTS. See Mormoniies. LA TRAPPE. See Tmppists.
LAUDANUM. Sec Opium,
LAUENBURG, a duchy, N. Germany ; was conquered from the Wends by Henry tho
Lion of Saxony, about 1 152; ceiled to Hanover, 1689 ; incorporated with the French empire,
1810 ; ceded to Denmark, 1815 ; annexed by Prussia, Aug. 14, 1865 ; possession taken
Sept. 15, following. See Gastrin. Population in 1855, 50,147.
LAUREATE. See Poet Laureate.
LAUREL was sacred to Apollo, god of poetry ; and from the earliest times tho poets and
generals of armies, when victors, were crowned with laurel. Petrarch was crowned with
laurel, April 8, 1341. —The Prunus laiiroctrasus was brought to Britain from the Levant,
before 1629; the Portugal laurel, Prunus lusitanica, before 1648; tho royal bay, Laurus
indica, from Madeira, 1665 ; the Alexandrian laurel, Suscns racemosus, from Spain, before
1 7 13 ; the glaucous laurel, Imutus aggrcgala, from China, 1806 or 1821.
LAURENTALIA were festivals celebrated at Rome in honour of Acca Laurentia, who is
said to have been either the nurse of Romulus or Remus, or a rich dissolute woman, who
bequeathed her property to the Roman people. They commenced about 621 B.c, aud wero
held on the last day of April and the 23rd of December.
LAURITSTINE, Viburnum Tinus, an evergreen shrub, was brought to England from the
south of Europe, before 1 596.
LA VALETTA. See Malta.
LAVALETTE'S ESCAPE. Count Lavalette, for aiding the emperor Napoleon on his
return in 1815, was condemned to death, but escaped from prison in the clothes of his wife,
duringalast interview, Dec. 20, 1815. Sir Robert Wilson, Michael Brace, esq., and captain
J. H. Hutchinson, were convicted of aiding the escape, and sentenced to threo months'
imprisonment in the French capital, April 24, 1816. Lavalette was permitted to return to
France in 1820, and died in retirement in 1830.
LA VENDfiE (W. France). The French Royalists of La Vendee took to arms in March,
1793, and were successful in a number of hard-fought battles with the Republican armies
between July 12, 1793, and Jan. I, 1794, when they experienced a severe reverse. Their
leader, Henri, comte de Larochejaquclein, was killed, March 4, 1794. The war was termi
nated by general Hoche, in 1796. A treaty of peace was signed at Lucon, Jan. 17, 1800.
Sec Chouans.
LAV 430 LAZ
LAVENDER, Lavandula spica. Brought from the south of Europe, before 1568.
LAW'S BUBBLE. John Law, of Edinburgh (1681), became comptroller-general of the
finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme for establishing a bank, and an East India
and a Mississippi company, by the profits of which the national debt of France was to be
paid off. He first otfered his plan to Victor Amodeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was
not powerful enough to ruin himself. The French ministry accepted it; ami in 1716, he
opened a bank in nis own name, under the protection of the duke of Orleans, regent of
France ; and the deluded rich of every rank, subscribed for shares both in the bank and the
companics. In 17 18 Law's was declared a royal bank, and the shares rose to upwards of
tweuty-told the original value ; so that, in 1719, they were worth more than eighty times
the amount of all the current specie in France. In 1720 this fabric of false credit fell to the
ground, spreading ruin throughout the country. Law died in poverty in 1729 at Venice.
—The South Sea Bubble in England occurred.in the fatal year 1720. See South Sea.
LAWS. See Cocks, Canons, and Civil Law, The Jewish law was given by God, and
promulgated by Moses, 1491 B.C.
The laws of Phoroncus, in tbo kingdom of were alone permitted to plead in the court of
Argos (1807 B.C.) were the first Attic laws; Common Pleas. The farst king's council
they wero reduced to a system by Draco, for under the degree of serjeaut was sir Francis
the Athenians, 623 B.e. ; whose codo was Bacon, in 1604
superseded by that of Solon, 594 B.C. Law Association charity founded in . . . 1817
The Spartan laws of Lycurgus were made about Incorporated Kiw Society formed in 1823 ; plan
844 B.C. ; they remained iu full force for 700 enlarged, 1825; a charter obtained, 1831 ;
years, and farmed a raco totally different renewed, 1845. The building in Chanccry-
from all others living in civilised society. lano, from the designs of VulUamy, was com
The Roman Lawa, the Twelve Tables, were menced in 1829
published 449 B.C., and remained in forco till Juridical Society established in . . . . 1855
Justinian, nearly a thousand years. See Barristers, Counsel.
BRITISH LAWS. Law Amendment Society, founded in 1843. It
The British Laws of earliest date were trans holds meetings during the session of parliament,
lated into the Saxon in . . . . a.d. 59a and publishes a journal and reports. Its first
Saxon laws of Ina published about . . . 700 chairman was lord Brougham, who introduced
Alfred's codo of laws, the foundation of the the subject of Law Reform by a most eloquent
common law of England, is said to have boon speech in tho house of commons, on Feb. 7, 1828.
arranged about (see Common Law) . . . SS6 Many acts for Law Reform have been passed
Edward the Confessor collected the laws in . 1065 since, and vigorous measures were proposed by
Stephen's charter of general liberties . . .1136 the late lord Chancellor Westbury.
Hunry 1 1. 's confirmation of it . . 11 54 and 1175
The mantime laws of Richard I. (sec OUmn) . 1194 Law-Courts. — Commissioners appointed in 1859
Magna Charta, by kin<r John, 1215 ; confirmed reported iu favour of tho concentration of the
by Henry III. 1216 et seq. See Magna Charta, law-courts in London, on a Bite near Carey-street,
and Forest's Charter. Chaneery-lane. The estimated excuse was about
Lord Mansfield, lord chief justice of the king's 1,500,000/., which it was recommended to take
bench, declared, '*That no fiction of law from the accumulated Chancery fund termed
shall ever so far prevail against the real "Suitors' fund." An act of parliament to carry-
truth of the fact, as to prevent the execution out the plan was passed in 1865.
of justico" May 21, 1784
Law Reportf.rs, a new and more economical plan
LAWYERS. of preparing and publishing law rejwrts was finally-
Pleaders of the bar, or barristers, are said to adopted by a committee of barristers on March 11,
have been first appointed by Edward I. . 1291 1865.
Serjeants, the highest members of the bar,
tion of the antiquary. That London was founded by Brute, a descendant of the Trojan /Eneas, and called
New Troy, or Troy-novant, until the timo of Lud, who surrounded it with walls, and gave it the name of
Caer Lui, or Lud's town, &e., may be considered as mere romance. Leigh.
* The original walls of London were the work of the Romans. Theodosius, governor of Britain, is
siid to have raised them, 379; but they are supposed to havo been built about 306. Thero were originally
four principal gates; but tho numljcr increased; and among others were the Prajtorian way. Newgate,
Duwgate, Cripplcgate, Aldgato, Aldersgatc. Ludgato. Bridcgate, Moorgatc, Bishopgato, the Postem on
Tower-hill, and the only one of the city boundaries now remaining, is Temple-bur, rebuilt 1670-2.
t London Citizens. To them many privileges and immunities have l>eeu granted from the time of
William the Conqueror, whose first charter, granted in 1079, is still preserved in the city archives. This
charter is written in beautiful Saxon characters, on a slip of parchment six inches long, and one broad,
aud is in English as follows :—" William the king greeteth William the bishop, and Godfrey the portrevo,
and all the burgesses within London friendly. And I acquaint you, that I will that ye be all there law-
worthy as ye were in king Edward's days. And I will that every child be his father's heir, after his
father's days. And I will not suffer that any man do you any wrong. God preserve you."
J Stow incorrectly states this charter to havo been given in 1209, but it bears date May 19th in the
itfth year of King John's rcigti, which began in 1199. This charter was acted on at that period in various
instances, as many of tho mayors were afterwards continued in their offices for several years togctlier ; and
the same right was exerted in the case of Mr. Alderman Wood, who filled the office of lord mayor during
two succeeding years, those of 1816 and 1817. Leigh.
§ This terrible pestilence broko out in India, and spreading itself westward through every country on
the globe, reached England. Its ravages in London were so great, that the common cemeteries were not
sufficient for the interment of the dead ; and various pieces of ground without tho walls were assigned for
burial-places. Amongst these was the waste land now forming the precincts of tho Charter-house, where
upwards of 50,000 bodies were then deposited. This disorder did not subside till 1357. IdtTH.
LON 14 7 LON
LONDON, continued.
city, and three in Westminster, act 7 Ed London docks opened . . . . Jan. 20, 1799
VI. (there are now 7000) .... 1553 London Institution founded 1805
Christ's hospital founded by king Edw. VI. Lord Nelson's funeral .... Jan. 9, 1806
Coaches introduced about Gas first exhibited in Pall Mall .... 1S07
Royal exchange built. See Exchange . . . 1 5^ 1 5':/ji Riots on the committal of sir F. Burdett to the
Now buildings in London forbidden " where no Tower April 6, 1810
former hath been known to have been," to The Mint finished 181 1
prevent the increasing sizo* . 1 - ■<_, Regent-street lw>gun 1S13
Levant company established 1581 Civic banquet to the allied sovereigns at Guild
Thames water conveyed into the city by leaden hall June 18, 1814
pipes 1580-94 Custom-house burnt . . . Feb. 12,
Stow publishes his survey . . 1598 Gaslight becomes general
Nearly all London yet built of wood . . 1600 The city generally lighted with gas . . . „
East India company incorporated Waterloo bridge opened . . . June 18, 1817
30,578 persons said to perish by the plaguo New custom-house opened ,
Gunpowder plot (which tee) .... Southwark bridge opened . . March 24, 1819
Virginia company established The great increase in building commences . 1820
Thomas Sutton founds Charterhouse school, <fcc Bank of England completed by sir John Soano, 1821
New river water brought to London . Tumults at queen Caroline's funeral Aug. 14, ,,
Principal streets paved Cabs introduced 1823
Hackney coaches first plied. See Hackneu London Mechanics' Institution founded . . „
Coaches ....... Bubble companies' panic 1825
Building ofthe western parishes, St. Giles's, &c. London University chartered. Seo London,
begun Univertitg Feb. 11, 1826
The city held for the parliament I '14.' 27 turnpikes removed by act of parliament . . 1827
London fortified l6 \ New post-office completed 1829
Jews allowed to settle in London by Cromwell, 1650 Farringdon market opened „
The Jews begin to return 1656 Omnibuses introduced
Banking begun by Francis Child, about . 1660 Now metropolitan police l>egan . Sept. 29,
Royal Society of London chartered . . 1662 Covcnt-garden market rebuilt .... 1830
68,596 persons said to have perished by the Memorable political panic, Nov. 5 ; and no lord
great plague. See Plaoaet ..... it/".5 mayor's show .... Nov. 9, ,,
* 1 Oxford " afterwards " London Gazette " pub New London bridge opened . . Aug. 1, 1831
lLshcd Nov. 7, General fast on account of tho cholera in
Great fire of London. See Fire* . lC-60 England Feb. 6, 1832
Act for a " new model of building " in the city, Hungerford market opened . . July 3, 1833
Hudson*s-bay company chartered 167O Houses of parliament burnt . . Oct. 16, 1834
Monument erected. See Monument 1671-7 City of London School founded . 1835
Oatos' pretended popish plot . 1678 Queen dines at Guildhall . . . Nov. 9, 1837
A London directory published . 1679 Royal Exchange burnt . . . Jan 10, 1838
Charter granted by Charles II. . . 1680 Railway opened from London to Birmingham,
Fcnriy post established 1683 Sept. 17; to Greenwich . . Dec. 28, „
Settlement of French protcstants l0;:5 Penny postige begun .... Jan. io, 1S40
Charter declared forfeited 1632 ; but restored Railway to Southampton opened . May 11, „
Bank of England established l<Vt Wood pavement tried ; fails .... 1841
Awful storm .... Nov. 26, Dec. 1703 London library established ,
Sachoverel's sermon and mob . 171a Railway to Bristol opened . . . June 30, ,,
Act for the erection of fifty new churches , i;ir Blackwall tunnel opened . . Aug. 2, „
South Sea bubble commenced 1710, exploded Railway to Brightou opened . . Sept. 2t, ,.
1720. Seo South Sea Company .... 1720 Thames Tunnel opened . . . March 25, 1843
Chelsea water-works formed 1722 Roval Exchange opened . Oct. 28, 1844
Bank of England built .... 1732-4 Erection of baths and wash-houses begins .
Glass lamps in the street . between 1694 <fc 1736 Fleet prison taken down M
Fleet ditch covered, and Fleet market oponed . 1737 New building act begun . . . Jan. 1, 1845
"Great Frost," Dec. 25, 1739, to Feb. 8 . . 1740 Penny stearaboat-s begun ,,
London Hospital instituted^ . . , . Model lodging houses built . . . . «,
New Mansion House founded, 1739; completed, 1753 Railway mania
British Museum established Two-penny omnibuses begun .... 1846
Society of Arts established ,, Great Chartist demonstration in London. Seo
Shop signs removed 1762 Chartitts April io, 1848
Westminster paving act passed . . . . , , Rc-appearancc of the cholera . . Sept. 1849
Blackfriars bridge opened . Nov. 19, 1769 Coal exchange opened . . . Oct. 30, „
The lord mayor (Brass Crosby) committed to Lord mayor's great banquet (of mayors), see
the Tower by the House of Comninns for a Lr>rd Mtiuort .... March 21, 1850
breach of privilege . . March 27, 1771 Attack upon general Haynau . . Sept. 4*
Lord George Gordon's No-popery mob. Seo Great Exhibition opened May 1, closed Oct. 11, 1851
Gordon'$ Mob June, 1780 Duke of Wellington dies Sept. 14 ; his funeral
Thanksgiving of George III. at St. Paul's at St. Paul's (ifhich ue) . . . Nov. 18, 1852
cathedral ..... April 23, 1789 Cab-strike July 27-29, 1853
Royal Institution of Great Britain founded . 1799 Visit of king of Portugal . . May 19, 1854
* This proclamation or decree was dated from Nonesuch, 7th July, 1580, and it was forbidden to erect
new buildings where none had before existed in the memory of man. The extension of the metropolis
was deemed calculated to encourage the increase of the plaguo ; create a trouble in governing such multi
tudes : a dearth of victuals ; multiplying of beggars and inability to relieve them ; an increase of artisans
more than could live together ; impoverishing other cities for lack of inhabitants. Tho decree stated that
lack of air, lack of room to walk and shoot, &c, arose out of too crowded a city. A proclamation to tho
same effect was also issued by James I.
LON LON
LONDON, continued.
Attack of cholera . Aug. and Sept. 1854
College," the bishop of London in the chair
Meeting for Patriotic fund . . . Nov. 2, Oct a, 1 86 1
Visit ox emperor and empress of the French to Mr. George Peabody, the American merchant,
the lord mayor .... April 19, 1855 gives 150,000*. to ameliorate the condition of
The queen dintributcs Crimean medals. May 18, „ the poor and needy of I.ondon . March 12, iv 2
Failure of Paul, Strahan, &, Co. See Trial*, The International Exhibition opens . May 1,
June 5, „
Thames embankment bill passed, after much
Metropolitan Local Management Act pawed discussion Aug.
Aug. 14, „
The masons' strike not over . . June,
Visit of the king of Sardinia . . Nov. 30, M Fights in Hyde-park between the Garibaldians
Metropolitan Board of works, first meeting, and Irish . . Sept. 28 & Oct 5,
Dec. 22,
Public meetings there prohibited . Oct 9,
Teace proclaimed .... April 29, 1856 The Metropolitan Railway opened . Jan. 10, 1
Grand display of illuminations and fireworks Pneumatic despatch company begins to convey
in the parks. .... May 29, post-offico bags .... Feb. ax.
The Guards re-enter London . . July 6, „ Princess Alexandra of Denmark enters London
Hoyal British Bank stops payment Seo British March 7,
Bank ... . Sept. 4, ,,
Prince and princess of Wales present, at the
Meetings of unemployed operatives in Smith- city ball at Guildhall . . June 8,
field Feb. 1857
Appeal of the bishop of London on account of
Many commercial failures ; Bank charter act the spiritual destitution of tho metropolis,
susj>ended Nov. ia, June^
James Morrison (originally a poor boy), who The common council vote 2o,ooo(. and a site in
mainly introduced the system of quick returns Victuria-street, E.C., for a lodging-houso for
and small iirofit!*, dies exceedingly rich the poor ...... Nov. 19,
Oct. 30, 1857
New street between Blackfriars and London-
Metropolisdivided into 10 postal districts, Jan. 1, 1858
bridge opened Jan. 1, 1S64
Leviathan launched (began Nov. 3) . Jan. 31, „Charing Cross railway opened . . Jan. 11,
Complaints of the state of tho Thames ; act lor
Garibaldi enters London, April 11 ; receives the
its purification parsed . . Aug. 2, „
freedom of the city . April 21,
Panic on stock exchange (40 or 50 failures) atMany turnpikes in tho N. suburbs abolished,
reported French and .Russian alliance against July 1,
Austria April, 1859
Great excitement through the murder of Mr.
A strike among the building trades, and a Briggs in a carriage of the North London rail
lock out by the masters, Aug. 8; the latter way July 9,
require the men to sign a document, de The first railway train enters the city of
claring that they will not l>clong to any London near Bhu-kfriars-bridge . Oct. 6,
society which interferes with the freedom North London industrial exhibition, Islington,
of tho workman. The strike was dying oj>cned by earl Russell . . . Oct. 17,
out in Excitement through tho performance of the
Nov.
Disgraceful riots at the church of St. George's Davenport brothers . . Oct.—Dec.
in the East, through the indiscretion of theGreat bullion robbery in Lombard-street,
Tractarian clergyman, tho rev. Bryan King, Doc. 3 or 4,
Sept. and Oct. Thechurch(closedfora time) South London industrial exhibition opened,
re opened ; fresh disturbances on Nov. 6, 13, Feb. 1, :
Many burglaries in London ; great robbery at
and 20 ; the agitation continued till Mr. King
retired, when a compromise was effected Walker's, the jewellers, Corahill Feb. 4, 5,
July 29, i860
The prince of Wales present at the opening of
Metropolitan railway (underground) com the main drainage works, at the southern
menced in spring of outfall, near Erith . . . April 4,
,
Great distress through tho severe winter ; Prince of Wales opens the international re
thousands relieved at the police offices, formatory exhibition at Islington . May 19,
Dec. i860, &■ Jan. i£6i
Investigation into the state of the workhouse
Another strike in thebuilding tradescommences infirmaries through several paupers dying
through neglect
March 22, Aug.
A street railway in the metropolis opened Many turnpikes in the S. suburbs abolished,
near Bayswater .... March 23, Oct 31,
Great fire near Tooley street(sce Fire*) June 22,
Sale of the East India house . . June 23, „ [See England ; and the occurrences not noticed
Meeting to establish tho " City of London here, under their resj>ective heads.]
LONDON, Bishopric of, is said to have been founded in the reign of Lucius, about
179, Theanus the first archbishop. Augustin made Canterbury the metropolitan sec of
England. London became a bishopric under Mellitus in 604, and has yielded to tho church
of Rome five saints, and to the realm sixteen lord chancellors and lord treasurers ; it was
valued in the king's books at 1119/. 8s. per annum. Present income, 10,000/.
RECENT BISIIOrS OF LONDON.
1787. Beilby Portcus, died May 14, 1809. Charles James Blomfield ; resigned Oct 1856
1S09. John Randolph, died July 28, 1813. (died Aug. 5, 1857).
1813. W. Howlcy, translated to Canterbury, Aug. 1856. Archibald Campbell Tait (] bishop).
1828.
LONDON BRIDGE. One is said to have existed, 978. A bridge built of wood, 1014,
was partly burned in 1136. The late old bridge was commenced ubout 1176, by Peter of
Colechurch, and completed in 1209, with houses on each side, connected together by large
LON
arches of timber, which crossed the street. In July, 12 12, a fire at the Southwark end
brought crowds on the bridge ; the houses at the north end caught fire likewise, and pre
vented their escape. Thus, it is said, upwards of 3000 persons lost their lives, being
either killed, burned, or drowned. The bridge was restored in 1300, and again was destroyed
by fire in 1471, Feb. 13, 1632, and Sept. 1725. In 1756 all the houses were pulled down.
The waterworks were begun in 1582; they caught fire and were destroyed in 1774. The
toll was discontinued, March 27, 1782. After many repairs, in 1822 the corporation adver
tised for designs for a new bridge : that by John Rcnnie was approved, and the works wen-
executed by his sons John and George. The first pile was driven 200 feet to the west of
the old bridge, March 15, 1824 ; and the first stone was laid by the lord mayor, alderman
Garratt, June 15, 1825. The bridge was opened by William IV. and his queen, Aug. 1, 1831.
The cost was 506,000/. *
LONDON INSTITUTION, " for the advancement of literature and the diffusion of useful
knowledge," in imitation of the Royal Institution, was founded in 1805 by sir Francis
Baring, bait., and others, at 8, Old Jewry, Cheapside. Prof, l'orson was the first librarian.
The present building in Finsbury-circus was completed in 1819, and opened on April 21 ;
the first lecture was delivered by Mr. W. T. Brande, on May 5, following. Mr. W. R. Grove,
Q. C. (the inventor of the Voltaic battery which bears his name), was the first professor of
experimental philosophy, 1840 to 1846. The institution possesses an excellent library,
lecture-room, and laboratory.
LONDON GAZETTE. See Newspapers.
LONDON STONE. A stone said to have been placed by the Romans in Cannon-street,
then the centre of the city, 15 B.C. Cheapside was at this period in the suburbs. Burns.
London Stone is one of the greatest antiquities of the city, having been known before the
time of William I. It was removed from the opposite side of the way in 1742. It was
against this stone that Jack Cade struck his sword, exclaiming, " Now is Mortimer lord of
this city ! " 1450.
LONDON UNIVERSITY was founded by the exertions of lord Brougham, Thomas
Campbell, and others; the deed of settlement dated Feb. II, 1826. The building was
commenced April 30, 1827 (when the first stone was laid by the duke of Sussex) ; and was
opened by an inaugural lecture from professor Bell, Oct. I, 1828. On Nov. 28, 1836, two
charters were granted : by one the London university was changed to " University college,"
and by the other the University of London was established, with a chancellor and other
officers. New charters were granted to the latter 011 Dec. 5, 1837 and April 21, 1858. It
has offices at Burlington -house, and has power to grant degrees to students of the universities
of the united kingdom, and many collegiato establishments. — University Hall, Gordon-
square, was founded iu 1847.
LONDONDERRY, or Debut (N. Ireland), mentioned 546. An abbey here was burned
by tho Danes in 783. A charter was granted to the London companies in 16 1 5. The town
was surprised, and sir George Powlett, the governor, and the entire garrison were put to the
sword by rebels, in 1606. It was besieged by O'Neal in 1641. A grant was made of Deny,
with 210,000 acres of land, to various companies in London, in 1619, when it took its
present name. The memorable siege of Derry by the army of James II. commenced April 20,
1689. The garrison and inhabitants were driven to the extremity of famine ; but under the
direction of the rev. George Walker, they defended it until the siege was raised by gen.
Kirke, on July 30. James's army, under the French general Rosen, retired with the loss of
about 9000 men.
LONE STAR, a secret society formed in 1848, in Alabama and other southern states of
the North American union. Its object was declared to be the "extension of the insti
tutions, the power, the influence, mid the commerce of the United States over the whole of
the western hemisphere, and the islands of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans." The first
acquisition to be made by the order were Cuba and the Sandwich Islands. The knowledge
of the existence of this society reached England in August, 1852.
LONG ISLAND, on Flatbush (N. America), Battle of, Aug. 27, 1776, between the
British troops under sir William Howe, and the revolted Americans, who suffered a severe
defeat, after a well-fought action, losing 2000 men killed and wounded, and 1000 prisoners.
* On March 17, 1850, it «™ comp'itod that there pawed ovi r London -brides 20,40? vohicloa (of which
4483 were cabs and 42S6 omnibnscsX and 167.910 persons (107,074 on foot, and 60,836 in vehicles).
C G
LON 450
LONGEVITY. Methuselah died, apod 969, 2349 B.C. (Hen. v. 27). In these countries
the instances of it are remarkable, though rare. Golour M 'Grain, of the Isle of Jura, one of
the Hebrides, is said to have kept 180 Christmascs in his own house, and died in the reign
of Charles I., being the oldest man on anything approaching to authentic records for
upwards of 3000 years. Greiy, "In 1014 died Johannes do Tcraporibus who lived 361
years (!)" Stow. Thomas Parr, a labouring man of Shropshire, was brought to Loudon by
the earl of Arundel, in 1635, and considered the wonder of his time, being then in his
153rd year, and in perfect health ; but the journey and change of air and diet killed hint,
Nov. 15, the same year. Henry Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was buried
in Bolton churchyard, Dec. 6, in that year, aged 169 years. Most cases of alleged longevity
are very doubtful.
OTIIFR EXTRAORDINARY INSTANCES. 1E53. Mrs. Mary Power (aunt of the late rt. hon,
1656. James Howies, Killin^worth . . aged 152 Kd. Lalor Shiel), UiMiline convent, Cork,
1691. Lady Eccleston, Ireland . . . . 143 March 20 116
1749. A man named Collier, Dublin . . . 137 1858. James Nolan, Knockardnuie, Carlow . . 116
1757. An Knglisoman named Eccleson . . . 144
1750. James Shcil, Irish yeoman . . . 136 EXAMPLES FURNISHED BY DR. J. WEBSTER, F.R.S.
1766. Colonel Thomas Wiuslow, Ireland . . 146 Dial. Buried at An ■'
,, John Mount, Scotland .... 136
1768. Francia Concept, Burythorpe . . . 150 1566. Nntnftl de Cugna, Bengal .... 3So
1772. Mra. Clun, Lichfield 138 1588. Jane Britten Evercrecch, Somerset . . 200
1774. William Betby, Dungarvon (an ensign ,, Thomas Cam, St. Leonard, Shoreditch . 207
who served at the battles of the Huyuo 1621. J. Torathe, Glamorganshire . . . 1P0
and Auglirim) 130 1652. Dr. W. Meade, Ware, Herts . . 14SJ
1775. Peter Gordon, Anchtericas . . . 131 1678. Juan Bnrtamcntc, Seville . , , 125
„ Mary Paton, Lochwinnoch . . . . 138 1688. Elizabeth Toratbe, Glamorgimfhirc . . 177
1776. Mr. Movet, surgeon, Dumfries . . . 139 171 1. Mrs. Scrimshaw, Rosemary-lano . . . 1.-7
,, Sarah Brookman, Glastonbury . . . 166 1723. W. Robertson, Edinburgh .... xyj
1778. Thomas Cockey, Blechingley . . . 132 1724, Peter Tortcn, Temeswar, Hungary . . 1^5
:779L M. Lawrence, < >rkney 140 1726. Juan do Outeyri, Villa de Fofinanct-', in
17S0. Hobcrt Mac Bride, Ilorries . . . 130 Asturias 146
„ Mr. William Ellis, Liverpool. . . 130 1736. John Itousey, Distrey, Scotland . . 138
,, Louisa Truxo, a ncgress, was living in this 1739. Margaret Patten, Christchurch, Westmin
year, at Tticum.ni, South America . . 175 ster ........ 136
1782. Evan Williams, Carmarthen . . . . 145 1741. J. Bovin, Temeswar, Hungary . . 172
1786. Cardinal do Solis 110 ,, Jane Bovin. ditto 164
1787. Mary Brook, of Leek 148 1757. Alexander M'Culloch, Aberdeen . . . 132
1792. Mr. Johnson, of Birmingham . . 120 1759. Donald Cameron, Rannach, Aberdeenshire 1 ;o
Mrs. Judith Scott, Islington . . , 162 1763. Mrs. Taylor, Piccadilly .... 131
i£o6. Mr. Crccke, of Thurlow .... 125 1766. John Mount, Langham, Dumfries . . 136
„ Mr. J. Tucker, Itching ferry . . . . 131 ,, John Hill, LcadhillA, near Edinburgh . 130
Catherine Lopez, of Jamaica . . 134 1771. Mr. Whallcy, Rotherhitho . . . . 121
„ Sarah Anderson, a free black . . . 140 1775. Widow Jones, Campbell .... 123
1813. Mrs. Meighan, Donoughmore . . . 130 1780. Mr. Evans, Spitalfielda 139
1814. Mary Iunes, Isle of Skye . . . . 137 1784. Mary Cameron, Bracmar, Aberdeen . . 129
Mrs. Judith Crawford, Spanish-town . 151 1791. Archbd. Cameron, Keith, Aberdeenshire . 12a
1816. Jane l.cwson, Coldbath- fields, Clcrkenwell 116 1851. Jean Golcmbeski, Hotel des Invalided,
1840. Mrs. Martha Borke, of Dromore, county of Paris 126
Kildare, Aug. 27 133 |
LONGITUDE, determined hy Hipparrhus, at Nice, who fixed the first degree in the
Canaries, 162 B.C. Harrison made a time-keeper, in a.d. 1759, which in two voyages was
found, to correct the longitude within the limits required by the act of parliament, 12th
Anne, 1 714 ; and obtained the reward. See Harrison's Time-piecr. Other improvements
followed. The chronometers of Arnold, Earnshaw, and Breguet, are highly esteemed.
Chronometers ore now received on trial at Greenwich Observatory. The net relating to
the discovery of the longitude at sea was repealed in 1828. The Bureau des Longitudes
at Paris was established in 1795.
LONG PARLIAMENT met Nov. 3, 1640; was forcibly dissolved by Cromwell
April 20, 1653.
LONGWY {N.E. France), a frontier town, was taken by the allied army, Aug. 23, 1792,
the beginning of the great war.
LOOKING-GLASSES. See Mirrors.
LOOM. The weaver's, otherwise called the Dutch loom, was brought into use in London
from Holland, about 1676. There were, in 1825, about 250,000 hand-looms in Great
Britain, and 75,000 power-looms, each being equal to three hand-looms, making twenty-two
yards each per day. The .Tacquard loom was invented about 1S00. The steam-loom was
introduced in 1807. Sec Cotton, Elcctric-loom, and Pneumatic-loom.
LOR ■151 LOR
LORD. See Lady. When printed in the English Bible thus Lord stands for Jehovah,
the self-existing (rod, tlio name first revealed to Hoses, 1491 B.C. £j:od. vi. 3 ; when in
ordinary type, for Adoiiai, a lord or master.
LOKD CHAMBERLAIN, CHANCELLOR, ftc. See Cluimbcrlain, Chancellor, *c.
LORD'S DAY ACT, 29 Charles II. c. 7. See Sabbath.
LORD'S SUPPER, instituted by Jesus Christ (Matt. xxvi. 17), 33. See Sacrament and
Transubstantiation.
LORDS.* The nobility of England date their creation from 1066, when "William Fitz-
Osborn, the first peer, is said to have been made by William I. carl of He'reford ; and
afterwards Walter d'Evreux, carl of Salisbury ; Copsi, earl of Northumberland ; Henry de
Ferrers, earl of Derby ; and Gerodus (a Fleming), earl of Chester. Twenty-two other
peers were made in this sovereign's reign. The first peer created by patent was lord
Beauchamp of Holt Castle, by Richard II. in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was created earl
of Angus by Malcolm 111. 1037. In Ireland, sir John de Courcy was created baron of
Kiusale, &c, in 11 Si ; the first peer after the obtaining of that kingdom by Henry 11 .
LORDS, House of. The peers of England were summoned, ad consuhndum, to consult,
in early reigns, and were summoned by writ, 6 & 7 John, 1205, but the earliest writ extant
is 49 Hen. III. 1265. The commons did not form a part of the great council of the nation
until some ages after the conquest. See Parliament. The house of lords includes the
spiritual as well as temporal peers of Great Britain. The bishops are supposed to hold
certain ancient baronies under the king, in right whereof they have seats in this house.
Some of the temporal lords sit by descent, some by creation, and others by election, since
the union with Scotland in 1707, and with Ireland, 1801. —Scotland elects 16 representative
peers, and Ireland 4 spiritual lords by rotation of sessions, and 28 temporal peers for life.
The house of lords in Nov. 1865 consisted of 3 princes of the blood, 3 archbishops, 20
dukes, 21 marquesses, 129 carls, 27 viscounts, 221 barons, and 28 bishops ; in all, 452. The
house of lords—
A the death of Charles II. . . 176 peers. At the death of George III 339 peers.
At the death of William III. . . 19a At the death of George IV. . . . 396
At the death of Anno .... 209 At the death of William IV 456
At the death of Georgo 1 216 In the 18th Victoria, 1855 . . . .448
At the death of George II. ... 229 In the 24th Victoria, i860 . . . . 462
The barons enact the constitutions of Claren Unite with the commons in making William
don in 1164 and Mary king and quoen .... 16S9
Obtain Magna Charta in 1215 Reject thegreat reform bill, Oct. 7, 1 831 ; pass it,
Held the government .... 1264-5 June 4, 1832
Houso of lords abolishc.l by the commons, Oppose successfully thecrcationof life-peerages,t
Feb. 6, 1649; restored 1660 Feb. 7. 1856
LORDS JUSTICES. Sec Justices.
LORETTO, near Ancona, Italy. Here is the Casa Santa, or Holy House, in which it is
pretended the Virgin Mary lived at Nazareth, and which was carried by angels into Dalmatia
from Galilee in 1291, and brought here a few years after. The lady of Loretto, gaudily
dressed, stands upon an altar holding the infant Jesus in her arms, surrounded with gold
lamps. Loretto was taken by the French in 1797, and the holy image, which had been
carried to France, was brought back with pomp, Jan. 5, 1803.
L'ORIENT (W. France). Lord Bridport off this port defeated the French fleet, June 23,
1795. The loss of the French was severe : that of the British inconsiderable.-—The French
flag-ship, L'Okient, blew up during the battle of the Nile, Aug. 1, 1798. Admiral Brueys
and about 900 men perished.
* Peers of England are free from all arrests for debts, as being the king's hereditary counsellors ;
therefore a peer cannot be outlawed in any civil action, and no attachment lies against his person ; but
execution may be taken upon his lands and goods. For the samo reason, they are free from all attendance
at courts leet or sheriffs' turns ; or, in case of a riot, from attending the pone nmitatui. Ho can act as a
justice of the peace in anv part of the kingdom. See Boron. Earl, Ac.
t Peerage for life only, with the title of lord Wenslcydalc of Wcnslcydale, was granted to baron sir
James l"«rko, Jan. 10, 1856 ; the house of lords opposed his sitting and voting as a peer for life, and on July
25> l856, he Wiis created a peer in the luual way, with the title oflord Wcnslcydale of Walton.
0 0 2
LOR 452 LOW
LORRAINE (formerly Lotharingia), a French province, became a kingdom under
Lothairc (son of the emperor Lothaire I.) about 855; it was divided on his death, in 869,
part of it being made a duchy. The first hereditary duke, Gerard, was nominated by the
emperor Henry III. in 1048. From Gerard descended the illustrious house of Lorraine,
represented now by the emperor of Austria, whose ancestor, the empress Maria Theresa,
married in 1736 Francis, formerly duke of Lorraine, then of Tuscany, Lorraine had been
given to the dethroned king of Poland, Stanislaus I., for life ; at his death in 1766, it was
united to France.
LOTS. Casting lots was sacred among the Jews, as an appeal to God, Proverbs xvi. 33.
It was employed in the division of the land of Canaan, about 1444 B.C., by Joshua (xiv. ),
and in the election of Matthias the apostle, A.D. 33, Acts i. —Lots for life or death have beeu
frequently cast. For an instance, see Wales, 1649, note.
LOTTERIF.S are said to have originated in Florenco about 1530, and to have been
legalised in France in 1539. The first mentioned in English history began drawing at the
western door of St. Paul's cathedral, Jan. II, 1569, and continued day and night until
May 6 following. It contained 40,000 " lots" at 10s. each lot The profits were for repairing
the harbours on the coast of England, and the prizes were pieces of plate.
A lottery, granted by the king, in special favour For the Pigott diamond, permitted, Jan. 7,
for the colony of Virginia (prizes, piecoa of 1801 ; it was afterwards sold at Christie's
plate), drawn near Sit. Paul s, auction for 9500 guineas . . . May 10, iSoj
June 29—July 20, 1612 Fordell,the collection of pictures of aldermun Boy-
First lottery for sums of money took place in . 1630 by act i£°4-5
Lotteries established (for more than 130 years Lotteries abolished by 6 Geo. IV. c. 60 Oct. 1820
yiolded a largo annual revenuo to the crown) 1693 The last drawn Oct 18, ,.
lottery for the British Museum . . . 1753 Act passed declaring that the then pending
Cox's museum, containing many rare speci Glasgow lottery should be the last . . 1S34
mens of art nnd articles of virtii, disposed of An act passed im\ osing a penalty of 50/. for
by lottery, by an act of parliament . . . 1773 advertising lotteries in the British news
An act passed for the sale of the buildings of papers iS-;6
the Adelphi by lottery . . June 16, ,, Lotteries suppressed in Franco . . 1793 and 1836
Irish state lottery drawn 1780 Mr. Dethiers' twelfth -cake lottery, Argyll-
Lottery for the Lcverian Museum . . 1784-5 rooms, Hanover square, suppressed Dec. 27, i860
LOUDON-HILL, or Drumclog. See Drumclog.
LOUIS-D'OR, a French gold coin of 24 francs, first struck by Louis XIII. in 1640 ; its
value fluctuated. In 1810 it was superseded by the Napoleon.
LOUISIANA (N. America), one of the United States ; discovered by Ferdinand de Soto
in 1541 ; traversed by M. de Salle in 1682, and settled by Louis XIV. (from whom it derived
its name) in 1718. It formed the basis of Law's Mississippi scheme. It was ceded to Spain
at the peace when all east of the Mississippi was given to England, 1763. Capital, Baton
Rouge.
Restored to Franco 1801 Seceded from the Union by ordinance Jan. 25. 1861
Sold to the Americans, 1803 ; and made a state 1812 Adm. Farragut takes New Orleans for tho
lien. Jackson defeated the British at New Federals . ... April =8, 1S62
Orleans Jan. 8, 1815 Louisiana restored to tho Union . . . 1865
LOUVRE. This renowned edifice in Paris is said to have been originally a royal
residence in the reign of Dagobert, 628. It was a prison-tower constructed by Philippe
Augustus in 1204. It afterwards became a library, and Charles VI. made it his palace
(about 1364). Successive kings enlarged and adorned it, particularly Louis XIV. —
Napoleon I. turned it into a museum, and deposited here the finest collection of paintings,
statues, and treasures of art known in the world. The chief of those brought from Italy
have since been restored to the rightful possessors. The magnificent buildings of the new
Louvre, begun by Napoleon I. and completed by Napoleon III., were inaugurated by the
latter in great state, Aug. 14, 1857.
LOVE FEASTS. See Agapce.
LOWER EMPIRE. Some historians make it begin with the reign of Valerian, 253 :
others with that of Constantiue, 323.
LOWERING BOAT APPARATUS. See Life-boats.
LOW SUNDAY, the first Sunday after Easter, said to derive its name from the contrast
between its solemnities and those of Easter Sunday.
LOY 453
LOYALTY LOANS were raised during the revolutionary ware. The term "loyalty
loan " was applied to one opened in London on the 5th Dec. 1796, and in fifteen hours and
twenty minutes the sum of eighteen millions sterling was subscribed. See National
Association.
LOBECK, a city in N. Germany, one of the four republics of the German confederation,
was built in the 12th century, and was the chief founder of the Hanseatic league about 1240,
which lasted till 1630 Liibeck was declared a free imperial city about 1226 ; but was
frequently attacked by the Danes. The French took it by assault, Nov. 6, 1806, and
Napoleon incorporated it into his empire in 1810. On his fall in 1814 it became once
more a free imperial city. Population in 1862, 50,614.
LUCANIANS, a warlike people of S. Italy, defeated Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia,
332 b.c. ; were subdued by the Romans 227 ; revolted after the battle of Canute, 216 ; were
reduced by Scipio, 201 ; again revolted, 90; admittedas Roman citizens, 88.
LUCCA (central Italy), a Roman colony 177 B.C., a Lombard duchy 1327 a.i>., became
a free city about 1370, and took an active part in the civil wars of the Italian republics. It
was united with Tuscany, and given in 1805 as a principality to Eliza Bonaparte by her brother
Napoleon I. Lucca, as a duchy, was given to Maria Louisa, widow of Louis, king of
Etruria, in 1814. It was exchanged by her son Charles-Louis for Parma and Placentia in 1847,
was annexed to Tuscany, and with it became part of the kingdom of Italy in i860.
LUCIA, ST. (West Indies), settled by the French in 1650 ; taken by the British several
times in the subsequent wars. Insurrection of the French negroes, April 1795. St. Lucia
was restored to France at the peace of 1802 ; but was seized by England, 1803, and confirmed
to her in 1814. Population in 1861, 26,705.
LUCIFER MATCHES came into use about 1834. In March, 1842, Mr. Reuben Par
tridge patented machinery for manufacturing the splints. In 1845, Schlatter of Vienna
discovered his amorphous phosphorus, by the use of which lucifors arc rendered less dangerous,
and the manufacture less unhealthy.
LUCKNOW, the capital of Oude. See India, 1857.
LUDDITES. Large parties of men under this designation commenced their depredations
at Nottingham, breaking frames and machinery, Nov. 181 1. Skirmish with the military
there, Jan. 29, 1812. Several serious riots occurred again in 1814 ; and numerous bodies of
these people, chiefly unemployed ai'tisans, committed great excesses in 1816 et scq. Several
of these Luddites were tried and executed.
LUGDUNUM. See Lcydcn and Lymxs.
LUNATICS. An eminent .authority has traced insanity, in a thousand male patients, to
the following causes :—
Drunkenness . .110 Old ago Poisonous effluvia .
Consequences of diseaso . 100 Chagrin Ill-usage
Epilepsy 78 Love .... Crimes, remorse, and despair .
Ambition 73 Accidents Malformation of the skull
Excessive labour . . -73 Religious enthusiasm . Other and unknown causes
Born idiots 71 Unnatural practices
Misfortunes .... 69 Political events . Pretended insanity . . .
' ' The king shall have the custody of the lands Enlightened principles of treatment wero in
of natural fools," Ac, 17 Edw. II. troduced by Wm. Tuke, at the Society of
Marriages with lunatics declared void, 15 Geo. Friends' "Retreat," at York, and by Pinel,
II. c. 30 1742 at the BicStre, Paris, with very great success 1792
Act regarding criminal lunatics passed Aug. 1840 Esquirol succeeds Pinel, and strongly recom
The numerous laws respecting lunatics were mends instruction in the management of
consolidated and amended by 16 & 1 7 Vict, mentill disorders 1810
cc. 70, 96, 97 j 353 Exposure of enormous cruelties in tho Bethlem
A new lunacy act for Scotland passed hospital 1815
An act to amend tho law relating to commis This led to gradual improvements, and at last
sions of lunacv passed (said to be in conse to the total abolition of mechanical restraints
quence of tbe Wyudham case, see T>~iaU, 1862) at Lincoln, 1837; and at Hanwell Asylum
(under tho superintendence of Dr. John
TREATMENT OF THE INSANE. Conolly) and at other places .... 1839
Till the end of the last century lunatics were Psychological journal first published by Dr.
treated with cruel severity. See Conolly "On Forbes Winslow 1848
the Treatment of tbe Insane," 1856. Journal of Mental Science, by Dr. J. C. Buck-
The insane were exhibited at Bethlem as a nill . ..->-... 1852
w, for 1d. or 2d. till 1770
LUN 454 LUX .
LUNATICS, cmtimted.
LUNATICS IN CUAIICE IN ENGLAND AND WALES, JAN. I, 1855.
Private. Paci'eu.
Male. Female. Malo. Female. Total.
County asylums . . . 132 123 6008 731O 13.579
Hospitals 89s 723 91 94 1,803
Licensed houses . . 1448 1350 1034 1279 5.111
2475 »196 7133 8689 ao,493
Ou Jan. 1, 1858, thcro were in charge in England antl Wales 22,310 lunatics of all classes ; 1859, 22,853 ;
i860, 17,837; 1861, 23,721 ; 1862, 26,169; 1864, 28,285; 1865, 29.435.
Iu 185:, thcro were in Ireland nearly 15,000 lunatics of all classes ; in Scotland in 1851, 3362 in charge ;
in 1855. 7403 ; of whicli only 3328 were under tho protection of lhc law.
LUND-HILL, near Burnslcy, in South Yorkshire While the miners were dining in ttie
pit, Feb. 19, 1857, the inflammable gas took tire and exploded. Above 180 miners perished.
In April and liny bodies were still being extricated. There had been great laxity of discipline
in the pit. 7000/. were subscribed for the bereaved.
LUNEBUIiG. See Brunswick.
LUNEVILLE (France), Peace of, concluded between the French republic and the
emperor of Germany, confirmed the cessions made by the treaty of Campo Formio.
stipulated that the Rhino, to the Dutch territories, should form the boundary of Fiance, and
recognised tho Batavian, Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, Feb. 9, 1801.
LUPERf'ALIA, a yearly festival* observed at Rome on Feb. 15, in honour of Tan,
destroyer of wolves (lupi), instituted by tho Romans, according to Plutarch ; but according
to Livy, brought by Evander into Italy. These feasts are said to have been abolished in
496, by pope Gelasius, on account of their great disorders.
LUSATIA, a marquisatc in N. Gcrmnny, given to John of Bohemia, 1319 ; obtained by
Matthias of Hungary, 1478 ; and ceded to Saxony in 1635.
LUSIAD. Sea Epic. LUSITANIA. Sec Portugal.
LUSTRUM, an expiatory sacrifice mado for the Roman people, at the end of every five,
years, after the census had been taken, 472 B.C. Every fifth year was called a lustrum ; and
ten, fifteen, or twenty years, were commonly expressed by two, three, or four lustra. Tho
number of Iioman citizens was— in 293 B.C., 272,308 ; 179 B.C., 273,294 ; 70 B.c, 450,000;
28 B.C., 4,164,060 ; A. 11. 48, 5,984,072.
LUTHERANLSM,t the form of Christianity professed by tho majority of the people of
the north of Germany, Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden. The doctrines are mainly embodied
in Luther's catechisms, in the Augsburg Confession, nud in the Formula Concordia of the
Lutherans, published in 1580. Their first university was founded at Marburg, in 1527, by
Philip, landgrave of Hcsso.
LUTZEN, or Lutzexof.n (N. Germany). Here Gustnvns Adolphus, king of Sweden,
defeated the imperialists under Wallcnstein, Nov. 6, 1632, but was himself killed ; and here
the French army, commanded by Napoleon, defeated the combined armies of Russia and
Prussia, commanded by general' Wittgenstein, May 2, 1S13. The battles of Bautzen
and Wiirtzchen immediately followed (May 19—21), both in favour of Napoleon. The allies
were compelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was agreed to, and afterwards prolonged ;
but, unfortunately for tho French emperor, did not produce peace.
LUXEMBURG (Holland), capital of the grand duchy of Luxemburg, part of which is
subject to Holland and part to Belgium since 1839. Luxemburg, once considered tho
strongest fortress in the world, was taken and pillaged by the French in 1542-3 ; by tho
Spaniards in 1544 ; by the French in 1684 ; restored to Spain in 1697 ; taken by the French in
1 701 ; given to the Dutch as a barrier town, and ceded to the emperor at the peace in 17 13.
* Vakod youths ran through tho strcots with whips, lashing all whom they encountered, even women,
who received tho stripes with inclination, behoving that they removed barrenneas and cased the pains of
childbirth. Augustus forbade all persons above the ago of fourteen to appear naked during this festival.
Cicero, in his Philippics, reproaches Antony for having disgraced the dignity of tho consulship by appearing
naked on ono of thoso occasions. Varro.
t Martin Luther was born at Eisloben. Nov. 10, 1483 : studied at Erfurt, 1501 ; was professor of philo
sophy at Wittenberg, 1508 ; resisted tho salo of indulgences, 1517 ; defended himself at Augsburg, 1518 ; at
Worms, 1520 ; was oxcommunicatcd, June 16, 1520; began his German bible, 1521 ; married Kathcrino do
Bora, 1525 ; publishod his German bible complete, 1534 ; died Fob. 18, 1546.
1
LUX 455 LYO
It withstood several sieges in the last century, It surrendered to the French after a long and
memorable siege, June 7, 1795.
LUXOR. See Thebes.
LUXURY. Lucullus (died 49 B. a), at Rome, was distinguished for inordinate luxury.
See Sumptuary Laws.
LYCEUM (originally a temple of Apollo Lyceus, or a portico, or gallery, built by Lycens,
son of Apollo) was a spot near tho Ilissus, in Attica, where Aristotle taught philosophy ;
and as he generally taught as he walked, his pupils were called peripatetics, wallrrs-about,
and his philosophy that of tho Lyceum, 342 B.C. Stanley. Seo Theatres.
LYCIA (Asia Minor) belonged successively to Oiwsus (about 560 B.C.), tho Persians
(546 B.C.), to Alexander the Great (333 B.C.), and to his successors the Sclcucida-.. Tho
Komans gave Lycia to tho Rhodians (188 B.C.). It became nominally free under the Romans,
nnd was annexed to the empire by Claudius. The marbles, brought from Lycia by sir Charles
Fellows, were deposited in the British Museum, 18406.
LYDIA, or Mxtonia, an ancient kingdom in Asia Minor, under a long dynasty of kings,
the last being Crresus, "tho richest of mankind." The coinage of gold and silver money,
and other useful inventions, are ascribed to the Lydians. jEsop, the Phrygian fabulist,
Alcman, the first Greek erotic poet, Thalcs of Miletus, Anaximencs, Xenophancs, Anacreon
of Teos, Hcraclitus of Ephcsus, &c. , nourished in Lydia.
Argon, a descendant of Hercules, reigns in had been predicted many years before by
Lydia. Htrod. . . . . 1J.C. Thalcs of Miletus. Blair. n.c. May 28, 585
The kingdom of Lydia. properly so called, Crresus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to tho
begins uudor Ardysus I. Jllair. . . . throne, and conquers Asia Minor . . 560-50
Alyattes I. reigns Crresus, dreading the power of Cyrus, whose
Melea commences his rule conquests had reached to the borders of
Jtciffn of Candaules Lydia, crosses the Halys to attack tho Medes,
Cyges, first of tho raco Mcnnnadiu, kills Can with 420,000 men and 60,000 horso . . 5*3
daules, marries his queen, usurps tho Uirono, He is defeated, pursuod, and besieged in his
and makes great conquests . . . 71 i capital by Cyrus, who orders him to bo
Ardysus II. reigns, 678; tho Cimbri besiege burned alive ; the pile is already on fire,
Sanlis, the capital of Lydia .... 635 when Crresus calls aloud, Solon/ and Cyrus
Tho Milesian war, commenced under Gyges, is hearing him, spares his life. Lydia made a
continued by Sadyattcs, who reigns . . . 6.-S provinco of the Persian empire . . . . 546
Reign of Alyattes II .617 Sardis burnt by the Ioniuns .... 499
Battle upon the river Halys, botwecn tbo Lydia conquered by Alexander . . . 332
Lydians and Modes, interrupted by an Bocomes part of tho kingdom of Ferg.unus . 283
almost total eclipse of tho sun. This eclipso Conquered by the Turks . . . a.d. 1326
LYING-IN HOSPITALS. The first, established in Dublin by Dr. Bartholomew Mosse,
a physician, amidst strong opposition, was opened March, 1745. Sec Hospitals.
LYMPHATIC VESSELS (concerned in digestion), were discovered by Jasper Asellins
in 1622, and described in 1627. Discovered in oviparous animals by Dr. Hewson, who
disputed the honour of the discovery with Dr. Munro, 1762.
LYNCH LAW, punishment inflicted by private individuals, independently of the legal
authorities, said to derive its name from John Lynch, a farmer, who exercised it upon the
fugitive slaves and criminals dwelling in the "dismal swamp,1' North Carolina, when they
committed outrages upon persons and property which the colonial law could not promptly
repress. This mode of administering justice began about the end of the 17th century, and
still exists in tho outlying districts of the United States.
LYONS (S. France), the Roman Lugdunura, founded by M. Plancus, 43 B.C. Tha
city was reduced to ashes in a single night by lightning, a.d. 59, and was rebuilt in the
reign of Nero. It was a free city till its union with Franco in 1307.
Clodius Albiuus defeated and slain by Septimus An insurrection among the artisans, which led
Sevcrus, near Lyons . . . Feb. 19, 197 to great popular excesses ; quelled by an
Two general councils held horo . . 1245, 1274 army .... Nov. 21—Doc 3, 18^1
Silk manufacture commenced .... 1515 Dreadful riots, put down by military April 15, 1834
Lyons besieged by tho Convention army—sur Railway to Paris opened . . April 7, 1839
rendered—and awful scenes of blood and A dreadful inundation at Lyon3. Sco Itmnda-
rapine followed. Oct. 7 ; the National Con tiont. ...... Nov. 4, 1340
vention decreod the demolition of tho city, Another insurrection quelled, with much loss
Oct. T2, 1793 of lifo Juno 15, 1849
Capitulated to the Austrian?, March, 1814, July, 1815
LYK MAC
LYHE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian Hermes, the Latin Mercury, who,
according to Homer, gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon it with method, and accom
panied it with poetry. The invention of the primitive lyre, with three strings, is ascribed to
the first Egyptian Hermes. Tcrpandcr added several strings to the lyre, making the number
seven, 673 B.C. Phrynis, a musician of Mitylenc, added two more, making nine, 438 n.c.
M.
MACADAMISING, a system of road-making devised by Mr. John Macadam, and pub
lished by him in an essay, ill 1819, having practised it in Ayrshire. He received a grant of
10,000/. from parliament; was appointed surveyor-general of the metropolitan roads in
1827 ; and died in 1836.
MACAO (N. China) was given to the Portuguese as a commercial station in 1586, in
return for their assistance against pirates.
MACARONI, This name was given to a poem by Theop. Folengo, 1509, and it continues
to designate trifling performances, as buffoonery, puns, anagram's, " wit without wisdom, and
humour without sense." His poem was so called from an Italian cake of the same name,
pleasant to the taste, but without any alimentary virtue. These poems became the reigning
taste in Italy and France, where they gave birth to Macaroni academies, and reaching
England, to Macaroni cluhs (about 1772), till, in tho end, everything ridiculous in dress ami
manners was called " Macaroni."
MACCABEES, a family of patriotic Jews, who commenced their career during the
persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, 167 n.c, when Mattathias, a priest, resisted the
tyranny of the governor. His son, Judas Maceabauis, defeated the Syrians in three battles,
166, 165 B.C. ; but fill in an ambush, 161 B.C. His brother Jonathan made a league with
the Romans and Lacedemonians, and after an able administration was treacherously killed
at Ptolemais by Tryphon, 143 B.C. His brother and successor, Simon, was also murdered,
135 B.C. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon, succeeded. His son Judas, called also Aristobulus,
took the title of king, 107 B.C. The history of the Maccabees is contained in five books of
that name, two of which are included in our Apocrypha. Four arc accounted canonical by the
Roman Catholic church ; none by Protestant communions.
MACDONALD AFFAIR. See Prussia, 1861.
MACE, a weapon anciently used by the cavalry of most nations, was originally a spiked
club, hung at the saddle-bow, and usually of metal. Maces were also early ensigns of
authority borne before officers of state, the top being made in the form of an open crown,
and commonly of silver gilt. The lord chancellor and speaker of the house of commons
have maces borne before them. Edward III. granted to London the privilege of having
gold or silver maces carried before the lord mayor, sheriffs, aldermen and corporation, 1354.
It was with the mace usually carried before the lord mayor on state occasions, that Walworth,
lord mayor of London, knocked the rebel Wat Tyler off his horse, a courtier afterwards
despatching him with his dagger, for rudely approaching Richard II., 1381. Cromwell,
entering the house of commons to disperse its members and dissolve the parliament, ordered
one of his soldiers to " take away that fool's bauble, the mace," which was done, and the
doors of the house locked, April 20, 1653.
MACEDON (N. Greece). The first kingdom was founded by Caranus, about 814 B.C.
It was an inconsiderable country, sometimes under the protection of Athens, sometimes of
Thebes, and sometimes of Sparta, until the reign of Philip, the father of Alexander the
Great, who by his wisdom as a politician, and exploits as a general, made it a powerful
kingdom, and paved the way for his son's greatness.
Reigns of C&ranus, 814 B.C., or 796, or 748; j lie is murdered by a favourite, to whom be
Perdiccas I., 729 ; Argieus I., 684 ; Philip I., promised his daughter in marriage . B c. 399
640 or 609. j Pausanias reigns 394
JEropus conquers the Illyrlans . . B.C. 602' Reign of Amyntas II., 39J ; expelled . . 398
Reign of Amyntas, 540 ; of Alexander I. . . 500 1 Recovers his throne, and kills Pausanias . . 397
Macedon conquered by tho Persians, 513 ; de- The Illyrians enter Macedonia, expel Amyntas,
liverod by tho victory of Platsea . . .479 and make Argieua, brother of Tausanias,
Reign of Perdiccas II 454 king 393
Potidaja taken by the Athenians . .431 Amyntas again recovers his kingdom . . . 390
Archclaus, natural son of Perdiccas, murders Macedonians, a semi-Arian sect, followers of
tho legitimate hcira of his father; seizes the Maccdonius, about 341; condemned by the
throne, and improves the country . . . 413 council of Constantinople . . . ,381
MAC 457 MAD
MACEDON, continued.
Reign of Alexander 1 1. , 369; assassinated b.c. 367 Returns to Babylon, 324 ; dies . b.c. 323
Reign of Perdiccas III., 364 ; killed in battle . 360 Philip Aridams III. king „
Reign of Philip II., and institution of the Alexander's conquests arc divided among his
Macedonian phalanx .... 1S<) generals, 323 ; his remains are transported to
He defeats the Athenians and Illyrians . 35') Alexandria, and buried by Ptolemy . . . 322
He takes Amphipolis. Sec Archery . 358 The Greeks defeated by Antipater and the
lie conquers Thrace, Illyria, and Thcssaly 35^352 Macedonians, near Cranon (ip/ach *«) ,
Birth of Alexander the Great ■ 356 Cassandcr reigns, 316; rebuilds Thebes . . 315
Close of the first Sacred war ....■ 346 Seleucus recovers Babylon 312
Illyricum overrun by the army of Philip . .■ 344 Cassandcr kills Itoxana and her son (the last of
Thrace made tributary to Macedon , ■ 343 Alexander's family), and usurps the throne . 311
Aristotle appointed tutor to Alexander . . Battle of Ipsus (which see); Antigonus killed . 301
War against the Athenians ■ 34' New division of the empire „
Philip besieges Bysantium unsuccessfully . . 34" Death of Cassander . 298
Battle of Chseronea ; Philip conquers Reign of Alexander V. and Antipater, his sons
Philip is assassinated by Pausanias at JEg-.e Demetrius I., Poliorcetes. son of Antigonus,
during the celebration of games in honour murders Alexander, and seizes the crown of
of his daughter's nuptials Macedon 294
Alexander III., surnamed the Great, succeeds 3/» Achamn league formed against Macedon . 281-243
The Greeks appoint him general of their armies Governments ofPyrrhus, 287; Lysimnchus, 286;
against the Persians Ptolemy Ceraunus 281
The Thebans revolt ; ho levels Thebes to the 335 Irruption of the Gauls ; Ptolemy killed . . 279
ground ; the house of Pindar alone left . . Sosthenes governs 278
He passes into Asia, and gains his first battle Reign of Antigonus Gonatas. son of Demetrius 277
over Darius at the Granicus . May 22, Pyrrhus invades Macedon, defeats Antigonus,
Sardis surrenders, Halicarnassus taken, and 334 and is proclaimed king 274
cities in Asia Minor ..... Pyrrhus slain ; Antigonus restored . . 272
Memnon ravages the Cyclades ; Darius takes Antigonus takes Athens. . . . . 268
the field with 460,000 infantry, and 100,000 The Gauls again invade Macedon „
cavalry Revolt of the Parthians 250
Darius defeated at Issus (vhirk see) . Nov. 333 Reign of Demetrius II 239,
Alexander on his way to Egypt, Lays siege to Philip, his son, 232 ; set aside by Antigonus
Tyre, which is destroyed after seven months 312 Doson 229
Damascus is taken, and tho vast treasures Philip V., 220 ; wars unsuccessfully against the
Gaza surrenders Rhodians 202
Alexander enters Jerusalem ; and Egypt is con Philip defeated by the Romans at Cynoccphala; 197
quered Reign of Perseus, his son 178
Alexandria founded Perseus defeated by the Romans . . . 171
The Pen-ians totally defeated at Arbela Oct. The consul JBmilius Paulus enters Macedon,
Alexander master of Asia ; enters Babylon and pronounces it a Roman province . . 168
Alexander sits on the throne of Darius at Susa Perseus and his sons made prisoners, walk in
Parthia, Media, &c., overrun by him chains before the chariot of ^Emilias in his
Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits him triumph for the conquest of Macedon . . 167
He puts his friend Parmenio to death, on Macedonia plundered by Theodoric tho Ostro
charge of conspiracy supposed to be false goth ad. 482
His expedition to India ; Poms, king of India, Conquered by the Bulgarians .... 978
is defeated and taken ; and the country as Recovered by the emperor Basil . . . 1001
far as the Ganges is overrun .... Formed into the Latin kingdom of Thcssa-
Callisthenes is put to the torture for refusing 3"7 lonica. by Boniface, of Montferrat . . . 1204
to render divine homage to Alexander . . After various changes, it is finally conquered
Voyage of his admiral Ncarchus from the Indus by tho Turks under Amurath II., and an
to the Euphrates 328-325 nexed to his empire 1430
MACHIAVELLIAN PRINCIPLES, those laid down by Nicholas Machiavelli of Florence
(born 1469, died 1527), in his Practice 0/ Politics and The Prince. I5y some they arc stigma
tised as " the most pernicious maxims of government, founded on the vilest policy and by
others as " sound doctrines, notwithstanding the prejudice erroneously raised against
them." The author said that if he taught princes to he tyrants, he had also taught the people
to destroy tyrants. The work appeared at Rome in 1532, and was translated into English
in 1761.
MACIEJOVICE (near Warsaw, Poland). Here the Poles were totally defeated by the
Russians, and their general, Kosciusko, taken prisoner, Oct. 4, 1794.
MADAGASCAR (S. E. coast of Africa), a large populous island, said to have been dis
covered by Lorenzo Almeida, 1506.
The French attempted to settle at Antongol- A reactionary policy under his energetic queen
bay in 1774 immediately began ; the English missionaries
who came in 1820 obliged to depart . . 1836.
Their establishment at Fort Dauphin fell into
the hands of the English with Bourbon and Tho application of the native laws to the Euro
Mauritius in 1810-11 pean settlers occasioned an unsuccessful
The settlements ceded to king Radama, on his attack on the town of Tamatave, by a united
giving up the slave trade . . .1818 expedition from the English at the Mauritius ,
Radama, who favoured Europeans and encou and the French from the Isle of Bourbon,
raged Christianity, died 1828 June, 1845
MAD 458 MAE
MADAGASCAR, continued.
All amicable intercourse ceases for ten years, The queen dies ; succeeded by her son Radama
during which the native Christians suffer II. t a Christian Aug. 1861
persecution 1846 A revolution ; the king and his ministers assas
The French defeated in an attack on the island, sinated ; the queen proclaimed the sovereign,
Oct. 19, 1855 May, 1S63
The rev. W. Ellis published an interesting Embassy from Madagascar arrives at South
account of his three visits to the island, on ampton Feb. 1864
liehalf of the London Missionary Society, in Disputes with the French continue . Nov. 1865
1854-5-6, 1858
MADEIRA, an island, N. W. coast of Africa, discovered, it is said, in 1344, by Mr.
Mncham, an English gentleman, or mariner, who fled from France for an illicit amour. He
was driven here by a storm, and his mistress, a French lady, dying, lie made a canoe, and
carried the news of Ids discovery to Pedro, king of Arragon, which occasioned the report
that the island was discovered by a Portuguese, 1345. It is asserted that the Portuguese
did not visit this island until 1419 or 1420, nor did they colonise it until 1431. It was
taken hy the British in July, 1801; and again hy admiral Hood and general Beresford,
Dec. 24, 1807, and retained iii trust for the royal family of Portugal, which had emigrated
to the Brazils. It was restored to the Portuguese in 1814. Since 1852 the renowned
vintages hero have been totally ruined hy the vine disease.
MADIAI PERSECUTION. See Tuscany.
MADRAS (S. E. Hindustan), called by the natives Chennapatam, colonised by the
English. 1620.
Fort St-. George built, 1O41 ; made a presidency 1654 patam, April 5, which is stormed by tho
Hcngal placed under Madras .... 1658 British under major-general Baird, and
Calcutta, hitherto subordinate to Madras, mado Tippoo Saib killed .... May 4, 1799
a presidency " . 1701 Appointment of sir Thomas Strange, first judge
Madras taken by the French . . Sept. 14, 1746 of Madras under the charter. Dec. 26, 1800
Restored to the English 1749 More than 1000 houses in Madras burnt Feb. 1803
Vainly besieged by tho French under Lally, Tho Madias army under general Arthur Welles-
Doc. is, 1758 ley (afterwards duke of Wellington) marches
Hyder marches to Madras and obtains a favour for Poonah (see Irvtia) . . . March, .,
able treaty April, 1769 Mutiny among tho British forces at Velloro . 1806
Sir John Lindsay arrives . . . July, 1770 600 sepoys killed ; 200 executed . July 10, .,
He is succeeded by sir II. Hartland . Sept. 1771 M utiny of the sepoy troops at Madras . . . 1803
Lord Bigot, governor, imprisoned by his own Arrival oflurd Minto at Madras, who publishes
council, Aug. 24, 1776; dies in confinement, a general amnesty .... Sept. 29
April 17, 1777 ; his enemies convicted and Awful hurricane, by which tho ships at anchor
fined 1000/. each .... Feb. 11, 1780 wero driven into the town and seventy sail I -r. 1 :
Sir Eyre Cooto arrives . . Nov. 5, ,, sunk, manv with their crews . . May,
He defeats Hyder .... July 1, 1781 Madras attacked by tho Pindarccs i:!7
Lord Macartney arrives as governor Juno 22, „ Appointment of the rev. Dr. Corrie, first Bishop
The Madras government arrests gen. Stuart for of Madras Feb. 14, 1833
disobedience, and Bends him to England, Sir Charles Trcvelyan,' governor, Jan. 1859;
June, 1783 recalled for publishing a minute in opposi
Lord CorawaHis arrives hero . . Dec. 12, 1790 tion to Mr. Jaa. Wilson's financial schemes,
Sir Charles Oakley succeeds gen. Meadows as May 10, i860
governor ..... Aug. 1, 1792 His successor, sir H. Wood, dies at Madras,
Lord Mornington (afterwards tho marquess Aug. 2, „
Wellesley) visits hero . . Dec. 1798 Sir Wm. Dcnison appointed governor, Nov.
General Harris with tho Madras army enters i860; arrives .... Feb. 18, 1861
Mysore, March 5 ; and arrives at Seringa- [For other events, sec India.]
MADRID (New Castile). Mentioned in history as Majorit, a Moorish castle.
•S icked by the Moors 1109 Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of
Made the scat of the Spanish court . . 1516 Spain, but soon rctiros . . July 20, 1S0S
Taken by lord Galway 1706 Madrid retaken by the French, Dec. 2, 1S08 ;
The Escurial was built .... 1563 rt seq. and retained till it is entered by Wellington
Tho old palace was burnt down .... 1734 and his army .... Aug. 12, 1812
Madrid taken by tho French . . . March, i3o8 Ferdinand VII. restored . ' . . May 14, 1S14
The citizens rise up in arms to expel the French, Population, in 1857, 483,795.
and a dreadful conflict takes place May 2, 1808 Boo Spaint 1840 ei ttq.
MAESTRICHT (Holland). It revolted from Spain 1570, and was taken by the prince of
Parma in 1 579> when a dreadful massacre took place. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced
it after a memorable siege, and it was confirmed to the Dutch in 1648 ; Louis XIV. took it
in 1673 ; William, prince of Orange, invested it in vain in 1676 ; hut in 1678 it was restored
to the Dutch. In 1748 it was besieged by tho French, who were permitted to take possession
<>f the city on condition of its being restored at the peace then negotiating. At the com-
* Appointed financial secretary and a member of the Indian council at Calcutta, Oct. 1863.
MAG 4 59 MAG
nioncement of 1793, Maastricht was unsuccessfully attacked by the French, hut they became
nlasters of it towards the end of tho following year. In 1814, it was made part of the
kingdom of the Netherlands ; it now belongs to Holland.
MAGAZINE, at first .1 miscellaneous periodical publication. There are now magazines
devoted to nearly every department of knowledge. The following an; the dales of the first
publication of the principal magazines. In Jan. 1865, 544 magazines were being published
in Great Britain and Ireland. Seo Reviews and Newspapers.
Gentleman's Magazine . . 1731 European Magazine . . . 1782) Fraser's Magazine . . . i8 ;o
London 1732 Methodist .... 1784 : Motroxwlitan . . . . 1831
Scots 1739 Evangelical . . . . 1792 Penny 1832
Ro.yal 1759 Monthly 1796 1 Tait's 1833
Court 1760 Philosophical .... 1798 I drnhill . 1859
Gospel 1768 Blackwood's .... 1817 | Macmillan's . . . . ,.
Lldy'i ..... 1772 New Monthly . . . . 1814 Tomple Bar ; and St. James's 1S60
MAGDALENS and Magdalenettes, communities of nuns and women, the latter
class consisting chiefly of penitent courtesans. Tho order of penitents of St. Magdalen was
founded 1272, at Marseilles. The convent of Naples was endowed by queen Sancha, 1324.
That at Metz was instituted in 1452. At Paris, 1492. The Magdalen at Koine was endowed
by pope Leo X., in 15 1 5, and favoured by Clement VIII., in 1594. The Magdalen Hospital,
London, was founded in 1758, principally under the direction of Dr. Dodd. Tho Asylum in
Dublin was opened in June, 1766.
MAGDEBURG (Prussia). Tho archbishopric was founded about 967. The city suffered
much during the religions wars in Germany. It was blockaded for seven months by the
Imperialists, under Wallenstcin, in 1629 ; and was barbarously sacked by Tilly on May 10,
1631. It was given to Brandenburg in 1648; was taken by the French Nov. 8, 1806,
and. annexed to the kingdom of Westphalia ; but was restored to Prussia in 1813.*
MAGELLAN, Straits of (connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans), was passed by
Fernando do Magelhaens (Magellan), a Portuguese, on Nov. 27, 1520. He gave the latter
ocean its name on account of its calmness. Magellan completed the first voyage round the
world, with a fleet of discovery fitted out by the emperor Charles V., but was killed in 1521.
The Spaniards had a fort here, called Cape Famine, because the garrison perished for waul.
MAGENTA, a small town in Lombardy, memorablo for the victory of the French and
Sardinian army over tho Austrians, June 4, 1859. The emperor Louis Napoleon com
manded, and lie and the king of Sardinia were in tho thickest of the fight. It is said that
55,000 French and Sardinians, and 75,000 Austrians were engaged. The former are asserted
to have lost 4000 killed and wounded, and the Austrians 10,000, besides 7000 prisoners ;
these numbers are still doubtful. The French generals Espinasse and Clcrc were killed. The
arrival of general M'Mahou during a deadly struggle between the Austrians and the French,
greatly contributed to the victory. The contest near the bridge of Buffalora was very severe.
The Austrians fought well, but were badly commanded. The emperor and king entered
Milan on June 8 following ; M'Mahon and Regnault d'Angely wero created marshals of
France.—Tho red dye, rosaniline, obtained by chemists from gas-tar, is termed magenta.
Sec A nilinc.
MAGI, or Worshipters of Fire. The Persians adored the invisible and incompre
hensible God as tho principle of all good, and paid homage to fire, as the emblem of his power
and purity. They built no altars nor temples ; their sacred fires blazed in the open air, and
their offerings were made upon the earth. The Magi, their priests, are said to have had skill
in astronomy, &c. ; hence the term Magi was applied to all learned men, till they were finally
confounded with the magicians. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, was the reformer of the sect of
the Magi ; he flourished about 10S0 B.C. ; others say 550 B.C. Their religion was superseded
in Persia by Mahomotanisni, a.d. 652. The Parsees at Bombay are descendants of the
Guebres or fire-worshippers.
MAGIC. Seo Alchemy, Witchcraft, &c. The invention of the Magic Lantern is
ascribed to Roger Bacon, about 1260, but more correctly to Athanasius Kircher, who
died 1680.
* The MagiUburg Experiment is shown by means of a hollow sphere, composed of two hemispheres,
rittin? air-tight. When the air is exhausted by the air-pump, tho hemispheres arc held together by tho
pressure of the atmosphere, and require great force to separate them. 'The apparatus was suggested by
Otto von Guericko, tho inventor of tho air-puiup. lie died in 1GS6. Jirande.
MAG 460 MAG
MAGISTRATES. See Justices. The present arrangement of metropolitan police magis
trates (the chief sitting at Bow-street) was made by act of parliament in 1792. Henry
Fielding, the novelist, was acting magistrate for Westminster and at Bow-street He was
succeeded by his half-brother, sir John Fielding, in 1 761.
Jly Sir William Addington . 1780 ! Sir Nathaniel Conant . . 1813 I Sir Frederick Uoo . . . 1827
Sir Richard Ford . . 1800 Sir Robert Maker . . 1820 Mr. T. J Hull . ... 1839
Mr. Read .... 1806 | Sir Richard Birnio . . . 1821 j Sir Thomas Henry . . 1864
Stipendiary borough magistrates were appointed by 5 & 6 AVill. IV. c 76, 1835.
MAGNA CHAKTA. The fundamental parts of the great charter of English liberty wore
derived from Saxon Charters, continued by Henry I. and his successors. It was signed by
John at Runnymedc, near Windsor, June 15, 1215,* &c. It was many times confirmed,
and frequently violated, by Henry III, This last king's grand charter was granted in 1224,
and was assured by Edward I. See Forests.
MAGNA GRiECIA, the independent states founded by Greek colonists in South Italy,
Sicily, &c., beginning in 974 B.C. Pandosia and Metapontum were built in 774B.C. Cumfe,
in Campania, is said to have been founded in 1034 n.c. These states were ruined through
siding with Hannibal when he invaded Italy, 216 B.C. ♦
Syracuse founded . . b.c. 734 I Crotona .... b.c. 710 I Ltpara . ... b.c, 627
I .eontiuin and Cataua . . 730 1 Tarentum 708 Agrigeutum . . . . 582
Sybaris 721 | Locri Epizophyrii . 673 | Thurium . .... 432
MAGNESIA (Asia Minor). Here Antiochus the great, king of Syria, was defeated by
the Scipios, 190 B.C. —Magnesia alba, the white alkaline earth used in medicine, of gently
purgative properties, was in use in the beginning of the i8th century. Its properties were
developed by Dr. Black in 1755.
MAGNESIUM, a metal first obtained from magnesia by sir Humphrey Davy, about
1S07, and since produced in larger quantities by Bussy, Devtlle, and especially by Mr. E.
Sonstadt, in 1862-4. Its light when burnt is very brilliant, and is so rich in chemical raj's
that it may be used in photography. Lamps have been made for burning magnesium wire,
which is so employed by the excavators of the tunnel through Mount Cenis. By its light
photographs of the interior of the Pyramids were taken in 1865.
MAGNETISM. Magnes, a shepherd, is said to have been detained on Mount Ida by the
nails in his boots. The attractive power of the loadstone or magnet was early known, and is
referred to by Homer, Aristotle, and Pliny ; it was also known to the Chinese and Arabians.
The Greeks are said to have obtained the loadstone from Magnesia in Asia, 1000 B.C. Roger
Bacon is said to have been acquainted with its property of pointing to the north (1294).
The invention of the mariner's compass is ascribed to Flavio Gioia, a Neapolitan, about 1320 ;
but it was known in Norway previous to 1266; and is mentioned in a French poem, 1150.
See under Electricity.
Robert Norman, of London, discovered the 1 Mr. Christie proved that heat diminishes
dip of the needle about 1576, magnetic force about 1825
(filbert's treatise "Do Magneto," published . . 1600 Sir W. Snow Harris invents various forms of
Halley's theory published 1683 the compass . 1831
Marcel observed that a bar of iron becomes Electncity produced from a magnet by pro
temporarily magnetic by position . . . 1722 fessor Faraday, 1831 : his researches on the
Artificial mag-nets made by Dr. G. Knight . 1746 action of the magnet on light, on the mag
The variation of the compass was observed by netic properties of flame, air, and gases
Bond, about 1668 ; the diurnal variation by (published 1845), on dia-magnetiam (1845),
Graham, 1722 ; on which latter Cauton made on magnc-crystallic action (1848), on atmo
4000 observations previous to . . . . 1756 spheric magnetism (1850*, on the magnetic
Coulomb constmctcd a torsion balance for de force 1851-9
termining the laws ot attraction and repul Magnetic observations established in the British
sion, 1 786 ; also investigated by Michel, Eulcr, colonies under the superintendence of col.
Lambert, Robison, and others . . . 1750-1S00 Edward Sabine ... 1840 el ftq.
'J he deflection of the magnetic needle by the Prof. Tyndall proves the existence of dia mag
voltaic current was discovered by CErsted . i?2o netic polarity . 1856.
Mr. Abraham invents a magnetic guard for In the present century our knowledge of the
persons engaged in grinding cutlery . 1821 phenomena of magnetism has also been
The magnetic effects of the violet rays of light greatly increased by the labours of Arago,
exhibited by Moricbiui, 1814: polarity of a Ampere, Hanstoen, Gauss, Weber, Poggen-
sewing needle fo m:ignctized shown by Mrs. dorff, Sabine, Lamout, Du Monccl, Act See
Somcrville 1825 Animal MapMtitm.
m On Nov. 20, 1214, the archbishop of Canterbury and tho barons met at St. Edmondslurry. On Jan. 6,
1215, thi-y presented their demands to the king, who deferred his answer. On May 19 they were censured
by the pope. On May 24 they marched to London, and the king was compelled to yield.
t In the Royal Institution, London, is a magnet by Logcman, of Uaarlcm, constructed on the prin-
MAG 401 MAI
MAGNETO- ELECTRICITY, the discovery of professor Faraday. See Electricity.
Magneto-electricity has been recently applied to telegraphic and to lighthouse purposes.*
MAGNOLIA. Magnolia ghtuca was brought here from N. America, 1688. The laurel-
leaved Magnolia, Magnolia, grandifiora, from N. America about 1734. The dwarf Magnolia,
Magnolia pumila, from China in 1789; and (also from China) the brown stalked, 1789 ;
the purple, 1790; and the slender, 1804.
MAGYARS. See Hungary.
MAHARAJPOOR (India). Here sir Hugh Gough severely defeated ihe Mahratta army
of Gwalior, Dec. 29, 1843. Lord Ellenborough was present.
MAHOGANY is said to have been brought to England by Raleigh, in 1595 ; and to
have come into general use about 1720.
MAHOMETANISM embodied in the Koran, includes—the unity of God, the immortality
of the soul, predestination, a last judgment, and a sensual paradise. Mahomet asserted
that the Koran was revealed to him by the angel Gabriel during a period of twenty-three
years. He enjoined on his disciples circumcision, prayer, alms, frequent ablution, and
lasting, and permitted polygamy and concubinage.
Mahomet, or Mohammed, born at Mecca . . 569 The Mahometans conquered Arabia, North
Announced himself as a prophet about . . 611 Africa, and part of Asia, in tho 7th century ;
Fled from his enemies to Medina (bis flight is in the 8th they invaded Europe, conquering
called the Hegira) 622 Spain, where they foxinded the Califat of
Overcomes his enemies, the Koreisb, the Jews, Cordova, which lasted from 756 to 1031, when
4c it was broken up into smaller governments,
Defeats the Christiana at Muta . the last of which, tho kingdom of Grenada,
Is acknowledged as a sovereign . . . . 630 endured till its subjugation by Ferdinand in
Dies, it is said, of slow poison, administered by 1492: but tho Mahometans were not finally '•
a Jew to test his divine character . Juno 7, expelled from Spain till 1609
The Mahometans are divided into several sects, 0j2 Their progress in France was stopped by their
the two chief being the Sonn Ues, or the Ortho defeat at Tours by Charles Martol, in . . 732
dox, who recognised as caliph Abubeker, the After a long contest, tho Turks under Maho
futher-in law of Mahomet, in preference to met II. took Constantinople; he made it his
Oinar and Ali ; and the Shiites (Sectaries), or capital and the chief seat of his religion . -1453
f'atimites, the followers of Ali, who married Though considered to be declining, Mahome
Fatima, the prophet's daughter. tanism is calculated as including 100 millions
The Ottoman empire is the chief seat of the amongst its votaries.
Sonnitos, tho sultan being considered the Coomrooden Tyabjce, a Mahometan, after serv
representative of tho caliphs ; while Persia ing his articles, was duly admitted to practise
has been for centuries the stronghold of the as an attorney, having taken the oaths upon
Shiites. the Koran. Lord chief-justice Campbell
wished him success in his profession Nov. 1858
MAHIiATTAS, a people of Hindostan, who originally dwelt north-west of the Deccnn,
which they overran about 1676. They endeavoured to overcome the Mogul, but were
restrained by the Afghans. They entered into alliance with the East India Company in
1767, made war against it in 1774, again made peace in 1782, and were finally subdued in
1818. Their last prince, Siudiah, is now a pensioner of the British government.
MAID. See Holy Maid, Elizabeth Barton, and Joan of Arc, Maid of Orleans.
MAIDA (Calabria), where the French, commanded by general Itognicr, were signally
defeated by the British under major-general sir John Stuart, July 4, 1806.
MAIDEN. See Guillotine.
MAIDS of HONOUR. Anne, daughter of Francis II. duke of Brittany, and queen of
Charles VIII. and Louis XII. of France, was tho first to have young and beautiful ladies
about her person, called maids of honour. Phil, dc Commincs. When Charles died (1498),
she put a cordelier (a black knotted lace) round her coat of arms, as a token of mourning,
which introduced the custom. The queen of Edward I. of England is said to have had four
maids of honour ; queen Victoria has eight.
MAIL. Coaches for tho conveyance of letters were first set up at Bristol by Mr, John
eiples of Dr. Elias, which weighs 100 lbs., and can sustain 430 lbs- Hrecker, of Nuromlwrg, constructed 11
magnet weighing 36 grains, capable of sustaining 146 times its own weight. This was exhibited in 1851 ,
also •atThe
the South
Royal Institution.
Foreland lighthouse, near Dover, was illuminated by tho magneto electric light in the
winters of 1858-9 and 1859 60, and at Dungencss in iS6i-a. The light excels all other artificial lights in
brilliancy, continuance, ic.
MAI MAL
Palmer, of Hath, Aug. 2, 1784. They were employed for other routes in 1785, and soon
became general in England. The mails were first sent by rail in 1838.
MAIMING and WOUNDING. See Coventry Act.
MAINE, a province, N.W. of France, was seized by William I. of England in 1069.
It acknowledged prince Arthur, 1199; and was taken from John of England by Philip of
France, 1204; was recovered by Edward III. in 1357 ; but given up, 1360. After various
changes it was finally united to France by Louis XI. in 1481. —Maine (N. America), was
discovered by Cabot, 1497 ; and colonised by the English in 1638 ; it became a state of the
union in 1820. The boundary line between the British and the United States territories in
Maine was settled by the Ashbui ton treaty, concluded Aug. 9, 1842. The Maine liquor law,
prohibiting the manufacture and use of intoxicating drinks, with certain exceptions, was
enacted in 1851.
MAJESTY. Among the Romans, the emperor and imperial family were thus addressed,
and also the popes and the emperors of Germany. The style was given to Louis XI. of
Franco in 1461. Voltaire.. Upon Charles V. being chosen emperor of Germany in 1519, the
kings of Spain took the style. Francis I. of France, at tho interview with Henry VIII. -of
England, on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, addressed the latter as Your Majesty, 1520.
James I. used the style "Sacred," and "Most Excellent Majesty."
MAJORCA. See Balearic Isles and Minorca. Majorca rebelled against Philip V. of
Spain in 1714 ; but submitted, July 14, 1715.
MALABAR (W. coast of Hindostan). The Portuguese established factories here in
1505 ; the English did the same in 1601.
MALACCA, on the Malay peninsula, E. Indies, was a flourishing Portuguese settlement
in 151 1. The Dutch factories were established in 1640. It now forms part of the
British "Straits" settlements, the Dutch government having exchanged it for Bcncoolen
in Sumatra.
MALAKIIOFF, a hill near Sebastopol, on which was situated an old tower, which the
Russians strongly fortified during the siege of 1854-55. Tho allied French and English
attacked it on June 17 and 18, 1855, and alter a conflict of forty-eight hours were repulsed
with severe loss ; that of the English being 175 killed and 1 126 wounded ; that of the French
3338 killed and wounded. On Sept. 8, the French again attacked the Malakhoff ; at eight
o'clock the first mine was sprung, and at noon the French flag floated over the conquered
redoubt. See Schastopol. In the Malakhoff and Redan wore found 3000 pieces of cannon of
every calibre, and 1 20,000 lbs. of gunpowder.
MALDON (Essex), built 28 B.C., is supposed to have been tho first Roman colony in
Britain. It was burnt by queen Boadicca, and rebuilt by the Romans. It was burnt by
the Danes, a.d. 991, and rebuilt by the Saxons. Maldon was incorporated by Philip and
Mary. The singular custom of Borough-English is kept up here, by which the youngest
son, "and not the eldest, succeeds to the burgage tenure on his father's death. —Sec
Borough-English.
MALEGNANO, or Mixegnano, modern names of Marignauo, uhicli sec.
MALICIOUS DAMAGES. The law respecting them was consolidated and amended by
24 & 25 Vict. c. 97. This act protects works of art, electric telegraphs, &c, 1861.
MALO, ST. (N. AV. France). This port sustained a tremendous bombardment by the
English under admiral Benbow in 1693, and under lord Berkeley in July, 1695. In 1758
the British landed in considerable force in Cancalle bay, and went up to the harbour, where
they burnt upwards of a hundred ships, and did great damage to the town, making a
number of prisoners. It is now defended by a very strong castle, and the harbour is most
difficult of access.
MALPLAQUET (N. France). Here tho allies under the duko of Marlborough and prince
Eugene defeated the French commanded by marshal Villars, Sept, 11, 1709. Each army
consisted of nearly 120,000 choice soldiers. There was great slaughter on both sides, the
allies losing 18,000 men, which loss was but ill repaid by tho capture of Mons.
MALT, barley prepared for brewing and distillation. A duty was laid upon malt in 1667,
1697, cl seq. Important acts for the regulation of malt duties were passed in 1830 and 1S37.
In March, 1858, there were 6157 licensed maltsters in the United Kingdom. The duty on
malt in 1863 amounted to 6,273, 727/. act was passed in 1865 allowing the excise duty
to be charged according to the weight of the grain used.
MAL 103
MALT, continued.
BUSHELS OF MALT MADE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM IN THE FOLLOWING YEAKS : —
1825. England . . . Butlult 29,572,743 1840. England . . Batlteta 33,376,7=0
Scotland .... 3,925,847 Scotland .... 4,374,3=8
Ireland 2,706,862 Ireland . . . , 1,915,584
36,205,45: I 39,666,632
Made in the United Kingdom in 1835, 42,892,012 bwthth : in 1847. 35,307,815 ; in 1850, 40,744,752 ;
in 1857, 45,967,461 ; in 1861, 47,914,614
MALTA (formerly Melita), an island in the Mediterranean, held successively by the
Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Romans, which last conquered it, 259 B.o. The apostle
Paul was wrecked here, A.D. 62 (Acts xxvii. xxviii.). Malta was taken by the Vandals, 534;
by the Arabs, 870 ; and by the Normans from Sicily, 1090. With Sicily it became succes
sively part of the possessions of the houses of Hohenstaufen, Anjou (1266), and Aragon
(1260). In 1530 Charles V. gave it to the Knights Hospitallers, who defended it most
courageously and successfully against the Turks in 155 1 and 1565, when the Turks were
obliged to abandon the enterprise after the loss of 30,000 men. The island was taken by
general Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition to Egypt, June 12, 1798. He found in it
1200 pieces of cannon, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two ships of the line, a frigate, four galleys,
and 40,000 muskets ; besides an immense treasure collected by superstition ; and 4500
Turkish prisoners, whom he set at liberty. Malta was surrendered to the British under
Pigot, Sept. 5, 1800. At the peace of Amiens, it was stipulated that it should be restored
to the knights. The British, however, retained possession, and tho war recommenced
between tho two nations : but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was guaranteed to
Great Britain. La Valetta, the capital, was founded in 1557 by the grand master La Valctta,
and completed and occupied by tho knights, Aug. 18, 1571. The Protestant College was
founded in 1846.
MALTA, Knights of. A military-religious order, called also Hospitallers of St. John
of Jerusalem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. Some merchants of Malfi,
trading to the Levant, obtained leave of tho caliph of Egypt to build a house for those who
came on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and whom they received with zeal and charity, 1048.
They afterwards founded a hospital for the reception of pilgrims, from whence they were called
Hospitallers (Latin hospes, a guest). The military order was founded about 1099 ; confirmed
by tho pope in 11 13. In 11 19 the knights defeated the Turks at Antioch. After the Chris
tians had lost their interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the knights retired to
Acre, which they defended valiantly in 1290. They next followed John, king of Cyprus,
who gave them Liniisso in his dominions, where they stayed till 13 10, in which year they
took Rhodes, under their grand master De Vallaret, and the next year defended it under the
duke of Savoy against an army of Saracens ; since when, his successors have used F. E. R. T.
for their device, that is, Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tcnuit, or, His valour kept Rhodes. From
this they wore called knights of Rhodes ; but Rhodes being taken by Solyman in 1522, they
retired into Candia, thence into Sicily. Pope Adrian VI. granted them the city of Viterbo
for their retreat ; and in 1530 the emperor Charles V. gave them tho isle of Malta. The
order was suppressed in England in 1540 ; restored in 1557 ; and again suppressed in 1559.
St. John's Gate, Clcrkenwell, a relic of their possessions, still exists. The emperor Paul of
Russia declared himself grand master of the order in June, 1799.
MAMELUKES, originally Turkish and Circassian slaves, established by the sultan as a
body-guard, 1230. They advanced one of their own corps to the throne, about 1250, and
continued to do so until Egypt became a Turkish province, in 1517, when the beys
took them into pay, and filled up their ranks with renegades from various countries.
On tho conquest of Egypt by Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia ; but,
assisted by the Arnauts, they once more wrested Egypt from the Turkish government.
On March 1, 181 1, they were decoyed into the power of the Turkish pacha, Mehcmct Ali,
and slain at Cairo to the number of 1600. In 1804, Napoleon embodied some of them in
his guard.
MAMMOTH, an extinct species of elephant. An entire mammoth, flesh and bones, was
discovered in Siberia, in 1 799. Remains of this animal have since been found at Harwich in
1803, and at places in Europe, Asia, and America.
MAN, Antiquity of. In 1846, M. Boucher de Perthes found some rude flint imple
ments, which he believed to be of human manufacture, mingled with bones of extinct
animals, in the old alluvium near Abbeville in Picardy, France. Similar Hints have since
MAN
been found in Sieily by Dr. Falconer, at Brixham by Mr. Pengelly, and lately in various
parts of the world. Hence many geologists infer that man existed on the earth many ages
earlier than has been hitherto believed. Sir Charles Lyell's "Antiquity of Man" was pub
lished in 1863, and sir John Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times " in 1865.
MAN, Isle of, was subdued by Edwin, king of Northumberland, 621 ; by Magnus of
Norway, 1092; ceded to the Scots, 1266; and taken from them in 1314, by Montacute,
ufterwnrds earl of Salisbury, to whom Edward 111. gave the title of king of Man, in 1343.
It was afterwards subjected to the earl of Northumberland, on whose attainder Henry IV.
granted it in fee to sir John Stanley, 1406 ; it was taken from this family by Elizabeth,
but was restored in 1608, to the earl of Derby, through whom it fell by inheritance to the
duke of At hoi, 1735. He received 70,000?. from parliament for the sovereignty in 1765 ;
and the nation was charged with the further sum of 132,944/. for the purchase of his interest
in the revenues of the island in Jan. 1829. The countess of Derby held the isle against the
parliament forces in 1651. The bishopric is said to have been presided over by Amphibalus
about 360. Some assert that St. Patrick was the founder of the see, and that Germanus was
the lirst bishop, about 447. It was united to Sodor in 1 1 13. The bishop has no seat in the
house of lords ; but lord Auckland (bishop, 1847-54), sat by right of his barony. Present
income, 2000?.
IIECENT BISHOPS OK 80D0R AND MAN.
1784. Claudius Crigan ; died in 1813. 1841. Thos. Vcowler Short, translated to St. Asaph
1813. George Murray, translated to Rochester in in 1846.
1827. 1846. Walter Augustus Shirley ; died in 1847.
1828. William Ward ; died in 1838. ' 1847. John Eden (lord Auckland), translated U>
1838. JamcH Bowstead, translated to Lichfield in Hath in 1854.
Dec. 1839, , 1854. Hon. Horatio Powys (rliEsENT bishop).
1840. Henry Pepys, translated to Worcester in 1841. ;
MANASSAS JUNCTION, Virginia, United States, an important military position,
where the Alexandria and Manassas Gap railways meet, near a creek named Bull Run. It
was held by the confederates in 1861, when they were attacked by the Federal general Irvin
McDowell. He began his march from Washington on July 16, and gained some advantage
on the 18th at Centre'villc. On the 21st was fought the first battle of Bull Run. The
Federals, who began the fight, had the advantage till about three o'clock, p.m., when the
Confederate general Johnston brought up reinforcements, which at first the Federals took for
their own troops. After a brief resistance, the latter were seized with sudden panic, and,
in spite of the utmost efforts of their officers, fled in disgraceful rout, abandoning a large
([uautity of arms, ammunition, and baggage. The Confederate generals Johnston and
Beauregard did not think it prudent to pursue the fugitives, who did not halt till they
arrived at Washington. The Federal army is said to have had 481 killed, 101 1 wounded,
1216 missing. The loss of the Confederates was stated to be about 1500. —In March, 1862.
when the army of the Potomac, under general MeClellan, marched into Virginia, they found
that the Confederates had rmietly retreated from the camp at Manassas. On Aug. 30, 1862,
this place was the site of another great battle between the northern and southeru armies.
In August, general " Stonewall" Jackson, after compelling the Federate general Pope to
retreat, defeated him at Cedar mountain on the 9th, turned his flank on the 22nd, and
arriving at Manassas repulsed his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th general R. E. Lee
(who had defeated general MeClellan and the invading northern army before Richmond,
June 26 to July 1), joined Jackson with his army, and Pope received reinforcements from
Washington. A desperate conflict ensued, which ended in tho Confederates gaining a
decisive victory, compelling the Federals to a hasty retreat to Centreville, where they were
once more routed, Sept. 1. The remains of their army took refuge behind the lines of
Washington on Sept. 2. Pope was at once superseded, and M'Clellan resumed the command
to march against the Confederates, who had crossed the Potomac and entered Maryland. See
United States.
MANCHESTER (Lancashire), in the time of the Druids, was one of their principal
stations, and had the privilego of sanctuary attached to its altar, in the British language
Mcyne, a stone. It was one of the seats of tho Brigantcs, who had a castle, or stronghold,
called Manctnion, or the place of tents, near the confluence of tho rivers Medlock and
Irwcll, the sito of which, still called the "Castle Field," was, about 79, selected by the
Romans as tho station of the Coliors Prima Frisiorum, and, called by them Mancuniuvi ;
hence its Saxon name Manccastre, from which its modem appellation is derived. Ltwis.
Manccnion taken from tho Britons . . 488 The town taken by the Danes, 877 : retaken . 933
Captured by Edwin of Northumbria . . . 620 Tho charter {Magna C/tarta of Manchester),
The inhabitants become Christians about . 627 May 14, 1301
MAN 4(3.-, MAN
MANCHESTER, continued.
" Manchester cottons " introduced . In a tumult here, a factory burnt, and much
The church made collegiate 4-'I machinery destroyed . . . May 3, iSro
Free Grammar-school founded .... 1I5l6 New concert-room established . . . . 1 831 !
Privilege of sanctuary moved to Cheater, about I34I The races established
An aulnager (measurer) stationed hero . . 15^5 Manchester and Liverpool railway opened—Mr.
Sir Thomas Fairfax takes tho town . . 1643 Huskisson killed—^see Liverpool) Sept. 15,
The walls and fortifications razed . Manchester a parliamentary borough June 7, 183c
Cheetham College, or Blue-coat hospital, Choral Society established 1S33
founded l«S3 Statistical Society formed, tho first in England,
Tumult raised by "Svddall, the barber," who Sept. 2,
is afterwards hanged Church-rate refused .... Sept. 3, 1*34
Prince Charles Edward, the Young Protender, Manchester incorporated, by Municipal Reform 5
makes it his quarters . . . Nov. 28, 1745 act
Queen's Theatre first built 1753 Manchester and Leeds railway act passed 1836
The Infirmary instituted, 1752; built Geological Society instituted . 183
The inhabitants discharged from their obliga *755 Charter of incorporation . . Oct. 23,
tion to grind their corn at Irk mill . . . »7M Manchester police act .... Aug. 26, «839
Cotton goods first exported .... 1 760 Great disordors in the midland counties among
Manchester navigation opened . . . . 1761 artisans : they extend to this town . Aug. 1843
Lunatic asylum founded 1 765 British Association meeting here . June 23,
Agricultural Society instituted . . . . Great free-trade meetings held here (see Corn
Christian, king of Denmark, visits Manchester, 1767 Laws) Nov. 14, 1843
and puts up at the Bull Inn .... 1 768 Important meeting held at the Athenicum (see
The Queen's Theatre rebuilt 1775 Athenctum) Oct. 3, 1844
Subscription concerts established Great Anti-corn Law meeting, at which 64,984/.
Riots against machinery . . . Oct. 9, 1777 :77v were subscribed in four hours . Dec. 23, 1845
Manufacture of muslin attempted hero about . 17S0 The Queen s-park, Pecl-park, and Philip's-park,
Philosophical Society established . . • • I78l opened Aug. '•V
New Bailey Bridge completed .... 17S5 Manchester made a bishopric . . Axig. 10, X847
Queen's Theatre burnt down . . June 19, 1789 Opening of Owens Collegiate Institution, to
And re-erected
New Bailey built 1790 which foundation the late Mr. John Owens
bequeathed 100,000/. . . March 10, 1S-1
Assembly rooms, Mosley-street, built 1792 The queen's visit to Manchester . . Oct. 7,
Philological Society instituted . . . . 1 So3 Great meeting in the Free-trade hall to greet
Fever hospital erected, 1805; Theatre Royal 1 So'5 M. Kossuth Nov. 11,
The portico erected Tho Engineers' strike . . Jan. 3—April 26, 1852
The weavers' riot .... May 24, 1808 The Guild of Literature entertained at a ban
Exchange and Commercial-buildings erected, quet by the citizens . . . Aug. 31,
Jan. 1 809 Opening of the Free Library . . Sept. 2,
Manchester & Salford water-works established Groat Free-trade banquet . . Nov. 2,
Blanketecrs' meeting X817 Manchester declared to be a city, and formally
I./>ck hospital established so gazetted
1819 Great April 16, ^■53
Manchester Reform Meeting* . . Aug. 16, strike of minders and picccrs Nov. 7, 1855
New Brunswick-bridge built . . . . Exhibition ok Art Treasurf-sI determined on,
Chamber of Commerce established May 20, 1856; opened by prince Albert, May
Law Library founded ...... 5 ; visited by the queen, June 29, 30 ; closed,
Natural History Society projected 1821 Oct. 17, 1857
New Quay Company founded . . . . lSj2 Sir John Potter, a benefactor to the town, died,
Deaf and Dumb School instituted 1823 Oct. 25, 1858
Royal Institution formed British Association meet hero (2nd time),
Floral and Horticultural Society established . Sept. 4, 1 SO 1
Mechanics' Institution founded .... Great county meeting : 130.000!. subscribed to
Musical festival first held the Lancashire Relief fund . . Dec. 2,
At the launch of a vessel which keeled and up Meeting of the Church Congress Oct 13-15, 1S63
set, upwards of 200 persons precipitated into
the river ; 51 perished . . . Feb. 29,
MANCHESTER, Bishopric of. An order in council in Oct. 1838, declared that the
sees of St. Asaph and Bangor should be united on the next vacancy in either, and that the
bishopric of Manchester should be immediately created within the jurisdiction of the
archiepiseopal see of York ; the county of Lancaster for that purpose to be detached from
Chester. By act 10 Vict. (1847) the sees of St. Asaph and Bangor were to exist undisturbed,
and that of Manchester was to be created. The rev. Dr. James Prince Lee (the present
bishop) was appointed in 1847, and consecrated in 1848. Income, 4200/.
* Called Peterloo. The assembly consisted of from 60,000 to 100,000 persons, men, women, and
children. Mr. Hunt, who took the chair, had spoken a few words, when the meeting was suddenly
assailed by a charge of the Manchester cavalry, assisted by a Cheshire regiment of yeomanry, and a
regiment of hussars, the outlets being occupied by other military detachments. Tho unarmed multi
tude were in consequence driven one upon another, by which many were killed, ridden oVer by the
horses, or cut down by their riders. The deaths were 11 men, women, and children, and the wounded
about 600.
I The temporary building consisted of a hall upwards of 700 feet long and 100 feet wide, and, including
a transept, covered an area of 80,000 square feet. It cost above 25,000/. It contained the most extra
ordinary collection of works of art (valued at 6,000,000/.) ever brought together in this country. The
collection of national portraits was very remarkable. There were 1,300,000 visitors. The expenses of the
undertaking amounted to 99.500/. ; tho receipts to 98,500/.
II H
MAN 4Gti MAN
MANES, the name applied by the ancients to the soul when separated from the body.
The Manes were reckoned among the infernal deities, and were generally supposed to
preside over the burial-places and monuments of the dead. They were solemnly wor
shipped by the Romans, and involved by the augurs ; Virgil (22 B.C.) introduces his
hero as sacrificing to the Manes. The Romans superscribed their epitaphs with D. M.,
Diis Manibics.
MANGANESE. Black oxide of manganese, long used to decolorise glass, and called
Magnesia nigra, was formerly included among the ores of iron. Its distinctive character
was proved by the researches of Pott (1740), Kaim and Wiuterl (1770), and Scheele and
Bergmann (1774) ; it was first eliminated by Gahn. Manganese combined with potassium
is called mineral chameleon, from its rapid change of colour under certain circumstances.
Forchammer employed it as a test for the presence of organic matter in water ; and Dr.
Angus Smith successfully applied this test to air in 1858.
MANICHEANS, a sect founded by Manes, which began to infest the East about 261.
It spread into Egypt, Arabia, and Africa, and particularly into Persia. A rich widow,
whoso servant Manes had been, left him much wealth, after which he assumed the title
of apostle, or envoy of Jesus Christ, and announced that ho was the paraclete or comforter
that Christ had promised to send, lie maintained two principles, the one good and the
other bad ; the first ho called light, which did nothing but good, and the second he
called darkness, which did nothing but evil. He rejected the Old Testament, and
composed a system of doctrine from Christianity and the dogmas of the ancient fire-
worshippers. He obtained many followers. Sapor, king of Persia, believed in him at
one time ; but afterwards banished him. He was burnt alive by Bahram or Varanes, king
of Persia, 274. His followers spread themselves over the Roman empire, and several sects
sprang from them.
MANILLA (built about 1573), capital of the Philippine Isles, a great mart of Spanish
commerce. Manilla was taken by the English in 1757 ; and again in Oct. 1762, by storm.
The archbishop engaged to ransom it for about a million sterling ; never wholly paid.
Manilla has suffered greatly by earthquakes. It is stated that nearly 3000 persons perished
by one in 1645. On Sept. 22, 1852, the city was nearly destroyed, and on June 3, 1863,
several thousand lives were lost.
MANNHEIM (S. Germany), founded in 1606, became the court residence of the
Palatine of the Rhino in 1719 ; but his becoming elector of Bavaria in 1777 caused the
removal of the court to Munich. Mannheim surrendered to the French, under command of
general Pichegru, Sept. 20, 1795. 0° Oct. 31, the Austrians under general Wurmscr
defeated the French near the city. Several battles were fought with various success in the
neighbourhood during the late wars. Kotzebue, the popular dramatist, was assassinated at
Mannheim, by a student of AVurtzburg, named Sand, April 2, 1819.
MANORS are a3 ancient as the Saxon constitution, and imply a territorial district
with the jurisdiction, rights, and perquisites belonging to it. They were formerly called
baronies, and still are lordships. Each lord was empowered to hold a court called the
court-baron for redressing misdemeanors, and settling disputes between the tenants.
Cabinet Lawyer.
MANSION-HOUSE, London. The residence of the lord mayor. It is situate at the
east end of the Poultry, on the site of the ancient Stocks-Market. It was built of Portland
stone by Dance the elder, 1739-53. See Mayor.
MANSOURAH (Lower Egypt). Hero Louis IX. was defeated by the Saracen3 and taken
prisoner, April 5, 1250. He gave Damietta and 400,000 livres for his ransom.
MANTINEA (Arcadia, Greeco), Batti.es here—(1) Athenians and Argives defeated by
Agis II. of Sparta, 418 B.C. (2) Between Epaminondas and the Thebans, and the combined,
forces of I.aceda:mon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia, 362 u.c. The Theban general was
victorious, but was killed in the engagement, and from that Thebes lost its power and
consequence among the Grecian states. The emperor Adrian built a temple at Mantinea in
honour of his favourite Alcinoiis. The town was also called Antigonia. Other battles were
fought in the neighbourhood.
MANTUA (N. Italy). Virgil was born at a village near this city, 70 B.C. Hence he is
often styled the Mantuan bard. Mantua was ruled by the Gonzagas, lords of Mantua, from
1328 to 1708, when it was seized by the emperor Joseph I. It has since been held by the
Austriaus. Mantua surrendered to the French, Feb. 2, 1797, after a siege of eight months.
MAN 4 G7 MAR
It was retaken by the Austrian and Russian army, July 30, 1799, after a short siege. In
1800, after the battle of Marengo, the French again obtained possession of it. It was
included in the kingdom of Italy till 1814, when it was restored to the Austrians.
MANUFACTURES. See Silk, Cotton, &c. MAORIS. See New Zealand.
MAPLE-TKEE. The Acer ruhrum, or scarlet maple, was brought here from N. America,
before 1656. The Acer Negundo, or ash-leaved maple, before 1688. From the Acer sacclui-
rinum (introduced here in 1735) tho Americaus make very good sugar.
MAPS. See Charts and Mercalor.
MARATHON (in Attica). Here, on Sept. 28 or 29, 490 B.C., the Greeks, only 10,000
strong, defeated tho Persian army amounting to 500,000, who had 200,000 killed. The
former were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, and Themistoeles. Among the slain was
Hippias, the instigator of the war. The Persian army was forced to retreat to Asia.
MARBLE. Dipeenus and Seyllis, statuaries of Crete, were the first artists who
sculptured marble, and polished their works ; all statues previously being of wood, 568 B.C.
Pliny. The edifices or monuments of Rome were constructed of, or ornamented with, fine
marble. The ruins of Palmyra are chiefly of white marble. The marble arch, London,
was removed from Buckingham-palace to Hyde-park, March, 1851.
MARBURG (W. Germany). The cathedral was founded, 1231 ; and the first Protestant
university in 1527. It suffered much during the Seven years' war, 1753-60.
MARCH, the first month of the year, until Numa added January and February, 713 B.C.
Romulus, who divided tho year into months, gave to this month the name of his supposed
father, Mars ; though Ovid observes, that the people of Italy had the month of March before
the time of Romulus, but that they placed it very differently in the calendar. The year
formerly commenced on tho 25th day of this month. See Year.
MARCHFELD (Austria). Here Ottocar II. of Bohemia was defeated and slain by his
rival, the emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg, Aug. 26, 1278. See Bohemia.
MARCHES, Lords of, noblemen who lived on boundaries settled between England and
AVales, and England and Scotland, and, according to Camden, had their laws, anil power of
life, death, &c, like petty princes. These powers were abolished, 1535, and 1547.
MARCIONITES, heretics, followers of Marcion, about 150, who preceded the Manichees,
and taught similar doctrines. Cave.
MARCOMANNI, a people of Southern Germany, expelled the Boii from Bohemia, and,
united with other tribes, invaded Italy about 167, but were repelled by the emperors Anto
ninus and Verus ; defeated by the Legion called, from a fabled miracle, the Thundering
Legion, 179 ; and finally driven beyond the Danube by Aureliau, 271.
MARENGO (N. Italy). Here the French army, commanded by Bonaparte, attacked tho
Austrians, June 14, 1800; his army was retreating, when the arrival of general Dessaix
turned the fortunes of the day. Tho slaughter on both sides was dreadful. By a treaty
between the Austrian general Melas and Bonaparte, signed'June 15, the latter obtained
twelve strong fortresses, and became master of Italy.
MARESCHALS, or Marshals, in France, were the esquires of the king, and originally
had the command of the vanguard to observe the enemy and to choose proper places for its
encampment. Till the time of Francis I., in 1515, there were but two marshals, who had
500 livres per annum in war, but no stipend in time of peace. The rank afterwards becamo
of the highest military importance, the number was without limit, and the command
supreme. Napoleon's marshals were renowned for skill and courage. See Marshal.
MARIAN PERSECUTION. See Protestants.
MARIGNANO (now Malegnaxo), N. Italy, near Milan. Three battles have been fought
near here— 1. Francis I. of France defeated the duke of Milan and the Swiss, Sept. 13, 14,
15 15 ; above 20,000 men were slain. This conflict has been called the Battle of the Giants.—
2. Near here was fought the battle of Pavia (whicli see). —3. After the battle of Magenta,
June 4, 1859, the Austrians entrenched themselves at Malegnauo. The emperor sent
marshal Baraguay d'Hilliers with 16,000 men to dislodge them, which he did with a loss of
about 850 killed and wounded, on June 8. The Austrians are said to have lost 1400 killed
and wounded, and 900 prisoners, out of 18,000 engaged.
n 11 2
MAR 463 II AH
MARINER'S COMPASS. See Compass and Magnetism.
MARINES were first established with the object of forming a nursery to man the fleot.
An order in council, dated Oct. 1 6, 1 664, authorised 1 200 soldiers to be raised and formed
into one regiment. In 1684, the 3rd regiment of the line was called the Marine Regiment ;
but the system of having soldiers exclusively for sea-service was not carried into effect until
1698, when two marine regiments were formed. More regiments were embodied in subse
quent years ; and in 1 741 the corps consisted of ton regiments, each 1000 strong. In 1759
they numbered 18,000 men. In the latter years of the French war, ending in 1815, they
amounted to 31,400, but there were frequently more than 3000 supernumeraries. The jollies,
as they are called, frequently distinguished themselves. The " Royal Marine Forces" now
comprehend artillery ami light infantry. The vote for 1857 was for 16,000 marines,
inclusive of 1500 artillery. P. II. Nicolas.
MARINO, SAN, a republic iu Central Italy, has existed since the 6th century. Its
independence was confirmed by pope Pius VII. in 1817. Population, in 1858, about 8000.
MARK, a silver coin of the northern nations, and the name mark-lubs is still retained in
Denmark. In England, the mark means the sum of 13s. qi., and here the name is also
retained in law courts.
MARKET. See Smithjield and Metropolitan Cattle Market.
MARK'S, ST. (Venice). The church was erected in 829 ; the piazza in 1592.
MARL150ROUGH, Statutes of, were enacted in the castle of Marlborough, in Wilt
shire, 1267. — MAELlioRoroii-HovsE, Pall Hall, London, was built by Wren for the duke of
Marlborough, 1709-10; was bought for the princess Charlotte and prince Leopold in 1817 ;
held by queen Adelaide till 1849, aud became the residence of the prince of Wales, 1863.
MARONITES, Christians in the East, followers of one Maron in the 5th century ; they
are said to have embraced the errors of the Jacobites, Nestorians, and Monothelites : in 1 180
they numbered 40,000 living in the neighbourhood of Mount Libanus, and, being a brave
people, they were of great service to the Christian kings of Jerusalem. They were reconciled
to the church of Rome about the 12th century. For an account of the massacres of the
Maronitcs in i860, see Druses.
MAROONS, a name given in Jamaica to runaway negroes. When the island was
conquered from the Spaniards, a number of their negroes fled to the hills and became
very troublesome to the colonists. A war of eight years' duration ensued, when the
Maroons capitulated on being permitted to retain their free settlements, about 1730.
In 1795 they again took arms, but were speedily put down and many were transported to
other colonies. Brandt.
MAR-PRELATE TRACTS, virulently attacking episcopacy, were written, it is believed,
by Henry Penry, who was cruelly executed, May 29, 1693, for having written seditious
words against the queen (found about his person when seized). The tracts appeared about
J586. Some had very singular titles: such as "An Almand for a Parrat," "Hay any
Workc for Cooper ?" &c. They were collected and reprinted in 1843.
MARQUE, Letters of. See Privateer.
MARQUESAS ISLANDS (Polynesia) were discovered in 1595 by Mendana, who named
them after the viceroy of Peru, Marquesa de Mendoca. They were visited by Cook in 1774,
and were taken possession of by the French admiral Dupetit Thouars, May 1, 1842.
MARQUESS, a dignity, called by the Saxons Markin-Heve, by the Germans Markgrave,
took its original from Mark or March, a limit or bound (see Marches); the office being to
guard or govern the frontiers of a province. Marquess is the next place of honour to a duke,
and was introduced several years after that title had been established in England. The
first on whom it was conferred was the favourite of king Richard II., Robert de Vere, earl of
Oxford, created marquess of Dublin, and placed in parliament between the dukes and earls,
1385. James Stewart, second son of James III. of Scotland, was made marquess of Ormond,
in 1476, without territories ; afterwards earl of Ross.
MARRIAGE was instituted by God (Gen. ii.), and confirmed by Christ (Mark x.), who
performed a miracle at the celebration of one (John ii.). Matrimonial ceremonies among the
Greeks are ascribed to Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 B.C.
Law favouring marriage passed at Rome . B.C. 18 It was forbidden to bishops in 6)2. and to priests
rriests forbidden to marry after ordination . a.d. 325 in 1015 ; and these hitter were obliged to take
Marriage was forbidden in Lent . . .364 the vow of celibacy in 1073
MAR 4GO MAR
MARRIAGE, continued.
The celebration of marriage (as a sacrament) in Amendment acts passed in . . 1840 and 1856
churches was ordained by pops Innocent III. A bill to suppress irregular marriages in Scot
about 1 199 land (see Gretna) passed in . . . ,,
Marriages wore solemnised by justices of the A court established for Divorce and Matrimonial
peace under an act of the commons in Oliver Causes, which has the power of giving sen
Cromwell's administration .... 1653 tence of judicial separation for adu1tery,
A tax was laid on marriages, viz. : on the mar cruelty, or desertion without cause for two
riage of a duke, so(. ; of a common person, years and upwards. (Sue Divorce) . . 1857
is. 6d. 1695 It lias frequently been attempted to legaMse a
Irregular marriages prohibited (sec Fleet Mar- marriage with a de.ctated rcuY* *<Htr, without
riant*) 1753 success. The Marriage Law Reform associa
Marriages wcro again taxed in . . 17S4 tion was instituted lor this exclusive object,
New marriage act, 1822; repealed . . . 1823 Jan rs, 1S51. A bill for this purpose passed
Acts prohibiting marriages bv Roman Catholic the commons, July 2 ; was rejected by the
priests in Scotland, or other ministers not lords, July 23, 1858 ; and again rejected in . 1862
belonging to the Church of Scotland, repealed 1S34 In the case of Brook v. Brook, it was decided
Act to render the children of certain marriages that such a marriage celebrated in a foreign
within forbidden degrees of kindred legiti country was not valid . . April 17, 1858
mate ; and marriage with deceased wife's This decision confirmed on appeal to the house
sister prohibited 1835 of lords, on March 18, 1861
The present Marriage act for England, autho A commission appointed to inquire into the
rising marriages with religious ceremony, working of the marriage Laws in Scotland
by registrar's certificate, or in a dissenting and Ireland, in consequence of the Yelverton
chapel, passed 1836 (amended in 1837 and 1856] case. (Sue Trial*, i860 l865
Marriage Registration act 1837
NUMBER OF REGISTERED MARRIAGES IN ENGLAND AND WALES.
i7io 40,300 1830 102,437 1854 . . . 159,727 i860 . . 170,156
1 800 73,228 I 1840 121,083 1855 Crimean war 152,113 i86i(cortOH/ttBi»ie) 163,706
16x0 84,473 1845 M3-743 1S56 . . . 159,337 1862 . . . 164,030
1815 91,946 I 1848 138,230 1857 . . . 159,097 1S63 . . . I73-510
1820 0,883 152.744 1858 . . . 156,070 1864 . . . 180,263
i8as 98,378 I' 1850*
1853 164,520 1359 . . . 167,723
Royal Marriage Act was passed in 1772, in conse- I countries whore polygamy was interdicted by the
h quence of the marriage of the duke of Gloucester, state. Tho first Lacedaemonian who had two wiven
tho king's brother, with the widow of the earl ! was Anaxandrides, the son ofLeon, about 510 n.c.
Waldegrave, and of the duke of Cumberland with 1 Dionysius of Syracuse married two wives, viz. :
the widow of colonel Horton and daughter of lord j Doris, the daughter of Xenetus, and Aristomache,
Irnham. [By this act, none of the descendants of sister of Dion, 398 B.C. It is said that the count
George II., unless of foreign birth, can marry under Gleichen, a Gorman nobleman, was permitted,
the age of 25, unless with the consent of the king ; under peculiar circumstances, by Gregory IX., in
at and after that age, tho consent of parliament a.d. 1237, to marry and live with two wives. The
is necessary to render the marriage valid.] The Mormomtes practise and encourage polygamy.
marriage of tho duke of Sussex with the lady Forced Marriages. The statute 3 Ucury VII. (1487)
Augusta Murray, solemnised in 1793, was pro made tho principal and abettors in marriages with
nounced illegal, and the claims of their son, sir heiresses, &c. , contrary to their will, equally guilty
Augustus d'Este, declared invalid, by the haute of as felons. By 39 KHz. (1596) such felons were denied
lords, July 9, 1844. the benefit ot clergy. This offence was made
IIalf Marriage. Semi-Matrimoniam. Among tho punishable by transportation, r Geo. IV. (1820).
Romans concubinage was a legitimate union, not Tho remarkable case of Miss Wharton, heiress of
merely tolerated but authorised. The concubine the house of Wharton, whom captain Campbell
had the name of ttmi-emjax. Men might have married by force, occurred in William III.'s reign.
either a wife or a concubine, provided they had Sir John Johnston was hanged for seizing the
not both together. Coostantine the Great chocked young lady, and the marriage was annulled by
concubinage, but did not abolish it. This ancient parliament, 1690.—Edward Gibbon Wakefield was
custom of the Romans was preserved, not only tried at L incaster, and found guilty of the felo
among the Lombards, but by the French when nious abduction of Miss Turner, March 24, 1827 ;
they held dominion in that country. Cujas assures and his marriage with her was immediately dis
us that the Gascons and other people bordering on solved by act of parliament.
the Pyrenean mountains liad not relinquished this Marriages by Sale. Among the Babylonians, at a
custom in his time, 1590. The women hare the certain time every year, the marriageable females
name of "wives of tho second order." UenauU. wore assembled, and disposed of to the best bidder.
See Morganatic Marring**. This custom is said to have originated with
Double SIaruiages. There are some instances of a Atossa, daughter of Belochus, about 1433 B.C.
husband and two wives (but they arc very rare) in Fleet Marriages. See Fleet*
MARSEILLAISE HYMN. The words and music arc ascribed to Rouget tie Lille, a
French engineer officer, who composed it at the request of marshal Lucknow, in 1791, to
cheer the conscripts at Strasburg. It derived its name from a body of troops from Marseilles
marching into Paris in 1792 playing tho tune, it being then not much known. Brandt.
* Of these marriages, it is stated in tho registrars' returns that 47,570 men and 70,601 women could
not write, and that they signed the marriago raster with their marks.—In Franco, the marriages were
208,893 in 1820 ; 243 674 in 1S25 ; and 259,177 in 1830. As respects Paris, the statistics of that city, which
are very minute and curious, furnish the lollowing classes as occurring in 7754 marriages :—Bachelors and
maids, 6456; bachelors and widows, 363 ; widowers and mails, 708 ; wido-vora and widows, 222.
MAR 470 MAR
MARSEILLES, the ancient Massilia (S. France), a maritime city, founded by the
Phocseana about 600 B.C. ; was an ally of Rome, 218 b.C. Cicero styled it the Athens of
Caul, on account of its excellent schools.
Taken by Julius Cresar after a long and tumble [It curried o/F 50,000 of tho inhabitants. The
siege, 45 b.c. ; and by Euric, the Visigoth, "bishop ilelsunco devotedly exerted himself
a.d 470; sacked by the Saracenu . a.d. 839 Revolutionary to relieve tho sutfurera.]
Marseilles a republic 1214 commotions here . April 30, 1789
Hubjocted to the counts of Provence . . . 1251 Marseilles opposes the revolutionary govern
United to the crown of Franco .... 1482 ment, andis reduced. .... Aug. 1793
The plague rages .... 1649 and 1720-1
MARSHALS. Two were appointed in London to clear the streets of vagrants, and to
send the sick, blind, and lame to asylums and hospitals for relief, 1567. Northouck.
MARSHALS, British Field-. This rank was first conferred upon John, duke of
Argyle, and George, earl of Orkney, by George II. in 1736. See Mareschal.
MARSHALS of France, &c, appointed by Napoleon I. during his wars, 1804-14.
Arrighi, duke of Padua. Murat, king of Naples, executed Oct. 13, 1815.
Augereau, duko of Castiglione. Ncy, prince of Moskwa, executed Dec. 7, 1815.
13ernadotte, prince of Ponto Corvo ; afterwards king Oudinot, duke of Reggio.
of Sweden. Soult, duko of Dalmatia.
Berthier, prince of Ncufehatel and Wagram, com Suchet, duke of Albuera.
mitted suicide at Bamberg, 1815. Victor, duko of Belluno.
Bessieres. duke of Istria.
Davoust, prince of Eckmllhl and duko of Auerstadt. OFFICERS OF STATE.
Jourdan, peer of France. Carnbaceres, duke of Parma.
Junot, duke of Abrantes, suicide 18:3. Caulaincourt, duke of Vicenza.
Kellerman, duko of Valmy. Cliampagnc, duke of Cadore.
Lannes, duko of Montebello, killed at Aspern, 1809. Duroc, duke of Friuli, killed at Bautzen, 18x3.
Lcfebvro, duke of Dantzic. Fouche, duke of Otranto.
Macdonald, duko of Tarcnto. Le Brun, duko of Piacenza.
Mannont, duko of Ragusa. Maret, duke of Bassano.
Masscna, piprince
1a, du___
y, " of Essling and duke of Rivoli. Bavary, duke of Rovigo : and
Monccy, duke of Conegliano. [1835. Talleyrand do Perigord, prince of Bcnevcnto, died
MortieV, duko of Treviao, killed by Ficschi, J
MARSHALSEA COURT of the Queen's house was very ancient, of high dignity, and
coeval with the common law. Since the decision of tho case of the Marshalsea (see Lord
Cokes 10 Sep. 68) no business had been done in this court ; but it was regularly opened and
adjourned at tho same time with the Palace court, the judges and other officers being the
same. These courts were abolished by parliament, and were discontinued, Dec. 31, 1849.
MARSI, a brave people of Southern Italy, who, after several contests, yielded to the
Romans, about 301 B.C. During the civil wars they and their allies rebelled, having
demanded and been refused the rights of Roman citizenship, 91 B.C. After many successes
and reverses, they sued for and obtained peace and the rights they required, 87 B.C. Tho
Marsi being Socii of the Romans, this was called the Social war.
MARSTON MOOR (near York). The Scots and parliamentary army were besieging
York, when prince Rupert, joined by the marquess of Newcastle, determined to raise the
siege. Both sides drew up on Marston-moor, on July 2, 1644, and the contest was long
undecided. Rupert, commanding tho right wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver
Cromwell, at the head of a body of troops disciplined by himself. Cromwell was victorious ;
he drove his opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second engagement
and a second victory. The priuce's artillery was taken, and tho royalists never recovered
tho blow.
MARTELLO TOWERS were circular buildings of masonry erected in the beginning of
the present century, on the coast of England, as defences against invasion.
MARTIAL LAW. Sec Courts-Martial and Military Law.
MARTINESTI. See Rvmnik.
MARTINIQUE (West Indies), settled by France, 1635. This and the adjacent isles of
St. Lucia and St. Vincent, and the Grenadines, were taken by the British from the French in
Feb. 1762. They were restored to France at the peace of the following year. They were
again taken, March 16, 1794 ; were restored at the peace of Amiens in 1802 ; and were again
captured, Feb. 23, 1809. A revolution took place in this island in favour of Napoleon, but
it was finally suppressed by the British, June 1, 1815, and Martinique reverted to its French
masters. Severe earthquakes occurred here in 1767 and 1839.
MAR 471 MAS
MARTINMAS, Nov. n, the feast of St. Martin, bishop of Tours, in tho 4th century.
In parts of the north of England and in Scotland it is quarter day.
MARTIN'S HALL, ST., Long Acre, London, was opened as a conccrt-rooru for Mr.
John Hullah, on Feb. n, 1850; burnt down, Aug. 26, i860; and rebuilt, 1861.
MARTYRS. Stephen, the first Christian martyr, was stoned, 37. The festivals of tho
martyrs, of very ancient date, took their rise about the time of Polycarp, who suffered
martyrdom about 166. St. Alban is the English protoiuartyr, 286. See Persecutions and
Protestants.
MARYLAND, one of tho first thirteen United States 'of North America, was granted
in 1632 to lord Baltimore, and settled by a company of English Romanists in 1634. It
contains tho district of Colombia, in which Washington is situate. It continued in the
Union when the other slave states seceded in i860 and 186 1. The Confederate army, under
general Lee, after their victory at Bull Run, Aug. 30, 1862, crossed the Potomac and entered
Maryland. They were followed by the Federal army under McClellan. Severe conflicts
ensued, especially on Sept. 17, at Antietam Creek, with great loss on both sides, each
claiming the victory. Tho Confederates retired into Virginia in good order, and it is said
with much booty.
MASKS. Foppa;a, the wife of Nero, is said to have invented the mask to guard her
complexion from the sun; but theatrical masks were in use among the Greeks and Romans.
Horaco attributes them to -Eschylus ; yet Aristotle says the inventor and time of their intro
duction were unknown. —Modern masks, and muffs, fans, and false hair for the women, were
devised in Italy, and brought to England from France in 1572. Slow.
MASQUERADES were in fashion in the court of Edward III., 1340 ; and in the reign of
Charles, 1660, masquerades were frequent among the citizens. The bishops preached against
them, and made such representations as occasioned their suppression, 9 Geo. I. 1724. [No
less than six masquerades were subscribed for in a month at this time.] They were revived,
and carried to shameful excess by connivance of the government, and in direct violation of
the laws, and tickets of admission to a masquerade at Ranelagh were on some occasions sub
scribed for at twenty-five guineas each, 1776. Mortimer. At the closo of a bal masque",
March 5, 1856, Covent-garden theatre was destroyed by fire.
MASS, in the Roman church, is tho office or prayers used at the celebration of the
eucharist, in memory of the passion of Christ, and to this every part of the service alludes.
The general division consists in high and low ; the first is that sung by the choristers, and
celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and sub-deacon ; low masses are those in which
the prayers arc badly rehearsed without singing. Mass was first celebrated in Latin about
394 ; it was introduced into England in the 7th century. Prostration was enjoined at the
elevation of the host in 1201.*
MASSACHUSETTS (New England, N. America), the seat of tho first English settlements,
1620. It joined the first congress of the States in 1774. See United States.
MASSACRES. The following are among tho most remarkable :—
BFFORE CHRIST. At Pcrusia, Octavianus Cfesar ordered 300 Roman
Of all tho Carthaginians in Sicily, 307. senators and other persons of distinction to Ik)
2000 Tynans crucified and 8000 put to tho eword for sacrificed to the manes of Julius Ciesar, 40.
not surrendering Tyro to Alexander, 331.
Of 2000 Capuans, friends of Hannibal, by Gracchus, AFTEB CHRIST.
A 211.
dreadful slaughter of tho Teutones and Ambrones, At the destruction of Jerusalem, i, 100,000 of Jews
near Aix, by Marius, tho Roman general, 200,000 are said to have been put to the sword, 70.
being loft dead on the spot, 102. The Jews, headed bv ono Andraj, put to death
The Romans throughout Asia, women and children 100,000 Greeks and Romans, in and near Cyreno,
not excepted, massacred in ono day, by order of 115.
Mithridates, king of Pontus, 88. Cassius, a Roman general, under tho emporor M.
A great number of Roman senators massacred by ! Aurelius, put to death 300,000 of the inhabitants
Cinna, Marius, and Sertorius, 87. of Seleucia, 165.
Again, under Sylla and Catilino, his minister of At Alexandria, many thousands of citizons were
vengeauco, 82. massacred by order of Antoninus, 215.
* Dr. Daniel Rock, in his work entitled " The Church of our Fathers " (1840), gives a full account of
an ancient MS. of " The Service of tho Mass, called tho Rite of Salisbury," compiled for that cathedral, by
St. Osmund and others, from the end of the nth to tho end of the i;th century.
MAS 47-2 MAS
MASSACRES, continued.
The emperor Probua is said to havo put to death Of Marpnites, by the Druses, in IjeUmon, June,
400,000 of the barbarian invaders of Gaul, 377. 1S60; and of Christians, by the Mahometans, at
Of the Gothic hostages by Valens, 378. Damascus, Julyg-n, 1S60. Sec Untgesxnd Ikiinat-
Of Thossaloniea, when 7000 persons invited into the cut.
circus were put to the sword, by order of Thco- MASSACRES IN" BltlTtSlI HISTORY.
dosius, 39a
Of the circus factions at Constantinople, 53a. Of 300 English nobles, on Salisbury Plain, by Hen-
Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, by order gist, about 450.
of AndronicuH, n 84. Of the monks of Ranger, to the number of 1200, by
Of tho Albitfensoa and Waldcnscs, commenced at Etholirid, king of Bernicia, 607 or 612.
Toulouse, 1208. Thousands perished by tho sword Of the Danes in the southern counties of England,
and gibbet of the French in Sicily, 1282. See in the night of Nov. 13, 1002, and tho 23rd Ethel-
Sicilian Vetpert. red II. At London it was most bloody, the
At Paris, of the Armagnacs, at tho instance of John, churches l>eing no sanctuary. Amongst the rest
duke of Burgundy, 1418. was Gunilda, sister of Swein, king ot Denmark,
Of the Swedish nobility, at ft feast, by order of left in hostage for the performance of a treaty but
Christian II., 1520. newly concluded. Baker's Chronicle.
Of Protestants at Vassy, March 1, 1562. Of the Jews, in England. Some few pressing into
Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French protectants, in Westminster hall at Richard I.'s coronation, were
Franco (see St. JJarthol<mieic\ Aug 24, 1572. put to death by the i>ooplc : and a false alarm
Of the Christians in Croatia by tho Turks, when being given that the king had ordered a general
65,000 were slain, 1592. massacre of them, the people in many parts of
Of the pretender Demetrius, and his Polish adhe England slew all they met. In York 500, who had
rents. May 27, 1606. taken shelter in the castle, killed themselves,
Of Protestants at Thorn, put to death tinder a pre rather than fall into the hands of the multitude,
tended legal sentence 01 tho chancellor of Poland, 1189.
for being concerned in a tumult occasioned by a Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen s Wood, Ireland
Roman Catholic procession, 1724. All the Protes (see Cullen's Wood), 1209.
tant powers in Europe interceded to havo this un Of tho English factory at Ambnyna, in order to dis
just sentence revoked, but unavailingly. possess its members of the Spice Islands, Feb. 1624.
At Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred by the Massacre of the Protostants in Ireland, in O'Neill s
natives, Oct. 1740, under tho pretext of an in rebellion, Oct. 23, 1641. Upwards of 30,000 British
tended insurrection. were killed in the commencement of this rebellion.
At the taking of Ismail by tho Russians, 30,000 old Sir Ji'iliUihi Petty. In the first three or four days
and young were slain, Dec. 1790. See Ismail. of it, forty or fifty thousand of the Protestants
Of French Royalists (sec ScptcMbruers), Sopt. 2, 1792. were destroyed. Lord Clarendon. Before tho re
Of Poles, at Praga, 1794. bellion was entirely suppressed, 1 54,000 Protestants
In St. Domingo, whero Dessalinos made proclama wore massacred. Sir W. Temple.
tion for tho massacre of all tho whites, March 29, Of the Macdonalds of Glencoe (seo GUucot), Feb. 13,
1804, and many thousands perished. 1692.
Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of the French, Of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly Protes
May 2, 1808. tants, burnt, shot, or pierced to death by pikes ;
Massacre of the Mamelukes, in tho citadel of Cairo, perpetrated by tho insurgent Irish, at the barn of
March 1, 1811, Sculbibogue, Ireland, in 1708. Mwyravc.
Massacre of Protestants at Nismes, perpctratod by Of Europeans at Meenit, Delhi, Arc, by mutineers
the Catholics, May, 1815. of the* native Indian army (see lndta\ May and
Massacre at Seio, April 22, 1822. See Chim. Juno, 1857.
Destruction of tho Janissaries at Constantinople, Of Europeans at Kalangan, on tho sou'h coast of
June 14, 1826. Borneo, May r, 1859.
600 Kabyles suffocated in a cave in Algeria, June 18, Of the Europeans at Morant bay, Jamaica, by the
1845. See Dahra. infuriated negroes, Oct. 11, 12, 1865.
Massacre of Christians at Aleppo, Oct. 16, 1850.
MASRAGETiE, an ancient Scythian people (probably the ancestors of the Goths), who
invaded Asia about 635. In a conflict with them Cyrus the Great was killed, 529 B.c.
MASSANIELLO REVOLUTION, 1647. See Naples, note.
MAS3I LIA. See Marseilles.
MASTER of the Ceremonies. See Ceremonies,
MASTERS IN Chancery, chosen from the equity bar, were first appointed it is said to
assist the extreme ignorance of sir Christopher Hatton, lord chancellor ot England, in 15SS.
The office was abolished in 1S52.
MASTER of the GREAT Wardrobe, an officer of great antiquity and dignity. Tho-
establishment was abolished in 1782, and the duties transferred to the lord chamberlain.
MASTER of the ROLLS, an equity judge, derives his title from having the custody of
all charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and recognizances, made into rolls of parchment ;
his decrees arc appealable to the court of chancery. The repository of public papers, called
the Rolls, is in Chancery-lane. They were formerly kept in a chapel founded for the
converted Jews ; but after the Jews were expelled the kingdom, it was annexed for ever
to tho office of the mastership of the rolls. Hero were kept all the records since the
beginning of the reign of king Richard III., 1483 ; all prior to that period being kept in the
MAT 473 MAU
Tower of London. See Records. The first recorded master of the rolls was either John de
Langton, appointed 1286, or Adam de Osgodeby, appointed Oct. I, 1295 ; but it is clear
that the office was in existence long before. Hardy. The duties were defined in 1S33, and
tho salary regulated in 1837.
MASTERS OF TIIE ROLLS.
Sir Win. Grant appointed . . May 27, iSot Sir Jnhn Leach May 3, 1827
Sir Thomas Plumer .... Jan. 6. 1818 Sir C. Pepy* (o ff. l<ird Cottonham) Sept. 29, 1834
RolHjrt, lord Gifford . . April 5, 1824 Henry Bickcrstoth (alt. lord Lansritilo) Jan. 19, 183G
Sir J. S. Copley (aft. lord Lynlhurst) Sept. 14, 1826 Sir John Romilly (the phrsest, 1865) Marjh 28, 1851
MATHEMATICS formerly meant all kinds of learning; but the term is now applied
to the sciences relating to numbers and (quantity. See Arithmetic. Among the most eminent
mathematicians were Euclid, 300 B.C. ; Archimedes, 287 B.C. ; Descartes, died 1650 ; Barrow,
died 1677 ; Leibnitz, died 1716 ; sir Isaac Newton, died 1727; Euler, died 1783 ; Lagrange,
died 1813 ; Laplace, died 1827 ; and Dr. Peacock, died 1858. Dr. Whewell, Mr. G. li. Airy
(astronomer royal), professor de Morgan, I. Todhunter, and Mary Somerville, born 1790,
author of the "Mechanism of the Heavens," are eminent living mathematicians.
MATINS. The service or prayers first performed in the morning or beginning of the
day in tho Roman Catholic church. The French, Matins imply the massacre of St.
Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 1572. The Matins of Moscow were the massacre of prince
Demetrius, and the Poles his adherents, at six o'clock in the morning of May 27, 1606.
MATTERHORN, a part of the main ridge of the Alps, about 14,836 feet high, S. Swit
zerland. After various fruitless attempts by professor Tyndall, Mr. Whymper, and other
eminent climbers, in 1860, the summit was reached on July 14, 1865, by Mr. Edward
Whymper and others. During their descent, four of the party were killed. Mr. Hadow
foil ; the connecting rope broke, and he himself, lord Francis Douglas, the rev. Mr. Hudson,
and Michael Croz, a guide, slipped down, and fell from a precipice nearly 4000 feet high.
MAUNDAY-THUKSDAY (derived by Spelman from mande, a hand-basket, in which
tho king was accustomed to give alms to the poor ; by others from dies mandati, the day
on which Christ gave his grand mandate, that we should love one another), the Thursday
before Good Friday. WheatUy. On this day it was the custom of our kings or their
almoners to give alms, food, and clothing to as many poor men as they were years old. It
was begun by Edward III., when he was fifty years of age, 1363, and is still continued by our
sovereign.
MAUR, ST. See Benedictines.
MAURITANIA (N. Africa), with Numidia, became a Roman province, 45 B.C., with
Sallust for pro-consul. Augustus created (30 n.c.) a kingdom formed of Mauritania and
part of Getulia, for Juba II., a descendant of the ancient African princes. Suetonius
Paulinus suppressed a revolt here, A.D. 42. The country was subjugated by the Vandals
and Greeks, and fell into the hands of the Arabs, about 667. See Morocco and Moors.
MAURITIUS, or Isle of France (in tho Indian Ocean), was discovered by the
Portuguese, 1505 ; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. They called it after prince
Maurice, their stadtholdcr, but on their acquisition of the Cape of Good Hope, they deserted
it ; and it continued unsettled until the French landed, and gave it tho name of one of the
finest provinces in France, 1715. This island was taken by the British, Dec. 2, 1S10, ami
confirmed to them by tho treaty of Paris in 1814. Sir Henry Barkly became governor in
1863. Population in 1861, 313,462.
MAUSOLEUM. Artemisia married her own brother, Mausolus, king of Caria, Asia
Minor, 377 B.C. At his death she drank in liquor his ashes after his body bad been burned,
and erected to his memory at Halicarnassus a monument, one of the seven wonders of the
world (350 B.C.), termed Mausoleum. She invited all the literary men of her age, and
proposed rewards to him who composed the best elegiac panegyric upon her husband. The
prize was adjudged to Theopomjius, 357 B.C. She died 352 B.C. The statue of Mausolus is
among the antiquities brought irom Halicarnassus by Mr. C. T. Newton in 1857, and placed
in the British Sluseum. A mausoleum for the royal family of England was founded by the
queen at Frogmore, March 15, 1862.
MAUVE (French for malva, mallow), a dye produced by Dr. Stenhouso from lichens in
1848 ; now produced from Aniline (which sec).
MAY 474 MAY
MAY, the fifth month of the year, received its name, some say, from Romulus, who pave
it this appellation in respect to the senators and nobles of his city, who were denominated
majorea ; others supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of Mercmy, to whom
they oifered sacrifices on the first day. The ancient Romans used to go in procession to the
grotto of Egeria on May-day. See Evil May-day*
MAYNOOTH COLLEGE (Ireland), founded by parliament, 1795, and endowed by a
yearly grant voted for the education of students designed for the Roman Catholic priesthood
in Ireland. An act for its government was passed in 1800. It contains about 500 students.
Permanent endowment of this college (30,000/. for the enlargement of the buildings and
26,000/. annually) was granted by parliament, June 1845. This occasioned much controversy
in England, a motion being made for its abolition almost every session. The college was
repaired and enlarged iu i860.
MAYORS of the Palace were high officers in France, and had great influence during
the later Merovingian kings. They were Pepin the Old (or de Landen), 622 et scq.; Pepin
Ileristal, 687-714; Charles Martel, 714-741; Pepin le Href, 741-752, who shut up
Childeric III. in a monastery, and himself took the kingdom. In this quality Charles
Martel ruled with despotic sway, 735 et scq, —Mayors of Corporations. At the time of
the Norman conquest, 1066, the chief officer of London was called port-grave, afterwards
softened into port-reeve, from Saxon words signifying chief governor of a harbour. He
was afterwards called provost; but iu Henry II. 's reign the Norman title of maire (soon
after mayor) was brought into use. At first the mayor was chosen for life, but afterwards
for periods of irregular duration ; now he is chosen annually, but is eligible for re-election.
He must bo an alderman, and must have previously filled the office of sheriff. His duties
commence on Nov. 9. The prefix lord is ]>eculiar to the chief civic officer of London,
Dublin, Edinburgh, and also York (since 1389, when a new charter was granted).
The first mayor of London, Henry Fitz-Alwhyn, The more costly pageants and triumphs of the
uppointed in 1189 ; held otfico /or 24 years. show laid aside 16S5
First presented to the barons of the exchequer 1251 Tho lord mayor entertained tho prince regent
The prefix of lordgranted by Edward III., with of England, the ompcror of Russia, king of
the style of right honourable .... 1354 Prussia, and numerous foreigners of high
Sir Henry Pickard, who had been lord mayor rank June iS, 1S14
of London in 1357, sumptuously entertained The lord mayor, Farncombc, gave a banquet to
in ono day four nionarchs : Edward, king of prince Albert and the mayors of most of tho
England ; John, king of France ; the king of boroughs of the United Kingdom, in further
Cyprus; and David, king of Scotland ; the ance of tho project of the great International
Black Prince and many of the nobility being Industrial Exhibition to bo held in 1851,
present. Stow. 1363 March at, 1850
Sir John Norman, tho first lord mayor who The lord mayor, sir F. Moon, entertained the
went by water to l>o sworn at Westminster, emperor and empress of the French April 19, 1S55
and lord mayor's show instituted . . . 1453 Tho ' Lord Mayor's court " is very ancient.
LOUD MAYORS OF LONDON.
1 800-1. Sir William Staines, bart. 1816-17. Matthew Wood again. 1832- 3. Sir Peter Laurie.
1801-2. Sir John Earner, bart. 1817- 18. Christopher Smith. 1833-4. Charles Farobrother.
1802-3. Charles Price. 18 18-19. John Atkins. 1834-5. Henry Winchester.
1803-4- John Perring. 1819-zo. George Brydges. 1835-6. Williim Tavlor Copolaud.
1804-5. Peter Perchard. 1820 1. John T. Thorpe. 1836-7. Thomas Kelly.
1805-6. Sir James Shaw. 1821-2. Christopher Magnay. 1837-8. Sir John Cowan, bart.
1806-7. Sir William Leighton, bt. 1823-3. William Heygate. 1838-0, Samuel Wilson.
1807-8. John Ainsloy. 1823-4. Robert Waithman. 1839-40. Sir Chapman Marshall, bt.
1808-9. Sir Charles Flower, bart. 1824-5. John Garratt. 1840- 1. Thomas Johnson.
1809-10. Thomas Smith. 1825 6. William Venables. 1841-2. John Pirie.
1810- 11. Joshua Jonathan Smith. 1826-7. Anthony Browne. 1242-3. J. Ilumphery.
1811-12. SirClaudius8. Huutor, bt. 1827-8. Matthias Prime Lucas. 1843-4. Sir W. Magnay, bart.
1812-13. George Scholey. 1828-9. William Thompson. 1844- 5. Michael Gibbs.
1813-14- Sir William Domvillc, bt. 1829-30. John Crowdor. 1845 6. John Johnson.
1814-15. Samuel Birch. 1830- 1. Sir John Key, bart. 1846-7. Sir George Carroll.
1815-16. Matthew Wood. 1831-2. Sir John Key, bt. again. 1847 8. John K. Hooper.
* Mrs. Elizabeth Montague (who died in 1800) gave for many years, on May-day, an entertainment at
her house in Portman-square, to the chimney-sweepers of London. They were regaled with roast beef and
plum pudding, and a dance succeeded. Upon their departure, each guest received a shilling from the
mistress of tho feast. It is said, though the statement is much doubted, that this entertainment was
instituted to commemorate the circumstance of Mrs Mont-ague's having once found a boy of her own, or
that of a relation,
adventures of this among theissooty
lost child tribe. related
pathetically In allusion to this incident,
by Montgomery, perhaps,
iu (tThe a story resembling
Chimney-Sweeper's Boy."the
MAY 475 MEC
MAYOKS, continued.
1848-9. Sir Jamos Duke, bt, M. P. 1854-5. Sir Fras. G. Moon, hart. 1860-1. William Cubitt, M.P.
1849-50. Thomas Farncombo. 1S55-6. David Salomons. 1861-2. William Cubitt, again.
1850-1. Sir John MusgTovc. 1856-7. Thomas Quested Finnls. 1 162-3. w- A Rose.
1851-2. William Hunter. 1857-8. Sir Robt. W. Cardon, bt. 1863-4. Wm. Lawrence.
1853-3. Thomas Challis, M.P. 1858-9. David W. Wire. 1864- 5. Warren S. Hale.
1853-4, Thomas Sidney. 1859-60. John Carter. 1865-6. Bcnj. Sam. Phillips.
LORD MAYORS OF DUBLIN.
John lo Dccer was appointed first provost in with tho titlo of lord, by Charles It., who
1308 ; a gilded sword was granted to be borno granted 500/. per annum, in lieu of tho com
befor3 tho provost by Honry IV. . . . 1407 pany of foot 1665
Thomas Cuaack appointed first mayor . . 1409 A new collar of SS. granted by William III. to
Tho collar of S3, and a foot company granted the mayor, value icoof., the former having
by Charles II. to tho mayors . . . . 1660 boon lost In James II. time . . . . 1C97
Sir Daniel Bellingham, the first mayor honoured
MEAL-TUB PLOT, against the duke of York, afterwards James II., contrived by one
Dan^erfield, who secreted a bundle of seditious letters in the lodgings of colonel Maunsell,
and then gave information to the custom-house officers to search for smuggled goods. Oct. 23,
1679. After Dangerfield's apprehension, on suspicion of forging these letters, papers were
found concealed in a meal-tub at the house of a woman with whom lie cohabited, which
contained the scheme to be sworn to, accusing the most eminent persons in the Protestant
interest, who were against the duke of York's succession, of treason,—particularly the
carls of Shaftesbury, Essex, and Halifax. On Dangerfield being whipped the last time, as
part of his punishment, June 1, 1685, one of his eyes was struck out by a barrister named
Itobert Francis : this caused his death, for which his assailant was hanged.
MEASURES. See Weights.
MEATH (Ireland), Bishopric of. Many episcopal sees in Month (as Clonard, Dnleek,
Kells, Trim, Ardbraccan, Dunshaughlin, ami Slane, and others of less note) were fixed at
Clonard, before 1 15 1-2, when the division of tho bishoprics in Ireland was made by John
Paparo, then legate from pope Eugene III. Month was valued, 30 Henry VIII., at 373/. 125.
per annum.
MECCA (in Arabia), the birth-place of Mahomet, 569. The temple is a gorgeous
structure, much visited by pilgrims. On one of the neighbouring hills is a cave, where it is
asserted Mahomet usually retired to perform his devotions, and where the greatest part of
the Koran was brought to him by the angel Gabriel, 604. Two miles from tho town is the
hill where, they say, Abraham went to offer up Isaac, 1871 B.C. Mecca after being vainly
besieged by Hoscin for the Caliph Yezid, A.d. 682, was taken by Abdelmelek, 692. In 1803
it fell into the hands of the Waliabces, a Mahometan sect. It is said that 160,000 pilgrims
visited Mecca in 1858, and only 50,000 in 1859.
MECHANICS. The simple mechanical powers have been ascribed to heathen deities ;
the axe, wedge, wimble, &c., to Daedalus. See Steam Engine.
Aristotle writes on mechanics about . B.C. 320 Theory of tho inclined plane investigated by
Tho propertio* of the lever, &c, demonstrated Cardan, about 1540
by Archimedes, who died about . . . 287 Work un Statics, by Stovinus . , . . 1586
[lie laid tho foundations of nearly all those in Theory of falling bodies, Galileo . . . 1638
vention*, the further prosecution of which i8 Laws of collision, Wallis, Wren, about . . . i663
the boast of our ago. IVaUU (1695). J Theory of oscillation, Huygens .... 1670
Thethoban l-mill, found
Romans or quern,
one was very early in. use .;
in Yorkshire * • Kpicycloidal
Roomer
form of tho teeth of wheels,
1675
Cattle mills. mrta jununtaria, were also in use Percussion and animal mechanics, Borellf ; he
by tho Roman* ** died 1679
Tho water-mill was probably invented in Asia; Application of mechanics to astronomy, paral-
tho first that was described was near ono of lelogism of forces, laws of motion, sc., New
tho dwellings of Mithridates .... 70 ton, Hooko, ic ,,
A water-mill is said to have been erected on Problem of tho catenary witli the analysis, Dr.
the river Tiber, at Rome 50 Gregory 1697
Pappus wrote on mechanics, about . . a.d. 350 Spirit level (and many other inventions), by
Filiating"-mills on tho Tiber 636 Dr. Rooko, from 1660 to 1702
Tide-mills were, many of them, in uso in Vcnico D'Alombort's researches on dynamics, about . 1743
about 1078 Borgnis' Dictionnaire de Me*caniquc appliqueo
Wind-mills were in very general use in the 12th aux Arts, 10 vols 1818-23
century * * [Among tho best modern writers on the
Saw-miUs are sail to have been in U30 at Augs science of mechanics arc Poncelet, Whewell,
burg Barlow, Mosclcy, Dolaunay, and Bartholo
1332 mew Price.]
II EC 476 MED
MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS. One was founded by Dr. Birkbeck in Loudon, and
another in Glasgow, in 1823 ; and soon after others arose in different parts of the empire.
They have revived since 1857, many noblemen and gentlemen giving lectures in them.
MECKLENBURG (N. Germany), formerly a principality in Lower Saxony, now inde
pendent as the two grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Sehwerin (population in 1863, 551,884),
and Mecklenburg-StreliU (population in i860, 99,060). The house of Mecklenburg is among
the most ancient in Europe, as it claims to be descended from Genseric the Vandal, who
ravaged the western empire in the 5th century, and died 477. During the thirty years'
war, Mecklenburg was conquered by Wallenstein, who became its duke, 1628; it was restored
to its own duke in 1630. After several changes, the government was settled in 1701 as it
now exists in the two branches of Schwerin and Strelitz. In 1815, the dukes of Mecklenburg
were made grand-dukes. —The royal family of England for a century has been intimately
allied with the house of Sfeeklenburg-Streltiz. King George III. married Charlotte, a
daughter of the duke, in 1 76 1 ; their son, the duke of Cumberland (afterwards king of
Hanover) married princess Fredcrica Caroline, a daughter of the duke, in 1815 ; and princess
Augusta of Cambridge married June 28, 1S43, Frederic, the present grand-duke.
GRAND-DUKES OF MECKLENBURC-SCHWERIN.
1S15. Frederic Francis I. Heir: his son, Frederic Francis, bom March
1S42. Frederic- Francis II., March 7 ; born Feb. 28, 19,1851.
1823 (i-rksest grand duke). 1
GRAXD-DUKES OF MF.CKLEXBURG-STREL1TZ.
1815. Charles. Heir: his son, Adolphus-Frederic, bom July 22,
1816. Georjre. born Aug. 12, 1779 ; succeeded Xov. 6. 1848.
1800. Frederic, Sept. 6 ; born Oct. 17, 1819 (the
PRE-n.vr grand-duke).
MEDALS. Sec Xumismatics. There is hardly any record of medals or decorations as
rewards in the army or navy before the time of the commonwealth. The house of commons
resolved to grant rewards and medals to the fleet whose officers (Blake, Monk, l'enn, and
Lawson) and men gained a glorious victory over the Dutch fleet, oil' the Texel, in 1653.
Blake's medal of 1653 was bought by his majesty William IV. for 150 guineas. In 1692 an
act was passed for applying the tenth part of the proceeds of prizes for medals and other
rewards for ollicers, seamen, and marines. Subsequent to lord Howe's victory, June I, 1794.
it was thought expedient to institute a naval medal. Medals were presented by the queen to
persons distinguished in the war in the Crimea, May 18, 1855.
MEDIA, a province of the Assyrian empire, revolted 711 B.C.
Revolt of tho Modes .... B.C. 711 War with tho Lydians (see ltalyx) B.C. 603
lJeioccs ('.Hinder of Kelwttana, reigns . . 709 Astyagcs reigns 504
rhraortes, or Arpoaxad, reigns ; (ho conquers Astyages dowsed by Cyrus, 550; who estab
Persia, Armenia, and other countries) . . 656 lished tho empire of Persia (uhich *<() . . 560
Warlike reign of Cyaxares .... 632-594
MEDICAL BENEVOLENT COLLEGE (Epsom, Surrey), opened in 1S55 by the prince
consort. It provides an asylum for 20 .pensioners male and female; and 40 foundation
scholars (sons of medical men) are fed, clothed, and educated.
MEDICAL COUNCIL. In 1858 an act was passed "to regulate the qualifications of
practitioners in medicine and surgery;" amended in i860. It established "the General
Council of Medical Education and Registration of the United Kingdom." The first meeting
of this council took place on Nov. 23, 1858, when sir B. C. Brodie was elected first president
(who on Nov. 30 was elected president of the lioyal Society). He was succeeded by Mr. J.
H. Green in June, i860; by Dr. George Burrows, Jan. 1864. The first Medical Register was
issued in July, 1859. In 1862 the council was incorporated by parliament, and authorised
to prepare and sell a new Pharmacopoeia, which was published as the " British Pharma
copoeia," in 1864.
MEDICI FAMILY, illustrious as the restorers of literature and the fine arts in Italy,
were chiefs or signori of the republic of Florence from 1434, in which j*car Cosmo de' Medici,
who had been banished from the republic, was recalled and made its chief; he presided over
it for thirty years. Lorenzo de' Medici, styled "the Magnificent," and the "Father of
Letters," ruled Florence from 1469 to 1492. John de' Medici (pope Leo X.) was the son of
Lorenzo. Roscoe, From 1569 to 1737 the Medici family were hereditary grand-dukes of
Tuscany (which see). Catherine de' Medici became queen of France in 1547, and regent ill
1550. She plotted with the duke of Alva to destroy the Protestants in 1565.
MED 477 MEL
MEDICINE. See Phytic
MEDINA (Arabia Deserta), famous for the tomb of Mahomet, in a large mosque, lighted
by rich lamps. Medina was called the City of the Prophet, because here Mahomet was
protected when he fled from Mecca, July 15, 622. See Hajira. Medina was taken by the
Wahabees in 1804.
MEEANEE. The Hyderabad Ameers, amounting to 30,000 infantry, with 15 guns and
5000 cavalry, posted in a formidable position at Mecanee, were attacked on Feb. 17, 1843,
by lieut-gen. sir Charles Napier, with 2600 men of all arms. This insignificant force fell so
impetuously unon the enemy, that after a severe contest the Ameers gave way, and retreated
in tolerable order. Their loss was enormous.
MEGARA, a city of ancient Greece, was subdued by the Athenians in the Sth century
D.c. Pericles suppressed a revolt, 445 B.C. The Megarians founded Byzantium 657 B.C. and
sent a second colony 628 B.C. The Megarian (Eristic or disputatious) school of philosophy
was founded by Euclid and Stilpo, natives of Megara.
MEISTERSINGERS. See Minnesingers.
MELAZZO (W. Sicily). Here Garibaldi, on July 20 and 21, i860, defeated the Neapolitans
under general Bosco, who lost about 600 men ; Garibaldi's loss being 167. The latter entered
Messina ; and on July 30 a convention was signed, by which it was settled that the Neapolitan
troops were to quit Sicily. They held the citadel of Messina till March 13, 1861.
MELBOURNE (Australia), capital of Victoria {which see). It was laid out as a town by
orders of sir H. Bourko, in April, 1S37. The first laud sale took place in June, and specu
lation commenced and continued till it caused wide-spread insolvency in 1841-2.
Made a municipal corporation, 1842 ; a bishopric 1847' carried off [one of the robbers was taken in
First legislative assembly of Victoria meets . 1853 : England, sent back to Melbourne, and there
Gold fuund in great abundance about So miles tried and hanged] .... Oct. 8, 1854
from Melbourne in the autumn of 1851, and Monster meeting held at liallarat respecting
immense numbers of emigrants flocked there I the collection of the gold licenses, followed by
in consequence, causing an enormous rise in \ riots, during which the Southern Cross Hag
the prices of provisions and clothing , . „ was raised ; intervention of the military; 26
Population 23,000 in 1851 ; about 100,000 at the rioters and throe soldiers killed, and many
end of ,, I wounded Nov. 30, „
The city greatly improved with public buildings, \ The mayor comes to London to congratulate
handsome shops, Arc. 1853 the queon ou the marriage of the princess
The Victoria bank, Ballarat, broken open, and I royal , 1858
14,300/. in money and 200 ounces in gold dust I Sco Victoria,
MELBOURNE ADMINISTRATIONS. On the retirement of carl Grey, July 9, 1834,
viscount Melbourne became first minister of the crown. On the accession of viscount
Althorpe to the earldom of Spencer, on his father's decease, Nov. same year, lord Melbourne
waited on the kiii£ to receive his majesty's commands as to the appointment of a new
chancellor of the Exchequer, when his majesty said he considered the administration at an
end. Sir Robert Peel succeeded, but was compelled to resign in 1835, and lord Melbourne
returned to office. His administration finally terminated, Aug. 30, 1841, sir Robert Peel
again coming into power. See Administrations.
FIRST ADMINISTRATION', July. 1834. SECOND ADMINISTRATION, April, 1835.
Viscount Melbourne,* ./Irtf lord of the treasury. Lord Melbourne, yfrst lord ofthe treasury.
Marquess of Lansdowne, lord president. Marquess of Lansdowne, lord president.
Karl Mulgravo, privy teat. Visct. Duncannon, privy seal, and woods and forests.
Viscount Althorpe, chancellor of the exchequer. Mr. Rice, chancellor of the exchequer.
Viscount Duncannon, viscount Palmerston, and Mr. Lord John Russell, viscount Palmerston, and lord
Spring Rice (afterwards lord Monteaglu), home, Glenelur, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries.
foreign, and colonial secretaries. Earl of Minto, admiralty.
Lord Auckland, admiralty, Sir John Hobhouso, and Mr. Poulett Thomson,
Mr. Charles Grunt (afterwards lord Olenclg), and boards of control and trade:.
Mr. C. P. Thomson (afterwards lord Sydenham), T/ord Holland, duchy of Lancaster.
boards of contro' and trade. Viscount Uowick, tccretary-at-icxr.
Lord John Russell, paymaster of the forces. Mr. Labouchcre, sir Henry Pornell, lord Morpeth, &c.
Lord Brougham, lord chanenHor. The chancellorship in commission ; sir C. Pepya
Sir John Hobhonse. Mr. Ellicc, marquess of Conyng- ("afterwards lord t'ottenham) became lord chancellor,
h*m( Mr. Littleton, Lc. Jan. 1836.
• Win. Lamb, born in 1775; became M.P. for Westminster, 1S12 ; secretary f -r Ireland, 1S27 ; succeeded
his father as viscount Melbourne, i8aS; died Nov. 34, 1848.
MEL 47S
MELEGNAXO. See Marignaiw.
MELODRAMA originated with or was introduced by Mr. Holcroft in 1793.
MEMEL, nn important commercial ]>ort in Prussia, built about 1279. It was taken by
the Teutonic knights, about 1328. It has sutl'cred much by fire, and was almost totally
destroyed October 4, 1854. The loss was estimated at 1, 100,000/.
MEMORY. Sec Mnemonics.
MEMPHIS, an ancient city of Egypt ("of which the very ruins are stupendous"), is said
to have been built by Meucs, 3890 B.C. ; or by Misraim, 21S8 B.C. It was restored bv
Septimus Severus, A.D. 202. In the 7th century, under the dominion of the Saracens, it foil
into decay. The invasion of Cambyses, 526 D.C., began the ruin of Memphis, and the
founding of Alexandria, 332, completed it.
MEXAI STRAIT (between the Welsh coast and the isle of Anglesey). Suetonius
Paulinus, when he invaded Anglesey, transported his troops across this strait in flat-bottomed
boats, while the cavalry swam over on horseback, and attacked the Druids in their last
retreat. Their horrid practice of sacrificing their captives, and tho opposition he met with,
so incensed the Roman general, that he gave the Britons no quarter, throwing all that
escaped from that battle into fires which they had prepared for the destruction of himself
and his army, a.d. 6l. —In crossing this strait, a ferry-boat was lost, and fifty persons, chiefly
Irish, Dec. 4, 1783. The road from London to Holyhead has long been regarded as the
highway from the British metropolis to Dublin ; Mr. Telford was applied to by the govern
ment to perfect this route by the London and Holyhead mail-coach road, which he did bv
erecting beautiful suspension bridges over the river Conway and the Menai Strait, commenced
in July, 1818, and finished in July, 1825. The Britannia tubular bridge over the Menai was
constructed by Stephenson and Fairbairn in 1849-50. See Tubular Bridges.
MENDICANT FRIARS. Several religious orders commenced alms-begging in the 13th
century, in the pontificate of Innocent III. They spread over Europe ami embraced many
communities ; but at length by .1 general council, held by Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272",
were confined to four orders—Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The
Capuchins and others branched off. See Franciscans, &c.
MENDICITY SOCIETY (Red Lion-square, London), was established in 1S1S for the
suppression of public begging, and other impositions. Tickets received from the society arc
given by subscribers to beggars, who obtain relief at the society's house, if deserving. The
society has caused above 23,000 vagrants to be convicted as impostors. In 1857, 54,074
meals, in i860, 42,912, and in 1864, 55,265 were distributed. In 1857, 3785, and in 1S64,
3680 begging letters were investigated.
MENSURATION. The various properties of conic sections were discovered by Archimedes,
to whom the chief advancement in mensuration may bo attributed. He also determined the
ratio of spheres, spheroids, &c, about 218 B.C. See Arithmetic.
MENTZ (S.W. Germany), the Roman Moguntiacum. The archbishopric was founded by
Boniface, 745. Many diets have been held here ; and here John Faust established a printing-
press in 1442. A festival in honour of John Guttenburg was celebrated here in 1837.
MENU, Institutes of, the very ancient code of India. Sir Wb, Jones, who translated
them into English (1794), considers their date should be placed between Homer (about
962 B.c.) and the Roman Twelve Tables (about 449 B.C.).
MERCANTILE MARINE ACT was passed in Aug. 1850, and amended Aug. 1851.
MERCATOR'S CHARTS. The true inventor of these charts is said to have been a
Mr. Wright, who made several voyages ; in his absence Gerard Mcrcator published the
charts in his own name, 1556. They arc, however, now confidently ascribed to Mercator's
own ingenuity.
MERCHANDISE MARKS ACT was passed in 1S62 to punish forgeries of tradesmen's
marks, whereby much injury had been done.
MERCHANT. An attempt was made by queen Anne's ministry to exclude merchants
from sitting in the house of commons in 171 1 ; but it failed. The Merchant Adven
turers' society (see Adventurers) was established by the duke of Brabant in 1296; it
extended to England in Edward III. 's reign ; and was formed into an English corporation in
1564.—The Mluciiant-Tailors, a rich company of the city of Loudon, of which many
MER 479 11 ES
kings have been members, were so called after the admission of Henry VII. into their com-
}>any, 1501, but were incorporated in 1466. Their school was founded in 1 561 . Stow.
MERCIA. See under Britain. MERCURY. See Quicksilver and Calomel.
MERCY, Order of (in France), was established with the object of accomplishing the
redemption of Christian captives, by John de Matha in 1 198. IIlnau.lt. Another order was
formed by Pierre Nolasque, Spain, 1223.
MERIDA (Spain), a town in Estremadura (built by the Romans), was taken by the
French, Jan. 181 1. Near this town, at Arroyos Molinos, the Britishanny under general
(afterwards lord) Hill defeated the French under general Girard, after a severe engagement,
Oct. 28, 181 1. The British took Merida from the French in January, 1812, general Hill
leading the combined forces of English and Spanish troops.
MEROE, an ancient city and country of inner Africa, near the sources of the Nile, said
to have flourished under sacerdotal government in the time of Herodotus, about 450 B. c.
MEROVINGIANS, the first race of French kings, 418-752. See Mayors and France.
MERRIMAC. See Untied States, 1862.
MERRY-ANDREW. The name is said to have been first given to Andrew Borde, a
physician, who lived in the reign of Henry VIII., and who, on some occasions, on account
of his facetious manners, appeared at conrt, 1547.
MERTHYR-TYDVIL (Glamorganshire). Riots commenced here June 3, 1831, and
continued for several days ; many persons were killed and wounded.
MERTON (Surrey). At an abbey here, the barons under Henry III., Jan. 23, 1236,
held a parliament which enacted the statutes called the Provisions of Merton, the
most ancient body of laws next after Magna Charta. They were repealed in 1863. See
Bastards.
MESMERISM. Frederick Anthony Mesmer, a German physician, of Mersburg, pub
lished his doctrines in 1766, contending, by a thesis on planetary influence, that the heavenly
bodies diffused through the universe a subtle fluid which acts on the nervous system of
animated beings. Quitting Vienna for Paris, in 1778, he gained numerous proselytes to his
system in France, where he received a subscription of 340,000 livres. The government
appointed a committee of physicians and members of the Academy of Sciences to investigate
his pretensions. Among these were Franklin and Bailly, and the results appeared in an
admirable paper drawn up by the latter, 1784, exposing the futility of animal magnetism, as
the delusion was then termed. Mesmerism excited attention again about 1848, when Miss
Harriet Martineau and others announced their belief in it. *
MESSALIANS, a sect (about 310) professing to adhere to the very letter of tho
Gospel. They refused to work, quoting this passage, " Labour not for the food that
perisheth. "
MESSENIA (now Maura-Matra), a country of the Peloponnesus. The kingdom com
menced by Polycaon, 1499 B.C. It had long sanguinary wars against Sparta (see next article),
and once contained a hundred cities, most of whose names even are now unknown. It was
at first governed by kings ; after its restoration to power in the Peloponnesus, it formed a
republic, under the protection first of the Thebans, and afterwards of the Macedonians ; but
it never rose to eminence.
Thojlrrt Mcsscnian war began 743 B.C. : was occa- The teeond war was commenced about 682 B.C.,
sioned by violence offered to sumc Spartan to throw off the galling Spartan yoke, ending
women in a tomplo of devotion common to in the defeat of the Messenians, who fled to
both nations ; the kinjx of Sparta being killed Sicily B.C. 662
in his efforts to defend the females. Eventu- The third war took place 490 B.c ; nnd the
ally, Ithome was taken, and the Messcnians fourth 465-455
becamo slaves to tho conquerors . B.C. 723 I
MESSINA (Sicily), so named by the Samians, who seized this city, then called Zancle,
671 b.c. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire, but fell to the Saracens, about
a.d. 829. Priestley. In the nth century Roger the Norman took it by surprise, and
delivered it from Mahometan oppression. See Sicily.
* In 1859, the Mesmeric Infirmary issued its tenth annual report, archbishop Whately being president,
and tho carl of Carlisle and Mr. Mouckton Milncs (since lord Iloujfhtim) among the vice-presidents.
MES 480 MET
MESSINA, continued.
Revolt against Charles of Aujou, and is suc Half destroyed by an earthquake . . . . 1783
coured by Peter of Arragon .... 1282 Head quarters of the British forces in Sicily,
Revolt in favour of Louis XVI. of France, wbo prior to 1814
is proclaimed here, 1676 ; the Spaniards punish An insurrection here, subdued Sept. 7, 1848
1 it severely 1678 Garibaldi enters Messina after his victory at
Almost ruined by an earthquake and eruption Melaxzo July 20-21, i860
of 'Etna 1693 The citadel surrenders to general Cialdiui,
Nearly depopulated by a plague . . . 1740 March 13, 1S61
METALS. The metals and metalloids are now above fifty in number. Tubal-Cain Is
mentioned as an "instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." {Got. iv.) Moses and
Homer speak of the seven metals, and Virgil of the melting of steel. The Phoenicians had
great skill in working metals. See Mines, Iron, and the other metals. Hunsen and Kirch*
hofi's method of chemical analysis by means of the spectrum has added Ciusium, Rubidium,
Thallium, and Indium to the known metals.
METAMORPHISTS in the 15th century affirmed that Christ's natural body, with which
he ascended into heaven, was wholly deified.
METAPHYSICS, the science of abstract reasoning, or that which contemplates the
existence of things without relation to matter. The term, literally denoting "after physics,"
originated from these words having been put at the head of certain essays of Aristotle, which
follow his treatise on Physics. Mackintosh. Modern metaphysics arose in the 15th century—
the period when an extraordinary impulse was given to the human mind in Europe, com
monly called the " revival of learning." Hobbes, Cudworth, S. T. Coleridge, Dugald Stewart,
and sir AV. Hamilton, were eminent British metaphysicians, and Descartes, Pascal, Kant,
and Fichte, foreign ones. See Philosophy.
METAUKUS, a river in Central Italy, where Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, was
defeated and slain, 207 B.C., when marching with abundant reinforcements. The Romans
were led by Livius and Claudius Nero, the consuls. The latter commanded the head of
Hasdrubal to be thrown into his brother's camp. This victory saved Rome.
METEMPSYCHOSIS, a doctrine attributed to Pythagoras, 528 B.C., supposes the trans
migration of the soul from one body to another. It is also ascribed to the Egyptians, who
would eat no animal food lest they should devour the body into which the soul of a deceased
friend had passed. They had also an idea that so long as the body of the deceased was kept
entire, the soul would not transmigrate ; and therefore embalmed the dead.
METEOROLOGY (from the Greek mcteoros, aerial), the science which treats of the pheno
mena which have their origin in the air, such as rain, lightning, meteors, fogs, &c. Bacon,
Boyle, and Franklin wrote on the subject.
Jobn Dalton's essay on inetcorologv appeared in 1793. captains of ships, and established observatories in
Luke Howard's work on tbe clouds appeared ui many places in the empire. Tbe Kcw meteorolo
1802, and bis " Baromctrographia" in 1848. gical observatory was given to the British Asso
Sir W. Reid published bis work on the "law of ciation in April, i860.
storms" in 1838. Tbe works of Daniell (1845), At the rocommendation of M. Le Vemer and f dmi-
Kaimtz (1845), and MtUler (1847) are esteemed. ral FitzRoy, meteorological information, obtained
Mr. James Glaisher, tho energetic secretary of the by the telegraph from the principal places in the
British Meteorological Society (established in 1850) United Kingdom, has been transmitted daily to
is tbe most eminent meteorologist of tho day. By Paris, and thence- to other parts of Europe since
hia exertions the apparatus at Greenwich was Sept. x, i860.
erected ; and meteorology has appeared in the Meteorological observations appear in tho Times
" Grcenwicb Observations " since 1848. See Bal daily.
loon—Scientific Ascents. Storra-warnings first sent to tbe coast by tbe Board
Meteorological observatories have been erected in all of Trade, Feb. 6 ; and first published, July 31, 1861.
parts of the globe within the last 20 years. Daily international bulletin of tbe imperial observa
The meteorological department of the board of trade, tory at Paris, under the direction of M. Le Vcrrier,
established in 1855, under admiral FitzRoy, com first published, Nov. 1862.
menced the publication of reports in 1857.* It See Jiarohieter, Tlurmomettr, &c.J
lias issued apparatus and instruction books to
METHODISTS. See WesUyans.
MKTHUEN TREATY, a treaty for regulating the commerce between Great Britain and
Portugal, made in 1703, concluded by Paul Methuen, our ambassador at Lisbon. It was
abrogated in 1 834.
* The admiral published bis "Weather-Boob" in 1863. His exertions are said to bnvo overworked his
brain ; and on April 30, 1865, he died by bis own hand.
MET 481 MET
METHYL, a colourless inodorous gas, a compound of hydrogen and carbon, was
obtained first in the free state by Frankland and by Kolbe, in 1849.
METHYLATED SPIRITS. By an act passed in 1855 a mixture of spirits of wine
with 10 per cent, of its bulk of wood-naphtha, or methylic alcohol, is allowed to be made
duty free for use in the arts and manufactures, not less than 450 gallons being made
at one time. In 1861 an act was passed permitting the methylated spirits to be retailed
by licence.
METONIC CYCLE, a period of 19 years, or 6940 days, at the end of which the changes
of the moon fall on the same days. Sec Calippic Period.
METRIC SYSTEM. Before the Revolution there was no uniformity in French weights
and measures. On May 8, 1790, the Constitutional Assembly charged the Academy of
Sciences with the organisation of a better system. The committee named for the purpose by
the Academy included the illustrious names of Berthollot, Borda, Dolambre, Lagrange,
Laplace, Mechain, and Prony. Delarabre and Mechain were charged with the measurement
of an arc of the meridian between Dunkirk and Barcelona, and from their calculations the
mitre, which is equal to a ten-millionth part of the distance between the poles and the
equator (3*2808 English feet) was made the unit of length ami the ba.se of the system by
law on April 7, 1795. The system was completed in 1799, and made by law the only legal
one on Nov. 2, 1801. A decree on Feb. 12 accommodated the old measures to the new
system ; but on July 4, 1837, it was docreed that after Jan. 1, 1840, the metric and decimal
system in its primitive simplicity should be used in all business transactions. The example
of France has been followed by the greater part of Europe, and will probably in time be
adopted in the British empire.
Unit of Svrface, cmtiare=& square m"6tre = 1*1960 metre (the 100th part of a metre) of distilled water
English yard (a square decametre or art= 100 =0*56438 English dram.
square metres). Unit of Money, the/rone, a piece ofsilver weighing
Unit of Volume or Solidity, ttcre=& cubic metre. 5 grammes.
Unit of Capacity, litre=& cubic decimetre (or iotb The multiples of these units are expressed by Greek
of a metre)=. 1*76077 English pint. numerals (deca-t 10; hckatth, 100; kilo-, 1000;
Unit of Weight, gramme—vttight of a cubic centi myria-, 10,000. The divisors are expressed by
Latin numerals (tfcci-. 10 ; ceitti-t 100 : milii-, 1000).
Sir John Wrottesley brought the subject before purpose of obtaining the adoption of the sys
parliament Feb. 25, 1834
tem June, 1854
A commission of inquiry appointed at the in Another commission for inquiry was appointed,
stance of the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr.consisting of lords Monteagle and Overstone,
Spring Rice (since lord Monteagle) . May, 1838and Mr. J. G. Hubbard, who published a pre
Another commission was appointed (both con liminary report (with evidence), but expressed
sisted of eminent scientific men, and reportedno opinion Nov. 1855
An International Decimal Association formed in
strongly in favour of the change) . June 20, 1843
A committee of the house of commons reported The decimal currency adopted m Canada, Jan. 1, 1858
to the same effect .... Aug. 1. 1853 The new weights and measures bill (an ap
Mr. Gladstone, admitting the advantages of proximation to the decimal system) was
the system, thought its introduction pre passed 1862
mature. An act passed " to render permissive the use of
The Decimal Association was formed for the tho metric system of weights and measures "
July 29, 1864
METRONOME, to regulate time in the performance of music, was patented in England
by John Malzel, Dec. 5, 1815.
METROPOLIS ROADS ACT (passed in 1863) transferred the management of certain
roads north of the Thames from the commissioners to the parishes, and abolished certain
turnpikes and tollbars.
METROPOLITAN (from the Greek metropolis), a title given at the council of Nice, 325,
to certain bishops who had jurisdiction over others, in a province. The dignity is said to
have arisen in the 2nd century, through the dissentient bishops in a district referring to one
of superior intellect.
METROPOLITAN BOARD of WORKS, was established by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 120(1855),
amended in 1862. It held its first meeting and elected Mr. (now sir) John Thwaitcs as
chairman, Dec. 22, 1855. The office is in Spring-gardens. In 1858, its powers were
extended in order to effect the purification of the Thames by constructing a new main
drainage for the metropolis. The Board was authorised to raise a loan and levy yi. in the
pound on the property in the metropolis. The works are now in progress (1865). It is also
authorised to construct the Thames Embankment. In 1861 the Board received nearly a
million pounds, and expended 900,000?. See Sewage and Thames.
1 1
MET 4S2 MEX
METROPOLITAN CATTLE MARKET, inaugurated by the lord mayor and corporation
on Wednesday, June 13, 1855, in presence of the prince consort. It is situated in Copen
hagen-fields, an elevated site norm of London, occupying an area of about fifteen acres,
larger by nine acres than Sinithfield, and capable of containing 30,000 sheep, 6400 bullocks,
1400 calves, and 900 pigs. In the centre is a circular building, let to bankers and others
having business connected with graziers and cattle-agents. Within and around the market
are erected several large taverns. A place is set apart for slaughtering animals, with
approved appliances for purposes of health, by ventilation, sewerage, &c. ; there is also a
place for haystands. Sales commenced on Friday, Juno 15, 1855. — An act for establishing a
meat and poultry market in Smithfield (which sec) was passed in i860.
METROPOLITAN FIRE BRIGADE, and HOUSELESS POOR, See Fire Brigade
and Houseless Poor.
METROPOLITAN RAILWAY (Underground), between Paddington and Victoria-street,
near Holborn. The act for it passed in 1853 ; the construction began in the spring of 1S60 ;
and it was opened for traffic, Jan. 10, 1863. Many serious difficulties were overcome with
great skill and energy by the contractors, Jay, Smith, and Knight, In the first six months
of 1865, there were 7,462,823 passengers.
METTRAY. Sec Reformatory Schools. METZ. See Australia.
MEXICO (N. America), discovered in 1517, conquered by the Spaniards under Fernando
Cortez, 1521. The territory was named New Spain. The mint of Mexico was begun in 1535.
This country rebelled in war against the viceroy in 1816 ; and under Iturbide gained its
independence in 1821. Benito Juarez was appointed president, Feb. II, 1858; made absolute
dictator, June 30, 1861. Sec below. Population, in 1862, about 7,500,000.
Became Independent by the treaty of Aqoala, Benito Juarez declared constitutional president
Aug-. 23, 1821 at Vera Cruz .... Feb. 11, 1858
Angustin Iturbide, president of a provisional Civil war ; several engagements Aug. to Nov. „
junto; Mex>co formed into im empire: the General Miguel Miramon nominated president
crown declined by 8pain ; Iturbide made at Mexico by the Junto . . Jan 6, 1859
emperor, Feb. 1822; compelled to abdicate, Zuloaga abdicates . . . ' . Feb. a, „
March 26, 1823 In consequence of injury to British subjects,
Mexican republic proclaimed . . Oct 4, „ ships of war sent to Mexico . . Feb. „
Iturbide went to England ; returns and en Miramon forces the lines of the liberal gcpcrals,
deavours tu recover his dignity ; shot, enters the capital, assumes his functions as
July 19, 1824 governor, and governs without respect to the
Federal constitution established . . Oct, ,, laws of life and property . . April 10, ,,
Treaty of commerce with Great Britain, April, 1825 Juarez confiscates the church property, July 13, ,,
Expulsion of the Spaniards decreed . March, 1829 Miramon and the clerical party defeat tho
Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered liberals under Colima . . Dec. 2r, ,»
Sept. 26, „ He besieges Vera Cruz, March 5 : bombards it ;
Mexican revolution : the president Guerrero compelled to raise the siege . . March at, i860
deposed ..... Dec. 23, General Zuloaga deposes Miramon, and assumes
Independence of Mexico recognised by Brazil, the presidency May t, „
June. 1830; by Spain . . . Dec. 28, 1836 Mimmon arrests Zuloaga, May 9 ; the diplo
Declaration of war against France Nov. 30, 183S matic bodies suspend official relation with
This war terminated . . . March 9, 1839 the former May 10,
War with the United States * . June 4, 1845 Miramon defeated by Degollado . . Aug. 10, ,,
The Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, May 8 ; He governs Mexico with much tyranny ; the
and subsequently at Matarooras . . . 1846 foreign ministers quit the city . . Oct.
Santa F6 captured, Aug. 22 : and Monterey, He is comi>ellcd to retire ; J wares enters Mexico,
Sept. 24, „ and re-elected president . . Jan. rg, 1S61
Battle of Bueno Vista ; the Mexicans defeated Juarez made dictator by the congress, June 30,
by general Taylor, with great loss, after two Tho Mexican congress decides to suspend pay
days' fighting .... Feb. 22, 1847 ments to foreigners for two years July 17, .,
The Americans, under general Scott, defeat the Which leads to the breaking off diplomatic re
Mexicans, making 6000 prisoners April 18, „ lations with F.ngland and France . July 27, ,»
Various actions followed. Treaty between In consequence of many gross outrages on
Mexico and the United States ratified, foreigners, the British, Fronch, and Spanish
May 19, 1848 governments, after much vain negotiation,
Political convulsions .... Sept. 1852 claiming efficient protection of foreigners, and
President Arista resigns, Jan. 6 ; and St. Anna the payment of arrears due to fwndholdcrs,
ib invittrd to return .... Feb. 1853 #ign a convention engaging to combined hos-
St Anna becomes dictator . . March 17, ,, tilo operations againt-t Mexico . Oct 31,
He abdicates ; Carera elected president . Jan. 185s The Mexican congress dissolves, after con
Who also abdicates ; succeeded first by Alvarez, ferring full powers on the president. Doc. 15,
and aftet wards by general Comonfort Dec. „ Spanish troops land at Vera Cruz, Dec. 8 ; it
Property of the clergy sequestrated March 31, 1856 surrenders Dec. 17,
New constitution .... Feb. 5, 1857 A British naval and French military expedition
Comonfort chosen president . . July, arrives Jan. 7, 8, 186*
Coup d'Ctat ; Comonfort compelled to retire, The Mexicans determine on resistance, and
Jan. 11; general Zuloaga takes the govern invest Vera Cruz ; their taxes are raised 2s
ment Jan. 21-26, 1858 per cent Jan. ,,
MEZ MIC
MEXICO, continued,
Miramon arrives, but is sent back to Spain by Mexico occupied by the French, under Bazaine,
. tbe British admiral . . . Feb. 1862 June 5 ; Forey and his array enter June 10, 1863
Project of establishing a Mexican monarchy for Assembly of notables at Mexico decide on
archduke Maximilian of Austria, disapproved the establishment of a limited hcrc-iittry
of by the British and Spanish governments, monarchy, with a Roman Catholic prince
Feb. ,, as emperor ; and offer the crown to the arch
Negotiation ensues between the Spanish and duke Maximilian of Austria ; a regency esta
Mexicans ; convention between the commis blished July 10,
saries of the Allies and the Mexican general The French re-occupy Tampico . Aug. 11,
Doblado, at Soledad . . . Feb. 19, „ Marshal Forey resigns his command to
The Mexican general Marquez takes up arms Bazaine, and returns to Fr«nce . Oct. 1, „
against Juarez ; and general Almonte joins The archduke Maximilian accepts tho crown,
the French general Lorencez ; Juarez demands under conditions .... Oct. 3, ,,
a compulsory loan, and puts Mexico in a state The Mexican general Comonfort surprised and
of siege March, shot by partisans . Nov. 12, ,,
Conference between plenipotentiaries of the Successful advance of the imperialists; Juarez
Allies at Orizaba ; the English and Spanish retires from San Luis dc Potosi, Doc. 18 ; it
declare for peace, which is not agreed to by is entered by the imperialists . Dec. 24, ,,
the French, April 9 ; who declare war against The French occupy various places, Jan. & Feb. 1864
Juarez ...... April 16, ,, Tho ex-president, general Santa-Anna, lands at
The Spanish and British forces retire ; the Vera Cruz, profe*sing adhesion to the empire,
French government sends reinforcements to Feb. 27 ; dismissed by Bazaine . March 12, „
Lorencez May, „ Juarez enters Monterey, which becomes tho
The French, induced by Marquez, advance into seat of the republican government April 3, „
the interior ; severely repulsed by general The archduke Maximilian definitively accepts
Zaragoza, at Fort Guadaloupe, near Puebla, the crown from the Mexican deputation at
May 5, „ Miramar April 10, ,,
The French defeat the Mexicans at Cerro de The emperor and empress land at Vera Cruz,
Borgo, near Orizaba . . . June 13, 14, ,, May 29 ; enter the city of Mexico . June 12, ,,
The Mexican liberals said to be desirous of The emperor visits the interior; grants a free
negotiation Aug. press Aug.
Gen. Forey and 2500 French soldiers land, The republicans defeat the imperialists at
Aug. 28, „ San Pedro Dec. 27,
Letter from the emperor Napoleon to Lorencez Juarez, at Chihuahua, exhorts the Mexicans to
disclaiming any intention of imposing a maintain their independence . . Jan. 1, 1865
government on Mexico announced . Sept. „ The emperor institutes the order of the Mexican
Death of Zaragoza, a great loss to the Moxicans, eagle Jan. 18, „
Sept. 8, „ Surrender of Oaxaca to marshal Bazaine Feb. 9, „
Gen. Forey deprives Almonte of the presidency A temporary constitution promulgated April 10, ,,
at Vera Cruz, and appropriates the civil and Ortega, at New York, enlists recruits for the
military power to himself . . Oct. „ republican array, May ; discountenanced by
Ortega takes command of tbe Mexican army, the U. S. government . . . June,
Oct. 19, „ The emperor proclaims the end of the war, and
The Mexican congress assembles, and protests martial law against all armed bands of men,
against the French invasion . Oct. 27, „ Oct. „
Tbe French evacuate Tampico . . Jon. 13, 1863 EMPEROR.
Forey marches towards Mexico . Feb. 24, „ 1864. Maximilian I. (brother to the emperor of
Siege of Puebla, bravely defended, March 29 ; Austria), born July 6, 1832 ; accepted the
severe assault, March 31 to April 3 ; it is sur crown April 10, 1864 : married July 27, 1857,
rendered at discretion by Ortega . May r8, „ to princess Charlotte, daughter of Leopold I.,
The republican government remove to San Luis king of the Belgians ; adopts Augustus
de Potosi May 31, „ 1 Iturbide as his heir, Sept. 1865.
MEZZOTINTO. See Engraving.
MHOW COURT-MARTIAL. See Trials, Nov. 1863.
MICHAELMAS, Sept. 29, the feast of St. Michael, the reputed guardian of the Roman
Catholic church, under tho title of "St. Michael and All Angels." Instituted according to
Butler, 487.*
MICHIGAN, a north-west state of N. America, settled in 1670 ; admitted into the union,
Jan. 26, 1837. Capital, Lansing.
MICROMETER, an astronomical instrument used to discover and measure any small
distance and the minuter objects in the heavens, such as the apparent diameters of the
planets, &c. ; its invention is ascribed by some to M. Huygens, 1652 ; but our countryman
Gascoyne's instrument is prior to that time.
MICROSCOPES, said to have been invented by Fontana, in Italy, and by Drebbel, in
Holland, about 162 1. Those with double glasses were made at the period when the law of
refraction was discovered, about 1624. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In
* The custom of eating goose at Michaelmas has been erroneously attributed to queen Elizabeth's
eating of the bird at dinner on Sept. 29, 1588, at the house of air Neville Urafreyville, at the time she heard
of the destruction of the Spanish Armada. The custom is of much older date, and is observed on the con
tinent.—Clavit CaUndaria.
1 I 2
MID
England great improveincuts were made in the microscope by Benjamin Martin (who invented
ana sold pocket microscopes about 1740), by Henry liaker, F.R.S., about 1763, and still
greater during the present century by Wollaston, Ross, Jackson, Varley, Powell, and others.
Diamond microscopes were made by Andrew Pritchard in 1824; and the properties of "test-
objects" to prove the qualities of microscopes, discovered by him and Goring m 1824-40. A
binocular microscope {i.e., for two eyes), was constructed by professor Biddel in 1851. AVen-
ham's improvements were made known in 1861. Treatises on the microscope by J. Quekett
(1848), by Dr. W. B. Carpenter ( 1856), by Dr. Lionel Beale (1858-64), and Griffith and
Heufrey's " Micro^raphic Dictionary" (1856) are valuable. The Microscopical Society of
London was established in 1839. In 1865 Mr. H. Sorby exhibited his spectrum-microscope
by which the millionth of a grain of blood was detected.
MIDDLE AGES. See Dark Ages. Henry Hallam'a " Middle Ages" appeared in 1S1S.
MIDDLE-CLASS EXAMINATION. See Education (1858).
MIDDLE LEVELS. See Levels.
MIDIANITES, an eastern people, descendants of Midian, a son of Abraham.—Having
enticed the Israelites to idolatry they were severely chastised, 1452 B.C. They invaded
Canaan about 1249 B.C., and were thoroughly defeated by Gideon.
MIDWIFERY. Women were the only practitioners of this art among the Hebrews and
Egyptians. Hippocrates, who practised medicine in Greece, 460 B.C., is styled by some the
father of midwifery, as well as of physic* It advanced under Celsus, who flourished
a.d. 37, and of Galen, who lived, 131. In England midwifery became a science about the
period of the institution of the College of Physicians, 10 Hen. VII., 1518.+
MILAN. Mediolanum, capital of the ancient Liguria, now Lombardy, is reputed to
have been built by the Gauls, about 408 b.c.
Conquered by the Roman consul Marcellus B.C. 22a 1 Seized by the French . . . June 30, 1796
Seat of government of the western empire a.d. 286 1 Retaken by the Austrians 1799
Council of Mil«ii. 346 j Regained by the French . . May 31, fBoo
St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan . . . . 375 ' Made the capital of the kingdom of Italy, and
Milan plundered by Attila 452 j Napoleon Bonaparte crowned with the iron
Included in the Ostrogothic kingdom, 489 ; in crown here May 26, 1805
the Lombard kingdom 569 The Milan decree of Napoleon against all con-
Becomes an independent republic . . . 1101 I tineutal intercourse with England Dec. 17, 1807
The emperor Frederic I. takes Milan, and ap- Insurrection against the Austrian*; flight of
points a podenta 1158 the viceroy March 18, 1848
It rebels ; and is taken by Froderic and de- Another revolt promptly suppressed and rigor-
stroyed 1162 , ously punished . . Feb. 6, et. »tq. 1S53
Rebuilt and fortified 1169 Milan visited by the emperor of Austria Nov. 1S56
The Milanese defeated by the emp. Frederic II. 1237 Amnesty for political offences granted . Dec. 1857
The Visconti become paramount in Milan . 1277 After the defeat of the Austrian* at Magenta,
John Galeazzo Visconti takes the title of duke 1395 June 4, Louis Napoleon and the king of Sar-
i*'rancesco Sforza, son-in-law of the last of the dinia enter Milan .... June 8, 1859
Visconti, subdues Milan and becomes duke . 1450 Peace of Yiltafranca; a large part of Lombardy
Milan conquered by Louis XII. of France . . 1499 transferred to Sardinia . , July 12, „
The French expelled by the Spaniards . . 1525 Victor-Emmanuel enters Milan as king, Aug. 8, 1S60
Milan annexed to the crown of Spain . . . 1540 Reactionary plots of Neapolitan soldiery sup-
Ceded to Austria 1714 pressed April 29, 30, 1S61
Conquered by the French and Spaniards . . 1743
Reverts to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily | See Italy.
being ceded to Spain 1748
MILETUS, a Greek city of Ionia, Asia Minor, founded about 1043 B c« During the war
with Persia it was taken, 494, but restored, 449. Here Paul delivered his celebrated charge
to the elders of the church of Ephesus, a.d. 60 {Acts xx.).
MILFORD HAVEN (Wales). Here the earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII.,
landed on his enterprise against Richard 111. whom he defeated at Uosworth, 14S5. The
* Agnodice, an Athenian virgin, disguised her sex to learn medicine. She was taught by Hierophilus,
her father, the art of midwifery, and, when employed, always discovered her sex to her patients. This
Ijrought her into so much practice, that the males of her profession, who were now out of employment,
accused her, beforo tlie xVreopagus, of corruption. She confessed her sex to the judges, and a law was made
to empower all free-born women to learn midwifery. The whole story is doubtful.
t The celebrated Dr. Harvey personally t ngaged in the practice of it, about 1603 ; and , after his example,
the calling in of men in all difficult eases followed. Astruc affirms that the epoch of the employment of
men-midwives goes no further back than the first lying-in of rnadamedela Valliere, mistress of LouisJClV.,
1G63. She sent for Julian Clement, an eminent surgeon, who was conducted with great secrecy to tho
house. The same surgeon was employed in the subsequent labours t-f this lady, and he being very success
ful, mcn-midwivca afterwards came into repute, the name of accoucheur being given to them.
MIL 485 MIN
packets from this port to Ireland, sailing to Waterfowl, were established in 1787. The dock
yard, established here in 1790, was removed to Pembroke in 1814.
MILITARY on MARTIAL LAW is built on no settled principle, but is entirely
arbitrary, and, in truth, no law ; but sometimes indulged rather than allowed, as law. Sir
Matthew Sale. It has been several times proclaimed in these kingdoms, and in 1798 was
almost general in Ireland, where it was proclaimed in 1803.
MILITARY ASYLUM, Royal, at Chelsea, "for the children of the soldiers of the
regular army." The first stone was laid by the duko of York, June 19, 1801.
MILITARY KNIGHTS of WINDSOR. See Poor Knights of Windsor.
MILITIA, the standing national force of these realms, is traced to king Alfred, who
made all his subjects soldiers, 872 to 901.
First commission of array to raise a militia . 1122 General militia act for England and Scotland,
Revived by Henry II 1176 1802; for Ireland 1809
Again revived 1557 Enactment authorising courts-martial to inflict
Said to amount to 160,000 men . . . . 1623 imprisonment instead of flogging passed . 1814
The present militia statutes established, 1661 to 1663 Acts to consolidate the militia laws 1852^-4
Supplemental militia act paRsed . . . 1797 Militia embodied on account of the Russian
Irish militia offered its services in England, war, 1854 ; and on account of the Indian
March 28, 1804 mutiny 1857
MILKY WAY (Galaxy) in the heavens. Juno is said by the Greek poets to have spilt
her milk in the heavens alter suckling Mercury or Hercules. Deniocritus (about 428 B.C.)
taught that the via lactca was a multitude of stars ; proved by Galileo by means of the
telescope.
MILLENNARIANS suppose that the world will end at the expiration of the seven-
thousandth year from the creation ; and that during a thousand years (millennium) Christ and
the saints will reign upon the earth. See Rev. xx. The doctrine was very generally incul
cated as early as the 2nd and 3rd centuries, by Papias, Justin Martyr, and others. Burnett.
MILLENNARY PETITION, presented to king James on his accession, 1603, on behalf
of a thousand Puritan ministers against the "human rites and ceremonies" of the church
of England.
MILLS. Moses forbad mill-stones to be taken in pawn, because it would be like taking
a man's life to pledge. Devi, xxiv. 6. The hand-mill was in nse among the Britons pre
viously to the conquest by the Romans. The Romans introduced the water-mill. Cotton
mills moved by water were erected by sir Richard Arkwright, at Cromford, Derbyshire. He
died in 1792.
MINCIO, a river of Lombardy. Here the Austrians were repulsed by the French under
Brune, Dec. 25-27, 1800; and by Eugene Beauharnais, Feb. 8, 1814.
MINDEN (Prussia), Battle of, Au^. i, 1759, between the English, Hessians, and
Hanoverians (commanded by prince Ferdinand of Brunswick), and the French, who were
beaten and driven to the very ramparts of Minden. Lord George Sackville (afterwards lord
George Germaine) who commanded the British and Hanoverian horse, for some disobedience
of orders was tried by a court-martial on his return to England, found guilty, and dismissed
the service, April 22, 1760. He was afterwards restored to court favour, and became
secretary of state, 1776.
MINES. Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold and silver as among the products of
England. The earliest instance of a claim to a mine royal being enforced occurs 47 Hen. III.
1262. It related to mines containing gold, together with copper, in Devonshire ; and in
Edward I.'s reign, according to Mr. Ruding, the mines in Ireland, which produced silver,
were supposed to be so rich that the king directed a writ for working them to Robert de
Utford, lord justice, 1276. The lead mines of Cardiganshire, from which silver has ever
since been extracted, were discovered by sir Hugh Middletou in the reign of James I.
A British Mineralogical Society established in 1800 A Miners' Protection Association proposed by
Hully's " Traite de Mineralogio " appeared in . 1801' Mr. William Ourney and others in .March, 1862
The government School of Mines, &c., Jennyn- Value of the mineral produce of the United
street, St. James's, opened in . . Nov. 1851 Kingdom estimated at 25,961,649;. in 1857 ;
An act for tho regulation of minos pissed in . i860 and at 39,979,837!. in 1864
* This militia act was consequent upon tho then prevailing opinion of the necessity of strengthening
nur national defences against the possibility of French invasion. The act empowered her majesty to raise
a force not oxceodinx 80,000 men, of which number 50,000 were to be raised in 1852, and 30,000 in 1855 ; the
quotas for each county or riding to bo fixed by on order in council.
MIX 486 MIS
MINIfi KIFLE, invented at Vincennes, about 1833, by M. Mime (born about 1800).
From a common soldier lie raised himself to the rank of chef d'escadron. His rifle is
considered to surpass nil made previous to it, for accuracy of direction and extent of range.
It was adopted by the French, and, with various modifications, by the British army in 1852.
MINISTER of WAR. See War Minister.
MINISTERS. See Administrations.
MINNESINGERS, lyric German poets, of the 12th and 13th centuries, who wrote to
entertain knights and barons of the time. The Mcister-sivgers in the 14th century devoted
themselves to citizens. Some of their songs have been collected and published.
MINNESOTA, a western state of N. America, was organised as a territory, March 3, 1849,
and admitted into the union in 1857. On Aug. 17, 1862, the Sioux Indians commenced a
series of outrages at Acton, in Messier county, desolating the country and massacring above
500 persons, of both sexes, and of all ages. General Sibley beat the Indians in two battles,
and rescued many captives. Thirty-eight Indians were executed as assassins.
MINORCA and MAJORCA, the Balearic Isles (which see). Minorca was captured by
lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir John Leake in Aug. 1708, and was ceded to the. British
by the treaty of Utrecht in 1 713. It was retaken by the Spanish and French in July, 1756.
Admiral Byng fell a victim to public indignation for itot relieving it. See Byng. It was
restored to the British at the peace in 1763 ; besieged by the Spaniards, and taken
Feb. S, 1782. It was again captured by the British under general Stuart, without the loss
of a man, Nov. 15, 1798 ; but was given up at the peace of Amiens in 1802.
MINSTRELS, originally pipers appointed by lords of manors to divert their copyholders
while at work, owed their origin to the glee-men or harpers of the Saxons, and continued till
about 1560. John of Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 1380. So late as the
reign of Henry VIII. they intruded without ceremony into all companies, even at the houses
of the nobility ; but in Elizaboth's reign they sank into neglect, and were adjudged rogues
and vagabonds (1597).
MINT. Athelstan first enacted regulations for the government of the mint alwmt 928.
There were several provincial mints under the control of that of London. Henry II. is said
to have instituted a mint at Winchester, 1125. Stow says the mint was kept by Italians,
the English being ignorant of the art of coining, 7 Edw. I. 1278. The ojierators were
formed into a corporation by the charter of king Edward III., in which condition it consisted
of the warden, master, comptroller, assay-master, workers, coiners, and subordinates. The
first entry of gold brought to the mint for coinage occurs in 18 Edw. III. 1343. Tin was
coined by Charles II. 1684 ; and gun-metal and pewter by his successor James. Sir Isaac
Newton was warden, 1699-1727, during which time the debased coin was called in, and new
issued at the loss of the government. Between 1806 and 1810, grants amounting to 262,000?.
were made by parliament for the erection of the present mint, which was completed in 1813 ;
it was injured by fire, Oct. 31, 18 15. The new constitution of tho mint, founded on the
report of the hon. Wellesley Pole, took effect in 1817.
MASTERS OF THE MINT.
1817. Wellesley Polo. T834. James Abercrombie. [ 1845. Sir George Clerk.
1823. Thomas Wallace. 1835. Atexatider Baring. 1846. Richard L. Shiel.
1827. George Tiornoy. ,, Henry Labouchere. 1850. Sir John F. Uerschel. F.R.S.
1828. J. C. Herries. 1841. William E. Gladstone 1855. Thomas Graham, F.R.S.
1830. Lord Auckland.
MINUS. See Plus.
MIRRORS. In ancient times mirrors were made of metal ; those of the Jewish women
of brass. Mirrors in silver were introduced by Praxiteles, 328 is.c. Mirrors or looking-
glasses were made at Venice, a.d. 1300 ; and in England, at Lambeth, near London, in
1673. The improvements in manufacturing plate-glass, and that of very large size, has
cheapened looking-glasses very much. Various methods of coating glass by a solution of
silver, thus avoiding the use of mercury, so injurious to the health of the workmen, have
been made known ; by M. Petitjean in 185 1 ; and by M. Ciineg in 1861.
MISSIONS. Among the Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominic, St. Francis,
St. Augustin, &c. , had missions to the Levant and to America. Marco Polo is said to have
introduced missionaries into China, 1275. The Jesuits had missions to China (which see)
and to most other parts of the world. Among the Protestants, an early undertaking of this
MIS i$7 MOD
kind was a Danish mission, planned by Frederick IV. in 1706. But the Moravian Brethren
may be said to have led the way to the new Christian missions about 1732. The London
Missionary Society held their first meeting, Nov. 4, 1794.*
MISSISSIPPI, a great river, N. America. The Mississippi trade was begun in England,
in Nov. 1716. The celebrated Mississippi scheme or bubble in France, which was com
menced about the same period, exploded in 1720; at which time the nominal capital is said
to have amounted to 100,000,000?. The ruin of thousands of families, dupes of this iniquitous
scheme, soon followed in both countries. See Law's Bubble. —The North American state,
Mississippi, was settled in 1716 ; admitted as a state of the union, 1817 ; and seceded from
it by ordinance, Jan. 8, 1861. Capital, Jackson.
MISSOLONGHI, a town in Greece, heroically and successfully defended against the
Turks by Marco Botzaris in 1822. It was taken in 1826 aftera year's siege. —Here lord Byron
died in 1824. It was surrendered to the Greeks in 1829.
MISSOURI, a south-western state in N. America, was settled in 1763, and admitted into
the union, Aug. io, 1821. It decided on neutrality in the conflict of 1861, but was invaded
by both the confederate and federal forces in June of that year, and became one of the seats
of war. Capital, Jefferson city. See United Stales, 1861, et sea.—For the Missouri
Compromise, see Slavery in America.
MITHRIDATE, a physical preparation in tho form of an electuary, supposed to be an
antidote to poison and the oldest compound known, is said to have been invented by
Mithridates, king of Pontus, about 70 B.C.
MITHRIDATIC WAR, caused by the massacre of 100,000 Romans, by Mithridates, king
of Pontus, 88 B.C., and remarkable for its duration, its many battles, the destruction of
human life it occasioned, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having taken
the consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of Asia, crying out as he
rode, "lam Aquilius, consul of the Romans." He ultimately despatched him by ordering
melted gold to be poured down his throat, in derision of his avarice, 85 B. c. Mithridates
was defeated by Ponipey, 66 B.C. ; and committed suicide, 63 B.C.
MITRE. The cleft cap or mitre was worn by the Jewish high-priest, 1491 B.C. It had
on it a golden plate inscribed "Holiness to tub Lord." Exodus xxxix. 28. The most
ancient mitre that has the nearest resemblance to the present one is that upon the seal of
the bishop of Laon, in the 10th century. Fosbrokc. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres,
but at the council of Lyons, in 1245, they were directed to wear hats.
MNEMONICS, artificial memory, was introduced by Sinionides the younger, 477 B.C.
Arund. Marbles. In modern times, mnemonics have been elaborately treated; "Mnemonica"
was published by John Willis in 1618 ; and the Menwria Tcclinica of Dr. Grey first appeared
in 1730. A system of mnemonics was announced in Germany, in 1806-7.
MOCKERN (Prussia). Here the French army under Eugene Beauharnois defeated the
allied Russian and Prussian army with great loss, April, 1813 ; and here Bliicher defeated
the French, Oct. 16, 1813.
MODELS. The first wore figures of living persons, and Dibutades, the Corinthian, is
the reputed inventor of those in clay. His daughter, known by the appellation of the
Corinthian Maid, being about to be separated from her lover, who was going on a distant
journey, traced his profile by his shadow on the wall ; her father filled up the outlino with
clay, which ho afterwards baked, and thus produced a figure of the object of her affection,
giving rise to an art till then unknown, about 985 B.c.f
MODENA (formerly Mutina), till lately capital of the duchy in Central Italy; was
governed by the house of Este, from 1288 till 1796, when the last male of that house, the
reigning duke Hercules III., was expelled by the French. By the treaty of Campo Formio,
* Our missionaries abroad have not unfrequently suffered grievous hardships and privations. Conl-
mandor Allan Gardner, K.N., who left England in the Ocean Qutm in Sept. 1850, on the Patagonian mission,
with Mr. Williams, surgeon, Mr. Maidment. catechkt, and four others, died on PicUm Island, at tho mouth
of the Liuaglo Channel, to the south of Tierra del Fucgo, having been starved to death, all his companions
having previously perished, Sept. 6, 1851.—M. Schofflcr, a missionary to Cochin-Cbina, was publicly
executed at Son-Tay, by order of the grand mandarin, for preaching Christianity, such preaching being
prohibited by the law of that country. May 4, 1851.
t A beautiful model of tho new town of Edinburgh, before the building began, was formed in wood.
A model was made of a bridge over the Neva, of uncommon strength as well as elegance ; and of the
mountains of Switzerland, by general Pfiffer (1766-85/ M. Choffin's model of Paris also was remarkable
for its precision.
■188 MON
the Modcnese possessions were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797. The arch
duke Francis of Ivste, son of the archduke Ferdinand of Austria, and of Mary, the heiress
of the last duke, was restored in 1814. Modena, in accordance with the voting by universal
suffrage, was annexed to Sardinia on March 18, i860. Population, in 1857, 604,5x2.
ItECEHT GRAND-DUKES OF MODENA.
1814. Francis IV. An invasion of his states by to Verona, establishing a regency, June 11 ;
Murat was defeated, April 11, 1815. Ho was which was abolished June 13 ; Farini was
cxpolled by bis subjects in 1831, but was appointed dictator, July 27; a constituent
restored by the Austrians. assembly was immediately elected, which
1846. Francis V. (bom Juno 1, i8io)succeeds Jan. 21. offered the duchy to the king of Sardinia,
His subjects rose against him soon after tbe Sept. 15. He incorporated it with hia
Italian war broke out, in April, 1859. He fted I dominions, March 18, i860.
MCESIA (now Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria), was finally subdued by Augustus. It was
successfully invaded by the Goths, 253 B.C., who eventually settled here. See GuOis.
MOGULS. See Tarlary.
MOHAMMEBAH, a Persian town near the Euphrates, captured, after two hours'
cannonading, by sir James Outram, during the Persian war, March 26, 1857. News of the
peace arrived there on the 4th of April.
MOHATZ (Lower Hungary). Here, Louis, king of Hungary, defeated by the Turks
under Solyman II. with the loss of 22,000 men, was suffocated by the fall of his horse in a
inuddy brook, Aug. 29, 1526. Here also prince Charles of Lorraine defeated the Turks,
Aug. 12, 1687.
MOHILOW (in Russia). Here the Russian army, under prince Bagration, was signally
defeated by the French under marshal Davoust, prince of Eckmuhl, July 23, 1812.
MOHOCKS, ruffians, who went about London at night, wounding and disfiguring the
men, and indecently exposing the women. Ouo hundred pounds were offered by royal
proclamation, in 1712, for apprehending any one of them. NorOwuck.
MOLDAVIA. See Danubian Principalities.
MOLINISTS, a Roman Catholic sect, followers of Ixmis Molina, a Jesuit, born 1535.
He maintained the rcconciliability of the doctrines of predestination and freewill.
MOLUCCAS, an archipelago in the Indian Ocean (the chief island, Amboyna), discovered
by the Portuguese, about 1511, and held by them secretly till the arrival of the Spaniards,
who claimed them till 1629, when Charles V. yielded them to John III. for a large sum of
money. The Dutch conquered them in 1607, and have held them ever since, —except from
1810 to 1814, when they were subject to the English.
MOLWITZ (in Prussian Silesia). Here the Prussians, commanded by Frederick II.,
obtained a great victory over the Imperialists, April 10 (0. S. March 30), 1741.
MOLYBDENUM, a whitish, brittle, almost infusible metal. Scheelc, in 1778, dis
covered molybdic acid in a mineral hitherto confounded with graphite. Hjelm, in 1782,
prepared the metal from molybdic acid; and in 1825 Borzelius described most of its chemical
characters. Gmelin.
MONACHISM (from the Greek memos, alone). Catholic writers refer to tho prophet
Elijah, and the Nazarenes mentioned in Numbers, ch. vi., as early examples. The first
Christian ascetics appear to bo derived from the Jewish sect of the Essenes, whose life was
very austere, practising celibacy, Ate. About the time of Constantino (306-22) numbers of
these ascetics withdrew into the deserts, and were called hermits, monks, and anchorets ;* of
whom Paul, Anthony, and Pachomius were most celebrated. Simeon, the founder of the
Stylitre (or pillar saints), died 451. He is said to have lived on a pillar thirty years. St.
Benedict, the great reformer of western monachism, published his rules anil established his
monastery at Monte Casino, about 529. The Carthusians, Cistercians, &c, are varieties of
Benedictines. In 964, by decree of king Edgar, all married priests were to be replaced by
monks. See Abbeys and Benedictines.
MONACO, a principality, N. Italy, held by the Genoese family Grimaldi since 968. By
treaty, on Feb. 2, 1861, tho prince ceded the communes of Roquebrune and Mcntone,
* The anchorites of the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries must not bo confounded wiih the anchoret*, or
hermiu. The former were cunfmcd to soliuiry cells ; the latter permitted to go where they pleased.
MON 489 MON
the chief part of his dominions, to France, for 4,000,000 francs. The present prince,
Charles III., born Dec. 8, 1818, succeeded June 20, 1856. Population about 1200.
MONARCHY. Historians reckon four grand monarchies — the Assyrian, Persian,
Grecian, and Roman (whicli see).
MONASTERIES. See Abbeys:
MONDOVI (Piedmont). Here the Sardinian army, commanded by Colli, was defeated
by Napoleon Bonaparte, April 22, 1796.
MONEY is mentioned as a medium of commerce in Genesis xxiii., i860 B.C., when
Abraham purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah. The coinage of money is ascribed to
the Lydians. Monet* was the name given to their silver by the Romans, it having been
coined in the temple of Juno-Moneta, 269 B.C. Money was made of different metals, and
even of leather ana other articles, both in ancient and modern times. It was made of paste
board by the Hollanders so late as 1574. See Coin; Gold; Silver; Copper ; Mini; Banks, &c.
For Money Orders, see Post Office.
MONEYERS are mentioned in Alfred's " Domesday- Book." They travelled with our
early kings, and coined money as required.
MONGOLS. See Turtary. MONK. See Monachism.
MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, duke of Monmouth (born at Rotterdam, April
9, 1649), a natural son of Charles II. by Lucy Waters, was banished England for his con
nexion with the Rye-house plot, in 1683. He invaded England at Lyme, June 11, 1685;
was proclaimed king at Taunton, June 20 ; was defeated at Sedgmoor, near Uridgewatcr,
July 6 ; and beheaded on Tower-hill, July 15.
MONOLITH, Greek for single stone. See Obelisk.
MONOPHYSITES. See Eulijchians.
MONOPOLIES, reached to such a height in England, that parliament petitioned against
them, and many were abolished, about 1601-2. They were further suppressed by 21 Jas. I.,
1624. In 1630, Charles I. established monopolies of soap, salt, leather, and other common
things, to supply a revenue without the help of parliament. It was decreed that none should
be in future created by royal patent, 16 Chas. I., 1640.
MONOTHEL1TES, heretics who affirmed that Jesus Christ had but one will, were
favoured by the emperor Heraclius, 630 ; they merged into the Eutychians (which sec).
MONROE DOCTRINE, a term applied to the determination expressed by James Monroe,
president of the United States, 1817-24, not to permit any European power to interfere in
restraining the progress of liberty in North or South America. This doctrine was referred
to in 1859, with the view of weakening the inlluenco of Great Britain and Spain on the
American continent, and, in 1865, in relation to the new Mexican empire.
MONSTER, The. Renwick Williams, who prowled nightly through the streets of
London, secretly armed with a double-edged knife, with which he shockingly wounded many
females. He was tried and convicted, July 8, 1790. See Mo/iocks.
MONTALEMBERT'S TRIAL. See France, 1858.
MONTANISTS, followers of Montanus, of Ardaba, in Mysia, about 171 ; who was reputed
to have the gift of prophecy, and proclaimed himself the Comforter promised by Christ.
He condemned second marriages as fornication, permitted the dissolution of marriage,
forbade the avoiding martyrdom, and ordered a severe fast of three lents ; he hanged himself
with Maximilla, one of his women-scholars, before the close of the 2nd century. Cave. The
eloquent father, Tertullian, joined the sect, 204.
MONT BLANC, in the Swiss Alps, is the highest mountain in Europe, being 15,781
feet above the level of the sea. The summit was first reached by Saussure, aided by a guide
named Balma, on Aug. 2, 1787. The summit was attained by Dr. Hamel (when three of his
guides perished) in 1820, and by many other persons beforo and since. Accounts of the
ascents of Mr. John Aldjo, Charles Fellows (1027), and of professor Tyndall (1857-8) have
been published. See Alps.
MONTEBELLO, a village in riedmont, where Lannes defeated the Austrians, June 9,
1800, and acquired his title of duke of Montchello ; and where (May 20, 1859), after a
contest of six hours, the French and Sardinians defeated the Austrians, who lost about 1000
MON 490 MON
killed and wounded, and 200 prisoners. The French lost about 670 men, including general
Beuret.
MONTE CASINO (Central Italy). Here Benedict formed his first monastery, 529.
MOXTEM. See Eton.
MONTENEGRO, an independent principality in European Turkey, was conquered by
Solyman II. in 1526. It rebelled in the last century, and established an hereditary
hierarchical government in the family of Petrovitsch Njegosch, —endured, but not recognised
by the Porte.
The nephew and- successor of the VTadika, Peter Peace restored Nov. 1858
II., declined to assume the ecclesiastical The country much disturbed through tho
function, and declared himself a temporal tyrannical conduct of prince Daniel, who
prince, with the title of Daniel I., 1851 ; and was assassinated fagged 35) . . Aug. 13, 1S60
1>cgan war with Turkey 1852 He is succeeded by his nephew Nicolas (mar
Moutonegro put in a state of blockade, Deo. 14, ,, ried) Nov. 8, ,,
After several indecisive encounters, tranquillity An insurrection in the UerEegovina, favoured
restored by the influence of the arms and by the Moutcnegrines ; the blockade of Mon
negotiations of Omar Pai-ha, the general of tenegro , April 4, 1 361
tho Turkish array ; ho left the province, Omar Pacha invaded the province with an army
Feb. 25, 1853 of 32.000 men in Aug. ,,
Blockade raised .... April 10, „ Many conflicts with various success ; but lat
War again broko out; the Turks defeated at terly in favour of the Turks ; peace mado . 1 S63
Grahovo ...... June, 1858 See Herzejovina.
MONTENOTTE, a village in Piedmont, memorable as being the site of the first victory
gained over tho Austrians by Napoleon Bonaparte, April 12, 1796.
MONTEREAU (near Paris). Here the allied armies were defeated by tho French, com
manded by Napoleon, with great loss in killed and wounded ; but it was one of his last
triumphs, Feb. 18, 1814. —On the bridge of Montereau, at his meeting with the dauphin,
John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, was killed by Tanncguy de Clnitel in 1419. This
event led to our Henry V. subduing France, the young duke Philip joining the English.
MONTEREY (Mexico), was taken by general Taylor after a three days' conflict with the
Mexicans, Sept. 21-3, 1846.
MONTE VIDEO (S. America), was taken by storm by the British forces under sir Samuel
Auchmuty, but with the loss of nearly one-third of our brave troops, Feb. 3, 1807. It was
evacuated July 7, the same year, in consequence of the severe repulse the British met with at
Buenos-Ayres. See Buenos-Ayrcs. Monte Video, a subject of dispute between Brazil aud
Buenos-Ayrcs, was given up to Uruguay, 1828. See Brazil, for recent war.
MONTFERRAT (Lombardy), House ok, celebrated in the history of the Crusades,
began with Aldcran, who was made marquis of Monlferrat, by Otho, about 967. Conrad
of Montf'errat became lord of Tyre, aud reigned from 1 187 till 1 191, when he was assassinated.
William IV. died in a cage at Alexandria, having been thus imprisoned nineteen months,
1292. Violante, daughter of John II., marriod Audronicus Paloeologus, emperor of the East.
Their descendants ruled in Italy amid perpetual contests till 1533, when John George
Pahrologus died without issue. His estates passed after much contention to Frederic II.
Gouzaga, marquis of Mantua, in 1536.
MONTGOMERY, capital of Alabama, United States, founded 1817. Here the state
convention passed the ordinance of secession from the union on Jan. 11, 1861 ; hero the
confederate congress met on Feb. 4, and elected Jefferson Davis president, and Alexander
Stephens vice-president, of the confederate states of North America ; and here they were
inaugurated ou Feb. 18. Ou May 21, the congress adjourned to meet on July 20 at Richmond,
in Virginia, that state having joined the confederates and become the seat of war.
MONTI DI PIETA, charitable institutions for advancing money on pledges, were first
established at Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other Italian cities, 1462, et seq. The Fran
ciscans, in 1493, m'st began to receive interest, which was permitted by the pope, in 1515.
Monks de PUU were not established in France till 1777. They were suppressed by the
Revolution, but restored, 1804; regulated by law, 1851-2. See Pawnbroking.
MONTI EL (Spain), Battle of, March 14 (or 23) 1369, between Peter tho Cruel, king
of Castile, and his brother Henry of Trastamare, aided by the French warrior, Bertram du
Guesclin. Peter was totally defeated, and afterwards treacherously slain.
MONTLHERY (Seine-et-Oise, France), site of an indecisive battle between Louis XI.
and a party of his nobles, termed " The League of the Public Good," July 16, 1465.
MON 491 MOO
MONTREAL, the second city in Lower Canada, built by the French.
Surrendered to the English . . Sept. 6, 1760 A deHructivo fire .... Aug. 23, 1850
Taken by the Americans, Not. 12, 1775 ; retaken Another, destroying 1200 houses ; the lo^s esti
by the British .... Juno 15, 1776 mated at a million sterling . July 12, 1852
The church, Jesuits' college, prison, and many At an anti-papal lecture horo by Gavazzi, riots
buildings burnt down . . . June 6, 1803 ensued, and many lives were lost June 10, 1853
Great military affray .... Sept. 20, 1833 The cathedral destroyed by fire . Dec. 10, 1856
The self-styled " loyalists " of Montreal assault Victoria railway bridgo (vhich He) formally
the governor-general, lord Elain ; enter the opened by the princo of Wales . Aug. 25, i860
parliament-house, drivo out the members,
and sot fire to the building . , April 26, 1840,
MONTSERRAT, a W. India island, discovered by Columbus in 1493, and settled by the
British in 1632. It has several times been taken by the French, but was secured to the
British in 1 783.
MONUMENT or LONDON, built by sir Christopher Wren, 1671-7. The pedestal is
forty feet high, and the edifice altogether 202 feet, that being the distance of its base from
the spot where the fire which it commemorates commenced. It is the loftiest isolated column
in the world. Its erection cost about 14,500^ The staircase is of black marble, consisting
of 345 steps.* Of the four original inscriptions, three were Latin, and the following in
English, —Cut in 1681, obliterated by James II. ; re-cut in the reign of William III. ; and
finally erased by order of the common council, Jan. 26, 1831. t
THIS PILLAR WAS SET VP IN PEBPETVAL REMEMBRANCE OP THAT MOST DREADFUL BURNING OP THIS
PROTESTANT
Y« BEGINNINGCITY,
OF BEGUN
SEPTEM.AND
IN CARRYLD
Y« YEAR ONOF BYOCRY« LORD
TREACIIEItY
1666, INANDORDER
MALICE
TO OPYe Y«CARRYING
IRTISH FACTION, IN
ON THEIR
HORRID PLOT FOR EXTIRPATING Y« PROTESTANT BKLIGION AND OLD ENGLISH LIBERTY, AND Y«
INTRODUCING POPEUY AND SLAVERY.
MOODKEE (India). Here, on Dec. 18, 1845, the Sikhs attacked the advanced guard
of the British, and were repulsed three miles, losing many men and fifteen pieces of cannon.
Sir Robert Sale was mortally wounded. Lady Sale signalised herself during the two
memorable retreats from Afghanistan. The battle followed that of Ferozeshah (which see).
MOOLTAN (India). Here Moolraj Sing, ruler of the Sikhs, murdered Mr. Vans Agnew
and lieutenant Anderson, April 21, 1848. This led to a siege. A conflict took place between
the British and the Sikhs, in which the latter was driven to the town of Moolton with great
loss, Nov. 7, 1848. It was taken after a protracted bombardment, Jan. 2-22, 1849.
MOON. Opacity of the moon, and the true causes of luuar eclipses, taught by Thales,
640 B.C. Hipparchus made observations on the moon at Rhodes, 127 B.C. Posidonius
accounted for the tides from the motiou of the moon, 79 B.C. Diog. Lacrt. Maps of the
moon have been constructed by Hcvelius (1647), Cassini (1680), and others. Beer and
Midler's map was published in 1834. In 1862 professor John Phillips invited the British
Association to make arrangements to obtain a "systematic representation of the physical
aspect of the moon." Photographs of the moon were taken and exhibited by Mr. Warren
De la Rue in 1857. Hansen's " Tables of the Moon," calculated at the expenso of the British
and Danish governments, were published at the cost of the latter in 1857. See Eclipse.
MOORS, formerly the natives of Mauritania (which see), but afterwards the name given
to the Numidians and others, and now applied to the natives of Morocco and the neighbour
hood. They assisted Genseric and the Vandals in their invasion of Africa, 429, and
frequently rebelled against the Roman emperors. They resisted for a time the progress of
the Arab Mahometans, but were overcome by them in 707 ; and in 1019 introduced into
Spain to support the Arabs, where their arms were long victorious. In 1063 they were
defeated in Sicily by Roger Guiscard. The Moorish kingdom of Granada was set up in 1237,
and lasted till 1492, when it fell before Ferdinand V. of Castile, mainly owing to internal
discoid. The expulsion of the Moors from Spain was decreed, but not fully carried into
effect till 1609, when the bigotry of Philip III. inflicted this great injury to his country.
About 1518 the Moors established the piratical states of Algiers and Tunis (which sec). In
the history of Spain, the Arabs and Moors must not be confounded.
* William Greon, a weaver, fell from this monument, Juno 25, 1750. A man named Thomas Cruddock,
a baker, precipitated himself from its summit, July 7, 1780. Mr. I.yon Levy, a Jewish diamond merchant,
of considerable respectability, threw himself from it, Jan. 18, 1810 ; as did more recently three other
persons : in consequence of which a fenco was placed round the railings of the gallery in 1839.
t They produced Pope's indignant liuns :—
" Where London's column, pointing at the skies,
Like a tall bully, lifts the head, and lies."
4<»2 MOR
MORAL PHILOSOPHY, defined as the knowledge of our duty, the science of ethics,
the art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates (about 430 B.C.) is regarded as the father
of ancient, and Grotius (about 1623) of modern moral philosophy. Seo Philosophy.
MORAT (Switzerland), where Charles the Bold of Burgundy was completely defeated by
the Swiss, June 22, 1476. A monument, constructed of the bones of the vanquished, was
destroyed by the French in 1798, who erected a stone column in its place.
MORAVIA, an Austrian province, occupied by the Slavonians about 548, and conquered
by the Avars and Bohemians, who submitted to Charlemagne. About 1000 it was subdued
by Boleslas of Poland, but recovered by Ulric of Bohemia in 1030. After various changes,
Moravia and Bohemia were amalgamated into the Austrian dominions in 1526.
MORAVIANS, United Brethren, said to have been part of the Hussites, who with
drew into Moravia iu the 15th century ; while the Brethren say that their sect was derived
from the Greek church in the 9U1 century. In 1722 they formed a settlement (called
llerrnhult, the watch of the Lord), on the estate of count Zinzendorf. Their church con
sisted of 500 persons in 1 727. They were introduced into England by count Zinzendorf about
1737; he died at Chelsea in June, 1760. In 1851 they had thirty-two chapels in England.
They are zealous missionaries, and founded the early settlements in foreign parts.
MORAY FLOODS. Sec Inundations, 1829.
MORDAUXT. See Administrations, 1689. MOREA, the Peloponnesus. See Greece.
MORETON BAY (New S. Wales). The colony founded here in 1859 has since been
named Queen s-land (whicli sec).
MORGANATIC MARRIAGES. When the left hand is given instead of the right,
between a man of superior and a woman of inferior rank, in which it is stipulated that the
latter and her children shall not enjoy the rank or inherit the possessions of the former. The
children arc legitimate. Such marriages are frequently contracted in Germany by royalty
and the higher nobility. Our George 1. was thus married ; and later, the king of Denmark
to the countess of Danner, Aug. 7, 1850.
MORGARTEN (Switzerland), Battle of. Here 1300 Swiss engaged 20,000 Austrians,
commanded by the duko Leopold, whom they completely defeated, Nov. 16, 1315, upon the
heights of Morgarten, overlooking the defile through which the enemy was to enter their
territory from Zng.
MORICE DANCE, an ancient dance peculiar to some of the country parts of England,
and, it is said, also to Scotland : it was performed before James I. in Herefordshire.
MORMONITES (calling themselves the Church of Jesus Christ, of Latter-day Saints).
This sect derives its origin from Joseph Smith, called the prophet, who announced in 1823,
;it Palmyra, New York, that he had had a vision of the angel Moroni. In 1827 he said that
lie found the book of Mormon, written on gold plates in Egyptian characters. This book,
there is good reason to believe, was written about 1812, by a clergyman named Solomon
Spaulding, as a religious romance in imitation of the scripture style. It was translated and
published in America in 1830, in England in 1841. It fell iuto the hands of Rigdon and
Smith, who determined to palm it oh" as a new revelation. The Mormonites command the
payment of tithes, permit polygamy, encourage labour, and believe in their leaders working
miracles. Missionaries are propagating these doctrines in Europe with more success t-hau
would bo expected (1865).
The Mormonites organise a church at Kirkland, ! The provisional government abolished and the
Ohio 1830 Utah territory recognised by the United
They found Zion, in Jackson county. Missouri, 1831-2 | States ; Brigham Young appointed the first
From 1833 to 1839 the sect endured much per- governor; and the University of Deseret was
secution, and, driven from place to place, was | founded 1849
compiled tu travel westwards ; till the city The population, 11.354 1S51
Nauvoo on the Mississippi was laid out and | The crops at the Utah settlement said to bo
a temple was built 1840-1 destroyed by locusts .... Aug. 1855
Joseph and his brother Ilyrum, when in prison , The United States judge at Utah resigned from
on a charge of treason, shot by an infuriated inability to discharge his functions, in conse-
mob, and Brigham Young chosen seer . . 1844 quence of the violent and treasonable con-
Mucli harassed by their neighbours, departure I duct of the Mormons, and their leader,
from Nauvoo determined on . . . . 1845! Brigham Young 1857
The Great Salt Lake choBcn " for an everlasting I A conference of Mormon ciders. <tc , was held
abode," and taken possession of July 24. 1847 | in London, at which most offensive speeches
The valley surveyed by order of the United wero made and songs sung advocating poly-
rjtates government 1849 | garav, tc Sept. 1, „
MOR 493 MOS
MORMONITES, continued.
The United States government sent an army to A Mormonite meeting at Southampton, Feb. 18, 1861
Utah : a compromise was entered into, and A French Mormonite priest preached at Paris in
pease was established by governor Cummings Oct. 1862
in June, 1858 " Latter-day Saints'" meetings held in London 1865
MOROCCO, an empire in North Africa, formerly Mauritania (which sec). In 1051 it
was subdued for the Fatimite caliphs by the Almoravides, who eventually extended their
dominion into Spain. These were succeeded by the Almohades (1 121), the Meriuites (1270),
and iu 15 16 by the Scherifs, pretended descendants of Mahomet, the now reigning dynasty.
See Tangicrs. The Moors have had frequent wars with the Spaniards and Portuguese, due
to piracy.
Invasion of Sebastian of Portugal, who perishes Negotiations had proved fruitless : the Spanish
with his army at the battle ofAlcazar, Aug. 4, 1578 government increasing their demands as the
The Moors attack tho French in Algeria at the sultan yielded. The English government
instigation of Abd-el-Kader ; the prince do interfered in vain. For the events of the war,
Joinville bombards Tangicrs,| Aug. 6, and see Spain 1859-60
Mogador Aug. 16, 2844 A Moorish ambassador (the first since the time
MarRhal Bugcaud signally defeats thj Moors at of Charles II.) in London. (He gave 200*. to
the river lsly, and acquires the title of duke, the lord mayor for the London charities),
Aug. 14, „ June—Aug. 1S60
Peace signed between France and Morocco, Tho British government gave a guarantee for a
Sept 10, „ loan of 426,000/. to the sultan to meet his
The Spaniards, who possess several places on engagements with Spain . . Oct. 24, 1861
the coast of Morocco (Ceuta, Penon de Valez,
<fcc. ), having suffered much annoyance by SULTANS.
Moorish pirates, declare war against the 1822. Muley Abdorrahman.
sultan iu Oct. 1859 1859. Sidi Mohammed, Sept.
MORPHIA, an alkaloid, discovered in opium, by Sertiimer, in 1803.
MORRILL TARIFF. See United Slates, 1861.
MORTALITY. See Bills of Mortality.
MORTARA ABDUCTION. See Jews, 1858.
MORTARS, a short gun with a large bore, and close chamber, used for throwing bombs ;
said to have been used at Naples iu 1435, and first made in England in 1543. The mortar
left by Soult in Spain was fixed in St. James's-park in Aug. 1816. On Oct. 19, 1857, a.
colossal mortar, constructed by Mr. Robert Mallet, was tried at Woolwich ; with a charge
of 70 lbs. it threw a shell weighing 2550 lbs. 14 mile horizontally, and about J mile in
height.
MORTIMER'S CROSS (Herefordshire). The earl of Pembroke and the Lancastrians
were severely defeated by the young duke of York, afterwards Edward IV., Feb. 2, 1461.
He assumed the throne as Edward IV. in March following.
MORTMAIN ACT (mort main, dead hand). When the survey of all tho land in Eng
land was made by William I., 1085-6, the whole was found to amount to 62,215 knights'
fees, of which the church then possessed 28,or5, to which additions were afterwards made,
till the 7th of Edward I., 1279, when the statute of mortmain was passed, from a fear that
the estates of the church might grow too bulky. By this act it was made unlawful to give
any estates to the church without the king's leave ; and this act, by a supplemental pro
vision, was made to reach all lay-fraternities, or corporations, in the 15th of Richard II.,
1391. Mortmain is such a state of possession as makes it inalienable, whence it is said to
be in a dead hand. Several statutes have been passed on this subject ; legacies by mort
main were especially restricted by the 10th George II., 1736.
MOSAIC WORK (the Roman opus tessellatum), is of Asiatic origin, and is probably
referred to in Esther, ch. v. 6, about 519 b.o. It had attained to great excellence in Greece,
in the time of Alexander and his successors, when Sosos of Pergamus, the most renowned
Mosaic artist of antiquity, flourished. He acquired great fame by his accurate representa
tion of an " unswept floor after a feast. " The Romans also excelled in Mosaic work as
evidenced by the innumerable specimens preserved. Byzantine Mosaics date from the
4th century after Christ. The art was revived iu Italy by Tati, Gaddi, Cimabue, and
Giotto, who designed Mosaics, and introduced a higher style in the 13th century.
In the 16th century Titian and Veronese also designed subjects for this art. The prac
tice of copying paintings in Mosaics came into vogue in the 17th century; and there
is now a workshop in the Vatican where chemical science is employed in the produc
MOS 494 MUG
tion of colours, anil where 20,000 different tints are kept. In 1861, Dr. Salviati of Venice
had established his manufacture of " Enamel-mosaics," ami in July, 1S64, he fixed a large
enamel Mosaic picture in one of the spandrils under the dome of St. Paul's cathedral, Lon
don. He has since executed commissions for the queen and other persons.
MOSCOW, the ancient capital of Russia, was founded it is said by Dolgoronki, about
1 147. The occupation of the south of liussiu by the Mongols, in 1235, led to Moscow
becoming the capital, and beginning with Jaroslav II., 1238, its princes became the reigning
dynasty. Moscow has been frequently taken in war : it was plundered by Timour in 1382 :
by the Tartars in 145 1 and 1477; and by Ladislas of Poland in 161 1 . The massacre of
Demetrius and his Polish adherents on May 27, 1606, is termed the " Matins of Moscow.''
This city was entered by Napoleon I. and the French, Sopt. 14, 1812, and the Russian
governor, Kostopchin, ordered that it should be set on fire in 500 places at once. In this
memorable conflagration, 11,840 houses were burnt to the ground, besides palaees and
churches. Tho French, thus deprived of quarters, evacuated Moscow, Oct. 19, and it was
re-entered by the Russians, Oct. 22, following. Since then, Moscow has been rebuilt with
great splendour. Although St. Petersburg (built in 1703) has become the capital, yet Mos
cow is the more beloved by the Russians, who regard it as a holy city. The railway to St.
Petersburg was opened in 1851. An industrial exhibition held at Moscow closed July 16,
1865.
MOSKWA, or Borodino, Battle of. See Borodino.
MOSQUITO COAST (Central America). The Indians inhabiting this coast were long
under the protection of the British, who held Belize and a group of islands in the bay of
Honduras. The jealousy of the United States long existed on this subject. In April, 1850,
the two governments covenanted not "to occupy, or fortify, or colonise, or assume, or exer
cise any dominion over any part of Central America." In 1855 the United States charged
the British government with an infraction of the treaty ; on which the latter agreed to cede
tho disputed territory to the republic of Honduras, with some reservation.* The matter
was finally settled in Feb. 1857.
MOSS-TROOPERS, desperate plunderers, and lawless soldiers, secreting themselves in
the mosses on the borders o( Scotland. They were finally extirpated in 1609.
MOTTOES, RoYAr.. Dim el mon Droit, first used by Richard I., 1198. Ich dien, " I
serve," adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle of Cressy, 1346. Honi soil qui
' mal y pense, tho motto of the Garter, 1349. Je mainlicndrai, " I will maintain," adopted
by William III., to which he added, in 1688, " the liberties of England and the Protestant
religion. " Semper cadem, was assumed by queen Elizabeth, 1 558, and adopted by queen
Anne, 1702. See them severally.
MOUNTAIN PARTY. See Clubs, French.
MOUNTS. See Etna, Hccla, Vesuvius, Bernard, Calvary, and Olivet.
MOURNING for the Dead. The Israelites neither washed nor anointed themselves
during the time of mourning, which for a friend lasted seven days ; upon extraordinary
occasions a month. The Greeks and Romans fasted. The ordinary colour for mourning in
Europe is black ; in China, white ; in Turkey, violet ; in Ethiopia, brown ; it was white in
Spain until 1498. Ilcrrera. Anno of Brittany, the queen of two successive kings of
France, mourned in black, instead of the then practice of wearing white, on the death of her
lirst husband, Charles VIII., April 7, 1498. Htnauli.
MOUSQUETAIRES, or Musketeers, horse-soldiers under the old French regime, raised
by Louis XIII., 1622. This corps was considered a military school for the French nobility.
It was disbanded in 1646, but was restored in 1657. A second company was created in 1660,
and formed cardinal Mazarine's guard. IKnault.
MUGGLETONIANS, so called from Ludowic Muggleton, a tailor, known about 164 1,
and prominent about 1656. He and John Reeve affirmed that God the Father, leaving the
government of heaven to Elias, came down and suffered death in a human form. They
asserted that they were the two last witnesses of God which should appear before the end of
the world. Rt:v. xi. 3. A sect of this name still exists.
* St. Juan del Norte (Grcytown) was held by the British oil behalf of the Mosquitoes till tho American
adventurers, under col. Kinney, took possession of it in Sept. 1855. Ho joined Walker; and on Feb. 10.
1S5C., their associate Rivas, tho president, elaiinod and annexed tho Mosquito territory to Nicaragua.
MUH 495 MUS
MUHLBERG, on the Elbe, Prussia. Here the German Protestants were defeated by the
emperor Charles V., April 24, 1547.
MUHLDORF (Bavaria). Near this place Frederick, duko of Austria, was defeated and
taken prisoner by Louis of Bavaria, Sept 28, 1322.
MULBERRY TREES. The first planted in England are in the gardens of Sion-house.
Shakspeare planted a mulberry-tree with his own hands at Stratford-upon-Avon ; and
Garrick, Macklin, and others were entertained under it in 1742. Shakspearc's house was
afterwards sold to a clergyman of the name of Gastrel, who cut down the mulberry-tree for
fuel, 1765 ; but a silversmith purchased the whole, and manufactured it into memorials.
MULE, a spinning machine invented in 1779, by Samuel Crompton, born at Bolton,
Lancashire, in 1753; named, from Crompton's residence, llall-in-the-wood-wheel ; muslin-
wheel, from its givin" birth to the British muslin and cambric manufacture ; and mule, from
its combining the advantages of Hargreave's spinning jenny, and Arkwright's adaptation.
It is stated that Crompton at the time knew nothing of the latter. He did not patent his
invention, but gave it up in 1780. It produced yarn treble the fineness and very much
softer than any ever before produced in England. Parliament voted him 5000Z. in 1812,
now considered a most inadequate compensation. Mr. Roberts invented tho self-acting mule
in 1825.
MULHOUSE, or Mtjlhausen (N.E. France), an imperial city, under Rodolph of
Hapsburg ; joined the Swiss confederation in 1515 ; and annexed to France in 1798.
MUMMIES (from the Arabic mum, wax). See Embalming. The mummies in the
British Museum, with other Egyptian antiquities, were placed there about 1803. Mr. Alex.
Gordon, in 1737 published an essay on three Egyptian mummies, one of which was brought
to England in 1722, by capt. Wm. Lethieullier ; two others came in 1734, one of which was
retained by Dr. Mead, the other was given to the College of Physicians. In 1834, Mr. T. J.
Pettigrew published a "History of Egyptian Mummies."
MUNICH, the beautiful capital of Bavaria, was founded, it is said, 962. It was taken
by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 1632 ; by the Austrians, in 1704, 1741, and 1743 ; and
by the French under Moreau, July 2, 1800. It abounds in schools, institutions, and manu
factories. The university was founded by king Louis in 1826.
MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS, &c. See Corporations.
MUNSTER (Westphalia). The bishopric said to have been founded by Charlemagne,
780, was secularised in 1802, and ceded to Prussia in 1815. The Anabaptists, under John of
Leyden, tho king of Munster, held the city in 1534 and 1536. Here was signed the treaty of
Westphalia (which- see) or Munster, Oct. 24, 1648. —Munster, the southern province of
Ireland. In 1568 a commission was issued for its government by a president and council,
and new colonies were founded in 1 588.
MURCIA, a province, N.E. Spain, was subdued by the Moors, 713 ; by Ferdinand of
Castile, 1240 ; and divided between Castile and Arragon, 1305.
MURDER, the highest offence against the law of God. (Genesis ix. 6, 2348 B.C.). A
court of Ephetse was established by Demophoon of Athens for the trial of murder, 11 79 n.c.
The Persians did not punish the first offence. In England, during a period of the Heptarchy,
murder was punished by fines only. So late as Henry VIII."s time the crime was compounded
for in Wales. Murderers were allowed benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated murder, or
petit treason (a distinction now abolished), happened in three ways ; by a servant killing his
master: a wife her husband ; and an ecclesiastical person his superior, stat. 25 Edw. III.
1350. The enactments relating to this crime are very numerous, and its wilful commission
has been rarely panloned by our sovereigns. The act whereby the murderer should be
executed on the day next but ono after his conviction, was repealed, 1836. See Executions
and Trials.
MURFREESBOROUGH (Tennessee). Near here severe conflicts took place between the
Federals under Rosencrans and the Confederates under Bragg, Dec. 30, 1862, and Jan. 2,
1863. The Federals claimed the victory.
MURIATIC ACID. See Alkali.
MUSEUM, originally a quarter of the palace of Alexandria, like the I'rytaneum of
Athens, where eminent learned men were maintained by the public. The foundation is
attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphus, who here placed his library about 284 n c. Besides
MUS 49G MUS
the British Museum and Sloane's Museum {which sec), there are very many others iu
Loudon.
MUSIC* "Jubal, the father of all such as handle the harp and the organ," (3875 B.C.,
Gen. iii. 21). Lucretius ascribes its invention to the whistling of the winds in hollow reeds.
Franckinus to the various sounds produced by the hammers of Tubal-Cain. Cameleon
Pontique and others to the singing of birds ; and Zarlino to the sound of water dropping,
Ac. The flute, and harmony, or concord in music, are said to have been invented by
Hyaguis, 1506. Arxtnd. Marbles. Yocal choruses of men are first mentioned 556 B.C.
Dufresnoy.
MUSIC in Enuland. Before the Reformation, there was but one kind of music iu
Europe worth notice, namely, the sacred chant, and the descant built upon it. This music,
moreover, was applied to one language only, the Latin. Ashe. The original English music
from the period of the Saxons to that era in which our countrymen imbibed the art, and
copied the manner of the Italians, was of a character which neither pleased the soul nor
charmed the ear. But as all the arts appear to have been the companions of successful
commerce, our music soon improved, our taste was chastened, and sweet sounds formed an
indispensable part of polite education. Prior to 1600, the chief music was masses and
madrigals, but dramatic music was much cultivated from that time. About the end of
James I.'s reign, a music professorship was founded in the University of Oxford by Dr. Wm.
Hychin ; and the year 1710 was distinguished by the arrival in England of George Frederick
Handel. Mozart came to England in 1763 ; Joseph Haydn in 1791 ; and Carl Maria von
"Weber in 1825. The study of music has been greatly promoted in this country since 1840,
by the labours of John Hullah. The Tonic sol-fa system, in which at first the letters d, r,
m, fy s, I, t, (for do, rc, mi, fa, so, la, ti, ox si) are used instead of notes, was invented by
Miss Glover of Norwich, and improved by John Curwen, about 1847. It has been successfully
employed in schools.
Musical Notes kc. The first six are Bald to have been performed annually ever since. Musical fes
been invented by Guy Aretino, a Benedictine tivals on a great scale are now annually held at
monk of Arezzo, about 1025. Blair. The notes at various cathedrals in England, See Handel and
present used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint Cryttal Palace.
was brought to perfection by Paloatrhia about 1555. Musical Institutions. The Ancient Academy of
Gafforio of Lodi, read lectures on musical compo Music was instituted in 1710. It originated with
sition iu the 15th century, and they effected great numerous eminent performers and gentlemen
improvement in the science. The Italian style of wishing to promote the study of vocal harmony.
composition was introduced into these countries The Madrig*l Society was established in 1741, and
about 1616. other musical societies followed.
The Musical Pitch was settled in France in i860. The Royal Society of Music arose from the principal
The middle C to bo 522 vibrations in a second. nobility and gentry uniting to promote the per
At a meeting on the subject, held at the Society of formance of operas composed by Handel, 1785.
Arts, in Nov. 33, 1860, the concert pitch of C was The Philharmonic concerts began in 1813.
recommended to be 528 vibrations in a second. The Royal Academy of Music, established 1822,
Mr. Ilullah adopted 512 vibrations. (which see).
Musical Festivals in England. Dr. Bysse, chan The Musical Society of London established 1S58.
cellor of Hereford, proposed to tho members of the The "Popular Monday Concerts" at St. Jan:
choirs, a collection at the cathedral door after Hall commenced with a "Mendelssohn night" on
morning service, when forty guineas wcro col Feb. 14, 1859.
lected and appropriated to charitable purposes. The London Academy of Music founded in i860.
It was then agreed to hold festivals at Hereford, The centenary of tho "Noblemen's Catch Club *' was
Gloucester, and Worcester, in rotation annually. kept in July, 1861.
Until the year 1753, the festival lasted only two The Cecilian Society, London, founded about 1785 ;
days ; it was then extended at Hereford to three ceased in 1862.
evenings; and at Gloucester, in 17^7, to three The " Musical Education Committee" of the Society
mornings, for the purpose uf introducing Handel's of Arts, London, with the princo of Wales as
*' Messiah," which was warmly received, and has chairman, held its first meeting May 22, 1865.
EMINENT MODERN MUSICAL COMPOSERS.
Born Born Dud I Bom Died
Tallis . H. Lawes . 1600 1662 I G. F. Handel . 1684 1759
Palestrina • *5*9 Lully • l633 1672 I T. A. Arne . 1710 1773
T. Morley . i'1 5'-14H Purcell ■ 1O58 1695 C. Gllick ■ 1714
Orlando Gibbons ■ 1583 i6a 4 J. Seb. Bachf . 1685 1754 1 W. A. Mozart • 1756
* Pythagoras (about 555 b.g.) maintained that the motions of the twelve spheres must produce
delightful sounds, inaudible to mortal cars, which he called " the music of the spheres." St. Cecilia, a
Roman lady, is said to have excelled so eminently in music, that an angul was enticed from the celestial
regions by the fascinating charms of her melody ; and this hyperbolical tradition has been deemed sufficient
authority to make her the patroness of music and musicians. She died in the 3rd century.
t Ho had eleven sons ; four of them distinguished musicians.
MUS 497 MYC
MUSIC, continued.
Born /),>.; Born Born Vied
Joseph Ilaydn . • 173a 1809 H. Bishop . ■ 1787 ■855 J. Meyerbeer . . 1794 1864
C. Dibdin ■ -748 18.4 M. Chcrubini . . I760 1842 J. E. Halevy . . 1799 1863
S. Weblie . ■ '74° 1817 F. Mcndelssohn- JiSoo. 1848 J. Rossini . . . 1792
J. W. Callcott . . 1766 1821 Bartholdy M. W. Balfo . . 1808
C. Weber . . 1786 1826 L. Spohr • '783 1859 W.Stcrndalc Bennett 1816
L. Beethoven . • "77° 1827 D. T. Auber • >784
MUSKETS. See Fire-arms.
MUSLIN, a fine cotton cloth, so called, it is said, as not being bare, but having a downy
nap on its surface, resembling moss, which the French call mousse. According to others, it
was first brought from Moussol, in India, whence the name. Muslins were first worn in
England in 1670. Anderson. By means of the Mule (which see), British have superseded
India muslins.
MUTE. A prisoner is said to stand mute, when, being arraigned for treason or felony, he
either makes no answer, or answers foreign to the purpose. Anciently, a mute was subjected
to torture. By 12 Geo. III. 1772, judgment was awarded against mutes, as if they were
convicted or had confessed. A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at the
Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778, and another on a charge of burglary at Wells, 1792.
An act was passed in 1827, by which the court is directed to enter a plea of "not guilty"
when the prisoner will not plead.*
MUTINIES, British. The mutiny throughout the fleet at Portsmouth for an advance
of wages, April, 1797. It subsided on a promise from tho Admiralty, which not being
rpiickly fulfilled, occasioned a secoud mutiny on board the London man-of-war ; admiral
Colpoys, and his captain, were put into confinement for ordering the marines to fire, whereby
some lives were lost. The mutiny subsided May 10, 1797, when an act was passed to raise
the wages, and tho king pardoned tho mutineers. A more considerable one at the Norc,
which blocked up the trade of the Thames, broke out on May 27, 1797, and subsided June 13,
1797, when the principal mutineers were put in irons, and several executed (including the
ringleader, nicknamed rear-admiral Richard Parker), June 30, at Sheerness. Mutiny of the
Danae frigate ; the crew carried the ship into Brest harboifr, March 27, 1800. Mutiny on
board admiral Mitchell's fleet at Bantry Bay, Dec. 1801, and January following (see Banlry
Bay). Mutiny at Malta, began April 4, 1807, and ended on the 12th, when the mutineers
blew themselves up by setting fire to a large magazine, consisting of between 400 and 500
barrels of gunpowder. See Madras, 1806, and India, 1857.
MUTINY. A statute for the discipline, regulation, and payment of the army, 4tc, was
passed in 1689, and has since been re-enacted annually.
MUTINY of the Bounty, April 28, 1789. For particulars see Bounty.
MYC'ALE (Ionia, Asia Minor), Battle of, fought between tho Greeks (under
Leotychides, the king of Sparta, and Xanthippus the Athenian) and the Persians.
Sept. 22, 479 B.U..; being the day on which Mardonius was defeated and slain at Plataja by
Pausanias. The Persians (about 100,000 men), who had just returned from the unsuccessful
expedition of Xerxes in Greece, were completely defeated, thousands of them slaughtered,
and their camp burnt. The Greeks sailed back to Sainos with an immense booty.
MYCENAE, a division of the kingdom of tho Argivcs, in the Peloponnesus. It stood
about fifty stadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion of the Hcraclida?.
Perseus removes from Argos, and founds My .Egisthus, in the absence of Agamemnon, lives
celial ..... B.C. 1431, 1313, or 1282 in adultery with the queen Clytemnestra. On
Reign of Eurystbcus . . 1289, 1274, or 1258 tho return of the kin^ they assassinate him ;
(Towards the close of his reign is placed tho and .-Egiathus mounts tho throne . . B.G. 1183
story of the several dangerous enterprises Orestes, son of Agamemnon, kills bis mother
surmounted by Horcules. ] and her paramour ...... ZX76
.SgiBthus assassinates Atrous .... 1201 Orestes dies of the bite of a sorpent . not?
Agamemnon succeeds to the throne ; becomes The Achaians are expelled
Icing of Sicyon, Corinth, and perhaps of Argos Invasion of the Heraclkhe, and the conquerors
lie is chosen generalissimo of the Grecian forces divide tho dominions no-,
going to the Trojan war . . . .about 1193 Myceno destroyed by the Argives . . . 4'-3
* Walter Calverly, of Calverly in Yorkshire, esq., having murdered two of his children, and stabbed
his wife in a fit of jealousy, being arraigned for his crime at York asnizsa, stood mute, and was thereupon
pressed to death in the castle, a large iron woight being placed upon his breiBt, Aug. 5, 1605. Stow't
Chron. Major Strangcway suffered death in a similar manner at Newgate in 1657, for the murder of his
brother-in-law, Mr. Fussell.
K S
MYL l!'S NAN
MYL.E, a bay of Sicily, where the Romans, under their consul Duilius, gained their first
naval victory over the Carthaginians, and took fifty of their ships, 260 B.C. Here also
Agrippa defeated the lleet of Sextus Pompeius, 36 B.C.
MYSORE (S. India), was made a flourishing kingdom by Hyder Ali in 1761, and by his
son, Tippoo Sahib, who considerably harassed the English. Tippoo was chastised by them
in 1792, and on May 4, 1799, his capital, Seringapatam, was taken by assault, and himself
slain. The English now hold the country.
MYSTERIES. "Mystery " is said to be derived from the Hebrew mistar, to hide. The
Sacred mysteries is a term applied to the doctrines of Christianity, the chief of which is tile-
incarnation of Christ, called the "mystery of godliness," 1 Tim. iii. 16. The Profane
mysteries were the secret ceremonies performed by a select few in honour of some deity.
From the Egyptian mysteries of lais and Osiris sprang those of Bacchus and Ceres among
the Greeks. The Eleusinian mysteries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 B.C.—
Mystery Plays. See Drama.
MYTHOLOGY (Greek mifihos, fable), the traditions respecting the gods of any people.
Thoth is supposed to have introduced mythology among the Egyptians, 1521 B.C. ; and
Cadmus, the worship of the Egyptian and Pluenician deities among the Greeks, 1493 B.C.
NAAS (E. Ireland), an ancient town. Here a desperate engagement took place between
a body of the king's forces and the insurgent Irish, during the rebellion of 1798. The latter
were defeated with the loss of 300 killed and many wounded, May 24, 1798.
NABONASSAR, Era of, received its name from the celebrated prince of Babylon, under
whose reign astronomical studies were much advanced in ChaMa-a. The years are vague,
containing 365 days each, without intercalation. The first day of the era was Wednesdny
(said, in mistake, to be Thursday, in L'Arlde Verifier Us Dates), Feb. 26, 747 B.C.—3967,
Julian period. To find the Julian year on which the year of Nabonassar begins, subtract the
year, if before Christ, from 748 ; if after Christ, add to it 747.
NAG'S HEAD STORY. Matthew Parker was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury at
Lambeth, Dee. 17, 1559, by bishops Barlow, Coverdale, Scory, and Hodgkins. Many years
after, the Romish writers asserted that Parker and others had been consecrated at the Nag's
Head Tavern, Cheapsido, by Scory. This tale was refuted by Burnet.
NAHUM, Festival of. Nahum, the seventh of the twelve minor prophets, about
713 B.C. ; the festival is the 24th of December.
NAJARA or Navahf.te (N. Spain). Here Edward the Black Prince defeated nenry de
Trastamere, and re-established Peter the Cruel on the throne of Castile, April 3, 1367.
NAMES. Adam and Eve named their sons. Gen. iv. 25, 26. The popes change their
names on their exaltation to the pontificate, "a custom introduced by popo Sergius, whose
name till then was swine-snout," 687. Platina. Onuphrius refers it to John XII. 956 ; and
gives as a reason that it was done in imitation of SS. Peter and Paul, who were first called
Simon and Saul. In France it was usual to change the name given at baptism. The two-
sons of Henry II. of France were christened Alexander and Hercules ; at their confirmation
these names were changed to Henry and Francis. Monks and nuns, at their entrance into
monasteries assume new names, to show that they are about to lead a new life. See
Surnames.
NAMUR, in Belgium, was made a county in 932, was ceded to 1he house of Austria by
the peace of Utrecht, and was garrisoned by the Dutch as a barrier town of the United
Provinces in 1 715. Namur was taken by the French in 1746, but was restored in 1748. In
1781, the emperor Joseph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792 it was again taken by the
French, who were compelled to evacuate it the following year ; but they regained possession
of it in 1794. The French, however, delivered it up to the allies in 1814. It was a site
of a severe conflict in June, 1815, between the Prussians and the French under Grouchy,
when retreating after the battle of Waterloo.
NANCY' (Lorraino, Franco), founded in the 12th century. Charles the Bold of Burgnndy
endcavoured to conquer Lorraine, and besieged Nancy in 1476 ; but on Jan. 5, 1477, he was
defeated and slain by the duke of Lorraine and his Swiss allies.
NAN 493 NAP
NANKIN, said to have been made the central capital of China, 420. On Aug. 4, 1842,
the British ships arrived at Nankin, and peace was made. The rebel Tae-pings took it on
March 19, 20, 1853. It was recaptured by the Imperialists, July 19, 1864, and found to be
in a very desolate condition.
NANTES. See Edict.
NAPIER'S BONES. See Logarithms.
NAPLES, formerly the continental division and seat of government of the kingdom of
the Two Sicilies, began with a Greek colony named Parthenope (about 1000 B.C.), which was
afterwards divided into Paheopolis (the old) and Neapolis (the new city), from which latter
the present name is derived. The colony was conquered by the Romans in the Samnite war,
326 B.C. Naples, after resisting the power of the Lombards, Franks, and Germans, was
subjugated by the Normans under Roger Guiscard, king of Sicily, a.d. 1131. Few countries
have had so many political changes and cruel and despotic rulers, or suffered so much by
convulsions of nature, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, &c. In 1856, the population
of the kingdom of Naples was 6,886,030, of Sicily, 2,231,020; total, 9,117,050. It now
forms part of the revived kingdom of Italy.
Naples conquered by Theodoric the Goth . . 493 Order of St Januarius instituted by king
Retaken by Bcli&irius 536 Charles 1738
Taken again by Totila 543 Charles, becoming king of Spain, vacates the
Retaken by Narses 552 throne of the Two Sicilies in favour of his
Becomes a duchy nominally subject to the third son Ferdinand, agreeably to treaty . . 1759
Eastern empire 568 or 572 Expulsion of the Jesuits . . . Nov. 3,
Duchy of Naples greatly extended . . . 593 Dreadful earthquake in Calabria . . Feb. 5, ' 7' 7
Robert Guiscard, the Norman, made duko of Enrolment of the Lazzaroni (ichich *tf) as pike-
Apulia, founds the kingdom of Naples . . 1059 men or spoutoDeers 1793
Naples conquered, and the kingdom of the two The king flies on tho approach of the French,
Sicilies founded by Roger Guiscard II. . . 1131 republicans, who establish the Parthenopcan
Tho imperial house of Hohenstaufen (nee Ger republic Jan. 14, 170
many) obtains the kingdom by marriage ; aud Nelson appears : Naples retaken ; the restored
rules 1 194-1266 king rules tyrannically . . . June,
The pope appoints Charles of Anjou, king, who Prince Caracciolo tried and executed, by order
detcats the regent Manfred (son of Frederic II. of Nelson June 29,
of Germany) at Benevento ^Manfred slain) The Neapolitans occupy Rome . . Sept. 30,
Feb. 26, „ Dreadful earthquake felt throughout the king
Charles also defeats Conradin (the last of the dom, and thousands perish . . July 26, 1 804
Hobenstaufcns), who bad come to Naples by Treaty of neutrality between France and Naples
invitation of the Ghibcllines, at Tagliacozzo, ratified* Oct o, 1 So
Aug. 23 ; Conradin beheaded . . Oct 29, 1268 Ferdinand, through perfidy, is compelled to fly
The massacro called the Sicilian vespers (which to Sicily, Jan. 23 ; tho French enter Naples,
see) March 30, 1282 and Joseph Bonaparte made king . Fob.
Andrew of Ilungary, husband of Joanna I., The French defeated at Maida . . July 4,
murdered Sept 18, 1345 Joseph Bonaparte, after beginning many re
Ho is avenged by his brother Louis king of forms, abdicates for the crown of Spain, June,
Hungary, who invades Naples . . . 1349 Joachim Murat made king(rules well), July 15,
Alphonso V. of Arragon (called the Wise and His first quarrel with Napoleon .... li. 1 1
Magnanimous), on tho death of Joanna II. His alliance with Austria . . Jan. 1814
seizes Naples 1435 Death of queen Caroline of Austria . Sept. 7,
Naples conquered by Charles VIII. of France . 1494 Joachim declares war against Austria, March 15, 181 5
And by Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of Defeated at Tolentino .... May 3,
Spain 1 501 He retires to France, May 22, and Corsica ; he
Naples and Sicily united to Spain . . . 1504 madly attempts the recovery of hiB throne
Insurrection of Masaniello.* 1647 by landing at Pizzo, Sept. 28; is seized, tried,
Anothor insurrection suppressed by don John and shot Oct. 13,
of Austria Oct. Ferdinand, re-established, Boon returns to
Henry II. duke of Guise lands and is proclaimed tyrannical measures .... June,
king, but in a few days is taken prisonor by A plague rages in Naples, Nov. 1815 to June 1816
the Spaniards April, 1648 Establishment of tho society of tho Carbonari . 1819
Naples conquered by prince Eugene of Savoy, Successful insurrection of tho Carbonari under
for the emperor 1706 general Pe'pe' : tho king compelled, to swear
Discovery of Herculancum (which w) 1711 or 1713 solemnly to a new constitution . July 13, 1820
The Spaniards by the victory at Bitonto (May The Austnans invade tho kingdom, at the king s
26) having made themselves masters of both instigation : general Pepe* defeated March 7, 1821
kingdoms, Charles (of Bourbon), son of tho Fall of the constitutional government, March 23,
king of Spain, ascends the throne, with the Death of Ferdinand ; (reigned 66 years), Jan. 4, 1825
ancient title renewed, of the king of the Two [In 30 years, 100,000 Neapolitans perished by
Sicilies * . 1734 various kinds of death.}
* Occasioned by the extortions of tho Spanish viceroys. One day an impost was claimed on a basket
of figs, and refused by the owner, with whom the populace took part headed by Masanicllo (Thomas
Aniello), a fisherman; they obtained tho command of Naples, many of the nobles were slain and their
palaces burnt, and the viceroy was compelled to abolish tho taxes and to restore the privileges granted by
Charles V. to the city. Masanicllo became intoxicated by his success and was slain by his own followers
after a few days* rule, on July 16, 1647.
K K 2
NAP 500 NAP
NAPLES, continued.
Insurrection of the Carbonari suppressed . . 1828 Revolution in Sicily (which *«) . May 11, 14, 1B60
Accession of Ferdinand II. (as faithless and Francis II. proclaims an amnesty; promises a
tyrannical as his predecessors) Nov. 8, 1830 liberal ministry ; adopts a tricolor flag, 4c,
Dispute with England respecting the sulphur June 26.
trade; settled March, 1840 Baron
in hisBrenier,
carriage French ambassador,■ wounded
by tho mob June 27, „
Attilio and Emilio Bandicra, with eighteen
others, attempting an insmrection in Cala A liberal ministry formed ; destruction of tho
bria, are shot* .... Jan. 17, 1844 commissariat of the police in 12 districts;
Prospect of an insurrection in Naples ; the king state of siege proclaimed at Naples ; the
grants a new constitution . . Jan. 29, 184S queen-mother flees to Gaeta . . June 28,
Great fighting in Naples ; the liberals and the Revolutionary committee a» Naples, June 15, „
national guard almost annihilated by the Garibaldi lands in Sicily, May 11 ; defeats the
royal troops, aided by tho lazzaroui. May 15, 1848 Neapolitan army at Calatifimi, May 15 ; and
A martial anarchy provails ; the chiefs of the at Melazzo, July 20 ; enters Messina, July
liberal party arrested in . Dec. 1849 ar ; the Neapolitans agree to evacuate Sicily,
Scttembrini, Poerio, Carafa, and others, after a July «\
mock trial, are condemned, and consigned to The king of Sardinia in vain negotiates with
horrible dungeons for life . . June, 1850 Francis II. for alliance . . July, „
After remonstrances with the king on his tyran Francis II. proclaims the re-establishment of
nical government (May), tho English and the constitution of T848, July 2; the army
French ambassadors are withdrawn Oct. 28, 1856 proclaim count de Trani king . July 10,
Attempted assassination of tho king by Milano, Garitxddi lands at Melito, Aug. 18; takes Reggio,
Dec. 8, „ AUg. 21, „
Tho Cagliari\ seized .... June, 1857 Defection in anny and navy ; Francis II. retires
Italian refugees, under count Pisaccano, land to Gaeta, Sept. 6 ; Garibaldi enters Naples
in Calabria, aro defeated, and their leader without troops .... Sept. 7,
killed .... June 37—July a, ,( Garibaldi assumes the dictatorship, Sept. 8 ;
A dreadful earthquake in the Apennines (see and gives up the Neapolitan fleet to the Sar
Earthquake*) ..... Dec. 16, dinian admiral Persano, Sept. n ; expels the
Amnesty granted to political offenders, Dec. 27, 1858 Jesuits ; establishes trial by jury ; releases
Poerio and sixty-six companions released and political prisoners .... Sept. ,,
sent to N. America, Jan. ; on their way, they He repulses the Neapolitans at Cajazzo, Sept.
seize the vessel ; sail to Cork, March 7 ; and 19, and defeats them thoroughly at the Vol-
proceed to London .... March 18, 1859 turno Oct. 1, „
Death of Ferdinand II., after dreadful suffer The king of Sardinia outers the kingdom of
ings May 22, ,, Naples, and takes command of his army,
Diplomatic relations resumed with England which combines with Garibaldi's Oct. n, ,.
and France Juno, „ Naples unsettled through intrigues . . Oct. „
A subscription for Poerio and his companions Cialdini defeats the Neapolitans at Isernia, Oct.
in England amounted to 10,000/. . July, „ 17; at Venafro .... Oct 18, .,
Insubordination among the Swiss troops at The Plebiscite at Naples, &c. ; almost unani
Naples; many shot, July 7 ; major Latour mous vote for annexation to Piedmont
sent to Naples by tho Swiss confederation, (1.301,064 to 10,312) .... Oct. 21, „
July 16, ,, Garibaldi meets Victor Emmanuel, and salutes
Army increased ; defences strengthened, Oct. ,, him as king of Itidy .... Oct. 26, „
Many political imprisonments ; the foreign am The first English protcsbint church built on
bassadors collectively addi-ess a note to tho ground given by Garibaldi ; consecrated,
king stating tho necessity for reform in his March 11, 1865
states, March 26 ; tho count of Syracuse re
commends njforra, and alliance with England [History continued, under Italy.]
April, rS6o
SOVEREIGNS OF NAPLES AND SICILT.
1131. Roger I. (of Sicily, 1130) Norman. 1250. Conrad ; son.
1154. William I. the Bad ; son. 1254. Conradin, son ; but his uncle,
1 166. William II. the Good ; son. 1258. Manfred, nat. son of Frederick II., seizes the
1 1 89. Tailored, natural son of Roger. government ; killed at Bencvcnto, in 1266.
1194. William III. son, succeeded by Constance, 1266. Charles of Anjoit, brother of St. Louis, king of
married to Henry VI. of Germany. France.
1197. Frederic II. of Germany (Uohrnstau)en). 1282. Insurrection in Sicily.
(Separation of Vic kingdoms in 1282.)
* It was asserted, but deniod by lord Aberdeen, that bis government had piveil warning of thU
attempt, of which they had obtained information by opening letters directed to Mazzini.
t The Cagliari, a Sardinian mail steamboat plying between Genoa and Tunis, sailed from the former
port on June 25, 1857, with thirty-three passengers, who, after a few hours' sail, took forcible possession
of the vessel, and compelled tho two English engineers (Watt and Park) to steer to Ponza. Here they
landed, released some prisoners, took thorn on board, and sailed to Sapri, where they agnin lauded, and
restored
■way the tho vesselwasto boarded
vessel its commander and crew. cruiser,
by a Neapolitan The latter
and steered
all tho immediately for Naples
crew were landed ; but on the
and consigned to
dungeons, where they remained for nine months waiting for trial, suffering great privations and insults.
This caused great excitement in England : and after much negotiation, the crew were released and the
vessel given up to the British government, 3000*. being given as a compensation to the sufferers.
NAP 501 NAS -
NAPLES, continued.
KAPI.ES. Sicily.
1282. Charles I. of Anjou. 1282. Peter I. (III. of Arragon.)
1285. Charles II. ; son. 1285. James I. (It. of Arragon.)
1309. Robert the Wise ; brother. 1295. Frederic 11.
1343. Joanna (reigns with her husband, Andrew of 1337. "Peter II.
Hungary! 1343-45 : with Louis of Tarento, 1342. Louis.
1349-62 ; Joann-i put to death by 1355. Frederic III.
1381. Char)
larles III. of Durazzo, grandson of Charles 1376. Maria and Martin (nor husband).
II. he becomes king of Hungary, 1586 ; 1402. Martin I.
assassinated thore. 1409. Martin II.
1385- Ladislas of Hungary, son. 1410. Ferdinand I.
MM- Joanna II., sister, dies in 1435, and bequeaths 1416. Alphonsus I.
her dominions to Rcgnier of Anjou. They
are acquired by
1435. Alphonsus I. thus king of Naples and Sicily.
(Separation of Kaplet and Sicily in 1458.)
Naples. Sicily.
1458. Ferdinand I. 1458. John of Arragon.
1494. Alphonso II. abdicates. 1479. Ferdinand the Catholic.
1495. Ferdinand II.
1496. Frederic II. expelled by the French, 1501.
THE CROWNS UNITED.
i5or. Ferdinand III. (king of Spain). 1623. Philip III. (IV. of Spain).
1516. Charles I. (V. of Germany). 1665. Charles II. (of Spain).
1556. Philip I. (II. of Spain). 1700. Puilip IV. (V. of Spain), Bourbon9.
1598. Philip II. (III. of Spain). 1707. Charles HI. of Austria.
(Separation in 1713.)
Naples. Sicily.
1713. Charles III. of Austria. 1713. Victor Amadeus of Savoy; exchanges Sicily
for Sardinia, 1720.
THE TWO SICILIES.
(Part of the empire of Germany, 1720-34.)
1735. Charles IV. (III. of Spain.) I 1759. Ferdinand IV., a tyrannical and cruel sove-
[ reign, flics from Naples in 1806 to Sicily.
(Separation in 1806.)
Naples. I Sicily.
1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. 1806-15. Ferdinand IV.
1808. Joachim Murat, shot Oct. 13, 1815.
THE TWO SICILIES.
Ferdinand L, formerly Ferdiuand IV., of 1859. Fronds II., May 22 ; born Jan. 16, 1836, List
Naples and Sicily. Kino of Naples.
1B25. Francis I. 1861. Victor-Emmanuel II. of Sardinia, as Kino of
183a Ferdinand II., Nov. 8 (termed King Bomba). Italy ; March.
NAPOLEON, CODE. See Codes.
NARBONNE (S.E. France), the Roman colony, Narbo Martius, founded 118 B.C., was
made the capital of a Visigothic kingdom, 462. Gaston de Foix, the last vicomte (killed
at the battle of Ravenna, April 1 1, 1512), resigned it to the king in exchange for the duchy
of Nemours.
NARCEINE and NARCOTINE, alkaloids obtained from Opium (which see). Narceine
was discovered by Pulletier in 1832 ; and narcotino by Derosne in 1803.
NARVA (Esthonia, Russia). Here Peter the Great of Russia was totally defeated by
Charles XII. of Sweden, "the Madman of the North," then in his nineteenth year, Nov. 30,
1700. The army of Peter is said to have amounted to 60,000, some Swedish writers affum
100,000 men, while the Swedes did not much exceed 20,000. Charles attacked the enemy
in his intrenchments, and slew 30,000 ; the remainder, exceeding that number, sur
rendered. He had several horses shot under him, and as he was mounting a fresh one ho
said, "These people seem disposed to give me exercise." The place was taken by Peter
in 1704.
NASEBY (Northamptonshire), Battle of, between Charles I. and the parliament
army under Fairfax and Cromwell. The main body of the royal army was commanded by
lord Astley ; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Marmadukc Langdale the left, and the
king himself headed the body of reserve. The victory was with the parliament forces,
and was decisive against the king, who fled, losing his cannon, baggage, and 5000 prisoners,
June 14, 1645.
XAS .vi 1 NAT-
NASHVILLE (Tennessee, X. America), was occupied by the Confederates in 1S61, and
taken by the Federals, Feb. 23, 1862.
NASSAU, a German duchy, was made a county by the emperor Frederic I. about 1180.
for Wolram, a descendant of Conrad I^of Germany ; from whom are descended the royal
house of Orange now reigning in Holland (see Oraiuje and Holland), and the present duke of
Nassau. Wiesbaden was made the capital in 1839. On April 25, 1S60, the Isassau chamber
strongly opposed the conclusion of a concordat with the popo, and claimed liberty of faith
and conscience. Population of the duchy in 1865, 468,311.
1738. Count Fredoric-William joins the Confedera 1839. Adolphus-William-Charles, born July 24, 1817.
tion of tho Hhine, and is made dcke in 1806. Tho niKSENT duke.
1814. Williani-George, Aug. 20.
NATAL (Cape of Good Hope), Vaseo da Gania landed hero on Dec. 25, 1497, and hence
named it Terra Natalis. The Dutch attempted to colonize it about 1721. In 1823 lieut.
Farewell and a small band of emigrants settled here. It was annexed to the Hritish crown
in 1843 ; and made a bishopric iu 1853, and an independent colony in 1856.
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. Upon the proposition of the Abbe Sieyes, the states-general
nf France constituted themselves as the National Assembly, June 17, 1789. On the 20th,
the hall of this new assembly was shut by order of tho king ; upon which the deputies of
the Tiers Etal repaired to the Jeu tic Paume, or Tennis-court, and swore not to dissolve until
they had digested a constitution for France. On the 22nd they met at the church at St.
Louis. This assembly abolished the state religion, annulled monastic vows, divided France
into departments, sold the national domains, established a national bank, issued assignats,
and dissolved itself Sept. 21, 1792. See National Convention. In 1848 the legislature was
again termed the National Assembly. It met May 4, and a new constitution was proclaimed
Nov. 12. A new constitution was once more proclaimed by Louis Napoleon in Jan. 1S52,
after triumphing over the National Assembly.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS. One wasformed in 1584, headed by the carl of Leicester,
to protect queen Elizabeth from assassination, in consequence of the discovery of various
plots. Another for the defence of William III. against assassins was established in 1696, of
which all persons holding office under government were required to be members. Sec Social
Science and Volunteers for two other National associations.
NATIONAL CONVENTION of France, constituted in the hall of the Tuileries
Sept. 17, and formally opened Sept. 21, 1792, when M. Gregoiie, at the head of the
National Assembly, repaired thither and announced that that assembly had ceased its
functions. It was then decreed, "That the citizens named by the French people to form the
National Convention, being met to the number of 371, after having verified their powers,
declare that the National Convention is constituted." This convention continued until a
new constitution was organised, and the Executive Directory was installed at the little
Luxembourg, Nov. 1, 1 795. See Directory. Tho Chartists {which see) in England formed a
National Convention in 1 839.
NATIONAL DEI5T. The first mention of parliamentary security for a debt of the nation
occurs in' the reigu of Henry VI. The present national debt commenced in the reign of
William III. 1690. It amounted, in 1697, to about five millions sterling, and was then
thought to be of alarming magnitude. The sole cause of the increase has been war.
Debt. DtU. Debt.
1702. Anno . about £14,000,000 1817. English and Irish i860. Funded debt £785,962.000
1 714. Georgo 1. . . 54,000,000 Exchequers con- Unfunded . 16,228,300
1749. Georgo II. (after snlidatcd £848,282,477 18G1. Funded debt ■ 785."9,6o9
Spanish war) . 78,000,000 1830. Total amount 840,184,022 Unfunded 16,689,000
1763. George III. (end 1840. Ditto . 789.578,730 1862. Funded debt • 7R4. 253.338
of tho Seven 1850. Ditto . 787.029,162 Unfunded . 16,517,900
Years' War) . 139,000,000 1854. Ditto 775,041,272 1863. Funded debt • 783.306,739
17S6. After American 1855. Ditto . 793.375.ioq Unfunded • i6.495.40o
war . . 268,000,000 1856. Ditto 807,981,788 1864. Funded debt ■ 777.439,324
1798. Foreign war . . 462,000,000 1857. Funded debt 780,119,722 Unfunded 13,136,000
i3o2. Close of French Unfunded 27,989,000 1865. Funded debt • 775.768.295
Revolutionary 1858. Funded debt 779."5,49S Unfunded 10.742,500
war . . 571,000,000 Unfunded 25,91 1,500 [Exclusive of terminable
1814. Close of war witli 1859. Funded debt 786,801,154 annuities.]
Napoleon . 865,000,000 Unfunded 18,277,400
Tho annual interest in 1S50 was 23,862,2^7'. ; and tho total interost. including annuities, amounted to
37.699.740'. On Jan. j, 1851. tho total unredeemed debt of Great Britain and Ireland w.is 760,272,562^, the
charge on which for interest and management was 27,620,449?. The total charge on the debt iu 1861 was
26,090, 26oi.
NAT 503 NAT
NATIONAL GALLERY, London (containing now about 750 pictures), began with the
purchase, by the British government, of the Angerstein collection of 38 pictures, for 57,000?.,
in Jan. 1824. The first exhibition of them took place in Pall-mall, on May 10, 1824. Sir
<i. Beaumont (1826), Mr. Holwell Carr (1831), and many other gentlemen, as well as the
British Institution, contributed many fine pictures ; and the collection has been since greatly
augmented by gifts and purchases. The present edifice in Trafalgar-square, designed by Mr.
YVilkins, was completed and opened April 9, 1838. In July, 1857, a commission appointed
to consider the propriety of removing the pictures reported in favour of their remaining in
their present locality ; and in i860, 15,000?. were voted, to be expended in adapting the
central part of the building to exhibition purposes. On May II, 1861, the National Gallery
was reopened, after having been closed eight months, during which time great improvements
were made in the internal arrangements. On June 19, 1865, the house of commons voted
20,000?. to buy land to enlarge the building.
NATIONAL GUARD of France was instituted by the Committee of Safety at Paris
on July 13, 1789 (the day before the destruction of the Bastile), to maintain order and
defend the public liberty. Its first colours were blue and red, to which white was added,
when its formation was approved by the king. Its action was soon paralysed by the revo
lutionary factions, and it ceased altogether under the consulate and empire. It was revived
by Napoleon in 1814, and maintained by Louis XV1IL, but was broken up by Charles X.
after a tumultuous review in 1827. It was revived in 1830, and helped to place Ix>uis
Philippe on the throne. In 1848 its recoustitution and its enlargement from 80,000 to
100,000 men led to the frightful conflict of June, 1848. Its constitution was entirely
changed in Jan. 1852, when it was subjected entirely to the control of the government.
Formerly the National Guard had many privileges, such as choosing their own officers, &c.—
National Guards have been established in Spain, Naples, and other countries, during the
present century.
NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY was established in Feb. 1857 in pursuance of votes
from both houses of parliament. The sum of 2000/. was appropriated for the purchase of
portraits of persons cminont in British history, and apartments were assigned for their
reception. Donations are received under certain restrictions. A valuable collection of
National Portraits appeared at the Manchester Exhibition in 1857.*
NATIONAL SCHOOLS. Sec Education.
NATIONAL TESTIMONIALS (subscribed for) were presented to Rowland Hill (for his
exertions in obtaining the penny postage), Juno 17, 1846 : and to Miss Florence Nightingale
(for her beneficent exertions for the sufferers during the Crimean war), Nov. 29, 1855.
NATIVITY. There are two festivals in the Roman and Greek churches, under this
name. The Nativity of Christ, also observed by the Protestants on December 25th (see
Christmas) ; and the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, not observed by the Protestants at all.
Pope Sergius I., about 690, established the latter ; but it was not generally received in
France and Germany till about 1000 ; nor by the eastern Christians till the 12th century.
NATURAL HISTORY was studied by Solomon, 1014 B.C. (1 Kings iv. 33), and by
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). See Botany, Zoology, &c.
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. See Philosophy.
NATURAL SELECTION. See Sjiecies.
NATURALISATION is defined to be "the making a foreigner or alien a denizen or
freeman of any kingdom or city, and so becoming, as it were, both a subject and a native of
a king or country, that by nature he did not belong to. " The first act of naturalisation
passed in 1437 ; and various similar enactments were made in most of the reigns from that
time : several of them special acts relating to individuals. An act for the naturalisation of
the Jews passed May, 1753, but was repealed in 1754, on the petition of all the cities in
England ; for the privileges since granted them, see Jews. The act for the naturalisation of
prince Albert passed 3 Vict. Feb. y, 1840.
NATURE-PRINTING. This process consists in impressing objects, such as plants,
mosses, feathers, &c, into plates of metal, causing these objects, as it were, to engrave them
selves ; and afterwards taking casts or copies fit for printing from. Kniphof of Erfurt,
* The formation of a National Portrait Exhibition was proposed by the carl of Derby, earl Granvillo,
and others, at a meeting in London on July 13, 1865. It ia to bo held in April, 1866, in the old refreshment
room of the exhibition building of 1862.
NAV 504 NAV
between 1728 and 1757, produced his Herbarium vivum by pressing the plants themselves
(previously inked) on paper ; the impressions being afterwards coloured by hand. In 1833,
Peter Kyhl, of Copenhagen, made use of steel rullers and lead plates. In 1842, Mr. Taylor
printed lace. In 1847, Mr. Twining printed ferns, grasses, and plants ; and in the same
year Dr. Branson suggested the application of electrotyping to the impressions. In 1849,
professor Leydolt, of Vienna, by tne able assistance of Mr. Andrew Worring, obtained
impressions of agates and fossils. The first practical application of this process is in Von
Heufler'8 work on the Mosses of Arpasch, 111 Transylvania ; the second (the first in this
country) in "The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland," edited by Dr, Lindlcy, the illus
trations to which were prepared under the superintendence of Mr. Henry Bradbury in
1855-6, who also in 1859-60 printed "The British Sea-weeds," edited by W. G. Johnstons
and Alex. Croall.
NAVAL ARCHITECTS' INSTITUTE was established in Jan. i860. The members
give much attention to the consideration of the strength of iron ships.
NAVAL ASYLUM, Royal, began at Paddington in 1801, and was transferred to Green
wich in 1807. The interior of the central portion was commenced in 1613 by Anne, queen
of James I., and completed in 1635 by queen Henrietta-Maria, whose arms still adorn the
ceiling of the room in which her son Charles II. was born in 1630.
NAVAL BATTLES. The Argonautic expedition undertaken by Jason is the first upon
record, 1263 B.C. Ihtfresnoy. The first sea fight on record is that between the Corinthians
and Corcyreans, 664 B.C. Blair. The following are among the most celebrated naval
engagements : for the details of which sec separate articles.
Battle of SaUmie (Greek victory) Oct. 20, B.C. 480 gaging 40 English, six of which are taken or
Battle of Eurymedon (ditto) 466 destroyed ; and the Dutch admiral sails in
Battle of Cystous ; the Lacedioroonian fleet triumph through tho channel, with a broom
taken by Alcibiadcs, the Atheuiau . 410 at his mast-head, to denote that he had swept
Battle of Argimistu 406 the English from the seas . Nov. 29. 1652
Battle of iEgospotamos (Spartans victors! 405 The English gain a victory over the Dutch fleet
The Persian fleet, under Conon, defeat* the off Portsmouth, taking and destroying 11
Spartan, at Cnidos ; Pisander, the Athenian men-of-war and 30 merchantmen. Van Tromp
admiral is killed ; and the maritime power was tho Dutch, and Blake the English admiral,
of the Lacoda;monians destroyed . 394 ! Feb. 18-20, 1653
Battle of Mylie (Romans defeat Carthaginians) 260 Again, off the North Foreland. The Dutch and
The Roman fleet, off Trepanum, destroyed by Englifh fleets consisted of near 100 men-
the Carthaginians of-war each. Van Tromp commanded the
The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by the consul Dutch; Blake, Monk, and Deane. the Eng-
Lutat ius 241 I lish. Six Dutch sbiis taken; 11 sunk, and
Battle of Actium 31 the rest ran into Calais roads . June a, f,
The emperor Claudius II. defeats the Goths, Again, 011 the coast of Holland ; the Dutch lose
and sinks 2000 of thuir ships . . a.d. 269 30 men-of-war, and admiral Tromp was killed
Battle of Lepanto (Turks defeated) . Oct. 7, 1571 (tho seventh and last battle) . . July,
Bay of Gibraltar ; Dutch and Spaniards (a At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 2,000,000
bloody conflict and docisivo victory, givingfor pieces of eight, wore taken by Blake . Sept. 1656
atime the superiority to the Dutch,) April 25, 1607 Spanish fleet vanquished, and burnt in the
harlxmr of Santa Cruz, by Blake . April 20, 1657
NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BWHSII BISTORT. English and French : 130 of tho Bordeaux fleet
Alfred with 10 galleys, defeated 700 axil of destroyed by tho duke of York (afterwards
Danish pirates on the Dorset and Hampshire James II.) Dec. 4. 1664
coast. Atstr's Life of Atfre>l .... 897 The duko of York defeats tho Dutch fleet off
Edward III. defeats the French near Sluys, Harwich ; Opdam, the Dutch admiral, blown
June 24, 340 up with all his crow ; 18 capital ships taken,
Off Winchelsca : Kdward III. defeated the 14 destroyed ..... June 3, 1665
Spanish fleet of 40 large ships,and captured 26, Tho earl of Sandwich took 12 men-of-war and 2
Aug. 29. 1350 India sl ips Sept. 4,
The English and Flemings ; the latter signally A contest between the Dutch and English
defeated 1371 fleets for four days. Tho English h>e 9, and
Earl of Arundel defeats a Flemish fleet of 100 the Dutch 15 ships. . . June 1-4, 1666
sail, and captures 80 ■ March 24, 1387 Decisive engagement at tho mouth of the
Near Milford Haven ; the English take 8, and Thames, the Kngli.sh gain a glorious victory.
destroy 15 French ships 1405 Tho Dutch lose 24 men-of-war, 4 admirals
Off Harfleur ; tho duko of Bedford takes or killed, and 4,000 seamen . July 25, 26,
destroys nearly 500 French ships . Aug. 15, 1416 Tho Dutch admiral Do Ruyter sails up the
In the Downs ; a Spanish and Genoese fleet Thames and destroys some ships . June ri, 1667
captured by the earl of Warwick , . 1459 Twelve Algerinc ships of war destroyed by sir
Bay of Biscay ; English and French, indecisive, Edward Spragg .... May 10, 1671
Aug. 10, 1512 Battle of Southwold-bay. See Soletxty. May 28, 1672
Sir Edward Howard attacks tho French under Coast of Holland; by prince Rupert, May 28,
Prior John ; repulsed and killed April 25, 1513 Juno 4, and Aug. 11, sir E. Spragg killed ;
Tho S anith Armada destroyed . . July 19, 15S8 d'Etrees and Ruyter defeated . . . 1673
Dover straits , between the Dutch admiral Van Off Boachy Head ; the English and Dutch de
Tromp, and admiral Ulako. Tho Dutch sur feated by tho French . . Juno 30, 1690
prise the English in tho Downs, 80 sail cn- Victory mar Cape La Hoguo . May 19, 1692
NAV ;-0.-, NAV
NAVAL BATTLES, continued.
Off St. Vincent ; tho English and Dutch squad beaten. Again, July 6, off Trincomale^, they
rons, under admiral Rooke, defeated by tho had 15 to 12, and were again beaten with loss
French June 16, 1693 I of 1000 killed, Sept. 3, 1782 ; again, June 20, 1783
Off Carthagena, between admiral Bcubow * Lord Howe defeated tho French off Ushant,
and the French fleet, commanded by admiral took 6 ships of war, and sunk one June 1, 1794
Du Casse. Fought .... Aug. 19, 1702 J Sir Edward Pellew took 15 sail ; burnt 7, out of
Sir George Rooko defeats the French fleet off a fleet of 35 sail of transports . March 8, 1795
Vigo (which *ff) Oct. 12, French flcot defeated, and 2 ships of war taken
Off Malaga ; bloody engagement between the by admiral Hotham. Fought March 14. „
French, under the count of Thoulouse, and Admiral Cornwallis took 8 transports, convoyed
the English, under sir George Rooko, when by 3 French men-of-war. Fought June 7, ,,
the formor entirely relinquished the dominion Eleven Dutch East Indiamen taken by the
of the seas to England . . Aug. 24, 1704 I Sce/dre, man of-war, and some armed British
At Gibraltar ; French lose 5 men-of-war, Nov. 5, Indiamen in company . . June 19,
In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake took 60 L'Oricnt ; the French fleet defeated by lorn
French vessels, laden with provisions, May 22, 1708 I Bridport, and 3 ships of the line taken. Sco
Spanish fleet of 29 sail totally defeated by sir VOrient Juno 25, „
George Byng, In the Faro of Messina, July 31, 1718 J Dutch fleet, under admiral Lucas, in Saldanha
Bloody buttle off Toulon ; Matthews and Lcs- Bay surrenders to sir George Keith Elphin-
tock aj/ainst tho fleets of France and Spain. stono. See SaUlanka Bay . . Aug. 17, r7</»
Here the brave captain Cornwall fell with 42 Cape St. Vincent (which nee) . . Feb. 14, 1797
men, including officers ; and the victory was Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz ; admiral
lost by a misunderstanding between the Nelson loses his right arm . . July 24,
English admirals Feb. 1744 Camperdown (which tee) . . .Oct. 11,
Off Capo Finistcrre, tho French fleet of 38 sail Nile (which tee) Aug. 1, 179S
taken by admiral Anson . . . May 3, 1747 Off the coast of Ireland ; a French fleet of 9 sail,
Off Finistcrre, when admiral Hawke took 7 fullof troops, assuecours to the Irish, engaged
men-of-war of the French . . Oct. 14, by sir John Borlase Warren, and 5 taken,
Off Newfoundland, when admiral Boscawen Oct. 12,
took 2 men-of-war .... June 10, 1755 I The Toxel fleet of 12 ships and 13 Indiamen
Off Cape Francoise ; 7 ships defeated by 3 Eng surrenders to admiral Mitchell . Aug. 28, '799
lish Oct. 21, 1757 [ Capture of the Cerbirt (which see) . . July 29,
Admiral Pocock defeats' the Trench fleet in the Copenhagen bombarded. Sco Copenhagen,
East Indies, in two actions, 1758, and again . 1759 l April 2, [801
Admiral Boscawen defeats the French under Gibraltar Bay ; engagement between the French
Dc la Clue, off Cape Lagos . Aug. 18, and British fleets ; the Hannibal of 74 guns
Admiral Hawke defeats the French fleet, com lost July 6,
manded by Conflans, in Quiberon Bay, and Off Cadiz: sir James Saumarez obtains a vic
thus prevents a projected invasion of Eng tory over the French and Spanish fleets ; 1
land. See Quiberon Bay . . . Nov. 20, ship captured. Fought . . . July 12,
Keppel took 3 French frigates, and a fleet of Sir Robert Calder, with 15 sail, tikes 2 ships
merchantmen Oct. 9, 1762 [ (both Spanish) out of 20 sail of the French
On Lake Champlain the provincial force totally and Spanish fleets, off Ferrol . July 22, 1 So5
destroyed by admiral Howe . . Oct. 11, 1776 Off Trafalgar (which nee) . . . . Oct. 21, „
Off Ushant ; a drawn battle between Koppel Sir R. Strachan, with 4 sail of British, captures
and d'Orvilliers .... July 27, 1778 4 French ships, off Capo Ortcgal Nov, 4, „
In New England ; the American fleet totally In the West Indies : the French defeated by sir
destroyed ..... July 30, 1779 T. Duckworth ; 3 sail of tho Hue taken, a
Near Cape St. Vincent ; admiral Rodney de driven on shore ..... Feb. 6, 1806
feated a Spanish fleet under admiral Don Sir John Borlase Warren captures 2 French
Langara. See Rodney . . Jan. 16, 1780 ships March 13, ,,
At St. Ja*fO ; Mons. Suffrein defeated by com Admiral Duckworth effects tho passage of the
modore Johnstone . April 16, 1781 Dardanelles. Sec article Dardanelles, Feb. 19, 1807
Dogger bank, between adm. Parker and the Copenhagen fleet captured . . Sept 8, „
Dutch adm. Zoutman : 400 killed on each side, The Russian fleet of several sail, in the Tagus,
Aup. 5, surrenders to the British , . . Sept. 3, 1808
Admiral Rodney defeated the French going to Basquo Roods : 4 sail of tho hue, ic., destroyed
attack Jamaica ; took 5 ship* of the line, and by lord Gambier .... April 12, 1809
sent the French admiral, Comte do Grasso, Two Russian flotillas of numerous vessels tiken
prisoner to England . April 12, 1782 or destroyed by sir J. Saumarez . July,
The British totally defeated the fleets of France French ships of the line driven on shore by
and Spain in the Bay of Gibraltar, Sept. 13, „ lord Collingwood (2 of them burnt by tho
East, Indies : a series of actions between sir French next day) .... Oct 25, „
Ed«ard Hughes and Suffrein, viz. : Feb. 17, Bay of Rosas, where Hcut. Taiiour by direction
1782, tho French had 11 ships to 9; April 12 of captain Hallowcll tikes- or destroys 11 war
they had 18 ships to n, yet were completely and other vessels. See Rosas Bay, Nov. 1, „
* In the engagement, the other ships of admiral Benbow's squadron falling astern, left this brave
commander alone to maintiin the unequal battle. In this situation a chain-shot shattered his leg, yet he
would not be removed from the quarter deck, but continued fighting till the morning, when tho trench
sheered off. He died in Oct. following, of his wounds, at Jamaica, where, soon after his arrival, ho
received a letter from the French admiral, of which tho following is a literal translation :—
" Cartho/fcna, Aug. 22, 1702.
"Sm,—I had little hop^s, on Monday lost, but to have supped in your cabin ; yet it pleased God to
order it otherwise. I am thankful for it. As for those cowardly captains who desortod you. hang them
up, for by G—d they deserve it. " Du Caskk."
Two of those unworthy cowards, captains Kirby and Wade, were shot on their arrival at Plymouth,
having been previously tried by a court-martial.
NAV NAV
NAVAL BATTLES, continued.
Basseterre : La Loire and La Stint. French
can ship Hornet : she was so disabled that
she sunk with part of her crew
frigates, destroyed by sir A. Cochrane, Feb. 25, 1813
American frigate Chesapeake taken by the Shan
Dec. " 1 Sc*)
non, captain Broke. See Chesapeake. June i, „
The Spartan frigate gallantly engages a large
French force in the bay of Naples Mav 3, 1 3 1 'j
American ships Growler and Eagle token by
Action between the Tribune, captain Reynolds,
British gun-boats .... June 3,
and 4 Danish brigs. Fought . May 12, ,,
American sloop Argus taken by the British
Isle of Itht'; 17 vessols taken or destroyed by
sloop Pelican Aug. 14, „
the Armide and Cadmus . . . July 17,
French frigate La Trait, 44 guns, taken by the
Captain Barrett, in the merchant vessel. Cum-"
Andromache of 38 guns . . Oct 23, „
Oerland, with 26 men, defeats four privateers
French frigate Ceres taken by the British ship
Tagus ...... Jan, 6, 1814
and tikes 170 prisoners . . Jan. 16, 1811
Twenty-two vessels from Otranto taken by the
French frigates Alcmene and Ipldgtnia taken
Cerberus and Active .... Feb. 22, by the Venerable .... Jan. 16, „
Amazon French frigate destroyed off Cape Bar-
French frigate Terpsichore taken by tho Majestic
fleur March 25, Fob. 3,
.Sagone Bay : 2 Frencli store-ships burnt by
French ship Clorinde taken by tho Dryad and
captain Barrio's ships . . . May 1, Achates, after an action with the Eurotas,
The British sloop, Little Belt, and American Feb. 25, „
ship President: their rencontre . May 16, „
French frigate L'Etoile captured by tho Hebrus,
Otf Madagascar ; 3 British frigates under cap March 27, „
tain Schombcrg, engage 3 French larger-sized,
American frigate Essex captured by the Phabe
with troops on board, and capture 2, May 20, ,,
and Cherub March 29.
The Thames and Cephalus capture 36 French
British sloop Avon sunk by the American sloop
vessels Wasp July, ,, Sept. 8, „
The- Kaiad frigate attacked in presence of
Lake Champlain : the British squadron cap
Bonaparte by 7 armed praams ; they were
tured by tho American, after a severe conflict,
gallantly repulsed .... Sept. 21, Sept. ix, „
French frigates Pavline and Pomone, captured
American ship Prmdtnt captured by the Eudy-
by the British frigates Alas!', Active, and
mion Jan. 15, 18x5
UnilS Nov. 29,
Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth. See
Jtivoli, 84 guns, taken by Victorious, 74, Feb. 21, 1812
Algiers Aug. 27, 1816
L'Orient ; 2 French frigates, <fcc., destroyed by
Navarino (which see) .... Oct 20, iSj?
Action between tho British ships Volage and
the Northumberland, Capt. Ilotham May 22,
Guerriire, British frigate, 46 small guns, cap
Hyacinth and 29 Chinese war-junks, which
tured by the American ship Constitution, 54
were defeated Not. 3, 1839
guns fan unequal contest) . Aug. 19,
Bombardment and fall of Acre. Tho British
British brig Frolic, captured by the American
squadron under admiral Stopford achieved
sloop Was/} Oct 18, „
this triumph with trifling loss, while the
British frigate Macedonian taken by the Ame
Egyptians lost 2000 killed and wounded, and
rican ship United Stat?a, large class, Oct. 25,
3000 prisoners. See Syria . . Nov. 3, 1840
British frigate Java, taken by the American
Lagos attacked and taken by commodore Bruce,
ship Constitution, large class . . Dec. 29, „
with a squadron consisting of the Penelope,
British frigate Amelia loses 46 men killed and
Bloodhound, Sampson, and Teazer, war-
95 wounded, engaging a French frigate, steamers, and tho Philomel brig of war,
Feb. 7, 1813 Dec. 26, 27, 1851
British sloop Peacock captured by the Ameri
[For naval actions which cannot bo called
regular battles, see China and/aj>an.]
SHU'S TAKEN-OR DESTROYED BY THE NAVAL AND MARINE FORCES OF GREAT BRITAIN:—
In the French War, ending 1802. 1 In the French War, end; 18U.
.a ±i
Force. a A Spani -O Tota | iSpan iDan] 1 Ameni 30
I a9 Sa 1 K f
Of the lino 452 11 2 83 7° 27 23 0 124
Fifties . 1 O 0 z 04 I
Frigates . 133 31 20 1913 7
77 36 24 6 1489
Bloops, &c. . 161 32 55 167 264 188 64 16 7 135 28S
Total . 341 89 86 »5 541 342 127 64 •7 19 569
Yean. Ship*.! Tona. Hen. Navj Estimate* Years Shlp«. Tons. Men. Nayy Estimates.
1546 58 12,455 8,546 no account. 1702 272 159 020 40,000 £1,056,915
> 558 7,110 3.565 no account. 1760 412 321.134 70,000 3,227,143
1578 *724 10,506 6,700 no account. 1793 498 433.226 45,000 5.525.33'
1603 42 '7.055 8,346 no account. 1800 767 663,744 '35,000 12,432.837
1658 157 57.000 21,910 no account. 1808 869 892,800 143,800 17.496,047
1688 173 101,892 42,000 no account. 1814 901 966,000 146,000 18,786,509
Great Britain had 901 ships, of which 177 were tho admiralty in 1861 : adopted by Ericsson hi
of the Une ; and in 1830, she had 621 ships, tho Monitor, 1862 ; proposed to be adopted by
some of 140 guns each, and down to survey the British government 1862
ing vessels of two guns only. Of those 148 Six different kinds of plated vessels said to bo
sail were employed on foreign and homo constructing; E. J. R-;ed authorised to build
wervice 1814 the Enterprise as a specimen of an iron-plated
The screw propeller introduced in tho Royal sea going vessel April, ,,
Navy ... ..... 1840 R»i/nl 0(d; iron-clad steamer, launched at Chat
The total number of ships of all sizes in com ham Sept. 10, „
mission, 183 Jan 1, 1841 Twin or double-screws for vessels of light
The Navy consisted of 339 sailing and 161 steam draught introduced 1863
vessels ..... ... 1850 Mr. E. J. Reed appointed chief constructor in
Naval Coast Volunteers' act passed . . Aug. 1853 the Royal Navy .... Jan.
Of 315 sailing vcs-tcls, 97 screw steamers, and Navy consists of 1014 vessels of all classes ; 85
1 14 paddle steamers .... April 1854 line of battle ships; 69 frigates; 30 screw
The queen reviews the Baltic fleet at Spithead, corvettes Jan. „
March 10, 1854, and April 23, 1856 Steam ram Valiant launched . . Oct. 14, „
Of 271 sarins vessels, carrying 9594 guns, and Minotaur iron-steamer launched . Doc. 12,
258 steam vessels, carrying 6582 guns ; to Ro> al School of Naval Architecture, South
gether 573 vessel-*, carrying 16.176 guns ; also Kensington, established :1S64
155 gun boats, and m vessols on harbour The turret-ship Soverripii, constructed on Coles'
service ...... July ,, principle, put out of commission, and placed
Proclamation for manning tho navy, April 30, 1859 among reserve ships ; this Warned by some.
Naval Reserve Force authorised . . Aug. „ Oct .
Flogging not to be inflicted on first-class sea Naval models from the time of Henry VIII.
men except after a trial . . . Doc. „ collected early in the present century by sir
Great exeitcmfnt respecting tho French govern Robert Seppinga, removed to South Kensing
ment building the plated frigate Gloirc (see ton Museum Dec. ,
next page) i860 29 iron clad vessels building "to be ready for
The Warrior, our first iron-plated steam frigate, sea this year" March, 1865
the largest vessel in the world except the Bcller-rphou, iron-clad, by Mr. E. J. Reed ; and
Great £\utem (see Steam), length, 380 ft. ; the L T't Warden, iron clad, launched May,
breadth 58 ft. ; iron-plate A inches thick ; A British fleet entertained at Cherbourg, Brest,
6170 tons burthen ; cost about 400,000/. ; &e.,Aug. 15, &c. ; and a French fleet at Ports
launched [censured in 1864] . . Dec. 29, ., mouth Aug. 29-37,
A royal commission reeonimends tho abolition Annual Expenditure ox the BuiTisii Navy. —
of the board of admiralty, and the appoint 1850, 6,942,397/. ; — 1854, 6.640,596V, ; — 1855, (to
ment of a minister of the navy department, March 31, Jtufsian war), 14,490.105/.; — 1856,
March, 1861 19,654,585/.12,598,042/.
■—1862, ;—1859, 9; —215,487;- 1861, 13,331,668'.
1863 11,370,588/. ;—1864,;
Lord Clarence Fa^et, secretary of admiralty,
states that England has 67 steam slrps of tho 10,821,596/. :— Miniate for year 1865-6, 10,392,224/.
line ; while France has 37, Russia 9, Spain 3, This NaVaL Salute to the British Flam licgan in
and Italy 1 \pril 11, Alfreds reign, and though sometimes disputed,
New act for the government of the navy (the may be Paid to have been continued ever since.
Naval Discipline Act) passes . . Aug. 6, „ Th'i Dutch agreed to strike to the English colours
Four iron-plaied vessels (400 ft. long: 59J ft. in thi= British seas, in 1673. The honour of the
wide ; and cost about 600,000/. each) build flag salute at sea wis also formerly assented to by
ing Dec. „ France in 1704, although it had been long pre
Capt, Cowper Coles' modo of constructing iron- viously exacted by England. See Fluff and Salutes
plated vessels, with a cupola for firing from, tit 8 a.
made known in 1855^ and recommenced to Naval Uniforms. The first notice of tho establish-
NAV 5n9 NEL1
NAVY, continued.
roent of a uniform in the British naval service, Finlaison, the celebrated actuary, and published
which we have met with, occurs in the Jacobite's monthly in 1814.
Journal of March 5, 1748, under the head of " Do Naval Reviews. The queen reviewed the fleet at
mestic News," in these terms:—"An order is Portsmouth in March, 1S54, before it Railed to the
said to be issued, requiring all his majesty's Fca- Baltic, at the commencement of the Russian war :
officers, from the admiral down to the midship and again at Portsmouth, on the conclusion of
man, to wear a uniformity of clothing, for which pence, in the presence of the parliament, &c., on
purpose pattern coats for dress suits and frocks April 23, 1856. The fleet extended in an unbroken
for each rank of officers are lodged at the Navy- line of t, miles, and consisted of upwards of 300
office, and at the several dock yards for their in inon-of-war, with a tonago of 150,000, carrying
spection. " This is corroborated by the Qaxette of 3800 guns, and manned by 40,000 seamen. There
July 13, 1757, when the first alteration In the uni were about 100,000 spectators.
form took place, and in which a reference is made Naval Volunteers (or Reserve). By 16 and 17 Vict,
to the order of 1748, alluded to in the journal c. 73 f 1853), the admiralty were empowered to raise
above mentioned, and which, in fact, is the year a body of seafaring men to bo called tho " Naval
when a naval uniform was first established. Coast Volunteers," not to exceed 10,000, for the
James I. had indeed (granted, by warrant of 6th defenco of the coast,, and for actual service if re
April, 1609, to six of his principal masters of the quired. On Aug. 13, 1859, an act was passed to
navy, " liverie coats of fine red cloth." The war enable tho admiralty to raise a number of men,
rant is stated to have been drawn verbatim from not exceeding 30,000, as a reserve force of seamen,
one signed by queen Elizabeth, but which bad not to be calkd the "Royal Naval Volunteers.** In
been acted upon by reason of her death. This November following the admiralty issued a state
curious document is in the British Museum ; but ment of the "qualifications, advantages, and obli
king James's limited red livery is supposed to gations" of this reserve. The enrolment com
have been soon discontinued. Quarterly Review. menced on Jan. r, i860 Tho engagement is for
The Navy Pay Offick, organised in 1644. was abo five years, and tho volunteers are entitled to a
lished in 1836, when the army and navy pay de pension when incapacitated after the expiration
partments were consolidated in the Paymaster of tho torm. At the prospect of war with the
General's office. United States in Dec. 1861, a great number of sea
The Navy List was first officially compiled by John men at Hartlepool, Dundee, London, Aberdeen,
I Ac, offered their services.
NAVY of France. It is first mentioned in history, 728, when, like that of England at
an early period, it consisted of galleys ; in this year the French defeated the Frisian ileet. It
was considerably improved under Louis XIV. at the instance of his minister Colbert, about
1697. The French navy was, perhaps, in its highest splendour about 1781 ; but it became
greatly reduced in the wars witli England. See Naval Mottles. It has been greatly increased
by the present emperor, and in 1859 consisted of 51 ships of the line (14 sailing vessels and
37 steamers), and 398 other vessels, in all 449 ; including vessels building, converting, or
ordered to be built. The new French iron-plated frigate Gloire, launched in i860, has been
subjected to much criticism, but appears to be generally considered as successful.* The
Solfcrino and Magenta were launched in June, 1861. Other iron vessels are in course of
construction.
NEBRASKA, a N."W. territory of North America, was organized May 30, 1854. Capital,
Omaha city.
NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS, put forth by sir Wm. Herechel, in 181 r, supposes that tho
universe was formed out of shapeless masses of nebulae or clusters of small stars. It has not
been generally received. In Oct. i860, Mr. Lassell strictly scrutinised the dumb-bell nebula,
and stated that the brightest parts did not appear to be stars. In 1865 Mr. "Wm. Hnggins
reported that he had analysed certain nebulae by their spectra, and believed them to be
entirely gaseous.
NECTARINE, the Amygdalis Persiea, originally came from Persia about 1562.
Previously, presents of nectarines were frequently sent to the court of England from the
Netherlands ; and Catharine, queen of Henry VIII., distributed them among her friends.
NEEDLES were first made in England in Cheapside, London, in the time of Mary L
by a negro from Spain, but was lost at his death, and not recovered till 1566, iu the reign of
Elizabeth, when Elias Growse, a German, taught the art to the English. Stow,
NEGRO TRADE. See Slavery.
NELSON'S VICTORIES, &c. See separate articles.
Horatio Nelson, born at Burnham Thorpe, Nor Distinguished himself in tho West Indies . . 1780
folk Sept. 29, 1758 I^ost an eye at tho reduction of Calvi, Corsica, 1794
Sailed with captain Phipps to the North Pole, 1773 Captured Elba Aug. 9, 1796
" Mr. Scott Russell Bays :—" The Gloire has been built by M. Dupuis de Lome, after a most exact
calculation of tho effect of iron plates upon the weight and speed of a vessel. She la perfectly fit to
carry a broadside of guns of as heavy a calibre as any that can bo carried and worked in our own wooden
ships, and she is driven at as least as high a speed as any vessel of Bimilar dimensions in our own service."
NEM 510 NEU
NELSON'S VICTORIES, continued.
With Jcrvis, at tho victory off St. Vincent, Feb. The body lay in state- in the Painted nail, at
14 ; made admiral . . . Feb. 30, 1797 Greenwich, Jan. 5 ; on the 8th was removed
Lost his right arm at the unsuccessful attack to the Admiralty.; the funeral took place,
on Santa Cruz .... July 35, 26. „ Jan. 9, 1S0S
Gained thu battle of the Nile, Aug. 1 ; created The prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.),
Baron Nelson of the Nile . . . Oct. 6, 1798 the duko of Clarence (afterwards William IV.),
Attacks Copenhagen, April 2 ; created viscount, and other royal dukes ; almost all the peers
May 22 : attacks Boulogno and destroys of England, and the lord mayor and corpora
several ships Aug. 3, 1801 tion of London, with thousands of military
Appointed to chief command in the Mediter and naval officers and distinguished men,
ranean May 20, 1S03 followed the funeral car to St. Paul's. The
Pursues tho French and Spanish fleets, March military assembled on this occasion amounted
to Aug. ; returns to England, Aug. ; ro-ap- to near 10,000 regulars, independent of volun
pcars at Cadiz, and defeats tho fleets in teers. The regulars consisted chiefly of the
Trafalgar Bay, whero ho is killed Oct. 21, 1805 regiments that had fought and conquered in
The Victory man-of-war arrived off Portsmouth Egypt
with his remains .... Dec. 4, „
NEMEAN GAMES, celebrated at Ncmea, in Achaia, were originally instituted by the
Argives, in honour of Arcbemorns, who died by the bite of a serpent, and Hercules some
time after renewed them, 1226 B.C. The conqueror was rewarded with a crown of olives,
afterwards of green parsley, in memory of tho adventure of Archemorus, whom his nurse
laid down on a sprig of that plant. They were celebrated every third year, or, according to
others, on the first and third year of every Olympiad, 1226 B.C. Ilerodutus. They were
revived by the emperor Julian, a.d. 362, but ceased in 396.
NEPAUL (India). The East India Company's war with the state of Nepaul commenced
Nov. I, 1814, and terminated April 27, 1815. A treaty of peace was signed between the
parties Dec. 2, 1815. War renewed by an infraction of the treaty by the Nepaidese, Jan.
1816 : and after several contests, unfavourable to the Nepaulese, the former treaty was ratified,
March 15, 1816. An extraordinary embassy from the king of Nepaul to the queen of Great
Britain arrived in England, landing at Southampton, May 25, and remained till Aug. 1850 ;
it consisted of the Nepaulese prince, Jung Bahadoor and his suite, to whom many honours
were paid. He supported the English during the English mutiny in 1857.
NEPHALIA, sacrifices of sobriety among the Greeks, when they offered mead instead of
wine to the sun and moon, to the nymphs, to Aurora, and to Venus ; and burnt any wood
but that of the vine, fig-tree, and mulberry-tree, esteemed symbols of drunkenness, 613 B.C.
NEPTUNE, a primary planet, first observ ed on Sept. 23, 1846, by Dr. Galle at Berlin,
in consequence of a letter from M. Le Verrier, who had conjectured from the anomalous
movements of Uranus, that a distant planet might exist nearly in the position where Neptune
is situated. Calculations to the same effect had been previously made by Mr. J. Couch
Adams. Neptune is said to have been seen by Lalande, and thought to be a fixed star.
NERWINDEN. See LanJ.cn.
NESTORIANS, the followers of Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople (428-431), who is
represented as a heretic for maintaining that though the Virgin Mary was the mother of
Jesus Christ as man, yet she was not tho mother of God, since no human creature could
impart to another what she had not herself ; he also held that God was united to Christ
under one person but remained as distinct in nature and essence as though he had never
been united at all. He was opposed by Eutyches, and died 439. See Eutych inns. Nestorian
Christians in the Levant administer the sacrament with leavened bread and in both kinds,
permit their priests to marry, and use neither confirmation nor auricular confession. Da Pin.
A Nestorian priest and deacon were in London in July, 1862.
NETHERLANDS. See Flanders, Holland, and Belgium.
NEUFCHATEL, a canton in Switzerland, formerly a lordship, afterwards a principality.
The first known lord was Ulric de Fenis, about 1032, whose descendants ruled till 1373,
after which by marriages it frequently changed governors. On the death of the last of the
Longuevilles, the duchess de Nemours, in 1707, there were many claimants ; among them
our William III. He and the allies however gave it to Frederic I. of Prussia with the title
of prince. In 1806 the principality was ceded to France, and Napoleon bestowed it on his
general Berthier, who held it till 1814, when it fell to the disposal of the allies. Thcy
restored the king of Prussia the title of prince with certain rights and privileges ; but
constituted it a part of the Swiss confederation.*
* After an unsuccessful attornpt in 183T, the inhahitmts in 1848 repudiated their allegiance to Prussia,
NEU 511 NEW
NEUSTIUA or Wist France, a kingdom allotted to Clotairc by his father Clovis, at his
death in 711. His descendant, Charlemagne, became sole king of France, in 771.
NEUTRAL POWERS. By the treaty of Paris, signed by the representatives of Great
Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Turkey and Sardinia, on April 16, 1856, it was
determined that privateering should be abolished ; that neutrals might carry an enemy's
goods not contraband of war ; that neutral goods not contraband were free even under an
enemy's flag ; and that blockades to be binding must be effective. The president of the
United States acceded to these provisions in 1861.
NEVADA, a western territory of the United States of N. America, organised March 2,
1861. Capital, Carson city.
NEVILLE'S CROSS, or Durham, Battle of, between the Scots under king David
Bruce, and the English under Philippa, consort of Edward III. and lord Percy, Oct. 17, 1346.
More than 15,000 of the Scots were slain, and their king taken prisoner.
NEVIS, Island of (W. Indies), planted by the English in 1628 ; taken by the French,
Feb. 14, 1782 ; restored to the English in 1783. The capital is Charleston.
• NEWARK (Nottinghamshire), Battle of, in which the royal army under prince Rupert
repulsed the army of the parliament, besieging the town, March 21, 1644. The church was
erected by Henry IV. Here, in the midst of troubles, died king John, Oct. 9, 1216; and
here, May 5, 1646, Charles I., after his defeat at Naseby, put himself into the hands of the
Scotch army, who afterwards gave him up to his enemies. Newark was first incorporated
by Edward VI. and afterwards by Charles II.
NEW BRUNSWICK was taken from Nova Scotia, and received its name as a separate
colony in 1785. In 1865 it opposed tho plan for uniting all the British North American
colonies in a confederation.
NEWBURY (Berkshire). Near here were fought two desperate battles—(1.) Sept. 20,
1643 : between the army of Charles I. and that of the parliament under Essex ; it termi
nated somewhat favourably for the king. Among the slain was the amiable Lucius Cary,
viscount Falkland, deeply regretted. (2.) A second battle of dubious result was fought
between the royalists and the parliamentarians, Oct 27, 1644.
NEW CALEDONIA (Pacific Ocean), discovered by Cook on Sept. 4, 1774, was seized by
the French and colonised in 1852. The French government in Dec. 1864, redressed the
outrages committed upon the British missionaries at a station established here in 1854.
NEWCASTLE upon Ttne (Northumberland), the Roman Pons JFAia. The first coal
port in the world,* and the metropolis of the north of England. Tho coal-mines were
discovered hereabout 1234. The first charter granted to tho townsmen for digging coal
was by Henry III. in 1239.
Tbc castle built by Robert Courthose, son of The magnificent market erected by Richard
William I. ..... 1080 Grainier, who otherwise greatly improved
Tho town fortified by William T I „ | the town 1835
St. Nicholas church built, aliout 1091 ; burnt in 1 High level bridge erected by Robert Stephcn-
1216; restored by Edward I., to whom John I Bon : and grand central station built . 1849-50
Baliol did homage here, 1292 ; rebuilt . . 1359 1 1538 persons die of cholera, Aug. 31 to Oct. 26. 1853
Newcastle surrenders to tho .Scotch in 1 Great fire through the explosion at Gateshead
1G40 and 1646 (ichich sfe) Oct. 6, 1854
Who here (rave up Charles I. to tlio parliament 1644 j Great distress through failure of Northumber-
Occupied by general Wade in . . . 1745' land Joint-Stock Bank . . -Nov. 1857
The Literary and Philosophical Society founded Richard Grainger dies, aged 63 . . July 4, 1861
1793; liberally endowed by Robert Stephenson Enthusiastic reception of Mr. W. E. Gladstone,
in 1858-9 j Oct 7-9. 1862
T. Bewick, the wood engraver, dies . . . iBa&j
and proclaimed Ncufchatel a free and independent member of the Swiss confederation. The king of
Prussia protested against this ; and in 1852 a protocol was signed between England. France, and Austria,
recognising his claims. In Sept. 1856, some of his adherents, headed by the count do Pourtales, broke out
into insurrection against tho republican authorities, who, however, quickly subdued and imprisoned them,
with the intention of bringing them to trial. War was threatened by the king of Prussia, and great energy
and determination manifested by tho Swiss. On the intervention of the English and French governments,
after many delays, a treaty was signed on June 1 1, 1857, by which tho king of Prussia virtually renounced
his claims, on receiving a pecuniary compensation, which he eventually gave up. Ho retains the title of
prince of Neufchatel without any political rights. The prisoners of Sept. 1856 were released without
trial, Jan. 18, 1857.
* In 1306 tho use of coal for fuel was prohibited in T/)ndon, by royal proclamation, chiefly because it
injured the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which were then growing about the city ; but this
interdiction did not long continue, and wc may consider coal as having been dug and exported from this
place for more than 500 years.
NEW 51-2 NEW
NEWCASTLE ADMINISTRATION, formed April, 1754; resigned Nov., 1756; when
the duke of Devonshire became first lord of the treasury.
Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle, first lord Lord Anson, first lord of the admiralty.
of the treasury. Lord Grenville, lord president.
Henry llilson Lcgge, thancellor of the ereheqxier. Lord Gower(succoeded by the duke of Marlborough-),
Earl of Holdemesse and sir Thomas Robinson (after- lord privy seal.
wards lord Grantham), secninries of state. The Duke of Grafton, earl of Halifax, George Gren-
latter succeeded by Henry Fox (afterwards lord ville. &c.
Holland). Lord Hardwicko, lord chancellor.
NEWCASTLE AND PITT ADMINISTRATION (sec Chatham Administration), formed
June, 1757 ; resigned May, 1762 ; lord Bute coming into power.
Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle, first lord Earl of Holdernesse, secretary of stateJot the southern
of Hit treasury. department.
William Pitt (afterwards lord Chatham), secretory Duke of Rutland, lord steward.
of statefor the northern de}mrtmrut, and leader ofthe Lord Anson, admiralty.
house of commons. Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by lord Ligonier),
Lord Grenville, lord president. ordnance.
Karl Temple, privy teal, Henry Fox, George Grenville, viscount Barrington,
Mr. Lejrge, chancellor tf the tj-cheqi''r. lord Halifax, James Grenville, &('.
Duke of Devonshire, lord chamberlain. Sir Robert Henley, lord kee^nr of the great seal.
NEW CHURCH. See Swcdcnboraiaiis.
NEW COLLEGE (St. John's-wood, London), erected by the Independent dissenters for
the education of their ministers, 1850-1, is founded on the union of Hoinerton, Highbury,
and Coward colleges. See Oxford.
NEW ENGLAND (N. America), comprising the states of Massachusetts, New Hamp
shire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, was settled by the Puritans who were driven from
England. The first attempt to form a settlement was made in 1607, which was named
New England by captain Smith, in 1614. Settlement of tho Plymouth company in 1620.
NEW FOREST (Hampshire), was made ("afforested") by William the Conqueror,
1079-85. Many populous towns and villages, and indeed the whole country, for above
thirty miles in compass, were laid waste, and no less than thirty-six churches were destroyed.
William Rufus was killed in this forest by an arrow, shot by Walter Tyrrel, that accidentally
glanced against a tree, Aug. 2, 1 100, the site of which is now pointed out by a triangular
stone. The New Forest Deer Removal act was passed 14& 15 Vict. c. 76, Aug. 7, 185 1.
NEWFOUNDLAND (N. America), discovered by Sebastian Cabot, who called it Prima
Vista, June 24, 1497. It was formally taken possession of by sir Henry Gilbert, 1583. In
the reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advantage of the English in the fishery.
In 1577 there were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from Portugal, 150 from France, and
only 15, but of larger size, from England. Hakluyt. But the English fishery in some years
afterwards (1625) had increased so much that the ports of Devonshire alone employed 150
ships, which sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, and Italy. The sovereignty of England was
recognised in 1 7 13. Nearly 1000 English families reside hero all the year ; and in the fishing
season (May to September) more than 15,000 persons resort to Newfoundland (one of our
finest nurseries for seamen). It obtained the privilege of a colonial legislation in 1845, and
the bishopric was established in 1839. —Appalling fire at St. John's, a great portion of the
town destroyed, the loss estimated at i,ooo,oooi. sterling, June 9, 1846.*
NEWGATE, London. The trison derives its name from the gate which once formed a
part of it, and stood a little beyond the Sessions-house in the Old Bailey. It was used as
a prison for persons of rank, as early as 1218; but was rebuilt about two centuries afterwards
by the executors of sir Richard Whittington, whose statue with a cat stood in the niche till
the time of its demolition by the great fire of London, in 1666. It was then reconstructed
in its late form ; hut the old prison being an accumulation of misery and inconvenience, was
pulled down and rebuilt between 1778 and 1780. During the riots in the latter year, the
interior was destroyed by fire, but shortly afterwards restored. In 1857 tho interior was
pulled down to be re-erected on a plan adapted to the reformatory system. The market,
established in 1681, was ordered to be abolished by an act passed in 1861. A meat and
poultry market is to be erected in Smithficld.
* On Jan. 14, 1857, a convention was concluded between the English and French governments, con
firming certain Fronch privileges of fishery in exchange fur others. The English colonists wore dissatisfied
with this convention.
NEW 513 NEW
NEW GRENADA (S. America), discovered by Ojeda in 1499, and conquered and settled
by the Spaniards in 1536. It formed part of the new republic of Bogota, established in
181 1 ; and, combined with Caracas, formed the republic of Colombia in Dec. 17, 1819. Sec
Colombia.
President M. Ospina entered on office, April 1, 1857 under the name of tho United States of
After several reunions and dissolutions, the re Colombia Sept. 20, 1861
public of New Granada merged into the Grena Arbolcda, chief of the conservatives, assassi
dine Confederation, which includes Bolivar, nated (succeeded by Cassal) . Nov. 1, 1862
Antioquia, Panama, and other small states, New constitution established . . Hay 8, 1863
June 15, 1858 Mosquera invites Venezuela and Equator to
Struggles between the conservatives, partisans join the confederation . . . Aug. „
of the old government, and tho liberals, Jan. 1861 Equator declines—war ensues . . Nov. 20, „
General Mosquera (liberal) deposes Ospina ; and Tho troops of Equator defeated, Dec. 6 ; peace
seizes the government . July 18, ,, ensues, and Equator remains independent,
A congress of the states determine on union. Dec. 3, „
NEW HAMPSHIRE, one of the original united states of N. America, was settled in
1623, and separated from Massachusetts in 1679. Capital, Concord.
NEW HARMONY. See Harmonists.
NEW HEBRIDES (S. Pacific Ocean), discovered by Qniros, who believing them to be a
continent named them Tierra Australia del Espiritu Santo, in 1606. Bougainville in 1768
found them to be islands ; and in 1774 Cook gave them their present name.
NEW HOLLAND. See Australia, New South Wales, &c.
NEAV JERSEY, one of the original united states of N. America, was settled by the Dutch
from New York, 1620 ; and by Swedes in 1627. Capital, Trenton.
NEW LANARK (W. Scotland). Here Robert Owen endeavoured to establish socialism
in 1801.
NEWMARKET (Cambridgeshire), renowned for its horse-races. It is first mentioned in
1227; and probably derived its name from the market then recently established. James I.
erected a hunting-seat here, called the king's house, to which Charles I. was taken as a
prisoner in 1647, when the parliament army was quartered in the neighbouring village of
Kennet. Charles II., who was fond of racing, built a stand-house for the sake of the
diversion, about 1667,* and from that period races have been annual to the present time ;
and many extraordinary races have been run. See Races.
NEW MEXICO <N. America), ceded to the United States in 1848, and organised as a
territory, Sept. 9, 1850. Capital, Santa Fe\
NEW ORLEANS, capital of Louisiana, N. America (which see), founded in 1717, under
the regency of the duke of Orleans. In 1788, seveu-eighths of the city were destroyed by
fire ; but it is now rebuilt. The British attacked New Orleans in Dec, 1814, and were
repulsed with great loss, by the Americans under general Jackson, Jan. 8, 1815. New
Orleans was surrendered to the Federals on April, 1862. The strong feeling of the inhabi
tants in favour of the Confederates and against the Federals induced general B. Butler to rule
them with military rigour, occasionally degenerating into brutal tyranny, especially towards
females, May to October, 1862. He was replaced by general Banks, Dec. 16, 1862.
NEWPORT (Monmouthshire). Chartist riots here were suppressed, Nov. 4, 1839.T
* During tho races, on March 22, 1683, Newmarket was nearly destroyed by an accidental fire, which
occasioned tno hasty departure of the company then assembled, including the king, the queen, the duke
of York, the royal attendants, and many of the nobility ; and to this disaster historians have ascribed the
failure of the Rye-house plot, the object of which was said to be the assassination of the king and his
brother on the road from Newmarket to Loudon, if the period of their journoy had not been thus antici
pated.
t TheSeechartists
Ryt-Hou*t Plot.see) collected from the mines and collieries in the neighbourhood, to the number
(which
of 10.000, armod with guns, pikes, clubs, Ac, arrived at Newport, Nov. 4, 1830, Tbey divided them
selves into two bodies—one, undor the command of Mr. John Frost, an ex-magistrate, proceedod down tho
principal street ; whilst the other, headed by his son, took the direction of Stowhill. They met In front
of the Westgate hotel, where the magistrates were assembled with about 30 soldiers of the 45th regiment,
and several special constables. The rioters commenced breaking the windows of the house, and fired on
the inmates, by which tho mayor, Mr. (now sir Thomas) Phillips, and several other persons wore wounded.
The soldiers returned the Are, and succeeded in dispersing the mob, which, with its leaders, fled from tho
town, leaving about 20 rioters dead, and many others dangerously wounded. A detachment of tho 10th
royal Hussars having arrived from Bristol, the town became tranquil. Frost was apprehended on the
following dny, together with his printer, and other influential persons among the chartists, lie and
several others were tried and convicted in Jan. 1840, and sentenced to death ; afterwards commuted to
transportation. An amnesty was granted them on May 3, 1856 ; and thay returned to England in Sept
following.
L L
NEW 514 NEW
NEW RIVER. An artificial river for the supply of London with water, commenced in
1609, and finished in 1613, when the projector, Hugh Myddelton, was knighted by James I.
Strype. This river, which rises in Hertfordshire, and which, with its windings, is forty-
two miles long, was brought to London, and opened Sept. 29, 1613. So little was the
benefit of it understood, that for above thirty years the seventy-two shares, into which it
was divided, netted only $1. apiece. Each of these shares was sold originally for tool.
Within the last few years they were sold at 9000/. a share, and some lately at 10,000/.
NEW ROSS (Wexford), S. E. Ireland. Here general Johnston totally defeated the rebels
under Beauchamp D. Bagenal Harvey, June 4, 1 798.
NEWRY (N. Ireland). In the rebellion of 1641, Newry was reduced to a ruinous con
dition ; it was surprised by sir Con. Magenis, but was retaken by lord Conway. After the
Restoration the town was rebuilt. It was burnt by the duke of Berwick when flying from
Schomberg and the English army, and only the castle and a few houses escaped, 1689.
NEW SOUTH WALES, the principal colony of Australia (which see). The eastern coast
of New Holland was explored and taken possession of by captain Cook in 1 770. At his
recommendation a convict colony was first formed here. Captain A. Phillip, the first
governor, arrived at Botany Bay with 800 convicts, Jan. 20, 17S8; but he subsequently
preferred Sydney, about seven miles distant from the head of Port Jaekson, as a more eligible
situation for the capital. A new constitution was granted in 1855 (iS& 19 Vic. c. 54). See
Sydney. Population, in 1856, 269,722 ; in 1859, 342,062 ; in 1862, 367,495. The imports
for 1859 amounted 106,597,053/.; the exports 104,768,049/. Governor, sir John Young,
appointed i860.
NEWS-LETTERS. News-writers in the reign of Charles II. collected from the coffee
houses information, which was printed weekly and sent into the country. The London
Gazette, then the only authorised newspaper, contained little more than proclamations and
advertisements.
NEWSPAPERS. The Roman Acta Diurna were issued, it is said, 691 B.C. In modem
times, a Gazetta, which derived its name from its price, a small coin, was published in Venice
(about 1536). The Gazette de France, now existing, first appeared in April, 1631, edited by
Renaudot, a physician. It was patronised by the King, Louis XIII., who wrote one article
for it, and by Richelieu. The first real newspaper published in England * was established
by sir Roger L'Estrange, in 1663 ; it was entitled the Public Intelligencer, and continued
nearly three years, when it ceased, on the appearance oftho Gazette. In the reign of
James I., 1622, appeared the London Weekly Couranl; and in the year 1643 (the period of
the civil war) were printed a variety of publications, certainly in no respect entitled to the
name of newspapers, of which the following were the titles :—
England's Memorable Accidents. The Scotch Intelligencer. The Mercurius Civicus, or London's
The Kingdom's Intelligencer. The Parliament's Scout. Intelligencer.
The Diurnal of Certain Passages in The Parliament's 8cout's Dis The Coxintry's Complaint, &c.
Parliament. covery, or Certain Information. The Weekly Accounts.
The Mercurius Aulicus. Mercurius Britannicus.
A paper called the London Gazette t was published 1790 M-635.°39
Aug. 22, 1642. The London Gazette of the existing 1S00 16,084.905
series was published first at Oxford, the court 1810 20,172,837
being there on account of the plague, Nov. 7, 1665, 1S20 24,862,186
and afterwards at London, Feb. 5, 1666. 182s 26,950.693
Printing of newspapers and pamphlets prohibited, 1830 30,158,741
31 Chas. I. 1680. Salmon's Chron. "83s 32.874.65"
The regular newspapers commenced on the abolition 1840 49,033.384
of the censorship of the press, in 1695. 1843 56,433.977
Daily Couranl first published in 1709. 1850 65,741,271
Newspapers first stamped in 1713. [In 1850 there wero also issued supplement
stamps at i(L, 11,684,423.]
KUMBER OP STAMPS ISSUED TO BRITISH NEWSPAPERS. In the year ending Jan. 5, 1851, there were 159 Lon
'753 7.*",757 don newspapers, in which appeared 891,650 adver
1760 9,404,790 tisements ; 222 English provincial newspapers,
1774 ..... 12,300,000 having 875,631 advertisements. In Scotland, same
* Some copies of a publication are in existeneo called tho English Merev.ry, professing to come out
under tho authority of queen Elisabeth, in 1588, the period of tho Spanish Armaria. Tho researches of
Mr. T. Watts, of the British Museum, haTe proved theso to be forgeries, executed about 1766. The full
title of No. 50 is " The English Merciirie, published by authoritie, for the prevention of false reports,
imprinted by Christopher Barker, her highness's printer, No. 50." It describes tho Spanish Armada,
giving " A journalist what passed since tho 21st of this month, between her majestio's fleet and that of
Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Ilighe Admiral, to the Lordes of council."
t On May 22, 1787, a London Gazette Extraordinary was forged, with a view of affecting tho funds.
NEW 515 NEW
NEWSPAPERS, continued.
year, no newspapers, haying 249,141 advertise The first published in America, the Boston News-
ments. In Ireland, 102 newspapers, having 336,128 Letter, in 1704 ; the first at Philadelphia in 17 19 ;
advertisements. The nurnr>er of stamps issued and the first in Holland in 1732.
was—in England, 65,741,271 at id, and 11,684,423 "America, whose population is 23 millions and a
supplement stamps at Jd. ; in Scotland, 7,643,045 half, supports 800 newspapers (50 of these publish
stamps at id., and 241,264 at $d ; in Ireland, ing daily), and their annual circulation is stated
6,302,728 stamps at id., and 43.358 at Bd. at 64,000,000. In Paris there exist 169 journals,
Reduction of newspaper duty from +d. to id. took literary, scientific, religious, and political."— West-
effect on Sept. 15, 1836. minster Review, 1830.
The distinctive die came into use Jan. 1, 1837.
Duty on advertisements abolished, 1853. REGISTERED NEWSPAPERS. 1850. 1865.
iniSH NEWSPAPERS. London newpapera, daily .
The first was the Dublin NewS'LeUer, by Joseph Ray, United Kingdom, daily ?:,
1685; Pae's Occurrence*, 1700. Faulkner's Journal London newspapers, weekly . 58 166
was established by George Faulkner, "a man English provincial newspapers . 2J2 750
celebrated for the goodness of his heart, and the Irish newspapers *32
weakness of his head," 1728. The oldest of the Scotch newspapers I [Q 140
existing Dublin newspapers are Saunders* (then British isles ....
Esdailes) Nets-Letter, 1745 ; and Freeman's Journal, By the act passed June 15, 1855 (18 & 19 Vict, 27.XM
founded as the Public RegUtcr, by the patriot Dr. the stamp on newspapers, as such, was totally
Lucas, about 1755. The Limerick Chronicle, the abolished, and will be employed henceforth only
oldest of the provincial prints, 1768. for postal purposes. Many new papers were then
PROVINCIAL NEWSPAPKRS. started, which were but of short duration.
Norwich Postman, 1706. Worcester Postman, 1709. In 1857, 71 million newspapers passed through the
Ncwcastle-on-Tyne Uouvunt, 17x1. post-office. In Jan. i860, 1060 newspapers, and
in Jan. 1862, 1165 newspapers were in course of
FOREIGN NEWSPAPERS. publication in the United Kingdom.
Gazette de Venise, early in 17th century; Gazette de On Oct. 1, 1861, when the paper duty came off, the
France (now publishing), 1631. Times, Daily News, and Mommy Post reduced
The first newspaper set up in Germany, 1715. their price to yi. each copy unstamped.
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRINCIPAL LONDON NEWSPAPERS.
DAILY.
Public Ledger (commfrriaO . 1759 Times (independent) 1788 Daily News (liberal). . . 1846
Morning Chronicle (liberal), Sun (liberal) . 1792 Daily Telegraph* (liberal) . 1855
extinct .... 1770-1862 Morning Advertiser (liberal). 1794 Morning Star (liberal) . . 1856
Morning Post (whig) . . . 1781 Globe (whig), evening 1803 International (in French) . 1863
Morning Herald (conservative) 1781 ! Standard (conservative) . 1827 Pall Mall Gazette (liberal). . 1865
PRINCIPAL WEEKLY.
St. James's Chronicle (con United Service Gazette 1833 I Economist (liberal) . . 1843
servative) .... 1761 Watchman ( Wesleyan) 1835 1 Jewish Chronicle (liberal). . 1845
Observer (whig) . . . 1792 Musical World . 1836 I Guardian (High Church) . . 1846
Bell's Messeuger(fuV conserv.) 1796 JuriBt (legal) . 1837 \Vress (conservative) . . . 1853
Dispatch (liberal) . 1 801 Magnet (agricultural) Field (country genttsmen's) . „
Examiner (liberal) . . . 1S08 Ranway Times Saturday Review {neutral) . 1855
Literary Gazette (extinct) 18 [7-62 Era (theatrical) . Engineer .... 1856
Johu Bull (conservative). 1820 Tablet (Roman Catholic) 1840 I City Press (neutral) . . . 1857
Bell's Lifein London (sporting) 1820 Gardeners' Chronicle 1841 I News (bankers, (fee.) . . 1858
Sunday Times (lib. conserv.) . 1822 Nonconformist Chemical News . - . 1859
Ailaa (liberal) .... 1826 Punch 1841 ! London Review (liberal) . i860
Athemai\xm(literaryand$cicn.) 1828 Illus. London News (libi ral) 1842 ; Reader (literary and scientific) 1863
Spectator (liberal) . . . „ Lloyd's Weekly Paper (radcl. ) j Age (neutral) .... 1864
Record (liberal conservative) . „ Builder .... . 1843 Owl (satirical) . . . . „
Court Journal (neutral) . 1829 English Churchman(High Ch. ) „ 1 Index (Confederate) extinct . 1865
News of tho World (liberal) • 1843 l
NEW STYLE. Pope Gregory XIII., in order to rectify the errors of the current
calendar, published a new one, in which ten days were omitted—Oct. 5, 1582, becoming
Oct. 15. The new style was adopted in France, Italy, Spain, Denmark, Flanders, Portugal,
in 1582, and in Great Britain in 1751. In 1752 eleven days were left out of the calendar—
Sept. 3, 1752, being reckoned as Sept. 14.
NEW TESTAMENT. See Bibh.
NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY, the doctrines respecting gravitation, &c, taught by sir
Isaac Newton in his " Principia," published in 1687. He was born, Dec. 25, 1642 ; became
Master of the Mint, 1699 ; President of the Royal Society, 1703 ; and died March 20, 1727.
A statue of him in marble by Roubilliac was set up at Trinity College, Cambridge, July 14,
1755, and one in bronze by Theed, at Grantham, Sept. 21, 1858, when lord Brougham
delivered an excellent discourse on the life and works of Newton. The latter statue cost
1600/., which sum was obtained by public subscription.
* 144,000 copies sold on Dec. 16, 1861. The prince consort died on tho 14th.
L L 2
NEW ."10 NEW
NEWTOWNBARIIY RIOT (8. E. Ireland). On a seizure of stock for tithes, a lament
able conflict ensued here between the yeomanry and the people, when thirty-five persons
were killed or wounded, June 18, l8jl. The jury at the coroners inquest was unable to
agree on a verdict.
N EWTOWN-BUTLER (N. Ireland). On July 30, 1689, the Euniskilleners under Oustavus
Hamilton thoroughly defeated the adherents of James II. commanded by general llaccarty,
taking him prisoner with his artillery, arms, and baggage.
NEW YEAR'S DAY, &c. The feast was instituted by Numa, and was dedicated to
Janus (who presided over the new year), Jan. I, 713 B.C.*
NEW YORK, the "empire state " of the United States of N. America, was settled by the
Dutch in 1609. The city was named by them Manhattan and New Amsterdam ; hut the
English under colonel Nichols dispossessed them and the Swedes, Aug. 27, 1664, and
changed its name. Population in i860, 805,651.
New York waa confirmed to England by the goods from all nations, was opened in the
jH.-aee of Breda .... Aug. 24, 1G67 presence of the president of the United-
The city waa one of the principal points of the States and many other dignitaries, July 14, 1853
struggle for independence among the states New York suffered severely by large commer
f'f America. It surrendered to the British cial failures, and "hunger demonstrations"
tureen under general Huwe Sept. 15. 1776 took place- during the jKinic . . . Nov. 1857
Tho city was evacuated by the British ; The Crystal Palace destroyed by fire . Oct. 5, 185S
" Evacuation day " made one of rejoicing A magnificent cathedral erected in . . 1859
ever siilfee Nov. 25, 1783 Great fire ; about 50 lives lost . Feb. 2, i860
Academy of tho fine arts, and a botanical During the civil war of 1S61 New York strongly
garden, established in 1804 supported the government of president Lin
Awful fire here ; 674 buildings destroyed, and coln (republican, or abolitionist); but during
pro|>erty valued at nearly 20,000,000 dollars, 1862 a re action gradually took place, and the
Dec. 16, 1S55 opposition (democrat) candidates for con
The Park theatre destroyed by fire . Dec. 16, 1848 gress were elected by large majorities, Nov. 1862
Serious riot (several lives lost) at the theatre, Fierce riots against conscription ; many per
originating' in a dispute botw-een Mr. Mac- sons killed and much property destroyed.
ready (English) and Mr. Forrest (American) July 13-17, 1863
actors May 10, 1849 Barnum's museum burnt ; great loss,1, July 13, 1S65
The Crystal Palace, containing an exhibition of See under United State*.
NEW ZEALAND (in tho Pacific Ocean), discovered hy Tasraan in 1642. From his time
the country, except that part of the coast which was seen by him, remained unknown, and
was by many supposed to make part of a southern continent, till 1769-70, when it was cir
cumnavigated by captain Cook. In 1773, he planted several spot* of ground on this island
with European garden seeds; and in 1777, he round some tine potatoes, greatly improved by
change of soil. European population, in i860, 84,294- Value of imports, in 1859, 1,551,030^.;
exports, 551,484/. Sir George Grey, governor, reappointed June, 1861.
The right of Great Britain to New Zealand re creating powers municipal, legislative, and
cognised at the peace in 1814 administrative Dec. 19, 1847
No constitutional authority was placed over it This charter was not acted on ; a legislative
until a resident subordinate to tho govern council openod by the governor Doc. to, 1848
ment of New South Wales was sent out with Foundation of Auckland, 1840; Nelson and
limited powers 1833 Taranaki (or New Plymouth), 1841 ; Otago,
New Zealand company established ; Wellington 1848 ; Canterbury 1850
founded . . 1839 New Zealand company relinquish charter . „
Capt. Hobson, the first governor, landed Jan. Bishopric sulxlivided to form another called
20 ; treaty of Waitangi signed, by which the Christchurch ....... 1852
chiefs cede a large amount of land . Feb. 5, 1840 New constitution granted . - .
Becomes an independent colony and made a Col. Wynyard, governor . Jan. 1S54 to Sept. 1855
bishop's see April, 1841 Governor Browne ..... Oct. ,.
Capt (aft. admiral) Fitzroy, governor, Dec. An earthquake ; not much damage done, Jan. 93,
1843 to Nov. 1845 Constitution modified 1S57
Sir George Grey, governor 1846 Insurrection of the natives (Maoris) under a
A charter, founded upon an. act passed in 1846, chief named William King (Wirrimu Kiugi),
* On this day the Romans sacrificed to Janus a cake of new sifted meal, with salt, incense, and wine :
and all the mechanics began something of their art of trade ; the men of letters did the same, as to books,
poems, Ac. ; and the consuls, though chosen before, took tho chair and entered upon their office this day.
N>nius Marccllus refers the origin of New-ykak's gifts among tho Romans to Titus Tatius, king of tho
Sal lines, who having considered as a good omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated to
Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received on the first day of the new year, authorised the custom
afterwards, and gave these gifts the name of Stretwv, 747 B.C.
NEW 517 NIC
NEW ZEALAND, continued.
arising out of disputes respecting the sale of Con. Cameron severely defeats the Maoris at
land ; the bishop Sclwyn and others consider Kanirariri ..... .Nov. 20, 18G;
the natives to have been unjustly treated, Continued success of gen. Cameron ; capitula
March, i860 tion of the Maori king . . Dec. 9, ,,
Indecisive actions between tho militia and
volunteers and tho Maoris . March 14-28, ,, British attack on Galepa repulsed with loss of
officers and men .... April 29, 1864
War breaks out at Taranaki : the British re
pulsed with loss .... June 30, „ Ix>an of i,ooo,ooo£. to New Zealand ; guaranteed
by parliament July,
Great excitement in Australia; troops sent to Several tribes submit Aug. ,.
New Zealand, under gen. Pratt, land, Aug. 3, ,, Maori prisoners escape and form a nuclous of a
Indecisive actions Sept. io, 19, Oct. 9, 12, ,, new insurrection Sept „
Gen. Pratt defeats the Maoris at Mahoetani,
and dostroys their fortified places . Nov. 6, „ Sir25;George Grey issues proposals of peace, Oct
the Aborigines Protection Society sent
The New Zealand colonists in England meet religious, moral, and political advico to the
and justify the conduct of tho governor, Maoris (considered injudicious) . Nov.
Nov. 22, ,, Change of ministry and policy ; seat of govein•
The Maoris defeated, Dec. 29, i860; Jan. 23, incnt to bo removed from Auckland to Wel
Fob. 24. March 16-18, 1860-1 lington on Cook's Strait . Nov. 24, „
The war ends : surrender of natives. March 19, 1861 Maoris attick on Cameron severely defeated,
Hir George Grey re-appointed governor, June, Jan. 25 ; again, Fob. 25 ; outbreak of the Pai
Gold discovered at Otago, aud other places, Maiiri or llau-hau heresy, a compound of
June, Judaism and paganisn, amongst the Maoris ;
A native sovereignty proclaimed ; 5000 British the rev. C. S. Volkner murdered and many
soldiers in the islands . . July, ,, outrages committed, March 2 ; proclamation
Tx>yalty of the natives increasing . May, 1862 of governor sir George Grey against it ; it is
The Maori chiefs sign a poetical address of checked by the agency of a friendly native
condolence to the queen on the death of chief We-tako April, 1865
the prince consort ; received . . . Nov. 1862 William Thompson, an eminent chief, sur
Natives attack a military escort and kill 8 per renders on behalf of tho Maori king May 25,
sons May 4, 1863 New Zealand still unsettled
Waikato tribe driven from a fort . July 17, „ The Hau-baus beaten in several conflicts,• Aug. July,
;
The war spreading ; natives construct rifle pit*, tho governor proclaims peace, Sept. 2; British
Aug. ,, troops about to leave . . Sept. 15,
Proposed confiscation of Waikato lands . Sept. „
NEY'S EXECUTION". Nev, duke of Elchiugcn, prince of the Moskwa, and one of the
most valiant of the marshalsof France, was shot as a traitor, Dec. 7, 1815.* On Dec. 7, 1853,
his statue was erected on the spot where he fell.
NIAGARA (X. America). At the head of this river, on the western shore, is Fort Erio,t
which was taken by the English, July 24, 1759. It was abandoned in the war with the
United States, May 27, 18 13, but was retaken, Dec. 19, following. A suspension bridge of
a single span of 800 feet over the Niagara, connecting the railways of Canada and New
York, was opened in March, 1855. It is elevated 18 feet on the Canadian, and 28 feet on
the American side.
NICjEA. See Nice.
NICARAGUA, a state in Central America (which set). Population about 300,000 :
president, T. Martinez ; elected in 1859, and re-elected in 1863. The. present constitution
was established, Aug. 19, 1858. . At the commencement of 1855 it was greatly disturbed by
two political parties : that of the president, Chamorro, who held Grenada, the capital, and
that of the democratic chief, Castellon, who held Leon. The latter invited Walker, the
filibuster, to his assistance, who in a short time became sole dictator of the state.£ By the
* After the abdication of Napoleon I., 5th April, 1814. he took tho oath of allegiance to the kin-',
Louis XVIII. On Napoleon's return to France from Elba, he inarched against him ; but his troops de
serting, he regarded the cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invader's way to Paris, March, 1815.
Ncy led the attack of the French at Waterloo, where he fought in the midst of tho slain, his clothe*
pierced with bullet-holes, five horses having been shot under him : night and defeat obliged him to flee.
Though included in the decree of July 24, 1815, which guaranteed the safety of all Frcnchmon, he was
sought out, and on Aug. 5, taken at tho castle of a friend at Urillac, and brought to trial before the
Chamber of Peers, Dec. 4. The 1ath article of the capitulation of Paris, fixing a general amnesty, was
quoted in his favour, yet he was sentenced to death aud met his fate with fortitude, Dec. 7, 181 5.
f About eighteen miles below Fort Erie, are the remarkable falls. The river is here 740 yards wide.
The half-mile immediately above the cataracts is a rapid, in which the water falls 58 feet : it is then
thrown, with astonishing grandeur, down a stupendous precipice of 150 feet perpendicular, in three
distinct and collateral sheets : and, in a rapid that extends to the distance of nine miles below, falls nearly
as much more. The river then flows in a deep channel till it enters lake Ontario, at Fort Niagara. The
falls were visited by the prince of Wales in Sept. i860.
X William Walker was bom at Tonnossee, in the United States, where he became successively doctor,
lawyer, and journalist, and afterwards gold-seeker in California, whence he was invited to Nicaragua by
Castellon, with the promise of 52,000 acres of land, on condition of bringing with hirn a band of adventurers
to sustain tho revolutionary causo. Walker accepted tho terms, and on June 28 landed at Rcalejo with 68
men. lie increased his forces at Leon, and soon after attacked the town of Itiva*. where he was repulsed
NIC 513 NIC
united efforts of tho confederated states the filibusters wero all expelled in May, 1857.
On Hay 1, 1858, Nicaragua and Costa Rica appealed to the great European powers for
protection.
NICE or Nrc.« v, a town in Bithynia, Asia Minor, N. W. Antigonus gave it the name
Antigoneia, which Lysimnchus changed to Nicoea, in memory of his wife. It became the
residence of the kings of Bithynia alwut 208 B.C. At the battle of Nice, a.d. 194, the
emperor Severus defeated his rival, Niger, who was again defeated at Issus, and soon after
taken prisoner and put to death. In 325, the first general council was held here, which
composed the Nicexe Ckeed and condemned tho Arians. It was attended by 318 bishops
from divers parts, who settled both the doctrine of the Trinity and the time for observing
Easter. The creed was altered, 381, and confirmed, 431, when it was decreed unlawful to
make further additions. When the Crusaders took Constantinople, and established a Latin
empire there in 1204, the Greek emperors removed to Nice and reigned there till 1261, when
they returned tn Constantinople. See Eastern Empire, p. 261. Nice was taken by the
Ottoman Turks in 1330.
NICE (N. Italy), a colony of Massilia, now Marseilles. It was taken by the French, and
retaken by Eugene of Savoy, in 1706; and by the Austrians in 1800. After the mind of
the people had been ascertained by universal suffrage (the votes being nearly unanimous
for annexation to France), the province of Nice was given up to France by the Sardinian
government. Tho French troops occupied Nice on April 1, in conformity with a treaty
signed March 24, i860. The people are said to have been really unwilling for the change,
and Garibaldi vehemently protested against the annexation. Population of tho province, in
'857. 256,593-
NICIAS, Peace of, between Athens and Sparta, 421 B.C., so named on account of its
being negotiated by that eminent and unfortunate Athenian general, who, with his colleague,
Demosthenes, was put to death after the disastrous termination of the expedition against
Syracuse, 413 B.C.
NICKEL, a white, ductile, malleable, magnetic metal, employed in the manufacture of
Gorman silver. Cronstedt in 1751 discovered nickel in the mineral copper-nickel.
NICOLAITANES, a sect mentioned in Rci'. ii. 6, 15, said to have sprung from Nicolas,
one of the first seven deacons (Acts vi.), and to have maintained the legality of a community
of wives, as well as all other heresies, and to have denied the divinity of Christ.
NICOMEDIA, the metropolis of Bithynia, Asia Minor, N. W., founded by king Nico-
medes L, 264 B.C., on the remains of Astacus ; destroyed by an earthquake, A.D. 115 ; and
restored by the emperor Adrian, 124. The Roman emperors frequently resided here during
their eastern wars. Hero Diocletian resigned tho purple, 305 ; and Constantino died at his
villa in its neighbourhood, 337. It surrendered to tho Seljukian Turks, 1078 ; and to
Orchan and tho Ottoman Turks in 1338.
NICOPOLIS (now in Bulgaria), Battle of, Sept. 28, 1396, between the allied Christian
powers under Sigismund, king of Hungary, afterwards emperor, and the Turks under
Bajazet ; said to have been tho first battle between the Turks and Christians ; the latter
were defeated, losing 20,000 slain, and as many wounded and prisoners.
with loss. lie then joinod col. Kinney, who had occupied and governed Grey Town, 8ept. 6. On Oct, 13,
Walker captured Grenada by surprise when in a defenceless slate, shot Mayoral, ono of the ministers, and
established a rule of terror. Iiy intervention of the American consul he made peace with the general of
tho state army. Corral, but shot him on Nov. 7, on findinghim corresponding with fugitives at Costa Rica.
Walker at first was only gcneral-in-chief ; but on Rivas, whom he had made president, deserting him, ho
hecamo sole dictator. On May 14, 1856, his envoy Vijil was recognised by the president of the United States,
whonco also he obtained reinforcements during his retention of power. Costa Rica declared war against
him, Feb. -8, 1856; the othor states of Central America soon followed the example, and a sanguinary
struggle ensued, lasting till May, 1857. On Nov. 25, 1856, Walker totally burnt Grenada, being unable to
defend it, and romoved the seat of government to Rivjis. This place he surrendered to gen. Mora on May 1,
1857, on tho intervention of capt. Davis, of the £tf. Mary'*, U.S. Himself, his staff, and 260 men were
couveyed in that vessel to New Orleans, where they were received with great enthusiasm. On Nov. 25,
1857, ho again invaded Nicaragua, lauding at Punta Arenas with 400 men ; but on Dec. 8, was compelled
to surrender to capt. Paulding, U.S., and was conveyed to New York. He escaped punishment by noUt
jjrotffjui (June 2, 1858) ; but capt. Paulding was tried for exceeding orders, and blamed—yet excused by
presidont Buchanan. On Aug. 5, i860, Walker landed near Truxillo, Honduras, and took the fort on tho
6th. On the 7th he proclaimed that ho made war on the government, not on the people of Honduras.
On being summoned to surrender his booty by capt. Salmon, R.N., of the learnt, he refused, and lied. He
was pursued, caught, given up to the Honduras government, tried, and shot (on Sept. 12). His followers
were dismissed.
NIE 519 NIN
NIELLO-WORK, said to have been produced by rubbing into engravings on silver, &c,
a mixture of silver, lead, copper, sulphur, and borax, was an art known to the ancients and
practised in the middle ages, and to have given to Maso Finigucrra the idea of engraving
upon copper, about 1460.
NIEMEN or Mem el, a river flowing into the Baltic, and separating Prussia from Russia.
On a raft on this river the emperor Napoleon met Alexander of Russia, June 22, 1807 ; and
made peace with him and Prussia. He crossed the Niemen to invade Russia, June 24, 1812,
aud re-crosscd with the remains of his army, Dec. 28.
NIGER EXPEDITION, undertaken with a view to plant an English colony in the centro
of Africa, and supported by a government grant of 6o,oooi., started in the summer of 1841,
and commenced the ascent of the river, Aug. 20, in that year. The expedition consisted of
the Albert, Wilbcrforce, and Soudan. Fever broke out among the crews, Sept. 2, when
these vessels had arrived at Iddah. The confluence of the Niger and the Chadda (270 miles
from the sea) was reached Sept. 1 1. The Soudan then returned with the sick ; the Wilbcr
force ascended the Chadda, and the Albert the Niger. But the Wilbcrforce was almost imme
diately compelled to return, and follow the track of the Soudan. The Albert arrived at Egga,
on the Niger (320 miles from the sea), Sept. 28 ; but so great had been the progress of
disease, that orders wore now given for the third vessel to return, which she did, after the
necessary delay for procuring firewood, on Oct. 4. This last vessel cast anchor in Clarence
cove, Fernando Po, Oct. 1 7, all the same year.
NIGHTINGALE FUND. On Oct. 21, 1854, Miss Florence Nightingalo left England
with a staff of thirty-seven nurses, and arrived at Scutari, Nov. 5 ; they rendered invaluablo
services to the army ; she returning to London, Sept. 8, 1856. In memory, a meeting was
held at Willis's Rooms on Nov. 29, 1855, to raise funds to establish an institution for the
training of nurses aud other hospital attendants. Madame Jenny Lind Goldschmidt
sang at Exeter Hall on March II, 1856, and gave the proceeds (1872Z.) to the fund. The
subscriptions closed, April 24, 1857, amounting to 44,039?. The queen gave Miss Nightin
gale a valuable jewel.
NIKA CONTESTS. See Circus. NIL DARPAN. See India, June, 1861.
NILE (Egypt). This great river rises in the Mountains of the Moon, iu about teu
degrees of N. Lat. and in a known course of 1250 miles receives no tributary streams. The
travels of Bruce were undertaken to discover the source of the Nile ; he set out from England
in June, 1768; on the 14th of November, 1770, he discovered the source of the Blue Nile,
and returned home in 1773. —This river overflows regularly every year, from about the 15th
of June to the 17th of September, when it begins to decrease, having given fertility to the
land. It must rise 16 cubits to ensure that fertility. In 1829, the inundations of the Nile
rose to 26 instead of 22, by which 30,000 people were drowned and immense property lost.
Mr. Petherick set out early in 1861 to explore the country at the source of the Nile. For
recent discoveries, see Africa, 1863—5.
NILE, Battle of tiie (or Aboukir), Aug. I, 1798, near Rosetta, between the Toulon
and British fleets, the latter commanded by lord (then sir Horatio) Nelson. Nine of the
French line-of-battle ships were taken, two were burnt, and two escaped. The French ship,
L Orient, with admiral Brucys and iooo men on board, blew up, and only 70 or 80 escaped.
Nelson's exclamation upon commencing the battle was, " Victory or Westminster Abbey !"
NIMEGUEN (Holland). Here was signed the treaty of peace between France and
the United Provinces, 1678. The French were successful against the British under the
duke of York, before Nimeguen, Oct. 28, 1794 ; but were defeated by the British, Nov. 8,
following.
NINEVEH, the capital of the Assyrian empire (see Assyria), founded by Ashur, who
called it after himself, about 2245 B.C. Ninus reigned in Assyria, and called this city also
after himself, Nineveh, 2069 B.C. Abb6 Lcnglct. Jonah preached against Nineveh (about
862 B.C.), which was taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 606 B.C. The discoveries of Mr. Layard and
others in the neighbourhood of Mosul, the supposed site of this ancient capital, since 1839,
have in a manner disinterred and re-peopled a city which for centuries has not only ceased
to figure on the page of history, but whose very locality had long been blotted out of the map
of the earth.* In 1848 Air. Layard published his "Nineveh aud its Remains," and in 1853
an account of his second visit in 1849-50.
* The forms, features, costume, reli-rim, moles of w.vrf.irc, and ceremonial customs of its inhabitants
stand before ua as distinct as those ofa living people ; and it is anticipated that, by help of the sculptures and
NIS 520 SON
NISBET or Nesbit (Northumberland). Here a battle was fought between the English
and Scotch armies, the latter greatly disproportioned in strength to the former. Several
thousands of the Scots were slain upon the field and in the pursuit, May 7, 1402.
NISMES (Nimes), S. France, was the flourishing Roman colony, Nemausus. Its noble
amphitheatre was ruined during the English occupation in 141 7. Nismes embraced Protest
antism, and suffered much persecution in consequence, and has frequently been the scene of
fierce religious contests. The treaty termed the Pacification of Nismes (July 14, 1629) gave
religious toleration for a time to the Huguenots.
NITRE. See Saltpetre.
NITRIC ACID, a compound of nitrogen and oxygen, formerly called aqua fortis, first
obtained in a separate state by Raymond Lu!ly, an alchemist, about 1287; but we are
indebted to Cavendish, Priestley, and Lavoisier for our present knowledge of its properties.
Mr. Cavendish demonstrated the nature of this acid in 1785. Nitrous acid was discovered
by Scheele about 1774. Nitrous gas was accidentally discovered by Dr. Hales. Nitrous
oxide gas was discovered by Dr. Priestley, in 1776.
NITROGEN or Azote (from the Greek a, no, and zoo, I live), an irrespirable elementary
gas. Before 1777, Scheele separated the oxygen of the air from the nitrogen, and almost
simultaneously with Lavoisier discovered that the atmosphere is a mixture of these two gases.
Nitrogen combined with hydrogen forms the volatile alkali ammonia, so freely given off by
decomposing animal and vegetable bodies.
NOBILITY. The Goths, after they had seized a part of Europe, rewarded their heroes
with titles of honour, to distinguish them from the common people. The right of peerage
seems to have been at first territorial. Patents to persons having no estate were first granted
by Philip the Fair of France, 1095. George Neville duke of Bedford (son of John, marquess
of Montague), ennobled in 1470, was degraded from the peerage by parliament, on account of
his utter want of property, 19 Edw. IV., 1478. Noblemen's privileges were restrained in
June, 1773. See Lords, and the various orders of the nobility.
NOBILITY of France preceded that of England. On June 18, 1790, the National
Assembly decreed that hereditary nobility could not exist in a free state ; that the titles of
dukes, counts, marquesses, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, and others, be abolished ;
that all citizens take their family names; liveries and armorial bearings also to be abolished.
The records of the nobility, 600 volumes, were burnt at the foot of the statue of Louis XIV.,
Juno 25, 1792. A new nobility was created by the emperor Napoleon I., 1808. The heredi
tary peerage was abolished, Dec. 27, 183 1.
NOBLE, an ancient English coin, first struck in the reign of Edward III. about 1337.
It was stamped with a rose, and was thence called a rose noble ; value 65. 8d.
" NOLUMUS LEGES ANGLLE MUTARI." See Bastards and Merlon.
NON-CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in England are divided into conformists and
non-conformists, or, churchmen and dissenters. The first place of meeting of the latter, in
England, was established at Wandsworth, near London, Nov. 20, 1572. The name of non
conformists was taken by the Puritans when the Act of Uniformity came into operation on
Aug. 24, 1662 (termed "Black Bartholomew's day"), when 2000 ministers of the established
religion resigned, not choosing to conform to the statute passed "for the uniformity of public
prayers and administration of the sacraments." See Puritans and Dissenters. The laws
against them were relaxed in 1690. —The Nonconformist newspaper (edited by Mr. Edward
Miall) began in 184 1.
NONES, in the Roman Calendar, were the fifth day of each month, excepting March,
May, July, and October, when the nones fell on the seventh day.
NON-JURORS. In 1689, they considered James II. to have been unjustly deposed, and
refused to swear allegiance to William III. Among them were Sancroft, archbishop of
Canterbury ; Ken, bishop of Bath and Wells, and the bishops of Ely, Gloucester, Norwich,
their cuneiform inscriptions, the researches of the learned may go far in flUingup the vast blank in Assyrian
annals. Among the sculptures that enrich the British Museum may be mentioned the winged bull and
lion, and numerous hunting and battle-pieces ; but perhaps the most interesting as confirmatory of the
truth of Holy Scripture, is the bas-relief of the eagle- beaded human figure, presumed to be a representation
of the Assyrian god Xisroch (from Nisr. an eagle or Aa/rfc), whom Sennacherib was in the act of worshipping
when he was assassinated by bis two sons, about 710 B.C. 2 Kings xix. 37.
NON 521 NOR
and Peterborough, and many of tho clergy who were deprived, Feb. I, 1691. Non-jurors
were subjected to a double taxation, and were obliged to register tbeir estates, May,
1723. They formed a separate communion, which existed till the beginning of the present
century.
NON NOBIS. DOMINE! ("Not unto us, 0 Lord!"&c, Psalm cxv. 1), a musical
canon, sung as a grace at public feasts, was composed by W. Bird in 1618.
NON-RESISTANCE OATH, occurring in the Corporation Act, 1661, was repealed
in 1719.
NOOTKA SOUND (Vancouver's Island), discovered by captain Cook in 1778. It was
settled by the British in 1 786, when a few British merchants in the East Indies formed a
settlement to supply the Chinese market with furs : but the Spaniards in 1789 captured two
English vessels and took possession of the settlement. The British ministry demanded
reparation, and the affair was amicably terminated by a convention, and a free commerce
was confirmed to England in 1790.
"NO-POPERY RIOTS." See Gordon.
NORDL1NGEN (Bavaria). Here the Swedes wider count Horn were defeated by the
Austrians, Aug. 27, 1634 ; and the latter by Turenne in 1645.
NORE MUTINY. See Mutinies.
NORFOLK ISLAND, a penal colony of England, discovered in 1774, by captain Cook,
who found it uninhabited, except by birds. The settlement was made by a detachment from
Port Jackson under governor Phillip, in 1788, in Sydney bay, on the south side of the island.
This was at one time the severest penal colony of Great Britain. The island was abandoned
in 1809 ; but re-occupied as a penal settlement in 1825. The descendants of the mutineers
of the Bounty were removed to it in June, 1856, from Pitcairn's Islapd (which see).
NORMANDY (N. France), part of Ncustria, a kingdom founded by Clovis in 51 1 for his
son Clotaire, which, after various changes, was united to France by Charles the Bald in 837.
From the beginning of the 9th century it was continually devastated by the Scandinavians,
called Northmen or Normans, to purchase repose from whose irruptions Charles the Simple
of Franco ceded the duchy to their leader Rollo, 905. From its conquerors it received its
present name. Rollo, the first duke, held it as a fief of the crown of France, and several
of his successors after him, until William, the seventh duke, acquired England, in 1066. It
remained a province of England with some intermissions till the reign of king John, 1204,
when it was re-united to France. It was re-conquered by Henry V., 1418, and held by
England partially till 1450. The English still possess the islands on the coast, of which
Jersey and Guernsey are tho principal.
912. Rollo (or Raoul), baptised as Robert. 1087. Robert II., Courtliose (his sou), after a contest
920 or 927. William I. Longsword. despoiled by his brother.
943. Richard I. the Fearless. 1 106. Henry 1 (king of England).
996. Richard II. the Good. 1 1 35. 8tephen (king of England).
1027. Richard III. 1144. Matilda and Geoffrey Plantagcnet.
1028. Robert I. the Devil. 1151. Henry II. (king of England in 1154).
1035. William II. (I. of England). 1 189, Richard IV. (I. of England).
1 199—1 203. Arthur and John of England.
NORTH ADMINISTRATION, formed by lord North, Jan., 1770. After his retirement
from office, March 30, 1782, lord North entered into a league with the "Whigs : this led to
the short-lived Coalition ministry (1783). He succeeded to the earldom of Guildford in
1790, and died in 1792. Seo " Coalition."
Frederick, lord North, first lord of the treasury, and Sandwich), and lord nillsborotigh, secretaries of
chancellor of the exchequer. state.
Karl Gower. lord president. Sir Edward Hawko, admiralty.
Earl of Halifax, privy seal. Marquess of Granby, ardrvnvc*.
liOrd Rochford, lord Weymouth (succeeded by lord 8ir Gilbert Elliot, lord Hertford, duke of Ancaster,
lord Carteret, Ac.
NORTHALLERTON (Yorkshire). Near here was fought the "battle of the Standard,"
where the English totally defeated the Scotch armies, Aug. 22, 1 138. Tho archbishop of
York brought forth a consecrated standard on a carriage at the moment when they were
hotly pressed by the invaders, headed by king David.
NOR 522 NOR
NORTHAMPTON was burnt by the Danes in ioio. Hero Henry III. proposed to found
a university in 1260, and held a parliament in 1269. On July io, 1460, a conflict took place
between the duke of York and Henry VI. of England, in which the unfortunate monarch
was defeated, and made prisoner (the second time) after a sanguinary fight which took place
in the meadows below the town. Northampton was ravaged by the plague in 1637. It was
seized and fortified by the parliamentary forces in 1642. The memorable fire, which almost
totally destroyed the town, occurred Sept. 3, 1675.
NORTH BRITON NEWSPAPER: Number 45" (Wilkes's number), dated Saturday,
April 23, 1763, was, by order of both houses of parliament, publicly burnt in London by the
hands of the common hangman, Dec. 3, 1 763. Wilkes by this newspaper (commenced in
1762), increased the antipathy to the Scotch then very prevalent in England ; having been
greatly favoured by the minister, the earl of Bute.
NORTH CAROLINA. See Carolina.
NORTHMEN or Norsemen. See Scandinavia and Normandy.
NORTHUMBRIA, a Saxon kingdom, founded by Ida, 547.
NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. The attempt to discover a north-west passage was made
by a Portuguese named Corte Real, about 1500. In 1585, a company was formed in London
called the " Fellowship for the Discovery of the North-West Passage." From 1745 to 1818
parliament offered 20,000/. for this discovery. In 1818 the reward was modified by pro
posing that 5000J. should be paid when either 1 io°, 1200, or 130° W. long, should be passed :
one of which payments was made to sir E. Parry. For their labours in the voyages enume
rated in the list below, Parry, Franklin, Ross, Back, and Richardson, were knighted.
Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition to find a Capt. Rosa and licut. Parry in the Isabella and
north-east passage to China, sailed from the Alexander 181S
Thames t May 20, 1553 Licuts. Parry and Linddon, in the Hecla and
Sir Martin Frobisher*3 attempt to find a north Griper May, 4, 18x9
west passage to China 1576 They return to Leith .... Nov. 3, 1820
Capt. Davis's expedition to find a north-west Capts. Parry and Lyon in the Fury and Hecla,
passage 1585 May 8, 1S21
Barautz's expedition 1594 Capt Parry's third expedition with the Hsela,
Weymouth and Knight's 1602 May 8, 1S24
Hudson's voyage^ ; tbo last undertaken. See Capts. Franklin and Lyon, after having
Hudson's Bay 1 1610 attempted a land expedition, again sail from
Sir Thomas Button's 1612 Liverpool , Feb. 16, 1825
Baffin's. See Baffin's Bay 1616 Capt Parry,J again in the Hecla, sails from
Foxe's expedition 163 1 Deptford, and reaches a spot 435 miles from
[A number of enterprises, undertaken by the North Pole, June 22 ; returns . Oct, 6, 1827
various countries, followed.] Capt. Roast arrived at Hull, on his return from
Middleton's expedition 1742 his Arctic expedition, after an absence of four
Moore's and Smith's 1746 years, and when all hope of his return hod
Hearne's land expedition 1769 been nearly abandoned § . . . Oct 18, 1833
Capt. Fhipps, afterwards lord Mulgravo, his Capt. Back and his companions arrived at
expedition 1773 Liverpool from their perilous Arctic land
Capt. Cooke, in the Resolution & Ducovei-y, July, 1776 expedition, after having visited the Great
Mackenzie's expedition 1789 Fish River and examined its course to the
Capt. Duncan's voyage 1790 Polar Seas Sept 8, 1835
The Discovery, capt. Vancouver, returned from Capt. Back sailed from Chatham in command
a voyage of survey and discovery on the of his majesty's ship Terror, on an exploring
north-west coast of America . . Sept. 1795 adventure to Wagor River . . June si, 1836
Lieut Kotzebue's expedition . . Oct. 181 5 [The Geographical Society awarded the king's
Capt. Buchan's andlieut. Franklin's expedition annual premium to capt. Back for his polar
in the Dorothea and Trent .... 1819-22 discoveries and enterprise, Dec., 1835.]
* Number 45 contained a commentary on the king's speech, couched in such caustic terras, that a pro
secution was commenced against Wilkes. Having been arrested on a general warrant, he was brought by
a writ of habeas corpus before chief justice Pratt, of the common ploas, who declared the judgment of that
court, that general warrants were illegal, and ho was consequently discharged. But, not content with
this escape, lie reprinted the obnoxious number, which produced a regular prosecution to conviction. See
Warrants, General.
t The gallant sir Hugh Willoughby took his departureTrom Ratcliffe, on his fatal voyage for discovering-
the north-east passage to China. He sailed with great pomp by Greenwich, where the court then resided.
The council and courtiers appeared at the windows, and the people covered the shores. The youo£ king,
Edward VI., alone lost the noble and novel .sight, for he then lay on his death-bed ; so that the principal
object of the parade was disappointed. Sir Hugh Willoughby was unfortunately entangled in the ice, and
frozen to death on the const of Lapland. Hal luyt.
X Sir John Franklin died June 1 1, 1847 (see Franklin) ; sir E. Parry died July 8, 1855, aged 65 ; and sir
John Ross died Aug. 30. 1856, aged So.
§ In 1831 he discovered Boothia Felix : on June 31, same year, he came to a spot which he considered
to bo the true magnetic pole, in 701 5' 17" N. hit, and 96^ 46' 45" W. long.
NOU NOU
NORTH-WEST PASSAGE, continued.
Sir John Franklin, and capts. Crozier and Fitz- [Another expedition to the North Pole, undor
james, in the ships SrtOta and Terror, leave the command of capt. Shorard Osborne, was
England May 24, 1845 proposed to the Royal Geographical Society
Commanders Collinson and M'CIure, in tho in tne spring of 1865.J
Enterprise and Inwstigafor, sailed eastward in
search of sir John Franklin Jan. 20, 1850 [For tho othor expeditions in search of Frank
North • west passage discovered by capt. lin, &c, see Franklin.}
M'CIure * Oct. 26, „
NORWAY, until the 7th century, was governed by petty rulers. About 630, Olaf
Tnetelia, of the race of Odin, termed Ynglings or youths, expelled from Sweden, established
a colony in Vermeland, the nucleus of a monarchy, founded by his descendant, Halfdan III.
the black, a great warrior and legislator, whose memory was long revered.
Olaf Tnetelia, 630 ; slain by his subjects, 640.' Sigurd I., Eystein II., and Olaf IV. (sons), 1103;
Halfdan I., 640; Eystein I., 7<y ; Halfdan II., 730; Sigurd visits the Holy Land as a warrior-pilgrim,
Gudrod, 784; Olaf Geirstado and Halfdan HI., 1 107 10 ; becomes sole king, 1122 ; dies, 1130.
824. Magnus IV. (his son)and Harold IV., 1130 ; Magnus
Halfdan recovers his inheritance from his brother, dethroned, 1134.
whom he subdues, together with the neighbouring Harold IV. murdered ; succeeded by his sons, Sigurd
chiefs, 840 ; accidentally drowned, 863. II., &c. ; civil war rages, 1136.
The chiefs regain their power during tho youth of Nicolas Breakspear (afterwards popo Adrian IV.), the
his son, Harold Harfager, or fairhaired, who vows pupal legate, arrives, reconciles the brothers, and
neither to cut nor comb his hair till he recovers his founds the archbishopric of Trondheim, 11 52.
dominion, 865. Numerous competitors for the crown ; civil war ;
He defeats his enemies at Hafursfiord, 885 ; dies, 934. Inge I., Eystein III., Hako III., Magnus V.,
Eric I. (the bloody Axe), his son, a tyrant, expelled ; 1 r 36-62.
and succeeded by Hako the pood, 940. Magnus V. alone, 1162; rise of Swerro, an able ad
Hako endeavours in vain to establish Christianity ; venturer, who becomes king ; Magnus defeated ;
dies, 963. drowned, 1186.
Harold II., Graafeld, son of Eric, succeeds ; killed in Swerro rules vigorously ; dies, 1202.
battle with Harold of Denmark, 977. Hako, his son, king, 1202; Guthrum, 1204; Inge II.
Hako, Jarl, made governor of several provinces ; 1205,
becomes king ; his licentiousness leads to his ruin; Hako IV., bastard son of Swerro, 1207 ; unsuccess
deposed by Olaf I., Trygvreson ; and slain by his fully invades Scotland, where ho dies, 1263.
slave, 995. Magnus VI., his son (tho legislator), dies, 1280.
Olaf I. establishes Christianity by force and cruelty, Eric II., the priest-hater, marries Margaret of Scot
998 ; defeated and slain, during an expedition land ; their daughter, the Maid of Norway, be
against Pomerania, by the kings of Denmark and comes heiress to tho crown of Scotland, 1286.
Sweden, who divide Norway between them, 1000. Hako V., his brother, king, 1299-1 319.
Olaf II., the saint (his son), lands in Norway, 1012 ; Declino of Norwegian prosperity.
defeats his enemies and becomes king, 1015 ; Magnus VII. (III. of Sweden), king, 1319-43.
fiercely zealous in the diffusion of Christianity, Hako VI., 1343-80.
1018-21. Olaf V. of Norway (II. of Denmark), 1380-87.
Successful invasion of Canute, who becomes king, Norway united with Denmark and Sweden under
1028, 1029 ; Olaf expelled ; returns and is killed in Margiirot, 1389.
battle, 1030. At an assembly at Calmar the three states aro
Sweyn, at the death of Canute, succeeds as king of formally united, 1397.
Norway, but is expelled in favour of Magnus I., Sweden and Norway separated from Denmark,
bastard son of Olaf II., 1035; Magnus becomes 1448; re-united, 1450.
king of Denmark, 1036; dios, 1047. Denmark and Norway separated from Sweden, 1523.
Harold Hardrado, king of Norway, 1047, invades Christiania, the modern capital, built by Chris
England ; defeated and slain by Harold II. at tian IV., 1624.
Stanford-bridge, Sept. 25, 1066. Norway given to Sweden by tho treaty of Kiel ;
Olaf III. and Magnus II. (sons), kings, Sept 25, 1066; Pomerania and Kugen annexed to Denmark, Jan.
Olaf alone (pacific), 1069-1093 ; Olaf III. founds 14, 1814.
Bergen, 1070. The Norwegians declare their independence May 17.
Magnus III. (barefoot), son of Olaf, 1093; invades tho The Swedish troops enter Norway, July 16, 1814.
Orkneys and Scotland, 1096; killed in Ireland, Charles Frederic, duke of Holstein, elected king of
U03. Norway; abdicates, Oct. 10, 1814.
* Capt. M'Clnre sailed in the Invtttigafor in company with com. Collinson in the Enterprise in search
of sir John Franklin, Jan. 20, 1850. On Sept. 6 he discovered high land, which he named Baring's land ;
on the 9th, other land, which he named after prince Albert ; on the 30th, tho ship was frozen in. Enter
taining a strong conviction that the waters in which the Investigator then lay communicated with Barrow's
straits, he set out on Oct. 21, with a few men in his sledge, to test his views. On Oct. 26, he reached Point
Russell (73" 31' N. lat., 114° 14' W. long.), where from an elevation of 600 fect he saw Parry or Melville
Sound beneath them. The strait connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans he named after tho prince of
Wales. The Investigator was the first ship which traversed tho Polar sea from Behring straits to Behriu^'
island. Intelligence of this discovery was brought to England by com. Ingleficld, and the Admiralty chart
was published Oct, 14, 1853. Capt. M'Cluro returned to England, Sept. 1854. In 1855, 5000?. were paid to
capt. (afterwards sir Robert) M'Clure, and 5000/. were distributed among the officers and crew. On Jan.
30, 1855, the Admiralty notified that the Arctic medal would be given to all persons engaged in the expe
ditions from i8r8 to 1855.
NOR 521 NOV
NORWAY, continued.
Charles XIII. of Sweden proclaimed king by tho Nubility abolished, 1821.
National Diet (Storthing) assembled at Christiania; Tho national order of St. Olaf, instituted by kin;.'
lie accepted the constitution which declares Nor Oscar, 1847.
way a free, independent, indivisible, and inalien
able state, united to Sweden, Nov. 4, 1814. See Denmark- and Sweden.
NORWICH (Norfolk), mentioned in history in the Saxon Chronicle at the period when
Swcyn, king of Denmark, destroyed it by fire, 1004. Artisans from the .Low Countries
established here the manufacture of baizes, arras, &e., about 1132. A great plague in 1348
carried off many thousand persons ; and in 1 505 Norwich was nearly consumed by fire. The
cathedral was first erected in 1088, by bishop Herbert Losinga ; and was completed by bishop
Middleton, about 1280 The church of the Black friars, now St. Andrew's hall, was erected
in 1415. The public library was instituted in 1784. The Norwich new canal and harbour
were opened Juno 3, 1831.
NORWICH, Bisiioritic of, originally East Anglia : the first bishop was Felix, a Bur-
gundian, sent to convert the East Anglians about 630. The see \yis divided into two distinct
bishoprics—Elmham, in Norfolk, and Dunwich, in Suffolk, about 673. Both sees suffered
extremely from the Danish invasions, insomuch that after the death of St. Humbert, they
lay vacant for a hundred years. At last the see of Elmham was revived, and Dunwich was
united to it ; but Arfastus removed the seat to Thetford, where it continued till Herbert
Losinga removed it to Norwich, 1091. This see has given to the church of Rome two saints ;
and to the nation five lord chancellors. It was valued in the king's books at 899?. 18s. 7jrf.
per annum. Present income, 4500?. See Bislwprks.
UECENT BISHOPS OF NORWICH.
1790. George Home ; died Jan. 17, 1793. tion, and for a long time the only liberal
1 792. Charles
terbury,Manners
Feb. 1, Sutton
1805. ; translated to Can- bishop Stanley
• ' | 1837. Edward in the house
; diodofSept.
pocrs.6, 1849.
1805. Henry Bathurst ; died April 5, 1837. lie was 1849. Sanmel Hinds ; resigned 1857.
a strenuous supporter of catholic cmancipa- 1857. Hon. John T. Pelhain, May ; present bishop.
NOTABLES. An assembly of the notables of France was convened by Calonne, the
minister of Louis XVI., 011 Feb. 22, 1787, on account of the deranged state of the king'.-,
finances, and again, in 1788, when Calonne opened his plan : but any reform militated too
much against private interest to be adopted ; Calonne was dismissed, and soon after retired
to England. Louis having lost his confidential minister, Do Vergennes, by death, called
De lirienne, an ecclesiastic, to his counsels. The notables were re-asscmblcd on Nov. 6,
1788. In the end, the States General were convoked Dec. 5 ; and from this assembly sprang
the National Assembly (which see). The notables were dismissed by the king, Dec. 12, 1788.
—The Spanish notables assembled anil met Napoleon (conformably with a decree issued by
him commanding their attendance), at Bayonne, May 25, 1808.
NOTARIES PUBLIC, said to have been appointed by the primitive fathers of the
Christian church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives of the martyrs in the 1st century.
Da Fresno;/. This office was afterwards changed to a legal employment, to attest deeds ami
writings, so as to establish their authenticity in any other country. An important statute to
regulate notarial transactions was passed in 1800, and some statutes on the subject have
been enacted since.
"NOTES and QUERIKS," a medium of intercommunication for literary men and
general renders, was first published on Nov. 3, 1849.
NOTRE DAME, the cathedral at Paris, was founded in 1163.
NOTTINGHAM. The castle here was defended by the Danes against king Alfred, and
his brother Ethclred, who retook it, 868. It was rebuilt by William I. in 106S; and ulti
mately became a strong fortress. It was burnt by rioters during tho Reform excitement,
Oct. 10, 1831. The riots at Nottingham, in which the rioters broke frames, Sc., commenced
Nov. 14, 181 1, and continued to Jan. 1812. Great similar mischief was done in April, 1814,
The Watch and Ward act was enforced, Dec. 2, 1816. The British Association is to meet
here in 1866.
NOVARA, Battle of, March 23, 1S49, when the Austrian marshal Radctzky totally
defeated the king Charles Albert and the Sardinian army. 'J he contest began at 10 a.m.
and lasted till late in the evening ; the Austrians lost 396 killed, and had about 1850
NOV 523 NUN
wounded ; the Sardinians lost between 3000 and 4000 men, 27 cannons, and 3000 prisoners.
The king soon after abdicated in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel.
NOVA SCOTIA (N. America). Settled in 1622, by the Scotch under sir William
Alexander, in the reign of James I. of England, from whom it received the name of Nova
Scotia. In 1710 the French included it in Acadia. Since its first settlement it has more
than once changed proprietors, and was not confirmed to England till the peace of Utrecht,
in 1713. It was taken in 1745 and 1758 ; but was again confirmed to England in 1760.
Nova Scotia was divided into two provinces in 1784; and was erected iuto a bishopric
in August, 1787. King's College, AVindsor, was founded iu 1788. See Baronets. Gold was
found in Nova Scotia in 1861.
NOVATIANS, a sect which denied restoration to the church to those who had relapsed
during times of persecution, begun with Novatian, a Roman presbyter, iu 250.
NOVELS (Novelise), a part of Justinian's Code published 535. See Romances.
NOVEMBER (novem, nine), anciently the ninth month of the year. When Numa added
January and February, in 713 B.C., it became the eleventh as now. The Roman senators
wished to name this month iu which Tiberius was born, by his name, in imitation of Julius
C'a?sar, and Augustus; but the emperor refused, saying, "What will you do, conscript
fathers, if you have thirteen Ciesars ? '
NOVGOROD (central Russia), made the seat of his government by Ruric, a Varangian
chief, in 862, is held to be the foundation of the Russian empire. In memory of the event
the czar inaugurated a national monument at Novgorod, on Sept. 20, 1862.
NOVI (N. Italy), Battle of, in which the French army, commanded by Joubert, was
defeated by the Russians under Suwarrow, with immense loss, Aug. 15, 1799. Among
10,000 of the French slain was their leader, Joubert, and several other distinguished officers.
NOVUM ORGANON, the great work of lord Bacon containing his system of philosophy,
was published 1620.
NOYADES. See Drowning.
NUBIA, the ancient ^Ethiopia supra ^Egyptum, said to have been the seat of the king
dom of Meroe, received its name from a tribe named Nubes or Nubates. The Christian
kingdom, with Dougola, the capital, lasted till the 14th century, when it was broken up into
Mahometan principalities. It is now subject to the viceroy of Egypt, having been conquered
by Ibrahim Pacha in 1822.
NUISANCES REMOVAL ACT ; passed in 1848 ; amended 1849. Sec Sanitary Legis
lation.
NL'MANTINE WAR. The war between the Romans and the Celtiberians (Celts who
possessed the country near the Iber, now the Ebro) began, 140 B.C., on account of the latter
having given refuge to their allies the Sigidiaus, who had been defeated by the Romans.
Numantia, an unprotected city, withstood a long siege. The army of Scipio Africanus,
60,000 men, was bravely opposed by no more than 4000 men able to bear arms. The
Nuniantines fed upon horse-flesh, and afterwards on their own dead, and at last drew lots to
kill one another. At length they set fire to their houses, and destroyed themselves, so that
not even one remained to adorn the triumph of the conqueror, 133 B.C.
NUMIDIA (N. Africa), the seat of the war of the Romans with Jugurtha, which began
in B.C., and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. The last king, Juba, joined
Cato and was killed at the battle of Thapsus, 46 B.C., when Numidia became a Roman pro
vince. See Mauritania.
NUMISMATICS, the science of coins and medals, an important adjunct to the study of
history. Iu this country Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726;, and Pinkerton (1789), published
works on medals. Ruding's Annals is the great work on British coinage (new edition, 1840).
—The Numismatic Society in London was founded by Dr. John Lee in 1836. It publishes
the Numismatic Chronicle. —Mr. Yonge Akerman's Numismatic Manual (1840) is a useful
introduction to the science. Foreign works are numerous.
NUNCIO, an envoy from the pope of Rome to Catholic states. The pope deputed a
nuncio to the Irish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a nuncio, and his admission to
an audience by James II., July, 1687, is stated to have hastened the Revolution.
NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have been that to which the sister of St.
Anthony retired at the close of the 3rd century. The first founded in France, near Poictiers,
NITIt 526 OBE
1>y St. Marcolliun, sister to St. Martin, 360. Du Fresno;/. The first in England was at
Folkestone, in Kent, by Eadbald, or Edbald, king of Kent, 630. Dugdalc's Monasiicum
Anglicanum. See Abbeys and Monachism. The nuns were expelled from their convents in
Germany, in July, 1785. They were driven out of their convents in France, in Jan. 1790.
In Feb. 1861, monastic establishments wore abolished in Naples, compensation being made
to the inmates. For memorable instances of the constancy and fortitude of nuns, see Acre
and Colilingham.
NUREMBERG, a free imperial German city in 1219. In 1522, the diet here demanded
ecclesiastical reforms and a general council, and in 1532 secured religious liberty to the
Protestants.
0.
OAK, stylet! the monarch of the woods, ami an emblem of strength, virtue, constancy,
and long life. That produced in England is considered to he best calculated for ship-building.
The constellation Robur Caroli, the oak of Charles, was named by Dr. Halley m 1676, in
memory of the oak tree in which Charles II. saved himself from his pursuers, after the battle
of Worcester, Sept. 3, 165 1. See Boscobel. Heme's oak, Windsor park, mentioned in
Shakspcare's Merry Wives of Windsor, was finally destroyed by the wind, Aug. 31, 1863.
The evergreen oak, Qucrais Ilex, was brought from the south of Europe before 1581. The
scarlet oak, Qiurcus Ooccinea, was brought from North America before 1691. The chestnut-
leaved oak, Qucrcus Pmn}ts, from North America before 1730. The Turkey oak, Qu^rcus
Bcrris, from the south of Europe, 1735* The agaric of the oak, in pharmacy, was known as
a styptic in 1750. In June, 403, the " Synod of the oak" was held at Chalcedon.
OATES'S PLOT. Titus Oatcs, at one time chaplain of a ship of war, was dismissed for
immoral conduct, and became a lecturer in London. In conjunction with Dr. Tongue, he
invented a plot against the Roman Catholics, who he asserted had conspired to assassinate
Charles II., and extirpate the Protestant religion. He made it known Aug. 12, 1678, ami
in consequence about eighteen Roman Catholics were accused, and upon false testimony con
victed and executed ; among them the aged viscount Stafford, Dec. 29, 1680. Oates was
afterwards tried for perjury (in the reign of James II.), and being found guilty, was lined,
put in the rjillory, publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyburn, and sentenced to imprison
ment for life, May, 1685. On tlie accession of William and Mary he was pardoned, anil a
pension of $1. a week granted him, 1689.
OATHS were taken by Abraham, 11. c. 1892 {Gen. xxi. 24}, and authorised (b.c. 1491)
Exod. xxii. 11. The administration of an oath in judicial proceedings was introduced by the
Saxons into England, 600. Rapui. That administered to a judge was settled 1344.
Of supremacy, first administered to British the church of England, and toleration of Pro
subjects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Hen. testant dissenters, and abjuring all Roman
VIII. (Stow'i Ckron.) . . . ... 1535 Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13 Will. III. 1701
Oaths were taken on the Gospels bo early as The Test and Corporation oaths modified by
528 ; and the words " So help me God and all stat. 9 Geo. IV. 1828. See Tttis.
saints," concluded an oath until . . 1550 Act abolishing oaths in the customs and excise
The ancient oath of allegiance, which contained departments, and in certain other cases, and
a promise " to be true and faithful to the substituting declarations in lieu thereof, 1 &
king and his heirs, and truth and faith to 2 WiU. IV r83t
bear of life and limb and terrone honour ; and Affirmation, instead of oath, was permitted to
not to know or hear of any ill or damage in Quakers and other dissenters by acts passed
tended him without defending htm there in 1833, 1837, 1838, and 1863. See AjHrmation.
from," was modified by James I. in 1605, a In 1858 and i860, Jews elected M.P. were re
declaration against the pope's authority being lieved from part of the oath of allegiance.
added. It was again altered in . . . 1689 See Jtiv*.
The affirmation of a Quaker was made equiva A bill for modifying the oath taken by Roman
lent to an oath, by statute, in 1696, ei *eq. Catholics ((tossed by tho commons) was re
Of abjuration, being an obligation to maintain jected by the lords . . . Juno 26, 1863
tho government of king, lords, and commons,
OBELISK. (Greek obefos, a spit, nionolitho8y a .sindc stone). Tlie first mentioned in
history was that of Ramescs, king of Egypt, about 1485 b.c. Tho Arabians called them
Pharaoh's needles, and the Egyptian priests the finger of the sun ; they differed very much
as to their costliness, magnitude, and magnificence. Several were erected at Rome ; one
was erected by the emperor Augustus in the Campus Martius, on the pavement of which was
OBL 527 ODE
an horizontal dial that marked the hour, about 14 B.C. Of the obelisks brought to Rome by
the emperors, several have been restored and set up by various popes, especially Sixtus V.
In London are three obelisks : first in Fleet-street, at the top of Bridge-street, erected to the
famous John Wilkes, lord mayor of London in 1775 ; and immediately opposite to it at the
south end of Farringdon-street, stands another of granite to the memory of Robert
Waithman, lord mayor in 1824, erected June 25, 1833 ; the third at the south end of the
Blackfriars-road, marks the distance of one mile and a fraction from Fleet-street. An
obelisk from Luxor was set up in the Place de la Concorde, Paris, in Oct. 1836.
OBLIVION. In 1660 was passed an act of " free general pardon, indemnity, and
oblivion for aU treasons and state offences committed between Jan. 1, 1637, and June 24,
1660." The regicides and certain Irish popish priests were excepted.
OBSERVATORIES. The first is said to have been erected on the top of the temple of
Belus at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandyas, in Egypt, was another, and it contained a
golden circle 200 feet in diameter ; that at Benares was at least as ancient as these. The
first in authentic history was at Alexandria, about 300 B.C., erected by Ptolemy Soter.
First modem meridional instrument by Coper At Bologna 1714
nicus 1540 At St. Petersburg 1725
First observatory at Cassel 1561 At Pekin, about . . . : . . 1750
Tycho Brahe's, at Uranienburg .... 1576 Oxford, Dr. Radclifft 1771
Astronomical tower at Copenhagen . . . 1657 Calton Hill, Edinburgh 1776
Royal (French) 1667 Dublin, Dr. Andrtwif 7S3
Royal observatory at Greenwich (which tie) . . 1675 Armagh, Primate 10>binsoa 1793
Observatory at Nuremburg .... 1678 Cambridge, England 1824
At Utrecht 1690 Cambridge, U.S 1840
Berlin, erected under Liebnitx's direction . . 1711 | Washington, U.S. 1842
OCANA (central Spain), near which the Spaniards were defeated by the French com
manded by Mortier and Soult, Nov. 19, 1809.
OCEAN MONARCH, an American emigrant ship, left Liverpool bound for Boston,
Aug. 24, 1848, having 396 passengers on board. She had not advanced far into the Irish
Channel, being within six miles of Great Ormshcad, Lancashire, when she took fire, and in
a few hours was burnt to the water's edge, and 178 persons perished.*
OCTARCH, the chief of the kings of the heptarchy, was called Rex gentU Anglorum.
Hengist was the first octarch, 455, and Egbert the last, 800. See Britain. Some authors
insist that the English heptarchy should have been called the octarchy, and that heptarchy is
not the correct term.
OCTOBER, the eighth month in the year of Romulus, as its name imports, and the tentli
in the year of Numa, 713 B.C. October still retained its first name, although the senate
ordered it to be called Faustinas, in honour of Faustina,wife of Antoninus the emperor ; and
Corumodus called it Invictus, and Domilianus. October was sacred to Mars.
OCTROIS (from the low Latin auctorium, authority), a term applied to concessions from
sovereigns, and to the taxes levied at the gates of towns in France on articles of food before
entering the city. These octrois, of ancient origin, were suppressed in 1791, but re
established in 1797, and were re-organised in 1816, 1842, and 1852. In 1859, the octrois of
Paris produced above 54 million francs. The Belgian government became very popular in
July, i860, by abolishing the Octrois.
ODES arc nearly as old as the lyre ; amongst the Greeks they were extempore compo
sitions sung in honour of the gods. Anacreon's odes were composed about 532 B.C.; Pindar's
498 to 446 ; and Horace's from 24 to 13, all B.C. Anciently, odes were divided into strophe,
antistrophc. and epode. See Poets Laureate and Lyric Poetry.
ODESSA, a port on the Black Sea, built by the empress Catherino of Russia, in 17S4-
1792, after the peace of Jassy. In 1817 it was made a free port, since when its prosperity
has rapidly increased. It was partially bombarded by the British April 21, 1854, in conse
quence of the Russian batteries having fired on a flag of truce, April 6. On May 12, the
• The Brazilian steam-frigate, Alfcmzo, happened to be out on a trial trip at the time, with the prince
and princess de Joinvillc and the duke and duchess d'Aumule on board, who witnessed the catastrophe,
and aided in rescuing and comforting the sufferers with exceeding humanity. They, with tho crews and
passengers of the Alfonio and the yacht Quten of the Oefan. so effectually rendered their heroic and
unwearied services as to save 156 persons from their dreadful situation, and '62 others escaped by various
means.
01)0 523 OLD
English frigate Tiger stranded here, nnd was destroyed by Russian artillery. The captain,
Gili'ard, and many of his grew were killed, and the rest made prisoners.
ODONTOLOGY (from the Greek odontes, teeth), the science of the teeth, may be said to
have really begun with tho researches of professor Richard Owen, who in 1839 made the first
definite announcement of the organic connection between the vascular and vital soft j>arts of
the frame and the hard substance of a tooth. His comprehensive work, " Odontography "
(illustrated with beautiful plates), was published 1840-5.
ODYL, the name given in 1845 by baron von Reichenbach to a so-called new
"imponderable or influence," said to be developed by magnets, crystals, the human body,
heat, electricity, chemical action, and the whole material universe. The odylic force is said
to give rise to luminous phenomena, visible to certain sensitive persons only. The baron's
" Researches on Magnetism, &c, in relation to tho Vital Force, translated by Dr. Gregory,
were published in 1850. Emanuel Swedenborg (died 1772) described similar phenomena.
OECUMENICAL BISHOP (from the Greek oikoumenl, the habitable understood globe),
"universal bishop ;" a title assumed by John, bishop of Constantinople, 587.
OFFA'S DYKE, the intrenchment from the Wye to the Dee, made by Offa, king of
Mercia, to defend his country from the incursions of the Welsh, 779.
OGYGES, Delugb of (which laid Attica waste for more than two hundred years
afterwards, and until tho arrival of Cccrops), is stated to have occurred 1764 B.C. See Deluge.
OGULNIAN LAW, carried by the tribunes Q. and Cn. Ogulnii, increased the number ol
the pontiffs aud augurs, and made plebeians eligible to those offices, B.C. 300.
OHIO, a western state of North America, was ceded to the British with Canada, in
1763 ; settled in 1788, and admitted into the Union, Nov. 29, 1802.
OHM'S LAW, for determining the quantity of the electro-motive force of the Voltaic
battery, was published in 1827. it is in conformity with the discovery that tho earth may
be employed as a conductor, thus saving the return wire in electric-telegraphy.
OIL was used for burning in lamps as early as the epoch of Abraham, about 1921 B.C.
It was the custom of the Jews to auoint with oil persons appointed to high offices, as the
priests and kings, Psalm exxxiii. 2 ; 1 Sam. x. 1 ; xvi. 13. The fact that oil, if ]«assed
through red-hot iron pipes, will be resolved into a combustible gas, was long known to
chemists ; and after the process of lighting by coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor
and Martineau contrived apparatus for producing oil-gas on a large scale, 1815. Oil Sfbingr.
See Petroleum.
OLBERS, the asteroid, discovered by M. Olbers, in 1802, is now termed Pallas.
OLD BAILEY SESSIONS-COURT is held for the trial of criminals, and its jurisdiction
comprehends the county of Middlesex as well as the city of London. It is held eight times
in the year by the royal commission of oyer and terminer. The judges are, the lord mayor,
those aldermen who have passed the chair, the recorder, and the conimon-serjeant, who are
attended by both the sheriffs, and one or more of the national judges. The court-house was
built iu 1773,* and enlarged in 1808. See Central Criminal Court.
OLD MAN of the Mountain. See Assassins. OLD STYLE. See New Style.
OLEFIANT GAS, a combination of hydrogen and carbon, which burns with much
brilliancy. In 1862, Berthelot formed it artificially by means of alcohol.
OLDENBURG, a grand duchy in North Germany, was annexed to Denmark in 1448 ;
in 1773, Christian VII. coded the country to Russia in exchange for Holslein Gottorp, and
soon alter the present dignity was established. Population in 1864, 301,812.
DUKES. ORAND-DUKES.
1773. Frederick Augustus. 1829. May 21. Paul Frederick.
1785. Feter Frederick. Tho duchy was seized liy 1853. Fob. 27. Nicholas Frederick (born July 8.
Napoleon, and annexed to his cmpiro in 1827), tho present grandduke.
181 1 ; but restored in 1814. I Heir : Trince Frederic Augustus (born Nov. 16, 1852)
* During some trials in the old court, the lord mayor, one alderman, two judges, the greater part of
the jury, and numbers of spectators, caught the gaol distempor, and died May, 1750. Again, this disease
was fatal to several in 1772. Twenty-eight persons were killed at the execution of Mr. Steele's murderers
at tho Old Bailey, Fob. 23, 1807.
OLE 529 orE
OLERON, Laws of, relating to sea affairs, are said to have been enacted by Richard I.
of England, when at the island of Oleron in France, I 194 ; which is now doubted.
OLIVES are named in the earliest accounts of Egypt and Greece ; and at Athens their
cultivation was taught by Cecrops, 1556 n.c. They were first plauted in Italy about 562 B.C.
The olive has been cultivated in England since 1648 a.d. The Cape olive since 1730.
OLTENITZA, Battle of. A large Turkish force having crossed the Danube, under
Omar Pasha, established themselves at Oltcnitza, in spite of the vigorous attacks of the
Russians, who were repulsed with loss, Nov. 2 and 3, 1853. On the 4th a most desperate
attempt to dislodge the Turks by general Dannebcrg with 9000 men, was defeated with
great loss.
OLYMPIADS, the era of the Greeks, which dates from July 1, 776 B.C., being the year
in which Corcebus was successful at the Olympic games. This era was reckonod by periods
of four years, each period being called an Olympiad, and in marking a date the year and
Olympiad were both mentioned. Tho computation of Olympiads ceased with the 305th,
A.D. 44O.
OLYMPIC GAMES, so famous among the Greeks, arc said to have been instituted by
the Idsei Ductyli, 1453 B.C., or by Pelops, 1307 B.C. ; revived by Iphitus, 884 B.C., iu
honour of Jupiter, and were held at the beginning of every fifth year, on tho banks of the
Alpheus, near Olympia, in tho Peloponnesus, now the Morea, to exercise the youth in five
kinds of combats. The conquerors in these games were highly honoured. The prize
contended for was a crown made of a kind of wild olive, appropriated to this use. In 1858,
M. Zappas, a wealthy Peloponnesian, gave funds to re-establish these games, under tho
auspices of the queen of Greece, to commence in Oct. 1859. OLYMnc Tueatre. See
Theatres.
OLYNTIIUS, a city, N. Greece, subdued in war by Sparta iu 382—379 B.C. It resisted
Philip of Macedon, 350 B.C., by whom it was destroyed, 347.
OMENS. See Augury. Amphictyon was the first who is recorded as having drawn prog
nostications from omens, 1497 B.C. Alexander the Great and Mithridates the Great are said
to have studied omens. At the birth of tho latter, 131 B.C., there were seen for seventy
days together, two large comets, whose splendour eclipsed that of the noon-day sun, occupying
so vast a spaco as the fourth part of the heavens ; and this omen, we are told, directed all
the actions of Mithridates throughout his life. Justin.
OMMIADES, a dynasty of Mahometan caliphs, beginning with Moawiyah, of whom
fourteen reigned in Arabia, 661 —750; and eighteen at Cordova, in Spain, 750—1031. Their
favourite colour was green.
OMNIBUSES (from omnibus, for all) began to run in Paris in April, 1828. The idea of
such conveyances is ascribed to Pascal, about 1662, when similar carriages were started, but
soon discontinued. They were revived in Paris, April II, 1828; and introduced into London
by a coach proprietor named Shillibeer. The first omnibus started from Paddington to the
Bank of England on Saturday, July 4, 1829. The omnibus is usually licensed to carry from
U-u to twelve passengers inside, and from ten to fourteen outside, and is attended by a foot
man, called a " conductor." Regulations were made respecting omnibuses by 16 & 17 Vict.
c- 33 ('853)- See Cabriolets and Hackney Coaches. The London Omnibus Company was
established in Jan. 1856. The saloon omnibuses ran in 1857-60. In Sept. 1865, it was
stated that there were then running about 620 omnibuses belonging to the General Omnibus
Company, and 450 belonging to private proprietors.
ONE POUND NOTES were issued by the bank of England, March 4, 1797 ; for England
only, 1823; re-issued for a short time, Dec. 16, 1852. Rosse.
O. P. RIOT began on the opening of the new Covent Garden theatre, London, with
increased prices of admission, Sept. 18,* and lasted till Dec. 10, 1809.
OPERAS. Adam do la Hale, a Trouvere, surnamed " le Bossu d'Arras," born in 1240,
is, as far as has yet been ascertained, the composer of the first comic opera, Li Qicus (Lo Jeu)
de Robin et de Marion. The Italian opera began with the // Satiro of Cavalifcre, and the Dafnc
• The play was Macbeth, and not one word from the stngc was heard. The concurrence of all parts of
the house m the desire for reduction, gave a furious and determined party in the pit courage to proceed,
and great injury was done in pit. boxes, and galleries. For many successive nights the axidiencc, too
strong to be controlled, continued their demand, and renewed tbeir depredations, while the managers
seemed, on their part, resolved not to give way.
M M
orE OPT
of Rinuccini, with music by Peri, about 1590. Their Kurydice was represented at Florence,
1600, on the marriage of Marie de Medicis with Henry IV. of France. VOrfeo, Favola hi
Musica, composed by Monteverde, was performed in 1607, and is supposed to have been the
first opera that was ever published. About 1669, the abbot Perrin obtained a grant from
XIV. to set up an opera at Paris, where, in 1672, was acted Pomona. —Rossini's Barbiire ami
Otello, appeared, 18 16 ; Gazza Ladra, 181 7 ; Semiraniide, 1823 ; Guillaumt Tell, 1829.
Weber's Der Frcischiilz, 1821; Oberon, 1826. Donizetti's Lucrczia Borgia, 1840. Meyerbeer'a
Robert k Diablc, 1831 ; Ilugueiwts, 1836; Prophite, 1849.
OPERAS in England. Sir 'William Davenant introduced a species of opera in I<ondon
in 1684. The first regularly performed opera was at York buildings in 1692. The first at
Drury-lane was in 1705. The operas of Handel were performed in 1735, and they became
general in several of the theatres a few years after. Gay's Beggars' Opera, first performed in
1727 at the Lincoln's Inn theatre. It ran for sixty-three successive nights, but so offended
the persons in power, that the lord chamberlain refused a licence for the performance of a
second part of it entitled " Polly." This resentment induced Gay's friends to come forward
on its publication with so handsome a subscription, that his profits amounted to 1 200/.,
whereas the Beggars' Opera had gained him only 400Z. Life of Gay. See Tfitalres.
OPERA-HOUSE, The Italian, or Queen's Theatre. The original building is generally
snpposed to have been constructed by sir John Vaubrugh, though Mr. Pennant attributes it
to sir Christopher Wren. It was built, according to this authority, in 1704, and opened
April 9, 1705 : and burnt down June 17, 1789. The foundation of the new theatre was laid
April 3, 1790 ; and the house was opened Sept. 22, 1 791, on an improved plan ; the present
exterior was erected in 1818, from designs by Mr. Nash. —The Emilisii Opf.ua (or Lyceum)
was opened June 15, 1816. It was entirely destroyed by fire, Feb. 16, 1830. The new
English Opera-house, or Lyceum, was erected from designs by Mr. S. Heazley, and opened
in July, 1834. See Theatres.
OPHTHALMIC HOSPITALS. See ITosjntals.
OPHTHALMOSCOPE, an apparatus for inspecting the interior of the eye, invented by
professor H. Helmholtz, and described by him in 1851.
OPIUM, the juico of the white poppy, was known to the ancients, its cultivation being
mentioned by Homer, and its medicinal use by Hippocrates. It is largely cultivated in
British India, and was introduced into China by merchants. It conduced to the war of 1834.
The revenue derived from opium by the Indian government in 1862 was about 7,850,00x5/.
Laudanum, a preparation of opium, was employed early in the 17th century. A number of
alkaloids have been discovered in opium : narcotine by Derosne, and morphia by Sertiirner,
in 1803.
OPORTO (W. Portugal), the ancient Calk, by nature one of the most impregnable cities
in Europe ; the great mart of Portuguese wine known as "Port." A chartered company
for the regulation of the port-wine trade was established in 1756. The French, under
marshal Soult, were surprised here by lord Wellington, and defeated in an action fought
May 11, 1809. The Miguelites attacked Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroitcs, with
considerable loss, Sept. 19, 1832. It has since been the scene of civil war. See Portugal.
The Oporto wine company was abolished in 1834, but re-established by a royal decree,
April 7, 1838. An international exhibition was opened here by the king, Sept. 18, 1865.
OPTICS, a science studied by the Greeks ; and later by the Arabians about the I2tli
century.
Burning lenses known at Athens . b.c. 424 1 Telescope made by Jansen (said also to have in-
The magnifying power of convex glasses and vented the microscope) about 1609, and inde-
concave mirrors, and the prismatic colours I pendently, by Galileo, about . . . . 1630
produced by angular glass, mentioned by I Microscope, according to Huyghcus, invented
Seneca, about a.d. 50 by Drcbbel, about x6at
Treatise on Optics, by Ptolemy , . . . 120 Law of refraction discovered by Snellius, about 1624
First treatise on optics by Euclid, about . . 280 1 Reflecting telescope, James Gregory . . . 1663
Two of the leading principles known to the | ,, ,. Newton .... 1666
Platonists 300 Motion and velocity of light discovered by Roe-
Greatly improved by Allnzen . . . . 1108 mcr, and after him by Cassiui . . . . 1667
Hints for spectacles and telescopes, given by [Its volocity demonstrated to be 190 millions of
Roger Bacon, about 1280 miles in sixteen minutes.]
Spcctaclos said to have been invented by Sal- Double refraction explained by Bartholimis . 1669
vinus Armatus, of Pisa, before . . . . 1300 , Cassegrainian reflector 1672
Camera obscura said to havo been invented by ' Nowton's discoveries 1674
Baptista Porta 1560 Telescopes with a single lens by Tschirnhausen,
Telescopes invented by Leonard Digges, about 1571 I * about 1690
orr 531 ORA
OPTICS, continued.
Polarisation of light, Huyghcns, about . . 1693 Fresnel (double refraction, &c.) . . . . 1817
Structure of the eye explained by Petit, about 1700 Large telescope constructed by Lord Rosso . . 1845
Achromatic telescope constructed by Mr. HaU Arago (colours of polarised light, A'c.) . 1811-53
(but not made public) in 1733 Dr. Tyndall's Lectures on Light, illustrated by
Constructed by Dollond, most likely without Duboscq's electric lamp, at the Royal Insti
any knowledge of Hall's 1757 tution, London 1856
Herschers great reflecting telescope erected at Sir D. Brewster, optical researches (seo Photo-
Slouch 1789 grapliy) r8i4-57
Dr. T. Young's discoveries (undulatory theory, Tho spectroscope constructed and used by
*c.) 800-3 Kirchhoff and Ilunsca 1861
Camera Lucida (Dr. Wollaston) . . , . 1807 Soe Telejcoi*, Mienstope, Stereoscope, Puwlo-
Mains (polarisation of light by reflection) . . 1808 Kope, Spectrum, Photography, &c.
OPTIC NERVES are said to liavc been discovered by X. Varolc, a surgeon and physician
of Bologna, about 1538. Nouv. Diet.
ORACLES. Tho most ancient was that of Dodona ; but the most famous that of Delphi,
1263 b.c. Seo Delphi and Dodona.
ORANGE. The sweet, or China orange, was first brought into Europe from China by
the Portuguese, in 1547 ; and it is asserted that the identical tree, whence all tho European
orange-trees of this sort were produced, is still preserved at Lisbon, in the gardens of one of
its nobility. Orange-trees were first brought to England, and planted, with little success in
'595 ! they are said to have been planted at Beddington park, near Croydon, Surrey. The
duty on imported oranges was repealed in i860.
ORANGE, a principality in S. E. France, formerly a lordship in the 9th or 10th century.
It has been ruled by four houses successively : that of Giraud Adhemar (to 1 174) ; of Baux
(1182 to 1393) ; of Chalons (to 1530) ; and of Nassau (1530 to 1 7 13). See Nassau. Philibert
the Great, prince of Orange, the last of tho house of Chalons, having been wronged by
Francis I. of France, entered the service of the emperor Charles V. to whom he rendered
great services by his military talents. He was killed at the siege of Florence, Aug. 3, 1530.
Ho was succeeded by his nephew-in-law Renee of Nassau. See princes of Orange under
Holland. Tho eldest son of the king of Holland is styled the prince of Orange, although tho
principality was ceded to France in 1713.
ORANGE RIVER, a free state in South Africa. The British government transferred
(by sir George Clerk) their powers over this territory to a provisional government, March 29,
1854. A Volksraad (legislative council) and governor have been appointed.
ORANGEMEN. The battle of the Diamond, fought in Armagh in Sept. 1795 ; a"d the
treachery experienced by the Protestants on that occasion, convinced them they would becomo
an easy prey to the Roman Catholics, from their small numbers, unless they associated for their
defence. The first Orange lodge was formed in Armagh, Sept. 21, 1795 ; but the name of
Orangemen already existed. An Orange lodge was formed in Dublin ; the members published
a declaration of their principles (the maintenance of church and state) in Jan. 1798. It is
stated that in 1836, there were 145,000 Orangemen in England, and 125,000 in Ireland, the
duke of Cumberland being grand-master. After a parliamentary inquiry Orange clubs were
broken up at the request of the house of commons ; but revived in 1845. In Oct. 1857, the
lord chancellor of Ireland ordered that justices of the peace should not belong to Orange clubs.
The Orangemen in Canada were greatly excited during the visit of the prince of Wales
in Sept. i860. Orange demonstrations in Belfast have led to desperate riots. See Belfast.
ORATOR HENLEY. An English clergyman of some talents, and great eccentricity,
obtained this name by opening what he called his "Oratory" in London, in 1726. He had
a kind of chapel in Newport market, where he gave lectures on theological topics on Sundays,
and on other subjects on Wednesdays, every week. Novelty procured him a multitude of
hearers ; but he was too imprudent to gain any permanent advantage from his project.
After having served as a butt for the satirical wits, poets, and painters of his time, he
removed his oratory to Clare-market, and sank into comparative obscurity and contempt
previously to his death, in 1756.
ORATORIANS (from tho Latin orare, to pray), a regular order of priests established by
St. Philip Neri, about 1564, and so called from the oratory of St. Jerome, at Rome, whero
they prayed. They had a foundation in France, commenced by father de Berulle, after
wards cardinal, 1612. —The rev. Frederick Faber and others, as "Fathers of the Oratory,"
established themselves first in King William-street, Strand, in 1848, and afterwards at
Brompton.
M M 2
OKA 01! I
ORATORIO, a kind of sacred drama, the .subject of it being generally taken from the
Scriptures, set to music. Mason. The origin of oratorios, so named from having been first
performed in an oratory, is ascribed to St. Philip Neri, about 1550. The first oratorio in
London was performed in Lincoln's-inn theatre m Portugal-street, in 1732. Handel's
oratorio of " Israel in Egypt " was produced in 1738, and the "Messiah" in 1741 ; Haydn's
"Creation " in 1798 ; Mendelssohn's " St. Paul" in 1837, aud "Elijah " in 1846.
ORCHOMENUS, a small Greek state in Boeotia, was destroyed by the Thebans, 368 B.C. ;
restored by Philip II. of Jlaecdon, 354 ; and given up by him to Thebes, 346.
ORDEAL was known among the Greeks and Jews (Nuyn. v. 2). It was introduced into
England by the Saxons. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty, might choose whether he would put
himself for trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as at this day, or upon God only.
The ordeal was abolished in 1261.
ORDERS. See Knighthood.
ORDERS in Council were issued by the British government Jan. 7, and Nov. 1 1, 1807,
prohibiting trade with the ports occupied by the French. They were reprisals for Napoleon's
Berlin decree (which see). These restrictions greatly checked the progress of manufactures in
this country, and caused much distress till their removal in 1814.
ORDINATION of ministers in the Christian church began with Christ and his apostles.
See Metric iii. 14, and Acts vi. and xiv. 23. In England in 1549 a new form of ordiuation
of ministers was ordered to be prepared by a committee of six prelates aud six divines.
ORDINANCE. See Self-Denying Ordinances.
ORDNANCE-OFFICE. Before the invention of guns, this office was supplied by officers
under the following names : the bowyer ; the cross-bowyer ; the galeater, or purveyor of
helmets; the armourer; and the keeper of the tents. Henry VIII. placed it under the
management of a master-general, a lieutenant, surveyor, &c. The master-general was chosen
from among the first generals in the service of the sovereign. The appointment was formerly
for life ; but since the Restoration, was held durante bene placito, aud not unfrcquently by a
cabinet minister. Bcatson. The letters patent for this office were revoked May 25, 1855,
and its duties vested in the minister of war, lord Panmure. The last master-general was
lord Fitzroy Somerset, afterwards lord Raglan.
ORDNANCE SURVEY. The trigonometrical survey of England was commenced by
gen. Roy, in 1783, continued by col. Colby, and completed by col. (now >ir Henry) James in
J856. The publication of the maps commenced iu 1819, under the direction of col. Mudge,
and was completed in 1862 ; the southern part 011 the scale of one inch to the mile, the
northern six inches to the mile : a large part of these maps have been coloured geologically.
The survey of Ireland has been completed and published ; that of Scotland is still going on.
OREGON TERRITORY. A dispute respecting boundaries arose in 1845 between the
British government and that of the United States, which was settled by treaty, June 12,
1846. Oregon was admitted as a state by the Union in Feb. 1859.
ORGANIC SYNTHESIS. See Chemistry.
ORGANS. Their invention is attributed to Archimedes, about 220 B.C. ; and to one
Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 100 B.C. The organ was brought to Europe from
the Greek empire, and was first applied to religious devotions in churches, in A. D. 657
Bella.) mine.. Organs were used in the western churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658.
Ammonius, It is affirmed that the organ was known in France in the time of Louis I. 815,
when one was constructed by an Italian priest. The organ at Haarlem is one of the largest
in Europe ; it has 60 stops and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with 1000 stops and 5300
pipes. The organ at Amsterdam lias a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human voices.
Of the organs in England, that at St. George's hall, Liverpool, by Mr. Willis, is the largest ;
next in older, that at York minster, and that in the Music-hall, Birmingham. In London,
the largest is, perhaps that of Spitalfiolds church ; and that in Christ Church is nearly as
extensive. The erection of the famous Temple organ was competed for by Schmidt and
Harris ; after long disputes, the question was referred to vote, and Mr. Jefferies, afterwards
chief justice, gave the casting vote in favour of Schmidt (called Father Smith), about 1682.
A monster organ was erected in the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, in June 1857.
ORIEL COLLEGE (Oxford), founded in 1337, by Adam de Bromc, archdeacon of Stow,
and almoner to king Edward II. This college derives its name from a tenement called
VCriole, on the site of which the building stauds.
OKI 533 OKI'
ORIFLAMME. Sue Aurijiamma.
ORIGENISTS pretended to draw their opinions from the writings of Origeu (who lived
185-253). They maintained that Christ was the son of God no other way than by adoption
and grace ; that souls were created before the bodies ; that the sun, moon, stars and the
waters that are under the firmament, had all souls ; that the torments of the damned shall
have an end, and that the fallen angels shall, after a time, be restored to their first condition.
They were condemned by councils, and the reading of Origen's works was forbidden. Barkc.
These doctrines were condemned by the council of Constantinople in 553.
ORION Steam-Ship. On Juue 18, 1850, this splendid vessel, bound from Liverpool to
Glasgow, struck on a sunken rock, northward of Portpatrick, within a stone's throw of land,
and instantly filled. Of two hundred passengers, more than fifty were drowned.
ORKNEY akd SHETLAND ISLES (North of Scotland), were conquered by Magnus III.
of Norway, 1099, and were ceded to James III. as the dowry of his wife Margaret, in 1469.
The Orkneys were the ancient Orcades : united with Shetland, they now form one of the
Scotcli counties. The bishopric of Orkney, founded by St. Servanus early in the 5th century,
some affirm by St. Colin, ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, about 1689.
See Bishops.
ORLEANS (a city in central France), formerly Aurelianum ; gave title to a kingdom,
491, and afterwards to a duchy, usually held by one of the royal family. It was besieged by
the English under John Talbot, afterwards earl of Shrewsbury, Oct. 12, 1428, and was
bravely defended by Gaucour, the more so, as its fall would have ruined the cause of
Charles VI. king of France. It was relieved by the heroism of Joan of Arc, afterwards
surnamed the Maid of Orleans, April 29, 1429, and the siege was raised. See Joan of Arc.
Siege of Orleans, when the duke of Guise was killed, 1563.
DUKES OF ORLEANS.
Louis contended for the regency with John the ' Louis Philippe, son, born 1725; died, 1785.
Fearless, duke of Burgundy, by whoso instigation , Louis Philippe Joseph, son, born, 1747 ; opposed the
be was assassinated in 1407. court in the French revolution ; takes the name
Charles takcu prisoner at Agincourt, 1415 ; released, ■ EpaliU, Sept. 11,1792; voted for the death of Louis
1440; died, 1465. I XVI : was guillotined, Nov. 6. 1793.
Louis, became Louis XII. of France in 1498, when Louis Philippe, son, born, Nov. 6, 1773 ; chosen king
the duchy merged in the crown. of the French, Aug. 9, 1830 ; abdicated, Feb. 24,
1S48; died, Aug. 26, 1850. See France.
BOURBON BRANCH. Ferdinand Philippo, son, duke of Orleans, bom
Philip, youngestsonof LouisXIII., born 1640; died, Sept. 3. 1S10 ; diod, through a fall, July 13, 1842.
1701. Louis Philippe, son, count of Paris, born, Aug. 24,
Philip II., son, born 1673; becomes rkoest, 1715 ; 1838. lnuried Maria Isabella, daughter of thoduk'!
dies, 1723. of Montpensior, May 30, 1864. A daughter, Maria
Louis, son, born 1703; died, 1752. Amelia, born, Sept. 28, 1865.
ORLEANS NEW. See New Orleans.
ORMULUM, a metrical version of the Gospels and Acts, in early English, made by
Orm, an ecclesiastic, in the 12th century, printed at Oxford in 1852, from a MS. in the
Bodleian.
ORNITHOLOGY. See Birds.
ORN1THORHYNCHUS, the duck-billed platypus, or water-mole, a singular compound
of the mammal and the bird, a native of Australia, was first described by Dr. Shaw, iu 1819.
ORPHAN-HOUSES. The emperor Trajan first formed establishments for this purpose.
Pliny relates in his Panegyric that Trajan had caused five thousand free-born children to be
sought out and educated, about 105. Orphan-houses, properly so-called, are mentioned for
the first time in the laws of the emperor Justinian. At the court of Byzantium, the office
of inspector of orphans, orphanotrophos, was so honourable, that it was held by the brother
of the emperor Michael IV. in the nth century. See Foundling Hospitals.*
ORPHEON1STES. See Crystal Palace, i860.
* The Orphan Working Asylum for 20 boys was established at Hoxton, iu 1758. It is now situated at
llavcrstock nill, and contains 350 boys and girts. The asylum for Female Orphans, Lambeth, instituted in
1758. Bimilar institutions aro now numerous. The London Orphan Asylum (in 1813 ; removed to CUptc-n
in 1823 ; to Slough, Bucks, opened June 25, 1863) ; the Infant Orphan Asylum at Wanstead (1827) ; and the
Asylum for Fatherless Children (in 1844 ; settled at Reodbam, Surrey), were established mainly through
the exertions of a congregational minister, the rev. Andrew Iteed, D.i).
ORR 534 OTT
ORRERY, a planetary machine to illustrate and explain the motions of the heavenly
bodies, appears to have been coeval with the clepsydra. Ptolumy devised the circles and
epicycles that distinguish his system about 130. The planetary clock of Finee was begun
1553. The planetarium of De Rheita was formed about 1650. The planetarium, now termed
the Orrery, it is said, was constructed by Rowley, alter a pattern devised by the clock-maker,
George Graham, at the expense of Charles Boyle, cRrl of Orrery, about 1715.
ORSINI'S PLOT against the emperor Napoleon III. See France, Jan. 1858.
ORTHES or Orthez (S. France), Battle of, between the British and Spanish armies
on one side, and the French on the other, the former commanded by Wellington, and the
latter by marshal Soult. In this engagement the British gained a great and decisive victory,
Feb. 27, 1814. The victory was soon followed by the battle of Toulouse (which see).
OSBORNE HOUSE (Isle of Wight), was purchased by the queen in 1845, and rebuilt
by Mr. Cubitt.
OSMIUM, the heaviest known metal, discovered in platinum ore by Tennaut in 1804.
OSSORY (S.E. Ireland), Bishopric of, was first planted at Saiger, about 402 ; trans
lated to Aghavoe, in Upper Ossory, in 1052 ; and to Kilkenny about the end of the reign of
Henry II. It was united to Ferns and Leighlin in 1842.
OSTEND (Belgium) is famous for the long siege it sustained against the Spaniards, from
July, 1601, to Sept. 1604, when it honourably capitulated. On the death of Charles II. of
Spain, the French seized Ostend ; but in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken
by the allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In 1756, the
French garrisoned this town for the empress-queen Maria Theresa. In 1 792, the French
once more took Ostend, which they evacuated in 1793, and repossessed in 1794. The
English destroyed the works of the Bruges canal ; but the wind shifting before they could
re-embark, they surrendered to the French, May 19, 1798. Sec Cuba, note.
OSTRACISM (from the Greek oslrakon, a potsherd or shell), a mode of proscription at
Athens, is said to havo been first introduced by the tyrant Hippias ; by others it is ascribed
to Cleisthenes, about 510 B.e. The people wrote the names of those whom they most
suspected upon small shells ; these they put in an urn or box, and presented it to the senate.
Upon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest written was sentenced by the council to be
banished from his altar and hearth. 6000 votes were required. Aristides, noted for
his justice, Miltiades, for his victories, &c, were ostracized. It was abolished by ironically
proscribing Hyperbolus, a mean person.
OSTROGOTHS, or Eastern Goths, were distinguished from the Visigoths (Western
Goths) about 330. After ravaging eastern Europe, Thrace, &c, their great leader, Theodoric,
established a kingdom in Italy, which lasted from 493 to 553. See Italy.
OSTROLENKA, Battle of, between the Poles and Russians, May 26, 1831. The
slaughter was immense, but the Poles remained masters of the field.
OSTRICH (the strulhios of the ancients), a native of Africa (see Job xxxix. 14). Ostriches
were hatched and reared at San Donato, near Florence, 1859-60.
OTAHEITE, or Tahiti, an island in the S. Pacific Ocean, seen by Byron in 1765, and
visited in 1767 by captain Wall is, who called it George the Third Island. Captain Cook
came hither in 1 768 to observe the transit of Venus ; sailed round the whole island in a boat,
and stayed three months ; it was visited twice afterwards by that celebrated navigator. See
Cook. Omai, a native of this island, was brought over to England by captain Cook, and
carried back by him in his last voyage. In 1799, king Pomare ceded the district of Matavai
to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare was compelled to put herself under the
protection of France, Sept. 9, 1843. She retracted, and Otaheito and the neighbouring
islands were taken possession of by admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of the French
king, Nov. 1843. The French imprisoned Mr. Prichard, the English consul, March 5, 1844,
but the act was censured in France.
OTTAWA (formerly Bytown), on the river Ottawa, received its name when it was
appointed to be the capital of Canada by the queen in August, 1858. The executive council
nut here, Nov. 22, 1865. Population in 1861, 14,669.
OTTERBURN (Northumberland). In 1388 the Scots besieged Newcastle and were driven
off by Henry Percy (Hotspur), son of the earl of Northumberland. Percy pursued them to
Otterburn, where a battle was fought on Aug. 10, in which the earl of Douglas was killed
and Percy taken prisoner. On this battle the ballad of Chevy Chase is fuunded.
OTT 535 OXF
OTTOMAN EMPIRE. See Turkey.
OUDE (North India), -formerly a vice-royalty held by the vizier of the great mogul.
About 1760, it was seized by the vizier Sujah-ud-Dowlah, ancestor of the late king.
Battle of Buxar, where Sujahand his ally, Mecr i And grandson, Wajid Ali Shah, exceed all their
Cossim, are totally defeated, and the British I predecessors in profligacy .... 1847-56
became virtually masters of Oude . Oct. 23, 1764 ! In conscquenco (by virtue of the treaty of 1801)
Reign of Asoph-ud-Dowlah, who cedes Benares, i Oude is annexed to the British territories, by
Ac., to the East India Company, who place | decree, proclaimed . . Feb. 7, 1856
troops in Oude (see Chunnr) . . . 1775-81 : The queen and prince of Oude, tie., arrive In
[The annual subsidy to the company in 1787 I London to appeal .... Aug. 20, ,,
was 500,000*.: in 1794, 760,000*.; in 1801, I Oude joins the Indian mutiny : ex-king of Oude
I>352.347*-] More territories ceded to the imprisoned (on suspicion) . . Juno 14, 1857
company 1 801 ' The quoen dies at Paris, Jan. 24 ; and the prince
Ghazoe-ud-deen bocomcs ting, with the consent at London Feb. 26, 1858
of the British 1819 [For tho war, see India, 1857-8 ]
Dreadful misgnvcrnmcnt of Nusscr-ud deen, 1827-37 Triumphal entry of tho governor-general into
|At hiadeath, the British resident, colonelLowo, 1 Lucknow. The Talookdars (Landholders) ro-
promptly suppresses an insurrection.] [ ceivo a frco grant of their estates Oct. 22, 1859
Mahomed Ali governs well . . . 1837-42 , Oude is said to bo prospering under British rule.
But his son Umjoed Ali Shah . . . 1842-7
OUDENARDE (Belgium), where, on July 11, 1708, the English and allies under the
duke of Marlborough and prince Eugene, thoroughly defeated the French besiegers.
OULART (S.E. Ireland), where a body of 5000 Irish insurgents attacked the king's
troops, in small number, May 27, 1798. The North Cork militia, after great feats of bravery,
were cut to pieces, five men only escaping. Musgrave.
OUNCE, the sixteenth part of the pound avoirdupois, and twelfth of the pound troy.
The word is from uneia ; and its precise weight was fixed by Henry III., who decreed that an
English ounce should be 640 dry grains of wheat ; that twelve of these ounces should be a
pound ; and that eight pounds should be a gallon of wine, 1233.
OURIQUE (Portugal), whero Alfonso, count or duko of Portugal, encountered five
Saracen kings and a prodigious army of Moors, July 25, 1139, and signally defeated them.
He was hailed king upon the spot. Lisbon, the capital, was taken, and he soon after was
here crowned as the first king ; the Moorish dominion being overthrown.
OUTLAW, one deprived of the benefit of the law, and out of the king's protection : a
punishment for such as being called in law do contemptuously refuse to appear. In the reign
of Edward III. all the judges agreed that none but the sheriff only, having lawful warrant
therefor, should put to death any man outlawed. Coivel.
OUZEL GALLEY SOCIETY. In 1700, the case of a ship in the port of Dublin, the
Ouzel Galley, excited great legal perplexity, and was referred to an arbitration of merchants,
whose prompt decision was highly approved. This led to tho formation of the present society
in 1705.
OVATION, an inferior triumph which the Romans allowed those generals of their army
whose victories were not considerable. Publius Posthumius Tubertus was the first who
was decreed an ovation, 503 B. 0. A sheep (ovis) was offered by the general instead of a bull.
OVERLAND MAIL. See Wag/torn,
OVERSEERS of the poor for parishes were appointed in 1601. See Poor Laics.
OWHYHEE or Hawaii, an island in the N. Pacific Ocean, discovered in 1778, by capt.
Cook. On Feb. 14, 1779, he hero fell a victim to a sudden resentment of the natives. A
boat having been stolen by one of the islanders, the captain went on shore to seize the king,
and keep him as a hostage till the boat was restored. The people would not submit to this
insult, and their resistance brought on hostilities, and captain Cook and some of his com
panions were killed. Great progress has been recently made in civilisation here ; and an
order of nobility and a representative assembly were instituted in i860. The population then
was about 120,000.
OXALIC ACID, which exists in several plants, especially in sorrel, is now abundantly
obtained, for use in the arts, from sawdust acted upon by caustic potash or soda, according to
Dr. Dale's process, patented in 1862.
OXFORD, an ancient city, restored by king Alfred, who resided here and established a
mint, &c.
OXF 5oh OXF
OXFORD, continued.
Canute held a national council here . 01 3 1 Bishops Ridley and" Latimer burnt here, Oct.
Stormed by William 1 1067 Fatal16, 1555 ; and archbishop Cranmer, March
Charter by Henry II., the city granted to the (or Black) Oxford Assizes,—when the high
burgesses by John 1199 of sheriff and 300 other persons died suddenly,
Henry III. holds the "mad" parliament hero 1258 Charles an infection caught from the prisoners
The bishopric, established by Henry VIII., I. took Oxford, 1642, and held a parlia
formed out of Lincoln, first placed at Osney ment bore .644
in 1542 ; removed to Oxford (Cathedral, for Taken by the parliament 1646
merly St. Frideswidc, now Christ church) . 1545 Charles II. held parliaments here 1665 & 16S1
recent bishops of oxford. (Present income, 5000/.)
1807. Charles Moss ; died, Dec. 16, 181 r. 1827. Charles Lloyd ; died, May 31, 1829.
1812. William Jackson ; died, Deo. z, 1815. 1829 Richard B igot : translatcd'to Bath, Nov. 18461.
1815. Edward Legge; died, Jan. 27, 1827. 1845. Samuel Wilborforcc, present bishop.
OXFORD ADMINISTRATION, formed May 29, 171 1.
Robert, earl of Oxford (previously right lion. Robert Robert Benson (afterwards lord Bingley), chancellor
Harley), lord trea,mrtr. of the exchequer.
Sir Simon (afterwards lord) Harcourt, lord keeper. The duke of Shrewsbury succeeded lord Oxford, re
John, duke of Normanby and Buckingham, lord ceiving the lord treasurer's staff on July 30, 1714,
president. three days before the death of queen Anue From
John, bishop of Bristol (aft. London), privy seal. the reign of George I. the office of lord treasurer
Henry St. John (afterwards viscount Bolinghrokc), has been executed by commissioners.
and William, lord Dartmouth, secretaries of state.
OXFORD DECLARATION. See Church 0/ England, 1864.
OXFORD MARBLES. See Arunddian.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY. An academy here is described as ancient by pope Martin H.
in a deed, 802. Alfred founded "the schools" about 879.
Charter granted by Henry III 1248 All Souls' College, founded by Henry Chichcly,
The university incorporated by Elizabeth . . 1571 archbi.-hop of Canterbury .... 1437
Receives the elective franchise (to send two Magdalen. William of Waynflete, bishop of
members to parliament) 1603 Winchester . 1456
Bodleian Library opened, Nov. 8. 1602 : present Lincoln College. Richard Fleming, 1 427 ;
building completed 1613 finished by Rotherham, bishop of Lincoln . 1479
The botinic garden, &c, established by the Brazenose. William Smyth, bishop of Lincoln,
earl of Danby ....... 1622 and sir Richard Sutton i5o-;>
Radcliffe Library opened, April 13, 1749: the Corpus ChriBti. Richard Fox, bishop of Win
Radcliffe observatory completed . . . 1786 chester 151G
A commission appointed (Aug. 31, 1850) to in Christ Church. Cardinal Wolsey, 1525 ; and
quire into its "state, studies, discipline, and afterwards by Henry VIII 1532
revenues ;" reported . . . April 27, 1852 Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope, on the basis of a
Act making alterations passed . . 1855, 1856 previous institution, called Durham College, 1554
University Museum opened . July* i860 St. John's. Sir Thomas Whyte, lord mayor of
Examination statutes passed . 1801, 1807, 1850, 1862 London 1555
Extension of the university proposed at a Jesus College. Dr. Hugh Price ; queen Eliza
meeting held . Nov. 16, 1865 beth . 1571
Wadham. Nicholas Wadhara, and Dorothy, his
COLLEGES. wife i6i_v
University. Said to have been founded by king Pembroke. Thomas Tccsdale and Richard
Alfred, 872 ; founded by William, archdeacon Wightwick, clerk 1624
of Durham, aboxit 1232 Worcester. Sir Thomas Ci'ko of Bentley, in
BalioL John Baliol, knt (fatherto Baliol, king Worcestershire ; it was originally called Glou
of the Scots), and Debonh, his wifo . . 1263 cester College 1714
Merton College. Walter de Morton, bishop of
Rochester 1264 halls (not incorporated).
Hertford College (dissolved in 1818, and a Hert
ford scholarship appointed) .... 1312 St. Edmund's 1269
Exeter. Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter . 1314 St. New
Mary's
Inn Hall
1333
1392
Oriel College. King Edward II. ; Adam de St. Mary Magdalen i487
Brome, archdeacon of Stowo . ... 1326 St. Alban's 1547
Queen's College. Robert de Eglesfield, clerk, [Oxford University Calendar.]
confessor to queen Philippa, consort of Ed
ward HI 1340
New College. William of Wykeham, bishop of First Profeworships—Divinity (Margaret), 1502,
Winchester: first called St, Mary of Win Divinity, Law, Medicine, Hebrew, Greek,
chester 13SC 1540, 6iC.
RECENT CHANCELLORS.
1809. Lord Grenville. I 185a. The Earl of Derby.
1834. The duke of Wellington.
OXF 537 ■ PAD
OXFORD'S ASSAULT ox the Queen. A youth named Edward Oxford, who had lieen
a servant in a public-house, discharged two pistols at her majesty queen Victoria and prince
Albert, as they were proceeding up Constitution-hill in an open phaeton from Buckingham
mlace, June IO, 1840. He stood within a few yards of the carriage ; but fortunately neither
ler majesty nor the prince was in jured. Oxford was subsequently tried at the Old 15ailey
(July io), and being adjudged to be insane, was sent to Bethlehem hospital.
OXYGEN, a gas (nnmed from the Greek oxw, sharp, as being generally found in acids),
is the most abundant of all substances, constituting about one-third of the solid earth, and
forming by weight nine-tenths of water and one-fourth of the atmosphere. It was first
separated from red oxide of mercury by Priestley, Aug. I, 1774, and by Scheele, who was
ignorant of Priestley's discovery, in 1775. It is the chief supporter of animal life by
respiration, and of combustion.* See Ozone.
OYER and Termtxer, a commission directed to the judges of the courts, by virtue
whereof they have power to hear ami determine treasons, felonies, &c, 1285.
O YES ! A corruption of the French oyez, hear ye ! The ancient term used by a public
crier to enjoin silence and attention.
OYSTER (the Latin Odrea edulis), is said to have its capital in Britain, for though
found elsewhere on the coasts of Europe, in no part of them does it attain such perfection as
in our seas. British oysters are celebrated by the Roman satirist Juvenal (Sat. IV. 140)
about 100. The robbery of oyster-beds is prohibited by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29 (1826). About
15,000 bushels of oysters are said to be produced from the Essex beds alone. In 1858
M. Coste commenced rearing oysters in great numbers on the coast of Brittany, and his plan
has been found successful.
OZONE (from ozein, to yield an odour), a name given in 1840 by M. Sehonbein of Basel
to the odour in the atmosphere developed during the electric discharge. It is considered to
be a modification of the oxygen (irhieh see), and when occurring naturally, to have an effect
on health. It is also produced by the action of moist air on phosphorus. In 1858
ozonometers had been constructed by Dr. Lankester and others. II. Sehonbein has since
discovered another modification of oxygen, which he terms antozone (1859), which hitherto
has been found only in the compound state (in peroxides of sodium, potassium, 4c). On
Dec. 4, 1865, the French Academy of Sciences appointed a committee of eminent philo
sophers to inquire into the nature and relations of ozone.
P.
PACIFICATION", Edicts of. The name usually given to the edicts of toleration
granted by the French kings to the Protestants. See Ghent.
First edict, by Charles IX., permitting the oxer- | [In August, 1572, the same monarch authorised
cise of the reformed religion near all the ! the massacre of St. Bartholomew. See Bar-
cities and towns in the realm . . Jan. 1562 ■ tholomrw.]
The reformed religion permitted in the houses Edict of Pacification by Henry III., April ; re-
oflords justiciaries, and certain other persons, | voked, Dec. 1576; renewed for six years, Oct. 1577
March, 1563 , [Several edicts wore published against the Pro-
Thesc edicts revoked, and all Protestant minis- testants after the six years expired.]
tors ordered to quit France in fifteen days . 1568 , Edict of Henry IV., renewing that of Oct. 1577, 1591
Edict, allowing lords and others to have service I Edict of Nantes (which str), by Henry IV.,
in their houses, and granting public service April 13, 1598
in certain towns 1570 I Pacification (which set) of Nismcs . July 14, 1G29
PACIFIC OCEAN. See Magellan.—Steam Vessel. Sec Steam, 1851 ; Wrecks, 1856.
PADLOCKS arc said to have been invented by Becher at Nuremberg, 1540, but are
mentioned much earlier.
PADUA, the Roman Patavium, in Venetia, N. Italy, said to have been founded by
Antcnor, soon after the fall of Troy, 1183 B.O. It flourished under the Romans. Pataviau
Latin was considered very corrupt, and is traced in Livy, a native of Padua. After being
an independent republic, Padua was ruled by the Carrara family from 1318 till 1405, when
it was seized by the Venetians. The university was founded about 1228.
* An oxygen gas company was announced in Doc. 1864 : its object is the cheap manufacture of oxygen
for its application to the production of perfect combustion in lamps, stoves, furnaces, &c.
TAG 63S PAI
PAGANS, the heathen, idolators, gentiles, worshippers of idols, not agreeing in any set
fnvm or points of belief. Constantino ordered the Pagan temples to be destroyed throughout
the Roman empire, 331 ; his nephew, Julian, attempted their restoration, 361 ; but Paganism
was renounced by the Roman senate, in 388, and finally overthrown in the reign of Theo-
dosius the younger, about 391.
PAINS and PENALTIES. See Qiuxn Caroline.
PAINTING. Osymandyas (in Egypt) caused his exploits to be represented in painting,
2100 B.C. Usher. Pausias of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, a method of burning
the colours into wood or ivory, about 360-330 n.c. The ancients considered Sicyon the
nursery of painters. Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is said to have been the inventor of the
grotesque, 332 B.C. Pliny. The art was introduced at Rome from Etruria, by Quintus
Fabius, styled Pictor, 291 b.c. Livy* The first excellent pictures were brought from Corinth
by Mummius, 146 B.C. After the death of Augustus, not a single painter of eminence
appeared for several ages ; Ludius, who was very celebrated, is supposed to have been the
last, about a.t>. 14. Painting on canvas seems to have been known at Rome in 66. Bede,
the Saxon historian, who died in 735, knew something of the art. It revived about the end
of the 13th century, and to Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, is awarded the honour of its
restoration. It was at once encouraged and generously patronised in Italy. John Van Eyck.
of Bruges, and his brother, Hubert, are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school of
painting in oil, 1415. Dit/resnoy. Paulo ITccello was the first who studied perspective.
About 1523 Henry VIII. patronised Holbein, and invited Titian to his court,+
EMINENT PAINTERS.
School. Horn. Died. School. Born. Died.
Cimabue . Florentine, 1240 1300 1 3 •■/> . 1610 1685
Giotto Ditto 1276 Murillo . . Spanish . 1613
.1. Van Eyck . . . . Flemish . I i<6 1441 Bcrghem . Dutch . 1624 1685
Giorgione .... Venetian . '477 1 3 1 1 Carlo Doled . . Florentine. 1616 1686
Leonardo da Vinci. . . Florentine. ■ 1.53 15") Wouvermans . . Dutch . 1620 168S
Raphael d'Urbino . . Koinan MS 5 1 520 Lc Brun . French . 1619 1690
Paolo Perugino . . Ditto . . 1446 1 :.-'4 Teniers, jun. . . Flemish . 1610 1694
Albert Durer . . . . German 1470 1 '.jS W. VandorVelde . Dutch ■ 1633 1 7^7
Quentin Matsys*. . . Flemish 1 4jo 1529 Watteau . French . 1684 1-21
Oorreg.do . . . . Lnmbardn. M')4 '554 Sir Godfrey Kneller . . German . 1648 1733
I'armcyiano . . . Ditto . . 1 503 '54" Sir J. Thomhill . . i:nglish . 1676 17 33
Giulio Romano . . . Roman i.fjj 154') Huysum . . . Dutch . . 1682 '74J
Sebastian del Piombo . Venetian . 14S., '547 • '697 ■ 7<M
Hans Holbein . . . German 1498 I? 54 Canalctti . « . Venetian • '697 1
Michael Angelo Buonarotti Florentine, ■474 1 564 Gainsborough • . English • 1727 1788
Titian Venetian . M77 1576 Vernet . French • »7«4 i-i"
Paul Veronese . . . Ditto . . 153" 1588 Sir J. Reynolds . . English • 1723
Tintoretto .... Ditto . 1512 '594 Romney . . Ditto . ■ '734 1 So2
Annibal Caracci . . . Lombardn. 1 5C8 ]'.«:>, Moreland . Ditto. • '764 ti>t
Breughel .... F'lomish 1565 1625 Barry. . Ditto . ■ '74'
P. P. Uubcns . . . Ditto . . 1C140 Opie .... . Ditto . . 1761 ,So7
Domcnichino . . . Bologneso . '577 ,5S, 1641 Bourgeois . . Ditto . ■ 1756 1811
Vandyck .... Flemish 1399 I'V| 1 Copley .... . Ditto . • 1738 1815
Guido Lombardn. '575 r'142 West .... . Ditto . ■ '738 1S20
Both Dutch l6oO 1650 1825
P. Potter . . Ditto ifas "'54 David .... . French . • '748 1S25
Lc Sueur . French 1617 1655 Lawrenco . English • 1769 lSw
Spagnolotto . Spanish . 5S9 1656 N'orthcote . . Ditto . ■ 1746 'Sji
Snyders . . Flemish '579 ■<'57 Beechey. . Ditto . • '753 ' 339
Velasquez , . Spanish 1 599 1660 Wilkio . Ditto . ■ 1785 1 1 4 t
N. Poussin . French 1 594 i«65 Havdon .... . Ditto. . 1786 '846
Giicrcino . Bolognesc . 1 590 ir//, Collins . Ditto . . 1788 1847
Hobbima . Flemish . I'm 1670 Etty .... . Ditto . ■ 17S7 '349
A. Cuyp . . Dutch 1C06 1672 Turner . Ditto . ■ '775 i?5t
A. Vander Veldc . Ditto . . ,l.yl 1672 Martin .... . Ditto. 1S54
Salvator Rosa . . Neapolitan. 161 5 1673 Aug. Ejrg . . Ditto . :\ir6 1863
Rembrandt . . Dutch l(x>6 Wm.
'"74 Wm. Hunt .Mulready . Ditto. . i7B6 18C3
Gerard Douw . Ditto . . i(m I"K0 . Ditto . iSfc,
Sir Poter Lely . German 1 0 1 7 W. F. Withcrington . Ditto. '. 1786 1S65
Mieris. . Dutch ir>i5 i',--: 1 H. Veniet . . French 1 Sfi ;
Ruysdael . Ditto . . ir.j', 16S1 E Do la Croix . Ditto. 1SO3
Claude Lorraine . . French T fXTO E. W. Cooke . English . 1810
* Tim-basins of Ephesus and Zeuxis were contemporary painters. These artists once contended for
pre eminence in their profession, and when they exhibited their respective pieces th birds came to peck
the grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Parrhasius then produced his piece, and Ze xis said, " Remove
tho curtain, that we may see the painting." The curtain itself was the painting, a d Zeuxis aeknow-
ledged himself to be conquered, exclaiming, "Zeuxis has deceived tb« birds ; bvit Parrl us has deceivod
Zeuxis ! " Parrhasius dressed in a purple robe, and wore a crown of gold, calling himself king of painters,
415 b.c. Plvtarch. '
t In Aug. i860, tho sale of lord Nortlvwick's pictures occupied eighteen days. It produced 95,725?. A
PAL 500 PAL
PALACE COURT. Sec Marshals™ and Green Cloth.
PALACES. See Buckingham, St. James's, Parliament, Escurial, Tuileries, St. Cloud,
Versailles, &c.
PAL^SOLOGI, a family which reigned as emperors of the East from 1260 to 1453.
George Paheologns raised Alexius Comnenus to the throne in 1081, and thereby founded his
own family. Andrew, the last Pala;ologus, son of Thomas, ruler of the Morea, after the
overthrow of his father, became a Mahometan at Constantinople about 1533.
PALAEONTOLOGY (from the Greek palaios, ancient, and onta, beings}, treats of the
evidences of organic beings in the earth's strata. It is a branch of geology (which sec).
Cuvier, Mantell, Agassiz, Owen, Edward Forbes, and Blainville, all of the present century,
may be reckoned as fathers of this science. The Pahcontographical society, which publishes
elaborate monographs of British organic remains, was founded in 1847. Professor Owen's
" Palaeontology " was published in i860. "Nearly 40,000 species of animals and plants
have been added to the Systems Naturae by palaeontological research." Huxley. See Alan.
PALATINATE of the Rhine, one of the seven ancient electorates of Germany. It
was long united to Bavaria ; but was separated in 1294. —Frederic V., the elector palatine in
1610, married in 1613 Elizabeth, the daughter of James I. of England, and thus became the
ancestor of queen Victoria. See Hanover. In 1619 he was elected king of Bohemia; but
lost all by his defeat by the Austriansat Prague in 1620. The Palatinate was horribly ravaged
by Tilly in 1622, and by the French in 1688.* The elector palatine, Charles Theodore, inherited
Bavaria in 1778 : since when the two electorates have been united. See Bavaria.
PALATINE. William the Conqueror made his nephew, Hugh D'Abrincis, count
palatine of Chester, with the title of earl, about 1070. Edward III. created the palatine of
Lancaster, 1539. See Lancaster, duchy of. The bishoprics of Ely (963) and Durham were
also made county palatines. The latter was vested in the crown in 1836. There is also
mention made of the county palatine of Hexham, in 33 Henry VIII. c. 10, which then
belonged to the archbishop of York, but by the 14th of Elizabeth it was dissolved, and made
part of the county of Northumberland. The palatinate jurisdiction of Durham was separated
from the diocese, and vested in the crown, 6 Will. IV. c. 19, June 21, 1836.
PALERMO (N.W. Sicily), the ancient Panormus. It has been held by the Carthaginians,
415 B.C. ; taken by the Romans, 254 B.C. ; by the Saracens, A.n. 832 ; and by the Normans,
1072. Here Roger II. was crowned king of Sicily, 1130. Palermo was the scene of the
Sicilian Vespers (which see), March 30, 1282. It suffered from earthquake in 1726 and 1740.
The king Ferdinand resided at Palermo from 1806 to 1815, while Naples was ruled by Joseph
Bonaparte and Joachim Murat. It revolted against the tyranny of Ferdinand II., Jan. 12,
1848. It was attacked by general Filangieri, March 29, 1849, and surrendered on May 14.
It was taken by Garibaldi, June 6, i860.
PALESTINE. See Jews. After being several times conquered by the Saracens, and
retaken from tho 7th to the 10th century, and after being the scene of the wars of the
Crusades (which see), and other conflicts, Palestine was united to the Ottoman empire by
Selim I. in 15 16. See Bible (note),t Holy Places, and Syria.
PALESTRO (N. Italy), where the Sardinians defeated the Austrians, May 30, 31, 1859.
PALL, PALLIUM, in the Roman Church an ensign of dignity conferred by the pope
upon archbishops. By a decretal of pope Gregory XI. (about 1370), no archbishop could call
a council, bless the chrism, consecrate churches, ordain a clerk, or consecrate a bishop, till
he had received his pall from the see of Rome. The pall was first worn by an Irish arch
bishop in 1 152, when Gelasius was recognised as primate of all Ireland.
PALLADIUM, the statue of Pallas. Some authors say it fell from heaven near tho tent
of Ilus, as he was building Ilium ; and that on its preservation depended the safety of Troy;
which the oracle of Apollo declared should never be taken so long as the Palladium was
Carlo Dolci fetched 2010?., and a' Murillo 1400/. The Bickncll collection, told in April, 1863, produced
25,600/.
* About 7000 of poor Protestants, from tho batiks of tho Rhino, driven from their habitations by the
French, arrived in England, and wero encamped at Blackhcath and Cambcrwell : a brief was granted to
collect alma for them. Five hundred families went under tho protection of tho government to Ireland,
and settled chiefly about Limerick, where parliament granted them 24,000'. for their fiujiport. Three
thousand were sent to New York and Hudson's Bay ; but not having been received kindly, they went to
Pennsylvania, and bcin^ there greatly encouraged by the Quakers, thoy invited over some thousands of
German and Swiss Protest-ants, who soon made this colony flourishing, 7 Anne, 1709. Anderson.
t By. means of the Palestine exploration fund (see p( 103), capt. Wilson and a party left England for
Palestine in Nov. 1SG5.
PAL 540 PAL
found within its walls. This being made known, the Greeks stole it away during the Trojan
war, 1 184 B.C., though some maintain that it was only a statue of similar size aud shape,
and that the real Palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by .'Eneas, 1183 B.C., and pre
served by the Romans with the greatest secresy in the temple of Vesta, and esteemed the
destiny of Rome. —Palladium is a rare metal discovered in platinum ore by Dr. WoUast oii
in 1803.
PALLAS,* the planet, was discovered by Olbers, at Bremen, March 28, 1802.
PALL MALL, a street near St. James's palace, London, is named from a French game
at ball {paille-maillc, being a wooden mallet), having been played there about 1621. Among
eminent inhabitants were Nell Gwyn and Dr. Thomas Sydenham.
PALMERSTON ADMINISTRATION.! The resignation of the Aberdeen adminis
tration was announced Feb. X, 1855, but nearly all its members returned to office soon after
under lord Palmerston, —lord Derby and lord John Russell having each in vain endeavoured
to form an administration. On Feb. 22, Mr. Gladstone, sir James Graham, and Mr. Sidney
Herbert resigned on account of the Sebastopol inquiry. Lord John Russell resigned
July 13. Lord (.'aiming was appointed governor-general of India, July 4, 1855. This
cabinet resigned Feb. 20, 1858, in consequence of a vote of censure upon the government
for introducing the Foreign Conspiracy bill. It was succeeded by the Derby administration
(which see).
First lord of the treasury, Henry viscount Palmer- First lord of the. admiralty, sir Jamos Graham (re
gion, tdgned Fel». 22) ; next, sir Charles Wood.
Lord chancellor, lord Cranworth. Board of control, sir Charles Wood ; next, R. Vernon
President of the council, carl Granville Smith.
Lord privy teaJ, duke of Argyll ; earl of Harrowby Public vorl-t, sir W. Molesworth ; next, sir B. Hall
afterwards the marquess of Clunricarde. (appointed July 22, 1855V
S<crctaricM—/tome, sir George Grey ; foreign, earl of Postmaster-general, viscount Canning (appointed go-
Clarcnclon ; colonial, Sidney Herbert (resigned vcrnor-general of India, July 4); next, duke of
Feb. 32) ; afterwards lord J. Kussell (resigned j Argyll.
July 13): sir William Molesworth (died Oct. 22, President of the. board of trade, lord Stanley of Al-
1855) ; next, Henry Labouchcrc ; war, Lord Pan- j derley.
mure. Marquess of Lansdowne, without office.
Chancellor of the exchequer, W. Gladstone (resigned Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 31. T. Baines
Feb. 22) ; next, sir G. Cornewall Lewis. 1 (appointed Nov. 24, 1855).
PALMERSTON-RUSSELL ADMINISTRATION. The Derby administration (which
sec) resigned June II, 1859. Earl Granville was requested by the queen to form an adminis
tration, and obtained the support of lord Palmerston, but not of lord John Russell : the two
last then united to form a cabinet, which came into office June 18, 1859. On the decease
of lord Palmerston, Oct. 18, 1865, earl Russell became premier. See Russell. •
First lord of thetreasury, Henry viscount Palmerston. I Chancellor of the exchequer, Wm. Ewart Gladstone.
Lord high chancellor, John lord Campbell (died, June : First lord of tlte admiralty, duke of Somerset.
23. 1861) ; succeeded by sir Richard Bethell, made , President of the board of trade, Thomas Milner Gibson.
lord Wcstbury, who resigned July 4, 1865; sue- [This office was offered to 31r. R. Cobden, and de-
eecded by Lord Cranworth. clined by him.]
Lord president of the council, earl Granville. j Secretary of state for Ireland, Edward Cardwell ; suc-
Lord privy real, duke of Argyll. cecded by sir R. Peel (not in the cabinet).
ikcvttarUi.—foreign affairs, lord John (afterwards ' Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, sir George Grey,
carl) Russell; colonies, duke of Newcastle; sue- j bart. ; succeeded by Edward Cardwell; and by
ceeded by Edward Cardwell, April 8, 1864 ; home, earl Clarendon, April 8. 1864.
sir G. Cornewall Lewis ; succeeded by sir George . Postmaster-general, carl of Elgin (proceeded to China
Grey; tear, Sidney (afterwards lord) Herbert; in April, i860); succeeded by lord Stanley of Al-
succeeded by sir G C. Lewis (died April 13, 1863), 1 derley, appointed Sept i860.
and by carl Ue Grey (May t) ; Indtu, sir Charles I Poor-lav board, Charles P. Yilliers (July 9, 1&60).
Wcod.
PALM-SUNDAY. When Christ made his triumphal entry into Jerusalem, multitudes
of the people who were come to the feast of the Passover, took branches of the palm-tree,
* It is distant from the sun about 263 millions of miles, and completes its revolution in four years
seven months and one third of a mouth. Schroetor, a Germm astronomer, estimitod its diameter to be
2090 miles, and consequently nearly the size of our moon. It presents a ruddy aspect, and is surrounded
with a nebulosity. It is distinguished from all the other planets by the very groat inclination of its orbit
to the plane of ttie ecliptic, which is no less than 34 degrees 35 minutes.
t Henry John Temple was born, Oct. 20, 17S4 ; was educated at Harrow, Edinburgh, and Cambridge ;
succeeded his father, viscount Palmerston, 1S02 ; became M.P., and a junior lord of the admiralty, 1807 ; was
secretary-at war, 1S09-28, and a secretary for foreign affairs, Nov. 1830-34, April 1835 to Sept. 1841, and
July J846 to Dec. 1851 ; and home secretary. Dee. 1852 to March 1855, when he became firat lord of the
treasury. He was created lord warden of the cinque ports, March 31, i86r ; and master of the corporation
of the Trinity house, June 16, 1862. He died, Oct. x8, 1865. He sat for Tiverton, 1835-65.
PAL 511 PAN
and went forth to meet him, with acclamations and hosannas, 33. It is usual, in some
countries, to carry palms on the Sunday before Easter, hcnce-called Palm-Sunday.
PALMYRA (Syria). The ruins, chiefly of white marble, discovered by some English
travellers in 1678, prove Palmyra to have been more extensive and splendid than even Rome
itself. It was supposed to have been the Todmor in the wilderness built by Solomon, but
was manifestly Grecian. The brilliant part of the history of Palmyra was under Odenatus
and his queen Zenobia. Odenatus died, and Zcnobia assumed the title of queen of the East,
in 267. Aurelian defeated her at Adessa and made her captive, 273. From that time
Palmyra ceased to make a figure in history. It is now inhabited by only a few Arab families.
The ruins were visited in 1751, by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them in 1753.
Mr. Dawkins also visited Palmyra ; and Mr. Bruce, ou ascending a neighbouring mount, was
overcome with the magnificent sight.
PAMPELUNA (N. E. Spain, taken by the French on their invasion of Spain), was
invested by the British, between whom and the French obstinate conflicts took place, July
27 and 29, 1813. It surrendered to the British, Oct. 31, in that year.
PAMPHLET. . The first appearance of pamphlets amongst us is generally thought to
have been in opposition to the errors and corruptions of the church of Rome. Those who
were first convinced of the reasonableness of the "new learning," as it was then called, pro
pagated their opinions in small pieces, which were cheaply printed, and (what was then of
great importance) easily concealed. Political pamphlets began in Edward VI. 's time, anil
were very numerous in the 17th century. Large collections are in the libraries of the British
Museum and the Royal and London Institutions.
PANAMA, the isthmus which joins the two Americas. Across this a ship canal has
been proposed : and a railway was opened in 1855. In that year a new state, New Grenada,
was divided into eight federal states, one of which is named PANAMA. A revolution took
place in Panama 011 March 9, 1865 ; the government was deposed, and dou Jil Coluuje
became president.
PANDECTS. A digest of the civil law made by order of Justinian, about 534. It is
stated that these Pandects (which condensed all the then known laws) were accidentally
discovered in the ruins of Amalfi, 1 137 ; were removed from Pisa in 1415, and now pre
served in the library of the Medici at Florence, as the Pand'.cta; Florentine.
PANICS, Commercial, generally the result of over-speculation. See Bubbles, South Sea,
Lav:'s. The last in this country were, in 1826, through bubble companies ; in 1847,
through the railway mania ; in 1857, through American failures ; and in April, 1859,
through the fear of a continental war.
PANNONIA, part of Illyria, now Hungary, was finally subdued by Tiberius, 8.
PANOPTICON of Science and Aiit, in Leicester-square, erected in 1852-3 for a char
tered company, by Mr. T. H. Lewis, the architect ; was opened in 1854 for lectures, musical
performances, &c. It had a very large electrical machine, battery, &c. The speculation did
nut succeed ; the building was sold in 1857, and in Feb. 1858, was opened for concerts and
horsemanship, and called the Alhambra.
PANORAMAS, the invention of Robert Barker, are bird's-eye views painted in dis
temper round the wall of a circular building. In 1788 he exhibited at Edinburgh a view of
that city, being the first picture of the kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in
London, having adopted the name ' Panorama ' to attract notice, and was ultimately
enabled to build commodious premises in I^eicester-sqnare for that purpose. He died in
April, 1806.
PANORMUS. See Palermo.
PANTHEON at Rome. A temple built by Augustus Ca;sar, some say by Agrippa, his
son-in-law, 27 B.C. It was in a round form, having niches in the wall, where the image or
representation of a particular god was set up ; the gates were of brass, the beams covered
with gilt brass, and the roof covered with silver plate. Pope Boniface III. dedicated it to
the Virgin Mary, and all the saints, by the name of S. Maria della Rotonda, or "ad
Martyres," a.d. 608. —The Pantheon in London was erected by subscription, and opened
Jan. 25, 1772. It was formed into an opera-house ; was burnt down Jan. 14, 1792 ; was
rebuilt in 1795 and 1812 ; and made a bazaar in 1834.
PANTOMIMES were representations by gestures and attitudes among the ancients, and
were introduced ou the Roman stage by Py lades and Bathyllus, 22 B.C. Comic masques
PAP PAP
were introduced here from Italy about 1700. The first regular English pantomime is said to
have been "Harlequin executed," produced by Kich at the Lincoln s-inn-fields theatre,
Dec. 26, 1 717.
" PAPAL AGGRESSION." In a consistory holden in Rome, Sept. 30, 1850, the pope
(Pius IX.) named fourteen new cardinals, of whom four only were Italians. Among the ten
foreigners raised to the dignity of cardinal, was Dr. Wiseman, Roman Catholic vicar-
apostolic of the Loudon district, who was at the same time created lord archbishop of West
minster. On Oct. 27, following, Dr. Ullathorne was enthroned as Roman Catholic bishop
of Birmingham in St. Chad's cathedral in that town. The same day a pastoral letter from
Dr. Wiseman was read in all the Roman Catholic chapels of his see ; and on its becoming
generally known to the British people that all England had been parcelled out similarly
into Romish dioceses, the strongest indignation of the assumption of the pope was expressed
throughout the empire.* The answer of the bishop of London (Dr. Blonifield) to a memorial
from the Protestant clergy of Westminster, against the pope's creation of a Romish hierarchy
in this country, was followed by the celebrated "Durham" letter from lord John Russell, then
chief minister of the crown (Nov. 4), to the bishop of Durham, in which is severely censured
not only the papal aggression, but also the proceedings of the tractarian clergy of the Church
of England ; and immediately from every quarter of England addresses poured into her
majesty the queen, calling upon her and the government to resist the usurpation. As
many as 6700 addresses, it is said, had been voted from nearly as many influential meetings
up to Dec. 31, 1850. The great agitation on this subject produced the Ecclesiastical Titles
of pretended provinces under a penalty of 100?. This statute, however, has not yet been
acted upon.
PAPAL STATES. See Rome and Popes.
PAPER. See Papyrus. Paper is said to have been invented in China, 170 B.C. It was
first made of cotton about a.d. iooo ; and of rags about 1300. f White coarse paper was made
by sir John Speilman, a German, at Dartford, in England, 33 Eliz. 1590 : and here the first
paper mills were erected. Stow. Paper for writing and printing manufactured in England,
and an act passed to encourage it, 2 Will. III. 1690; before this time we paid for these
articles to France and Holland 100,000/. annually. The French refugees taught our people ;
they had made coarse brown paper almost exclusively, until they came among ns. White
paper was first made by us in 1690. A ndcrson. Paper-making by a machine was first suggested
by Louis Robert, who sold his model to the celebrated M. Didot, the great printer. The
latter brought it to England, and hero, conjointly with M. Fourdrinier, he perfected the
machinery. M. Fourdrinier obtained a patent for paper-making machinery in 1801 ; and for
manufacturing paper of an indefinite length in 1807 ; it had previously been made tediously
by the hand. The machinery was also improved by Mr. Bryan Donkin. A sheet of paper
13,800 feet long, and 4 feet wide, was made at Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830; and
one 21,000 feet long, and 6 feet 3 inches wide, was made at Colyton in Devon in i860. The
paper duty imposed in 1694 (producing latterly, about 1,400,000/. annually), after having
been the subject of agitation for several years, was repealed in 1861. Esparto, a Spanish
grass, first imported in 1857, has been largely employed in the paper manufacture since
1864. See Parchment Paper.
PAPER-HANGINGS, &c. Stamped paper for this purpose was first made in Spain and
Holland, about 1555. Made of velvet and floss, for hanging apartments, about 1620. Tho
manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly improved in this country during the present
century.—Paper Bricks have been made in America ; and paper tubing for water and gas,
made by M. Jaloureau of Paris, was shown in i860.
PAPER-MONEY. See Banks.
PAPIER MACHfi. This manufacture (of paper-pulp combined with gum and sometimes
china clay) has existed for above a century. Martin, a German snuff-box maker, is said to
* Among other consecrations that followed, and continued the excitement, was that of Dr. Briggs,
created Roman Catholic bishop of Beverley, and enthroned in St. George's chapel at York, Feb. 13, 1851 :
Dr. Browne created bishop of Clifton, and Dr. Burgess bishop of Shrewsbury : both consecrated in St.
George's cathedral, Sjouthwark, July 27, 1851 ; and other pnests were similarly raised to new Roman
Catholic prelacies.
t Mr. Joseph Hunter (in the Archaologia, xxxvii.) states that tho earliest paper which ho had seen
was an MS. account book, dated 1302, probably of Bordeaux manufacture. He gives engravings of manu
facturers' marks, French and English, the dates of which range from 1330 to 1431. Ho also gives an
extract from a work by Bartholus, a writer of tho middle of the 14th century, in which mention is made
of a paper manufactory in the Marches of Ancona.
TAP 543 PAR
have learnt the art from one Lefevre about 1740. In 1745 it was taken np by Baskerville,
the printer at Birmingham, and soon spread over that district. Papier mach<5 is now largely
employed in ornamenting the interior of buildings, &c.
PAPYRUS. The reed from which was made the celebrated paper of Egypt and India,
used for writings until the discovery of parchment, about 190 B.C. Ptolemy prohibited the
exportation of it from Egypt, lest Eumenes of Pergamus should make a library equal to
that of Alexandria, 263 B.o. A manuscript of the Antiquities of Josephua on papyrus ol
inestimable value was among the treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to the
National Library at Paris ; but was restored iu 1815.
PARACHUTE. See Balloons.
PARADISE LOST, the great English epic by John Hilton, appeared first in ten books
in 1667; in twelve books in 1674.
PARAFFINE (from paruni affinis, having little affinity with anything), also called
photogen, a solid substance, somewhat like spermaceti, produced by distillation of coal, and
first obtained by Reichenbach in 1830. It was procured from mineral oil by Mr. James
It makes excellent caudles.
Much litigation has ensued through interference with Sir. Young's patent-right.
PARAGUAY, a republic in S. America, discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1526; and
conquered by Alvarez Nunez in 1535, and civilised by the Jesuits, who in 160S commenced
their missions there and established an exclusive government, whic h they held till their
expulsion in 1768. Paraguay rose against the Spanish yoke in 181 1. In 1814 Dr. Francia
was elected dictator ; lie ruled well ; lie was succeeded on his death in 1840 by Vival. From
1814 to 1844 the countiy was rigidly closed against foreigners. The president, C. A. I/ipez,
elected in 1844, was succeeded by his son, C. A. Lopez, in Sept., 1862. Paraguay was
recognised as an independent state by the Argentine Confederation in 1852, aud by Great
Britain in 1853. Hostilities between Paraguay and Brazil began on Nov. II, 1864; when
a Brazilian steamer was captured as an intruder on the Paraguay. Brazil was invaded in
December. On April 14, 1865, Lopez invaded the territories of the Argentine republic,
which immediately made alliance with Brazil. The army of Lopez having been defeated
in September, retreated. On Oct. 18, the allies captured Uruguyana and an army of
Paraguayans. There were prospects of peace in Dec. 1865.
PARASOLS were used by the ancient Egyptians. In their present form (said to have
been devised by the duchess of Rutland) they came into general use about 1820.
PARCHMENT.* Invented for writing books by Eumenes (some say by Attains), of
Pergamus, the founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, formed on the model of the
Alexandrian, about 190 B.C. Parchment-books from this time became those most used, and
the most valuable as well as oldest in the world are written on the skins of goats. It should
be mentioned that the Persians and others are said to have written all their records on skins
long before Eumenes' time.
PARDONS. General pardons were proclaimed at coronations : first by Edward III. in
1327. The king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a lege sitce dignitatis; and no
other person has power to remit treason or felonies, stat. 27 Hen. VIII. 1535. Blackstone.
A pardon cannot follow an impeachment of the house of commons : stat. Will. III. 1700.
PARIAN MARBLES were discovered in the island of Paros, A. D. 1610. Their
chronology was composed, 264 B.C. Thoy were brought to England, and were presented to
the university of Oxford, by Thomas Howard, lord Arundel, whence they are called the
Arundelian Marbles, which see.
PARIS (formerly Lutetia Parisiorum), the capital of France, situated on the river Seine,
which cuts it into two unequal parts, the strongest being towards tho north, and in which
are three isles, la villc (the. city), the tie SI. Louis, and the tie Louvicrs. In the time of Julius
C»sar, Lutetia comprised the city only. It was greatly improved by the emperor Julian,
who made it his residence while he governed Gaul, 355 to 361, and Clovis also resided here
in 510. It became successively tho capital of the kingdoms of Paris, Soissons, and Neustria,
* Parchment paper (or vegetable parchment) was invented and patented in 1857, by Mr. W. E.
Gainc, C.E., who discovered, that when paper is exposed to a mixture of two parts of concentrated buI-
phuric acid and one part of water for no longer time than is required to draw it through the fluid, it is
immediately converted into a strong tough skin-like material. It must bo instantly washed with water.
Its great strength points out many applications of this matorial, r..g., maps, school and account bookB, and
drawing paper. In 1859 it appeared that a similar invention had been made in Paris by Figuier and Pou-
marede in 1846.
PA II 54 i PAR
and eventually of all the kingdom. The representative of the house of Orleans, styled
count of Paris, now resides in England. Population of Paris in 1856, 1,178,262 ; in 1S60,
1,525,535. See France.
St. Dents founded 613 The Pantheon ; St. Genevieve ... 1764
Paris ravaged by the Normans (or Danes) ; suf The French revolution breaks out; the Bastile
fered from fatuino ..... 845-940 taken July 14, 1789
Gallantly defended against them by the count Pont de Louis XIV. finished 1790
Eudes and tho bishop Goslin . . . . 885 Cemetery of Pere La Chaise consecrated . . 1804
Rebuilt. 1231 Pont des Invalided 1806
University founded 1206 Paris surrenders to the allies . March 30. 1814
Church of Notre Dame built . . 1163-1270 Paris lit with gas 1819
The parliament established 1302 Revolution (see France) . . . July, 1830
Suffers by the factions of tho Armaguacs and Fortifications of Paris (for which 140,000,000 of
Burgimduuis 1411-1418 fnines were voted, 1833) commenced Dec. 15,
Taken by the English 1420 1840; completed .... March, 1846
Retaken by the French 1436 Revolution (see France) 1848
Pont Notre Dame built 1499 Paris much improved by Louis Napoleon (pro
The Louvre built (see louirt) .... 1522 bable costs, i2,8oo,ooof 1853-62
Hotel de Ville 1533 Industrial exhibition opened by the emperor
The Boulevards commenced .... 1536 and empress. May 15; visited by queen Vic
Fountain of the Innocents 1551 toria and prince Albert (the first visit of au
Tho Tuilcries built (see Tuileriex) . . . 1564 English sovereign to Paris since 1422), Aug.
Massacre of St Bartholomew's . Aug. 24, 1572 24 ; exhibition closes . . . Nov. 15, 1855
The Pont Nouf begun 1578 Conference at Paris respecting the Danubiau
Hospital of Invalids 1595 I Principalities (which gee) ; closes . . Aug. 185S
Place Rovale begun 1604 Bois du Boulogne opened as a garden of aceli-
The Hotel- Dicu founded 1606 ! matisation Oct. 6, 1S60
The Luxembourg, by Mary of Mcdicis . . 1615 A building was erected for a permanent indua-
Tho Palais Royal built 1629 ! trial exhibition by a company . Oct. 18C2
Tho Val-de Grace 1645 I The scheme failed and the company was wound
Conflicts of the Fronde 1648-53 I up Feb. 1S64
The Academy of Sciences founded . . . 1666 Boulevard-prince-Eugene opened by the emperor
The Observatory 1667 Dec. 7, 186=
Champs Elysees planted 1670 Decree for an International Exhibition of the
Arch of St. Denis erected 1672 products of Agriculture, Industry, and tho
Palais d' Elysee Bourbon 1718 Fine Arts, at Paris, in 1S67 ; commissioners
The Palace of the Deputies 1722 appointed Feb. 21, 1S64
The Military School 1751 See France.
LATE CHEAT THE ATIF.S OF PAKIS.
Between England, France, pain, and Portu Treaty of Paris, l>ctween Great Britain, Austria,
gal ; cession to Great Britain of Canada by Russia, and Prussia, styling Napoleon the
France, and Florida by Si«un . . Feb. 10, 1763 prisoner of those powers and confiding his
Between Franco and Sardinia; the latter ced safeguard to England . . Aug. 2, 1 ; 1 -
ing Savoy, Ac May 15, 1796 Establishing tho boundaries of France, and
Between France and Sweden, whereby Swedish stipulating for the occupation of certain for
Pomerania and the island of Rugcn were tresses by foreign troops for three years,
given up to the Swedes, who agreed to adopt Nor. 20, ,t
the French prohibitory system against Great Treaty of Paris, confirming the treaties of Chau-
Britain ...... Jan. 6, 1810 niout and Vienna, same day . Nov. 20, ,,
Capitulation of Paris : Napoleon renounces the Treaty of Parts, to fulfil the articles of the Con
sovereignty of France . . April 11, 1814 gress of Vienna .... June 10, 1817
Convention of Paris, between France and the Treaty of Paris between Russia and Turkey,
allied powers ; the boundaries of Franco to England, France, and Sardinia March 30, 1856
be the same as on the 1st of January, 1792, Treaty of Paris between England and Persia,
April 23, ,, March 4, 1S57
Peace of raria ratified by France and all the Treaty of Paris between the European powers,
allies May 14, i Prussia, and Switzerland, respecting Neuf-
Convention of St. Cloud, between marshal Da- j chatel .... . May 26, ,,
voust, and Wellington, and Blucher, for the Important commercial treaty between Franco
surrender of Paris .... July 3, 1815 1 and England .... Jan. 23, 1S60
[The allies entered it on the 6th.] " I
PARISHES. Their boundaries in England were first fixed by Honorius, archbishop of
Canterbury, 636. They were enlarged, and the number of parishes was consequently
reduced in the 15th century, when there were 10,000. The parishes of England and Wales
now amount to 11,077. Parish registers were commenced in 1538. By an act passed in
1856 new parishes may be formed out of too extensive ones. See lltyinters and Benefices.
PARK'S TRAVELS. Mutigo Park set sail on his first voyage to Africa, under the
patronage of the African Society, to trace the source of the river Niger, May 22, 1795 ; and
returned Dec. 22, 1797, after having encountered great dangers, without his journey through
intertropical regions having enabled him to achieve the great object of his ambition. He
again sailed from Portsmouth on his second voyage, Jan. 30, 1804, appointed to a new
expedition by government; but never returned. The accounts of his murder at Broussa on
the Niger were a long time discredited ; but at length were too well authenticated.
PAR 545 PAR
PARKS. The Romans attached parks to their villas. Fulvius Lupinus, Pompey, and
Hortensius, among others, had large parks. In England, the first great park of which parti
cular mention is made, was that of Woodstock, formed by Henry I., 1125. The parks of
London are in a high degree essential to the health of its immense population. St. James's
park was drained by Henry VIII. about 1537. It was improved, planted, and made a
thoroughfare for public use, 1668. The Green park forms a part of the ground inclosed by
Henry VIII. In Hyde park, the sheet of water called the Serpentine river, although in the
form of a parallelogram, was made between 1730 and 1733, by order of queen Caroline,
consort of George II. This queen once inquired (it is said) of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards
earl of Chatham), how much it would cost to shut up the parks as private grounds. Ho
replied, "Three crowns, your majesty." She took the hint, and the design was never after
wards entertained. See Green, Hyde, St. James's, Regent's, Victoria, Batlersea, Alexandra,
and Peoples Parks.
PARLIAMENT (from the French, parlement, discourse) derives its origin from tho Saxon
general assemblies, called Wittcnagemot. The name was applied to the general assemblies of
the state under Louis VII. of France, about tho middle of the 12th century, but it is said
not to have appeared in our law till its mention in the statute of Westminster L, 3 Edw. I.
1272 : and yet Coke .declared in his Institutes, and spoke to the same effect, when speaker
(1592), that this name was used even in the time of Edward the Confessor, 1041. The
first clear account we have of the representatives of the people forming a house of commons,
was in the 43rd Hen. III. 1258, when it was settled by the statutes of Oxford, that twelve
persons should be chosen to represent the commons in the three parliaments, which, by the
sixth statute, were to be held yearly. Burton's Annals. The general representation by
knights, citizens, and burgesses, took place 49 Hen. III. 1265. Dugdale's Summo)is to
Parliament) edit. 1685. See Commons and Lords. The power and jurisdiction of parlia
ment are so transcendent and absolute, that it cannot be confined, either for causes or
persons, within any bounds. It hath sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making and
repealing laws. It can regulate or new-model the succession to the crown, as was done in
the reigns of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter and establish the religion of tho
country, as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. Sir
Edward Coke* The fourth edition of May's "Practical Treatise on Parliament" was
published in 1859. See Triennial and Septennial.
First stimmons of barons, by writ directed to The parliament remarkable for the epoch in
the bishop of Salisbury, by John . . . 1205 which were first formed the parties of Court
Parliament of Mertou 1236 and Country, 1614; disputes with James I.
The assembly of knights and burgesses. Burton 1258 June 1620
First assembly of the commons as a confirmed Charles I. dissolves parliament, which does not
representation. Dugdale 1265 meet for eleven years 1629
First regular parliament according to many The Long Parliament, which voted the house of
historians, 22 Edw. 1 1294 lords as useless, first assembled . Nov. 3, 1640
First a deliberate assembly, they become a The Rump Parliament ; it voted the trial of
legislative power, whose assent is essential to Charles I. Jan. 1649
constitute a law ... ... 1308 A peer elected and sat as a member of the house
Tho commons elect thoir first speaker, Peter De of commons . . . . . . . . ,,
la Mere 1377 Cromwell roughly dissolves the Long Parlia
Parliament of but one session, of only one day, ment April 20, 1653
Richard II. deposed 1399 A convention parliament. See Convention . . 1660
Lawyers excluded from the house of commons 1404 Roman Catholics excluded from parliament, 30
Members were obliged to reside at the places Charles II 1678
they represented 1413 The commons committed a secretary of state to
Forty-shilling freeholders only to elect knights 1429 the Tower Nov. ,,
The Journals of the Lords commenced . . . 1509 The speaker of the commons refused by the
Acts of parliament printed in 1501, and consecu
tively from 1509 A king
convention parliament. See Convention . . 1679
Members protected from arrest. See article James II. convenes the Irish parliament at
Ferrari* Arrest ....... 1542 Dublin, which attaints 3000 Protestants . 1689
Journals of the commons begun . . 1547 Act for triennial parliament ; see Triennial . . 1094
Francis Russell, son of the earl of Bedford, was First parliament of Great Britain met Oct. 23, 1707
the first peer's eldest son who sat in the house Tho Triennial Act repealed, and Septennial Act
of commons 1549 voted. See Septennial Parliament . May 7, 1716
* When the royal assent is given to a public bill, the clerk says " Le roi U veut." If the bill be a
private bill he says " Soit fait comme il ett desire." If the bill have subsidies for its object, he says, " Le roi
reotercie sen toyaux mjets, accepte Itur WnSvoUnce, et aussi le veut." If the king do not think proper to assent
to the bill, the clerk says, " Le roi s'avisera ;" which is a mild way of giving a refusal. It is singular
that the sovereign of England should still make use of the French language to declare her intentions to
her parliament.
N N
TAR 546 PAR
PARLIAMENT, continued.
The Journals ordered to be printed . 1752 I The refoimcd parliament meet. See Reform^
Privilege as to freedom from arrest of the ser- Aug. 7, 1832
vanta of members relinquished by the com E. Pease, the first Quaker admitted on his affir
mons 1770 mation Feb. 15, 1833.
The loid mayor of London (Oliver) and alder Houses of parliament destroyed by fire, Oct. 16, 1634
man Crosby committed to the Tower by the New houses of parliament commenced* . . 1840
commons iu Wilkes' affair '77 The members of the commons' and lords' houses
Assembly of the first parliament of the United relinquish the privilege of franking letters.
Kingdom of Great ilritain and Ireland See Franking Jan. io„
Feb. 2, 180 Committal of Smith O'Brien by the commons
Sir F. Burdett committed to tho Tower, for contempt. Be* Inland July 20, 1S46
April 6, 1S10 The peers took possession of their house, that
Murder of Spencer Perceval, by Bellinghani, at portion of the palace being ready, April 15. 1847
the house of commons . . May 11 [8l2 The commons assemble In their new house,
Return for Clare county, Ireland, of Mr. O'Con Nov. 4, 185s
nell, the first Roman Catholic commoner The two houses began to communicate by letter
elected since tho Revolution , July 5, 1828 in 1855
The duko of Norfolk took his seat in the lords, Baron L. Rothschild, the first Jew admitted,
the first Roman Catholic peer under the Re July 26, i8;S
lief Bill. See Roman Catholics . April 28, 1829
NUMBER AND DURATION OF PARLIAMENTS, FROM 27 EDW. I. 1299, T0 2S VICT- J^2,
Edward 1 8 pari, in 8 yrs. refgn. Henry V 11 pari, in 9 yra. reign
Edward II 15 ,, 20 Henry VI 22 „ 39 „
Edward III 37 „ 50 Edward IV 5 22 ,,
Richard II. ... 26 „ 22 Richard III. ... 1 2
Henry IV 10 ,, 14 Henry VII 8 „ 24
* St. Linus is sot down in nearly all accounts of popes as the immediate successor of St Peter ; but
Tertullian, who was undoubtedly well informed, maintans that St. Cl< ment succeeded the Apostle. In
tho first century of the Christian Church, neither the dates of succession, nor the succession of bishops, are
reconciled by even tho best authorities. Some assert that there were two or three bishops of Rome at
the same time.
t The names in itnlics were antipojjes.
POP 571) POP
POPE, continued.
685. Johu V, : ruled with wisdom. Silvester II.
999- John
686. Conon.— Theoilore and Piter * 1003. XVII. : legitimate pope, died same year.
687. Sergius : " governed wisely." John XVIII. : abdicated.
701. John VI. 1009, Sergius IV.
705. John VII. iota. Benedict VIII.—Gregory.
708. Sisinnius : died 20 days after election. 1024. John XIX.
Constat11tine. I033- Benedict IX. : became pope, by purchoso, at
715. Gregory II. : canonised. 12 years of age ; expelled.
731. Gregory III. : the first pope who sent nuncios 1044. Sylvtftcr III. ; 3 mouths.
to foreign powers. Gregory VI. : deposed.—Sylvester.
741. Zacharias. 1046. Clement II. (the Romanists call Clrmens Ro
752. Stephen II. : with this pope commenced the manua the.flrjf Clement) : died next year.
temporal power of the Church of Homo. 1047. Benedict again : again deposed.
757. Paul I. : moderate and pious. 1048. Damasus II. : died soon after.
767. Constantine Theophylactug, Leo IX. : canonised.
768. Stephen III. 1054. [The throne vacant one year.]
772. Adrian I. : sanctioned images, in which he i°55- Victor II.
was opposed by the kings of England and 1057- Stephen IX.
France. 1058. Benedict X. : expelled.
795. Leo III. Nicholas II.
816. Stephen IV. : died the next year. 1061. Alexander II. : he raised the papal power.—
817. Tascal I. Honorius II.
824. EugeniusII.—Zozimus. 1073- Gregory VII. the celebrated Hildebrand.f
827. Valeutinus. 1080. Clement III.
„ Gregory IV. : pious and learned. 1085. [The throne vacant one year.]
844. Sergius II. 1086. Victor III.
847. Leo IV. : defeated the Saracens. rc88. Urban II. : crusades commenced.
855. Tope Joan (which tee) said to have been elected. 1099. Pascal II.
,. Benedict III. —Anattasius. 1118, Gelasius II. : retired to a monastery.—Gregory
858. Nicholas I., styled the Great. VIII.
867. Adrian II. 11 19. Calixtus II.
872. John VIII. 1124. Honorius II.—Celestinc II.
882. Marinus or Martin II. 1 130. Innocent II.—Anacletus II.
884. Adrian III. : died the next year. 1 1 38. Victor III.
885. Stephen V. II43- Celestine II. : ruled 5 months.
891. Fonnosus : died detested ; his corpse was 1 144. Lucius II. : killed by accident in a popular
thrown into the river Tiber.—Sergius. commotion.
806. Boniface VI. : deposed. II4S- Eugenius III. : canonised.
897. Romanua.—Sergius. "53- Anastasiua IV. : ruled a short time only.
Stephen VI. : strangled in prison. H54- Adrian IV., or Nicholas Brakcspcare, the only
898. Theodorus II. : governed 22 days, Englishman elected pope : born at Abbot's
„ John IX. Langley, near St. Alban's. He obliged
900. Benedict IV. Frederick I. to prostrate himselfbefore him,
903. Leo V. : driven from his seat ft few months kiss his foot, hold his stirrup, and lead the
after his election, and died in prison. white palfrey on which he rode.
,, Christopher. 1 1 59. Alexander III., avenger of the murder of
904. Sergius III. : disgraced his dignity by his vices. Thomas a Becket.—1159, Victor IV. : 1164,
911. Aiiiustasius III. Pascal III. : 1168, Calistus III. : 1178, Inno
913, I^iindonius, orLando. cent III.
914. John X. : resigned, and was stifled by Guy, 1181. Lucius III.
duke of Tuscany. 1185. Urban III.
928. Leo VI. : considered an intruder by many 1 187. Gregory VIII. : ruled only two months.
Roman Catholic historians. Clement III.
929. Stephen VII. 1191. Celestine III.
931. Jobn XI. : imprisoned in the castle of St. An- 1 198. Innocent III. (Lothario Conti): excommuni
gelo, where ho died. cated king John of England.
936. Leo VII. : great in zeal and piety. 12x6. ITonorius III. ; learned and pious.
939. Stephen VIII. : " of ferocious character." 1227. Gregory IX. : caused a new crusade to be
942. Marinus II., or Martin III. undertaken.
946. Agapetus II. : of holy life. 1241, Celestine IV. : died 18 days after his election.
956. John XII., the Infamous : deposed for adultery [The throne vacant 1 year and 7 months.]
and cruelty, and murdered. 1243. Innocent IV. : gave tho red hat to cardinals.
963. Leo Vlll. : an honour to the chair, though an 1254- Alexander IV.
Intruder.—Ba ^onius. I20I. Urban IV.
964. Benedict V. : chosen on the death of John XII., 1265. Clement IV., an enlightened Frenchman, -pre
but opposed by IjCO VIII., who was sup viously cardinal and legate to England : dis
ported by tho emperor Otho : the 1toman couraged the crusades.
people were obliged to abandon his cause. 1268. [Tho throne vacant 1 years and 9 months.]
965. John XIII., elected by the authority of tho 1271. Gregory X. : elected while he was with Ed
emperor against the popular will. ward I. of England in the Holy Land.
972. Benedict VI. : murdered in prison. 127''*. Innocent V. : died shortly after.
974. Doninus II.—Benedict VII. Adrian V. : legato to England in 1254 ; died
983. John XIV. 36 days after election.
984. John XV. : died before consecration. Vieedominus : died the next day.
985. John XVI. John XX. or XXI. : died in 8 months.
996. Gregory V.—John XVII. was expelled by the 1277. Nicholas III. : died in 1280.
emperor, and barbarously used by his rival. I-V I. Martin IV.
The names in italics were antipopes. t Sec p. 577.
P P
POP 5S0 POP
POPE, continued.
1285. Honorius IV. : promoted the crusades. 1534. Paul III. Alexander Farnese.
1288. Nicholas IV. : endeavoured to stir up the 1550. Julius III.
princes of Christendom to a new crusade, 1555. Marcellus II. : died soon after his election.
but without success. Faul IV. John I'eter Caraffa. When queen
tags. [The throne vacant 2 years and 3 months.] Elizabeth sent him an ambassador to an
1294. Celcstine V. : resigned from fear. nounce heraccession, he haughtily answered
,, Boniface VIII.: proclaimed that " God had " that to the holy sec, and not to her,
set him over kings and kingdoms : " im belonged the throne, to which she had no
prisoned his predecessor, and laid France right as being a bastard. "
and Denmark under interdict. 1559. Pius IV., cardinal de' Medici.
1303. Benedict XI.: a pious and liberal pontiff: 1566. Pius V.
poisoned by some ambitious cardinals a 1572. Gregory XIII., the greatest civilian and canon
short time after his election. ist of his time : under him the calendar was
1304. [The throne vacant 11 months.] reformed
1305. Clement V. Bertrand the Goth : removed the 1 585. Sixtus V. : an able governor.
p t]ul scat from Rome to Avignon. 1590. Urban VII. : died 12 days after election.
1314. [The throne vacant 2 years and 4 months.] „ Gregory XIV. Nicholas Sfondratc.
1316. John XXII. 1 591. Innocent IX. : died in two months.
1334. Benedict XII. [Mcholcu P.* at Rome.] 1592. Clement VIII. : learned and just.
1342. Clement VI. : a learned prelate, a generous 1605. Leo XI. : died same month.
prince, and an amiable man. ,, Paul V. Camilla Borgheso.
1352. Innocent VI. 162 1. Gregory XV. Alexander Ludovisio.
1362. Urban V. : illustrious as a patron of learning. 1623. Urban VIII. : gave the title of Eminence to
1370. Gregory XI. : also an eminent protector of cardinals.
learning ; he restored the papal chair to 1644. Innocent X. John Baptist Pamphilus.
Rome. 1655. Aloxander VII. Fabio Chigi.
1667. Clement IX.
Scnisx—1378-1447. 1670. Clement X. John Baptiste Emile Alticri.
1373. Urban VI. : so severe and cruel that the car 1676. Innocent XI.
dinuls chose Robert of Goueva, under the 1689. Alexander VIII.
name of Clement VII., which led to great 1691. Innocent XII. Antonio PignatolK.
violence. 1700. Clement XII. John Francis Albani.
1389. Boniface IX. 1721. Innocent XIII. Michael Angelo Conti ; the
1394. Benedict (called X///.), at Avignon. eighth pontiff of his family.
1404. Innocent VII. : died in 1406. 1724. Benedict XIII., properly so called.
1406. Gregory XII. Angelo Corario. 1730. Clement XII.
1409. Alexander V. : died, supposed by poison. 1740. Benedict XIV., the amiable Lambertini.
1410. John XXIII. : deposed. 1758. Clement XIII. Charles Rszzonico.
1417. Martin V. OthoCulonna. 1769. Clement XIV. (the illustrious Ganganelh) ;
1424. Clement VJIl. suppressed the Jesuits.
1431. Eugenius IV. Gabriel Condolmera : deposed 1775. Pius VI. Angelo Braschi, Feb. 15; dethroned
by the council of Basil; and Amadeus of by Bonaparte : he was expelled from Rome,
Savoy chosen as Felix V., in 1439, who re and deposed in Feb. 1798; and died at
signed 1449, Valence, Aug. 29, 1799.
1447. Nicholas V. 1800. Pius VII. Chianimonte : elected March 13;
1455. Calixtus III. agrees to a concordat with France, July 15,
1458. Pius II. iEneas SUvius FiccolomunV 1801 ; crowns Napoleon, Dec. 2, 1804; ex
14G4. Faul II. : a noble Venetian. communicates him, June 10, 1809 ; im
1471. Sixtus IV. prisoned, July 6, 1809; restored in 1814:
14S4. Innocent VIII. : a noble Genoese. died, Aug. 20, 1823. (Ho restored the
1492. Alexander VI., the infamous Roderic Borgia ; Jesuits.)
poisoned at a feast by drinking of a bowl he 1823. Leo XII. Annibal della Ganga, Sept. 28.
had prepared for another. 1829. Pius VIII. Francis Xavier Castiglioni, March
1503. Pius III. Francis Todeschini : 21 dayspopo. 31.
,. Julius II. Julian de la Ruvere. 1831. Gregory XVI. Mauro Capellari, Feb. 2, 1831 :
1513. Leo X. (John de' Medici) : this pope's grant of died June 1, 1846.
indulgencesfor crime lodto the Reformation. 1846. Pius IX. Giovanni Maria Mastai Fcrrotti :
1522. Adrian VI. the 252nd pope (according to " l'Art de
1523. Clement VII. Giulio do' Medici refused to Verifier les Dates
The")present
elected (1865)
June pope.
16 (born
divorce Catherine of Aragon, and denounced •May 13, 1793).
the marriage of Henry VIII. with Anne Seo Rome.
Bolcyn.
POPE JOAN. It is asserted that in the 9th century, a female named Joau conceived
a violent passion for Felda, a young monk, and in order to be admitted into Ins monastery,
assumed the male habit. On the death of her lover she entered upon the duties of professor,
and, being very learned, was elected pope, when Leo IV. died, in 855. Other scandalous
particulars follow ; "yet, until the Reformatiou, the tale was repeated and believed without
offence." Gibbon.
POPISH PLOTS. Sec Gunpowder Plot and Oatcs's Plot.
POPLAR TREES. The Tacamahac poplar (Popuhts Palsamifcm) was brought hither
from North America before 1692. . The Lombardy poplar from Italy about 1758.
* The numos iu italict wore antipopes.
roi> 581 pop
POPULATION'. The population of the world was estimated in 1863 at 1,288,000,000.
For the Population of Countries, see the table (after the Preface) facing p:ige I.
Europe. 275,806,741 Africa . 200,000,000 Australia 1,445,003
755,000,000 America 67,896,041 Polynesia . 1,500,000
POPULATION' OF ENGLAND AND WALES.
Estimated in 1377 2,092,978 [ In 1483 .... 4,689,000 1 In 1696 . 5,250,000
Population. 1 Population. Population. ' Population •
1700 ■ 5,475,o«> 174" . 6,064,000 1770 . 7,428,000 1 Soi . 8,872,980
1710 . 5,240,000 ■7 5" 6,467,000 1760 • 7,953.«>o 1851 ■ 17.987.609
1730 . 5.565,000 1 • 6,736,000 1750 . 8,675,000 18G1 . 20,061,172
1730 . 5,796,000
POPULATION OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND BY CENSUS.*
In 1851, 1.106,558 males, and 1 ,05, 5,678 females. t 1E61 : parliamentary limits of the boroughs only.
POP 052 POR
POPULATION, continued.
Towna. 1801. 1811. 1821. 1831. 1811. 1891. 1861-*
* In 1859 Mr. Samuel Leigh Sothoby issued an elaborate work compilod by his fathor and himself
entitled " Principia Tvpograpltica," containing fac-Rimiles, Ac. of the block-books of the 15th century ;
and Mr, J. Russell Smith published a fac-simile of the Biblia Pauperum, a very early block-book.
PRINTING, continued.
this time. Collier. But this statement is when the Freeman's Oath and an almanack
discredited by Dil>din,] were printed . *£j"9
A Linj printed. Du Fresnoy 1460 First Bible printed in Ireland was at Belfast.
The first Bible completed. Idem. , . . Hardy'* Tour ....... 1704
Mentz taken and plundered, and the art of First types cast in England by Caslon. Phillips. 1720
printing, in the general ruin, is spread to Stereotype printing practised by William Ged,
other towns * * of Edinburgh, about ...... 1750
The types were uniformly Gothic, orold German The present mode of stereotype invented by
(whence our old English or Black Letter), until 1465 Mr. Tilloch. abuiit *779
Greek characters (quotations only) first used, [Stereotype printing was in use in Holland in
same year ,, the last century. Phillips.)
Cicero dv Officii* printed by Fust at Mentz . . Logoifrophic Printing in wl<ich words ca«t in
Roman characters, first at Rome . . . 14C7 one piece were employed : patented by H.
A Chronielet said to have been found in the arch Johnson and Mr. Walter of the Times; (soon
bishop of Canterbury's palace (the fact dis disused) 1783
puted), Ixiaring the date Oxford, anno 1468" Machine-printing (which tee) first suggested by
William Caxton, a mercer of London, set up the | Nicholson 1790
first press at Westminster* .... 1471 I The Stanhope press invented about 1800; in
He printed }Villyam Caxton'* Rccuytl of the Hys- I general use 1806
torves of Troy, by Retoul If Feure. Phillips. . Columbian press of Clymer introduced . . 1S14
His first pieces were, A Treatise on the Game of Albion press introduced 1816
Chesse and Tally's Offices (see below). Dihdm. 1474 The roller, which was a suggestion of Nicholson,
JEsoj/s Fables, printed by Caxton, is supposed introduced
to be the first book with its leaves numbered. * * Cnwyer's and Applegath's rollers . . . . 1S17
Aldus cast the Greek Alphabet, and a Greek Printing for the blind (by raised charaetei-s)
book printed ap. Aldi 1476 logins ........ 1837
He introduces the Italics * * Printer's Pension Society established . . .
The Pentateuch, in Hebrew 1482 Type-composing machines.—By James Young's
Homer in folio, beautifully done at Florence, several numbers of the "Family Herald
eclipsing all former printing, by Demetrius . 1488 were set up, beginning Dec. 17. 1842 ; IJat-
Caxton prints the Boke of Eneydos . . , 1490 tcrsley's appeared at the Exhibition of 18^2 ;
Aldus Manutius begins printing at Venice . . 1494 Hart's was shown at the meeting of the
Printing used in Scotland 1509 British Association at Cambridge . Oct. 6, iS6r
The first edition of the whole Bible was, strictly Printing-types electro faced with copper, about 1850
speaking, the Cotnplutensian Polyglot of Engraved copper-plate electro- faced with iron
cardinal Ximenca (see Polyglot) . . . . 1517 and nickel 1855
The Liturgy, the first book printed in Ireland, W. 11. Mitchel's machine was tried at Messrs.
by Humphrey Powell 1550 Sjwtti.swoode's, 1S61 ; these machines were
Printing in Irish characters introduced by taid to be in use in America in Jan. 1863
Nicholas Walsh, chancellor of St. Pstrick's . 1571 Miss Emily Faithfull established the Victoria
The first newspaper printed in England (see printing-office in Great Coram-street, London,
Newspapers) 1588 in which female compositors are employed:
First patent granted for printing . . . . 1591 the " Englishwoman's Journal ** printed there
First printing-press improved by William Blaeu, Aug. 1861 ; appointed printer and publisher
at Amsterdam 1601 in ordinary to her Majesty . June iSfa
First printing in America, in New England, [See PrintingMachine, Stereotype, and Nature-Printiiig. }
TITLES OF THE EARLIEST BOOKS OF CAXTON AND WYNKYN DE WORDE.
The Game and Plave or the Ciiksse. f Translated TheCroniclesof ENOLONDiTmpn/fri by me Wyllyam
out of the Frenche and empigated by me William Caxton tlabbey of Wtttmynstre by london the v day
Caxton. Fynysshtd the last day of Afarche the yer of Juyn the yert of thincamacion of our lard god
if our Lord God a thousand foure hondred and M.OCCC.LXXX.
Lcxiiij. Polycronycon. Ended the thyrtenth daye of Apry11
The Boke or TrixE of Olde age Emprynted by me the tenth yere of the reyne of kinge Harry the tentnth
simple persone. William Caxton into Englysshe as the And of the Jncarnacyon of our lord: mcccclxxxxv.
playsir solace and reverence of men graving in to old Emrryntfd by Wynkyn The worde at Wesmestre.
age the xij day of August the yere of our Lord M. The Hylie of Perfection emprynUel at the instance
cccc. Lxxxj. Herbert. of the reverend relygyovs fader Tho. Prior of th*
T»f; POLYCRONYCOM conteyning the Berynges and hovs of St. Ami, the order of the charti rouse Accent? -
Dedes of many Tymes in eyght Botes. Jmprinteel by plysshe[d\ and fynysske[d] att Westmynster the v.iii
William Caxton after having somewhat chaunged day of Jtmeuer the yere of our lorti Thousand*
the rude and olds Englysslie, that is to wete [to witj CCCC.LXXXXVir. And in Ike xii yere of kynge Heury
cettayn Words which in these Dayts be neither vsyd the vii by me wynkyn do worde. Ames, Herbert,
ne understanden. Ended the second day of Juyll at Pibdin.
Westmestre the xxij yere of the Hegne of Ky-nge The Descrifcyon of Enolonde Walys Scotland an>f
Edward the fourth, and of the Incarnation of (sure Jrlond speakirg of the Noblesse and II eo-thynesse <sf
Lord a Thousand four Hondred four Score and the same FynyssJved and emprwttd in Ftete strtte *«
tweyne [1482]. Dibdjn's Typ. Ant. j the syne of the Sonne by me Wynkyn de Wordo the
m To the west of the Sanctuary in Westminster Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry, where
the first printing-press in Eii^and was erected in 1471, by William Caxton, encouraged by the learned
Thomas Miling, then abbot. He produced " The Game and Play of Cheese," tho first book ever printed in
these kingdoms. There is a slight difference about the place in which it was printed, but all agree that it
was within the precincts of this religious house. Leigh.
t A fac-simile of this book was printed by Mr. Vincent Figgins in 1859.
PRI 595 PKI
PRINTING, continued.
yere of our lord a k. cecce aiul ij. mentis Mayii* and forgive us oure trespasses, as we forgive them
(menso Maii]. Diudin's Typ. Ant. thai tre*pas* against us; and lead us not in to tempta
The Ftstyvall or Sermons, on sonday* and Jtolittttis tion, but deliver usfrom all evil sin, amen. Lewis's
taken out of the golden legend enprynted- at london Like or Caxton.
in Fletestrete at y" *yone of y Sonne by wynkyn de . Placard. [As printed by William Caxton.] If U
worde. Iu the yere of our lord m.ccccc.viii. And plese ony man spirituel or temp' reI to bye ony pies of
ended the xi daye of Maye. Ames. tiro or three amemoracios of Salisburi use* enprynted
The lord's prayer [As printed by Caxton in 14x3.] offer the forme of this pre*ft lettre whiehe ben wet and
Father our that art in heaven*, hallowed be thy name ; truly correct^ late him come to wettmonestcr in to the
thy kingdom*, come to us; thy will be done in tarth a* almonestye at the reed pale [red pale] ajut he sliull
u in Araven : our every day* bread give us to day ; have them good there. Dibdin's Typ. Ant.
Printing-machines.— William Nicholson, editor of cess, to imitate water-colour drawings, and to
the Philosophical Journal, first projected (1790-1), print paper-hangings.
but M. Konig first contrived and constructed a About 1783, John Skippc, an amateur, printed some
working printing-machine, which began with pro chiaroscuros.
ducing the limes of Nov. 28, 1814, a memorable In 1819-22, Mr. William Savage produced his re
day in the annals of typography. markable work, "Hints on Colour Printing."
In 1815, Mr. E. Cowper applied his iuventivo mind illustrated by imitations of chiaroscuro, and of
to the subject, t coloured drawings, giving details of the processes
Konig's machine printed 1800 an hour on one side ; employed.
Cowpor's improvement** increased this number to In 1836, Mr. George Baxter produced beautiful
4200. This was raised to 15,000. by Mr. Applognth's specimens of Picture-Printing, and took, out a
machine, which prints the Times. patent, which expired in 1855. In some of the
Hoe's American machine introduced into London in illustrations to the " Pictorial Album " (1836), ho
1858, prints 20,000 an hour. employed twenty different blocks.
It has been applied to Lithography (hence Chromo-
Hthography ).
Printing in Colours was first commenced by the In 1849, Mr. G. C. Leighton produced imitations of
employment of several blocks, to imitate the water-colour-drawings, by means of modifications
initial letters in MSS. (for instance, the Mcntz and improvements of Savage's processes. In 1851
Psalter of Fust, 1457, which has a letter in threo he commenced colour-printing by machinery, and
colours). Imitations of chiaroscuro soon followed has since availed himself of aqua-tinted plates,
(" Repose in Egypt," engTaving on wood after and also of electrotypod silver and copper surfaces
Louis Cranach, in 1519, in Germany: others by to obtain purity of colour as well as durability.
Ugo da Carpi, in Italy, 1518). The large coloured prints of The Illustrated London
J. B. Jackson (1720-1754) attempted, without suc News were first issued in Dec. 1856.
PRIORIES, at first dependent on the great abbeys, are mentioned in 722 in England.
See Abbeys and Monasteries. The priories of aliens were seized by the king (Edward I.), in
1285, and in succeeding reigns with the breaking out of war with France ; but were usually
restored on the conclusion of peace. These priories were dissolved, and their estates vested
in the crown, 3 Hen. V. 1414. Bymcr's FaxUra.
PRISONERS of "War, among the ancient nations, when spared, were usually enslaved.
About the 13th century, civilised nations began to exchango their prisoners.
The Spanish, French, and American prisoners 6000, and the French in England 27,000
of war in England were 12,000 in number, Sept. 179S
Sept. 30, 1779 The English in France amounted to 10,300, and
The number exchanged by cartel with France, the French, ire., in England to 47,600, in . . 1811
from the commencement of the then war, [This was the greatest number, owing to the
was 44,000 June, 1781 occasional exchanges made, up to the period
The English prisoners in France estimated at of the last war.]
PRISONS of London. See Fleet, King's Bench, Nacgatc, Poultry, Clcrkenwcll.
Horsemonger-Iane gaol was built in . . . 1791 Borough compter ; mean and confined till
The state of prisons greatly improved after tho visited by a parliamentary committee in
exertions of Howard. \ Cold Bath-fields Savoy prison, for tho confinement of deserters '7
prison was built on his suggestion . . 1794 from the Guards, formerly situated in the
The atrocities of governor Aris in this prison Strand, was pulled down to make room for
were exposed in parliament . . July 12, 1800 Waterloo-bridge ■■J
White Cross-street prison for debtors was New Bridewell prison was erected as a sub
erected in 1813-15 stitute for the City Bridewell, Blackfriars, in 1829
* Romish Service books, used at Salisbury by the devout called Pies (Pica, Latin), as is supposed from
tho different colour of the text and rubric. Our printing-type Pica is called Cicero by foreign printers.
Wheatley.
t In 1817 was published Blumcnbach's Physiology by Elliotson, iho first book printed by machinery.
The machine employed being Bcnaley's patent, one which printed both sides in one operation at tho rato
of 900 shceta an hour (1816).
J John Howard was born Sept. 2, 1726; made sheriff of Bedford, 1773; investigated into the state of
English prisons, 1773-5; and gave evidence thereon before tho house of commons, which led to amend
ments by law, 1774 ; he visited prisons all over the continent, and died at Kherson, Jan. 20, 1790.
Q Q 2
PRI r,9f> PRO
PRISONS of London, continued.
Tothill Fiolda Bridewell, built in 1618, was re- Middlesex House of Detention, Clcrkenwell,
built in 1836 ! was erected in 1847
The old Marshalsoa prison was pulled down . 1842 1 Holloway prison was opened . . Feb. 6, 1852
Pentouville Model prison was completed in . I Act passed for abolishing Queen's Bench prison 1S62
Prison Ministers' act passed 1863
PRISON DISCIPLINE SOCIETY owes its existence to the philanthropic labours of
sir T. F. Buxton, M.P. It was instituted in 1815, and held its first public meeting in 1820.
Its objects are the amelioration of gaols, by the diffusion of information respecting their
management, the classification and employment of the prisoners, and the prevention of
crime, by inspiring a dread of punishment, and by inducing the criminal, on his discharge,
to abandon his vicious pursuits.
PRIVATEER, a ship belonging to private individuals, sailing with a licence (termed a
Letter of Marque), granted by a government in time of war, to seize and plunder the ships
of tho enemy. The practice, said to have been adopted by Edward I. against the Portuguese
in 1295, was general during the war between Spain and the Netherlands in the 1 7th century,
and during the last French war. Privateering was abolished by the great sovereigns of
Europe by treaty, March 30, 1856. The United States government refused to agree unless
the right of blockade was also given up. The British government declined this, asserting
" that the system of commercial blockade was essential to its naval supremacy." On April
17, 1861, Jefferson Davis, president of the southern confederacy, announced his intention of
issuing letters of marque, and on the 19th president Lincoln proclaimed that all southern
privateers should be treated as pirates. This decree was not carried out. See United Stale*.
All the great powers forbade privateering during the American civil war.
PRI V I LEG ED PLAC ES. See A sylums.
PRIVY COUNCIL. A council was instituted by Alfred, 895. The number of the
cpuncil was about twelve when it discharged the functions of state, now confined to the
members of the cabinet ; but it had become of unwieldy amount before 1679, in which
year it was remodelled upon sir William Temple's plan, and reduced to thirty members :
Anthony Ashley, carl of Shaftesbury, being president. The number is now unlimited. To
attempt the life of a privy-councillor in the execution of his office was made capital, occa
sioned by Guiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter was examining him On a charge
of high treason, 9 Anne, 1711.*
PRIVY SEAL, the Lord, the fifth great officer of state, has the custody of the privy
seal, which he must not put to any grant, without good warrant under the king's signet.
This seal is used by the king to all charters, grants, and pardons, signed by the king, before
they come to the great seal. Richard Fox, bishop of Winchester, held this office in the
reign of Henry VIII. previously to 1523, when Cuthbert Tunstoll, bishop of London, was
appointed. The privy seal has been on some occasions in commission. Beaison.
PRIZE MONEY, arising from captures made from the enemy, was decreed by govern
ment to be divided into eight equal parts, and distributed by order of ranks, April 17, 1793.
PROBATE COURT, established in 1857 by 20 * 21 Vict. c. 77, which abolished all
powers exercised by the Ecclesiastical Courts in the granting of probates of wills, &c. See
Prerogative Court. The first judge, appointed Jan. 5, 1858, was sir Cresswell Cresswell, who
took his seat on Jan. 12. On his death, sir James P. Wilde was appointed judge, Aug. 28,
1863. Probate is the exhibiting and proving a will before the proper authority.
PROCLAMATIONS, Royal, "have only a binding force when grounded upon and to
enforce the laws of the realm." Coke, Henry VIII., in 1539, declared that they were as
valid as acts of parliament.
PROFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded, was that of Antigonus, who, having
but one eye, his likeness was so taken, 330 B.C. Ashe. " Until the end of the 3rd century,
* JtJDTClAT. Committee or the Priw Council.—In lieu of the Court of Delegates, for appeals from
tho lord chancellors of Great Britain and of Ireland in cases of lunacy— from the Ecclesiastical and
Admiralty courts of England, and the Vice-Admiralty courts abroad—from the Warden of the Stannaries,
the courts of the Isle of Man, and other islands, and the Colonial courts, &c.,—fixed by statute 3 & 4 Will. IV.
c. 41. 1833. Jwtget—the president of tho privy council, the lord chancellor, and such members of the privy-
council as may bold and havo held tho offico of lord keeper or first commissioner of the gro tt seal, lord
chief justice of the Queen's Bench, master of the rolls, vice-chancellor, lord chief justice of the Common
Pleas, lord chief barun. judge of the Admiralty, chief judge of the court of Bankruptcy, and others appointed
by the queen, being privy councillors.
PRO 597 rno
1 have not seen a Roman emperor with a full face ; they were always painted or appeared in
profile, which gives us the view of a head in a very majestic manner." Addison.
PROGRESSIONIST THEORY in Natural History supposes that the existing
species of animals and plants were not originally created, hut were gradually developed
from simple forms. See Species.
PROMISSORY NOTES were regulated and allowed to he made assignable in 1705.
First taxed by a stamp in 1782 : the tax was increased in 1804, and again in 1808, and
subsequently. See Bills of Exclmnge.
PROPAGANDA FIDE, Congregatio t>e (congregation for the propagation of the faith
of the Romish church), was constituted at Rome by Gregory XV. in 1622.
PROPAGATION of the Gospel Society received its charter, June 16, 1701. Its
sphere is generally limited to the British Colonies.
PROPERTY TAX. The assessments on real property, under the property tax of 1815,
were 51,898,423/.; of which Middlesex was 5,595,537'.; Lancashire, 3,087,774;.; and York
shire, 4,700,000;.; "Wales, 2,153,801'. See Income Tax.
PROPHETS. See under Jews.
PROPHESYING : about 1570 the puritanical part of the clergy, particularly at North
ampton, held meetings (termed prophesyings) for prayer and exposition of the Scripture.
These were forbidden by queen Elizabeth, May 7, 1577, and immediately ceased.
PROTECTIONIST, a name given to that section of the Conservative party which
opposed the repeal of the corn-laws, and which separated from sir Robert Peel in 1846. The
name was derived from a "Society for the 1'roUction of Agriculture," of which the duke of
Richmond was chairman, and which had been established to counteract the efforts of the
Anti-Corn Law League, Feb. 17, 1844. I,ord George Bentinck was the head of the party
from 1846 till his death, Sept. 21, 1848. The Derby administration not proposing the
restoration of the corn-laws, the above society was dissolved, Feb. 7, 1853.
PROTECTORATES in England. That of the earl of Pembroke began Oct. 19, 1216,
and ended by his death the same year. Of Humphry, duke of Gloucester, in England, began
Aug. 31, 1422; he was murdered Feb. 28, 1447. Of Richard, duke of Gloucester, began
April 9, 1483, and ended by his assuming the royal dignity, June 22, the same year. Of
Somerset began Jan. 28, 1547, and ended by his resignation in 1549. Of Oliver Cromwell
began Dec. 16, 1653, and ended by his death, Sept. 13, 1658. Of Richard Cromwell began
Sept. 14, 1658, and ended by his resignation, May 5, 1659. See England.
PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. called a diet at Spires in 1529, to request aid
from the German princes against the Turks, and to devise means for allaying the religious
disputes which then raged owing to Luther's opposition to the Roman Catholic religion.
Against a decree of this diet, to support the doctrines of the Church of Rome, six Lutheran
princes, with the deputies of thirteen imperial towns, formally and solemnly protested, April
19, 1529. Hence the term Protestants, was given to the followers of Luther, and it after
wards included Calvinists, and all other sects separated from the see of Rome. The six pro
testing princes were : John and George, the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg ; Ernest and
Francis, the two dukes of Lunenburg ; the landgrave of Hesse ; and the prince of Anhalt :
these were joined by the inhabitants of Strasbourg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Constance, Heilbron,
and seven other cities. See Luthcranism, Calvinism, Huguenots, Germany, &c.
Protcstantspcrsecutcd in Scotland and Germany 1546 , Ridley, biahop of London, and Latimer, bishop
Edward VI. established Protestantism in Eng- I of Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, Oct. 16,
land 1548 1555 ; and Cranmer, archbishop of Canter-
Mary re-ostabliahes Humanism, and persecutes bury * March at, 1556
the Protestants: above 300 put to death . 1553-8 I Elizabeth rostores Protestantism . . . . 1558
* His love of life had induced Cranmer, some time previously, to Bign a paper wherein he condemned
the Reformation ; and when he was led to the stake, and the fire was kindled round him, ho stretched forth
his right hand, with which Le had signed his recantation, that It might be consumed before the rest of his
body, exclaiming from time to time, " This unworthy hand ! " Raising his eyes to heavon, he expired
with the dying prayer of the first martyr of the Christian Church, " Lord Jesus, receive my spirit."
The following documents are taken from a " Boole oftht J'lint Did, Dinner, <ut<! Siipixr, and tlu charge
PRO 5i>8 PRU
PROTESTANTS, continued.
Protestant Hcttlements formed in Ulster, N. Ire the northern counties of Ireland, established
land i6o8-n in Dublin in .... Dec. 1829
Thirty years' war between Romanists and Pro (London) Protestant Society, established 1827 ;
testants in Germany .... 1618-48 Protestant Association, 1S35; Protestant Al
Protestants persecuted at Thorn in Poland . 1724 liance ^49
Protestant Association (see * ' Gordon's No- Protestant Conservative Society established
Popery" Mob) 1780 Dec. q, 1 831
A society for planting communities of the poorer Protestant alliance formed at Armagh . Nov. 7, 1845
Protestants on tracts of land, particularly in
PROVENCE (the Roman Provincial S. E. France, was made a kingdom by the emperor
Lothaire for his son Charles, It afterwards became part of the kingdom of Aries as a feudal
country, and was re-united to the German empire in 1032 by Conrad 11. On the fall of the
Hohenstaufens it was acquired by Charles of Anjou, king of Naples, in 1265 ; and was held
by his successors till its annexation to France by Louis XI. in 1481.
PROVERBS. The Book of Proverbs by Solomon is dated about 1000 B.C. The latter
part were collected by order of llczekiah, about 700 B.C. Ray's collection of English pro
verbs appeared in 1672, and Bonn's general collection in 1S57.
PROVISIONS—Remarkable Statements concerning them. See Oxford.
Wheat for food for 100 men for one day worth only j the rost of the year fourpence, 29 Edw. I. 1299.
ono shilling, and a sheep for fuurpence, Henry I. Stow.
about 1130. The prico of wine raised to sixpence Trice of provisions fixed by parliament : at the rate
]»er quart for red, and eightpeiicc for white, that j of 2I. 8*. of our money for a fat ox, if fed with corn,
the sellers might be enabled to live by it, 2 John, 3*. i2«.; a shorn sheep, 5*.; two dozen of eggs, 3d.;
T20o. Burton'* Annals. other articles nearly the sarao as fixed by the
When wheat was at 6>. per quarter, the farthing loaf common council above recited, 7 Edw. II. 1313.
was to be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces Hot. Pari.
(made of the wholo grain), and to sixteen the white. Wine the best sold for 20*. per tun, 10 Rich. II. 1387.
When wheat was is. (W. per quarter, the farthing Wheat being at 1*. id. the bushel in 1390, this was
white loaf was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the deemed so tii . h a price that it is called a dearth of
whole grain (the same as standard now) ninety-six, corn by the historians of that era.
by the first assize, 1202. Mat. Pari*. Beef and ]wrk settled at a half-penny the pound, and
A remarkablo plenty in all Europe, 1280. Ihtfretnoy. veal three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Hen.
Wheat is. per quarter, 14 Edw. I. 1286. Stow. VIII. 1533- Anderson,
The price of provisions fixed by the common council Milk was sold three pints, ale-measure, for one half
of London as follows: two pullots, three half-pence; penny, 2 EUz. 1560. Stow'* Chronicle.
a partridge, or two woodcocks, three half-pence ; In the autumn of 1865. meat, and milk, and butter
a fat Lamb, sixpence from Christmas to Shrovetide, increased in price, owing to the cattle-plague,
j For the price of Bread since 1735, see Bread.
PR0VVED1MKNT0 SOCIETIES in Italy, formed to aid in acquiring Rome and
Venice, elect Garibaldi as their chief, March 10, 1S62. They were tolerated by Ricasoh",
but warned to be moderate by Rattazzi.
TRUD'HOMMES, Conseim i>e (from prudent homo, a prudent man), trade tribunals
in France, composed of masters and workmen, were constituted to arbitrate on trade disputes
in 1S06. Similar bodies with this name existed as far back as 1452 at Marseilles, and at
Lyons in 1464.
PRUSSIA. This country was anciently possessed by the Venedi, about 320 B.C. They
were conquered by the Borussi, who inhabited the Ripha?an mountains ; and from these the
country was called Borussia. Some historians, however, derive the name from Pot signi-
thereof, for Cranmer, Latimer, arid Hidley" kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were in the custody
of those officers, previously to their being burnt alive :—
1ST OCTOBER, 1554. DINNER. Item, for the carriage of these 4 loads .£026
Bread and Ale JEo Item, a post 014
Oysters o Item, 2 chains 034
Butter o Item, 2 staples 006
Eggs 0 j Item, 4 labourers 023
Lyng . . o o 8I
A piece of fresh salmon o o 10 j £158
Wine o o 3 TO BURN CRANMER,
Cheese and pears o
For 100 wood faggots for the fire , .£06
The three dinners For 100 and 4 of furze 03
TO BURN LATIMER AND RIDLEY. For the carriage of them . . . .00
For 2 labourers o a
For 3 load of wood faggots . . . . £0 ra
Item, 1 load of furze faggots . . ,.03 £0 12 3
PRU PRU
fying near, and Russia. The Porussi afterwards intermixed with the followers of the
Teutonic knights, and latterly with the Poles. The constitution, established Jan. 31, 1850,
was modified April 30, 1S51 ; May 21, June 5, 1852 ; May 7 and 24, 1853 ; June io, 1854;
May 30, 1855; and May 15, 1857" Population, with Lauenburg (annexed Aug. 14, 1865),
19,304,843.
St Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach Germany at tho king's appeal, and form the
Christianity, and is slain atxtut . . . . 997 " landwehr" or militia . . March 17, 1813
Bolcslaus of Poland rovenges his death by Treaty of Paris April n, 1814
dreadful ravages ...... 1018 The king visits England. . . June 6,
Berlin built by a colony from tho Netherlands, Dines at Guildhall .... Juno 18, „
in the reign of Albert the Bear . . . . 1163 Ministry of education established . . . 1817
The Teutonic knights returning from tho holy Congress of Carlsbad . . . .Aug. i, 1819
wars, undertake the conquest of Prussia, and Blucher dies in Silesia, aged 77 . . Sept. 12, „
the conversion of tho people .... 1225 [From this time Prussia pursued a peaceful and
Thorn founded by them 1231 undisturbed policy until 1848.]
Konigsberg, lately built, niaduthe capital . 1266 Serious attempt made on tho life of the king,
ThcTeutonic knights almost depopulate Prussia. by au assassin named Teseh, who fired two
It is repeoplod by German colonists in the 1 3th shots at him July 26, 1844
century Insurrection in Berlin . . . March 18, 1848
Frederick IV. of Nuremberg (the founder of the Berlin declared In a state of siege Nov. 12,
reigning family) obtains by purchase from The Constituent Assembly meets in Branden
SigUmond, emperor of Germany, tho inar- burg castle ... Nov. 29, Jf
graviate of Brandenburg 1415 This assembly is dissolved, and tho king issues
Ca^imir IV. of Poland assists the natives against a n«w constitution to his subjects . Dec. 5, ,,
the oppression of tho Teutonic knights. . 1446 The German National Assembly elect tho king
Albert of Brandonberg, grand master of the of Prussia " hereditary emperor of tho
t Teutonic order, renounces the Roman Catholic Germans" March 28, 1840,
religion, embraces Lutheranism, and is ac The king declines the imperial crown, April 29, „
knowledged duke of Eist Prussia, to be held The kingdom put under martial law . May 10, ,,
as a fief of Poland 1525 Tho Prussians enter Carlsruhe . June 23, „
University of Konigsberg founded by duke Armistice between Prussia & Denmark, July 10, „
Albert 1544 Bavaria declared an imperial constitution with
John Sigismond created elector of Brandenburg the king of Prussia at its head . Sept. 8, ,,
and duke of Prussia ..... 1608 Treaty betwoen Prussia and Austria S^pt. 30, „
The principality of Ilalberstadt and the Austria protests against the alliance of Prussia
bishopric of Minden transferred to the bouse with the minor states of Germany Nov. 12,
of Brandenburg . 1648 New constitution, Jan. 31 ; the king takes the
Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia as au oath required by it . . . . Fob. 6, 1850
independent state, under Frederick William, Hanover withdraws from the Prussian alliance,
surnamed the Groat Elector .... 1657 Feb, 25, „
Order of Concord instituted by Christian Ernest, Troaty signed at Munich between Austria,
elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtemborg to main
to distinguish the part he had taken in re tain the German union . . Fob 27, ,,
storing peace to Etirojtc 1660 Wurteml)erg denounces the insidious ambition
Frederick III. in an assembly of tho states, puts of the king of Prussia, and announces a league
a crown upon his own headand upon the head between Wurtemberg, Bavaria, and Saxony,
of his consort, and is proclaimed king of under the sanction of Austria . March 15, T.
Prussia by the title of Frederick 1. . Jan. 18, 1701 Attemp£ to assassinate the king . May
Order of tho Black Eagle instituted by Hesse-Darmst idt withdraws from the Prussian
Frederick I. on the day of his coronation . „ league June 30, „
Guclders taken from the Dutch . . . 1702 Treaty of peace between Prussia and Denmark,
Frederick I. seizes Ncufchatel or Neunburg, July a,
and purchases Tccklenburg .... 1707 A congress of deputies from the states included
The principality of Mount added to Prussia . . 1712 in the Prussian ZoLlverein opened at Cassel,
Kcign of Frederick tho Great, during which July xa, ,,
the Prussian monarchy is mode to rank Prussia refuses to join tho restricted diet of
among the first powers in Europe . . . 1740 Frankfort Aug. 25, ,,
Tireslau ceded to Prussia 1741 The Prussian government addresses a despatch
JSilcf*ia, Glatz, &c. ceded 1742 to tho cabinet of Vienna, declaring its resolve
■**Frederick II., the
Seven years' war"Great,
(whichvisits 1744 to uphold the constitution in Hosse-Casscl,
England . .. 1756
&t) begins Sopt. 21, „
Frederick II. victor at Prague, May 6; defeated Count Brandenburg, prime minister of Prussia,
at Kolin, May 18; victor at Rosbach, Nov. 5, 1757 dies Nov. 6,
General Lacy, with an Austrian-Russian army, Decreo, calling out tho whole Prussian army,
marches to Berlin ; the city is laid under con 223 000 infantry, 38.000 cavalry, and 29.000
tribution, die. ; magazines destroyed . . 1760 artillery, with 1080 ficld-pioces . Nov. 7, „
Peace of Hubortsburg (ends "seven years' The Prussian troops in Hesse occupy the mili
war") Feb. 15, 1763 tary road in that electorate . . . Nov. 9,
Frederick the Great dies . . Aug. 17, 1786 Tho Prussian forces withdraw from tho grand
War with France 1792 ! duchy of Baden .... Nov. 14,
The Prussians seize Hanover ^ . 1801 aud 1806 General Rodowitz, late foreign minister, visits
Prussia joins tho allies of England against queen Victoria at Windsor . . Nov. 26.
France Oct. 6, ,, Convention of Olmutz for tho pacification of
Fatal battles of Jena and Auerstadt . Oct. 14, Germany Nov. 29, „
[Nearly all the monarchy subdued.] Tho Prussian troops commence their retreat
Tierlin decreo promulgated . . Nov. 20, ,, from Hcsso-Cossel Dec. 5, „
Pe ice of Tilsit (which stt) . . . July 7, 1807 Tho Prineo Schwartzenberg visits tho king, Doc. 28.
Convention of Berlin .... Nov. 5, 1808 king celebrates the 150th anniversary of
Tho people rise to expel tho French from tho Prussian monarchy . . Jan. 18, 1851
PBU 600 PRTJ
PRUSSIA, continwd.
The king visits the Czar of Russia . May 18, 1S51 Thecabinet ministry (liberal), resign, and a reactionary
formed under Van der Heydt, March
The king and Czar leave Warsaw for Olmutz. to 18—April 12,
meet tho emperor of Austria . May 27, Elections go against the government : only one
Statue of Frederick the Great, by Rauch, in minister elected May,
augurated at Berlin .... May 31, Parliament opens ; ministers appeal to the
The king revives the council of state as it ex patriotism of tho members . . May 19,
istcd before the revolution of 1848 . Jan. 12 1852 Severe discussion on military expenditure ; the
A Prussian industrial exhibition opened at chamberreduces the vote for the maintenanco
Berlin May 28, „ of the army from 200,000 to 135,000 men,
Prussia repudiates a customs' union with
Austria June 7, „ Van der Heydt resigns ; succeeded Sept. 11-16,
as premier
But agrees to a commercial treaty Feb. 19, 1853 by the Count Bismarck Schonhausen,
Plot at Berlin detected .... April, Sept, ;
Death of Radowitz .... Dec. 25, „ who informs the chamber that the budget is
Vacillation of the government upon the Hastern deferred till 1863; the chamber protests
question .... March and April, 1854 against this as unconstitutional Sept 30,
Agrees to a protocol for preservation of the The chamber of peers passes the budget with
integrity of Turkey, which is signed at out the amendments of the chamber of
Vienna Ap"1 7. representatives; which (by 237 against 2)
Continues neutral in the war, Sept. 21, Oct. 13, resolves that the act is contrary to the letter
Excluded from the conferences at Vienna, Fob. 1855 and spirit of the constitution . . Oct. it,
Dispute with Switzerland (see Hev/chatfl) The king closes the session (65th) saying, "Tho
Nov. 1856 to May, 1857 budget for the year 1862, as decreed by the
Alarming illness of the king, the prince of chamber of representatives, having been
Prussia appointed regent . . Oct. 23. rejected by the chamber of peers on the
Chevalier Bunsen ennobled . . . Jan ground of insufficiency, the government of
Prince Frederick William of Prussia married to his majesty is under tho necessity of con
the princess royal of England . Jan. 25, trolling the public affairs outside the consti
Queen Victoria visits them at Potsdam . Aug. ,, Agitation tution." Oct. 13,
Prince of Prussia made permanent regent, in favour of tho constitution proceed
Oct. 7, „ ing : passive resistance adopted ; several
Resignation of Manteuffel ministry ; succeeded liueral papers suppressed . . . Nov.
by that of prince Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen J The chambers reassemble ; unconciliatory
(liberal) : the elections end in favour of the address from tho king, Jan. 14; and bold
new government ..... Nov. ,, reply of the deputies; adopted . Jan. 23, 1?'' 3
Prince Frederick William, son of the princess They recommend neutrality in the Polish war
royal of England, born . . . Jan. 27, 1859 Feb. 28,
Italian war — Prussia declares its neutrality, but Violent dissension between the deputies and
arms to protect Germany May and June, ,, the ministry May,
The regent announces that " the Prussian army Tho chamber of deputies address the king on
will be in future tho Prussian nation in arms," their relation with the ministry, and the state
Jan 12, of the country, May 22 ; the king replies, that
The regent and several German sovereigns meet his ministers possess his confidence, and
tho emperor of the French at Baden (see adjourns the session . . . May 27,
Baden) Juno 15-17, Resolves to govern without a parliament .
Baron Bunsen dies (aged 70) . . Nov. 27, The press severely restricted, Juno 1 ; the
Disclosures respecting the oppressive system of crown prince in a speech disavows participa
Prussian police. Stieber, the director, prose tion in the recent acts of the ministry, June
cuted and censured, but not punished Nov. 5 ; and censures them in a letter to the king,
Death of Frederick William IV. Accession of July 6; reconciled to the king . Sept, 8,
William I. Jan 1 SO 1 The liberal members feted in the provinces,
Meeting of the chambers : on tho motion for July 18, 19,
the address, M. Von Vincke carries an The chamber of deputies dissolved, Sept. 2 ; a
amendment in favour of Italian Unity and liberal majority re-elected . . . Oct,
" a firm alliance with England " , Feb. 6, „ A motion in favour of maintaining the rights
The Macdonald affair* settled by a firm yet of the duchies of Sehleswig and Holstein,
conciliatory despatch from tho Baron von carried Dec. 2 ; but the chamber obstinately
Schleinitz May, ,, refuses its assent to it or to defray the ex
Attempted assassination of the king by Becker, penses of war Dec.
a Leipsic student, July 14; who is sentenced Chambers dissolved Jan.
to 20 years imprisonment . . Sept. 23, „ ( For the events of the war, see Denmark.]
The king meets the emperor Napoleon at Com- Preliminaries for peace with Denmark Aug. r.
poigne ..... Oct. 6-8, ,, Peace with Denmark signed . . Oct, 30,
The king and queen crowned at Konigsberg; The opening of the chambers, Jan. 14 : revival
he declares that ho will reign by the "Grace of tho constitutional agitation for control
of God" Oct. 18, over the army budget . . . Jan. 16, r • \
Bill for making the ministry responsible, passed, International exhibition at Cologne opened by
March 6, 1862 the crown prince . . . . June 2,
The chamber of representatives oppose the go The deputies having rejected the budget, the
vernment in regard to the length of military bills for reorganising the army and increasing
service, March 6 ; and resolve on discussing tho fleet, and meeting the expense of the war
the items of the budget ; the ministry resigns ; with Denmark, the chamber is prorogued ;
the king will not accept the resignation, but the government will rule without it June 17,
dissolves the chambers, . . . March 11, „ The king at Carlsbad issues a despotic decree
* On Sept. 12, i860, captain Macdonald was committed to prison at Bonn, for resisting the railway
authorities there. The English residents appealed and were also censured. A correspondence ensued
between the Prussian government and the British foreign secretary; and strong language was uttered in
the house of commons, April 26, and in the Prussian chambers, May 6, 1861.
PRU G01 PUB
PRUSSIA, continued.
appropriating and disposing of the revenue, Convention of Gastein (see Gtistein) signed,
July 5. Aug. 14, 1865
A political dinner of the liberal deputies pro The king takes possession of Lauenburg
hibited at Cologne, and forcibly prevented at purchased from Austria with his own money,
Overlahnstein in Nassau . . July 24, Sept. 15, „
MARGRAVES, ELECTOR*, DUKES, AND KINGS.
MAIUJTIAVES OR ELECTORS OF BRANDENHma. 1 598. Joachim-Frederick.
1134. Albert I. surnamed the Bear, first elector of 1608. John-Sigismund.
Brandenburg.
1 1 70. Otho I. Dl'KEH OF PRUSSIA.
1184. Otho II. 1618. John-Sigismund.
1206. Albert II. 1619. Georgo-William.
i22i. John I. and Otho III. 1640. Frederick-William, his son ; generally styled
1266. John II. tho '* Great Elector."
1282. Otho IV. 1688. Frederick III. son of the preceding; crowned
1 309. Waldemar. king, Jan. 18, 1701.
1319. Henry I. the Young.
1320. [Interregnum.] KINOS OF PRUSSIA.
1323. Louis I. of Bavaria. 170T. Frederick I. : king.
1352. Louis II. surnained the Roman. 1713. Frederick-William I. son of Frederick I.
- 1365. Otho V. the Sluggard. 1 740. Frederick II. (Frederick III.; styled the
1373. Wenceslas, of Luxemburg. Great), sou ; made Prussia a military power.
1378. Sigismund, of Luxemburg. 1786. Frederick-William II., nephew of tho pre
1388. Jossus, the Bearded. ceding king.
1411. Sisnsmund again, emperor. 1797. Frederick-William III. He had to contend
1415. Frederick I. of Nuremberg (of the house of against the might of Napoleon, and after
HOHENZOLLERN). extraordinary vicissitudes, he aided England
1440. Frederick II. surnamed Ironside. in his overthrow.
1470. Albert III. surnamed the German Achilles. 1840. Frederick-William IV. son; succeeded June 7
1476. John XII. his son; as Margrave; styled the (born Aug. 3, 1770; died Jan. 2, 1861).
Cicero of Germany. i860. William I. brother ; born March 22, 1797.
i486. John III. as elector* Beir. His son prince Frederick-William, born
1499. Joachim I. son of John. Oct. 18, 1831 ; married Victoria, princess-
1535. Joachim II. poisoned by a Jew. royal of England, Jan. 25, 1858. They have
i57r. John-George. four children.
PRUSSIC ACID (or hydrocyanic acid) is colourless, smells like peach flowers, freezes at
5° Fahrenheit, is very volatile, and turns vegetable blues into red. It was accidentally
discovered by Diesbaeh, a German chemist, in 1709. Scheele first obtained this acid in a
separate state, about 1782. Simple water distilled from the leaves of the lauro-cerasus was
iirst ascertained to be a most deadly poison by Dr. Madden of Dublin.
PRYTANIS, a magistrate of Corinth, annually elected from 745 ii.c. till the office was
abolished by Cypselus, a despot, 655 B.c.
PSALMS of DAVID were collected by Solomon, 1000 B.C.; others were added 580 and
515 b.c. The old Church of England version in metre by Stemhold and Hopkins was
published in 1562 ; the New Version by Tate and Brady in 1598.
PSEUDOSCOPE, a name given by professor "Whcatstone (in 1852) to the stereoscope,
when employed to produce *' conversions of relief," i.e., the reverse of the stereoscope : a
terrestrial globe appears like a hollow hemisphere.
PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy of Pelusium, in Egypt (about a.d. 140),
supposed that the earth was fixed in the centre of the universe, and that the sun, moon, and
stars moved round once in twenty-four hours. This system (long the official doctrine of the
church of Rome) was universally taught till that of Pythagoras (500 B.C.) was revived by
Copernicus, a.d. 1530, and demonstrated by Kepler (1619) and Newton (1687).
PUBLIC -EDUCATION, HEALTH, Ac. See Education, ffeaWt.
PUBLIC HOUSES. See Victuallers.
PUBLIC SAFETY, Committee of, was established at Paris during the French Revo
lution ou April 6, 1793, with absolute power ; in consequence of the coalition against France.
The severe government of this committee is termed the Reign of Terror, which ended with
the execution of Robespierre and his associates, July 28, 1794-
PUBLIC SCHOOLS. See Education.
PUBLIC "WORKS ACT, passed July 21, 1863, to provide work for uneinplo)'ed persons
in the manufacturing districts at the time of the cotton famine. It enabled corporate
bodies to raise loans, and proved very successful.
ITU 0 i'J PUR
PUBLIC WORKS and BUILDINGS. The sum voted for this purpose in 1862 was
692,215/.; in 1863, 893,523/.; in 1864, 867,518/.; in 1865, 799,370/.
PUDDLING, making the walls of canals water-tight by means of clay was largely
adopted by liriudley in constructing the Bridgewater canals, 1 761 ct scq. See also under Iron
Manufacture.
PUEBLA. Seo Mexico, 1863. PUGILISM. See Boxing.
PULLEY. The pulley, together with the vice aud other mechanical instruments, are
said to have been invented by Archytas of Tarcntum, a disciple of Pythagoras, about 516 B. c.
It lias been ascertained that in a single moveable pulley the power gained is doubled. In a
continued combination the power is equal to the number of pulleys, less one, doubled.
PULTOWA (Russia), where Charles XII. of Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the
Great of Russia, July 8, 1709. He Hed to Bender, in Turkey.
PULTUSK (Russia), a battle was fought between the Saxons under kin" Augustus, and
the Swedes under Charles XII., in which the former were signally defeated, May 1, 1703.
Here also the French under Napoleon fought the Russian and Prussian armies ; both sides
claimed the victory, but it inclined in favour of tho French, Dec. 26, 1806.
PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria, is said to have invented pumps (with other hydraulic
instruments), about 224 B.c, although the invention is ascribed to Dauaus, at Lindus,
1485 B.C. Pumps were in general use in England, a.d. 1425. An inscription on the pump
in front of the late Royal Exchange, Loudon, stated that the well was lirst sunk in 12S2.
The air-pump was invented by Otto Guericke in 1654, and improved by Boyle in 1657.
PUNCTUATION. The ancients do not appear to have had any system, and doubtles3
employed arbitrary signs to distinguish the parts of a discourse. Of our points the period (. )
is the most ancient. The colon (:) was introduced about 1485; the comma (,) was first seen
about 1521, and the semicolon (;) about 1570. In sir Thilip Sidney's "Arcadia" (15S7),
they all appear, as well as the note of interrogation (?), asterisk (*), and parentheses ().
PUNIC AVARS. See Carthage, 264 B.C.
PUNISHMENTS. Sec Beheading, Blinding, Boiling, Death, Drowning, Flogging, and
Poisoning.
PUNJAB (N. W. Hindostan), was traversed by Alexander the Great, 327 B.C.; and by
Tamerlane, a.d. 1398. The war with the Sikhs began here, Dec. 14, 1845, and was closed,
March 29, 1849, when the Punjab was annexed. Seo India. The Punjab has since
nourished, and on Jan. 1, 1859, was made a distinct presidency (to include the Sutlej states,
aud the Delhi territory). See Durbar.
PURGATIVES of the mild species (aperients), particularly cassia, manna, and senna,
are ascribed to Actuarius, a Greek physician, 1245.
PURGATORY, the middle place between heaven and hell, where, it is believed by the
Roman Catholics, the soul passes through the fire of purification before it enters the kingdom
of God. The doctrine was known about 250, and was introduced into the Roman church
in the 6th century. It was first set forth by a council at Florence, 1438.
PURIFICATION, after childbirth, was ordained by the Jewish law, 1490 B.C. (Lev. xii).
See Churching. The feast of the purification was instituted, 542, in honour of the Virgin
Mary's going to the temple. (Luke ii. ) Pope Sergius I. ordered the procession with wax
tapers, whence Candlemas-day.
PURITANS, the name, first given about 1564, to persons who aimed at greater purity of
doctrine, holiness of living, and stricter discipline than others. They withdrew from the
Established church, professing to follow the word of God alone, and maintaining that the
church retained many human inventions and popish superstitions. See Nonconformists and
Presbyterianistn.
PURPLE, a mixed tinge of scarlet and blue, discovered at Tyre. It is said to have been
found by a dog's having by chance eaten a shell-fish, called murex or purpura; upon
returning to his master, Hercules Tyres, he observed his lips tinged, and made use of the
discovery. Purple was anciently used by the princes and great men for their garments by
way of distinction, and to this day tho purple colour is the livery of our bishops, 4c. The
dignity of an archbishop or great magistrate is frequently meant by tho purple. The purple
was first given to tho cardinals by pope Paul II. 1465.
PL'R 003
PURVEYANCE, an ancient prerogative of the sovereigns of England of purchasing
provisions, &c, without the consent of the owners, led to much oppression. It was regu
lated by Magna Charta, 1215, and other statutes, and was only surrendered by Charles II.
in 1660, for a compensation.
PUSEYISM, a name attached to the views of certain clergymen and lay members of the
church of England, who endeavoured to restore the practice of the church of England to
what they believed to be required by the language of her Liturgy and Rubrics, but which
were considered by their opponents to bo contrary to her doctrine and discipline, and of a
Romish tendency. The term was derived from the name of the professor of Hebrew at
Oxford, Dr. Pusey, who was popularly supposed to be the originator and chief supporter of
those views. The heads of houses of the university of Oxford passed resolutions censuring
Dr. Pusey's attempts to renew practices which are now obsolete, March 15, 1841 ; and his
celebrated sermon was condemned by the same body, May 30, 1843. Seo Tractarians.
PYDNA (Macedon), where Perseus, the last king of Maccdon, was defeated and made
prisoner by the Romans, commanded by iEmilius Paulus, 168 B.c.
PYRAMIDS of Egypt, according to Dr. Pococke and Sonnini, "so celebrated from
remote antiquity, are the most illustrious monuments of art." The three principal pyramids
are situated on a rock, at the foot of some high mountains which bound the Nile. The first
building of them commenced, it is supposed, about 1 500 u. c. The greatest is said to have
been erected by Cheops, 1082 B.C. The largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet in perpendicular
height, with a platform on the top 32 feet square, and the length of the base is 746 feet. It
occupies -above twelve acres of ground, and is constructed of stupendous blocks of stone.
There are many other smaller pyramids to the south of these. —The battle of the Pyramids,
when Bonaparte defeated the Mamelukes, and thus subdued Lower Egypt, took place
July 21, 1798.
PYRENEES. After the battle of Vittoria (fought June 21, 1813), Napoleon sent Soult
to supersede Jourdan, with instructions to drive the allies across the Ebro, a duty to which
his abilities were inferior, for Soult retreated into France with a loss of more than 20,000
men, having been defeated by Wellington in a series of engagements from July 25 to
August 2. One at tho Pyrenees on July 28. A railway through tho Pyrenees (from Bilbao
10 Miranda) was opened Aug. 21, 1862. —The Peace of the Pyrenees was concluded
liotween France and Spain, by cardinal Mazarin, for the French king, and Don Lewis do
Haro, on the part of Spain, in the island of Pheasants, on the Bidassoa. By this treaty
Spain yielded Roussillon, Artois, and her right to Alsace ; and France ceded her conquests in
Catalonia, Italy, &c, and engaged not to assist Portugal, Nov. 7, 1659.
PYROMETER (fire-measurer), an apparatus employed to ascertain the temperature of
furnaces, &c, where thermometers cannot be employed ; Muschenbroek's pyrometer (a
metallic bar) was described by him in 1 73 1. Improvements were made by Ellicott and
others. Wedgwood employed clay cylinders about 1782. Professor Daniell received the
Rumford medal for an excellent pyrometer in 1830. Mr. Ericsson's useful pyrometer appeared
in the Great Exhibition of 185 1. Eng. Cyc.
PYROXYLIN, the chemical name of Gun Cotton, (which sec).
PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. Pythagoras, of Samos, head of the Italic sect,
flourished about 555 B.C. He is said to have taught the doctrine of metempsychosis or
transmigration of the soul from one body to another ; forbidden his disciples to eat flesh,
and also beans ; to have invented the multiplication table ; to have improved geometry ; and
to have taught the present system of astronomy.
PYTHIAN GAMES, in honour of Apollo, near the temple of Delphi ; first instituted,
according to the more received opinion, by Apollo himself, in commemoration of the victory
which ho had attained over tho serpent, Python, from which they received their name ;
though others maintain that they were first established by Agamemnon, or Diomedes, or by
Amphictyon, or lastly, by the council of the Amphictyons, 1263 B.C.
PYX, the casket in which Catholic priests keep the consecrated wafer. In the ancient
chapel of the pyx, at Westminster abbey, are deposited the standard pieces of gold and
silver, under the joint custody of tho lords of the treasury and the comptroller-general.
The "trial of tho pyx" signifies tho verification of a jury of goldsmiths of the coins deposited
in the pyx-box by the master of the mint. This took place on July 17, 1861, at the
exchequer office, Old Palace-yard, in tho presence of twelve privy councillors, twelve gold
smiths, and others.
QUA QUA
Q.
QUACKERY is coieval with the art of medicine ; quack medicines were taxed in 1783,
ct tea. An inquest was held on the body of a young lady, Miss Cashin, whose physician,
St. John Long, was afterwards tried for manslaughter, Aug. 21, 1830; he was found guilty,
and sentenced to pay a fine of 250?., Oct. 30, following. He was tried for manslaughter in
the case of Mrs. Catherine Lloyd, and acquitted Feb. 19, 1831. Dr. Yries, "the black
doctor," a professed cancer-curer, at Paris, was condemned to fifteen months' imprisonment
as an impostor in Jan. i860. See Jlomwopatliy and Hydropathy,
QUADRAGESIMA SUNDAY, first Sunday in Lent. See Lent and Quinquagesima.
QUADRANGLE, or Quadrilateral, terms applied to the four strong Austrian
fortresses in N. Italy :— Peschiera, on an island in the Mincio ; Mantua, on the Mincio ;
Verona and Legnago, both on the Adige. See Peschiera, &c.
QUADRANT, the mathematical instrument in the form of a quarter of a circle. The
solar quadrant was introduced about 290 B.C. The Arabian astronomers under the caliphs,
in A.D. 995, had a quadrant of 21 feet 8 inches radius, and a sextant 57 feet 9 inches radius.
Davis's quadrant for measuring angles was produced about 1600. lladley's quadrant, in
1731. See Navigation.
QUADRILLE. This popular dance was introduced into this country in 1S13, by the
then duke of Devonshire, and others. Raikcs.
QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE, between Great Britain, France, and the emperor (signed at
London, July 22, 1718), on the accession of the states of Holland, Feb. 8, 1719, obtained
its name. It was for the purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the reigning families
of Great Britain and France, and settling the partition of the Spanish monarchy. It
led to war.
QUjESTOR, in ancient Rome, was an officer who had the management of the public
treasure ; appointed 484 B.C. It was the first office any person could bear in the common
wealth, and gave a right to sit in the senate. At first there were two quxstors,
afterwards eight. Two were added in 409 B.c. Two were called Peregrini, two (for the
city) Vrbani.
QUAKERS, or Society of Friends, originally called Seekers, from their seeking the
name of (Junkers in 1650, because George Fox (the founder) admonished him, and those
present, to tremble at the word of the Lord. This sect was commenced in England
about 1646, by George Fox (then aged 22), who was joined by George Keith, William
Penn, and Robert Barclay, of Ury, and others.* Fox rejected all religious ordinances,
explained away the commands relative to baptism, &c. ; discarded the ordinary names of
days and months, and used thee and thou for you, as more consonant with truth. He
published a book of instructions for teachers and professors, and died Jan. 13, 1691. The
first meeting-house in London was in White Hart-court, Gracechurch-street. The first
meeting of Quakers in Ireland was in Dublin in 1658 ; and their first meeting-house in that
city was opened in Eustace-street, 1692. The solemn affirmation of Quakers was enacted to
be taken in all cases in the courts below, wherein oaths are required from other subjects.
1696. See Affirmation. In 16S2, William Penn, with a company of Friends, colonised
Philadelphia, where on Jan. I, 1788, they emancipated their negro slaves. On Feb. 15, 1833,
Edward Pease, a Quaker, was admitted to parliament 011 his affirmation. The Quakers hail
in England 413 meeting-houses in 1800, and 371 in 1851. At a Conference held on Nov. 2,
* The Quakers early suffered grievous persecutions iu England and America. At Boston, U.S., where
the first Friends who arrived were females, they (even females) were cruelly scourged, and had their eare
cut off. In 1659 they stated in parliament that 2000 Friends had endured sufferings and imprisonment in
Newgate : and 164 Friends offered themselves at this time, by name to government, to be imprisoned in
lieu of an equal number in danger (from confinement) of death. Fifty-five (out of 130 sentenced) were
transported to America, by an order of council, 1664. Tho masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some
months, an embargo was laid on West India ships, when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the
service. But the Friends would not walk on board, nor would the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and
soldiers from the Tower were employed. In 1665, tho vessel sailed ; but it was immediately captured bv
the Dutch, who liberated twenty-eight of the prisoners in Holland, the rest having died of tlic plague in
that year. Of the 120 few reached America.
QUA fins QUE
1858, it was agreed to recommend that mixed marriages should be permitted, and that many
of the peculiarities of the sect in speech and costume should be abandoned. In i860 an act
was passed rendering valid Quaker marriages when only one of the persons is a Quaker.
QUARANTINE, the custom fifst observed at Venice, 1127, whereby all merchants and
others coming from the Levant were obliged to remain in the bouse of St. Lazarus, or the
Lazaretto, forty days before they were admitted into the city. Various southern cities have
now lazarettos ; that of Venice is built in the water. In the times of plague, England and
all other nations oblige those that come from the infected places to perform quarantine with
their ships, Ac, a longer or shorter time, as may be judged most safe. Quarantine acts were
passed iu 1753 and in 1826.
QUARTER SESSIONS were established, 25 Edw. III. 1350-1. The days of sittingwero
appointed, 2 Hen. V. 1413. In 1830 it was enacted, that quarter sessions of the peace
should be held in the first week after Oct. 11, Dec. 28, March 31, and June 24.
QUARTERLY REVIEW, the organ of the Tory party, first appeared in Feb. 1809,
under the editorship of William Gifford, the celebrated translator of " Juvenal."
QUATRE-BRAS (Belgium), where on Juno 16, 1815, two days before the battle of
Waterloo, a battle was fought between the British and allied army under the duke of Bruns
wick, the prince of Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the French under marshal Ney.
The British fought with remarkable intrepidity, notwithstanding their inferiority in number,
and their fatigue through marching all the preceding night. The 42nd regiment (Scotch
Highlanders) suffered severely in pursuit of a French division by cuirassiers being posted in
ambush behind growing corn. The duke of Brunswick was killed.
QUEBEC (Canada), was founded by the French in 1608.
Quebec reduced by the English, with all Canada, Public and private stores and several wharfs,
in 1626, but restored in 1632 destroyed by fire ; the loss estimated at
Besieged by the English, but without success, upwards of 260,000/ Sept. 1815
in 1711 Awful fire, 1650 houses, the dwellings of 12,000
Conquered by them after a battle memorable for porsons, burnt to the ground . May 28, 1845
the death of goneral Wolfe in the momout of Another groat firo, 1365 houses burnt, June 28 „ ,
victory Sept 13, 1759 Disastrous firu at the theatro, 50 lives lost
Besieged in vain by the American provincials, Jan. 12, 1846
under their general, Montgomery, who was Visited by the prince of Wales . Aug. 18-23, i860
slain Doc. 31, 1775 1 (See Canada aud Montreal.)
QUEEN. The first woman invested with sovereign authority was Semiramis, queen of
Assyria, 2017 B.C. Iu 1554 an act was passed "declaring that the regall power of this
realme is in the quenes majestie [Mary] as fully and absolutely as ever it was in any of her
moste noblo progenitours lunges of this realme." The Hungarians called a queen-regnant
king. See Hungary.
QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY, established in Feb. 1704, by queen Anne, being the First
Fruits with the Tenths, to increase the incomes of the poorer clergy. There were 5597
clerical livings under 50?. per annum found by the commissioners under the act of Anna
capable of augmentation. Chalmers. Act to consolidate the offices of First Fruits, Tenths,
and Queen Anne's Bounty, 1 Vict. 1838.
QUEEN ANNE'S FARTHINGS. The popular stories of the great value of this coin are
fabulous, although some few of particular dates have been purchased by persons at high
prices. The current farthing, with the broad brim, when in fine preservation, is worth \l.
The common patterns of 1713 and 1714 are worth ll. The two patterns with Britannia under
a canopy, and Peace on a car, ]i n n, are worth 2I. 2s, each. The pattern with Peace on a
car is more valuable and rare, and worth $1. Pinkerton (died 1826).
QUEEN'S BENCH COURT and PRISON. See Kings Bench.
QUEEN'S BOUNTY, an annual grant of 1000?. which commenced about the beginning
of the reign of George III. and was continued until the loth Geo. IV. 1829, when it ceased
altogether. The collection upon the king's letter, which used to accompany tliis grant, has
also been discontinued since that year.
QUEEN'S COLLEGES in Ireland, from their unsectarian character termed the
"Godless Colleges," were instituted in 1845, to afford education of the highest order to all
religious denominations. They were placed at Belfast, Cork, and Galway ; the last was
opened on Oct. 30, 1849. —Tue " Queen's University in Ireland" comprehending these
QUE COO QUI
colleges, was founded by patent, Aug. 15, 1850 ; the carl of Clarendon, lord lieutenant, the
first chancellor. They were "condemned" by the propaganda and the pope, and by a
majority (a small one) of the Irish bishops in a synod held at Thurles, in Sept. 1850.
QUEEST CAROLINE'S TRIAL, ftc.
Cari'linc Amelia Auc^sta, second daughter of I ITcr trial commences .... Aug. 19,
Charles Wm. Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, Last debate on the bill of Pains and Penalties,
born May 17, 1768 ; married to George, prince when the report was approved by 108 against.
of Wales" Al»ril 8, T795 99^ the numerical majority of nine being pro-
Their daughter, princess Charlotte born, Jan. 7, 1796 1 duced by the votes of the ministers them-
The Delicate Investigation (irhu-h tee) May 22, 1806 I selves. Lord Liverpool moves that the bill be
Charges against ber again disproved . 1813 reconsidered that day six mouthx . Nov. 10.
Kinbarks for the continent . . . Aug. 1814 Great exultation throughout England, and
Becomes queen ..... Jan. 20, illuminations for three nights in London,
Arrives in England June 6, Nov. 10, II, 12,
A secret committee in the house of lords, The queen goes to St. Paul's in stato, Nov. 20,
appointed to examine papers on charges of She protests against her exclusion from the
incontinence Juno 8, coronation July iS. :
Bill of Pains and Penalties introduced by lord Taken ill at Drury-lane theatre. July 30 ; dies
Liverpool ...... July 5, at Hammersmith .... Aug. 7.
The queen removes to Brandenburg-house, Her remains removed on their rout* to Bruns
Aug. 3, wick : an alarming riot occ\irs, owing to the
Receives tho address of the married ladies of military opposing the body Ixiing carried
the metropolis .... Axig. 16, through the city .... Aug. 14,
QUEEN CHARLOTTE Snip of War, a first-rate ship of the line, of no guns, tho
flag-ship of lord Keith, then commanding in chief in the Mediterranean, was burnt by au
accidental tire, off the harbour of Leghorn, and more than 700 British seamen out of a crew
of 850 perished by fire or drowning, March 17, 1800.
QUEEN VICTORIA Steam Sinr. Wrecked Feb. 15, 1853. See Wrecks.
QUEENS of ENGLAND. See under England.
QUEEN'S LAND, Moreton-bay, Australia, now including the "plains of promise,"
Carpenteria, was established as a colony in 1859. Admiral sir George F. Bowen was
appointed governor, and Brisbane, the capital, was made a bishopric. Population in Dec.
1S59, 23,450; in Sept. 1865, about 90,000. Its chief productions arc sugar, cotton, and
tobacco.
QUEEN'S THEATRE. See Opera House, the Italian.
QUEENSTOWN (Upper Canada). This town, on the river Niagara, was taken in the
last war with America by the troops of the United States, Oct. 13, 1812 ; but was retaken
by the British forces, who defeated the Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded,
and prisoners, on the same day. Queenstown suffered severely in this war. —The Cove of
Cork was named Queenstown, Aug. 3, 1849, by the queen.
QUENTIN, ST. (N. France). Philip II. of Spain, assisted by the English, defeated
the French at St. Quentin, Aug. 10, 1557; and in memory of his victory, the Spanish
monarch in fulfilment of a vow ho had made before the engagement, built the famous
monastery, &c, the Escurial, which is called by the Spaniards the eighth wonder of the
world. See Escurial.
QUERN. The quern, or handmill, is of Roman, or as some say, of Irish invention ;
but the latter is not likely, as Roman querns have been found in Yorkshire ; and it is said
by others that the Romans found querns there.
QUESNOY (N. France), was taken by the Austrians, Sept. 11, 1793, but was recovered
by the French, Aug. 16, 1794. It surrendered to prince Frederic of the Netherlands, June
29, 1815, after the battle of Waterloo. —It was here that cannon were first used, and called
bombards. JKnaull.
QUIBERON BAY (W. France). A British force landed here in 1746, but was repulsed.
In the Bay admiral Hawke gained a complete victory over the French admiral Conflans, and
thus defeated the projected invasion of Great Britain, Nov. 20, 1759. Quibcron was taken
by some French regiments in the pay of England, July 3, 1795 ; but on July 21, owing to
the treachery of some of these soldiers, the French republicans, under Hoche, retook it by
surprise, and many of the emigrants were executed. About 900 of the troops, and nearly
1500 royalist inhabitants who had joined the regiments in the pay of Great Britain, effected
their embarkation on board the ships.
QUI Oi'i 7 QUO
QUICKSILVER, in its liquid state, mercury. Its use in refining silver was discovered,
1540. There are mines of it in various parts, the chief of which are at Almeida, in Spain,
and at Idria, in Illyria ; the latter, discovered by accident in 1497, for several years yielded
1200 tons. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in 1797. Quicksilver was congealed in winter
at St. Petersburg, in 1759. It was congealed in England by a chemical process, without
snow or ice, by Mr. Walker in 1787. Corrosive sublimate, a deadly poison, is a combination
of mercury and chlorine. See Calomel.
QUIETISM, the doctrine of Moliuos, a Spaniard (1627-96), whose work, tho SpiriUut.1
Guide, published in 1675, was the foundation of a sect in France. He held that the purity
of religion consisted in an internal silent meditation and recollection of the merits of Christ
and the mercies of God. Madame de la Mothe-Guyon was imprisoned in the Bastile for her
visions and prophecies, but released through the interest of Fenelon, archbishop of Cambray,
between whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, arose a controversy, 1697. These doctrines
were condemned by pope Innocent XI. in 1685.
QUILLS are said to have been first used for pens in 553 ; some say not before 635.
QUINCE, the Pi/rus Cydonia, brought to these countries from Austria, before 1573-
The Japan Quince or Pyrus Japonica, brought hither from Japan, 1796.
QUININE, or Quinia, an alkaloid (much used in medicine), discovered in 1820 by
Pclletier and Caventou. It is a probable constituent of all genuine cinchona barks, especially
of the yellow bark. See Jesuits' Bark.
QUINQUAGESIMA SUNDAY. The observation was appointed by pope Gregory the
Great, about 1572. The first Sunday in Lent having been termed Quadragesima, and the
three weeks preceding having been appropriated to the gradual introduction of the Lent fast,
the three Sundays of these weeks were called by names significant of their position in the
calendar : and reckoning by decades (tenths), the Sunday preceding Quadragesima received
its present name, Quinquagcsima, the second Sacagesima, and the third Septuagesima.
QUINTILIANS, heretics in the 2nd century, the disciples of Montanus, who took their
name from Quintilia, a lady whom he had deceived by his pretended sanctity, and whom
they regarded as a prophetess. They made the eucharist of bread and cheese, and allowed
women to be priests and bishops. Pardon.
QUIR1NUS, a Sabine god ; afterwards identified with Romulus. L. rapirius Cursor,
general in the Roman army, first erected a sun-dial in tho temple of Quirinus, from which
time tho days began to bo divided into hours, 293 B.C. Aspin. The sun-dial was sometimes
called the Quirinus, from the original place in which it was set up. Ashe. The Roman
citizens were termed Quiritts.
QUITO, a presidency of Columbia {which see), celebrated as having been the scene of the
measurement of a degree of the meridian, by the French and Spanish mathematicians in the
reign of Louis XV. Forty thousand souls were hurled into eternity by a dreadful earth
quake which almost overwhelmed the city of Quito, Feb. 4, 1797. Since then violent shocks,
but not so disastrous, occurred ; till one, on March 21, 1859, when about 5000 persons were
killed. See Earthquakes.
QUIXOTE. See Don Quixote.
QUOITS, a game said to have originated with the Greeks. It was first played at the
Olympic games, by tho Idrci Dactyli, fifty years after the Deluge of Deucalion, 1453 B.C.
He who threw the discus farthest, and with the greatest dexterity, obtained the prize.
Perseus, the grandson of Acrisius, by Danae, having inadvertently slain his grandfather,
when throwing a quoit, exchanged the kingdom of .Argos, to which he was heir, for that
of Tirynthus, and founded the kingdom of Mycenae, about 1313 B.u.
QUO WARRANTO ACT, passed '1280. By it a writ may be directed to any person
to inquire by what authority he holds any office or franchise. Charles II. directed a writ
against the corporation of London in 1683, and the court of king's bench declared their
charter forfeited. The decision was reversed in 1690.
RAC COS RAD
RACES, one of the exercises among the ancient games of Greece. (See Chariots.)
Horse-races were known in England in very early times. Fitz-Stcphen who wrote in the
days of Henry II. mentions the delight taken by the citizens of London in the diversion.
In James's reign, Croydon in the south, and Garterly in the north, were celebrated courses.
Near York there were races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. Camden. In the
end of Charles I.'s reign, races were performed at Hyde Park. Charles II. patronised them,
and instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas. William III. added to
the plates (as did queen Anne), and founded an academy for riding.
The first racing calendar is said to have been George II. I ts latest rules, by which races
published by John Cheny in . . . 1727 arc regulated, were enacted in ... 1S2S
Act for suppressing races by ponios and weak On the accession of queen Victoria, the royal
horses, 13 Geo. II 1739 stud was sold for 16.476*. on . . Oct. 25, 1837
The most eminent races in England are those at Ijord Stamford, said to have engaged Jemmy
Newmarket {which Kef), established by Charles Grimshaw, a light-weight jockey at a salary
II. in 1667 ; at Epsom, begun about 1711, by of 1000J a year .... March, 1S65
Mr. Parkhurst (annual since 1 730, Allen's " Tattersall's, " the "high-change of horse
Surrey)', at Ascot, begun by the duke of flesh," was established by Kichard Tattersall,
Cumberland, undo to George III. ; at Don- near Hyde Park Corner (hence termed "the
cjister, established by col. St. I^eger in 1778, Corner ") in 1766, for the sale of horses. The
and at Goodwood, begun by the duko of lease of the ground having expired, the new
Richmond, who died in 1806 premises at Brompton were erected and
The Jockey Club began in the timo of opened for business on . . April io, 1865
RACE-HORSES.
Flying Chiller*, bred in 1715 by the duke of Devon Eclipse was the fleetest horse that ran in England
shire, was allowed by sportsmen to have been the since the time of Childers ; he was never beaten,
fleetest horse that ever ran at Xewmarket, or that and died in February, 1789, aged 25 years. His
was ever bred in the world ; he ran four miles in six heart weighed 14 lb., which accounted for his
minutes and forty-eight seconds, or at the rate of wonderful spirit and courage. Christie While'* BUt.
miles an hour, carrying nine stone two pounds. I 0/ the Turf.
He died in 1741, aged 261
RECENT WINNERS OF "THE DERBY AT EPSOM.
1846. Pyrrhus. 1855. WildDayrell. 1863. Maccaroni.
1847. Cossack. 1856. Ellington. 1864. Blair Athol.
1848. Surplice. 1857. Blink Bonny. 1865. Gladiateur, May 31 (a
1849. Flying Dutchman. 1858. Beadsman. horse reared in Franc*,
1850. Voltigeur. 1859. Musjid. the property of the
1851. Teddington. 1860. Thormanby. Corate do Grange. He
1852. Daniel O'Rourke. x86x. Kettledrum. also won the St. Lcgex
1853. West Australian. 1862. Caractacus. at Doncaster, Sept, 13)^
1854. Andover.
HACK, an engine of torture, for extracting a confession from criminals, was early known
in the southern countries of Europe. The early Christians suffered by the rack, which was
in later times an instrument of the Inquisition. The duke of Exeter, in the reign of
Henry VI., erected a rack of torture (then called the duke of Exeter's daughter), now seen in
the Tower, 1423. In the case of Felton, who murdered the duke of Buckingham, the judges
of England nobly protested against the proposal of the privy council to put the assassin to
the rack, as being contrary to the laws, 1628. See Ravaillac and Torture.
RADCLIFFE Library, Oxford, founded under the will of Dr. John RadclifFe, an
-eminent physician. He died Nov. 1, 1714, leaving 40,000/. to the university of Oxford for
the founding a library, the first stone of which was laid May 17, 1737 ; the edifice was com
pletely finished in 1749, and was opened April 13, in the same year. The library consists chiefly
of works of medical and philosophical science. —The Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford,
was founded by the exertions of Dr. Hornshy, Savilian professor of astronomy, about 1771,
and completed in 1794. The publication of the observations was commenced in 1842, by
Mr. Manuel J. Johnson, the director, appointed in 1839.
RADSTADT, or Rastadt (in Baden), where a peace was signed, March 6, 1714, by
marshal Villars on the part of the French king, and by prince Eugene on the part of the
emperor ; it restored the German frontier to the terms of the peace of Ryswick. —The Cox-
oress of Radstadt, to treat of a general peace with the Germanic powers, was commenced
RAG GOD RAI
Dec. 9, 1797; and negotiations were carried on throughout the year 1798. The atrocious
massacre of the French plenipotentiaries at Radstadt by the Austrian regiment of Szeltzler,
took place April 28, 1 799.
RAGGED SCHOOLS, free schools for outcast destitute ragged children, set up in large
towns. The instruction is based on the scriptures, and most of the teachers are unpaid.
They existed in London previous to 1844, but did not receive their name till that year,
■when the "Ragged school union n was formed, principally by Mr. S. Stacey, and Mr. Win.
Locke (since hon. secretary). The earl of Shaftesbury was chairman. In 1856 there were 150
Ragged school institutions
138 Sunday schools with 16,937 scholars. 163 Paid teachers in day schools.
98 Day schools with 13,057 scholars. 126 Paid teachers in week night schools.
117 Evening schools with 8085 scholars. 43 Paid refuge and industrial masters.
84 Industrial classes with 3234 scholars. 2139 Voluntary teachers.
There were in 1856, 16 refuges, whore 500 inmates are fed, lodged, clothod, and educated. In i860, 560
ragged schools existed. See Shot-black Urigadc.
RAGMAN ROLL (said to derive its name from Ragimunde, a papal legate in Scotland)
contains the instruments of homage and fealty to Edward I., sworn to by the nobility and
clergy of Scotland at Berwick in 1296. The original was given up to Robert Bruce, kinj;
of Scotland, in 1328, when his son David was contracted in marriage to the princess Joanna
of England.
RAGUSA, a city on the Adriatic, on the south confines of Dalmatia, was taken by tho
Venetians, 1171, but soon after became an independent republic, 1358. It suffered
much by an earthquake, 1667; was taken by the French in 1807, and given up to Austria
in 1814.
RAILWAYS, There were short roads in and about Newcastle, laid down by Mr. Beau
mont so early as 1602; which are thus mentioned in 1676:— ""the manner of the carriuce is
by laying rails of timber from the colliery to the river, exactly straight and parallel ;
and bulky carts are made with four rollers fitting those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy
that one horse will draw down four or five chaldron of coals, and is an immense benefit to
the coal merchants." Roger North, They were made of iron at Whitehaven, in 1738.
See Tram-roads.
An Iron railway was laid down near Sheffield by John | In 1824, the first locomotive constructed by Georgo
Curr in 1776, which was destroyed by the colliers. Stephenson, travelled at the rate of 6 miles per
The first considerable iron railway was laid down at hour; in 1820, tho Rocket travelled at tho rate of
Colebrook Dale in tf96. 15 miles per hour : * in 1834, the Fire-Fly attained
The first iron railway sanctioned by parliament in a speed of 20 miles per hour; in 1839, the North.
1801 (with the exception of a few undertaken by Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles per hour;
canal companies as small branches to mines) was and at the present moment locomotives have at
the Surrey iron railway (by horses), from the tained a speed of 70 miles per hour. During tho
Thames at Wandsworth to Croydon. same period, the quantity of fuel required for gene
Trevethick and Vivian obtained a patent for a high rating steam has been diminished five-sixths : that
pressure locomotive engine in 1803. is, six tons of coal were formerly consumed for
William Hedley of Wylam colliery constructed a one at tho present time, and other expenses are
locomotive in 1813. diminished in a corresponding ratio.
Stockton and Darlington railway, constructed by The capital invested In railway undertaking has
Edw. Pease and George Stephenson, was opened become enormous. Up to 1840, it was 69 millions ;
8ept. 27, 1825. on March 1, 1853, It was estimated at 303 millions ;
The Liverpool and Manchester railway commenced in 1859, at 330 millions ; in 1860, 348,130,127$.
in Oct. 1826, and opened Sept. 15, 1830. Sec Liver' The Railway Mania and panic year, when 270 rail
pool. This railwuy led to similar enterprises way acts passed, was 1846.
throughout England and the continent. An act for the better regulation of railways passed
The examination of railway schemes, before their 1854-
introduction into parliament, by the Board of An act for compensating families of persons killed
Trade, was ordered 1844. by accidents (see CamtMV* Act) passed, 1846.
7 A 8 Vict. c. 85, required companies to run cheap An act passed to enable railway companies to settle
trains every day, and to permit erection of electric their differences with other companies by arbitra
telegraphs, and authorised government, after Jan. tion in 1859.
1, 1866, to buy existing railways with the per Railway Clauses Consolidation act passed 1861.
mission of parliament, 1844. A joint committee of both houses of parliament
An act passed 10 Vict. Aug. 28, 1846, for constituting appointed to report on railway schemes, Feb. 5,
commissioners of railways, who havo Bince been 1864.
incorporated with the Board of Trade. See AtmospJicric and Street Railways.
9 It obtained the prize of 500I. offered by the directors of tho Liverpool and Manchester railway
company for the best locomotivo.
ft K
RAI OK) RAI
RAILWAYS, continued.
LIST OF THE PRTNCirAL RAILWAYS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
The railways are generally named after Ouir termini.
Railways Date of Opening. Railway*. Date of Opening.
Arbroath and Forfar . Jan. 3, 1839 London and Cambridge July, 1845
Atmospheric Railway (which see) . . 1840 London and Colchester . March 29, 1843
Aylesbury branch . June 10, 18^9 London and Croydon . . June 1, 1839
Bangor and Carnarvon . . July, 1852 L-ndon and Dover . Feb. 6, 1844
Belfast and county of Down April, 1850 1 London and Greenwich . Dec. 26, 183s
Birmingham and Derby . Aug. 12, 1839 London and Richmond July 27, 1S46
Birmingham and Gloucester . Dec. 17, 1840 London and Southampton . May 11, 1S40
Birmingham, Wolverhampton, and Stour London and Warrington ; branch of the Great
Valley July, 1852 Northern Aug. 1850
Brighton and Chichester . June 8, 1846 Lowestoft branch of the Norwich and Yar
Brighton and Hastings . June 27, mouth 18^7
Bristol and Exeter . . May 1, 1844 Lynn and Ely ...;...„
Bristol and Gloucester ... July, 1845 Manchester and Birmingham . Aug. 10, 1842
Caledonian 1848 Manchester, Bolton, and Bury . . May 29, 1838
Canterbury and Whitstnble . . May, 1830 Manchester and Leeds . . . March 1, 1841
Charing Cross Railway, London, opened Jan. 11, 1864 Manchester and Sheffield . . . Dec. 22, 1845
Cheltenham and Swindon . May 12, 1845 Margate branch of the London and Dover . . 1846
Chepstow and Swansea, South Wales June, 1850 Merthyr-Tydei and Cardiff . . April 12, 1S41
Chester and Birkenhead . . Sept. 22, 1840 Metropolitan, London ; act obtained, 1853;
Chester and Crewe .... Oct. 1, ,, construction began, i860; opened . Jan. 10, 1863
Cockermouth and Workington . April 28, 1847 Middlesborough and Rcdcar . . June 4, 1846
Colchester and Ipswich . . . June is, 1846 Newcastle and Berwick . . . Jnly» 1847
Cork and Bandon Dec. 1851 Newcastle and Carlisle . . . June 18, 1S39.
Cornwall May i, 1859 Newcastle and Darlington 1844
Coventry and Leamington . . . Dec. 2, 1844 Newcastle and North Shields . . June 18, 1839
Croydon and Epsom .... May 17, 1847 Newmarket and Cambridge . . . Oct 1851
Dublin and Carlow .... Aug. 10, 1846 Newtown-Stewart and Omagh . . Sept, 1852.
Dublin and Drogheda .... May 26, 1844 Northampton and Peterborough . June 2, 1S45
Dublin and Kingstown . . . Dec. 17, 1834 North and South-Westcrn Junction . .Dec. 185^
Dublin and Belfast Junction . . June, 1852 Northern and Eastern .... July, 1845
Dundee and Arbroath . . . April 8, 1840 Norwich and Brandon
Dundee and Newtylo Dec. 1831 Norwich and Yarmouth . May 1, 1845
Dundee and Perth .... May 22, 1847 Nottingham to Grantham Julv, iS^o
Dunfermline and Alloa ; Sterling and Dunferm- Nottingham and Lincoln .Aug. 3, 1S46
lino Aug. 1850 Nottingham branch of Rugby and Derby,
Durham and Sunderland . . . June 28, 1839 May 30, 18:9
Eastern Counties .... June 18, „ Oxford branch of London and Bristol June 12, iS^4
Eastern Union(London and Colchester) Mar. 29, 1843 Oxford and Banbury Aug. 1850
East and West India Docks and Birmingham I Oxford, Worcester, and Wolverhampton . May, 18^2
Junction; from Blackwall railway to Camden Paisley and Renfrew May, i83>
Town. . ... Aug. 1850 j Penzance to Cambourno .Jan. 1853
Edinburgh and Berwick . June 18, 1846 I Rugby and Derby . , July, 1840
Edinburgh and Dalkeith 1831 Rugby and Leamington . Feb. 1851
Edinburgh and Glasgow . . . Feb. 8, 1842 ■ St. Andrew's . July, 1S52
Edinburgh, Leith, and Granton .... 1846 St. Helen's ; first act passed 1830
Edinburgh and Musselburgh . . July 14, 1847 Salisbury branch of the London and South
Ely and Huntingdon , ampton 1847
Ely and Peterborough .... Jan. Sheffield and Rotherham . , . Oct. 1838:
Exeter and Crediton . . . . May, 1851 Shrewsbury and Chester . . . Nov. 4, 1S46
Exeter and Plymouth (part) . May 29, 1846 Shrewsbury and Ludlow , . . April, 1852
Glasgow and Ayr Sept. 19, 1 X40 Southampton and Dorchester . . June 1, 1847
Glasgow and Greenock . . . March 24, 1841 South Eastern . . ' . . Feb. 6, 1S44
Glasgow, Garnkirk, and Coatbridgo . July, 1845 South-Eastern ; North Kent lino . . . 1849
Gloucester and Chepstow . . . Sept. 1 85 1 Stockton and Darlington, . . . Sept. 1825
Grand Junction from Birmingham to^Newton, Stockton and Hartlepool ... Feb. 10, 1841
July, 1837 Stourbridge and Dudley . . . fDec. 1S53
Gravesend and Rochester . . . Feb. 10, 1845 Swinton and Barnsley. . . . June, 1851
Great Western .... June 30, 1841 Taff Vale Oct 8, 1840
Great Northern 1842 Teignmouth to Newton ... . Doc. 31, 1846
Hertford branch of Eastern Counties Oct. 31, 1843 Tippcrary and Clonmel .... April, 185a
Ipswich and Bury St. Edmund's . Dec 24, 1846 Trent Valley June 26, 1S47
Kelso ; branch of North British . . June, 1850 Tunbridge-Wolls^branch .... Oct 1846
Kendal and Windermere 1847 Ulster Aug. 1839
Lancaster and Carlisle . . . Dec. 16, 1846 Warrington and Retford ; branch of the Great
Lancaster and Preston . . June 30, 1840 Northern July, 1852-
Leeds and Bradford .... July 1, 1846 West and East India Docks and Birmingham
Leeds and Derby Jnly, 1840 Junction from the Blackwall railway to
Leeds and Selby Sept. 1834 Camden Town A\ig. 1850
Liverpool and Birmingham . . . July 4, 1837 West Durham June,. 1840
Liverpool and Manchester . . . Sept 15, 1830 West London (part) .... May 27, 1844
Liverpool and Preston . . . Oct. 31, 1838 j Worcester and Droitwich . . . Jan. 1852
London and Birmingham . . . Sept. 17, „ York and Darlington .... Jan. 4, 1841
London and Blackwall . , , .Aug. 2, 1841 York and Newcastle .... June 17, 1847
London and Brighton .... Sept. 21, „ York and Normanton . . . .June 30, 1840
London and Bristol . Juno 30, I York and Scarborough . . . July 7t 1845
KAI RAI
RAILWAYS, continued.
EXTENT OF RAILWAYS IN 1 848.
liila. Milu, Mila.
America .... 3800 France aaoo Russia 52
Germany 1570 Italy 115 British Colonies . . . 1000
Holland 200 Denmark . . .106 East India .... 500
Belgium 1095 Cuba 800 [864 miles in 1861.]
extent OF RAILWAYS, JUNE, 1858 (from Captain Galton's Report).
MUtS. Milt/. Mile*.
Austria . . 3086 Ireland . 1070 Sweden and Norway . 88
Holland . 182 Switzerland ■ 3i°
Denmark 220 Naples . 64 Tuscany . 150
Franco • • 4509 Portugal . 29
Germany (without Austria Prussia . =544 Total . *4.592
and Prussia) . . ■ 2930 Russia 7«5 United States of America
Great Britain : Sardinia 390 17,481
England . . 6706 Spain 456
Scotland ■ • "43 States of the Church 12 Grand Total
UNITED KINGDOM —LENGTH OF RAILWAY OPENED, NUMBER OF PASSENGERS, AND
TOTAL RECEIPTS.
Miles
then TraTcllera. Miles
Year. opened. Receipts. Year. then Travellers. Receipts.
opened.
1845 2343 33.79'.253 1859 (iyr.) . 67,229,700 £11,862,639
9795 173.7^1.
1849 . . . 4355 63,841,539 £6,277,892 1861 (year) . 10,8691 1 39 28,561,355
1854 5962 111,206,707 9.174.945 I863(year) . 12,322 204,699,466 3>.i56,397
'858 (iyr.) . 9540 76,529,202 12,825,826
* In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on the summit of mount Palatine ; and the founder,
to give his followers the appearance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a standard as a
common asylum for criminals, debtors, or murderers, who fled from their native country to avoid the
punishment which attended them. From such an assemblage a numerous body was soon collected, and
before the death of the founder, the Romans had covered with their habitations the Palatine, Capitoline,
Aventine, and Ksquiline hills, with Mounts Coalius and Quirinalis.
t Appius Claudius became enamoured of her, and attempted to remove her from the place whore she
resided. She was clafmod by one of his favourites, as the daughter of a slave, and Appius had adjudged
her to his friend, when Virginius arrived from the camp. The father demanded to see his daughter, and
when she came he plunged a knife into her breast, exclaiming, " This is all, my daughter, I can give thco
to preserve thee from the lust of a tyrant ! " Virginius ran to the camp with tho bloody knife in his
band, and the incensed soldiers marched to Rome. Appius was seized, but destroyed himself in prison.
Spurius Oppius, another decemvir, killed himself also. Marcus Claudius, the favourite of Appius, was
put to death, and the decemviral power abolished.
3 3
ROM 626 11 OM
ROME, continued.
Two new quaestors ore added to the former The first triumvirate : Cesar, Temper, nnd
number b.c. 421 Crasbus b.c. e"o
Another and more dreadful famine occurs at Ca-par's campaigns in Gaul, 58 ; in Britain . . 55
Rome 411 ( rassus killed by the Parthians . . ■ • 53
Three quaestors are chosen frcm the Plebeians Gaul conquered and made a province . . 5*
for the first time 409 War between Caesar and Fon pey . ■ . . 50
Institution of the Lcctistcnn'an festival on Battle of Pbarsalia (uhieh see) . _ . 48
account of a pestilence 399 Casar defeats Pharnaces at Zela: and writes
Yeii taken after a siege of more than ten years 396 home " Vcni, vidi, vici" 47
Banishment of Camillus 391 Cato kills himself at Utica 46
The Gauls under Brcnnus, besiege Clusium Cieear killed in the Senate-house . . Mar. 15 44
(fee Gaul*) 390 Second triumvirate : Octavius, Antony, and
They are expelled by Camillus . . . . 389 Lepidus 43
Rome burnt to the ground by the Gauls, who Cicero killed, proscribed by Antony „
besiege the Capitol , 387 Battle of Philippi (vhich tee) 42
M. Manliua Capitolinusi thrown from the Tar- Lepidus ejected from the triumvirate; war be
peian rock on a charge of aiming at sovereign tween Octavius and Antony, 32; Antony de
power 384 feated totally at Actium . . . Sept. a, 31
The first appointment of curule magistrates . 371 Octavius hccimes emperor, and assumes the
Lucius Sextus, the first Plebeian consul . . 366 title of Augustus 27
Marcus Curtius leaps into the gulf which had The empire now at peace with all the world ;
opened in the forum 362 the Temple of Janus shut; J bus Christ
The Gauls defeated in Italy 350 born. (See Jetcs) .... April 4, 5
War with the Samnites, which lasts 51 years . 343
Embassy to Alexander ti e Great . . . 334 Ovid banished to Tcmi .... a.d. q
Defeat at Caudium 321 Death of Ovid and Eivy . . ... 18
Priests first elected from the Flebcians . . 300 Tiberius retires to Caprea ; tyranny of Scjaiius
End of the Samnite war 290 ! A census being taken by Claudius, the emperor
Theof Gauls
Arezzoinvade
■ the Reman territory ; siege 284 and censor, the inhabitants of R( mc are stated
to amount to 6,944,000.— (It is now considered
The Etruscans defeated at the Vadimoninn that the populate n of Rome within the walls
lake 310 and 283 was under a million.] .... 48
Fyrrhus of Epirus invades Italy, 281 ; defeats Caractacus brought in chains to Rome . . . 51
tbeRomansatPandcsia, 2F0 ; and at Asculum, St. Paul arrives in bonds at Rome t-3
278 ; defeated by them at Bcncvcnto . . 278 , Nero burns Heme to the ground, and charges
All Italy subdued by Rome 266 | the crime upon the Christians . , 64
First Punic war commenced (see Punic Warn) . 264 Seneca, Lucan, &e., put to death C5
First Roman fleet built 260 Peter and Paul said to be put to death . . . 67
Attilius Rcgulus said to be put to a cruel death Jerusalem levelled to the ground by Titus,
by the Carthaginians 255 Sept 8, 70
End of first Funic war ; Sicily made a Roman Coliseum founded 75
province 3*1 1 he Dacian war (continues 15 years) ... £6
Temple of Janus closed 235 Pliny junior, proconsul in Bithynia, sends
Corsica and Sardinia annexed 231 Trajan his celebrated account of the Christians icz
First Roman Embassy to Greece . Trajan's expedition into the East against the
Great invasion of the Gauls ; repulsed 2j5 Parthians, &c. ; subdues Dacia . . . . 106
Second Punic war breaks out 21 8 Trajan's column erected at Rome . . . 114
Tho Romans are defeated by Hannibal Adrian resides in Britain, and builds the wall . 121
Ihrasymene, 217 ; Cannas .... »i6 The Capitol destroyed by lightning . . . 18S
Syracuse taken by Marccllua 212 Byzantium taken ; its walls razed ... 196
Bcipio defeats Hannibal at Zrmia in Africa . 202 The Goths are paid tribute a»
The Macedonian wars with Philip begin, 213 [The Goths, Vandals, Alani. Suevi, and other
and 200 ; his defeat at Cynofcephalfti . . 197 Northern nations attack the empire.]
Death of Scipio Africanus the elder . . .185 Pompey's amphitheatre burnt . . ■ • 24S
Third Macedonian war begins 171 ; Macedon Invasion of the Goths 250
conquered and annexed 168 Pestilence throughout the empire . . . 233
First public library erected at Rome . . 167 Great victory over the Goths obtained by
Philosophers and rhetoricians arc banished Claudius ; 300,000 slain .... s6g>
from Rome x6i Dacia relinquished to the Goths . . * . 270
Third Funic war begins 149 Palmyra conquered, and Longinus put to death. 273.
Corinth and Carthage destroyed by the Romans The era of Martyrs, or of Diocletian . . . 284
(tee Corinth and Carthage) 146 The Franks Fettle in Gaul. Freret ... 3S7
Numantine war in Spain .... i53*133 Constantius dies at York ycA
Attalus 111. of Pergamos bequeaths his kingdom Four emperors reign at one time . . . 306
and riches to the Romans .... 133 Constantine the Great, it is said, in consequence
Tho Servile war in Sicily 132 of a vision, places the Cross on his banners,
Two plebeian consuls chosen , • . and begins to favour the Christians . . 31*.
The Jugurthine war 112-106 Constantino defeats Licinius, at Chrysopolis,
The Mithridatic war (vhich tee) -. . . 108-63 and reigns alone .... Sept, 18, 3^3
The Ambrones defeated by Marius . . . 102 He tolerates the Christian faith . . . •
The Social war go-ZB Puts his sen CriBpuR to death . 3=4
R( me besieged by four armies (viz. : those of Constantino convokes the first general council
Marius, Cinna, Catbo, and fctrtorius) and taken 87 of Christians at Nice 335
Sylla defeats Marius 82 The seat of empire removed from Rome to
Bithynia bequeathed to the Remans by king Byzantium, 328 ; dedicated to Constantine ■ 330
Niconic den 74 Constantine orders the heathen temples to bo
Revolt of tpartacus and the slaves . . 73-71 destroyed - *■
Syria conquered by Ptmpey .... 65
Ine Catiline conspiracy suppressed by Cicero . 63 Revolt of 300,000 Sarmatian slaves suppressed .
Death of Constantine, soon after being baptized
33
337
ROM .527 ROM
ROME, continued.
Tho army under Julian proclaims him emperor 360 I [Cardinal Palma, tho pope's secretary, was shot
Julian, who had been educated for the priest I in this conflict.]
hood, and had frequently officiated, abjures I A free constitution published . Nov. 20, 1848
Christianity, and re-opens the heathen I The pope escapes in disguise from Rome to
temples, becoming the pagan pontiff . . 361 Gacta Nov. 24, „
Julian killed in battle ; Christianity restored by M. de Corcelles leaves Paris for Rome, a French
Jovian 363 armed expedition to Civita Vecchia having
The empiro divided into Eastern and Western preceded him, to afford protection to the
by Valentinian and Valens, brothers : the pope Nov. 27, „
former has the Western portion, or Rome . 364 Protest of the pope against the acts of the pro
(See Western and Baxtern Empires; and Italy.) visional government .... Nov. 28, ,,
Rome placed under the exarchate of Ravenna . 404 A constituent assembly meets at Rome, Feb. 5, 1849
Taken by Alaric 410 The Roman National Assembly divests the pope
Taken and pillaged by Genseric . . June, 455 of all temporal power, and adopts the repub
Odoacer takes Rome, and becomes king of Italy 476 lican form of government . . . Feb. 8, ,,
Rome recovered for Justinian by Belisarius . 536 The pope appeals to the great Roman Catholic
Retaken by the Goths. 546 ; recovered by Beli powers Feb. 18,
sarius, 547 ; seized by Totila, 549 ; recovered Civita Vecchia occupied by [the French force
by Narses, and annexed to the eastern empire 553 under Marshal Oudinot . . . April 26, , ,
Rome independent under the popes, about . 728 A French force repulsed from'Rome with loss,
Pepin of France compels Astolphus,king of tho April 30, (
Lombards, to cede Ravenna and other places Engagement between the Romans and Neapoli
to the Holy Church » 755 tans ; the former capture 6b prisoners and
Confirmed and added to by Charlemagne . . 774 400 muskets May 5, ,,
Charlemagne crowned emperor of the West by The French under marshal Oudinot commence
tho pope at Rome .... Dec. 25, 800 an attack on Rome .... June 3, ,,
The emperor Henry IV. takes Rome . March, 1084 After a brave resistance the Romans capitulate
Arnold of Brescia, endeavouring to reform to the French army .... June 30, „
church and state and to establish a senate, is The Roman assembly dissolved . . July 4, ,,
put to death as a heretic 1155 An officer from Oudinot's camp arrives at
The pope removes to Avignon . . . . 1309 Gae'ta, to present the pope with the keys of
Nicola di Ricuzi, as tribune of the people, the two gates of Rome by which the French
establishes a republic, but is compelled to army had entered the city . . . July 4
abdicate, 1347 ; returning, is assassinated, The rc-establishment of the pope's authority
Sept. 8, 1354 proclaimed at Rome .... July 15,
Fapal court returns to Rome .... 1371 Oudinot issues a general order stating that the
Rise of the families, Colonna, Orsini, &c., about 1377 pope (or his representative) now re-possesses
Julius II. conquersthe Romagna, Bologna, and ( the administration of affairs, but that public
Perugia 1503-13 security in the pontifical dominions still
The city greatly embellished by Pope Leo X. 1513-21 remains under the special guarantee of the
It is captured by tho constable de Bourbon, French army Aug. 3,
who is slain June 6, 1527 The pope arrives at Portici ion a visit to the
Ferrara annexed 1597 king of Naples Sept. 4, ,,
Harassed by the French, German, and Spanish Ho arrives at Rome ; cardinal Antonelu be
factions from the 16th to the 18th century. comes foreign minister .... April, 1850
The French invasion ; the Legations incorpo no issues the bull establishing a Roman
rated with the Cisalpine republic . . . T796 Catholic hierarchy in England (see Papol
The French proclaim a Roman republic. Mar. 20, 1 798 Aggression) Sept. 24, ,,
Recovered for tho pope by the Neapolitans . 1799 Important concordat with Austria . . Aug. 1855
Retaken by the French 1800 The pope visits his dominions . . June, 1857
Restored to pope Pius VII 1801 Insurrection in the Romagna, at Bologna, and
Annexed by Napoleon to the kingdom of Italy, Ferrara June, 1859
and declared second city of the empire . . 1 808 They declare for adhesion to Piedmont, Sept. ,,
Restored to the pope, who returns . Jan. 1814 Accept Buoncompagni as governor-general,
Ho re-establishes the Inquisition and the Nov.
Jesuits Aug. ,, The pope appeals to Europe for help against
The papal government endeavour to annul all Sardinia July 12, ,,
innovations, and thus provoke much opposi The Legations form „a defensive alliance with
tion ; tho Carbonari increase in numbers . 1815-17 Tuscany, Parma, and Modena . . Aug. 20, ,,
Political assassinations in the Romagna . 1817 Tho queen of Spain engages to sond troops to
The ** Young Italy " party established by Rome, if the French retire . . Aug. 26,
Joseph Mazzini ; temporary insurrections at Tho assembly at Bologna vote annexation to
Bologna suppressed by Austrian aid . . 1831 Piedmont, Sept. 7 ; the king engages to sup
Election of Pius IX. June 16, 1846, who pro port their cause before the great powers,
claims an amnesty ; and axithoriscs a na Sept. 15 ; the pope annuls tho acts of the
tional guard and municipal institutions . 1847 assembly at Bologna ; and denounces the
The Romans desire to join the king of Sardinia punishment due to those who attack the
against tho Austrians ; the pope hesitates ; holy sec. Sept. 26; and dismisses the Sar
the Antonelli ministry retires: and the Ma- dinian charge" d'affaires at Rome . Oct. 1,
miani ministry is formed .... 1848 The Romagna, Modena, and Parma formed into
Count Rossi, minister ofjustice of the pontifical a province, to be called /Emilia . Dec. 24,
government, assassinated on the staircase of The Sardinian government annul tho Tuscan
the Chamber of Deputies at Rome . Nov. 15, „ concordat, Jan. 27 ; and the Lombard one,
Insurrection at Rome, the populace demand a March 20, i860
democratic ministry and the proclamation of Riots at Rome suppressed by the police with
Italian nationality ; the pope (Pius IX.) hesi great cruelty .... March 19, M
tates, the Romans surround the palace, and a The pope excommunicates all concerned in the
conflict ensues. The pope accepts a popular rebellion in his states . . March 26, ,,
ministry Nov. z6, „ General Lamoriciero takes command of papal
s s 2
ROM BUM
ROME, continued,
army, March ; which is reorganised, and in Petition to the emperor Napoleon to withdraw
creased by volunteers from Ireland, Ac, May, 1 French troops from Rome, signed by num
Irish volunteers are severely treated lor insub bers of the Romans .... May 10. iS6»
ordination ; many dismissed July, The emiwror of France declines a union with
The papal army estimated at 20,000 Ails'. Austria and Spain for the maintenance of the
Tuscan volunteers enter the papal states and pope's temporal power . . June,
are repulsed . . . . . May 19, Grand ceremony at the canonization of 27
Insurrection In the Marches, Sept. 8 ; Fossem- Jaimncae martyrs (see Canon nation) . June 8, „
brone subdued by the papal troops ; the The pope declares a severe allocution against
people appeal to the Sardinian government, the Italians Juno <->, „
whose troops, under Cialdini and Fanti, Garibaldi calls for volunteers, taking as his
enter the Papal States . Sept. it, watchword, " Rome or death !" July 10, iS6a
Fanti takes Pesaro, Sept. 12 ; and Perugia, in Railway between Rome and Naples completed ;
cluding general Schmidt and 1600 prisoners, iU opening opposed by the papal government,
Sept, 14. Nov.
Ancona besieged by sea and land Sept. 17, Earl Russell's offer to the pope of a residence at
Severe allocution of the pope against France Malta, Oct. 25; declined . . . Nov. n, „
and Sardinia ; ho appeals to Europe for help. Antonelli's resignation of his office not ac
Sept. 28, cepted March 5, iS6j
Cialdini defeats Lamoricierc at Castcl-Fidardo, Convention between Franco and Italy : French
Sept. 18; and takes Ancona . Sept. 29, troops to quit Rome within two vear**,
Additional French troops sent to Rome . Oct. Sept, 15, 1864
The Marches vote for annexation to Sardinia, Encyclical letter of the pope, censuring 80 er
Nov. rors in religion, philosophy, and politico
Monastic establishments suppressed in the (caused much dissatisfaction, and was for
Legations ; the monks pensioned ; educa bidden to be read in churches in France audi
tional institutions founded . . Dec. other countries) Dec. 8, t,
Subscriptions raised for the pope in various Jews persecuted at Rome .... Dec.
countries ; the formal collection forbidden in Fruitless negotiations between the pope and
France and Belgium ; permitted in England, the king of Italy (by Vcgczzi); mutual con
Nov. cessions proposed April 21 to June 23. 1865
Tho French emperor advises the pope to givo Pope's severe allocution against secret societies
up his revolted provinces . . . Dec. 21, (Freemasons, Fenians, Arc.) . Sept. 25,
Publication of Rome ft It* Evcqut*, Jan. 6 ; and Merodc, the papal minister of war, dismissed,
of La France, Rome ft V/talu, Feb. 15 ; great Oct. 20, ?>
excitement, and strongadvocacy of the pope's A part of the French troops leave the papal
temporal government (attacked by prince dominions Nov.
Napoleon) in the French chambers . March, See Italy , and France, 1862-5.
KINGS OF ROME.
before niRTST. |6iC. Tarquinius Priscus ; son of Demaratus, a
735. Romulus ; murdered by the senators. Corinthian emigrant, chosen king.
[Tatius,
Rome in 747, and ruled jointly with Romulus 1■ 578. Scrvius
king of the Sabines, had removed to Tulliusdaughter
the king's ; a manumitted slave; married
; and succeeded by the
six years.] united suffrages of the army and the people.
716. [Interregnum.] ; 534. Tarquinius Supcrbus, grandson of Tarquinius
715. Numa Pompihus, son-in-law of Tatius the Sa- I Priscus ; assassinates his father-in-law, and
bine, elected ; died at the age of 82. usurps tho throne.
672. Tullus Hostilius ; murdered by his successor, 510. [The rape of Lucretia, by Sextus.'son of Tar-
by whom his palace was set on fire ; his | quin, and consequent insurrection, leads to
family perished in the flames. the abolition of royalty and the establish -
640. Ancus Martius, grandson of Nurna. ment of the consulate.]
REPUBLIC.
before christ. 82-27. Second period. From Sylla to Augustus.
510-82. First period. From the expulsion of Tarquin
to the dictatorship of Sylla.
EMPERORS OF ROME.
BEFORE CHRIST. 69. M. Salvine Otho ; stabbed himself.
48. Caius Julius Ct-sar ; perpetual dictator ; assas Aulus Vitellius; deposed by Vespasian, and put
sinated, March 15, 44 B.C. to death.
31 Octavianus Caesar ; in the year 27 b.c. Augustus Titus Flavius Vespasian.
Imperator. Livy. TUub (Vespasian), his son.
Titus Fl ivius Domitian, brother of Titus ; last
AFTER CHRIST. of the twelve Ctesars ; assassinated.
14. Tiberius (Claudius Nero). •A Coccoius Nerva.
37. Caius Caligula ; murdered by a tribune. yS. Trajan (M. Ulpius Crinitus).
41. Claudius I. (Tiber. Drusus); poisoned by his 117 Adrian or Hadrian (Publius ..Elius).
wife Agrippina, to make way for 138. Antoninus Titus, surnamed Pius.
54. Claudius Nero ; deposed ; kills himself, 68. 161. Marcus Aurelius (a philosopher) and Lucius
68. Scrvius Sulpicius Qalba ; shun by the praHo- Verus, his son-in-law ; the latterdiedHn 169.
rians. 180. Commodus (L. Aurclius Antoninus), sou of
ROM G2& ROS
ROME, continued,
Marcus Aurelius ; poisoned by his favourite 270. Aurelian ; assassinated by his soldiers on his
mistress, Martin. march against Persia, in Jan. 275.
193. Publius Helvius-Pertinax ; put to death by the 175- [Interregnum of about nine months.]
pnetoriiin band. Tacitus, elected Oct. 25; died at Tarsus in
[Four emperors now start up : Didianus Juli- Cilicia, April 13, 276.
anus, at Rome ; Pesoeiinius Niger, in Syria ; Florian, his brother ; his title not recognised
Lucius Septimius Severus, in Pannonia ; by tho senate.
and Clodius AlbinuH, in Britain.] 276. M. Aurelius Probus ; assassinated by his troops
,, Lucius Scptirnius Severus; died at York in at Sirmium.
Brit'iin, in 211 ; succeeded by his sons, a82. M. Aurelius Cams ; killed at Ctesiphon by
211. M. Aurelius Caracalla and Septimius Geta. Geta lightning ; succeeded by his sons,
murdered the same year by his brother, ' 283. Carinus and Numcrianus ; both assassinated,
who reigned alone till 217, when ho was after transient reigns.
slain by his Huccessor, 984. Diocletian ; who associated as his colleague in
217. M. Opilius Macrinus, prefect of the guards; the government,
beheaded in a mutiny. 286. Maximiauus Hercules ; the two emperors resign
218. Heliogal>alus(M. Aurelius Antoninus), a youth in favour of
put to death for enormities. Constantius ChloniB and Galerius Maximianus ;
222. Alexander Severus ; assassinated by some 3°5 the first died at York, in Britain, in 306, and
soldiers corrupted by Maximinus. tho troops saluted as emperor, his sou,
235. Cains Julius Veins Maximums ; assassinated 306. Constantino, afterwards styled the Great :
in his tent before the walls of Aquileia. whilst at Rome the pnetorian band pro
237. M. Antonius Gordianus, and his son ; the Litter claimed
having been killed in a battle with the par Maxentius, son of Maximianus Hercules.
tisans of Maximinus, the father strangled Besides these were,
himself in a 6t of despair, at Carthage, in Maximianus Hercules, who endeavoured to re
his 80th year. cover his abdicated power,
.'38. Balbinus and Pupienus : put to death. Flavius Valerius Severus, murdered by the last
Gordian, junior, grandson of the elder Gordian, named pretender ; and
in his 16th year ; assassinated by the guards, Flavins Valerianus Licinius, the brother-in-law
at the instigation of his successor, of Constnntine.
244. Philip tho Arabian ; assassinated by his own [Of these, Maximianus Hercules was strangled
soldiers ; his son Philip was murdered, at in Gaul, in 310; Galerius Maximianus died
the sime time, in his mother's arms. wretchedly in 311 ; Maxentius was drowned
.'49. Motitis Decius ; he perished with his two sons, in the Tiber in 312 ; and Licinius was put to
and their army, in an engagement with tho death by order of Constantino in 324.]
Goths. Constantino the Great now reigned alone ; died
251. Gallus Ilostilius, and Ins sou Volusianus ; both on Whitsunday, May 22, 337.
slain by the soldiory. fSons of Constantino ; di
253. .Emilianus; put to death after a reign of only vided the empire between
four months. (■? Constantino II. them ; the first was slain
253. Valerianus, and bis son Gallienus ; the first was Constans, in 340, and the second
taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, and (Constantius II. murdered in 350, when
flayed alive. the third became sole
260. Gallienus reigned alone. N emperor.
[About this time thirtv pretenders to imperial 361. Julian, the Apostate, so called for abjuring
power start up in different parts of the em Christianity, having been educated for the
pire ; of these, Cyriades is the first, but he priesthood ; mortally wounded in a battle
is slain ] with the Persians, 636.
->68. Claudius II. (Gallienus having been assassinated 363- Jovian ; reigned 8 mouths ; found dead in his
by the officers of the guard) succeeds ; dies bod, supposed to have died from the fumes
of tho plague. of charcoal.
270. Quintillus, his brother, elected at Rome by the Valcntinian and Valens.
senate and troops ; Aurelian by the army in Valcns with Gratian and Valentinian II.
lllyricum. Quintillns, despairing of success Theodosius I., &c.
against his rival, who was marching against Theodosius alone.
him, opened his veins and bled himself to The Roman empire dividod. See Eastern '
death. Empire, IVest&'n Empire, and Popes.
RONCESVALLES (in the Pyrenees), where, it is said, Charlemagne's paladin, Roland,
or Orlando, was surprised, defeated, and slain, 778. On July 25, 1813, marshal Soult was
defeated by the British entering France.
ROOF. The largest in the world is said to be that over a riding-school at Moscow,
erected in 1791, being; 235 feet in span. The proposed width of the roof of the London
station of the Midland railway is 240 feet {1866).
ROPE-MAKING MACHINE. One was patented by Richard March in 1784, and by
Edmd. Cartwright, in 1792. Many improvements have been made since.
ROSAMOND'S ROWER. Rosamond was daughter of lord Clifford, and mistress of
Henr}T II. about 1 1 54. A conspiracy was formed by the queen, prince Henry, and his other
sons, against the king, on account of his attachment to her. Henry kept her in a labyrinth
at Woodstock, where his queen, Eleanor, it is said, discovered her apartments by the cluo
of a silk thread, and poisoned her. She was buried at Oodstow church, from whence Hugh,
bishop of Lincoln, had her ashes removed, 1191.
630
EOSARY. See Beads.
ROSAS (N. E. Spain), Bay of, where a brilliant naval action was fought by the boats
of the Cumberland, Yolonlaire, Apollo, Topazc, Philomel, Scmtt, and Tuscan, commanded by
lient. Tailonr, which ended in the capture or destruction of eleven armed vessels in the bay,
Nor. I, 1809.
ROSBACH (Rosebec), iu Flanders. Here Charles VI. of France beat the Flemings, who
had revolted against their count, 1382. At Rosbaeh, in Prussia, a great battle was fought
between the Prussians, commanded by Frederick the Great, and the combined army of
French and Austrians, in which the latter sustained a complete defeat and severe loss,
Nov. S, 1757-
ROSE.* See under Floiccrs.
ROSES, Wars of the, between the Lancastrians (who chose the red rose as their
emblem), and the Yorkists (who chose the white rose), began 1455 and ended 1485. t It is
stated, that in the Wars of the Roses there perished 12 princes of the blood, 200 nobles, and
100,000 gcutry and common people. The union of the roses was effected in the marriage of
Henry VII. with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., i486.
ROSETTA (in Egypt), taken by the French in 1798 and by the' British and Turks,
April 19, 1S01. The Turks repulsed the British here, May 21, 1807. Near Rosetta, at the
mouth of the Nile, was fought the memorable battle of Aug. 1, 1798, between the fleets of
France and England, the latter commanded by Nelson. See Nile. Ali Pacha rendered great
service to his country by constructing a canal between Rosetta and Alexandria.
ROSICRUCIANS, a sect of mystical philosophers, who first appeared in Germany in the
14th century, and again early in the 17th century. They derived their name from the Con-
fessay Rosea Crttcis of Valentine Andreas, 1615. They swore fidelity, promised secrecy, and
wrote hieroglyphically, and affirmed that the ancient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaliieans,
Magi of Persia, and Gymnosophists of the Indies, taught the same doctrine.
ROSS, Cork (S. Ireland), a bishopric founded, it is supposed, by St. Fachnan, in the
beginning of the 6th century. It was united to Cork in 1340 ; and Cloyne to both, by the
Irish Church Temporalities act (1833). See Bishops; New Ross.
ROTA CLUB. A society who met at Miles's Coffee-house in New Palace-yard, West
minster, during the administration of Oliver Cromwell : their plan was that all the great
officers of state shonld be chosen by ballot : and that a certain number of members of parlia
ment should be changed annually by rotation, from whence they took their title. Sir William
Petty was one of the members in 1659. Biog. Brit.
ROTHESAY CASTLE. See Wrecks, 1831.
ROTHSCHILD FAMILY. Meyer Amschel, or Anselm, was born at No. 148, Juden-
gnsso (Jew-lane), Frankfort, in 1743. In 1772 he began business as a money-lender and
dealer in old coins, in the same house, over which he placed the sign of the Red Shield (in
German, Roth Schild). Having had dealings with the landgrave of Hesse, that prince
■entrusted him with his treasure (said to have been 250,000;.) in 1806, when the French held
* The rose, a symbol of silence, gave riso to the phrase tub rosd, " under the rose ;" said, by Italian
writers, to have risen from the circumstance of the pope's presenting consecrated roses, which were
placed over the confessionals at Rome, to denote secrecy, 1526.
t Richard II., who succeeded his grandfather Edward 111. in 1377, was deposod and succeeded in 1399
by his cousin Henry IV. (son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, the fourth son of Edward III.), in
prejudice to the right of Roger Mortimer (grandson of Lionel, duke of Clarence, Edward's third son), who
was declared presumptive heir to the throno in 1385. Roger's grandson, Richard duke of York, first
openly claimed the crown in 1449. Attempts at compromise failed, and the war began in 1455. The
Lancastrians wore defeated at tit. Albans, May 23, 1455. Tho protector Somerset was slain ; a truce was
made, and Richard became his successor. The war was renewed, and tbo Yorkists defeated tho Lancas
trians at Bkrohcatb, Sept. 23, 1459 ; but eventually dispersed, and tho duko was attainted. In 1460, he
defeated his opponents at Northampton, took Henry prisoner, and was declared heir to the crown ; but
fell into an ambuscade near Wakefield, and was put to death. Dec. 31, 1460. His son (Edward) continued
the struggle. He was installed as king, March 4, 1461 ; defeated tho Lancastrians at Towton, March 39 ;
was deposed by "Warwick, who restored Henry VI., Sept. 1470; defeated the Lascastrians at Barnet, April
14, 1471 ; and finally at Tewkesbury, May 4. The struggle ended with the defeat and death of Richard III.
at Bosworth, Aug. 22, 1485.
J The Rosetta Stone, discovered by the French in 1790, was brought from Rosetta in a French vessel,
from whence it was taken by Mr. Wm. R. Hamilton, who deposited it in the British Museum. Iu 1S41, Mr.
Lctronue published the test and a translation of the Greek inscription. It is a piece of black basalt, about
3 feet long, and 2$ feet wide, with an inscription in throe languages, viz. hieroglyphics, modified
hieroglyphics (enchorial), and Greek, sotting forth the praises of Ptolemy Epiphancs (about 194 B.C.). It
has been Investigated by Dr. T. Young and Cbanipollion.
ROT 831 ROY
his country. With this sum as capital, Anselm traded and made a largo fortune, and restored
the 250,0002. to the landgrave in 181 5. At his death his sons continued the business as
partners. His son, Nathan, began at Manchester iu 1798, removed to Loudon in 1803 ; and
died immensely rich, July 28, 1836.
ROTTERDAM, the second city in Holland. Its importance dates from the 13th century.
The commerce of Antwerp was transferred to it in 1509. It suffered much from the French
revolutionary wars, and from inundations in 1775 and 1825. Desiderius Erasmus was born
here in 1467. The museum and picture-gallery of Rotterdam were destroyed at the fire of
the Schieland palace, Feb. 16, 1864.
ROUEN (N. France), an archbishopric, 260, became the capital of Normandy in the 10th
century. It was held by the English king till 1204 ; and was retaken by Henry V., Jan. 19,
1419. Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans, was burnt here, May 30, 1431. It was subdued by
the king of France in 1449 ; and was besieged 1562 and 1591.
ROUMANIA, the name assumed by the Danubian principalities on Dec. 23, 1861, when
their union was proclaimed at Bucharest and Jassy.
ROUND-HEADS. In the civil war which began in 1641, tho adherents of Charles I.
were called Cavaliers, and the friends of the parliament were Round-heads. Tho term, it is
snid, arose from those persons who distinguished themselves by having a round bowl or
wooden dish put upon their heads, and their hair cut by tho edges or brim of tho bowl. See
Cavaliers .
ROUNDWAY DOWN, near Devizes, Wiltshire. Here the royalists defeated tho parlia
mentarians with great slaughter, July 13, 1643.
ROXBURGHE CLUB was instituted in 1812 by earl Spencer, and a number of gentle
men, for the republication of rare books, or hitherto unpublished MS8.
ROYAL ACADEMY. A society of artists met in St. Peter's-court, St. Martin's-lane,
about 1739, which Hogarth established as tho society of Incorporated Artists, who held theiv
first exhibition at the Society of Arts, Adelphi, April 21, 1760. From this sprang tho Royal
Academy, in consequence of a dispute between the directors and the fellows. On Dec. 10,
1768, the institution of the present Royal Academy was comploted under tho patronage of
Oeorge III.; and sir Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was appointed its first
president. Leigh. The first exhibition of the Acadomicians (at Pall-Mall) was in 1769.
In 1 77 1 the king granted them apartments in old Soinersot-house, and afterwards, in 1780,
in new Somerset-house, where they remained till 1838, when they removed to the National
Oallery. Among its professors have been Johnson, Gibbon, Goldsmith, Macaulay, and
Hallam. Turner, the painter, gave funds to the academy for the award of a medal triennially
for landscape painting, which was awarded to Mr. N. 0. Lupton in 1857. A commission of
inquiry into the affairs of tho academy, appointed in 1862, recommended various changes in
July, 1863.
presidents. I 1820. Sir Thomas Lawronce.
1768. Sir Joshua Reynolds. 1830. Sir Martin A. Shoe.
179a. Benjamin West I 1850. Sir Charles Eastlako, died Dec. 23, 1865.
ROYAL ACADEMY of MUSIC was established in 1823, mainly by the exertions of lord
Burghersh (afterwards earl of Westmoreland, who died Oct. 16, 1859), and was incorporated
by charter in 1830. The first concert took place Dec. 8, 1828. Its re-construction is
proposed (1866).
ROYAL ADELAIDE and ROYAL CHARTER. See Wrecks, 1850, 1859.
ROYAL ASSENT. If the king assent to a public bill, tho clerk of tho parliament
declares tho Norman French, " Le roy U veui," the king wills it so to be. If the king
refuses his assent, it is in the gentle language of " Le roy s'avisera," the king wiU advise
upon it This is the language usually adopted to the present day. Hale. By the statute
33 Hen. VIII. 1541, tho king may give his assent by letters-patent. Blackslone's Com.
ROYAL EXCHANGE (Cambium Regis), London. The foundation of tho original
edifice was laid by sir Thomas Gresham, June 7, 1566, on the site of the ancient Tun prison.
Queen Elizabeth opened it in Jan. 23, 1571, and her herald named it the Royal Exchange.
Hume. It was totally destroyed by the great fire, Sept. 1666. Charles II. laid tho foun
dation-stone of the next edifico, Oct. 23, 1667, which was completed by Mr. Hawkesmorc, a
pupil of sir Christopher Wren's, in about three years ; it was repaired and beautified in 1769.
This also was burnt, Jan. 10, 1838, with a number of public offices, &e. The new Royal
Exchange, commenced in 1842 under the direction of Mr. Tite, was opened by the queou,
ItOY 632 KOY
Oct. 28, 1844. —The Royal Exchange, Dublin, was commenced in 1769, and opened
in 1779.
ROYAL GEORGE, a first-rate man-of-war of 100 guns, overset ofT Spithcad, ami
suddenly went down while at anchor, by the guns rolling to one side. Rear-admiral Ktm-
penfeldt, the crew, many marines, women, and Jews, in all about 600 persons, were drowned,
Aug. 29, 1782.* •
ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY (London). See Humane Society.
ROYAL INSTITUTION of Great Britain, the earliest of the kind in London, was
founded March, 1799, by count Rumford and sir Joseph Hanks, assisted by earls Spencer and
Morton, and other noblemen and gentlemen. It received the immediate patronage of
George III. and was incorporated, Jan. 13, 1800, by royal charter, as "The Royal Institution
of Great Britain, for the diffusing knowledge, and facilitating tho general introduction of
useful mechanical inventions and improvements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical
lectures and experiments, the application of science to the common purposes of life." It was
enlarged and extended by an act of parliament in 1810 ; the original plan, as drawn np by
count Rumford, in 1799, having been considerably modified. +
The House (in Albemarlc-strect. Piccadilly) was he exhibited the two-fold magnetism of matter.
purchased In June, 1799; and tho present front ! comprehending all known su!>stances, the magnet-
was added by subscription in 1838. The Lecture Ism of gases, flame, &lc. ; and in 1850 he published
theatre was erected m 1803, under the superin I his researches on atmospheric magnetism. —
tendence of Mr. T. Webster. I John Tyndall, F.R.S., the present professor of
The Library was commenced in 1803, by the I natural philosophy, first elected in July, 1853,
munificent subscriptions of the proprietors of the I eminent for his researches on magnetism, heat,
institution. It now (1866) comprises about 35,000 glaciers, Ac, here.—Edvard Frank-land, F R.8.,
Tolumes. Classified catalogues (by W. Harris) J elected professor of chemistry in 1863, is eminent
were published in 1809 ind 1821; a new one (by for his discoveries in organic chemistry.
B. Vincent) in 1857. In 1801 sir J. St. Aubyn and other gentlemen rr°-
The Museum contains geological specimens collected posed to form a School ok 3Iine3 at this insti
by Davy, Hatchett, Wollaston, £c, and much of tution ; but the plan, although warmly supported
the original philosophical apparatus of Cavendish, by the members, was withdrawn f<>r want of
Davy, and Faraday. encouragement by the government and by mining
The first Lecture was delivered March, 4, x8ox, by proprietors.
Dr. Garnett, he being the first professor of natural The Weekly Evening Meetings, on the Fridays
philosophy and chemistry. In 1802 ho was suc from January to June, as now arranged, com
ceeded by Dr. Thomas Young, so celebrated for his menced in 1826. Discourses (of which abstracts
researches in optics, resulting in the discovery of are printed) arc given at these meetings by the
the interference of light, and the establishment of professors of tho institution, and other eminent
the theory of undulation. His " Lectures on scientific men.
Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts," Endowments. In 1833 John Fuller, esq., of Rose-
first published in 1807, are still considered a text hill, endowed two professorships, of chemistry
book of physical scienco. His works on antiqua and physiology : the former was bestowed on Mr.
rian literature (hieroglyphic inscriptions, ic.) are Faraday for life ; the latter on Dr. Rogct for three
also highly esteemed. In Feb, 1801, Mr. (after years, to be filled up afterwards by triennial elec
wards sir Humphry) Davy was engaged as assistant tion.—The Fullerian professors ofphysiology have
lecturer and director of the laboratory, and on been R. E. Grant, T. R. Jones, W. B. Carpenter,
May 31, 1802, he was appointed professor of che W. W. Gull, T. W. Jones, T. H. Huxley, R. Owen,
mistry, nis lectures were eminently successful, and J. Marshall.—In 1838 Mrs. Acton gave 1000/.
and his discoveries in chemistry and electricity to bo invested for paying every seven years 100
have immortalised his name, and conferred honour guineas for the best essay on the beneficence of
on the institution : by him the alkaloids, potas tho Almighty as illustrated by discoveries in
sium and sodium, were discovered in 1807 ; the science; which have been awarded—in 1844 to
nature of chlorino was determined in 1810, and the Mr. G. Fownes : in 1851 to Mr. T. Wharton Jones ;
safety-lamp invented in 181 5.— William Thomas in 1858 no award was made ; in 1865 to Mr. George
Brand*, succeeded sir Humphry as professor of Warington.
chemistry in 1813, and held that office till his iTbo "Fund for the Promotion of Experimental
resignation in 1852, since which time he bos Researches" was founded on July 6, 1863. by sir
been elected hon. professor. From 1816 to 1850 he I Henry Holland, Professor Faraday, sir R. I.
delivered, in the laboratory of this institution, his Murcnison, Dr. Bence Jones, and others.
celebrated chemical lectures to students. —In 1813 Tho first officers were sir Joseph Banks, president.
Michael Faraday, on the recommendation of sir till tho charter was granted, afterwards the earl of"
H. Davy, was engaged as assistant in the laboratory, Winchelsea ; Mr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Bernard,
and in 1825 as its director : in 1827 ho became one treasurer ; rev. Dr. Samuel Glasse, secretary. The
of the permanent lecturers of the institution. duke of Northumberland, K.G., elected president
In 1820 ho commenced thoso researches in elec 1842, was succeeded by sir Henry Holland, in 1865 :
tricity and magnctu-m which form an era in the W. Pole,;esq., treasurer, elected 1849, was succeeded
history of science. In 1823-4 ue discovered the I by Wm. Spottiswoodo, esq., iu 1865 ■ the rev. John
condensability of chlorino and other gases ; in 1831 Barlow, secretary, elected 1842, was succeeded by
he obtained electricity from tho magnet ; in 1 845 I Henry Bence Jones, M.D., i860.
Ry the use of tho diving-bell, the ship, imbedded in the deep, was surveyed in May 1817, H stq.
Portions of the vessel and its cargo were brought up in 1839-42. under tho superintendence of sir Charles
I asley, when gunpowder was ignited by the agency of electricity.
t The members are elected by ballot, and pay five guineas on admission, and five guineas annually, or
a composition of sixty guineas. 0
ROY RUM
ROYAL MARRIAGE ACT, &c. See Marriage Ad; Military and Naval Asylums;
and Navy.
ROYAL SOCIETY (London). In 1645 several learned men met in London to discuss
philosophical questions and report experiments ; the Novum Organon of Bacon, published in
1620, having given great impulse to such pursuits. Some of them (Drs. Wilkins, Wallis,
&c), about 1648-9, removed to Oxford, and with Dr. (afterwards bishop) Seth Ward, the
hon. Robert Boyle, Dr. (afterwards sir) \V. Petty, and several doctors of divinity and physic,
frequently assembled in the apartments of Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham college, Oxford. They
formed what has been called the Philosophical Society of Oxford, which only lasted till 1690.
The members were, about 1658, called to various parts of the kingdom, on account of their
respective professions ; and the majority coining to London, constantly attended the lectures
at Gresham college, and met occasionally till the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1659. Sec
Societies.
The society was organised in 1660, find constituted by I fellows returned to Gresham College, where they
Charles II. a body politic and corporate, by the remained till their removal to Crane-court, in a
appellation of "the President, Council, and Fel- I house purchased by themselves, Nov. 8, 1610.
lows of the Royal Society of Landon, for improving They remove to apartments granted them in Somer-
Natural Knowledge," April 22, 1662. ! set-house, 1780; to apartments in Burlington-house,
Evelyn records the first anniversary meeting, St. j Piccadilly, 1857.
Andrew's day, Nov*. 30, 1663. The first Copley Medal was awarded to Stephon Gray
The Philosophical Transactions begin March 6, 1664-5. ' *n r73* - the Royal Medal to John Dalton, 1826;
In 1668, Newton invented his reflecting telescope 1 the- Rumford Medal, instituted in 1797, to count
(now in the possession of the society), aud on ' Rumford himself in 1800.
April 28, 1686, presented to the society the MS. | Parliament votes annually looo?. to the Royal Society
of his Principiay which the council ordered to be for scientific purposes.
printed. This wasdono under the superintendence Regulations mado by which fifteen fellows are to be
and also at the expense of Hallcy the astronomer, , elected annually, who pay ten pounds on admis-
at that time clerk to the society. sion, and four pounds annually, or a composition
The society met for some years at Gresham College, of sixty pounds, March, 1847.
and afterwards at Arundel House (1666), where it The " Royal Society Scientific Fund " was founded
came into possession of a valuable library, pre- 1 in imitation of the " Literary Fund " in 1859. Sec
sented by Mr. Howard, grandson of its collector, < Scientific Fund.
the earl of Arundel. Aitcr various changes the I
PRESIDENTS. 1695. Chas. Montague (aftds. ea 1772. Sir John Pringle.
1660. Sir Robert Moray. of Halifax). 1778. Sir Joseph Banks.
1663. Lord Brouncker. '1698. John, lord Somers. 1820. Dr. W. H. Wollaston.
1677. Sir Joseph Williamson. !
1703. Sir Isaac Newton, ,, Sir Humphry Davy,
1680. Sir Christopher Wron. j 1727. Sir Hjins Sloane. i 1827. Davics Gilbert.
1682. Sir John Hoskyns. I 1 741. Martin Koikes. 1830. Duko of Sussex.
1683. Sir Cyril Wyche. I 1752, Geo., earl of Macclesfield. I 1838. Marquis of Northampton.
1684. Samuel Pepys. 1764. James, carl of Morton. 1848. Earl of Rofso.
1686. John, earl of Carbery. I 1768. James Burrow. ; 1854. Lord Wrottesloy.
1689. Thomas, earl of Pembrc I ,, James West, 1858. Sir Benjamin C. Brodio.
1690. Sir Robert Southwell j 1772. James Burrow. , 1861. Major-gen. Edward Sabine.
RUBICON, a small river flowing into the Adriatic sea, separated Cisalpine Gaul from
Italy proper. Roman generals were forbidden to pass this river at the head of an army.
Julius Caesar did so, 49 B.C., and thereby began a revolt and deadly civil war.
RUBIDIUM, an alkaline metal, discovered by Bunsen by means of the spectrum analysis,
and made known in 1861.
RUGBY SCHOOL (Warwickshire), was founded in 1567 by Lawrence, sheriff, a London
tradesman. Dr. Thomas Arnold, the historian, entered on the duties of head-master here
in August, 1828, and under him the school greatly prospered. He died Juno 12, 1842.
RUHMKORFF'S INDUCTION COIL. See Induction.
RULING-MACHINES, used for ruling paper with faint lines, for merchants' account-
books, &c. They were invented by an ingenious Dutchman, resident in London, in 1782,
and were subsequently greatly improved by Woodmason, Payne, Brown, and others. They
were improved in Scotland in 1803. An invention has lately rendered account-books perfect
by the numbering of the pages with types, instead of the numbers being written bjTa pen, so
that a page cannot be torn out from them without being discovered.
RUM (French rhum), ardent spirit distilled from sugar lcos and molasses, deriving its
peculiar flavour from a volatile oil. Rum is principally made in the West Indies. The duty
(since 1858) on colonial rum imported into the United Kingdom is 8s. 2d, per gallon, on
RUM RUS
foreign rum (since 1846) is 15a. per gallon, The duty on rum to be employed as methylated
.spirits was reduced in 1863.
Imported. Galtons. Imported. Gallons. Imported. Gallons.
1848 6,858,981 T853 5,206,248 1857 • 6,515,683
1 851 . 4»745.*44 i855 • 1863 . 7>*94t739
RUMP PARLIAMENT. See Prides Purge.
RUNNY-MEDE (council-mead), near Egham, Surrey. Here king John signed Magna
Charta, June 15, 1215.
RUSSELL ADMINISTRATIONS.* See Palmerston Administration, &c.
Fir.aT administration (formed on the resignation of Grey, viscount Palmerston (succeoded by earl
sir Robert Peel), July. 1846. Granville, Dec. 22), and earl Grey.
First lord of the treasury, lord John Russell. Lord cJianceltor, lord Truro.
Lord chancellor, lord Cottenbiuu (succeeded by lord First tortl of the admiralty, sir Francis T. Baring.
Truro). Board of control, lord Brougbton.
Lord president of the council, marquess of Lansdownc. Board of trade, Mr. Laboucherc.
P.-ivy teal, Earl of Minto. Secretary at war, Mr. Fox Maule (afterwards lord
Chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. (now Sir Charles) Panmure, and now carl of Dalhousie).
Wood. Postmaster-general, marquess of Clanricarde.
Foreign, )iome, and colonial secretaries, vicount Pal Paymaster-general, carl Granville.
merston, sir George Grey, and carl Grey. Lord Seymour, earl ofCarlisle, &c.
Board* of control and trade, sir John Hobhouse (now This ministry resigned Feb. 21, 1852. See Derby
lord Uroughton), and earl of Clarendon (succeeded Administration.
by Mr. Laoouchere).
Admiralty, the earl of Auckland (succocdcd by sir third administration. (On the decease of lord Pal
Francis Thornhill Baring). merston, Oct. 18, 1865, earl Russell received Her
Duchy of Lancaster, lord Campbell (succeeded by the Majesty's commands to reconstruct the adminis
earl of Carlisle, late viscount Morpeth). tration.)
Secretary at war, Mr. Fox Maule. First lord of the treasury, John, earl RusselL
Postmaster, marquess of Clanricarde. Lord chancellor, Robert, lord Cranworth.
T. H. Macaulay, Ac. Postmaster-general, John, lord Stanley of Alderley.
Jjord John Russell and his colleagues resigned their PrcsuUnt of the poor-law board, Chas. Pelham Villiera.
offices, Fob. 21, 1851 ; but were induced (after the Lord president of the council, George, earl Granville.
failure of lord Stanley's party to form an adminis Lord privy teal, George, duke of Argyll.
tration) to return to power, March 3 following :— Chancellor of the exchequer, Wm. E. Gladstone.
Secretaries—foreign affairs, George, oarl of Clarendon ;
second administration (or continuation of his colonies, Edward Cardwell ; home, air George Grey ;
first), March, 1851. war, George, earl Do Grey and Ripon ; India, six
First lord of the treasury, lord John Russell. Charles Wood.
President of the. Council, marquess of Lansdownc. First lord oj the admiralty, Edward, duke ofSomerset.
Ijtrd privy seat. Earl of Minto. President of the board of trade, Thoa. Milner Gibson.
Chancellor of the exchequer, sir Charles "Wood. Chancellor of the duchyofLancaster, George J.Go
Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries, sir George Secretaryfor Ireland, Chichester Fortescue.
RUSSELL INSTITUTION (Great Coram-street, London), was founded in 1808 by sir
Samuel Romilly, Francis Horner, Dr. Mason Good, Henry Hallam, lord Abingcr, and others.
The building comprises a library, lecture room, news room, &c.
RUSSELL TRIAL. William, lord Russell's trial for complicity in the Rye-house plot
was marked by a most touching scene. When he supplicated to have some one near him to
take notes to help his memory*, he was answered, that any of his attendants might assist
him ; upon which ho said, '* My wife is here, and will do it for me." He was beheaded in
Lincoln s-Inn-Fields, July 21, 1683, having slept soundly the night before his execution.
Lady Russell survived him forty years, dying Sept. 29, 1723, in her eighty-seventh year.
The attainder of this nobleman was reversed, 1 Will. III. 1689, his execution having been
deemed a murder.
RUSSIA, the eastern part of ancient Sarmatia. The name is generally derived from the
Roxolani, a Slavonic tribe. Rurick, a Varangian chief, appears to have been the first to
establish a government, 862. His descendants ruled amid many vicissitudes till 1598. The
progress of the Russian power under Peter the Great and Catherine II. is unequalled for
* Lord John Russell, 3rd son of John, duke of Bedford, was born Aug. 19. 179a ; M.P. for Tavistock,
1813 ; for London, 1841-61 ; was paymaster of the forces, 1830-34 ; secretary for homo department, 1835-9 ;
for the colonies, 1839-41 ; first minister, July 1846 to March 1853 ; secretary for foreign affairs, Dec. 1852
to Feb. 1853 ; president of the council, June 1854 to Feb. 1855 ; secretary for the colonies, March to Nov.
1855; secretary for foreign affairs, Juno. 1859, to Ovt. 1865, when he succeeded Lord Palmerston as
premier ; created a peer as earl Russell, July 30, 1861. llis motion for reform in parliament was negatived
In 1822 ; adopted March i, 1831 ; he introduced the Registration bill, and a New Marriage bill, in 1836.
IIUS 635 RUS
rapidity in the history of the world. The established religion of Russia is the Greek church,
with a free toleration however of other sects, even the Mahometans. By an imperial ukase,
in 1802, six universities were established, viz., at St. Petersburg, Moscow, Wilua, Dorpat
(in Livonia), Charcot*, and Kasan ; but literature has made little progress, the native publi-
citions being very few, and the best books being all translations. The Russian language,
though not devoid of elegance, is, to a foreigner, of very difficult pronunciation : the number
of letters and diphthongs is forty-two. The estimated population of the empire in 1865 is
80,255,430. By the first Russian budget (1862), the estimated revenue was 34,500,000^. ;
expenditure, 37,850,000/.
Russia iuvaded by the Huns . . . a.d. 376 Peter visits Germanv, Holland, and France . . 1715
Ruric the Norman or Varangian, arrives at Nov The Jesuits expelled 1718
gorod (or New City), and becomes grand duke Conspiracy and mysterious death of the prince
(anniversary kept. Sept. 20, 1 862J . . 86V Alexis July,
Cleg successfully invades the Greek empire. . 904 Peter II. (last of the Romanoffs), deposed, and
Vladimir the Great marries Anne, sister of the the crown given to Anne of Courlaud . .
emperor Basil II., and is baptized . . 9S8 Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I., reigns, in pre
The Golden Horde of Tartars conquer a large judice of Ivan VI., an infant, who is impri
part of Russia about 1333 soned for life 1741
The grand duke June killed in battle . . 1237 Peter III. dethroned and murdered, succeeded
The Tart u-s establish the empire of the Khan of by Catherine his wife 1762
Kaptscbak, and exercise great intluenco in Ivan VI., the rightful heir, till now immured,
Russia 1242 put to death
Alexander Newski defeats the invading Danes, Rebellion of the Cossacks, 1774 ; suppressed . 1764
1775
<fcc. 1244 Dismemberment of Poland ; commenced by
Ho is made grand duke of Russia by the Tartars 1252 Catherine (see Poland), 1772 ; completed
Tartar war, 1380; Moscow burnt . . . . 1383 Successful invasions of the Crimea
Tamerlane, after ravaging Tartary, invades Catherine gives her subjects a new code 01
Russia; but retires 1395 laws ; abolishes torture in punishing crimi
Accession of Ivan III. the Great—able and des nals ; and dies
Unsuccessful war with Persia ■ . . . 1796 ,»
potic 1463
The foundation of the present monarchy laid . ,, Russian treaty with Austria and England . . 1798
Ivan introduces fire-arms and canuon into Suwarrow with an army joins tho Austrians,
Russia 1475 and checks the French lu Italy . . . . 1799
Great invasion of the Tartars ; consternation of Mental derangement of Paul .... 1800
Ivan 1479 He is murdered . . . March 23, 1801
His general Svenigorod attacks them and anni Accession of Alexander I. (who makes peace
hilates their power 1481 with England)
Ivan takes the title of czar 1482 no joins the coalition against Franco . April, 1805
Accession of Ivan IV., a cruel tyrant . . 1533 Allies defeated at Austerlitz . . Dec. 2, ,,
The English " Russian company " established . 1553 Treaty of Tilset with Franco . . July 8, 1807
Richard Chancellor sent to open the trade . . 1554 Russians defeated by the Turks, near SilLstria,
Discovery of Siberia ,, Sept. 26, 1809
Tho royal bodyguard (the Strelitz) established . 1568 War with Franco. .... June, 1812
Ivan solicits the hand of queen Elizabeth of The Russians defeated at Smolonsko, Aug. 17 ;
England 1579 and at the Borodino . Sept. 7,
Tho race of Ruric, who had governed Russia Moscow burnt by tho Russians, rotreat of the
for 700 years, becomes extinct . . . . 1 598 French Sept. „
The imposition of Demetrius (see Impottort) . :6o6 Alexander present at the battle of Leipsic, Oct.
Michael Fedorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, 1813; ontered Paris .... March, 1814
ascends the throne 1613 Ho visits England .... June, ,,
Finland ceded to Sweden 161 7 Alexander forms the Holy Allianco . . . 1815
Russian victories in Poland . 1654 The grand duke Constantino renounces the
First Russian vessel built 1667 right of succession . . . . Jan. 26, 1822
■Subjugation of the Cossacks 1671 Euiperor Nicholas crowned at Moscow, Sept. 3, 1826
Reign of Ivan and Peter I. or tho Great . . 1682 Russian war against Persia . . Sept. 28, „
Peter sole sovereign ...... 1689 Nicholas visits England ; invested with the
llo visits Holland and England, and works in ordor of the Garter . July 9, 1827
the dockyard at Deptford 1697 Peace between Russia and Porsia . Feb. 22, 1828
Recalled by a conspiracy of the Strelitz, which War between Russia and tho Ottoman Porte
ho cruelly revenges ; 2000 tortured and slain ; declared (see Turkey, and Battles) . April 26, „
he beheads many with hi.-* own h ind . 1697 The war fortho independence of Poland against
Tho Russians begin their new year from Jan. 1 ; Russia fsee Poland) .... Nov. 29, 1830
(but retain the old style) 1 700 Failure of tho expedition against Kbiva. Jan. 1840
War with Sweden, Peter totally defeated by Treaty of London (see Syria) . July 15, M
Charles XII. at Narva . . . Nov. 30, The emperor Nicholas arrives in London June 1, 1844
Peter founds St. Petersburg as a new capital . 1703 The grand duke Constantino arrivos at Ports
Tho Strelitz a"bolished 1704 mouth in tho Ingermanland, of 74 guns, June 9, 1846
Charles XII. totally defeated by Peter at Pul- [For the participation of Russia in the Hun
towa, and flees to Turkey . . July 8, 1709 garian war of 1848-9, see Hungary.]
1 4.000 Swedish prisoners sent to colonise Russia demands the expulsion of tho Hun
Siberia ' . garian and Polish refugees from Turkey (see
War with Turkey ; Peter and his army cross Turkey) Nov. 5, 1849
tho Prutb, and are surrounded by the Turks ; They are sent to Konieh, in Asia Minor . Jan. 1850
they escape by the energy of the empress Conspiracy against the life and policy of the
Catherine, whe obtains a truce . . Juno, 1711 emperor detected .... Jan. 6,
Esthonia, Livonia, and a large part of Finland Harbour of Sohastopol completed . Feb.
added to the empire 1715 Tho emperor decrees seven men In each thou-
KUS KUS
KUSSIA, continual.
sand of the population of Western Russia to (23,000,000) throughout the empire in two
be enrolled in the army, giving a total in years March 3, 1861
crease of 180,000 soldiers . . . Aug. 1 8 so Demonstrations and repression in Poland
The czar visit* Vienna Hay 8, 1S52 (tchich$te) Feb.—April, t,
Concentrates his forces on the frontiers of Disturbances in South Russia, caused by an
Turkey Feb. 1S53 impostor asserting himself to be a descendant
Origin of the Russo-Turkish war (which «v, and of Peter III.; many peasants shot and flogged
Holy Plac$) March, May and June,
Conference between the emperors of Russia Inundations at Kiev, Moscow ; 615 houses
and Austria at Olmutz . Sept. 24, under water May,
And king of Prussia at Warsaw Oct, 2, Death of prince Michael Gortschakoff, governor
Interview of Mr. J. Sturge and other quakcrs of Poland . . May 30, „
with the czar, to obtain peace Feb. Student riots at the university of St. Peters
Ten northern provinces put in a state of siege, burg, which is closed, Oct. 6-9 ; reopened,
March 5, Oct 24, „
The czar issues a manifesto to his subjects ; Tho nobles sign a petition for a political con
he will combat only for the faith and Chris stitution Nov.
tianity April 23, Increased privileges granted to the Jews,
Death of the czar Nicholas, and accession of Jaix. 26, iS6a
Alexander II.; no change of policy, March 2, 1S55 Death of Nessclrode, the chancellor of the
Most extensive levy ordered by the czar (at empire ..... March 23 or 24, ,.
N'icolaioff) Nov. 3. Alarming increase of fires at St Petersburg,
Ho visits his army at Sebastopol . Nov. 10, Moscow ; the government suppresses various
Death of princo Ivan Paskiewitsch, aged 74, educational institutions . . . June,
Fob. 1 Russia recognises the kingdom of Italy. July 10, ,t
Amnesty granted to tho Poles, May 27; political Anniversary of the foundation of the establiah-
offenders, Ac. .... Sept. 7, ment of the Russian monarchy at Novgorod,
Alexander II. crowned at Moscow . Sept. 2, celebrated Sept 20,
Manifesto on account of the English and French Re-organisation of the departments of justice
inU-rfcrcnce in the affairs of Naples, Sept. 2, decreed ; juries to l>e employed in trials, &c.
St. Petersburg and Warsaw Itailway tiegun by Oct 14, „
government, 1851 ; ceded to Great Russian Trade tax bill introduced ; admitting foreigners
railway company (about 335 miles, the half to merchants' guilds, &c. . . Nov. 26, ,,
completed) Insurrection in Poland . . Jan. 23-24, '863
Grand duke Constantino visits Franco and [For events, see Poland.\
England April, Termination of serfdom March 3,
The czar meets the emperor Napoleon at Stut- Provincial institutions established throughout
gardt, Sept. 25 ; and tho emperor of Austria Russia Jan. 13, 1864
at Weimar Oct. 1, Great victory over the Ouhykhs in tho Cau
Partial emancipation of the serfs on the im casus, March 31 ; emigration of the Caucasian
perial domains July 2, tribes into Turkey, April : submission of the
A Russian naval station established at Villa Albgas ; the war declared to be at an end,
Franca, on the Mediterranean, creates some Junes,
political excitement . . Aug. The czamwitch l>etrothed to the princess Dag-
New commercial treaty with Great Britain, mar of Denmark .... Sept 28, „
Jan. j 2, Serfdom abolished in the Trans-Caucasian
Russia reproves the warlike movements of the provinces ; new judicial system promul
German confederation during the Italian war, gated Dec. . ,
May 27, The Russian nobles request the emperor to
The czar protests against the recognition of the establish two houses of representatives
sovereignty of peoples Feb. 1 S60 [declined] Jan. 24, 1S65
Fruitless meeting of the emperors of Russia New province, "Turkestan," in central Asia,
and Austria and the regent of Prussia at created Feb. 14, „
Warsaw .... Oct 20-25, The czarowitch Nicholas dies at Nice, April 24, ,,
Treaty with China, for enlargement of com Industrial exhibition at Moscow doses, July 16. ,,
merce Jan. i, Censorship of tho press relaxed : law begins,
Decree for the total emancipation of the serfs S61 Sept. 13,
DUKES, CZARS, AND EMPEROR.'
DUKE* OF RIOT. 1155. June or George I. : the city of Moscow va>
862. Rurick. built by this duke.
878. Igor.
j Olega, regent GRAND- Dl-KES OF WLADIMIR.
935-
972.
\ SwwtoaUtw or Spendoblos.
Jaropalk I. 1157- \( Michael
Andrew I. until 1175; first grand-duke.
If.
0S0. Vladimir, Wladimir, orWaldimir I., styled the 1177. Wsewolod III.
Great. ( Juric or
1213. \ Coustantine,George It.
1015. Jaraslaw, or Jaroslaf I. until 1218.
1054. Isjialaw I. 1238. Jaraslaw II. ; succeeded by his son,
1078. Wsewolod I. 1245 Alexander Nevski or Ncwski, the Saint.
1093. Swiatopalk. 1 263. Jaraslaw III.
1114. Vladimir II, 1 270. Vasali or Basil I.
1125. Mtislaw or Michael I. "77- 'Dmitri or Demetrius I.
1132. Jaropalk II. 1284. "Andrew II.
1 138. ( Wiatachelaw, 1 294. * Daniel-Alexandrovitz.
1 1 39, \ Wsewolod II. 1302. •Jurie or George III. : deposed.
1 146. j Isjialaw H. 1305. *Michael III.
1154. ' Itotstislaw. 1320. *Vosali or Basil II,
RUS 637 RUS
RUSSIA, continued.
1325. *Jurie or George III. : restored. EMPERORS.
[Those marked thus * are doubtful, owing to1689. Peter I. the Great, alone ; took the title of
the difficulty that occurs at every step in emperor in 1728, founded St. Petersburg,
early Russian annals. ] and elevated the empire.
1725. Catherine 1. his consort ; at first the wife of a
GRAKD-DUKES OF MOSCOW. Swedish dragoon, who is said to have been
1328. Ivan or John I. killed on the day of marriage.
1 340. Simon, suruamed the proud. 1727. Peter II. son of Alcxis-Petrovitz, and grandson
I353- Ivan or John II. of Peter the Great : deposed.
1359. Demetrius II. prince of Susdal. 1730. Anne, duchess of Courland, daughter of the
1362. Demetrius III. Donskoi. czar Ivan.
1389. *Vasali or Basil III. Tcmnoi. 1740. Ivan VI. an infant, grand-nephew to Peter tho
1425. Yasali or Basil IV. Great ; immured in a dungeon for 18 years :
murdered in 1764.
CZARS OF MUSCOVY. 1741. Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Groat, reigned
1462. Ivan (Basilovitz) or John III. : took the title during Ivan's captivity.
of czar 1482. 1762. Peter III. sun of Anne and of Charles-Fre
1505. Vasali or Basil V. obtained the title of emperor derick, duke of Holstein-Gottorp: deposed,
from Maximilian I. and died soon after, supposed to have been
1533. Ivan IV. murdered.
1584. Feodor or Theodor I. : supposed t ohave been ,, Catherine II. his consort: a groat sovereign ;
poisoned, and his son, Demetrius, murdered extended the Russian territories on all
by his successor, sides ; died in 1796.
1598. Boris-Godonof, who usurped the throne. 1796. Paul, her son; found dead in his chamber;
1606. Demetrius, the Impostor, a young Polish supposed to have been murdered.
1801. Alexander, his Bon ; who, after many adverse
monk ; pretended to be the murdered prince
Demetrius ; put to death. battles, and a forced alliance with France,
„ Vasali-Chouiski, or Zouinski. at length aided in the overthrow of Napo
1610. [Interregnum.] leon Bonaparte.
1825. Nicholas, brother to Alexander; succeeded
1613. Michael-Feodorovitz, of the house of Romanof,
doscended from the czar Ivan-Basilovitz. Dec. 1, 1825.
1855. Alexander 11. son of Nicholas, born April 29,
1645. Alexis, son of the preceding, styled the father
of his country. 1818'; succeeded at his father's death,
1676. Feodor or Theodor II. March 2, 1855; married April 28, 1841, Mary
1682. \( Ivan IV. and
Peter I. brothers of the preceding.
princess of Hesse ; the present emperor of
Russia.
Heir : his son Alexander, bora March io, 1S48.
/SB/- /42es*w&.is to .
RUSSO- TURKISH WAR.* The Russian and French governments having each taken
a side in the dispute between the Greek and Latin churches as to the exclusive possession of
the Holy Places (which sec) in Palestine, the Porte advised the formation of a mixed com
mission, which decided in favour of the Greeks, and a firman was promulgated accordingly,
March 9, 1853 : to this decision the Frencli acceded, although dissatisfied.
The Russians make further claims, and prince Circular of count Nesselrodo in justification,
Menschikoff (who arrived at Constantinople July 2 ; lord Clarendon's reply . July 16 1S53
Feb. 28, 1853), by various notes (between The conference of representatives of England,
March 22 and May 18), demands that a con France, Austria, and Prussia meet at Vienna,
vention should bo signed by the sultan agree to a note, July 31 ; which is accepted
granting to tho czar such a protectorate over by the czar, Aug. 10 ; but the sultan requires
the Greek Christians in Turkey, as the sultan modifications, Aug. 19; which the czar rejects,
considered inimical to his own authority, Sept. 7, ,,
March 22—May 18, 1853 Two English and two French ships enter the
Menschikoff's ultimatum rejected; he quits Dardanelles Sept. 14, „
Constantinople May 2 r. Tho sultan (with the consent of a great
The sultan issues a hatti scherif confirming all national council) declares war against Russia,
the rights and privileges of the Greek Oct. s, „
Christians, and appeals to his allies June 6, The Turkish fortress at Issaktocha fires on a
The English and Freuch fleets anchor in Besika Russian flotilla (the first act of war) Oct. 23,
Bay June 13, The Turks cross the Danube at Widdon and
The Russians, under gen. Luders, cross the occupy Kalafat . Oct. 28—Nov. 3, ,,
Pruth and enter Moldavia July 2, Russia declares war against Turkey Nov. 1, ,,
* In 1844, whcn the czar was in England, he conversed with tho duke of Wellington and lord Aberdeen
(whom he had known many years) respecting the dissolution of tho Turkish empire; and on his return
he embodied his views in a memorandum drawn up by count Nessclrode, which was transmitted to
London, but kept secret till March 1854. In January and February of that year the czar had several con
versations on the subject with tho British envoy at St. Petersburg, sir G. H. Seymour, in ono of which
(Jan. 14) ho compared Turkey to a man in a state of decrepitude and sickness, on the point of death, and
made proposals to the British government as to the disposal of hU property. He stated frankly that ho
would not permit the British to establish themselves at Constantinople; but said in another conversation,
he would not object to their possessing Egypt. The purport of these conversations was conveyed in des
patches to lord John Russell, who replied that the British government dcclinod to make any provision for
the contingency of the fall of Turkey. Tho czar made- similar proposals to the French government with
the same result.
RlTS RUS
RtTSSO-TURKISH WAR, continued.
English and French fleets enter Bosphorus, 1 Turks defeated at Bayazid in Armenia, July
Nov. 2, J8s3 29. 30; ^d near Kars . . Aug. 5, 1 4
Russians defeated at Oltenitza Nov. 4, ,, Surrender of Bomarsund '. Aug. 16, „
Turks (in Asia) defeated at Bayandur, Atskur, I [In July and August the allied armies and
and Achaltzik , . Nov. 14, 18, 26, „ fleets in the east suffered severely from
Turkish fleet destroyed at Sinopc . Nov. 30, ,, cholera.]
Collective note from the four powers requiring Tho Russians defeated by Schamyl in Georgia,
to know on what terms the Porto will about Aug. 28, „
negotiate for peace . . . Dec. 5, „ They ovacuatc the principalities, Aug. Sept. 20, „
Contests at Kalafat (Russians defeated at ; By virtue of a treaty with Turkey (June 14)
Citate, Jan. 6) . . Doc. 31, 1853—Jan. 9, 1854 the Austrians under count Coronini. enter
At the request of the Porte (Dec. 5), the allied I Bucharest Sept. 6. . .
fleets enter the Black Sea . Jan. 4, „ Allies sail from Varna, Sept. 3, and land at Old
Reply of the Porte to the note of Doc. 5, con j Fort, near Eupatoria* . . . Sept. 14,
taining four points as bases of negotiation : j Skirmish at the Bulganac . . . Sept. 19, „
viz. 1. The promptest possible evacuation Battle of the Alma (see Alma) . Sept. 20, .,
of the principalities. 2. Revision of tho ; Russians sink part of their fleet at Sebastopol,
treaties. 3. Maintenance of religious privi Sept. 23, „
leges to the communities of all confessions. 1 Allies occupy Balaklava . . . Sept 26, .,
4. A definitive settlement of the convention ! Death of marshal St. Arnaud . Sept 29, ..
respecting tho Holy Places (dated Dec. 31},— General Canrobert, his successor Nov. 34, „
approved by the four powers . Jan. 13, Siege of Sebastopol commenced—grand attack
Vienna conferences close . . . Jan. 16, ,, (without success) .... Oct. 17, ,.
Kalafat invested by the Russians Jan. 28-31, , , Battle of Balaklava—charge of the light cavalry,
Proposal in a letter from the emperor of France with severe loss .... Oct 25, „
to the czar (Jan. 29) declined . Feb. 9, Sortie from Sebastopol repulsed by generals
Turkish flotilla at Rustchuk destroyed by the Evans and Bosquet .... Oct. 26,
Russians under Schilders . . Feb. 15, ,, Russian attack at Inkennan ; defeated, Nov. 5, .,
Ultimatum of England and France sent to St Miss Nightingale and nurses arrive at Scutari,
Petersburg Feb. 27, 1 Nov. 6, .,
The czar " did not judge it suitable to give an Great tempest in the Black Sea, loss of the
answer " March 19, Prince and store vessels . Nov. 14-16, ,,
Baltic fleet sails, under sir C. Napier, March it, Treaty of alliance between England, France,
Treaty betwoen England, Franco, and Turkey, Austria, and Prussia— a commission to meet
March 12, at Vienna : signed .... Dec. 2, „
Russians, under Gortschakoff, pass the Dunube Russian sortie .... Dec. 20, ,,
and occupy the Dobrudscha : severe conflicts ; Omar Pacha arrives in the Crimea (followed by
the Turks retire . . . March 23, 24, the Turkish army from Varna) . Jan. 5, 1855
France and England declare war against Russia, Sardinia joins England and France Jan. 26,
March 27, 28, Great sufferings in the camp from cold and
Rupture between Turkey and Greece, March 28, sickness .... Jan. and Feb. ,,
Gen. Canrobert and French troops arrive at Russians defeated by the Turks at Eupatoria,
Gallipoli, soon after followed by the English, Feb. 17,
March 31, Death of Emperor Nicholas ; accession of Alex
Russians defeated by the Turks at Karakai, ander II. (no change of policy) . March 2,
May 30, Sortie from the Malakhoff tower March 22, „
English vessel Furious, with a flag of truce, Capture of Russian rifle-pits . . April 19,
fired on at Odessa . . April 8, Arrival of Sardinian contingent . . May 8, ,.
Four powers sign a protocol at Vienna, Resignation of Gen. Canrobert, succeeded by
guaranteeing the integrity of Turkey and civil gen. Pelissier .... May 16,
and religious rights 01 her Christian subjects, Desperate night combats . . May 22-24,
April 10, Expedition into the sea of Azoff (under sir E.
Russians defeated at Kostelli by Mustapha Lyons and sir G. Brown) ; destruction of
Pacha. April io, Kertch and large amount of stores, May 24-
Offensive and defensive alliance between June 3, m
England and France . . April 10, Taganrog bombarded . . . Junes, »
Treaty between Austria and Prussia April 20, Massacre of an English boat's crew with flag of
Bombardment of Odessa by allied fleet April 22, truce at Haugo .... June 5, >>
Russians, under gen. Schilders, assault Kalafat ; Russians evacuate Anapa . . June 5,
repulsed ; the blockade raised April 19-21, The White Works and Mamelon Vert taken.
The Tiger steamer run aground near Odessa, June 6, 7, m
captured by the Russians . . May 12, Unsuccessful attack on the Malakhoff tower
Russians defeated at Turtukai . May 13, and Redan June iS.
Siege of Silistria begun . . . May 17, Death of Lord Raglan ; succeeded by general
Allied armies disembark at Varna . May 29, Simpson ...... June 28,
Mouths of the Danube blockaded by allied fleets, Russians invest Kars in Armenia, defended by
June 1, gen. Williams July 151 «-
Russians repulsed at Silistria; raskiewitsch Bombardment of Sweaborg . . Aug. 9.
and many officers wounded June 5, Defeat of the Russians at thcTchernaya, Aug. 16 ».
Turks defeated at Ozurgbcti (in Asia) June 16, Ambuscade on the glacis of the Malakhoff
Severe conflict before Silistria; the siege raised, taken ; Russian sortie repulsed . Aug. 18,
June 18-26, The French take the Malakhoff (which see) by
Batteries at the Sulina mouths destroyed by assault ; the English assault the Redan with
capt. Parker .... June 26, 27, out success ; the Russians retire from Sebas
Captain Parker killed .... July 8, topol to the North Forte,'and the allies enter
Russians defeated at Giurgcvo . July 7, the city ; the Russians destroy or sink the
10,000 French troops embark at Boulogne for remainder of their fleet . . Sept. 8 &c. „
the Baltic July 15, Tanan and Fanagoria captured . . Sept 24t »■
* 40,000 men. a large number of horses, and a powerful artillery were landed in one day.
RUS 639 SAB
RUSSO-TURKISH WAR, continued.
The Kussians assaulting Kara are defeated with Death of admiral Bmat . . . Nov. 27, 1855
great loss Sept. 29, 1855 Russian attack on the French posts at Baidar
Russian cavalry defeated (50 killed, 105 pri repulsed Dec. 8, ,,
soners) at Koughil, near Eupatoria, by the Proposals of peace from Austria, with the
French Sept. 29, consent of the allies, sent to St. Petersburg,
Kinbum taken Oct. 17, Dec. 12,
Russians blow up Oczakoff . . Oct. 18, Centre dock at Sebastopol blown up by the „
Large stores of corn destroyed near Oheisk in English Jan. 2, 1856
the sea of Azoff Nov. 4, Council of war at Paris . . . Jan. 11, ,,
Defeat of the Russians, and passage of the Protocol signed accepting the Austrian proposi-
Ingour by the Turks under Omar Pacha, tionnnsabasisof negotiation for peace, Feb. 1,
Nov. 6. ,, Destruction of Sebastopol docks . Feb. t, „
The czar visits his army near Sebastopol Report of sir John M'NeiU and col. Tulloch on
Nov. 10, „ state of the army before Sebastopol, published
Sir Wm. Codrington takes the command in Feb. s, „
room of gen. Simpson . . . Nov. 14, „ Peace conferences open at Paris, an armistice
Explosion of 100,000 lbs. of powder in the till March 31 agreed on . . Fob. 25, lv
French siege-train at Inkermaii, with great Suspension of hostilities . . . Feb. 29, ,,
loss of life Nov. 15, „ Proclamation of peace in tho Crimea, April 2,
Sweden joins the allies by a treaty Nov. 21, ,, in London April 29,
Capitulation of Kars to gon. Mouravieff, after a The Crimea evacuated . . . July 9,* „
gallant defence by gen. Williams . Nov. 26, „
RUTHENIUM, a rare metal, discovered in the ore of platinum by M. Claus, in 1845.
RUTHERFORD'S ACT, Lord {13 & 14 Vict. c. 36), for simplifying law proceedings in
Scotland, passed 1850.
RUTHVEN, Raid of, a term applied to the seizure of the person of James VI. of
Scotland by William Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, and other nobles, in 1582. They compelled
the king to dismiss his favourites, Arran and Lennox, Ostensibly for this, Gowrie was
judicially put to death by his two opponents in 1584.
RYE-HOUSE PLOT, a plot (some think pretended) to secure the succession of the duke
of Monmouth to the throne in preference to the duke of York (afterwards James II.), a
Roman Catholic. Some of the conspirators are said to have projected the assassination of
the king, Charles II., and his brother. This design was said to have been frustrated by tho
king's house at Newmarket accidentally taking fire, which hastened the royal party away
eight days before the plot was to take place, March 22, 1683. See Newmarket. The plot
was discovered June 12 following. Lord William Russell on July 21, and Algernon
Sidney on Dec. 7 following, suffered death for being concerned in this conspiracy. The
name was derived from the conspirators' place of meeting, the Rye-house at Broxbournc,
Hertfordshire.
RYSWICK (Holland), where the celebrated peace was concluded between England,
France, Spain, and Holland, signed, by their representatives, Sept. 20, and by the emperor
of Germany, Oct. 30, 1697.
* His brother, Leopold, married the princess Charlotte of England, May 2, 1816 ; became king of the
Belgians, July 12, 1831 ; and Ferdinand, the sou of h.U brother Ferdinand, married Maria da Gloria, queen
of Portugal, April 9, 1836.
SAX 6-18 SCH
SAXONY, a kingdom in N. Germany. The Saxons were a fierce warlike race, the terror
of the inhabitants of the later western empire, frequently attacked France, and conquered
Britain (which see). After a long series of sanguinary conflicts they were completely subdued
by Charlemagne, who instituted many fiefs and bishoprics in their country. Witikind,
their great leader, who claimed descent from Woden, professed Christianity about 785.
From him descended the first and the present ruling family (the houses of Supplinburg, GueEf,
and Ascania intervened from 1 106 to 1421). Saxony became a duchy, 880 ; an electorate,
1180 ; and a kingdom, 1806. It was the seat of war in 1813 ; the king being on the side
of Napoleon. Population, Dec. 1861, 2,225,240.
ELECTORS. 1680. John George III.
1423. Frederic I. 1691. John George IV.
1438. Frederic II. 1694. Frederic Augustus I., king of Poland, 1697.
[His sons Ernest and Albert divide the states.) 1733. Frederic Augustus II., king of Pubmd.
1464. Ernest. 1763. Frederic Augustus III. becomes king, 180&.
i486. Frederic III.
1535. John. KINGS.
1533. John Frederic ; deprived by the emperor 1.806. Frederic Augustus I.
Charles V. ; succeeded by 1827. Anthony Clement
1548. Maurice (of the Albertine line). 1836. Frederic Augustus II. succeeded by his
1553. Augustus. brother.
1586 Christian I. 1854. John, Aug. 9 (bom Doc. 13, 1801X the pbesext
1591. Christian II. king.
161 1. John George I. Heir: His Bon, Frederic Augustus Albert,
1656. John George II. bom April 33, 1838.
SCANDALUM MAGNATUM, a special statute relating to any wrong, by words or in
writing, done to high personages of the land, such as peers, judges, ministers of the crown,
officers in the state, and other great public functionaries, by the circulation of scandalous
statements, false news, or horrible messages, by which an}- debate or discord between them
and the commons, or any scandal to their persons, might arise. Chambers. This law was
first enacted 2 Rich. II. 1378.
SCANDINAVIA, the ancient name of Sweden, Norway, and great part of Denmark
(which sco), whence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, who conquered Normandy (about
900), and eventually England (1066). They were also called Sea-kings or Vikings. They
settled Iceland and Greenland, and, it is thought, the northern regions of America, about the
9th century. A "National Scandinavian Society " has been formed at Stockholm. See
Sweden. Dec. 1864.
SCARLET, or kermes dye, was known in the East in the earliest ages ; cochineal dye,
1518. Kepler, a Fleming, established the first dye-house for scarlet in England, at Bow,
1643. The art of dyeing red was improved by Brewer, 1667. Bcckmann.
SCEPTICS, the sect of philosophers founded by Pyrrho, about 334 B.C. Pyrrho was
in continual suspense of judgment ; he doubted of everything ; never made any conclusions,
and when he had carefully examined the subject, and investigated all its parts, he concluded
by still doubting of its evidence.
SCEPTRE, a more ancient emblem of royalty than the crown. In the earlier ages the
sceptres of kings were long walking-staves ; afterwards carved and made shorter. Tarquin
the elder was the first who assumed the sceptre among tho Romans, about 468 B.C. The
French sceptre of the first race of kings was a golden rod, a.d. 481. Le Gendre.
SCHELDT TOLL was imposed by the treaty of Munster (or Westphalia), 1648. The
toll was abolished for a compensation. The house of commons voted 175,650?. for the
British portion on March 9, 1864. The Scheldt was declared free on Aug. 3, with much
rejoicing at Antwerp aud Brussels.
SCHIEHALLIEN, a mountain in Perthshire, where Dr. Neville Maskelyne, the
astronomer-royal, made his observation with a plumb-line in 1774, from which Hutton
calculated that the density of the earth is five times greater than water.
SCHLE5WIG. See Ifolstein, Denmark, aud Gastrin.
SCHOOLS. Charity schools were introduced in London to prevent the seduction of tho
infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 16S7. Rapin. Charter schools
were instituted in Ireland, 1733. Scully. In England there were, in 1847, 13,642 schools
(exclusively of Sunday schools) for the education of the poor ; and the number of children
was 998,431. The parochial and endowed schools of Scotland were (exclusively of Sunday
SCI SCO
schools) 4836 ; and the number of children, 181,467. The schools in Wales were 841, and
the number of children, 38,164 ; in Ireland, 13,327 schools, and 774,000 children. In 1851
there were 2310 schools in connection with the Education Committee actually inspected in
England and Scotland. They included : 1713 Church of England schools in England and
"Wales ; 282 Protestant Dissenting schools in England and "Wales ; 98 Roman Catholic
schools in Great Britain ; and 217 Presbyterian schools in Scotland, whereof 91 were of the
Free Church : the whole affording accommodation for 299,425 scholars. See Education,
Design, &c.
SCIENTIFIC RELIEF FUND. In 1859, several Fellows of the Royal Society (Messrs.
Gassiot, Wheatstonc, Miller, Tyndall, and others) commenced the collection of subscriptions
with the view of establishing a permanent fund to be expended in aiding necessitous men of
science and their families, in imitation of the " Literary Fund." In the spring of i860,
3365J. had been subscribed ; in Jan. 1865, 5320/., and many cases had been relieved.
SCILLY ISLES (the Cassiterides or Tin-islands). They held commerce with the
Phoenicians ; and are mentioned by Strabo as being ten in number. A memorable shipwreck
of the British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel occurred here. This brave admiral,
returning from an expedition against Toulon, mistook these rocks for land, and struck upon
them. His ship, the Association, in which were his lady, two sons, many persons of rank,
and 800 brave men, went instantly to the bottom. The EagU, captain Hancock, and the
Eomncy and Firebrand, were also lost. The rest of the fleet escaped. Oct. 22, 1 707. Sir
Cloudesley's body, being fouud, was conveyed to London, and buried in Westminster abbey,
where a monument was erected to his memory.
SCIO MASSACRE. See Chios.
SCONE (near Perth). The Scotch coronation chair was brought from Scone to West
minster abbey by Edward I. in 1296.
SCOTLAND. (See Caledonia.) A kingdom till the death of queen Elizabeth, when
James VI. of Scotland, as the most immediate heir, was called to the throne of England.
Each country had a separate parliament till 1707, when both kingdoms were united under
the general name of Great Britain. See England.
Camelon, capital of the Picts, taken by Ken Robert Bruce, crowned, 1306: he defeats the
neth II.orand
sword every living
destroyed . ■ creature put to the 843 defeat*English, 1307 ; and takes Inverness, 1313 ;
the English at Bannockburn, June 25
The Norwegians Invade and occupy Caithness David II. taken prisonor at the battle of Dur i3M
in the 9th century. ham, by queen Philippa of England (and
The feudal system established by Malcolm II. . 1004 detained in captivity 11 years) . ... X346
Divided into baronies 103a Battle of Chevy Chase, between Hotspur Percy
The Danes driven out of Scotland . . 1040 ! and earl Douglas. (See OUtrbum.) Aug. 15, i3S3
Duncan I. is murdered by bis kinsman Mac- ! Robert III. defeated at Homelden Hill T 40'J
t *both, by whom the crown is seized . . ,, James I. captured by the English near Flam-
Malcolm III. aided by Edward the Confessor, borough head on his i>assage to France . . I406
meets the usurper at Dunsinane ; Macbeth is St. Andrew's university founded by bishop
killed by Macduff 1057 William Turnbull 145
The flaxon-English language introduced into University of Aberdeen founded . . . .
Scotland by fugitives from England escaping Battle of Floddcn Field ; James IV. is slain, and
from the Normans 1080 his army cut to pieces . . Sept. 9, 1513
Siege of Alnwick : Malcolm III. killed . . 1093 James V. banishes the Dougbiscs . . . 1528
Reign of David I., a legislator . . 1124-53 He establishes the court of session . . 1532
Scotland invaded by Hacho, king of Norway, Order of St. Andrew, or the Thistle, Is revived. 1540
with 160 ships and 20,000 men ; the invaders Mary, the queen of Scots, born, Dec. 8 ; succeeds
are cut to pieces by Alexander III., who now her father, James V. . . Dec. 13, „
recovers the Western Isles .... 1263 The regent, cardinal Beaton, persecutes the
Death of Margaret of Norway, heiress to the reformers, 1539, 1546; he is assassinated at
throno Oct. 7, 1290 St. Andrew's May 29, 1546
John Baliol and Edward Bruce contend for tho The Scots defeated at Pinkie . . Sept. 10, 1547
throne, 1291 ; Edward I. of England, as um Mary marries the dauphin of France April,
pire, decides in favour of John. . Nov. 1292 Francis II. dies, leaving Mary a widow Dec. 1558
John Baliol, king of Scotland, appears. to a Tho Reformation begins in Scotland, during 1 5< KJ
summons, and defends his own cause in the minority of Mary between 1550 and
Westminster hall against the carl of Fife . 1293 Tho Reformation is consummated by John
Edward, wishing to annex Scotland to Eng Knox
land, dethrones John, ravages the country, Mary, after an absence of thirteen years, ar
destroys tho monuments of Scottish history, rives at Leith from Franco . Aug. 21,
and seizes the prophetic stone (see Coro-na- Upon an inquisition, which was officially taken, 1 56 1
tian) ......... 1296 by order of qvieen Elizabeth, only 58 Scots
William Wallace defeats the English at Cambus men were found in London. Stoie. . . ,
Kenneth, and expels thorn, 1297 ; is defeated Mary marries her cousin, Henry Stuart, lord
at Falkirk, July 22, 1208 ; taken by the Eng Damluy July 27, 1565
lish, and executed at Siuithfield Aug. 24, 1305
SCO G50 SCO
SCOTLAND, continued.
David Rizzio, bor confidential secretary, mur Massacre of the MacdonaldsatGlencoe, Feb. 13, 1692
dered by Darnley, in hor presence March 9, 1566 Legislative union of Scotland with England,
Lord Danilcy blown up by gunpowder, in his May 1, 1707
house (Mary accused of conniving at his Insurrection under the carl of Mar in favour of
death) Fob. 10, 1567 the son of James II. (Sire Pittewler.) . . 1715
James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, carries off The rebels defeated at Preston, Nov. 12 ; and at
the queen, who marries him . May 15, ,, Dumblane (or Sheriffmuir) . . Nov. 13, „
Mary made prisoner at Carberry hill by her Captain Portoous is killed by a mob in Edin
nobles . . . - . . . June 15, burgh. (See Porttous) . Sept 7, 1736
Resigns her crown to her infant son James VI. ; Prince Charles Edward proclaimed at Perth,
the carl of Murray appointed regent July 22, „ Sept. 4 ; at Edinburgh, Sept. 16 ; with the
Mary escapes from prison, and collects a large Highlanders defeats sir John Cope at Preston-
army, which is defeated by the regent pans, Sept. 21; takes Carlisle, Nov. 15;
Murray, at the battle of Langsido May 15, 1568 arrives at Manchester, Nov. 28; at Derby,
The regent Murray murdered . Jan. 23, 1570 Dec. 4 ; retreats to Glasgow . Dec. 25, 1745
The earl of Lennox, appointed regent. July 12, „ Defeats general Hawley at Falkirk, Jan. 17 ; is
Tho earl of Lennox murdered ; tho earl of Mar totally defeated at Culloden . . April 16, 1746
chosen regent .... Sept. 6, 1571 The Highland dress prohibited by act of parlia
Death of the Reformer John Knox . Not. 24, 1572 ment Aug. 12, „
[His funeral in Edinburgh is attended by most Lords Kilmarnock and Balmeriuo executed for
of tho nobility, and by the regent Morton, Ligh treason on Tower-hill. . Aug. 18, „
who exclaims, "Thero lies he who never Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, aged 8o, executed,
feared tho face of man 1"] April 9, 1747
The university of Edinburgh founded . . . 1582 Thomson, the poet, dies Aug. 27, 174S
The Raid of Ruthven (see Ruthven) . . „ The Old Pretender, " Chevalier de St George,"
Mary, having taken refuge in England, May 16, dies at Rome Dec. 30, 1765
1568, is, alter a long captivity, beheaded at Prince Charles Edward Louis Casimir, the
Fotheringay castle. (See Fotheringay.) Feb. 8, 1587 Young Pretender, dies at Rome . Jan. 31, 17SS
Gowrie's conspiracy . . Aug. 5, 1600 Death 01 Robert Burns . July 21, 1796
Union of the crown of Scotland with that of Scott's ' * Lay of the Last Minstrel " published . 1 Sod
England by the accession of James VL, Cardinal Henry duke of York (last of the
March 24, 1603 ; James is proclaimed by the Stuarts) dies Aug. 1807
style of "king of Great Britain, France, and The Court ofSession is formed into two divisions
Ireland " Oct 24, 1604 "Waverley" published 1S14
Charles J. attempts in vain to introduce the Tho establishment of a jury court under a lord
English liturgy 1637 chief commissioner 1815
Solemn league and covenant subscribed, Visit of George IV. to Scotland . October, 1822
March i, 1638 Sir Walter Scott dies . Sept. 21, 1S32
A Scotch army enters England .... 1640 Seven ministers of the presbytery of Strath-
Charles joins the Scotch army, 1646 ; betrayed bogie are deposed by the General Assembly
into the hands of the English parliament of the Church of Scotland, for obeying the
Jan. 30, 1647 civil in preference to the ecclesiastical law.
Marquess of Montroso defeated at Philiphaugh, (Their deposition was formally protested
Sept. 13, 1645 ; put to death at Edinburgh, against by the minority of ministers, headed
May ax, 1650 by Dr. Cook.) .... May 28, 1841
Charles II. crowned at Scone, Jan. 1 ; defeated The General Assembly condemn patronage as a
at Worcester .... Aug. 22, 1651 grievance to the cause of true religion that
Scotland united to the English commonwealth ought to be abolished. . . May 33, 184?
by Oliver Cromwell .... Sept. „ Visit ofthe queen, prince Albert, and the court;
Charles II. revives episcopacy in Scotland . 1661 she laudoo at Grantou pier . Sept. x, M
The Covenanters defeatod on tho Pontland hills 1C66 The Queen embarks Sept. 13, ,,
Archbishop Sharpe niurderednear St. Andrew's, Secession of the non-intrusion ministers of tho
by somo fanatics, headed by John Balfour of church of Scotland (about 400) at the General
Burley May 3, 1679 Assembly. (Seo Free Church) . . May 18, 1843
The Covenanters defeat Claverhouse at Drum- Death of Jeffrey .... Jan. 26, 1850
clog, June 1 ; but are routed at Bothwell National Association for vindication of Scottish
bridge June 22, „ rights formed Nov. 1853
Revolution effected by a convention in favour of Act for better government of the universities
William III. and establishment ofpresbytery, Aug. 185S
March 14, 1689
Insiirroction of Claverhouse : killed at Killic- Seo Edinburgh.
crankic July 27, „
KINGS OF SCOTLAND.
BEFORE CHRIST. AFTER CHRIST.
[The early accounts of the kings are *by many his 357. Eugenius I., son of Fincormachus ; slain in
torians deemed in a great measure fabulous. The battle by Maximus, the Roman general, and,
series of kings is carried as far back as Alexander tho confederate Picts.
the Great.] With this battle ended the kingdom of tho Scots
330. Fergus I. ; ruled 25 years ; lost in the Irish after having existed from the coronation of
Sea.* Fergus 1., a period of 706 years, the royal
family fled to Denmark. Botcc ; Buchanu*.
* Fergus, a brave prince, came from Ireland with an army of Scots, and was choseu king. Having
defeated the Britons and slain their king Coilus, the kingdom of the Scots was entailed upon his posterity
for ever. He went to Ireland, and, having sottled his affairs there, was drowned on his return, launching
from tho shore, near the harbour, called Cornel;-Fergus to this day, 3699 a.m. Anderson.
SCO 651 SCO
SCOTLAND, continued.
[Interregnum of 27 years.] at Methven, by a thane, whose daughter ho
404. Fergus II.* (I. ) great-grandson of Eugenius and bad dishonoured.
40th king : slain in battle with the Romans. 970. Kenneth III. brother of Duffus ; murdered by
420. Eugenius 1 1, or Evcnus, son of Fergus : reigned Fenella, the lady of Fettercairn.
31 years. 994. Constantino IV. son of Cullen ; slain.
451. Dongardus or Domangard, brother of Eugenius ; 095 Grimus or the Grim, son of Duffus ; routed
defeated and drowned and slain in battle by Malcolm, the rightful
457. Constantino I., brother of Dongardus: assassi heir to the crown, who succeeded.
nated by Dugall, a noble whose daughter ho 1003. Malcolm II. son of Kenneth III. ; assassinated
had dishonoured. on his way to Glamis ; the assassins in their
479. Congallus I. nephew ; just and prudent. flight crossing a frozen lake were drowned.
501. Goranua, brother ; murdered. Boece. Died 1033. Duncan I. grandson ; assassinated by his cousin.
while Donald ofAthol was conspiring to take 1039. Macbeth, usurper; slain by Macduff, the thane
his life. Scott. of Fife.
535. Eugenius III. nephew " none excelled him in *„* Historians so differ up to this reign, in the
justice." number of the kings, the dates of succes
558. Congallus II. brother. sion, and the circumstance* narrated, that no
569. Kinnatellus, brother ; resigned for account can be taken as precisely accurate.
570. Aidanus or Aldan, son of Goranus. 1057. Malcolm III. (Canmorc), son of Duncau; killed
605. Kenneth, son of Congallus II. while besieging Alnwick castlo.
606. Eugenius IV. son of Aidanus. 1093. Donald VII. (Donald Bane), brother of the
621. Fcrchard or Ferquhard I. son ; confined for usurper ; fled to the Hebrides.
misdeeds to his palace, where he laid violent 1094. Duncan II. naturalsonof Malcolm : murdered.
hands upon himself. Scott. 1094. Donald Bane again ; deposed.
632. Donald IV. brother : drowned in Loch Tay. 1098. Edgar, son of Malcolm (Henry I. of England
646. Fcrchard II. son of Fcrchard I. ; " most exe married bis sister Maud).
crable." 1 107. Alexander the Fierce, brother.
664. Malduinus, son of Donald IV. ; strangled by his 1124. David I. brother; married Matilda, daughter
wife for his supposed infidelity, for which of Walthcof, earl of Northumberland.
crime she was immediately afterwards 1 1 53. Malcolm IV. grandson.
burnt. 1165. William, surnamed the Lion ; brother.
f&4. Eugenius V. brother. 1214. Alexander II. son ; married Joan, daughter of
6S8. Eugenius VI. son of Ferchard II. John, king of England.
698. Amberkeletus, nephew ; fell by an arrow from 1249. Alexander III. ; married Margaret, daughter
an unknown hand. of Henry HI. of England ; dislocated his
699. Eugenius VII. brother ; some ruffians designing neck, when hunting near Kinghorn.
the kings murder, entered his chamber, and 1285. Margaret, the " Maiden of Norway," grand
he being absent, stabbed his queen, Spun- daughter of Alexander, " recognised by the
tana, to death. Scotl. states of Scotland, though a fcmalc,lau infant,
715. Mordachus, son of Amberkeletus. and a foreigner;" died on her passage to
730. Etfinus, son of Eugenius VII. Scotland.
761. Eugenius VIII. son of Mordachus; sensual and A competition for tho vacant throne ; Edward I.
tyrannous ; put to death by his nobles. of England decides in favour of
764. Fergus HI. son of Etfinus ; killed by his jealous 1292. John Daliol, who afterwards surrendered his
queen*, who afterwards stabbed herself to crown, and died in cxilo.
escape a death of torture. [Interregnum.]
767. Solvathius, son of Eugenius VIII. 1306. Robert (Bruce) I. a great prince.
787. Achaius ; a just and wise prince. 1329 David (Bruce) II. son ; Edward Ballol disputed
819. Congallus III. ; a peaceful reign. the throne with him.
824. Dongal or Dougal.snn of Solvathius; drowned. 1332. Edward Baliol, son of John ; resigned.
831. Alpine, son of Achaius ; beheaded by the Picts. 1342. David II. again; eleven years a prisoner in
£34. Kenneth II. son of Alpine, and surnamod England.
Mac Alpine ; defeated the Picts. slow their 1371. Robert (Stuart) II. nephew.
king, and united them and the Scots under 1390. Robert III. son (whose name was John).
one sceptre, and became the first sole 1406. James I. second son ; imprisoned 18 years in
monarch of all Scotland, 843. England ; set at liberty in 1423; conspired
S54. Donald V. brother; dethroned; committed against and murdered at Perth, Feb. 20,
suicide. 1437. Banks.
£53. Constantino II. son of Kenneth II. ; taken in 1437. James II. sou ; killed at the siege of Roxburgh
battle by the Danes and beheaded. castle by a cannon bursting, Aug 3. 1460.
S74. Eth or Ethus, surnamed Lightfoot ; died of 1460. James III. son ; killed in a revolt of his sub
grief in prison, having been thrown into jects at Bannockburn-field, June 11, 14S8.
confinement for his sensuality and crimes. 1488. James IV. son : married Margaret Tudor,
876. Gregory the Great ; brave and just. daughter of Henry VII. of England; killed
£93. Donald VI. son of Constantino II. ; excellent. at the battle of Flodden.
904. Constantino III. son of Ethus ; becamea monk, 1513. James V. son ; succeeded when little more
and resigned in favour of than a year old; a sovereign possessing
944. Malcolm I. son of Donald VI. ; murdered. many virtues.
953. Indulfus or Gondulph ; killed by the Danes in 1542. Mary, daughter; born Dec. 8, 1542, succeeded
an ambuscade. in her infancy. See AnnaU, above.
961. Duff or Duffus, son of Malcolm ; murdered by 1567. James VI. son. Succeoded to the throne of
Donald, the governor of Forres castle. England, and the kingdoms became united,
965. Cullen or Culenus, son of Indulfus ; avenged 1603.
the murder of his predecessor ; assassinated j See England.
* Some call this Fergus tho first king, and suppose tLat either the foregoing kings were fabulous, or
that they were only chiefs or generals of armies, having no royal authority. The controversy thus arising
I leave to be decided by the antiquaries, and must follow the received histories of Scotland. Aiidcrton.
sen 652 SEA
SCREW was known to the Greeks. The pumping-screw of Archimedes, or screw-
cylinder for raising water, invented 236 B.C., is stUl in use. It is stated that with the
assistance of the screw, one man can press down or raise up as much as 150 men can do
without it. —The Screw-Propeller consists of two or more twisted blades, like the vanes
of a windmill, set on an axis, running parallel with the keel of a vessel, and revolving
beneath the water at the stern. It is driven by a steam-engine. The principle is as old as
the windmill. It wa9 shown by Hooke in 1681, and since by Dn Quet, Bernouilli, and
others. Patents for propellers were taken out by Joseph Bramah in 1 784 ; by Wm. Lyttelton
in 1 794 ; and by Edward Shorter in 1 799. But these led to no useful result. However, in
1836 patents were obtained by F. P. Smith and captain John Ericsson, and to them the
successful application of the screw-propeller must be attributed. The first vessels with the
screw were the Archimedes, built on the Thames in 1836, and the Hauler, built in the United
States (1814), and tried in England in 1845. Double screw-propellers are now employed.
SCULLABOGUE. See Massacre*, 1798.
SCULPTURE is said to have begun with the Egyptians. Pausanias refers the nearest
approach to perfection in the art to 560 B.C. Bezaleel and Aholiab built the tabernacle in
the wilderness, and made all the vessels and ornaments, 1491 B.C., and their skill is recorded
as the gift of God. Exod. xxxi. 3. Dipcenus and Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, established a
school at Sicyou. Pliny speaks of them as being the first who sculptured marble and
polished it ; all statues before their time being of wood, 568 B.C. Alexander gave Lysippus
the sole right of making his statues, 326 B.C. He left no less than 600 pieces, some of wnieh
were so highly valued in the age of Augustus, that they sold for their weight in gold.
Sculpture did not flourish among the Romans ; and in the middle ages had much degraded.
With the revival of painting, it revived also ; and Donato di Bardi, bora at Florence,
a.d. 1383, was the earliest professor among the moderns. An institute of sculptors was
established in 1861.
EMINENT SCULPTORS.
Pheidon flourished . .B.C. 869 Bernini. . . 1 598-1680 'Thorwaldsen . . . 1770-1844
Myron 480 Roubiliac, statue of sir I. | Sir R. Wostmacott . 1775- 1856
Phidias 442 Newton . . . died 1762 Rauch . . . . 1777-1857
Praxiteles 363 Bacon .... 1740-1799 [J. Thomas . . . 1813-1862
Lysippus .... 328 Canova .... 1757-1822 1 Wm. Behnes . . . -1S6+
Chares 288 Flaxman . . . 1754-1826 C. Kiss .... 1801-1865
Michael Angelo Biionarotti,
. r. . —.-a. Chautrey . . . . 1781-1841 I J. Gibson .... 1791
SCUTAGE or Escuaoe. The service of the shield (scutum) is either uncertain or certain.
Eseuage uncertain is where the tenant by his tenure is bound to follow his lord ; and is called
Castleward, where the tenant is bound to defend a castle. Eseuage certain is where the
tenant is set at a certain sum of money to be paid in lieu of such uncertain services. The
first tax levied in England to pay an army, 5 Hen. II. 1159. Coivel.
SCUTARI, Asiatic Turkey, opposite Constantinople, of which it is a suburb. It was
anciently called Chrysopolis, golden city, in consequence, it is said, of the Persians haviug
established a treasury here when they attempted the conquest of Greece. Near here
Constantine finally defeated Licinius, 324. The hospital was occupied by the sick and
wounded of the Anglo-French army, in 1854-5, whose sufferings were much alleviated by
the kind exertions of Hiss Florence Nightingale and a band of nurses under her, aided by a
large fund of money (15,000?.) subscribed by the public and placed in the care of the pro
prietors of the Times newspaper. See Times.
SCYTHIA, situate in the most northern parts of Europe and Asia. The boundaries
were unknown to the ancieuts. The Scythians made several irruptions upon the more
southern provinces of Asia, especially 624 B.C., when they remained in possession of
Asia Minor for twenty-eight years, and at different periods extended their conquests in
Europe, penetrating as far as Egypt. See Tarlary.
SEA FIGHTS. See Naval Baltics.
SEALS or Signets. Engraved gems were used as such by the Egyptians, Jews,
Assyrians, and Greeks (see Exod. xxviii. 14). The Konians in the time of the Tarquins.
(about 600 B.C.) had gemmed rings. They sealed rooms, granaries, bags of money, &.C. The
German emperor Frederick I. (a.d. 1 152) had seals of gold, silver, and tin. Impressions
of the seals of Saxon kings are extant ; and the English great seal is attributed to Edward
the Confessor (1041-66). " A seal with armorial bearings before the eleventh century is
certainly false." Foslroh:. The most ancient English seal with arms on it is said to be that
SEA 65:3 SEC
of Richard I. or John. White and coloured waxes were used. Our present sealing-wax,
containing shellac, did not come into general use in Germany and England until about
1556. Red wafers for seals came into use about 1624 ; but were not used for public seals till
the 18th century.
SEAS, Sovereignty of the. The claim of England to rule the British seas is of very
ancient date. Arthur is said to have assumed it, and Alfred afterwards supported this
right. It was maintained by Selden, and measures wero taken by government in con
sequence, 8 Chas. I. 1633. The Dutch, after the death of Charles I., made some attempts to
obtain it, but were roughly treated by Blake and other admirals. Russia and other powers
of the north armed to avoid search, 1780 ; again, 1800. See Armed Neutrality and Flag.
SEBASTIAN, ST. (N. Spaiu), was taken by the French, under tho duke of Berwick, in
1719. It was besieged by the British and allied army under Wellington. After a most
heavy bombardment, by which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, it was stormed by-
general Graham (afterwards lord Lyncdoch), and taken Aug. 31, 1813. The loss sustained by
the besiegers, though not considerable, was chiefly British. —On May 5, 1836, the fortified
works, through the centre of which ran the high road to Hernani, were carried by the English
auxiliary legion under general Evans, after very hard fighting. The British naval squadron,
off St. Sebastian, under lord John Hay, lent very opportune aid to the victors in this
contest. —A vigorous assault was made on the lines of general Do Lacy Evans, at St. Sebastian,
by the Carlists, Oct. I, 1836. Both parties fought with bravery. The Carlists were repulsed,
after suffering severely. The loss of the Anglo-Spanish force was 376 men and 37 officers,
killed and wounded. General De Lacy Evans was slightly wounded.
SEBASTOPOL, or Sevastopol, a town and once a naval arsenal, at S.W. point of the
Crimea, formerly the little village of Aktiar. The buildings were commenced in 1784, by
Catherine II. after the conquest of the country. The town is built in the shape of an
amphitheatre on the rise of a large hill flattened on its summit, according to a plan laid
down before 1794, which has been since adhered to. The fortifications and harbour were con
structed by an English engineer, colonel Upton, and his sons, since 1830. The population in
1834 was 15.000. This place will be memorable hereafter for its eleven months' Siege, by
the English and French in 1854 and 1855. Immediately after the battle of the Alma,
Sept. 20, 1854, the allied army marched to Sebastopol, and took up its position on the
plateau between it and Balaklava, and the grand attack and bombardment commenced
Oct. 17, 1854, without success.* After many sanguinary encounters by day and night, and
repeated bombardments, a grand assault was made on Sept. 8, 1855, upon the Malakhoff
tower and the Redans, the most important fortifications to the south ot the town. The
French succeeded in capturing and retaining the Malakhoff. The attacks of the English on
the great Redan and of the French upon the little Redan were successful, but the assailants
were compelled to retire after a desperate struggle with great loss of life. The French lost
1646 killed, of whom 5 were generals, 24 superior and 116 inferior officers, 4500 wounded,
and 1400 missing. The English lost 385 killed (29 being commissioned and 42 non-com
missioned officers), 1886 wounded, and 176 missing. In the night the Russians abandoned
the sonthern and principal part of the town and fortifications, after destroying as much as
possible, and crossed to the northern forts. They also sank or burnt the remainder of their
fleet. The allies found a very great amount of stores when they entered the place, July 9.
The works were utterly destroyed in April, 1856, and the town was restored to tho Russians
in July. See Russo-Turkish War.
SECRETARIES of State. The earliest authentic record of a secretary of state is in
the reign of Henry III., when John Maunsell is described as " Sccretarius Noster," 1253.
Rymtr. Towards the close of Henry VIII. 's reign, two secretaries were appointed; and
upon the union with Scotland, Anne added a third as secretary for Scotch affairs ; this
appointment was afterwards laid aside ; but in the reign of George III. the number was
again increased to three, one for the American department. In 1782 this last was abolished
by act of parliament ; and the secretaries were appointed for home, foreign, and colonial
affairs. When there were but two secretaries, one held the portefeuille of the Northern
* In consequence of the sufferings and disasters of the army in the winter of 1854-5, tD0 Sobnstopol
Inquiry Committee was appointed, and the Aberdeen administration resigned, Feb. 1855. The committee
Kit from March 1 to May 15, lord Aberdeen being the last person examined. Its report was presented
June 18. Mr. Roebuck, the chairman, movod on July 17 that the house should pass a vote of aovere
reprehension on every member of the Aberdeen administration. On July 19 his motion was lost by a
majority 107 against it. In 1855 the government sent sir John M'Neill and col. Tulloch to inquire into
the state of the armies in the Crimea. Their report was prosented to parliament in Feb. 1856. A com
mission was appointed to consider tho statements in tho report (which wore very unfavourable to many
officers), but the substance of the report was unshaken.,
SEC 654 SEM
department, comprising the Low Countries, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, Russia,
&c. ; the other, of the Southern department, including France, Switzerland, Italy, Spain,
Portugal, and Turkey ; the affairs of Ireland belonging to the elder secretary ; both secre
taries then equally directed the home affairs. Beatson. There are now five secretaries—
home, foreign, colonial, war, and India (appointed in 1858), all in the cabinet.
SECTS, RELIGIOUS. See under Worship, and their respective titles.
SECULAR GAMES (Ludi Scccularcs). Very ancient Roman games, celebrated on
important occasions. Horace wrote his "Carmen Sfeculare" for their celebration, in the
reign of the emperor Augustus (17). This took place again in the reign of Claudius (47), of
Domitian (88), and for the last time, of Philip (248), Delieved to be 2000 years after the
foundation of the city.
SECURITY from Violence Act, passed in 1863, appointed whipping as a punish
ment for attempts at garotting.
SEDAN CHAIRS, so called from Sedan, on the Meuse, in France. The first seen in
England was in 1581. One was used in the reign of James I., by the duke of Buckingham,
to the great indignation of the people, who exclaimed that he was employing his fellow-
creatures to do the service of beasts. Sedan chairs came into fashion in London in 1634.
when sir Francis Duncomb obtained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a number of such
covered chairs for fourteen years. They came into very general use in 1649.
SEDGMOOR (Somersetshire), where the duke of Monmouth (the natural son of Charles 1 1.
by Lucy Walters), who had risen in rebellion on the accession of James II., was completely
defeated by the royal army, July 6, 1685. The duke was made a prisoner, in the disguise of
a peasant, at the bottom of a ditch, overcome with hunger, fatigue, and anxiety. He was
beheaded on July 1 5, following.
SEDITION. Sedition acts were passed in the reign of George III. The proclamation
against seditious writings was published May, 1792.. The celebrated Sedition bill passed
Dec. 1795. Seditious societies were suppressed by act, June 1797. Tho seditious meetings
and assemblies' bill passed March 31, 1817. In Ireland, during the Roman Catholic and
Repeal agitation, acts or proclamations against sedition and seditious meetings were
published from time to time until 1848.
SEEKERS. See Quakers. SEICENTO. See Italy, p. 372, note.
SEIDLICE (Poland), where a battle was fought April 10, 1831, between the Poles and
Russians. The Poles obtained the victory after a bloody conflict, taking 4000 prisoners and
several pieces of cannon. The killed and wounded on both sides amounted to many
thousands. This success was soon followed by fatal reverses.
SEISMOMETRY (from scismos, Greek for earthquake), an apparatus for measuring the
violence of the shocks. One is described by Mr. Robert Mallet in his work on earthquakes,
published in 1858.
SELENIUM, a greyish-white metal discovered in the stone riolite by Berzclius, in 1S17.
SELEUCIA, a part of Syria, was made tho capital of the Syrian monarchy by its builder,
Seleucus Nicator, 312 B.C. On tho fall of tbc Seleucida?, it became a republic, 65 B.c. It
was taken by Trajan, A.r>. 116 ; was several times given up and retaken ; was subjugated by
the Saracens, and united with Ctesiphon, 636.
SELEUCIDES, Era of the, dates from the reign of Seleucus Nicator. It was used in
Syria for many years, and frequently by the Jews until the 15th century, and by some
Arabians. Opinions vary as to its commencement. To reduce it to our era (supposing it to
begin Sept. 1, 312 B.C.), subtract 311 years 4 months.
SELF-DENYING ORDINANCE, which ordained that no member of parliament should
hold any civil or military office or command conferred by either or both of the houses, or by
authority derived from them, was passed April 3, 1645, by the influence of Cromwell, who
thus removed the carl of Essex; and other Presbyterians out of his way. A somewhat
similar ordinance was adopted by the parliament at Melbourne in Australia, in 1858.
SELLASIA (Laconia). Here tho Spartans under Clcomenes were defeated by Antigonus
Doson and the Aclueans, 221 B.C.
SEMINCAS (Castile, Spain). Here, in 938, tho Moors were totally defeated by
Ramirez II., king of Leon and Asturias. It is said that more than 80,000 of the infidels
were slain.
SEJ[ 655 SER
SEMPACH (Switzerland). Here was fought a battle between the Swiss and Leopold,
duke of Austria, July 9, 1386. The Swiss gained a great victory; and the duke was
slain. The liberty of their country was established ; and the day is still commemorated at
Sempach.
SEMPER EADEM ("Always the same"), one of the mottoes of queeu Elizabeth, was
adopted by queen Anne Dec. 13, 1702. Many suspected this motto to denote her Jacobitism.
It ceased to be used after her reign.
SENESCHAL, a high officer of the French royal household. In the reign of Philip I.
1059, the office was esteemed the highest place of trust.
SENONES, a Celtic tribe, invaded lower Italy, and were defeated by Caniillus, 367 B.C.
They defeated Metellus the consul at Arretium, 284, but were almost exterminated by
Dolabella, 283.
SENTINUM (Central Italy). The site of a great victory of the Romans over the
Samnites and Gauls, whose general, Gellius Egnatius, was slain, 295 B.C.
SEPOYS (a corruption of Sipdhi, Hindostanee for a soldier), the term applied to the
native troops in India. Under able generals they greatly aided in establishing British rule
in India. For their mutinies, see Madras, 1807, and India, 1857.
SEPTEMBER, the seventh Roman month reckoned from March (from Septimus, seventh).
It became the ninth month when January and February were added to the year by Numa,
713 B.C. The Roman senate would have given this month the name of Tiberius, but the
emperor opposed it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his own name, Germanicns ; the senate
under Antoninus Pius gave it that of Antoninus ; Commodns gave it his surname, Herculcus ;
and the emperor Tacitus his own namo, Tacitus.
SEPTEMBRIZERS. In the French revolution a dreadful massacre took placo in Paris,
Sept. 2-5, 1792. The prisons were broken open, and the prisoners butchered, among them
an ex-bishop, and nearly ioo non-juring priests. Some accounts state the number of persons
slain at 1200, others at 4000. The agents in this slaughter were named Septembrizers.
SEPTENNIAL PARLIAMENTS. Edward I. held but one parliament every two years.
In the 4th Edward III. it was enacted, " that a parliament should be holden every year
once." This continued to be the statute-law till 16th Charles I. 1641, when an act was
passed for holding parliaments once in three years at least ; repealed in 1664. The
Triennial act was re-enacted in 1694. Triennial parliaments thence continued till the second
year of George I.'s reign, May 1 716, when, in consequence of the allegation that " a popish
faction were designing to renew the rebellion in this kingdom, and the report of an invasion
from abroad, it was enacted that the then parliament should continue for seven years."
This Septennial act has ever since been in force. See Parliaments. Several unsuccessful
motions have been made for its repeal ; one in May 1837.
SEPTUAGESIMA SUNDAY in 1866, Jan. 28; in 1867, Feb. 17; in 1868, Feb. 9.
See Quadragesima Sunday and Week.
SEPTUAGINT VERSION of the Bible, made from Hebrew into Greek, 277 B.c.
Seventy-two translators were shut up in thirty-six cells ; each pair translated the whole ;
and on subsequent comparison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or letter. Justin
Martyr. St. Jerome affirms that they translated only the Pentateuch ; but St. Justin and
others say they translated the whole. Ptolemy Philadelphus gave the Jews about a million
sterling for a copy of the Testament, and seventy translators half a million more for the
translation. Josephus. Finished in seventy-two days. Hewlett. The above statements
are merely traditional. See Bible.
SERAPIS, Temple of (near Naples), was exhumed in 1750. The investigations of
Lyell and Babbage into the history of the sinking and burying of this templo are of great
geological interest.
SERFS. See Slavery (note) and Russia, 1861, 1863.
SERINGAPATAM (S. India). See Mysore. The battle of Seringapatam, called also the
battle of Arikera, in which the British defeated Tippoo Sahib, was fought May 15, 1 791. The
redoubts were stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord CornwaUis, Feb. 6, 1792. After this
capture, preliminaries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed to cede one half of Mysore,
and to pay 33,000,000 of rupees (about 3,300,000/. sterling) to England, and to give up to
lord CornwaUis his two eldest sons as hostages.—In a new war the Madras army, under
general Harris, arrived before Seringapatam, April 5, 1799 ; it was joined by the Bombay
SEIi 650 REV
army, April 14 ; and the place was stormed and carried by major-general Baird, May 4,
same year. In this engagement Tippoo was killed.
SERJEANTS-AT-LAW are pleaders from among .whom the judges are ordinarily chosen,
and who are called Serjeants of the coif. The judges call them brothers. See Coif.
SERVANTS. An act laying a duty on male servants was passed in 1775. This tax was
augmented in 1781, et seq. A tax on female servants was imposed in 1785 ; but this latter
act was repealed in 1792. The tax on servants yielded in 1830 about 250,000/. per annum ;
in 1840 the revenue from it had fallen to 201,482/.; in 1850 it produced about the
same sum.
SERVIA, a hereditary principality nominally subject to Turkey, south of Hungary.
The Servians are of Slavonic origin. They embraced Christianity about 640. The emperor
Manuel subjected them in 1150 ; but they recovered their independence in 1180, and were
ruled by princes, generally named Stephen, till their country was finally subdued by the
sultan Mahomet II. in 1459. Population in 1854, 985,000.
A Servian rebellion quelled .... 1737 abdicate, and Alexander Milosch is re-elected
The Servians assist Austria by free companies, prince Dec. 23, 1S5;
1788-90 Plot against Milosch frustrated, July ti ; the
Again rebel, and capture Belgrade . . . 1806 Servian assembly meets . . . July 13, 1S60
Kara George, aided by the Russians, establishes Milosch dies ; succeeded by his son Michael
a government 1807-11 III. Obreuovitch (preterit rider) . Sept. 26, „
The Turks break a treaty and Kara George Rising movement to render Servia independent
flees ......... 18x4 of Turkey March, 1S61
Their governor Milosch rebels . . March, 1815 Disputes between the Servians and the Turkish
Kara George returning, is executed . . . 1816 garrison at Belgrade, which leads to blood
MiloRch I. recognised as hereditary prince by shed ; June 15, the city bombarded ; submits,
tho sultan Aug. 15, 1829 June 17 ; the Turkish pasha dismissed,
Milosch becoming despotic is compelled to June 19, 1S62
abdicate, and a new constitution established, A conference* of the representatives of the great
June 13, 1839 powers at Constantinople, Aug. ; the Porte
His son Michael also retires ; Alexander, son of agrees to liberal concessions to the ServiAns,
Kara George, chosen prince Sept. 14, 1842 which their prince accepts . . Oct. 7, „
Alexander becoming unpopular, is compelled to
SESSION COURTS in England were appointed to be held quarterly in 1413, and the
times for holding them regulated in 1831. bee Quarter Sessions and Court of Session. The
kirk-session in Scotland consists of the ministers and elders of each parish. They super
intend religious worship and discipline, dispense the money collected for the poor, &c.
SESTUS, on the Thracian Chersonesus. See Hellespont. Near Sestns was the western
end of Xerxes* bridge, across the Hellespont, 480 B.C. Sestns was retaken from the Persians
by tho Athenians, 478 B.C., and held by them till 404, giving them the command of the
trade of the Euxine.
SETTLEMENT, Act of, for securing the succession to \he British tlirone, to the
exclusion of Roman Catholics, was passed in 1689. This name is also given to the statute
by which the crown, after the demise of "William III. and queen Anne, without issue, was
limited to Sophia, electrcss of Hanover, grand-daughter of James I., and to heirs being
Protestants, 1702. The Irish act of settlement, passed in 1662, was repealed in 1689. See
Hanover.
SEVEN CHURCHES of ASIA, to the angels (ministers) of which the apostle John was
commanded to write the epistles contained in the 2nd and 3rd chapters of his Revelation,
viz., Ephcsus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea, 96.
t. Ephesus (which see). Paul founded tho church Attalus (who took the title of king), 241 ; Eumenes
hero, 57. In 59 he was in great danger from a II. (who collected a great library), 197 ; Attalus
tumult created by Demetrius : to the elders of II., 159; Attalus III., 138. Ho bequeathed his
this church hedelivored his warning address, 60 kingdom to the Romans, 133. It revolted, was
(Acts xix. xx.). Ephesus was in a ruinous state subdued, and made tho Roman province, Asia.
even in the time of Justinian (527), and still re Pergamos is still an important place, called Ber
mains so. gamo. Parchment is said to have been invented
!. Smyrna. Now an important commercial city here.
and seaport of Ionia. Polycarp, its first bishop, 4. Thyatira. Now a mean town of 2000 hous«s,
suffered martyrdom, 175. called Ak-hissar, "White Castle."
). Pergamos. Capital of the kingdom of the same 5. Sardis. Formerly the capital of Lydia, tho
, name, founded by Philetajrus, whom Lysimachus, kingdom of Croesus (560 b.c), is now a miserable
one of Alexander's generals, had mado governor, villago, named Sart.
283 b.c. He was succeeded by Eumenes I., 263; 6. Philadelphia was built by Attalus (III.) Phila-
SEV 657 SHA
SEVEN CHUECHES of Asia, continued.
dclphus, king of Pergamos (159-138 B.C.); was 7. Laodicta, In Phrygia, near Lydia, has suffered
taken by Bajazct I. a.d. 1390. It is now called much from earthquakes. It is now a deserted
Allah Shehr, " The city ofGod," and is a miserable place called Eake-hlssar, "The old castle."
town of 3000 houses.
SEVEN-SHILLING PIECES in gold were authorised to be issued Nov. 29, 1797.
SEVEN YEARS' WAR, the conflict maintained by Frederick II. of Prussia against
Austria, Russia, and France, from 1756 to 1763. See Battles. He gained Silesia.
SEVENTH-DAY BAPTIST. See article Sabbatarians, &c.
SEVERUS'S WALL. See Roman Walls.
SEVILLE (S.W. Spain), the Hispalis of the Phoenicians, and the Julia of the Romans,
was the capital until Philip II. finally established his court at Madrid, 1563. It opened its
gates to the Saracens, in 712, and was token from them by the Christians in 1247, after an
obstinate siege. The peace of Seville between England, France, and Spain, and also a
defensive alliance" to which Holland acceded, signed Nov. 9, 1729. In the peninsular
war, Seville surrendered to the French, Feb. 1, 1810; and was taken by assault by the
British and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, Aug. 27, 1812.
SEVRES. See Porcelain.
SEWERS. An act was passed in 1 847 enforcing the conveyance of the sewage of houses
into the public sewers. The Commissioners of Sewers in London were superseded by tho
Metropolitan Commissioners of Sewers, nominated by the government. They abolished the
large brick sewers, introducing pipo drains, and turned the contents of 30,000 cesspools
into the river Thames. The necessity for purifying the river led to the construction of a new
system of drainage, under the superintendence of the Metropolitan Board of Works (which
see). The main drainage (the plan of Mr. J. W. Bazalgette) consists of the Northern High-
level, Middle-level, and Low-level, and Southern Highdevel and Low-level. On March 14,
1865, the works were said to be completed, except the low-level sewer on the north side,
which was waiting for the completion of the Thames embankment, &c. On April 4, 1865,
the prince of Wales started the engines which commenced lifting the waters of the southern
outfall, at Crossness Point, near Erith.* Estimated total cost, 4,000,oool. See Carbolic
Acid.
SEWING-MACHINE. The first practical sewing-machine was the invention of Elias
Howe, an American mechanic, of Cambridge, in Massachusetts, about 1841. It is now
known under an improved form as Thomas's shuttle machine, by whom it was introduced
into England in 1846. Two threads are wrought into the fabric to be sewn, by a needle and
shuttle, which interlace the threads and form a strong seam. In some machines now in
extensive use, two needles are employed to make with two threads a double chain stitch,
and a more simple machine makes by tho aid of one needle and a hook, the common single
chain stitch with one thread. These machines are all of American origin.
SEXAGESIMA SUNDAY. See Quadragesima Sunday and Week.
SEXTANT, an instrument used like a quadrant, containing sixty degrees, or the sixth
part of a circle, invented by Tycho Brahe, at Augsburg, in 1550. Vince's Astron. The
Arabian astronomers are said to have had a sextant of fifty nine feet nine inches radius,
about 995. Ashe.
SHAKSPEARE'S PLAYS. William Shakspeare was born at Stratford-upon-Avon,
Warwickshire, April 23, 1564, and died on his birthday, 1616. The first collected edition
of his works is dated 1623 [a facsimile of this edition was published, 1862-5] ! the second,
1632 ;t the third, 1664 ; the fourth, 1685 ; all in folio. Critical editions of the text, edited
by Alexander Dyce, were published in 1857 and 1864-6 ; Boydell's edition, with numerous
* The utilisation of dutinftcl'.d wxagt as manure is now much advocated. Great success is said to have
been attained at Edinburgh. Carlisle, Croydon, and other places. Much hot controversy has arisen respect
ing this disposal of the Loudon sewage. On Nov. 15, 1864, the Metropolitan board accepted a contract for
its disposal from Messrs. Hope and Napier. The Sewage Utilisation Act, and the Metropolitan Sewage and
Essex Reclamation Acts wore passed in June, 1865.
t In 1849, Mr. J. P. Collior, editor of an edition of Shakspeare, purchased a copy of the second folio,
on which was written in pencil, a number of corrections, supposed to have been mode soon after the time
of publication. At first he thought little of these marks ; but in 1853 he was Induced to publish " Notes
and Emendations" derived from this volume. Much controversy ensued as to the authenticity of these
corrections ; and in 1859 it was generally agreed that they were of modern date, and consequently of little
value.
V V
SHA G53 SHE
plates, was published in nine vols., folio, in 1802. Ayscough's Index to Shakspeare was
published in 1790 ; Twiss's Index, in 1805, and Mrs. Cowden Clarke's Concordance, 1S47.
See Ireland s Forgeries.
Shakspeare's Globe Theatric, London, was situated Shakspeare's Native Place. In 1847, a number of
near the spot still called Bankside, at the com persons of distinction interested themselves for
mencement of the seventeenth century. Shak the preservation of the house in which Shakspeare
speare was himself part-proprietor ; hero Borne of was born, then actually set up for sale : they held
his plays wcro first produced, and he himself a meeting at the Thatchcd-House Tavern, London.
performed in them. It was of a horse-shoo form, Aug. 26, in that year, and took measures for
partly covered with thatch. After it was licensed, promoting a subscription set on foot by the Shak-
the thatch took fire, through the negligent dis spearian Club at Stratford-upon-Avon : and a
charge of a piece of ordnance, and the whole committee was appointed to carry out their object.
building was consumed. The house was crowded In the end Shakspeare's house was sold at the
to excess, to witness the play of Henry VJJI.t but Auction Mart in the city of London, where it was
the audience escaped unhurt. This was the end "knocked down" to the United Committee of
of Shakspeare's connection with this theatre : it London and Stratford for the large sum of 3000?.
was rebuilt the following year, much in the same Sept 16, 1847. In 1856, a learned oriental scholar,
style, about 1603. John Shakespeare, no relation of the poet, gave
Shakspeare's Jcbilee, and that projected by David 25001. to purchase the adjoining house, that it
Garrick, was celebrated at Btratford-on-Avon, might bo pulled down, in order to ensure the
Bept. 6-8, 1769; a similar festival was kept poet's house from the risk of fire.
April 23, 1836. The tercentenary of Shakspeare's Shakspeare's Garden was bought 1
birth was celebrated with many festivities at got up by Mr. J. O. Halliwell, in
Stratford-on-Avon, April 23, 1865. i86x.
SHAMROCK. It is said that the shamrock used by the Irish was introduced by Patrick
M'Alpine, since called St. Patrick, as a simile of the Trinity, 432. When he could not
make them understand him by his words, he showed the Irish a stem of clover or trefoil,
thereby exhibiting an ocular demonstration of the possibility of three uniting into one, and
one into three.
SHARPSBURG (Maryland). See Anticlam.
SHAWLS are of Oriental origin. The manufacture was introduced by Barrow and
Watson, in 1784, at Norwich. It began at Paisley and Edinburgh about 1805. lire,
SHEEP were exported from England to Spain, and, the breed being thereby improved,
produced the fine Spanish wool, which proved detrimental to our woollen manufacture,
© Edw. IV. 1467. Anderson. Their exportation was prohibited on pain of fine and impri
sonment, 1522. The number of sheep in the United Kingdom has been variously stated—
by some at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more at 60,000,000, in 1840. The
number must have progressively increased to the present time, particularly as the unre
stricted importation since 1846 vastly swells the amount. In 1851 there were imported
into England 201,859 sheep and lambs ; in 1858, 184,482 ; in 1864, 496,243. In Aug. and
Sept. 1862, many sheep in Wiltshire died of small-pox ; and on Sept. 11, government
declared its intention of enforcing the act for the prevention of contagion. The evil soon
abated.
SHEEPSHANKS' DONATIONS. On Feb. 2, 1857, Mr. John Sheepshanks, by a deed
of gift, presented to the nation his valuable collection of paintings and drawings, valued at
60,000/. In accordance with the donor's directions, the pictures were placed at the South
Kensington Museum. The collection is rich in the works of Mulready, Landseer, and
Leslie. He died Oct. 5, 1863.—On Dec. 2, 1858, the trustees of his brother, the late Rev.
Richard Sheepshanks, presented io,ooo£. stock to Trinity college, Cambridge, for the
promotion of the study of astronomy, meteorology, and magnetism.
SHEERNESS (N. Kent), a royal dockyard, planned and fortified by Charles II. in 1667,
was taken by the Dutch, under De Ruyter, June 11, same year. Improved since 1815.
SHEFFIELD, on the river S1uaft West Riding, Yorkshire ; renowned for cutlery, plated
goods, &c. Sheffield thwytles are mentioned by Chaucer, in the time of Edward III.
Sheffield in the time of the Conqueror was obtained by Roger de Buisli, and has since been
held by the Lovetots, Nevils, Talbots, and Howards.
St. Peter's church built temp. Henry I. riate assay office established . . . . 1773
Hospital and almshouses erected by the earl of Made a borough by the Reform Act . . . 1833
Malmesbury 1616 Wesley college opened . ✓ i8^g
Cutlers' company incorporated .... 1624 Sheffield and Manchester railway opened . . 184?
The castlo (built in the 13th century) was taken Atbcnssum and Mechanics' Institution opened. 1849
and demolished by the parliamentarians . . 1648 John A. Roebuck (grandson of Dr. Roebuck off
Cutlers' hall built 1726 Sheffield), M.P. for Sheffield . . May, 1S49-66
SHE 659 SHI
SHEFFIELD, continued.
Embankment of the Bradfield water reservoir perty destroyed; estimated loss, 327,000?.,
broko down, and flooded Sheffield and the March ti, 1864
country 12 or 14 miles round ; about 250 lives 52,751!. had been collected for the sufferers,
were lost; many buildings and much pro April 29, „
The Surroy music hall burnt . March 25, 1865
SHELBURNE ADMINISTRATION, formed at tho death of the marquis of Rock
ingham, July, 1782; terminated April, 1783; and was succeeded by the "Coalition"
administration.
The carl of Shelburne (afterwards marquess of Thomas, lord Grantham, and Thomas Townshend
Landsdowne), first lord of the treasury. (afterwards lord Sydney), secretaries.
William Pitt, cliancctlorof the exchequer. Viscount Keppel, admiralty.
Lord (afterwards earl) Camden, president of the Duke of Richmond, ordnance.
council. Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor.
Duke of Grafton, privy seal. Henry Dundas, Isaac Barre, sir George Yongo, etc.
SHELLS. See Bombs.
SHERIFF. The office of sheriff is from shire-rcve, governor of a shire or county. London
had its sheriffs prior to William I.'s reign ; but some say that sheriffs were first nominated
for every county in England by William in 1079. According to other historians, Henry
Comhill and Richard Reyncre were the first sheriffs of London, 1 Rich. I. 1189. The nomi
nation of sheriffs according to the present mode took place in 1461. Stow. Anciently sheriffs
were hereditary in Scotland, and in some English counties, as Westmoreland. The sheriffs of
Dublin (first called bailiffs) were appointed in 1308, and obtained the name of sheriff by an
incorporation of Edward VI. 1548. Thirty-five sheriffs were fined, and eleven excused in
one year, rather than serve the office for London, 1734. See Bailiffs.
SHERIFFMTJIR. See Dumblane. SHETLAND ISLES. See Orkneys.
SHIBBOLETH, the word by which the followers of Jephthah tested their opponents tho
Ephraimites, on passing the Jordan, about 1143 B.C. Judges xii. The term is now applied
to any party watchword or dogma.
SHIITES, a Mahometan sect, predominated in Persia. See Monometallism.
SHILLING. The value of the ancient Saxon coin of this name was fivepence, but it
was reduced to fourpence about a century before the conquest. After the conquest the French
solidus of twelve pence, in use among the Normans, was called shilling. The true English
shilling was first coined, but in small quantity, 18 Hen. VII. 1503. Dr. Kelly. In 1505.
Bishop Fleetwood. A peculiar shilling, value nine pence, but to be current at twelve, was
struck in Ireland, 1560; and a large but very base coinage in England for tho service of
Ireland, 1598. Milled shillings were coined 13 Chas. II. 1662. See Coins.
SHIP-BUILDING. The first ship (probably a galley) was brought from Egypt to Greece,
by Danaus, 1485 B. c. Blair. Tho first double-decked ship was built by the Tyrians, 786 B. 0.
Lenglet. The nrst double-decked one built in England was of 1000 tons burthen, by order
of Henry VIII. 1509 ; it was called the Great Harry, and cost 14,000?. Stcnv. Port-holes
and other improvements were invented by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the
reign of Louis XII., about 1500. Ship-building was first treated as a science by Hoste,
1696. A 74-gun ship was put upon the stocks at Van Diemen's Land, to be sheathed
with India-rubber, 1829. Iron is now greatly used in ship-building. See Navy and
Steam Vessels.
SHIP-MONEY was first levied about 1007, to form a navy to oppose the Danes.
This impost being illegally levied by Charles I. in 1634-6 led to the revolution. He
assessed London in seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men ; Yorkshire in two ships, of
600 tons, or I2,ooo£. ; Bristol in one ship, of 100 tons ; Lancashire in one ship, of 400 tons.
John Hampden refused to pay the tax, and was tried in the Exchequer in 1636. Ship-money
was included in a redress of grievances in 1641, The five judges, who had given an opinion
in its favour, were imprisoned. Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with princo
Rupert, and died June 24, 1643.
SHIPPING, Bbitish. Shipping was first registered in tho river Thames in 1786 ; and
throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle of the 18th century, the shipping of England
■was but half a million of tons—less than London now. In 1830, the number of ships in the
British empire was 22,785. See Navy and Navigation Acts.
u U 2
SHI 660 SHO
SHIPPING, British, continued.
NUMBER OF VESSELS REGISTERED IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE ON JAN. I, 184O.
Country. Ve*sel$. Tonnage. Stamen.
England 15,830 .... 1,983,522 .... 114.593
Scotland 3.318 ■ • ■ 378,iQ4 • • • • 25*9°9
Ireland ...... 1,889 .... 169,289 .... 11,288
Guernsey, Jersey, and Man . . . 633 . . . . 39,630 . . . . 4.473
British Plantations .... 6,075 .... 497,798 .... 35.020
Total 27.745 • ■ - - 3»o68>433 . . . . 181,283
The following are the numbers of the Registered Sailing and Steam Vessels (exclusive of
River Steamers) of the United Kingdom, engaged in the home and foreign trade :—
* Sorfs wero peasants attached to, and part of, tho landed estates. The system was abolished by
Frederic I. of Prussia in 1702 ; by Christian VII. of Denmark in 17G6, by tho emperor Joseph II. in his
hereditary states in 1781 ; by Nicholas I. of Russia, on tho imperial domains in 1842 ; and by his successor,
Alexander II. (March 3, 1861), throughout his empire. Slavery ceased in tho Dutch West Indies ou July
1, 1863.
SLA 667 SLA
SLAVERY in England. Laws respecting the sale of slaves were made by Alfred. The
English peasantry were so commonly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman times, that
children were sold in Bristol market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent to Ireland
and others to Scotland. Under the Normans the vassals were termed villains (of and
pertaining to the vill). They were devisable as chattels during the feudal times.
Severe statutes were passed in the reign of Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the
Richard II. 1377 and 1385; the rebellion of British colonies, and for the promotion of
Wat Tyler, 1381, otobo partly out of the evils industry among the manumitted slaves, and
of serfdom.* for compensation to the persons hitherto
In 1574 queen Elizabeth ordered her bondsmen entitled to the services of such slaves by tho
in tho western counties to bo made free at grant from parliament of 20,000,000?. sterling,
easy rates . 1574 passed Aug. 28, 1833
Serfdom was finally extinguished in 1660, when Slavery terminatod in the British possessions
tenures in capite, knight's service, &c, were on Aug. 1, 1834, and 770,280 slaves became
abolished. free.
In 1772 it was decided that slavery could not Slavery was abolished in the East Indies,
exist in England. f Aug. 1, 1838
SLAVERY in United States, Before the war of independence all the states contained
slaves. In 1783 the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of Rights, "All men are born free
and equal," was declared in the supreme court at Boston to bar slave-holding in that state.
Slaves in the United States in 1790, 697,897 ; in 1810, 1,191,364 ; in 1S20, 2,009,031 ; in
1850, 3*204,313 ; in i860, 4,002,996.
Congress passes unanimously the celebrated Tho Missouri Compromise was abrogated by
ordinance '* for tho government of the terri tho admission of Nebraska and Kansas as
tory to tho N.W. of tho Ohio," which con slave-holding states ; civil war ensued. Soo
tained an " unalterable " article, forbidding Kansas 1854
slavery or involuntary servitude in the said Dred Scot's case (see United States) . . . 1857
state, July 13, 1787 ; after 1800, soveral of the John Brown's attempt to create a slave re
states prayod, without effect, to be relieved bellion in Virginia failed (see United Statu),
from this prohibition. Nov. 1859
Louisiana purchased, which was considered by Abraham Lincoln, the anti-slavery candidate,
many as fatal to the constitution . . 1803 elected president of the United States, Nov. 4, i860
The onormous increase in tho growth of cotton Secession of South Carolina (see United States),
in tho Southern States (see Cotton) led to Dec. „
a corresponding increase in the demand for Slavery abolished in tho district of Colombia,
slave labour. The Missouri Compromise, drawn
President Lincoln proclaims the abolition 16,of 1862
April
up by Henry Clay, by which slavery was per
mitted in that Btatc, but was prohibited in all slavery in tho Southern states if they havo
that part of it to the north of 360 30' N. Lit. not returned to the Union on Jan. 1, 1863,
carried Feb. 1820 Sept.and
22, ,f
Contest between the slavo-holders and their Slavery was extinguished by the defeat
opponents at the annexation of Texas ; a submission of the Southern states . April. 1865
similar division to that of Missouri obtained, Tho total abolition of slavery in the United
Dec. 25, 1845 States officially announced . Doc. 18, ,,
Another compromise effected ; California ad
mitted as a free state ; but tho Fugitive Slavo See United States, 1860-5.
act passed (which see) 1850
SLAVE TRADE. The slave trade from Congou and Angola was begun by the Portu
guese in 148 1. The commerce in man has brutalised a tract fifteen degrees on each side of
the equator, and forty degrees wide, or of 4,000,000 of square miles ; and men and women
have been bred for sale to the Christian nations during'the last 250 years, and war carried on
to make prisoners for the Christian market. The Abbe Raynal computed (1777) that, at the
time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consumed by the Europeans. The slave-
trade is now approaching extinction.
• A statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a runaway, or anyone who lived idly for three days,
should be brought before two justices of the peace, and marked V with a hot iron on the breast, and
adjudged the slave of him who bought him for two years. He was to take tho slave and give him bread,
water, or small drink, and refuse meat, and cause him to work by beating, chaining, or otherwise ; and if,
within that space, he absented himsolf fourteen days, was to bo marked on the forehead or cheek, by a
hot iron, with an S, and bo his master's slave for ever : second desertion was mado felony. It was lawful
to put a ring of iron round his neck, arm, or leg. A child might bo put apprentice, and, on running away,
beconio a slavo to his master, 1 547.
t Determined by tho judgment of the court of king's bench, at the instance of Mr. Granville Sharpo.
A poor slave named Somerset, brought to England, was, because of his ill state, turned adrift by his
master. By tho charity of Mr. G. Sharpo, ho was restored to health, when his unfeeling and avaricious
master again claimed him. This was resisted, and a suit was the consequence, which established, by its
result in favour of the black, the great point, that slavery could not exist in Great Dritain. Juno 22, 1772.
In 1853, John Anderson, a runaway slave, killed Septimus Digges, a planter of Missouri, who attempted
to arrest him, and escaped to Canada. The American government claimed him as a murderer. The
Canadian judges deciding that the law required his surrender, Mr. Edwin James, Q.C. (Jan. 15, 1861)
obtained a writ of habeas corpus for his appcaranco before the court of queen's bench. Anderson was*
however, discharged on Feb. 16, following, on technical grounds.
SLA (J6S SMI
SLAVE TRADE, continued.
In 1768 the slaves taken from their own continent I Unction of the slave trade, died, aged 85, Sept.
amounted to 104,100. In 1786 the annual number 1846.
was about 100,000. Foreign CorxTRira :—The trade was abolished by
In 1807 it w.is shown by documents, produced by Austria in 1782 ; by the French convention in
government, that since 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 | 1794.
Africans bad been torn from their country, and j The Allies at Vienna declared against it Feb. 1S15.
had either perished on tho passage or been sold in Napoleon, in the hundred days, abolished the trade,
the West Indies. March 29, 1815.
Slavk Trade of England: begun by sir John Treaty for its repression with Spain, 1817 ; with the
Hawkins. His first cxjicdition, with the object of Netherlands, May 1818 : with Brazil, Nov. 1S26.
procuring negroes on the coast of Africa, and Its revival was proposed in tho congress of the
conveying them for sale at tho West Indies, took United States of America, Dec. 14, 1856, and nega
place in Oct. 1562. Hco Guinea. tived by 183 votes to 58.
England employed 130 ships and carried off 42,000 In June, 1857, *h° French government gave permis
slaves, 1786. sion to M. Regis to convey fret negroes from Africa
Slave-trade question debated in parliament, 1787. to Guadaloupo and Martinico, French colonies.
The debute for its abolition lasted two days, April, This having led to abuses and consequent troubles
1701. I (see Charles el Georget), was eventually given up in
Mr. Wilberforcc's motion lost by a majority of 88 to | Jan. 1859.
83, April 3, 1798. It is said that about 40,000 bIavos were landed at
Tho question introduced under the auspices of lord Cuba in i860.
Grenvillo and Mr. Fox, then ministers, March 31, \ A treaty between Great Britain and the United
1806. States for the abolition of the slave trade, was
The trade nlxUished by parliament, March 25, 1807. signed April 7 ; ratified May 20, 1862.
Thomas Clarkson, whose whole life may bo said to i The Spanish government denounce the slave trade
have been pjisscd in labouring to effect the ex- ' as piracy, Nov. 1865.
SLIDING-SCALE. See Corn Laws.
SLING, an ancient missive woapon. In Judges xx. 16, is mentioned the skill of the
Bcnjamite slingers (about 1406 B.C.), and with a sling David slew Goliath 1063 B.C. (1. Sam.
xvii). Tho natives of the Balearic isles (Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica) were celebrated
slingers, and served as mercenaries in the Carthaginian and Roman armies. Slings arc said
to have been used by the Huguenots at the siege of Sanccrrc, in 1672, to economise their
powder.
SLUYS (Holland), near which Edward III. gained a signal naval victory over the French.
Tho English had tint wind of the enemy, and tho sun at their backs, and began the action,
which was fierce and bloody, the English archers galling the French on their approach. Two
hundred and thirty French ships were taken ; thirty thousand Frenchmen were killed, with
two of their admirals ; the loss of the English was inconsiderable : June 24, 1340.
SMALCALD (Hesse), Treaty of, entered into between the elector of Brandenburg and
tho other princes of Germany in favour of Protestantism, Dec. 31, 1530. See Protestants.
The emperor, apprehensive that the kings of Franco and England would join this league,
signed the treaty at Nuremburg, in July 1532, allowing liberty of conscience.
SMALL POX, Variola (the diminutive of varus, a pimple), a highly contagious disease,
supposed to have been introduced into Europe from the East by the Saracens. Rhazes, an
Arabian, was the first who accurately described it, about 900. From Europe it was carried
to America, soon after its discovery, and raged there with great severity, destroying the
Indians by thousands. In 1694, queen Mary of England died of small pox, as did in 171 1
and 1 7 12 the emperor of Germany, dauphin and dauphiness of France and their son, in
1730 the emperor of Russia, in 1741 the queen of Sweden, and in 1774 Louis XV. of France.
It is staled that in the middle of the last century two millions perished by it in Russia. In
Loudon in 1723 one out of fourteen deaths was caused by small pox, and in France in 1754
tho rate was one in ten. For the attempts to alleviate this scourge, see Inoculation,
introduced into England in 1722, and Vaccinatum, announced by Dr. Jenner in 1798. In
Sept. and Oct. 1S62 a great many sheep died of small pox in the West of England, till
successful preventive measures were resorted to.
SMITHFIELD, WEST, in the heart of London, was once a favourite walk of the London
citizens, outside the city walls. Sir W. Wallace was executed here, Aug. 24, 1305. On
June 13, 1381, Wut Tyler was met by king Richard II. at this place, and was stabbed by
Walworth the mayor. Many tournaments were also held here. In the reign of Mary,
(1553-8), 277 persons perished by fire ; and Bartholomew Leggatt and Edward Wightman,
Ariaus, were burnt here in 1612. — Bartholomew fair was held here till 1853. —This place
is mentioned as the site of a cattle-market as far back as 1 150. The space devoted to this
purpose was enlarged from about three acres to four and a half, and in 1834 to six and a
quarter. The ancient regulations were called the "statutes of Smithfield." In one day
SMI 669 SOA
there were sometimes assembled 4000 beasts and 30,000 sheep. The annual amount of the
sales was about 7,000,000/. In 1846 there were sold here 226, 132 beasts, 1,593,270 sheep
and lambs, 26,356 calves, 33,531 pigs. There were about 160 salesmen. The contracted
space of the market, the slaughtering places adjoining, and many other nuisances, gavo
ground to much dissatisfaction, and after parliamentary investigation, an act was passed on
Aug. 1, 1851, appointing metropolitan market commissioners with powers to provide a new
market, slaughtering places, &c. ; and to close the market at Smithfield. Smithfield was
used as a cattle market for the last time on June 11, 1855 ; and the new market in Copen
hagen-fields was opened on June 13. See Metropolitan Market. The act passed in 1861 by
which a dead-meat and poultry market was ordered to be erected in Smithfield, and Newgate
market to cease, has not yet been carried into effect, 1865.*
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among
men," a handsome building at Washington, U.S., was founded in 1846, by means of a legacy
of above ioo.oooi. bequeathed for the purpose to the United States government by James
Smithson, illegitimate son of sir Hugh Smitlison, who became duke of Northumberland in
1766. It publishes and freely distributes scientific memoirs and reports. The library was
burnt on Jan. 25, 1865.
SMOKE NUISANCE. An act was passed in 1853 to abate this nuisance, proceeding
from chimney shafts and steamers above London bridge. In 1S56 another act, obtained for
its further application to steamers below London bridge, and to potteries and glass-houses
previously exempted, came into operation, Jan. 1, 1858 ; enactments have been made for
all the kingdom.
SMOLENSKO (Russia). The French in a most sanguinary engagement here were threo
times repulsed, but ultimately succeeded, in entering Stnolensko, and found the city, which
had been bombarded, burning and partly in ruins, Aug. 16-19, 1812. Barclay de Tolly, the
Russian commander in chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor Alexander because he
retreated after the battle, and Kutusoff succeeded to the command.
SMUGGLERS. The customs duties were instituted originally to enable the king to
afford protection to trade against pirates ; and they afterwards became a branch of public
revenue, but gave rise to much smuggling. The act so well known as the Smugglers' Act
was passed in 1736. Its severity was mitigated in 1781 and 1784. A revision of these
statutes took place, 1826 and 1835.
SMYRNA. See Seven Churches.
SNEEZING. The custom of saying "God bless you" to the sneezer, originated,
according to Strada, among the ancients, who, through an opinion of the danger attondiug
it, after sneezing made a short prayer to the gods, as "Jupiter help me." Polydore Vergil
says it took its rise at the time of the plague, a.d. 558, when tho infected fell down dead
sneezing, though seemingly in good health.
SNUFF-TAKING took its rise in England from tho captures made of vast quantities of
snuff by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo in 1702. It soon became general, from which
the revenue now draws, with tobacco, considerably more than 5,000,000/. per annum. In
1839 there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. °f snuff, of which 196,305 lbs. were entered for home
consumption ; the duty was 88,263?. See Tobacco. In 1858, 2,573,925 lbs. of snuff and
cigars, in 1861, 2,110,429 lbs. were imported.
SOANE MUSEUM, at No. 13, Lincoln's Inn Fields, was gradually formed by sir John
Soane, the architect, who died in 1837, after making arrangements for its being open to the
public. It contains Egyptian and other antiquities, valuable paintings, rare books, &e.
SOAP was imperfectly known to the ancients. The first express mention of it occurs in
Pliny and Galen ; and the former declares it to be an invention of the Gauls, though he
prefers the German to tho Gallic soap. In remote periods clothes were cleaned by being
rubbed or stamped upon in water. Nausicaa and her attendants, Homer tells us, washed
theirs by treading upon them with their feet in pits of water. Odyssey, book vi. The
Romans used fuller's earth. Savon, the French word for soap, is ascribed to its having been
manufactured at Savona, near Genoa. The manufacture of soap began in London in 1524,
before which time it was supplied by Bristol at one penny per pound. The duty upon soap
* Tho Smithjleld Club, to promote improvements in tho breed of cattle, was established in 170^. For
many years tho members supported a cattle show in December in Goswcll-struot, which was removed to
Baker-street in 1840, and to the New Agricultural Hall, Liverpool-road, Islington, in 1862.
SOU 670 SOC
SOBRAON (N.W. India). Tho British army, 3S,ooo strong, under sir Hugh (afterwards
viscount) Gough, attacked tho Sikh force on the Sutlej, Feb. 10, 1846. The enemy was
dislodged after a dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken ; and in attempting the
passage of the river by a floating bridge in their rear, the weight of the masses that crowded
upon it caused it to break down, and more than 13,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded, or
drowned. The British loss was 2338 men.
SOCIALISM was advocated in London, Jan. 24, 1834, by the celebrated Bobert Owen.
He laboured indefatignbly to propagate his doctrines, and established a settlement at New
Harmony in America in 1824. He died Nov. 17, 1858, aged 90. The French socialists,
termed Communists, became a powerful political body in that country, and were much
implicated in the revolution in 1848.
SOCIAL SCIENCE. Tho National Association for the Promotion of Social Science
originated in a meeting at lord Brougham's in May, 1857. Its object is to promote improve
ments in the administration of law, in education, in public health, and in social economy.
It holds annual meetings, and publishes its proceedings. The first meeting was at Birming
ham, Oct. 12, 1857; 2nd at Liverpool, Oct. II, 1858; 3rd at Bradford, Oct. II, 1859; 4th
at Glasgow, Sept. 24, i860 ; 5th at Dublin, Aug. 14, 1861 ; 6th in London, June 5, 1862 :
7th at Edinburgh, Oct 7, 1863 ; 8th at York, Sept. 22, 1864 ; 9th at Sheffield, Oct. 3, 1865.
SOCIAL WARS. See Athens and Marsi.
SOCIETIES and Institutions, Literary and Scientific, in Great Britain. Further
details of many of these will be found under their respective heads. All in the list beloiv
aro in London, except otherwise stated. An act was passed, Aug. 11, 1854, "to affonl
facilities for the establishment of institutions for the promotion of Literature and Science,''
by grants of land, &c. ; and for their regulation. The Royal and London Institutions are
exempted from tho operation of tho act,
Royal Society Charter iffi! I Royal United Service Institution I J .: I
Christian Knowledge Society .... 169S ' Royal Dublin 8ociety
Society of Antiquaries . . (Charter 1751) 1717 Harveian Society ....
Society of Dilettanti 173+ British Association ....
Royal Society of Edinburgh . (Charter 1783I Marylebone Literary Institution I - ?_•
Society of Arts . . . (Charter 1847) ■753 Entomological Socioty ir'_.
Bath and West of England Society . '777 Statistical Society
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society . 17S1 Westminster Literary Institution
Highland Society 1785 Burtees Society, Durham
Royal Irish Academy . . . Charter 1786 Royal Institute of British Architects (Charter
Liriniean Society .... (Charter 1802) 17S8
Nowcastlc Literary and Philosophical Society . 1793 Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society•837). 1S3S
..
Royal Institution . . . (Charter 1810) iSoo Abbotsford Club, Edinburgh . ... 1835-7
Royal Horticultural Society . (Charter 1809) 1804 Numismatic Society 1830
Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society Ornithological Society 1837
(Charter 1834) 1S05 Electrical Society 1837- c
London Institution ,, Etching Club 1833
Geological Society . . . (Charter 1826) I S07 English Historical Society . . . .1838-56
Russell Institution I COO Royal Agricultural Society 183S
Swcdonborg Society l8lO Camden Society
Livorpool Literary and Philosophical Society . l8l3 Royal Botanical Socioty 1S39
Roxburgho Club Microscopical Society
Institution of Civil Engineers (Charter 1828) Ecclesiological Society ,.
Leeds Literary and Philosophical Society . Spalding Club, Aberdeen ,,
Egyptian Society iSig Royal Botanical Society of London . . . „
Cambridge Philosophical Socioty (Charter 1832) Parker Society 1840-55
Royal Astronomical Society . (Charter 1831) Percy Society 1840- 5.-
Medico-Botanical Society lS2l Irish Archicological Society, Dublin . . . 1840
Hull Literary and Philosophical Society . lS22 London Library »•
Yorkshire Philosophical Society . . . . Shakespeare Society. ,
Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society Chemical Society 1841
Royal Society of Literature . (Charter 1826) 1S23 Pharmaceutical Society
Royal Asiatic Society . . (Charter 1824) Wodrow Society. Edinburgh .... 1841-7
Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh .... Philological Society 1842
Athonamm Club 1824 .Mfric Society 1843-56
Western Literary Institution .... Chethara Society, Manchester .... 1843
Eastern Literary Institution Spottiswoode Society, Edinburgh ,
Zoological Society l'o2« Arclueologicol Association
• Incorporated Law Society . (Charter 1831) IS..7 Archaiological Institute ,
Mechanics' Institution, London Sydenham Society ,
Society for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge Ethuological Society ,,
Ashmolean Society. Oxford iSrS Law Amendment Society
Maitland Club, Glasgow Handel Society 1844
Royal Geographical Society 1830 Syro-Egyptian Society
Gaelic Society RayS '
soc SOL
SOCIETIES, continued.
Celtic Society, Dublin 1845 53 North of England Institute of Mining Engineers 1851
Pathological Society 1846 Photographic Society 1852
Sussex Archaeological Society, Lowes . . ,, Philobiblon Society 1853
Cambrian Archaeological Association . . . ,, Juridical Society , 1855
Cavendish Society „ Genealogical Society 1857
Hakluyt Society . . . . . . ,, National Association for Social Scienco . . „
Palaxmtographical Society 1847 Horological Institute 185S
Instituteof Mechanical Euginoers (Birmingham) ,, Society for the Encouragement of Fiuo Arts . ,,
Institute of Actuaries 1848 Institution of Naval Architecture . . . i860
Arundel Society Anthropological Socioty 18G3
British Meteorological Society . . . . 1850
SOCINIANS. Persons who accept the opinions of Faustus Socinus (died 1562), and his
nephew Lajlius (died 1604), Siennese noblemen. They held— I. That the Eternal Father
was the one only God, and that Jesus Christ was no otherwise God than by his superiority
to all other creatures ; 2. That Christ was not a mediator ; 3. That hell will endure for n
time, after which the soul and body will be destroyed ; and 4. That it is unlawful for
princes to make war. Hook. They established a church in Poland, and made proselytes in
Transylvania, 1563.
SODIUM, a remarkable metal, first obtained in 1807 by sir Humphry Davy from soda
(which was formerly confounded with potash, but proved to be a distinct substauce by
Duhamcl in 1736). This metal, like potassium, was obtained by the agency of the electric
battery. In consequence of Deville's improved processes, sodium is now manufactured by
Bell Brothers, of Newcastle, at 10s. a pound. Common salt (eldoride of sodium) is a com
pound of sodium and chloriuo.
SODOM and Gomohrah (Palestine), with their inhabitants, were destroyed by fire from
heaven, 1898 B.C., Gen. xix.
SODOR is a village of Icolmkill." Dr. Johnson calls it ' ' the luminary of the Caledonian
regions, whence," he adds, "savage clans and roving barbarians derived the benefits of
knowledge, and the blessings of religion.". The bishop s seat was at Rushin, or Castletown,
in the Isle of Man, ami in Latin is entitled Sodorcnsis. But when that island becamo
dependent upon the kingdom of England the western islands withdrew themselves from the
obedience of their bishop, and had a bishop of their own, whom they entitled also
Sodorensis, but commonly bishop of the Isles. See Isles. Germanus was settled here by St.
Patrick in 447. The bishop of Sodor and Man is not a lord of parliament. See Man.
SOISSONS (France), capital of the Gallic Suessiones, was subdued by Julius Ca;sar,
57 B.C. It was held by Syngrius, after his father ^Egidius, till his defeat by Clovis, A.D. 486.
Several Councils have been held at Soissons (in 744, 1092, 1122).
SOLAR SYSTEM, nearly as now accepted, is said to have been tatight by Pythagoras of
Samos, about 529 B.c. He placed the sun in the centre, and all the planets moving in
elliptical orbits round it—a doctrine superseded by the Ptolemaic system (which see). The
system of^ Pythagoras, revived by Copernicus (1543), is called the Copernican system. Its
truth was demonstrated by sir Isaac Newton in 1687.
SOLDIERS' DAUGHTERS' HOME was established at Hampstead, near London, in
Aug. 1857, by the surplus of the money collected by the central association in aid of the
wives and families of soldiers in active service during the Crimean war, and opened in 1859.
SOLEBAY, or Soutiiwoi.d Bay (Suffolk), whero a fierce naval battle was fought between
the fleets of England and France on one side, and the Dutch on tho other, the former com
manded by the duke of York, afterwards James II., May 28, 1672. The English lost four
ships, and the Dutch three ; but the enemy fled, and were pursued to their coasts. The
earl of Sandwich was blown up, and thousands were killed and wounded.
SOLFERINO (in Lombardy), tho sito of the chief straggle on the great battle of June 24,
1859, between the allied French and Sardinian army commanded by their respective
sovereigns, and the Austrians under general Hesse ; the emperor being present. Tho
Austrians, after their defeat at Magenta, gradually retreated across the Mincio, and took up
a position in the celebrated quadrilateral, and were expected there to await the attack. But
the advance of Garibaldi on one side, and of prince Nanoleon and the Tuscans on the other,
induced them to recross the Mincio and tako the offensive, on Juno 23. The conflict began
early on the 24th, and lasted fifteen hours. At first the Austrians had the advantage ; but
the successful attack of the French on Cavriana and Solferino changed the fortune of the day,
and tho Austrians were after desperate encounters compelled to retreat. The French attri
SOL C72 SON
bute the victory to the skill and bravery of their emperor and the generals M 'Mahon and
Niel ; the Austrians, to the destruction of their reserve by the rifled cannon of their adver
saries. Tho Sardinians maintained a fearful contest of fifteen hours at San Martino, it is said
against double their number. Loss of the Austrians, 630 officers, and 19,311 soldiers ; of the
allies, 8 generals, 936 officers, and 17,305 soldiers killed and wounded. This battle closed
the war ; preliminaries of peace being signed at Villa Franca, July 12.
SOLFIDIANS (from solus, only, and fides, faith), a name given to the Antinomians
(ichich sec).
SOLICITOR. See Attorney.
SOLICITOR-GENEHAL, the legal officer next in rank to the attorney-general, to whom
he is deputy. Those below with a* became attorney-general.
1839. "Sir Thomas Wildo (afterwards lord Truro), 1851. Sir W. Pago Wood, March 28.
Dec. 5. 1852. "Sir
•Sir Fitzroy
RichardKelly,
Bcthell,Feb.Dec.
1 841. 'Sir William Follctt (second time), Sept. 6.
1844. *Sir Frederick Thcsigcr (since lord Chelms 1856. Rt. Hon. James Stuart Wortley, Nov.
ford), April 17. 1857. Sir Henry Keating. May.!
1845. "Sir Fitzroy Kelly, July 17. 1858 -Sir Hugh M. Cairns. Feb. 16.
184G. *Sir John Jcrvis, July 4. 1859. Sir
•SirHeorv
WilliamKeating,
Atherton,JunoDec.
18.
Sir David THindas, July 18.
1848. "Sir John Romilly, April 4. 1 861. Sir Roundcll Palmer, June 27.
i8so. *Sir Alex. J. E. Cockuurn, July 11. 1863. Sir Robert Porrott Collier, Oct. 2.
SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. See Temple.
SOLWAY MOSS, bordering on Scotland. On Nov. 13, 1771, it swelled, owing to heavy
rains. Upwards of 400 acres roso to such a height above tho level of the ground, that at
bust it rolled forward like a torrent above a mile, sweeping along with it houses, trees, 4c.
It covered 600 acres at Netherby, and destroyed about 30 small villages. Near Solway Moss
the Scots were defeated, Nov. 25, 1 542.
SOMBRERO (West Indies). On this desert isle, Robert Jeffery, a British man-of-war's
man, was put ashore by his commander, the hon. captain W. Lake, for having tapped a
barrel of beer when the ship was ou short allowance. After sustaining life for eight days on
a few limpets and rain-water, he was saved by an American vessel, Dec. 13, 1807 ; and
returned to England. Sir Francis Burdett advocated his cause in parliament, and he
received 600?. as a compensation from captain Lake, who was tried by a court-martial, and
dismissed the service, Feb. 10, 1810.
SOMERSET THE BLACK. See Slavery in England.
SOMERSET-HOUSE (London), formerly a palace, founded on the site of several churches
and other buildings levelled in 1549, by the protector Somerset, whose residence fell to the
crown after his execution. Here resided at times queen Elizabeth, Anne of Denmark, and
Catherine, queen of Charles II. Old Somerset-house, a mixture of Grecian and Gothic, was
demolished in 1775, and the present edifice, from a design by sir William Chambers, was
erected for public offices. The Royal Academy of Arts first assembled in the apartments
given to the members by the king, Jan. 17, 1 77 1, and the Royal Society met here in 17S0.
Jjirge suits of government buildings were erected in 1774. The Navy-office, Pipe-office,
Victualling and other offices, were removed here in 1788, and various government depart
ments since. The east wing, forming the King's College (see King's College), was completed
in 1833. By an act passed in 1854, tho offices of the duchy of Cornwall were ordered to be
transferred to Pimlico.
SOMNATH GATES, the gates of an ancient Hindoo temple at Guzerat winch was
destroyed by Mahmoud of Ghuznee in 1025. The priests wished to preserve the idol ; but
Mahmoud broke it to pieces and found it filled with diamonds, &c. He carried the gates to
Ghuznee. When that city was taken by gen. Nott, Sept. 6, 1842, lord Ellenborough
ordered the gates to be restored after an exile of 800 years. They are made of sandal wood,
and are figured in the Archseologia of the Society of Antiquaries, vol. xxx.
SONDERBUND. See Switzerland, 1846.
SONNET, a poem in fourteen lines, the rhymes being adjusted by rules, invented, it is
said, by Guido d'Arezzo, about 1024. The most celebrated sonnets were written by
Petrarch (about 1327), Shakspeare (1609), Milton (about 1650), and_Wordsworth (1820).
SONNITES, tho orthodox Mahometans who now possess the Turkish empire. See
Mahometanism.
673 SOU
SONTHAIjS, a tribe of Northern India, brought to Bengal about 1830, whero they
prospered ; till, partly from the instigation of a fanatic, and partly from the exactions of
money-lenders, they broke out into rebellion iu July, 1855, and committed fearful outrages.
They were quite subdued early in 1856, and many were removed to the newly-conquored
province of Pegu.
SOPHIA, ST. (in Constantinople). The first church was dedicated to St. Sophia (wisdom)
by Constantius II., 360 ; having been destroyed, the second, the present edifice, was
founded by Justinian, 532. Since the Mahometan conquest in 1453, it has been used as an
imperial mosque. Its length is 269 feet, and its breadth, 243 feet. It abounds in curiosities.
Six of its pillars are of green jasper, from the temple of Diana, at Ephesus ; and of
porphyry, from the temple of the Sun, at Home. Four minarets were added by Selim II.,
who reigned in 1566. The interior of the dome is beautifully ornamented with mosaic work.
SORBONNE, a society of ecclesiastics at Paris, founded by Robert de Sorbonne in 1252.
The members lived in common, and devoted themselves to study and gratuitous teaching.
They attained a European reputation as a faculty of theology, their judgment being
frequently appealed to, from the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries. The influence of
the Sorbonne was declining when the society was broken up iu 1789.
SORCERERS and Magicians. A law was enacted against their seductions, 33 Hen.
VIII. 1541 ; and another statute equally severe was passed. 5 Eliz. 1563. The pretension to
sorcery was made capital, I James I. 1603. See Witchcraft.
SOUDAN, or Soujaii, the title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs, which they
bore in their provinces and armies. These officers afterwards made themselves sovereigns.
Saladin, general of the forces of Noureddin, king of Damascus, was the first that took upon
him this title in Egypt, 1165, after having killed the caliph Caym.
SOULAGES COLLECTION. About 1827, M. Soulages of Thoulouse, collected 790
specimens of Italian art and workmanship, &c. These were bought for u.oooZ. by 73
English gentlemen, with the view of first exhibiting them to the public, and afterwards
selling them to the government (who gradually purchased them between 1858 and 1S65).
They formed part of the " Art Treasures" exhibited at Manchester in 1857.
SOUND. Robesval stated the velocity of sound to be 560 feet in a second ; Gassendi,
1473 ; Derham, 1 142 feet. The velocity increases as the temperature falls. At Paris, whero
cannon were fired under many varieties of weather, in 1738, it was found to be 1 107. Tho
range of perception of sound by the human ear was determined by Savart (1830) to extend
from 7 to 24,000 vibrations in a second. The fire of tho British on landing in Egypt was
distinctly heard 130 miles ou the sea. Sec Acoustics.
SOUND DUTIES. Till the year 1857 no merchant ship was allowed to pass the Sound
(a narrow channel separating Zealand from Sweden) without clearing at Elsineur and paying
toll. These duties had their origin in an agreement between the king of Denmark and tho
Hanse towns (1348), by which the former undertook to maintain lighthouses, Ac., along tho
Cattogat, and the latter to pay duty for the same. The first treaty with England in relation
to this was in 1450 ; other countries followed. In 1855 the United States determined to pay
tho dues no more ; and in the same year tho Danish government proposed that these dues
should be capitalised ; which was eventually agreed to, the sum agreed on being
30,476,325 rix-dollars. In Aug. 1857, the British government paid 10,126,855 rix-dollars,
(1,125,206/. ) to the Danes as their proportion. —Tho passage of the Sound was effected, in
defiance of strong fortresses, by sir Hyde Parker and lord Nelson, April 2, 1801. See Baltic
Expedition.
SOUNDINGS at Sf.a. Captain Ross of H.M.S. CEdipus, in 1840 took extraordinary
soundings ut sea. One of these was taken 900 miles west of St. Helena, whero it extended
to the depth of 5000 fathoms. Another sounding was made in the latitude of 33 degrees S.
and longitude 9 degrees W. about 300 miles from the Cape of Good Hope, when 2266 fathoms
wero sounded ; the weight employed amounted 450 lbs.
SOUTHAMPTON, a seaport (S. England), a county of itself, near the Roman Clauscntum
and the Saxon Hantune. It frequently suffered by Danish incursions : Canute .when king
occasionally resided here. The charter was granted by Henry I. anil confirmed by Richard
I. and John ; and the free grammar school was founded by Kdward VI. On July 17, 1S61,
a monument to Dr. Isaac Watts was inaugurated, and on Oct. 15, 1802, the Hartley insti
tution was opened by lord Palmcrston.
x 1
sou 07 1 SOU
SOUTH AUSTRALIA was discovered by capt. Sturt in 1830, and explored shortly after
by capt. Parker and Mr. Kent, the former of whom was killed by the natives. The boun
daries of the province were fixed by 4 & 5 Will. IV. e. 95 (1834) ; and it was occupied Dec.
26, 1836, by capt. Hindmarsh, the first governor. It was colonised according to Mr. E.
Gibbon Wakefield's scheme, which was carried out by the South Australian Colonisation
Association. The colony for several years underwent severe trials through the great influx
of emigrants, land-jobbing, building speculations, it, which produced almost universal
bankruptcy in 1839. In five years after the energy of the colonists had overcome their
difficulties, and the prosperity of the colony appeared fully established. In 1842 the
highly productive Buna Burra copper mines were discovered, and largo fortunes were
suddenly realised; but in 1851 the discovery of gold in New South Wales and Victoria
almost paralysed this province by drawing off a large part of the labouring population.
Very little gold was found in South Australia ; but a reaction took place in favour of the
copper mines and agriculture, &c. Before the discovery of gold, little trade existed between
Adelaide (the capital of South Australia) and Melbourne ; but in 1852 gold was transmitted
from the latter to the former to the amount of 2,215,167?. principally for bread-stuffs, farm
produce, &c. The bishopric of Adelaide was founded in 1847. Sir Dominic Daly was
appointed governor in Nov. 1S61. Population in 1855, 85,821 ; in 1S57, 185,698.
SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA, a fanatic, born in 1750, came from Exeter to London, -where
her followers at one period amounted to many thousands, among whom were military
officers, but the low and ignorant were her principal dupes. In 1792 she announced
herself as the woman spoken of in the book of Revelation, chap, xii. ; and a disorder gave
her the appearance of pregnancy after she had passed her grand climacteric, favouring th«
delusion that she would be the mother of the promised Shiloh. She died Dec. 27, 1S14.
In 1851 there existed in England four congregations, professing to expect her return.
SOUTHERN CONFEDERATE STATES. See Confederates.
SOUTHERN CONTINENT. The Southern Ocean was first traversed by Magellan in
1520 ; and explored by Wallis and Carteret in 1766 ; and by Cook in 1773 and 1774. Of
the southern continent little more is known than that it is ice-bound, and contains active
volcanoes. It was discovered in the first instance by capt. John Biscoe, on Feb. 27, 1S31,
in lat. 65° 57' S., long. 47° 20' E., extending east and west 200 miles, —this he named
Enderby Land, after the gentleman who had equipped him for the voyage. Capt. Biscoe
also discovered Graham's Land on Feb. 15, 1832, situated in lat. 67° 1' S., long. 71° 48" W.
The Messrs. Enderby equipped three other expeditions in search of the southern continent,
the last (in connection with some other gentlemen) in 1838, when capt. Balleny had
command, who on Feb. 9, 1839, discovered the Balleny Islands, in lat. 67° S., long. 165° E,,
and in March, 1839, Salvina Land, in lat. 65° 10' S., long. 118° 30' E. In 1840, a French
expedition, under the command of admiral D'Urville, and an American expedition, under
the command of commodore Wilkes, greatly added to our knowledge in respect to the exis
tence of a southern continent, and this was again increased by the expedition which sailed
from England in 1839, under the command of capt. sir James Clark Ross, who discovered
Victoria Land in 1 841, and subsequently penetrated as far south as 78° 11'.
SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM, near Brompton old church (containing the pictures
presented by Mr. Vernon, Mr. Sheepshanks, Mrs. Ellison, and those bequeathed by Turner,
the great painter, as well as specimens of sculpture and art, educational collections, products
of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, 4c.), was opened on June 24, 1S57. A
special Exhibition of Works of Art, of immense value, lent for the occasion, was opened here
in the summer of 1862, and closed in November.
SOUTH-SEA BUBBLE commenced with the establishment of the South-sea company in
1 7 10, which was at first unwisely and afterwards dishonestly managed. It exploded in 1720,
mining thousands of families, and the directors' estates, to the valuo of 2,014,000/. were
seized in 1721 and sold. Mr. Knight, the cashier, absconded with 100,cool. ; but he com
pounded the fraud for 10,000/. and returned to England in 1743. Almost all the wealthy
persons in the kingdom had become speculators ; the artifices of the directors having raised
the shares, originally 100/. to the price of 1000?. A parliamentary inquiry took place in
Nov. 1720, and Aislabie, chancellor of the exchequer, and several members of parliament
were expelled the house in 1 721. See Law's Bubble.
SOUTHWARK (S. London), was governed by its own bailiffs till 1327. The city,
however, found great inconvenience from the number of malefactors who escaped thither, in
order to bo out of the reach and cognizance of the city magistrates ; and a grant was made of
Southwark to the city of London by the crown, for a small annuity. In Edward VI.'s reign
sou 675 SPA
it was formed into a cityward, and was named Bridge "Ward Without, 1550. —SouUiwarh
bridge was begun September 23, 1814, and was completed March 26, 1819, at an expense of
800,000/. It consists of three great cast-iron arches, resting on massive stone piers aud
abutments ; the distance between the abutments is 708 feet ; the centre arch is 240 feet span,
the two others 210 feet each ; and the total weight of irou 5308 tons.
SOUTHWOLD. See Sohbay.
SOVEREIGN", an ancient and modern British gold coin. In 1489 22J pieces, in value 20s.
" to be called the sovereign," were ordered to be coined out of a pound of gold. Rudimj.
In 1542 sovereigns were coined in value 20s., which afterwards, in 1550 and 1552 (4 & 6
Edw. VI.), passed for 245. and 30.?. "Sovereigns " of the now coinage were directed to pass
for 2Gs.^luly 1, and half-sovereigns for 105. Oct. 10, 1817. See Coin and Gold,
SPA-FIELDS (N". London). Here upwards of 30,000 persons assembled to vote an
address from the distressed manufacturers to the prince regent, Nov. 15, 1816. A second
meeting, Dec. 2 following, terminated in an alarming riot ; the shops of several gunsmiths
■were attacked for arms by the rioters ; and in the shop of Mr. Beckwith, on Snowhill, Mr.
Piatt was wounded, and much injury was done before the tumult was suppressed. For this
riot, Cashman the seaman was hanged, March 12, 1817.
SPAHIS, African horsemen, incorporated by the French in Algeria in 1S34"; three
regiments of them came to Franco in 1863.
SPAIN (the ancient Iberia and Hispania). The first settlers are supposed to have been
the progeny of Tubal, fifth son of Japheth. The Phoenicians and Cartnaginians (360 B.C.)
successively planted colonies on the coasts ; and the Romans conquered the whole country,
206 D.c. Population of Spain in 1857, 15,464,078 ; of the colonies, 4,528,633. Estimated
revenue in 1861, 19,324,743/. ; expenditure, 19,386,800/.
The Carthaginians enriched by the mines of Sancho of Navarre becomes king of Castile . 1026
Spain (b.c. 48oe( airg.)form settlements B.C. 360 The kingdom of Aragon commenced under
Hamilcar extends their dominions in Spain 238-233 Ramirez 1 1035
New Carthage (Carthagena) founded by Leon and Asturias united to Castile . . . 1037
Hasdrubal 229 Portugal taken from tho Saracens by Henry of
At his death, Hannibal, his son takes the com Bcsancon. (See Portugal.) .... 1095
mand, 221; aud prepares for war, 220; ho The Saracens, beset on all sides by the Chris
takes Saguntum, 219 : crosses the Alps and tians, call in the aid of tho Moors from Africa,
enters Italy 218 who seize the dominions they camo to protect,
The Romans carry the war into Spain ; two and subdue the Saracens . . 1091 rf *tq.
** Scipios defeated and slain by Hasdrubal . 212 Exploits of the Cid Rodrigo ; dies . about 1099
Pub. Cornelius Scipio Africauus takes New Dynasty pf the Almuravides at Cordova 1094-1144
Carthage, 210 ; and drives the Carthaginians Tho Moors defeated in several battles by
out of Spain 207 Alfonso of Leon 1 144
Numantine war 153-133 Dynasty of the Almohades at Cordova . 1144-1225
Viriathus, general of the Ccltiberians and Lusi- Cordova, Toledo, Seville, &c., taken by Ferdi
tanians, subdued all West Spain, 145 ; makes nand of Castile and Leon . . . 1233-1248
peace with the consul Fabiua Servilianus, The kingdom of Granada begun by the Moors,
142 ; assassinated by order of the Romans. . 140 last refuge from the power of the Christians . 1238
Insurrection of Sertorius, 78 ; subdued by The crown of Navarre passes to the royal family
Poinpcy, and assassinated . . .72 of France 1274
Julius Caesar quells an insurrection in Spain . 67 200,000 Moors arrivo to assist the kiug of
Poinpcy governs Spain 60-50 Granada 1327
Revolt through the rapacity of Crassus . . 48-47 They are dofeated atTarifa by Alfonso XL of
The Vandals, Alani, and Suevi wrest Spain from Castile with great slaughter .... 1340
the Romans a.d. 409 Reign of Pedro tho Cruel 1350
Adolphua founds the kingdom of the Visigoths 414 His alliance with Edward the Black Prince . 1363
The vandals pass over to Africa . . . . 427 Defeated at Montiel and treacherously slain . 1369
Thcodoric I. vanquishes the Suevi . . . 452 Ferdinand II. of Aragon marries Isabella of
Assassinated by his brother Euric, who becomes Castile; and nearly the whole Christum
master of all Spain 466 dominions of Spain are united in one
Recared I. expels the Franks . . . .587 monarchy ... .... 1474
He abjures Arianism, and rules ably . till 601 Establishment of the Inquisition . . 1480-4
Wamba's wise administration ; he prepared a Persecution of tho Jews .... 1492-8
fleet for defence against the Saracens . 672-677 Granada taken after a two years' siege ; and
The Arabs invited into Spain against king the power of the Moors is finally extirpated
Rodoric 709 by Ferdinand 1492
His defeat and death at Xercs 711 Columbus is sent from Spain to explore the
Establishment of the Saracens at Cordova . „ western ocean .... April ij, :
Victorious progress of Musaand Tarik . . 712-13 Mahometans persecuted and expelled . 1499-1502
Emirs rule at Cordova ; Pelayo, of Gothic blood, Death of Columbus. . . May 20, 1506
rules in Asturias and Leon 718 Ferdinand conquers great part of Navarre . 1512
The Saracens defeated at Tours by Charles Accession of the house of Austria to the throne
Martcl 732 or 733 of Spain ; Charles I of Spain .... 1516
Abderahman the first king at Cordova . . 75s Able administration of Ximcncs; ungratefully
Unsuccessful invasion of Charlemagne . 777-78 used, 1516; his death 1517
Sancho Iiligo, count of Navarro, &c. . . . 873 Charles elected emperor of Germany . . . 1519
x x 2
SPA two"
SPAIN, continued.
Dreadful insurrection in Castile . 1520-21 Ferdinand swears to the constitution of the
Philip of Spain marries Mary of England . . 1554 eortes March S, 1S20
Charles rotires from the world . . . . 1556 The eortes remove the king to Seville, and
War with France ; victory at St Qucntin, thenco to Cadiz .... March, 1S23
Aug. 10, 1557 The French enter Spain April 7 ; and invest
Philip II. commences his bloody persecution of Cadiz June 25, „
the Protestants 1561 Battle of the Trocadero . . Aug. 31, „
The Esenrial l»c^un building . . . 1562 Despotism resumed ; tho cortcs dissolved ; exe
Revolt of the Moriscocs, 1567: suppressed . 1570 cutions of liberals Oct „
Naval victory of Lepanto over the Turks . . 1571 Riego put to death .... Nov. 27, ,,
Portugal united to Spain by conquest . . 1580 The French evacuate Cadiz . Sept. 21, xSaS
The Spanish Armada destroyed. See Armada. 1588 Cadiz made a free port . . . Feb. 24, 1S29
Philip III. banishes the Moors (900,000) . 1578*1610 S iliquo law abolished . . . March. 1830
Philip IV. loses Portugal 1640 Queen of Spain apitointcd regent during the
Death of Charles II., hist of the hou-o of king's indisposition ; change in the ministry,
Austria; accession of Philip V. of the house Oct. 25, 1S32
of Bourbon 1700 Don Carlos declares himselflegitimate successor
War of the Succession 1702-13 to the king April 29, 1833
Gibraltar taken by the English. . . . . 1704 Death of Ferdinand VII., and his queen
Siege of Barcelona 171 3 assumes the title of governing queen until
Able government of cardinal Alberoni ; ho re Isabella II. her infant daughter, attains her
established the authority of the king, reformed majority Sept 2$, „
many abuses, and raised Spain to the rank of a The royalist volunteers disarmed with sonie
first power, 1715-1720: ordered to quit Spain 1720 bloodshed at Madrid . . . Oct. 27, .»
Charles, son of Philip V. conquers Naples . . 1735 Queen Christina marries Ferdinand Mwioz
Charles III. king of the Two Sicilies, succeeds (afterwards duke of Rianzares) . Dec. 28, „
to the crown of Spain 1759 The quadruple treaty establishes the right of
War with England . . . . . . . 1796 Isabella to the throne . April 22, 1S34
Battle of Cape St. Vincent . . . Feb. 14, 1797 Don Carlos suddenly appears in Spain, Jidy 10, .,
Spanish treasure-ships, valued at 3,000,000 The peers vote his exclusion . . Aug. 30, „
dollars, seized by the English . Oct. 29, 1804 Mcnuizahal, prime minister ; Mina and
Battle of Trafalgar. 8ee Trafalgar Oct. 21, 1805 Esiiartero commanded the royalists ; the rebel
Sway of Godoy, prince of Peace . . . 1806 leader, Zumlacarregui killed near Bilboa . 1835
The French outer Spain ; a Spanish army scut Sir De Iact Evans, lord John Hay, and others,
to the Baltic 1807 raised a British legion for the queen of Spain,
Conspiracy of the princo of Asturias against his They defeat the CarHstsat Ht. Sebastian. Oct. iSj6
father July 25, Espartem gains the battle of Bilboa . Dec. 25. „
Treaty of Fontaincbleau . . . Oct. 27, ,, General Evans takes Irun . . May 17, 18:7
The Kronen take Madrid . . March, 1808 The Carlis's under Maroto desert Don Carlos
The prince of Peace dismissed. . March 18, and conclude a treaty of peace . Aug. 29, 1839
Abdication of Charles IV. in favour of Ferdi Don Carlos seeks refuge in France Sept. 13,
nand, March 19; and at B.tyonnc, in favour Surrender of Morcllo . . . May 2S, 1840
of his " friend and ally " Napoleon, when Cabrera, the Carlistgeneral, unable to maintain
Ferdinand relinquished the crown . May i, „ the war, enters France . . . July 7, „
Revolution ; the French massacred at Madrid, The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Sebastian
May 2, „ and Passages .... * Aug. 25, „
The province Asturias rises en matte . May 3, ,, Revolutionary movement at Madrid : the
Napoleon assembles the notables at Bayonne, authorities triumphant . . Sept. „
May 25, Dismissal of the ministry and dissolution of the
Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of cortcs .... . Sept 9, „
Spain, July 12; rotires . , July 29, „ Espartero makes his triumphal entry into
Battle of Vimiera ; French defeated . Aug. 21, ,, Madrid Oct 5,
Supremo Junta installed . . . Sept. The queen regent appoints a new ministry,
Madrid taken by tho French, and Joseph who are nominated by Espartero. Oct 5 ; she
restored Doc. 2, ,, abdicates and leaves the kingdom ; visits
Napoleon enters Madrid . . . Dec. 4, ,, Franco ; next Sicily ; but returns to Franco,
The royal family of Spain imprisoned in the Oct 12. „
palace of Chambery in Savoy . Dec. 5, „ Espartero, duke of Victory, expels the papal
The French take Ferrol, Jan. 27 : Saragoasa, nuncio Dec. 29, M
Feb. 21 ; Oporto, Feb. 29; Cordova and The Spanish cortcs declare Espartero regent
Seville, Nov. ; Gcrona . . . Dec. 12, 1S0) during the minority of the young queen,
Ney takes Ciudad Rodrigo . . July 10, 1810
Queen Christina's protest to the April
Th* Spanish cortcs meet . . . Sept. 24, „ t2, 1841
nation.
Wellington defeats Ma&sena at Fuentcsd'Onore, July 19, .»
May 6, 181 1 Insurrection in favour of Christina is com
Soult defeated at Albuera , . May 16, ,, menced at Pampeltina by general O'Donncll,
Constitution of the eortes . . . May 8, 1S12 and Concha Oct 2.
Wellington takes Ciudad Rodrigo, Jan. 19, Don Dieg > Leon attacks the palace at Madrid ;
storms Badajoz, April 6; defeats Marmont his followers are repulsed, and numbers
at Salanumea July 22, slain by the queen's guards . Oct. 7, „
Ho occupies Madrid, and totally defeits the Don Diego Leon shot at Madrid . . Oct. 15, w
French at Vittoria, June 21 ; defeats Soult in Zurbano captures Bilboa . . Oct. 31, „
tho Pyrenees, July 28; takes St. Sebastian, Rodil, tho constitutional general, enters
Aug. 31 : and enters Franco . . Oct. 8, 1813 Vittoria Oct 21 „
Ferdinand VII. (infamously ungrateful) restored MoutcH do Oca shot .... Oct 11, H
May 14, 1814 General O'Donnell takes refuge in the French
Slave trade abolished for a compensation . . 1817 territory O^t at, IB
lnmirrcctir.il at Valencia repressed . . . 1819 Esjiartcro decrees the suspension of queen
Spun .;L 1 evolution began .... Jan. 1820 Christina's pension .... Oct 26, n
SPA 677 SPA
SPAIN, continued.
Fucros of the Basque provinces abolished, I Her majesty gives birth to a princess Dec. 20, 1S51
Attempt made on the life of tho queen ; sbo is
Borio and Gobernado implicated in theOct. 29, s4.
Chris slightly wounded by the dagger of Merino, a
tina plot, put to death at Madrid . Nov. 9, Franciscan Feb. 2, 1852
E-partero enters Madrid . . Nov. 23, Gon. Custaiios, duke of Baylen, renowned in
General pardon of all persons not yet tried, tho war against the French, dies in his 96th
concerned in the events of Octolwr, Dec. 13, year Sopt. 23, „
The effective strength of the army fixed at Narvaez exiled to Vienna . . . Jan. 1853
130,000 men .... . June 28, 842 Ministerial ehanges—Lersundi forms a cabinet,
An insurrection breaks out at Barcelona ; the April ii,
national guard joins the populace, Nov. 13; Resignation of Lersundi—Sartonus's cabinet,
battle in the streets between tho national Sept. „
guard and the troops ; the latter lose 500 in Birth and death of a princess . . Jan. 5, 1854
killed and wounded, and rctreatj to tho General O'Donnell, Concha, and othcis
citadel Nov. 15, banished Jan 18,
Barcelona blockaded ; the British consul refuses Disturbances at Saragossa, &c. . . Feb,
refuge to any but British subjects on board Don Francisco (father of the king consort),
British ships .... Nov. 26, marries an "unfortunate" woman . March, „
The regent Espartero arrives before Barcelona, Military insurrection near Madrid . June 28, ,,
Nov. 29 ; its bombardment and surrender, The movement headed by Espartero ; Barcelona
Dec. 3, 4, and Madrid pronounce against the govern
The disturbances at Malaga . . May 25, 1843 ment; barricades in Madrid . . July 1-17,
The revolutionary junta is re-established at Triumph of tho insurrection ; resignation of
Barcelona Juno 11, tho ministry ; the queen sends for Espartero,
[Corunna, Seville, Burgos, Santiago, and July 19, „
numerous other towns, shortly afterwards Peace restored : the degraded generals rein
"'pronounce " against the regent Espartero.] stated, &c. ; Espartero forms au administra
Arrival of general Narvaez at Madrid, which tion July 31, M
surrenders July 15 The queen mother impeached ; she quits Spam,
Espartero bombards Seville . . July at. Aug. 28,
The siege is raised .... July 27, Ministerial crisis; Espartero resign', but re
[The revolution is completely successful, and sumes office .... Nov. 21-30, „
Espartero flies to Cadiz, and embarks on New constitution of the cortes proposed,
board her Majesty's ship Malabar.] Jan. 13, 1855
The new government deprives Espartero of his The cortes vote that all power proceeds from
titles and rank .... Aug. 16, the people ; they permit liberty of belief, but
Espartero arrives in London . . Aug. 23, not of worship Feb. M
Ite action against the new government breaks Don Carlos dies .... March 10, .,
out at Madrid .... Aug. 23, Insurrection at Valencia . . April 0, 1856
Tho young queen Isabella II. 13 years old, is Resignation of Espartero ; new cabinet formed
declared by the cortes to be of age; Narvaez headed by marshal O'Donnell ; insurrection
(friend of the queon mother), lieutenant- in Madrid, July 14 ; O'Donnell and the govern
general . . . . Nov. 8, ment troops subdue the insurgents ; the
The queen-mother returns to Spain, March 23, 1844 national guard suppressed . July 15-16, ,,
Zurbano's Insurrection, Nov. 12, 1844; he u Insurrection at Barcelona and Saragossa, quelled
shot Jan. 21, by O'Donnell, as dictator. . July 15-23,
Don Carlos relinquishes his right to the crown 1845 Amnesty granted to political offendoi-a, Oct. 19,
in favour of his son . May 18, „ O'Donnell compelled to resign ; Narvaez
Narvaez and his ministry resign Feb. 1 2 ; return becomes minister .... Oct 12, „
to power, March 17 ; again resign March 28, 1846 Espartero resigns as senator . . Feb. 1, 1857
Escape of Don Carlos from France Sept. 14, „ Insurrection in Andalusia ; quickly suppressed ;
Marriage of the queen to her cousin, Don cruel military executions ; 98 insurgents shot
Francisco d'Assiz, duke of Cadiz ; and (2.4 at Seville) . . . Juno and July,
marriage also of tho infanta Louisa to the Ministerial changes ; Armero becomes minister
duke de Montpensier . . Oct. io, „ Oct. 26,
(The Montpensier marriage occasions tho dis Isturitz becomes minister, Jan. 14; O'Donnell
pleasure of England, and disturbs the friendly becomes minister .... July r, 1858
relatione of the French and Eugli.-h govern Cessation of state of siege at Barcelona, ire.
ments. ] Sept. 20,
Amnesty granted to political offenders, Oct. 18, .. Joint French and Spanish expedition against
Two shots fired at tho queen by an assassin, Cochin China announced . . Dec. 1,
La Riva May 4, 1847 War with Morocco (which see) Nov. and Dec. 1859
He is sentenced to " death by the cord," and is An association for reforming the tariff, &c.
executed June 23, formed ,,
Espartero restored .... Sept. 3, O'Donnell commands the army in Africa; inde
Sir Henry Lytton Bulwcr, British envoy, cisive conflicts reported ; battle at Castellejos;
ordered to quit Spain in 48 hours . March 19, 1848 a S]xuiish " Balaklava" charge . Jau. 1, i860
Narvaez dismissed and recalled . . . 1849 The Moors defeated near Tetuan, which sur
Diplomatic relations between the two countries renders Feb. 4, ,,
not restored . . . . until April 18. An ineffectual truce . . . Feb. 16-23, >*
Tho queen of Spain delivered of a male child The Moors defeated at Guad-el-ras, March 23, ,,
which lives but ten minutes .... Treaty of peace signed ; 400,000,000 reals to be
The American expedition* under Lopez against paid by Moors, and Tetuan to be held till
Cuba. See Cufta and the United State*, 1850, paid March 26, ,,
Resignation of Narvaez . . . .Jan 10, General Ortega, governor of the Balearic Isles,
The infante dou Henrique permitted to return lands near Tortosa, in Valentia, with 3000
to Spain Fob. 2, men, and proclaims the comte de Monte-
Madrid-Aranjuez railway opened Feb. 9, xnolin kiug, as Charles VI. : his troops resist,
Tho queen pardons the prisoners taken In the and ho is compelled to flee, with the comte
attempt upon Cuba .... Dec. n and others April 3, „
SPA 678 SPA
SPAIN, continued.
He la arrested and shot . . . April 19, i86o English government recognises the insurrec
The comto de Montemolin and his brother Fer tion at St. Domingo ; Narvaez advises aban
dinand are arrested at Tortosa, April 21 ; they donment of the contest ; the queen refuses ;
renounce their claim to the throne, April 23, the ministry resign ; but resume office,
An amnesty procUimed . . May 2, „ iDec, 14-1S, 1S64
Their brother Juan asserts bin right, June 5 ; Peaco with Peru, which has to pay a heavy
and they, when at Cologne, annul their re indemnity Jan. 27, 1863
nunciation June 28, ,, The queen orders the sale of crown lands,
The emperor Napoleon's proposal to admit giving up three-fourths to the nation, Fob. 20,
Spain as a first-class power is opposed by Student riots at Madrid ; several persons killed,
England, and given up Aug. „ April 10, ,.
The comte de Montemolin and his wife die at Decree relinquishing St. Domingo . May 5, ,.
Trieste . .... Jan. 14, 1861 Dispute with Chili ; M.Tavh-a's settlement(May
The annexation of St. Domingo to Spain rati 20) disavowed by the government . July 25, ,.
fied ; slavery not to bo re established, May 19, Suppression of a conspiracy at Valentia to re
Insurrection at Loia suppressed . July, unite Spain and Portugal . . June 10, ,,
The queen said to do governed by the nun Pa- Resignation of Narvaez, June 19 ; O'Donnell
trocinio Dec. ,, forms a liberal cabinet . . June 22, .,
Intervention in Mexico (see Mexico) . Dec. 8, Kingdom of Italy recognised by Spain, June 36, „
Much church property in course of sale, April, 1862 Admiral Pareja, at Valparaiso, insults the
Jose* Alhama anil Manuel Matnmoros, protec Chilian government, Sept. 18; which declares
tant propagandists, sentenced to 10 years* im war, Sept. 25 ; Pareja declares a blockade,
prisonment Oct. 14, „ Oct
Don Juan dc Bourbon renounces his right to The Chilian capt. Williams captures the
the throne Jnn. 8, 1863 Spanish vessel Coradonya . . Nov. 26, ,.
Resignation of the premier, marshal O'Don- Intervention fruitless .... Dee. „
ncll, Feb. 26 ; a ministry formed by marquis New cortos elected ; the great Progrcsista party
do Miraftores .... March 4, still alwtain from action in public affairs ;
Insurrection at St. Domingo ; war ensues (see queen opens cortes .... Dec. 27,
Domingo) Sept 1, ,, Military insurrection at Aranjncz. headed by
Empress of France visits the queen . Oct. gen. Prim, Jan. 3; martial law in Madrid.
Rupture with Peru (vhich see) . April, 1864 Jan. 4 ; Concha and / ilttla march against
General Prim exiled for conspiracy . Aug. 13, „ rebels, Jan. 4. Arc. ; riots at Barcelona ; state
M. Mon forms a ministry, March : ; resigns, of siege in New Castile, Catalonia, and Arra-
Sept. 13 ; Narvaez forms a cabinet . Sept. 16, gon, Jan. 6-12; insurgents mid to be en
Queen Christina returns to Spain Sept. 26, deavouring to enter Portugal . Jan. 17, iS£6
KINGS OF SPAIN.
REIGN OK THE GOTHS
411. Ataulfo ; murdered by nil t idier*. 711. Rodrigo, or Rodcric ; stain in battle.
415. Sigerico ; reigned a few days only. [Six independent Suevic kings reigned 409-469:
Yalta, or Wallia.
Thcodoric I. : killed in a battle, which he and Two Vandauc kings : Gunderic 409-425; his
successor Gcnseric with his whole nation passed
gained, against Attila. over to Africa.]
Thorismund, or Torrismund ; assassinated by
his favourite.
Theodoric II. : assassinated by
45*- Euric, MAHOMETAN SPAIN.
466. the first monarch of all Spain. conDOTA.
483- AUric II. ; killed in buttle.
506. Gcsalric ; his bastard son. I. Antra. Tho first, Abdelasis ; tho last, Ynssuf-cl-
511. Amalric, or Amalaric ; legitimate son of Alaric. Tehrl: a.d. 714-755.
53i. Thcudis, or Theodat ; assassinated by a mad- Kings. The first, Abderahman I. ; the last, Abu
Alt : 755-"38.
548. Tb udiscla, or Thcodlselo : murdered,
Af la ; taken prisoner, and put to death.
549- Atanagild
554- Kings. The first, Mohammed I. ; the last, Ab-
567. Liuva, or Lcvua I. dallu : 1238-1492.
568. Leuvigildo ; associated on the throne with
Liuva, in 568 ; and sole king in 572.
586. Recaredo I. CHRISTIAN SPAIN.
601. Liuva II. ^assassinated. KINGS Or ASTURIAS AND LEOX.
6o3. Vitericus ; also murdered.
610. Gundomar. 71S. Pelagius, or Pelayo ; overthrow the Sfoors,
612. Sisibut, orSisebutb, or Siscbert. and chocked their conquests.
621. Recaredo II. 737. FaviLa ; killed in hunting.
Suintila : dethroned. 739. Alfonso the Catholic.
6'3'i. Sisenando. 757. Froila ; murdered bis brother Samaran, in
636. Chintclla. revenge for which he was murdered by his
64c. Tulga, or Tulca. brother and successor,
642. Cindasuinto; died in 632.
649. Recesuinto ; associated on tho throne this 774. Mauregato, Aurelio.
768. Aurelius or
the Usurper.
year, and in 653 l>ecame sole king.
672. Vamba, or Wamba ; dethroned, and died in a 788. 791.
Veremundo (Bermuda) I.
Alfonso II., the Chaste.
monastery. 842. Kamiro I. : he put 70.000 Saracens to the
680. Ervigius, or Ervigio. swonl in one battlo. Jiabbe.
687. Egica, or Etfiza.
Vitiza, or Witim: associated on tho throne; 850. S06.
Ordofto I.
Alfonso III., surnamed tho Great; relin
in 701 sole king. quished his crown to his son.
SPA 679 SPA
SPAIN, continued.
910. Garcias. 1504. Joanna, (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella)
914. Ordo5o II. and Philip I. of Austria. On her mother's
923. Froila II. death Joanna succoeded, jointly with her
935. Alfonso IV.,, the Monk ; abdicated. husband Philip ; but Philip dying in 1506,
930. Hamiro II. : killed in battle. and Joanna becoming imbecile, her father
950. Ordofio III. Ferdinand continued the reign ; and thus
955. Ordofio IV. perpetuated the unionof Castile withAragon.
956. Sancho I., the Fat ; poisoned with an apple.
967. Raxnfro III. KINGS OF ARAGON.
983. Vorcmundo II. (Bermuda), the Gouty. 1035. Romlro I.
999. Alfonso V, ; killed in a siege. 1065. Sancho Ramirez (IV. of Navarro).
1027. Vcroniundo III. (Bermuda) ; killed. 1094. Peter of Navarre.
1 104 Alfonso I., the Warrior, king of Navarro.
KINGS OF NAVARRE. 1134. Ramiro II., the Monk.
873. Sancho Ifiigo. Count. 1 1 37. Pctronilla, and Raymond, count of Barcelona.
885. Garcia I., king. 1163. Alfonso II.
905. Sancho Garcias ; a renowned warrior. 1 196. Peter II.
924. Garcias II, surnamed tiio Trembler. 1213. James I. ; succeeded by bis son.
970. Sancho II., surnamed the Great (king of Cas 1276. Peter III. ; conquered Sicih/ (which $ce) in 1282.
tile through his wife), 1285. Alfonso III., tho Beneficent.
1035. Garcias III. 1291. James II., surnamed the Just.
1054. Sancho III. 1327. Alfonso IV.
1076. Sancho IV., Ramirez, king of Aragon. 1336. Peter IV., tho Ceremonious.
1094. Peter of Aragon. 1387. John I.
1104. AUoilso I., of Aragon. 1395. Martin.
1134. Garcias IV., Ramirez. 141a [Interregnum.]
1150. Sancho V., surnamed the Wise. 1412. Ferdinand the Just, king of Sicily.
1194. Sancho VI., surnamed the Infirm. 1416. Alfonso V., the Wise.
1234. Theobald I., count of Champagne. 1458. John IL, king of Navarre, brother of Alfonso ;
1253. Theobald II. died 1479.
1270. Henry Crassus. 1479. Ferdinand II., tho Catholic, the next heir : in
1274. Joanna ; married to Philip the Fair of Franco, consequence of his marriage with Isaboila of
1285. Castile (1474), the kingdoms were united.
1305. Louis Hutin of France.
1316. John ; lived but a few days. SPAIN.
,, Philip V., the Long, of France. 1512. Ferdinand V. (of Castile), the Catholic. This
1312. Charles I. the IV. of France. prince having conquered Granada and Na
1328. Joanna II., and Philip, count d'Evreux. varre, became king of all Spain ; succcodcd
1343. Joanna alone. by his grandson,
1349 Charles II., or the Bad. 151G. Charles 1., son of Joanna of Castile and Philip
1387. Charles III., or the Noble. of A ustria (became emperor of Germany, as
1425. Blanche and her husband John II., afterwards Charles V., in 1519); resigned both crowns,
king of Aragon. and retired to a monastery.
1479. Eleanor. 155G. Philip II., his son, king of Naplos and Sicily ;
,, Francis Phosbus do Foix. a merciless bigot; married Mary, quccn-
1483. Catherine and John d'Albrct. rognant of England ; died a most dreadful
1512. Navarre conquered by Ferdinand tbc Catholic, death, being covered with ulcers.
and united with Castile. 159S. Philip III., his son, drove the Moors from
Granada and tho adjacent provinces.
KINGS OV LEON AND CASTILE. 1621. Philip IV. his son : a reign of unfortunate war
1035. Ferdinand the Great. with the Dutch and French ; ho lost Por
1065. Sancho II., the Strong, son of Ferdinand ; tugal in 1640.
Alfonso in Leon and Asturias, and Garcias 1665. Charles II., his son ; Lost of tho Austrian line ;
in Galicia. he nominated, by will, as his successor,
1072. Alfonso VI., the Valiant, king of Leon. X700. Philip V., duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis
1x09. Uraca and Alfonso VII. XIV. of France : hence arose the " war of
1126. Alfonso VII., Raymond. the Succession," terminated by tho treaty
1157. Sancho III., surnamed the Beloved, of Utrecht in 1713 ; resigned.
1158. Alfonso VIII , tbc Noble. X724. Louis I., son ; reigned only a fow months.
[Leon is separated from Castile under Fer ,, Philip V. : again.
dinand II., 1 157 1 188. 1746. Ferdinand VI., tho Wise ; liberal and bene
1 1 88. Alfonso IX., of Leon. ficent.
1214. Henry I. 1759. Charles III., brother-king of the Two Sicilies,
1217. Ferdinand III., tho Saintand tbc Holy. Bybim which ho gave to his third son Ferdinand.
Leon and Castile wero permanently united. 1788. Charles IV., son of Charles III. ; the influence
1232. Alfonso X., the Wise (the Alphonsino Tables of Godoy, prince of Peace, reached to almost
were drawn up under his direction). royal authority in this reign ; Charles abdi
1284. Sancho IV., the Great and the Brave. cated in favour of his son and successor, in
1295. Ferdinand IV. 1808, and died in 1819.
1312. Alfonso XI. 1808. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon ofFrancoalso
1350. Pct?r tho Cruel : deposed ; reinstated by forced to resign.
Edward the Black Prince of England ; slain ,, Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoloon ; forced
by his natural brother and successor. to abdicate.
1369. Henry II., the Gracious ; poisoned by a monk. 1814. Ferdinand VII., restored ; succeeded by
1379. John I : he united Biscay to Castile. 1833. Isabella II. daughter (bora Oct. 10, 1830);
1390. Henry III., tho Sickly. ascended the throne, Sept. 29, 1833 ; mar
X406. John II., son of Henry. ried her cousin, Hon Francis d'Assisi, Oc
1454. Henry IV., tho Impotent. tober 10, 1846. Tho present queen of Spain.
1474. Isaboila, now queen of Castile, nnrricd Fer [Heir : Alfonso, prince of Asturias, born Nov.
dinand of Aragon. a8, X857.J
SPA 080 SPA
SPANISH ARMADA. See Armada. SPANISH KRA. See Eras.
SPANISH GRANDEES, the higher nobility, almost equal to the kings of Castile airf
Aragon, find who often set their authority at defiance, were restrained on the union of th«
crowns by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella in 1474, who compelled several to relin
quish the royal fortresses and domains which they held. Charles V. reduced the grandees
to sixteen families (Medina-Sidonia, Albuquerque, &c.) dividing them into three classes.
SPANISH LANGUAGE (Lengua Castellana), is a dialect of Latin largely intermingled
with Arabic, which was the legal language till the fourteenth century. Spanish did not
become general till the 16th century.
EMINENT SPANISH AUTHORS.
Born Died j Bom Ditd Born Di«f
Garcilasao de la Vega 1503 1536 Mariana . . . 1536 1623 Solis . . 1610 i636
Boscan . . . 1496 1543 1 Herrera . . . 1565 1635 Feyjoe . • 17°' 17*5
Las Casas . . . 1474 1566 ; Lope do Vega . . 1568 1635 Yriarte • '75° J79*
Cervantes (author of Qtnvedo . . . 1570 1647 Conde . . 1765 1S20
Don Quixote) . . 1547 1616 1 Culderon . . . 1601 1682
SPANISH SUCCESSION AND MARRIAGES. See Spain, 1700 and Oct. 10, 1S46.
SPARTA, the capital of Laconia, the most considerable republic of the Peloponnesus, ami
the rival of Athens. Though without walls, it resisted the attacks of its enemies by the
valour of its citizens for eight centuries. Lelex is supposed to have been the first king.
From Lacedaeinon the fourth king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of as the
founders of the city, it obtained the names by which it is most known. The Lacedaemonians
were a nation of soldiers. They cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, nor agri
culture.
Sparta founded. Pavnanias . . . B.C. 1490 The Parthenii colonise Turentum . . b c 7<&
Tyndarus marries Lcda : Helen lx>rn . . *** The Messenians revolt, and league with Eli-s
Helen stolen by Theseus, king of Athens, but Argos, and Arcadia, against the Lacedaemo
recovered by her brothers . . . -1213 nians. [This war lasts fourteen years ] .
The princes of Greece demand Helen in mar Carnian festivals instituted
riage ; she makes choice of Mcnolaus of The Mcssenians settle in Sicily .... On
Hyccnw 1201 Tho states of Greece unite against the Persians
Tiiris, son of Priam, king of Troy, carries off Lconidos, at the head of 300 Spartans, with
Helen, 1 198; which leads to stands the Persian arms at the defile of
The Trojan war 1193 Thermopylae. (See TheJ-mofn/lo?, BattU of)
After a war of ten years, and a disastrous voyage Persians defeated by Pausanias .... 4= 4- •
of nearly eight, Menelaus and Helen return Ho is put to death for treason ; the Grecian
to Sparta 1176 armies choose an Athenian general . . .
Reign of Orestes, the son of Agamemnon. An earthquake at Sparta destroys thirty thou
Ptiumniax ........ 1175 sand persons ; rebellion of the Helots .
The kingdom is seized by the Hcraclidse. Platiea taken by the Spartans . . .
Lenpltt 1 104 The Spartans, under Agis, enter Attica, and 4^
Establishment of two kings; Eurysthenes and lay waste the country
Prudes, by their father, Anstodcmus . . noa Agis (king 427) gains a great victory over the 4--'
Rule of Lycurgus, who establishes the senate, Argives and the Mantina-ans . . . .
and enacts a code of laws. Eut+biv.* . . 881-884 Tho Lacedaemonian fleet, under Mindarus,
C'harilaus declares war against Polymncstor, defeated at Cyzicum, and Mindarus slain in
king of Arcadia 848 the battle
Alcamenes, known by his apophthegms, makes The Spartans, defeated by land and at sea,
war upon the Mesaonians 813 sue fur peace, which is denied by the Athe
Nicander succeeds his father, Charilaus ; war nians 4~ ■
with the Argives 800 Reign of Pausanias
Theopompus introduces the Ephori into the The Athenians defeated at iEgospotamos by 4' -
government about 757 Lysander
War declared against the Messenians, and Athens taken by him, which ends thcPelopon-
Amphia taken 743 nesian war . 404
War with the Argives, and celebrated battle" . 735 Agcsilaus (king 398) enters Lydia
The Progeny of the Parthenirc, the sons of The Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corin
Virgins 733 thians enter into a league against the Spartaus
Battle of Ithome 730 which begins tbo Corinthian war . . . 3-o
iihomc taken; tho MesFcnians become vassals Agesilaus defeats the Allies at Corouea
to Sparta, and the war ends, which had lasted The Lacedaemonian fleet, under Lysander, 3v4
nineteen years 724 defeated by Conon, the Athenian commander,
Conspiracy of the Parthenii with the Helots to near Cnidos ; Lysander killed in an engage
take Sparta ..,,»... 707 ment
• This celebrated battle was fought between 300 select, heroes of each nation, and all perished except
two Arrives and one Spartan. Tho latter remained on the field, whilst the two former repaired to Argus to
announce their victory. Each party claimed the advantage ; the Argives because thev had lost the fewest
men ; the I^accdtemonians, because they remained masters of the field. A second battle was fought, in
which the Argives were beaten. Pawanias.
SPA GS1 SPE
SPARTA, continued.
The Thebans drive the Spartans from Cadmca. Cleomencs retires to E/ypt . . . n.c. 222
Lcngltt B.c. 378 The Spartans murder the Ephori 221
The Spartans lose the dominion of the seas; Machanidas ascends the thnmo, and abolishes
their fleet totally destroyed by Timotheus . 376 the Ephori 210
The Spartans defeated at Leuctra . . . 371 He is defeated and slain by Pbllopcemen, Praetor
Kpaminondas, heading 50,000 Thebans, appears of the Achaian league 206
l«foro Sparta 369 Government of Nabis, execrable for his
Battle of Mantinea : the Thebans obtain the cruelties .... . . „
victory. See Mantinea 362 The Romans besiege Sparta, and the tyrant
Pyrrhus invades Sparta ; is defeated beforo the sues for peace 197
walls 294 The -Etolians obtain Sparta by treachery : Nabia
Agis endeavours to revive the laws of Lycurgus 244 is assassinated 192
Loonidas vacates the throne, and flies from The Laws of Lycurgus abolished .... 188
Sparta 243 Sparta, under the protection or rather subjuga
He is recalled, and becomes sole sovereign ; tion of Rome, retains its authority for a short
Agis put to death 241 time 147
Reign of Cleomcnes III. the son of Leonidas . 236
He re-establishes most of the laws of Lycurgus. 225 Taken by Mahomet II a.d. 1460
Antigonus meets Cleomencs on the plains of Burnt by Sigismund Kolatesta .... 1463
Sellosia, routs his army, and enters Sparta as Rebuilt at Misitra; it is now called Sparta, and
conqueror 222 is part of the kingdom of Greece (1865).
SPABTACUSS INSURRECTION. He was a noble Thracian, who served in an
auxiliary corps of the Roman army. Having deserted and been apprehended, he was reduced
to slavery and made a gladiator. With some companions he made his escape, collected a
body of slaves and gladiators, 73 n.c. ; ravaged Southern Italy ; and defeated the Roman
forces under the consuls sent against him. Knowing the impossibility of successfully
resisting the republic, lie endeavoured to conduct his forces into Sicily, but on the way was
defeated and slain by Crassus, 72 b.c.
SPEAKERS of tiif. House of Commons. Peter de Montfort, afterwards killed at the
battle of Evesham, was the first speaker, 45 Hen. III. 1260 ; but sir Peter de la Mare is
supposed to have been the first regular speaker, 50 Edw. III. 1376. The king refused his
assent to the choice of sir Edward Seymour, as speaker, March 6, 1678 ; and serjeant William
Gregory was chosen in his room. Sir John Trevor was expelled the chair and the house for
taking a gratuity after the act for the benefit of orphans had passed, March 20, 1694.
KF.CENT Sl'KAKFJtS.
1801. Ilcnry Addington (afterwards viscount Sid- 1817. Charles Manners Sutton (afterwards viscount
mouth), Jan. 22. Canterbury), June 2.
Sir John Mitford (afterwards baron Rcdcsdale), 1835. Jiimes Abercromby (afterwards baron Dun
Feb. xx. fermline). Feb. 19.
1802. Charles Abbot (afterwards lord Colchester), 1839. Charles Shaw Lcfevre (afterwards viscount
Feb. 10. Eversloy), May 27.
1S57. John Evelyn Denison, April 30.
SPEAKING-TRUMPET, used by ships at sea. One is said to hare been used by
Alexander, 335 B.C. One was constructed from Kircher's description by Saland, 1652.
Philosophically explained and brought into notice by Moreland, 1671.
SPECIES. Much controversy among naturalists arose in consequence of the pub
lication, in 1859, of Mr. Charles Darwin's "Origin of Species," in which he suggests that
all the various species of animals were not created at one time, but have been gradually
developed by what he terms "natural selection," and the struggle for life of the strong
against the weak.
SPECTACLES, unknown to the ancients, are generally supposed to have been invented
by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, about 12S5. According to Dr. Plott,
they were' invented by Roger Bacon, about 12S0. Mr. Manni in his Treatise gives proof
in favour of Salvino being the inventor.
SPECTATOR. The first number of this periodical appeared on March r, 171 1 ; the last
was No. 635, Dec. 20, 1714. The papers by Addison have one of the letters c L I o at the
end. The most of the other papers are by sir Richard Steele, a few by Hughes, Budgell,
Eusden, Miss Shephard, and others.—The Spectator newspaper began in 1828.
SPECTRUM, the term given tn the image of the sun or any other luminous body formed
on a wall or screen, by a beam of light received through a small hole or slit and refracted
by a prism. The colours thus produced are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and
violet. The discovery was made by Newton, whose "Optica*1 were published in 1704.
SPE 082 SI'I
Several of these colours are considered to be compounds of three primary ones, by Mayer
(1775), red, yellow, and blue ; by Dr. Thos. Young (1801), red, green, aud violet ; by Prof.
Clerk Maxwell (i860), red, green, and blue.* As the colour of a flame varies according to
the substance producing it or introduced into it, so the spectrum varies also. This has led
to the invention of a method of chemical analysis by professors Dunsen and Kirehhoff (i860),
bv which they have discovered two new metals, and have drawn conclusions as to the nature
of the atmosphere of the sun and stars, and of the light of the nebula;, by comparing the
spectrum with that produced by flames iuto which iron, sodium, and other substances have
been introduced.!
SPECULATIVE SOCIETY, Edinburgh (which had included amongst its members
David Hume), celebrated its hundredth anniversary on Oct. 14, 1863.
SPHERES. The celestial and tcrrestial globes, and also sun-dials, are said to have
been invented by Anaximander, 552 B.C. ; and the armillary sphere by Eratosthenes, about
225 n.c. The planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 212 B.C. Pythagoras
maintained that the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds, inaudible
to mortals, which he called the music of the spheres.
SPINNIXO was ascribed by the ancients to Minerva, the goddess of wisdom. Areas,
king of Arcadia, taught his subjects the art about 1500 B.C. Lucretia with her maids was
found spinning, when her husband Collatinus paid a visit to her from the camp. The wife
of Tarquin was an excellent spinner ; and a garment made by her, worn by Servius Tullius,
whs preserved in the temple of Fortune. Augustus Caesar usually wore no garments but such
as were made by his wife, sister, or daughter. The spinning-wheel was invented at
Brunswick, about a.d. 1530. Till 1767, the spinning of cotton was performed by the hand
spinning-wheel, when Hargreaves, an ingenious mechanic, near Elackburn, made a spinning
jenny, with eight spindles. Hargreaves also erected the first carding machine, with
cylinders. Arkwrighfs machine for spinning by water was an extension of the principle of
Hargreaves ; but he also applied a large and small roller to expand the thread, and, for this
ingenious contrivance, took out a patent in 1769. At first he worked his machinery by
horses ; but in 1 77 1 he built a mill on the stream of the Dement, at Cromford. In 1774-9,
Crompton invented the Mule (which see).
SPIRES (in Bavaria). The emperors held many diets at Spires since 1309, and it was the
scat of the Imperial chamber till 1688, when the city was burnt by the French, and not
rebuilt till after the peace of Ryswick, in 1697. The diet to condemn the reformers was
held at Spires, called there by the emperor Charles V. 1529. See Protestants.
SPIRIT-RAPPINO, &c. Spiritual manifestations (so called) began it is said in America,
about 1848, and attracted attention in this country about 1851, in the shape of table-turning,
tec. Many inquisitive or credulous persons visited Mr. Hume and Mr. Forster, noted
"spiritual mediums."
SPIRITS. See Distillation. In all nations spirituous liquors have been considered as a
proper subject of heavy taxation for the support of the state. See Alcohol, Brandy, Mctliy-
luted Spirits, itc.
In 1S40 England made about ten millions of gallons In 1858, 9,195,154?. was paid as duty on 27,370,954
of spirits, Scotland about seven millions of gallons, gallons.
and Ireland about nine millions of gallons. j In 1855, mHhyhtttd spirits of wine, for use in theartd
In 1851 the number of gallons on which duty was and sciences, were made duty free.
paid for home consumption was 23,976,596. The In 1859, 27,657,721 gallons of spirits were distilled in
totJil amount paid was 6,017.218/., of which the United Kingdom. The uniform duty of 8*.
3,758,186/. were paid by England, 1,252,297/. by por gallon was paid on 24,254,403 gallons for home
Scotland, and 1.006,735/. by Ireland. consumption, producing 9,701,764/.
The total duty on homo consumption paid 1111853 In 1861 an act was passed repealing wholly or in part
was 6,760,422/. I 26 previous acts, and embodying all reflations for
' the guidanceofinanufacturersanddealers in spirits
SFITALFIELDS (East London). Here the French Protestant refugees settled and
established the silk manufacture in 1685. In consequence of commercial changes the
weavers endured much distress about 1829.
* Frav tihnftr's Unci. In 1802 Dr. Wollaston observed several dark lines in the solar spectrum : in
1815 Joseph Fraunhufcr nut only observed them but constructed a map of them, giving 590 lines or dark
bands. Uy the researches of Iircwster and others the number observed is now above 2000.
t Mr. Fox Talbot observed the orange line of strontium in the spectrum in 1S26; and sir David
Brewster observed other lines, 1833-42-3. In 1S62-3 Mr. Wm. Hu^gins analysed the light of the fixed stars
and of the nebuLo : and in 1S65 Dr. Hence Jones, by means of spectrum analvses, detected the presence of
minute quantities of mctaU in the living body, introduced only a few minutes previously.
SIT 6S3 STA
SPITZBERGEN, an archipelago in the Arctic ocean, discovered in 1553, by sir Hugh
Villoughby, who called it Greenland, supposing it to be a part of the western continent.
In 1595 it was visited by Barents and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pretended to be the
original discoverers, and called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from the many sharp
pointed and rocky mountains with which it abounds. See Phipps.
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. The origin of the germs of infusorial animalcules
developed during putrefaction, &c, has been and is still fiercely debated by naturalists.
Spallanzani (about 1766), and especially M. Pasteur and others at the present time (1865),
assert that these germs arc really endowed with organic life existing in the atmosphere.
Needham (about 1747), and especially M. Pouchet and his friends in our day, pretend that
these germs are spontaneously formed out of organic molecules, and may be formed
artificially. Pouchct's " BtUrogenU," appeared in 1859.
SPORTS. The first "Book of Sports," under the title of "The King's Majestie's
Declaration to bis Subjects concerning I/awful Sports to be used " on Sundays after evening
prayers, was published by king James I. May 24, 1618. The second " Book of Sports," with
a ratification by his majesty Charles I. is dated Oct. 18, 1633. On tho publication of the
first " Book of Sports," there arose a long and violent controversy among English divines
on certain points. See Sabbatarians, Sunday, &c. The book was ordered to be burnt by
the hangman and the sports were suppressed by the parliament.
SPRINGFIELD (Missouri), near which was fought the desperate battle of Wilson's
Creek, in which the federals had the advantage over the confederates, but lost their brave
general, Nathaniel Lyon, Aug. 10, 1861.
SPURS. Anciently the difference between the knight and esquire was, that the knight
wore gilt spurs (eques auratus) and the esquire silver ones. Two sorts of spurs seem to have
been in use at the time of the Conquest, one called a pryck, having only a single point, the
other a number of points of considerable size. Spurs nearly of the present kind came into
use about 1400. See Plating.
SPURS, Battle of. Henry VIII. of England, the emperor Maximilian, and the Swiss,
in 1 5 13, entered into an offensive alliance against France. Henry VIII. landed at Calais in
the month of July, and soon formed an army of 30,000 men, counting his own troops. He
was joined by the emperor with a good corps of horse and some foot. The emperor was so
mean as to act as a mercenary to the king of England, who allowed him a hundred ducats a
day for his table ! They invested Teroiienne with an army of 50,000 men ; and the due de
Longuevillc, marching to its relief, was signally defeated on tho 16th of August, at Guine-
gatc. This battle was called the battle of Spurs, because the French used their spurs more
than they did their swords. The English king laid siege to Tournay, which submitted in a
few days. Henault. See Courtrai, for another "battle of spurs."
STADE DUES. At a castle near the town of Stade, in Hanover, certain dues were
charged by the Hanoverian government on all goods imported into Hamburg. The British
government settled these dues in 1844 ; and they were resisted by the Americans in 1855.
Negotiations on the subject began in i860, and the dues were abolished in June, 1861.
Great Britain paid 160,000/. as her share of the compensation.
STADTIIOLDER. Seo Holland,
STAFF COLLEGE (Sandhurst), for providing an education to qualify military officers
for tho duties of the staff. The foundation stone was laid by the duko of Cambridge, on
Dec. 14, 1859.
STAGE-COACHES. So called from the stages or inns at which the coaches stopped to
refresh and change horses. Bailey. The stage-coach duty act passed in 1785. These
coaches were made subject to salutary provisions for the safety of passengers, in 1809 ; to
mileage duties, 1814. See Mail Coaches, &c.
STAMP-DUTIES, first instituted in 1671. They were re-enacted 1694, when a duty was
imposed upon paper, vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on newspapers was com
menced in 1713, and every year added to the list of articles upon which stamp-duty was
made payable.
The American Stamp Act, a memorable statute, j Stamp duties in Ireland commenced . . . 1774
one of those imposts levied by the parliament Stamps on notes and lulls of exchange in . . 1782
of Oreat Britain, which led to the American j The stamp-duties produced in England, in 1S00,
war, and the independence of that country, ! u revenue of 3,126,535!.
passed March 22, 17G5. It was repeal, d in " . 17G6 Many alteration1* nndo in 1853 and 1857. In
STA 6S4 STA
STAMP-DUT1 ES, continued.
June, 1855, the stamp-duty t,n newspapers w (on lenses, hills of exchange, dock wamnts,
such was totally abolished : the stamp un I extracts from registers of births. Arc.) ; in
them being henceforth for postal purposes. 1861 (on leases, licences to hou-e agents, &c).
In July and Aug. 1854, 19,115,000 newspaper Stamp-duties reduced in 1864, 1865.
stamps were issued ; iu the same months, All fees payable in the superior courts of law,
1855, only 6,870,000. after Dec. 31, 1865, are to be collected by-
Drafts on bankers to be stamped . . . . 185S stamps, by uu act pa&sed in June, 1865.
Additional stamp duties were enacted in 1S60
AMOt XT OF STAMP DUTIES RECEIVED IX THE UNITED KINGDOM.
1840 .... £6,726,817 I 1850 .... £6.558,332 I 1859 (to Mar. 31) . . £7,994.656
1845 7,710,683 I 1855 6,805,605 I 1864 (ditto) . . 9.324,550
STANDARD. First fixed by the law for gold and silver in England, 1300. Standard
gold is 22 parts out of 24 of pure gold, the other two parts or carats being silver or copper,
The standard of silver is n oz. 2 dwts. of fine silver alloyed with 18 dwts. of copper, or 37
parts out of 40 pure silver, and three parts copper. In 1300 these 12 oz. of silver were
coined into 20 shillings; in 1412 they were coined into 30 shillings ; and in 1527 into 45
shillings. In 1 545, Henry VIII. coined 6 oz. of silver and 6 oz. of alloy into 48 shillings ;
and the next year he coined 4 oz. of silver and 8 oz. of alloy into the same sum. Elizabeth,
in 1560, restored the old standard in 60 shillings ; and in 1601 iu 62 shillings. It is now 66
shillings. The average proportions of silver to gold at the royal mint are 154 to 1. The
standard of plate and silver manufactures was affirmed, 6 Geo. I. 1 719 ct stq. See Gold and
Coinage — Battle of the Standard. See Northallerton.
STANDARD MEASURES. In the reign of Edgar a law was made to prevent frauds
arising from the diversity of measures, and for the establishment of a legal standard measure
to be used in every part of his dominions. The standard vessels made by order of the king
were deposited in the city of Winchester, and hence originated the well-known term of
" Winchester measure." The bushel so made is still preserved in the guildhall of that city.
Henry I. also, to prevent frauds in the measurement of cloth, ordered a standard yard of the
length of his own arm to be made and deposited at Winchester, with the standard measures
of king Edgar. The Guildhall contains the standard measures of succeeding sovereigns.
Camden. —The standard weights and measures were settled by parliament iu 1824. The
pound troy was to be 5760 grains, and the pound avoirdupois 7000 grains. The " Standard
yard of 1760," in the custody of the clerk of the house of commons, was declared to be the
Imperial Standard yard and the unit of measures of extension. Tiiis standard having been
destroyed by the tire in 1834, a new commission was appointed to reconstruct it, and
researches for this purpose, in conformity with the act, which directed the comparison of the
standard with a pendulum vibrating seconds of time in the latitude of London, were begun,
by Francis Baily (died in 1844), continued by the rev. H. Sheepshanks till his death in 1855,
and completed by G. 15. Airy, astronomer royal. In 1855 was passed "an act for legalising
and preserving the lost standards of weights and measures." The parliamentary copies of the
standard pound and yard are deposited at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.
STANDARDS. See Manners, Flays, &e. The practice in the army of using a cross on
standards and shields is due to the asserted miraculous appearance of a cross to Constantine,
previously to his buttle with Maxentius ; Eusebius says that he received this statement from
the emperor himself, 312. For the celebrated French standard, sec> Auriflamme.—Standard
of Mahomet ; on this ensign no infidel dared look. It was carried in procession about
1768, when several hundred Christians, who ignnrantly looked upon it, were massacred by
the Turkish populace. —The British Imperial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower of
London, and on Bedford Tower, Dublin, and displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of
the kingdoms, Jan. I, 1801.
STANFORD BRIDGE, York. In 1066, Tostig, brother of Harold II., rebelled against
his brother, and joined the invading army of Harold Hardrada, king of Norway. They
defeated the northern earls and took York, but were defeated rtt Stanford-bridge by Harold,
Sept. 25, and were both slain. The loss by this victory no doubt led to his own ruin at the
battle of Hastings on Oct. 14, following.
STANHOPE ADMINISTRATION was formed by James (afterwards earl) Stanhope and
the earl of Sunderland in April, 171 7. It included earl Stanhope, chancellor of the exche
quer ; earl Cowpcr, lord chancellor ; earl of Sunderland and Joseph Addison, secretaries of
state, &e. In .March, 1718, Addison resigned, and the earl of Sunderland became premier.
STANNARY COURTS of Devon and Cornwall for the administration of justice among
STA 685 STA
the tin miners, whose privileges were confirmed by 33 Edw. I. 1305. They were regulated
by parliament in 1641 nnd 1855.
STARCH is a sediment produced at the bottom of vessels wherein wheat has been
steeped in water : it is soft and friable, easily broken into powder, and is used to stiffen and
clear linen, with blue ; its powder is employed to powder the hair. The art of starching
linen was brought into England by Sirs. Dinghcin, a Flemish woman, 1 Mary, 1553. Stou:
Patents for obtaining starch from other substances have been taken out : from potatoes by
Samuel Newton and others in 1707 ; from the horse-chestnut by Win. Murray in 1796 ; from
rice by Thomas Wickhain in 1823 ; from various matters by Orlando Jones in 1839-40.
STAR-CHAMBER, Court of. So called haply from its roof being garnished with star?.
Coke. This court of justice was called Star-Chamber, not from the stars on its roof (which
were obliterated even before the reign of queen Elizabeth), but from the Starra, or Jewish
covenants, deposited there by order of Richard I. No star was allowed to be valid except
found in those repositories, and here they remained till the banishment of the Jews by
Edward I. The court was instituted 2 Hen. VII. 1486, for trials by a committee of the
privy council, which was in violation of Magna Charta ; as jt dealt with civil and criminal
causes unfettered by the rules of law. In Charles I.'s reign (1634-37), it exercised its power
upon several bold innovators in liberty, who only gloried in their sufferings, and contributed
to render government odious and contemptible. It was abolished in 1641. There were in
this court from 26 to 42 judges, the lord chancellor having the casting voice.
STAR OF INDIA, a new order of knighthood for India, gazetted June 25, 1861.*
STARS, the Fixed. They were classed into constellations, it is supposed, about
1 200 B.C. Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars were motionless, and
that the earth moved round them, about 344 B.C. (this is mentioned by Cicero, and perhaps
gave the tir.^t hint of this system to Copernicus). Job, Hesiod, and Homer mention
several of the constellations. The Royal Library at Paris contains a Chinese chart of the
heavens, made about 600 B.C. in which 1460 stars are correctly inserted. The aberration of
the stars was discovered by Dr. Bradley, 1727. See Astronomy ami Solar System. Maps
of the stars were publishod by the Society for tho Diffusion of Knowledge in 1839, and a set
of Celestial Maps, issued under tho superintendence of the Royal Prussian Academy, was
completed in 1859.
STATE PAPER OFFICE was founded in 1578. In 1857 the British government began
the publication of Calendars of State Papers, which will bo invaluable to future historians.
STATES-GENERAL ok FRANCE. An ancient assembly of Fiance, first met, it is said,
in 1302 to consider Uie exactions of the pope. Previously to the Revolution, it had not met
since 1614. The states consisted of three orders, the clergy, nobility, and commons. They
were convened by Louis XVI. and assembled at Versailles, May 5, 1789 (308 ecclesiastics,
285 nobles, and 621 deputies or tiers 6tat). A contest arose whether the three orders should
make three distinct houses, or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon the latter, and,
assuming the title of the National Assembly, declared that they were competent to proceed
to business, without the concurrence of the two other orders, if they refused to join them.
The nobility and clergy found it expedient to concede the point, and they all met in one
hall. See Rational Assembly.
STATES of the CHURCH. See Pope and Rome.
STATIONERS. Books and papers were formerly sold only at stalls, hence the dealers
were called stationers. Tho company of stationers of London is of great antiquity, ami
existed long before printing was invented, yet it was not incorporated until 3 Philip & Mary,
1555. Their old dwelling was in Paternoster-row. Mortimer.
STATISTICS, defined as the science of figures applied to life, is stated to have been
founded by sir Wm. Petty, who died in 1687. The term is said to have been invented by
professor Achenwall of GOttingen in 1749. The first statistical society in England was formed
at Manchester in 1833 ; the Statistical Society of Loudon, which publishes a quarterly
journal, was established in 1834 ; similar societies have been established on the continent.
International Statistical Congresses arc now held occasionally. The 1st at Brussels, in 1853 ;
2nd at Paris, 1855 ; 3rd at Vienna, 1857 ; 4th at Loudon, under the presidency of the
prince consort, July 16-21, i860.
* It comprises the sovereign, the grand muster, 25 knights (Europeans and nitives), nnd extra
honorary knisthts, such as the prince consurt, tho prince of Wales, &c. The qucon invested several knights
on Nov. t, 1E61.
STA GSG STE
STATUES. See Sculpture, &c. Phidias, whoso statue of Jupiter passed for one of the
wonders of the world, was the greatest statuary among the ancients, 440 B.C. He had
previously made a statue of Minerva at the request of Pericles, which was placed in the
Parthenon. It was made of ivory and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Acilius raised
a golden statue to his father, the first that appeared iu Italy. Lysippus invented the art of
taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he afterwards east models in wax, 326 B.C.
Michael Angelo was the greatest artist among the moderns. The first equestrian statue
erected in Great Britain was that of Charles I. in 1678.* By 17 & 18 Viet. c. 10 (July 10,
1854), public statues are placed under the control and protection of the Board of Works,
The following are the chief public statues in London :—
Achilles, Hyde-park, In honour of the duko of George III. Cockspur-atrect .... 1836
Wellington, by the ladies of Great Britain, i Havelock, *ir Henry, Trafalgar-square. . . iSSi
Juno 18, 1822 ! Howard, John ; first erected in St. Paul's. . 1796
Albert, prince consort, Horticultural Society Jennor, Edward, Trafalgar-square, 185S; re-
gardens 1863 \ moved to Kensington-gardens . . . . 1862
Anne, queen, St. Paul's Church-yard . . . 1711 James II. Whitehall 1687
Bedford, duke of, Russell-square . . , 1809 I Myddclton, sir Hugh, Islington-green . . . iS6a
Canning. George, New Palace-yard- . . . 1832 Napier, gen. sir Charles J., Trafalgar-square . 1856
Cartwright, major, Burton Crescent . . . 1831 Nelson, lord, Trafalgar-square .... 1843
Charles II.
Charles I. Charing Cross
Boho-squarc 1678
**•* I Pitt,
Peel, William, Hanover-square
sir Robert, Cheaphido .... . . . . 1831
1855
Cumberland, duko of. Cavcndish-squarc . . 1770 1 Richard Ceeur de Lion, near Westminster abbey 1S60
Elizabeth, queen, St. Dunstan's, Fleet-street . 1586 ] Wellington, duke of. Royal Exchange . . . 1844
Fox, Charles James, Bloomsbury-square . . 1816 [ Wellington, duke of, arch, Hyde-park corner . 1846
George I. Grosvenor-square 1726, William IlL St. James's-squarc .... 17*7
George I. Leicester-square . . , . „ i William IV. King William-street . . . . 1845
George HI. Somerset-house 1788 I York, duke of, Watcrloo-placo .... 1S34
STATUTES. See Act* of Parliament, Clarendon, Merlon, &c. The Statute Law
Revision act was passed in 1863.
STEAM CARRIAGE (for ordinary roads), invented by the carl of Caithness, was said to
be successful in i860. It travels over rough roads at the rate of 8 miles an hour, at a cost
of less than id. per mile. His lordship made a journey of 140 miles in two days.
STEAM-ENGINE and NAVIGATION. Hero of Alexandria, in his "Pneumatics,"
describes various methods of employing steam as a power ; and to him is ascribed the
/Elopile, which, although a toy, possesses the properties of the steam-engine : he flourished
about 284-241 B.C. Roger Bacon appears to have foreseen the application of steam-power.
See Railways, Locomotives, &c.
Solomon de Cnus, a French protestant, pub The marquess Jouffroy constructed an engine
lishes a work which Arago considers to have on the ^a6ne - . 17S1
contained the germs of the steam-engine . . 1615 Wm. Patrick Miller patented paddle-wheels . 17^7
The marquess of Worcester alludes to steam in [He and Mr. Symington are said to have con
his " Century of Inventions " . . . . 1663 structed a small steamboat which travelled at
Papin's digttter invented 1681 about £ miles an hour soon after.]
Captain Savory's engine constructed for raising W. Symington made a passage on the Forth
water 1698 and Clyde canal 1789
Papiu's engine exhibited to the Royal Society First steam-engine erected in Dublin by Henry
about 1699 Jackson ........ 1791
Atmospheric engine by Savory and Newcomen 1713 First experiment with steam navigation on the
First idea of ttcam navigation set forth in a Thames 1S01
patent obtained by Jonathan Hulls . . 1736 Trevethick's high-pressure engine. . . .
Watt's invention of performing condensation Woolfs double cylinder expansion engine con
in a separate vessel from the cylinder . . 1765 structed 1804
His first patent 1769, Manufactories warmed by steam . , . 1S06
His engines upon a largo scalo erected in manu Fulton's steam-boat " Clermont" on the Seine,
factories, and his patent renewed by act of Aug. 9, 1803 ; at Now York
parliament 1775 Fulton started a steam-boat on the river
Thomas Paine proposes the application of Hudson, America 1S07
steam in America ...... 1778 Steam power to convey coals on a railway,
Engines made to give a rotary motion . . . „ employed by Blcnkinsop 1S11
Watt's expansion engine „ The Cornel builtby Henry Bell, plieson the Clyde,
Double-action engines proposed by Dr. Falck Jan. 1S13
on Newcomen's principle . . . . 1779 Steam applied to printing in the Time* office.
Watt's double-engine, and his first patent for it Sec Printing Machine*. 1814
granted 1781
* This statue is of brass, cast by Le Sueurs, In 1633, at the expense of the Howard-Arundel family.
During the civil war, the parliament sold it to John liivcr. a brazier, in Holbom, with strict ordera to
break it to pieces ; but he canc-ealed it underground till the Restoration, when it was erected, in 167S, on a
pedestal executed by Grinlin Gibbons. The first equestrian statue of bronze, founded at one east, was th*t
of Louis XIV. of France, 1699 ; it was elevated about 1724.
STE 087 STE
STEAM-ENGINE, continual.
There were five steam-vessel* in Scotland (Pari. Tho Cunard steamers began to sail . July 5, 1840
Return*) 1814 I fSir Sam. Cunard died April 28, 1865, aged 78. J
First steam-vessel on the Thames brought by Tho Collins steamers began 1850
Mr. Dodd from Glasgow 1815 Tho Pacific crosses tho Atlantic in 9 days,
First steamer built in England (Pari. Returns) . „ 19 hours, 25 minutes, arriving at Holyhead,
Tho Stxvatmah steamer, of 350 tons, came frjm May 20, 185 1
New York to Liverpool in 26 days July 15, 1819 Steam packets leave Galway for America . . 1858
First steamer in Ireland 1820 Tho merits of an attacking vessel termed a
Steam-gun invented by Perkins . . . . 1824 steam ram advocated by sir G. Sartorius, wcro
Steam-jet applied 1825 discussed in 1859 60
Captain Johnson obtained io.oooi. for making An iron-plated frigate, La Oloire, completed in
the first steam vovage to India, in tho Enter France. Sec-Vaiv/, French 18C0
prise, which Bailed* from Falmouth . Aug. 16, ,, The Warrior, an iron-plated vessel, launched,
The locomotive steam-carriages on railways, Dec. 29,
at Liverpool Oct. 1829 The Far East, a vessel with two screws, launched
The railway opened. See Liverpool . . . 1830 at Millwall Oct. 31, 1863
Peninsular and Oriental Steam Company formed 1836
The Great Western arrives from liristol at New
York, being her first voyage in 18 days, Steam vessels belonging to tho British empire in
June 17, 1838 1814, 6 : in 1815, 10 ; in 1820, 43 ; in 1825, 168 ; in
War-steamers built in England . . . . 1830, 315; in 1835, 545; in 1845, 1001 ; in 1850,
War-steamers built at Tlirkcnhcad, named tho 1 187 ; in 1864, 2490.
SemeHs and Phlegethon, carrying each two
thirty-two pounders, sent by government to See Wavy and Shipping.
China 1840
THE LARGE STEAM" VESSELS OF ENGLAND.
Long. Broad. Long. Broad.
Great Western .... 236 feet 35 feet Persia 390 feet 45 feet
Duke of Wellington . . . . 240 feet 60 feet Great Eastern* . ... 692 foct 83 feet
British Queen .... 275 feet 61 feet Jf->rm Power:—Paddles, 1000 ; Screw, 1600;
Great Britain 322 feet 51 feet Weight of ship, &c., 12,000 tons; ordinary
Himalaya 370 feet 43 feet light draught 12,000 tons.
STEAM-HAMMER was invented by Mr. James Nasmyth in 1838, and patented by him
June 18, 1842. The main feature in the construction of the steam-hammer is, the abso
lutely direct manner by which the elastic power of steam is employed to lift up and let fall
the mass of iron which constitutes the hammer, which mass or block of iron is attached
direct to the end of a piston-rod passing through the bottom of an inverted steam cylinder
placed immediately over the anvil. The vast range and perfect control over the power of the
blows enable the largest or smallest forge-work to be executed by the same steam-hammer. +
In 1842, Mr. Nasmyth applied his steam-hammer to driving piles, which invention has
importantly assisted in the execution of every great public work in which pile-driving has
been required.
STEAM NAVIGATION. See under Steam.
STEAM-rLOUGH was invented by John Fowler, who died in 1864.
• The Great Eastern—for a short time only (in 1857-8) called Isriathaa—was designed by Mr. I. K.
Brunei [who died Sept. 15, 1859], and built by Messrs. Scott Russell and Co., at Millwall. Its launching lasted
from Nov. 3. 1857. to Jan. 31, 1858. The capital subscribed having been all expended, a new company was
formed to fit her for sea. On Sept. 7, 1859, she left her moorings at Deptford for Portland-roads. On the
voyage an explosion took place (off Hastings), through some neglect in regard to the cawing of one of tho
chimneys, when ten firemen were killed, and many persons seriously injured. After repairs she sailed
to Holyhead, arriving there Oct 10; she endured the storm of Oct.. 25-26 well ; and proceeded to South
ampton for the winter, Nov. 4.—She was constructed to convey 5000 persons from London to Australia, a
distance of 22,500 miles ; with accommodation for Soo 1st class passengers ; 2000 2nd class ; and 1200 3rd
class. Her able captain (Harrison) was drowned in the Solent, Jan. 22. i860, deeply regretted. She sailed
for New York, June 17, under command of captain Vine Hall, and arrived there June 28th. After being
exhibited she left New York, Aug i6t and returned to England Aug. 26. Owing to a lawsuit in April, the
ship came into the hands of sheriffs officers ; but was released and sailed for Xew York on May 1, 1861.
On Sept. 12, 1861, sho suffered much loss through a violent gale. In 1862 she performed several voyages
to and from New York ; but on Aug. 1862, ran on a rock near Long Island, and injured her bottom. Sho
was repaired and arrived at Liverpool, Jan. 17, 1863, and sailed to New York (May 16-27). Tho ship was
bought by Glass, Elliot, and Co., in March or April, 1864, and was chartered to convoy the Atlantic
telegraph cable. It sailed from Shcerness, July 15 ; and returned, Aug. 19, 1865. Seo Electric Telegraph,
p. 270.
t It Is now employed, in every country where the working of malleable iron is carried on. Owing to
the vast range of power possessed by the stoam-hammer, forged iron work can now by its means bo
executed on a scale, and for a variety of purposes, with such case and perfection as could not have been
possible by the means previously existing. Parts of the most; gigantic marine steam-engines, anchors, and
Armstrong guns, as well aa the moft minute details of macbiuery, as in Enfield rifles, are now executed
by the steam-hammer.
STE 6S3 STE
STEAM-RAM (to be used in naval warfare), was invented by Mr. James Nasmyth in
1836, and communicated to the Admiralty in 1845. Steam-rams built by Mr. James Laird
of Birkenhead for the confederates in N. America, were stopped and eventually bought by
the British government in 1864.
STEARINE (from slcar, suet), that part of oils and fats which is solid at common tem
peratures. The nature of these substances was first made known by Chevreul, in 1823, who
showed that they were compounds -of peculiar acids, with a base termed glycerine ; of these
compounds the chief are stearine, margarine, and elaine. See Candles.
STEEL, metal, a compound of iron and carbon, exists in nature, and has been largely
fabricated from the earliest times. A manufactory for cast steel is said to have been set up
by Benjamin Huntsman at Handsworth, near Sheffield, in 1740. The manufacture of shear
steel began at Sheffield about 1800. German steel was made at Newcastle previously by Mr.
Crawley. The inventions of Mushat (1800) and Lucas (1804) were important steps in this
manufacture. See Eiujraving. In 1856, Mr. H. Bessemer made steel by passing cold air
through liquid iron ; in 1859, tungsten steel was made in Germany ; and in 1 S61, M. Fremy
made steel by bringing red hot iron in contact with carbonate of ammonia. The subject has
been much investigated by M. Caron, 1 86 1 - 5. In i860, much attention was excited by
cutlery made from a metallic sand, brought from Taranaki or New Plymouth, in New
Zealand. In consequence of improved modes, steel is now made cheaply in large masses,
and will be employed in the manufacture of cannon, &c.
STEEL PENS. "Iron pons" are mentioned by Chamberlayne in 1685. Steel pens
came into use about 1820, when the first gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale for Jl. 4*.
In 1830, the price was 8s., and in 1832, 6s. A better pen is now sold for 6d. a gross ; the
cheapest sort at 2d. ; Birmingham in 1858 produced about 1000 million pens per annum.
Women and children are principally employed in the manufacture. Perry, Mitchell, and
Gillott are eminent makers.
STEEL-YARD. An ancient instrument, the same that is translated balance in the Pen
tateuch. The Statcra Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is mentioned in 315 n.c.—The Stf.el-
Yakd Company, London merchants, who had the steel-yard assigned to them by Henry III.
a.d. 1232, were Flemings and Germans, and the only exporters, formally years after, of the
staple commodities of England. Anderson. The company lost its privileges in 1551.
STEENKIRK. See Enghein.
STENOGRAPHY (from slcnos, narrow), the art of short hand, said to have been
practised by the ancients. Its improvement is attributed to the poet Ennius, to Tyro,
Cicero's freedman, and still more to Seneca. The Ars Scribendi Characteris, written alxmt
1412, is the oldest system extant. Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on steno
graphy in 1590 ; and John Willis (published his " Stenoi/raphie" in 1602. There are now-
numerous systems : Byrom's (1750), Gurncy's (1753), Taylor's (1786), Pitman's (phono
graphic), (1857).
STEPHEN'S CHAPEL, ST., Westminster. The commons of England held their
assemblies in this chapel, which was built by king Stephen, and dedicated about 1135- It
was rebuilt by Edward III. in 1347, and by him made a collegiate church, to which a dean
and twelve secular priests were appointed. Soon after its surrender to Edward VI., about
1548, it was applied to the use of parliament. See Parliament. It was destroyed by tire,
Oct. 16, 1834. The Society of Antiquaries published memorials of it about 1810 ; and Mr.
Mackenzie's work appeared in 1844.
STEREOCHROMY, a mode of painting in which water-glass (an alkaline solution of
flint, silex) serves as the connecting medium between the colour and the substratum. Its
invention is ascribed to Von Kuchs, who died at Munich on March 5, 1856. Fine specimens
of this art by Kaulbach and Echter exist in the Museum at Berlin, and also at Munich.
STEREOMETER, by which is compassed the art of taking the contents of vessels of
liquids by gauging, invented about 1350. Anderson. M. Say's stereometer, for deter
mining the specific gravity of liquids, porous bodies, and powders as well as solids, was
described in 1797.
STEREOSCOPE (from stereos, solid, and skopein, to see),- an optical instrument for
representing in apparent relief natural objects, &c. , by uniting into one image two plauo
representations of these objects as seen by each eye separately. The first stereoscope by
reflection was constructed and exhibited by professor Charles Wheatstone in 1S38, who
announced its principle in 1833. Since 1S54, stereoscopes have been greatly improved.
STE CS9 STO
STEREOTYPE (a cast from a page of moveable printing-typos). It is said that stereo
typing was known in 171 1. It was practised by Win. Ged of Edinburgh, about 1730. Some
of Ged's plates are at the Royal Institution, London.* A Mr. James attempted to introduce
Ged's process in London, but failed, about 1735. NichoU. Stereotype printing was in use
in Holland, in the last century ; and a qu.irto Bible and a Dutch folio Bible were printed
there. Phillips. It was revived in London by Wilson in 1804. Since 1850 the durability
of stereotypes has been greatly increased by electrotypiug them with copper or silver.
STERLING (money). Camden derives the word from fosterling or esterling, observing
that the money brought from the east of Germany, in the reign of Richard I., was the most
esteemed on account of its purity, being called iu old deeds, "numtni easterling."
STETHOSCOPE. Iu 1816 Laennec, of Paris, by rolling a quire of paper into a kind of
cylinder, and applying one^nd to the patient's chest and the other to his own ear, perceived
the action of the heart in a much more distinct manner than by the immediate application
of the ear. This led to his inventing the stethoscope, or " breast-explorer;" the principle
of which, now termed "auscultation," was known by Hippocrates.
STEWARD of England, Lokd Hic.h. The first grand officer of the crown. This
office was established prior to the reign of Edward the Confessor, and was formerly annexed
to the lordship of Hinckley, I^icestersliire, belonging to the family of Montfort, earls of
Leicester, who were, in right thereof, lord high stewards of England ; but Simon de Mont
fort, the last earl of this family, having raised a rebellion against his sovereign Henry 111.,
was attainted, and his estate forfeited to the king, who abolished the office, 1265. It is now
revived only pro hdc vice, at a coronation, or the trial of a peer. The first afterwards
appointed was Thomas, second son of Henry IV. The first for the trial of a peer was
Edward, carl of Devon, on the arraignment of the earl of Huntingdon, in 1400. The last
was lord Dcnman at the trial of the earl of Cardigan, Feb. 16, 1841. The duke of Hamilton
was lord high steward at the coronations of William IV. and Victoria.
STEWARD of the Household, Lokd (an ancient office), has tho sole direction of
the king's house below-stairs ; he has no formal grant of his office, but receives his chargo
from the sovereign in person, who, delivering to him a white wand, the symbol of his office,
says, " Scnesc/ial, lenez le baton de notre maismi." This officer has been called lord steward
since 1540 ; previously to the 31st of Henry VIII., he was styled grand master of the house
hold. His function as a judge was abolished in 1849.
STICKLESTADT (Norway). Here OlaflL, aided by the Swedes,, was defeated in his
endeavours to recover his kingdom from Canute, king of Denmark, and slain, July 29, 1030.
He was afterwards sainted, on account of his zeal for Christianity.
STIRRUPS were unknown to the ancients. Gracchus fitted the highways with stones
to enable the horsemen to mount. Warriors had projections on their spears for the same
purpose. Stirrups were used in the 5th century, but were not common even in the 12th.
STOCKHOLM, capital of Sweden, was fortified by Berger Jarl in 1254. Here the
Swedish nobility was massacred by Christian II. in 1528
Peace of Stockholm, between the king of Great Treaty of Stockholm, between Sweden and
Britain and the queen of Sweden, by which Russia, in favour of the duko of Holstein-
the former acquired the duchies of Bremen Gottorp March 24, 1724
and Verden as elector of Brunswick, Nov. 20, 1719 Another between England and Swodcn, March 3, 1813
STOCKINGS of silk were first worn by Henry II. of France, 1547. In 1560 queen
Elizabeth was presented with a pair of knit black silk stockings, by her silk-woman,
Mrs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones any more. Howell. He adds, " Henry VIII.
wore ordinary cloth hose, except there came from Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk
stockings ; for Spain very early abounded with silk." Edward VI. was presented with a pair
of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir Thomas Gresham ; Rnd the present was then
much taken notice of. Idem. Others relate that William Rider, a London apprentice,
seeing at the house of an Italian merchant a pair of knit worsted stockings from Mantua,
made a pair like them, the first made in England, which he presented to the earl of
Pembroke, 1564. Stow. The art of weaving stockings in a frame was invented in England
by the rev. Mr. Lee, of Cambridge, in 1589, twenty-five years after he had learnt to knit
them with wires or needles. Cotton stockings were first made in 1730. See Cotton.
* In the library of this institution is an edition of Ballust, (printed at Edinburgh by William Ged
of Edinburgh, goldsmith, not with moveable types, as is commonly done, but with cast tablets or plates,"
with this imprint : " Edinburgh, Guliulmus Ged, auri fabtr Ediucnsis, non typis mobilibus, ut vulgo fieri
aolct, sed tabcllia scu lamiuis fusis, excudebut. 1744- "
Y Y
STO C90 STO
STOCKPORT (in Cheshire) has become eminent on account of the cotton trade.
Heaton Norris, in Lancashire, is united to it by a bridge over the river. Here the Man
chester blanketcers were dispersed, March II, 1817 ; and here was a serious religions riot,
when two Roman Catholic chapels were destroyed, and the houses of many Roman Catholics
were gutted, and their furniture and other contents smashed or burnt, June 29, 1852.
STOCKS, in which drunkards were placed. The last in London was removed from
St. Clement's Danes, Strand, Aug. 4, 1826.
STOCKS. The public funding system originated in Venice, about 11 73, and was intro
duced into Florence in 1340. The English funding system may be said to have had its rise
in 1690.
Act to prevent stock-jobbing, passed March, The number of stock-holders in 1840 amounted
1 734 ; repealed 1 860 to 337.481.
The foundation of the Stock Exchange, in Three per cent annuities created . . . 1726
Cupel court, the residence of the lord mayor, Three per cent, consols created . . . . 1731
sir Win. Capel, in 1504, was laid on May 18, Three per cent, reduced 1746
i8oz. It was stated on the first stone that Three per cent, annuities, payable at the South
the public debt was then 552,730,024/. Sea-house 1751
The memorable Stock Exchangu hoax, for Threc-and a-half per cent annuities created . 1758
which lord Cochrane, the celebrated admiral Long annuities 1761
Johnstone, and others were convicted. Feb. Four per cent consols 176a
22, 1814. Lord Cochrano was in consequence Five per cent annuities . . . 1797 and 1802
expelled the house of commons. His inno Five per cents, reduced to four . . . . 18:
cence was afterwards proved, and he was Old ibur per cents, reduced to three-and-a-half
restored to his rank by king William IV., and in 1S24
to the honours belonging to it by queen Further reductions made in 1825. 1830, 1R34,
Victoria. 1841, and 1844: the maximum being now
Stock-exchango coffee-house destroyed by fire, threo per cent.
Feb. 11, 1816
By a return of the average price of the public funds by the commissioners for the reduction
of the national debt, it appears that Consols {i.e., consolidated annuities, paying 3 per cent
per annum) averaged in the year—
1749
1 7,'■-•j . £100 o 1798 £59 10 0 1820 . £68 12 0 1845 ■ £93 * 6
• 63 13 1800 . 66 3 3 .825 ■ . . 00 0 S 1848 . . . 86 15 0
■ 735 . 68 6 1805 58 14 0 1830 • 89 15 7 1850 . 96 10 0
1790 7> 1E10 . 67 16 3 1840 . . . 89 17 6 1852 . . . 99 12 6
>7>j5 74 1815 S8 13 ')
The price of j£ioo stock varied in
1853. from £ioi to £90} 1856, from £96! to £87^ j 1859, from £97? to £89 1863, from £94 to £90
1854. .1 96 „ 85| 1857. ., 95l „ 86} ! 1861, „ 94J „ 89} 1864, „ Sij „ 3jS
1855. » 93* » 86| 1858, „ 98, „ 94 I 1862, „ 94} „ 90!
STOICS, dieciples of Zcno, the philosopher (about 290 B.C.); obtained the name because
they listened to his instructions in a porch or portico at Athens, called in Greek SCoa.
Zeno taught, that man's supreme happiness consisted in living agreeably to nature and
reason, and that God was the soul of the world. Stanley.
STOKE (near Newark, Nottinghamshire). Near here, on June 16, 1487, the adherents
of Lambert Simnel, who personated Edward, earl of Warwick, and claimed the crown, were
defeated by Henry VII. John De la Pole, the earl of Lincoln, and most of the leaders were
slain ; and Simnel, whose life was spared, was afterwards employed in the king's household.
STONE BUILDINGS, &c. Stone buildings were introduced into England, 670. A
stone bridge was built at Bow, in 1087, and is accounted the first ; but a bridge exists at
Crowland, which is said to have been built in 860. See Bridges. The first stone building
in Ireland was a castle, 1 161. See Building. Stone china-ware was made by Wedgwood in
1762. Artificial stono for statues was manufactured by a Neapolitan, and introduced into
England, 1776. Stone paper was made in 1776. See Hansom's Artificial Stone.
STONEHENGE (on Salisbury-plain, Wiltshire) is said to have been erected on the
counsel of Merlin, by Aurelius Ambrosius, in memory of 460 Britons who were murdered
by Hengist the Saxon, about 450. Ocoffrey of Monmouth. Erected as a sepulchral monu
ment of Ambrosius, 500. Polydore Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, in which the
Druids officiated. Dr. Slukeley. The Britons had annual meetings at Abury and Stone-
henge, where laws were made, justice administered, and heinous crimes punished.
STONE OPERATION. Extracting stone from the bladder was first performed by
Animonius of Alexandria, about 240. Cutting for the stone was first performed on a
criminal, at Paris, in 1474, with success. A remedy discovered by Mrs. Stevens, for which
she was rewarded by government, 1 739. See Lithotomy.
691 STO
STORMS. The following are among the best authenticated and most memorable. In
London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, 944. One in several parts of England,
the sky being very dark, the wind coming from the S.W. ; many churches were destroyed ;
and in London 500 houses fell, Oct. 5, 1091. One on the coast of Calais, when Hugh de
Beauruis and several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist king John against the
barons, perished, 1215. Holiiished. Seo Meteorology.
It thundered 15 days successively, with tempests of Great storm along the coast from Durham to Corn
rain and wind, 1233. wall ; many vessels lost, Nov. 1821.
Storm with violent lightnings : one flash passed In Ireland, particularly in the vicinity of Dublin,
through a chamber where Edward I. aud his many houses were thrown down, and vast num
queen were conversing, did them no damage, but bers unroofed, Dec. 12, 1822.
killed two of their attendant*, 1285. Hoveden. Awful storm on the coast of England : many vessels
Violent storm of hail near Chartres, in France, which lost, and 13 driven ashore and wrecked in Ply
fell on tho army of Edward III. then on its march. mouth alone, Jan. 12-13, 1828.
The hail was so Large that the army and horses At Gibraltar, where more than 100 vessels were de
suffered very much, and Edward was obliged to stroyed, Feb. 18, 1828.
conclude a peace, 1339. Matt. Paris. Dreadful storm at the Cape of Good Hope, where
When Richard II.'s queen camo from Bohemia, on immense property was lost, July 16, 1831.
her setting foot on shore an awful storm arose, A hurricane visited London and its neighbourhood,
and her ship and a number of others wero dashed which did great damage to tho buildings, but
to pieces in the harbour, Jan. 1382. Holinthed. without the destruction of human life, though
Richard's second queen also brought a storm with many serious accidents occurred, Oct. 28, 1838.
her to the English coasts, in which tho king's Awful hurricane on west coast of England, and in
baggage was lost, aud many ships cast away, 1 / Ireland. Tho storm raged through Cheshire,
Idem. Staffordshire, and Warwickshire ; 20 persons wero
Hurricane throughout Europe, which did very con killed in Liverpool, by tho falling of buildings,
siderable damage, on 8ept. 3, 1658, the day that and ico were drowned in tho neighbourhood; the
Cromwell died. Mortimer. coast and harbours were covered with wrecks ;
Storm on east coast of England : 200 colliers and the value of two of the vessels lost being nearly
coasters lost, with most of their crews, 1696. half-a-million sterling. In Limerick, Galway,
The ** Great Storm," one of the most terrible that Athlone, and other places, more than 200 houses
ever raged in England. The devastation on land were blown down, and as many more wore burnt,
was immense ; and in the harbours and on the the winds spreading the fires. Dublin suffered
coasts, the loss in shipping and in lives was still dreadfully ; London an-i its neighbourhood scarcely
greater, Nov. 26-27, 1703.* sustained any damage, Jan. 6-7, 1839.
Snow-storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, it Is [The winter of 1852-3 (Dec. and Jan.) was one of
said, perished upon the mountains, in their march storms, many of which were very destructive,,
to attack Drontheim, 1719. particularly to shipping.]
One in India, when many hundreds of vessels were Great storm in the Black Sea, Nov. 13-16, 1854,
cast away, a fleet of Indiamen greatly damaged, causing much loss of life, shipping, and stores sent
and some ships lost, and 30,000 persons perished, for the allied armies in the Crimea.
Oct 11, 1737. Great storm on N. coast of Europe, Ac., Dec. 31, 1854.
Dreadful hurricane at the Havanah : many public Great storm on N. E. coast of Scotland ; 42 fishermen
edi6ccs and 4048 houses were destroyed, and 1000 lost, Nov. 23, 1857.
inhabitants perished, Oct. 25, 1768. Dreadful storm on the night Oct. 25-26: the Royal
Awful storm in the North of England, in which many Charter totally lost, and many other vessels ;
vessels wero destroyod, and four Dublin packets another storm Oct 31, and Nov. 1, 1859.
foundered, Oct. 29, 1775. Great storm in the channel causing much loss of
One at Surat, in the East Indies ; destroyed 7000 of life and property, Jan. 1, i860.
the inhabitants, April 22, 1782. Dreadful gales, doing much mischief, Feb. 26, 27, 28 ;
One hundred and thirty-one villages and farms laid May 28 ; and June 2, i860.
waste in France, 1785. Great storm : part of the Crystal palace blown down ;
One general throughout Great Britain : several Chichester cathedral steeple fell, Feb. 20, 21, 1861.
hundred sail of shipping destroyed or damaged, Great storm on British coasts, 143 wrecks, May 28,
Oct. 6, 1704. 1861.
One which did vast damage in London, and through Storm on the north-east ; 50 wrecks, Nov. 13, 14,
out almost the whole of England, Nov. 8, 1800. 1861.
A tremendous storm throughout Great Britain and At Market Lavcrton, &c. ; hail six and seven feet
Ireland, by which immense damage was done, and deep ; much damage to crops ; Sept. 2, 1862.
many ships wrecked, Dec. 16-17, 1814. Storm on British coasts ; very many wrecks ; Oct.
An awful gale, by which a great number of vessels 19, 20, 1862.
were lost, and much damage was done to the There were severe gales, doing much damage and
shipping in general on the English coast, Aug. 31, loss of life, Jan. 19, *c, 1863 ; and Jan. 14, &c.,
1 816. 1865. (See under Wrtck*.)
Dreadful hurricane, ravaged the Leeward Islands, Dreadful hurricanco in tho Indian Ocean, &c. (seo
from tho 20th to 22nd Sept. 1819. At the island of Cyclone, Calcutta), Oct. 5, 1864.
St. Thomas alone, 104 vessels were lost. Hurricane at Lisbon, causes much damage ; worst
for many years, Dec. 13, 1864.
• The loss su- tained in London alone was calculated at 2,000,000/. sterling. The number of persons
drowned in the floods of tho Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in ships blown
from their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought to have been 8000. Twolvo men-of-war, with
more than 1800 men on board, were last within sight of their own shore. Trees were torn up by tho roots,
17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house was destroyed, and in it the ingenious contriver
of it, Winstanley, and the persons who"were with him. The bishop of Bath and WelLs and his lady were
killed in bed in their palace in Somersetshire. Multitudes of cattle were also lost : in one level 15,000
sheep were drowned.
TY2
STO 692 STR
STORTHING, the Norwegian parliament, said to have been first held at Bergen by
Hacho V. in 1223.
STOVES. The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the German stoves yet
do. They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the middle of the room, the roof being open.
Apartments were warmed by |iortuble braziers. Stoves on this old principle, improved, con
tinue in use in many houses ami public establishments iu England, and generally on the
continent. See Chimneys and Cottager's Stove.
STRAITS SETTLEMENTS, including Malacca, Penang or Prince of Wales island, and
Singapore, were made a separate dependency of the British crown in 1853, and placed under
the governor-general of India.
STRAND (London). Houses were first built upon the Strand about 1353, at which
period it was the court end of the town, or formed the communication between the two cities
of London and Westminster, being then open to the Thames and to the fields. Somerset
and other palaces were erected 1549-1605. Stow. The Strand bridge was commenced Oct. II,
181 1. See Waterloo Bridge. The Strand improvements were commenced in 1829.
STRASBURG, the Roman A rgenioralum, the capital of Alsace. Here Julian defeated
the Allemanni, 357. This town, formerly imperial, was token by Louis XIV. in 16S1.
The citadel and fortifications, which he constructed, have been so much augmented, that
Strasburg may be considered one of the strongest places in Europe. It was confirmed to
France by the peace of Kyswick in 1697. Strasburg is remarkable for its magnificent cathe
dral and tower, the hitter, the loftiest in the world. An attempt at insurrection in the city
was made, Oct. 30, 1836, by prince Louis Napoleon (afterwards president of the French
republic, and now emperor), aided by two officers and some privates. It was instantly
suppressed by their arrest. The prince was then shipped off to America by the French
government. See France.
STRATHCLUYD, a kingdom formed by the Britons, who retired northward after the
Saxon conquest, about 560. It extended from the Clyde to Cumberland. The Britons in it
submitted to Edward the Elder, iu 924.
STRATHMORE, Countess of. Miss Bowes of Durham, the then richest heiress in
Europe, whose fortune was 1,040,0001. with vast additions on her mother's death, and
immense estates on the demise of her uncle, married the earl of Strathmore, Feb. 25, 1766.
Having, after the earl's death, married Mr. Stoney, she was forcibly carried off by him and
other aimed men, Nov. 10, 1786. She was brought up to the King's Bench by habeas corpus
and released, and ho committed to prison, Nov. 23. The lady recovered her estates, which
she had assigned to her husband under the influence of terror, in May, 1788.
STRATTON-HILL, Battle of, in Cornwall, May 16, 1643, between the royal army
under sir Rdph Hopton, and the furees of the parliament under the earl of Stamford. The
victory was gained over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in killed and wounded.
STRAWBERRY-HILL, the Gothic villa of Horace Walpnle, erected by him, 1753-76, at
Twickenham, near London. Iu April and May, 1842, his collection of pictures, and articles
of taste and virtu, were sold by auction for 29,61 $1. 8s. gd.
STREET-MUSIC. An act was passed in 1864 for the better regulation of street-music
•in the metropolitan police districts.
STREET RAILWAYS, previously established by Mr. Train in New York, were opened
by him at Birkenhead, Cheshire, Aug. 30, i860, and at Bayswater, Loudon, March 23, 1861.
A street railway bill was rejected by the house of commons in April, 1861. Several of these
STRELITZ, the imperial guard of Russia, established by Ivan IV. in 1568. Becoming
frequently seditions, it was suppressed by Peter the Great ; great numbers were put to death,
many by the czar's own hand, 1697-1704.
STRIKES. See Preston and London, 1859-1861. The tailors of London struck for
increase of wages in April, 1834. The strike of the calii'O-priuters of Glasgow, lasted nine
months in 1834. The strike of the amalgamated engineers took place in 1852 ; and of the
London cabmen, July 27-30, 1853. A strike amongst the silk-workers at Coventry came to
an end, Aug. 30, 1S60. An unsuccessful attempt to get up a strike in the building trade
STR 093 SUE
began March 23, 1861. A strike of the puddlers in the iron trade occurred in the spring of
1865. See Iron.
STRONTIUM. The native carbonate of strontia was discovered at Strontian, in Argyle-
shire, in 1787. Sir Humphry Davy first obtained from it the metal strontium in 1808.
STRYCHNIA, a poisonous vegetable alkaloid, discovered in 1818 by Pelleticr and
Caveutou in the seeds of the strychnus ignntia and nux vomica, and also in the upas poison.
It is so virulent that half a grain blown into the throat of a rabbit occasions death in four
minutes ; its operation is accompanied by lock-jaw. Much attention wns given to strychnia
in 1856, during the trial of William Palmer, who was executed for the murder of Cook,
June 14, 1856.
STUCCO-WORK was known to the ancients, and was much prized by them, particularly
by the Romans, who excelled in it. Abbi Lenglet. It was revived by D'Udine, about 1550;
and in Italy, France, and England in the 18th century.
STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus Caesar's ordering leap-year to be once in
four years, and the month Scxtilis to be called Augustus, 8 B.C. See New Style.
STYLE Royal. See Majesty and Titles. The styles of the English sovereigns are given
in the later editions of Nicolas's "Chronology of History. "
SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH. See Telegraph (under Electricity).
SUBSIDIES. Subsidies to the kings of England formerly granted in kind, particularly
in wool ; 30,000 sacks were voted to Edward 111. ou account of the war with France, 1340.
Anderson. Subsidies were raised upon the subjects of England by James I. 1624 ; but they
were contained in a bill for the redress of grievances, 1639. Four subsidies were granted to
Charles II. in 1663. England granted subsidies to foreign powers in several wars, particu
larly in the war against the revolutionists of France, and the war against Bonaparte. One
of the most remarkable of these latter was June 20, 1800, when a treaty of subsidies was
ratified at Vienna between Austria and England, stipulating that the war should be
vigorously prosecuted against France, and that neither of the contracting powers should
enter into a separate peace. Subsidies to Austria, Prussia, Russia, the Porte, and other
powers, were afterwards given by England to tho amount of many millions sterling.
Phillip*.
SUCCESSION ACTS. See Settlement.
SUCCESSION, War of (1702-1713), distinguished by the achievements of the duke of
Marlborough and the earl of Peterborough, and their unprofitable results, arose on the
question whether an Austrian prince or a French prince, should succeed to the throne of
Spain. The British court opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious ; but the allies
withdrew one after another, and the French prince succeeded. See Ppain, Utrecht.
SUCCESSION DUTY ACT (16 & 17 Vic,t. c. 51), after much discussion, was passed
Aug. 4, 1853. By this act the legacy duty was extended to real estate, and was made
payable on succession to both landed and personal property.
SUDBURY, in Suffolk, was disfranchised for bribery in 1848.
SUEVI, a warlike Gothic tribe, which with the Alaui and the Visigoths entered Spain
about 408, were overcome by the latter, and absorbed into their kingdom about 584.
SUEZ CANAL. A plan for a canal between the head of the Red Sea anil the bay of
Pelusium was brought forward by M. de Lesseps in 1852. The consent of the Egyptian,
Turkish, Russian, French, and Austrian governments was gradually obtained, but not that
of the British. A company has been formed for the purpose, and the work commenced in
1858. Tho cost was estimated at 8,000,000/.*
* M. de Lesseps undertook to cut a canal through 90 miles of sand, to run out moles into the Medi
terranean ; to deepen tho shallow waters ; to create ports to receive the ships from India and Australia,
and to adapt the canal to irrigation. Writing on Nov. 7, 1862, M. Delaeour, a Krcn<-h engineer, after
viewing the works which were "employing 25,000 men in the desert," expresses his conviction that this
important work will be completed in four or fivu years. Cosmos. The waters of the Mediterranean have
been admitted into a narrow channel communicating with I*ake Timsah. This, huwevt r, is a very insigni
ficant part of the work (Dec. 1862). In 1863 tho works were visited by the sultan and by Mr. Hawkshaw.
In Aug. 1863 the company were compiled, by tho Egyptian government, to give up the employment of
compulsory labour, and litigation ensued. In Feb. 1865, M. de Lesseps reported that a vessel con
taining 30 persons had been tugged along the canal the whole distance between tho two seas. On April 17,
1865, delegates from the British chambers of commerce visitod tho works, and reported that the bucccss of
the scheme was only an affair of time and money. On Aug. 15, 1865. the floodgates of the smaller Suez
Canal were opened, the fresh water from the Nile was admitted, and a coal vessel passed from the Medi
terranean to the Red Soa. M. de Lesseps expects the larger canal for ships will lie ready in 1 £68.
SUF
SUFFRAGAN BISHOPS. Power to appoint them was given by parliament in 1534 to
Henry VIII. as head of the chinch. See Supremacy.
SUGAR* (Saccharum officinarum) is supposed to have been known to the ancient Jews.
Found in the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 325 B.C. Strabo. An oriental
nation in alliance with Pompey used the juice of the cane as a common beverage. Lv.can.
The best sugar was produced in India. Pliny. It was prescribed as a medicine by Galen.
Brought into Europe from Asia, a.d. 625. In large quantities, 1150. It was attempted to
bo cultivated in Italy ; but not succeeding, the Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to
America about !5io.t Our chief importations of sugar are from the British West Indies,
the East Indies, Mauritius, and Brazil. Sugar was first taxed by name, I James II. 16S5.
The previous customs duties upon sugar were repealed, aud moderated duties substituted,
by the act 9 4 10 Vict. c. 63, passed Aug. 18, 1846, by which act the same duties were
levied upon the sugar of foreign countries as levied upon sugar the produce of British
•colonies: annually reduced until July 5, 185 1. The importations of sugar have iu con
sequence considerably increased, and amounted in 1852 to upwards of 8,000,000 cwts.,
paying a duty exceeding 4,000,000/. sterling. Sugar imported 111 1854, 9, 1 12,364 cwts. ; in
1864, 10,767,538 cwts. In 1855, tho duty was increased, but was reduced in 1864.! Sugar
was extracted from beet-root in France, by Achard, in 1799, and has been since largely
manufactured.
SUGAR-REFINING was made known to Europeans by a Venetian, 1503, and was first
practised in England in 1659, though some say that we had the art a few years earlier. Dr.
Scoffern's improved processes were patented in 1848-50.
SUICIDE (from«ui, self; eadere, to kill), the slayer of himself. The first instances
recorded in Jewish history are those of Samson, about 1120, and Saul, 1055 B.C. The Greek
and Roman philosophers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending hand apart from the
rest of the body. In the early part of the Roman history, the only instance recorded occurs
in the reign of Tarquin I., when the soldiers, thinking themselves disgraced by being ordered
to make common sewers, destroyed thomselves, 606 B.C. Instances afterwards occurred,
however, of illustrious men committing suicide, as Cato, 46 b.c.§ In the Roman Catholic
church, in the 6th century, it was ordained that no commemoration should be made iu the
Eucharist for such as committed self-niurder. This ecclesiastical law continued till the
Beformatiou, when it was admitted into the statute law of England by the authority of
parliament, with the confiscation of land and goods. Till 1823 the body of the suicide was
directed to be buried in a cross-road, aud a stake to be driven through it.
A FEW OF THE MOST MEMORABLE LATE CASES OF SUICIDE IN GREAT BRITAIN, ETC.
Gen. Pichegru April 7, 1804 Marshal Berthier .... Judo j, 1815
Miss Champanto .... Aug. 15, ., Samuel Whitbrcad, Esq. . Sept 6, „
Sellis, valet of theduke of Cumberland, May 31, 1810 Sir Samuel Romilly . . . Nov. a, i8i£
Abraham Goldsmid, an eminent merchant . ,, * Sir Richard Croft .... Nov. 6,
Williams, murderer of theMarr family, l>cc. 15. 1811 Christophe, king of Hayti . . Oct. 8. igao
Lord French Doc. 9, 1814 Adm. sir George Campbell . . Jan. 23, tS:i
• Sugar, long considered a neutral substance, without congeners, hts of late years become the head of
m numerous family, daily increasing, viz. : Cane-sugar (sucrose, from the sugarcane : boiled with dilute
acids it yields fflucote) ; fruit-sugar (from many recent fruits) ; grape-sugar (fflvrou : from dried fruits and
altered starch) ; sugar of milk ; Mtlitou (from Eucalyptus, by Berthclot in 1856) ; sorbin (from the berries
of the mountain ash, by Pelouze) ; inotitt (from muscular tissue, Scberor) ; dulcosc (by Laurent) ; mannitr
(from manna, obtained from the Fraxinus Ornus, a kind of ash) ; quercite (from acorns) ; to these have been
lately added mycote, by M. Mitscherlich, and melevtot and trrhalotf, by M. Berthelot
t About tho year 1138 the sugar-cane was transported from Tripoli and Syria to Sicily, thence to
Madeira, and finally to tho West Indies and America. It is not known at what date sugar was introduced
into England, but it seems to have been prior to the reign of Henry VIII. Mr. Whittafcer, in the History
of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an earlier instance in 1497. A manuscript letter from sir Edward Wotton to lord
Cobham, dated Calais, 6th March, 1546, advertises him that sir Edward had taken up for his lordship
twenty-five sugar-loaves at six shillings a loaf, " whicho is eighto pence a pounde."
t In 1840, the imports of sugar into the United kingdom were nearly 5.000,000 cwts., of which nearly
four millions were for home consumption ; and the duty amounted to about fivo millions and a half sterling.
In 1850, the Imports wore 8,285,734 cwts. and the reducod duty, amounted to 4,138,951*. ; in 1853, 7,272,833
cwts. were retained for home consumption; duty, 4,083,836!. ; in 1859. 8.641,920 cwts. wcre.rotained for
home consumption ; duty, 5,935,009*. ; in 1864. 8,937.708 cwts. were retained.
$ There hare been three instances of solf-destruction by fire ; that of the philosopher Empodocles, who
threw himself into the crater of Mount Etna ; of a Frenchman, who, in imitation of him, threw himself, in
1820, into tho crater of Vesuvius ; and of an Englishman, who jumped into the furnace of a forge about the
yeari8u. Plutarch relates that an unaccountable passion for suicide seized the Milesian virgins, from
which they could not be prevented by tho tears and prayers of their friends ; but a decree bcuig issued
that the body of every young maid who did self-murder should bo drawn naked through the streets, a stop
was soon put to the extraordinary frenzy.
SUI 695 SUN
SUICIDE, continued.
Marquess of Londonderry . . Aug. 12, 1822 ! Charles Russell, Esq., late chairman of Great
Hon. colonel Stanhope . . . Jan. 26, 1825 Western Railway .... May 15, ;
Mr. Montgomery in Newgate (ace Pi-utsi' Acid), Hugh Miller, geologist, author of The Old Red
July 4, 1828 Sandstone (insane, through overwork) Dec. 2a,
Miss Charlotte Both . . . Jan. 3, 1830 Major gen. Stalker, C.B. of Indian army(Marcn
Lord Greavos Feb. 7, „ 14), and commodore Ethersey, of the Indian
Colonel Brereton .... Jan. 13, 1832 navy. (Both through physical and mental
Major Thompson June 13, „ 1 depression while on the expedition against
Mr. Simpson, the traveller . . July 24, 1840 Persia ; see Bushire.) . . March 17, 1
Lord James Bcrcsford . . . April 27, 1841 Major Warburton, M.P. for Harwich, brother
Gen. sir Rufane Shaw Donkin . May 1, of Eliot, lost in the Amazon . Oct. 23,
The earl of Munater . . . March 20, 1842 Henry M. Witt, a promising young chemist, at
Ijord Congleton .... June 8, „ the Government School of Mines June 19, 1S5S
Laman Blanchard .... Feb. 15, 1845 Dr. Sadlcir, Senior Fellow of Trinity Collego,
Colonel Garwood .... Dec. 29, ,, Dublin July.
Rear-admiral Collard . March 18, 1846 Bev. G. Martin, chancellor of the diocese of
Haydon, the eminent painter . June 22, „ Exeter Aug. 27, i860
Count Bresson Nov. 2, 1847 Lord Forth, son of earl of Perth . . Oct. 8, 1861
Colonel King, in India . . July 12, 1850 Wra. G. Prescott, banker. . . April 29, 1SO5
Walter Watts, lessee of the Olympic theatre, Admiral Robert Fitz-Roy (see AVtc Zealand and
July 13, ,, Meteorology) . . ' . . April 30,
Rev. Dr. Rice Jan. 20, 1853
Lieut. -col. Layard .... Dec. 27, ,,
Rev. T. Robinson (threw himself off Shak- INQCESTS OH SUICIDES IN ENGLAND AND WALES.
spere's Cliff, Dover) . . Aug. 16, 1854
Dr. Franks late editorof the Allgemeine Zedung, 1856 919 males 395 females 1314
after killing his son . . Nov. 3, 1855 1 1858 909 ,, 366 1275
John Sadleir, M.P. (in 1852, a lord of the trea- i860 961 ,, 396 ,, 1357
sury), by prussic acid ; on Hampstead Heath. 1861 961 „ 363 „ 1324
(He was foimd to have been guilty ofenormous ; 1862 938 346 1284
frauds upon the Tipperary bank, &c.) Feb. 16, 1856 1863 1048 „ 337 „ 1385
A. Smart, a watchmaker, threw himself from 1864 978 359 „ 1337
the whisperinggallery in St. Paul's, March 14, I
SUITORS' FUND (in the Court of Chancery), in 1862 amounted to 1,290,000/. As this
money had no specific owner, a proposal was made by government to apply it to the building
of new law-courts, payment of all legal claims being guaranteed. The scheme was deferred
by parliament.
SULPHUR has been known from the earliest times. Basil Valentine mentions its pro
duction from preen vitriol. Sulphuric acid (vitriol), produced from the burning of sulphur,
was introduced into England about 1720. Sulphur has been the object of research of many
eminent chemists during the present century, and many discoveries have been made, such as
its allotropic condition, Ac. It is the inflammable constituent in gunpowder. —The sulphur
mines of Sicily have been wrought since the 16th century, but the exportation was incon
siderable till about 1820 ; in 1838 the trade increased so much that Great Britain alone
imported 38,654 tons. In that year the Neapolitan government was induced to grant a
monopoly of the trade to a French company; hut a firm remonstrance from the British
government led to a discontinuance of this impolitic restriction in 184.1, which, however gave
a great and a lasting impetus to the British sulphur manufacture.
SULTAN, a Turkish title, from the Arabic, signifying king of kings, and given to the
grand signior or emperor of Turkey. It was first given to the Turkish princes, Angrolipez
and Musgad, about 1055. Vatlier. It was first given, according to others, to the emperor
Mahmoud, in the 4th century of the Hegira.
SUMPTUARY LAWS restrain excess in dress, furniture, eating, &c. Those of Zaleucus
ordained that no woman should go attended by more than one maid in the street, unless she
were drunk ; and that she should not wear gold or embroidered apparol, unless she designed
to act unchastely, 450 B.C. IHog. LaerL The Lex Orchia among the Romans (181 b.c),
limited the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of the dishes at an entertainment ;
and it also enforced that during supper, which was the chief meal among the Romans, the
doors of every house should be left open. The English sumptuary laws, chiefly of the reigns
of Edward III. and Henry VIII., were repealed in 1856. See Dress.
SUN.* Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of the twelve spheres, about 529 B.c.
• The estimated diameter is 882,000 miles, and the distance from the earth, till lately given as 95,000,000
miles, has been recently corrected to 94.000,000, by the result of the experiments and calculations of N. M.
Fizeau and Foucault (1864). " The error corrected corresponds to the apparent breadth of a human hair
at 125 feet, or of a sovereign at 8 miles off." Herschel. The sun is now described as consisting of a solid or
liquid nucleus, surrounded by aluminous envelope (photosphere) ovor which is a dense atmosphere, con
taining the vapours of various motals and other elements (1S65). See Spectrum.
cm suu
Tin1 relative distances of the sun and moon were first calculated geometrically by Aristarchus,
who also maintained the stability of the sun, about 280 B.C. Numerous theories were
ventured during fifteen centuries, and astronomy lay neglected until about A.n. 1200, when
it was brought into Europe by the Moors of llarbary and Spain. The Copernican system
was made known in 1530. See Copernican System and Solar System. Galileo and Newton
maintained that the sun was an igneous globe. The transit of Mercury was observed, by
Gasscndi.
By the observations of Dr. Halley on the spot Hcrsehel measured two spots, whose length,
which darkened the sun's disc in July and together exceeded 50,000 miles April rr^, 1779
August, 1676, he established the cortainty of Since 1851 much attention has been given to the
its motion round its own axis. luminous protuberances observed on the edge
Parallax of the sun. Dr. Uallcy .... T702 of the sun's disc during a total eclipse. On
Solar spots were first observed by Fabricius and July 18, i860. Mr. Warren De la Rue took two
Harriot in 1610. A macula three times the photographs at the time of total obscuration.
size of the earth passod the sun's centre, " Solar physics " especially studied by Messrs*.
April tl, 1766, and frequently since. Warren De la Rue, Balfour, Stewart, £c. 1S65-6
SUNCION, Tkbatt of, between general Urquiza, director of the Argentine confede
ration, and C. A. Lopez, president of the republic of Paraguay, recognising the independence
of Paraguay, July 15, 1852.
SUNDAY, or Lord's Day. Most nations have counted one day in seven holy. Sunday
was the day on which, anciently, divine adoration was paid to the Sun. Among Christians
it is commonly called Dies Dominica, or Lord's day, on account of our Saviour's appearance
on that day, after his resurrection. The first civil law that was issued for the observance of
this day, combined it with that of the seventh-day Sabbath and other festivals {Eascbius,
Life of Constantine), anil it was followed by several imperial edicts in favour of this day,
which are extant in the body of Roman law, the earliest being that of Constantine the
Great, dated March 7, 32 1. Corpus Juris Civilis. See Sabbath; Sabbatarians; Sport*,
Book of, 4c.
The council of Orleans prohibited country : Act restraining amusements, 1 Charles I. . iGsr.
labour, which that decree had allowed . . 338 Act restraining the performance of servile
The Sabbath-day was ordained to be kept holy works, and the sale of goods except milk at
in England, from Saturday at three in the certain hours and meat in public-houses, and
afternoon to Monday at break-of-day, 4th works of necessity and charity, on forfeiture
Canon, Edgar 960 of fi*e shillings, aq Charles II 1677
Act of parliament, levying one shilling on every The Sunday act was passed in 1781. In March.
person absent from church on bundays, 3 1855, Lord Robert Grosvcnor (since lord
James 1 1606 Kbury), introduced a hill to suppress Sunday-
James I. and Charles I. authorised certain trading. It met with much opposition and
sTwirts after divine servico on Sundays. See was withdrawn.
6>wi«.
SUNDAY SCHOOLS were first established in England about 1781, by Robert Raike*.
an eminent printer of Gloucester, conjointly with Dr. Stock. See Education and Sabbath
Sc/toots.
SUNDERLAND ADMINISTRATION, formed in 1718, arose out of a modification of
the Stanhope ministry. After various changes it was broken up in 1 721.
Charles, earl of Sunderland, Jlrst lord of the treatun/. I Earl Stanhopo and Mr. Craggs, uteretarie*.
Earl Cowpcr, lord chancellor. \ Mr. Aislabic, chancellor of ilu exchequer, Ac.
SUN-DIALS were invented by Anaximandcr, 550 B.C. Pliny, I. 2. The first put up
at Rome was by Papirius Cursor, at the temple of Quirinus, when time was divided into
hours, 293 B.C. Sun-dials were first set up in churches, A.n. 613. Lcngkt.
SUPERANNUATION ACT for the Civil Service was passed in April, 1S59.
SUPREMACY over the church was claimed by pope Gelasitis I. as bishop of Rome, 494.
On Jan. 15, 1535, Henry VIII. by virtue of the act 26 Hen. VIII. c. I, formally assumed
the style of "oil earth Supreme Head of the Church of England," which has been retained
bv all succeeding sovereigns. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and the ex-lord chancellor
(sir Thomas More), and many others were beheaded for denying the king's supremacy in
1535 ; and in 1578, John Nelson, a priest, and Thomas Sherwood, a young layman, were
executed at Tyburn for the same offence.
SURAT (E. Indies), Tiefore the English East India Company obtained possession of
Bombay, the presidency of their affairs on the coast of Malabar was at Surat ; and they had
SUK Cl»7 SUS
a factory here established under captain Best in 1611. Tlie Great Mogul had here an officer
who was styled his admiral. An attack of the Mahratta chief Sivajee, on the British factory,
was defeated by sir George Oxenden, 1664. The English were again attacked in 1670, and
1702, and often subsequently. The East India Company, in 1759, fitted out an armament,
which dispossessed the admiral of the castle ; and, soon after, the possession of this castle
was confirmed to them by the court of Delhi. Surat was vested in the British by treaty in
1800 and 1803.
SURGEON'S, Royal College of. The first charter was granted by Henry VIII. 1540.
Formerly barbers and surgeons were united, until it was enacted that " no person using any
shaving or barbery in London shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter
excepting only the drawing of teeth." The surgeons obtained a new charter in 1745, 1800,
and 1844. Since that period, various legislative and other important regulations have been
adopted to promote their utility ami respectability ; and no person is legally entitled to
practise as a surgeon in the cities of London and Westminster, or within seven miles of the
former, who has not been examined at this college. The college in Lincoln's-inn-Fields was
re-modelled in 1836, and the interior completed in 1837. The premises were enlarged in
1852-3. See Medical Council.
SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hippocrates that diseases were made a separate
study from philosophy, &c, about 410 B.C. Hippocrates mentions the ambe, the ancient
instrument with which they reduced dislocated bones. Celsus flourished about A.D. 17 ;
Galen, 170; Stills, 500; Paulus .lEgincta, in 640. The Arabians revived surgery about
900 ; and in the 16th century a new era in the science began ; between these poriods surgery
was confined to ignorant priests and barbers. Anatomy was cultivated under the illustrious
Vesalius, the father of modern surgery, in 1538. Surgeons and doctors were exempted from
bearing arras or serving on juries, 1513, at which period there were only thirteen in London.
See Physic.
SURINAM (Dutch Guiana). The factories established by the English in 1640 wero
occupied by the Portuguese, 1643 ; by tha Dutch, 1654 ; taken by tho British, 1804 ; and
restored to the Dutch, 1814.
SURNAMES first began in Greece and Egypt, as Soter, Saviour : Nicator, conqueror ;
EucrgcUs, benefactor ; Philopaior, lover of his fattier ; Philmnetor, lover of his mother, &c.
Strato was surnamed Physicus, from his deep study of nature ; Aristides was called the
Just; Phocion, the Good; Plato, the Atlicnian Bee; Xenophon, the A Itic Muse ; Aristotle,
the Stagyri.lt ; Pythagoras, the Samian Sage ; Menedemus, the Eretrian Bull ; Democritus,
the Laughing Philosopher ; Virgil, the Mantuan Swan, &c. Surnames were introduced into
England by the Normans, and were adopted by the nobility about I ICO. The old Normans
used Filz, which signifies sou, as Fitz-herbert. The Irish used 0, for grandson, as O'Neal,
O'Donnell. The Scottish Highlanders used Mac, as Macdonald, son of Donald. Tho
Saxons added the word son to the father's nime, as Williamson. Many of the most common
surnames, such as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, &c, were taken by Brnbanters and
other Flemings, who were naturalised in the reign of Henry VI. 1435. M. A. Lower's
" Dictionary of English Surnames" was published in i860.
SURPLICES. First worn by the Jewish priests, and said to have been first used in
churches, 316, and encouraged by pope Adrian, 786. Every minister saying public prayers
shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves, Canon 58. The garb prescribed by stat. 2 Edw.
VI. 1547 ; again, I Eliz. 1558 ; and 13 & 14 Chas. II. 1662.
SURREY ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS (uear London), were established in 1831, by Mr.
Edward Cross, who brought hither the menagerie formerly at Exeter change. Various
picture models have been exhibited here since 1837, viz. Vesuvius, Iceland, tec, accompanied
by fireworks. In 1856, a company which had taken the gardens, erected a large yet elegant
building for concerts ; the architect being Mr. Horace Jones. On Oct. 19, 1856, when tho
hall contained about 9000 persons, attending to hear the rev. C. II Spurgeon, seven wero
killed and thirty seriously injured, by a false alarm of fire. In 1862 the hall was temporarily
taken for the reception of the patients of St. Thomas's hospital.
SURVEY. See Ordnance.
SUSPENSION BRIDGES. The oldest in the world is in China, near King-tung ; it is
formed of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from rocks to rocks, are also of Chinese origin.
The bridge over tho Menai Strait is a most surprising work. The Hungerford (or Charing
Cross) suspension bridge, opened May I, 1845, was removed to Clifton and opened there,
Dec. 8, 1864. Parliament empowered the commissioners of woods to erect (among other
SWE
improvements there) a suspension bridge at Battersea, Sept. 1846 ; and many bridges of
similar construction have been erected in various parts of the kingdom. Lambeth and
"Westminster suspension bridge was opened Nov. io, 1862. See Afenai Strait, Hungtrford,
Clifton, &c.
SUSSEX, Kingdom of. See Britain.
SUTLEJ, a river in N.-W. India, on the banks of which were fought the desperate
battles of Aliwal and Sobraon (which sec).
SUTTEES, the burning of widows. This custom began in India from one of the wives of
" Bramah, the Son of God," sacrificing herself at his death, that she might attend him in
heaven. So many as seventeen widows have burnt themselves on the funeral pile of a rajah :
and in Bengal alone, 700 have thus perished, until lately, in each year. But the English
government, after long discouraging suttees, formally abolished them, Dec. 7, 1829. They
have since occasionally taken place. The wife of the son of the rajah of Beygoon thus
perished, June, 1864.
SWABIA, a province in S. Germany ; was conquered by Clovis, and incorporated into
the kingdom of the Franks, 496. After various changes of rulers, it was made a duchy by
the emperor Conrad I. in 912, for Erchanger ; according to some, in 916, for Burckhardt.
The duchy became hereditary in the house of Hoheustaufen in 10S0. Duke Frederic III.
became emperor of Germany as Frederic I. (usually styled Barbarossa, red beard), in 1152.
Conradin, his descendant, was defeated at the battle of Tagliaeozzo {which see), in 1268, and
beheaded shortly after. The breaking up of the duchy gave rise to many of the small
German states ; part of Swabia is included in Wurteinberg and Switzerland. Swabia was
made a circle of the empire in 1387 and 1500.
SWAN RIVER SETTLEMENT. See Western Australia.
SWEABORG, a strong fortress in Finland, 34 miles south of Helsingfors : it is situated
on seven rocky islands, the fortifications were commenced by the Swedes in 1748, and
were not completed in 1789, when Finland was united to Russia, by whose government the
works were zealously continued. It is termed the Gibraltar of the north. On Aug. 6, 1855,
the English and a part of the French fleet anchored off Swcaborg, and bombarded it by
mortar and gun-boats from the 9th to the nth, causing the destruction of nearly all the
principal buildings, including the dockyard and arsenal. But few casualties and no loss of
life ensued in the allied squadron. Success could not be pursued for want of mortars.
SWEARING ON the Gospeis, first used about 528, and introduced in judicial pro
ceedings about 600. Rapin. Profane Swearing made punishable by fine ; a labourer or
servant forfeiting is. others 2s. for the first offence ; for the second offence, 4s. ; the third
offence, 6s. ; 6 Win. III. 1695. Sec Oaths.
SWEATING SICKNESS. See Plague.
SWEDEN (N. Europe). The ancient inhabitants were the Fins, now the modern
inhabitants of Finland, a diminutive race, who retired to their present territory on the
appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been masters of Sweden.
See Scawiinavia. The internal state of this kingdom is little known previously to the J Ith
century. By the uniou of Calmar in 1397, Sweden became a province of Denmark, and was
not rescued from this subjection till 1521, when Gustavus Vasa recovered the kingdom from
the Danish yoke. He became king in 1523, and his descendants ruled till 1809. The
government of Sweden is a limited monarchy. The diet consists of four orders, the nobles,
the clergy, the peasants, and the burghers, and meet every three years (last time Oct. 15,
1865). The king is, as iu Britain, the head of the executive. There are two universities.
Upsal and Lund ; and Sweden can boast, among its great men, Linnaeus, Celsus, Scheele,
Bergman, Berzclius, Thorwaldsen, and Andersen. Population of Sweden (1863) 4,022,564 ;
of Norway (1855) 1,490,007.
Odin arrives in the north, and dies . . B.c. 70 The crown of Sweden which had been here
His son Skiold reigns 40 ditary, is mode elective ; and Stccnchel Mag
Tho Skioldungs reign till Olaf the Infant is nus, sumamed Smoek, or tho Foolish, king of
baptised, and introduces Christianity among Norway, is elected i3i9
his people .... about a. d. iooo Waldemar lays Gothland waste . ... 1361
Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Kugen, and Albert of Mecklenburg reigns .... 1363
destroys tho pagan temples . . . . 11G8 Treaty or union of Calmar (which $ee\ by which
Stockholm founded ...... 1260 Sweden is united to Denmark and Norway,
Magnus ljidelus establishes a regular form of undor Margaret 1 -597
government 1379 University of Upsal founded .... X476
SWE SWE
SWEDEN, continued.
Christian II. " tho Nero of tbo North," massa Sweden codes Finland to Russia Sept. 1 7, 1 809
cres the Swedish nobility, to fix his despotism 1520 Marshal Bernadottc, the prince of Ponte Corvo
The Swedes delivered from the Danish yoke by (one of Bonaparte's greatest generals), is
the valour of Gustavus Vasa .... 1521 chosen the crown prince of Sweden, Aug. 21, 1810
Gustavus Vasa is raised to the throne . . 1523 Gustavus IV. arrived in London . Nov. 12, .,
He Introduces Lutheranism and religious liberty 1 527 Swedish Pomcninia seized by Napoleon, Jan. 9, 1812
Hakes the crown hereditary .... 1544 Alliance with England . . July ia, „
Gustavus Adolphus heads the Protestant cause Sweden joins the grand allianco against Na
in Germany ; takes Magdeburg and Munich, 1630 poleon March 13, 18 13
He is slain at Lutzen Nov. 6, 163a Norway is ceded to Sweden by the treaty of
Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark . . 1648 Kiel, Jan. 14 ; carried into effect Nov. 1814
Abdication, of Christina 1654 Bernadotte ascends the throne of Sweden, as
Charles X. overruns Poland .... 1657 Charles John XIV. . . . Feb. 5, 1810
Arts and sciences begin to flourish . . 1660 Canals and roads constructed .... 1822
University of Lund founded .... 1666 Treaty of navigation between great Britain and
Charles XII. " tho Madman of the North," be Sweden May 19, 182C
gins his reign ; he makes himself absolute ; Death of Bernadottc, whose son Oscar ascends
and abolishes the senate 1699 tho throne March 8, 1844
Battlo of Pultowa, where Charles is defeated Treaty of alliance with England and Franco,
by the czar of Russia (see Pultowa) . . . 1709 Nov. 2i( 1855
He escapes to Bender, where, after three years' Banishment decreed against Catholic convorts
protection, he is made a prisoner by the Turks 1713 from Lutheranism .... Oct. 1857
He is restored ; and after ruinous wars, and Demonstration in favour of Italian indepen
fighting numerous battles, is killed at the dence Dec. 17, 1859
siege of Frederickshald . . . Dec. 11, 1718 Increased rsligious toleration towards scceders.
Queen Ulrica Eleanora abolishes despotic May, i860
government 1719 I The king visits England and France . Aug. 1861
Royal Academy founded by Linnl, afterwards He is warmly receivod in Denmark . July 17, 186a
called Linnseus 1741 Treaty of commerce with Italy, signed June 14, ,,
Conspiracy of counts Brahe and Home, who Strong demonstration in favour of Poland,
arOgbeheaded 1756 April, 1863
The Hats and Caps (French and Russian parties), Inauguration of free trade . Jan. 1, 1864
1738-57 : put down by Gustavus III. , . 1770 Sweden protests against the occupation of Sles-
Despotism re-established 177a wig by the allies. . . Jan. sa, „
Order of the Sword instituted . . . . „ Great excitement throughout the country,
Assassination of Gustavus III. by count Anker- March : preparation for war ; (no result)
striim, at a ball, March 16 ; he expired the April, ,,
29th 1792 Foundation of a "National Scandinavian So
The regicide was scourged with whips of iron ciety " at Stockholm to obtain by legal moans
thongs three successive days ; his right hand a confederation of the throe kingdoms for
was cut off, then his head, and his body im military and foreign affairs, reserving inde
paled May 18, „ pendent interior administration Dec. ,,
GusUvus IV. dethroned and the government Reform of the constitution proposed Nov.;
assumed by his uncle, the duke of Suder- adopted by the legislature ; great rejoicings,
monia March 13, 1809 Dec. ,,
Representative constitution established, June 7, Commercial treaty with France signed,Feb. 15, 1S65
KINGS OF SWEDEN (previously King* of Upsal).
1001. Olaf 8chotkonung, or Olif Schcetkonung tho 1397. [Union of Calmar, by which the three king
Infant, is styled king, 1015. Christianity doms are united undor one sovereign.]
introduced in this reign. 1412. Eric XIII. governs alone; deposed.
1026. Edmund Colbrenner. 1440. Christopher III.
105 1. Edmund Slemme. 1448. Charles VIII. surnamed Canuteson.
1056. Stenkill. 1*71. [Interregnum.] Sten Sture, Protector.
1066. Halstan. 1483. John II. (I. of Denmark)
1090. Ingo I. styled tho Good. 1502. [Interregnum.]
1112. Philip. 1503. Swanto Sture, Protector.
1 1 18. Ingo II. 1512. Sten Sture, Protector.
1 129. Swerker or Suerchcr I. 1520. Christiern, or Christian II., of Denmark, styled
1 155. St. Eric I. tho " Nero of the North ; " deposed for his
1161. Charles VII. : made prisoner by bis successor, crucltie*.
1 167. Canute, son of Eric I. 1523. Gustavus Vasa ; by whose valour tho Swedes
1 199. Swerker or Suerchcr II. ; killed in battle. are delivered from tho Danish yoke.
1210. Eric II. 1560. Eric XIV., son of Gustavus ; dethroned and
1216. John I. slain by
1222. Eric III. the Stammerer. 1568. John III. his brother.
1250. Birger Jarl, regent. 1592. Sigisimind, king of Poland, son of John III. :
1 266. Walderaar I. disputes for the succession continued the
1275. Magnus I. whole of this reign.
1290. Birger II. 1604. Charles IX brother of John III.
1319. Magnus II. ; dethroned. 161 1. Gustavus (Adolphus) II. the Groat ; fell at the
1350. Eric IV. battle of Lutzon, Nov. 6, 1632.
1359. Magnus restored. 1633. [Interregnum. ]
1363. Albert of Mecklenburg : his tyranny causes a Christina, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus.
revolt of his subjects, who invite Margaret Resigned the crown to her cousin ; died at
of Denmark to the throne. Rome in 1689.
1389. Margaret, queen of Sweden and Norway, now 1654. Charles X. (Gustavus), son of John Casimir,
also of Denmark, and Eric XIII. count palatine of the Rhine.
SWK 700 SWI
SWEDEN, continued,
1GC0. Charles XI. son of the preceding ; the artsand ' 1793. Gustavus (Adolpbus) IV. ; dethroned and the
sciences flourished in this reign. government assumed by bis uncle, the duke
1697. Charles XII. ntyled the "Alexander" and 1 of Sudermania.
tho *' Madman of tho North;" killed at 1809. Charles XIII. duke of Sudermania.
Fredcrickshald, Dec. 11, 1718. 1814. Treaty of Kiel, by which Norway falls under
1719. Ulrica Eleanoni, his sLster, and her consort the sovereignty of Svedtn.
Frederick I. landgrave of Hesse Caasel. ! 1818. Charles (John) XIV. Bernodotte the French
U Irica relinquishes the crown, and in prince of Ponte Corvo ; succeeded by bus son,
1741. Frederick reigned alone. 1844. Oscar, March 8.
1751. Adolphua Frederick of HoUtein Qottorp, do- J :8s9. Charles XV. July 8 (born May 3. 1S26); the
scended from the family of Vasa. rnESENT king of Sweden and Norway.
1771. Gust ivus (Adolphus) III.; assassinated by 1 Daughter, Princess Louisa, born Oct. 31, 1S51.
count Ankerstroni at a masked ball, Brothtr, Prince Oscar, born Jan. 21, 1S29.
SWEDEN BORGIANa A sect (calling themselves "the New Church" or "the New
Jerusalem Church " *) which holds tho opinions of baron Emanuel Swedenborg (born at
Stockholm, 168S ; died at London, 1772). He stated that he began to receive spiritual
manifestations, &c, in 1745, of which an account is given in his numerous works. The
sect arose about 1760, and began to spread in 1783 in England, where there were 50 congre
gations in 1851.
SWEET-BAY, Laurus nobilis, was brought to these realms from Italy before 1548.
Laurus iiidicft., or lioyal Bay, was brought from Madeira in 1665. The Sweet-Fern bush,
Comptonia asplaiifoHa, came from America, 1714. Laurus aggrrgata, or the Glaucous
Laurel, came from China in 1806.
SWING. Between 1830 and 1833 many haystacks and barns were fired in the rural
districts of England, and attributed to an imaginary person named " Swing.** Many persons
were caught and punished. The probable cause was disputes between the farmers and their
deluded labourers.
SWITH1N, ST., lived in the ninth century, and, having been tho preceptor to king
Ethclwulf, was by that prince made bishop of Winchester in 852. The tradition, that if it
ruin upon St. Swithin's day, July 15, it will rain forty days following, is supposed to have a
shadow of reason only from the circumstance of some constellations, which have the
character of portending rain, rising cosmically about the time of St Swithin's festival.
SWITZERLAND, the ancient Helvetia, was conquered by the Romans, 15 B.C. ; and
afterwards was successively subject to the Burgnndians and Germans. Franks also settled
here in the early ages. The canton of Schweitz was peopled by the Cimbrians, who, leaving
their original habitation in Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were defeated by the Roman
general Marius ; after which they fled into Helvetia, about 100 B.C. This canton has given
name to the whole confederacy. —The present national council is elected every third year,
at the rate of one member for 2000 persons.
Tho Helvetians, invading Gaul, severely de The Austrians defeated at NUfels ; make peace,
feated by Julius Caisar . . . B.C. 58 The Grisons league (see Caddet) . . April . 9,■ 13S9
1400
The Helvetians converted to Christianity by
Irish missionaries A.D. 61a Second league of the Grisons . . . . 142+
Helvetia raviiged by the Huns . . . . 9*9 The third league of the Grisons .... 1436
Becomes subject to Germany .... 1033 Battle of St. Jacobs on the Birs, near Basle
Friburg built by Beithold IV jijg (1600 Swiss resist 30,000 French, and are all
Berne built . . . . • . . -1191 killed, tho enemy losing 10,000) . Aug. 26, 1444
Tyranny of Gcsslur, which occasions the memo The Swiss defeat Charles the Bold at Granson,
rable revolt under the patriot William Tell . 1306 April 5 ; and at Morat . June 22, T476
Confederation against Austria ; declaration of And aid the duke of Lorraine at Nancy, where
Swiss independence 1307 Charles is slain. . . Jan. 5, 1477
A malignant fever carries off, in the canton of Swiss soldiers fir-st enter into the pay of France,
Basle, 1100 souls 1314 under Louis XI 14S0
Form of government made perpetual . . 1315 Union of Fribourg and Solcure . . . . 1481
Leopold I. of Austria defeated at Morgarten, Maximilian I. emperor acknowledges Swiss in
Nov. 16, „ dependence 1499
Lucerne joins the confederacy . . . . 1335 SchafThausen joins the union . . . . 1501
Tho canton of Zurich joins and becomes head The Swiss invade Milan and defeat the French
of the league 1350 at Novara June 6, 1513
Berne, Claris, and Zug join 1351 Defeated by them at Mariguano Sept 13, 14, 1515
Leopold II. of Austria defeated and slain at The Swiss confederacyacknowledged by France
Sempach July 9, 1386 and other powers 15x6
* It does not receive the usual doctrine of the Trinity, believing that the three persons are one in
Christ ; it rejects the doctrine of justification by faith alone, and the imputed righteoxisness of Christ, and
holds that salvation cannot be obtained except by faith and good works. It accepts baptism and the Lord's
Supper, and uses a liturgy and hymns.
SWI 701 SYD
SWITZERLAND, continued.
The Reformation begins at Basle ; the bishop form a separate league (Sonderbund) to sup
compelled to retire 1519 port education by the Jesuits, Ac. . 1846
The Orison leagues join the Swiss confederacy Insurrection >it Geneva against Jesuit teaching;
as allies . . 1544 a temporary provisional government estab
Appcnzel joins tho other cantons . . . 1597 lished Oct. 7,
Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts Geneva by Tho diet declares the Sonderbund illegal, and
surprise, scales the walls, and penetrates the dissolves it, July 20; tho seven cantons pro
town, but in the end is defeated . . 1602 test, July 22; the diet orders the expulsion
[This circumstance gave rise to an annual of the Jesuits, Sept. 3 ; communal assemblies
festival commcmorativo of thoir escape from held to resist it, Sept. 26; Oct 3, 10 . . . 1847
tyranny. ] The diot prepares to repress the Sonderbund,
Independence of Switzerland recognised by the Nov. 4 ; civil war; the Sonderbund defeated ;
treaty of Westphalia (see Weatphatia, Peace of) 1648 submit* to tho expulsion of the Jo-uits, and
[From this period until the French revolution the secularisation of monastic property,
the cantons enjoyed tranquillity, disturbed Nov. 19-29,
only by the changes arising out of tbeir New federal constitution . . Sept 12, i34S
various constitutions.] Dispute about Ncufcbatel (wh ch are) iS37
Alliance with France May 25, 1777 Declaration of neutrality in the coining Italian
Strife in Geneva, between the aristocratic and war Much 14, 1859
democratic partion ; France interferes . . 1781 Mutiny and punishment of the Swiss mercenary
2000 fugitive Gcntveso beck an asylum in troops at Naples ; the confederation forbid
Ireland (see Qeiuv<>) 1782 foreign enlistment . July and Aug.
Swiss guards ordered to quit France . . . 1792 Swiss government protests against tho annex
Helvetic confederation dissolved ; its subjuga ation of Savoy to Franco . March 15, 1
tion by France 1798 150 Swiss attempting to entor Savoy, are
Ilelvetian republic formed . . * . ,, stopped by the Oeneveso government,
Switzerland the seat of war 1799-1802 March 30,
The number of cantons increased to 19 ; the M. Thorel, a Swiss, obtains a prize at the
federal government restored ; and a lan- national shooting match at Wimbledon, Julv,
dumman appointed by France May 12, 1802 The government forbid the Swiss to enlist in
Uri, Schweitz, and Underwutd separate from foreign service without permission July 30,
the republic July 13, ,, Proposed European congress to preserve Swiss
Switzerland joins France with6ooomen( Aug.24, 1811 neutrality, put off .... July,
The allies entered Switzerland in the spring of 1814 Glarus destroyed by fire . . . May 3, 18G1
The number of cantons increased to 22, and the French troops occupy Vallee des Dappcs, Oct.
independence of Switzerland secured by the 28 ; the Swiss announce the violation of their
treaty of Vienna 1815 territory Nov. 5, „
Revision of the constitution of the cantons . 1830 Treaty of France settles the question of the
Law to make education independent of tho Valley of Dappcs by mutual cession of terri
clergy 1839 tory ; no military works to be constructed on
It leads to dissensions between the Catholics territory ceded ; signed . Dec. 8, 1862
and Protestants 18404 Serious election riots at Geneva, with bloodshed,
Dispute about the convents of Aargau, 1844; to Aug 22; federal troops arrive . Aug. 23, 18*4
put education into the hands of the Jesuits, Federal troops quit Geneva . . Jan
&c. ; opposition of the Protestant cantons 1846 Revision of the constitution ; deliberations
lairrerne.Uri, Schweitz, UnterwaMen, Freiburg, begin Oct. 23,
Zug, and Volafs (Roman Catholic cantons). M. KntiscI elected president . . Nov. 6,
SWISS CONFEDERATION OF 1815.
Uri 1 first con- Schaffhausen Solothum Pavs de Vaud
Schweitz V fedura- Appenzel Basel Valais
Unterwalden) tion. St. Gall Gris ms Neufchatcl
Zurich Glarus Aargau Geneva
Berne Zug Thurgau
Lucerne Frieburg* Tessins
SWORDS were formed of iron taken from a mountain by the Chinese, 1879 B.C. I'uiv.
Hist. The Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. The broadsword and scimitar
are of modern adoption. The sword of state carried at an English king's coronation by a
king of Scotland, 1194. Damascus steel swords are most prized; the next the sword of
Ferrara steel. The Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to procure the latter from the
celebrated artificer named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call them their Andrew Ferraras.
The broad-sword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh in 1724.
SYBAR1S, a Greek colony in S. Italy, founded about 720 B.C. ; destroyed by the Croto-
nians about 510 b.c. The people were greatly addicted to luxury, hence the term Sybarite.
SYCAMORE TREE, called the Egyptian fig-tree. In Mrs. Jameson's "Memoirs of
Female Sovereigns," we are told that Mary queen of Scots brought over from France a little
sycamore tree, which she planted in the gardens at Holyrood, and that from this have
sprung all the beautiful groves of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland.
SYDNEY, capital of New South Wales ; founded by governor Phillip, on a cove on
Port Jackson, in 1788, as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally intended
for Botany bay. It was named after lord Sydney, secretary for the colonies. A legislative
702 SYR
council was first held July 13, 1829 ; the university opened, Oct. n, 1852. Sydney was
erected into a bishopric in 1836, afterwards into an archbishopric. It was lit with gas in
May, 1841, the first place so lit in Australia. The Roman Catholic cathedral burnt, and
valuable property destroyed, June 29, 1865. See Australia, New South Walts, Convicts, &c.
SYAIPIESOMETER, a species of barometer invented by Adie of Edinburgh in 1819.
SYNAGOGUE (usually an assembly), a congregation of the Jews, the place where such
assembly is held for religious purposes. When first held is uncertain ; some refer it to the
times after the Babylonish captivity. In Jerusalem were 480 synagogues. In 1851 there
were in London 10 synagogues, in England and Wales, 53.
SYNOD. The first general synods were called by emperors, and afterwards by Christian
princes ; but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of his legates usually presiding
(sec Councils), The first national synod held in England was at Hertford, 673 ; the last was
held by cardinal Pole in 1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but by royal authority,
25 Hen. VIII. 1533. See Ihrt and Thurles.
SYRACUSE, S.-E. Sicily, founded by Archias, 734 B.C. ; 732 B.C. Euscbius ; 749 B.c.
Univ. Hist. See Sicily.
Gelon becomes supreme. . . . b.c. 485! banished to Corinth by Timoleon, 343 ; who
Succeeded by Hiero 478 1 governs well till his death . . . B.c: 337
Republic established 467 | Agathocles usurps power 317
Becomes predominant in Sicily .... 4531 He is poisoned by Hicetas, and the republic
Athenian expedition against Syracuse, under j restored 2S9
Nicias 415 . Hiero, pretor of Syracuse, 275: elected king1,
Gylippus the Lacedaemonian succours Syracuse ; I 270 ; rules in peace till his death, 216 ;
defeats Nicias .... ... 413 Ilieronymus, bis grandson, succeeds, 216 ;
Government of Dionysius the cider, 406; ho I murdered . 214
receives Plato well 389 Syracuse declares against Rome, besieged by
Dionysius, the younger, succeeds . , . 367 Marcellus, 214, and taken ; Archimedes, the
Opposed by Dion, 361; who is banished, and illustrious mathematician, slain. . . 312
Plato, who endeavoured to reconcile them, is Syracuse taken by the Saracens, a.d. 669, and.
sold for a slave 360 retaken by count Roger, the Norman . . xo88
Dion returns with a Greek army and fleet, and Destroyed by earthquakes in 1542, Jan. 1693;
expels Dionysius, 356; rules Syracuse, 355 ; and nearly destroyed .... Aug. 6, 1757
assassinated by Callippus .... 353 In the insurrection, Syracuse surrendered to
Dionysius recovers his authority, 347; but is \ the Neapolitan troops , . April 8, 1849
SYRIA. The capital was originally Damascus ; but after the battle of Ipsus, Scleucus
founded Antioch.
Alliance of king David and Hiram king of Antiochus III. the Great (king, 223), conquers
Syria b.c. 1049 Palestine, butis totally defeated at RaphiaB.c 317
Syria conquered by David 1040 Again conquers Palestine, 198 ; but gives it to
Liberated by Rczin 980 Ptolemy 193
Benhadad, king of Syria, makes war on the I Enters Greece, 192 ; defeated by the Romans
Jews 898 at Thermopylae 191 ; and at Magnesia . . 190
Benhadad II. reigns .... about 830 Makes peace with the Romans, giving up to
Syria subjugated by Tiglathpilescr king of them Asia Minor iS3
Assyria 740 Scleucus Philopator king 187
Syria conquered by Cyrus 537 Antiochus IV. king, who assumes the title of
And by Alexander 333 Theos-Epiphanes, orthe Illustrious God . . 175
Scleucus Nicator enters Babylon . . . . 312 He sends Apollonius into Judea ; Jerusalem is
JSra of the Seleucidae (icfiich tee). „ taken ; the temple pillaged ; 40,000 inhabi
Great battle of Ipsus ; death of Antigonus, de tants destroyed, and 40,000 more sold as slaves i63
feated by Ptolemy, Selcucus, and Lysimacbus 301 Antiochus V. Eupator (king, 164), murdered by
The city of Antioch founded 299 Demetrius Soter, who seizes the throne . . «6a
Antiochus, son of Scleucus, falling in love with Demetrius is defeated and slain by bis successor
bis father's queen, Stratonice, be pines away Alexander Bala, 150; who is also defeated
nearly to death ; but the secret being dis and slain by Demetrius Nicator . . 14^
covered, she is divorced by the father, and Antiochus VI. Sidetes (son of Demetrius Soter)
married by the son 297 rules during the captivity of his brother
Battlo of Cyropedium ; Lysimacbus slain by Demetrius Nicator (after slaying the usurper
Selcucus ........ 281 Trypho) 13-
Scleucus foully assassinated by Ceraunus ; Antiochus grants peace to the Jews, and
Antiochus I. king 280 Placates the Romans, 133 ; invades Parthia,
Antiochus I. defeats the Gauls, and takes the 129 ; and is defeated and slain . . . xaS
D»me of the Soter, or Saviour . . . . 275 Demctrhis Nicator restored „
Antiochus II. surnamed by tuo Milesians Thtos Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son Seleucus
(God !), king 261 with her own hand T24
Poisoned by Laodice . . . . . 246 Her son Antiochus VII. Grypus (king, 125),
Selcucus II. (king, 246) makes a treaty of whom she attempts to poison ; but he com
alliance with Smyrna and Magnesia . . 743 pels his motherto swallow the deadly draught
Scleucus III. Ceraunus (or Thunder), king . . 226 herself is-*
SYR 703 TAG
SYRIA, continued.
Reign of Antiochus VIII. Cyzicenus at Damas Ibrahim Pacha, his son, defeats tho army of
cus, and of Grypus at Antioch . .B.C. in tho grand signior at Konirh . . Dec. 21, 1 83a
Seleucus, king 95 Numerous battles and conflicts follow with
Antiochus Eusebes, king 94 various success : the European powers
Dethroned by Philip 85 intervene and peace is mado . . May 6,
Tigranes, king of Armenia, acquires Syria . 8j The Turkish fleet arrives at Alexandria, and
Antiochus X. Asiaticus, solicits the aid of the deserts to Mehemet Ali . . . July 14, 11
Romans 75 The war renewed, May ; Ibrahim defeats the
Defeat of Tigranes by Lucullus, 69 ; he submits Turks at N'ezib Juno 24,
to Pompey, who enters Syria, and dethrones Tho Fivo Powers unite to support the Porte, 1839
Antiochus Asiaticus 65 July,
Syria made a Roman provinco . . . . 63 Death of lady Hester Stanhope June 23
Treaty of London (not signed by offended 1840
France) July 15,
Syria invaded by the rarthians . . . x.d. 162 Capture of Sidon (see Sidon) . Sept. 27, »i
By the Persians 256 Fell of Beyrout (see Beyrout) Oct 10,
Violent earthquakes 341 Fall of Aero (see Act?) Nov. 3,
Invaded by the Saracens, 497, 502, 529 : by tho Long negotiations : the sultan grants hereditary
Persians 607 rights to Mehemet, who gives up Syria Jan. 1841
Conquered by the Saracens .... 638 The Druses said to have destroyed i$i Christian
Conquest of Syria by the Fatimite caliphs . . 970 villages and killed 1000 persons (see £h-u*ifi\
Revolt of tho emirs of Damascus . . . 1067 May 29 to July 1, iSGd
The emirs of Aleppo revolt 1068 The Mahometans massacre Christians at Da
The crusades commence (see Crtuade*) . . 1095 mascus ; about 3300 slain ; many saved by
Desolated by the Crusades {ukich tee) . 1096-1272 Abd-cl-Kader ... July 9, Ac.,
Noureddin conquers Syria .... 1166 The English and French government intervene;
Baladin dethrones the "Fatimite dynasty . .1171 a convention signed at Paris; 12,000 men to
The Tartars overrun all Syria .... 1359 bo sent by Franco .... Aug. 3,
The sultans of Egypt expel the Crusaders . . 1291 Vigorous conduct of Fuad Pacha : he punishes
Syria overrun by Tamerlane .... 1400 the Mahometans implicated in the massacres
Syria and Egypt conquered by the Turks . . 1517 at Damascus very severely ; 167 of all ranks,
Syria continued in possession of the Turks till including the governor, executed, Aug. 20,
the invasion of Egypt by the French July 1, 1798 tt seq,
Bonaparte defeats the Mamelukes with great 4000 French soldiers, under general Hautpoul,
loss, Aug. 6 ; overruns the country, and takes land at Beyrout .... Aug. 22,
Qaza and Jaffa „ Lord Dufferin, the British commissioner in
Siege of Acre . . March 6 to May 27, 1799 Syria, arrives at Damascus . . Sept. 6,
Bonaparte returns to France from Egypt, Tho French and Turks advance against Le
Aug. 33, fi banon ; 14 emirs surrendered . . Oct.
Egypt and Syria evacuated by tho French army, Pacification of the country effected . Nov.
Sept. 10, 1S01 The French occupation ceases , . June 5, 1 Mi
Mehemet Ali attacks and captures Acre, and Prince of Wales visits Syria . . . April, 1862
overruns the whole of Syria . . . 1831-32
T.
TABERNACLE, the Holy Place of the Israelites, till the erection of Solomon's temple,
was constructed by Divine direction, 1491 B.C. When the Jews were settled in Canaan, the
tabernacle was set up at Shiloh by Joshua, 1444 B.C. It was replaced by the temple erected
by Solomon, 1004 B.c. —Tho chapel erected for George Whitfield in Moorfields in 1741, being
of a temporary nature, received tho name of Tabernacle, which was afterwards given to their
chapels by the Calvinistic Methodists. Whitfield's Tabernacle in Tottenham-court-road was
erected in 1756, and enlarged in 1760. His lease expired in 1828; and tho chapel was
opened by tho Independents in 1830. A large Metropolitan Tabernacle, erected for the
ministrations of Mr. C. H. Spurgeon, a Baptist, near the Elephant and Castle, Kenuington-
road, Surrey, was opened on March 31, 1861.
TABOR, in Bohemia, was founded by Ziska in 1419, and becamo the chief seat of the
Hussites, or Taborites. Casimir of Poland, invited to be their king, was defeated here by
Albert of Austria in 1438. Tabor itself was taken by the emperor in 1544.
TADMOR. See Palmyra. TAEPINGS. See China, 1851, note.
TAFFETY, an early species of silken manufacture, more prized formerly than now,
woTen very smooth and glossy. It was worn by our elder queens, and was first made in
England by John Tyce, of Shoreditch, London, 41 Eliz. 1598. Stow'3 Chron.
TAGLIACOZZO, in the Abruzzi mountains, 3. Italy, whore, on Aug. 23, 1268, Charles
of Anjou, the usurping king of Naples, defeated and made prisoner the rightful monarch,
young Conradin (the last of the Hohenstaufens, and grandson of the emperor Frederic II.),
who had been invited into Italy by the Ghibelline or Imperial party ; their opponents, tho
Guelfa, or papal party, supporting Charles. Conradin was beheaded, Oct. 29, following.
TAII 704 TAP
TAHITI. The French abbreviated name for Otaheite. See OtaltciU.
TA LAVERA i>e la Reyna, Central Spain, was taken from the Mahometans by Ordofio,
king of Leon, 913. Here a battle was fought July 27, 2S, 1809, between the united British
and Spanish armies under sir Arthur Wcllesley (19,000 British and 30,000 Spaniards), and
the French army (47,000) commanded by marshals Victor and ScbastianL After a battle on
the 27th, both armies remained on the field during the night, and the French at break of
day renewed the attack, but were again repulsed by the British with great slaughter. At
noon Victor charged the whole British line, but was repulsed at all points, and sir Arthur
"Wcllesley secured the victory, the enemy retreating with a loss of 10,000 men and 20 pieces
of cannon. Tlio British lost 800 killed, and 4000 wounded or missing. Soult, Ney, and
Morticr, living in the rear, obliged the British to retire after the battle.
TALBOTYPE. See Photography.
TALLY OFFICE in the Exchequer took its name from the French word tailler, to cut
A tally is a piece of wood written upon both sides, containing an acquittance for money
received ; which, being cloven asunder by an officer of the Exchequer, one part, called the
stock, was delivered to the person who paid, or lent, money to the government ; and the
other part, called the counter-stock, or counter-foil, remained in the office, to be kept till
called for, and joined with the stock. This manner of striking tallies is very ancient.
Jieation. The practice was ordered to be discontinued in 1782. On Oct. 16, 1834, the
houses of parliament were burnt down by too many of these tallies being used in heating the
stoves in the house of lords. See Exchequer.
TALMUDS, two liooks concerning the religion and morality of the Jews,—the Tal-nud
of Jerusalem, and the Talmud of Babylon. The one composed by the Kabbi Jud;i
Hakkadosh, about the close of the 2nd century ; the second contains commentaries, &<•.,
by succeeding rabbis, collected by Ben Eliczer, about the 6th century; abridged by
Maimonides in the 12th century.
TANAGRA (Brnotia). Here the Spartans defeated tJwAthenians 457 B.C., but were
defeated by them in 426, when Agis II. headed the Spartans, and Nicias the Athenians.
TANDY ARREST. James Napper Tandy proposed his plan of reform in 1791. In the
French expedition against Ireland he acted as a general of brigade, Aug. 1798. He failed, and
fled to Hamburg, and was there delivered up to the English, Nov. 24 ; for which Bonaparte
declared war upon Hamburg, Oct. 15, 1799. Tandy was liberated after the peace of Amicus
in 1802.
TANGIER (Morocco, N."W. Africa). Besieged by prince Ferdinand of Portugal, who
was beaten and taken prisoner, 1437. It was conquered by Alfonso V. of Portugal in 1471,
and given as a dower to princess Catherine, on her marriage with Charles II. of England,
1662 ; but he did not think it worth keeping, and in 1683, caused the works to be blown up,
and the place abandoned. Tangiers afterwards became a piratical station ; but the discon
tinuance of piracy has greatly diminished its importance.
TAN1STRY (in Ireland), the equal division of lands, after the decease of the owner,
amongst his sons, legitimate or illegitimate. If one of the sons died, his son did not
inherit, but a new division was made by the tanist or chief. Abolished 1604. Davits.
TANNING leather with the bark of trees was early practised. It was introduced into
these countries from Holland by William III. for raising orange-trees about 1689. It was
discontinued until about 1719, when ananas were first brought into England. Great
improvements have been made in tanning by means of chemical knowledge.
TANTALUM, a rare metal, discovered in an American mineral by Hatchett, in 1S01, and
named by him Colubium ; and in a Swedish mineral by Ekeberg, who gave it its present
name. Wollaston pointed out the indentity of the two metals in 1809 ; and Berzelius
prepared pure metallic tantalum in 1824. In 1846 Rose discovered that tantalum was really
a mixture of three metals, which he named tantalum, niobium, and pelopium. Gmclin.
TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed from the Saracens, and hence its original
workers in France were called Sarazinois. The invention of tapestry hangings belongs [the
date is not mentioned] to the Netherlands. Guicciardini. Manufactured in France under
Henry IV. by artists invited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought into England by
"William Sheldon ; and the first manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by sir Francis
Crane, 17 James I. 1619. Salmon. Under Louis XIV. the art of tapestry was much
improved in France. See Gobelin Tapestry. Very early instances of making tapestry are
TAR 705 TAV
mentioned by tho ancient poets, and also in Scripture ; so that the Saracens' manufacture is
a revival of the art. For the tapestry wrought by Matilda of England, see Bayeux Tapestry.
TAR. The chemist Becher first proposed to make tar from pit-coal—tho carl of Dun-
donald's patent, 1781. The mineral tar was discovered at Coltbrook-dalc, Shropshire, 1779 ;
and in Scotland, Oct. 1792. Tar-water was first recommended for its medicinal virtues by
tho good Dr. Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne, about 1 744. From coal-tar brilliant dyes are now
produced. Soe Aniline.
TARA, a hill in Meath, Ireland, whero it is said a conference was held between the
English and Irish in 1 173. Near here, on May 26, 1798, the royalist troops, 400 strong,
defeated tho insurgent Irish (4000 men), 500 killed. On Aug 15, 1843, Daniel O'Connell
held a monster meeting hero (250,000 persons said to have been assembled).
TARANTISM. See Dancing.
TARBES (S. France, near the Pyrenees). The French, under" Soult, were forced from
their position at Tarbes, with considerable loss, by the British army commanded by Wel
lington, March 20, 1814. See Toulouse.
TARENTUM (now Taranto, S. Italy) was founded by the Greek Phalantus, B.C. 708.
The people of Tarentum, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, supported a war against tho
Romans, which had been undertaken B.C. 281, by the Romans, to avenge the insults the
Tarentines had offered to their ships when near their harbours ; it was terminated after ten
years ; 300,000 prisoners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Rome. Tarentum
lias shared in all the revolutions of Southern Italy.
TARIFF, a book of duties charged on goods exported or imported. Our tariff in 1840
comprised 1042 articles ; the number was reduced (by sir Robert Peel) in 1845 and 1847. It
comprised 439 articles in 1857 ; the number was greatly reduced in i860.
TARRAGONA (N.E. Spain), occupied as a naval station by the British before their
capture of Gibraltar, in 1704. It was stormed and sacked by the French under Suchet,
Jan. 28, 181 1, and the inhabitants put to the sword.
TARTAN, or Highland Plaid. This dress of the Scottish Highlanders is said to have
been derived from the ancient Gauls, or Celta?, the Gatli non braccati.
TARTARIC ACID is said to have been tho first discovery of the eminent chemist,
Scheele, who procured it in a separate state by boiling tar with lime, and in decomposing
the tartrate of lime thus formed by means of sulphuric acid, about 1770. In 1859 Barou
Licbig formed tartaric acid from other sources.
TARTARY (Asia). The Tartars, Mongols, or Moguls, were known in antiquity as
Scythians. During the decline of the Roman empire, these tribes began to seek more fertile
regions ; and the first who reached the frontier of Italy were the Huns, tho ancestors of the
modern Mongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was tho famous
Genghis Khan. His empire, by tho conquest of China, Persia, and all Central Asia
(1206-27), became one of the most formidable ever established ; but it was split into parts in
a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered Persia, broke tho power of the Turks
in Asia Minor (1370-1400), and founded the Mogul dynasty in India, which began with
Baber in 1525, and formed the most splendid court in Asia till the close of the 18th century.
See Golden Horde. The Calmuck Tartars, expelled from China, settled on the banks of the
Volga in 1672, but returned in 1771, suffering much on the journey.
TASMANIA, the name now given to tho British settlement in Van Diemen's Land
(which sec).
TAVEIiNS maybe traced to the 13th century "In the raigne of king Edward the Third,
only three taverns were allowed in London : one in Chepc, one in Walbrok, and tho other in
Lombard -street." * Spclman. The Boar's Bead, in Enstcheap, existed in the reign of Henry
IV., and was tho rendezvous of prince Henry and his dissolute companions. Shakspeare
mentions it as the residence of Mrs. Quickly, and the sceno of Falstaffs merriment.
Shakspeare, Henry IV. The White Hart, Bishopsgate, established in 1480, was rebuilt in
1829. Taverns were licensed in 1752.
* Taverns were restricted by an act of Edward VI. 1552, to 40 in London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 in
Westminster, 6 in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 in Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in
Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 3 in Heroford, 3 in Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich,
3 iu Winchostor, 3 in Oxford, 4 in Cambridgo, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Z Z
TAX 7»»; TEE
TAXES were levied by Solon, the first Athenian legislator, 540 B.C. The first class of
citizens paid an Attic talent of silver, about 55/. of our money. Darius, the son of Hystaspes,
levied a land-tax by assessment, which was deemed so odious that his subjects styled him, by
way of derision, Darius the Trader, 480 B.C. IfEon. Taxes in specie were first introduced
into England by William I. 1067, and he raised them arbitrarily ; yet subsidies in kind,
as in wool, leather, and other products of the country, continued till the accession, of
liiehard II. 1377. Camden, See Revenue and Income Tax.
Assessed Tares. Land Tar. 1 Atstssed Taxes.—Grots Amount.
1800 . . .£3,468,131 1800 . . .£1,307,941 1851 (to Jan. 5) . . £4.365,033
1805 4508,752 1805 1,596,481 1855 (year end. March 31) 3,160,641
1810 .... 6,233. '6i 1810 .... 1.418,337 i860 „ „ 3,233,000
1815 6,524,766 1815 1,084,251 1865 „ „ 3,293,000
1820
1825 .... 6,311,346 1820
5,176,722 1 1825 .... 1,192,257
1,288,393
1830 .... 5.013,405 1 1830 .... 1,189,214
1840 .... 3,^06,467 1 1840 .... i|203-579
1835 3.733-997 l835 1,298,622
TCHERNAYA, a river in the Crimea. On Aug. 16, 1S55, the lines of the allied army at
this place were attacked by 50,000 Russians under prince GorUchakott" without success, being
repulsed with the loss of 3329 slain, 1658 wounded, and 600 prisoners. The brunt of the
attack was borno by two French regiments under general D'Herbillon. The loss of the
allies was about 1200 ; 200 of these were from the Sardinian contingent, which behaved with
great gallantry under the command of general La Marmora, The Russian general Read, and
the Sardinian general Montcvecchio, were killed. The object of the attack was the relief of
Sebastopol, then closely besieged by the English and French.
TEA was brought to Europe by the Dutch, 1610. It is mentioned as having been used
in England on very rare occasions prior to 1657, and sold for 61. and even 10/. the pound.
Samuol Tcpys records his first "cup of tea," " Millions of pounds' weight of sloe, liquorice,
Sept. 25, 1660 and afh tree leaves, are every year mixed
A duty of $<!, was charged upon every gallon of with Chincso teas in England." Jityort of the
tea made for sale (12 Ch. II. c. 13), 1660; the House of Commons . 181S
East India Company first import it . . 1C69. "Tho consumption of tho whole civilised world,
It was brought into England in 1666, by lord exclusively uf England, is about 22,000,000 of
Ossory una lord Arlington, from Holland : jxmnds, while the annual consumption iu
and being admired by persons of rank, it was tireat Britain is 30,000,000." Ertdence in
imported from thence, and generally sold for House of Commons 1S30
60 shillings per pound, till our East India The first tea-sale in London on the abolition of
Company took up tho trade. Anderson. the exclusive privilege of the Eiist India
Green tea began to bo used "1715 Company took place in Mincing-lane,
Price of black tea per lb. 13*. to 201., of green, Aug. 19, 1E34
12s. to 30s 1728 New duties were charged, 1796; tho duty was
Tho duty imposed on tea in America, 1767 : 96 and 100 per cent., made 23. id. per pound 1S36
this tax occasioned the destruction of 17 The duty derived from the import of tea in 1 S50
chests at Now York, and 340 at Honton, Nov. amounted to 5,471,4611. : and the amount was
1773, and ultimately led to tho American war 5,902,433' in 1 85j
(see Boston). Various changes made in 1854, 1855 . . and 1S56
Tho tea-plant brought to England . . about 1768 | Duty of is. $d. per pound begun . . April, 1S57
Tea-dealers obliged to have sign-boards fixed Tho duty upon tea gradually reduced from
up, announcing their sale of tea . Aug. 1779 2*. 2i<f. to 19. per pound ; reduced to 6rt. per
Commutation act for reducing tho duty on tea pound Juno 1, 1S65
from 50 to i2i per cent, and taxing windows
iu lieu June, 1734
TEAS IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND, OR CHARGED WITH DUTY, IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS :—
1726 . . . .lb. 700,000 I 1815 . . lb. 26,368,000 I 1845 . . . .lb, 44,197,433
1766 . . . . 7,000,000 1820 25,662,474 [ 1850 govt, returns . 50,512,384
1792 .... 13,185,000 1825 . 24,803,668 1856 .... 86,200,414
1800 . . . . 23,723,000! 1830 30.544-404 .... 75.43*>535
1805 .... 24,133,000 ! 1835 . 44i36°.55<>| 1861 • ■ • °AS77>383
1810 . . . . 35,414,000 1 1840 . 38,06^,555 I 1864 .... 124,350,243
TE-DEUM. A song of thanksgiving used in the Komish and English Churches, beginning
"Tc Dcum laudamus —We praiso thee, 0 God," supposed to be the composition of
August in and Ambrose, about 390.
TEETOTALLER. Richard Turner, an artisan of Preston, Lancashire, in addressing
temperance meetings, acknowledged that he had been a hard drinker, and being an illiterate
man, and in want of a word to express how much he then abstained from malt and spirits,
TEL 7<~>7 TEM
exclaimed " I am now a Teetotaller ; " about 1831. See Encralitcs, Temperance, and United
Kingdom.
TELEGRAPHS. Polybius calls the different instruments used by the ancients for
communicating information, pyrsicc, because the signals were always made by fire. In 1663,
a plan was suggested by the marquess of Worcester, and a modern telegraph was suggested
by Dr. Hooke, 1684. M. Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of telegraphs
about this period. M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used by the French in 1793,
and two were erected over the Admiralty-office, London, 1796. The Semaphore was erected
there 1816. The naval signals by telegraph enabled 400 previously concerted sentences to
be transmitted from ship to ship, by varying the combinations of two revolving crosses. See
Electric Telegraph, under Electricity.
TELESCOPES were noticed by Leonard Digges, about 1571. Roger Bacon, about 1250,
described telescopes and microscopes exactly, and yet neither were made till ono Metius, at
Alkmaer, and Jansen, of Middleburg, constructed them about 1590-1609. Galileo imitated
their invention by its description, and made three in succession, one of which magnified
a thousand times, 1630. With these he discovered Jupiter's moons and the phases of
Venus. Telescopes were improved by Zucchi, Huyghens, Gregory, and Newton, and after
wards by Martin, Hall, Dolloud, and Herschel.
The reflecting telescope invented by Nowton . 1668 standing its great weight and size, is moved
with the utmost ease, and can be lowered to
Achromatic telescopes made by More Hall about 1 723 any
A telescope made in London for the observatory angle, while it swoeps the horizon by
of Madrid, which cost 11,000/., in 1802 ; but means of wheels running on a graduated
the llcrschel telescope, made 1780-1795, was circlo
One of gigantic size, 85 feet In length (very1828-1845
im
superior; it had the great speculum 48 inches
diameter, 3J inches thick, weighed 21 18 lbs., perfect), completed at Wandsworth by the
and magnified 6400 times. See /fertclul. rov. John Craig 185a
The earl of Hosse erected on his estate at Par- Magnificent equatorial telescopes set up at tho
sonstown, in Ireland, tho largest telescopo national observatories at Greenwich and Paris i860
ever constructed, at a cost exceeding 20,000'. M. Foucault exhibits at Paris a reflecting
This wonderful instrument is 7 feet in telescope, the mirror 31$ inches in diameter ;
diameter, and 52 foet in length ; tho machinery the focal length 17} feet 1863
is supported on massive walls, and notwith-
TELLURIUM, a rare metal, in its natural state containing small quantities of iron and
gold, was discovered by Miiller at Reicheusteiu in 1782.
TEMESWAR (Hungary), capital of the Banat, often besieged by the Turks. On Aug.
10, 1S49, Haynau totally defeated the Hungarians besieging this town, and virtually ended
the war.
TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES originated with Mr. Calhoun, who, while he was secretary
of war in America, in order to counteract tho habitual uso of ardent spirits among the
people, prohibited them altogether in the United States' army, 1818. The first public
temperance society in America was projected in 1825, and formed Feb. 13, 1826. Tem
perance societies immediately afterwards were formed in England and Scotland. In Ireland,
the rev. Dr. Edgar, of Belfast, published upon temperance in 1829-31 ; and Father Mathew, a
Roman Catholic clergyman, affirmed that in 1839, 1840, and 1841, lie had made more than
a million of converts to temperance.* In England, the National Temperance Society was
formed in 1842 ; the London Temperance League in 185 1 ; and the United Kingdom
Alliance for the legislative suppression of the sale of intoxicating liquors, June 1, 1853. See
Teetotaller.
TEMPLARS. The first military order of Knights Templars was founded in n 18, by
Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem. The Templars were numerous in several countries, and
came to England 1185. Their wealth having excited the cupidity of the French kings, the
order was suppressed by the council of Vieune, and part of its revenues was bestowed upon
other orders in 1312. Numbers of tho order were burned alive and hanged in 1310, and it
suffered great persecutions throughout Europe. The grand-master Molay was burnt alive at
Paris in 1 3 14.
TEMPLE (London), tho dwelling of the Knights Templars, at the suppression of the
order, was purchased by tho professors of the common law, and converted into inns, 1340.
They are called tho Inner and Middlo Temple, in relation to Essex-house, which was also a
* This success was probably owing to the general poverty, as tho majority of tho converts are stated
to have relapsed on the return of prosperity. Father Mathew arrived in America in July, 1849, but was not
so successful there. He died Dec. 8, 1856, aged 66.
Z I 2
TEM 70s TET
part of the house of the Templars, built in 1 185, and called the Outer Temple, because it
was situated without Temple Bar. —St. Mary's, or the Temple Church, situated in the Inner
Temple, is an ancient Gothic stono building, erected by the Templars in 1240, and is remark
able for its circular vestibule, and for the tombs of the crusaders, who were buried here.
The church was recascd with stone by Mr. Smirkc in 1828. —The Temple Hall was built in
1572, and Temple Bar in 1672. The new Middle Temple- library was opened by the prince
of Wales, Oct. 31, 1 86 1.
TEMPLES originated in tho sepulchres built for the dead. Eusebius. The Egyptians
were the first who erected temples to the gods. Herodotus. The first erected in Greece is
ascribed to Deucalion. Apollonius.
Tho temple of Jerusalem built by Solomon, 1012B.C. ; it employed 220 years ; destroyed by the Goths,
consecrated 1004 ; pillaged by Sheshak, 971 ; re A.D. 260.
paired by Joasb, 856 ; profaned by Ahaz, 740 ; re The temple of Piety was btiilt by Arilius, on the spot
stored by Hezekiah, 726 ; pillaged and fired by where once a woman had fed with her milk her
Nebuchadnezzar, 588. 587 ; rebuilt, 536 ; pillaged aged father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and
by Antiochua, 170 ; rebuilt by Herod, 18 ; destroyed excluded from all aliments. VaL Max.
by Titus, a.d. 70. Temple of Theseus, built 480 B.C., is at this day the
The temple of Apollo, at Delphi, first a cottage with most perfect ancient edifice in the wofld.
boughs, built of stono by Trophonius, about Most of the heathen temples were destroyed
1200 B.C. ; burnt by the Pisistratida), 548; a new throughout the Roman empire by Constantine the
temple raised by tho family of the Alcnueonida.', Great, 331. See fe/tarate artidti.
about 513. Tho temple at Paris, formerly an asylum for debtors,
Temple of Diana at Ephosus, built seven times ; was made the site of a market in 1S09, and rebuilt
planned by Ctcsiphon, 544 B.C. ; fired by Hero- in 1864.
stratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 B.C. ; to rebuild
TENANT. See Rent. "Tenant-right" in Ireland has caused much discussion in that
country.
TENASSERIM (N.E. India), ceded by Burmah to the British, Feb. 1826.
TENERIFFE (Canaries, N.W. coast of Africa). The celebrated peak of Teneriffe is
15,396 feet above tho level of the sea. It was ascended in 1856 by professor C. Piazzi
Smyth for astronomical observations. An earthquake in this island destroyed several towns
and many thousands of people in 1704. In an unsuccessful attack made at Santa Cruz,
admiral (afterwards lord) Nelson lost his right arm, and 141 ollicers and men were killed,
July 24, 1797. For tho particulars of this heroic affair, see Santa Cruz.
TENNESSEE, a southern state of North America, was settled in 1765, and admitted
into the Union, June I, 1796. An ordinance of secession from the Union was passed, it is
asserted illegally, on May 6, 1861. On Feb. 23, 1862, the Federal general Nelson entered
Nashville, and in March, Andrew Johnson (now the president of tho United States) was
made military governor over a largo part of Tennessee. In Sept. 1863, Rosenerans expelled
the Confederate government.
TENTHS. See Tithes.
TENURES, the mode in which land is held. Military tenures were abolished in 1660.
Lyttelton's book on Tenures is dated 1481.
TERBIUM, a metal sometimes found with yttrium (which sec).
TERMS op Law and Vacations. They were instituted in England from the Norman
usage, the long vacation being suited to the time of the vintage in France, 14 Will. I. 1079.
Glanvillc de Leg. Anglic. They wero gradually formed. Spelman. The terms were fixed
by statute 11 Geo. IV. and 1 Will. IV. July 22, 1830 : Hilary Term to begin Jan. ir and
end Jan. 31 ; Easter, April 15, to end May 8 ; Trinity, May 22, to end June 12 ; Michaelmas,
Nov. 2, to end Nov. 25. This act was amended I Will. IV. Nov. 15, 1S30.
TERROR. See Reign, of.
TEST ACT, directing all officers, civil and military, nnder government, to receive the
sacrament according to the forms of the Church of England, and to take the oaths against
transubstantiation, &c. ; enacted March 1673. The Test and Corporation acts wero repealed
by statute in 1828.
TESTER. Tcstonc. A silver coin struck in France by Louis XII. 1513 ; and also in
Scotland in the timo of Francis II. and of Mary, queen of Scots, 1559. It was so called from
the head of the king, stamped upon it. In England tho tester was of I2rf. value in the reigu
of Henry VIII., and afterwards of 6d. (still called a tester).
TETUAN (Morocco), was enteral by the Spaniards, Feb. 6, i860, after gaining a decisive
victory 011 Feb. 4. The general, O'Donnell, was made a grandee of the first class.
TEU 709 THA
TEUTONES (hence Deutsche, German), a people of Germany, who with the Ciinbri made
incursions upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Koman armies, 113 and 105 B.C. They were at
last defeated by the consul Marius at Aix, and a great number made prisoners, 102 B.C.
See Cimbri, wjth whom authors commonly join the Teutones. The appellation came to bo
applied to the German nation in general.
TEUTONIC ORDER, military knights established in the Holy Land about 119 1, through
the humanity of the Germans (Teutones) to the sick and wounded of the Christian army in
the Holy Land, under the celebrated Guy of Lusignan, when before Acre. The order was
confirmed by a bull of pope Caelestine III. On their return to Germany, they were invited
to subdue and Christianise the country now called Prussia and its neighbourhood, which they
gradually accomplished. A large part of their possessions was incorporated into Poland in
1466, and into Brandenburg about 1521. In 1525, the grand-master was made a prince of
the empire. The order was dissolved, and its remaining possessions seized, by Napoleon I.
in 1809. See Prussia, &c.
TEWKESBURY (Gloucestershire), where Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over the
Lancastrians, May 4, 1471. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI. and her son, were
taken prisoners. The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, where king Henry
expired a few days after this fatal engagement; being, as is generally supposed, murdered
by the duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. The queen was ransomed in 1475 by -the
French king, Louis XI., for 50,000 crowns. This was the last battle between the houses of
York and I^ancaster. See Rosea,
TEXAS (N. America). Separated from Mexico in 1836. Its independence was acknow
ledged in 1840. Its proposed annexation led to war between Mexico and the United States.
It was admitted into the Union by the latter in 1846 ; seceded from it in 1861 ; submitted
in 1865.
TEXEL (at the mouth of the Zuyder Zee, Holland). Its vicinity has been the scene of
memorable naval engagements. An engagement of three days' continuance, between the
English under Blake, Dean, and Monk, and the Dutch under Van Tromp and De Ruyter,
in which the latter were worsted, and admiral Van Tromp was killed, 1653. Again, in the
mouth of the Texel, when D'Etrecs and Ruyter were signally defeated, Aug. II, 1673. The
Dutch fleet vanquished by lord Duncan, on Oct. II, 1797. See Camperdoum. The Dutch
fleet of twelve ships of war, and thirteen Indiamen, surrendered to admiral Mitchell, who,
entering the Texel, possessed himself of them without firing a shot, Aug. 28, 1799.
THALLIUM, a metal, occurring in the sulphuric-acid manufacture, discovered by Mr.
\Vm. Crookes, by means of the spectrum analysis in March, 1861.
THAMES (London). The richest river iu the world. It has been erroneously said that
its name is Isis till it arrives at Dorchester, when, being joined by the Thame or Tame, it
assumes the name of Thames. "What was the origin of this vulgar error cannot now be
traced : poetical fiction, however, had perpetuated the error, and invested it with a kind of
classical sanctity. It was called Thames or Terns before it came near the Thames. Camden.
The river rose so high at Westminster that tho the tunnel is 1300 feet ; its width is 35 feet ;
lawyers were brought out of the hall in bouts 1235 height, 20 feet ; clear width of each archway,
It rose to a great height, 1736, 1747, 1762 . . 1791 including foot-path, about 14 feet ; thickness
The conservation of the Thames was given to of earth between the crown of tho tunnel and
the mayors of London 1489 the bed of tho river, about 15 feet.
The Thames was mado navigable to Oxford . 1624 In consequence of tho great contamination of
It ebbed and flowed twice iu three hours, 1658 ; the Thames by tho influx of the nowage of
again, three times in four hours, March 22, London, and the bad odours emanating from
1682 ; again, twice in three hours Nov. 24, 1777 it in tho summer of 1858, an act was passed
Au act of parliament gave the conservation of empowering tho Metropolitan Board of Works
tho Thames to the corporation of London : (which 9tt) to undertake its purification by
twelve conservators were to be appointed- constructing new drainage. Tho works aro
three by tho government 1857 still in progress 1866
Thames Tunnel.—Projected by Mr. I. K. Thames Embankmknt: sir Christopher Wren
Brunei, to form a communication between recommended it in 1666. The corporation
Kotherhithe and Wapping. Tho bill received embanked a mile in 1767. It was further
the royal assent, Juno 24, 1824. The shaft recommended by sir Fred. Trench, in 1824 ; by
was begun in 1825 ; the first brick, was laid the duke of Newcastle in 1844; and by John
by Sir. Smith, March 2 ; the excavation com Martin the painter iu 1856. In i860, the
menced, April 1 ; and the first horizontal Metropolitan Board of Works recommended
excavation in Dec. 1825 that the north bank of the Thames should
At a distance of 544 feet from tho shaft, the first be embanked ; whereby tho bed of the river
irruption took place . . May 18, 1827 would bo improved ; a low-level sewer
The second irruption, by which six workmen could be easily constructed beneath a broad
perished Jan. 12, 1828 roadway; docks to be constructed within
The tunnel was opened throughout for foot- the embankment wall ; the expense to be
passengcrs, March 25, 1843. The length of defrayed by the city duties on coal, and by
THA the
THAMES, continued.
means provided by government. Tho prin Thames, Nov.£, 1S62; act for carrying it out
ciple of this recommendation was approved passed July aS, 1 B63
by parliament, and a committee was ap The Thames Angling Preservation Society
pointed, which sat for the first time April 30, 1861 (established atxmt 1838) is revived in . . „
An act for "embanking the north side of the First stone of the embankment laid by Mr.
Thames from Westminster bridge to Black- Thwaitcs near Whitehall-stairs . July 20, 1^64
friars bridge, and for making new streets in Mr. Leach, engineer of the conservators, re
and near thereto," passed Aug. 7 ; the work ported that "the liver is dreadfully mis
begun in Not. 1862 managed from its source to its mouth."
Mr. J. W. Bazalgett© presented a report, with a July 23, „
plan for embanking the south side of the
THANE, a Saxon title of nobility, abolished in England at the conquest, upon the intro
duction of the feudal system, and in Scotland by king Malcolm III., when the title of earl
was adopted, 1057.
THANET, Kent, was tho first permanent settlement of the Saxons, 428. The Danes held
a part of it, S53-865, and ravaged it 980,
THEATINES. An order of religious, the first who assumed tho title of regular clerks,
founded by CaratTa, bishop of Theate, in Naples (afterwards pope Paul IV.), 1524, to repress
heresy. They first established themselves in France, according to the historian Henault, in
Paris, 1644. The Theatines endeavoured, but vainly, to revive among the clergy the poverty
of the apostles. Ashe.
THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 B.C., was the first erected.
Marcellus* theatre at Rome was built about 80 B.C. Theatres were afterwards numerous,
and were erected in most cities of Italy. There was a theatre at Pompeii, where most of tho
inhabitants of the town were assembled on the night of Aug. 24, A.D. 79, when an eruption
of Vesuvius covered Pompeii. Scenes were introduced into theatres, painted by Balthazar
Sienna, a.d. 1533. See Drama, Plays, &c.
THEATRES in England. The first royal licence for a theatre in England was in 1574,
to master Burbage and four others, servants of the earl of Leicester, to act plays at tho
Globe, Bankside. See Globe.. But, long before that time, miracle plays were represented in
the fields. The prices of admission in the reign of queen Elizabeth were—gallery, 2d. : lords*
rooms, is. The first play-bill was dated April 8, 1663, and issued from Drury-lane ; it runs
thus : 11 By his Majestic his company of Comedians at the New Theatre in Drury-lane, will
be acted a comedy called the Ilumovrous Lievtenant." After detailing the characters, it
concludes thus : " The play will begin at three o'clock exactly." Lincoln's-inn theatre was
opened in 1695. The licensing act (10 Geo. II. c. 23, 1735) was passed in consequence of
tho performance of Fielding's Pasquin at the Haymarket, satirising Wal pole's administration.
Marionettes or Puppets were produced at the Adelaide Gallery in 1852. See Covent Garden,
Drury Lane, Opera House, Drama, &c. In Jan. i860, several of the theatres were first
opened on Sunday evenings for religious worship, and were filled.
DRURY LANE. Rebuilt by Wyatt, and re-opened with a pro
Killigrew'B patent .... April 25, 1662 logue by lord Byron . . . Oct. 10, 1S12
Opened April 8, 1663 Edmund Kean's appearance (as Shylock),
Nell Gwynn performed 1666 Jan. 26, 1S14
Theatre burnt down 1671 Mr. EUiston, lessee .... Oct 3, 1819
Rebuilt by sir Christopher Wren, and opened, Madame Vestris'a first appearance (as Lilla),
March 26, 1674 Feb. 19, 1820
Cibbcr, Wilkos, Booth 1712 Real water introduced in the Cataract of the
Garrick's debut hero 1742 Ganges Oct. 27, 1S33
Garrick and Lacy's tenure (rovival of Shak- Mr. Price, lessee July, 1826
speare) 1747 Mias Ellen Tree's appearance (as Violante)t
Interior rebuilt by Adams ; opened Sept. 23, 1775 Sept. 23,
Garrick's farewell .... June 10, 1776 Charles Kean's appearance (as JfonMtl Oct. 1, 1S27
Sheridan's management Mrs. Niabctt's first appearance (as tho Widow
Theatrical fund founded by Mr. Garrick . . 1777 CJuerty) ... . Oct. 9. 1899
Mrs. Siddons' dibut as a ttar . . Oct. zo, 1782 Mr. Alexander Lee's and Captain Polhills
Mr. Kemble's tk'but as Uaialet . Sept. 30, 1783 management 1830
The theatre rebuilt on a large scale, and re Mr. Alfred Bunn, lessee 1831
opened March 12, 1794 Mr. Forrest's first appearance (as Spartams),
Charles Kemble*s first appearance (as Malcolm Oct 17, 1836
in Macbrth) April 21, „ Mr. Hammond's management . . . . 1839
Dowton's first appearance (as Sherd in the Jew), German operas commenced at this theatre,
Oct. n,
11, 1800
1796" March 15, 1841
ITatficld fired at George III. . . May Mr. Macready's management
The theatre burnt .... Fob. 24, 1809 Mr. Bunn, again lessee 1S43
THE 711 THE
THEATRES, continued. \
Miss Clara Webster burnt on the stage, Dec. 14 ; All principal actors perform parts of plays for
and died Dec. 16, 1844 the benefit of the Dramatic Colloge, March 29, 1 Co
Mr. Anderson's management 1849 Balfo's Bianca brought out Dec. 6,
Mr. Macrcady's farewell . . . Feb. 26, 1E51 Italian opera (Mr. Gyc) April, 1861
Mr. Bunn, lessee and manager . . . . 1853 Last apiMjainnco of Grisi Aug. 3,
Mr. K. T. Smith 1853-9 English opera (Pyne and Harrison) . Oct. 21,
English opera (Mr. Harrison and Miss Pync) . 1858 Italian opera (Mr. Oye) April, i£C2
Italian opera 1859 English opera (Pyne ai d Harrison) . Aug. 25,
Opened by Mr. E. T. Smith . . Oct 15, i860 Italian opera (Mr. Gyc) . . April 7, 'S53
Suddenly closed .... April 20, 1861 Gounod's Fan&t . July,
Mr. G. V. Brooke appears (as Othello) Oct. 27, ,, English opera (Pync and Harrison) Oct. 12,
[Drowned in the London, Sco Wreck*. Jan 11, 1866] Italian opera (Mr. Gyc) ... April, 1. Of
Mr. Falconer Dec. 1863-1865 English opera, &c, (Opera Company, Limited),
Messrs. Falconer and Chatterton, managers, Oct 17,
Jan. 1866 Italian opera (Mr. Gyc) . . . April 28, I I*£65
COYEST GARDEN. Becomes the property of a company, Mr. Gyo
manager Aug. I£65
(The Duke's Theatre) Sir William Davcnant's
patent April 25, 1662
The theatre opened by Rich . .Dec. 7, 1732
Beef steak Society, founded by Rich and ITALIAN OPERA-HOUSE, on QUEEN'S
Lambert 1735 THEATRE.
Theatrical fund instituted 1765
Mr. Harris's tenuro 1767 Opera-house opened. Pennant. (Sco Op ra-
Lewis's first appearance in the character of house) i7°5
Beleour Sept. 15, 1773 The theatre was enlarged 1720
Miss Rcay killed by Mr. Hackman, coming Burnt down . . ... June 17, 17S9
from the house .... April 7, 1779 Rebuilt, and rc-opened . . . Sept. 22, 1791
Jack Johnstone's first appearance in Irish Exterior improved by Mr. Nash . . . 1818
characters Oct. 3, 1783 The rilicvo by Mr. Bubb 1821
Mundcn's appearance .... Dec. 2, 1790 Madame Rachel's appearance . May 10, 1841
Fawcett's first api>earance (as Caleb) Sept. ax, 1791 Mr. Lumloy's management 1842
G. F. Cooke's appearance (as Richard III.), Jenny Liners first appearance . . May 4. 1847
Oct. 31, 1S00 Association formed for conducting financial
Brnham's appearance .... Dec. 9, 1801 affairs of tho bouso 1852
Mr. Kemble's management .... 1802 Jullicn's concerts Get. 1857
Appearance of Master Betty, the Infant Roscias, Festive performances on the marriage of the
Dec. 1, 1803 princess royal Jan. 1859
Lewis's last appearance (as the Copper Captain), Macfarreus ftobin Hood brought out . Oct. nf i860
May 28, 1808 [Not opened in 1861.]
Theatro burnt down . . . Sept. 20 „ Italian opera (Mr. Maplcson) . April 2G, 1862—
Hebuilt by R. Smirke, R.A., and re opened April, 1SG5
with Macbeth Sept. 18, 1809
The O. P. Riot (which see) . 8cpt. 18 to Dec. 10, „
Horses first introduced ; in Ma/heard . Feb. 18, 1811 nAYMARKET.
The farewell benefit of Mrs. Siddons (immense
house) June 29, 1812 Built 1703
[Mrs. Siddons, however, performed once after Opened by French comedians . Dec. 29, 1720
wards, in June, 1819, for Mr. and Mrs. C. Fielding's Mogul company .... '734*5
Kemble's benefit.] A French company prohibited from acting by
Miss Stephens's first appearance (as Mundane), the audience "738
Sept 7, 1813 Mr. Foote's patent 1747
Miss Foote's appcaranco here (as Amanthi*), The Bottle-conjuror's dupery (sec Bottle Con
May 26, 181 4 juror) Jan. 16, 1748
Miss O'Neill's appearance hero (as Juliet), Oct 6, „ The theatre rebuilt 1767
Miss Kelly fired at by George Barnct, In the Mr. Colman's tenure . . Jan. x, 1777
house Feb. 7, 1816 Miss Farren's appearance here (afterwards
Mr. Macrcady's first appearance fas Ore.de*), countess of Derby)
Sept. 16, " „ Roj'al visit—great crowd—16 persons killed and
Mr. J. P. Kemble's farewell (as Ooriolanui), many wounded .... Feb. 3, 1794
June 23, 1817 Mr. Elliston's debut hero . . Juno 24, 1796
Henry Harris's management. . . . 1818 First appearance of Mr. Mathews (as Linyo),
Charles Kemble's management . . . .1823 May 16, 1803
Miss Fanny Kemble's appearance (as Juliet), Mr. Morris's management 1805
Oct 5, 1829 Appearance of Mr. Liston (as Sheej-facc), Juno 8, ,,
Mr. Fawcett's farewell . . . May ax, 1830 The tailors' riot .... Aug. 15,
Charles Young's farewell May 30, 1832 Appearance of Mr. Young (as Ilamltt), June 22, 1807
Mr. Macrcady's management .... 1837 Of -Miss F. Kelly (as FlorcttaJ . . June 12, 1810
Madame Vestris's management . , . 1839 Theatre rebuilt by Nash ; owned . July 4, 1821
Miss Adelaide Kemble's appearance (as Forma), Miss Paton's (Mrs. Wood) appearance (as
Nov. 2, 1841 Susannah) Aug. 3, 1822
Charles Kemble again . . Sept. 10, 1842 Mr. Webster's management . . June 12, 1837
Mr. Laurent's management . . Due. 26, 1844 Mr. Charles Kean's appearance here . . . 1839
Opened for Italian opera . . . April 6, 1847 Mr. Webster's management (16 years) termi
Destroyed by firo (during a foil matoue, eon- nated with hisfarewell appearance, March 14, 1853
ducted by Anderson the Wizard) . March 5, 1856 First appearance of Our American Coutin (said
New theatre (by Barry), opened by Mr. F. Gyc to be by Tom Taylor, and to have been acted
(Le* Huguenot*) ... . May 15, 1858 800 times in America), Mr. Sothern, Lord
English open (Miss Pync and Mr. Harrison), Dundreary Nov. II, 1861
Oct. 1859 Mr. Bnckstonc's management . . 1853-66
THE 712 THE
THEATRES, continued.
ENGLISH OPERA-HOUSE, OB LYCEUM. Mr. Bartley's farewell hero . Dec iS. 1852
Built by Dr. Arnold i794'5 Mr. Charles Kean's management, 1850 ; closed.,
Winsor experiments with gas-lighting . . 1803-4 Aug. 29, 1859
Opened as tho Lyceum in 1809 Mr. A. Harris's management; opened, Sept- 29, „
Appearance of Mr. Wrench (as Belcour) . Oct. 7, Zouave Crimean company . . . July 23, 1660
Re-opened with an address spoken by Miss Mr. Fcchter appears (as Hamlet) . March 20, i86x
Kelly Juno 15, 1816 Mr. Harris, lessee 1BG0-1
House destroyed by fire . . . Feb. 16, 1830 Mr. Liudus, manager . . . Oct. 20, 1S62
Re-built, and re-opened . . . July 14, 1834 Mr. G. Vining, lessee and manager . May, 1863-66
Equestrian performances . . Jan. 16, 1844
Mrs. Keeley's management . April 8t
Madame Vestris and Mr, C. Mathews' manage OLYMPIC.
ment Oct 1847-56 Erected by the late Mr. Astley, and opened
Retirement of Mr. C. Mathews . March, 1855 with horsemanship .... Sept 18, 1806
Appearance of Madame Ristori . . June, 1856 Here the celebrated Elliston (1813), and after
Taken by Mr. Gyo for Italian opera for forty wards Madame Vestris, had management* ;
nights April 14, 1857 the latter until 1839
Opened for English opera by Miss Louisa Pyne Mr. Goorgc Wild's tenure . . . .. 1840
and Mr. HarriBon .... Sept. 21, „ Miss Davenport's tenure . . . Nov. 11, 18+4
Balfe's opera, Rose of Castile, produced . Oct. „ Mr. Watts's management 1848
Mr. G. Webster and Mr. Falconer, July, 1858 ; The theatre destroyed by fire . . March 29, 1E49
closed April, 1859 Rebuilt and opened—Mr. Watta resumes his
Opened by Madame Celeste, Nov. 1859, and management .... Dec. 26, „
Oct. i860 Mr. William Farren's management . . . 1S50
The " Savage Club" perform before the queen Lessee and manager, Mr. A. Wigan . Oct 17, 1S53-7
and prince March 7, „ Messrs. Robson and Embden's management,
Italian opera June 8, 1861 Aug. 1857-61
Mr. Falconer, manager (English comedy), Mr. Horace Wigan, manager. Nov. 1864—June, 1865
Aug. 19. n
Peep 0' Day brought out . - Nov. 9, ,,
Mr. Fochter . . . Jan. 10, 1863—June, 1S65 STRAND THEATRE.
First opened—Mr. Rayner and Mrs. Waylett . 1831
THE ADELPHI THEATRE. Mr. William Farren's management . . . 1S49
Formerly called the San* Pareil, opened under Lessee, Mr. F. Allcroft; manager, Mr. T. Payne 1S55
tho management of Mr. and Miss Scott, Lessee, Miss Swanborough .... 1853-61
Nov. 27, 1806 Mr. Swanborough, sen Dec. 1S62
Under Rodwell and Jones, who gavo it tho Mrs. Swanborough . . June, 1865—Jan. 1S66
present name 1820-1
Terry and Yates 1825 ASTLEY'S AMPHITHEATRE.
Messrs. Mathews and Yates' management join
(Matheics at Home) 1828 Built by Philip Astley, and opened . . . 1773
New front 1840 Destroyed by fire, with numerous adjacent
Madame Celeste's management . . Sept. 30, 1844 houses Sept. 17, 1794
Rebuilt and opened, with improved arrange Rebuilt 1795
ments Dec. 37, 1858 Burnt again, with forty houses . . Sept. 1, 1S03
Colleen Ba ten represented . . Sept. io, i860 Ducrow's management 1825
f Immeuso run ; above 360 nights.] Again destroyed by fire . . . June 8, 1841
Miss Bateman appears as Leah, Oct 1, 1863, to Rebuilt and reopened by Mr. Batty . April 17, 1S43
June 11, 1864 Lessee and manager, Mr. W. Cooke . 1855-60
Mr. B. Webster, present lessee . . . 1844-66 Mr. W. Cooke's farewell benefit . Jan. 30, 1S60
A man killed by a lion . . . . Jan 7, 1861
PRINCE'S, lath ST. JAMES'S. Opened by Mr. Batty . . Dec 6, „
Opened by Mr. Boucicault, as tho Theatre
This thcatro was built by, and opened under Royal, Westminster . . . Dec. 26, iS6a
tho management of, Mr. Braham . Dec. 14, 1835 Horsemanship and opera (under Mr. E. T.
Smith) exhibiting in .... June, 1S65
German operas performed here under tho
management of Mr. Bunn 1840
Mr. Mitchell's tenure ; performance of French CIRCUS, now SURREY THEATRE.
playB Jan. 22, 1844
German plays 1852 [Originally devoted to equestrian exercises,
Mrs. Seymour's tenure . . . Oct, 22, 1854-5 under Mr. Hughes] .... Nov. 4, 178-
French plays 1857
Neapolitan Buffo-opera .... Nov. „ Openod for performances . . Nov. 4, 1783
Italian plays 1858 Destroyed
Mr.
by fire .... Aug. 12, 1S05
Elliston's management .... 1809
French opera Jan. 1859
French plays . . . . . May, „ Mr. Mr.
Elliston again .... June 4, 1S27
Davidge's tenure 1S33
English comedy, under Mr. F. Chatterton, Mr. Shepherd and Mr. Anderson, managers,
manager Oct. Sept. 12. 1S63-5
French plays May 28, i860
English plays Aug. 12, „ Destroyed by fire, Jan. 31 ; rebuilt and Dec.opened,
26, 1865
Mr. Wigan, manager 1860-2
French plays May 20, 1861
COBURG, now VICTORIA.
PRINCESS'S THEATRE, OXFORD STREET. [The erection was commenced under the
patronage of the late princess Charlotte and
First opened 1840 tho prince Leopold of Saxc-Coburg . . 1S16
Sold for 16,400* Sept. 9, 1841 Tho house was opened iSiS
THK 713 THE
THEATRES, continued.
Messrs. Egerton and Abbott bad the manage Braham's first appearanco at the Royalty,
ment in 1833 April 20, 1787
Mr. Osbaldistou's tenure 1840 Madame
London
Storace ; her first appearanco in
Nov. 24, 1789
Alarm of tire, sixteen persons killed . Dec. 27, 1858 Incledon's first appearance .... 1790
Miss Mellon, her first appearance as Lydia
SADLER'S WELLS. Languish Jan. 31, 1795
Liston's first appearance in London . Juno 1, 1805
Opened as an orchestra 1683 Romeo Coates appears as Lothario April 10, 1811
Present house opened 1765 Mrs. Jordan's last appearanco, as Lady Teazle,
Eighteen persons trampled to death on a false June 1, 1814
alarm of fire Oct. 15, 1807 Mr. Macready's first appearance at Bath, as
Management of Mrs. Warner and Mr. Phelps, Jtomeo Dec. 29, ,,
May 20, 1844-59 Booth's first appearanco
Management of Mr. Joseph . March 25, 1861 W. Farren's first appearance .... 1817 . . Feb. 12,
1818
Re-opened by Mr. Phelps . . Sept. 7, „ Munden's last appearance . . May 31, 1824
Lessee, Miss C. Lucette . . . Sept. 27, 1862 Fanny Kemble's first appearance . Oct. 5, 1829
Mies Mariott, manager, Sopt 5, 1863—May 20, 1864
Miss C. Lucette, for opera . . May 22, 1865 Edmund Keau's farewell 1833
Miss Mariott, legitimate drama . . Oct. „ Liston's last appearance . . . May 31, 1838
Adelaide Kemble's first appearance Nov. 2, 1841
Jenny Linda first appearance . . May 4, 1847
Mrs. Glover's farewell . . . July 12, 1850
OTHER THEATRES. Mr. Bartley's farewell . . . Dec. 18, 1852
Queen's Theatre, Tottenham-court-road . . 1828 Clara Mr. W. Farren's farewell 1853
Oarrick Theatre,
Theatre, Lambeth
Goodman's-fields . . . *1850 Novello's farewell . . . Nov. ai, i860
Bowery • * Miss Batcraan appears as Leah . , Oct. x, 1863
City Theatre. Norton-Folgate . . . 1837 Her farewell at'H.M.'s theatre . Dec. 22, 1865
Miss Kelly's Theatre 1840
Marylebone, opened 1842 MEMORANDA.
PavUiou Theatre burnt . . . Feb. 23, 1856 David Garrick died K79
New Royalty (Soho) Aug. 31, 1863 Charles Macklin died 1797
Mr. Palmer died on the stage at Liverpool,
Aug. 2, 1798
DUBLIN THEATRES. Bannister retired from the stage 1S15
Warburg-street, commenced . . • 1635 John P. Komble died 1823
Orange-street, now Smock-alloy . . . . 1662 Talma Weber
died in Paris
came to London . . . Feb.
1 620
Aungicr-streot ( Victor) 1728
Ditto, management of Mr. Hitchcock . . . 1733 Theof Brunswick theatre fell, owing to theweight
Crow-street Music-hall 1731 sonsa newly-erected roof, and numbers of per
were wounded and sumo killed, Feb. 29,
Rainsford-street Theatre 1732 Sarah Siddons died 1 S3 1
Smock-alley Theatre, rebuilt .... 1735 Edmund Kean died
Fishamble-street Music-hall 1741 Madame Malibran died at Manchester, Sept. 23, 1S33 1836
Capel-street Theatre 1745 Pajtanint died
Crow-street, Theatre Royal 1758 Power lost in the President steamer,May 29, 184O
about
Ditto, Mr. Daly's patent 1786
Ditto, Mr. Fred. Edw. Jones's patent . . . 1798 Elton lost in the Ptgamu • . ■ March 13, 1S4T
July 19, X843
Peter-street, Theatre Royal .... 1789 Theatres' Registry Act passed . Aug. 22,
Hawkin's-street, Theatre Royal . . . . 1821 Madlle. Mars died at Paris . . March 23, 1847
Ditto, Mr. Abbott, lessee 1824 Madame Catalini died at Paris . June 13, 1849
Ditto, Mr. Bonn, lessee 1827 Alexander Lee died . . . Oct. 9, 1851
Ditto, Mr. Calcraft, lessee 1830
Queen's Theatre, Brunswick-street . . . 1844 C.Urn.Kemblo Warner died .... Sept. 5, I8M
died Nov. 5,
John Braham died .... Feb. 17, 1856
EDINBURGH THEATRES. Madame Vestris died .... Aug. 8,
Madlle. Rachel died . . Jan. 4,
Theatre of Music 1672 Mrs. Nisbctt (lady Boothby) died . Jan. 16, 185S
Allan Ramsay's 1736 Louis Lablache (buffo singer) died . Jan. 23,
Theatre, Shakspeare-square . . . . 1769 John Pritt Harlcy died . . . Aug. 22,
The Caledonian Theatre 1822 Flexmorc, celebrated clown, died . Aug. 20,
Adclphi Theatre burnt down . May 24, 1853 Mrs. Bates died .... Oct. 30, 11
Royal Theatre burnt down (several lives lost), Alfred Bunn died .... Dec. 20,
Jan. 13, 1865 William Farren died . . . Sept. 25, l86l
FIRST OR LAST APPEARANCES. Mr. Vandenhoff died .... Oct. 4,
Quin's first appearance 1716 M. Tree (Mrs. Hradshaw) died . . Feb. 1&U2
Macklin at Lmcoln's-inn-fields . . . . 1725 Subscription testimonial (value 2000/.) pre
Garrick'a at Goodman's-fields, as .Richard III., sented to C. J. Kean : Mr. Gladstone In the
Oct. 19, 1741 chair ....... March 22,
Miss Farren (afterwards countess of Derby) Sheridan Knowlcs died . . . Nov. 30,
first appears at Livorpool .... 1773 Mrs. Wood (once Miss Paton) died . July ax,
Garrick's last appearance . . June 10, 1776 Mr. F. Robsondied. . . . Aug. ir, I B64
Mrs. Robinson, Penlita : her last appearance, Madame Pasta died, aged 66 . . April i, 1865
Doc. 24, 1779
TROY WEIGHT. The Romans left their ounco, now our avoirdupois ounce, in Britain.
The present ounce of this weight was brought from Grand Cairo into Europe, about the time
of the Crusades, 1095. It was first adopted at Troyes, a city of France, whence the name ;
and is used to weigh gold, silver, and precious stones. The Troy weight, Scots, was
established by James VI. (our James I.) iu 1618. See Standard.
TROYES, Central France, where a treaty was concluded between England, France, and
Burgundy, whereby it was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of
Charles VI., be appointed regent of France, and after tho death of Charles should inherit the
crown, May 21, 1420. Troyes was taken by the allied armies, Feb. 7 ; retaken by Napoleon,
Feb. 23 ; and again taken by the allies, March 4, 1814.
TRUCE OF GOD (Trtuga Dei), a term given to a cessation of the private feuds and
conflicts so general during the middle ages, all over Europe. The clergy strenuously exerted
their influence for tho purpose. A synod at Roussillon, 1027, decreed that none should
attack his enemy between Saturday evening (at nones) and Monday morning (at the hour of
prime). Similar regulations were adopted in England, 1042 (sometimes Friday and Wednes
day being chosen for tho time). The truce of God was confirmed by many councils of the
church, especially tho Lateran Council, in 1 1 79.
TRU 737 TUI
TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians ascribe the invention of the trumpet to the
Tyrrhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in use in the time of Homer, but not at
the time of the Trojan war. First torches, then shells of fish sounded like trumpets, were
the signals in primitive wars. Potter. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by
Alexander the Great in 335 B.c. Trumpets were first sounded before the king in the time of
Offa, king of Mercia, a.d. 790. Speaking-trumpets were improved by Kircher in 1652,
by Salland, 1654, and philosophically explained by Moreland, 1671.
TRUMPET-FLOWER, Bignonia radicans, was brought hither from North America,
about 1640. The Trumpet Honeysuckle, Lonicera sempervirens, came from North America
in 1656. The Bignonia capensis was brought to England, from the Cape, in 1823. The
targe-flowered Trumpet-flower, or Bignonia grandiflora, was brought from China in 1 800.
TRUSS. A transverse spring truss forruptures was patented by Robert Brand in 1771,
and by many other persons since. The National Truss Society, to assist indigent persons,
was established in 1 786 ; and many similar societies since.
TUAM (W. Ireland). St. Jarlath, the son of Loga, who lived about 501, is looked upon
as the first founder of the cathedral of Tuam, though the abbey is said to have been founded
in 487. The church was anciently called Tuaim-da-Gitaland. In 1151, Edan O'Hoisin was
the first archbishop, at least the first who had tho use of the pall, for some of his predecessors
are sometimes called bishops of Connaught, and sometimes archbishops, by Irish historians.
The see of Mayo was annexed to Tuam in 1 559, Tuam is valued iu the king's books, by au
cxteut returned anno 28 Eliz. , at 50/. sterling per annum. Beaison. It ceased to be
archicpiscopal, conformably with the statute 3 & 4 Will. IV. 1833, and is now a bishopric
only, to which Killala and Achonry, a joint see, has been added. See Archbishops.
TUBULAR BRIDGES. The Britannia Tubular Suspension Bridge, then the most
wonderful enterprise in engineering in the world, was constructed about a mile southward
of the Menai Strait Suspension Bridge.* At this spot is a rock called the Britannia rock,
near the centre of the Menai Strait, the surface of which is about ten feet above low-water
level, on which is built a tower two hundred feet above high water (commenced building,
May 1846), and on which rest two lines of tubes or hollow girders strong enough to bear
their weight and laden trains in addition, the ends resting on the abutments on each shore ;
each tube being more than a quarter of a mile in length. Tho height of the tube within is
thirty feet at the Britannia tower, diminishing to twenty-three feet at the abutments. The
lifting of these tubes to their places was regarded as the most gigantic operation ever success
fully performed, June 27, 1849. The first locomotive passed through, March, 1850. The
Conway Tubular Bridge (1846-48) is a miniature copy of the Britannia, and therefore requires
no description. The principal engineers were Mr. Robert Stephenson and Mr. Fairbairn.
At Chepstow is a railway tubular bridge, erected in 1852. A bridge or viaduct on the
tubular principle (called the Albert viaduct) over the river Tamar at Plymouth was opened
by the prince consort, May 2, 1859. The most stupendous tubular bridge in the world is
that over the St. Lawrence, Canada. See Victoria Bridge.
TUDELA ox thk Ebbo (N. Spain). Near here marshal Lannes totally defeated the
Spaniards, Nov. 23, 1809.
TUESDAY, in Latin Dies Martis, the day of Mars, the third day of the week, so called
from Tuisto Tiw, or Tuesco, a Saxon deity, worshipped on this day. Tuisto is mentioned
by Tacitus. See Week Days.
TUILERIES (Paris), the imperial palace of France, commenced by Catherine de Medicis,
after the plans of Philibert de l'Orme, 1564 ; continued by Henry IV. ; and finished by
Louis XIV. This palace was stormed by the mob, Aug. 10, 1792 ; and ransacked in the
revolutions of 1830 and 1848.
* The Britannia tubular bridge was intended to supply the place of—we may also say supersede -one
of the finest bridges in the kingdom ; and the railway, of which the tubular bridge forms a part, is in like
manner a substitute for one of the finest mail-coach roads over constructed. The road from London to
Holyhead has been long regarded as the highway from the British metropolis to Dublin ; and the late Mr.
Telford was applied to by the government to perfect this route by the London and Holyhead mail-o**ach
road, which he did by erecting a beautiful suspension bridge over tho river Cotiway and over the M- nal
Strait ; commenced in July 1818, and finished in July, 1825. When Chester became a centre of railway
communication a few years since, it was considered that a through route to Holyhoad would be more
conveniently established from that point than from Shrewsbury, which lies in the route of Telford's road.
Accordingly the Chester and Holyhoad Railway was constructed : and in its course, both the Conway and
the Menai hod to be crossed ; and hence were formed the present tubular bridges.
3 B
TUL 73S TUR
TULIPS camo to England from Vienna, 1578. It is recorded in the register of Alkraaer,
in Holland, that in 1639, 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold for 90,000 florins ; and that one
called the Viceroy, sold for 4203 guilders ! The States stopped this ruinous traffic. The
tulip-tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, was brought to England from America, about 1663.
TUNBRIDGE WELLS (Kent). The springs were discovered, it is stated, by Dudley,
lord North, who, in the last stage of consumption, was restored to health by the use of its
waters, 1606. The wells were visited by the queens of Charles I. and II. The place soon
became fashionable.
TUNGSTEN (also called wolfram and scheelium), a hard whitish brittle metal. From
tungstate of lead, Scheele in 1781 obtained tungstic acid, whence the brothers De Luyartin
1786 obtained tho metal. In 1859 it was employed in making a new kind of steeL
TUNIS and Tripoli (N. Africa). The former stands near where Carthage was built.
The territories of both formed part of the Carthaginian state, and were entirely destroyed by
the Romans after the third Punic war, 148 B.C. Tunis was besieged by Louis IX. of France,
1270. It remained under African kings till taken by Barbarossa, for Solyman the Mag
nificent. Barbarossa was expelled by Charles V. ; but the country was recovered by tho
Turks under Sclim II. Taken with great slaughter by tho emperor Charles V., when 10,000
Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The bey of Tunis was first appointed in 1570.
Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the bey refusing to deliver up the British captives,
1655. In July 1856, the bey agreed to make certain constitutional reforms. The bey died
Sept. 22, 1859 ; and his successor Sidi Sadok took the oath of fidelity to tho constitution.
An insurrection broke out in April 18, 1864, aud the European powers sent ships of war to
protect their subjects in May.
TUNNAGE and Poundage were ancient duties levied on every tun of wine and pound of
other goods, imported or exported, and were the origin of our " customs." They commenced
in England about 21 Edw. III. 1346. They were granted to the kings of England for life,
beginning with Edward IV. At the beginning of his reign Charles I. gave great olfence by
levying them on his owu authority. They ceased in 1689.
TUNNELS. The earliest tunnel for internal navigation was executed by If. Riguet, in
the reign of Louis XIV. at Beziercs in France. The first in England was by Mr. Brindley,
on the duke of Bridgewater's navigation, near Manchester, about 1760. Project of the
Gravesend tunnel, 1800—the report upon it, 1801. The Thames Tunnel was projected by
Mr. Brunei in 1823, and opened for foot passengers, March 25, 1843. See Thames Tuniul.
In 1857 M. Thome de Gamoud proposed the making a submarine tunnel from France to
England ! Innumerable tunnels have been made for railways. The railway tunnel at
Liverpool was completed in the middle of 1829, lit up with gas, andexhibitcd once a week.
On the London and Birmingham railway there are eight tunnels (the Primrose-lull, Watford,
Kilsby, &c), their total length being 7336 yards. Smiles. It was computed by Mr. Fowler,
that there were 80 miles of tunnels in the United Kingdom in 1865, which cost about
6,5oo,oooZ., at the average of 45?. a yard.
TURIN, an ancient Roman city in Piedmont, capital of the Sardinian States, and of tie
kingdom of Italy, till 1864, when it was superseded by Florence. Its importance dates from
the permanent union of Savoy and Piedmont in 14 16. Tho French besieged this city in
1706; but princo Eugene defeated their army, and compelled them to raise the siege. In
1798, the French republican army took possession of Turin, seized all the strong places mi
arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king aud his family to remove to the island of
Sardinia. In 1799, the French wero driven out by the Austrians and Russians ; but shortly
afterwards the city and all Piedmont surrendered to tho French. In 1814, it was delivered
up to the allies, who restored it to the king of Sardinia. See Italy, 1864.
TURKESTAN, Independent Tartary. The original country of tho Turks, in Central
Asia, was reached by Alexander, 331 B.C. The Russians are gradually encroaching on this
country ; and on Feb. 14, 1865, a new province, named Turkestan, was created by
decree.
TURKEY. The Turks were originally a tribe of Tartars ; but by incorporation with the
peoples they havo conquered, they must" be regarded as a mixed race. About 760, they
obtained possession of a part of Armenia, called from them Turcomania. They afterwards
gradually extended their power ; but in the 13th century, being harassed in their new
TUR 739 TUR
possessions by other Tartar tribes, they returned to Asia Minor. Their dominions, divided
for some time into petty states, were united under Othman, who assumed the title of sultan,
and established his empire at Prusa, in Bithynia, in 1298. The Turkish empire compre
hends the almost independent principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, Servia, and
Montenegro, and the hereditary vice-royalty of Egypt. The population of the empire in
i860 was estimated at 37,430,000.
The Oghusian Tartars, the ancestors of the Belgrade taken from Austria ; and Russia
present Turks, settle in Asia Minor . . 1231 relinquishes Azof 1739
The Turkish empire first formed under Othman The Turks defeated at Ears 1745
at Bithynia (hence called Ottoman) . . . 1298 Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio ; tho
The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and take English and Russian fleets defeat the Turkish 1770
Adrianople 1361 The Crimea falls to Russia .... Jan. 1784
Amurath I. institutes the Janissaries, a guard Disastrous war with Russia and Austria, the
compqsed of young Christian slaves, trained Turks lose more than 200,000 men . . 1787-91
as Mahometans 1362 Cession of Oczacow 1791
Bajazet I. overruns tho provinces of the Insurrection of Mamelukes at Cairo . . . 1803
Eastern empire 138c} et seq. War against Russia and England . 1807
He defeats Sigisniund of Hungary at Nicopolis, Passage and repaewago of tho Dardanelles
Sept. 28. 1396 effected by the British fleet, but with great
He besieges Constantinople ; but is interrupted loss. Soo DardanelUt Feb. 19,
by the approach of Tamerlane (or Tiniour), Murder of Hali Aga May 25,
by whom he is defeated and made prisoner, The sultan Selim is deposed, and Mustapha IV.
July 28, 1402 called to the throne May 29, ,,
Ladislaa of Hungary defeated and slain at Tho Janissaries massacre the newly disciplined
Varna by Amurath .... Nov. 10, 1444 troops 1808
Amurath defeats John Hunniades at Kossova . 1448 The Russians defeated at Silistria . . . . 1809
The Turks, invading Hungary, are repelled by Treaty of Bucharest (irAifA tee) . . May 28, 1812
Hunniades . 1450 A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, returning
Constantinople taken by the Turks under from Mecca, destroyed by a pestilential wind
Mahomet II. which ends the Eastern Roman in tho deserts of Arabia ; 20 saved Aug. 9, „
empire 1453 Subjugation of the Wahabees (tcAtcA tee) 1818-9
Grecco made subject to the Mahometans. Bee Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares himself
Greece 1458 independent 1820
Tho Turks penetrate into Italy, and take Insurrection of Moldavia and Wallachia,
Otranto, which diffuses terror throughout March 6, 1821
Europe 1480 The Greek patriarch put to death at Con
Selim I. raised to tho throne by the Janissaries ; stantinople April 23,
he murders his father, brothers, &c. . . . 1512 [For tho events in connection with the iude-
He takes the islands of the Archipelago from dependence of Greece, see Greece]
the Christiana 1514 Horrible massacre at Scio ; the most dreadful
He overruns Syria 1515 in modern history (see note to Greece) April 23, 1822
Adds Egypt to his empire 1516 Sea-fight near Mitylene . . » Oct. 6, 1824
Solyman II. takes Belgrade 1521 New Mahometan army organised . May 29, 1826
Rhodes taken from tho knights of St John, Insurrection of the Janissaries at Constanti
who go to Malta 1522 nople, June 14 ; they are suppressed and
Battle of Mohatz (tckich t<t) 1526 massacred June 16,
Solyman II. with 250,000 men, is repulsed before Fire at Constantinople ; 6000 houses reduced to
Vienna 1529 ashes Aug. 30, „
Cyprus taken from the Venetians . . . . 1571 Battle of Xavarino ; the Turkish fleet destroyed
Great battle of Lcpanto, which puts an end to by the fleets of England, France, and Russia.
tho fears of Europe from Turkish power. See See Navarino Oct. 20, 1827
Lej>anto Oct. 7, n Banishment of 132 French, 120 English, and
Amurath II. ascends the throne ; strangles his 85 Russian settlers from the empire Jan. 5, 1828
five brothers 1574 War with Russia .... A pril 26, ,,
[Dreadful persecutions of the Christians during The czar Nicholas takes the field . May 20,
this reign.] Capitulation of Brahilow . , June 19, „
Treaty of commerce with England . . . 1579 Surrender of Anapa . . . June 23, ',,
The Turks driven out of Persia by the famous Tho eminences of Shumla taken by the
Shah Abbas 1585 Russians July 20, ,,
Bloody reign of Mahomet 111 1595 The czar arrives before Varna . • Aug. 5,
Reign of Achmet I. 1603 Battle of Akhalzlc .... Aug. 24, ,,
Great fire in Constantinople .... 1606 Fortress of Bajazet taken . . . Sept. 9, ,,
Reign of Amurath IV. who strangles his father The sultan proceeds to the camp with tho
and four brothers 1624 sacred standard .... Sept. 26, ,.
War with the Cossacks, who take Azof . 1637 Dardanelles blockaded. . . . Oct. 1, „
The Turks defeat the Persians and take the Surrender of Varna .... Oct. 15,
city of Bagdad 1639 Russians retreat from Shumla . . Oct. 16, „
The ishmd of Candia, or Crete, taken after a Surrender of tho castle of the Morea to the
25 years' siege . ... 1669 French Oct. 30, „
Vionna besieged by Mahomet IV. but relieved Siege of Silistria raised by the Russians,
by John of Poland * 1683 Nov. 10, ,,
Mahomet IV. deposed by Solyman . . . 1687 Victory of tho Russians at Kulertschn, near
Peace of Carlovitz 1699 Shumla June 11, 1829
Mustapha III. deposed 1703 Battle near Erzcroum .... July 2, „
The Morea retaken by the Turks . . . . 1715 Adrianople is entered by tho Russians, Aug. 20 ;
The Turks dofeated at Peterwaradein . . 1716 armistice agreed on Aug. 29, „
They lose Belgrade ; and their power declines . 1717 Treaty of peace .... Sept. 14, ,,
Peace of Erivan. (with Persia) . . . . 1 732 Fire at Constantinople; extinguished by tho
3 b 2
TUR 7 -to TUR
TURKEY, continued.
seamen and marines of II. M.S. Blonde, Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, many years English
Jan. 22, 1830 ambassador at Constantinople, returned to
The Porte acknowledges the independence of England, Jan. ; he is succeeded by sir H.
Greece April 25, „ Lytton Btilwer : accredited . July 12, 1858
Treaty with America .... May 7, ,, Indecisive conflicts in Montenegro between the
St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pacha, son of natives and the Turks . July,
Mehemet AH July 2, 1832 Massacre of Christians at Jeddo (trA/rA
Ue defeats the army of the sultan at Konieh July 25, „
with great loss .... Dec. 21, „ Turkish financial reforms begun . Aug. M
Ibrahim Pacha marches within eighty loagues Tho first Turkish railway opened (from Aden to
of Constantinople, and the sultan has recourse Smyrna) Sept iq, ,,
to the aid of Russia, ... Jan. 1833 Base coinage called in; a fictitious Turkish
The Russians enter Constantinople . April 3, „ coinage begun at Birmingham, and is sup
Treaty with Russia, offensive and defensive, pressed Oct. „
July 8, „ The allied powers determine the Montenegrine
Office of grand vizier abolished March 30, 1838 boundaries Nov. 8, ,,
Treaty of commerce with England, concluded Prince Alexander Cousa elected hospodar of
by lord Ponsonby, ratified . Aug. 16, „ both Moldavia and Wallachia Feb. 5 and 7, 1S59
[For the events of 1839 and 1840 in relation to [The Porte at first objects, but afterwards
Syria, see Syria. J accedes to the double election.1
Christians admitted to office in Turkey June, 1849 Electric telegraph completed between Aden
The Turkish government refuses to surrender and Bum May,
the Hungarian and Polish refugees on the Greut fire at Constantinople ; 1000 bouses de
joint demand of Russia and Austria, Sept. 16, ,, stroyed Sept. 10-14, »>
[The Porte (countenanced by England) firmly Great conspiracy against the sultan detected,
resists this demand. J Sept. 17; his brother implicated; several
Russia suspends intercourse with the Porte, persons condemned to die ore reprieved,
Nov. 12, Sept. and Oct. „
The British fleet, under Sir W. Parker, anchors Great agitation for finsncial reform Oct. „
in Be&ica bay .... Nov. 13, ,, Alleged ill treatment of Christians in Turkey ;
Diplomatic relations between Russia and the proposed intervention of the great powers,
Porte resumed, the latter sending the refugees Msy 5 ; the Turkish government promise
to Konioh Jan. 1850 investigation and redress ; all the powers
Turkish Croatia in a state of rebellion . Jan. 1851 satisfied except Russia . . May 30, i860
Treaty with France respecting the Holy Places ; War between the Druses and Maronites in
(which >ee) Feb. 13, 1852 ! Lebanon ; massacres. See I>ru4tt- June.
Prince Monschikoff repairs to Constantinople I Massacre of Christians at Damascus. See
as Russian negotiator. Fob. 28 ; his peremp JDanuucm and Svria . . Julyg-n, „
tory demands rejected . April 19, 1853 Convention on behalf of the Great Powers at
Reschid Pacha becomes foreign minister ; the Paris ; armed intervention of the French,
ultimatum being rejected, Menscbikoff quits agreed to ..... Aug. 2, .,
Constantinople May ax, Inundations at Galatz; loss about 175.000/.,
Hatti-shcrif issued, confirming the rights of Feb. 24. 1861
the Greek Christians . June 6, ,, Christians revolt in the Herzegovina, aided by
Russian manifesto against Turkey . June 26, ,, the Montenegrins .... March „
Russian army crosses the Pruth . July 2, ,, Great need of financial reform ; the British
Grand national council—war to be declared if ambassador, sir H. Lytton, proposes a scheme,
the principalities are not evacuated Sept. 26, April,
War declared against Russia . . Oct. 5, ,, Discussion respecting the French occupation of
[See RuMo-Tvrktth War.) Syria ; it ceases . . June 5, „
Insurrection in Epirus and Albania, favoured Doath of tho sultan, Abdul-Medjid ; accession
by the Greek government at Athens—Hel of Abdul-Ariz, his brother . . June 25, 1S61
lenic empire proclaimed . . Jan 27, 1854 Economical reforms begun ; Fuad Pacha made
Tolunteers from Athens join insurgents, president of the council .... July
March 14, „ The late sultan's jewels sold in London Aug.
Rupture between Greeco and Turkey, March 28, New order of knighthood (Nishan Osmanieb)
[Several conflicts ensue with varied suc to include civil as well as military persons,
cess.) Sept. „
( Isinan Pacha storms Peta, tho central point of Imperial guatd re-orpanised . . . Oct.
the insurrection .... April 25, Fuad Pacha made grand vizier . Nov. 22,
English and French governments, after many He puts forth a budget ; treaties of commerce
remonstrances, send troops, which arrive at with Swedeu, Spain, &c. March, 1862
tho Piraeus ; the king of Greeco submits, and A Turkish loan (8,000,000/.) taken up in London
promises strict neutrality : tho Greek volun May, „
teers are recalled .... May 25, 26, ,, Secularisation of the property of the mosques,
Abdl Pacha and Fuad Effendi take the in (value about 3,000,000/,) said to be deter
trenched camp at Kolampaka, and tho insur mined on Oct.
rection shortly after ceases June 18, „ Insurgents in the Herzegovina submit , peace
Reschid Pacha, having retired (June 3), re made with Montenegro . . Sept. 23, ,,
sumes his office .... July 1, Dispute with Servia(wA«rfl $ee) settled Oct 7,
Convention between Turkey and Austria, Ministerial crisis through the sultan's attempt
June 14, „ at reaction ; Fuad Pacha and others resign,
The Russians retire from tho principalities, but resume office. . , , Jan. 7, 1863
which ore thereupon occupied by the Aus- A new bank established . . Jan. 28,
triaus . . . Sept. 1854 till March, 1857 Fuad Pacha becomes sera.Bkicr Feb. 12,
Misunderstanding among the allied powers Exhibition of the produce of the empire,
respecting Moldavian elections, which are opened in March ; closed . July 26, T,
annulled July, ,, The sultan visits Egypt . . . April 7-17, ,,
Doath of Reschid Pacha . . Jan. 7, 1858 Fuad Pacha made grand vizier . June i, ,,
TUR 741 TUS
TURKEY, continued.
Great immigration of the Caucasian tribes, Cholera rages at Constantinople, nearly 50,000
April, 1864 deaths, Aug. and Sept. ; great fire there,
Financial reforms ; conversion and verification about 2500 buildings (mosques, dwellings, &c.)
of the Turkish debt .... Aug. 1865 destroyed, and cholera subsides . Sept. 6, 1865
TURKISH EMPERORS.
1299. Othman, Osman, or Ottoman, who assumed 1618. Osman II. : Btranglod by the Janissaries, and
the title of Grand Seignior his uncle restored.
1326. Orchan, son of Othman. 1622. Mustapha I. again : again deposed, sent to the
1360. Amurath or Murad I. : stabbed by a soldier, Seven Towers, and strangled,
of which wound he died. 1623. Amurath IV. : succeeded by his brother,
1389- Bajazet I., his son : defeated by Tamerlane, 1640. Ibrahim : strangled by the Janissaries.
and died imprisoned. 1648. Mahomet IV., son of Ibrahim : deposed, and
1 402. Bolyman I., son of Bajazet: dethroned by his died in prison.
brother and successor, 1687. Solyman III., his brothor.
1410. Musa-Chelebi ; strangled. 1691. Ahmed or Achmet II. : succeeded by his
I413- Mahomet I., also son of Bajazet. nephew,
142 1. Amurath II., succeeded by his son, 1695. Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet IV. :
1451. Mahomet II., by whom Constantinople was deposed ; succeeded by his brother,
taken in 1453. 1703. Ahmed or Achmet III. : deposed, and died in
1481. Bajazet II. , deposed by his son, prison in 1736.
1512. Selim I , who succeeded him. 1730. Mahraud I., or Mahomet V., succeeded his
1520. Solyman II. the Magnificent, son of the pre uncle, the preceding sultan.
ceding. 1754. Osman III., brother of Mahmud.
1566. Selim II., son of the last. 1757. Mustapha III., brother of Osman.
1574- Amurath III., his son: on his accession he 1774. Abdul-Ahmed.
caused his five brothers to bo murdered, 1789. Selim III.: deposed by the Janissaries, and
and their mother, in grief, stabbed herself. his nephew raised to the throne.
'595- Mahomet III., son of Amurath: commenced 1807. Mustapha IV. : deposed, and, with the lato
his reign by strangling all his brothers, and sultan Selim, murdered.
drowning all his father's wives. 1808. Mahmud II., or Mahomet VI. : succeeded by
1603. Ahmed or Achmet, his son : succeeded by his his son,
brother, 1839. Abdul-Medjid, July 2 (born April 23, 1823) ;
16:7. Mustapha I. ; deposed by the Janissaries, and died June 25, 1861.
imprisoned ; succeeded by his nephew, 1861. Abdul-Aziz, June 25 (born Feb. 9, 1830), the
present sultan of Turkey.
TURKEY TRADE, most lucrative at the time and long afterwards, commenced in the
year 1550. The Turkey or Levant Company of London was instituted by charter of
Elizabeth, in 1579.
TURKEYS and Guinea Fowls. First brought to England, 1523, and to France in
1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were consequently unknown to the ancients.
Mr. Pennant has established this fact by various particulars in the history of these birds ;
evincing that they are natives neither of Europe, Asia, nor Africa ; a circumstance since
placed beyond controversy, by the researches of Air. Beckmann.
TURKOMANS. See White Sheep.
TURNER'S LEGACIES. Joseph M. W. Turner, one of the greatest of landscape
painters, was born in April 1775, and died Dec. 19, 1851. He bequeathed to the nation all
the pictures and drawings collected by him and deposited at his residence, 47, Queen Anne-
street, London, on condition that a suitable gallery be erected for them within ten years ;
and directed his funded property to be expended in founding an asylum at Twickenham for
decayed artists. The will was disputed by his relatives, but a compromise was made. The
oil-paintings (100 in number) and the drawings (1400) were obtained by the nation, and the
engravings and some other property were transferred to the next of kin. The drawings were
cleaned and mounted under trie careful superintendence of Mr. Ruskin, and the pictures
were sent to Marlborough House for exhibition. In 1861, the pictures were removed from
the South Kensington Museum to the National Gallery.
TURNING. See Lathe. In our dockyards, blocks and other materials for our ships of
war are now produced by an almost instantaneous process, from rough pieces of oak, by the
machinery of Mr. (afterwards sir Mark Isambard) Brunei (who died in 1849).
TURNPIKES. See Tolls.
TURPENTINE TREE, Pistacia Terebinthimts, came from Barbary, before 1656. Spirits
of turpentine were first applied, with success, to the rot in sheep ; one-third of the spirit
diluted with two-thirds water, 1772. Annual Register.
TUSCAN ORDER of Architecture, a debased Doric, invented in Tuscany, and used
in the erection of coarse and rude buildings, in which strength is principally intended,
without regard to ornament or beauty. Wotlm.
TUS 742 TYL
TUSCANY, formerly a grand-duchy in Central Italy, the northern part of the ancient
Etruria {which see). It formed part of the Lombard kingdom ; at the conquest of -which by
Charlemagne, it was made a marquisate for Boniface about 812 or 82S. His descendant, the
great countess Matilda, bequeathed the southern part of her domains to the pope. In the
northern part (then called Tuscia), the cities, Florence, Pisa, Sienna, Lucca, &c, gradually
became nourishing republics. Florence became the chief under the government of the Medici
family (see Florence). The duchy in that family began in 1531 ; and the grand-duchy in
1569. After the extinction of the Medicis in 1737, Tuscany was given by the treaty of
Vienna (1738) to Francis, duke of Lorraine (husband of Maria Theresa of Austria in 1 736),
who had ceded his hereditary states to France. Population in i860, 1,826,830.
The French enter Florence . March 28, 1799 vested with the powers of government.
Tho grand-duke is dispossessed, and his do May it, XS59
minions given to Louis duke of Parma (of Prince Napoleon arrives at Leghorn, addresses
the royal house of Spain), with tho title of the Tuscans and erects his standard. May 23. ,,
king oi Etruria j So1 The grand-duke Leopold II. abdicatesin favour
Tuscany incorporated with tho French empire 1 807 of his iion Ferdinand . . . July 21, „
The grand-duchy given to Eliza, lister of >iapo- The Tuscan constituent assembly meets
leon 1808 It declares against recalling the houseAug. ii, „
Ferdinand III. restored 1 Si 4 of Lor
Lucca united to Tuscany 1847 raine, and votes for annexation to Sardinia,
Leopold II. grants a frco constitution . Feb. 1848 Sept. „
Insurrection at Florence ; republic proclaimed ; Prince Eugene of Savoy-CarignAn elected
the duke flics .... Feb. 11, 1849 governor-general of central Italy ; he de
He is restored by the Austrians . July, 1 8 50 clines ; but recommends Buoncompagni,
Prosecution of the Madiai * . . . May, 1852 Nov. ; who is accepted by the Tuscans,
Tho Tuscan army demand alliance with tho Dec. 8, „
Sardinians ; tho grand-duke refuses^ and Annexation to Sardinia voted by universal
departs to Bologna; the king of Sardinia is suffrage, March u, 12; decreed March 22, 1S60
proclaimed dictator, and a provisional govern Prince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan appointed
ment formed, April 27 ; the king assumes the governor March 26, ,,
command of the army, but declines the dic Florence made the capital of Italy, by decree
tatorship April 30, 1859 published Dec. n, 1S64
The Sardinian commissary Buoncompagni m- (See Italy.)
SOVEREIGNS OF TUSCANY.
GRAND-DDKES. KIHOS OF ETBCBIA.
1569. Cosmo I., Medici. i8ot. Louis L, duke of Parma.
1574. Francis I. 1803. Louis II.
1587. Ferdinand I.
1609. Cosmo II.
162 1. Ferdinand II. 1808-14. Elissa Bonaparte (married to BacciochL made
1670. Cosmo III. (visited England, and wrote an prince of Lucca).
account of his travels. J
1723. John Gaston (last of the Medici). GRAXD DUKES.
1737. Francis II. (duke of Lorraine) became emperor 1814. Ferdinand III. restored.
of Germany in 1745. 1824. Leopold II., June 18 (born Oct. 3, 1797 ; abdi
1765. Leopold I. (emperor in 1790.) cated, July 2i, 1859).
1790. Ferdinand III. (second sou of Leopold I.); 1859. Ferdinand IV., July 21 (born June 10, 1835).
expelled by the French in 1800.
TWELFTH-DAY, the church festival called the Epiphany, or manifestation of Christ to
the Gentiles, Jan. 6. See Epiphany.
TYBURN (W. London), at the west end of Oxford-road (now street) the place in London
for tho execution of malefactors till 1783. Pennant (who died 1798) remembered Oxford-
street as " a deep, hollow road, and full of sloughs, with here and there a ragged house, the
lurking-place of cut-throats."
TYLER'S INSURRECTION arose in opposition to the poll-tax levied in 1379. One of
the collectors acting with indecent rudeness to "Wat Tyler's daughter, the father struck him
dead. His neighbours took anus to defend him, and in a short time almost the whole of the
population of the southern and eastern counties were in a state of insurrection, extorting
freedom from their lords, and plundering. On June 12, 1381, they gathered upon Black-
heath to the number of 100,000 men. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to a parley,
which took place on the 15th at Smithfield, where the latter addressed the king in a somewhat
* Much interest and sympathy were excited in England and other Protestant countries of Europe, br
the imprisonment at Florence of the Madiai (husband and wife), who had embraced the English reformed
religion, and read the Bible in due conformity with the teaching of their new faith. For this "crime**
they were separately incarcerated in loathsome dungeons, and subjocted to all the rigours of the Romish
ecclesiastical law, May, 1852. A Protestant deputation from England, headed by the carls of Shaftesburr
and Roden, proceeded to Florence in Oct. 1852. with tho view to their release from confinement ; but the
grand duke refused to receive them. The Madiai were set at liberty, by the interposition of the British
government, in March, 1853. An annuity of 100/. was provided for tbem by subscription.
TYP 748 UMB
menacing manner, now and again lifting up his sword. On this the mayor, Walworth,
shinned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and one of the king's knights dispatehed him.
Richard temporised with the multitude by promising a charter, and thus led them out of the
city, when sir R. Knollys and a band of knights attacked and dispersed them with much
slaughter. The insurrection in Norfolk and Suffolk was subdued by the bishop of Norwich,
and 1500 of the rebels were executed.
TYPE-COMPOSING MACHINES. See under Printing.
TYRANT. In early Greek history, the term was applied to any man who governed with
irresponsible power. Solon objected to the term, and chose the name Archon (rulor),
594 B.C. The earliest tyrants were those at Sicyon, beginning with Clisthenes, in the 7th
century B.C. Tyranny declined in Greece about 490 B.C., and revived after the close of the
Peloponnesian war, 404 B.C. See Thirty Tyrants.
TYRE (Phoenicia). This great city was first built by Agenor. Another city was built
1257 (about 2267, Hales) B.C. It was besieged by the Assyrians, 719 B.C., and they retired
from before it, after a siege of upwards of five years, 713 B.C. Taken by Nebuchadnezzar,
572 B.C., and the city demolished, when the Tyrians removed to an opposite island, and
built a new and magnificent city. It was taken by Alexander with much difficulty, after a
siege of seven months, Aug. 20, 332 B.C. He joined the island to the continent by a mole.
Strabo. It was taken by the allied fleet in 1841 a.d.
TYRE, Era op, began on Oct. 19, 125 B.C., with the month of Hyperberotams. The
months were the same as those used in the Grecian era, and the year is similar to the Julian
year. To reduce this era to ours, subtract 124 ; and if the given year bo less than 125,
deduct it from 125, and the remainder will be the year before Christ
TYROL, the eastern part of ancient Rhetia, now a province of the Austrian empire, was
ceded to the house of Hapsburg in 1359, by Margaret, the heiress of the last count Tyrol.
The province became an appanage of the younger (or Tyrol) branch of tho imperial house,
which came to the throne in the person of Maximilian II., in 1618. The French conquered
the Tyrol in 1805, and united it to Bavaria; but in 1809 an insurrection broke out, headed by
Andrew Hofer, an innkeeper, who drove tho Bavarians out of the Tyrol, thoroughly defeated
some French detachments, but laid down his arms at the treaty of Vienna. Ho was
subsequently accused of corresponding with the Austrians, captured and sent to Mantua,
and there shot by order of the French government (to its great disgrace) Feb. 20, 1810.
The Austrian emperor ennobled his family in 1819, and erected his statue in Inspruck in
1834. The Tyrolese riflemen were very effective in the Italian war in 1859.
u.
UBIQUITARIANS, a small German sect, originated by Brentius about 1560, who
asserted that the body of Christ was present everywhere (ubique).
UKRAINE (a frontier), a vast fertile plain in Russia, ceded to the Cossacks by Poland
in 1672, and obtained by Russia in 1682. The country was divided, Poland having the west
side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. The whole country was assigned to Russia by the
treaty of partition in 1795.
ULM, in Wurtemberg, S. Germany, where a peace was signed, July 3, 1620, by which
Frederick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from it previously). Ulm was taken by the
French in I 796. After a battle between the French and Austrians, in which the latter,
under general Mack, were defeated with dreadful loss by marshal Ney, Ulm surrendered with
28,000 men, the flower of the Austrian army, Oct. 17-20, 1805.
ULPHILAS'S BIBLE. See Bible.
UMBRELLA, described in early dictionaries as "a portable pent-house to carry in a
person's hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrellas are very ancient, as thoy
appear in the carvings at Persepolis. Niebuhr, who visited the southern part of Arabia,
informs us that he saw a great prince of that country returning from a mosque, preceded by
some hundreds of soldiers, and that ho and each of the princes of his numerous family caused
a large umbrella to be carried by his side. The old chinaware in our pantries and cupboards
shows the Chinese shaded by an umbrella. It is said that the first person who used an
umbrella in the streets of Loudon was the benevolent Jonas Hauway, who died in 1786.*
* For a long whilo it was not usual for mon to carry thorn without being brandod as clcmtnatv. At
UNO 74 i UNI
UNCTION, Extremk. See Anointing.
UNIFORMITY, Act of (2 & 3 Edward VI.), Jan. 15, 1549, ordained that the order or
divine worship, drawn up by Cranmer and others, "with the aid of the Holy Ghost," shouM
be the only one used after May 20. The penalties for refusing to use it were fine and impri
sonment. This act was re-enacted by Elizabeth in 1559. The statute known as the act of
Uniformity, 14 Charles II. c. 4, was passed in 1662. It enjoined uniformity in matters of
religion, and obliged all clergy to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, and use the same form
of worship, and same book of common prayer. Its enforcement on Aug. 24, 1662, termed
Black Bartholomew's day, caused upwards of 2000 ministers to quit the church of England,
and laid the foundation of the dissenting interest. The day was commemorated by dissenters
in 1862.
UNIFORMS. Military uniforms were first used in France, "in a regular manner," by
Louis XIV. 1668. In England the uniform was soon afterwards adopted in the military
service, but with littlo analogy to the modern dress. Ashe. See under Nary.
UNION of Calmar, 1397 ; of Utrecht, 1579.
UNION of the crowns and kingdoms of England and Scotland by the accession of
James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, March 24, 1603. The legislative union of
the two kingdoms was attempted, but failed in 1604 and 1670 ; in the reign of Anne,
commissioners were appointed, the articles discussed, and, notwithstanding a great opposi
tion made by the Tones, every article in the union was approved by a great majority, first
in the house of commons, and afterwards by the peers, July 22, 1706 ; was ratified by the
Scottish parliament, Jan. 16, 1707, and became a law, May 1, same year.
UNION of Great Britain and Ireland, proposed in the Irish parliament, Jan. 22,
1799. Rejected by the commons of Ireland, Jan. 24, the votes being 105 for, to 106 against
the union. The English house of commons on the same question divided, 140, 141, and
149 for the union ; against it, 15, 25, and 28, respectively. Lord Castlereagh detailed his
plan of the union, in the Irish house of lords, founded 011 the resolutions of the British
parliament thereon, Feb. 5, 1800. Votes of the commons agreeing to it, 161 against 115,
Feb. 17 ; and again, 152 against 108, Feb. 21. The houses of lords and commons wait on the
lord lieutenant with the articles of union, March 27. The net passed in the British parlia
ment, July 2, 1800. The imperial united standard was first displayed at the Tower of
London, and upon Bedford Tower, Dublin Castle, in consequence of the act of legislative
union becoming an operative law, Jan. I, 1801. For attempts to dissolve the union, see
Repeal.
UNION JACK. The original flag of England was the banner of St. George, i.e., white
with a red cross, which, April 12, 1606 (three years after James I. ascended the throne),
was incorporated with the banner of Scotland, i.e,, blue with a white diagonal cross. This
combination obtained the name of " Union Jack," in allusion to the union with Scotland,
and the word Jack may be considered a corruption of the word " Jacques," or James. This
arrangement continued until the union with Ireland, Jan. I, 1S01, when the banner of St.
Patrick, i.e., white, with a diagonal red cross, was thus amalgamated with it, and forms the
present Union flag.
UNION CHARGEABILITY ACT, providing for the better distribution of the eharge
for relieving the poor in unions, was passed in June, 1865. One object of the act is the
improvement of the dwellings of agricultural labourers.
UNION RELIEF ACT was passed in 1862, to enable boards of guardians of certain
unions to obtain temporary aid to meet the extraordinary expenditure for relief occasioned
by the distress in the cotton manufacturing districts. This act was continued by one passed
in 1863.
first, a single umbrella seems to have been kept at a coffee-house for extraordinary occasions—lent a* a
coach or ch;tir in a heavy shower, hut not commonly carried by the walkers. The Female TnUer advertises :
" The young gentleman belonging to the Custom-house who, in fear of rain, borrowed the umbrella from
Wilks'x Cvjret-h'inse, shall the next time be welcome to the maid's pattens." As late as 1778, one John
Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life, informs us that he had " a fine silk umbrella, which ho
brought from Hpain ; but ho could not with ai.y comfort to himself use it, the p< ople calling out, ' French
man ! why don't you get a coach ?"* Ttie hackney-coachmen and chairmen, with true e*jn-it de corps, were
clami-rous against their portentous rival. The footman, in 1778, gives us some farther information :—" At
thiw time there were no umbrellas worn in London, except in noblemen's and gentlemen's houses, where
there was a lar«e one hung in the hall to hoM over a lady if it rained, between the door and her carriage."
This man's sister was compelled to quit his arm one day from the abuse he drew down upon himself ami
his umbrella. But, he adds, that " he persisted for three months, till they took no further notice of this
novelty. Foreigner* began to use theirs, and then the English. Now it is become a great trade in
London."—A'ev Monthly Magoiine.
UNI 745 UNI
UNION REPEAL ASSOCIATION, Ireland. See Repeal of the Union.
UNIT, a gold coin, value 20*., issued by James I. in 1604.
UNITARIANS,* began with Servetus, a learned man, who printed a tract in disparage
ment of the doctrine of the Trinity. In 1553, proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin
induced the magistrates to arrest him on a charge of blasphemy and heresy. Servetus,
refusing to retract his opinions, was condemned to the flames, which sentence was carried
into execution, May 27, 1553. Servetus is numbered among those anatomists who made the
nearest approach to the doctrine of the circulation of the blood, before Harvey established
that doctrine. The Unitarians were numerous in Transylvania in the 17th century; they
came to England about 1700, and many of the original English presbyterian churches
became Unitarians about 1730. They were not included in the Toleration act till 1813.
There were 229 congregations in England in 185 1. The Unitarian marriage bill was passed,
June 1827. In Dec. 1833, by a decision of the vice-chancellors the Unitarians (as such)
lost the possession of lady Hewley's charity ; the decision was affirmed on appeal in 1842.
UNITED IRISHMEN, a political society which met secretly, was formed in 1795 to
counteract the effect of the Orange clubs.
UNITED KINGDOM. England and Wales were united in 1283 ; Scotland to botli in
1707 ; and the British realm was named the United Kingdom on the union with Ireland,
Jan. i, 1801. See Union. The United Kingdom Alliance, for the total suppression of
liquor traffic, was founded June 1, 1853.
UNITED PROVINCES (Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, Overyssell,
and Guelderland), the deputies of which met at Utrecht, Jan. 23, 1579, and signed a treaty
for their mutual defence. See Holland.
UNITED STATES of AMERICA were so styled by the congress of the revolted
British provinces, Sept. 9, 1776. Their flag was declared to be thirteen stripes, alternately
red aud white, and thirteen stars in a blue field, corresponding with the then number of
states of the union, t June 20, 1777. The government of the United States is a pure
democracy. Each of the states has a separate and independent legislature for the adminis
tration of its local affairs, but all are ruled in matters of imperial policy by two houses of
legislature, the senate and the house of representatives, to which delegates are sent from the
different members of the confederacy. The president of the United States is elected every
fourth year by the free voice of the people. The election of Abraham Lincoln as president
on Nov. 4, i860, was followed by the secession of eleven slaveholding states, and led to the
great civil war, 1861-5. See Confederates.
Act of the British parliament, imposing new George Washington appointed commander-in-
and heavy duties on imported merchandise, chief, May ; battle of Bunker's hill, June 16, 1775
March 11, i 76 , America declared "free, sovereign, and inde
Obnoxious stamp act passed . March 32, pendent" July 4, 1776
First American congress hold at New York, General Howe takes Long Island, Aug. 27;
June ; the stamp act resisted . Not. i, New York, Sept. 15; victor at White Plains,
Stamp act repealed x766 Oct. 29; at Rhode Island . . . Dec. 8,
British act, levying duties on tea, paper, The Hessians surrender to Washington, Dec 25,
painted glass, &c June 14, 1767 La Fayette and other French officers join the
Gen. Gates sent to Boston Americans ....... 1777
840 chests of tea destroyed by the populace at Washington defeated at Brandywine Sept. 11, „
Boston, and 17 chests at iscw
New York Nov, 1773 Lord Cornwallis takes Philadelphia . Sept. „
lone . r»ov.
Boston Port Bill .... March 25, 1774 Burgoyne victor at Gcnnantowu, Oct. 3 ; is
Deputies from the States meet at Philadelphia, surrounded, and capitulates at Saratoga,
Sept. 5; Declaration of Rights issued, Nov. 4, „ Oct. 17,
First action between the British and Americans, A federal government adopted by emigres.-*,
at Lexington -April 19, 1775 Nov. 15, „
Act of perpetual union between the States, The States recognised by France . Feb 6, 1778
May 20, The king s troops cpiit Philadelphia . June, „
* Their tenets are different, but somewhat similar to those of the Arians and Socinians, irkick ntt. Tho
Unitarians believe in and worship one only self-existent God, in opposition to those who worship tha
Trinity in unity. They consider Christ to have been a mere man ; aud do not admit tho need of an atone
ment,t The
or thefollowing
completethirteen
inspiration of the Scriptures.
states formed the union at tho declaration of independence in 1776; the
italics indicate the then slaveholding states ; those with a * prefixed tteceUd from the federal government
in i860 and 1861, and rejoined it in 1865 :—
New Hampshire. New York. Dflau-are. *Sorth Carolina.
Massachusetts. New Jersey. Maryland. *Soutfi Carolina.
Rhode Island. Pennsylvania. * Virginia. * Ucoryia.
Connecticut.
UNI 7« UNI
UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued.
Cornwallis defeat* Gates at Camden, Aug. 16, 1780 New constitution signed by a convention of
Major Andre" hanged as a spy* . Oct. a, States Sept. 17, 1787
American Academy of Arte and Sciences at The same ratified . . May 23, 1758
* Boston founded ,, The quakera of Philadelphia emancipate their
The federal government accepted by all the slaves Jan. 1, M
states, March 1 ; congress assembles, March 2, 17S1 New government organised . . March 4, J7S9
Cornwallis defeats Green at Guildford, March Washington declared the first president,
16 ; Arnold defcaU the Americans at Eutaw, April 6, „
Sept. 8, „ Present departments t of state established,
Surrender of lord Cornwallis and his whole July 37,
army of 7000 men to generals Washington Death of Benjamin Franklin . April 17, 1790
and Rochainbeau, at Yorktown . Oct. 29, Bank instituted ; capital, 10,000,000 dollars,
Arrival of sir Guy Carloton to treat for peace. June 7, 1791
May 5 ; pnmsional articles signed at Paris by City of Washington chosen the capital of the
commissioners .... Nov. 30, 1782 States JulyS, 1792
Definitive treaty of peace signed at Paris, Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton-gin gives
Sept. 3, 1783; ratified by congress . Jan. 4, 1784 an immense impetus to the growth of
Samuel Seabury consecrated bishop of the American cotton 1 793
episcopal church in America . . . „ Re-election of general Washington as president,
John Adams, first American ambassador's first March 4, 1793 ; resigns . . . Sept. 17, 1796
interview with the king of Kngland June 2, 1785 Washington dies amid universal sorrow, Dec. 14, 1799
The cotton plant introduced into Georgia. See The scat of government removed to Washington tSoo
Cotton 1786
* According to somo accounts ho obtained the namo by promising Beauregard, at the battle of Bull
Run, that his brigade should stand like a "stone wall;** others say that Beauregard gave the namo
himself.
UNI 7 5 '1
UNITED STATES ok AMERICA, continued.
Great honour shown to McCleUan ; he is pro tion ; many negroes murdered, and much
posed as the next president Nov. 1862 property destroyed . . July 13-16, 1863
The federal government orders release of dis Tho Sioux defeated, Aug. 7 : gen. Pope reports
affected persons in prisons . . Nov. 25, „ that the Indian war is ended . . Aug. „
Annual session of U. S. congress ; the presi Now York rioters tried and convicted- Aug. 12 ;
dent recommends compensated emancipation conscription going on peaceably . Aug. iz, ,,
of all slaves in the loyal states before the Siege of Charleston ; defended by Beauregard—
year 1900 ..... Dec. lf „ attacks with varied success, July ; Fort
Battle of Fredericksburg (which see); Bunk- Sumter bombarded and destroyed (and so-
side crosses the Rappahannock, Dec. 10 ; called Greek fire employed); attacks on the
bombards Fredericksburg, Dec. 11 ; a scries ruins repulsed . ^u&* 91* 2a' •»
of desperate attacks on the confederates ; ho Knoxvillo occupied by Burnside . Sept, 10, „
fs totally defeated, Dec, 13 ; and recrosses the A Russian squadron warmly received at New
river Dec. 15 „ York Sept and Oct. , ,
Engagements in Tennessee with varying results Battle of Chickamauga, Tennessee ; Rosencrans
Dec. ,, defeated by Bragg . . Sept. 20,
Discovery of frauds on the U. S. army financial Mason, the confederate commissioner in
accounts ; public dissatisfaction with the England, protests against the mode of his
government ; secretaries Chase and Seward reception, and quits . . Sept. re, „
resign, but resume offico . . Dec. „ Rosencrans' command of the federal army in
Battles near Murfreesboro', or Stone River, be Tennessee superseded by Grant and Thomas,
tween Rosencrans and tho federals nnd Brax and Sherman Oct 19, n
ton Bragg and the confederates : begin Dec. Tho steam rams El Tousson and El Monassir,
29; severe but indecisive, Dec. 31 ; battle built by Mr. Laird at Birkenhead, and sus
continued, Jan. 1 ; Bragg defeated, retreats, pected to bo for the confederates, are placed
Jan. 2, 1863 under charge of a government vessel in the
("There have been about 2000 battles and Mersey ...... Oct 31,
skirmishes siuce the commencement of the Lincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers . Oct. 17,
war." —American Almanack.] British consuls dismissed from the southern
President Lincoln proclaims the freedom of states Oct.
slaves in the rebel states, except in parts Meade captures a part of Lee's army on the N.
held by the U. S. army . . . Jan. 2, side of the Rappahannock . . . Nov. 7.
Gen. Burnside superseded by gen. Joseph Tho chief justices Lowrie, Woodward, and
Hooker in command of army of the Potomac Thompson declare that the Conscription Act
Jan. 26 is unconstitutional . . Nov. 12,
The French government's offer of mediation, Longstreet defeats Burnside, and compels him
Jan. 9 ; declined .... Feb. 6, to retire into Knoxvillo . . Nov. 14-17,
Tho Otocgt Qriswotd, a vessel containing pro Sherman and Thomas defeat Bragg at Chatta
visions and other relief for the distressod nooga Nov. 23,
cotton workers in Lancashire, arrives. Fob. 9 Longstreet's attack on Knoxville. defended by
A conscription bill (for men between 18 and 45) Burnsido. fails, and he retreats into Virginia,
passed Feb. 25 Nov. 29 and Dec. 1,
The congress authorises tho suspension of tho The confederate general Bragg superseded by
habeas corpus act, March 3: and establishes Hardco Dec. 2,
a National Academy of Sciences at Washing Lincoln's message to congress warlike ; he
ton March 4, proffers amnesty to all except heads of
Confederate loan for 3,000,000!. well taken up governments, tic, Dec. 4; Davis's message:
in Europe March, firm, but acknowledging reverses . Doc. 7,
Charleston, South Carolina, attacked by moni Gen. Joseph Johnston takes command of the
tors and gunboats; the Keokuk, a monitor, ' confederate army in Georgia . . Dec. 27,
sunk April 7, President Lincoln orders a draft of 500,000 men
Battle of Chancellorsville (which see) ; the in 3 years Feb. 1, 1864
federals under Hooker cross the Rappahan Federal expedition into Florida ; defeated at
nock, April 28 ; defeated (gen. Stonewall Olustee Feb. 20,
Jackson is mortally wounded). May 2-4 ; Failure of attack of Kilpatrick and Dahlgren on
Hookor rccrosses the Rappahannock May 5, Richmond . . . Feb. 27—March 1,
Stonewall Jackson dies . May 9, Ulysses Grant made commander-in chief, suc
Grant's successful campaign in Tennessee : ceeding HaUcck .... March 2
he defeats the confederates under Joseph Confederate raids into the Western states
Johnston at JackBon, May 14 ; and under March,
Pomberton at Champion Hills, May 16; and Sherman's expedition against Mobile, March 2 ;
in vests Vicksburg. M ississippi, which is defeated by Kirby-Smith . . April 5.
strongly fortified, May 18 ; a dreadful assault James E. Stuart, the celebrated confederate
on it repelled May 22, cavalry officer, killed . . . May 11,
Great peace meeting at Norfolk June 5, Campaign in Virginia ; the army of the Poto
Confederate invasion under Leo : invade Mary mac crosses the Rapidan ; advance of Lee
land and Pennsylvania, and take various (now supported by Longstreet) May 2 ; severe
towns .... June 14, et ncq. battle in the 1 ' Wilderness *' (near Cnancellors-
The federal gen. Hooker superseded by George ville); indecisive, May 5, 6; battle of Spott-
H. Meado Juno 27, sylvania ; tho federals remain on the field ;
Meade advances against Lee ; great battle of much carnage .... May xi, ta,
Gettysburg. indecisive ; but tho confederates Sherman (in Georgia) beats the confederates at
evacuate Pennsylvania and Maryland Rcsacca, May 14, and at Dallas . May,
July 1-3, Fugitive (-lave act repealed by the house of
Vicksburg bombarded, July 3 ; surrendered by representatives .... June 13,
Pomberton to Grant and Porter July 4, After a succession of attacks on both sides.
Port Hudson, a confederate fortress on "the Grant compels Lee to retire gradually, and
Mississippi, surrenders . July 8 by a flank movement marches to the other
Fierce riots at New York against the conscript side of Richmond, and faces Petersburg,
June 15 ; where, having taken the first
UNI 753 UNI
UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued.
intrenchmcnts after desperate assaults, he federate armies ; ho recommends enlistment
is repulsed with considerable loss June 18, 1864 of negroes Feb. 18, 1865
The confederate steamer Alabama (capt. Wilmington captured by Schoficld ; Charleston
Scmmes) attacked and sunk by the U.S. cor evacuated by the confederates ; retreat of
vette Ktartarye (capt. Winslow) near Cher Beauregard Feb. 22, „
bourg, France .... Juno 19, Tho confederate congress decree the arming of
\jce invades Maryland, July 1 ; defeats Wallace tho slaves Feb. 2a,
near Monocracy river, July 9 ; threatens A new stringent tariff comes into operation,
Baltimore and Washington, and retreats, April 1, „
July 13, 13, Throo days* sanguinary conflict at Petersburg ;
Sherman's 3 battles at Atlanta(Georgia), July 20, at first favourable to tho confederates, March
22 ; victory remains with the federals, July 28, 31 ; Sheridan turns Lee's front, at Five-forks,
Confederates again invade Maryland and Penn April 1 : and Leo retreats . . . April 2, „
sylvania, and destroy Chambersbuig, July3o, Richmond and Petersburg evacuated by tho
Grant orders the explosion of a mine at Peters confederates and occupied by Grant, April 2, ,,
burg, whereby 250 confederates aro killed : Sheridan overtakes and defeats Lec at Farm-
but the assault following is repulsed with villc, April 6; Lec surrenders with the army
great slaughter .... July 30, nf Northern Virginia, to Grant, at Apporaatox
Mr. Chase, secretary to the U.S. treasury, re courthouso April 9,
signs ; succeeded by Mr. Fcssundcn . July, Mobile evacuated by the confederates, April 12, „
The Tallahassee confederate steamer (built m The Union flag replaced at Fort Sumter,
London) destroys many U.S. merchantmen, Charleston April 14,
July, Aug. President Lincoln shot in tho head at Ford s
Severe conflicts in the Shenandoah valley ; the Theatre, Washington, about 11 o'clock, p.m.,
federals victors Aug. April 14, by Wilkes Booth, who escapes ; Mr.
The confederate flotilla near Mobile destroyed Seward, tho foreign secretary, and his son,
by Farragut, Aug. ; Fort Gaines taken, wounded in his own house by an assassin
Aug 8, about the same time ; Lincoln dies at 7. 30
McClellan nominated for the presidency by the a.m. ; Andrew Johnson, vico-prcsident,
" Democratic " Chicago convention Sept. 1, sworn in as president . . . April 15, „
Sherman occupies Atlanta ; the confederate The convention between Sherman and Johnston
general Hood retires . . . .Sept. 1, (favourable to confederates), April 18 : dis
Sherman orders the depopulation of Atlanta, avowed by the government, April 21 , John
Sept. 7, ston surrenders on same terms as Leo,
McClellan declares for maintaining tho union ; April 25, „
the democratic party divided . . Sept. 13, Wilkes Booth shot, and his accomplice Harrold
Sheridan (federal) defeats Early at Winchester, captured in a farmhouse . . April 26, „
in the Shenandoah valley, but with very The confederate general Dick Taylor (near
great loss Sept. 19, Mobile) surrenders .... May 4, M
Longstreet replacos Early in the command of President Jefferson Davis captured at lrwins-
the confederates .... Oct. villo, Georgia (and consigned to prison),
Longstreet defeats the federals at Cedar Creek ; May 10,
Sheridan arrives, rallies his troops, and de The confederate general Kirby-Smith, in Texa*,
feats the confederates . ... Oct. 19, surrenders ; end of the war . . May 26, ,,
St. Alban's raid.—Between 20 and 30 armed President Johnson proclaims a conditional
men enter St. Alban's, Vermont; rob the amnesty May 26, „
bank, and carry off horses and stores ; fire on President Johnson proclaims the opening of the
;ind kill several persons, and floo to Canada, southern ports. May 22 : and an amnesty
Oct. 19; whore 13 of them are arrested, with certain exemptions . May 29,
Oct. 21, Solemn fast observed for death of presideut
Lincoln re-elected president ; McClollan re Lincoln June 1, ,,
signs his command in U.S. army Nov. 8, Tho armies on lx>th sides rapidly disbanding ;
Sherman destroys Atlanta, and begins his fierce riots at Now York between the whites
march through Georgia to Savannah, Nov. 13, and negroes June, ,,
Bond's attack on Thomas (federal) repulsed Galveston, Texas, the last sea port held by the
with severo loss .... Nov. 30, south, surrendered by Kirby-Smith Juno 5,
Lincoln's message to congress considered The British and French governments rescind
"bold" Dec. 6, their recognition of tho confederates as
The St. Alban's raiders discharged by Judge belligerents June 2, 6, „
Coursol ; General Dix issues an intemperate President Johnson, uniting with tho demo
order for reprisals (disannulled by the presi crats and acting leniently towards the south ;
dent) Dec. 14, reorganisation of the atato governments,
Hood defeated by Thomas (federal) near Nash Juno, ,,
ville Doc. 15, 16, Closo of tho long trial of the conspirators,
Sherman storms fort M'Allister, Dec. 13 ; Juno 29 ; execution of Payno, Atzcrott,
enters Savannah .... Dec. 21, Harrold or Herold, and Mrs. Suratt, July 7, „
Wilmington bombarded ; the attack of gene All southern prisoners of war to be released on
ral Butler and admiral Porter repulsed, parolo on taking oath of allegiance July 29, ,,
Dec. 24, 25, Federal debt declared 2,757,253.275 dollars,
The St. Alban's raiders recaptured and com July 31, 11
mitted for trial . . Dec. 27, ft *?q. The confederate privateer Sftenandoah (captun
The federal congress abolishes slavery in the Waddcll) captures and destroys many federal
United States Feb. 1, vessels (about 30) ... Aug. ,,
Fruitless meeting nf President 'Lincoln and Pacific policy of president Johnson ; he declares
secretary Seward with the confederate secre himself opposed to centralisation and in
tary Stephens, and 2 commissioners, to treat favour of state rights ; and is bitterly op
for peace at Fort Monroe . . Fob. 3, posed by tho radicals .... Sept. ,,
The Canadian government surrenders Burley, a Correspondence between earl Russell and Mr.
raider, to the federals .... Feb. 3, Adams (U.S. minister, London) respecting
Lee takes the gener.il command of the con- the Alabama, confederate privateer* r ; proposal
3 0
1
UNI 754 UNI
UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued.
of a commission to whom claims for repara and U. P. governments respecting depreda
tion shall be referred . April 7—Sept. 18,1 3r5 tions of Alabama, Shenandoah, ire. The earl
Much public discussion respecting equal negro of Clarendon maintains that " no armed
suffrage July—Oct vessel departed during the war from a British
The national debt stated to be 600,000.000/. Oct. port, to cruise against the commerce of the
General Robert Lee becomes president of United States " Dec. 2,
Washington College. Virginia . Oct 2, President Johnson's message conciliatory and
Several southern states pass ordinances an firm (he requires from the southern states :
nulling secession, abolishing slavery, and repeal of their act of secession, abolitkn of
renouncing confederate debt. Sept Oct. Nov. slavery, and*repudiation of confederate debt),
National thanksgiving for the p**aoe Nov. 2, Dee. 4,
Capt. Waddcll arrives at Liverpool, Nov. 6; The radical party, opposed to the president,
surrenders the Shenandoah to the British and to clemency to the south, predominate
government, stating that he had not heard of in the congress, and move violent resolutions
the end of the war till Aug. 2 ; he and his against restoration of southern states to the
crew paroled, Nov. 8 ; tho vessel given up to union Dec.
the American corsul . . . Nov. 9, Estimated federal debt, 600,000,000/. ; re
Capt. Wirz. after along military trial, executed venue, 80,000,000! Dec.
for cruelty to the federal prisoners at Ander- 85 members for the southern states excluded
flonsvillej Nov. 10, from 'congress ; the confervativu party
A Ne^ro convention at Charleston, appeals for support the president in his endeavours to
justice and generosity . . . Nov. 25, reconstruct the union ; the radicals violently
Ex-president Buchanan publishes his justifica opposo his policy, requiring the south to
tion Nov. undergo (previously a severe probation ; the
Habeas corpus act restored in northern states, president has restored stato government to
Dec. 1, all the southern states except Texas and
Close of correspondence botwecn the British Florida Doc. 29,
Presidents of the united states of America.
1789. General George Washington, first president. ,1841 John Tyler (formerly vice-president).
Elected April 6. 45. James Knox Polk. March 4.
1793. General Washington again ; assumed office 49. General Zachary Taylor. March 4. Died July
March 4. 9, 1850, succeeded by the vice-president,
1797. John Adams. March 4. /IJ1S50. Millard Fillmore.
1801 A 1805. Thomas Jefferson. March 4. 1853. General Franklin Pierce. March 4.
1809 & 1813. James Madison. March 4. 1857.
861 &James
1S65. Buchanap. March 4.March 4. Ajs.so3.-i-
1817 & 1821. James Monroe. March 4. Abraham Lincoln.
1825. John Quincey Adams. March 4. nated April 14, succeeded by the vice-presi
1829 & 1833. General Androw Jackson. March 4. dent,
1837. Martin Van Buren. March 4. 1865. Andrew Johnson. April 15.
1841. General William Henry Harrison. March 4
Died April 4, succeeded by
UNIVERSALISTS, who believe in the final salvation of nil men, hare existed in rations
countries and ages. Dr. Tillotson appears from some of his sermons to have adopted the
opinion of this universal salvation. Johnson-. Certain it is, about 1691, ho entertained a
design for forming a new book of homilies ; and a sermon which he preached before the queen
(Mary) against the absolute eternity of hell torments, involved this doctrine. Universalists
are numerous in America.
UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE, one of tho six points of the charter (see Chartists), was
adopted by tho French in the election of their president in 1 851, and of their emperor in
1852, and by the Italian States in voting for annexation to Sardinia in i860.
UNIVERSITIES. The most ancient in Europe aro those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris,
Salamanca, and Bologna. In old Aberdeen was a monastery, in which youths were
instructed in theology, the canon law, and tho school philosophy, at least 200 years before
the University and King's College were founded. The following dates are generally those
given by Bouillet.
Abordeen founded . 1494 Brussels 1834 Dijon, Franco . . . . 1722
Alio, Finland . 1640 Caen, Normandy, 1436; re Dillingen, Swabia . . . 1565
Andrew's, St., Scotland 141 1 vived 1803 Dole, Burgundy . . . 1422
Angers, chiefly law . 1364 Cambridge, began about 630 ; Dorpat 1632
Anjou, 1349; enlarged . revived . . . -915 Douay, French Flanders . -
Athens . 1836 Cambridge, Now England, Dresden, Saxony . . . 1694
Basic, Switzerland I4OO projected .... 1630 Drumcondra (Catholic), Ire
Berlin . . I8IO Cologne, in Germany, re- land 1S62
Berne .... 1834 founded .... 1385 Dublin (see Trinity College) . ijqj
Bcsancon, Burgundy I676 Compostclla, Spain . , .15*7 Edinburgh, founded by
Botogna, Italy Coimbra, Portugal. . . 1279 James VI 1582
Bonn . . ... 1 S433
1 S Copenhagen . . . . 1476 Erfurt, Thuringia ; enlarged 1390
Bonrdcaux 1472 Cordova, Spain . . . 968 Erlangen .... 1743
Bourgea . Corfu 1823 Kvora, Portugal . . . 1533
Bruges, French Flanders if (.5 Cracow, Poland, 700; revived 1364 Florence, Italy, enlarged . 1439
UNI 755 USH
UNIVERSITIES, continued.
Frankfort-on-the-Oder 1 506 Mecblin, Flanders . . . 1440 Rome 1245
Franeker Mentz 1477 Rostock, Mecklenburg . . 1419
Fribourg, Germany . Montpcllier
1 .t'"> Moscow, Salamanca .... 1239
Geneva . 136S 1754; again 180 i Salerno 1233
Glasgow . • X450 Munich 1826 Salzburg 1623
Gottingen '735 Minister .... 1491 Saragossa, Aragon . . 1474
Granada. Spain . 1537 Nancy 1769 Seville 1504
Gripswald 1547 Nantes .... Sienna 138°
Groningen, Fricsland 1:614 Naples 1224 Siguenza, Spain . . . 1517
Halle, Saxony ifx)4 Orange .... 136s Sorbonnc, France . . . 1253
Heidelberg • 1386 Orleans, Franco *305 Strasbourg .... 1538
Helmstadt '575 Oxford (see Oxford) 8o2(?) Stutgardt J77S
Ingoldstadt, Bavaria Padcrborn . . . 1 592 Toledo, Spain .... 1499
Jena, or Sala, Thuringia 1558 Padua, Italy .
Kiel, Holstein . . . . iC -5 Palcnza, 1209; removed to 122S Toulouse 1229
Treves, Germany . . . 1473
King'sCollege, London (which Salamanca . 1249 Tubingen, Wirtemberg . . 1477
gee) 1829 Palermo ... 1394 Turin 1405
Konigsbcrg, Prussia . . 1544 Paris, 792 ; renovated . Upsal, Sweden M7r>
Leipsic, Saxony . . . 1409 Parma 1482 Utrecht, Holland . 1636
Leydeu, Holland . . . 1575 Pau 17=2 Valence, Dauphiue *454
Liege 1816 Pavia, 1360; enlarged . . 1599 Valencia . 1209
Lima, in Peru . . . 1614 Perpignan .... 1349 Valladolid . 1346
Lisbon, 1290 ; removed to Perugia, Italy . . . _ . 1307 Venice ..... 1592
Coimbra 1391 Petersburg, St., 1747; again 1819 Vienna 1365
London University (which see) 1826 Pisa, 1343; enlarged . . 155= Wittenburg .... 1502
Louvaine, Flanders, 926 ; en Poitiers 1431 Wurtsburg 1403
larged 1426 Prague
Lyons, Franco • . . . 830 Queen's University (Ireland). 1348 1850
Wilna
Zurich ..... 1832
1803
Marburg. . • . . 1527 Rhciras, 1145; enlarged . . 1548
UNIVERSITY BOAT-RACE. The contest between the universities of Oxford and
Cambridge on the river Thames began in 1829, and has been annual since 1856. In 1864,
after 20 contests, the opposing parties were equal ; but on April 8, 1865, Oxford won for the
fifth time in succession.
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, London. See London University and Oxford,
UNIVERSITY ELECTIONS. See Vodson's Act.
UNKNOWN TONGUES. See Irvingties, note.
URANIUM, a brittle grey metal, discovered by Klaproth in 1789, in the mineral
pitch-blende. It has lately been employed in the manufacture of glass for certain philoso
phical purposes.
URANUS, a planet with six satellites, was discovered by William Herschel, March 13,
1781, first called Georgium Sidus, after George III. ; next rlerschel ; and finally Uranus.
It is about twice as distant from the sun as the planet Saturn. The anniversary of its first
revolution (in 84 years 7 days) since its discovery, was celebrated on March 20, 1865. Its
perturbations led to the discovery of Neptune in 1846.
URICONIUM. See Wroxcter.
URIM and Thummim, Light and Perfection. (Exodus xxviii. 30.) It is conjectured
that these words are in some way connected with the breastplate worn by the high priest
when he entered into the holy place, with the view of obtaining an answer from God
(142O B.C.).
URSULINE NUNS (so called from St. Ursula), founded originally by St. Angela, of
Brescia, in 1537. Several communities existed in England, and some still exist in Ireland.
URUGUAY, a republic in South America, declared its independence, Aug. 25, 1825 ;
recognised, Oct. 4, 1828. The president of the executive, G. A. Pereyra, elected in 1856,
was succeeded in i860 by B. P. Berro. A civil war broke out in consequence of the invasion
of the ex-president, general Flores, June 26, 1863. On March 1, 1864, the vice-president
Aguirrc became president, who refused (in June) to modify his ministry according to
the desire of general Flores, who marched towards the capital iu June. In Feb. 1865, Flores
became provisional president. Population in 1865, about 350,000.
USHANT, an island near Brest, N. W. France, near which two naval battles were fought
between the British and French fleets.
(1.) On July 27, 1778, after an indecisive action of Keppel commanded the English fleet ; the count
three hours,into
■withdrew the the
latter, under ofcover
harbour night, d'Orvilliers the French. The failure of a com
of theAdmiral
Brest. plete victory was attributed to acm. sir Hugh
3 c 2
USH 7:'G VAG
USHANT, continued.
Palliser's non-compliance with the admiral's sig - "While the two fleets were engaged in this action,
nala. Palliaer preferred articles of accusation a large fleet of merchantmen, on the safety of
against his commander, who was tried and which the French nation depended for its means
acquitted, and the charge against him declared of prosecuting the war, got safely into Brest
to be " malicious and ill-founded." harbour, which gave occasion to the enemy to
(2.) Lord Howe signally defeated the French fleet, claim the laurels of tho day. notwithstanding
. taking six ships of the lino, and sinking one of their loss in ships, and in killed and wounded,
large force, and several others, June 1, 1794. which was very great.
USURY was forbidden by parliament, 1341. Until the 15th century, .no Christians
were allowed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and therefore
often banished and persecuted (see Jens). By the 37th of Henry VIII. the rate of interest
was fixed at 10 per cent. 1545. This statute was repealed by Edward VI. but re-enacted
13th Eliz. 1570. See Interest for later legislation.
UTAH, a western territory of North America, was organised Sept. 9, 1850. The capital,
Great Salt Lake city, is the chief seat of the Mormonites (which see).
UTRECHT (the Roman Trajeetum ad Rhenum), was the seat of an independent bishopric ;
founded about 695. The last prelate, Henry of liavaria, weary of his turbulent subjects,
sold his temporal government to the emperor Charles V. in 1528. The union of the Seven
United Provinces began here (see United Provinces), 1579. The celebrated treaty of Utrecht,
whieh terminated the wars of queen Anne, was signed by tho ministers of Great Britain and
France, and all the other allies, except the ministers of the empire, April II, 1713. This
treaty secured the Protestant succession in England, the separation of the French and Spanish
crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, the enlargement of the British colonies and plantations
in America, and a full satisfaction for the claims of the allies. Utrecht surrendered to
the Prussians, May 9, 1787 ; was possessed by the French, Jan. 18, 1795, and restored, at
the peace.
V.
VACCINATION (from Variola Vaccina, the cow-pox), discovered by Dr. Edward Jenner.
He was lx>rn in 1749, and educated for the medical profession, partially under John Hunter.
Having heard that milkmaids who have had the cow-pox never take the small-pox, he, about
1780, conceived the idea of vaccination, which was then ridiculed by eminent physiologists.
Ho made the first experiment by transferring to a healthy child, in May 14, 1796, the
pus from the pustule of a milkmaid who had caught the cow-pox from tho cows. He
announced his success in a memoir published, 1798, and vaccination became general in 1799,
having been introduced Jan. 21 in that year. Dr. Jenner received 10,000?. from parliament
for the discovery, June 2, 1802, and 20,000?. in 1807. The first national institution for the
promotion of vaccination, called the Royal Jennerian Institution, was founded Jan. 19, 1803.
The emperor Napoleon valued this service of Dr. Jenner to mankind so highly, that he
liberated Dr. Wickham, when a prisoner of war, at Jenncr's request, and subsequently whole
families of English ; making it a point to refuse him nothing that he asked. Vaccination,
although much opposed on moral and religious grounds, was practised throughout all Europe
previously to 1816. Dr. Jenner died in 1823.* The Vaccination Act, 3 & 4 Vict, passed
July 23, 1840. Vaccination was made compulsory in England in 1853, and in Ireland and
Scotland in 1863. See Small-pox and Inoculation. An important blue-book, entitled
"Papers on the History and Practice of Vaccination," edited by Mr. John Simon, was
published by the Board of Health in 1857.
VADIMONIAN LAKE ; here, the Romans totally defeated the Etruscans, 283 B.C.
VAGRANTS. By law, after being whipped, a vagrant was to take an oath to return to
the place where he was bom, or had last dwelt for three years, 1530. A vagrant a second
time convicted, to lose the upper part of the gristle of his right ear, 1535 ; and a third time
convicted, death. A vagabond to bo marked with a V, and be a slave for two years, 1327.
Vagrants were punished by whipping, gaoling, boring the ears, and death for a second
offence, 1572. The milder statutes were those of 17 Geo. II. ; 32, 35, and 59 Geo. III.
Tho present Vagrant Act was passed in 1824.
* Dr. Jenner died suddenly in 1823. A statue subscribed for by all nations, was erected to his memory
in Trafalgar-square, April 30, 1858, in the presence of the prince consort. It was removed to Kensington
in 1862. Another statue was erected by the French at Boulogne, and inaugurated Sept ri, 1865.
VAL 7-'n VAN
VALENCIAY, a chateau near Ohateauroux, Central France, where Napoleon 1 . imprisoned
Ferdinand of Spain from 1808 to 1813. His kingdom was restored to Ferdinand by a treaty
signed Dec. 8, 1813.
VALENCIA (E. Spain), the Valcntia Edetanorum of the Romans. Its university was
founded, it is said, in the 13th century, and was revived in the 15th. Valencia was taken
by the earl of Peterborough in 1705, but submitted to the Bourbons after the unfortunate
battle of Almanza, in 1707.— It resisted the attempts made on it by marshal Moncey, but
was taken from the Spaniards with a garrison of more than 16,000 men, and immense stores,
by the French under Suchet, Jan. 9, 1812. ■
VALENCIENNES (N. France). This city (founded about 399 B.C.) was besieged from
May 23 to July 26, 1793, when the French garrison surrendered to the allies under the duke
of York. It was retaken, together with Conde, by the French, Aug. 27-30, 1794 ; on
capitulation, the garrison and 1 100 emigrants were made prisoners, witli immense stores.
VALENTINE'S DAY (Feb. 14). Valentine is said to have been a bishop, who suffered
martyrdom under Claudius 1 1, at Rome ; others say under Aurelian, in 271. 618,000 letters
passed through the post-oHicc ou Feb. 14, 1856. The origin of the ancient custom of
" choosing a valentine " has been much controverted. Sec Posit- ^
VALENTINIANS, followers of Valentine, a priest, who, on being disappointed of a
bishopric, forsook the Christian faith, declaring there were thirty gods and goddesses, fifteen
of each sex, which he called ,Eones, or Ages. He taught in the 2nd century, and published
a gospel and psalms : his followers added other errors.
VALMY (N. E. France). Here the French, commanded by Kellerman, defeated the
Prussians, commanded by the duke of Brunswick, Sept. 20, 1792. The victory was of
immense moral advantage to the Republicans.
VALOIS, House of. Sec France, 132S.
VALTELINE (Switzerland), now part of Austrian Italy. Here took place a general
massacre of the Protestants by the Roman Catholics, who revolted against the government,
July 20, 1620. It began at Tirano, extended to all the district, and lasted three days.
VALVASOR. The first dignity beneath a peer, was anciently that of vidames,
viccdomini, or valvasors. Valvasors arc mentioned by our ancient lawyers as viri magna
dignitatis, and sir Edward Coke speaks highly of them. Now, the first personal dignity
after the nobility is a knight of the order of St. George or of the Garter. JSlackstone.
VANADIUM (from Vanadis, the Scandinavian Venus), a metal discovered by Sefstrbm,.
in 1830, combined with iron ore. A similar metal, discovered in lead ore by Del Rio in
1 801, and named Erythronium, was proved by Wbhler to be Vanadium.
VANCOUVER'S ISLAND, North Pacific ocean, near the main land. Settlements were
made here by the English in 1 781, which were seized by the Spaniards in 1789, but
restored. By a treaty between the British government and that of the United States in
1846, this island was secured to the former. It has become of much greater importance
since the discovery of gold in the neighbouring main land in 1858, and the consequent
establishment of the colony of British Columbia (which see). Victoria, the capital, was
founded in 1857.
VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Vancouver served as a midshipman under captain
Cook, and was appointed to command during a voyage of discovery, to ascertain the existence
of any navigable communication between the North Pacific and North Atlantic oceans. Ho
sailed in 1790, and returned Sept. 24, 1795. He compiled an account of this voyage of
survey of the north-west coast of America, and died in 1798.
VANDALS, a Germanic race, attacked the Roman empire in the 311! century, and began
their ravages in Germany and Gaul, 406-414 ; their kingdom in Spain was founded in 411 ;
under Gcnseric they invaded and conquered the Roman territories in Africa, and took
Carthage, Oct. 24, 439. They were subdued by Belisarius in 534. They were driven out
by the Saracen Moors.
VANDAL KINGS IN AFRICA.
429. Gcnseric (see Mtckknburg). I 484. Gundamund. I 513. Hildcric.
477. Hunncric. I 4</?. Thoiismund. | £31. Gelimer.
VAN 7^S VEG
VAN DIEMEN'S LAND was discovered by Tasman in 1633. Hence a part is called
Tasmania. It was visited by Furneaux in 1773 ; by captain Cook in 1777 ; and was deemed
the south extremity of New Holland (now Australia) until 1799, when Flinders explored
Bass's Straits, and proved Van Diemen's Land to be an island. A British settlement was
established on the south-east part, within the mouth of the Derwent, in 1804, and named
Hobart Town, or Hobarton, now the seat of government. This island was made a convict
colony of Great Britain, whither many of our remarkable transports have been sent.
Governor, col. Thos. Gore Browne (1S62). Population in 1857, 81,492 ; in 1859, 84,080.
' VAKENNES, a town in N. E. France, is celebrated by the arrest of Louis XVI., his
queen, sister, and two children. They fled from the Tuileries on June 21, and were
taken here on the 22nd, 1 791, and conducted back to Paris, mainly tlirough Drouet the post
master at an intermediate town, who recognised the king.
VARNA, a fortified town and seaport in Bulgaria, European Turkey. A great battle
was fought near this place, Nov. 10, 1444, between the Turks under Amurath II. and the
Hungarians under their king, Ladislaus, and John Hunniadcs. The latter were defeated
with great slaughter : the king was killed, and Hunniades made prisoner. The Christians
had previously broken a recent truce.—The emperor Nicholas of Russia arrived before Varna,
the nead-quarters of his army, then besieging the place, Aug. 5, 1828. The Turkish
garrison made a vigorous attack on the besiegers, Aug. 7 ; and another on the 21st, but were
repulsed. Varna surrendered, after a sanguinary conflict, to the Russian arms, Oct. 11,
1828. It was restored at the peace in 1829 ; its fortifications wero dismantled, but have
since been restored.—The allied armies disembarked at Varna, May 29, 1854, and remained
there till they sailed for the Crimea, Sept. 3 following. "While at Varna they suffered
severely from cholera.
VASSY (N.E. France). The massacre of the Protestants at this place by the duke of
Guise on March I, 1562, led to the civil wars which desolated Franco to the end of the
century.
VASSALAGE. See Feudal Laws and Slavery.
VATICAN HILL (Rome) became the seat of the papal government about Soo. The
pope's palace is said to contain 7000 rooms, rich in works of art, ancient and modern. The
library, founded by popo Nicholas V., 1448, is exceedingly rich in printed books and
MSS. —Pistolesi's description of the Vatican, with numerous plates, was published 1S29-3S.
—The phrase "Thunders of the Vatican" was first used by Voltaire, 1748. —The ancient
Vatican Codex of the Old and New Testament in Greek was published at Rome in 1857.
A'AUDOIS. See Waldenses.
VAUXHALL BRIDGE, constructed of iron under the direction of Mr. "Walker, at an
expense of about 150,000?. (to be defrayed by a toll). The first stone was laid May 9, 1811,
by prince Charles, eldest son of the duke of Brunswick ; and the bridge was opened on
June 4, 1816.
VAUXHALL GARDENS, London, were so denominated from the manor of Vauxhall, or
Faukeshall ; but the tradition, that this house or any other adjacent was the property of Guy
Fawkes, is erroneous. The premises were the property of Jane Vaux in 1615, and the
mansion-house was then called Stockden's. From her it passed through various hands, till
it became the property of Mr. Tyers in 1752. There is no certain account of the time when
these premises were first opened for the entertainment of the public : but the Spring Gardens
at Vauxhall are mentioned in the Spectator as a place of great resort (1711). Some writers
of accounts of London suppose 1730 to be the first year of the opening of Vauxhall Gardens,
which succeeded Kanelngh Gardens. The greatest season of Vauxhall was in 1823, when
133,279 persons visited the gardens, and the receipts were 29,590?. The greatest number
of persons in one night was Aug. 2, 1833, when 20,137 persons paid for admission. The
number on the then siqyoscd last night, Sept. 5, 1839, was 1089 persons. Vauxhall was
sold by auction, Sept. 9, 1841, for 20,200?. The last performances at Vauxhall took plast
on July 25, 1S59. The ground has been sold for building purposes.
VEDAS, the sacred books of the Hindoos, in Sanskrit, were probably written about
1000 B.C. Veda means knowledge. These books comprise hymns, prayers, and liturgical
formula;. The edition by professor Max Miiller, printed under the patronage of the East
India Company, appeared in 1849-62.
VEGETABLES for the table were brought from Flanders, about 1520. Sec Gardening.
VEG VKN
VEGETARIAN SOCIETY, whose members restrict themselves to a vegetable diet, held
their fifteenth anniversary in London, on Sept. 4, 1862.
VEHMIC TRIBUNAL (Vehmgcriclitc or Fchmgerichte), secret tribunals established in
"Westphalia to maintain religion and the public peace, had their origin in the time of
Charlemagne, and rose to importanco about 1182, when Westphalia became subject to the
archbishop of Cologne. Persons of the most exalted rank were subjected to their decisions,
being frequently seized, tried, and executed. The emperors endeavoured to suppress them,
but did not succeed till the 16th century. Sir W. Scott has described them in " Anne of
Geierstein." A remnant of this tribunal was abolished by Jerome Bonaparte, king of
Westphalia, in 181 1.
VEII, an independent Latin city near Rome. Between the Romans and Veientes
frequent wars occurred, till Veii was utterly destroyed, 388, B.C. The Roman family, the
Fabii, who had seceded from Rome for political reasons, were surprised and destroyed at the
river Crcmera, by the Veientes, 477 B.C. A siege of Veii by the Romans lasted from 405 to
396 B.C.
VELLORE (S.E. India), became the residence of the family of the dethroned sultan of
Mysore, and was strongly garrisoned by English troops. The revolt of the Sepoys, in
which the family of the late Tippoo took an active part, took place July 10, 1806. The
insurgents were subdued by colonel Gillespie, and mostly put to the sword : 800 Sepoys
were killed.
VELOCIPEDES, vehicles of German construction, first appeared in England in April,
1818, and obtained the name from being impelled by the feet with great celerity, the mover
of the vehicle sitting astride upon it as upon a rocking-horse.
VENDEE. See La Vendie.
VENEZUELA, tho scat of a South American republic. When the Spaniards landed
here in 1499, they observed some huts built upon pilea, in an Indian village named Cora, in
order to raise them above the stagnated water that covered tho plain ; and this induced them
to give it the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice. This state in July, 1814, declared in
congressional assembly the sovereignty of its people, which was recognised in 1 818. It
formed part of the republic of Columbia till 183 1, when it separated from the federal union,
and declared itself sole and independent. General D. T. Monagas was elected in 1855
president, and continued so till March, 1858, when a revolution broke out, and Don Jose
Castro became president, who also was compelled to resign in Aug. 1859 ; and Dr. Pedro
Gual assumed the government. A new constitution was promulgated in Dec. 1858. General
Jose Paez was elected president, Sept. 8, 1861. He resigned on June 17, 1863, and Juan
E. Falcon succeeded him, June 17. General Febres Coruero protested and set up a rival
government at Porto-Cabello, which broke up in October following. Marshal J. E. Falcon
was sworn as president, June 8, 1865. The population in 1859 was about one million and
a half. See Columbia.
VENI, TJDJ, VICI,— "I came, I saw, I conquered." Seo Zela.
VENICE (N. Italy). The Veueti inhabited its site when it was made a kingdom by the
Gauls, who conquered it about 356 B.C. Marcellus reconquered it for the Roman republic,
and slew tho Gaulish king, 221 B.C. Population of the city of Venice in 1857, 118,172.
Venice, founded by families from Aquileia and Tho doge Marino Falicro is accused of con
Padua fleeing from Attila, about . A.D. spiracy and beheaded 1355
First doge (or duke) chosen, Anafcato Paululio, Tho Venotians lose Istria and Dalmatia . . 1358
Bishopric founded War with tho Genoese, who defeat tho Vene
The Kialto mado tho scat of government . . tians at Pola, and advance against Venice,
Venice becomes independent of the eastern which ia vigorously defended . . . 1377
empire, and acquires the maritimo cities of The Genoese fleot is captured at CbJoxn . . 1380
Dalinatia and Istria <f>7 And peace concluded 1381
Its navy and commerce increases . . 1000- 1 100 Venico takes an active part in the Italian war, 1425-54
Bank of Venice established . . ■ . J 157 Tho city suffers from the plague . . . 1447
Crete purch;i5cd 1205 War with tho Turks ; Venice loses many of itfl
The Venetians defeat tho Genoese near Negro- eastern possessions 1461-77
pout 1263 Tho Venetians tako Athens, 1466: and Cyprus 1475
War with Genoa, 1293 ; the Venetian fleet is Venice helps to overcome Charles VIII. of
destroyed, and peace concluded . . . 1299 Franco 1495
The doge Andrea Dandolo defeats Louis of Injured by tho discovery of America (1492), and
Hungarv at Zara 1346 the passage to tho Indies .... 1497
Venice hefps in the Latin conquest of Constan Tho Nenctians excite tho Turks against tho
tinople, and obtains powor in the East, 1204 : emperor Charles V 1504
scYcre contest with Genoa. . . . 1350-81 And are nearly mined by the league of t'ambray 1508
YEN 760 tVEH
VENICE, continued.
They assist in defeating the Turks at Lcpanto . 1571 j The whole of Venice annexed to the kingdom
Tho Tutks retake Cyprus of Italy by the treaty of Presburg . . . i8c£
Destructive fire at Venice 1577 1 All Venice transferred to the emx>ire of AustriA, 1814
The Kialto bridge and the Piazza di San Marco Venice declared a free port . Jan. 34, 18*0
erected 1592 Insurrection begins March 22, 1848; the city
Paul V.'s interdict on Venice contemptuously I surrenders to the Austrians after a long siege
disregarded : . 1607 , Aug. 23, 1S49
Naval victories over the Turks : at Scio, 1651 ; [In consequence of the Italian war in 1859. the
and in the Dardanelles 1655 j country has been much disorganised, and
The Turks take Candia 1669 j large numbers of persons emigrated in
Venice recovers part of the Morea . . 1663-99 1860-1.)
But loses it agflin 1715-39 Venetian deputies will not attend the Austrian
Venice occupied by Bonaparte, who, by the 1 parliament at Vienna . . May, 1S61
treaty of Camp.) Formio, gives part of its ' [Venice has had 122 doges: Anafesto 697 to
territory to Austria, and annexes the rest to Luigi Manin, 1797.]
tho Cisalpine republic 1797
VENTILATORS were invented by the rev. Dr. Hales, and described to the Royal Society
of London, Hay 1741 ; and the ventilator for the use of ships was announced by
Mr. Tricwald, in November, same year. The marquess of C'habanne s plan for warming and
ventilating theatres and houses for audiences was applied to those of London in 1819. The
systems of Dr. Reid (about 1830) and others followed. Dr. Arnott's work on this subject
was published in 1838. A commission on warming and ventilation issued a report in 1S59.
VENTRILOQUISM (speaking from the belly). The phenomena are evidently described
in Isaiah xxix. 4. Among eminent ventriloquists were baron Mengen and M. St. Gille,
about 1772 (whose experiments were examined by a commission of the French academy);
Thomas King (about 1 716) ; Charles Matthews (1824) ; and M. Alexandre (1822).
VENUS. Her transit over the sun on Nov. 24, 1639, was first ascertained by Horrox in
1633. The astronomer-royal Maskelync observed her transit at St. Helena, June 6, 1761.
Capt. Cook made his first voyage in the Endeavour, to Otaheite, to observe a transit of
Venus, June 3, 1769. See Cook's Voyages. The diurnal rotation of Venus was discovered by
Cassini in 1667. The transit on Dec. 9, 1874, may be observed in Eastern Europe and in
Asia.
VERA CRUZ (Mexico), built about 1600 ; was taken by the Americans in 1S47, and by
the allies in 1861 during the intervention.
VERMONT, a Northern State in North America, was settled by the French 1724-31 ;
and ceded to Great Britain in 1763 ; and freed from the authority of New York, and
admitted as a state of the LTnion in 1 79 1.
VERNEUIL (N.W. Fiance), the site of a battle fought Aug. 17, 1424, between the
Burgundians and English under the regent duke of Bedford, and the French, assisted by the
Scots, commanded by the count de Narbonnc, the earls of Douglas and Buchan, &c. The
French at first were successful ; but some Lombard auxiliaries, who had taken the English
camp, commenced pillaging. Two thousand English archers came then fresh to the attack ;
and the French and Scots were totally defeated, and their lenders killed.
VERNON GALLERY. The inadequate manner in which modern British art was repre
sented in the National Gallery was somewhat remedied in 1847 by the munificent present to
the nation by Mr. Robert Vernon, of a collection of 157 pictures, all but two being by first-
rate British artists. They were first exhibited at Mr. Vernon's house in Pall Mall, licxt in
the vaults beneath the National Gallery, afterwards at Marlborough House, and are now
(1865) at the South Kensington Museum. In 1857, Mr. John Sheepshanks followed Mr.
Vernon's example. Sec Sheepshanks' Vondlions.
VERONA (N. Italy) was founded by the Gauls or Etruscans. The amphitheatre was
built by Titus, a.d. 82. Verona has been the site of many conflicts. On Sept. 27, 480,
Theodoric defeated Odoaccr king of Italy. About 1259 Mastino della Scala was elected
podesta, ; and his descendants (the Scaligeri) ruled, till subdued by the Visconti, dukes of
Milan. Verona was conquered by the Venetians, 1405, and held by them with some inter
missions till its capture by the French general Massena, June 19, 1796. Near to it Charles
Albert of Sardinia defeated the Austrians, May 4, 1848. Verona is one of the four strong
Austrian fortresses termed the Quadrangle, or Quadrilateral, and here the emperor Francis
Joseph, on July 12, 1S59, in an order of the day announced to his army that he must yield
to circumstances unfavourable to his policy, and thanked Lis people and army for their
support.
YER 7G] YIC
VERSAILLES, Palace of (near Paris). In the reign of Louis XII]. Versailles was
only a small village, in a forest thirty miles in circuit ; and here this prince built n hunting-
seat, about 1632. Louis XIV. between 1661 and 1687 enlarged it into a magnificent palace,
■which became the usual residence of the kings of France. Here was held the military
festival of the royal guards, Oct. 1, 1789, which was immediately followed (on the 5th and
6th) by the attack of the mob, who massacred the guards and brought the king back to
Paris. It was afterwards the residence of Louis-Philippe, and is still a royal palace. The
historical gallery was opened in 1837. By the treaty of peace between Great Britain and
British North America, signed at Paris, the latter power was admitted to be a sovereign and
independent state, Sept. 3, 1783. On the same day a treaty was signed at Versailles
between Great Britain, Fiance, and Spain, by which Pondicherry and Carical, with other
possessions in Bengal, were restored to France, and Trincomalec restored to the Dutch.
VERSE. See Poetry. Surrey's translation of part of VirgiTs Jineid into blank verse, is
the first English composition of the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English language
(published in 1547). The verse previously used in our grave compositions was the stanza of
eight lines, the oitava rima, (as adopted with the addition of one line by Spenser (in his
Fairy Queen), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and Tasso. Boccaccio introduced it
into Italy in his Teseide, having copied it from the old French chansons. Trissino is said to
have been the first introducer of blank verse among the moderns, about 1508. Vossius.
VESPERS. See Sicilian Vespers. In the house of the French ambassador at Black-
friars, in London, a Jesuit was preaching to upwards of three huudrcd persons in an upper
room, the floor of which gave way with the weight, when the whole congregation was
precipitated to the street, and the preacher and more than a hundred of his auditory, chiefly
persons of rank, were killed. This catastrophe, termed the Fatal Vespers, occurred Oct. 26,
1623. Stow.
VESTA. The planet Vesta (the ninth) was discovered by Dr. Olbcrs, of Bremen, on
March 29, 1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magnitude.
VESTALS were priestesses of Vesta, who took care of the perpetual fire consecrated to
her worship. The mother of Romulus was a vestal. Numa, in 710 B.C. appointed four, and
Tarquin added two. After the expulsion of the Tarquins, the high-priest was entrusted
with the care of them. Minutia was buried alive for breaking her virgin vow, 337 B.C. ;
Sextalia, 274 B.C. ; and Cornelia Maximiliana, a.d. 92.
VESUVIUS. By on eruption of Mount Vesuvius, the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum
(which see) were overwhelmed A.D. 79, and more than 250,000 persons perished, among them
Pliny the naturalist. Numerous other disastrous eruptions have occurred. In 163 1 the
town of Torre del Greco, with 4000 persons, and a great part of the surrounding country,
■were destroyed. One of the most dreadful eruptions ever known took place suddenly,
Nov. 24, 1759. The violent burst in 1767 was the 34th from the time of Titus. One in
1794 was most destructive : the lava flowed over 50CO acres of rich vineyards and cultivated
land, and the town of Torre del Greco w:as a second time burned ; the top of the mountain
fell in, and the crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. Eruptions in May 1855,
May and June 1858, and June 1859, caused great destruction, and in the spring and summer
of i860. A series of violent eruptions causing much damage occurred in Dec. 1861, and in
Feb. 1865. Torre del Greco was again destroyed in 1861.
VETERINARY COLLEGE, London, was established at Camden-town, 1791 ; and
Albert Veterinary College was opened in 1865.
VICE, The. An instiument of which Archytas of Tarentum, disciple of Pythagoras, is
said to have been the inventor, along with the pulley and other implements, 420 B.C.
VICE-CHANCELLOR of ENGLAND, an equity .judge, appointed by parliament, first
took his scat, May 5. 1813. A new court was erected about 1816, contiguous to Lincoln's-
inn-hall. Two additional vice-chancellors were appointed under act 5 Vict. Oct. 1841.
The office of vice-chancellor of England ceased in August, 1850, and a third vice-chancellor
was appointed in 185 1, when two more equity judges, styled lords justices, were appointed.
VICE-CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND.
1813. Sir Thomae Plumcr, April 13. 1 1827. Sir Anthony Hart, May 4.
1818. Sir John Leach, Jan. 13. | 1827-50. Sir Lancelot Shadwell, Nov. 1, the last.
VICKSBURG. Sec UniLd Slates, 1863.
VIC 702 VIC
VICTORIA, formerly Port Phillip (Australia), situated between New South Wales and
South Australia, the most successful colony in that region. In 1798, Bass, in his whale-boat
expedition, visited Western Port, one of its harbours ; and, in 1802, Flinders sailed into
Port Phillip Bay.
Colonel Collins lands with a party of convicts the discovery of gold in Victoria, which was
with the intention of founding a settlement soon after found near Melbourne, and WM
at Port Phillip, but afterwards removed to profitably worked .... Aug. 1851
Van Diemen'H Land 1804 7000 persona were at Ballarat, Oct. ; 10,000
Messrs. Hume and Hoveil, two stock-owners round Mount Alexander . . Nor. M
from New South Wales, explore part of the From Sept. 30 to Dec. «, 1851, 30,311 ounces of
country, but do not discover its great advan gold were obtained from Ballarat ; and from
tages 1824 Oct. 29 to Dec, 31, 94,524 ounces^froin Mount
Mr. Henty imports some sheep from Van Alexander—total 124,835 ounces.
Diemen's Lund 1834 The production was still very great
Mr. John Batman enters between the heads of Immense immigration to Melbourne. See Mel *$5>
Port Phillip, and purchases a large tract of bourne
land from the almrigines for a few gewgaws A representative constitution granted
and blankets. He shortly after, with fifteen Sir Henry Barkly appointed governor .
associates from Hobarton, took possession of The parliament was opened Nor. 26, 1857
600,000 acres in the present Geelung country, Four administrations had been formed in 1S57-1860
May, 1835 Exhibition of the products of the colony opened
The Launeeston Associates and Mr. John Pascoe by the governor Oct z, 1S61
Fawkencr ascend the Yarra-Yarra (or ever- Sir Charles Darling appointed governor, May :
flowing) river, and encamp on the site of arrives Sept. 10, 1863
Melbourne „ Great opposition to reception of convicts in any
The colonists (450 in number) possess 140,000, part of Australia; a ship containing them
sheep. 2500 cattle, and 150 horses; sir R. sent back ...... Oct. 1864
Bourke, governor of New South Wales, visits Important land act passed . . March as. 1865
the colony, determines the sites of towns, The assembly passes the new government tariff,
and causes the land to be surveyed and re Jan., which is rejected by the legislative
sold, setting aside many contending claims ; council ; the governor raises money for the
he appoints captain Lonsdale chief-magis public service irregularly . . . Julyi »
trate. See Mtlbottnu 1837 The crisis still continues ; appeal to the queen
The colony named Victoria proposed prorogued
. . . .1 839 Parliament • Oct. ..
Dec.
Its prosperity brings great numbers to it, and ucc.
induces much speculation and consequent Population of the colony in 18311836, 224; in 1841.
embarrassment and insolvency . . . 1841-2 1 1,738 ; in 1846, 32,879 ; in 1851, 77.345 :
Mr. C. J. Latrobe appointed lieutenant-governor Dec. 31, 1852, about 200,000; o; min JtarcB
March 1857
under sir G. Gipps 1839 there were 258, 1 16 males and 145,403 females ; j
Tho province declared independent of New in all 403,519. In 1859, in all 517,366 ; in 1861,
South Wales ; a reward of 200I. offered for 540,322.
VICTORIA. See Hong Kong and Vancouver's Island.
VICTORIA CROSS, a new order of merit, instituted to reward the gallantry of persons
of all ranks in the army and navy, Feb. 5, 1856. It is a Maltese cross made of Russian
cannon from Sebastopol. The queen conferred the honour on 62 persons (of both services)
on Friday, June 26, 1857 ; and on many of the Indian army, Aug. 2, 1858.
VICTORIA PARK (E. London), was originated by an act passed in 1841, which enabled
her majesty's commissioners of woods and forests to purchase certain lands for a royal park,
with the sum of 72,000/. raised by the same act, by the sale of York-house to the duke of
Sutherland. The act described the land to be so purchased, containing 290 acres, situate
in the parishes of St. John, Hackney ; St. Matthew, Bethnal-grecn ; and St. Mary,
Stratford-le-bow, at tho east end of London. The park was completed, and opened to the
public in 1845.
VICTORIA RAILWAY-BRIDGE, on the tubular principle, over tho St. Lawrence,
Montreal, erected by Mr. James Hodges, under the superintendence of Mr. Robert Stephen
son and Mr. A. M. Ross, engineers, was completed and formally opened, Aug. 25, i860. It
forms part of the Grand Trunk railway, which connects Canada and the seaboard states of
North America. The length is about sixty yards less than two English miles, and about 7 J
times longer than "Waterloo bridge, and ten times longer than new Chelsea bridge ; the
height sixty feet between the summer level of the river and the under surface of the central
tube. It is supported by 24 piers. The cost was 1,700,000/. On Jan. 5, 1855, while
constructing, the bridge was carried away by floating ice, but tho stonework remained
firm.
VICTORIA, Steam-Packet. Injured on the Thames on her first voyage by explosion
of the boiler, April 1837. Sailed from Hull, for St. Petersburg, on Nov. I, 1852, and
having encountered a dreadful gale of wind, in which she damaged her machinery and
rigging, was obliged to return to Hull, where her injuries were repaired, and whence she
VIC 703 VIE
again sailed on the 7th of same month. She had scarcely put to sea -when another storm
arose, more violent than the first, whereby she was a second time severely crippled, and in
that state, the tempest continuing to rage with unabated fury, she neared the Wingo Reacon,
off Gottenburg, on the rocks round which she struck, and was instantly wrecked. Many
of the crew and passengers were drowned ; the remainder with difficulty saved their lives,
Nov. 8-9, 1852. She was a splendid ship, and her disastrous fate excited the deepest
sorrow in England, Gottenburg, and St. Petersburg. The storm in which this vessel was
lost, was perhaps the most terrible of the many that made the winter of 1852-3 memorable.
VICTORIA REGIA, the magnificent water-lily, brought to this country from Guiana by
sir Robert Sehomburgk, in 1838, and named after the queen. Fine specimens arc at the
Botanic Gardens at Kew, Regent's Park, &c. It was grown in the open air ^in 1855, by
Messrs. Weeks, of Chelsea.
VICTORY, Man-of-AVar, of 100 guns, the finest first-rate ship in the navy of England,
was lost in a violent tempest near the race of Alderney, and its admiral sir John Balchen,
and 100 gentlemen's sons, and the whole crew, consisting of 1000 men, perished, October 8,
1744.—The Victory, the flag-ship of Nelson at the battle of Trafalgar, Oct. 21, 1S05, is kept
in fine preservation at Portsmouth.
VICTUALLERS, an ancient trade in England, The Vintners' company of London was
founded 1437 ; their hall rebuilt in 1823.
None shall sell less than one full quart of tho two in the day-timo and from six till ton in
best beer or ale for id. and two quarts of tho the evening 1848 and 1S54
smaller sort for id 1603 The prescribed time enlarged .... 1855
The power of licensing public - houses was 127,352 licences were issued for tho salo of beer,
granted to sir Charles Mompesson and sir cider, and perry in the United Kingdom, pro
Francis Mitchcl 1621 ducing a revenue of 304,688/. ; and 93,936
Tho number in England then was about 13,000. ,, licences for the sale of spirits : revenue,
In Great Britain about 76,000 public-houses . 1790 56o,557* 1S58
England, 59,335; Scotland 15,081; Ireland, Licensed Victuallers' School established . . 1803
14,080; total, 88.496 in 1S50 Licensed Yijtuallers' Asylum established,
Public-houses allowed to be opened on Sundays Feb 22, 1827
t from the hour of half-past twelve till half-past
VICTUALLING OFFICE (London), managed the victualling of tho royal navy; was
instituted December,, 1663. The number of commissioners was live, afterwards seven, and
then reduced to six. The various departments on Tower-hill, St. Katherino's, and Kother-
hithe, were removed to Deptford in Aug., 1785, and the office to Somerset-house, 1783. In
1832, the office of commissioners was abolished, and the victualling office made one of five
departments under' the lords of the admiralty.
VIENNA (the Roman Vindebona), was capital of the margraviato of Austria, 984; capital
of the German empire, 1278 ; and since 1806 the capital of the Austrian dominions only.
Population in 1857, 476,222 ; in 1865, about 560,000. See Austria.
Vienna made an imperial city in . .1136 Congress of sovereigns at Vienna . Nov. 1814
Walled and enlarged with tho ransom paid for The revolt in Hungary induces an insurrection
Richard I. of England, 40,000? 1194 in Vienna March 13, 1848
Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the Mag The emperor retires, May 17; but returns,
nificent, with an army of 300,000 men ; but he Aug. „
was forced to raise the siege with the loss of A second insurrection : count Latour, the war
70,000 of bis best troops 1529 minister, is murdered .... Oct. 6, ,,
Besieged July—Sept. 1683 The emperor again takes flight . Oct. 7, ,,
The siege raised by John Sobieski, king of Vienna is bombarded by WindischgTiitz and
Poland, who totally defeats the Turkish army Jellachich, Oct 28 ; its capitulation Oct. 30,
of 100,000 Sept. 12, „ Conferences respecting tho Russo-Turkish war
Vienna taken by the French under prince Murat, held at Vienna * ..... 1853-5
Nov. 14, 1805 The fortifications demolished, and the city en
Evacuated ...... Jan. 12, 1806 larged and beautified ..... 1857-S
Again captured by the French . May 13, 1809 The imperial parliament (Reichsrath) assembles
1 on tho conclusion of peace Oct. 14, here May 31, 1S60
■when* Aa note
conference of thoon four
was agreed and great powers,forEngland.
transmitted France.
acceptance to St. Austria, andand
Petersburg Prussia, wm held July
Constantinople, July 24,
31.
This note was accepted by tho czar, Aug. 10, but the sultan required modifications, which were rejected by
Russia, Sept. 7. The sultan's note (Dee. 31) contained four points :— 1. The promptest possible evacuation of
the principalities. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3. Maintenance ofreligious privileges to the communities ofall
confessions. 4. A definite settlement of the convention respecting the holy places. It was approved by the
four powers, and the conferences closed on Jan. ib, 1S54.—A new conference of plenipotentiaries from
VI K 7<U VIN
VIENNA, continual.
TREATIES OF VIEJOCA. ceded to Franco tho Tyrol, Dalmitia, and other
The treaty between the emperor of Germany and territories, which were shortly afterwards declared
the king of Spain, by wbieb they confirmed to to bo united to France under the title of the
each other such parts of the Spanish dominions Illyrian Provinces, and engaged to adhere to the
as tlicy wero respectively possessed of; and by a prohibitory system adopted towards England by
private treaty the emperor engaged to employ a France and Russia. Oct. 14, 1809.
force to procure the restoration of Gibraltar to Treaty between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and
Spain, and to use moans for placing the Pretender Prussia, confirming tbo principles on which they
on the throne of Great Britain. Spam guaranteed had acted by tho treaty of Chuumont, March r,
the Pragmatic Sanction. April 30, 1725. 1814. Signed March 23, 1815.
Treaty of alliance between the eniporor of Germany, Treaty between the king of tho Netherlands on the
Charles VI., George II., king of Great Britain, and one part, and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and
the states of HoTlund, by which tbo Pragmatic Prussia on the other, agreeing to the enlargement
Sanction was guaranteed, and the disputes as to of tho Dutch territories, and vesting the sove
the Spanish succession terminated. (Spain acceded reignty in the house of Orange. May 31. 1S15.
to the treaty on the 22nd of July.) Signed Treaty by which Denmark ceded Swedish Pomerania.,
March 16, 1731. and Rugcn to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenburg.
Treaty of Peace between the emperor Charles VI. of June 4, 1815.
Germany and the king of France, Louis XV., by Commercial treaty for twelve years between Austria
which the latter power agreed to guarantee the and Prussia. Signed at Vienna, Feb. 19, 1853.
Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to Treaty for the maintenance of Turkey signed by the
France. Signed Nov. 18, 1738. Seo Pragmatic representatives of Great Britain, France, Austria,
Sanction. and Russia, siguod April o, 1S54.
Treaty between Napoleon I. of France and Francis Treaty between Austriaand PrusMa.and Denmark, by
(II. of Germany) I. of Austria, by which Austria which Denmark ceded tho duchies, Oct. 30, 1864.
VIGO (N.-W. Spain) was attacked and burned by the English in 1589. Sir George Roolce,
with the combined English and Dutch fleets, attacked the French fleet and the Spanish
galleons in the port of Vigo, when several men of war and galleons were taken, and many
destroyed, and abundance of plate and other valuable effects fell into the hands of the
conquerors, Oct. 12, 1702. Vigo was taken by lord Cobharn in 1719, but relinquished after
raising contributions. It was again taken by the British, March 27, 1S09.
VILLA FRANCA (in Portugal), here the British cavalry, under sir Stapleton Cotton,
defeated the French cavalry of marshal Soult (April 10, 1812) and freed Estremadura. —
Villa Fuanca, a small port on the Mediterranean, near Genoa, was bought for a steam-
packet station by a Russian company, about Aug. 1858, which caused some political excite
ment. —At Villa Fkanca, in Lom hardy, the emperors of France and Austria met on
July 11, 1859 (after the battle of Solferino), and on July 12 signed the preliminaries of
peace, the basis of the treaty of Zurich {which tec).
VILLAIN". See Shivery hi England.
VIMEIRA (in Portugal), where the British under sir Arthur Wellesley defeated the
French and Spanish forces under marshal Junot, duke of Abrantes, Aug. 21, 1808. The
attack made with great bravery, was gallantly repulsed ; it was repeated by Kcllerman at
the head of the French reserve, which was also repulsed ; aud the French being charged
with the bayonet, withdrew on all points in confusion, leaving many prisoners,
VINCENT, Cape St. (S.-W. Portugal). Admiral Rooke, with twenty men-of-war, and
the Turkey fleet under his convoy, was attacked by admiral Tourville, with a force vastly
superior to his own, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelve English and Dutch men-of-war, and
eighty merchantmen, were taken or destroyed by tho French, June 16, 1693. Near here
admiral Rodney destroyed several Spanish ships, Jan. 16, 1780. (See Rodneys Victories.)
The celebrated battle was fought Feb. 14, 1797, between the Spanish and British fleets otF
the Cape. The latter commanded by admiral sir John Jervis, who took (after a well-fought
battle) four line-of-battle ships, and considerably damaged the rest of the Spanish fleet,
Feb. 14, 1797. Two of the captured shins were of 100 guns each, and the other two each of
74. From this Cape the earl had his title.
VINCENTS, St. (West Indies), long a neutral island; but at the peace of 1763, the
French agreed that the right to it should be vested in the English. The latter soon after
engaged in a war against the Caribs, on the windward side of the island, who were obliged to
Great Britain (lord John RussellX Fi-ance (M. Drouyn do lTIuys), Austria (count BuoP, Turkey (Arif
Effendi), and Russia (count GortschakofT), took place" March, 1854. Two points, the protectorate of the
principalities and the free navigation of the Danube, were agreed to : but tho proposals of tho powers as to
the reduction of the Russian power in the Black Sea were rejected by the czar, and the conference closed,
Juno 5, 1S55. The English and French envoy,*' assent to the Austrian propositions was not f.pproved of by
their governments, and Uicy both resigned their official positions.
YIN 7 •>'> VIR
consent to a peace, by which they ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. In 1779
the Caribs greatly contributed to the reduction of this island by the French, who, however,
restored it in 1783. In 1795 the French landed some troops, and agaiu instigated the
Caribs to an insurrection, which was not subdued for several months. The great eruption of
the Scouffrier mountain, after the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812. Population
in 1861, 31,755-
VINCENT DE PAUL, St., Charitablk Society, founded in 1833, in France, by
twelve young men. It extends its extremely beneficial operations even into Britain. Its
power excited the jtralousy of the French government, which suppressed its central committee
at Paris, in Oct, 186 1.
VINE.* The vine was planted by Noah 2347, B.C. Gen. ix. 20. A colony of vine
dressers from Phocea, in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and instructed the South Gauls in
tillage, vine-dressing, and commerce, about 600 B.C. Some think the vines are the abori
gines of Languedoc, Provence, and Sicily, and that they grew spontaneously on the
Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. The vine was carried into Champagne,
and part of Germany, by the emperor Probus, about A.D. 279. The vine and sugar-cane were
planted in Madeira in 1420. The vine was planted in England in 1552 ; and in the gardens
of Hampton-court-palace is an old and celebrated vine, said to surpass any known vine in
Europe. See Grapes and Wine. The Tokay vines were planted in 1350.
VINEGAR. Known nearly as early as wine. The ancients had several kinds of vinegar,
which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers were accustomed to take it in their
marches. The Bible represents Boaz, a rich citizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar for
his reapers (1312 B.C.), a custom still prevalent in Spain and Italy.
VINEGAR-HILL (near Enniscorthy, in Wexford, S.-E. Ireland). Here a sanguinary
conflict took place between the British troops, commanded by Lake, and the Irish insurgent
forces, June 21, 1798. The rebels suffered a severe defeat, though they claimed the victory
from their having killed so many of the king's troops.
VINTNERS. See Victualler!.
VIOL and Violin. The lyre of the Greeks became our harp, and the viol of the middle
ages became the violin. The violin is mentioned as early as 1200, in the legendary life of
St. Christopher. It was introduced into England, some say, by Charles II. Straduarius
(or Stradivarius) of Cremona was a renowned violin-maker (1700 to 1722).
VIRGIN MARY. The Assumption of the Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin
churches, in honour of the miraculous ascent of Mary into Heaven, according to their belief,
Aug. 15, a.d. 45. The Presentation of the Virgin is a feast celebrated Nov. 21, said to have
been instituted among the Greeks in the nth century; its institution in the West is
ascribed to pope Gregory XI. 1372. f See Annunciation and Conception, Immaculate.
VIRGINIA. See Rome, 449 b.c.
VIRGINIA, the first British settlement in North America, was discovered by John
Cabot in 1497, and was taken possession of and named by Raleigh, after the virgin-queen
Elizabeth, July 13, 1584. Vain attempts were made to settle it in 1585."' Two expeditions
were formed by patent in 1606, and others in 1610. In 1626, it reverted to the crown ; and
a more permanent colony was established soon afterwards. George Washington was delegate
for Virginia in the congress of 1774. Eastern Virginia seceded from the Union, April 25,
1861, but Western Virginia declared for the Union, Feb. 13, and elected a governor,
Feb. 20, 1861. Virginia was the chief scat of the war. See United Stales and Richmond.
* Vint DUtau. In the spring of 1845, Mr. E. Tucker, of Margate, observed a fungus (since namod
Oidium Tucktri) on gra|>es in the hot-houses of Mr. Slater, of Margate It is a whitish mildew, and totally
destroys the fruit The Bporos of this oX Hum were found in the vineries at Versailles in 1847. The discaso
soon reached the trellised vines, and in 1850 many lost all their produce In 1852, it spread over France,
Italy, Spain, Syria, and in Zanto and Cephalnnia attacked the currants, reducing the crop to one-twelfth of
tho usual amount Through its ravages, the wine manufacture in Madeira ceased for several years.
Many attempts havo been mado to arrest the progress of the disease, but without much effect. Sulphur
dust is the most efficacious remedy. The disease had much abated in France, Portugal, and Madeira (1863).
In 1862 Californian vinos wore introduced into the two latter.
t "The Indian incarnate god Chrishna, the Hindoos believe, had a virgin-mother of the royal raco,
and was sought to be destroyod in his infancy, about 900 years B.C. It appears that ho passed his life in
working miracles and preaching, and was so humblo as to w:ish his friends' feet : at length dying, but rising
from the dead, ho ascended into heaven in tho presence of a multitude. The Cingalese relate nearly tho
same thingB of their Buddha." Sir William Jones.
VIS 700 VOL
VISCONTI, the name of a noble Italian family, which ruled in Milan from 12S7 to 1447 ;
the heiress of the family was married to Francesea Sforza, afterwards duke of Milan.
VISCOUNT ( Vice Comes), anciently the name of an office under an earl, who being
oftentimes required at court, was his_deputy, to look after the affairs of the county. The
first viscount in England created by patent was John, lord Beaumont, whom Henry VI.
created viscount Beaumont, giving him precedence above all barons, Feb. 10, 1440.
Ashmole. This title, however, is of older date in Ireland and France. John Barry, lord
Barry, was made viscount Buttevant, in Ireland, 9 Bich. II. 1385. Bcatscm.
VISIER, Grand, an officer of the Ottoman Porte, first appoiuted about 1326. The
office was abolished in 1838.
VISIGOTHS, separated from the Ostrogoths about 330. See Gotlts. The emperor
Valens, about 369, admitted them into the Koman territories upon the condition of their
serving when wanted in the Roman armies ; and Theodosius the Great permitted them to
form distinct corps commanded by their own officers. In 400, under Alaric, they invaded
Italy, and in 410 took Rome. They founded their kingdom of Toulouse, 414 ; conquered
the Alani, and extended their'rule into Spain, 414 ; expelled the Romans in 468 ; and finally
were themselves conquered by the Saracens under Muza, in 711, when their last king Roderic,
was defeated and slain. See Spain for a list of the Visigothic kings. Their rule in France
ended with their defeat by Clovis at Vougle, in 507.
VITTORIA (N. Spain), the site of a brilliant victory obtained by "Wellington over the
French army commanded by Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, and marshal Jourdan,
June 21, 1813. The hostile armies were nearly equal, from 70,000 to 75,000 each. After a
long and fearful battle, the French were driven, towards evening, through the town of
Vittoria, and in their retreat were thrown into irretrievable confusion. The British loss was
twenty-two officers and 479 men killed ; 167 officers and 2640 men wounded. Marshal
Jourdan lost 151 pieces of cannon, 451 waggons of ammunition, all his baggage, provisions,
cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a marshal of France. Continuing the pursuit on the
25th, "Wellington took Jourdan's only remaining gun.
VIVARIUM. See Aguavivarium,
VIVISECTION, physiological experiments upon living animals, having much increased,
the Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in Dresden and Paris in 1859 requested
the opinion of a committee of eminent scientific men on the merits of the knowledge thus
acquired. Their judgment was not unanimous. The London Society took up the question
in 1S60 ; and printed a pamphlet by Mr. G. Macilwain against vivisection. In Aug. 1S62
an international conference to discuss the question was held at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham.*
VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth there are above 200 volcanoes which
have been active in modern times. See Etna, Vesuvius, and Iceland. In Mexico a plain
was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand feet in height by the burning lava from
a volcano, in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro broke out Sept. 13, 1777, which threw
out an immense quantity of red water, that discoloured the [sea for several leagues. A new
volcano appeared in one of the Azore islands, May 1, 1808.
VOLSCI, an ancient Latin people, frequently at war with the Romans. From their
capital, Corioli, Cains Martins (who defeated them about 490 n.c.) derived his name
Coriolanus. The story of his banishment by his ungrateful countrymen ; of his revenge
011 them by bringing the Volsci to the gates of Rome, yet afterwards sparing the city at the
entreaties of his mother, Volumnia (487 B.C.), is considered by many as a poetical legend.
The Arolsci were finally subdued and incorporated into the Roman people about 338 B.c.
VOLTAIC PILE, ok Battery, was constructed in consequence of the discoveries of
Galvani (see Galvanism in article Electricity). The principle was discovered by Alessandro
Volta, of Como (born 1745), for thirty years professor of natural philosophy at Pavia, and
announced by him to the Royal Society of London in 1793. The battery was first set up in
1800. Volta was made an Italian count and senator by Napoleon Bonaparte, and was
otherwise greatly honoured. While young he invented the electrophorus, electric pistol, and
hydrogen lamp. He died in 1826, aged Si. The form of the Voltaic battery has "been
greatly improved by the researches of modern philosophers. The nitric acid battery of
Mr. W. B. Grove was constructed in 1839 : the carbon battery of Professor Robert Bunsen
in 1842. The former is very much used in this country ; that of Bunsen on the continent.
* Sir Charles Bull's opinion of vivisection was, tbat it either obscured the subject it was meant to
illustrate, or misled men into practical errors of the most serious character.
VOL 767 VOL
VOLTURNO, a river in S. Italy, near Capua, near to which Garibaldi and his followers
held a strong position. This was furiously assailed by the royal troops on Oct. I, i860, who
were finally repulsed after a desperate struggle, the fiercest in which Garibaldi had yet been
engaged. He was aided greatly by a band of Piedmontesc from Naples. On Oct. 2 general
IJixio completed the victory by capturing 2500 fresh Neapolitan troops and dispersing others.
VOLUNTARY CONTRIBUTIONS. Public contributions for the support of the British
government against the policy and designs of Franco amounted to two millions and a half
sterling in 1798. About 200,000?. were transmitted to England from India in 1799. Sir
Kobert Peel, of Bury, among other contributions of equal amount, subscribed 10,000/.
Annual Register. See Patriotic Fund, In 1862 nearly a million pounds were subscribed in
the British empire for the relief of the Lancashire cotton spinners. Sec Cotton.
VOLUNTEERS. This species of forco was formed in England in consequence of the
threatened invasion of revolutionary France, March 1794. Besides our large army, and
85,000 men voted for the sea, we subsidised 40,000 Germans, raised our militia to 100,000
men, and armed the citizens as volunteers. Between the years 1798 and 1804, when this
force was of greatest amount, it numbered 410,000, of which 70,000 were Irish.* On
Oct. 26, 1803, king George III. reviewed in Hyde Park 12,401 London volunteers, and on
Oct. 28, 14,676 more. The English volunteers were, according to official accounts, 341,600
on Jan. r, 1S04. Sec Naval Volunteers. In May, 1859, in consequence of the prevalence of
the fear of a French invasion, the formation of volunteer corps of rillemcn commenced under
the auspices of the government, and by the end of the year many thousands were enrolled in
all parts of the kingdom.
[The first Middlesex volunteers were formed in Volunteers in Britain estimated at about 160,000
1803 as the duke of Cumberland's sharp May, i86r
shooters. They retained their organisation Second meeting at Wimbledon ; Mr. Jopling
as a rifle club, when other volunteers were gains tho queen's prize and the association
disbanded- In 1835 they were permitted by medal July 4-10,
the duchess of Kent to take the name of the Review of 11.504 volunteers at Wimbledon,
Royal Victoria Kiflo Club.] July 13 ; of 9000 at Warwick . . July 24, ,,
National Volvntteer Asuociaiionfor promotingthe Registered number of volunteers 162,68 1,
practice of Ritic-shooting, was established in April 1, 1862
London, under the patronage of too queen 20.000 volunteers reviewed by lord Clyde at
and prince consort, Mr. Sidney (afterwards Brighton April 21, „
lord) Herbert, secretary at war, president, Third meeting at Wimbledon ; Mr. Pixley gains
and tho earl of Derby and other noblemen the queen's prize, &c. . . July 1-14,
vice-presidents. (Annual subscription one A commission recommends that an annual grant
guinea, or a composition forlifeof tenguineas.) of either aof., 30-*., or 3+s. be given to each
Nov. 16, 1859 volunteer according to circumstances . Oct. „
2500 Volunteer officers presented to the queen ; Fourth meeting at Wimbledon, July 7, &c. ;
a dinner followed, with the duke of Cam queen's prize, Arc., won by sergeant Roberts
bridge in the chair : and a ball . March 7, i860 of tho 12th Shropshire rifle volunteers,
The queen reviews about 18,450 volunteers in July 14, ,»
Hyde-park. June 23, ,, An act to amend and consolidate the acts
[Mr. Tower, of Wealdhall, Essex, aged 80, was relating to the volunteer force of Great
present as a private ; he had been present as Britain was passed . . . July 21. 1863
an officer in a volunteer review in 1803.] 22,000 volunteers reviewed by the prince of
First meeting of tho National Association for Wales in Hydc-park (great improvement *
rifle shooting held at Wimbledon ; captain noticed) May 28,
Kdwd. Rossi obtained the queen's prize of Fifth meeting at Wimbledon, July 11, Ac. ; the
250V. and the gold mcd;d of tho association, queen's prize, &c, won by private John
July 2-7, i860 Wyatt of the London rifle brigade July 23, 1864
[M. Thorel, a Swiss, obtained a prize. | Volunteers estimated at 165,000 in 1864.
Successful sham-fight at Bromley, Kent, Reviews and sham fights on Easter Mondays,
July 14, near Brighton, April 5, 1863 ; near Guildford,
Above 20,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen March 28, 1864: near Brighton . April 17, 1865
at Edinburgh . . . . Aug. 7, Sixth meeting at Wimbledon, began July 11 ;
Above 10,000 Lancashire volunteers reviewed the queen's prize was won by private Sharman
by the earl of Derby at Knowsley . Sept. 1, ,, of tho 4th West York Rifle Volunteer. July
Lord Herbert stated that the association had a 18 : the meeting ended with a review by tho
capital of 3000?. and an annual income of 1500Z. duke of Cambridgo . ' . July 22,
Feb. 16, 1861
* Tho first regiment of Irish volunteers was formcdat Dublin, under command of thedukcof Leinster,
Oct. 12, 1779. They armed generally to the amount of 20.000 men, and received the unanimous thanks of
the houses of lords and commons in Ireland, for their patriotism and spirit, for coming forward and
defending their country. At the period when the force appeared, Irish affairs bore a serious aspect;
manufactures had decreased, and foreign trade had been hurt by a prohibition of the cxjiort of salted
provisions and butter. No notice of tho complaints of the people had been taken in the English parliament,
when, owing to the alarm of an invasion, ministers allowed the nation to arm, and an immense forco was
soon raised. The Irish took this occasion to demand a free trade, and government saw there was no trifling
with a country with arms in its bands. Tho Irish parliament unanimously addressed tho king for a free
trade, and it was granted, 1779.
vos 70S AVAG
VOSSEM, Peace of, between the elector of Brandenburg and Louis XIV. of France ;
the bitter engaged not to assist the Dutch against the elector ; signed June 6, 1673.
VOUGLfi, or Vouille, S.-W. France (near Poitiers), where Alaric II. ting of the
Visigoths, was defeated and slain by Clovis, king of France, 507. Clovis immediately after
subdued the whole country from the Loire to the Pyrenees, and thus his kingdom became
firmly established. A peace followed between the Franks and Visigoths, who had been
settled above one hundred years in that part of Gaul called Septimania. Clovis soon after
wards made Paris the capital of his kingdom. Hcnault.
VOYAGES. By order of Pharaoh-necho, of Egypt, some Phoenician pilots sailed from
Egypt down the Arabian Gulf, round what is now called the Cape of Good Hope, entered the
Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar, coasted along the north of Africa, and at length
arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of about three years, 604 B.C. —Herodotus. The first
voyage round the world was made by a ship, part of a Spanish squadron which had been
under the command of Magellan (who was killed at the Philippine Islands in a skirmish) in
1519-20. See Circumnavigators and NorUi-West Passage.
VULGATE (from Vulgalus, published) a term applied to the Latin version of the
Scriptures, which is authorised by the council of Trent (1546), and which is attributed to
St. Jerome, about 384. The older version, called the Italic, is said to have been made in
the beginning of the 2nd century. Critical editions of the Vulgate were printed by order of
pope Sixtus V. in 1590, and of popo Clement V. in 1592 and 1593. (The former was
suppressed as imperfect.) The Latin Bible called the Meutz Bible was printed in 1460.
w.
WADHAM COLLEGE, Oxford. Founded by Nicholas Wadham, esq. and Dorothy,
his wife, in 1613. In this college, in the chambers of Dr. Wilkins (over the gateway), the
Royal Society frequently met prior to 1658.
WAGER of BATTLE. See Appeal.
WAGES in ENGLAND. The wages of sundry workmen were first fixed by act of
parliament 25 Edw. III. 1350. Haymakers had but one penny a day. Master carpenters,
masons, tilers, and- other covcrcrs of houses, had not more than 3^. per day (about $d. of
our money) ; and their servants i±d. Viitefs StaiuUt.
By the 23rd Hen. VI. the wages of a bailiff of mason, master carpenter, rough niason,
husbandry was 23*. +d. per annum, and bricklayer, master tiler, plumber, gi&xtcr,
clothing of the prico of 5*. with meat and carver or joiner, was allowed from Easter to
drink ; chief hind, carter, or shepherd, 20* , Michaelmas to take 6d. a day without meat
clothing, 4*. ; common servant of hueluudry, and drink ; or, with meat and drink, id. :
ig*., clothing, +od. ; wornan-servant, 10s., from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate id. A
clothing 4* 1444 master having under him six men was allowed
By the nth Hen. VII. a like rate of wages with id. a day extra 1495
a little advance : as, for instance, a free
WAGES OF HARVEST-MEN' IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS :
Tear. r d. Tear. Year. d.
In 1350 . per diem In 1716 . . per dian In 1800 . . per'diem. o
In 1460 In 1740 In 1 Si 1 ■1
In 1568 . o A In 1760 . In 1850 .
In 1632 o 6 In 1788 In 1857
In j6S3 . o 8 In 1794 .
WAGGONS were rare in the last century. They, with carts, &c, not excepting those
used in agriculture, were taxed iu 1783. The carriers' waggons arc now nearly superseded
by the railways.
"WAGIIORN'S NEW OVERLAND ROUTE to INDIA. Lieut. Waghom devoted a
large portion of his life to connect India with England. On Oct. 31, 1845, he arrived in
London, by a new route, with the Bombay mail of the 1st of that month. His despatches
reached Suez 011 the 19th, and Alexandria on the 20th, whence he proceeded by steamboat
to a place twelve miles nearer London than Trieste. lie hurried through Austria, Baden,
Bavaria, Prussia, and Belgium, and reached London at half-past four on the morning of the
WAG 769 WAL
first-mentioned day. The authorities of the different countries through which he passed
eagerly facilitated his movements. The ordinary express, via Marseilles, reached London
Nov. 2 following.* Mr. Waghorn subsequently addressed a letter to The Times newspaper,
in which he stated that in a couple of years he would bring the Bombay mail to London in
21 days. He died January 8, 1850.
WAGRAM, a village near Vienna, the site of a battle fought July 5-6, 1809, between
the Austrian and French armies, in which the latter was completely victorious. The
slaughter on both sides was dreadful : 20,000 Austrians were taken by the French, and the
defeated army retired to Moravia. An armistice was signed on the 12th ; and on Oct. 24,
by a treaty of peace, Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France ; the kingdoms of Saxony and
Bavaria were enlarged at her expense ; part of Poland in Galicia was ceded to Russia ; and
Joseph Bonaparte was recognised as king of Spain.
WAHABEES, or Wahabitks, a warlike Mahometan reforming sect, considering them
selves the only true followers of the prophet, arose in Arabia about 1750, under the rule of
Abd-el-Wahab. His grandson, Saoud, in 1801, defeated an expedition headed by the caliph
of Bagdad. In 1803 this sect seized Mecca and Medina, and continued their conquests,
although their chief was assassinated in the midst of his victories. His son, Abdallah, long
resisted Mahomined Ali, pacha of Egypt, but in 1818 he was defeated and taken prisoner by
Ibrahim Pacha, who sent him to Constantinople, where he was put'to death. The sect now-
flourishing is well described by Mr. W. Gilford Palgrave in his Journey and Residence in
Arabia in 1862-3, published in 1865.
WAITS, the night minstrels who perform shortly before Christmas. The name was
given to the musicians attached to the king's court. We lind that a company of waits was
established at Exeter in 1400 to "pipe the watch." The waits in London and Westminster
were long officially recoguised by the corporation .
WAKEFIELD (W. Yorkshire), the site of a battle between Margaret, the queen of
Henry VI., and the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkists fill
upon the field, Dec. 31, 1460. The death of the duke, who aspired to the crown, seemed to
fix the good fortune of Margaret ; but the earl of Warwick espoused the cause of the duke's
son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., and the civil war was continued. An art and
industrial exhibition was opened at Wakefield, Aug. 30, 1865.
WALBROOK CHURCH (London), reputed the masterpiece of sir Christopher Wron,
completed in 1679. There was a church here in 1135, and a new church was erected in 1429.
WALCHEREN EXPEDITION. This unfortunate expedition of the British to the
island of Walcheren at the mouth of the Scheldt in Holland in 1809 consisted of 35 ships
of the line, and 200 smaller vessels, principally transports, and 40,000 land forces, the
latter under the command of the earl of Chatham, and the fleet under sir Richard Strachan.
For a long time the destination of this expedition remained secret ; but before July 28,
1809, when it set sail, the French journals had announced that Walcheren was the point of
attack. Perhaps a more powerful and better appointed armament had never previously left
the British ports, or ever more completely disappointed public expectation. Flushing was
invested in August ; a dreadful bombardment followed, and the place was taken Aug. 15 ;
but no suggestion on the part of the naval commander, nor urging on the part of the officers,
could induce the earl to vigorous action, until the period of probable success was gone, and
necessity obliged him to return with as many of the troops as disease and an unhealthy
climate had spared. The place was evacuated, Dec. 23, 1809. The house of commons
instituted an inquiry, and lord Chatham resigned his post of master-general of the ordnance,
to prevent greater disgrace ; hut the policy of ministers in planning the expedition was,
nevertheless, approved. The following epigram appeared at the time :—
" Lord Chatham, with his sword undrawn, Stood waiting for sir Richard Strachan ;
Bir Richard, longing to bo at 'em, Stood waiting for tho oarl of Chatham."
WALDECK, a German principality, established in 1682. The reigning family claim
descent from the Saxon horo, Witikirid, who flourished about 772. The reigning prince,
George Victor (born Jan. 14, 1831), succeeded his father, George, on May 15, 1845.
Population, in Dec. 1861, 58,604.
* The Overland Mail, which had left Bombay on Doc. 1, 1845, arrived early on tho 30th in London, by
way of Marseilles and Paris This speedy arrival was owing to the great exertions made by tho French
government to show that the route through France was shorter and better.
3 D
AVAL 770 AVAL
WALDENSES, a sect (also called VaMenses and Vaudois) inhabiting the Cottian Alps,
derives its name, according to some authors, from Peter de Waldo, of Lyons (1170). They
had a translation of the Bible, and allied themselves to the Albigenscs, and were much, vilified
and persecuted, which led to the establishment of the Holy Office or Inquisition. Pope
Innocent III. commissioned some monks to preach against the heresies of the AValdenses in
Narbonne and Provence ; but the French bishops were at first jealous of this mission, armed
as it was with great power, and the feudal chiefs refused to obey the orders of the legates, 1203-4.
One of the monks, the first inquisitor, Peter Chateauneuf, having been assassinated, the
aspiring pontiff called on all the neighbouring powers to march into the heretical district.
All obstinate heretics were placed at the disposal of Simon de Montfort, commander of this
crusade, and the whole race of the Waldenses and Albigenses were ordered to be pursued
with fire and sword. See Albigenses. Thejf settled in the valleys of Piedmont about 1375,
but were frequently dreadfully persecuted, especially in the 17th century, when Charles I. of
England interceded for them (1627-9), anu* Oliver Cromwell (1655-6), obtained them some
degree of toleration. They were permitted to have a church at Turin, Deo. 1853.
"WALES, called by the Romans, Britannia Sccunda. After the Roman emperor Hono-
rius quitted Britain, Vortigern was elected king of South Britain. He invited over the
Saxons, to defend his country against the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons perfidiously sent
for reinforcements, consisting of Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they made them
selves masters of South Britain. Many of the Britons retired to Wales, and defended
themselves against the Saxons, in their inaccessible mountains, about 447. In this state
Wales remained unconquered till Henry If. subdued South Wales in 1 1 57 ; and in 1282
Edward I. entirely reduced the whole country, putting an end to its independence by the
death of Llewelyn, the last prince.* The Welsh, however, were not entirely reconciled
to this revolution, till the queen gave birth to a son at Caernarvon in 1284, w*horn Edward
styled prince of Wales, which title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has borne almost
ever since. Wales was united and incorporated with England by act of parliament, 1536.
Seo Britain.
The supremo authority in Britannia Secunda The joint Irish and Scots forces defeated with
intrusted to Suetonius Paulinus . . . 58 great slaughter 1021
Conquests by Julius Frontinus .... 70 Jet>tyn, lord of Glamorgan, rebelling, ia de
The Silures totally defeated feated and slain 10S9
The Roman, Julius Agricola, commands in Part of Wales laid waste by the forces of Harold 1055
Britain 78 Rhys overthrown and slain .... 1056
Bran ab Llyr. surnamedthe Blessed, dies about 80 William I. claims feudal authority over Wales . 1070
Reign of Caswallon 443 Rhys ab Owain slain 1074
The ancient Britons defeat the Saxons 447-448 Ravaging invasion of the carl of Chester . . 1079
The renowned Arthur elected kiug 5' 7 Invasion of the Irish and Scots .... to6o
Dyvnwal Moetmud, a great monarch, comes William I. invades Wales 1081
from Armurica, and becomes king of the Battle of Llechryd 10S7
Cymry, about 640 [In this conflict the sons of Bleddyn ab Cynvyn
Reign of Roderic the Great .... were slain by Rhys ab Tewdwr, the reigning
Ho unites the petty states of Wales into one prince J
principality ; his death 8?7 Rhys ab Tewdwr slain 10S7
Division of Wales—into north, south, and cen The Welsh destroy many Norman castles . 1093
tral (or Powys land) The formidable insurrection of Payno Tuber-
Tho Welsh princes submit to Alfred . . . vilie 1094
The Danes land in Anglesey .... Invasion of the English under the earls of
Laws enacted by Howcl Dha, prince of all Chester and Shrewsbury 1096
Wales, about The settlement in Wales of a colony of Flemings 1106
Ho acknowledges the supremacy of Athclstan . Violent seizure of NeBt, wife of Gerald de
Civil wars at bis death, about .... Windsor, by Owain, son of Cadwgan ab
Great battle between tho sons of Howel Dha Bleddyn 1107
and the sons of Edwal Voel , the latter [This outrage entailed dreadful retribution on
victorious . 95a Cadwgan's family. ]
Edgar invades Wales 963 Cardigan conquered by Strongbow . . . „
Danes again invade Wales, and lay Anglesey Cadwgan assassinated 1110
waste 980 Gruffydd ab Rhys lays claim to the sovereignty 1113
Devastations committed by Edwin, the son of Another body of Flemings settle in Pembroke
Eineon ... 990 shire ,
Tho country reduced by Aodan, prince of North [The posterity of these settlers are still dis
Wales 1000 tinguished from the ancient British popula
A". 1 ui, the usurper, slain in battle by Llcwolyn 1015 tion by their language, manners, and
Khun, the fierce Scot, defeated near Cacrmar- customs".]
then 1020 Henry £. erects castles in Wales . . 1114
* The statute of Wales, enactrd at Hhuddlan March 19. 1384, alleges that—"Divino Providence h»>
now removed all obstacle-, and transferred wholly and entirely to the king's dominion the land of Wiles
and its inhabitants, heretofore subject unto him in feudal right." The ancient laws were to be preserved
in civil causes ; but tbe law ot inheritance was to be changed, and the English criminal law to be put in
force. Annai* 0/ £nylan<i.
WAL 771 WAL
"WALES, continued*
Revolt of Owen Gwynncd on the death of Glcndowcr (grandson of tho last prince,
Henry I. ; part of South Wales laid waste . 1135 Llewelyn), commences 1400
The Welsh ravage the borders . .1136 Radnor and other places taken by Owain
Strongbow, earl of Pembroke invested with Glyndwr 1401
the powers of a count palatine in Pembroke . 1138 lie besieges Caernarvon 1402
Ilcnry II. invades Wales, which he subse And seizes Harlech castle ..... 1404
quently subdues, after a stout resistance by Harlech castle retaken by the English forces . 1408
Owen Gwynned 1157 Owain Glyndwr dies ...... 1415
Confederacy of the princes of Wales for tho Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI., takes
recovery of their l<>st rights and independence 1164 refuge in Harlech castle 1459
Prince Modoc said to have emigrated to America, Town of Denbigh burnt 1460
about 1 169 The earl of Richmond, afterwards Ilcnry VII.,
Anglesey devastated 1173 lands in Pembroke, and is aided by tho
The crusades preached in Wales by Baldwin, Welsh Aug. 1485
archbishop of Canterbury 1188 Palatine jurisdiction in Wales abolished by
Powys castle besieged 1191 Henry VIII 1535
The oarl of Chester makes an inroad into North Monmouth made an English comity by tho
Wales 1210 sanio king „
Ring John invades Wales, laying waste a great The counties of Brecknock, Denbigh, and
part of tho principalities .... 1211-12 Radnor formed „
Revolt of the Flemings ..... 1220 Act for "laws and justice to be administered
Llewelyn, prince of North Wales, commits in Wales in same form as in England,"
great ravages „ 27 Henry VIII „
Death of Maolgwy up Rhys .... 1230 Wales incorporated into England by parliament, 1536
Powys castle taken by Llewelyn ap Iorwerth's Divided into twelve counties . . . . 1543
forces 1233 Dr. Fcrrars, bishop of St. David's, burnt at tho
William, earl of Pembroke, Blain . . . 1234 stako for heresy 1555
Prince David ravages the marshes, &c. . . . 1244 Lewis Owain, a baron of tho exchequer, at
Invasion of Henry HI. 1245 tacked and murdered while on his assize tour „
Anglesey again devastated . . . . . ,, The bible and prayer-book ordered to be trans
Llewelyn ap Griffith, the last prince . . . 1246 lated into Welsh, and divine service to bo
Convention of the Welsh nobility against the performed in that language .... 1563
English 1258 First congregation of dissenters assembled in
Hay and Brecknock castles taken by prince Wales ; Vavasour Powcl apprehended while
Edward 1265 preaching 1620
Peace with tho English 1267 Beaumaris castle garrisoned for king Charles X. 1642
Edward I . summons Llewelyn to Westminster ; Powys castle taken by sir Thomas Myddelton,
on his refusal to come, deposes him ; and Oct. 1644
invades Wales 1277 Dr. Laud, formerly bishop of St. David's, be
Edward encamps a powerful army on Saltney headed on Tower-hill . . Jan 10, 1645
marsh „ Surrender of Hawarden castle to the parlia
The sons of Grufydd treacherously drowned in ment general Mytton ,
the river Deo, by the oarl Warrenne and Charles 1. takes refuge in Denbigh . . .
Roger Mortimer 1281 Rhuddlan castle surrenders . . „
Ilawardcn castlo taken by surprise by Llewelyn Harlech castle surrenders to Cromwell's army
and his brother David ; they destroy Flint under Mytton 1647
and Rhuddlan castles 1282 Battle of St. Fagan's ; the Welsh to* ally de
Great battle between Llewelyn ap Grufydd, feated by col. Horton, Cromwell'slieutenant,
the last prince, and the English : Llewelyn May 8, 1648
slain, after the battle, by Do Franctau, Beaumaris castle surrenders to Cromwell . .
Doc. 11, „ Pembroke castle taken ; colonel Poyer shot,*
Wales finally subdued by Edward I., after a April 25. 1649
severe contest ,, The French land in Pembrokeshire, aud aro
Prince David surrenders, and is executed as a made prisoners Feb. 1797
traitor 1283 Rebecca or " Becca" riots broke out against
Tho first English prince of Wales, son of Ed toll-gates, Feb. ; an old woman, a toll-keeper,
ward, born at Caernarvon castle (see Princes of was murdered Sept. 10 ; many persons were
Wales, p. 772) April 25, 1284 tried an>1 punished .... Oct. 1843
Tho insurrection of Llewelyn ap Madoc ; Subscriptions begun for establishing a uni
checked, 1294; suppressed .... 1316 versity in Wales Dec. 1863
Croat rebellion of Owain Glyndwr, or Owen
SOVEREIGNS OF WALKS.
640. Dyvrfwal Moelmud, king of tho Cymry. 755. Conan.
688. Idwallo. 818. Mervyn.
720. Rhodri, or Roderic. 843. Rodeiic, surnazned the Great.
* At tho commencement of the civil war, Pembroke castle was the only Welsh fortress in the pos
session of the parliament, and itv*as entrusted to the command of col. I-angharne. In 1647, he, and
colonels Powel and Poyer, embraced tho cause of tho king, and made Pembroke their head quarters ;
after the defoat at St Fagan's, retired to the castlo, followed by an army led by Cromwell. They
capitulated, after having endured great sufferings from want of water. Langburno, Powel, and Poyer
were tried by a court-martial, and condemned to death ; but Cromwell having been induced to spare the
lives of two of them, it was ordered that they should draw lots for tho favour, and three papers were
folded up, on two of which wore written the words, '* Life given by Go*! ; " the third was kit blank.
The latter was drawn by colonel Poyer, who was shot accordingly on the above mentioned day. Pennant.
3 d 2
AVAL
WALES, continued.
PRINCES OF NORTH WALES. 1256. Gwenwinwin, or Gwenwynwyn.
Anarawd. Owain ap Grufydd.
913. Edwal VoeL
91 >■ Howel Dha the Good, prince of all Wales. ENGLISH PRINCES OP WALES.*
04S. Jovaf, or Jevav, and lago. 1301. Edward Plantagenet (afterwards king- Ed
972. Dowel ap Jevaf. ward II ), son of Edward I., born in Caer
984. Cadwallon ap Jevaf. narvon Castle on the 25th April, 1284. It
Meredith ap Owen ap Howol Dha. is asserted that immediatelv after his birth
992. Edwal ap Meyric ap Edwal Voet. he was presented by his father to the Welsh
9-A Aedan, a usurper. chieftains as their future sovereign, the king
101 5. Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt. saying, inupthe
holding theWelsh
royal language,
infant in his arms,Dyntm
" Etch and
102 1. I i ■ ap Edwal ap Meyric.
1038. Griffith ap Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt. literally in English, " This is your man,"
1061. Bleddyn and Rygwallon. but signifying "This is your countryman
»°73- Trahaern ap Caradoc. and king." See however " Ich I>Un."
1079. Griffith ap Conan. 1343. Edward the Black Prince.
"37- Owain Gwynedd. 1376. Richard, his non (afterwards Richard II.)
1 169. David ap Owain Gwynedd. 1399. Henry (afterwards Henry V.), son of Henry IV.
1194. Llewelyn the Great. 1454. Edward, son of Henry VL ; slain at Tewkes
1240. I>avid ap Llewelyn. bury, May 4, 1471.
1246. Llewelyn ap Griffith, last prince of the blood 1471. Edward (afterwards Edward V.), eon of Ed
slain after battle, in 1282. ward IV.
1483. Edward, son of Richard III. ; died in 1484.
PRINCES OF SOUTH 1489. Arthur, 8i»nof Henry VII. ; died in 1502-
877. Cadeth or Cadell. 1503. Henry his brother (afterwards Henry VIII).
907. Howel Dha the rood. 1537. Edward, his son (afterwards Edward VI.) was
948. Owain ap Howel Dha, his son. duke of Cornwall, and not prince of Wales.
987. Meredith ap Owain. 1610. Henry Frederic, son of James I. ; died Nov. 6,
993. Llewelyn ap Sitayllt. 1612.
1021. Rytherch up Jestyn, a usurper. 1616. Charles, his brother (afterwards Charles I.).
1031. Hywel and Meredydd. 1630. Charles, his son (afterwards Charles II.), never
104a, Rhydderch and Rhys, the sons of the usurper. created prince of Wales.
loot. Meredydd ap Owain ap Edwyn. 1714. George Augustus (afterwards George II. ).
1073. Rhys ap Owain, and Rhyddcruh ap Caradoc. 1729 Frederic Lewi*, his son ; died March ao, 1751.
1077. Rhys ap TowdwrMawr. 1751. George, his son (afterwards George III.).
1092. Cadwgan ap Bleddyn. 1762 George, his son (afterwards George IV. X
1115. Griffith ap Rhys. 1841. Albert-Edward, eon of queen Victoria.
1137. Rbys ap Gnifydd, or Griffith. Travelled on the continent, and studied at
1196. Gnifydd ap Rhys. Oxford and Edinburgh in 1859.
1202. Rhys ap Grufydd. Visited Canada, with the dignity of a viceroy,
1222. Owain ap Grufydd. and the United St .tea, i860.
1235. Meredith ap Owain ; he died in 1267. Entered the university of Cambridge in Jan ;
attended the camp at Dublin, July to Sept. ;
opened New Middle Temple Library, Oct. 31 ;
PRINCES AND LORDS OF POWYS-LAND. 1861.
877. Mervyn. Ordered to be prayed for as Albert-Edward,
900. Cadeth ; also prince of South Wales. instead of Albert, Jan 8 ; visited 'the con
927. Howel
• Dha• the Good.• • • tinent, Syria, and Egypt, March—June ;
985. Meredydd ap Owain. Germany and Italy, Aug.—Dec. 1862.
» * » ■ • Admitted to the house of peers, Feb. 5 ; a privy
1061. Bleddyn ap Cynvyn. councillor, Dec. 8, 1863
1073. Meredydd ap Bleddyn. Married to princess Alexandra of Denmark,
1087. Cadwgan ap Bleddyn. March 10, 1863.
1 1 32. Madoc ap Meredydd. Visited Denmark and Sweden, Sept.—Oct,
1 160. Griffith ap Meredydd. 1864.
Itsue .- Albert - Victor, born Jan. 1 864 ;
George-Frederick, born June 3, 1865.
WALHALLA (the Hall of Glory), a temple near Ratisbon, erected by Louis, king of
Bavaria, to receive the statues and memorials of the great men of Germany, commenced
Oct. 18, 1830, and inaugurated Oct. 18, 1842. The nanio is derived from the fabled
meeting-place of Scandinavian heroes after death.
WALKING. See Pedeslrianism.
"WALLACHIA. See DanuUan Principalities. On Dec. 23, 1861, the union of
Wallachia and Moldavia, under the name of Eoumania, was proclaimed at Jassy and
Bucharest.
* Wales, Princess ok. This title was hold, some authors say, during the early period of her Ufe br
tho princess Mary of England, oldest daughter of Henry VIII., and afterwards queen Mary I. She
created, they state, by her fathor princess of Wales in ordor to conciliate the Welsh people and keep aure
ttwnime and was, they add, tho first and only princess of Wales in her own right; a rank ahe enjoved
by Banks * °°n y' WaS afterwards Edward VI., born in 1337 This is however denied
WAL 778 WAR
WALLIS'S VOYAGE. Captain Wallis sailed from England on his voyage round the
world, July 26, 1766 ; and returned to England, May 19, 1768.
WALLOONS, a people who fled to England from the persecution of the cruel duko of
Alva, the governor of the Low Countries for Philip II. of Spain, 1566. A church was given
to them by queen Elizabeth.
"WALLS. See Roman Walls.
WALNUT-TREE has long existed in England.* The black walnut-tree (Juglans nigra)
was brought to these countries from North America before 1629.
WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Robert, and earl of
Orford), was born in 1676 ; became secretary-at-war in 1708 ; was expelled the house of
commons on a charge of misappropriating the public money, 1711 ; committed to the Tower,
Jan. 17, 1712 ; became first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer in 1715.
He resigned, on a disunion of the cabinet, in 1 7 1 7, bringing in the sinking-fund bill on the
day of his resignation. On the earl of Sunderland retiring in 1721, he resumed his office
and held it till 1742. He died March 18, 1745.
second walpole ADMINISTRATION (1721). ( Charles (viscount Townshond), and John, lord
Sir Robert Walpole, first loi-d of the treasury. Carteret (the latter succeeded by the duke of
Thomas, lord Parker, created earl of Macclesfield, Newcastle), secretaries of state.
lord cltcincellor. I Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by the earl of
Henry lord Carleton (succeeded by William, duke of Cadogan), ordnance.
Devonshire), lord president. ' George Treby (succeeded by Honry Pclham), secrc-
Evelyn, duke of Kingston (succeeded by lord Trevor), tary-at-war.
pirvy seal. Viscount Torrington, &c.
James, earl of Berkeley, Jlrst lord of the admiralty. 1
WALTZ, the popular German national dance, was introduced into England by baron
Neuman and others iu 1813. Raikcs.
WANDSWORTH, near London. Here was opened Wandsworth meeting-house, tho
first place of worship for dissenters in England, Nov. 20, 1572. Iu Garrett-lane, near this
place, a inock election of a mayor of Garratt was formerly held, after every general election
of parliament, to which Foote's dramatic piece, Tlte Mayor of Garratt (1763), gave no small
celebrity.
WAR, called by Erasmus "the malady of princes." Osymandyas of Egypt, the first
warlike king ; he passed into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 2100 B.C. Usher. He is sup
posed by some to be the Osiris of the priests. It is computed that, to the present time,
no less than 6,860,000,000 of men have perished in the field of battle. See Battles.
FOREIGN WAILS OF GREAT BRITAIN SINCE THE CONQUEST.
ITor vith Peace. War vith Peace. War uith Peace.
Scotland . zo6S . . 1092 Franco . . 1422 . . 1471 Spain . . 1624 . . 1629-
France . . . 1116 . . 1118 France . . . 1492 same year. Franco . . 1627 . . 1629
Scotland . . 1138 . . 1139 France . 1512 . . 1514 Holland . 1651 . . 1654
France . . . 1161 . . 1186 Franco . . . 1522 . . 1527 Spain . . 1655 . . 1660
France . . 1194 . . 1195 Scotland . . 1522 . . 1542 France . . 1666 . . 1668
Frauco . . . 1201 . . 1216 Scotland . . . 1542 . . 1546 Denmark . . 1666 . . 1668
France . . 1324 . . 1234 Scotland . 1547 . . 1550 Holland . . 1666 . . 1668
France . . . 1294 . . 1299 France . . . 7549 . . 1550 Algiers . . . 1669 . . 1671
Scotland . . 1296 . . 1323 France . . 1557 . . 1559 Holland . . 1(72 . . 1674
Scotland. . . 1327 . . 1328 Scotland. . . 1557 . . 1560 Franco . . 1689 . . 1697
France. . . 1339 . . 1360 France . . 1562 . . 1564 Peace of Ryswick, Bopt. 20, 1697
France . . . 1368 . . 1420 Spain . . . 1588 . . 1604
GREAT MODERN WARS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
War of the Succession, commenced May 4, 1702. I War with France, March 31, 1744. Closed also on
Peace of Utrecht, March 13, 1713. April 30, 1748.
War with Spain, Dec. 16, 1718. Peace concluded, \ War; tho Seven Years' War, Juno 9, 1756. Peace of
1721. I Paris, Feb. 10, 1763.
War ; Spanish War, Oct. 23, 1739, Peace of AIx la- War with Spain, Jan. 4, 1762. General peace, Feb.
Chapelle, April 30, 1748. | 10, 1763.
* NearWelwyn, in Hertfordshire, there was tho largest walnut-tree on rocord ; it was felled in 16^7, and
from it were cut nineteen loads of planks ; and as much was sold to a gunsmith in London as cost jol.
carriage ; besides which there were thirty loads of roots and branchos. When standing it covered 76
poles of ground ; a space equal to 2299 square yards, statute measuro.
774 WAR
WAR, continued.
War with the United States of North America, July War againti Bonaparte, April 29, 1803. Finally closed
14, 1774- Peace of Paris, Nov. 30, 1782. June 18, 1815.
War with Franco, Feb. 6, 1778. Peace of Paris, Jan. War with America, June 18, 1812. Peace of Ghent,
20, 1783, Dec. 24, 1814.
War with Spain, April 17 1780. Closed same time War with Russia, March 27, 1854. Peace of Paris.
Jan. 20, 1783. March 31, 1856.
War with Holland, Dec 2i, 1780. Peace signed, For the wars with India, China, and Persia, see
Sept. 2, 1783. those countries respectively.
Warof the^*i'o/urt<w)(Feb. 1, 1793. Peace of Amiens,
March 27, 1802.
WAR AFFAIRS. On account of the war with Russia, the duke of Newcastle, previously
colonial secretary, was appointed a secretary for war affairs, and a cabinet minister, June 9,
1854. See Secretaries.
WARBECK'S INSURRECTION. Perkin Warbeck, the son of a Florentine Jew, to
whom Edward IV. had stood godfather, was persuaded by Margaret, duchess of Burgundy,
sister to Richard III., to personate her nephew, Richard, Edward V.'s brother, which he did
first in Ireland, where lie landed, 1492. The imposture was discovered by Henry VII. 1493.
Some writers consider that Warbeck was not an impostor.
Made an attempt to land at Kent, with 600 men, where 3000 joined him, and he took the title of
when 150 were taken prisoners, and executed, Richard IV., 1497.
M95- Taken prisoner by Henry VII., 1498.
Recommended by the kins: of France to James IV. Set in the stocks at Westminster and Cheapfcide, and
of Scotland, who gave him his kinswoman, lord sent to the Tower, 1499.
Huntley's daughter, in marriage, the same year. Plotted with the earl of Warwick to escape out of
James IV. invaded England in his favour, 1456. the Tower, by murdering the lieutenant, for
Left Scotland, and went to Bodmin, in Cornwall, which he was hanged at Tyburn, Nov. 28, 1 499.
WARDIAN CASES. In 1829, Mr. N. B. Ward observed a small fern and grass growing
in a closed glass battle, in which he had placed a chrysalis covered with moist earth. From
this circumstance he was led to construct his well-known closely glazed cases, which afford
to plants light, heat, and moisture, and exclude deleterious gases, smoke, &c. They are
particularly adapted for ferns. In 1833 they were first employed for the transmission of
plants to Sydney, &c, with great success ; and professor Faraday lectured on the subject in
1838.
WARDMOTES, meetings of the citizens of London in their wards, where they elet'l
annually their common councilmen. The practice is said to have begun in 1386. They had
previously assembled in Guildhall.
WARRANTS, GENERAL, do not specify the name of the accused. They were declared
to be illegal and unconstitutional by lord chief justice Pratt, Dec. 6, 1763, in relation to the
seizure and committal of Mr. Wilkes to the Tower for a libel on the king. After the
decision of the court of common pleas in favour of Wilkes, he brought an action against Ion;
Halifax, then secretary of state, and recovered 4000Z. damages. Wilkes laid his damages at
20,000/., Nov. 10, 1769.
WARRIOR. See under Navy of England.
WARSAW, the metropolis of Poland. The diet was transferred to this city from
Cracow in 1566, and it became tho scat of government in 1689. Population in 1859, 162,777.
See Poland, 1861-5, for recent events.
Alliance of Warsaw, between Austria and 30,000 Poles, of all ages and conditions, in
Poland, against Turkey, in pursuance of cold blood Nov. 4,
which John Sobieski assisted in raising tho Warsaw constituted a duchy and annexed to -
siege of Vienna (on the 18th of September the house of Saxony .... Aug. .£
following), signed . . . . March 31, 1683 The duchy overrun by tho Russians; Warsaw
Warsaw surrenders to Charles XII. . . . 1703 made the residence of a Russian viceroy rSi;
Treaty of Warsaw, between Russia and Poland, Tho last Polish revolution commences at War
Feb. 24, 1768 saw ....... Nov. 29,
The Russian garrison placed here in 1794; Battle of Grochow, near Warsaw, in which tho
expelled by the citizens with the loss of 2000 Russians wore defeated, and forced to retreat
killed and 500 wounded, and 36 pieces of with the loss of 7000 men . . . Feb. 25,
cannon April 17, 1794 Battle of Warsaw, when, after two days* hard
Tho Poles defeated by the Russians at Macicjo fighting, the city capitulated, and was taken
vice ...... Oct. 4, „ possession of by the Russians ; and great part
The king of Prussia besieges Warsaw, July ; of tho Polish army retired towards Plock and
compelled to raise the siege, Sept. ; it is Modlin Sept. 6-8,
taken by the Russians . . . Nov. The czar meets the emperor of Austria and the
Suwarrow, the Russian general, after the siege regent of Prussia ; no result . Oct. 20-25,
and destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered
WAS 776 WAT
WASHINGTON (in Columbia district, partly in Virginia and Maryland, on the bank of
the Potomac, N.-E. of Virginia), the capital of the United States, founded in 1791, and made
the seat of government in 1800. The house of representatives was opened for the first time,
May 30, 1808. Washington was taken in the late war by the British forces under general
Ross, when all its superb national structures were consumed by a general conflagration, the
troops not sparing even the national library, Aug. 24, 1814. General Ross was soon after
wards killed by some American riflemen, in a desperate engagement at Baltimore, Sept. 12,
following. — Part of the capitol and the whole of the library of the United States' congress
were destroyed by firo, Dec. 24, 1851. The prince of Wales was entertained by the president
here in Sept. i860. See United Stales. Washington was fortified in April, 1861, against the
Confederates.
WASIUM (named from tho royal house of Wasa or Vasa), a supposed new metal, dis
covered by F. Bahr, of Stockholm, in 1682. In Nov., 1863 Nickles declared it to be a com
pound of didymium, yttrium, and terbium.
WASTE LANDS. Tho inelosure of waste lands and commons, in order to promote
agriculture, first began in England about the year 1547, and gave rise to Ket's rebellion,
1549. Inclosures were again promoted by the authority of parliament, 1785. The waste
lands in England were estimated in 1794 to amount to 14 millions of acres, of which there
were takon into cultivation, 2,837,476 acres before June, 1801. In 1841, there were about
6,700,000 acres of waste land, of which more than half was thought to be capable of
improvement. See Agriculture.
WATCH or London, at night, appointed 1253, proclaimed the hour with a bell before
the introduction of public clocks. Ilardie. The old watch was discontinued, and a new
police (on duty day and night) commenced, Sept. 29, 1829. See Police.
WATCHES are said to have been first invented at Nuremberg, 1477, although it is
affirmed that Robert, king of Scotland, had a watch about 13 10.
Watches first used in astronomical observations , ghons by the Dutch. Dr. Derham, in his
by Purbach . 1500 Artificial Clocl maktr, says that Dr. Hooke
Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was was the inventor : and ho appears certainly
the first who had anything that might be to have produced what is called the pendu-
called a watch,' though some call it a small lum watch about 1658 ; manifest, among
table-clock 1530 other evidences, from an inscription on one
Watches first brought to England from Gor- of the doublo-balancc watches presented to
many In 157; Charles II., "Bob. Hooko, invon. 1658; T.
A watch which bolon^ed to queen Elizabeth in | Tompion fecit, 1675."
preserved in the library of the Royal Institu- | Repeating watches Invented by Barlowe . . 1676
tion, London. . Harrison's first time-piece produced . . . 1735
Spring pocket-watches (watches properly so- I Watches and clocks were taxed in 1797
called) have had their invention ascribed to The tax was repealed in 1798. See Clocii.
Dr. Hooko by tho English, and to M. Huy-
WATER. Thales of Miletus, founder of the Ionic sect, considered water to be the
original principle of everything, about 594 B.C. Stanley. In the Roman church, water was
first mixed with the sacramental wine, a.d. 122. Lenglet. Cavendish and Watt, in 1781,
demonstrated that water is composed of 8 parts of oxygen and 1 part of hydrogen. In
freezing, water contracts till it is reduced to 420 or 40° Fahr. ; it then begins to expand till
it becomes ice at 32°. —Water was first conveyed to London by leaden pipes, 21 Hen. III.
1237. Stow. It took nearly fifty years to complete it ; the whole being finished, and
Cheapside conduit erected, only in 1285. The New River water was brought to London
from Amwell in Hertfordshire, at an immense expense, by sir Hugh Myddelton, in 1613.
The city was supplied with its water by conveyances of wooden pipes in the streets and small
leaden ones to the houses, and the New River Company was incorporated, 1620. So late
as queen Anne's time there were water-carriers at Aldgate pump. London is now supplied
by eight companies :—The New River, East London, Chelsea, Grand Junction, Southwark
and Vauxhall, Kent, Lambeth, and West Middlesex. The water-works at Chelsea were
completed, and the company incorporated, 1722. London-bridge ancient water-works were
destroyed by fire, Oct. 29, 1779. An act to supply the metropolis with water, 15 & 16 Vict,
c. 84, was passed July 1, 1852. Tho supply is now considered to be much improved in
quality and quantity. In Jan. 1857, a company was formed to carry out Dr. Normandy's
patent for converting salt water into fresh. See Artesian Wells.
WATER-CLOCKS. See Clocks.
WATER-COLOUR TAINTING was gradually raised from the hard dry stylo of the last
WAT 770 WAT
century, to its present brilliancy, by the efforts of Nicholson, Copley, Fielding, Varley, the
great Turner, Pyne, Cattermole, Trout, &.<:., within the present century. The exhibition
was founded in 1805.
AVATER-GLASS, a name given to a liquid mixture of sand (silex) and one of the alkalies
(potash or soda). Glauber (De Liihiase) mentions a similar mixture in 1644. Dr. Von
Fuchs, the modern inventor, gave an account of his process in 1825 ; and Mr. Frederick
Ransom of Ipswich, ignorant of Von Fuchs' discovery, patented a mode of preparing water-
glass in 1845, which ne has since greatly improved upon. In 1857, M. Kuhlmann of Lille
published a pamphlet setting forth the advantageous employment of water-glass in hardening
porous stone and in stereochromy (which sec). It has been applied to the exterior of many
buildings in France and England. The memoirs of Von Fuchs and Kuhimanu were
translated and printed in England in 1859 by direction of the prince consort.
WATER-MILLS, used for grinding corn, arc said to have been iuvented by Belisarins,
the general of Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, 555. The ancients parched
their corn, and pounded it in mortars. Afterwards mills were invented, which were turned
by men and beasts with great labour ; yet Pliny mentions wheels turned by water.
WATER TOFANA. See Poisoning.
WATERFORD (S. Ireland), built 879, was totally destroyed by fire in 981. Rebuilt and
considerably enlarged by Strongbow in 1 171, and still further in the reign of Henry VII.,
who granted considerable privileges to the citizens. Richard II. landed and was crowned
here in 1399; in 1690, James II. embarked from hence for France, after the battle of the
Boyne ; and William III. resided here twice, and confirmed its privileges. Memorable
storm here, April 18, 1792. The cathedral of Waterford, dedicated to the blessed Trinity,
was first built by the Ostmen, and by Malchus, the first bishop of Waterford, after his
return from England from his consecration, 1096. This see was united with that of Lismore
in 1363. It was valued in the king's books, by an extent returned 29 Henry VIII., at
72/. 8s. id. Irish per annum. By stat. 3 & 4 Will. IV. the see of Waterford and Lismore
was united by the Irish Church Temporalities act with the see of (,'ashel and Emly, Aug. 14,
1833. The interior of the cathedral, organ, &c, were destroyed by fire, Oct. 25, 1815.
WATERLOO, in Belgium, the site of the great battle on the 18th of June, 1815, between
the French army, of 71,947 men and 246 gUDs», under Napoleon, and the allies, commanded
by the duke of Wellington ; the latter, with 67,661 men and 156 guns, resisted the various
attacks of the enemy from nine in the morning until five in the afternoon. About that time,
16,000 Prussians reached the field of battle ; and by seven, the force nnder Blucher amounted
to above 50,000 men, with 104 guns. Wellington then moved forward his whole army. A
total rout ensued, and the carnage was immense. Of the British (23,991), 93 officers and
1916 men were killed and missing, and 363 officers and 4560 men wounded : total 6932 ; and
the total loss of the allied army amounted to 4206 killed, 14,539 wounded, and 4231 missing,
making 22,976 hors de combat. Napoleon, quitting the wreck of his flying army, returned
to Paris ; and finding it impossible to raise another, abdicated the throne of France.
P. Nicholas.*
WATERLOO BRIDGE, London. A bridge over this part of the Thames was repeatedly
suggested during the last century, but no actual preparations to carry it into effect were made
till 1806, when Mr. G. Dodd procured an act of parliament, and gave the present site, plan,
and dimensions of the bridge ; but, in consequence of some disagreement with the com
mittee, he was superseded by Mr. Rennie, who completed this noble structure. It was
commenced Oct. 11, 1811, and finished June 18, 1817, on the anniversary of the battle of
AVaterloo, when the prince regent, the duke of Wellington, and other distinguished
personages, were present at the opening. Its length within the abutments is 1242 feet : its
width within the balustrades is 42 feet ; and the span of each arch, of which there are nine,
is 120 feet.t
• It ia an historical fact, that the British forces have been twice signally successful over those of
France on the same ground—Waterloo ; and that by tho side of the very chapel of Waterloo, which was
remarked for being uninjured by ahot or shell on the memorable 18th of June, 1815, did Marlborough cut
off a largo diviaion of tho French forcea opposed to him on the 17th of August, 170s. It ia no less a fact,
that the conquerors of each of those days, on the same field, arc the only commanders in the British
service whose military career brought them to the summit of the peorago—to dukedoma.
t On Oct. 9, 1857, two youths, named Kilaby, found on one of the abutments of the bridge a carpet
bag containing human bones and flesh, which had been cut up, aaltcd, and boiled, and some foreign
clothes. After much invt-atigation no cluo could be found respecting the name of the individual, and the
remains were interred in Woking cemetery.
WAT 777 WEE
WATERSPOUT. Two waterspouts fell on the Glatz mountains in Germany, and caused
dreadful devastation to Hautenbach and many other villages ; many persons perished,
July 13, 1827. A waterspout at Glanflesk, near Killarney, in Ireland, passed over a farm of
Mr. John Macarthv, destroying farm-houses and other buildings ; seventeen persons perished,
Aug. 4, 1831. Tile estimated length of one seen near Calcutta, Sept. 27, 1855, was 1000
feet. It lasted ten minutes, and was absorbed upwards. One seen on Sept. 24, 1856,
burst into heavy rain.
WATLING STREET. See Roman Roads.
WAVE PRINCIPLE (in accordance with which the curves of the hull of a ship should
be adapted to the curves of a wave of the sea) formed the subject of experiments begun by
Mr. Jolin Scott Russell in 1832, with the view of increasing the speed of ships. Colonel
Beaufoy is said to have spent 30,000?. in researches upon this matter. It was also taken up
by the British Association, who have published reports of the investigations. The principle
has been adopted by naval architects.
WAVERLEY NOVELS. The publication of the series began with "Waverley; or,
'Tis Sixty Years Since," in 1814, and closed with "Tales of my Landlord," fourth series, in
1831. The authorship was acknowledged by sir Walter Scott, at a dinner, Feb. 23, 1827.
WAWZ, or Wawer (Poland). The Poles under Skrzynecki attacked the Russians at
Wawz, and after two days' hard fighting, all the Russians' positions were carried by storm,
and they compelled to retreat with the loss of 12,000 men and 2000 prisoners, March 31,
1831. The loss of the Poles was small ; but their triumph was followed by defeat and
ruin.
WAX came into nse for candles in the 12th century ; and wax candles were esteemed a
luxury in 1300, being but little used. In China, candles of vegetable wax have been in use
for centuries. See Candhberry. The wax tree, Ligustrum lucidum, was brought from
China before 1794.— Sealino-wax was not brought into use in England, until about 1556.
Its use has been almost superseded by the introduction of adhesive envelopes, about 1844.
WE. Sovereigns generally use we for /, which style began with king John, 1 199. Coke.
The German emperors and French kings used the plural about 1200.
WEATHER. See Meteorology.
WEAVING appears to have been practised in China more than a thousand years before
it was known in Europe or Asia. The Egyptians ascribed the art to Isis ; the Greeks to
Minerva ; and the Peruvians to the wife of Mauco Capac. Our Saviour's vest, or coat, had
not any seam, being woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. The print of a
frame for weaving such a vest may be seen in Calmcl's Dictionary under the word Vestments.
Two weavers from Brabant settled at York, where they manufactured woollens, which, says
king Edward, " may prove of great benefit to us and our subjects," 133 1. Flemish dyers,
cloth drapers, linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &c, settled at Canterbury, Norwich, Colchester,
Southampton, and other places, on account of the duke of Alva's persecution, 1567. See
Loom and Electric Loom.
WEDGWOOD WARE, pottery and porcelain, produced by Mr. Josiah Wedgwood of
Staffordshire, in 1762. His potteries, termed Etruria, were founded in 1 77 1 . Previously to
1 763, much earthenware was imported from France and Hollaud.
WEDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week, so called from the Saxon idol Woden or
Odin, worshipped on this day. " Woden was the reputed author of magic and the inventor
of all the arts, and was thought to answer to the Mercury of the Greeks and Romans."
Butler.
WEEDON INQUIRY (Northamptonshire). Commissioners were appointed to inquire
into the accounts of Mr. Elliot, superintendent of the great military clothing establishment,
at this place in July, 1858, and commenced sitting in September. Many of the statements,
afterwards disputed, caused much dissatisfaction.
WEEK. The space of seven days, supposed to be first used among the Jews, who
observed the sabbath every seventh day. They had three sorts of weeks, the first the
common one of seven days, the second of years, which was seven years, the third of seven
WEI 778 WEL
times seven years, at the end of which was the jubilee, All the present English names are
derived from the Saxon :—
Latin. English. Saxon.
Dies Solis, Day of the Sun, Sunday, Sun's day.
Dies Lunsa, Day of the Moon, Monday, Moon's day.
Dies Martis, Day of Mara, Tuesday, Tiw'a day.
Dies Mercurii, Day of Mercury, Wednesday, Woden's day.
Dies Juvis, Day of Jupiter, Thursday, Thor's day.
Dies Veneris, Day of Venus, Friday, Friga"s day.
Dies Saturni, Day of Saturn, Saturday, Saterue's day.
WEIGHTS and Measures. These and the stamping of gold and silver money, were
invented by Phcidon, tyrant of Argos, 895, B.C. el seq. Arundelian Marbles. Weights
were orginally taken from grains of wheat, the lowest being still called a grain. Chalmers.
The standard measure was originally kept at Win Weights and measures ordered to be examined by
chester by the law of king Edgar, 972. the justices at quarter-sessions, 35 Geo. III. 1794.
Standards of weights and measures were provided Again regulated, 1800.
for the whole kingdom of England by the sheriffs of Statute for establishing a uniformity of weights
London, 9 Rich. I. 1197. and measures, 1824, took place throughout the
A public weighing-machine was set up in London, United Kingdom, Jan. 1, 1826.
and all commodities ordered to be weighed by the New acts relating thereto passed in 1834, 1S35.
city-officer, called the weigh-niaster, who was to do
1855, and lastly in 1859.
justice between buyer and seller, stat. 3 Edw. II. 16 & 17 Vict. c. 29, regulates the weights to be
{Stow) 1309. used in the sale of bullion, and adopts the use of
Edward III. ordered that there should be "one the Troy ounce, 1853.
weight, measure and yard," throughout the king A committee of tho house of commons recom
dom, i3S3. mended that the decimal system should be leira-
First statute, directing the use of avoirdupois lised, but not made compulsory until sanctioned by
weight, of 24 Hen. VIII. 1532. general approval, 1862.
See Standard ; and Metrical System,
WEIMAR (termed the Athens of Germany), capital of the grand-duchy of Saxe Weimar,
is celebrated as having been the residence of the German classic writers, Schiller, Goethe,
Herder, and Wieland : the grand-dukes having been eminent patrons of literature. The
city became important in the 15th century, and suffered in the German wars.
WELLINGTON ADMINISTRATION, succeeded that of Viscount Godcrich, Jan. 1828,
and resigned Nov. 16, 1830.
Duke of Wellington, first lord ofthe treasury. Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor.
Mr. Henry Goulburn, chanctlhr of the exchequer. Mr. Huskisson, earl Dudley, viscount Palmerston,
Earl Bathurst, president of the council. and Mr. Grant quitted the ministry, and various
Lord Ellenborough, privy seal. changes followed in May and June same year.
Mr. (afterwards sir) Robert Pool, carl Dudley, and The earl of Aberdeen and sir George Murray became,
Mr. Wm. Huskisson, homt, foreign, and colonial respectively, foreign and colonial secretaries.
secretaries. Sir Henry Hardinge, secretary-at-tear.
Viscount Melville, board of control. Mr. Vesey Pitegerald (afterwards lord Fitzgxsrald).
Mr. Charles Grant, board of trade. India board.
Lord Palmerston, secretary-at war. Lord Lowther,j(rj( commissionei'oflandrercnius, 4c,
Mr. Herries, master of the mint. May and Juno, 1828.
Earl of Aberdeen, duchy of Lancaster. Mr. Arbuthnot, Mr. Vcsey Fitzgerald, Ac.
WELLINGTON COLLEGE, Sandhurst, was erected by subscription in memory of the
great duke of Wellington. It was instituted for the support and education of the orphan
children of soldiers. The first stone was laid by the queen on June 2, 1856 ; and the
building was opened by her majesty on June 29, 1859. Out of the 159,000/. subscribed,
55,oooZ. were expended on the building and the rest invested for tho maintenance of the
institution.
WELLINGTONS GIGANTEA, the largest tree in the world, a native of California,
was discovered by Mr. Lobb in 1853, and first described by Dr. John Lindley. When full
grown it is about 450 feet high, and 1 16 feet in circumference.
WELLINGTON'S VICTORIES, &c. For details, see separate articles.
Arthur Wellesley was born, according to some Becomes secretary for Ireland .... 1S07
authorities in March ; to others May 1, 1769 Takes the command in Portugal, defeats Junot
Appointed to command in tho Mahratta war in at Vimeira Aug. ar, iSc-5
India ; takes Poonah and Ahmednuggur, Defeats Victor at Talavora, July 28 ; created
Aug. 12 ; and gains his first victory at Assaye, viscount Wellington . . . Sept. 4.
Sept. 23 ; defeats Bcindiah at Argaum, Nov. ;
and at Gawalghur , . . Dec. 13, 1803 Repulses Massena at Busaco, Sept. 27 ; and
occupies the lines at Torres Vedras Oct. 10, iSxc
WEL WES
WELLINGTON'S VICTORIES, continued.
Defeats Massena at Fuentes d'Ouore, May 5 ; designed by Stothard, commemorating all
takea Almeida May 10, 1811 the above-mentioned victories, presented to
Storms Ciudad Rodrigo, Jan. ig ; and Badajos, the duke by the merchants and bankers of
April 6; defeats Marmont at Salamanca, London. (It was manufactured by Green
July 23 ; enters Madrid . . Aug. 12, 1812 and Ward, and cost 11,000/.) . Feb. 16, 18^2
Defeats Joseph Bonaparte and Jourdan at The duko appointed commander-in-chief, Jan.
Vittoria, June 21 ; storms St. Sebastian, 22; resigns April 30, 18.-7
Aug. 31 ; enters France . . Oct. 8, 1813 Becomes first minister .... Jan. 1S28
Defeats Soult at Orthez, Feb. 27 ; and at Tou Aids in carrying the Catholic Emancipation bill,
louse . April 10, 1814 April, 1829
Created duke of Wellington, with an annuity of Asserts that no reform in parliament is needed,
13,000?. and a grant of 300,000/. . . May, 1814 Nov. 2; resigns .... Nov. 16, 1830
Commands the army in the Netherlands ; re Transacts all the business of the country after
pulses an attack of Key at Quatre Bras, tho resignation of lord Melbourne, till the
June 16 ; defeats Napoleon at Waterloo, arrival of sir R. Peel from Italy, Nov. ; and
June 18; invests Paris . . . July 3, 1815 becomos foreign secretary under sir R. Peel,
Commands tho army of occupation in France, Dec. 1834; resigns .... April, 1835
1815 till Nov. 1818 Dies at Walmer c tstle . Sept. 14. 1852
Uis assassination attempted by Cantillon, who His body removed to Chelsea hospital, where
escapes Feb. 10, „ it lay in state Nov. iof
Appointed master-general of the ordnanco . . 1819 Removed to the Horse Guards . Nov. 17, ,,
The Wellington shield and supporting columns Public funeral at St. Paul's cathedral* Nov. 18, ,,
WELLS BISHOPRIC (in Somerset). The cathedral church was huilt by Ina, king of
the West Saxons, 704, and by him dedicated to St. Andrew. Several other of tho West
Saxon kings endowed it, and it was erected into a bishopric in 909, during the reign of king
Edward the Elder. The present church was begun by Robert, the iSth bishop of this sec,
and completed by his immediate successor. The first bishop of Wells was JSthelm or
Adelmus (afterwards bishop of Canterbury). Ikatson. The see was united with Bath
(which sec) in 1088,
WENDS, a branch of the Slavonic family which spread over Germany in the 6th
century, and settled especially in the north-eastern parts.
WESLEYAN METHODISTS, a large Christian sect founded by John Wesley (born 1703,
died 1 791) and his brother Charles, who in 1727 with a few other students formed themselves
into a small society for the purpose of mutual edification in religious exercises. On account
of their strictness of life they were called Methodists, in 1729 (as living according to the
methods laid down in the Bible). John Wesley went to Georgia in America, in 1735, with
a view of converting the Indians. On his return to England, in 1738, he commenced
itinerant preaching, and gathered many followers. On finding the churches shut against
him, he built spacious meeting-houses in London, Bristol, and other places. For some time
he was united with George Whitefield ; but differences arising on account of the doctrine of
election, which Wesley rejected, they separated in 1 741. (Sec Whitefield.) Wesley was
almost continually engaged in travelling through tho United Kingdom. His society was
well organised, and he preserved his influence over it to the last. " His genius for govern
ment was not inferior to that of Richelieu." Macaulay. In 1851 there were 428 circuits in
Great Britain, with between 13,000 and 14,000 local or lay preachers, and about 920
itinerant preachers, and 6579 chapels.t The 117th annual conference met in London on
July 26, i860.
* A multitude of all ranks, estimated at a million and a half of persona, were congregated in the line
of routo, a distance of three mil^s, to witness and share in the imposing spectacle. The military consisted
of the household regiments of horse and foot guards, the 2nd battalion of tho Rifles, a battalion of
the Royal Marines, the 33rd rogiment, the 17th T^ancers, and the 18th Light Dragoons, with the regiment
of Scots Greys. There were besides, a body of Chelsea pensioners, and men of different arms of the Kast
India Company. The body was placed, early in the morning of the iSth, by means of muchincry, upon a
lofty and sumptuous funeral car (which science had contributed to complete), drawn by twelve horses
richly caparisoned, and the coffin was thus seen by tho whole of the crowd. The procession moved about
seven o'clock, and it was three o'clock before the body was lowered into the vault beside the remains of
Nelson, under the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral. In 1857 a number of models for the tomb were exhibited
in Westminster Hall ; none was chosen. The stone sarcophagus, completed in 1858, cost 1100Z.
t The Conference, the highest Wesleyan court, is composed of 100 ministers, who meet annually. It
was instituted by John Wesley in 1784. At the centenary of the existence of Methodism, 216,000?. were
collected, to be expended in the objects of the society. Out of the original connection have seceded :—
Chapels in 1851. Chapels in 1851.
New Connection fin 1796) 3°' I Wesleyan Methodist Association Ci 834) . . 339
Wesleyan Methodist Reformers (1849J. . 2000
Primitive Methodists ( 1 8ro) . . . .2871
Biblo Christians, or Bryanites (1815) . . 403
Tho last arose out of the publication of "Fly Sheets," advocating reform in the body. Tho suspected
authors and their friends were expelled. By these disruptions the main body is thought to have lost
100,000 members. -This sect in America numbered about a million in 1844, when a division took placo on
the slavery question.
WES 780 WHS
WESSEX. Sec Britain.
WEST INDIES, islands discovered by Columbus, St. Salvador being tbe first land he
made in the New World, and first seen by him in the night between the nth and I2th Oct.
1492. The largest are Cuba, Hayti (or St. Domingo), Jamaica, Porto Rico, Trinidad, and
1 Suudaloupe. See tJie Islands respectively.
WEST SAXONS. See Wessex in Britain.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA, formerly Swan River Settlement, which was projected
by colonel Peel in 1828. Regulations issued from the colonial office, and captain Stirling,
appointed lieutenant governor, Jan. 17, 1829, arrived at the appointed site in August fol
lowing. The three towns of Perth, Freemantle, and Guildford were founded same year. In
March 1830, fifty ships, with 2000 emigrants, with property amounting to 1 ,000,000/. , had
arrived before hardly any dwellings had been erected or land surveyed. The more energetic
settlers loft for home or the neighbouring colonies, and the colony languished for twenty
years for want of suitable inhabitants—the first settlers, from their previous habits and rank
in life, proving unable for the rough work of colonisation. In 1848, the colonists requested
that convicts might be sent out to them, and in 1849 a band arrived, who were kindly
received and well treated. The best results ensued. By 1853, 2000 had arrived, and the
inhabitants of Perth had requested that 1000 should be sent out annually. The reception
of convicts is to cease in after years, in consequence of the energetic opposition of the other
Australian colonies (1865). —The settlement at King George's Sound was founded in 1826 by
the government of New South Wales. It was used as a military station for four years. In
1830, the home government ordered the settlement to be transferred to Swan River. Since
the establishment of steam communication, the little town of Albany here, employed as a
coaling station, has become a thriving sea-port. It possesses an excellent harbour, used by
whalers. A journal called the Frcemanlle Gazette was published here in March 1831.
Population of West Australia in 1859, 14,837 ; Dec. 1S61, 15.555. Governor, John Stephen
Hampton, appointed 1861.
WESTERN CHURCH (called also the Latin* or Roman) broke off communion with
the Greek or Eastern Church, 653. (See Greek Church.) The history of the Western
Church is mainly comprised in that of the Popes and of the several European kingdoms.
(See Popes.) This church was disturbed by the Arian heresy about 345 and 500 ; and by
the Pelagian about 409 ; by the introduction of image-worship about 600 ; by the injunction
of the celibacy of the clergy and the rise of the monastic orders about 649 ; by the contents
between the emperors and the popes respecting ecclesiastical investitures between 1073 and
"73 ! by the rlse am' progress of the Reformation in the 15th and 16th centuries ; by
the contests between the Jesuits aud Jansenists in the 17th and 1 8th centuries ; aud by
the progress of modern philosophy and rationalism in the 19th. See Roman Catholics.
WESTERN EMPIRE. The Roman empire was first divided into Eastern and Western
by Diocletian in a.d. 296 ; but was reunited under Constans in 340. It was again divided
into Eastern ami Western by Valentinian and Valens, of whom the former had the Western
portion, or Rome, properly so called, 364. Sec Eastern Empire, Italy and Rome.
RULERS Or THE WESTERN EMPIRE.
364. Valentinian, son of Gratian, takes tbe Wostcrn, daughter of Theodosius the Great : murdered
and his brother Valens tbe Eastern empire. at the instance of his successor,
367. Gratian, a youth, son of Valentinian, made a 455. Maximus : be marries Eudoxia, widow of
colleague in tho governmeut by bis father. Valentinian, who, to avenge the death of her
375. Valentinian Ii., another son, also very young, first husband and the guilt of her second.
is, on tho death of his father, associated with invites the African Vandals into Italy, and
his brother in the empire. Gratian is assassi Home is sacked. Maxinms stoned 10 death.
nated by his genoral, Andrigathius, in 383. 455. Marcus Majcilius Avitus : forced to resigu, and
Valentinian murdered by one of his officers, dies in his flight towards the Alps.
Arbogastcs, in 393. 457. Julius Valerius M.ijorianus : murdered at the
392. Eugenius, a usurper, assumes tbe imperial instance of his minister, Ricimer, who raise*
dignity : ho and Arlx»^astes are defeated by 461. Libius Severus to the throne, but holds the
Theodosius the Great, who becomes sole Bupreme power. Severua is poisoned by
emperor. Ricimer.
[ Andragathius throws himself into the sea, and 465. [Interregnum. Ricimer retains the authority,
Arbogastes dies by his own hand.] wirhout assuming the title of empettjr. J
395. Honoriua, son of Theodosius, reigns, on his 467. Anthcmius, chosen by the joint suffrages of the
father's death, in the West, aud his brother senate and army : murdered by Ricimer,
Arcadlus in the East. Honorius dies in 423. who dios Boon after.
'Usurpation of John, the Nntary, who is de 472. Flavius-Anicius Olybrius : slain by the Goths
feated and slain noar Ravenna] soon after his accession.
435. Valentinian III., son of the cmpross Placidia, 473. Glyccrius : forced to abdicate by hli successor,
WES 781 WES
WESTERN EMPIRE, continued.
474. Julius Nepos : deposed by his general, Orestes, 476. Odoacer, king of the Horuli : takes Rome,
and retires to Salunoa. assumes the style of king of Italy, and com
475- Romulus (called Augustulus, or Little pletes the fall of the Western empire.
Aujruatus), 80n 01 Orestes. Orestes is slain, See Jla ly, Rome, and Germany.
and the emperor deposed by
WESTMINSTER. A city so called on account of its western situation in respect to
St. Paul's cathedral, or from there being formerly a monastery named East Minster, on tho
hill now called Great Tower-hill. This city joins London at Temple-bar. Formerly
Westminster was called Thorncy, or Thorney Island : and in ancient times Canute had a
palace here, which was burnt in 1263. We&tminster and London were one mile asunder so
late as 1603, when tho houses were thatched, and there were mud walls in the Strand. It
is said that the great number of Scotsmen who came over after the accession of James I.
occasioned the building of Westminster, and united it with London. HoweTs Londinopolis.
See Palace of Westminster and Parliament.
WESTMINSTER ABBEY. The miraculous stories concerning this pile of buildings
were questioned by sir Christopher Wren, who was employed to survey the present edifice,
and who, upon close examination, found nothing to countenance the belief that it was
erected on the ruins of a pagan temple. Historiaus have fixed the era of the first abbey in
the 6th century, and ascribed to Sebert the honour of erecting it.
The church becoming ruinous was splendidly bears his name, the first stone of which was
rebuilt by Edward the Confessor (1055-65) laid ...... Jan. 24, 1503-3
and filled with monks from Exeter. (Pope The abbey dissolved and made a bishopric,
Nicholas II. constituted it the place for the 1 541 ; finally made a collegiate church by
inauguration of the kings of England ) De Elizabeth 1560
dicated Dec. 28, 1065 Made a barrack for soldiers, July 1643. Mer-
Tho church once more built in a magnificent curiut Raxticus.
and beautiful style by Henry III. about . 1220 The great west window and the western towers
In the reigns of Edward II. Edward III and rebuilt m the reignR of George I. and II. 1714 60
Richard II. tho Rroat cloisters, abbot's house, The choir injured by fire . . . July 9, 1803
and the principal monastic buildings, were Mr. Wyatt commenced restoring the dilapidated
erected. parta at an expense of 42,000/. iu . . . 1809
The western parts of the nave and aisles re A fire, without any serious injury April 27, 1829
built between .... 1340 and 1483 The evening services for the working classes,
The west front and the great window were when a sermon was preached by the dean,
built by the rival princes Richard III. and Dr Trench, commenced on . Jan. 3, 1858
Henry VII. ; and it was the latter monarch The Sooth anniversary of the foundation cele
who commenced tho beautiful chapel which brated Dec. 28, 1865
"WESTMINSTER Bishopric and Deanery. At the dissolution of monasteries, "West
minster abbey was valued at 3977J. per annum ; king Henry VIII. in 1539. erected it into
a deanery ; and in 1541 he erected it into a bishopric, and appointed John Thirleby prelate.
But he, having wasted tho patrimony allotted by the king for the support of the see, was
translated to Norwich in 1550, and with him ended the bishopric of Westminster ; Middle
sex was the diocese, being restored to London. The dean continued to preside until tho
accession of Mary, who restored the abbot ; but Elizabeth displaced the abbot, and erected
the abbey into a collegiate church of a dean and twelve prebendaries, as it still continues.
On the revival of the order of the Bath, in 1725, the dean of Westminster was appointed
dean of that order, which honour has been continued; Dr. Nicholas Wiseman was created
archbishop of Westminster by the pope Pius IX. in Sept. 30, 1850. See Papal Aggression.
WESTMINSTER BRIDGES. The old bridge was accounted one of the most beautiful
bridges in the world. It was begun (after a design of M. Labelye), Sept. 13, 1738; the
first stone was laid Jan. 29, 1738-9 ; and it was opened for passengers Nov. 17, 1750 ; cost
426,650/. It was built of Portland stone, and crosses the river where the breadth is 1223
feet. Owing to the sinking of several of its piers, most of the balustrade on both sides
was removed, to relieve the structure of its weight. — By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 46 (Aug. 4, 1853),
the estates of its commissionel's were transferred to her majesty's commissioners of works,
who were empowered to remove the then existing bridge, and build a new bridge (near the
old one), which was shortly after begun. The contract required the completion of the works
by June 1, 1857. The driving of the first elm pile commenced on July 3, and the driving
of the iron piles and plates in September. The works were suspended for a time, in con-
squence of the failure of Messrs. Mare the contractors. The government eventually
undertook the building, which they entrusted to Mr. Thomas Page, the engineer. One
half of the new bridge was opened for use early in i860 ; tho whole on May 24, 1862.
WES 7S2
WESTMINSTER Confession- of Faith and Catechisms were drawn up by the
" Assembly of Divines," (partly consisting of laymen) who sat by authority of parliament in
Henry VII. 's chapel, Westminster, from 1643 to 1647. These have ever since been the
doctrinal standards of Scotch Presbyterians.
WESTMINSTER HALL, London. One of the most venerable remains of English
architecture, first built by William Rufus in 1097, for a banqueting-hall ; and here in 1099,
on his return from Normandy, " be kept his feast of Whitsuntide very royally." The hall
became ruinous before the reign of Richard II. who repaired it in 1397, raised the walls,
altered tbo windows, and added a new roof, as well as a stately porch and other buildings.
In 1236, Hunry III. on New-year's day caused 6000 poor persons to be entertained in this
hall, and in the other rooms of his palace, as a celebration of queen Eleanor's coronation ;
and here Richard II. held his Christmas festival in 1397, when the number of the guests
each day the J feast lasted was 10,000. Slow. Tho courts of law were established here by
king John. Idem. Westminster hall was stated to be the largest room in Europe unsup
ported by pillars : it is 270 feet in length, 74 feet broad. The hall underwent a general
repair in 1802. Concurrently with the erection of the palace of Westminster, many
improvements and alterations have lately been made in this magnificent hall. The Volun
teer Rifle corps were drilled in the hall in the winter of 1859.
WESTMINSTER PALACE. See under Palace of Westminster and Parliament
WESTMINSTER SCHOOL, London, was founded by queen Elizabeth in 1560, for the
education of forty boys, denominated tho Queen's scholars, who arc prepared for the
university. It is situated within the walls of the abbey, and is separated into two schools
or divisions, comprising seven forms or classes. Besides the scholars on the foundation,
many of the nobility and gentry send their sons to Westminster for instruction. A proposal
in 1S60 to remove the school was disapproved of in 1861.
WESTMORELAND. This county and Cumberland were granted as a fief to Malcolm of
Scotland by Edward the Elder in 945 ; and resumed by Henry III. in 1237. Neville, earl
of Westmoreland, revolted against Elizabeth in 1569, and was attainted in 1570.
WESTPHALIA (Germany). This duchy belonged in former times to the dukes of
Saxony, and afterwards became subject to the archbishop of Cologne. On the secularisation
of 1802, it was made over to Hesse Darmstadt ; and in 1814, was ceded for an equivalent
to Piiissia. The kingdom of Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of Bonaparte,
composed of conquests from Prussia, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states to the
west of Elbe, was created Dec. 1, 1807, and Jerome Bonaparte appointed king. Hanover
was annexed to it, March I, 1810. The kingdom of Westphalia was abolished m 1813, and
the countries restored to their former rulers.
WESTPHALIA, or Munsteb, Peace of, signed at Munster and at Osnaburg, between
France, the emperor, and Sweden ; Spain continuing the war against France. By this peace
the principle of a balance of power in Europe was first recognised ; Alsace given to France,
and part of Pomerania and some other districts to Sweden ; the Elector Palatine restored to
tbo Lower Palatinate ; the religious and political rights of the German States established ;
and the independence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by Germany, Oct. 24, 1648.
WHALE-FISHERY, it is said, was first carried on by the Norwegians so early as 837.
Lenglet. Whales were killed at Newfoundland and Iceland for their oil only till 1578 ; the
use of their fins and bones was not yet known, consequently (a writer quaintly adds) no
stays were worn by the ladies. The English whale-fishing commenced at Spitsbergen in
1598; but the Dutch had been previously fishing there. The fishery was much promoted
by an act of parliament passed in 1749. From 1800 to 2000 whales have been killed
annually on the coast of Greenland, &c. The quantity of whale-oil imported in 1814 was
33,567 tuns. The quantity in 1826, when gas-light became general, was reduced to 25,000
tuns ; so that the consumption of oil had become, on this account, greatly diminished. In
1840 the quantity was about 22,000 tuns ; in 1850, 21,360 tuns ; in 1861, 19,176 tuns ; in
1864, 14,701 tuns.
WHEAT. The Chinese ascribe to their emperor, Ching-Noung, who succeeded Fohi, the
art of husbandry, and method of making bread from wheat, about 2000 years before the
Christian era. Wheat was introduced into Britain in the 6th century, by Coll ap Coll
Frewi. Roberts. The first wheat imported into England of which we have a note was in
1347. Various statutes have regulated the sales of wheat, and restrained its importation,
thereby to encourage its being raised at home. Imported into the United Kingdom in 1S54,
2.656,455 <lrs- of wheat, and 6,329,038 cwts. of flour; in 1861, 6,912,815 qrs of wheat, and
WHE 783 "WHI
6,152,938 cwts. of flour ; in 1864, 23,196,714 cwts. of wheat, and 4,975,935 cwts. of flour.
See Corn Laws and Bread. In 1862 attention was drawn to the probable utility of con
sidering the pedigree of wheat.
WHEEL, Breaking on the. A barbarous mode of death, of great antiquity, ordered
by Francis I. for robbers, 15 15. See Ravaillac, Sec.
WHEEL-WORK. See Spinning, Looms, A utomatons.
WHIGS. In the reign of Charles IF. the name Whiff was a term of reproach given by
the court party to their antagonists for holding the principles of the "whig?," or fanatical
covenanters in Scotland ; and the name Tori/ was given to the court party, comparing
them to the Tories, or Popish robbers in Ireland. Baler. This distinction arose out of the
discovery of the Meal-tub plot {which see) in 1678. Upon bringing up the Meal plot before
parliament, two parties were formed : the ones who doubted the plot styled those who
believed in it, Whigs ; these styled their adversaries Tories. In time these names, given as
marks of opprobrium, became honoured distinctions. Hume. The Whigs brought about
the revolution of 1688-9, and established the Protestant succession. They were instru
mental in obtaining the abolition of the slave trade and slavery, the repeal of the Test
and Corporation act, Catholic emancipation, parliamentary and municipal reform, and the
repeal of the Corn laws. The Whig Club was established by Charles James Fox ; one of its
original members was the great Francis, duke of Bedford, who died in 1802. For the
principal Whig ministries, see Godolphin, Halifax, Walpole, Rockingham, Grenville, Grey,
Melbourne, Russell, Pahnerslon.
WHISKY, the distilled spirit produced from malt and other com in Scotland and
Ireland, of which about eight millions of gallons have been distilled annually in the former,
and upwards of nine millions of gallons in the latter. The duty upon this article has
produced an annual revenue of about three millions. The distillation of whisky in these
countries is referred to the 16th century ; but some authors state it to have been earlier.
See Distillation. In 1855 the duties on spirits distilled in Scotland and Ireland were
equalised with those distilled in England.
WHITE-BAIT DINNER, when the cabinet ministers meet at the end of each session, is
said to have begun at the end of the last century, through sir Robert Preston and sir George
Rose inviting Mr. Pitt and his colleagues to dine at Dagenham, and afterwards at Greenwich.
Another account dates the origin in 1721.
WHITEBOYS, a body of ruffians in Ireland, so called on account of their wearing linen
frocks over their coats. They committed dreadful outrages in 1761, but were suppressed
by a military force and their ringleaders executed in 1762. They rose into insurrection again
and were suppressed 1786-7. Whiteboys have appeared at various times since, committing
the most frightful crimes. The insurrection act was passed on their account in 1822.
WHITEFIELD, George, the founder of the " Calvinistic Methodists," was the son of an
innkeeper at Gloucester, where he received his first education. He was admitted a servitor
at Oxford in 1732, and became a companion of the Wesleys there, and aided them in estab
lishing Methodism. He parted from them in 1741, on account of their rejection of the
doctrine of election. He was the most eloquent preacher of his day. His first sermon was
preached in 1736 ; and he commenced field preaching in 1739. He is said to have delivered
18,000 sermons during his career of 34 years. His followers are termed " tho countess of
Huntingdon's Connection," from his having become her chaplain in 1748. There were 109
chapels of this connection in 1851 ; but many of his followers have joined the Independents.
He was born in 1714, and died in 1770. See Tabernacle.
WHITE FRIARS. See Carmelites.
WHITE HATS, a party in the Low Countries formed about 1377, against Louis, count
of Flanders. Tho struggle lasted till 1384, when it was settled by Philip, duko of Bur
gundy.
WHITE SHEEP, a name given to tho Turcomans who conquered Persia about 1468 ;
and persecuted the Shiites, but were expelled by Ismail, who founded the Sophi dynasty in
1501.
WHITEHALL (London), built by Hubert dc Burgh, earl of Kent, before tho middle of
the 13th century. It afterwards devolved, by bequest, to the Black Friars of Hoi burn, who
sold it to the archbishop of York, whence it received the name of York-place, and continued
to bo the town residence of the archbishops till purchased by Henry VIII. of cardinal
win 7S1 WIG
Wolsey, in 1530. At this period it became the residence of the court. Queen Elizabeth,
who died at Richmond, in 1603, was brought from thence to Whitehall, by water, in a
grand procession. It was on this occasion, Camden informs us, that the following quaint
panegyric on her majesty was written :
44 The queen was brought by water to Whitehall, A-t every stroke tho oars did lean let falL
More clung about tho barve : fish under water Wept out their ej/a of pearl, and swam blind after.
I thinlc the bargemen might, with easier thighB, Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes ;
For howsoe'er thus much my thoughts have scann'd, Sho had come by water, had she come by land.'1
In 1697, Whitehall was destroyed by an accidental fire, except the banqueting-house,
which had been added to the palace of Whitehall by James I. , according to a design of
Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front of Whitehall, Charles I. was beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649.
George I. converted tho hall into a chapel 1723-4. The exterior of this edifice underwent
repair between 1829 and 1833.
WHITE HOUSE (Washington), built of freestone, gives name to the United States
government, as St. James's palace does to that of Great Britain.
WHITE PLAINS (N. America!, where a battle was fought Oct. 28, 1776, between the
revolted Americans and the British forces under sir William Howe. It terminated in the
defeat of the Americans, who suffered considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners.
WHITE TOWER, the keep or citadel in the Tower of London, a large square, irregular
building, erected in 1070, by Gandulph, bishop of Rochester. It measures 116 feet by 96,
and is 92 feet in height ; the walls, which are 1 1 feet thick, having a winding staircase con
tinued along two of the sides, like that in Dover castle. It contains the sea armoury, and
the volunteer armoury—the latter for 30,000 men. Within this tower is the ancient chapel
of St. John, originally used by the English monarchs. The turret at the N.E. angle, the
highest of the four by which the White Tower is surmounted, was used for astronomical
purposes by Flamsteed previously to the erection of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich.
WHITSUNTIDE. The festival appointed to commemorate the descent of the Holy
Ghost upon the apostles : the newly-baptized persons or catechumens, used to wear white
garments on Whitsunday. This feast is moveable, being always exactly seven weeks after
Easter. Rogation week {which see) is the week before Whitsunday. Whitsunday in 1 866,
May 20 ; in 1867, June 9 ; in 1868, May 31.
WHITTINGTON'S CHARITIES. Sir Richard Whittington, a citizen and mercer of
• London, served the office of lord mayor three times, the last time in 1419. Many stories con
nected with his name are destitute of truth. His munificent charities are little known and
seldom praised. He founded his college, dedicated to the Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary,
in 1424 ; and his almshouses in 1429 ; the latter stand on Highgate-hill, near the supposed
site of the famous stone which commemorated the legend of his return to London, after
leaving it in despair, the church bells chiming him back by the promise of his future
greatness.
WICKLIFFITES, the followers of John Wickliffe (born 1324), a professor of divinity in
the university of Oxford and rector of Lutterworth in Leicestershire. He was the father of
the Reformation of the English church from popery, being among the first who opposed the
authority of the pope, transubstantiation, the celibacy of the clergy, Ac. Wickliffe was
protected by John of Gaunt, Edward's son and Richard's uncle, yet virulently persecuted
by the church, and rescued from martyrdom by a paralytic attack, which caused his death,
December 31, 1384, in his 60th year. The council of Constance, in 1428, decreed his bones
to be disinterred and burnt, which was done by the bishop of Lincoln, and his dust was
cast into the river Swift. Wiekliffc's English version of the Bible was commenced in 1380 :
an edition of it was printed at Oxford in 1850.
WIDOWS. The Jewish law required a man's brother to marry his widow (1490 B. c. ). For
the burning of widows in India, see Suttees. Among the numerous associations in London
for the relief of widows, are, one for the widows of musicians, instituted in 1738 ; one for
widows of naval men, founded in 1739; one for widows of medical men, 1788; a law
society, for widows of professional gentlemen, 1817 ; and a society for artists' widows, 1827.
Widowers were taxed in England as follows : ' a duke, 12?. 10s. ; lower peers, smaller
sums ; a common person, is. 7 Will. III. 1695.
WIG. See Peruke.
"sr. wil
WIGAN (Lancashire). In the civil war the king's troops commanded by the curl of
Derby, were defeated and driven out of the town in 1643 by the parliamentary forces under
sir John Smeaton. The earl was again defeated by colonel Ashton, who razed the fortifica
tions of Wigan to the ground, same year ; and once moro by a greatly superior force com
manded by colonel Lilburne, 165 1. In this last engagement, sir Thomas Tildersley, an
ardent royalist, was slain ; a pillar was erected to his memory in 1679.
WIGHT, Isle of, the Roman Vccta or Vectis, was conquered by Vespasian in the reign
of Claudius. It was conquered by the Saxons under Cerdic about 530 ; in 787 by the
Danes ; and in 1001, when they held it for several years. It was taken by the French,
July 13, 1377, and has several times suffered from invasions by that people. In the year
1442, Henry VI. alienated the isle of Wight to Henry de Beanchamp, first premier earl of
Kngland and then duke of Warwick, with a precedency of all other dukes but Norfolk, and
lastly crowned him king of the Isle of Wight, with his own hands ; but this earl dying
without heirs male, his regal title died with him, and the lordship of the isle returned to the
crown. Charles I., after his flight from Hampton-court, was a prisoner in Carisbrook castle,
in 1647. In the time of Charles II. timber was so plentiful, that it is said a squirrel
might have travelled on the tops of the trees for many leagues together ; but it is now
much reduced, through supplying tho dockyards for the British navy. The queen has a
marine residence here called Osborne-house.
^ WILKES' NUMBER, 45, from the 45th number of tho North Briton, published by Mr.
Wilkes, an alderman of London. He commenced a paper warfare against the earl of Bute
and his administration, and in this number, printed April 23, 1763, mado so free a use of
royalty itself that a general warrant was issued against him by the earl of Halifax, then
secretary of state, and he was committed to the Tower, April 30. His warfare not only
deprived him of liberty, but exposed him to two duels ; yet he obtained 4000/. damages and
full costs of suit for the illegal seizure of his papers. He was afterwards condemned for
libel; but was, however, elected a fifth time for Middlesex in Oct. 1774, and served the
office of lord mayor. He was elected chamberlain of London in 1779, and died in 1797.
See North Briton, and also Warrants, General.
WILLS and Testaments are of very high antiquity. See Genesis xlviii. Solon intro
duced them at Athens, 578 B.C. There are many regulations respecting wills in the Koran.
Trebatius Testa, the civilian, was the first person who introduced codicils to wills at Rome,
31 B.C. The power of bequeathing lands by the last will and testament of the owner was
confirmed to English subjects 1 Henry I. 1 100 ; but with great restrictions and limitations
respecting the feudal system, which were taken off by the statute of 32 Henry VIII. 1541.
Blackstone's Commentaries. Tho first will of a sovereign on record is stated (but in
error) to be that of Richard II. 1399 ; Edward the Confessor made a will, 1066. Various
laws have regulated the wills and testaments of British subjects. All previons statutes
were repealed by 1 Vict. c. 26, 1837, and the laws with relation to wills thereby amended.*
The present Probate Court (which sec) was established in 1857. An office for the reception
of the wills of living persons was opened in Jan. 1861. See Thcllusson's Will.
EXTRACTS FROM THE LAST WILL OF XArOT.EON* I., EMPEROR OF FRANCE, t
[He died May 5, iBai, eleven days after he bad feigned these documents. The original In French occupies
about twenty-six pages in Peignot's " Testamenfl rtemurquables," 1829.]
•'This day, April 24, 1821, at Longwood, In the : the services ho has performed for me ore those of a
Island of St. Helena. This is my testament, or act ! friend. I desire that ho may marry a widow, sister,
of my last will : [or daughter of an officer or soldier of my old guard.
"I leave to the comtc do Montholon 2,000,000 1 To St. Denis, 100,000 francs. To Novarre, 100,000
francs, as a proof of my satisfaction for tho atten- 1 francs. To Pijcron, 100,000 francs. To Archam-
tions he has paid to mo for theso six years, and to baud, 50,000 francs. To Cuvicr, 50,000 francs. To
indemnify him for the losses which my residence Chandclle, idem.
in St. Helena has occasioned him. I leavo to tho "To tho Abbe- Vignalf, 100,000 francs. I desire
comte Bertrand 500,000 francs. 1 leave to Mar- that ho may build his house near Ponto Novo de
chand, ray first valet-de-chambro, 400,000 francs ; Rossino. To the comte Las Casas, 100,000 francs.
• By this act tho testator must bo above 21. not a lunatic or idiot, not deaf and dumb, not drunk at
tho time of signing, not an outlawed or unpardoned felon. All kinds of property may be devised. The
will must be writtciUegibly and intelligibly, and signed by tho testator, or by his direction, in the pre
sence of two or more witnesses, who also must si^n. A married woman may bequeath only her pin-
money or soparato maintenance, without tho consent of her husband.
t These documents, dated from April 15-24, which had been deposited since 1821 in Kngland, have
been, at tho request of the French government, given up to tho authorities at Paris, to bo deposited
among the archives of that capital.
8 K
s_
WIN
WILLS, continued.
To comte Lavalette, 100,000 francs. To tho surgeon and the apostates. To the Baron Bignon, 100,00.-)
in chief, Larrey, 100,000 francs. Ho is, tho most francs : I request him to write the history of French
virtuous man I have known. To general Brayer, Diplomacy from 1792 to 1815. To Poggi de Talaru.
100.000 francs. 100,000 franca. To the surgeon Emmery, 100,000
To general Lefcvre Dcsnouettcs, 100,000 francs. francs.
To general Drouct, 100,000 franca. To general Cam- " These sums shall be taken from the six millions
bronne, 100,000 francs. To the children of general which I deposited on leaving Paris in 1815. and from
Huton Duvernais, 100,000 fiancs. To the children tho interest at the rate of 5 per cent, since July 181s :
of the brave Labe'doyere. 100,000 francs. To tho tho account of which shall be adjusted with the
children of general Girard, killed at Ligny, 100,000 bankers by the counts Montholon and Bertram!, and
franc.-*. To the children of general Chartrand, by Marehand.
100,000 francs. To the children of tho virtuous "These legacies, in case of death, shall be paid t »
general Travost, 100,000 franca. To general Lalle- tho widows and children, and in their default, shall
maad, the elder, 100,000 franca. To general Clauael, revert to the capital I institute the counts Mon
100,000 francs. To Costa Bastilica, also 100,000 tholon, Bcrtrand, and Marchand my testamentary
franca. To the baron de Mcnevalle, 100,000 francs. executors. This present testament, written en
To Arnault, author of Marias, 100,000 franca. tirely by my own hand, is signed and scaled with
" To colonel Marbot, 100,000 francs : I request him my arms. u NAPOLEOX.
to continue to write for the defence and glory of tho
French armies, and to confound the calumniators "April 24, 1821, Longwood."
Tho following are part of the eight Codicil* to tho preceding will of the emperor :—
" On the liquidation of my civil list of Italy—such has been declared innocent. Cantillon had as much
as money, jewels, plate, linen, coffers, caskets of right to assassinate that oligarch, as the latter had
which the viceroy is the depositary, and which to send mo to perish on the rock of St. Helena, &a,
belong to mo, I dispose of two millions, which I &e, &c.
leave to my most faithful servants. I hope that LETTER TO M. LAFITTE.
without their showing any cause, my son Eugene " Monsieur Lafitte,—I remitted to you in 1S15,
Napoleon will dischargo them faithfully. He cannot at the moment of my departure from Paris, a sum
forget the forty millions which I have given him of nearly six millions, for which you gave me a
in Italy, or by the right (yarage) of his mother's double receipt. 1 have cancelled one of these
inheritance. receipts, and I have charged somto de Montholon to
' ' From tho funds remitted in gold to the empress present to you the other receipt, in order that yon
Maria Louisa, my very dear and well-beloved spouse, may, after my death, deliver to him the said sum
at Orleans, in 1814, there remain due to me two with interest at the rate of five per from the
millions, which I dispose of by the present codicil, 1st of July, 1815, deducting the payments with
in order to recompense my most faithful servants, which you have been charged in virtue of my
whom I beside recommend to the protection of my order. I have also remitted to you a box containing
dear Maria Louisa. I leave 200,000 francs to count my medallion. I beg you will deliver it to comto
Montholon, 100,000 francs of which he shall pay into Montholon.
the chest of the treasurer (Las Casas) for the same "This letter hiving no other object, I pray God,
purpose as the above, to be employed according to Monsieur Lafitte, that He may have you in His hoU
my depositions in legacies of conscience. and worthy keeping.
11 10,000 francs to tho Bub-officer Cantillon, who " NAPOLEON".
has undergone a prosecution, being accused of a "Longwood, in the island of St. Helena, April 2$,
desire to assassinate lord Wellington, of which he 1821."
WILMINGTON ADMINISTRATION. Feb. 1742.
Earl of Wilmington, first lord of the treasury. Duke of Argyll, commander of the forces and oui>.'»r
Lord Hardwicko, lord chanceUor. general of the ordnance.
Earl of Harrington, president of the council. Mr. Henry Pelhani, paymaster of t7uforces.
Earl Gower, lord privy seal. With several of the household lords.
Mr. Sandys, chancellor of the exchequer. [On lord Wilmington's death, July 26, 1743, Mr.
Lord Carteret and the duke of Newcastle, secretaries j Pelhani became prime minister ; and in Nov.
of state. 1744, he formed tho " Broad-bottom " administr--
Earl of Winchilaea, first lord of the admira U>/. | tiou. See Pdham.]
WINCHESTER (Hampshire), a most ancient city, whose erection may reasonably be
ascribed to the Celtic Britons, though the alleged date of its foundation, 892 B.C. is
manifestly unworthy of attention. It became the capital of the West Saxon kingdom und*sr
Ccrdic, 530 A.D. ; was the residence of Alfred 879-901 ; and under the rule of Egbert, was
tho metropolis of England. In the reign of William I., though Winchester was still a royil
residence, London began to rival it, and acquire the pre-eminence ; and the destruction of
religious houses by Henry VIII. almost ruined it. Several kings resided at Winchester,
and many parliaments were held there. Memorials of its ancient superiority exist in the
national denomination of measures of quantity, as Winchester ell, Winchester bushel, Ac,
the use of which has but recently been replaced by imperial measures. The bishopric is of
groat antiquity. Tho cathedral church was first founded and endowed by Kingil, or
Keuegilsus, the first Christian king of the West Saxons. The church first built becomiii :
ruinous, the present fabric was begun by Walkin, the 34th bishop, 1073 ; but not finishel
till the time of William of Wykeham, who founded the college about 1373. Tho chun h
was first dedicated to St. Amphibalus, then to St. Peter, and afterwards to St. Swithiu, once
.WIN 787 WIN
bishop here. St. Birine was the first bishop of tho West Saxons, 635. The see is valued in
the king's books at 2,793?. +*• 2<^- annually. Present income, 10,500/.
BECKNT BISHOPS OF WINCHESTER,
Prelates of the Order of the Garter.
1781. Brownlow North, died July 12, 1820. I 1827. Charles Richard Sumner (present bishop,
George rretyman Tornline, died 1827. 1865).
WINDING-UP ACTS (to facilitate tho winding up the affairs of joint-stock companies
which are unablo to meet their engagements) were passed in 1848, 1857, and 1862.
WINDMILLS are of great antiquity, and some writers state them to be of Roman
invention ; but certainly we are indebted for tho windmill to the Saracens. They are said
to have been originally introduced into Europe by the knights of St. John, who took the
hint from what they had seen in tho crusades. Baker. Windmills were first known in
Spain, France, and Germany, in 1299. Anderson. Wind saw-mills were invented by a
Dutchman, in 1633, when one was erected near the Strand, in London.
WINDOWS. See Glass. There were windows in Pompeii, a.d. 79, as is evident from
its ruins. It is certain that windows of some kind wero glazed so early as the 3rd century,
if not before, though the fashion was not introduced until it was done by Bonnet, 633.
Windows of glass were used in private houses, but the glass was imported, 1 177. Anderson.
In England, in 185 1, about 6000 houses had fifty windows and upwards in each; about
275,000 had ten windows and upwards ; and 725,000 had soven windows, or less than seven.
Window-tax first enacted in order to defray tho Reduced 1823
expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage of The revenue derived from windows was in 1840
gold 1695 about a million and a-quarter sterling ; and
Tho tax increased, Feb. 5, 1746-7 ; again in 1778 ; in 1850 (to April 5), 1,832,684/.
and again on the commutation-tax for tea, The tax repealed by act 14 & 15 Vict. c. 36
Oct. 1, 1784 (which act imposed a duty upon inhabited
The tax again increased in . 1797, 1802, and 1808 houses in lieu thereof) . . July 24, 1851
WINDSOR CASTLE (Berkshire),* a residonco of tho British sovereigns, begun by
William the Conqueror, and enlarged by Henry I. about mo. Edward III., who was bom
here, caused the old building, with the exception of three towers at the west end, to be
taken down, and re-erected the whole castle, under the direction of William of Wykeham,
1356, and built St. George's chapel. Ho assossed every county in England to send him
workmen. James I. of Scotland was imprisoned here 1406-23. Several additions were
made by Henry VIII. Elizabeth made the grand north terrace ; and Charles II. repaired
and beautified it, 1680. Camden; Mortimer. The chapel was repaired and opened, Oct.
1790. The castle was repaired and enlarged, 1824-8 ; and George IV. took possession of it,
Dec. 8, 1828. Our sovereigns have here entertained many royal personages : as the
emperor and empress of the French, in April 1855. A serious fire occurred at the castle, in
the prince of Wales's tower, owing to some defect in the heating apparatus, March 19, 1853.
WINE. "Noah planted a vineyard, and drank of the wine," 2347 B.C. (Gen. ix. 20).
See Vine. Ching-Noung, emperor of China, is said to have made rice wine, 1998 B.C. The
art of making wine is said to have been brought from India by Bacchus. Christ changed
water into wine at the marriage in Cana of Galilee, a.d. 30. John ii. 3, 10. Wine was sold
in England by apothecaries as a cordial in 1300, and so continued for some time after,
although there is mention of " wine for the king" so early as 1249. In 1400, the price w.is
twelve shillings the pipe. A hundred and fifty butts and pipes condemned, for being
adulterated, to be staved and emptied into the channels of the streets, by Rainwell, mayor
of London, 1427. Stows Chron. The first importation of claret wine into Ireland was on
June 17, 1490. The first act for licensing sellers of wine in England passed April 25, 1661.
Wine duties to be 2s. cyl. per gallon on Cape wine, and 5s. 6d. on all other wines, 183 1. In
* Windtor Forest, situated to the south and west of the town of Windsor, was formorly 120 miles in
circumference ; in 1607, it was 774 miles round, but it has sinco been reduced in its bounds to about ;6
miles. It was surveyed in 1789, and found to contain 59,600 acres. Virginia Water and the plantations
about it were taken out of the forest. The marshes were drained and tho trees planted for William, dill e
of Cumberland, about 1746 ; and much was done by Gcorgo IV., who often resided at tho lodge. On Ibo
south side is Windsor Groat Park, which was fourteen miles in circumference, but it has been much
enlarged by tho Inclosuro act ; it contains about 3,800 acres. Tho Little Park, on the north and east sic es
of the castle, contains about 500 acres. Tho gardens are elegant, and have been considerably improTod by
tho addition of the house and gardens of the duke of St. Albans, purchased by the crown.
3 E 2
WIT
1856, the customs duties on wines produced 2,073,694?.; in 1858, 1,721, 742/. v in 1859
1,982,302/.; in 1863, 1,212,971/. By the French treaty of commerce about i860, the duty
011 wines was much reduced. Wine licences are granted to refreshment houses by an act
passed in i860.
IMPORTATION' OF WINE OF ALL KINDS INTO THE TNITED KINGDOM.
r 3oo 3,307,460 gallon*. 1854 10,875,855 gallons.
131 5 4,306,528 „ 1857 :o, 336, 485 „
[8 (o 6.879,558 1859 8,195,513 „
1 3.*9 ).9°9.°56 ■• 1861 11,052,436 „
•84.5 1864 15,451,623 „
9.304.3" „
WINTER. See Frosts.
WIRE. The invention of drawing wire * is ascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg, about
1410. Mills for this purpose were first set up at Nuremberg in 1563. The first wire-mill in
England was erected at Mortlake in 1663. Mortimer.
WIRTEMBERG. See Wurtcmbcrg.
WISCONSIN, a N. W. state of N. America, was organised as a territory in 1836 ; and
received into the Union, May 29, 1848.
WITCHCRAFT. The punishment of witchcraft was commanded in the Jewish law
{Exodus xxii. 18) 1491 B.C., " Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live." Saul, after banishing
or condemning witchcraft, incurred the wrath of God by consulting the witch of Endor,
1056 B.c. (1 Sam. xxviii.) Bishop Hutchinson's important historical "Essay on Witch
craft" was published in 1718, The church of Rome subjected persons suspected of the
crime to the most cruel torments ; and pope Innocent VIII. issued a bull against witchcraft
in 1484. Thousands of victims, often innocent, were burned alive, while others were killed
by the tests applied.
Joan of Arc was burnt at Rhelms as a witch, May with having bewitched and rendered unfruitful
3«' M3*- the lands belonging to that palatinate, and were
About five hundred witches were burnt in Geneva, burnt, Jan. 17, 1775.
iu throe months, 1515. Five women were condemned to death by the
One thousand were burnt in the diocese of Como in Brahmins, at Patna, for sorcery, "and ^executed,
a year, about 1524. Doc. 15, 1802.
An incredible number in Franco, about 1520, when
ono sorcerer confessed to having 1200 associates. WITCHCRAFT IX KNOLAJTD.
Nino hundred were burnt in Lorraine between 1580
and 1595. Severe laws were iu force against them in these
Ono hundred and fifty-seven were burnt at Wurtz- countries in former times, by which death was the
burg between 1627 and 1629, old and young, punishment, and thousands of persons suffered
clerical, learned, and ignorant. both by the public executioner and the hands of
At Lindheim, thirty were burnt in four yoars, out the people.
of a population of 600 ; and more than 100,000 A statute was enacted declaring all witchcraft arid
perished, mostly by the flames, hi Germany. sorcery to be felony without benefit of clergy,
Grandier, the parish priest at Loudon, was burnt on 33 Hen. VIII. 1541. Again, 5 Eliz. 15621 and
a charge of having bewitched a whole convent of I. James, 1603.
nuns, 1634. The 73rd canon of the church prohibits the clergy
In Bretagne, twenty poor women were put to death from casting out devils, 1603.
as witches, 1654. Barrington estimates the judicial murders for witch
Disturbances commenced on charges of witchcraft in craft in England in 200 years at 30,000.
America, at Massachusetts, 1648-9 ; and persecu Matthew Hopkins, tho " mtch-Jtnder," causes the
tions raged dreadfully in Pennsylvania in 1683. judicial murder of about 100 persons in Essex,
At Salem, in Now England, nineteen persons were Norfolk, and Suffolk, 1645-7.
hanged (by the Puritans) for witchcraft, oight Sir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft
more were condemned, and fifty confessed them in 1664.
selves to bo witches and were pardoned, 1692. Northamptonshire and Huntingdon preserved th*
Maria Rcnata was burnt at Wurtzburg in 1749. superstition about witchcraft later than any other
At Kalisk, in Poland, nine old women were charged counties.
* The astonishing ductility which is one of tho distinguishing qualities of gold, is no way more con
spicuous than in gilt wire. A cylinder of 48 ounces of silver, covered with a coat of gold weighing onlr
one ounce, is usually drawn into a wire, two yards of which onlv weigh one grain ; so that 98 yards of the
wire weigh no more than 49 grains, and one singlo grain of gold covers the whole 98 vards ; and the
thousandth part of a grain is above one-eighth of an inch long, ffaltey. Eight grains of gold, covering »
cylinder of silver, are commonly drawn into a wire 13,000 feet long; yet so perfectly does it cover the
sUver, that even a microscopo docs not discover any appearance of the silver underneath. Boyle.
WIT 789 WOO
WITCHCRAFT, continued.
Seventeen or eighteen persona burnt .it St. Osyths, ' acquittal. Tho king published bis Jkcmonologit in
in Essex, about 1676. I Edinburgh, 1597.
Two pretended witches wcro executed at North- Tho last sufferer in Scotland w:ts at Dornach in 1722.
arnpton in 1 705, and fivo others sovou years after* The Utict againtt witchcraft had lain dormant for
wards. " many years, when an ignorant person, attempting
In 1716, Mrs. Hicks, and her daughter, agod nine, | to revive them, by finding a bill against a poor
were hanged at Huntingdon. old woman in Surrey for tho practico of witchcraft,
In Scotland, thousands of persons wcro burnt in > they were reptaltd, 10 Goo. II. 1736.
the period of about a hundred years. Among tho Credulity in witchcraft still abounds in tho country
victims were persons of tho highest rank, whilo districtsof England. OnSept.4, i863,apouroldpara-
all orders in the state concurred. James I. even lyzed Frenchman died in conseqencc of having been
caused a wholo assise to bo prosecuted for an ducked as a wizard at Castle Hedingham, Essex.
WITENA-MOT, or Witena-gemot, the assembling of the wise men, the great coijncil of
the Anglo-Saxons. A witcna-mot was called in Winchester by Egbert, 800, and in London,
833, to consult on the proper means to repel the Danes. See Parliament. _ .
WITEPSK (in Russia), where a battle was fought between the French under marshal
Victor, duke of Belluno, and the Russians commanded by general Wittgenstein.' The French
were defeated after a desperate engagement, with the loss of 3000 men, Nov. 14, 1812.
WITNESSES. The evidenco of two witnesses required to attaint for high treason,
25 Edw. III. 1352. In civil actions between party and party, if a man be subpoenaed as a
witness on a trial, he must appear in court on pain of tool, to be forfeited to the king, and
lol., together with damages equivalent to the loss sustained by the want of his evidence to
the party aggrieved. Lord Ellenborough ruled that no witness is obliged to answer
qnestions which may tend to degrade himself, Dec. 10, 1802. New act relating to tho
examination of witnesses passed 13 Geo. III. 1773. Act to enable courts of law to order the
examination of witnesses upon interrogations and otherwise, 1 Will. IV. March 30, 183 1.
WIVES. See Marriage. By tho Divorce and Matrimonial Causes act, passed in 1857,
the condition of married women has been much benefited. When ill-used they can obtain a
divorce or judicial separation ; and while in tho latter state any property they may acquiro
is secured to them personally, as if unmarried. By another act passed in 1857, they aro
enabled to dispose of reversionary interests in personal property or estates.
WIVES' POISON, or Water Tofano. See Poisoning.
WOLVES were once very numerous in Englaud. Their heads were demanded as a
tribute, particularly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar, 961, by which step they were
said to be totally destroyed. Carte. Edward I. issued his mandate for tho destruction of
wolves in several counties of England, 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for many
centuries after their extirpation in England ; for there are accounts of some being found
there so late as 1710, when the last presentment for killing wolves was made in the county
of Cork. Wolves still infest Franco, in which kingdom 834 wolves and cubs were killed in
1828-9.
WONDERS of the World. I. The pyramids of Egypt. 2. The mausoleum or tomb
built for Mausolus, king of Caria, by Artemisia, his queen. 3. The temple of Diana, at
Ephesus. 4. The walls and hanging-gardens of the city of Babylon. 5. The vast brazen
image of the sun at Rhodes, called the Colossus. 6. The ivory and gold statue of Jupiter
Olympus. 7. The pharos or watch-tower, built by Ptolemy Philadelphia, king of Egypt.
See serrate articles.
WOOD-CUTS. See Engraving on, Wood.
WOOD'S HALF-PENCE, for circulation in Ireland and America, were coined by virtue
of a patent, passed 1722-3. Against this project, Dr. Jonathan Swift, by his Drapier's
letters raised such a spirit against Wood, that he was effectually banished the kingdom.
The half-pence were assayed in England by sir Isaac Newton, and proved to be genuine, in
1724.
WOODEN PAVEMENT (expensive and perishable) seemed at one time likely to
supersede stone in tho principal thoroughfares of London. A wooden pavement was laid
down at Whitehall in 1839; and in Oxford-street, tho Strand, and other streets. It was
soon taken up as inefficient.
WOODSTOCK (Oxfordshire). In Woodstock, now Blenheim-park, originally stood a
royal palace, in which king Ethelred held a parliament, and Alfred the Great translated
Boetius de Consolalione PhUosophia;, 888. Henry I. beautified the palace ; and here resided
"WOO 790 WOO
Rosamond, mistress of Henry II. 1 191. In it were born Edmund, second son of Edward I.,
1301, and Edward, eldest son of Edward III., 1330; and here the princess Elizabeth was
confined by her sister Mary, 1554.. A splendid mansion, built at the expense of the nation,
for the duke of Marlborough, was erected here to commemorate the victory he obtained at
Blenheim, in 1704. At that time every trace of the ancient edifice was removed, and two
elms were planted on its site.
"WOOL. From the earliest times down to the reign of queen Elizabeth the wool of
Great Britain was not only superior to that of Spain, but accounted the finest in the
universe ; and even in the times of the Romans a manufacture of woollen cloths was
established at "Winchester for the use of the emperors. Anderson. In later times, wool was
manufactured in England, and is mentioned 1 185, but not in any quantity until 1331, when
the weaving of it was introduced by John Kempc and other artizans from Flanders. This
was the real origin of our now unrivalled manufacture, 6 Edw. III. 1331. Rymefs Fcedtra.
Duties on exported wool were levied by Edw. I. 1275 Bill to prevent tho running of wool from Ire
The exportation prohibited 1337 land to France 1736
Staples of wool established in Ireland, at Dub The duty on wool imported from Ireland taken
lin, Waterford, Cork, and Drogheda, 18 off . 1739
Edw. Ill 1343 Wool-combers' act, 3s Geo. Ill 1794
Sheep were first permitted to bo sent to Spain, Tho non-exportation law was rcpealcdf* 5
which has since injured our manufacture. Geo. IV. 1S24
Stow 1467 In 1851 wc importod 83.311,975 lb. of wool and
First legislative prohibition of the export of alpaca ; in 1856, 116,211,392 lb. ; in 1859,
wool from Irclaud 1521 133,284,634 lb. ; in 1861, 147,172,841 lb. ; in
Tho exportation of English wool, and the im 1864, 206,473,6451b.
portation of Irish wool into England pro Wo imported from Australia, in 1843,
hibited 1606 12,979,856 lb,; in 1856, 56,052.139 lb.; in
Tho export forbidden by act passed . . . 1718 l859. 53.7°°.542 lb- I in 1861, 68,506,222 lb. ;
in 1864, 99,037,459 lb.
WOOLLEN" CLOTH. "Woollen cloths were made an article of commerce in the time of
Julius Csesar, and are familiarly alluded to by him.
The Jews were forbidden to wear garments of British and Irish woollens prohibited in France 1677
woollen and linen together . . . n.o. 1451 All persons obliged to be burled in woollen, and
70 families of cloth-workers (from the Nether the persons directing tho burial otherwise to
lands) settled in England by Edward 111. forfeit 5*., 29 Chas. II. 1678
Rymer 1331 The manufacture of cloth greatly improved in
A kind of blankets were first made in England. England by Flemish settlers .... 1688
Camdm about 1340 Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, 11 Will. III. 1695
Woollens made at Kendal 1390 The exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited,
No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to bo imported except to certain ports of England . . . 1701
into England 1463 English manufacture encouraged by 10 Anne,
The art of dyeing brought to England. Bee 1712, and 2 Geo. 1 1715
Dyeing 1608 Greater in Yorkshire in 1785 than in all England
Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made . 1614 at tho revolution. Chalmtr$
Manufacture of fine cloth began at Sedan, in Value of woollen manufactures of all kinds
France, under tho patronage of cardinal exported: in 1847. 6,896,038/.; in 1854,
Mazarine 1646 9.120,759/.; in 1861, 11,118,692/.; in 1864,
Broadcloth first dressed and dyed in England, 18,566,078/.
by Brewer, from the Low Countries . . . 1667
"WOOL-COMBERS in several parts of England have a procession on Feb. 3, in comme
moration of bishop Blaizc, who is reported to have discovered their art. He is said to have
Visited England ; and St. Blazy, a village in Cornwall, is celebrated for having been hia
landing-place. He was bishop of Sebastia, in .Armenia, and suffered martyrdom in the
Diocletian persecution, 289.
"WOOLSACK, the scat of the lord high chancellor of England in the house of lords, is so
called from its being a large square bag of wool, without back or arms, covered with red
cloth. "Wool was the staple commodity of England in the reign of Edward III. when the
woolsack first camo into use.
"WOOLWICH (Kent), tho most ancient military and naval arsenal in England, and
celebrated for its royal dockyard, where men-of-war have been built as early as the reign of
Henry VIII. IS 12, when the Harry Grace de Dieu was constructed. Here she also was burnt
in 1552. The royal arsenal was formed about 1720, on the site of a rabbit-warren ; it contain*
vast magazines of great guns, mortars, bombs, powder, and other warlike stores ; a foundry,
with several furnaces, for casting ordnance ; and a laboratory, where fireworks, cartridges,
grenades, &c, are made for the public service. The lioyal Military Academy was erected in
WOR WOK
the royal arsenal, but the institution was not completely formed until 19th Geo. II. 1745.
The arsenal, storehouses, &c., burnt, to the value of 200,000?. May 20, 1802. Another great
fire occurred June 30, 1805. Fatal explosion of gunpowder, Jan. 20, 1813. The hemp-
store burnt down, July 8, 1813. Another explosion by gunpowder, June 16, 1814. About
10,000 persons are now employed in Woolwich arsenal.
WORCESTER was successively an important Welsh. Roman, and Saxon town. It was
burnt by the Danes 1041, for resisting the tribute called Danegelt. William I. built a castle
1090. The city was frequently taken and retaken during the civil wars of the middle ages.
—The Bishopric was founded by Ethelred, king of the Mercians, 680, and taken from the
see of Lichfield, of which it composed a part. The married priests of the cathedral were
displaced, and monks settled in their stead, 964. The church was rebuilt by Wolstan,
25th bishop, 1030. The see hits yielded to the church of Rome four saints, and to tho
English nation five lord chancellors and three lord treasurers. It is valued in the king's
books at 1049?. 16s. 3ji2. per annum. Present income, 5000Z.
RECENT BISHOr-S OF WORCESTER.
1781. Richard Hurd, died May 28, 1808. 1841. Henry Pepys, died Nov. 13, i860.
1808. Folliott H. Cornwall, died Sopt. 5, 1831. i860. Henry Pbilpott (prksent bishop).
1831. Robert James Carr, died April 24, 1841.
WORCESTER, Battle of, Sept. 3, 1651, when the Scots army which came to England
to reinstate Charles II. was defeated by Cromwell, who called it his crowning mercy.
Charles with difficulty escaped to France. More than 2000 of the royalists were slain, and
of 8000 prisoners most were sold as slaves to the American colonists.
WORKING MEN'S CLUBS may be considered to have begun with the Working Men's
Mutual Improvement and Recreation society, established in Lancaster by the instru
mentality of the Rev. H. Soils, in i860. The Westminster Working Men's club, in Duck-
lane, originated with Miss Adeline Cooper, and was opened in Dec. i860. The Working
Men's Club and Institute Union was established by Lord Brougham and others, June 4, 1862.
WORKING MEN'S COLLEGES. The first was established in Sheffield, by working-
men. The second, in London, by the rev. professor Frederic D. Maurice, as principal,
in Oct. 1854 ; a third in Cambridge, and, in 1855, a fourth at Oxford; all, wholly for the
working classes, and undertaking to impart such knowledge as each man feels ho is most in
want of. The colleges engage to find a teacher, wherever 10 or 12 members agree to form a
class, and also to have lectures given. There were cloven classes at the one in London in
1 856 ; Mr. Ruskin gave lessons in drawing. These colleges have been found to be self-
supporting.
WORLD. See Creation and Globe.
WORMS, a city on the Rhine, in Hesse Darmstadt. Here Charlemagne resided in
806 B.C. Several imperial diets have been held at Worms, where was held the imperial diet
before which Martin Luther was summoned, April 4, 1521, and by which he was proscribed.
Luther was met by 2000 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of a league
from Worms. Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause, that when Spalatin sent
a messenger to warn him of his danger, he answered, "If there wero as many devils in
Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs of its houses, I would go on." Before the emperor,
the archduke Ferdiuand, six electors, twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops and
prelates, and many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, Luther appeared, April 17th,
in the imperial diet, acknowledged all his writings and opinions, and left Worms in fact a
conqueror. Yet, to save his life, he had to remain in seclusion under the protection of the
elector of Saxony for about a year.
WORSHIP. The first worship mentioned is that of Abel, 3872 B.c. Gen. iv. "Men
began to call on the name of the Lord," 3769 B.C. Gen. iv. Tho Jewish order of worship
was set up by Moses, 1490 B.C. Solomon consecrated the temple, 1004 B.C. To the
corruptions of the simple worship of the patriarchs all the Egyptian and Greek idolatries
owed their origin. Atbotes, son of Menes, king of Upper Egypt, is supposed to be the Copt
of the Egyptians, and the Toth, or Hermes, of the Greeks, the Mercury of the Latins, and
the TeutaUs of the Celts or Gauls, 2112 B.C. Usher.
WORSHIP in England. The Druids were the priests here, at the invasion of the
Romans (55 B.C.), who eventually introduced Christianity, which was almost extirpated by
tho victorious Saxons (455-820), who were pagans. The Roman Catholic form of Christianity
was introduced by Augustine, 596, ami continued till the Reformation, which sec.
WOR 762 WRE
WORSHIP, continued.
PLACES OF WORSHIP IN ENGLAND AND WALES IN 1851.
riactt of Worthip. Sitting*. Pliirrs "j Worship, ftttttmgt-
Church of F.ngland . . 14,077 5.3>7.9'5 New Church (Swcdenborgialis) . 50 12,107
9.305
Wesleyan Methodist* . . Moravians .....
6.579 2,194.298 Catholic 3=
Independent .... and Apostolic
3,244 1,067,760 (Irvingitcs) . , . . f Church ) ;= 7,437
Baptists 2,789 752.343 Greek Church ....
Roman Catholics . 570 186,111 Countess .1
Society of Friends ... 371 91.559 Connectionof . Huntingdon's ) 1 ■> 35.2IO
Unitarians . . . .J
229 68,554 Welsh Calvinistic Methodists ■
Scottish Presbyterians ... 160 86,692 Various small bodies, some ) 198,242
Latter-day Saints (Mormonilts) . 222 30,783 without names 546 105t557
Brethren (Plymouth) . 132 (?) 18,529 . (
Jews 53 8,438 See Wesleyan Metlmliats : note.
WORSTED, spun wool, obtained its name from having been first spun at a town called
Worsted, in Norfolk, in which the inventor lived, and where manufactures of worsted are
still extensively carried on, 14 Edw. III. 1340. Anderson. " A Worsted-stocking Knave "
is a term of reproach or contempt used by Shakspere.
WORTHIES, NINE, a term long ago given to the following eminent men :
JtKt. Died. Ileathatf. Died. Christians. Dicsl.
Joshua . B.C. 1426 Hector of Troy . B.C. 1184 Kin$( Arthur of Britain . A.D. 54*
David . . . I015 Alexander the Great . Charlemagne of France . . 814
Judas Maceaba-us . . 161 Julius Ca?sar . Godfrey of Bouillon . . 110-j
In Shakspcarc'B Love's Labour's Lost, act v. sc. 2, Hercules and Pompey appear as worthies.
WOTHLYTYPE. See under Photography.
WTOUNDING. Malicious wounding of another was adjudged death by the Englif.li
statutes. The Coventry act was passed in 1671. See Coventry Act. By lord Ellenborough's
act, persons who stab or cut with intent to murder, maim, or disfigure another were
declared guilty of felony without benefit of clergy. Those guilty of maliciously shooting at
another in any dwelling-house or other place, are also punishable under the same statute in
the same degree, 43 Geo. III. 1802. This offence is met by some later statutes, particu
larly the act for consolidating and amending the acts relating to offences against the person,
9 Geo. IV. June, 182S. This last act is extended to Ireland by 10 Geo. IV. 1829. An act
for the prevention of maliciously shooting, stabbing, &c, in Scotland, 6 Geo. IV. 1825;
amended by 10 Geo. IV. June 4, 1829. 16 & 17 Vict. c. 30, 1853, was passed for the
prevention and punishment of assaults on women and children.
WRECKS. The loss of merchant and other ships by wreck upon lec-shorcs, coasts, ami
disasters in the open sea, was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, to be about an average of 365
ships a year. In 1830, it appeared by Lloyds LUts, that 677 British vessels were totally
lost, under various circumstances in that year.
British vessels wreckod in 1848, were, sailing vessels, (Dec. and Jau.X was very remarkable for the
501, steamers 13; tonnage, 96,920. number of dreadful shipwrecks and fires at sea ;
In 1851 there wero wreckod 611 vessels, of which but a few of them aro recorded.
number 11 were steamers; the tonnage of the Many vessels were lost in the great storms Oct. 2;.
wholo being 111,976 tons. 26, 1859, May 38, 1861, Oct. 19, 20, 1861, and Nov.
The year 1852-3, particularly the winter months 13, 14, 1S62.
W HECKS OF VESSELS OX BRITISH COASTS.
Lives loti. Vestels. Lira lor!.
.859 . 1015 . 920 1854 • 897 ■ 1549
lK5;t . 832 . . 689 1855 . 1 141 . . 4*9
Vessels wrecked or suffering VcSitU Vessels tcvevled ur suffering Vcttcls
other casualties. totally wrecked. Lives lost. other casualties. totally wrecked. Lives lost.
1856 . . 1153 ■ ■ 5=1 1861 . . 668 . . 884
1857 • • "43 384 • • 532 1862 . . 1827 . 455 • • 690
1858 . . 869 . 354 • ■ 340 1863 . . aooi 503 . . 620
1859 . . 1415 ■ • '645 1864 . . 1741 . 467 . • 5'0*
1860 . . 1379 536
■ 3619 lives were saved by the use of rocket apparatus, life-boa*N, &c.
WRE 71)3 WKE
AVllECKS or Shipping, cotUUucd.
REMARKABLE CASES OF BRITISH VESSELS WRECKED OR BURNT.
Mary Roue, 60 guns, going from Portsmouth HartieelL, Indiaman, with immense wealth on
to Spithead, upset in a squall ; all on board board May 24, 1787
perished July 20, 1545 I Charhmont Packtt, from Holyhead to Dublin ;
Coronation, 90 guns, foundered off the Ram- 104 drowned Dec. 22, 1790
head ; crew saved : Harwich, 70 guns, wrecked Pandora, frigate, on a reef; 100 souls perished,
on Mount Edgcumbe ; crew perished, Sept. 1, 1691 Aug. 28, 1791
Royal Sovereign, 100guns; burnt in the Medway, Union, packet, of Dover, lost off the port 'of
Jan 29, 696 Calais ; a similar occurrence had not hap
Stirling Castle, 70 guns, Mary, 70 guns, Nor pened for 105 years before . . Jan. 28, 1792
thumberland, 70 guns, lost on the Goodwin ; Winterton, E. Indiaman : many perish,Aug. 20,
Vanguard, 70 guns, sunk at Chatham; York, Impetueiu; 74 guns, burnt at Portsmouth,
jo guns, lost near Harwich ; all lost but four Aug. 24, ,,
men; Resolution, 60 guns, coast of Sussex; Scorpion, 74 guns, burnt at Leghorn. Nov. zo, 1793
Newcastle, 60 guns, at Spithcad, 193 drowned ; j Arderd, 64 guns, burnt off Corsica . April, 1794
Reserve, 60 guns, at Yarmouth, 173 perished ; Boyne, by fire, at Spithead (sec Boyne) May 4, 1795
in the night of Nov. 26, 1703 ! Courageujc, 74 guns, capt. B. Hallowell, near
Association, 70 guns, and other vessels, lost Gibraltar ; crew, except 124, perished,
with admiral sir C. Shovel, off the Scilly isles Dec. 18, '70
{which see) Oct. 22, 1707 La Tribune, 36 guns, off Halifax; 300 souls
Solebay, 32 guns, lost near Boston neck ; crew perished t- Nov. 16, "797
perished Dec. 25, 1709 Resistance, Uown up in the Straits of Banca,
Edgar, 70 guns, blow up at Spithcad ; all on July 24, 1798
board perishod . . . Oct 15, 1711 Royal Charlotte, East Indiaman, blown up at
Victory, 100 guns, near the isle of Aldcmcy ; all Culpee Aug. r,
perished Oct. 5, 1744 Proserpine frigate, in the Elbe; 15 lives lost,
Colchester, 50 guns, lost on Kentish Knock ; 40 Feb. 1,
men perished Sept. 21, ,, Lvluie, 36 guns, wrecked off the VIie" island,
Namur, 74 guns, foundered near Fort St. David, coast of Holland ; only two men saved,
East Indies ; all perished except 26 persons ; Oct 9,
Pembroke, 60 guns, near Porto Novo ; 330 of Impregnable, 98 guns, wrecked between Lang-
her crew perished . . . April 13, 1749 j stone and Chichester . . . Oct. 19,
Prince Gtorge, 80 guns, burnt in Lit. 48 N., on Sceptre, 64 guns, wrecked in Table Bay, Cape of
her way to Gibraltar ; about 400 perished Good Hope ; 291 of the crew perished
April 13, 1758! Nassau, 64 guns, on the Haak Bank; 100
Lichfield, 50 guns, lost on the coast of Barbary; perished Oct. 25,
130 of the crew perished . . Nov. 29 Ethalion, frigate, 38 guns, on the Pemnarks
TUbury, 60 guns, lost off Louisbourg ; most of Dec. 24,
the crew perished . . . Sept. 25, 1759 1 Queen, transport, on Trefusis Point; 369 souls
Ramilieit, 90 guns, lost on the Bolt-head ; only I perished Jan. 14,
26 persons saved ; Conqueror, lost on St. Mastiff, gunbrig, on the Cockle Sands, Jan. 19,
Nicholas's Island, Plymouth . Feb. 15, 1760 Repulse, 64 guns, off Ushant . . March 10,
Due d'Aquiteiine, 64 guns, and Sunderland, 60 I Queen, W. Indiaman, by fire, off Brazil. July 9,
guns, lost off Pondicherry ; all perished, 1 Invincible, 74 guns, near Yarmouth ; capt. John
Jan 1, 1761 I Bennie and the crew, except 126 souls,
Raisonnable, 64 guns, lost at the attack of Mar perished March 16, ICOl
tinique * Feb. 3, 762 j Margate, Margate-hoy, near Reculver ; 23 per-
Rtpvtxe, 32 guns, foundered off Bermuda; crew 1 sons perished Feb. 10, ] S02
perished 1775 ! Bangalore, E. Indiaman, Indian Sea, April 12,
Thunderer, 74 guns ; Stirling Cattle, 64 ; Defiance, Active, West Indiaman, in Margate Roads,
64; Phamix, 44; La Blanche, 32; Laurel, 28; Jan. 10, 1
Shark, 28; Andromeda, 28; Deal Castle, 24; Ilindostan, East Indiaman, went to pieces on
Penelope, 24; Scarborough, 20 ; Barbadoes, 14; the Culvers Jan. ti,
Cameleon. 14 ; Endeavour, 14; and Victor, 10 La Dt'termine'e, 24 guns, in Jersey Roads : many
guns : all lost in the same storm, in the West drowned March 26,
Indies, in Oct. 1780 I Resistance, 36 guns, off Capo St. Vincent,
Gen. Barker, Indiani;ui, off Scheveling, Feb. 17, 1781 ! May 31,
Grosvenor, Indiaman, coast of Caffraria, Aug. 4, 1782 I Lady Hobart, packet, on an island of ice,
Swan, sloop of war, off Waterford ; 130 persons June 28,
drowned Ai Seine, frigate, 44 guns, off Sclielling, July 31,
Royal George, above 600 persons Antelope, capt. Wilaon, off Pcllcw Islands,
Aug. 29, Aug. 9,
Centaur, 74 guns, foundored on her passage Victory, Liverpool ship, at Liverpool ; 27
from Jamaica; capt. Inglcfield and 11 of the drowned Sept. 30,
crew saved Sept. 21, Circe, frigate, 32 guns, on Yarmouth coast,
Ville de Paris, of 104 guns, one of admiral Rod Nov. 16,
ney's prizes : the Glorieux, of 74 guns, lost in Nautilus, E. Indiaman, on Ladronos Nov. 18,
the West Indies Oct. 5, Fanny, in Chinese Sea ; 46 souls perish,
Suprrb, 74 guns, wrecked in Tellicherry roads, Nov. 29,
East Indies Nov. 5, 1783 Sujfiiantc, sloop of war, 16 guns, off Cork,
Cato, 50 guns, admiral sir Hyde Parker, on tho Dec. 25,
Malabar ctNist ; crew perished ,, Apollo, frigate, on coast of Portugal . April r, 1 <; ..t
Count Belffwiono, Indiaman, off Dublin Bay ; 147 Cumberland Packet, on Antigua coast, Sept. 4,
souls perished .... March 13, ,, Rom/iey, 50 guns, on Haak Bank, Toxel,
Menai, ferry-boat, in the Strait ; Co drowned, Nov. 18,
Dec. 5, 1785 Venerable, 74 guns, at Torbay ; lost 8 men,
Ualsewell, E. Indiaman ; 100 persons perished, Nov. 2.],
Jan. 6, 1786 Severn, on a rock, ncarGrouville, . Dec. 21,
"VVRE 794 WRE
"WRECKS of Shipping, continued.
Doris, frigate, on the Diamond Rock, Quiberon Ariel, in the Persian Gulf; 79 souls perished,
Bay Jan. 12, 1E05 3Iarch 18, 1S20
Atttraavenny, East Indiaman, on tbc Bill of Port Earl of Moira, on the Burbo Dank, near Liver
land ; more than 300 persons perish, Feb. 6, pool ; 40 drowned .... Au#. 8, iSji
jV'auu, transport, on Newfoundland coast, Blendon Hall, on Inaccessible Island ; many
Oct 23, „ perished July 23, „
/Eneas, transport, off Newfoundland : 340 pe Juliana, East Indiaman, on the Kentish Knock ;
rished Oct 23, „ 40 drowned Dec. 26, „
Aurora, transport, on tho Goodwin Sands; 300 Thame*, Indiaman, off Boachey Head ; several
perished Dec. at, drowned Feb. 3, 1S22
King George, packet, from Park gate to Dublin, Drake, to guns, near Halifax ; several drowned,
lost on the Hoylo bank ; 125 persons, pas- June 20, „
sengers and crew, drowned . Sept. si, 1806 Ellemnere, steamer ; 11 persons lost . Dec. 14,
Athi'nien, 64 guns, near Tunis ; 347 souls Alert, Dublin and Liverpool packet; 70 souls
perished Oct. 27, „ perished March 26, 1823
Glasgow, packet, off Farm Island; several Robert, from Dublin to Liverpool ; 60 souls
drowned Nov. 17, f, perished May 16, ,,
Felix, 13 guns, near Santandcr; 79 souls lost, Faiiny, in Jersey Roads ; lord Harley and
Jan. 22, 1807 many drowned Jan. r, 1S28
Blenheim, 74 guns, admiral sir T. Troubridgo, Venus, packet, from Waterford to Dublin, near
and Java, 32 guns, foundorcd near isle of Gorey ; 9 persons drowned . . March 19,
Rodriguez, East Indies . . Feb. 1, „ Nerert/, from Newry to Quebec, with 360 pas
Ajax, 74 guns, by fire, off the island of Tenedos ; sengers ; cast away near Bardsy, about 40
250 perished Feb. 14, „ persons wore drowned . . April ro, 1830
Blanche, frigate, on the French coast; 45 men Lady Sherbrooke, from Londonderry to Quebec ;
perished March 4, „ lost near Cape Ray ; 273 souls perished ; 32
Ganges, East Indiaman, off tho Cape of Good only were saved .... Aug. 19. 1831
Hope May 29, ,, Exinriment, from Hull to Quebec ; wrecked
Prince of Wales, Park-gate packet, and Rochdale, near Calais . . April 15, 1832
transport, on Dunleary point, near Dublin ; Earl of Wemyss, near Wells, Norfolk : the cabin
nearly 300 souls polished . . Nov. 10, filled, and 11 ladies and children were
Boreas, man-of-war, upon the Hanuois rock in drowned; all on deck escaped . July 13* 1833
the Channel Nov. 28, „ Amphitrite, ship with female convicts to New
Anson, 44 guns, wrecked in Mount's Bay ; 60 South Wales ; lost on Boulogne Sands ; out of
lives lost Dec. 29. ,, 131 persons, three only were saved Aug. 30, 1S33
AgaOta, near Memcl ; lord Royston and others United Kingdom, W. Indiaman, with rich cargo ;
drowned April 7, 180S run down by tho Queen of Scotland steamer
Astrea, frigate, on Anagada coast . May 23, „ off Northfieet, near Gravcsend . Oct. 15, „
Frith, passago-boat, in tho Frith of Dornoch ; Watencitch, steamer, on the coast of Wexford ;
40 persons drowned . . . Aug. 13, 1809 4 drowned Dec. 18, ,,
Foxhound, 18 guns, foundered on passage from lady Munro, from Calcutta to Sydney ; of 90
Halifax ; crew perished . . Aug. 31, persons on board, not more than 30 were
Sirius, 36 guns, and Magicienne, 36 gunsf saved Jan. 9, 1&54
wrecked when advancing to attack the Cdtmekon, cutter ; run down off Dover by the
French, off lslo of France . . Aug. 23, 1810 Castor frigate ; 13 persons drowned Aug. 27. „
ixitcllite, sloopof war, iG guns, upset, and all on Killamey, steamer, off Cork ; 29 persona pe
board perished .... Dec. 14, „ rished Jan. 26, 1S3S
Minotaur, of 74 guns, wrecked on tho Haak Forfarshire, steamer, from Hull to Dundee ; 38
Bank ; 360 persons perished . . Doc. 22, persons drowned. Owing to the courage of
Pandora, sloop-of-war, off Jutland, 30 persons Grace Darling and her father, 15 persons
perished Feb. 13, 1811 were saved. (Seo Forfarsliire) . . Sept 6, .,
Sdlda>iha, frigate, on the Irish coast; 300 per Protector, E. Indiaman ; at Bengal ; of 1 78 per
sons perished Doc. 4, sons on board, 170 perished . Nov. »x( „
SL Gtorge, of 98, and Defence, of 74 guns, and William Huskisson, steamer, between Dublin
the Hero, stranded on the coast of Jutland, and Liverpool ; 93 passengers saved by capt.
adm. Roynolds and all the crews (about 2000 Clegg, of tho Hudderxfleld Jan. n, 1840
persons) perished except 18 seamen, Dec. 24, „ Lord William Bentinck, off Bombay ; 58 recruits,
Manilla, frig-ate, on the Haak Sand, 12 persons 20 officers, and 7 passengers perished '• the
perished Jan. 28, 1812 Lord CastUrtagh also WTccked ; most of her
British Queen, packet, from Ostcnd to Margate, crew and passengers lost . . June 17, >,
wreckod on the Goodwin Sands, and all on H.lf.8. Fairy, captain Hewitt; sailed from
board perished Dec. 17, 1814 Harwich on a surveying cruise, and was lost
Duchess of Wellington, at Calcutta, by fire, next day in a violent gale, off the coast of
Jan. 21, 1816 Norfolk Nov. 13, n
Seahorse, transport, near Tramore Bay ; 365 per City of Bristol, steam-packet, 35 souls perished, j* I
sons, chiefly soldiers of the 59th regiment, Nov. 18, „
and most of the crew, drowned . Jan. 30, ,, Thames, steamer, captain Gray, from Dublin to
L>rrd Melville and Bowlicea, transports, with Liverpool, wrecked off St. Ives ; the captain
upwards of 200 of the 82nd regiment, with and 55 persons perished . . Jan. 4, 1841
wives and children, lost near Kinsale ; almost Governor Fcnner, from Liverpool for America ;
all perished Jan. 31, ,, run down off Holyhead by the Nottingham
Jlarpooner, transport, near Newfoundland ; 100 steamer out of Dublin ; 122 persons perished.
persons drowned .... Nov. 10, „ Feb. 19, u
William and Mart/ packet, struck on the Amelia, from London to Liverpool ; lost on the
Willcys rocks, near tho Holmes lighthouse, Heme Sand Foh. 26, (l
English Channol, nearly 60 persons perished,
Oct. 24, 1817 Presvlent, steamer, from New York to Liverpool,
Queen Charlotte, East Indiaman, at Madras ; all with many passengers on board ; sailed on
on board perished .... Oct. 34, 181S March n, encountered a terrific storm two
WRE 795 WRE
WRECKS of Shipping, continued,
days afterwards, and has never since been Orion, steam-ship, off Portpatrick. (See Orion. )
11card of March 13, 1841 June 18, 1850
[la this vessel wero, Mr. Tyrone Power, the Rosalind, from Quebec ; a number of the crew
comedian ; a son of tho duke of Richmond, drowned Sept. 9,
Ac.) Edmund, cmigrant-shipj with nearly 200 pas
William Browne, by striking on the ice; 16 sengers from Limerick to New York (of
passengers who had been received into the whom more than one-half perished), wrecked
longboat were thrown overboard by the crew off the Western coast of Ireland . Nov. 12,
to lighten her .... April 19, Amazon, W. India mail-steamer. (See Amazon.)
Isabella, from London to Quebec; struck by an Jan. 4, 1S52
iceberg May 9, „ Birkenhead, troop-ship, iron paddle-wheeled,
Solway, steamer, on her passage between Belfast and of 556 horse-power, sailed from Queens-
and Port Carlisle ; crow saved . Aug. 25, „ town, Jan. 7, 1852, for the Cape, having on
Amanda, off Metis : 29 passengers and 12 of tho board detachments of the 12th Lancers, 2nd,
crew lost Sept. 26, ,, 6th, 12th, 43rd, 45th, and 60th Rifles, 751x1,
James Cooke, of Limerick, coming from Sligo to 74th, and gist regiments. It struck upon a
Glasgow Nov. 21, „ pointed pinnacle rock off Simon's bay, South
Abercrombie Robinson and Waterloo transports, Africa, and of 638 persons, only 184 wero
in Tablo Bay, Capo of Good Hope : of 130 Baved by the boats ; 454 of the crew and
persons on board the latter vessel, 189, prin soldiers perished .... Feb. 26, „
cipally convicts, perished . . Aug. 28, 1842 Victoria, steam-packet. (See Victoria.) Nov. 8,9, ,,
Siritjire, war-steamer, on the coast of Jamaica, Lily, stranded and blown up by gunpowder,
Sept. 10, ,, on the Gulf-of-Man ; by which more than 30
Reliance, East Indiaman.from China to London, persons lost their Uvea . . . Dec. 24,
off Merlomont, near Boulogne: of 116 per St. Oeorge, steam-ship, bound from Liverpool to
sons on board, seven only were saved Nov. 13, New York, with 121 emigrant passengers
Hamilton, on the Gunflect sands, near Har (chiefly Irish), and a crew consisting of
wich ; 11 of tho crew perished . Nov. is, „ twenty-nine seamen (the captain Inclusive),
Conqueror, East Indiaman, homeward bound, was destroyed by fire at sea. The crew and
near Boulogne ; crew and passengers lost, seventy of the passengers wore saved by the
Jan. 13, 1843 American ship Orlando, and conveyed to
Jessie Logan, East Indiaman, on the Cornish Havre, in France ; but the remainder, fifty-
coast ; many lives lost . . Jan. 16, „ ono souls, are supposed to have perished,
Solicoy, royal mail-steamer, near Corunna ; 28 Dec. 34, „
lives lost, and the mail . . April 7, Queen Virtoria, steam-ship, bound from Liver
Catharine, trader, blown up off the Isle of Pines : pool, was wreckod off the Bailey lighthouse,
most of the crew woro massacred by the near Dublin; she mistook her course in a
natives, or afterwards drowned . April 12, „ snow-storm ; 67 lives were lost out of 120,
Amelia Thompson, near Madras, part of crew Feb. 15, 185.1
saved May 23, ,, independence, on the coast of Lower California,
Albert, troop-ship, from Halifax, with the 64th and which afterwards took fire; 140 persons
regiment on board, which was miraculously wero drowned or burnt to death, a few escap
saved ^*^L *3i n ing, who underwent the most dreadful ad
Pcgojus, steam-packet, from Leith ; off tho Fern ditional sufferings on a barren shore, Feb. 16, , ,
Islands ; of 59 persons, 7 only were saved, Duke of Sutherland, steamer from London to
JiUy 19, „ Aberdeen ; wrecked on the pier at Aberdeen,
[ Mr. Elton, a favourite actor, was among the and tho captain (Hoskins) and many of the
sufferers.] crow and passengers perished . April 2, ,,
Phtpnue, in a terrific snow-storm, off the coast of Rebecca, on west coast of Van Diemcn's Land ;
Newfoundland ; many lives were lost, Nov. 26, „ capt. Shephard and many lives lost, April 29,
Etberftldt, iron steam-ship, from Briellc, Feb. 22, 1S44 Wiltiatu and Mary, an American emigrant-ship,
Manchester, steamer, from Hull to Hamburg, near the Bahamas. She struck on a sunken
off the Vogel Sands, near Cuxhaven ; about rock ; about 170 persons perished May 3, ,,
30 lives lost June 16, ,, Aurora, of Hull ; sailed from New York, April
Margaret, Hull and Hamburg steamer; many 26, and foundered ; about aslivcs Inst. May 20, ,,
lives lost Oct. 22. 1845 Bourncuf, Australian emigrant vessel. Struck
Great Britain, iron steam-ship, grounded In on a reef near Torres Straits. The captain
Dundrum bay. (See Qreat Britain.) Sept. 22, ,, (Bibby) and six lives lost . Aug. 3, ,,
[Recovered by Brunei, Ac, Aug. 27, 1847.] Annie Jane, of Liverpool, an emigrant vessel,
John Lloyd, by collision, in the Irish sea ; driven on shore on the Barra Islands on west
several lives lost .... Sept. 25, coast of Scotland; about 348 lives lost,
Taxed, W. India mail-packet; 72 souls perished, Sept. 29,
Feb. 19, 1847 Harwood, brig, by collision with tho Trident
Carrick, brig ; a gale in the St. Lawrence ; 170 steamor, near the Mouse light near the Noro ;
emigrants perished . . May 19, ,, foundered with six of tho crew, who perished,
Avenger, H.M. steam-frigate; off N. coast of Oct. 5, »
Africa ; officers and crew (nearly 200) lost; Balhousie, foundered off Bcachey Head. The
Doc. 30, ,, captain (Butterworth), the passengers, and
Bxmouth, emigrant-ship, from Londonderry to all the crew (excepting one), about 60 persons
Quebec ; of 240 persons on board, nearly all in all, perished. Tho cargo was valued at
were drowned .... April 28, „ above loo.oool Oct. 19, ,,
Ocean Monarch {which see) . . . Aug. 24, 184S Marshall, screw-steamer, in the North Sea, ran
Caleb Grimthaw, emigrant-ship, by fire ; 400 into the barouc Woodhouse ; about 48 persons
persons miraculously escaped . Nov. 12, 1849 supposed to nave perished . . Nov 28, „
RoytUAdelaide, steamer, wrecked on the Tongue Tayleur, emigrant ship, driven on tho rocks off
Sands, off Margate, above 400 lives lost, Landbay Island, north of Howth ; about 380
March 30, 1850 I lives lost Jan. 20, 1854
* Arctic, TJ. S. mail steamer, by collision in a fog with tho Vctta French steamer off Newfoundland ;
above 300 lives lost, ScpU 27, 1854.
WKE 796 WRE
WRECKS of Shipping, continued.
Favourite, in the Channel, on her way from 1 Samh Sands, an iron screw-steamer, sailed
Bremen to Baltimore, came into Tiolent con from Portsmouth for Calcutta, in Aug. 1857 ;
tact with the American barque lltfptr, off 300 soldiers on board. On Nov. n, the caiyu
the Start, and immediately went down ; 201 (government stores) took fire. By the exer
persona were drowned . . April 29, 1854 tions of colonel Moffat and captain Castle, the
Lady Nugent, troop-ship, Hailed from Madras, master of the vessel, whodirected the soldiers
May 10, 1854 ; foundered in a hurricane ; 350 1 and the crew, the flames were subdued,
rank and file of the Madras light infantry, although a barrel of gunpowder exploded
officers and crew, in all 400 souls, perished, during the conflagration. A new danger then
May, „ arose—the prevalence of a strong gale—water
Forerunner, African mail-steamer, struck on a was shipped heavily where the port quarter
sunken rock off St. Lorcnz-o, Madeira, and had been blown out. Nevertheless, after a
went down directly afterwards, with the total fearful stmgglo, the vessel arrived at the
loss of ship and mails, and 14 lives . Oct. 25, 1854 Mauritius, Nov. 21, without losing a single life,
Aff,. iron screw-.steamer, struck on the Nov. 11-21, 1057
Oodevry rock, St. Ives' Bay, and all perished, Windsor, emigrant-ship, struck on a reef near
Nov, 30, „ the Cape de Verde Islands . . Dec. r, „
City of Glasgow, a Glasgow steamer, with 480 Ava, Indian mail-Btcamcr, with ladies and
persons on board, disappeared in . . . „ others from Lucknow on board ; wrecked
In the storm which raged in the Black Sea, near CoyIon Feb. 16, 1S5S
Nov. 13—16, 1854, eleven transports were Eastern City, burnt about the equator on her
wrecked and six disabled. The new steam way to Melbourne ; by great exertions all
ship Prince was lost with 144 lives, and a on board wore saved . . Aug. 23, 24, „
cargo worth soo.ooof. indispensable to the Austria, steam emigrant-ship, burnt in the
army in the Crimea. The loss of life in the middle of the Atlantic. Of 538 persons on
other vessels is estimated at 340 . . . ,, board, only sixty-seven were saved. Tito
George CaMUMj7,llamburp and New York packet, disaster due to carelessness Sept. 13, „
ncartho mouth of the Kll>c : 96 lives lost, and St. Paul, captain Pcimard, from Ilong Kon^r to"
Statey, English schooner, near Neuwrcek, in Sydney, with 327 Chinese emigrants, wrecked
a great storm Jan. 1, 1855 on the island of RosseL, Sept. 30, 1858. The
Mercury, screw-steamer, by collision with a captain and 8 of the crew left the island in
French ship: passengers saved Jan. 11, „ search of assistance, and were picked up by
Janet Boy•I, bark, in a storm off Margate the Prince of Jknmark schooner. The French
Sands ; 28 lives lost .... Jan. 20, „ steamer Styx was dispatched to the island,
Will o the Wi?p, screw-steamer, on the Burn and brought away one Chinese, Jan. 25, 1859.
Rock, off Lambay ; 18 live* lost . Fob. 9, All the rest had been massacred and devoured
Momn, steamer, on rucks near the Isle of Man ; by the natives
21 lives lost ■ Feb. 25, „ Czar, steamer, wrecked off the Litard, four
Joint, emigrant vessel, on the Muncles rocks off teen lives lost .... Jan. 23. ifijQt
Falmouth ; 200 lives lost . . May 1, ,, Eastern Monarch, burnt at Spithcad ; out of 500,
Pacific, Collins steamer, left Liverpool for New eight lives lost. The vessel contained invalid
York, with 186 persons on board ; never since soldiers from India, who with the crew, be
heard of (supposed to have struck on an ice haved admirably .... June r,
berg) Jan. 23, 1856 Alma, steamer, grounded on a reef near Aden,
Jonejihine Willi*, packet ship, lost by collision Red Sea, about 35 miles from Mocha ; all per
with the screw steamer Maugirlon in the sons saved; after 3$ days' exposure to the
channel; about 70 lives lost . . Feb. 3, sun, without water, they were rescued by
John Rutltdge, from Liverpool to New York, H. M.S. Cyclops ; sir John Bowring, who w*s
ran on an iceberg and was wrecked ; many on board, lost valuable papers . June is,
lives lost Feb. 20, M AUmella, steamer, running between Melbourne
Many vessels and their crews totally lost,* and Adelaide, struck on a reef; of about 72
Jan. i-8, 1857 persons, only 23 were saved ; many perished
Violet, royal mail-stoamcr, lost on the Good through exposure to cold . . Aug. 6, ,,
win ; many parsons i>erishcd . Jan. 5, „ Royal Charter, screw-steamer, captain Taylor,
Tyne, rojal mail-steamer, stranded on her way totally wrecked off Moelfra, on the Anglesca
to Soutlamptou from the Brazils . Jan. 13, coast ; 446 lives lost. The vessel contained
St. Amir v, screw-steamer, totally wrecked gold amounting in value to between 700,000/.
near LiUikia; loss about 145,000*. . Jan. 29, and 800,000/. ; much of this has been reco
Ctarlcmagi-*, iron clipper, wrecked by the coast vered .... night of Oct. 25-26, ,,
of Caucn: passengers saved; loss, about Indian, mail-steamer, wrecked off the coast of
110,000/ March 20, „ Newfoundland ; out of 116, 27 lives lost,
II. M.S. } ulfiyh, soguns, wrecked on south-east Nov. at, „
coos' of Maaio .... April 14, „ Btervie Castle, sailed from London Docks for
Col'- -ne Adamnon, Australian vessel, wrecked, Adelaide ; lost in the Channel and all on
iwcuty-fivc miles from Sydney, 20 lives lost, board, 57 persons ; last seen on Dec. 25, ,,
about June 3, n Northerner steamer, wrecked on a rock near
II.M.S. Transit, wrecked on a reef In the Straits Cape Mendorino, between San Francisco and
of Banca July 10, „ Oregon; 38 lives lost . . Jan. 6, i£fo
Dunbar, clipper, wrecked on the rocks near Endymion, sailing-vessel, burnt in the Mersey ;
Sydney; 121 perwons, and cargo valued at loss above 20,000/. .... Jan 31,
22,000/., lost; one person only saved, who Dreadful gales ; and many wrecks on the coast, t
was on the rocks thirty hours . Aug. 20, Feb. 15-19,
* A large American vessel, Northern HdU, was wrecked near Broadstairs, The American government
scut 21 silver medals and 270/. to be distributed among tho heroic boatmen of the place, who saved the
crew. Jan. 5—6, 1857.
t Pomona, an American *hip, captain Mcrrihew ; 419 persons on board, from fivorpool to New York,
was wrecked on Bluekwater Bank, through the master mistaking the Blackwater for the Tuskar light,
only 24 persons saved, night of April 27-28, 1859.
J Amoriean barque Urna, with emigrants, wrecked off Barfleur ; above 100 lives loBt, Feb. 17, tSCc. On
WRE 797 "WRI
X.
XANTHICA, a military festival observed by the Macedonians in the month called
Xanthicus (our April), instituted about 392 B.C.
XANTI1US, in Lycia, Asia Minor, was besieged by the Romans under Brutus, 42 B.c.
After a great struggle, the inhabitants set lire to their city, destroyed their wives and
children, and perished. Tho conqueror wished to spare them, and offered rewards to his
soldiers if they brought any of the Xanthians into his presence, but only 150 were saved.
Plutarch.
XENOPHON. See Retreat of (he Greeks.
XERES de la Fronteba (S.W. Spain), the Asia Regia of the Romans, and the seat of
the wine-trade in Spain of which the principal wine is that so well known in England av
Sherry, an English corruption of Xeres. The British importations of this wine in 1S50
reached to 3,826,785 gallons ; and in the year ending Jan. 5, 1852, to 3,904,978 gallons.
Xeres is a handsome and largo town, of great antiquity. At the battle of Xeres, July 19-26,
711, Roderic, the last Gothic sovereign of Spain, was defeated and slain by the Saracens,
commanded by Tarik and Muza,
XER 799 YEA
XERXES' CAMPAIGN. Xerxes crossed the Hellespont by a bridgo of boats, anil
entered Greece in the spring of 480 B.c, with an army which, together with the numerous
retinue of servants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted (according to some
historians) 105,283,220 souls. Herodotus states the armament to have consisted of 3000
sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry and the mariners and attendants of the camp.
This multitude was stopped at Thermopylte (which see) by the valour of 300 Spartans under
Leonidas, Aug. 7-9, 480 B.C. The fleet of Xerxes was defeated at Artemisium and Salamis,
Oct. 20, 480 B.C. ; and he hastened back to Persia, leaving behind Jlardonius, the best of
his generals, with an army of 300,000 men, who was defeated and slain at Plata?a, Sept. 22,
479, is. c. Xerxes was assassinated by Artabanus, 465 B. 0.
XIMENA (S. Spain), the site of a battle between the Spanish army under the command
of general Ballasteros, and the French corps commanded by general Regnier, Sept. 10, 181 1,
The Spaniards defeated their adversaries ; the loss was great on both sides.
Y.
YARD. Tho precise origin of our yard is uncertain. It is, however, likely that the
word is derived from the Saxon &yrd, a rod or shoot, or pjrdan to enclose ; being anciently
the circumference of the body, until Henry I. decreed that it should bo the length of his
arm. See Standard Measures.
YARMOUTH, Great (Norfolk), was a royal demesne in the reign of William I., as
appears from Domesday Hook. It obtained a charter from John, and one from Henry III.
In 1348, a plague here carried off 7000 persons : and that terrible disease did much havoc,
again in 1579 and 1664. The theatre was built in 1778; and Nelson's pillar, a fluted
column, 140 feet in height, was erected in 1817. The suspension chain bridge over the river
Bure was built by Mr. R. Cory, at an expense of about 4,000/, Owing to the weight of a
vast number of persons who assembled on this bridge to witness an exhibition on the water,
it suddenly gave way, and seventy-nine lives, mostly those of children, were lost, May 2,
1845. The railway from London to Norwich was opened in 1844.
YEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the first who fixed the length of the year.
The Roman year was introduced by Romulus, tho last article of which ordered tho year for the
738 b.c, ; and it was corrected by Numa, 713 B.C., time to como to be constantly and universally
and again by Julius Ca;sarf 45 b.c. See Calendar. begun, and written on and from January x.
The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise See AVw Style, Platonic Tear, Sabbatical Year, French
365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, and 6 Revolutionary Calendar,9
decimals, 265 b.c. The beginning of the year has been reckoned from
The lunar year, which comprehends twclvo lunar the day celebrating the birth of Christ, Dec. 25th ;
months, or 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, was in use his circumcision, Jan. 1 ; his conception, March
among tho Chaldseans, Persians, and ancient Jews. 25 ; and his resurrection, Eastor.
Once in every three years was added another lunar The English began their year on tho 25th of Decem
month, so as to make the solar and the lunar year ber, until tho time of William the Conqueror.
nearly agree. But though the months wcro lunar, This prince having been crowned on Jan. 1, gave
tho year was solar ; that is. the first month was of occasion to tho English to begin their year at that
thirty days, and the Becond of twenty-nine, and so time, to make it agree with tho then most remark
alternately ; and the niunth added triennially was able period of their history. Stow. Until the act
called tho second Adar. The Jews afterwards for altering the style, in 1752 (see Style), the year
followed the Roman mauner of computation. did not legally and generally commence in Eng
The sidereal year, or return to the same star, is 365 land until March 25th. In Scotland, at that
days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, 1 1 seconds. period, tho year began on the ist of January. This
The Jews dated tho beginning of the sacred year in difference causod great practical inconveniences ;
March ; the Athenians in June ; the Macedonians and January, February, and part of March some
on Sept. 24 ; the Christians of Egypt and Ethiopia times bore two dates, as we often find in old re
on Aug. 290^0; and the Persians and Armenians cords, 1745-1746, or 1745-6, or 174!. Such a reckon
on Aug. 1 1. Nearly all Christian nations now com ing often led to chronological mistakes; for in
mence the year on January 1. stance, we popularly say "tho revolution of 168S,"
Charles IX. of Franco, in 1564, published an arret, as that event happened in February 1688, accord-
* The year in tho northorn regions of Siberia and Lapland is doscribed in tho following calendar, given
by a traveller :—"/u«< 23. Snow melts. July 1. Snow gouo. July 9. Fields quite groen. July 17. Plants at
full growth. July 25. Plants in flower. Aug. 2. Fruits ripe. Aug. 10. Plants shed their seed. Aug. 18.
Snow." Tho snow thon continues upon the ground for about ten months, from Aug. 18th of one year to
June 23rd of tho year following, being 309 days out of 365: so that while the three seasons of spring,
summer, and autumn are together only fifty-six days, or eight weeks, tho winter is of forty-four weeks.'
duration in theso countries.
YEA SCO YEZ
YEAR, continual.
lng to tho then mode of computation : but if the most ot the European states for all similar docu
year were held to begin, as it does now, on tho ments and records. See List of Kings under
first of January, it would be the revolution of England, p. 275.
1689. Year and a Dav. A space of time in law, that in
Year of Ocr Lord. See Anno Domini. many cases establishes and fixes a right, as in an
Yf.ar of Tilt R.EON. From the time of William the astray, on proclamation being made, if the owner
Conqueror, 1066, the year of the sovereign's reign does not claim it within the time it is forfeited.
has been given to all public instruments. The The term arose in the Norman law, which enacted
king's patents, charters, proclamations, and all that a beast found on another's land if un claimed
acts of parliament have since then beou generally for a year and a day, belonged to the lord of the
so dated. Tho same manner of dating is used in soil. It is otherwise a legal space of time.
YEAR-BOOKS contain reports in Norman-French of cases argued and decided in the
courts of common law. The printed volumes extend from the beginning of the, reign of
Edward II. to nearly the end ol the reign of Henry VIII., a period of about 220 years ; but
in this series there are many omissions. These books are the first in the long line of legal
reports in which England is so rich, and may be considered as, to a great extent, the founda
tion of our unwritten law, " Lex n<m scripta." In 1863 el seq. the year-books of 30 & 31
Edward I. 1302-3, were edited by Mr. A. J. Horwood, for the series of the Chronicles and
Memorials published at the expense of the British government.
YELLOW FEVER, a dreadful American pestilence, made its appearance at Philadelphia,
where it committed great ravages, A.n. 1699. It appeared in several islands of the West
Indies in 1732, 1739, and 1745. It raged with unparalleled 'violence at Philadelphia in
Oct. 1762 ; and most awfully at New York in the beginning of August 1791. This fever
again spread great devastation at Philadelphia in July 1793 ; carrying off several thousand
persons. Ilardic. It again appeared in Oct. 1797 ; and spread its ravages over the
northern coast of America,' Sept. 1798. It re-appeared at Philadelphia in the summer of
1802 ; and broke out in Spain, in Sept. 1803. The yellow fever was very violent at
Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814 ; in the Mauritius, July 1815 ; at Antigua, in Sept, 1816 ; and
it raged with dreadful consequences at Cadiz, and the Isle of St. Leon, in Sept. 1819. A
malignant fever raged at Gibraltar in Sept. 1828, and did not terminate until the following
year.
YEOMEN OF tiif. Guard, a peculiar body of foot guards to the king's person, instituted
at the coronation of Henry VII. Oct. 30, 1485, which originally consisted of fifty men under
a captain. They were of a larger stature than other guards, being required to be over
six feet in height, and were armed with arquebuses and other arms. The land was increased
by Henry's successors to one hundred men, and seventy supernumeraries ; and when one of
the hundred died, it was ordered that his place should be supplied out of the seventy.
They were clad after the manner of king Henry VIII. Ashmoles Instil.. This is said to
have been the first permanent military band instituted in England. John, earl of Oxford,
was the first captain in i486. Bcateon's Pol. Index.
YEW-TREE {Taxiis). The origin of planting yew-trees in churchyards was (these latter
being fenced) to secure the trees from cattle, and in this manner preserve them for the
encouragement of archery. A general plantation of them for the use of archers was ordered
by Richard 111. 1483. Stow's Chron. Near Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, were lately
seven yew-trees called the Seven Sisters, supposed to have been planted before 1088 ; the
circumference of the largest was thirty-four feet seven inches round the trunk. In 1S51, a
yew-tree was said to be growing in the churchyard of Gresford, North Wales, whose circum
ference was nine yards nine inches, being the largest and oldest yew-tree, in the British
dominions ; but it is affirmed on traditionary evideuco that there are some of these trees in
England older than the introduction of Christianity. The old yew-tree mentioned in the
survey taken of Richmond palace in 1649, is said to be still existing.
YEZDEGIRD, or. Persian Era, was formerly universally adopted in Persia, and is still
used by the Parsees in India, and by the Arabs, in certain computations. This era began
on the 26th of June, a.d. 632, when Yezdcgird was elected king of Persia. The year con
sisted of 365 days only, and therefore its commencement, like that of the Old Egyptian ami
Armenian year, anticipated the Julian year by one day in every four years. This difference
amounted to nearly 112 days in the year 1075, when it was reformed by Jelaledin, who
ordered that in future tho Persian year should receive an additional day whenever it should
appear necessary to postpone the commencement of the following year, that it might occur
on the day of the sun's passing the same degreo of the ecliptic.
YXG 801 YOR
YXGLINGS (youths, or off-shoots), descendants of tlie Scandinavian hero Odin, ruled
Sweden till 830, when the last of the pontiff kings, Olaf Trajtelia, being expelled, lead to
the foundation of the Norwegian monarchy.
YOKE. The yoke is spoken of as a type of servitude throughout Scripture. The cere
mony of making prisoners pass under it was practised by the Samnites towards tho Romans,
321 b.c. See Caudinc Forks. This disgrace was afterwards inflicted by tho Romans upon
their vanquished enemies. Dufresnoy.
YORK. The Eboracum of the Romans, and one of the most ancient cities of England.
Here Soverus (a.d. 207), and hore also Constan- The castle was built by Richard III., 1484* and
tine kept courts, ana bis son Constantino the was rebuilt 1741
Groat was born, in 374, and proclaimed em* Tbo corporation built a mansion-house for the
peror a.d. 306 lord mayor 1728
Ablwy of St. Mary's, founded by Seward tho Tho famous York petition to parliament to re
Dane 1050 duce tho expenditure and redress grievances
York was burnt by the Danes, and all the Nor was gotten up Dec. 1779
mans slain 1069 Yorkshire Philosophical Society established . x8aa
The city and m;my churches wero destroyed by First meeting of tbo British Association held
fire June 3, 1137 here Sept. 27, 1831
Tork received its charter from Richard II. and Fall of the iron bridge over tho Ouso ; five
the mayor was made a lord . . , . 1389 persons killed .... Sept. 27, 1861
The GuiMhall erected 1446
DUKES OF YORK,
1385. Edmund Plantagonet (fifth son of king Ed 1605. Charles Stuart, afterwards Charles I.
ward III.); created duke, Aug. 6; died 1643. James Stuart (his second son), afterwar.'s
1402. James It.
14061 Edward (his sonX was degradod by Henry IV. 1716. Ernest (brother of George I.) ; died 1728.
In 1399, but restored in 1414: killed at 1760. Edw.ird (brother of George III.) ; died 1767.
Agincourt, 1415 ; succeeded by his nephew. 1734. Frederic (son of George III.), born, Aug. 16,
1415. Richard (son of Richard, carl of Cambridge, 1762 ; marries princess Fredcrica of Prussia,
who was beheaded fur treason in 141 5): Sept. 29, 1791 ; commands the British forces
became regent of France in 1435 : quelled at Antwerp, April 8, 1793; present at the
the rebellion in Ireland in 1449; claimed Biege of Valenciennes, May 23 ; defeated at
tho throne, and was appointed protector in Dunkirk, Sept. 7 ; at Doia lo-Duc, Sept. 14 ;
1454: his office was annulled, and he b.gan and at Boxtel, Sept. 17 ; appointed com
the civil war in 1455, and was slain after his mander-in-chief, 1798 ; defeated near Alk-
defeat at Wakefield in 1460. maar, Sept. 19 and Oct. 6, 1799; accused by
1460. Edward (his son) afterwards king Edward IV. colonel Wardle of abuse of his patronage,
1474. Richard (his second Bon), said to have been he resigns, Jan. 27, 1809; becomes again
murdered in tho Tower, 1483. commander-in-chief, i8n; strongly opposes
1494. Henry Tudor, afterwards Henry VIII. the C.itholic claims, 1825 ;dios Jan. 3, 1827.
YORK, Archbishopric of. The most ancient metropolitan see in England, being, it
is said, so made by king Lucius about 180, when Christianity was first partially established
in England. The bishop Eborius was present at the council of Aries, 314. The see was
overturned by the Saxons, was revived by pope Gregory on their conversion, and Paulinus
was made archbishop about 625. York and Durham were long the only two sees in the
north of England, uutil Henry I. erected a bishopric at Carlisle and Henry VIII. another at
Chester. York was the metropolitan see of the Scottish bishops ; but during the time of
archbishop Nevil, 1464, they withdrew their obedience, and had archbishops of their own.
Much dispute arose between the two English metropolitans about precedency, as by pope
Gregory's institutions it was thought lie meant, that whichever of them was first confirmed,
should be superior : appeal was made to the court of Rome by both parties, and it was
determined in favour of Canterbury. The archbishop of York was allowed to style himself
primate of England, while the archbishop of Canterbury styles himself primate of all
England. The province of York now contains the dioceses of York, Carlisle, Chester,
Durham, Sodor and Man, Manchester, and Ripon (which sec). York has yielded to tho
church of Rome eight saints and three cardinals, and to England twelve lord chancellors,
two lord treasurers, and two lord presidents of the north. It is rated in the king's books,
39 Henry VIII. 1546, at 1609^. 195. 2d. per annum. Beatsoii. Present income 10,000/.
ARCHBISHOPS ' YORK SINCE I500.
1501. Thomas Savage, died Sept. 3, 1507. 1570. Edmund Orindal, translated to Canterbury,
150S. Christopher Bainbrigg, poisoned at R l, Jan. 10, 1576.
July 14, 1514. 1577. Edwin Binds or Sandys, died July xo, 1588.
1 514. Thomas Wolsey, died Nov. 29, 153a 1589. John Piers, died Sept. 28, 1594.
1531. Edward Lee, died Sept. 13. 1544. t595. Matthow Hutton, died Jan. 16, 1606
1545, Robert Holgate, deprived March 23, 1554. 1606. Tobias Matthew, died March 29, 1628.
1555. Nicolas Heath, deprivod. 1628. George Mountaigne. died Oct. 24, 1628.
1561. Thomas Youog, died. June a6, 156?. „ Samuel Harsnet, diad May 25, 1631.
3 F
YOR 802 ZAM
YORK, continued.
1632. Richard Neyle, died Oct. 31, 1640. : 1747. Matthew Button, translated to Canterbury,
1641. John Williams, died March 25, 1650. March, 1757.
[See vacant tin years.] 1757- John Gilbert, died 1761.
1660. Accepted Frewen, died March 28, 1664. 1761. Robert Hay Druminond, died Deo. 10. 1776.
1664. Richard Sterne, died June 18, 16S3. 1777. William Markbam. died Nov. 3. 1807.
1683. John Dolbcn, died April 11, 1686. 1S08. Edward Vcnables Vernon, died Nov. 5, 1847.
[See vacant tico year*.] 1847- Thomas Musgrave, died May 4, iSco.
1688. Thomas LamploiiRh, died May 5, 1691. [ 1E60. Charles T. Longley. translated to Canterbury
1691. John Sharp, died Feb. 2, 1714. (from Durham), 1862.
1714. Sir William Dawes, died April 30, 1724. 1863. William Thomson, translated from Gloucester,
1724. Launcclot Blackburn, died March 23, 1743. present archbishop.
1743. Thomas Honing, translated to Canterbury, !
Oct 1747.
YORK MINSTER was erected at different periods, and on the site of former buildings.
The first Christian church erected here, which appears to have been preceded hy a Ionian
temple, was built by Edwin, king of Northumbria, of wood, in 625, and of stone about 635.
It was damaged by fire in 741, and was rebuilt by archbishop Albert, about 780. It was
again destroyed by fire in the year 1069, and rebuilt by archbishop Thomas. It was once
more burnt down in 1 137, with St. Mary's Abbey, and 39 parish churches in York.
Archbishop Roger began to build the choir in 1171 ; Walter Gray added the south transept
in 1227 ; John de Romayne, the treasurer of the cathedral, built the north transept in 1260.
His son, the archbishop, laid the foundation of the nave in 1291. In 1330, William de
Melton built the two western towers, which were finished by John de Rinninghnm in 1342.
Archbishop Thorcsby, in 1361, began to rebuild the choir, in accordance with the magnifi
cence of the nave, and he also rebuilt the lantern tower. Thus by many hands, and
ninny contributions of multitudes on the promise of indulgences, this magnificent fabric was
completed. It was first set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, and the roof of the choir
and its internal fittings destroyed, Feb. 2, 1S29 ; the damage, estimated at 60,000/., was
repaired in 1832. An accidental lire broke out, which in one hour reduced the belfry to a
shell, destroyed the roof of the nave, and much damaged the edifice, May 20, 1840.
YORK and Lancaster, Wars of. See TJoses.
YORK (Upper Canada), founded in 1794 ; since 1834 named Toronto. In the war
between America and Gloat Britain, the United States' forces made several attacks upon the
province of Upper Canada, and succeeded in taking York, the seat of the government, April
27, 1813 ; but it was soon afterwards again retaken by the British.
YORK TOWN (Virginia, United States). Lord Cornwallis had taken possession of
York town in Aug. 1781 : but after sustaining a disastrous siege, he was obliged to sur
render his army, consisting of about 7coo men, to the allied armies of France and
America, under the command of general Washington and count Rochambeau, Oct. 19, 1781.
This mischance was attributed to sir Henry Clinton, who had not given the garrison the
necessary succour they expected ; and it mainly led to the close of the war. It was strongly
fortified by the Confederates in the American civil war, but surrendered to M'C'lellan,
May, 1862.
Y'TTRIUM, a rare metal. The earth yttria was discovered by professor Gaelolin in a
mineral at Ytterby, in Sweden, 1794. The metal was first obtained by Wohler in 1828. It
is of a dark grey colour, and brittle.
YVRES (now Ivry, N.-W. France), where a battle was fought, March 14, 1590, between
Henry IV. of France, aided by his chief nobility, and the generals of the Catholic league,
over whom the king obtained a complete victory.
z.
ZAMA (near Carthage, N. Africa), the scene of the battle between the two greatest
commanders in the world at the time, Hannibal nnd Scipio Africanus. The victory was won
by Scipio, and was decisive of the fate of Carthage ; it led to an ignominious peace the year
utter, which closed the second Punic war. The Romans lost about 2000 killed and wounded,
while the Carthaginians lost in killed nnd prisoners more than 40,000 ; some historians
make the loss greater ; 202 D.c.
ZAN 80,i ZOO
ZANTE. One of the Ionian islands, which sec.
ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, under Zanzalee, 535 ; he taught that water
baptism was of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be baptised with fire, by the applica
tion of a red-hot iron. The sect was at one time very numerous.
ZE, ZOW, ZIERES. For ye, you, and yours. The letter ! was retained in Scotland,
and was commonly written for the letter y so late as the reign of, queen Mary, up to which
period many books in the Scottish language wore printed in Edinburgh with these words,
1543-
ZELA.(N.-E. Asia Minor). Where Julius Ciesar defeated Pharnaccs, king of Pontus,
son of Mithridates. Ca?sar, in announcing this victory, sent his famous dispatch to the
senate of Rome, in these words : " Veni, viai, vici "— " I came, I saw, I conquered " (perhaps
the shortest despatch on record). This battle ended tho war : Pharnaces escaped into
Bosphorus, where he was slain by his lioutcnant, Asander ; Pontus was made a Roman
province, and Bosphorus given to Mithridates of Pergamus, 47 B.C.
ZEL1, Hanover. S?e Denmark, 1772.
ZEND-AVESTA, ancient sacred books of tho Parsees ; of which 3 out of 21 are extant.
The age of these books is much disputed. Professor Max Miiller says that the MSS. had
been presorved by the Parseo priests at Bombay, where a colony of fire-worshippers had fled
in the 10th century. Anqnetil Duperron's French translation, from a modern Persian
version, was published in 1771.
ZENO, Sect of. See Stoics.
ZENOBI A, Queen of the East. See Palmyra.
ZENTA, in Hungary, the scene of a battle where the Germans under prince Eugene,
defeated the Turks, Sept. 11, 1697. This victory led to tho peace of Corlowitz, ratified,
January, 1699.
ZINC. The ore of zinc, calamine, was known to tho Greeks, who used it in the manu
facture of brass. It is said to have been known in China also, and is noticed by
European writers as early as 123 1 ; though the method of extracting it from the ore was
unknown for nearly five hundred years after. The metal zinc is first mentioned by Para
celsus (who died in 1541). A mine of zinc was discovered on lord Ribblesdalo's estate,
f'raven, Yorkshire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in London shortly after the
invention of lithography became known in England, in 1 81 7. See Lithography. Zinc is
much used in voltaic batteries ; and its application in manufactures has greatly increased of
late years. It is often called Spelter. See Photozincography.
ZIRCONIUM, the metallic base of the earth Zirconia, which was discovered by Klaproth
in 1789 ; from this Berzelius obtained tho metal in 1824. Zirconia is found iu the sand of
the rivers of Ceylon. The metal exists in the form of a black powder.
ZIZYPHUS VULGARIS. A shrub brought from the south of Europe about 1640. The
Zizyphus Paiiurus shrub (Christ's Thorn) was brought from Africa before 1596. See
Flouers.
ZODIAC. Its obliquity was discovered, its twelve signs named, and their situations
assigned them by Anaximander, about 560 B.C. The Greeks and Arabians borrowed the
zodiac from the Hindoos. Sir W. Jones.
ZOLLVEREIN (Customs' Union), the name given to the German Commercial union, of
which Prussia is at the head. It began in 1818, and was gradually joined by nearly all the
German states except Austria, and a treaty was signed March 22, 1833, which became the
basis of the association. On Feb. 19, 1853, an important treaty of commerce and navigation,
between Austria and Prussia, to last from Jan. 1854 to Dec. 1865, was signed, to which the
other states of the Zollverein gavo in their adhesion on April 5, 1853. In Nov. 1861,
Prussia threatened to withdraw unless certain changes were made.
ZOOLOGY (from zoom, Greek for animal) is the division of biology which treats of
animals. Aristotle (322-284 B.C.) is tho founder of the science. Systems of classification
have been made by John Ray (1628-1705), Charles Linnd (1707-78), G. Buffon (1707-88),
and George Cuvier (1769-1832).*
* The animal kingdom was divided by Linniuus into six classes ; viz. :—Mammalia, which includes all
animate that suckle their young; Arts, birds; Amphibia, or amphibious animals ; Puces, fishes;
Animate,insects;
Itisecta, publishedVermes, worms
in 1816, ; 1741. tho
distributed Cuvier, who died
animals into infour
Paris, Maydivisions,
groat 13, 1832, the
in hisVerteOrata
great work, Rettne•
(ribbedj
3 F 2
zoo S04 ZUT
ZOOLOGY, continued.
The Zoological Society of London (originally the ! menagerie of Mr. Cross was temporarily lodged in
Zoological Club) was foundod in 1826, and its gar- ! the King's Mews, whenco it was removed to the
dens in the Regent's Park were opened in April, ' 8urrey Zoological Gardens, 1832.
1827 ; the society was chartered March 27, 1829. The Zoological Gardens of Dublin were opened,
Dr. James Murie was appointed by the society to be 1832.
their first " anatomical prosector," May 3, 1865. See Aquarium, Hippopotamus, Qirvfff, and Attii-
On the demolition of Exetor Change, in 1829, the . -n.citUation.
ZORNDORFF, in Prussia, where a battle was fought between the Prussian and Russian
armies ; the former, commanded by the king of Prussia, obtained a victory over tb,e forces of
the czarina, whose loss amounted to 21,529 men, while that of the Prussians did not exceed
11,000, Aug. 25 and 26, 1758.
ZOUAVES asd Foot Chasseurs. When the French established a regency at Algiers,
in 1830, they hoped to find the employment of native troops advantageous, and selected the
Zooaouas, a congregation of Arab tribes, famous for daring and skilful courage. In time
numbers of red republicans, and other enthusiastic Frenchmen, joined the regiments,
adopting the costume, &c. : eventually the Africans disappeared from the ranks, and no
more were added, they having been frequently guilty of treachery. The French Zouaves
formed an important part of the army in the Crimean war, 1854-5*
ZUINGLTANS, the followers of the reformer Ulricus Zuinglius, who at Zurich, declaimed
against the church of Rome, and effected the same separation for Switzerland from the papal
dominion, which Luther did for Saxonv. He procured two assemblies to be called ; by the
first he was authorised to proceed, by tlic second, the ceremonies of the Romish church were
abolished, 15 19. Zuinglius died in arms as a soldier, being slain in a skirmish against his
popish opponents in 1531. The Zninglians were also culled Sacramentarians.
ZTJLPICH. See ToJbiac.
ZURICH was admitted a member and made head of the Swiss confederacy, 135*, ftnd
was the first town in Switzerland that separated from the church of Rome. See Zuinglians.
A grave-digger at Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which eight persons lost their
lives and many others were grievously injured, Sept. 4, 1776. The French were defeated here,
losing 4000 men, June 5, 1799. The Imperialists were defeated by Massena, the former
losing 20,000 men killed and wounded, Sept. 25, 1799. See Switzerland. On June 24,
1859, the AustrianB were defeated by the allied French and Sardinian army at Solferino.
Preliminaries of peace were signed at Villa Franca by the emperors of Austria and France on
July 12 following. A conference between the representatives of the powers concerned
having been appointed, the first meeting took place on August 8. After many delays a
treaty was signed on Nov. 11, and ratified Nov. 12. Lombardy was ceded to Sardinia ; the
formation of an Italian Confederation, under the presidency of the pope, was determined on,
and the rights of the ex-sovereigns of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma were reserved. The
formation of the kingdom of Italy in 1861 annulled the treaty of Zurich.
ZUTPHEN, in Holland. At a battle here Sept. 22, 1586, between the Spaniards and the
Dutch, tho amiable sir Philip Sidney, author of "Arcadia," was killed. Ho was serving
with the English auxiliaries, commanded by the earl of Leicester.
the MoUusca (soft bodied) : the AiiicvJata (jointed) ; and the Radiata (the organs disposed round a centre).
In 1850, professor Owen made known a system of arranging the class Mammalia according to the nature of
their brains.
* The Zouave organisation and drill were introduced into the federal army in the great civil war in
America, by Ephraim E. Ellesworth, early in 1861. Ho was assassinated on May 24, .*ame year, at
Alexandria, just after taking down a secession flag.
INDEX.
[The references are to articles in the body of the work ; the italics refer to articles in this Index. The year
given is a.d. when b.c. is not mentioned ; two dates, thus, 1508-82, signify the year of the person's
birth and death ; b., born ; d.t died ; Jt., flourished ; m.f murdered ; k., killed.]
Abbas, Persia, 1582 JEsop ; fables (about 600 b.c.) Alfred the Great, 849-001; Eng
Abbot, abp. ; Canterbury, 161 1 Africanus ; see Scipto land, councils, clocks, crown,
Abbot, Charles; speaker, 1802 Agamemnon; Myeense, 1201 b.c. militia
Abd-el-Kader ; Algiers, 1835 Agathoclcs ; Carthage, Sicily, Sy Alfred, prince ; Godwin, 1053 ;
Abdcrahman, I.—V., caliphs, 755- racuse, 317 B.C. England; royal family, b. 1844
1023 Age, proprietor of ; trials, 1844 Alibaud ; France, 1836
Abdnl-Mcdjid, Turkey, 1839-61 Agesander ; LaocoOn Ali Pacha ; Rosetta; Turkey, 1820 ;
Abdul-Aziz, Turkey, 1861 Agesilaus; Sparta, 398 b.c. Albania
Abelard, d. has ; Abclard Agis ; Sparta, 427 b.c. Alleyne, Edwd., d. 16x7; Dulwich
Abercromby, Jas., speaker, 1835 Agnew, Mr. Vans; India, 184S coll.
Abercromby, sir R, 1738-1801 ; Agnodice; midwifery Almansour; Bagdad, 763
Trinidad, Alexandria, Agricola ; Britain, 78 ; Lancastor, Almeida, L. ; Madagascar, 1506
Aberdeen, earl of, 1 784-1860; Aber Caledonia, Roman wall Alphonaus ; Sicily, Spain, Por
deen adm. note Agricola, John ; Antinomians tugal (kings)
Abernethy, J., surgeon, 1764-1831 Agrippa ; Pantheon, 27 b,c. Alsop, Joseph ; trials, 1839
Abingdon, earl of ; trials, 1794 Aholiab ; sculpture Althorp, vise. ; Grey administra
Abinger, Id., att.-gen., 1827 ; ex Ahmed I.—III. ; Turkey, 1603, tion, 1830; Melbourne, 1835
chequer 6., 1834 et seq. Alva, duke of, 1508-82; Antwerp,
Abrantes, duke of ; see Junot Airy, G. B., b. 1801 ; Greenwich, Holland
Absalom killed, 1023 b.c. ^35 ; pendulum, standard Alvauley, lord ; duel, 1835
Abubeker ; Ali, 632 Aislabie, Mr. ; Sunderland admi Alvinzi, Marshal; Areola, 1796
Accum, F. ; adulterations, 1S22 nistration, 1718; South Sea Alyattes ; Lydia, 761 B.C.
Achilli v. Newman ; trials, 1852-3 Akbar, India ; 1556 Alypius of Alexandria ; dwarfs
Achmot ; seo Ahmed Akcnside, Mark, poet, 1721-70 Amadous, Savoy ; annunciation
Acilius ; statues, temples Alaric, d. 410 ; Rome, France Ambrose, St., d. 397 : anthems,
Ackcrmann, R. ; lithography, 1817 Albemarle, Geo., Monk, duke of, Te Deum, liturgies
Acron; aromatics, 473 b.c. 1608 70 ; administrations, 1660 Ambrosius ; Stonehengo
Acton, Mrs. ; Royal Inst., 1838 Alberoni, card. , 1664-1751; Spain, Amenophis ; Egypt, 1821 b.c.
Actuarius ; purgativts, 1245 1715 Americus Vespucius, d. 1512 ;
Adair, scrj. ; Junius, 1769 Albert ; Austria, Bohemia, Ger America, note
Adalbert. St. ; Prussia, 997 many, Hungary Amherst, lord; China, 1816, India
Adam ; duel, 1779 Albert (prince consort), 1819-61 ; 1823
Adam, R. and bros., architects England, 1840; regency bill, Ammianua Marccllinus, hist., d.
1728-92 duelling 390
Adams, J. C , mathemut. ; Ncp- Albertus Magnus ; automatons Amontons, W. ; telegraphs, 1663-
tuoe, 1845; J. (1797) and J. Albion the Longobard, killed 573 1705
Q. (1825), United States (pre Albuquerque (viceroy) ; India, Amos prophesies abt. 787 b.c.
sidents) 1503-15 Ampere, A. M. 1735-1836; clcc-
Adams r. Dundas ; trials, 1831 Alcibiadcs, killed 404 b.c. ; Athens ricity (galvanism) ; electric
Adderley, Mr. ; Birmingham, 1856 Alcippe ; Areopagitw telegraph
Addington.H., 1757-1844; Addingt. Alcock, Mr. ; duelling, 1807 Amulius ; Alba, 794 B.c
Addhon, Joseph, 1672-1719, Spec Alcuin (theologian), 735-804 Amurath ; Turkey, Beyrout
tator, 1711 ; Stanhope ad Aldebert ; impostors, 743 Amyntas; Macedon, 540 B.C.
ministration, 1717; allegory, Aldhelmc ; Salisbury, 705 ; poetry, Anacharsis, 592 b.c. ; anchors,
Clio, clubs ballads bellows
Adclais ; Adelaide ; England, Alectus; Britain, 294 Anacletus ; pope, 78
queens (Hen. L, William IV.) Alcncon, due d' ; Agincourt, 1415 Anacreon, poet, Jl. about 557 B.C.
Adcodatus; pope, 672 Alexander of Paris ; Alexandrine Anastasius ; pope ; East ; emperors
Adolphus, Frederic ; Sweden, 1751 Alexander the Great, 356-323 b.c. ; Anaxagoras, 480 b. c. ; earthquakes
Adrian, Rome; emperor, 117; Macedon, Egypt, Gordian, Anaximander, 547 b.c; maps
edicts, persecutions ; popes Tyre, Memphis Anaximenes, 548 B.C. ; air
..Egcus ; Athens, 1283 B.C. AlexanderSevcrus ; Romo,em.,222 Anderson, J.; alavery(inU. States),
iEgitieta, Paulus ; surgery, 640 Alexander I. ; Russia, 1801 ; Aus- note, 1853
/Egisthus ; Myccna.*, 1201 b.c. tcrlitz, 1805; Leipsic, 1813 Andre", maj., United States, 1780
./Einilianus; Rome, 146 b c. Alexander ; see pope ; Scotland Andrew ; Hungary, kings
.Eneas; Italy, Alba, 1182 B.C. Alexander, Mr. ; trials, 1830 Andrews, H., d. 1820; almanacs
jEsebincs, Gk. orator, 389-344 B.C. Alexander, sir W. ; Nova Scotia, Andromeua, 240 b.c. ; drama
JSscbylus, Greek tragedy, 526-456 1722 Andronicus ; Eastern empire
B.c. ; drama Alsxius, East (emperors), 1081-1203 1071-1391
£sculapius ; infirmaries Alfieri, V., 1749-1803 Angela, St. ; Ursuliue nuns, 1537
806 INDEX.
Angerstein, J., d. 1822; National Aristotle, 384-332 B.C. ; Aristo Austria, John of; Lepanto, 1571
Gallery telian philosophy, acoustics, Averroes, med. writer, jl. 1199
Anglesey, Arthur, carl of ; Ireland botany, Maccdon, mechanics, Avisa; queens (Juhn)
(lord-lieutenant), 1828, 1830 metaphysics, philosophy
Angus, earl of ; Linlithgow Arms, d. 336 ; Ariaus
Anjou, Flantagenet, Jaraac, 1569; Arkwright, R. (1732-92); cotton,
Naples, 1266 Manchester, spinning
AnkoratrOm (kills Gustavus III.), Arlington, lord ; cabal, 1670 Babbagc, C, b. 1792; calculating
Sweden, 1792 Arminiun, d. 1609 ; Arminiana, machine
Anna, St. ; Mexico, 1853 Dort Babcr; India, 1525
Anno of Brittany, rf. 1514; maids Armstrong, W. G. ; electricity, Babeuf ; d. 1 791 ; agrarian law
of honour 1840 ; cannon, 1859 Babbington, tchicksef, 15S6
Anno of Austria, d. 1666; iron Arne. T., music composer, 1710-S8 Babrius ; fable
mask Arnold, gen. ; United States, 1780 Bach, J. Sebastian, music, 16S5-
Anne ; England, Bemper cadem Arnold, Dr. Thos., hist., 1795-1842 1754
Ansell, Q, ; fire-damp. 1S65 Arriau, hist. ..rf. 148 Baehelier, M. ; encaustic, 1749
Anselm, apb. ; Canterbury, 1093 Arsaccs; Parthia, 250 B.C. Back, G. ; north-w. passage, 1833
Anson, admiral; Acapulco, 1744; Artabazua; Fontus, 487 B.C. Bacon, lord (1561-1636); lawyers,
naval battles, 1747 Artaxcrxes; Persia (kings) aeronautics
Anson, general; India, 1857 Artemisia ; mausoleum, 350 b.c. Bacon, air Nicholas ; keeper, Id.,
Anthony : monachism, 4th century Artemones ; battering-ram, 441 1558, baronet
Antigonua; Ipsus, 301 B.C., profiles B.C. Bacon, John, sculptor, 1740-99
Antiochus I.—X. 280-65 B-c* Syria, Arthur, king; Britain, 506 Bacon, Roger, d. 1292 ; astrology,
Jews, 170 or 168 B.C. Artois, count d' ; duelling, 1778 camera lucida, loadstone, ma
Antipator; Cranon, 322 b.c. Arundel, abp. ; Canterbury, 1397-9 gic-lantern, magnet, optics,
Antisthenes ; cynics, 396 b,c. Arundel, Henry, earl of ; adminis spectides
Antonelli, card. 6, 1806; Borne, trations, 1547 Bacon, T. F. ; trials, 1857
1848 Ascanius ; Alba. 1152 B.C. Baffin, W. M. ; Baffin's Bay, 1616
Antoninus Pius ; Rome, emperors, Aedrulxil ; see llaidrubul Bagnal, lieut. ; duel, 1812
138 ; Roman wall Asellius ; lacteals (1622), lympha Bagot, bishop; Oxford, 1829
Antony, Hark, d. 30 ; Rome, 43 tics Bagration, pr. ; Mohilows, 1S13
B.C. ; Armenia, Philippi, 42 Asgill, Mr. ; translation, 1703 Bagster, Miss M ; trials, 182S
b.c. ; Actium, 31 b.c. Aahburton, Id. ; treaty, 1842 Bailey, rev. W. ; trials, 1843
Anviti, col., killed; Panua, 1859 Ashe, gen. ; Briar's creek, 1779 Baillie, col. ; Arcot, 17S0
Apellcs, painter, 352-308 b.c. Ashford, Mary; appeal, 1818 Baillie, general ; Alford, 1645
Apollodorus ; Trajan's pillar, 114 Ashley, lord ; cabal, 1670 Baillie. Joanna, poet, 1763-1851
Apollonius; Syria, 168 B.C. Ashley, sir Arthur ; cabbages Bailly, M., philo. ; executed, 1793
Appian, hist.,jf. about 147 Ashtou, colonel ; Wigan, 1643 Bainbrigg, abp. : York, 1508
Appiua Claudius ; Rome, 449 B.C. ; Askc ; pilgrimage of graco, 1536 Baines, M. T. ; Falmerston adminis
aqueducts, decemviri, Virginia Aslott, Rob. ; exchequer bills, 1803 tration, 1855
Applegtirth; printing machine Asf-beton, Wm. ; clergy, charities Baird, air David; Cape, 1S06,
Apries ; Egypt, 571 B.C. Astley, lord ; Naseby, 1645 Scringapatam, 1799
Apsley, Id. ; North adminis., 1770 Aston, sir A. ; Drogheda, 1649 Bajazet ; Turkey, 1389
Apuloius, d. 174 Astyages ; Media, 594 b.c. Baker, colonel : Bull's Bluff, 1861
Aquinas, T., theol. d. 1274 Athamisius, d. 373; Athanxsian Baker, H. ; Bakerian Lecture,
Arago, D. F., nat. phil, 1786-1853 creed 1765
Aram, Eugene ; trials, 1759 Athelstan ; England (king), 924 ; Baker, S. W. ; Africa, 1864
Aratus ; Achaia, 245 B.C. mint, 928 Balard, M. ; amyleuc, 1844
Arbogaates ; Aquileia, 394 Athcnams, Greek, d, 194 Balchan, admiral ; Aldcruey, 1744
Arcadins and Honorius, eastern Athol, duke of ; Man, sold by, 1765 Baldwin I.—V. ; Jerusalem, 1100-
and western empire, 395 Athothes ; hieroglyphics, writing 85 : East Flanders
Archclaua ; Cappadocia, 20 B.C. Atossa ; marriage by sale Bales, P. ; calligraphy
Macedon, 413 b.c. Attalus, d. 197 b.c. ; seven churches Balfe, M. W., 6. 1808
Archemorus ; Nemaian games (Pergamua), parchment Balfour, John ; Scotland, 1679
Archer, F. S. ; collodion, 1851 Atterbury, bp. F. ; banished, 1723 Baliol, Edw. ; Scotland, kings, 1329
Archidamus ; Sparta, 648 b,c. Attila ; Hungary, Chalons. 451 Baliol, John ; Scotland, 1 293,
Archilochus, 708 b.c. ; Iambic Attwood, T. ; chartists. 1838 Oxford, Dunbar
verse AtweU, W. ; trials, 1857 Ballarat, Melbourne, 1854
Archimedes, 287-212 b.c. ; circle, Auber, D., music composer, 6. 1784 Ballard, John ; Babington's con
cranes, mechanics, mensura Auchmuty, air Samuel; Batavia, spiracy, 1586
tion, organs, reflectors, screw, 1811 ; Montevideo, 1807 Ballasteros, gen. : Ximena, 181 1
planetarium Auckland, Id. bp. ; Bath and Wells Balmerino, lord ; rebellion, Scot
Arcbytas ; automaton, pulley 1854 land, 1745 ; trials, 1746
Ardcsoif, Mr. ; cockfighting, 1788 Auckland, lord ; Grey administra Baltimore, lord ; America, 1633 ;
Aretin, Gui ; musical notes, 1025 tion, 1830; India, 1835 trials, 176S
Arfastus, chancellor, lord high, Augercau, gen. : Castiglione, 1796 Bancroft, abp. ; Canterbury, 1604
1067 Augustenburg, duke of, Denmark, Bancroft, G., hist., 6. 1800
Arfwedson, Mr. ; lithium, 1817 1863 Banks, sir J., 1743-1820 ; hort. soc.,
Argyll, duke of ; Dunblane, 1715 Angustin, St. (of Hippo), 354-430 royal institution, 1799
Anarathes ; Cappadocia Auguatin the monk, abp. Cantcr- Bannister. Mr. : retired, 1S15
Ariobarzanes, 322 B.C. ; Cappa bury, 60a ; Rochester Bar, due dc ; Agincourt, 141 5
docia, 93 b. c. Augustus (emperor), Rome,27 b.c. ; Barada.us ; Eutychians, Jacobites
Ariosto, L. Hal. poet, 1474-1533 pnetorian guards Buranclii, L. ; trials, 1855
Aria, gov. ; prisons, 1S00 Aulua Gellius, Latin misc., Jl. 169 Barauta, north-w. passage, 1594
Aristarchus, 156 b.c. ; sun, globe Aurelian ; Rome, emp. 270 ; Ale- Barbarossa, d. 1546; Tunis, Algiers
Aristams ; conic sections, 330 b.c. maniii Barbauld, Mrs. A.. L , 1743-1825
Ariatides the Just, d. 468 b.c. ; Aurclius; Rome, emp. 161 Barber, Fletcher, Saunders, and
Athens Aurungzebo ; India, 1658 Dorcy; trials, 1844, and note
Aristippus ; Cyrenaic sect, 392 b.c. Ausonius, poet, d. 394 Barberim ; Portland vaso
Aristocrates ; Arcadia, 715 b.c. Austin ; sec Avttin, St. Barbou ; printers, 1539-1755
Aristodcmus ; biarehy, 1 102 b.c. Austin, capt. ; Franklin Barbour, J. ; trials, 1853
Aristophanes, d. 427 b.c. ; comedy Austin. W, ; trials, 1855 Barclay, captjpedestrianism, iSo-j
INDEX. 807
Barclay, Perkins, & Co. ; porter land, lord-lieuts., 1490-1757; Best, capt. ; duel, 1804 ; Surat, 161 1
Barclay, Rob., d. i6go; quakers France, 1422 ; admiralty, 1744 ; Bcthell, bp.; Gloucester, 1824
Barham, lord ; admiralty, 1805 nobility, 1470 Bethell, sirR. ; solicitor-gen.,1852,
Baring, Alex., Peel admtniat. Bedingncld, Ann ; trials, 1763 attorney-gen., 1859(800 Wat-
1834; sir F. ; London Insti Beeby, William ; longevity bury)
tution, 1805; Russell adminis Beeching, J. ; life-boat, 1851 Bothencourt ; Canaries, 1400
tration, j846 Beethoven, L., mus. comp., 1770- Botty, master ; theatres, 1804
Barker, Robert ; panorama, 1788 1827 Bovern, prince ; Breslau, 1757
Barlow ; clocks, 1676 Begum charge, Chunar, 1781 Bewick, T., 1753-1828 ; wood en
Barlow, rov.J.;Roval tnstitut.,1842 Behom, Martin; Azores graving
Barlow, air G. ; fndla, governors, Bchring, 0. 1741; Behring's straits Bexley, Vansittart, lord; Liverpool
1605 Bela, Hungary administration, 1812
Barlowe, William ; compass, 1608 Uelasyse, Id. L. ; adm., 1687 Bezo, Theodore, theologian, 1519-
Barnard, general ; India, 1837 Belcher, sirE. ; circumnavigation, 1605
Barnes, T., d. 1841 ; Times 1836; Franklin Bialobrzeski, abp. ; Poland, 1 861
Bamet, Geo. ; trials, 1816 Belcredi, count Rd., 6. 1823; Bickersteth, bp. ; Ripon, 1856
Barre", Isaac, Rockingham ad Austria, 1865 Hu la, comet, 1826
ministration, 1782 Belisarius, d. 564 ; Africa, east emp. Btg Sam; giants, 1809
Barrett, captain ; Cumberland ; Bell, And., d, 1832 ; Lancosterian Bingler, lord; Oxford adm. 1711
naval battles, 181 1 schools Bird, the boy ; trials, 1831
Barrie, capt.; naval battles, 181 1 Bell, sirC, 1778-1842; nerves Birkbock, Dr.. d. 1841 ; mechanics'
Barrington, bp. ; Durham. 1791 Bell, H. ; steam, 1812 institutes
Barrington, Mr. ; duel, 1788 Bcllamont, lord ; duel, 1773 Biscoe, capt. ; southern continent,
Barrington ; trials, 1790 Bellamy; trial, 1844 1832
Barret, O. ; Franco, 1848 Bellarmine, card , 1542-1621 Bishop; burking, 1831
Barrow, Isaac, 1630-77 Bellingham kills Perceval, 1812 Bishop, A. ; derrick, 1857
Barry, Bir Charles, architect, 1795- Bcllingham, sir Daniel ; mayor (of Bishop, sir H., music, 1787-1855
1860; parliament Dublin), 1665 Bishop, J. F. ; Italy, 1862
Barth, Dr, ; Africa, 1849 Bellini, music, 1802-35 Bismarck, O., 6. 1813; Prussia,
Barth£le"my, E. ; trials, 1855 Bellot, lieut., <l. 1853 ; Franklin 1862; Gastein
Barton, Bernard, poet, d. 1849 Belochus; Assyria, 1446 b.c. Black, Dr. ; duel, 1835
Barton, Dr. ; insurance, 1667 Bclus ; Assyria, 2245 B.C. Black, Jos., 1728-99 ; magnesia, air,
Barton, Elizabeth ; impostor, 1534 Belzoni, d. 1823 balloon
Baschi, Matt. : Capuchins, 1525 Bern; Hungary; d. 1850 Blackburn, abp. ; York, 1724
Basil, St., d. 380; Basiliaus Bcubow, adm.; naval battles, 1702 Blackstone, sir W., law, 1723-80
Basil ; East. emp. 867 ; Russia Benedict, Benedictines ; popes, Blair, Hugh, 1717-1800; rhetoric,
Basilowitz ; Russia, czars, 1462 5741758 , verse ;—John, chronologist, d.
Bath, carl of ; Bath admin., 1746 Bcntham, Jer. (1746-1832); savings' 3797
Bathou ; Transylvania, 1851, &c. banks Blake, adm. R., 1599-1657; Algiers,
Bathurst, bp. ; Norwich, 1805 Bentiuck.lord G., d. 1848; protec Dover straits, Portland isle,
Bathurst, carl ; Liverpool adminis tionists Santa Cruz
tration, 1812. Bentinck, lord W. ; As^ani, India ; Blakosloy, Robt. ; trials, 1841
Bathyllus ; pantomimes 1827 Blanc, Louis, b. 1813; France, 1S48
Batman, J. ; Victoria, 1835 Bentlcy, Rd., scholar, 1662-1742 Blanehard ; balloon, 1784-1819
Battuyany, Hungary, 1848 Bcrangcr, J. P. de, poet, 1780-1857 Blanehard, Lamau ; suicide, 1845
Battus ; Cyrcno, 631 B.c. Berengarius ; fete do Dieu Blanehard,T.; timber bending,i855
Uaumgarten ; aesthetics, 1750 Bereuger, Butt, lord Cochrane, and Blandy, Miss; trials, 1752
Bavaria, elector of ; Ramilies, 1 706 others ; trials, 1814 Bligh, captain ; bread-fruit tree ;
Baxter, sir D.; Dundee, 1863 Berengoria ; queens (Richard I.) Advonturebay,Bounty mutiny
Baxter, G. ; printing in colours, Burustbrd, lord; Albuera, 181 1 Bligh, captain, v. Mr. Welleslcy
1836 Beresford, lord J. ; suicide, 1841 Pole ; trials 1825
Baxter, Rd., theologian, 1615-91 Boresford, Wm.; Derby adm., 1852 Bligh, Mr. ; trials, 1806
Bayard, chevalier, killed, 1524 Berg, gen.; Poland, 1863 Blomfield, bp. ; Chester, 1824 ;
Biiyle, P., d. 1706 ; dictionary, 1697 Berkeley case ; trials, 1858 London, 1828
Bayley, lieut. ; duel, 1818 Borkeley cause ; trials, 181 1 Blondin, crystal palace, 1861
Baynard, Geoffrey; combat Berkeley, Hon. C. ; duel, 1842 Blood, col., d. 1680 ; Blood, crown
Bazalgctte. J. W., b. 1819; sewer?, Berkeley, lord; admiralty, 1717 Blood, Mr- ; trials, 1832
Thames Berkeley, lord ; America, N., 1644 ; Bloomer, Mrs. ; dress, 1849
Bcadon, bishop ; Bath, 1802 Brest, 1694 ; Carolina Bloomfleld, R., poet, 1766-1823
Bean aims at the queen ; trials, 1842 Bcmadotte, 1764-1818 ; Dcnnewitz, Blucher, marshal, d. 1819; Jan-
Beaton, cardinal; m. 1546 Sweden vilhcrs, Ligny, Waterloo
Beattie, Jas.; poet, 1735-1803 Bernard, St., 1091-1153 Blum, R. ; shot in 1848
Bcauclerc, lord Charles, drowned Bernard, S. : trials, 1858 Blumenbach, J. F., 1752-1840
while assisting at a wreck, 1861 Bernard, sir Thomas; British lust. Blundell, lieut. ; duel, 1813
Beau Nash ; ceremonies 1805; Royal Institution, 1799 Boadicea ; Britain, d. 61
Beauchamp, Henry de ; Wight Bernini, 1598- 1680 Boardman, captain ; duol, 1811
Bcauchamp, John do ; barons Berri.dukeand duchess of; France, Boccaccio, 1313-75, Decameron
Beaufort, cardinal, d. 1447 1820-1833 Boddington; trials, 1797
Bcauharnais, Eugene, 1781-1824 ; Berry, lieut. ; trials, 1807 Boden, col. ; Sanscrit, 1832
Italy, MocV.ern Berthclot, P. M., 6. 1827; acety Bodlcy, T. ; Bodleian lib., 1602
Beaulicu, general ; Lodl, 1796 lene, olenant gas, 1862 Boerrhaavc, H. ; mod. writ, i663-
Beaumont, sir G. , National Gallery Berthicr, gen. ; marshals 1738
opened Berthollet, C. L., 1748-1822; chlo Boethius, killed, 524
Beaumont, Mr. ; duel, 1821-1826 rine Boeticher: Dresden china, 1700
Beaumont; viscount, 1440 Bertie, lady G. C; lord groat Bogle r. Lawson; trials, 1841
Beauregard, P. G.,6. 1818; United chamberlain Bohemia, king of—"Ich Dion;"
States, 1861 Berwick, duke of, d. 1734 ; Landcn, Crecy, 1346
Bcauvoir, sir J. do; trials, 1835 Almauza, Newry Boileau, Nic , poet, 1636-1711
Bccket, T., m. 11 70 ; Boeket Berzolius, Jas,, 1779 1848; che Boiroimho, Bryan : Ireland, 1014
Beckford, W. ; Fonthill Abbey mistry, silicium Bois de Cheno, Mdllo. ; boards, 1834
Bode, Venerable, d. 735 Bessemer, H. ; iron, steel, 1856 Bolam, Mr.; trials, 1839
Bedford, duke of; duel, 1822; Ire Bosaus ; Persia, 331 b.c. Boldoro, capt. ; duel, 1843
SOS INDEX.
lioleslaus ; Poland Brabant, duke of ; merchants, 1296 Browne, Hannah ; trials, 1837
Boleyn, Anne, England (queen Bradbury, H. ; nature -printing, Browne, George; Dublin, 1554
Hen. VIII ) 1855-6 Brownrigg, Eliz. ; trials, 1767
Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire ; admi Bradley, admiral : trials, 1814 Brownrigg, gen. ; Candy, 1815
nistrations, 1532 Bradley, Jas., 1693-1762; astro Bruck, baron ; Lloyd's, note
Bolingbroko, lord; Oxford ad nomy, Greenwich Bruce, J., 1730-94; Africa, Bruce ;
ministration, 171 1 ; deism Bradwardine, abp. ; Canterbury, Nile, Palmyra
Bolivar (1783-1830), Columbia 1349 Bruce, David ; Nevill's Cross, 1346
BolLuid, Acta Sanctorum, 1643 Braganza, John of ; Portugal, 1640 Bruce, Edward; Dundalk, 1318
Bonaparte family, France, p. Bragg, gen. ; United States, 1862-3 Bruce, Robert, rf. 1329; Scotland,
Bonar. Mr. and Mrs. ; trials, 1813 Bruham. John, singer, 1777-1856; king. 1306; Bannockbum,i3i4
IJonaventura, 1221-74 ; conclave theatres Bruce, Michael; Lavalette. 1816
Bonavisa, Anthony; distaff, 1505 Brahe, Tychn, 1546-1601 ; astro Bruce, com. ; Lagos, China, 1851
Bond ; magnetism, 1668 nomy, globe Brucher, Antonio ; coinage, 1553
B »nd, prof. ; photography, 1851 Braidwood, Jas. ; fires, k. 1861 Brudcnell ; trials, 1834
Bouelli, electric loom, 1854 Hi- mi ih, J., 1749-1814; hydrosta Brueya, admiral ; Nile, 1798
Bonheur, Rosa, painter, b. 1822 tics ; planing-machine Brunol, I. K., 1769-1849; blocks,
Bonner, bishop of London ; admi Brando, W. T., chemist, 6. 1788; steam, Thames tunnel
nistrations, 1554 Royal and London Institutions Brunei, I. K., 1806-59; steam
Bonnet, C, naturalist, 1720-93 Brandn;th, the Luddite ; Derby Bruno ; Benedictines, Chartreuse,
Bonnycastle, J., mathematician, trials, 1817 Cologne, turnery
d. 1821 Brandt, count ; Zell, 1772 Brunswick, duke of ; Valmy, 1792;
Bonpland. A. , naturalist, 1773-185S Brandt ; cobalt, phosphorous, 1667 Quatre Bras, 1815
Bonwell, rev. J. ; trials, i860 Brantome, P., historian, 1527-1614 Brunt, Davidson, Thistlewood,
Boon, colouel ; America, 1754 Brasidas, killed, 422 B.C. lugs, and Tidd; Cato-street,
Booscy, T.; copyright, 1854 Breakspeare, Nicholas; pope, 11 54 1820
Booth, B. ; book-keeping, 1789 Brederodo, H. de ; gueux, 1566 Bnitus, Lucius Junius ; consuls,
Booth, Wilkes, assassin ; U. States, Bremer, sir Gordon ; China. 1 840 509 B.C.
1865 Bremer, Fred., novelist, b. 1802 Brutus and Gassius; Philippi,
Booth, Mr. ; theatres, 1817 Brendon, St. ; Clonfert, 55S 42 B.C.
Bordi;, Andrew ; Merry-Andrew Brenn, captain ; Hibernia, 1833 Bryan Boiroimhe ; harp, Clontarf,
Borelli ; mechanics, 1679 Brcnnus ; Rome, 390 B.C. 1014
Borgese, H. ; diamond Brereton, coL ; Bristol, 1832 Bubb ; opera-house, 1821
Borgia, C;esar, killed, 1507 Bresson, count : suicide, 1847 Buchan, M ; Buchanitcs, 1779
Borowlaski, count; dwarf, 1739 Brett, J. W. ; submarine tele Buchan, captain; N.-W. j . . . .
Borrington, lady ; trials, 1808 graph, 1845 1819-22
Borromco, abp. Charles, 1538-84 Brewster, David, 6. 1781 ; kalei Buchanan, J. ; U. States. 1S56
Boscan, poet, 1496-1543 doscope, British association Buckhurst, Thomas, lord ; admi
Boscawen, adm., 1711-60; Lagos Brie, Mr. ; duel, 1826 nistrations, 1599
Bosquet, marshal : Inkermanu, Bridgowater, earl ; admiralty, 1699 Buckingham, Stafford, duke of ;
1854 Bridgewater, duke of, 1720-1803; constable, 1521
Bossuct, J., misc., 1627-1704 Bridgewater Canal Buckingham, G. Villiers, duke of;
BoswelL sir A. ; duel, 1822 Bridport, lord ; L'Oriont, 1795 administrations, 1615, 1621 ;
Boswell, James, biogra., 1740-95 Brienno, M. de; notables, 1788 dress ; killed, 1628
Botbwell, earl of ; Scotland, 1567 Bright; corpulency, 1809 Buckingham, duke of ; cabal
Bottle conspirators ; trials, 1839 Bright. John, b. 1811 : agitators, ministry, 1670 ; Peel adminis
Bo-ichet, Anthony ; illuminati peace congress trations, 1841 ; duel, 1822
Bouchier, archbp. ; Canterbury, Brindley, Jas., 1716-72 ; tunnels, Buckingham, mai-quess of ; Ire
i486 Bridgewater canal, Barton land, lord lieutenant, 17S7
Boufficrs, marshal ; 1644-1711 Brinklett; trials, 1828 Buckinghamshire, earl of ; Liver
BougaiuviUe, d. i8n; circumnavi Brinvitliers, madame de, executed, pool administration, 1812
gation. New Hebrides 1676 ; poisoning Buckland, W. ; geologist, 1784-1856
BouiLle*, marquis de; Kust.Ui;], J7S1 Bristol, mayor of; trials, 1832 Buckland, F. ; fisheries, 1S63
Boulby, Mr. ; China, i860 Brifctol, John, earl of; administra Buckle. H. T. ; historian, 1823-62
Boultun, Mat., d. 1809; Birming tions, 1621 Bufalmaco ; caricatures, 1330
ham Brodie, sir B. C, surgeon, 1783- Buffon, G., 1707-88 ; geology,
Boulton and Watt ; coinage, 17S8 1862; — chemist, b. 1817, gra zoology, 1749
Bourbon family ; Bourbon, duke phite, 1862 Bugcaud, marshal, 1784-1849;
of; duels, 1778 Broke, captain ; Chtna^ake, 1813 Morocco, 1844
Bourgeois, sir F. ; Dulwich, 1813 Bromo, Adam de ; Oriel, 1337 Bulkelcy, bishop ; Bangor, 1553
Bourke, sir R. ; Victoria, Australia, Bromley, sir Thomas ; adminis Bull, J., " God save the King,"
1S31 trations, 1579 1606
Bourmont, marshal ; Algiers, 1830 Brongniart, A., geo. ; 1770-1847 Bull, G., bishop, 1634-1709
Bourne, Sturgea ; Canning admin Brooke, sir James, b. 1803 ; Borneo Bulwcr, E. Lytton, novelist, b.
istration, 1827 Brothers, R., d. 1824 1805
Bousfield, W. ; executions, 1856 Brougb, M. A.; trials, 1854 Banning, J. B. ; coal-exchange,
Bowen, sir G. ; Queensland, 1859 Brougham, H.,6. 1778; chancellor, 1849
Bower, Mr. Elliott; trials, 1852 impeachment, social science Bunseu, baron C. J. ; 1751-1860
Bowes, Miss; Strathmore, 1766 Broughtou, lord ; Russoll admin Bun&en, R. ; voltaic pile, 1842;
Bowring, sir J. ; b. 1792; Canton, istrations, 1846, 1851 spectrum, 18C-0
China, Siam Brown, gen. ; Prague, 1751 Bunyan, J , 1628-88, Bedford; al
Bowstead, bishop ; Lichfield, 1843 Brown, II. ; trials, 1858 legory, pilgrim's progress
Bowyer, bp. ; Ely, Chester, 1812 Brown, captain Johu ; United Buouarotti, Michael Angelo; 1474-
Boyd, captain ; duel, 1808 States, 1859 1564
Boyd, Hugh ; Junius Brown, W., 1783-1864; Liverpool, Bnrbage, James ; plays, drama
Boydoll, aid., d. 1804; British In 1857 Burdett, sir F., 1769-1844; duel,
stitution Brown. R., d, 1620; Brownists, 1807 ; riots, trial, 1820
Boyle, earl of Orrery ; orrery independents Burdock, Mary Anno ; trials, 1835
Boyle, Rob., 1626-92 ; phosphorus, Brown, Rob., botanist, d . 1858; Burdon, Mr. : trials, 1841
Royal Society Brownian Burger, G. ; poet, 1748-94
Boyle, Henry ; Godolphin admin Browne, American gen. ; Chip- Burgess, bishop ; Sidisbury ; St
istration, 1702 pawa, 1814; Fort Erie David's, 1825
INDEX. S09
Burgh, Hubert de ; Whitehall Caloune ; notables, 1788 Carter, Richard; alchemy, 1476
Burgoyne, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777 Calthorpe, Id. ; Birmingham, 1857 Carteret; circumnavigator, 1766
Burke, Edmund, 1730-07; Rock Calveriy ; pressing to death, 1605 Carteret, lord ; Walpolo adminis
ingham administrations, 1 782, Calvert and Co ; porter, 1760 trations, 1 721
Canada, Junius Calvin, John, 1509-64 ; Calvinism Carthage, St. ; Lismore, 636
Burke and Wills ; Australia, 1860-3 Cambace*res; directory, 1790 Cartwright, major; trials, 1820
Burleigh, lord; administrations, Cambridge, dukes of ; Cambridge Carvilius, Spurius ; divorces
1558 Cambridge, present duke of, b. 231 B.C.
Burnes, sir A., murdered; India, 1819 Casella, L. ; thermometer, 1861
1841 Cambyses ; Egypt, Persia, 525 B.C. Gishiu, Mfss ; quackery, 1830
Burnet, Dr. : antediluvians Camden, lord; chancellor, lord, Cashman ; Spanelds, riots, 1816
Burns, R. ; poet, 1750-06 Percival adm. , 1 809, exche Casimir; Poland
Bumside, gen. A. ; U. States, 1862 quer, Ireland (lord-lieut.) Cassander; Maccdon. 316 B.C.
Burr, colonel; duel, 1804 Camden, W., antiquary, 1551-1623 Cassibclaunus ; chariots
Burton, R. ; 1576-1616 Camclford, lord; duel, 1804 Cassini, 1625-1712 ; astronomy ;
Bury, Richard de ; libraries, 1341 Cameron, H. I. ; trials, 1858 Bologna, latitude, Saturn, 1655
Bute, earl of ; Bute adm., 1762-3 Camillus ; Rome, 391 B.C. Cassius ; Philippi, 42 b.c.
Buttevant, viscounts, 1385 Camoens, poet, 1524-79 Castanos ; Spain, 1852
Butler, bp. 8. ; Lichfield, 1840 Campbell, bishop; Bangor, 1859 Castel, M. ; Dartmouth, 1404
Butler, bp. J., 1692-1752 Campbell, sir C. See Clyde. Castlcreagh, lord ; union with Ire
Butler, c iptain ; Silistria, 1854 Campbell, John, lord, 1779-1861 ; land, 1800 ; Pitt admin., 1804 ;
Butler, Sam. (Hudibm*), 1612-80 attorney-general,king'soench, Liverpool admin., 1812 ; duel,
Butler, gen. B. ; New Orleans, 1862 chancellor, Palraerston 1809 ; suicide, 1822
Butt, Mr. ; trials, 1817 Campbell, Rev. J. ; trials, 1863 Catesby, Rob. ; gunpowder, 1605
Button, sir Thomas; N.-W. pas Campbell, major ; duel, trials, 1808 Cathcart, Id. ; Copenhagen, 1807
sage, 1612 Campbell, capt. ; marriages forced, Cathcart, general; Kaffraria; lu-
Buxton, Mr. ; trials, 1829 1690 < kermann, 1854
Buxton, sir T. F., 1782-1845; Campbell, Thos., poet, 1777-1844 Catherine ; England, queens (Hon.
prisons, 1815 Campion; trials, 1857 V., VIII., Charles II.)
Byng, J., exec. 1757; Gibraltar; Canaletti, painter, 1697-1768 Catherine; Russia, 1725; Odessa;
Byng, 1757 Canning, George, 1770-1827; Can Sebastopol
Byrne, Miss; riot, 1819 ning, duel, 1809, grammarians, Cato (the censor); agriculture;
Byron, commodore ; port Eguiout, king's speech 149 b.c. ; (the tribune), kills
1765 Cunning, visct, 1812-62; India, himself, 46 b.c.
Byron, George, lord, 1788-1824; . 1855 Catullus, poet, <l. 40 B.C.
Greece ; Missolonghi tanova, A., sculptor, 1757-1822 Catulua ; Cirabri, 101 b.c.
Bysse, Dr. ; musical festivals Tantillon; wills (Napoleon*s), 1821 Caulainconrt ; Chatillon, 1814
Canton, J., d. 1772; phosphorus, Cans, S. de ; steam engine, 1615
magnetism Cautley, air P. ; Ganges, 1854
Canute; England, 1017; Alney Cavaignac, general ; France, 1848
Cabot, Sebastian and John ; Ame Capcl, II. ; admiralty, 1679 Cavaliere, Emilio di ; opera, reci
rica, 1497 Capet family ; France, 987 tative, 1600
CabraL Alvarez de ; Brazil 1500 Capo d'Istria, coimt; Greece, 1831 Cavendish, circumnavigator, 1586
Cabrera, general ; Spain, 1840 Car ; augury Cavendish, H., •'. 1810; balloons,
Cade, Jack ; Cade's insurrection, Caracalla ; Rome, emp. 211 ; Ale- electricity, chemistry, nitro
J 450 manni gen, hydrogen, water
Cadmus, 1453 B.c. ; alphabet, Caracci, L., painter,i555-i6i9 ; An., Cavendish, John de : judges, 1382
Bceotia 1 568- 1609 Cavendish, lord John; Portland
Cadogan, captain; duel, 1809 Caraccioli. adm., executed 1799 administration, 1783
Cadwallader ; Britain, 678 Caractacus ; Britain, 50 Cavonr, Camille de, 1810-61 ; Sar
C<ecilius Isidorus ; slavery in Caraffa, bishop; Theatines, 1524 dinia. Austria
Rome, 12 b.c. Carausius ; Britain, 281 Caxton, Wm. 1421-91 ; printing
Caomon ; Anglo-Saxons, 680 Cardan, J., 1501-76 Caylus, count . encaustic painting,
Caesar, Julius, 100-44 BC- ! R°me» Cardigan, lord ; duel, 1840 ; trials, i765
Britain, calendar, ides, Dover, 1841-63; Balaklava, 1854 Cecil, Wm. ; administrations, 1572
Pharsalia, Zela, Rubicon Cardcn, Mr. ; trials, 1854 Cecrops ; Athens, nj6 B.C.
Ciesar, Octavius, 63 b.c. -14 a.d. ; Cardross case ; trials, 1861 CelcBte, madame ; theatres, 1844
Romo, Actium, massacres, tri Cardwcll, reward; Palmerstou Celostin : popo. n 43
umvirate, Philippi, emperor administration, 1855-1859 Celsus ; midwifery, Ac., 37
Cwsalpinus ; blood, circulation, Caroy, bishop : St. Asaph, 1830 Cerdic ; Britain (Wesscx)
Carloton, sir Guy ; U. States, 1782 Cerinthtis ; apocalypse
Cagliosfro, d. 1795 ; diamond Carlile, It. ; atheist ; trials, 1819, Cervantes, M.S., 1547-1616; don
necklace 1831 Quixote
Caithness, carl of ; steam-carriage, Carlisle, earls of ; Ireland, lord- Chacornac ; planet*, 1853
i860 licutcnant, 1859 Chad, St. ; baths, 667
Calaphilus ;~wanderiug Jew Carlyle, Thos., 6. 1795 Challoner, T. ; alum, 1608
Calas, J. , judicially murdered, 1761 Carlos, Don ; Spain, 1833 Chalmers, Dr. T., 1780-1847
Calder, sir Rob. ; naval batt., 1805 Carmarthen, marquess of; admi Chambers, bishop; Peterborough,
Calderon, P., dramatist, 1601-82 nistrations, 1689 1541
Calepini ; dictionaries, 1500 Carnot, L., mathem., 1753-1821 Chambers ; encyclopaedia, 1 728, 1859
Calhoun, Mr.; temperance sue, Caroline; queens (George II.), Chambers, sir William ; Somerset-
1818 parks house, 1775
Caligula ; Rome, emperor, 37 Carolino ; queen (George IV.), Changarnicr, general; France,i85i
Calippus; Calippic period, 330 B.C. Brandenburg-house, delicate Channing, W., 17S0-1842
, Calixtus, pope ; Cahxtins, 1656 investigation Cbantrey, F., sculpt., 1781-1841
Callcott, J. W. ; music, 1766-1821 Carpenter, gen. ; Preston, 1715 Chappe, M. ; telegraphs, 1793
Callicratus : calligraphy Carr, bishop ; Worcester, 1831 Chares ; colossus, 288 B.C.
Callimachus ; Abacus, architec Carr, Holwoll ; National Gallery, Charlemagne, 742-814 ; academy,
ture, Corinthian, 540 B.C. 1824 couriers, Avars, Bavaria,Chrif•
Callinicus ; Greek fire, wildfire Carre*; congelation, i860 tianity, Navarre
CaUisthenes ; Chaldean, Maccdon, Carstairs, rev. W. ; thumbscrew Charles Albert; Sardinia, iSji ;
328 B.C. Cartier ; America, 1534 Novara, 1849
blU INDEX.
Charles ; England, Franco, Spain, Clarence, duke of ; Anjou, Claren- Cocking, Mr. ; balloons, 1837
Savoy, Germany, Sweden, cleux ; rebellion, 1478 ; ad Codrington, admiral air E. ; Nava-
Sicily, &c. miralty, 1827 rino, 1827
Charles V.; emperor, 1500-58; Clarendon, earl of(Hyde), 1608-74 1 Codnis ; Athens, 109a b.c.
S]mn, Austria, Germany, administrations, 1660, 1685 ; Cohorn, B. van (military engineer),
Spires —G. F. Villiere, 6. 1801 ; Ire- 1641-1704
Charles V. ; Bastilo, 1369 laud, lord-lieut ; Aberdeen, Coke, sir Edw., 1550-1634; parlia
Charles VI. ; picquct, 1390 Palmerston ments, 1592
Charles XII., 16S2-1718 ; Sweden, Clarke, Adam, thcol., 1760-1832; Colbert, J. B., 1619-83; tapestry
Frederickshald Sam., theol., 1675-1739; Eaw. Colbome, sir John; Canada, iSjS
Charles the Bold, Burgundy, 1468, D., traveller, 1768-1822 Colclough, Mr. ; duel, 1807
Nancy, Liege Clarke, M.A. ; trials, 1814 Coleman, St. ; Ctoyne, 6th cent.
Charles, archduke, 1 771-1847 ; As- Clarke, Gen. ; cape, 1795 Coleman, Mrs. ; actress, 1656
iwrno, Eckmllhl, Essling Clarke, M. C. ; Shakspeare, con- Colenso, bp., Church of England,
Charles of Anjou ; Naples, 1366 cordance, 1847 1863
Charles of Lorraine ; Lissa, 1757 Clarkson. Thomas, d. 1846; slavery Coleridge, Samuel T. ; poet, Ac.,
Charles Stuart, prince ; pretender, Claude Lorraine, iiointcr, 1600-82 1772-1834
Culloden, 1746 Claudian, Latin poet, d. 408 ; Coles, capt. Cowper ; navy of
Charlcsworth, J. C ; trials, 1S61 archery England, 1855-62
Charlotte, queen (George III.) Claudius ; Rome, emperor, 41 Colet, J., Paul's school, 1512
Charlotte, princess of Wales, 1796- Claudius, App.; decemviri, 451 b.c. Colignf, admiral, killed 1572
1817 ; Clarcmout Clausel, marshal ; Algiers, 1 836 Colbird, rear-adml ; suicide, 1S46
Charteris, col. ; trials, 1730 Claussen, chov. ; flax, 1851 Collier, J. P., Shakspcare, 1849;
( .'basse", gen. ; Antwerp, 1832 Claverhouse ; Bothwell, 1679 Jeremy, 1650-1726
Chateaubriand, viscount, 1769-1848 Clay, Mr. ; slavery, U.S., 1820, Collingwood, lord, 1750-1810; Tra
Chatham, carl of, £708-78 ; New Liberia falgar. 1805 ; naval battles, 1809
castle admin., 1757; Chatham Clayton, Mr. ; duel, 1830 Collins, govr. ; Hobart Town, 1 £04
admin., 1766; Walcheren, 1809 Clayton, Dr. ; gas, 1739 Collinson capt. ; Franklin, 1850
Chatterton, T., poet; 1752-70 Cleaver, bishop ; Bangor, St. Collucci, V. ; trials, 1S61
Chancer, G., i328-i4oo;Canterbury Asaph. 1806-1815 Colman, G., d. 1794; G. jmi., rf.
tales Clcisthencs; ostracism, 510 B.C. 1826; theatres, 1777
Chaves, marq. of; Portugal, 1826 Clemens Romanus, pope, 662 ; Colonna family flourish, 1288 1555
Chelmsford, Id. ; Derby adm., 1858 Alcxandrinua, 1/. aut. 213 Colouna, V., poet-ess, 1490-1547
Cherubim, music comp., 1760-1842 Clement, popes, 91;—IV.; con Colpoys, admiral; mutinies, 1797
Chesham, Sarah ; trials, 1851 clave, 1268 ;—VII. ; pontiff, Colt, colonel ; pistols, 1853
Cheshire rioters ; trials, 1842 benefices, Clementines, 1378; Columba, St., 521-97; isles
Chcvallier, M., 6. 1806 —VIII.; index;—XIV. (Gan- Columbanus, rf. 614 or 615
Chovreul, E., chemist, Ac, b. 1786; ganclli) ; 1769 ; Jesuits ; — Columbicre ; armorial bearings,
candles Jacques ; France ; 1589; — l639
Chiehelcy, arehbp. ; Canterbury, Joseph, plaiiiug-machino, 1825 ; Columbus. Chr., 1436 or 1442-1506 ;
MM"1 443 —Julian; midwifery, 1663 America, Bahama, Caraceas,
Childeric ; trance, kings Clomcnti, M., music, d. 1832 Christopher's, Salvador, l>o-
Chilliugworth, W. , theolo. , 1602-44 Cleombrotus ; Sparta, 380 b.c. mingo
Ching Noung ; China, wine, 1998 Cleomones ; Sparta, 520 b.c. Columbus, Bartholomew ; maps.
B.C. Cloon, Athenian demagogue, d.
Chladni. E. ; 1756-1827; acoustics 432 KC. Columella, medicalwritcr.about 46
Choiseul, E. due do, 1719-85 Cleopatra ; Egypt, 69-30 b.c. ; rose Colville, sir Charles; Canibray,
Cholmondcley, gen. ; horscguords, Clifford, C. ; life boat (note). 1856 X815G., 1788-1858 ; craniology,
. 1^y3 ,I. ; «Persia,
. 531 Clifford, lord ; Roman Catholics, Comlic,
Chosroos 1829;—sirTho. cabal, 1670 Combcrmcro, lord ; Blmrtpore,
Christian ; Denmark ; Sweden, 1448 Clinton, H. Fynes, 1780-1852; 1826
Christian IV. ; Christiana, 1634 chronology Comities, Ph. de, hist., 1445-1509
Christian VII. ; Oldenburg Clinton, sir H. ; Vorktown. 1781 Cotnmodus ; Rome, emperor, 180
Christina ; Sweden, 1633 ; Spain, Clinton, Geoffrey de ; Kenilworth, Comneni ; eastern emperors, 1057 ;
1833 1 1 20 Pontus, Trebizond, 1204
Christophc ; Huyti, 1811 Clivo, Rob. lord, 1725-74 ; Arcot, Comto, A., 1795-1S52 ; positive
Christopher. Rol>t. Adam; Derby India, Plasscy phil.
administration, 1852 ; Den Cloncurry, lord, r. Piers; trials,i8o7 Comyu, Mr. ; trials, 1830
mark (kings) Close, Mr. ; duel, 1836 Condi!, Louis; Jamac, 1569
Chrysostom, father, 354-407 Cloture, France, kings. 558 Conflans; Quiberon, 1759
Churchill, C. ; satires, 1731-64 Clovis (Chlodowig, Ludwig, Ludo- Confucius, d. 479 b.c. ; China
Cialdini, gen. ; Italy, i860; Castcl vicus, Louis) : France, 481 ; Congleton, lord; suicide. 1842
Fidardo, Gaeta Congreve, W., dramatist, 1672-1729
Cibbcr, C. ; poet■Umreato, d. 1757 I Normandy, Paris, Clovis,
Salique, fleur-de-lis, Alcmanui Congreve, sir Wm., d. 1828 ; fire
Cicero, 106-43 b.c. ; Athens, Rome, 1 Cloots, Anacharsia, exec, 1794 works, 1814
Catiline, Philippics Cluue, &c ; trials, 1830 Conolly, J.; lunatics, 1839
Cid (Spanish hero), d. 1099 Clyde, lord, 6. 1792; India, 1857 Conon ; Sparta, 394 b.c. ; Arginusw
Cimubue, music, 1240-1300 . Clymcr; printing-press, 1814 Conrad ; Germany, 911
Cimarosa, musician, 1755-1801 Cobbett,.William, 1762-1835 ; trials, Conrad II. : Germany, 1024; Bur
Cimon ; Eurymedon, 466 b.c. 1809, 1811, 1831 gundy
Ciuciunatus, dictator, 458 B.C. Cobdcn, R., 1804-65 ; anti-corn- Conradiu ; Naples, Germany, 1268
China, consul, killed, 84 b.c. law league, freo trade, French Constans ; Aquileia, 340
Clanny, Dr. Rcid ; safety lamp, treaty, peace congress Constantiue ; Rome, emp. 333 ;
1817 Cobham, Id. ; roasting alive, 1418 Adrianople. aruspices, banner,
Clanricarde, marq. of ; postmaster, Coburg, prince of; Fleurus, 1794. Britain, Eastcrnempire.Rome
1846; Russell administration, (See Saxt-Cotmrg.) York. Scotland
1851 ; Palmcrston administra Cochrane, lord (afterwards Dmi- Constantine II. ; Aquileia. 340
tion, 1855 donald);d. i860; Basque ro;uls, Constantino IV. ; monasteries
Clappcrton, Hugh, traveller, 1788- Btocks, trials, 1814 Constantius ; Rome, emps., 305
1827 Cockburn, sir A., solicitor-general, Contarini (doges at Venice), 1041-
Clare, John, poet, 1793- 1864 1858; attorney-general, king's 1674
Claro, earl of ; duel, 18:
1820 bench Conway; sir Edw., admiuistra-
INDEX. 811
tiun, 1621 ; general Conway, Cowper.lord; Burford,Halifax,i7i4 Cuyp, A., painter, 1606-72
Chatham administration, 1766 Cowpor, E. ; printing-machine, 181 5 Cyprian, father, m. 258
Cook, capt, 1728-79; Australia, Cowper, Wm., poet, 1731-1800 Cyriacus ; Abrahaniitea
Cook's voyages. Bearing's Cox, Walter; trials, 1811 Cyril, father, d. 386
Straits, Botany Bay, Flattery Coyle, Mr. Bernard; duel, 1802 Cyrus tho Great, killed, 529 b.c. ;
Cape, New Hebrides, New Crabbe, G., poet, 1754-1832 Bactriana, Cyprus, Jerusalem,
Zealand, Norfolk Island, Ota- Craggs, Mr. ; Sunderland, admin., Media, Persia
heite, Owhyhee, Port Jackson 1718 Cyrus tho younger ; Cunaxa,
Cook, Mrs., murdered ; trials, 1841 Crampton, Mr, ; United States, ' 40I B.C.
Cook, J. P., murdered ; trials, 1856 1856 Czermak, Dr. ; laryngoscope, 1861
Cooke, sir George ; Chatham, 1766 Crane, sir Francis ; tapestry, 1619
Cooke, E. W., H. A., b. 1810 or 1811 Cranfield, Lionel, lord ; adminia-
Cooke, Eliz. ; trials, 1833 trations, 1621
Cooke, Geo. Fred., actor, 1765-1812 Cranmer, archbp 1489-1556; Can
Cooke, W. F., electric teleg., 1837] terbury, administrations, 1529 ; Dacier, mad. ; 1650-1720, Delphin
Cooper, Astloy, surgeon, 1768-1841 Cranmer,homilies,martyrdom IHedalus ; labyrinth, axe, 1240 b.c?
Cooper, J. Feuimore, Am. novelist, Cranworth, lord ; chancellor, 1852 Dagobort ; Denis, St., 673
1798-1851 Crassus, Marcus; ovation, slain, Daguerre, M., rf 1851 ; photography
Cooper, Mr. ; slave trade, 1787 53 b.c. Dahl, professor ; dahlias
Cooper ; trials, 1805, 1842 Craterus ; Cranon, 322 D'Alembcrt, 1717-83; acoustics
Coote, sir Eyre ; India, Arcot, Crawfurd, earl of ; Brechin, 1452 Dalhousic, marquess of, 1812-60;
1760 ; Carnatic, Cuddalore Crawley; trials, 1802- 1863 ; steel India, gov.-gen., 1848
Cope, sir John ; Prestonpans, 1745 Crcllin, Miss; trials, 1842 Dalmaa, A. ; trials, 1844
Copernicus, Nic. 1473-1543; astro Crespigny, Mr. ; duel, 1828 Dalmatia, see Soutt
nomy, attraction, solar system Cresswell, air C. ; probate, 1857 Dalrymple, sir Hew ; Ciutra, 180S
Copleston, bishop ; Llandaff, 1827 Crewe, bp. ; Bambrough, 1778 Dalton, John, chemist, 1766-1844;
Copley, J., painter, 1738-1815 Crichton.Jas. " the admirable," m. atomic theory, 1808
Coram, T., foundling hosp., 1739 about 1560 Damasus, pope,366 ; pontifT,irown,
Corday, Charlotte ; France, 1793 Crillon, due de ; Gibraltar, 1782 pojw, tiara
Corder, Wm. ; trials, 1828 Crockattr. Hick ; trials, :8i8 Damiens, Damiens' attempt, 1757
Cordova, general de ; Granada, 1492 Citesus ; Lydia, 560 b.o. Dainpicr ; circumnavigator, 1689
C>relli, A., musician, b. 1653 Croft; impostors, 1553 Dampier, bishop ; Ely, 1808
Conn; libertines, 1525 Croft, sir Richard; suicide, 1818 Damremont, marshal ; Algiers,
Coriolanus ; Volaci, 490 B.C. Crofts, Mr. ; dwarfs, 1653 Constantia, 1837
Cormac; CashcL 901 Crollius ; calomel, 1608 Danaua ; Greece, 1485 B.C. t
Corneille, P., tragedy, 1606-84 Croly, G. ; poat, 1785-1860 Dauby, earl of ; administrations,
Cornelia, Maximiliana ; vestals, 92 Crompton, S., 1753-1827; cotton; 1673 ; physic garden
Cornelius ; Spitzbergen, 1595 mule, 1779 Dangerfield ; meal-tub plot, 1679
Conihill, Henry ; sheriff, 1189 Cromwoll, Oliver, 1599-1658; ad Daniel prophesies, 606 b.c.
Cornwall, bp. ; Worcester, iSo3 ministrations, 1653 ; Amboyna, Daniel, Sam. ; poet-laureate, 1619
Comwallis, abp ; Canterbury, agitators,commonwealth, Eng Danuekcr, J., sculptor, 1758-1841
1768 ; Lichfield, 1781 land. Drogheda, Dundalk, Dannenberg, gen. ; Olteuitza, 1854
Comwallis, marouosa, 1738-1805; mace, Ireland, Marstou Moor, Dante, Aligliieri, Italian poet,i265-
admiralty, India, America, Naseby, Worcester 1321
Bangalore, Irelaud(lord-liout.), Cromwell, Richard ; administra Dantou,G.,excc, 1794; clubs, Freu.
Suringapataui tions, 1658 ; England D'Arblay, mad., 1752-1849
Corcebus; Olympiads, 776 B.C. Cromwell, T., lord Essex ; admin Darbun v. Rosser; trials, 1841
Correggio. A, painter, 1494-1534 istrations, 1532 ; registers D'Arcon, M. ; Gibraltar
Corry ; duel, 1800 Crookes, Wm. ; thallium, 1S61 Dardanua. Ilium, 148 B.C.
Cort, II. ; iron, 1781 Crosbie, sir Edward ; trials, 1798 Dargan, Ireland, Dublin exhibi
Corto Real ; America, north-west Cross, E. ; Surrey Gardens, 1831 tion, 1853
passage, 1500 Crossloy, F. ; Halifax, 1857 Darius, Persia, 521 B.C. ; Greece
Cortoz, F. ; Mexico, 1521 ; d. 1547 Crouch ; trials, 1844 Darling, Graco ; Forfarshire, 1838
Coryate, Thomas ; forks, 1608 Crowther, lieut. ; duel, 1829 Darling, sir C. ; Jamaica, 1857 ;
Cosmo I. ; Port Ferrajo, 1548 Crozier, capt. ; N.-W. passage, 1845 Victoria, 1863
Costa, M., musician, 6. 1810 Cruden, Alex. ; concordance, 1737 Darmes ; France, 1840
Coster, L. ; printing Cruikshank, G., 6. 1794; wood*cn- Darnlcy, lord : Scotland, 1565
Cottenhain, lord ; chancellor, lord graving Dartmouth, carl of ; Oxford ad
high, 1836 Ctcsias; hist., 398 B.C. ministration, 171X ; Rocking
Cottington, lord ; administrations, Ctesibius, 140 b.c. ; clock, organ, ham admin., 1766
1635 pump Darwin, Erasmus, naturalist, 1731-
Cotton, R. ; Cottonian library, 1600 Cubitt, Mr. ; treadmill, 1817 1800
Cotton, sir Stapleton ; Villa Franca, Cullcn, W., physician, 1710-00 Darwin, Charles, naturalist, b, 1809
1812 Cumberland, duke of ; Closter- Dashwood, *ir Francis ; Bute ad
Coulomb, C., d. 1806; electricity, aeven, Culloden, Fontenoy, ministration, 1762
1785 1745 Daubeny, C. ; atomic theory, 1850
Cuurtanvaux ; ether, 1759 Cumberland, R. ; comedies, 1732-84 Datiglisn, Dr. ; broad, 1859
Courtenay, abp. Canterbury, 1381 Cumming v. lord de Roos ; trial, Daun, count, d. 1 766 ; Hochkirchcn,
Courtenay ; Thomites, 1838 1837 Torgau
Courtenay, sir Wm. ; Exeter, 1469 Cumming, rev. John, h. 1810 Davcnant, William ; drama, opera,
Courtoia, M. de ; iodine, 1812 Cunard, Sam., 1787-1 865 ; steam 1684
Courvoisler ; trials, 1840 Curio; amphitheatres, abt. 50 b.c. Davenport, Miss; theatres, 1844
Cousin, V., French pbUos., 6. 1792 Curran, John Philpot, orator, 1750- David ; Jews, 1065 B.C.
Cuutts, Miss A. Burdett, b. 1814; 1817 ; duel, 1790 David, George ; impostors, 1556
trials, 1847 Cursor, Papirius ; dials, 293 B.C. David I. ; Scotland, 1124: Carlisle
Coventry, sir John ; Coventry act, Curtiua, Marcus ; earthquakes, David, J., painter. 1748-1825
1670 358 B.C., Davidson, D. ; trials, 1855
Coventry ; administrations, T. Cuthbert, St., d. 687 ; Canterbury, Davila, 1576-1631
1628-1672 74i Davis, Jefferson, 6. 1808; United
Coverdalo, Miles, b. 1487; Bible, Cuthbert ti. Browne ; trials, 1829 States, 1861
1535 Cuvier, G., naturalist, 17C9-1832 ; Davis ; N.-W. passage, 1585 ; quad-
Cowley, Abraham, poet, 1618-67 zoology raut, China
812 INDEX.
Davoust, marshal ; Krasuoi, Mo- Dcsniuuhns, Camille ; exec. 1794; Dorey, Georgiaua ; trials, 1S44
hilow, Jena, EckxuUbl, 1800 clubs, 1782 Doria, And., 1466-1560
Davy, sir Humphrey, cheniist.ctc., Dcssaix, general ; Marengo, 1800 Dormer, lord ; Roman Catholic*,
1779-1829; Royal Institution, Deesalines; Hayti, 1803 1829
barium, electricity, phospho De Stacl, madame, 1766-1817 Dorset, duke of ; administrations,
rus, calcium, magnesium, Deucalion; deluge, 1503 B.C. 1689; Pelham administration,
potassium, sodium, safety- De Veres, earls of Oxford ; Id. gt.
lamp, strontium chamberlain, marquess, duke D'OrviUiers ; Ushant, 1778
ys, bp. ; rPeterborough, 1839 Devignc, Hen. ; billiards, 1571
Davys, Dott Mahomed ; Afghanistan, 1829
Dawes, nop. ; York, 1714
tea, abp. Deville, H. St. C. ; aluminium, Douglas, earl of ; Homcldcn, 1402
Day (Kossuth's notes case), trials, 1856; platinum, 1859 Douglas, William ; Otterburn,
i860 Devonshire, duke of; Devonshire 1388
Day, Mr. ; Fairlopfair administration, 1756 Douglas, James ; British Colum
Deader. B. Baring; trials, 1831 De Winter, adm. ; Camperdown, bia, 1858
Deane, adml. ; naval battles, 1653 J 797 Douglass, sir John; delicate inves
Deane, abp. ; Canterbury, 1501 Do Witt; chain, 1666; murderer, tigation, 1806
Debain ; harmonium 1672 : Hague, m. 1762 Douw, G., 1613-80
De Balton ; duel, 181 1 Dhuleep Singh ; India, 1849 ; Pun Dove, H., 6. 1803; dichrooscope,
De Burgh, Hubert; Whitehall jab i860
DeCandollc, A., botanist,i778-i84i Diaz. B., discovers Cape of Good Dove, W. ; trials, 1856
De Courcy, baron; peers, 11 81 Hope, i486 Dowdeswell, William ; Rocking
Decius Muh sacrifices himself, Di Dardi, Donato ; sculpturo, 1383 ham administration, 1765
995 B.C. Dibdin, C., 1748-1814; ballads Doyle, sir John ; Portugal, 1828
Dec, Dr. J., d. 1608 ; astrology Dibutades ; models Doyle, J., 6. 1826; caricature*
Decrfoot ; pedestrianism, 1861 Dick, Mr. ; trials, 1818 Doyle v. Wright ; trial*, 1851
De Foe, Daniel, 1663-1731 ; Robin Dickens, Chas., novelist, b. 1812 Draco, Athens, 621 B.C. ; laws.
son Crusoe, Juan, plague Dickiusou, capt. ; trials, 1829 Draco
De Foix, Gaston ; Ravenna, 1512 Dickson, col. ; trials, 1859. 1863 Drake, Francis, 1545-96; Armadj*,
De Giisparis, A. ; planets, 1849 Diderot, D., phUos., 1713-84 Cadiz, California, Chatham,
Do Genlis, mad., 1746-1830 Didius Julianas ; Rome, emp. 193 circumnavigation. Drake's ;
Do Grasse, admiral ; Chesapeake, Dido; Carthage, 869 B.c. Deptford, New Albion
naval battles, Tobago, 1781 Didut, M. ; paper-making, stereo Drayton, M., poet. 1 563-1631
De Grey, carl ; Ireland, lord lieu type Drebbel ; optics, 1621 ; microscope,
tenant, 1427 Diebitsch, gen. ; Balkan, 1829 thermometer
De Haven, licut. ; Franklin, 1850 Dicsbach ; prussic acid, 1709 Dred Scott case ; slavery, U.S.
Dclabccho, H., 1796-1855; geology j Digby, E. ; gunpowder plot, 1605 Drouet ; Varennes, 1791
De la Clue, admiral ; Lagos, 1759 Digges, L. ; optica, 1671 Drummond, abp. ; York, 1761
Delambre, J., mathematician,i749- Dillon, Mr. Luke ; trials, 1831 Drummond, gen. ; Chippawa, 1814
1822 Diocletian ; Rome, emp. 284 ; Dal- Drummond, lieut. ; lime-light,
Do la Rue ; trials, 1845 niatia about 1826
Do la Rue, Warren, photography, Diodati, J., theologian, 1576-1649 Drummond, Mr. ; murdered,trials,
1857 ; eclipse, i860 Diodorus Siculus ; 50 B.C. -13 a.d. ; 1843
Do la Roche, Paul, 1797-1856 Etna Dryden. John, poet; 1631-1700 ;
De l'Epee. abbe, 1712-89; deaf Diogenes, cynic, d. 323 b.c. ; an poet-1aureate
De Lessens, M. ; Suez, 1857 thropophagi Dubois, cardinal, 1656-1723
Do Loundres, Henry; Dublin, 1205 Dionyaius; Portugal, annodomiui, Duboscq, M. : olectric lamp, 1853
D'Estaign, count; Bcucoolen, 1 760; catapultas Dubritius, St ; Llandaff, 612
Georgia Diouysins Halicarnassus, Gr, poet, Duckworth, sir ; Dardanelles, 1S07
D'Esterro, Mr. ; duel, 1815 fi, 30 B.C. Duchesne, Pere, see Hrbert
D'Etrces, adml. ; Texel, 1673 Diouvsius Syracuse, 406 B.c. Ducrow ; theatres, Astlcy's, 1825
Dclillc, J., Fr. poet, 1738-1813 DiopLantua ; algebra, 370 Dudley, earl of Leicester ; ad
Demetrius ; Athens, Macedou, l>i])cenus ; sculpture, marblo ministrations, 1558
impostors, Poland Dircks, H. ; ghosts, 1858 Dudley, lord; admin., 1551
Democritus, b. about 470 B.C. Disraeli, I., 1 766-1848 ; Benjamin, Duell, Wm. ; trials, 1740
Demosthenes, 382-322 b.c. ; philip b. 1805; Derby administra Dufay; electricity, 1733
pics tions, 1852, 1858 Duff, captain ; trials, 1S41
Dcnison, archdeacon; trials, 1856 Diver, Jenny ; trials, 1740 Dugdale, W., 1605-86
Dcnisou, bishop; Salisbury, iSoi Dixon, capt. ; Apollo Duggnn, Wm. ; trials, 1813
Denisoii, K. B. ; bells, 1856 Dixon, Hepwortb, b. 1831 Du Gucsclin, B. ; Monticl, 1369
Denison, J. E. ; speaker, 1857 Dockwra, Mr. ; penny-post, 1683 Duilius defeats Carthaginians,
Dcuman, lurd, 1778-1854 ; att.- Dodd, Mr. ; steam, 1815 260 B.C.
gen., king's bench Dudd, Dr. ; trials (executed for Dulong, P. L , 1785-1838; acids
Dcmnark, prince George ; admi forgery), 1777 ; Magdalens, for Dumouriez, gen., 1739-1823 ; Jem*
ralty, 1702, queens (Anne) gery mapi>es, 1792
Denner, J., clarionet, about 1690 Doddridge, Philip, theol , 1702-51 Dun, John ; bailiff
Denny, J. ; trials, 1851 Dodsley, R. ; annual register, 1758 Duncan, Dr. ; ichnology, 1828
De Quinccy, Thos., tssayist, 1786- Dodsou, sirJohn : admiralty court, Duncan I. ; Scotbtnd, 1033
1859 1857 Duncan, admiral lord ; Camper-
Derby, present carl of, b. *7gg; Doggett, T. : gives prize, 1745 down, 1797 ; Texel
Derby administrations, 1852, Dolci, C, pointer, 1616 86 Duncannon, viscount ; Melbourne
1858 Dulben, abp. ; York, 1683 administration, 1 834-5
Derby, earl of ; Man, Wigan, Derby Dollond, John, 1706 61 ; achro Duncombe, F. ; sedan chairs, 1634
Derby,countess of ; Latham-house, matic telescopes, 1753; optics Dundas, Henry ; savings' bankd,
1644 Domenichino, Z. , painter, 1 581-1 641 1S10 ; Pitt admin., 1604
Do Rous, lord, r. Camming ; trials, Dominic, St. ; Dominicans, 1215 Dundas. sir D. ; solicitor general,
1 337 Doimtlan ; Rome, emp., 81 1846; coin.-in-chief, 1809
De Kuyter. adml. : Shecrness, Donald of the Isles ; Harlaw, 141 1 Dundas, gen. ; Kitcullen, 1798
1667 ; Chatham, Texel Donatus, grammarian,^. 355 Dundas, lieut,-coL ; Prescott, 1S3S
Derwtntwater, earl of ; execu Donizetti, G. ; music, 1798-1S48 Dundas, major; trials, 1831
tions, 1716 ; Greenwich Donkin, sir R., suicide, 1841 Dundas, sir R. ; Baltic, 1855
Dos Cartes, Rend, 1596 1650; car Donovan ; duel, 1779 Dundee, vise. ; Killiecrankic, 1
tesian, rainbow Dore", Guatav, artist, b. 1833
INDEX. 813
Dundonald, lord, sec Cochrane : d. Ellice, E. : Melbourne administra ! Euseblus, of Cassarea, 275-340
i860 tion, 1834 I Eustachius ; thoracic duct, 1563
Dunn, Richard ; trial*, 1847 Ellenborough, lord ; attorney- I Eutbalius ; accents, 458
Dunstun, abp. , </. 988 ; Canterbury, general, 1801 ; king's bench ; I Eutyches ; tf. 447
959 ; coronation delicate investigation ; premd j Evander ; Circensian games
Dunn Scotus, d. 1308; burying lord, b. 1790; Wellington ad [ Evans, general de Eacy; Briti>h
alive ministration, 1828 ; India, legion, 1835 ; Spain, 1835,
Dupetit Thouars ; Otahcite, 1843 govr.-gen., 1842; Derby admi Irun, Sebastian
Pupont; Baylen, 1808 nistration, 1858 Evans ; trials, 1858
Puraxzo, Charles of, m. 1386 ; EUesinerc, lord ; administrations, Evans, W. E., harmonium, 1841
Naples, king, 1 381 1615; chancellors, Id., 1603 Evelyn, J., 1620-1706 ; horticul
Durer, A. U., 1471-1528 ; engraving Elliot, captain ; China, 1840 ture, lime-tree
Durham, carl of, 1792-1840; Grey Elliot, gen. ; Gibraltar, 1781 Examiner, the; trials, 1812
admin., 1830; Canada, 1838 Elliot, sir Gilbert, North admini Exmouth, lord; Algiers, 1816
Duroc, marshal ; Bautzen. 1813 stration, 1770 Eyre, John ; transportation, 1771
Putrochet ; endosmosis, abt. 1828 Ellis, Wellbore; Grenvillo admi Ezckiel prophesies about 595 B.«.'.
Pu Val, Claude ; robbers, 1670 nistration, 1770
Pwycr; trials, 1843 Elphinstoiic,ndminifitration«,i795 ;
Pyce, Wra., painter, 1806-64 Capo of Good Hopo ; Saldanha
Dymoeke family ; championship Elsynge, Wm. ; Sinn college, 1340
Elzevir family, printers. 1583-1680 Fabius, Quintus ; painting, 311
Emerson, R. W.; essayist, b. 1803 B.C.
Emmet, Robert ; rebellions, con Fabii. killed at Cremera, 477 b.c. ;
spiracies; trials, 1803; press Fabii
Empedocles ; suicide Faber, F. : oratorians, 1848
Eadbald ; convents, 630 Eneke, J. F. ; b. 1791 ; comets, Fahrenheit, G. P., 1636-173G;
Eiidraer, d. about 1 1 24 1818 thermometer, about 1726
Eastlakc. sir C, 1793-1809: Royal Enderby, Messrs. ; southern con Fairbaim, Mr. ; tubular bridge,
Academy tinent, 1838 1849
Eaton, Daniel; trials, 1796, 1812 Enghien, due d\ executed, 1804 Fairfax, T. ; Nascby, 1645
J-M011. bp ; Man, 1847 Ennius, 239-169 B.C. ; stenography Falck, Dr. ; steam-engine, 1779
Edgar; England, king, 958 Epaminondas, 371 n.c. ; Leuctra, Falconbridge ; London, 1453
Edgar, rev. Mr. : temperance, 1829 Mantlnea, 362 B c. Falconer, II., geologist, d. 1865
Edgeworth, Maria, 1767-1849 Epicurus; 342-270 B.c, philosophy Falieri, M., Venice, 1355
Edmund ; England, 940, 1016 Epictctus ; pniloso. ; ft. 118 Falkland, visct. ; Newbury, 1643
Edward the Confessor, England ; Epiphanius, St. ; abstinence Falstaff, sir John ; taverns
kings, 1042 ; Pancgeld Erasistratus ; anatomy, about 300 Fancourt, Samuel ; circulating
Edward 1. ; England, kings, 1272, B 0. libraries, 1740
Lewes, Scotland, Wales Erasmus, P., 1467-1536; Greek Faustin I. ; Ilayti, 1849
Edward IIF. ; England, kings, language, Rotterdam Faraday, Michael, b. 1791; Rwal
1327, Creasy, Sluys, Garter Eratosthenes ; dogrcc, 250 B.c. Institution, chemistry, electri
Edward IV. ; England, kings, armillary sphere city, magnetism, magneto-
1461, Barnet, Tewkesbury, Eratostratus fires Diana's temple, electricity, ice
Towton 556 B.C. Farqnhar, Mr. ; buys Fonthill
Edward VI. ; England, kings, Erechthcus ; Athens, 1383 B.C. abbey, 1822
1547, Christ's hospital Eric ; Denmark Farren, Miss, actress, retires, 1797
Edward, Black Prince ; 1330-76 ; Ericsson, capt. ; caloric ship, 1S53 Fatima ; Mabomctanism, note
duke. Creasy, Poitiers Erichthonius ; Troy, 1449 B.C., car Faulkner, G. ; newspapers, 1728
Edwardes, lieut ; India, 1848 Erie, sir W. ; common pleas, 1850 Fauntlcroy, H. ; forgery, 1824
Edwy, England, 955 Ernley sir John ; administrations, Faust, John; printing, 1442
Egan, Mr. ; trials, 1843 1685 Faustulus ; Alba, 770 B.C.
Egbert; England, king, 828 Erroll, earls of ; constable of Scot Faux, Guy; gunpowder plot, 1605
Egerton, sir Thomas ; cliancellor, land, lord high Fawcctt, col. ; duel, 1843
lord high, 1596 Erskine, lord ; chancellor, lord ; Felix, popes
Egg, Aug., painter, 1816-63 Grenville administration, 1806 Fellows, C. ; Lycia, 1840
Eglinton, earl of; Ireland, lord- Erskine, gen. ; India, 1795 Felton assassinates Buckingham
lieutenant, 1852. tournament Esdaile, E. ; trials, 1858 at Portsmouth, 1628
Egmout, lord ; administrations, Espartero ; Spain, Bilboa, 1836 FtSnelon.abp., 1651 -171 5; Cambrr.y
1763 Esqiiirol, E. ; lunatics, 1810 Fenmng, Eliza; executions, 1815
Egremont, earl of; Gronville ad Essex, earl of; administrations, Fenwick. J. ; executed, 1697
ministration, 1762 1532, 1579; Newbury, 1643 Fordinand ; Austria, Naples, Por
Ehrenberg, C, naturalist ; 6. 1795 Este, Sir Augustus d' ; marriage tugal, Sicily, Spain, Tuscany,
Eicke, H. ; trials, 1859 act, royal, 1844 Castile, Cordova
Eldon, lord ; chancellor, lord, 1801 ; Ethelbort ; 560, Canterbury Ferdinand of Brunswick, Minden,
d. 1838 Etheldra ; Ely, 673 J759
Eleanor, queens (Edward I., Ethelrcd; 979; coronation, Pane- Ferjrus ; Scotland, coronation
Hen. II. and III.) geld Ferguson, J.; planets, 1854
Elgin, lord; Elgin marbles; d. Ethcrsey, com. ; suicide, 1857 Ferrers, carl; trials, 17C0
1841 ; James, lord, 1811-63; Etty. Wm., painter, 17S7-1849 Fesscl ; gyroscope, 1852
Canada, 1846 ; China, 1857 ; Euclid; geometry, 300 B.C. Fielding, II., novelist, 1707-34 ;
Japan; Palmerston ; India, Eulcr ; 1707-83; acoustics magistrates
i86r, govr.-gen., 1E61 Euchidas ; pedestrianism Fiosc-hi ; France. 1836
Elgin,lord, v. Ferguson ; trials, 1807 Eugene, prince; 1663- 1736; Bel Fillmore, M. ; United States, presi
Elijah prophesies about 910 B.C. grade, Turin, Zenta dent, 1850
Elisha prophesies 896 B.c. Eugenie, empress, France, 1853 Finch, sir John ; chancellor, lord ;
Elizabeth,1 queen, 1533-1603 ; Eng Eugcnius ; popes ; Aquileia administrations, 1640; Hene-
land, 1558; goose; poor laws ; Eumeues ; parchment, 190 B.C. age. chancellor, 1673
Richmond ; Whitehall Eumolpus ; Eleusinian mysteries Finch, P. ; admiralty, 1680
Elisabeth, England, queens (Ed Euripides, 480-406 b.c. ; tiagedy Fhiignerra ; engraving, 1460
ward IV., and Honry VII.) Eury>theucs ; biarchy, 1102 b.c. Finnerty, Peter; trials, 1808, 1S11
Elizabeth; Franco; trials, 1794 Eurystheus ; Mycemu, 1289 b.c. Finnis, T. ; lord mayor, 1856
Elkington; gilding; electrotype Eusden, L. ; poet laureate, d. 1730 Fiunts, col. ; Indiaj 1857. nott
si i INDEX.
Fisher, bp. ; administrations, 1509, Fox, sir Stephen; Chelsea, 1628 Gambicr, lord ; Basque Roads,
Salisbury ; executed, 1535 Foxe, John, martyrologist, 1517-87 1S09 : Copenhagen
Fisher ; duel, 1806 Francia, Dr., 1755-1840; Paraguay Ganganelli ; Clement XIV., popes,
Fitzgerald, II. ; life boat, 1856 Francis, 8t. ; 1 182-1226, Cordeliers, 1769
Fitzgerald, lord ; attainder, 1708 Francis I., emperor, 17—; Ger Gangclaud; apothecary
Fitzgerald, lord, -(*. Mrs. Clarke ; many, Austria Gardiner, bp. ; administrations,
trials, 1814 Francis I. France, 1515 ; duelling; 1529
Fitzgerald, lord ; Wellington ad- cloth of gold ; Marignan ; Ho ; Gardiner, licut. Alan ; missions,
ministration, 1830 Pavia ; Sicily 1850
Fitzhcrbcrt, Mr; ; hi el, 17S9 Francis; trills, 1842 Garibaldi, Joseph, 6. 1807 ; Italy,
Fitz-Oslx>rn ; justiciars, 1067 Francis, sir Philip ; Junius 1859-62 ; Solferino, Sicily,
Fitzpatrick, Grcnvillo adimnistra- Francisco d'Assise : Spain. 1846 Naples, Volturno
tinn. 1806 Franks ; suicide : trials, 1825 Gamcrin, M. ; balloons, 1802
Fitzpatrick, Hugh; trials, 1813 Frankfort, lord, 1*. Alice Lowe ; Garnet, gunpowder plot, 1605
FitzRoy, R., 1805-65; circumnavi trials, 1842, 1852 Garnet, Dr. Thos. ; Royal Institu
gation, 1826 ; New Zealand, Frankland, Edw., ethyl, methyl, tion, 1801
1843 ; meteorology, 1857 1849 Garrick, David, 1717-79; theatres,
FItzwaltcr, Robert de ; Dunmow, Franklin, B., 1706-90; electricity, Drury-lane, jubilees
1244 1752; lightning Garrow, "Wm. ; attorney-general,
Fitzwilliam, carl ; Grenville ad Franklin, Bir John ; north-west 1813
ministration, 1806; Ireland ; passage, 1825; Franklin Garth, Dr. ; Kit-Cat club, 1703
lord-lieut. Fraser r. Bagley ; trials. 1844 Gassendi, 1592-1655; sun, sound
Flaminius : Thrasymene, 217 n.c. Frederick, duke of York, 1762- Gaston do Foix ; Ravc-nua, 1512
Flamsteed, J. ; Greenwich, 1745 1827 ; York Gates, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777 ; Cam
Flannock ; rebellions, 1497 Frederick ; Germany, Prussia, den, 1780
Flavins. Titus LartiiiB ; dictators, Hesse, Nuremberg, Palatinate, Gaudcn, bp. ; eikon basUikc, 1G49
498 B.C. Prague, Hochkirchen, Torgau Gaudin, M. ; sapphire, 1857
Flaxruan, J., sculptor, 1754-1826 Fredercik-Augustus ; Poland, 1697 Gaunt, John of, b. 1340; Ghent,
Fletcher of Saltoun, ,rf. 1700; Frederick- Lewis, prince ; Wales, roses, wars
ballads 1729 Gausius, 335 a.r. ; caustic
Fletcher, will-forger ; trials, 1844 Fremont, J. C, b. 1813; U. States, Gavcstons, beheaded, 1312 ; re
Flight and Robson, apollonicon, 1856 bellions
1817 Fremy, M. ; steel, 1861 Gay,John, 1687-1732 ; fables.operas
Flinders, capt : explores >New French, col. ; trials, 1820 Gay-Lussac. J., 1778-1S50 ; ballcoiis
Holland, 1S01 Freney : trials, 1749 Ged, William ; stereotype, 1730
Flood, Mr. ; absentees, 1773 Frewcn, abp. ; York, 1660 GcfTrard, general ; Hayti. 185*8
Klorencp, Eliz. ; trials, 1822 Frith, W. P., painter, b. 1820 Gelasius I. pot>o, 492; breviary,
Florea, gen., Uruguay, 1863 Frivcll, Wm., post-office, 1631 pall; Candlemas
Florus, Rom. historian ; jt. 106 Frobishcr, sir Martin, d. 1594; Gcllert, lert, C.
( F., 1715 69
Flimrcns, M. J. P., philos , b. 1■794 north-west passage, 1576 Gcllius, Aulus, Latin miscellany,
Fohi ; China, 2240 d.c. Froissart, historian, 1337-1410 . JL 149
Folengio, Thco. ; macaroni Frumcntius ; Abyssinia, 329 I Gclou ; Syracuse, 485 n.c, Himera
Foix, Gaston do ; Ravenna, 1512 Frost, John; chartist; Newport, I Genghiskban ; sec Jtnpki* Klmn
Folkestone, loid; arts, society of, "839 Gensciic lauds in Africa, 429
1754 Froude, J. A., historian, 6. 1818 George, David, if. 1556; family of
Follett, sir Wm. ; solicitor-gcn. ; Fuad Pasha ; l>;unascus, Turkey, love
attorney-gen., 1844 1860-5 Ccorge, St. ; garter
FoUiott, bp. ; Hereford, 1803 Fuller, J. ; Royal Institution, 1833 George L— IV. ; England; kings
Footc. Sam.; 1721-77; theatres Fulton, R. "1765-1S15; steam- George I. ; accession, 1714
Foote r. Ilayiic : trials, 1824 engire, 1803 George II. ; Dcttingcn, 1743
Forbes, lord ; horse-guards, 1702 Furley, Mary ; trials, 1844 Georgi ; dahlia, 1815
Forbes, Ed *d., naturalist, 1815-54 Fumcaux, capt. ; Adventure Bay, Gcrumb, barons ; aliens, 1812
Forbes, J. IX, uat. philos., b. 1809 New Holland ; returns, 1774 Gerard, J. ; phytic garden, 1567
Fi-rstcr, Mr. ; Preston, 1715 Fuseli, H., painter, 1741-1825 Gerbcrt, it. 1003 ; arithmetic
Fiirster, M. ; planets, i860 Gcrmaine, lord George Suckville,
Fortescue, lord : Ireland ; lord- Mindcn, 1759
lieutenant, 1839 Germanus ; Sodor, 447
Forwoitd, St. (Southcy), murdered Gerstenzwcig, general, Poland, w.,
wife and four children, Aug., Gage, gen. ; America, 1775 1661
1865 Gaine, W. ; parchment, paper, 1857 Gcsler ; Switzerland, t 306
Foscaro, doge; deposed 1457 Gainsborough, Thomas, painter, Gcta : Rome, emp. 211
Foster, John, essayist, 1770-1843 1727-88 Gibbins, Mr., killed; riots, 1831
Fottrell, capt. ; duel, 18x7 Galba ; Rome, emp., 68 Gibbon, Edward ; historian, 1737-94
Foucanlt, M. ; pendulum, 1851 Gale, balloons ; gunpowder, 1S65 Gibbons, Grinlin ; sculptor, 1648-
Fouehe, J., due d' Otmuto, 1763- Gale Jones ; trials, 1811 1721
1820 Gale, Sarah, and Grecnacrc; trials, Gibbons, Orlando; music, 1583-
Fould, Achillo, b. 1800; France, 1857 1625
1861 Galen, 1 30-200; physic Gibhs J., architect, 1674-1754
Foulis, R. & A. ; printers, 1707-76 Galgacus, 84; Grampians Gibbs, sirV. ; attorney-gen., 1S07 ;
Fourdrinicr, M. ; paper, 1807 Galileo di Galilei, 1564-1642; common pleas
Fourier, C, <K 1837; Fourierism acoustics, astronomy, falling Gibson, J., sculptor. 1790-1860
Fowke, capt. : exhibition, 1862 bodies, harmonic curve, ice, Gibson, T. M. ; PalmerBton admi
Fox iz Henderson ; crystal palace, inquisition, planets, sun, tele nistration, 1859
1 851 scopes Giesmar, general; Praga, 1831
Fox, bishop of Winchester; ad Gall, J., 1758-1828; craniology Gifford. limit ; Kildarc, 17^8
ministrations, 1509; privy seal Gallc. Br. ; Neptune, 1846 Gifford, R. ; attorney-gen., 1819
Fox, Charles James, 1748-1806; Guillen; balloons, 1755 , Gifford, Wm. ; '* Quarterly Rev."
duel, 1770 ; Portland admin., Gallicnus ; Rome, emp., 1C0 1809
1783; India bill, j>cople Galvani, Louis, 1737-98 ; electricity, Gilbert, archbp. ; York, 1757
Fox, George ; 1624-91 ; quakcrs 1791 ; voltaic pile Gilbert. Dr.; electricity, iCco;
Fox, Henry ; 'Newcastle admini Galway, earl of; AInianza, 1707 I magnetism
stration, 1757 Gama, Vasco da, tf. 1525 Gilbert, gen. ; Fcroxethnh, 1845
INDEX. 815
Gilbert, G., execution, 1862 Grafton, duke of ; Rockingham Grindall, abp. ; York, 1570; Can
Gilchrist, earl (of Angus), 1037 adm., 1765; Grafton adm., terbury, liturgy
Gildas, historian, 516-570 1767 Grinflold, general ; Demerara,i8o3,
Gillum, Rd. ; trials, 1828 Graham, bp. ; Chester, 1848 Tobago
Gillespie, col. ; Vclloro, 1806 Graham of Claverhouse, 1643-89 ; Grinnell, Mr. ; Franklin expedi
Gillespie, gen. ; Kulunga ; duel, 1788 Killicrcankie tion, 1850
Giuckel, gen. ; Aughrim, 1691 Graham, A. ; planets, 1848 Grocyn, Wm. ; Greek, 1490
Giubcrti, Italian writer, 1801-52 Graham, gen. ; Barossa, 1811 ; Grogan, col.; captured, U. States,
Gioja, F., compass, 1302 Sebastian, Bergen-op-Zoom 1841
Giotto, painter, 1276-1336 Graham, Mr. ; magnetism, 1722 Gros, baron ; china, 1858
Gladstone, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1852 Graham, Mr. ; duel, 179: Groto, G., b. 1794
Gladstone, W. E. ; b. 1809; red, Graham, Thos., 6. 1805 ; mint, dif Grotius, H., 1583-1645; philosophy
Aberdeen, Palmerston ad- fusion, dialysis, atmolysis Grove, W. R. ; voltaic battery,
minist , Russell Graham, sir James, 1 792-1861 ; 1839; correlation, 1842
Glaishcr, J. ; meteorology, 1850 ; Grey, Peel Growse, Elias ; needles
balloons, 1862 Grammont, due de, Dettingen, 1 743 Guclph ; Bavaria, Brunswick
Glanville, R. de, ch. justice, 11E0 Granard, Arthur, carl of ; Kil- Guencko, Otto von, d. 1686 ; air,
Glus, ciipt., murdered ; trials, 17C6 mainham, 1675 electricity, 1647 ; Magdeburg
Glas, John; Glasitcs, 1727 Granby, marquess of ; Chatham Gue*rin-MOnevillo (ailantinc), silk,
Glcnelg, lord (Charles Grant) ; adminis., 1766 1858
Wellington ndm., 1828 Grant, capt. John; cookery, 1857 ; Guernsey, W. H. ; trials, :85s
Glcndower, Owen; Wales, 1401 cottager's stove Guesclin, B. du, </. 1380
Glerawley, lord, v. Burn ; trials, Grant, sir Colquhoun ; duel, 1835 Guicciardini, F.; hist., 1482-1540
1820 Grant, licut. ; trials, 1816, 1844; Guido, Arctino,/. 1030
Gloucester, duke of ; marriage act, Central Africa, 1863 Guido, Rcni, painter, 1575-1642
1772 Grant, see GUnelp, Pittsburg, 1862 Guilford, carl of ; trials, 1853
Glover, E. A ; trials, 1858 Grant, gen. Ulysses, b, 1828; Guinness, Mr. ; Patrick's, St., 1S65
Gluck, C. ; music, 1714 87 United States, 1863 Guiscard : Naples, 1059 ; conspira
Gobelin, G. ; tapestry ; Gobelins Grantham, lord ; Shclburno ad cies, 1 710
Goderich, lord, d. 1859: Goderich ministration, 1782 Guise, dukes of ; Guise
Godolphln, earl ; Godolphin ad Grantley, Id. ; attorney-gen., 1763 Guizot, M., b. 1787: Franco
min. 1684 Granville, earl ; Russell, Palmers- Gunter, E. ; Gunter's chain, 1G06
Godfrey, M. ; Bank of England, ton admin., 1851 Gurney, G. ; Budo light, 1841
1694 Gratian ; canon law, 1:51 Gurncy, Russell ; rocorder, 1856
Godfrey of Bouillon ; Jerusalem, Gratian, Rome emp. Gurwood, Colonel; suicide, 1845
Grattan, Henry, 1746-1820; duel Gustavus Adolphus ; killed, Lut-
QodoyflL, prince of peace ; Spain, ling, 1800, 1820 Ren, 1632 ; Sweden, Munich
1806; </. 1851 Gray, bp. ; Bristol, 1827 Gustavus \asa: Sweden, 1521
Godwin, Wm. ; politics ; novels, Gray, lord ; Pomfrct castle, 1483 Gustavus I —IV. ; Sweden
1755-1836 Gray, Thomas, 1716-71 Guter, of Nuremberg ; air, 1659
Godwin, sir G. ; Pegu, 1852 Greathcad, Mr. ; life-boats, 1789 Guttenberg, J., (/. 1467; printing
Goethe, or GOtbc ; German misccl. Greatrix, Yal. ; impostors, 1666 Guy Faux ; gunpowder plot, 1605
1749-1813 Greaves, lord ; suicide, 1830 Guy, Thos. ; Guy's hospital, 1721
Gog and Magog ; Guildhall Greeley, Horace, fc. i8ir Guyton, Morveau ; balloons, 1784-94
Goldonl, Italian dramatist, 1707-95 Green, Mr. ; balloons, 1828 Guzman, Dominickdc ; lieads, 120?
Goldschmidt(Jenny land) ; Night Greenacre, J. ; trials, 1837 Gwynne, Nell ; bell-ringing, 1687
ingale fund Greene, general ; Camden, 1781 Gyges ; Lydia, 718 R.c.
Goldschmidt, II. ; planets, 1852 Greenwood, T. ; file, i860 Gylippus, 414 B.c. ; Syracuse
Goldsmith, Oliver ; misceL 1728 74 Grcgoire, M.; national convention,
Gonsalvo de Cordova, d. 1515 1792 H.
Good, Daniel ; trials, 1842 Gregory the Great, 604; Aber
Goodrich, bp. ; administ 1551 deen, chanting, Christianity Habakkuk, prophet, ab. 326 B.c.
Goodyear, C. ; caoutchouc Gregory I. -XVI. ; popes, 590 <t Hachctte, Jeanne do la; Beauvais,
Gordian ; Rome, emps 237 $eq. 1472
Gordon, lord G., d. 1793: riots; Gregory VII. ; Italy, 237 nacker, L. ; Sabbath schools, 1740
lil>el ; trials, 1781, 1788 Gregory XI., pope ; pallium Hacket, Wm. ; impostors, 1591
Gordon, col. duel, 1783; China, 1863 Gregory XIII. : calendar, 1582 Hackman, Mr. ; trials, 1770
Gordons, L. and L. ; trials, 1804 Gregory Nazianzeu, Greek lather, Haddington, carl of ; Ireland (lort*.-
Giirgey, gen. ; Hungary, 1849 326-390 licut.), 1834
Gorham t\ bishop of Exeter ; trials, Grenville, George, Newcastle ad Hadlcy ; quadrant, 1731
1849 min., 1754; Grenville admin., Hadrian; Romo, emperor, 117
Gortschakoff, gen. ; Kalafat, 1854; Hwcker ; magnetism, 1851
Silistria, Tehcmaya Grenville, F. ; British Museum, Hafiz {Forsian poet), d. 14th cent.
Gortechakoff, prince ; Vienna con 1846 Haggai prophesies about 630 B.c.
ference, 1853 ; Poland, 186: Gronville, lord ; Grenville admin., Haggurt, Uavid ; trials, 1S21
Gossctt, sir W. ; trials, 1842 1806 ; delicate investigation liaggarty and Holloway ; trials,
Gough, Sir Hugh ; China, 1841 ; Gresham, sirT., d. 1579 ; Gresham 1807
India, 1846 ; Goojerat,Sobraon, Grey, bp. ; Hereford, 1832 Hahnemann, Sam., 1755- 1843;
Ferozcsbah Grey, earl, 1764- 1845 ; Grey, reform homoeopathy
Goulbum, H. ; Wellington admin Grey, Henry, earl ; Russell admi Hakluyt, R.; goog., 1553-1616
istration, 1828 nistration, 1835 Hale, sir Matthew, judge, 1609-76
Gould, J. ; works on birds, 1832-G4; Grey, lady Jane, exec. 1554 ; Eng Hales, Stephen, philosopher, 1677-
humming-birds, 1862 land, queens 1761
Gould, Miss, trials, 1822 Groy, Sir George ; Russell admin., Halifax, earl of ; Halifax adminis
Gould, murderer ; trials, 1840 1846; Palmerston adm., 1855 tration, 1714; trimmer
Gourlny, captain ; duel, 1824 Grey, sir G. ; Cape, 1856 Hall, sir B. ; health, Palmcrst>>n
Gowcr, earl ; Wilmington adm., Grey, S. ; electricity, 1720 administnition, 1855
1742; North adm., 1770 Griesbcich, J., Greek critic, 1745- Hull r. Scmple; trials, 1862
Gowcf, J., d. 1402 1812 Ilalhim. Henry, 1778-1859
Gracchus, Tiberius, slain, 133 ; Grimaldi, Joseph, retires, 1828 Hall, Marshall, m.d., 1790-1857
Cuius slain, 121 b.c. Grimm Jacob, i785-i£G3; diction Hall, Rev. Robert, 1764-1831
Grady, Mr. ; duel, 1827 ary (German) Hall, Sam, d. 1862 ; lace
INDEX.
Haller, A. von ; physiologist, 170S- Hastings,marquess of, India gov.- Hepburn, ensign; trials, 181 1
77 Edmund, astronomer; gen. 1 813 Heraelitus, philosopher,jt. 500 b.c.
Halley, Hastings, Warren. 1732-1818; In Hcraclius ; cross, 615
Greenwich, 1719 dia. 1772 ; Chunar, Hastings Herbert, adm. ; Bantry Bay, 16S9
Halloran, Dr. ; transported for Hatcholl, Mr. ; duel, 1814 Herbert, George, ch. poet, 1593-
forging a frank, 1818 Hatfield fires at George III. ; trials, 1635
Hamel, J. ; Mont Blanc, 1820 1800 Herbert of Cherbury.lord.i 581-1648
Hainitcar; Carthage, 237 E.c. Hatfield ; executions, 1803 Herbert, Sidney(aft. lord), -810-61 ;
Hamilton and Douglas cause ; Hatton, sir Christopher, d. 1591 ; Peel, Palmerston Admin.
trials, 1769 chancellor (lord high), master Hercules Tyrius ; purple
Hamilton, bp. ; Salisbury, 1854 in chancery) Herder, J." G. von, philosopher,
Hamilton, duke of ; duelling, 1712; Hatty, R., 1742-1822; crystallo 17441803
trials, 1813 graphy Hermann (Arminius), Germany, 9
Hamilton, James, marquess of, Hatty, V. ; blind school, 1804 Hero of Alexandria, S. 284-221 B.C.
administrations. 1640 Havelock,gen.; India, 1857, Cawn- Herod ; Jews, 42 B.C.
Hamilton, J. ; court of honour poro Hcrodian, hist.,ji. 173
Hamilton; duol, 1748, 1804 Hawke, admiral ; naval battles, Heristratus fires temple at
Hamilton, Mary; trials, 1736 1747 Ephesus, 356 B.C.
Hamilton, sir W. ; Herculancum Hawkcsbury, lord ; administra Herodotus, b. 484 b.c. : history
Hammond, Mr. ; amlawsador. 1791 tions, 1807, Amiens Hcrophilus ; anatomy, 302 b.c.
Iiarnpden, Richard ; administra Hawkey, lieut. ; duel, trial, 1846 Hcrries, J. C. ; Peel adm., 1834
tions, 1690 Hawkins, Sir John, d. 1595, Herring, abp. ; Canterbury. 1747
nampduu, John, killed 1643 ; ship- Guinea, slave trade, 1562 ; Herring, Mrs. ; trials, 1773
money, Chalgrove potatoes, tobacco. Chatham Hcrscbcl, W., 1738-1822 ; Saturn,
Hampton, H. ; free church, 1859 Hay, lord John ; British legion, astronomy, telescope, sun,
II<mcock, T. caoutchouc, 1843 1835 ; St. Sebastian's Uranus, nebular hypothesis
Handcnck ; trials, 1855 Haydn, Joseph [compiler of this Hcrschel, J. F., b. 1790; actino-
Handel, G. F., 1684-1759 ; Handel, book], d. 1856 meter, photography
opera, oratorios Haydn, Joseph, 1732*1809; music Hertford, marquess of ; his execu
nannibal, 247 183 B.C. ; Rome, Haydon, Ben]., painter, 1786-1846 tors v. Suisse, trials, 1842
Bernard, Sagentum, Spain, Hayes, Mr. ; duel, 1728, 1806 ; Hertford, earl of ; administrations,
Canna?, Carthago, Zania trials. t8o2 1547, Pinkcy
Hanson, capt. ; duel, 1776 Hayes, sirH. B. ; trials, 1800 Hervie, H. ; doctors* commons,
Hans 3>ichs, Germau comic writer, Haynau, gen. ; Hungary, 1849 1560
1474"1 578 Hayward ; trials, 182: Hesiod, Greek poet, ii. 850 b.c.
Hanway, Jonas. (/. 1768 ; umbrella H. B. ; caricatures Hess, gen. ; Solferino. 1859
Harcourt, lady, fete do vertu Head, sir Francis; Canada, 1836 Heytosbury, lord ; Ireland (lord-
Harcourt, lord ; Oxford adminis Headfort, marquess; trial, 1805 lieut. X1844
tration, 1711 Hearnc, north-west passage, 1769 Hiero, Syracuse. 478-275 B.C.
Hardicanuto ; Kngland, 1039 Heath, archbp. ; York, 1555 Hieronymus. see Jerome
Harding, prof. ; planets, 1804 Heberdcn, Dr. ; Humane Society. Hilary ; hymns, 431
Hardingo, sir Henry (aft. lord), 1774 Hill, lord ; commander-in-chief,
1846 ; India Hcbert, J. U. (pore Duchesne), 1828
Hardiuge, Mr. ; journals, 1752 executed, 1794 Hill, Rowland, 6. 1795 ; post-office
Hardwickc, earl of ; Pelham ad Hector of Troy ; slain, 1183 b.c. Hillsboiough, lord; North admi
min., 1744 ; Derby admin. , Hccnan, J. ; boxing, i860 nistration, 1770
1852 ; IrelHiid(lord-lieut.), i£oi Hegel, G., philosopher, 1770-1831 Hind, J. R , b. 1823 ; planets, 1847 ;
Hare, R. ; blowpipe, 1802 Hehl ; animal magnetism, 1774 comets
Hargrave, J. ; cotton. 1767 Heine, H., German poet, 1797-1856 Hindes, lieut. ; duel, 1817
Hargreavcs, E. ; Australia, 1851 Helena, St.; cross, 328 ; Bethlehem Hinds, bp. ; Norwich, 1849
Harley, Robert, Godolphin ad Heltodorus,./!. 398 Hipparchus, JL 162 b.c. : astro
ministration, 1702; Harleian Hcliogabalus ; ltome.emp.218; silk nomy, Canary, constellation,
library, see Oxford Helmholtz, H., 6. 1821 ; ophthal degrees, latitude, longitude
Harmodius kills Hipparchus, 514 moscope, 1851 Hippias ; ostracism, 510 B.C.
B.C. Heloisc, d. 1 163; Abelard Hippocrates, d. 357 B.C.; anatomy,
Harney, gen. ; United States, 1855 Helps, Arthur; hist, and misccl., surgery, loadstone
Harpur, W. ; Bedford, 1561 6. 1 81 1 Hoadley, bp. B., d. 1761 ; Drin-
Harold II. ; Hastings, 1066 Helsham, capt. ; duel, 1829 gorian
Haroun al Raschid, caliph. 786-E09 Hemans, Felicia, poet, 1794-1835 Hobart, lord; Addington adm.,
Harrington, earl of; Pelham ad Hencke; planets, 1845 1801
ministration, 1744 Hentjist, octarch, Salisbury Hobbes, T., 1588-1679; academies
Harris, Mr. ; Covent-garden, or Henley, lord ; Grcnvillo admini Hobbima, painter,.*!. 1681
gans, 1682 ; clocks, apples, stration, 1763 Hobhouse, sir J. C. (aft. lord
fluxions Henley, Jos. ; Derby administra Broughtou); Melbourne adm..
Harris, sir W. S. ; lightning con tion, 1852 1834
ductors, 1820 Henley, orator, d. 1756 Hoche, gen. ; Dunkirk, 1793
Harrison, gen. ; United States, Honni's, Dr. ; duel, 1833 Hockor, murderer ; tiials, 1845
president, 1841 Henrietta ; queens (Charles I.) Hoc'gson, gen. ; Belleisle, 1761
Harrison, J. ; pneumatic loom, Henry; kings : England, France, Hodgson r. Greene ; trills, 1832
1864, Harrison, 1714 Germany, Spain Hofer, Andrew; Tyrol, 1809-10
Harrison, Mr. ; congelation, 1857 Henry I. ; Tinchebray, 1106 Uofmann, A., 6. 1818; chemistry,
Harrowby, earl of ; Pitt adminis Henry V. ; Agincourt, 1415 ; Cher ammonia, aniline
tration, i8oi et seq bourg Hogarth, W., painter, i697-i7f4
Harsnct, archbp. ; York, 1628 Henry VII. ; Bosworth, 1485 Hogg, James, poet, 1772-1835
Hartmger, Mr. ; duel, 1820 Henry VIII. ; England, 1509; age, Holbein, Hans, d. 1554
Hartland, sir R. ; Madras, 1771 defender, field, monasteries, Holcroft, T. ; melodrama, 1793
Harvey, B. Bagenal ; trial, 179S spurs Holdcrnesse, carl of ; Devonshire
Harvey, Dr. William, 1578-1657 ; Henry II. ; tournaments, i-^g administrations, 1756
blood, anatomy, midwifery Henry IV. ; France, 1589; Saute-s, nolgato, abp. ; York, 154 s
Harwood ; porter, 1730 Ravaillac, Yvres Holinshod, Ralph, d, about 15S0
Hasdrubal ; Carthago", Spain ; Me- Henry the Lion ; Brunswick, 1139 Holkar; India, 1804
taurus, 207 B.C. Henshaw, Mr. ; duel, 1820 lb-Hand, lord; Melbourne ndmi-
INDEX. 817
nistration, 1835 et ttq., trials, Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, tf. 63 ; Manassas, United States,
1797 at Bury, 1447 1862; Chancellorsville
Holland, air H., b. 1788 ; Roy. Inst. Hunniadcs, J. ; Hungary, 1442 ; Jackson, T. ; executions, 1861
1865 Turkey, Varna Jackson, C. T. ; ether, 1846
Holiest murderers ; trials, 1851 Hunt, Henry, reformer ; trials, Jackson, J. B.; printing in colours,
Holmes, adra., Capo Coast, 1663 1820, Clerkenwell, Manchester 1720
Holt, air Jobn, King's Bench, 1689 Hunt, Juhn uud Leigh ; trials,i8u- Jacob, Dr. ; Cbrist's hospital, 1854
Holt ; trial* 1844 1812 ; J., anthropology Jacob! ; Baltic, note, electrotype
Hulwell, Mr. ; sntteos, 1743 Hunt, Wm. Holinau, painter, 6. Jacquard loom, 1806
Homo, lieut. ; Delhi, 1857 1827 James ; England, Scotland, Spain
Homer, fl. 962 n.c. {Ciinton); poetry Hunter, John, surgeon, 1728-93; (kings)
Ilompesch. baron, duel, 1806 W., 1718-81 James IV. ; Flodden, 1513
Hone, Wm., 1779-1842 ; trials, Huntingford, bp. , Hereford, 1802 James, H. : photozincography, i860
1817, almanacs ! Huntly, earl of ; Brechin, 1452 Jane, England, 1554 ; queens,
Honey and Francis ; riots, 1821 Hunton, Jos. (forgery) ; execu Sicily
Honorius ; West, empire, 395 tions, 1828 Janson, C\, 1585-1638; Jansenism
Hood, adm. ; Madeira, 1807 ; Hurd, bishop; Worcester, 1781 .Jason, argonautic exp., 1263 b.c
Toulon Huskisson, Wm., 1770-1830; Wel Jcbb, Joshua, prison refornior,
nood, Thomas, comic writer, 1798- lington admin., 1828; Liver 1793-1863
1845 pool, 1830 Jeffcott, sir John W. ; duel. 1833
Hook, Theodore, novelist, 178S- IIuss, John, burnt, 141 5 , Hussites Jefferson, T. ; United States, pre
1841 Hutchinson, Amy ; trials, 1750 sident, 1801-8
Hooke, Rob., 1635-1703; air, boil Hutchinnon, John, d. 1737; Hutch- Jcffery, Robert; Sombrero, 1807
ing, camera, geology, mechan insouians Jeffrey, Francis, critic, 1773-1850
ics, microscope, telegraphs Hutchinson, major ; Alexandria, Jeffreys, George (afterwards lord) ;
Hooker, Rich., thcoL, 1553-1600 j801 administration*, 1685 ; king's
Hooker, W.t botanist, 1785-186':; Hutchinson, J. H. ; Lavalcttc's bench, chancellor, lord high,
J. D. b. 1816 ; gon. R., U. 3., oseupe, 1815 bloody assize, d. 1689
1862-3, Fredericksburg nutton, abp. : Canterbury, 1757 Jellachich ; Hungary, Vienna, 1848
Hopkins, Matthew ; witches, 1645 Hutton, W., d. 1815 ; geology Jenghis Khan ; Tartnry, 1206 ;
Hopley, T. ; trials, i860 Huyghens, d. 169= ; astronomy, Hungary, India, Moguls, Af
Horace. 65-8 B.C.,Lat. poet; Athens, optics, pendulums ghanistan
satires Hyde, sir E. ; chancellor, Id b., 1660 Jenkinson, bp. ; David's, St., 1825
Horler, H. ; trials, 1853 Hyde, Laurence ; administrations, Jenkins, Henry ; longevity,!/. 1670
Hormisdas ; Persia, 272 1689 et teq, Jonner, E,, 1749-1823; vaccination
Horn, count ; Nordlingen, 1634 Hyder Ali, d. 1782 ; India, Arcot, Jennings, Mr. ; tontines, 1798
Home, O , bp. ; Norwich, 1790 Carnatic, Mysore Jeremiah prophesies about 629 B.C.
Home Tooke, John, d. 1812 ; FTygimis, pope, 139; martyr Jerninghaiu, Mrs. ;bluo-8tockings,
Home Tooke, &c. Hypatia, philosopher, tn. 415 b.c. ; 1760
Horner, Fr. ; bullion, 1810 hydrometer Jerome, 331-420; ascension, Utur-
Hornor, Mr. ; Colosseum, 1824 Hyperides ; Cranon, 322 B.C. gies
Hornsby, Dr. ; Radcliffo obs., 1771 Hyrcanus, John, d. 107 B.C. ; Sa Jeromo of Prague ; burnt, 1416
Horrebow ; astronomy, 1659 maritans Jersey, countess of ; delicate in
Horrox, Jer., d. 1641 ; astronomy, vestigation, 1806
Venus Jervis. sir John ; Cape St. Vincent ;
Horsfall, Mr. ; trials, 1813 —solicitor-gen. , att. -gen. , com
Horsfall, Messrs. ; cannon, 1856 mon pleas, U. 1856
Horaley, bp. ; St. Asaph, 1802 Ibrahim, pacha, 1789-1848 ; Anti- Joan of Arc, burnt 1431 : Joan
Hosea prophesies about 785 B.C. och, Beyrout, Egypt, Greece, Joan ; queens (Henry IV.), Naples
Hotham, adm. ; naval battles, 1795 Syria, Turkey, Damascus, Joel prophesies about 800 B.C.
Hotspur; Otterbum. 1388 Wahabees Jobn, St., d. 100; baptism, ac
Houblon, sir J., Bank of England, Ignatius, St. ; mart. 115 : liturgies, cusers, evangelists, gospels
1695 250 John I.—XXIII. ; popes, 523, iic.
Houghton, John, executed, 1535 ; Impcy, major ; duel, 1801 John of Austria ; Lepanto, 1571
Charterhouse Inachus; Argos, 1856 B.C. John, king ; Bohemia, Portugal,
Howard, John, 1726-90 ; prisons, Inclodon, C, d. 1826 Spain, France, Poitiers
potatoes Iflez do Castro ; Coimbra, 1355 John, king; England (1199), char
Howard, Luke, d. 1864; clouds Inglefleld, capt. ; Franklin, 1852 ter of forests, magna charta,
Howard, adml. bit Edward , naval Inglis, col. ; Albuera, 181 1 " We "
battles, 1513 Ingram, Herbert, d. i86o, I1L Lon, John of Leyden: anabaptists, 1534
Howard of Kffingham, lord ; News John tbo Fearless ; Burgundy, 1404
armada, 1588 I Innocent I.—XII. ; popes Johnson, Andrew, 6. 1809; United
Howard t\ Gossett : trials, 1842 Innocent III., pope, 1198 ; tran- States, 1865
Howe, sir William; Long Island, substantiation Johnson, Sam. ,1709-84 ; dictionary,
1776 I IrcnaMis, martyr, 202 literary societies
Howe, lord, 1784; Pitt, 1783; Brest, Irving, E., 1792-1834: Irvingites, Johnson, judge ; trials, 1805
Unbant I trial, 1832 ; unknown tongues ■Johnson, capt. ; trials, 1846
Howel Dha ; Wales, 911 Irving, Washington, 1783 1859 Johnston, capt. ; steam, 1825
Howloy, Dr., abp. ; Canterbury, Isabella ; salique law, Spain Johnston, gen. ; Ross, N., 1798
1828 ; Lambeth Isaiah prophecies about 760 b.c. Johnston, Albt, *. Pittsburg, 1862 ;
Huber, F^ 1750-1S31 ; bees Islip, abp. ; Canterbury, 1349 Jos., U. 8. 1863
Hudson, Jeffrey, 1626; dwarf Isocrates, Gr. orat., 436-338 B.C. Johnston, Robert ; trials, 1818
Hudson, H, ; Hudson's Bay Iturbido. ; Mexico, 1821-1865 Johnston, sir Jobn ; marriages,
Hugglns, Wm. ; spectrum, note Ivan; Russia, 1462; czars forced, 1690
Hughes, sir E. ; Trincomaleo, 1782 Joinvillo, Jean de, hist.,1224-1318 ;
Hugo, Victor, 6. 1802 prince de ; Ocean Monarch,
HuTlah, J., b. 1812; music, 1840 1848
Humbert, gen. ; Killala, 1798 Jonah prophesies about 862 b.c.
Humboldt, A. de, 1769-1859 Jackson, bp. ; Oxford, 1812 ; Lin Jones, colonel ; Hungan, 1647,
Humboldt, W. de, 1767-1835 coln, 1852 Rathmines
Hume, David, hist., 1711-76; Jos., Jacks- in, gen ; United States, 1829 Jones, H. Bence ; Royal Institu
polities, 1777-1855 Jackson, Thos. "Stonewall," 1824- tion, i860 ; spectrum, note
3 G
818 INDEX.
Junes, G.ile ; trials, 1811 Labourdonnaye ; Tournay, 1792
Kent, G. ; knives (cleaner), 1844
Jones, Iuigo, architect, 1572-1652 Tjachaise, Pere, i624-i709.cemetery
Kentigern, St. ; abstinence, Glas
Jones, Jane ; trials, 1842 gow, Asaph, 560-83 La Bruyere, French essays, 1644-96
Jones, Mr. : riots, 1810 Kenyon, lord; attorney-general, Lacordaire, Ylrc H. D.. 1802-61
Jones, Mr. Todd ; duel, 1802 1782, king's bench Lactantius ; d. 325 ; fathers
Jones, Owen, 184a ; Alhambra, Kepler, J., 1571-1630 ; optics, Ladislas ; Bohemia, Hungary
Jame.s's Hall, St. Laennec, R., physician, 1781-1826
planetary motions, 1609, rain
Jonos, sir Wm„ 1746-94; Asiatic, bow, tides, dye-houses Lafarge, madame ; trills, 1840
chess, Menu, Sanskrit Lafayette, marq. ; 1757-1834
Keppel, adm. ; Belleislc, Ushant,
Jonos, T. ; book-keeping, 1821 trials, 1779, coalition, naval
Lafitte, d. 1844 ; wills (Napoleon's)
Jonson, Ben., 1574^-1637 ; poet-laur. battles La Fontaine, 1621-95. fables
Joquemin, VI. ; picquet, 1390 Keppel, commodore ; China, 1857 Lagava, &c. ; execution, 1856
Jordan, Mrs., actress, d.t 1816 Keying ; China, 1842-58 Lagny ; circle, 1719
Joseph; Germany, Namur, Portugal Killigrew, Thus. ; drama, 1662 La Grange, J. L., 1736-1813 ;
Josephine, empress, 1763-1814 ; Kilmarnock, lord ; rebellions, acoustics, astronomy, 1780
France, 1809 trials, executions, 1746 Laing, S. ; India, 1861-2
Josephus, Jewish hist., d. 93 Li.ird, Mr. ; Birkenhead
Kilwarby, abp. ; Canterbury, 1272
Jotham ; fables, 1209 B.C. Kilwarden, lord ; king's bench ;Lake, gen. ; Bhurtpore, 1805;
Joubert, gen. ; Novi, 1799 trials, 1803 Delhi, Lincellas
Jourdan, marshal : Cologne, Fleu- King, Thos. ; ventriloquism, 1716
Lake, hon. capt. ; Sombrero,
rus, Vittoria, 1813 King, Mr. Locke ; administrations, 1807-10
Jovian, Rome, emps., 363 1851 Lalande. J.,aitron , 1732-1804
Juarez, B. ; Mexico, 1858 King, Dr. ; Cesarean operation Lally ; beheaded, 1766
Judas Maccabajus ; rules, 168- King, col. ; suicide, 1850 La Marmora, gen. A., 6- 1804 ;
160 B.C. King, C. ; trials, 1855; gems, i860 Tchcruaya. 1855, Italy, 1862
Judith ; Abyasinia, 960 Kin^lake, A. W., hist., b. 1802 LamartiiiC, A. de ; b. 1793 ; mieceL
Jugurtha, d. 104 B.C. ; Numidia, Kingsley, C, novels, iic, b. 1819 writer
Jugurthine war Lamb, C. ; 1775-1834 ; essays
Kingston, duchess of; trials, 1776
Julian ; Rome, emp. 360, edicts, Kingston, earl of, r. Lord Lorton ;
Lamb, Dr. ; killed, 1628 ; riots
Paris trials, 1776 Lambolle, princesse de ; France,
Julianus, Salvias ; edicts, 132 Kingston, Evelyn duke of ; Wal- 1792
Julius, Mr. ; duel, 1791 pcle, 1721 Lamberg, ct. ; Austria, 1848
Julius II., pope, 1503 ; Rome, Kirby and Wade, capts. ; shot, Larobert, Mr. ; d. 1S09; corpulency
Bologna, LaocoOn, Cambray 1702 ; naval battles, note Laml>ert (Lai ham), J. ; trials, 1855
Julius Ca-sar ; see Cceaar, Julius Kircher; ^Eolian harp, 1653, phiLambrecht, Mr. ; duel, trials, 1830
Jung Bahadooi* : Xepaul, 1857-60 losopher's stone, trumpet Lambtoii, Mr. ; du-1, 1826
Junot, marshal, 1771-1813 ; Cintra, Kirkman ; piano-forte Lamennais, Pere, F. R de, 17S2-
Vimiera, 1808 Kirwan, Richard B. ; trials, 1852 1854
Jussieu, A. L. de, botanist, 1748- Kiss, Karl, sculptor, 1802-65 Lamoriciere, gen., 1806-65 I France,
1836 Klapka, generxlG., 1820 1851 : Rome, i860
Justin, emp., Rome, 518 and 565 Kleist; electricity, 1745 ; Leyden
Lamplough, archbp. : York, 1688
Justin, St. ; Rochester, 604 Klopstock, poet, 1724-1803 Lancaster, capt. ; Bantam, 1603
Justinian ; eastern empire, 527 Kmoty, gen. (Ismail pacha), d. Lancaster, duke of; Lancaster
Justin Martyr, 164 ; millennium 1865 ; Hungary, Kars Lancaster, Joseph; 1771-1838,
Juvenal, 59-128 ; satires Knatchbull, sir E. ; Peel adminis Lancastcrian schools, educa
Juxon, apb. ; administrations, trations, 1834-5 tion
1640 ; Canterbury, 1660, bishs. Kneller, sir Godfrey, painter, 1648-
Lander, Richard; 1804-34; Africa
1723 Landsecr, Rir E , painter, b. 1803
Lanfranc,archbp. Canterbury, 1070
Knight, Chs., diffusion soc., 1827
Knight, G. ; magnetism, 1756 Langara, adm. ; naval battles, 1 7So
Knight, Mr. ; north-west passage,Langdale, Id. ; master of rolls, 1836
Kane, Dr. ; Franklin, 1843 1602, South Sea bubble, Langdale, sir M. ; Naseby, 164 s
Kant, I nunan, 1724-1804 ; meta bribery Langbam, abp. Canterbury, 1 366
physics Knight v. Wolcot ; trials, 1807 Lanxton, abp. Canterbury, 1206
Kaunitz, 1755-94 Knox, John; 1505-72, Presbyteri Lannes ; marshals; Aspeme, 1809
Kaye, bishop; Bristol, 1820, ans; congregation ; Scotland Lansdowne, marquoas of, 1780-
Lincoln Knutzen, Matthias ; atheism, 1674 1863 ; see /Vtty, Sh*tbu.rne :
Kean, Charles, b. 181 1 ; theatres Kock, Paul de, novelist, 6. 1794 God rich adm 1827 ; Russell
Kean, Edmund, 1787-1833 Kohl, F. ; execution, 1865 adm. 1846, 1851; Aberdeen
Keane, lord ; Gbiznee, 1839 Konig, F. ; printing-machine, 1814 adm. 1652 ; Faimerstou adm.
Keats, John, 1796 1821 Konig, M. ; phonoscope,tonometer, 1855 el seg.
Keenau ; trial, 1S03 1862 Laomedon; Troy, 1260 B.c.
Keith, George ; earl-marischal of Kdrner, Th., poet, 1791-1813 Laplace, P. de ; mathemat., 1749-
Scotland, Aberdeen, 1593 Kosciusko ; Poland, 1 794 ; Cracow 1827
Keith, George ; quakers, 1646 Kossuth, L., 6. 1802; Hungary, Latimer, bp. ; burnt, 1555 ; pro-
Kellet, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 United States tcstints
Kelly, Miss ; theatres, trials, 18x6 Koster, Laurence ; printing, 1438
Latimer, viscount ; administra
Kelly, sir F. ; solicitor-general, Kotzebue ; north-west passage, tions, 1672-3
1845 ; attorney-general 1815, Aug. drama; killed, Laud, William, abp., 1573-1645 ;
Kemble, Charles, 1775-1854 1819 Canterbury, administrations
Kemble, John, 1757-1823 Lauderdale, duke of ; cabal, 1670
Kouli Khan ; Moguls, India, Persia,
Kemble, Miss F., 0. 1811 1730 Laura; Petrarch, 1327
Kemp abp. ; Canterbury, 1452 Kunckel ; phosphorus, 1670 Lautrec ; d. 1528
Kempe, John ; wool, 1331 Kutusoff, M., 1745-1813; Russia,Lavalette s escape, 1815
Kempenfeldt, adm. ; Royal George, Muskwa. Smolensko, 1812 Lavatcr, J. ; 1741-1801 ; physiog
1782 Kyhl, P. ; nature-printing, 2833 nomy
Kempis, T. a, theology, 1380-1471 Lavoisier, A. ; 1743-94 ; carbon,
Kennedy, alderman ; trials, 1858 nitric acid, kc.
Kennedy, Mr. ; Franklin, 1851-53 Liw, bishop; Chestor, Bath, 1824
Kennedy, C. R. ; trials, 1858, note Labouchere, Henry ; Russell ad Law's bubble, 1720
Kent, F.d\v. duke of, 1 767-1820 ministration, 1846; Palmcr- Lawes, H., 1600-62
Kent, Odo, earl of; treasurer, 1066 ston administration, 1855 Lawless, Mr. ; riots, 1828
INDEX. S19
Lvwrence, gon. H ; 1806-57 '* India, 1 Licber, T. ; Erastianism, 1523-84 Loughborough ; att -gen. ; coali
1857 I Liebig, J., 6. 1803; agriculture, tion, 1783
Lawrence, 8ir J. ; 6. 181 1 ; India, chemistry Louis ; France, Spain, 1724
1863 I Light, F. ; Penang Louis III. ; landgrave, 1130
Lawrence, SirT., painter, 1769-1830 ; Ligonier, lord ; Bute, 1 762 Louis XL, " Christ an ; " blood,
Layard, Austen ; b. 1817 ; Nineveh Lilburno, col; ; levellers, Wigan, ]K>fits, 1470; Pruvcuco
Layer's conspiracy, 1722; Layer 1651 Louis XII ; tester, 1513
Leake, adni. ; d 1720; admiralty, ' Lilly, (ieorge, rf. 1559; charts Louis XI II. ; b>wt d'or, 1640
Gibraltar, Mediterranean, Mi Lilly ; astrology, 1647 Louis XIV. ; Dieu-doun<3, Nantes,
tturea Liu ; China, 1S40 1685
Leatham, E. ; trials, 1861 Linacre, Dr., d. 1524; gardening, Louis XVIII. ; Hartwell, 1807-14,
Ledru Rollin, A. ; i>. 1808; France, lectures, physicians France
1848 Lincoln, Abm., 6. 1809; United Louis, king; Hungary, Buda, 1526
Lee, Alexander; theatres, 1830 States, 1860-2 Louis, prince of Cuude* ; Jarnac,
Lee Boo, prince ; Pelcw Islands, Lincoln, carl of ; administrations,
1784 157? Louis Bonaparte ; Holland, 1806
Lee, archbp. ; York, 1544 Lind, Dr. ; anemometer, wind Louis Napoleon ; France, 1848,
Lej, W. ; stocking-frame, 1589 Lind, Jenny (Goldschmidt ), 6. 1 82 1 and w.
Loe, gon. Robt.. Unit. States, 1862 Lindlev, John. bot. 1799-1865 Louis-Philippe ; France, 1830
Leech, John, 1817-04, caricatures Liszt, F. ; music, b, 181 1 Louisa-Maria, infanta ; Spain, 1846
Leeds, duke of ; administrations, I Lindsay, earl of; Edgebill, 1642 Louise, queqp, d. 1850 ; Belgium,
1689 Lindsay, sir John ; Madras, 1770 1832
Leeke. II., Bushiro, 1856 I Lingard, J., 1771-1851, historian Louth, lord, trials, 181 1
Leeuwenhoek ; 1632-1723; animal- Linlithgow, lord ; guards, 1660 Louvel ; trials, 1820
cuke, polypus Linnaeus, C. von, 1707-78; butany, Lovel, trials, 1812
Lefevre, C. Shaw ; speaker, 1839 Linnrean zoology Lovat, lord ; conspiracy, trials,
Leggatt, 11. ; burning, 1612 Linus, poet, ft. 1281 B.C. *747Alice; tri»ls, 1842
Legge, bishop ; Oxford, 1827 Liprandi ; lialaklava, Eupatoria, Lowe,
Legge, 11. B , Newcastle adm. ,1754 1855 Lowther, vise. ; Wellington adm.,
Le>rros Raymond ; Dublin, 1171 Llslo, lord ; administrations, 1544 1828
Leibnitz. Gottfried ; 1646-1716, Lisle, sir G. ; Colchester, 1648 Loyola, Ignatius ; Jesuits, 1534
mathematics, fluxions Lisle, viact. ; Portsmouth, 1544 Luby, Thos. ; fenian, trial, 1865
Leicester, earl of ; administrations, Liston, J. ; retires, 1838 Lucan, earl of ; trials, 1856
1558; national associations Little John ; Sherwood forest Lucan, killed, 65 ; Rome, Cordova
Leicester, carl of, v. Morning LittIeton,lord;ehancellor,Wd,i64i Lucas, Mr.; steel. 1804
litml I ; trials, 1809 j Littleton, Mr ; Melbourne ad Lucian, about 120 200
Leighton, abp. Robt., 1611-84 ministration, 1834 Lucilius ; satire, 116 b. c.
Leighton, G. C. ; printing in Liverpool, carl of; 1770- 1828; Lucretia, rf. 47 b. c. ; Rome,
colours, 1849 Liverpool administration, 1812 spinning
Le Jay ; polyglot, 1628-45 Livingstone, D., b. 1817 ; Airica Lucretius, d 52 B.C.
Lelewel ; Poland, 1863 Livius, Titus, hist. d. 18 Lully ; nitric acid, 1287 (music,)
L;ly, sir P., painter, 1617-80 Llewellyn : Wales, 1194 1633-72
Le Maire ; circumnavigator, 1615 Lloyd, bishop ; Oxford, 1827 Lumloy r. Gye ; trials, 1854
Lennox, col. ; duel, 1789 Lloyd, Mrs. Catherine ; quackery, Lunardi, M. ; balloons, 1784
Lenoir; gas, 1861 1831 Lutatius ; naval battles; 241 b.c-
Le Notre ; James's Park, St. 1668 Lloyd, Charles, esq. ; Junius, 1769 Luthcr, M.urtin, 1 483- 1 546 ; Au-
L*:o ; popes. Eastern empire Lloyd, W. ; Portland vaso, 1845 gustins, Lutheranism, Dort,
Loo X., pope ; 1513, indulgences Locke, J., 1632- 1 704 ; physics, car Protestantism, Augsburg, Cal-
Leon, Diego de ; Spain, 1841 tesian, coin vinists, Worms
Leon, Poncode; America, 1512 Locko, W. ; ragged schools, 1844 Luther, R ; planets, 1852
Leonarda of Pisa; algebra, 1202 Lockyer, major; duel, 1817 Luxemburg, marshal ; Enghien,
Leonardo da Vinci, 1452-1519 Lofting, John, thimble, 1695 1692
Leouidas ; Thorraopyhu, 480 b r. Loguinan ; magnetism, 1851 Luxmore, bishop; Bristol, 1807
Lcopardi, Italian orat., 1798-1837 Lollard, Walter; Lollards, 1315 ; Lycurgus ; Sparta, 881 b o
Leopold, Germany ; Morgartcn, burned, 1322 LyeU, sir C, o. 1797 ; geology,
1315 ; Sempach, 1386; Bel Lombc, sir Thomas ; silk. 1714 man
gium, 1830 Loudon dock company ;trials,i85i Lyly. W. ; euphuism, 1581
Lepidus ; triumvir, 43 h.c. Londonderry, lord ; see CattU- Lyndhurst, lord, 1772-1863; chan
L'Epec, abbiS do ; 1712-89, deaf rtagh ; suicide, 1823 cellor; lord Canning, adin.,
Le Pique, M. ; duel, 1808 Long, sir R. ; administrations, 1660 1827; Wellington adm. 1828;
Le Sage, 1668-1747 Long, Misses Tilney ; trials, 1825 Peel adm. 1834, 1841
Leslie, C. H., painter; 1794-1859 Long, St. John ; quack ; trials, Lynedoch, lord; Barrosa, :8u ;
Leasing, G. L., German philoso 1830- 1 Bcrgen-op-Zoom, St Sebastian
pher, 1729-81 Longfellow, H. W., b. 1807 Lynch ; trials, 1817
Lestock, admiral; Toulon, 1744 Longinus ; philoso. ; killed, 373 Lyon, capt. ; north-west passago,
L'Estrange, sir R. ; newspapers, Longley, abp. York, i860; Rijion 1821; gen. N., Springfield, 1861
1663 j Longatreet, gon., Chicamauga, Lyon, John ; Harrow school, 1571
Lettsom, Dr. ; Humane Soc. 1774 1863, U. States Lysander ; Sparta, 4ns B.C.
Lever, sir Ashton ; museum Lonsdale, bishop; Lichfield, 1843 Lysimachus ; Ipsus, 301 B.C.,
Leverricr, U., b. 1811 ; Neptune, Lousdal«, carl of: duel, 1792 ; Derby Corus
1846 administration, 1852 Lysippus ; Lysistratus ; sculpture,
Levy, Mr. Lyon; monument, 1810 Lopez; Cuba, 1850; United States busts, 328 B.C.
Lewis, Mr. ; theatres, 1773 Lopez, sir Mtiiasseh ; Gram- Lyttelton, Goo., lord ; dreams, j 779
Lewis. Sir G. Cornewall, 1806-63; pound ; trials, 1819 Lytton, E. Bulwor, novels, 6.1805,
Palraerston adm. 1855 L'Ormo, Philibert do ; Tuileries ; guild*
Lewisham, vise. ; Addington ad 1564
ministration, 1801 Lorraine, Chaa. of ; Lissa, Mohatz,
Leybourue, William de ; admiral, 1687 M.
1297 Lorraine, duke of-; Crecy, 1346
Libanius, orator, 314-363 Lorraine, Claude, painter, 1600-82 Macadam, J.; macadamising, 1819
Liddon, lieut. ; north west pas Ix)singa, H. ; Norwich, * Macarthy, sir Charles ; Sierra
sage, 1819 Loudon, C. J., 1783-1843; Leone, Ashantees, 1824
3 a 2
820 INDEX.
Macartney, earl ; duel, 1786 ; China, Malpighi, M. ; anatomist, 1628-94 Marvell, A. ; d. 1678 ; ballot
1703 ; India Maltby, bishop ; Durham. 1836 Maryl., 1516-58; England, queen,
Macaulay, T. B., 1S00-1859; Mel Malttiiis, T., 1766-1834. poht. econ. 1553; Calais
bourne idm., 1837 M&bwl, J. ; metronome, 1815 Marr II. 1662 94 ; England, queen,
Macbeth ; Scotland, 1057 Manosseb, Ben Israel ; Jews, 1657 1689
MacCabe ; robbers, 1691 Mhoby, capt ; life-preserver, 1809 Mary, queen of Scot*. 1542-87 ;
MacClellan, pen. George, 6. 1816; ManeLester, earl coadministra Scotland, Carlislo. Edinburgh,
United States, 1861 4 tions, 1620 sycamore, Langside, Loch-
Macclesfield, carl of; chancellor, Manchester will; trials, 1854 levcn castlc, Fothcringay
lord high, 1718 Mandcville, vise.; administrations, Maryborough, lord ; postmaster,
MacCormack ; reaping machine, 1620 1835
1831 Manes ; killed, 274 ; Manicheans Masauiello ; Naples, 1647
Macdoti tl i, marshal ; Parma, Manfred ; killed, 1266 ; Naples Maskelyno, Dr. N.; Greenwich,
Trebia, 1799 Manlius ; Cimbri. 102 B.C., Komo 1765; Schieballien, 1772
Macdonald, capt. ; Prussia, 1861, n. Manners, lord John ; Derby ad Maskelyno, N. ; Venus, Greenwich,
Maedonalds massacred ; Uleucoe, ministrations, 1852, 1858 almanacs
1693 Mannings ; murderers, trial, 1849 Mason, Mr. ; U. States, 1861
MacDowell, gen. J.; Manassas,!£61 Manny, sirW. ; charter-hou>c, 1371 Maseena ; Zurich, 1799; Almeida,
Macduff, Mr. : duel. 1790 ManveL bishop; Bristol, 1808 Bunco
Macfarlone, S. ; trials. 1844 Mansell, T. ; executions, 1857 Massey v. Headfort ; trials, 1S04
Macgregor, J. ; banlt» British, 1849 Man«lield, lord ; att.-gt-n., 1754 ; Massey, W. ; India, 1S65
Macldavulli, N., 1469-1527 Dumblain, 1715 ; fictions in Miissillon, 1663-1743
Mack, general ; Ulm, 1805 law, king's bench Mathew, Theobald, d. 1856; tem
Mackay, gen. ; KiHiecrankie, 1689 Mansfield, C B ; benzole, 1849 perance
Mackay and Vaughau ; trials, 1816 Manuel ; Eastern empire, Trebi- Mathews, Chas. ; actor, 1776- 1835
Mackintosh, sir Janice; 1765-1832 zond Mathias ; anabaptists, 1534
MacLichlan, Jessie; trials, 1662 Manutius, see Aldus Matilda, queens (William I.) ;
Mackliu, C , actor, d, 1797 Mar. earl of ; Uaiiaw, 1411 Bayeux tapestry, 1066
Macklin ; Bible, books Marat; stabbed; France, 1793 Matilda, queens (Stephen)
Macrcath, Mr. ; trials, 1841 Marcellus ; Rome. 212 B.c Matilda (empress) ; England, 1135
Maclcol, U. D. ; trials, 1858 March, lioger, earl of; rebelhons, Matilda, Denmark; 1772; Zcll
Maeleod, Mr. ; United States, 1841 '398 Matilda, countess ; Canos&a, 1077 ;
Maclise, D. ; punter, b. 1811 March, R. ; rope-making, 1784 Italy
McMillan, J. ; trials, 1861 Marchmont ; trials, 1858 Matthew, T., abp, York, 1606
M.icNamara, capt. ; duel, 1803 Marcion ; Marcionitcs, 140 Matthews, adm. ; Toulon, 1744
M'Clure, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 ; Marcus Aurelius ; Rome, emp. 161 Maud. See Afatilda
north-west passage Marcus Curtius ; Homo, 362 b.c. Manic, Fox (lord Panmure), Rus
M'Culloch, J. R,, polit. ccon., 6. Mardonius ; Mycale, Platea, sell administration, 1846
17S9 497 B-c. Maun*eil, col. ; meal-tub plot,
M'NeilI, sir J. ; Bebastopol, 1855 Margaret ; queens (Edward I.) 1679
McCarry, gen. ; Knni.skilleri, 1689 Margaret of Anjou (queen of Maupertuls, P. L, dfi, 1698-1759;
McClintock, capt. ; Franklin, 1859 Henry VI.), d. 1481; Tewkes latitude
McGUl, Mr. Mr.;
•JlcKenzic, ; trials,
duel,1S42
1788 bury, Towton. Wakefield Maurice, F. D.; 6. 1805; working-
Margaret of Norway ; Calmar, 1393 men's college. 1854
McNaghtcn, sir W.; killed, 1841 Margaret (governess of the Nether Mausolus ; 377 e.c. mausoleum,
McNaughten, Mr.; trials, 1761, 1843 lands. 1559); beards wonders
Macready, W. ; actor, b. 1793 Margraff ; beet-root, 1747 Maximin ; Rome, emp. 235; giants,
Macrobius; writer, d. 415 Maria da Gloria; Portugal, 1826 persecutions
Madan, lip. ; Peterborough, 1794 Maiia-Louisa, d. 1847 ; France, Maximilian ; emperors, Germany,
Madiai, the; Tuscany, 1852 p. ^18; wills (Napoleon's) 1493 ; Mexico, 1864
Madison, James ; United States, Maria-Tbcrcsa ; Germany, 1711 Mazarin, cardinal ; France, 1643 ;
president, 1809 Maria-Antoinette; France, 1793 ; tontiues
Maecenas, d. 8 ; dedications, baths diamond necklace Maxzuoli, F. ; engraving, 1532
Magee, J.; trials, 1813 Marius, d. 86 B.C. ; Arabrones, Mead, Dr. Rich., 1673-1754; ino
Magellan; killed, 1521; circum Cimbri culation
navigation, Philippine Markh>un, abp. ; York, 1776 Mead, Geo., gon.,6. 1816 ; United
Magi ; fire worshipper**, Epiphany Marlborough, duke of, 1650 1716 ; States, 1863
Magnvis, king, Norway, Sweden com.-in-chief, marshals. Blen Meagher; Ireland, 1848
Maguire, capt; Franklin, 1848 heim, Uouay, Liege, Lisle, Mal- Medhurst Frs. II. ; trials, 1839
Magus, Simon; Sirnouians, heretics plaquet, Oudcnardc, Ramilics Medici ; Medici family
Mahomet, 570-632 ; Hcgira, 62.Z ; Marlborough, earl of; administra Medicis, Catherine de, d. 15S9 ; Bar
Mahometanism, Mecca, Mo- ; tions, 1628 tholomew, St
dina, Beder, Turkey, Koran I Marlowe, Chr. ; dramatist, (/. 1503 Medina-Sidonia, duke of ; armada
Mahomet II., d. 1481 ; eastern em Marmont, marshal , Stdamanca, Medon ; Athens. 1044
pire, Turkey, Adrianople, 1812 Mehemet, Ali ; Egypt, Syria
Constantinople, Albania Marmontel, J. F., 1723-99 Meikle, A. , thrashing-machine,
Maimonlde* ; Jewish wr., d. 1208 Marot, Clement; poet. 1 495-1544 1776
Maitland, capt.; Franco, 1815 I Marr, c;irl of ; trials, 1831 Melanchthon, Philip, 1497-1560 ;
Maitland, sir Fred.; China, 1838 ' Marsh, lip. ; Llandaff, 1816 Augsburg confession
Majendie, bishop ; Chester, 1800 1 Marshall, Mr. ; California, 1847 Mela*, general ; Marengo, i8co
Major ; conchology, 1675 Marshall. T. R ; trials, 1859 Melbourne, vi«count ; Melbourne ;
Malachi prophesies about 397 B c. Martel, Charles; Franco, 714 trials, 1836
Malcolm ; Scotland, kings, clan- 1 Marten, Maria ; trials, 182S Mellon, Miss (afterwards duchess
ships, Alnwick, Dunsiuaue Marth ; planets, 1854 of St A1ban's), first appear
Malobranche, X. ; philos., 1638- Martial; epigrams, h. too ance, 1795
1713 Martin, John ; painter, 1790-1854 Melville, lorn ; impeachment, 1S06
Malhcrbe ; Fr. poet, T556-1628 Martin, Jon. ; fires York minster, Mcmnon said to invent alphabet,
Malibran, madame ; music, 1808-36 1829 1822 B.C.
Malle*., R. ; earthquakes, seismo Martin ; }K)pos. 649, rt ttq. Menander, d. 291 n. c, drama
meter, 1858 Martin, Rd. ; animals, 1822 Mendelssohn, P. Bartholdy, 1EC9
Malmesbury, lord. 6. 1807; Derby Martin, rev. G. ; suicide, 1S60 48
administration*. 1852, 1858 Martyr, Peter, d. 1561 Mendizabal, Spain, 1835
IXDKX. S'21
Mcndoza, Pedro do ; Buenos Mompesson, Giles ; victuallers, 1 Morning Chronicle ; trials, 1810
Ayres, 1530. 1621 Morning Herald ; trials, 1809
Menou, general ; Alexandria, 1800 Monk, general, administrations, Morning Post; libel, 1792
Mensehikoff. prinoe ; Holy Places, 1660, guards, </. 1670 Mornington, lord ; India, 1798
1853 ; Russia, Alma, Kusso- Monk, bishop ; Gloucester, 1830 Morpeth, viscount (now earl of
Turkish war Monmouth, duke of, 1685 ; rebel Carlisle) ; Melbourne adm ,
Ifcreator, Gcr., 15.12-94 ; charts lion, Sedgernoor, iron mask, 1835
Merovajus, Merovingians, France, Bothwell Morris, George ; flowers, 1792
448 Monroe, Mr. ; United States, pre Morris, Mr. ; theatres, 1805
Manner, Frederic Ant. ; mesmer sident, 1817-21 ( Mortira, E. ; Jews, 1858
ism, 1766 Monstreler, Eng. de, hist., d. Mortior, mar. ; Romainville, 1814
Metellus ; Aehaia, 147 b. c. M53 marquess of ; Man, Mortimer, Mortimer, E. A. ; trials, 1859
Metaatasio, Put., poet, 1698-1789 Montacute, carl of March ; Berke
Motius ; telescopes, 1590-1609 J3M-43 ley. 1327
Moton ; goldon number. 432 b.c. Montagu, lord ; administrations, Morton, archbishop ; Canterbury,
Mettcmich, prince, 1773-1859 1660-89 i486
Mats, M. de ; reformatory, 1839 Montagu, lady M. W. ; inocula Morton, regont of Scotland, 1572
>luuxandCo. ; porter tion, 1718 Morton, sir A. ; administrations,
Meyer, Sim<>n ; Saturn, 1608-9-10 Montague, Mrs., d. 1800 ; May 1628
Meyerbeer. J. M., 1794-1864 ; tuns. day Morton, Thomas ; ether, 1846
comp. m Montaigne,
• 92 M. de, essayist, 1533- Morton; trills. 1852
Mezentius ; indiction, 312 Morvson, Kvnes ; forks
Micab prophesies about 750 b.c. Montalembcrt, eomte do ; France Mosely, Wolf, Ac. ; trials, 1819
Michael Augelo Buonarotti, 1474- Mont inus; Montanists, about 171 ; Moses, 1571-1451 b.c.
polyglot, 1559 Moaquora, gen., New Granada,
Michael ; eastern empire Monteuoro, sir Moses ; Jews, 1837 1861
MicUaelis, J..W., bib. critic, 1717-91 Montemoliu,
•860-1 cointe do ; Spain, Moss, bishop; Oxford, 1S07
iliehelet, J., hist., 6. 1798 Mosse, Dr. ; lying-in hospital. 1745
Middlesex, carl of ; administra Montesquieu, 1689-1755 Mothe-Guyon, madame do la ;
tions, 1621 Montcvurde ; opera, 1607 quietists. 1697
Middleton, Con ; 16S3 1750 Montferrat; assassins, 1192 Mountaigne, abp. ; York, 1628
Mi'f'ih ton; N W. pas-age, 1742 Montfort, Simon de ; barons' war. Mount-Sandford, lord, killed ;
Middleton (or Myddelton), sir commons, Kenilworth, stew trial, 1828
Hugh, 1555-1631, New Kivcr ard, lord high, speaker, Lewes, Mournvieff ; Ears, 1855
Middleton, John; giants, 1578 killed at Evesham, 12^5 Meurzouftc ; Constantinople, east
Miecislas; Poland, 962 Montfort, Amauride ; Albigenscs, ern cmpiro, 1204
Miguel, dom. ; Portugal, 1824 1208 Mozart, W. A ; music. 1756-91
Mildmay, sir J. II. ; trials, 1814 Montgolfier, M. ; balloons, 1782 Muirhcad, J. G. ; trials, 1825
Mildmay, sir Walter: administra Montgomeiy, Mr. ; suicide, duel, Mudio, C. ; circulating library,
tions, 1579 1803 1841
Mill, Jas., hh»t, 1776-1836 Montgomery, comtc de ; tourna Mulgrave, earl ; Liverpool adm.,
Millais. J. E , 6. 1829, painter ments, 1559 1812, Ireland, lord-licut.
Miller. Hugh ; geology, suicide, Montholon, couitede; will(Napo- Mullens, J. ; trials, i860
1856 leon's), 1821 MtUler, F. ; execution, 1864
Miller r. Salomons; trials, 1852 Monti, lfctL poet, 1754-1828 Midler, K. Max; 6. 1833, Vedas,
Millie, Mr. ; trials, 1839 Moutpensicr ; France, Spanish Sanskrit, language
Miltiadcs ; Marathon, 490 B.C. marriage, 1846 Mulot, M. ; artesian well, 1841
Milruan, H. 11., b. 1791, hist Montrose, duke of; rittadnt. 1804 Mulready, Wm. ; paintur, 1786 63
Milosch; Servia, 1815 Montrose, marquess of, exocuted, Mummius, L., Corinth, 146 b.c. ;
Mdton, John, 160S 74 ; Paradise 1650 ; Corbiesdalc, Scotland , painting
Lost, Cripplegato, English Allbrd, Philiphaugh Munich, marshal ; Pcrekop, 1736
literature Moore, abp. ; Canterbury, 1783 Munoz, duke ; Spain, 1833
Mini, 't. 1836: Spain, 1835 Mooro ; murdered, trials, 1853 Munro, H. ; Buxar, 1764
Minos; Crete, 1015 B.C. Moore, ©apt. ; Franklin, 1848 Monitor, earl of; suicide, 1842
Minto, carl of; India, gov--gen. Moore ; almanac, 1698-1713 Mun/.er ; levellers, anabaptist*,
1807 Moore, scrjeant; leiises, 1535 1524-5
Miramon, gen. ; Mexico, 1859 Moore, Anno; abstiuenco, 1808 Murat,Joachim, 17C7-1S15 ; Erfurt
Mire**, M. ; Mexico, 1861 Moore, sir Jolin, i\ at Corunua, N;ipk'S
Mister, Josiah ; trials, 1841 1809 Muratori, L. ; hist., 1672-1750
Mitchell, sir F. ; victuallers, 162: Moore, sir Jonas ; Greenwich Murchison, sir Hoilorick I.
Mitchell, I). ; aquarium, 1853 Moore, Thos. ; poet, 1780-1852 1792; geology, Brit Assoc,
Mitchell, a/im. ; Bantry bay, 1801-2 Mordaunt, Charles, viscount ; ad Murdox-h, Mr. ; gas, 1792
Mitchell ; Ireland, 1848 ministrations, 1689 Murilio, B. S., 1613-85 ; painting
Mitford, sir John: att. -general, More, sir Thomas, 14S2-1535 ; ad Murray, Mr. ; penny post, 1683
1800 ; speaker, 1801 ; — W., ministrations, 1529, lord chan Murray, earl of ; Scotland, 1567
hist, of Greece, 1744-1S27 cellor, supremacy Murray, lady Aug. ; marriage act,
Mithrldates the Croat, 131*63 b c. ; Moro, Hannah, 1745-1833 1793
Pontus, comets, electuary, More, Roger ; rebellion, 1651 Murray, B : trials, 1841
massacres, omuns Morean, general, 1763-1813 ; Alos- Murray, bishop ; I)avid*s, St., 1800
Hltra. geu. B., Huenos Ayrcs, sandria. Augsburg, Wttrtcm- Murray, sir James ; Tarragona,
1850. berg, Dresden 1813
Moffat, colonel ; wrecks, 1857 Morelaud, Sam. ; spcaking- Murray, sir Geo. ; Feel adm., 1834
Mohun, lord; duel, 1712 trumpet, 1671 Musa ; Spain, 712
Moir, capt ; trials, 1830 Morelli ; tourniquet, 1674 i Musu'us, rt. 1413 b r.
Moira, earl of; ludia, gov. -gen., Morcton, John, earl of; Ireland, ■ Musgrave, abp. ; Hereford, 1837
1813 1 177 buccaneer. if63 Musgrave, sir Richard ; duel, 1802
Mole", count, d. 1855 Morgan; Mushat, Mr. ; steel, 1800
Molesworth, sir William ; Aber Morgan, colonel ; Lincoln Myddelton, sir Hugh, 1555-1631 ;
deen adm. , 1852 Morgan, confederate general ; U. New Uiver
Moliere, Fr. comic drama , 1622-73 1 States. 1862 Mylne, R. ; 1734-1R11
Molinos, 1627-96; quietists Morland, Geo., 1764-1804 Myron; sculptor, tf. 480 b.c
Molyuoux, Mr. ; absentee, 1738 | Morley, T. ; music, d. 1604 Mytton, general ; Wales, 1645
INDEX.
Nicephori, emperors ; cast, empire, Oersted, H. C, 1777-1851; elec
N. 802-963 tricity, 1819
Ntcephorus ; comets Ogle. George; duel, 1802
Nabis ; Sparta, 206 b.c. Nicholas ; Russia, 1825-55 Oglethorpe, gen. ; Georgia, 1732
Naban:i3.sor, rf. 747 B.C. ; astronomy Nicholas, V., pope, 1447-55 ; St. OGrady, Mr. ; duel, 1803
Nachimoff, admiral ; Sinope, 1853 Peter's, Homo Ogvges ; deluge, 1764 B.C.
Kadur; balloon, 1863 Nichols, col. ; New York, 1664 O'Halloran. Dr. ; trials, 1818
Nadir Shah ; Persia, 1732 ; Delhi, Nicholson ; trials, 1813 O'Keefe; trials, 1825
Afghanistan, C'abul Niebuhr, B. H. ; hist., 1776-1821 Olbers, M. ; planet, 1S02
Nahum prophesies about 713 b.c. Niepce ; photography, 1814 Oldcastle, sir John ; burnt, 1418
Nana Sahib ; Cawnpore, India. Niger, P.; Rome, emp , killed, 194 Oliphant, sir Wm. ; advocate
1857 Nightingale, V.,6. 1820; Scutari, Olivarez governs Spain, 1631-43
Napier of Merchiston ; logarithms: Nightingale Oliver, L. ; trials, 1858
Napier's bones, 1614 Ninus ; Assyria, 2059 B.c. Ollendorff. H. G. ; linguist.. 1803-65
Napier, admiral sir C, Portugal, Nisbct. sir John ; advocates, 1685 OUivant, bp. ; Llandaff. 1849
Sidon, Baltic, 1854 Noad, II. M. ; electricity, 1855 0'Logb.len, sir M. ; Roman catho
Napier, gen. sir C. ; Meeanee, 1843 Noah, 2347 b.c. ; ark, Armenia lics. 1836
Napier, lord ; China ; Edinburgh ; Noailles, marshal ; Dettingen, Omai ; Otaneito
United States, 1856 1743 Omar, caliph, 634 ; Alexandria, Ali
Napier, Mr. ; coin, 1844 Norfolk, Thomas, duke of ; ad Oinar Pacha ; Citate, Montenegro,
Napoleon Jerome ; p. 318 n. ministrations, 1540; 1453
people • Oltenitza, Ingour, Ruaso-
Napoleon Bonaparte, 1760-1821, Norman, sir J. ; mayor, Turki-h war, 1S55
p. 318 ; confederation, legion Norman Robert ; magnet, 1576 Ommaney, capt. ; Franklin, 1S50
of honour, models, notables, Nornianby and Buckingham, duke O'Moore, Rory ; Carlow, 1577
Gary, Egypt, Elba, Fontaine- of ; Godolphin adm. 1702 O'Neil. rettcllion ; massacre, Black-
bleau, Malta, Mamelukes, St. Normanby, marquess of; Ireland water, 1598
Helena, Simplon, vaccination; (lord lieut.) 1835 O'Neil, Miss ; appears at Covent
A1* battles : Acre, Areola, As- North, bishop; Winchester, 1781 Garden, 1814
perno, Auerstadt, Austerlitz, North, lord; North adm. 1770 Opie, John; painter, 1761-1807
Bautzen, Bor.idino, Castig- North, sir F. ; king's counsel, Oppian, poet,Jt. 171
lione, Charleroi, Dresden, 1663 On.slnw, sir R. ; Halifax adm.,
Eck1uUhl, EssUng, Ey1au, Northampton, Henry, earl of ; ad 1714
Friedland, Hanau, Italy, Jena, ministrations, 1609 Orange, William, prince of ; Hol
La R.ithiere, Leipsic, Liguy, Northumberland, Algernon, duke land, Maestricht, revolution,
Lodi, Lutzen, Marengo. Mou- of; Derby administration, 1852 1572 ; England, 16S9
tenau, National guard, Pul- Northumberland, Dudley, duke Orange, priuce of; Quatre-Bras,
tusk, St. Dizier, Simplon, of; administrations, 1551 1 81 5
Tilsit, Troyes, Vienna, Water Northumberland, Hugh, duke of; Orbelliaua ; Circassia, 1857
loo, Wuvtzburg Ireland (lord-lieut.), 1763 Orellana ; Amazonia, 1540
Napoleon, king of Rome ; p. 319 Northumberland, earl of ; coaches, Orestes ; Myctmu, Sparta, 1175
Napoleon III., b. 180S ; p. 318; Man B.C.
Boulogne. Strasburg, Cher Norton, sir Fletcher ; att-gen., Orfila, M, J. ; physic, 1703-1853
bourg. Italy,Magenta,Solfcrino 1763 Orford. carl of; admiralty, 1709
Narses ; East, empire, 552 : Goths, Norton, Jeffrey de ; recorder, xaoS Orloff. count ; diamonds, 1773
Italy, Itome Norton v. lord Melbourne ; trials, Orruond, James, duke of ; Ireland,
Narvaoz, gen. ; Spain, 1846 1836 P 399earl of; combat, 1446
N >sh, Mr. ; theatres, parks, 1818 Nostradamus ; almanacs, 1566 Ormond,
Nasmyth, J. ; steam h-iramcr, 1838 Nott, gen. ; Ghiznec, 1842 Ormond, mani. of ; Rathmines,
Nasruyth. licut ; Silistria, 1854 Nottingham, earl of ; administra 1649
Nasr ul-L)in. ; Persia, 1848 tions, 1684 Orr, Win. ; trials, 1797
Nearchus ; sugar, 325 B.C. Numa Pompilius ; Rome, kings, Orrery, earl of ; Orrery
Nebuchadnezzar; Jews, 605 B.C., 715 b.c. ; calendar Ortega, gen. ; Spain, i860
Tyre, Babylon Numitor ; Alba, 795 b.c. Osliorn, Shcranl ; Franklin, 1S54
Necho ; Egypt, 634 B.C. Nunez, A. ; Paraguay, 1535 Osborne, sir Thos. ; administra
Neil, col. ; India, 1857. Allahabad, tions, 1673
Benares Oscar; Sweden, 1844
Neilsou, J. ; 1792-1865 ; blowing- Osgodeby, Adam de ; master of
machine, 1828 the rolls, 1295
Nelson. Horat. ; admiral lord, Oaklcv, sir Charles ; Madras, 1792 Ospina ; New Grenada, 1857
1758-1805 ; Nelson Oaten, T. ; Oatcs' plot, 1678 Ossory, lord ; tea, 1666
Nero ; Rome, emperor, 54 Obadiah prophesies ■boat 587 B.c. Osyniandyas; Egypt, 2100 B.C ;
No^selrode, comto de, 1770-1862 O'Brien, king; Limerick, 1200 observatories, painting
Newcastle, marquess of ; Marston- O'Brien. W. S. ; Ireland, 1846, 1848 Othman ; Turkey, 1298
moor, 1644 O'ConncIl, Mr. Daniel, 1775-1847 ; Otho ; Rome, emp., 69; Germany,
Newcastle, duke of ; Pelham adm. duel, 1815; agitators, duel, 936 ; Greece, 1832-62
1749; Newcastle adm. 1754; emancipation, repeal, trials Otto, M ; Amiens, 1S02
Aberdeen adm. 1852 (1831, 1844), Ireland Ottocar; Bohemia, 1197
Newcnham, W. B. ; trials, 184,1 O'Connell, Mr. Morgan; duel, 1835 Oudinot, marshal; Rome, 1849
Newman, rev. J., and A chilli ; O'Connor, Arthur ; press, riots, Outram, sir James; 180563; Mo-
trials, 1852 ; Tractarians trials, 1798 bammerah, India, 1857
Newport, sir John ; exchequer, O'Connor, Fergus, ft. 1855 : char Overbury, sir T., poisoned, 1613
tists Ovid ; poet, >i. 18
Newton, sir Isaac, 1642-1727 ; air ; O'Connor. Roger; trials, 1817 Owen, W D. ; trials, 1858
binomial ; coin ; diamond : Ochus ; Persia, 359 B.C. Owen, Robert ; socialists, 18^4
astronomy ; royal society ; Octavius ; Rome, 37 b.c. Owen, Richard, b. 1804; odonto
hydrostatics ; gravitation ; Odin; Sweden, 70 B.C. graphy, palaeontology, zoology
mechanics Odo, earl of Kent ; treasurer Oxciidon, sir George ; Sural. 1664
Ney, marshal, 1769-1815; Den- Odo, abp. ; Canterbury, 941-58 Oxford, Edward; trials, 1840
ncwitz. France, Quatre-Bras, Odoacer; Italy, 476, Hcruli Oxford, earl of ; Godolphin adm.,
Ulm, Ncy O'Donnell, gen.; Spain, 1841 1702 ; Oxford adm.
Neylo, arehp. ; York, 163a OZdipus ; Bcaotia, 1266-76 B.C. Oxford, John, earl or ;
Niccoli, Nicholas; libraries, 1436 GSnotrus; Arcadia,Groece, 1710 b.c 1486
INDEX. S-J3
Paull, Mr. ; duel, 1807 Peter the Hermit ; crusades, 1094
P. Paululio, Anafesto ; doge, 697 Petora, C H. ; planets, 1862
Paulus /Emilius ; Cannue, 216 B.C. Potion; Port-au-Prince, 1806
Paciolo ; algebra, 1494 Paulus, Marcus ; compass, 1260 Peto, 8 M., 1809 ; diorama, 1855
Paddon, bout. ; tattes Cerbere, Paulus; Abrahamites Petrarch, 13^4-74 ; Petrarch, son
1800 Pausanias; Sparta, 480 B.C. ; Pla nets
Paget, lord; duel, trials, 1809 te*, Macedon, 336 B.c. Potre, sirWm. ; administrns, 1547
Paget, lord Win,, v. Cardigan, Pausias, of Bicyon, 360-330 B.C. ; Petmnius ; Ethiopia, 22 b.c.
trials, 1844 painting Pctronius Arbiter, </. 66
Paget, sir A. ; trials, 1808 Paxton, air Joseph; 1S03-65 ; ex Pettigrow, T. ; epitiphs, 1857
Paget, sir William ; adminiatra- hibition of 1851 , crystal Petty, lord H. ; Greiiville adm.,
tiona, 1547 palace 1807
Paine, Thomas ; trials, 1792 Payne, Mr. 0. : duel, 18:0 Potty. Wm. ; Royal Society, 1660
Pukington, sir John ; admiralty, Peabody, G., 6. 1795 ; London, 1862 Pezet, J. A. ; Peru, 1863-5
1858 Peace, the prince of; Spain. 1806 Phalaris; brazen bull, 599 b.c.
Palafox, gen. ; Saragossa, 1809 Pearce, Ac. : gold robber}*, 1857 Pharanvwid ; France, 418?
Palamedes ; alphabet, backgam Peckham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1279 Pharaohs ; Egypt, 1899 b c.
mon, battle, dice, chess, 680 Pedro (Peter); Portugal, Brazil, Pharnacus ; Pontus, Cappadocia,
B.C. 1822 744 B.C.
Palestrina; 1529-94, music Peel, captain air F. ; India, 1858 Phaidrus writes fables. 8
Palladia, A. ; architect, 1518-80 Peel, col. ; West Australia, 1828 Pbetdon, JL 869 b.u ; coinage,
Palliser, sir Hugh ; Ushant. 1778 Peol, sir Robert ; 178-81855 ; Peel silver, scales, weights
Palm, the bookseller; trials, 1806 adm. note), 1834-1841 ; acts Phelps, Mr. ; theatres, Sadler's
Pahna, cardin >1, shot ; Rome, 1848 of parliament, conservative, Wolls. 1844
Palmer. J. ; mail coaches, 1784 com bill, duel, 1815 ; income- Phcpoe, Mrs. ; trials, 1797
Palmer; duel, 1815; trials, 1856 tax, tariff Phiuius, .rt. 438 b.c, statues
Palmerston. Henry, vise. ; 1784- Peele, James ; book-keeping, 1569 Philip, *D. ; France, Macedon,
1865 ; Palmerston Pelham, H. ; Wilmington adm. Spain, Hesse, Orleans, 1640
Panizzi, A. ; British Museum, 1859 1742 ; Pelham adm., 1744 Philip, St.Neri; oratorios, 1550
Panmure, lord ; Russell adm.t Pelham, bp. ; Bristol, 1807; Nor Philip the Good ; Burgundy, Hol
1851 wich, 1857 land, 1419-67
Paoli. Pascal ; Corsica, 1753 Pelham, sir W. ; engineer*, 1622 Philip 1 ho Great, killed 336 b.c. ;
Papaohin, adm. ; flog, 16S8 Polissier, due de Malakhoff; 1784- Macedon, /Etolia, ChajrouR'a,
Papin ; steam-engine, 16S1 1854; Algiers, Dahra Locri, 338 b.c.
Papineau ; Canada, 1837 Pelletior ; quinine, 1820 Philip II. ; Spain, 1556
Papirius Cursor ; sun-dial, 293 B.C. Pcllew, air Ed.; naval battlos,i795 Philippa, queen (Edward. III.);
Paracelsus; d. 1541; alchemy Polouze, F. J., b. 1807, formic acid Durham, 1346
Parini, Guis. ; poet, 1729 99 Peltier, M. ; libel, trials, 1803 Philipps, T. ; Newport, 1839
Paris, count of; 6. 1838; Orleans Penibcrton, sir Francis ; king's Phillip, gov. ; Australia, 1788
Park, Mungo ; rf. 1805 ; Africa bench, 1681 Phillips, J. T., Brit. Assoc. 1831 ;
Parker, adm. ; Copenhagen, 180: Pembroke, earl of ; Godolphin firo annihilator, 1849
Parker, abp. Matthew ; Canter adm. 1702; lord lieutenant; Phllopcemcn ; Achaia, 194 b.c.
bury, 1558 ; liturgy, Nag's Lincoln ; protectorates ; Salis Philpott, bp. ; Worcester, 1861
Head bury ; admiralty Phippa, capt. ; north-west passage,
Parker (mutineer) ; trials, 1797 Pcngelly, W. ; man 1773
Partier, capt. ; Boulogne Pcnn, admiral ; Jamaica, 1655 Phocaa ; oast, cmp., 602
Parker, sir Pctor ; Bcllair, 1814 Penn, Wm. ; </. 1718 ; Pennsylva Phocion ; killed, 317 B.C.
Parker, Thomas, lord ; chancollor, nia, Quaker Phoroneus ; Argos (1807 B.C.), sa
lord, 1718 Penny, captain ; Franklin, 1850 crifice, laws
Parkes, consul; China, :86o Pi'pe, gon. F. ; Naples, 1820 Photius Gallus; rhetoric. 87 B.C.
Parma, du^e of; Yvres. 159a. Pepin ; France, 752 ; Fcrrara Piastus ; Poland, 842
Parma, prince of; Antwerp, 1585 Pepys, bp. ; Worcester, 1841 Piazzi, M. ; planet, 1801
Pai-menio ; Macedonia, 329 B.C. Perceval, Spencer; m. 1813 ; Per Pichegru ; Manheim ; killed, 1805
Parnell, sir Henry ; Melbourne ceval Pickard, airU. ; lord mayor, 1357
adm. 1835 Percy (Hotspur); Otterburn, 1388 Picton, gen. triala, 1806; Quatro-
Parr, Thomas ; 1483-1635 ; longe Percy, lord ; Durham, 1346 ; Ho- Bras, Waterloo, 1815
vity melden Pierco; United States, president,
Parrha-ins ; painting, Jl. 397 B.C. Perdiccas ; Macedon, 454 b.c. 185?
Parry. E. ; north-west passage, Perdita, Mrs. Robinson ; theatres, Piers, abp. : York, 1589
1818 bp. : Peterborough, 1813 1779 Pigot, David Richard ; exchequer,
Parsons, Pcreire, M. ; cre*dit mobilier, 1852 1846
Parsons family ; Cock-lane ghost, Pereyra ; Uruguay, 1856 Pigot, Id. ; India, Pi^ot diamond,
impostors, 1762 Pericles; Athens, 469 b.c. 1802
Pascal, B. ; 1623-62 ; air, calcu Perillus ; brazen bull, 570 B.C. Pigot, major-gen. ; Malti, 1800
lating machine, barometers Perkin Warbeck : Warbeck, 1492 Pike, Miss; Cork, trials, 1800
Paskiewitch ; Silistria, 1854 Perkin, W. H. ; aniline, 1857 Pilkington. bishop; liturgy
Pasteur, M. ; formcntation, 1861 Perkins ; engraving; copper-plate Pilpay ; fables
Patch, Mr. ; trials, 1806 printing, 1819 Pindar, 522-439 b.c—Peter (Dr.
Pate, lieut. ; trials, 1850 PcrreauB ; forgory ; triala, 1776 Wolcot); trials, 1807
Paterculus ; d. 31 Perreira : deaf and dumb Pinol, M. ; lunitica, 1792
Patorson, W. ; bank, 1694 ; Darlen Perring, John ; mayor, 1803 Pinzon : America S., 1500, Peru,
Paton, Miss; at llaymarket, 1822 Perry, Mr. ; trials, 1810 if63
Patrick, St. ; preaches, 433, Ar- | Perry, lieut. ; trials, 1854 Pisander; naval battles, 394 b.c.
dagh, Armagh, Dublin, isles, Persona ; Pydna, 168 B.C. Pisistratua ; Athens, 527 B.C.
shamrock Persigny, J. G., 6. 1808 France, Pitman, I. ; phonography, 1837
Paul, St ; martyred, 65 ; popos i860 Pitt; diamond, 1720
P tul ; 820 Sarpi Persius, 34-65 : satires Pitt, Wm. ; aee Chatham, tarl
Paul I ; Russia, 1796 Pcrugino, Piiolo, 1446-1524 Pitt, Wm. ; 1759-1806; Pitt admi
Paul II. ; |>ope, 1464; purple Peter tho Cruel ; Montfcl, 1369 nistration, 1783; India com
Paul, sir J., &c. ; trials, 1855; Potor the Great ; 1672-1725; Russia, pany, E., reform, duel, 1798
fraudulent trustees Deptford, Petersburg, Narva, Pius ; popes, 142 tt req.
Paulinus ; bells, 400 Pultowa Pius IV. ; confession, 1504
S'Jl INDEX.
Pius VII. ; concordat, 1801 Pretender, old, 16S8-1765 ; young, Radnor, earl of ; administrations,
Pius IX. ; pope, 1846; papal ag 1720-88; Pretender, Falkirk, 1684
gression, conception Pretttonpans, Culloden Rao. Ur. ; Franklin, 1848
Pizarro ; America, 1524 Pretsch, P.; photo galvanography, Raglan, lord ; Russo-Turkish war,
Plato, 439-347 B.C. ; academics, '854 1857
anatomy, &nti|K>des, names, Prevost, sir George ; Plattsburg, Ragotski ; Transylvania
Sicily 1814 Raikes, Mr., 1781 ; Sunday-schools,
Platt-M, John ; executions, 1847 Priam ; Ilium, Troy, 1224 B.C. education, infanticide
Plautus, b. 184 B.C. ; drama Price, Mr. ; duel, 1816; alchemy Raleigh, Mr Walter, 1552-161S :
Pliny, the elder, 24-79 ■ pearls, Price, adm. ; Petropaulovski, 1854 dress, FennsyIvania/Trinidad,
Vesuvius ; the younger, <i. too Prichard, Dr. ; ethnology, 1841-7 Virginia, England
Plumer, sir Thomas ; att.-gen., Priossnits, V. ; hydropathy, 1828 Ramirez II. ; Semincus, b.c. 938
1812 Pricstlev.Joseph, 1733-1804 ; earth Hameses ; Egypt. 161 8
Plummer, Eugenia; trials, i860 quakes, eudiometer, nitrous Ramsay, David ; conibat, 1631
Plunket, lord; lord chancellor gas, oxygen, fluorine Ramsay, sir George ; duel, 1790
(Ireland), 1830 Prido, col. ; Pride's purge, 1648 Ranee* ; Trappist, 1662
Plutarch, rt. 80 ; biography Prim, gen. Juan, 6. 1814; Cartel- Randolph. T. ; post-office, 1581
Pocock, admiral ; Cuba, 1763 lejos, Guad-el-ras, i860, Spain Riuidolph, bp. ; Bangor, London,
Poerio, C ; Naples 1850-59-60 Prior, M. ; poet ; 1664-1721 1800
Pogson, N. ; planets, 1856 Prince, H. J. ; agapemouians Raphael, 1483-1520: cartoons
Poicticrs, Roger de ; "Liverpool, Priscillian ; gnostics, 384 Raphael, Alex. ; Roman Catholics,
1089 Pritehard. Dr. E. W. ; trials, exe
Poiteviu, M. ; balloons, 1853-58 cution, 1865 Raroy,3J. 8. ; horse, 1858
Pole, Wcllesloy ; mint ; trials, Probcrt ; trials, 1824 Ratazzi. U.t 6. 1808; Italy, 1862
1825 Probus, Rome, erap. 276 ; massacre Rauch, C. ; sculptor, 1777-1857
Pole, abp, ; Canterbury, 1556 Proclcs ; biarch, 110a B.C. Rivaillac kills Henry IV.. 1610
Poligoac, prince dc ; Franco ; 1830 Properthis ; ]>oet, 26 B.C. Rawdon, lord ; Camden, 1781
Pvlk. Jas ; United States, presi Proudhon, P. de. ; socialist, 1809- Rawliuson.col. sir H., b. 1810 ; As.
dent, 1845 65 syria, Babylon, Behistun, 1844
Pollio, C. ; slavery, 42 B.C. Prynue, W. ; lawyer, 1600-70 Ray, John, 162S-1705
Pollock, gen. G. ; India, 184a Psammetichus, 650 b.c. ; Egypt, Raybere ; Bartholeniew's, noo
Pollock, sir Frederick ; attorney- labyrinth, languages, sieges Raymond, lord ; attorney-general,
general, exchequer, 1834-1844 Pseusennes, 971 b.c. ; Egypt 1725 ; king's bench
Polo, Marco, writes al>out 1298 : Ptolemy (astronomer), d. 161 Reaumur, d. 1757 ; light
Polybius, 207-122 B.C. ; signals, 1 Ptoiemy ; Egypt, Bible, Septua- Reay, Miss, killed; trials, 1779
telegraphs. Acbaia, physic gint, Iperns, pharos, arithme Reay, lord; combat, 1631
Polycarp martyred, 166 tic, academies Rel>occaites ; trials, 1843
Poiydortis : Laocoon rtolemy, Epiphanos, 205 b,c. ; Redanies, D. ; execution. 1857
Poniare ; Otaheite, 1799 Egypt, Rosetta Rede*dale, lord; att.-gen., 1800
Pomppy, killed 48 dc; Rome, Puckering, sir John ; chancellor, Redputh, L ; trials, 1857
Spain, Pharsulia lord high, 1592 Rcece, R. ; bogs, 1849
Pond, J. ; Greenwich, 181 1 Pugin, A. W., 181 1-52, decorat.art Reed. Andrew, 1787-1862 ; orjshan,
Pontius, C. ; Claudine forks, 321 Pullen, capt~ ; Franklin, 1852 idiots, incurables
B.C. Pulteney, Mr. ; Halifax adm. ,1714 Reeves. Mr. John ; levellers, 1792
Poo!e, A. ; auricular confession, Pulteney sir James ; Ferrol, 1800 Regnier. gen. ; Kaliiscb, Maida,
1858 PurceU, Henry; music, 1658-95 Ximera, 1811
Pope, Alex., 1688-1744; alexan Purchas, Sam. ; 1577-1628 250 B.U. ; Carthage
drine verse,satiro,Hoincr,i7i4 Purdon, col, ; Ashontees, 1826 '., and Richter, T., in
Pope. gen. J. ; Manassas, United Purefoy ; duel, 1788 ; trials, 1794 dium, 1863
States, 1862 Pusey. Dr. K, b. i860; Puseyism Reichenbach, C. : b. 1788 ; paraf-
Pophani,sir Home ; Buenos Ayres, Pye, Hen. J. ; poet-laureate, 1790 fine, 1831 ; odyl
Cape, trulls, 1807 Pym, J. ; politician, d. 1643 RcicBenstcin : tellurium, 1783
Poppaja (wife of Nero); masks Pyrrho ; sceptics, 334 b.c. Rcichstadt.duke de ; France, p. 319
Porsenna ; labyrinth, 520 b.c. Pyrrbus, 281 b.c; Mocedon, Epi- Reid. gen. ; India, 1857
Porson, prof., 1759-1808; writing rus, Torentum. Ascutum Reinbauer ; trials, 1S29
Porter, sir Charles ; Limerick Pythagoras,^. 555 b.c. ; acoustics, Rembrandt ; painter, 1606-74
Portcus, bp. ; London, 1787 astronomy,Copernicus, Egypt, Rumigius do Pescamp; Lincoln,
Portland, duke of, Portland adm., the globe, harmonic strings, 10S6
1783 ; Ireland (lord lieute ahoes, solar system, spheres Remy, St. ; Rheims
nant ; Junius Renata, Maria ; witchcraft, 1749
Portman, sir Wni. ; king's bench, Renaudot, M. ; newspapers, 1631
1554 Rcunie, J. (1761-1821), and sir J. ;
Portsmouth, earl of ; trials, 1823 breakwater, 1812 ; Waterloo-
Posidonius (?. 86 b.c ; atmosphere, Quokett, prof. ; histology, 1857 bridge. London -bridge
moon, tides, air yucntin, col. ; duel, 1815; trials, Rescind, Pacha; Turkey, 1853
Potamon ; eclectics, about 1 1814 Iteuehlin, J., reformer, d. 1522
Potter, abp. ; Canterbury, 1737 Quevedo, Span, writer, 1570-1647 Reuss ; engraving
Pottinger, sir II. ; China, 1841 Quintilia ; Qnintilians Raynero, Richard ; sheriff, 1189
Pouchot, M. ; spout, generation, Quint in ; libertines, 525 Reynolds, sir Joshua ; royal
1859 Quintus Fabius, 291 b.c. ; painting academy, 1768
Poussin, N., painter, 1594-1665 Quiros; New Hebrides, 1606 Reynolds, sir Joshua. 1723-92
Powell, Langharne, and Poyer, Reynolds, abp. ; Canterbury, 1313
colonels ; Wales, 1647 Reynolds, capt ; trials, 1840
Power, Mr. ; wrecks, 1841 Reynolds, George ; duel, 1768
Power.Mrs., Marv ; longevity, 1853 Riall, gen. ; Chippawa, 1814
Powys, bishop; Man. 1854 Rabelais, F., satirist, 14S3-1553 Ricasoli B., b. abt. 1803; Italy, 1861
Poyer, colonel ; Wales, 1647 Rachel, mademoiselle, d. 1858 Rice, Spring (lord Muutcagle) ;
Praalin murder, 1847 Racine, J. ; dramat, 1639-99 administrations, 1834
Praxiteles, ft. 363 B.c. ; mirrors Radcliffe, Dr. John; Radcliffe Rich, Richard, lord;
Premislaus ; Poland, 1205 library, 1737 lord, 1547
Prescott, Wm. ; 1796-1859 Radctzky, marshal, d. 185S ; Aus Richard I., Eng'jland, xi 89; Acre,
Preaton, lord; conspiracy, 1691 tria, Novara, Italy, 1848 Cceur de Lion, Dicu
INDEX. 826
et mon droit, laws, Oleron, Rooke, sir Goorgo ; Gibraltar, Sadler, Mr. ; Sadler's Wells, 1683
navigation laws 1704; snuff, Alderney, Cadiz, Sadler, air Ralph; administrations,
Bichiird III., 1485 ; Bosworth Cape la Hogue, Cape St.
Richardson, sir John ; naturalist, Vincent, Vigo Safford, Mr. ; planets, 1862
1783-1865, Franklin Roper, colonel; duel, 1788 Sagarelli ; Apostolici, 300
Richardson, II., 1852 ; life-boat ; Rosas; Buenos Ayres, 1852 St. Arnaud, marshal ; Russo-
Sara., 1689-1761 Roscoe, W., hist., 1753-1831 Turkish war, Alma, 1 854
Richelieu, duke of ; Closterseven, Rose, sir Hugh ; India, 1858 St. Charo ; concordance, 1247
x757 Rosebcrry, countess of ; trials, 1814 St. Cyr, marshal ; Dresden, 1813
Richmond, duke of ; Rockingham Roscncrans, gen., Unit. S., 1862 St. George, Mr. ; trials, 1798
administration, 1782, &c. ; Ross, sir J. ; Franklin, north-west St. John, John de; treasurer, 1217
Ireland, duel passage, 1848 St. John Long; quack, 1830
Richter, J. Paul, Gcr. novel., 1763- Ross, colonel; duelling, 1817 St. John, Henry, afterwards lord
1825 Ross, gen. ; Baltimore, Washing Bolingbroke ; Oxford admi
Ridel, Stephen, n89 ; chancellor, ton, 1814 nistration, 171 1
lord, Ireland Rosse, earl of; telescopes, 1828; St. John, O. ; benevolences, 1615
Rider, William ; silk hose Royal Society, 1848 St. John, William ; chancellor, lord
Ridley, bp., burnt, 1554 Rosser, Mr. , and Hiss Darbon ; nigh, 1547
Riego put to death, 1823; Spain trials, 1841 St. Leonards, lord ; chancellor,
Hienzi, N., tn. 1354; tribune, Itomo Rossi, count, nu 1848; Rome lord high, 1852
Riguet, M. ; tunnels Rossini, G., mus. comp., 6, 1792 St. Mars, M. de ; iron mask
Rinuccini, Octavio, b. 1621 ; opera Bostopchin ; Moscow, 1812 St. Ruth, general ; Aughrim, 1691
ltipon, earl of ; Goderich admi I Rothcsav ; duko St. Vincent, earl; admiralty, 1801 ;
nistration, 1827 1 Rothschild, Anselm (the first), Cape St. Vincent
Rivers, earl, m. 1483 ; Pomfret d. 1812 Saladin, 1 136- 1 193; Ascalon, Da
Rizzio, David, m. 1566; Scotland, Rothschild, baron ; Jews. 1849 mascus, Egypt, Syria, Aleppo
France. Naples Roubiliac, sculptor, d. 1762 Sale, lady; Cabut, India, 1842
Robert, duko of Normandy ; Roupell, W., M.P. ; trials, 1862 Sale, sir Robert; Moodkee, 1845
Tinchebray, 1106 Rousseau, J. J„ j>hilos., 1712-1778 Salisbury, bishop of ; assay
Robert 11. ; pilgrimages, 1060 Rowan, A. H. ; trials, 1794, 1805 Salisbury, marquess of ; Derby
Roberts, D., R.A., d. 1864 Rowe, Nicholas ; poet-laureate, d. administrations, 1852, 1858
Robertson, capt. ; trials, 1862 1715 Salisbury, Robert, earl of ; admi
Robertson, Dr. Win., hist , 1721-93 Rowley, admiral J. ; Bourbon, nistrations, 1603
Robespierre, F. 31. ; reign of 1810 Salisbury, countess of ; garter
terror. Franco, 1793-4 Rnxana ; Maccdon, 311 B.C. Salisbury, earl of, 1604 ; coronets,
Robin Hood ; robbers, archery, Roxburgh, duko of, 1812; Boc Orleans
1x89 caccio Salkeld; Delhi, 1857
Robinson, F. ; Goderich, note Rozior, M. ; balloons, 1783 Sallo, Denis de ; critics, reviews,
Robinson, James; ether, 1848 Rubens, P. P., painter, 1577 1640 1655
Robinson, R., 1735-90; indepen Rudbeck, 01., thoracic duct Sallust, d. 34 b.c. ; Mauritania,
dents Rudolph ; Austria, Germany Catilino
Robinson, sir Thomas ; Newcastle Ruhmkorff's induction coil, 1S51 Salomons, D. ; Jews, 1835 ; mayor
administration, 1754 Runjeet Singh ; Afghanistan, 1818; ^alt, Titus; alpaca, 1852
Robinson, of York, murdered ; diamonds SaWator Rosa, painter, 1615-1673
trials, 1853 Rupert.prince, 1619-82 ; engraving, I Salvino . degli Armato ; spec
Robson, W. ; trials, 1856 Birmingham, Edgehill, M.*r- tacles
Rochambeau ; Yorktown, 1781 ston-moor, Naseby, Newark I Salviati, Dr., mosaic, 1861
Rochefoucauld, F. De la, philos., Ruric ; Russia, 862 ! Salvius Julianus ; edicts, 132
1613-80 Rush, Bloomneld, the murderer; i Samuel rules Israel, 1140 B.C.
Rochester, earl of ; administra trials, 1849 ' Sanballat; Samaritan, 332 b.c.
tions, 1679 Ruskin, John, art critic, 6. 1819 Sancho, king ; Portugal, Spain,
Rockingham, marq. of; Rocking Russell, C. ; suicide, 1856 970
ham administrations, 1765 Russell, colonel ; guards, 166b Sancroft, abp. Canterbury, 1678 ;
Roderick ; Spain, 709 ; Wales, 843 Russell, adra. Edw. ; La Ilufue, bishops, England
Rodney, G. ; Eustatia, 1781 16132 Smders, will-forger; trials, 1844
Bodolph of Hapsburg; Austria, Russell, J. Scott. 6. 1808; fires, Sandwich, earl of; admiiiistra-
1278 steam-navigation, wave tions, 1660 ; naval battles,
Rodolph of Nuremberg ; Wire, Russell, lord John, 6. 1792 ; Rus Sulebay, Aix-la-Chapelle
1410 sell administration, w4e, Aber Sandys ; administrations, 1742, 1767
Roebuck, J.; duel, 1835; Sebaa- deen ; reform Sandys, abp. E. ; York, 1577
topol Russell, lord W., m. ; trials, 1840 S;ipor : Persia, 240
Roger; Sicily, Naples, 1130 Russell, W. n. ; limes, 1854, 1857, Sappho; writes 611 b.c. ; Sapphic
Royers, John, burnt, 1555 1861 Sardanapalus ; Assyria, 820 b.u.
Rogers, Sim., poet, 1763-1855 Ruthven, Mr. ; duel, 1836 Sarpi, Paul, 1552-1622; thormo-
Roggewein ; circumnavigator, Eas Rutland, duko of; Ireland (lord meter, blood
ter Island, 1722 lieutenant), 1784 Saul, Jews, 1096 b.c. ; Ammonites
Roh iii, card. ; diamond neckL, Ruyter; see De Kuyter Saumarez, sir James ; Algesiras,
17S6 Ryder, bp. ; Gloucester, 1815 1801
Rollin, Chas , hist, 1661-1741 Ryder, sir Dudley ; king's l>ench, Saunders; trials, 1853
Romain, M. ; balloons, it. 1785 1754 Saunders, com. ; Franklin, 1849
Romilly, sir Samuel ; criminal law, Saunders, sir Charles : Chatham
suicide, 1818 administration, 1766
Romilly, sir J. : solicitor-general, Saussure, d. 1799; hygrometer
master of the rolls, 1851 Sabatta, Levi; 1666 Savage, John ; Babington's con
Romnoy, Geo., painter, 1734-1802 Sabine, gen. Edw. ; Royal Society, spiracy, 1586
Romulus; Rome, 753 B.C. ; ca 1861 ; magnetism j Savage, abp. ; York, 1501
lendar, Alba, aruspices Sachevercl, Dr. ; high church i Savage, R., poet, 1700-43
Romulus Augustulus ; western party, 1709 Savage, W. ; printing in colours,
empire, 475 Sackville, lord George ; Minden, 1819-22
Ronalds, F. ; olectric telegraph, J759 S-1vary ; trials, 1825
1823 Sadloir, J.; suicide, 1856: Dr. 11858 Savary, capt. ; steam-engine, 1698
Rouge, J. ; kinder-garten, 1851 Sadler, Mr. ; balloons, 1812 Savonarola, Jerome ; burnt, 149S
INDEX.
Seward, J. ; triAls, 1857 ! Sergius ; popes, nativity, 690 ; pu Sitnncl, Lambert ; conspiracies,
Sawtre, sir William ; burning rification, Koran rebellion, 1846; Stoke
ulivo, 1401 ; Lollards Serttlrner, morphia, 1803 Simon Magus ; Adrianists, Simo-
Saxe, count ; Fontenoy, 1745 Servetus, Michael, burnt, 1553 ; nians, 41
&iye ud Sele, loid administra Unitarians, Arians, blood Simonides ; letters, mnemonics,
tions, 1660 Servius Tullius ; coins, census, 477 ■ O.
8aye. lord, beheaded 1450; Cade 566 RC. Simplicius, St. ; collar of SS., 1407
Bayers. T ; boxing, 1 J6o Scsostris ; Egypt, 1618 B.c. Simpson, Dr. ; chloroform, 1848
Scanderbeg ; Albania, 1443 Betella ; burning-glasses Simpson, the traveller; suicide,
fVanUn, Mr.; trials, 1S20 Noverus, Rome, emp. 193 ; Britain, 1840
K?hamyi ; Circassia, 1859 Roman walls, Memphis, 202 Sindercomb ; conspiracy, 1756
Schecle, 1742-86: nitrogen,oxygen, Scxtus Pompetus ; Myhw, 36 b.c. Singh, Runjoor; Aliwal, 1846
prussic acid.tartaric acid, pho Seymour, sir Edw. ; speaker, 1678 Sismondi, (5., hist., 1773-1843
tography, glycerine, chlorine j Seymour, sir M. ; China, 1856 Sisyphus ; Corinth, 1326 R.C.
cbeflfer, Ary, painter, 1795-1858 Seymour v. Butterwortb ; trials, Sixtus ; popes, 119
Schoiblcr, M. ; tonometer, 1834 1862 Sixtus V., pope; interdict, 158S
Seheiner, Chr. ; heliometor, 1025 Seymour, Edward, duke of Somer Skrxnecki, gen. ; Praga, Wawf,
Scheutr. : calculating - inacluno, set ; administrations, 1547 ; i»3i
1857 protector*, admiralty Slidell, Mr.: United States, i86t
Schiaparelll : planets, i36i Seymour, lord: duel, 1835 Sligrt, marquess of ; trials, 1612
Sehilders, general ; Sili*tria, 1654 Sej'mour, lady ; tournament, 1839 Sloane, sir Hans, 1660-1727; apo
Schiller, P , poet, &c, 1759 1845 Shadwell, Thomas; poet-laureate, thecary, Jesuits bark, British
&cliiniiuttli>cnninck; Holland, 1S05 d. 1692 Museum, Chelsea
SchlcgeL W. ; 1767-1836;—F., 1772- Shaftesbury, earl of; administra j Sloanes ; trials, 1851
1829 tions, 1672 (present earl, 0. 1 Smart, A. ; suicide, 1856
Schmidt ; organ*, 1683 1 801) Smart; chimneys, 1805
Schtuffer, PetcT ; printing, 1452 Shakspearo, W.. 1564-1616; Shak- Smeaton, Mr. ; Eddystone, canal,
Schoulein, M. ; gun-cotton, 1840, FI«tare, drama, mulberry-tree '759 sir John ; Wigan, 1643
ozono Shalmaneser ; Assyria, 730 b.c. Smeaton,
Scbombcrg, capt. ; naval battles, Sharp, A. ; circle 1 squared*, 1717 Sniethurst, T. ; trills. 1859
1811 Sharp, archpb. ; Scotland, 1679 Smirko, R. ; post-office, 1825
Schomborg, duke of; Boync, Ire Sharp, Granville; shivery, 1772 Smirke, S. ; Bethlehem, British
land, Londonderry, Carrick- i Shaw, sir James ; mayor, 1805 Museum
fcrgus, 1689 ! Shaw, sir John ; Greenock Smith, sir Harry ; India, Aliwal,
Behomimrgk, sirR.; Victoria regia, 3hcares, the Messrs. ; trials, 1798 Kaftan ia, 1850
1838 Shedden v. Patri- k ; trials, i860 Smith, Joseph ; savings* banks,
ficbrCedcr; piano forte. 1717 Sheepshanks, R. ; astronomy, Morra< nitea, 1823
Schrotter; phosphorus, 1S45 standard. 1855 ; Sbeepahanks' Smith, Madeleine; trials. 1857
Bchwaun ; cell theory, 1839 donations, 1858 Smith, Thomas : lord mayor. 1809
Schwarta, C. (missionary/, d. 1798 Shell, It. L. ; mint, 1846 Smith, Miss, **. carl Ferrers ; trials,
Svhwartz, M. ; gunpowder, 1320 Sbclburnc, earl of ; Shelbume ad 1846
bchwartzonbeTg, prince of ; Dres ministration, 1782 ; duel, 1780 Smith, Adam ; 1723-90, political
den, 1813 Sheldon, abp. ; Canterbury, 1663 economy, 1776
Schwcrin, marshal; Prague, 1757 I Sheldon, William ; tapestry Smith, sir J. V. (botanist), 1759-
Bcipio Africanus ; honour, .Su- Shelley, Percy B., poet, 1792-1822 1823
niantia, Rom**, Zama, 202 d c. SUeppard, Jack ; execution, 1724 Smith, capt. ; duel, trials, 1830
Scott, G. Gilbert ; architect, 6. Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 1751- Smith, Dr. R. Angus; air, 1858
1811 1816 ; Grenvillc administra Smith, Dr. Southwood ; 1790-1861 ;
Scott, gen. Winfield, 6. 1786; tion, comedy, theatres sanitary legislation, 1812
Mexico, 1847, United States, Sheridan, Dr ; trials, 1811 Smith, Mr. Beaumont ; exchequer,
1861 a Sherman, gen. ; United States. trials, 184 1
Scott; duelling, 1821, 1S36 1861 Smith, rev. S. ; trials, 1858
Scott, Walter, 1771-1832 ; Wavcrlev Shillibeer; omnibuses, 1829 Smith, rev. Sidney, 1771-1845
Scott, Dred; United States, 1857 Shipley ; arts, soc. of; 1754 Smith, Sam. Sidney ; trials, 1843
Scribe, E, dramatist, d. 1861 Shirley, bishop; Man, 1846 Smith, sir C. Eardley ; evangelical
(set. 80) Short, bishop; Man, St. Asaph, alliance, 1845
Scudamoru, lord ; apples 1841 Smith, sir Sidney ; Acre, 1799
Seabury, Samuel; bishoprics, 1784 Shovel, sirCIoudcsley ; Sicily, 1707 Smith, Mr. Thomas ; customs
Seaforth, earl of ; thistle, 1687 Shrewsbury peerage cases, trials, Smith, J. ; bribery, trials, 1854
Seal, J. ; trials, 1858 1858, 1859 Smith, anil Markham, captains,
Searle ; planets, 1858 Shrewsbury, duke of; administra duel, trials, 1830
Sebacon ; Egypt, 737 B.C. tions, 1714 Smith, Wm. ; geology, d. 1840
Sobastiani, marshal ; Talavera, Shrewsbury, earl of ; Patay, 1429; Smithsnn, J ; Smithsonian insti
1809 CastUlon, 1453 tution, 1846
Scbert ; Westminster Abbey Sibour, abp. ; France, 1857 Smollett, Tobias, novels, &c,
Seeker, abp. ; Canterbury, 1758 Sieard, abbe* ; deaf and dumb, 1742 1720-71
Softon r. Hopwood ; trials, 1855 Siddons, Sarah ; retired, 1819 Smvth (will case); trials, 1855
Scjanus, d. 31 Sidney, sir P., 1554-86; Algernon, Smyth, W. H., astron., 178S-65
Selden, J., 15S4-1651 ; seas, poet 1617-83; Bye-bouse plot Sneliins; optics, 1624
laureate Sidmouth, Henry Addington, vis Snow, Dr. ; amyloue, 1&56
Sclcucus Nicator ; Scleucides, count, d. 1844 ; Addington ad- Soames ; cocoaiiut-treo oil, 1S29
Syria, omens, Ipsus, 311 b.c. miius' ration 1800, green bag, Soane, sir J., architect, 1753-1837
Selim; Turkey, Syria, 1512 speaker Sobicski, John ; Poland, Cossacks,
Selkirk, Alexander ; Juan Fer Sieyos, abbs' : directory; France, Hungary, Vienna
nandez, 1705 1799 Socinus. Faustus (d. 1562) and Lfe-
Sellis, the vaht; suicide, 1810 Blgismuod ; Germinv, Bohemia, lhis, anti-trinitarians, arians,
Scmiramis, queen ; Assyria, eu Hungary, Xicopolis, Poland, unitarians
nuchs, 2007 B.C. Prussia Socrates, 468-399 v. c ; Athens,
Somple: trials, 1795, 1862 Billas ltalicus, poet, ft. 101 philosophy.
Seneca, put to death, 65 ; Cordova Sillim, Mr; trials, 1863 Solomon; Jerusalem, 1004 B.G.
Sennacherib; Assyria, 710 B. a Simeon the Stylito : abstinence Solon; Athens, 594 B.C.; laws
Scnuefeldcr ; lithography, 1796 | Simmons; trials, 1808 tax
INDEX.
Solyman ; Turkey, Belgrade, ^ Stanley, lord, of Alderley, 6. 1802 ; lord St Leonards) ; chancellor,
Vienna, 1529 Aberdeen, Palraorston admin. lord, 1852
Solyman II. ; Hungary, Buda, Stanley, Kdw., lord, b. 1826 Suisse, Nicholas ; trials, 1842
Mohatz, 1526 Stipleton, J., trials, 1858 Sullivan, Mr. ; Lima, 1857
Somors, lord ; administrations, Stapleton, Walter, bp. ; Exeter, Sulpicius, Servius ; civil law, codo,
1690 ; corn "3*9Lat poet (Thcbais), fi. 79 53 B-C-
Somers, sir George ; Bermudas, Statins, Sumner, archbp. ; Chester, 1828;
1609 Staunton, Mr. ; China, 1840 Canterbury, 1848
Somerset the black declared free, Steele, sir It., 1671-1729; Tatler, Sumner, bishop; Llandaff, 1826;
1772 ; slavery in England. 7wte Spectator, clubs, Kit-Cat club Winchester, 1827
Somerset, see Seymour ; admiralty, Steele, Mr. ; murdered, trials, 1807 Sumner, C. ; United States, 1856
Steenchel, Magnus; Sweden, 1314 Sunderland, earl of; administra
Sophia, princess ; Hanover, 1659 Stenhouso, J.; dyes, charcoal, tions, 1684
Sophia Dorothea, d. 1796; Eng 1853 Surajah Dowlah ; B!ack-holo,
land, queens (Geo. I.) Stephen, pope ; England, Hun India, Plassey, 1757
Sophocles, 495-405 b.c. ; tragedy, gary, 997 ; Poland Surrey, earl of; Klodden, 1513;
drama Stephens, Miss ; theatres, 1813 Roman Catholics, 1829
Sorol Agnes; jewellery, 1434 Stephens, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1839 Susarion and Dolon ; comedy,
Sostratus ; pharos, 2S0 B.O. Stephens, Robort ; Bible, i55[ 562 B.C
Soto, Ferdinand de; Louisiana, Stephenson, G., 1781-1848 ; rail Sussex, duke of ; marriage, 1793
1541 ways, Chatmoss Sutter, capt. ; California, 1847
Soult, marshal, 1769- 185 1 : Albuera, Stephenson, R., 1803-59; tubular Sutton; air pipe, 1756
Oporto, Orthes, Pyrenees, bridges Sutton, abp. ; Canterbury, 1805
Tarbos, Toulouse, Villa Fi anca, Sterne, Laurence, humourist, Sutton, C. M. ; speaker, 1817
Douro 1713-68 Sutton, Thos. ; Charter-house, 1611
Southey, Rob., 1774-1843 ; poet- Sternhold, T. ; Psalms. 1555 Suwarrow, marshal, 1730-1800 ;
laureato Stesiehorus ; choruses, 556B.0. Alessandria, Isniael, Novi,
Soyer, A. (cook), d. 1858 Stewart, col. ; Trincomalee, 179s Parma, Poland, Praga, War
Spalding, Mr. ; diving-bell, 1783 Stewart, gen. ; Madras, 1783 saw, Trebia, 1799
Sparks, Georgo ; trials, 1853 Stewart, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 Swan, Mr., M. P. ; bribery, 1819
Spake, capt., 183764; Africa, Stowart, Dugald, philosopher, Sweyn ; Denmark, 9S5 ; England
1863-4 1753-182S Swift, dean J., 1667-1745; Drapicr
Spoilman.sirJohn ; paper-making, Stowart, Duncan ; Ciesaroan Swvnfen; trials. 1858
Dartford, 1590 Stewarts, trials, 1829 Sydenham,Floycr.d. 17S8 ; literary
Spencer, earl ; Grcnvilte admin Stif'elius; algebra, 1544 fund
1806; Roxburghe club Stigand, abp. ; Canterbury, 1052 Sydenham, lord ; Melbourne ad
Spencer, Mr. ; electrotype, 1837 Stillingfleet, H. ; blue-stocking min., 1834
Spenser, E, 1553-98; allegory, Stock, Dr.; Sunday-schools, 1781 Sydenham. Thos., 1624-89
poet-laureate, verse Stockdale; trials. 1826 Sydney, Henry, viscount ; Ire
Sport, sir Thos. ; Trinity-house, Stoddart, Dr. ; Times, 1S12 land, Id. lieut, 1690
1512 Stopford, adm. ; Acre, Sidon, 1840 Sydney, see Sidney
Spun, Alexander de; spectacles, Storace, madame, d. 1817 Sykes and Rumbold, Messrs. ;
1285 Storck ; levellers, anabaptists, 1534 bribery, 1776
Spinoza, B. de, 1632-77 ; atheism Storks, II. ; Ionian Isles, 1859 Sylla ; Rome. Athens, 86 B.C.
Spolir, L., mus. eomp., 1783-1859 Stormont, vise. ; Portland admin., Symington; Bteamenginc, 1789
Spollcn, Jos. ; trials, 1857 '783 Symonds, rev. Symon ; Bray,
Spurgeon, C. H-, b. 1834; Surrey Strabo ; geog., writes, 14 1533-58
gardens, crystal paiaco, tiber- Strachan, admiral sir Richard ;
nacle Havre, Walcheren. 1809
Spurzheim, J. G. : craniology, 1800 Btraduariua ; viol, 1700-22
Stuckpole, captain; duel, 1814 * Strafford, lord ; beheaded, 1641
Stackpules, trials ; 1853 Strafford, carl ; admiralty, 1712 Tacitus, M. C, hist., about 62-
Stael, mad. de, novelist, d. 1817 Strangford, lord ; bribery, 1784 100 ; Rome, emp , 275
Stafford, archbishop ; Canterbury, Stratford, abp. ; Canterbury, 1333 Tait, bp. ; London, 1856
1443 Stratford de UodclilVe, lord, 6. 1788 Talbot, Miss Augusta ; trials, i85r
Stafford, lord ; popish plot, 1680 Strovcns, Mr. ; trials, 1857 Talbot, II. F. ; photography, calo-
Stafford, marquess of, d. 1803 ; Strickland, Hugh ; nat. hist, type, StC. 1840
Bloomsburv 1811-53 Tallard, marshal ; Blonhnim, 1704
Stainos, sir William ; lord mayor, Stromeycr; clubfoot, 1 831 Talleyrand, 1754-1838; Beneveuto,
1800 Strongbow ; Ireland, 11 76 weights
Stair, earl of, d. 1707 ; Gleucoo, Struenseo, count; Zell, 1772 Tallis, Thos. ; music, d. 1585
1692; Dettingen, 1743 Strutt.Edw.; Aberdeen, aam., 1852 Talma ; actor, d. 1826
Staitc ; electric light, 1848 Struve, F. ; astron., 1793-1864 Tamerlane, rf. 1404 ; India, Da
Ktdker, gen. ; Bushirc, suicide, Strzclecki, A. ; Australia, 1840 mascus, Tamerlane
1857 Stuart, Alexander ; marquess Tandomus ; Adamite
Stanberry, John ; Eton, 1448 Stuart, conf. gen. ; United States, Tankcrville, Ford, earl of ; ad
Stanhope, earl ; Halifax adminis 1862 ministrations. 1699
trations, 1714 Stuart, gen. ; Cuddalore, 1783 Tantia Topee ; India, 1857
Stanhope, Charles, earl; 1732-1816; Stuart, sir John ; Maida, 1806 Tarquin; Rome, kings, Sibylline
printing-press ; present earl Stukeley, Dr. ; earthquakes books
(before, lord Mahon, the his Sturt, capt. ; South Australia, 1830 Tarquinius Priscus ; cloaca,588 B.C.
torian), b. 1805 Sturmius; magnet Tasman, Abel ; circumnavigator,
Stanhope, col ; trials, 1816 Succoth (St Patrick), prcachos, 433 Australia, 1642 : New Zealand,
Stanhope, hon. col, ; suicide, 1825 Suchct, marshal : Valencia, 1812 Van Diemcn's Land
Stanhope, lieut. -gen. ; Minorca, Sudbury, abp. : Canterbury, 1375 Taaso, Torquato ; poet, 1544-93
1708 Sue, Eng., novelist, 1804-57 Tate, Nahuni,'/.i7i5 ; poet-laureate
Stanislaus; Poland, 1704 Suetonius, C. T. ; writes, nS Tatian, about 170; aquarians,
Stanley, bishop; Norwich, 1837 Suetonius Paulinus: Men d, 61 encratUes
Stanley, sir John ; Man, 1406 Suffolk, Thomas, earl of; adminis Tattorsall, R. ; races, 1766
Stanley, sir \V. ; chamberlain ; trations, 1540 Taurosthencs ; carrier-pigeons
Bosworth, 1485 Suffrcin, Thos. ; Trincomalee, 1782 Tavcrnicr; pearls, 1633
Stanley, lord ; see Derby, 1820 Sugien, sir Edward (afterwards Tawcll, John; trials, 1845
S2S INDEX.
Taylor, bp. Jeremy, 1613-67 Thurlow, lord ; chancellor, lord #Tuke, W. ; lunatics. 1792
Taylor, gen. Zachary ; presidents, high* *77$ I great se;d , Tull, William ; posting
United States, 1849 Thurtell, J. : executions, 1824 Tulloch, col. ; SeKistopol, 1855
Taylor, Messrs. ; oil-gas Thyra, Dannawcrke I Tullus Hostilius ; Alba, satumsli*
Taylor, Dr. Brook; acoustics, 1714 Tiberius, 903 b,c. ; Capri, Rorao, I Tunstall, bp. ; administrations,
Taylcr, rov. Robert ; atheism, crnp., 14 1529, arithmetic, privy seal
trials, 1827, 1831 Til)crius Gracchus ; agrarian law, Turcnne, marshal, 1611-1675
Taylor, rev. W. ; blind, bells, 1855-6 133 B.C. I Turnbull, W. B. ; trials, 1S61
Teba, countess ; (empress) France, Tibullus, I>at. poet, 50-18 n.c. I Turner, J. W., 1775-1851
1853 Tieck. L., Gcr. poet, 1753-1853 I Turner, miss ; trials, 1827
Tekcli ; Hungary, revolts, 1676 Tierney, George ; duel, 1798 ; I Turner, Richard ; teetotaller, 1831
Teleki ; Austria, i860; Hungary, »>oderich Turner, Sydney; reformatory,
1861 Tigho, Mr. ; trials, 1800 schools. 1849
Telesphoms ; Lent, 130 Tigranes ; Armenia, 03 B.c. ; Pontus I Turner; trials, 1817
Telford, T. ; chain-bridges, 1819 Tbdesley, sir Thomas ; Wigan, 16^1 Turpin, or Tilpin, bp. ; writes, S18
Tell, William ; Switzerland, 1307 Tilly; Mao-deburg, 163 1 ; Palati Turton, bishop; Ely, 1845
Toinpel ; planets. 1861 nate, Lech Tusser ; agriculture, 1562
Temple, earl; Newcastle admin., Tilloch, Mr. ; stereotype Tyco, John ; taffety, 1598
1757 Tillotson, abp. ; Canterbury, 1691 ; Tycho Brabo, 1546-1601 ; astro
Teniers, D. (two), 1582-1694 universalists nomy, platonic year, globe
Tenlson, abp. ; Canterbury. 1694 Times news]>apcr ; Times, trials, Tyler, John ; United States presi
Tonnant, Mr. ; bleaching, 1798 ITOO dent, 1841
Truniel, John,/*. 1820; Punch Timoleon ; Syracuse, 343 b.c Tyler, Wat; killed, 1381
Tennyson, Alfred, b. 1809; poet- Timour ; see Tamtrlane Tvndal, Wm. ; martyred, 1536
laureate Tindal and Coverdalc ; Bible. 1526 Tyudall, J.; Roy. Inst.. 1853:
Tenterden, lord ; king's bench, Tippoo Sahib ; Madras, Scriuga- magnetism. Mont Blanc, 1857 ;
1818 patam, Mysore, 1793 calorcscence
Tcrcntius Varro ; Canna;, 216 B.C. Titian, 1477-1576 Tyndarus ; Sjvirta, 1490 B.C.
Terence, 195-159 B.C. ; drama Titus, Rome, emp. 79; Jerusalem, Tyrconnel, earl of ; Ireland, 1687
Tortullian writes, 197 ; cross, Tyre, arches Tyrone; rebellion, 1599
Montanists Tofts, Mary ; impostor, 1726 Tysias, or Stesichorus ; choruses,
Teueor, Troy, 1502 b.c. Toler, Mr. ; m., trials, 1853 epithalamium, 536 B.C.
Teynham, lord ; trials, 1S33 Tolly, Barclay de ; Smolensko,
Thackeray, VV. 31. , novelist, *l8l2
181 1-63 Tolmidas ; Coronea, 447 B.C. U.
Thales, Miletus; glol>o, 640 b.c. : Tomline, bp. ; Lincoln, Winchester,
Ionic sect., moon, water,world i8;o I Udino; stneco-work, 1530
Thalest rifl ; queens Tom Thumb ; dwarfs, 1846
Thanet, earl of ; riots, 1 799 Tone, Theobald W. ; trials, 179S 1 Ulfilas, bp. ; Bible, about 373
UUoa, Antonio ; platinum. 1741
Thecla ; Alexandrine co.lex Tonson, Jacob, bookseller, rf. 1736 Ulpian (lawyer) ; slain, 228
Thcmistocles ; Marathon, Tontl, Laurence ; tontines UlysseB; Trojan war
480 B.C. Tooke, J. Home, 1736-1812 Upton, colonel; Sevastopol, 1830
Theobald; civil law, 1138 Twice, W. ; prices Urban ; j>opcs, 223
Theocritus; verse, 265 b.c. Torrence, Mrs. ; trials, 1821 Urban 11. ; communion, crusades,
Theodore; Corsica, 1736; Samos, Torrens, Heut. ; duel, 1806 1094
keys, lathe Torres ; Australasia, 1606 Urban VIII., pope, "Eminence,"
Theodoric ; Spain, G«>tbs, 553 Torricolli ; d. 1647 ; air, micro 1630
Theodosius ; Eastern ernp. , 379 ; scopes
Aquileia, Ostrogoths, massa Torrington, -Herbert, lord ; Wal- Ursula, 1537
St ; Cologne, Ursulines,
cre, paganism pole admin., 1727 Usher, abp. ; articles, 1614
Theodosius, the younger ; acade Totila ; Italy, 541
mies, Bologna Toussaint, 1 794 ; Hayti, St. Do
Theophilus ; Antiocb, chronology mingo
Theophrastus, 394-287 b.c. Tower. Mr. ; volunteer in 1S03 and
Thcopompus ; Ephori, funeral i860
orations, Sparta, 353 B.c. Townley, G. V. ; trials. 1863 Valcns ; eastern empire, western
Theseus ; Athens, 1235 u.c. Townshend, lord; duel, 1773; Ire empire, 364
Thesigcr, sir F. ; solicitor-gen., land Valcntia, lord ; duel, 179S; trials,
1844 ; attorney-gen., chanc., Townshends ; Rockingham, Chat 1796
lord high, 1858; trials, 1850 ham, and Grafton admins., Valentia cause ; trials, 1772
Thespis ; drama, 536 b.c. 1765-7 Valentine, B. ; antimony, 1410
Thevcnot, M. ; coffee, 1662 Train, Mr. ; street railways, i860 Valentinian ; western empire, 364
Thierry ; Holland. 936 Trajan ; Rome, emp., 98 ; Trajan's Valerian ; persecutions. 257
Thiers, M., b. 1798 ; France, 1836 pillar. Dacia Vallaret, Foulqucs de ; Malta, 1310
Thirleby ; Westminster, 1541 Traugott, R. ; Poland, 1864 Valiiire,madame de la ; midwifery,
Thirlwall, bp. ; St. David's, 1840 Travers, Samuel ; poor knights of 1663
Thomas, col. ; duel, 1783 Windsor Van Arteveldo ; Ghent. 1379-83
Thompson, miss ; trials, 1821 Treby, George ; Walpole, 1721 Vanbrugh, sir J. ; 1670-1726. Cla
Thompson, major ; suicide, 1832 Tresylian ; king's bench rendon printing office, opera
Thompson, William ; lord mayor, Trevelyan, C. ; Madras, 1859-60 Van Buren (president,); United
1828 Trevet hiek ; steam engine, 1802 States, 1837
Thom9"n, Mr. Poulctt ; Melbourne Trevor, sir John ; speaker, 1694 Vancouver ; north-west
admin., 1835 ; calico Tro.is ; Troy, 1374 b.c. Vancouver, 1790
Thomson, Jas. (the '* Seasons '*), Troubridgc, sir T. ; wrecks, 1807 Vander Ileydon ; fire-eniines, 1663
1700-48 ; Richmond True Sun, prop, of; trials, 1834 Vandyck, 15991641
Thornton, Abraham; appeal, 1817 Truman, Haubury, & Co. ; porter, Vane, sir Henry ; administrations,
Thorpe, William de ; bribery, 1351 1815 . 1640
Thorpe, JohnT. ; lord mayor, 1820 Truro, lord; chancellor, lord, 1850 Van Eyck ; painting, 1366
Thorwaldsen, 1777-1840 Truxo, I^ouisa ; longevity, 17S0 Van Horn; buccaneer, 1603
Thoth ; mythology, 152 B.C. Tucker, E. ; vine disease, 1845 Van Leydou ; engraving ou wood,
Thnisybulus ; Athens, 403 b.c. Tuckett, cant. Harvey ; duel, 1840
Tbueydidos, 470-404 b.c Tuite, murderer; trials, 1813 Van M97
Marum ; electricity, 1785
INDEX. 829
Van MUdert, bishop ; Llandaff, Watson, bishop ; Llandaff, 1782
Durham, 1826 W Watson, sir Wm, ; electricity, 1740;
Vansittart, Nicholas; Liverpool lightning conductor; trials,
adm., 1812 Waddington ; trials, 1820 1817
Van Tromp ; Holland.naval battles, Wager, C. ; admiralty, 1733 Watt and Downio ; trials, 1794
Portland Isle, 1653 Waghorn, licut.,rf. 1849; Waghorn Watt.Jas., 1736- 1819 : steam engine
Varole, M. ; optics, 1538 Waithman, Robert ; lord mayor, Watteau, Ant., French painter,
Varro ; writes " de Re Rustfca," 1823 ; obelisk, hank 1684-1721
37 b.c. ; grammariaua, illu Wake. abp. ; Canterbury, 1715 Watts, Isaac, 1673- 1748 ; hymns
minated l>ooks Wakeflfld, Eliz. ; savings bunks, Watts ; theatres, trials, 1859,
Varus, Alfrenus ; civil law, 66 b.c ; 1804 suicide
code, digest Wakefield, Ed. Gibbon ; marriages, Watts, T. ; newspapers, 1766
Vasali, or Basil; Russia, 1270 S. Australia, trials, 1827 Wcaro, Mr. ; trials, 1824
Vasci deGama ; Cape, 1497 ; India Waldcgrave, earl of ; trials, 1841 Weathcrshcd, abp. ; Canterbury,
Vattel, E. de; publicist, 1714 67 Waldegrave, bp. ; Carlisle, i860 1229
Vaubau, S. ; 1633-1707, fortifica- Waldemar ; Denmark, 11 57 Webbe, Sam., music, 1740-1819
tions, Cherbourg Waldt-n, abp. ; Canterbury, 1398 Weber, Carl von. 1786- 1826 ; music
Vaughan, sir Thos. ; Pomfrot, 1483 Wales, George, prince of, r. Timer; Webster, Daniel, d. 1852 ; United
Vaughan, Mackay, &c. ; trial, 1816 trials, 1790; regency States
Vauquelin; chromium, glucinum, Walker, Mr. ; Vauxball, C3ngela- W'ehster, Dr. ; trials, 1842
1798 tion, ice, 1782 Webhter, sir Godfrey ; trials, 1797
Vaux, Jane, Mrs. ; Vauxball, 1615 Walker, George ; Londonderry, Wedgwood, Josiah, 1731-95 ; earth
Vega, G. de, 1503-36—Lope do, Boyno, 16S9 enware, Wedgwood(porcelain)
1 562- 1635, poets Walker, gen. ; filibusters, Nica Wedgwood, T. ; photography, 1802
Velasquez, painter, 1599-1660 ; ragua, 1855, exec, i860 Weld, Mr. ; trappists
Cuba, 1511 W-dl, governor ; trials, 1802, Goree Wellesley, sir A., see Wellington
Vcnables, Wm, ; lord mayor, 1825 Wall, Mr Baring; trials, 1833 Wellesley, marquess ; India, 1798
Venner, T. ; anabaptists, 1661 Wallace, Sir W. ; exec, 1305 ; Fal Wcllefdey, Mr. Long ; duel, 1828
Vere-strect gang : trials, 1816 kirk, Cambuskenneth, 1297 Wellesley Pole, v. Misses Long ;
Vergennes, M. de ; notallies, 1788 Wallaces ; trials, 1841 trials, 1825
Vermandois, count de ; iron mask Wallenstcin, Albert, general, 1583- Wellesley v. Packet ; trials, 1809
Vermuyden, Cornelius; levels, 1621 1634; Mecklenburg Wellington, duke of, 1769 1852 ;
Vcriiet, 1714-89; Horace, 1789- 1863 ; Waller, Sir W. ; Abingdon, 1644 Wellington ; comrnanucr - in-
painters Wallis. circumnavigator ;Otaheito, chief, duel, 1829; trials, 1830
Vernon, adm. ; grog, Porto Dello, Wallis. 1766 Wells, W. ; dew, 1814
1739 Walpolo, Horace, 1717-97 ; letters Wells, lord Lyon ; Ireland (lor*l"
Vernon, abp. ; York, 1808 Waljiolo, Sir Robert, 1676- 1745 ; lieut. \ 1438
Verres ; Sicily, 70 b.c. Walpole adm. ; sinking fund Wcnsleydale, ford ; peers, 1857
Verrochfo, Andrea; plaster, 1466 Walpole, Spencer Horatio ; Derby Werner, A. G., 1750 1817 ; geology,
Vesalius ; anatomy, surgery, 1538 administration,
Walsh, Mrs. ; murdered,i8«;2-i858
tri iK 1 ■': "775J., 1703-91 ; Wesleyans
Vespasian ; Rome, emp. 69 ; am Wesley,
phitheatres, Coliseum, Rhodes Walsh, Nicholas ; printing, 1571 West, Bonj., 1738-1820; Royal
Vespucius, Americus, 1498 Walsingham, lord; attorney-gen., Academy, 1792
Victor Amadeus ; Sardinia, 1630 1766 Wcstbury.lord chancellor; Paliner-
Victor Emmanuel, b. 1820 ; Sar Walsingham, sir Francis ; adminis ston adm , 1861
dinia 1849 ; Italy, i860 trations, 1587 Westcrton v. Liddell ; trials, 1855
Victor, marshal; Talavera, 1S09; Walter, E. ; commissionaires, 1859 Wcstmacott, sir R., 1775 1856
Barrosa, Witepsk Walter, J., 1739-1812 ; Tim«»t 1785 Westmeath, lord ; trials, 1796
Victor ; pope, 193 Walt hoof; beheading, 1076 Wcftmorland. earl of; Ireland
Victoria, queen, 6. 1819; England, Walton, Brian, 1600 61 ; polyglot (lord-lieut ), 1790
Scotland, Ireland, India Walton, Izaac, 1503-1683 ; angling Weston, Richard" lord ; adminis
Victory, Espartero, duku of ; Spain, Walworth ; Dlackhcath, mace, 1 381 trations, 1628
1840 Warburton, Eliot (lost), Amazon, Wctherell, sir Chas.; attorney-gen.,
Vidil, baron do ; trials, 1861 1852 1826 ; Bristol
Viofa, Fnincis ; algebra, 1590 Ward, Mr. ; forgery, 1726 Wetherell, rev. Mr ; trials, 1845
Vigilius ; pope, 537 Ward, N. B. ; aquarium, Ward's Weyland, Thomas de ; bribery, 1288
Villars, marshal; Malplaquet, 1709 cases, 1829 Weymouth ; north-west passage,
Villeneuve, adm. ; Trafalgar, 1805 Wardle, colonel ; impeachment, 1602
Villeroy, marshal ; Brussels, 1695 ; Wardlo r. duke of York ; trials, Weymouth, visct. ; Grafton adm.,
Ramilies, 1706 1809 1767
Villicrs, sir Georgo ; administra Warennc, earl of; Dunbar, 1296 Wharneliffe, Id. ; Peel adm., 1834
tions, 161 5 Warham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1503 ; Wharton, Thomas, marquess of;
Villierf, bp. ; Durham, i860 administrations, 1509 Halifax adm., 1714
Vincent, B., Royal In«t. Library Warrington, R. , aquarium, 1850 Wharton, Miss ; marriagrs, 1690
Catalogue, 1857 ; Bible index, Warner, Mrs., d. 1854; theatres W'hatcly, abp. R., 1787-1863 ;
1848 Warner, Messrs. ; bells, 1856 logic, Ac.
Vinceut, H. ; chartists Warren admiral sir John Borlace ; Wheatstono, C, 6. 1802; stereo
Virgil, 70-19 b.c. naval battles, 1798 scope, electricity, 1834; clec-
Virginia; killed, 449 b c. Warrington gang; trials, 1806 trie telegraph, and clock
Vitalianus; p°pe, 537 Warton, Thomas; poet laureate, Wheeler, sir Hugh ; Cawupore,
Vitellius, Rome, emp. 69 1785 1857
Vitruvius ; abt. 27 b c. ; ink Warwick, earl of ; Barnot, St Whcwuil, W , philosopher, 6. 1795
ViWcr ; trials, 1842 Albans, Wakefield, 1460 Winston, W , iheol., d. 1752
Volta, Alex.,i745-i826 ; electricity, Warwick, John Dudley, earl of ; Whitbread, Saniuel ; suicide, 1815
Volta administrations, 1551 White, H. K., poot, 1785-1806
Voltaire, F. M. A. de ; 1694-1778, Washington, George, 1712-99 ; White, Thos., Sion College, 1623
miscel. United States, York Town, Whitefield.G., 1714-70; Whitefield,
Von Fuehs, Dr., rf. 1856; water- Virginia Wesleyans, 1741
glass, stereochromy Waterton, Chas. ; naturalist, 1783- Whitehead, W., d. 1785 ; poet lau
Vortigern : Wales, 447 1865 reate
Voss, poet, 1751-1826 Wathon, captain; trials, 1834 Wbitclock, gen. ; Bucnoa Ayres,
Vyse, Mrs. A., trials, 1862 WaUou, admiral ; India, 1756 1807
INDEX.
Whitgift, abp. ; Canterbury, 15S3 Winchilsea, earl of ; duel, 1829 Wvat, sirThos. ; rebellions, 1554
Whitney, Eli ; cotton, 1793 Wiuchilsca, earl of ; Wilmington Wyld, 8. ; globe, 1851
Whittington ; lord mayor, 1405 adm., 1742 ; Bathadni., 1746 Wynkyn de Words ; angling, 1496 ;
Whittlesey, archbp. ; Canierbnry, Windcbnnk, sir Francis ; adminis printing
1368 trations, 1635 Wyun, W. ; Canning adm., 1827
Whitworth, Mr. ; cannon, Sboc- Windham, general ; India, 1857 Wyon, W.i medallist, 1795-1851
burynese, 1862 Windham, W. F. ; trials. 1861-2
Whitworth, earl ; Ireland, 1813 Windham, Win. ; Grenville adm.,
Wbyte, maj.-gen. ; Denicrar.-i, 1796 1806 X
Wickham, William of, 1324-1405; Windisebgratx, prince ; Vienna,
education, Oxford, Winchester 184S Xavier, Francis ; 1506-52 ; Jesuits
Wickliffc, John, 6. 1324 ; Wickliff- Whistunley ; Eddystoue, 1696 Xenophanes ; Eleatic sect, 535 B.c.
itcs, Bible WinwiK)d, sir Ralph ; administra Xenophon ; anatomy, couriers
Wielanil, C; Gernx. miaccl., 1733- tions, 1612 cymbals, retreat of the Greeks
1813 Winzingerodo, gen. ; Kalisch, 18:3 401 B.C.
Wigrain, bp. : Rochester, i860 Wiseman, cardinal Nicholas, 1802- Xerxes ; Persia, 485 B.c. ; Mycale,
Wilberfurce, bp. ; Oxford, 1846 65 ; ecclesiastical titles, papal Salamis
Willtcrforcc, W., 1759-1833; slave- aggression, Rome, Ireland, Ximenes, card., 1437-1517 ; poly
trade glot
Wilrl, Jonathan ; executed 1725 Witts,1858De ; massacred, 1672
Wilde, sir James ; probate court, Withers, Dr. ; libel, 1789
1863 Witherings, Thomas; post-office,
Wilfride, bp. ; Chichester, 673 1631
Wilkes, captain; ciriiimn:ivigatiou, Withcrington, W., painter, 1786- Yale, Elisha ; auctions, 1700
1838 ; United States, 1861 1865 Yeh. commissioner; China, 1857
Wilkes, John ; North Briton, Withing, Richard ; Glastonbury, Yelverton, major ; trials, i860
obelisk, warrants; Wilkes, 1539 Yonge, sir Geo. ; Shelburne adm.,
duel. 1763; trials, 1764 Witikind (Saxon chief ), 779-785 1783
Wilkiu, sir !>.. painter, 1785-1841 Wittgenstein, gen. ; Polotsk, York, bishop ; Ely, 1781
Wilkins, Dr. ; Wadham, 1613 Witepsk, 1812 York, cardinal ; Scotland, 1807
William I., 1066; England, Battel- Wodehouse, lord; Ireland (lord- York, duke of, 1762-1827; York
abbey, conquest, Domesday, lieut. ), 1 £64 York, James, duke of ; Solebay,
castles Woden ; Wednesday 1672
William II. ; Englind, 1087 Wohler, F. ;. aluminium, 1827 Yorke, Charles, chancellor, lord
William III.; England, 1689, revo Wolcot, Dr., alias Peter Pindar; high, 1770
lution. Boyne, Enghien, Je trials, 1807 Yorke, sir Philip; att.-gen.; king's
maitititndrai. New Forest Wolfe, gen. ; Quebec, 1759 bench, 1733
William IV. ; England, kings, 1830; Wolfins ; anemometer, 1709 Yorke, Mr Redhead ; trial, 1795
admiral Wullaston, Win., 1760-1828 ; cryo- Young ; impostors, 1692
William ; Holland, Scotland phorus, camera, blowpipe, Young, major ; Prescott, 1838
Williams, Ann ; trials, 1753 palladium, rhodium Young, Charles ; theatre, 1807
Williams, David, d. 1816; literary Wolselcy, sir Charles ; trials, 1820 Young, Brigham, 6. 1801 ; Mor-
fund Wolsey, cardinal, 147T -15 30 ; ad tnonites
Williams. John, dean ; adminis ministration*, 1514 ; Hampton, Young, Edw., poet, 1681-1765
trations, 1621 Whitehall, York Young, Thoa., 1773-1829; Royal
Williams, see Burking Wood, sir Charles; Russell adm., Institution, colour, spectrum
Williams, Roger ; America, 1635 1846; Palmerston adm., 1855 Youngman, W. ; executions, 1S60
Wdliams, gen. W. F. ; Kara, 1855 Wood, Matthew ; mayors of Lon
Williamson, sir Joseph; adminis don, 1815
trations, 1629 Wood ; Palmyra, 1751-53
Willoughby, sir Hugh ; north-west Woodfall, Mr. ; trials, 1786
passage, 1553 Woodmason ; ruling machines Zacharias ; pope, 741
Willoughby do Eresby, lord ; Wooler, Mr. ; trials, 1817 ; 1855 Zaleucus ; sumptuary laws,45o b.c.
chamberlain, lord jrreat, 1626 Woolley, Mr. ; trials, 1863 Zamoyski, count ; Poland, 1S62
Willoughby, licut. ; Delhi, 1857 Worcester, marquess of; steam, Zechariah prophesies about 520B.C.
Wills, gcu. ; Preston, 1715 telegraph, 1663 Zeno (stoic), Jl. 299 b.c. eastern
Wilmington, earl of ; Wilmington Worcester, Edward, carl of; ad empire, 474
adin , 1742 ministrations, 1621 Zenobia; Palmyra, 263
Wilson, capt. ; Pelew Islands, 1783 Wordsworth, Win. ; 1770-1850; Zenon ; Armenia, iS
Wilson, sir A. ; Delhi, 1857 poet-laureate Zephaniah prophesies abt 630 b.c.
Wilson, H. H. ; Sanskrit professor, Wotton, sir Edward ; sugar, 1546 Zephyrinus ; pope, 202
1832 Wouvermanns, painters, 1620-83 Zouxis,/. 397 b.c. ; painting;
Wilson, sir Robert; Lavalette, 1815 Wray, sir C. ; king's bench, 1573 Zimmermann ; physiognomy. 1776
Wilson, prof. John, 1785-1854 Wrcde, gen. ; Hanau, 18:3 Zinzendorf. 1700-60 ; Moravians
Wilson, Mrs. C. ; poisoning, trials, Wren, sir Christopher, architect, Ziska; Bohemia, 1417
1S62 1632-1723 ; Chelsea, engraving. Zoe ; eastern empire, 1034
Wilson, capt. W. ; United States, Greenwich, monument, 6t. Zollicoffer, gen. ; U. States, i86r
1862, note Paul's, Waibrook. Zoroaster (supposed aui hor of
Wilton, carl of; trials, 1859 Wren, Matthew ; Royal Society '* Zendavesta") ; about 555 n.c
Winchelsey, abp. ; Canterbury, Wrench, Mr. ; theatres, 1809 fire -worshippers
1293 Wright; Mercator's charts, 1556 Zosimus ; alchemy, 410
Winchester, gen. ; Frcnchtown, Wright, sir Rob.; king's bench, Zumalacarrcgui (Carlist); killed
1813 1687 near Bilbao, 1835
Winchester, Henry; mayor, lord, Wright and Doyle ; trials, 1851 Zumpie, M. ; pianoforte, 1766
1834 Wriotbt'8ley,lord; administrations, Zurbano, gen. ; Spain, 1844
Winchester. Wm., marquess of ; IS47
administrations, 1554 Wurtnser, gen. : Castlglione, 1796
ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.
AOB PAUB
4. 2fote. Abtssimia.—Mr. Plowden was appointed ] 135. Insert Cachet ; see Lettre* de Cachet.
consul at Massowab, in 1848. He concluded a 141. Calculating Machines.—Tables constructed
treaty of commerce with Has Ali, emperor of bv moans of ScheuU s machine, edited by Dr.
Abyssinia, Nov. 2, 1849. who was deposed in \v\ Farre, were published by the government
1854 by his son-in-law, Theodore, the present In 1864.
ruler, who set aside tho treaty. 158. Cattle.—A severe cattle plague raged in Eng
ii. Administrations.—Decease of lord Palmers- land. 1745-56.
ton, Oct. 18, 1865. Karl Russell reconstituted The privy council ordered diseased beasts to be
the cabinet ; lord Clarendon became foreign shot, and their skins destroyed; granting
minister. moderate compensation, March ia, 1746.
Africa.—M. Du Chaillu, after being robbed, A royal commission to inquire into the causes
and undergoing many privations, returned to of the cattle plague and suggest remedies met
London near tho end of 1365. He gave an first, Oct. 10; report of majority consider the
account of his journey at a meeting of the disease to have been imported, and recommend
Royal Geographical Society, Jan 8, 1866. slaughter of animals, and stringent prohibi
20. Albekt Memorial —A statue of the prince- tion of passage of cattle across public roads,
consort (by Theed) was inaugurated at Ro«e- Ac, Oct. 31, 1865.
nau, his birth-place, in the presence of the 27,432 beasts had been attacked; i2,63o died ;
queen and the royal family, Aug. 19, 1865. 8,(»8 slaughtered, up to Oct. 21, 1865.
63. Aua CST1N3.—Austin Friars church was restored Orders in council for regulating the cattlo trade
and reopened, Oct. 1, 1865. (in conformity with the act of 1850), Nov. 23
66. Acstria.—Peace with Denmark signed Oct. 30, and Dec. 16, 1865 ; and Jan. 20, 1866.
1864. Disease still raging ; official report ; cattle at
Convention of Gastein (see Qattein) signed, Aug. tacked, 120,740; killed, 16,742; died, 73,750 ;
14, 1865. recovered, 14,162 ; unaccounted for, 16,086,
Emperor's rescript suppressing the constitu Feb. 1, 1866.
tion (reichsrath, Ac.), with the view of giving 158. Caucus.—An American term, applied to a pri
autonomy to Hungary (which see), Sept. 21, vate meeting of the lending jioliticians of a
1865. party to agree upon the plans to be pursued
Rejoicing in Hungary, but dissatisfaction in durinif an election or session of congress. This
Croatia, Austria, and other provinces, Nov., institution in now a very powerful antagonist
Dec, 1865. to public opinion. Tho word is paid to bo de
Important treaty of commerce withGroat Britain rived from " ship "-caulkers' meetings. A
signed December 16, 1865. " caucus club," is mentioned by John Adams,
74. Balloons.—Aeronautical Society of Groat Bri in 1763. Bartlett.
tain was foundod with the object of fostering 170. Chili. Dispute with Spain ; see Spain, 1864-5.
and developing aeronautics and aerology, by 174. China.— Rebellion of the north, the Nien-fel;
the duke of Argyll, Mr. James Glaisher, sir June, 1865.
Charles Bright, and others, Jan. 1a, 1866. Sir Rutherford Alcock, ambassador at Pekin,
78. Bank Discount raised to 44, Sept 38 ; to 5, Nov. 26, 1865.
Oct. 2 ; to 6, Oct. 5 ; to 7, Oct. 7 {three time* 175. Cholera prevalent at Marseilles, Paris, Madrid,
in one vntk) ; reduced to 6, Nov. 23 ; raised and Naples, July—October, 1865.
to 7, Dec. 28, 1865 ; to 8, Jan. 4. 1866. An international meeting at Constantinople, to
92. Battles.—2nd col., line 53, afterOoversee(ZJait« consider preventive measures, proposed, Oct.,
and Prussians), Feb 6, i««rt 1864 1865.
93. Bavkux tapestry is now preserved in the public 178. Church of England.—Meeting in London of
library at Bayeux. three English bishops, Dr. Pusey, and nearly
97. Belgium. —Leopold I. died Dec. 10, 1865; suc 80 of tho clergy and laity, with counts Orion"
ceeded by his son Leopold II. and Tolstse, and the Russian chaplain, to con
X14. Bolivia. —General Melgarejo defeats the troops sider on the practicability of uniting the
of president De Acha, Dec. 28, 1864; and be English and Russian churches. Nov. 15, 1865.
comes chiefof tho republic, Feb. 1865. He puts 179. Cinque Ports.—Lord Palmerston died Oct 18,
down an insurrection under Belzu, March, 1865. 1865, and earl Granville was appointed lord
122. Brazil. —The allies under Flores defeat the warden, Dec. 1865.
Paraguayans at Santayuna on the Uruguay, Coal — Explosion at' Gethin mine, Merthyr
Sept. 1865. Tydvill ;t 30 lives lost, Dec. 20, 1865.
Uruguayana surrenders to the allies, Sept. 18, [In 1862 the explosion was at Gethin mine, not
1865. Cothin. ]
130. Brougham.—This popular vehicle Is said to Explosion at Highbrook colliery, near Wigan,
have been invented in 1830, and received its Liincashire ; about 30 lives lost, Jan. 23, 1866.
name in consequence of its adoption by lord 202. Conservatives. —This name is now given to the
Brougham soon after. party in the north of the United States which
ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.
supports tbo president in his conciliatory remains in relief ; stereotypes are then taken
efforts to re-establish the Union, Jan 1866. from the block.
213. Cotton. —The executive of tho central relief 349. Greece. —Brigandage prevails ; frequent minis
fund held their last meeting, Dec. 4, 1865. terial changes under D^ligeorgcs, Comoim-
231. Death. —The commission on c tpital punishment douros, Buigaris, Oct., Nov. Roufos becomes
issued their rej>ort (recommending that penal minister, Dec. 10, 1865.
servitude bo substituted for death in some 356. Gypsies are said to have entered Paris in 1427.
cane* where murder wa» unpremeditated, and 363. Hayti —Military insurrection under .Salnave
that executions should not be public), Dec. against Geffrard, May 7 ; Cape Hayti seized,
1865. Slay 9, 1865.
237. Denmark.—The project of a new constitution ValorojHit, a rel>el vessel, fires into British
rejected by the assembly, Feb. 25, 1865. Jamaica packet, near Acul, St. Domingo, Oct.
New ministry formed under count Frysenborg, 22: H. M.S. Bulblog threatens FaU», ague ,-
Nov. 6, 1865. Salnavc orders tho removal of refugees from
A new constitution approved by the Rigsraad, British consulate at Cape Hayti, shoots th#m,
Nov. 7, 1865. and destroys the building. Tho Bulldog failing
248. Dover. — Karl Granville was appointed con to obtain satisfaction, shells the fort, sinks the
stable, Deo. 1865. Valnrogut, but gets on a reef, and the crew is
265. Education. Committee appointed at a meeting taken out and site is blown up. H.M.S Galatta
for establishment of higher schools for middle and Lily take the other forts and give them
classes in London, by means of funds of lapsed up to Geffrard ; the rebels flee inland, Nov. 9,
chanties, &c, Nov. 7 ; nearly 28,000*. sub 1865.
scribed by end of Dec. 1863. 368. Hic.h Treason, add, "see Treaton."
266. Eoypt.—2nd col. read Ptolemy II. Philadclphus 377. Htjnuary.—The emperor visits Pesth : the diet
reigns, kc. 285. opened, Dec. 14 ; Carl Szentivanyi elected
281. Ennland.—Tho Queen announces her assent to president, Dec. 20, 1865.
the marriage of princess Helena with prince Emperor and empress arrive at Pesth, Jan. 29,
Christian of Augustcnburg, Dec. 5, 1865. 1866.
Important commercial treaty with Austria 384. Index Expcroatoriuh.—Several books were
signed, Dec. 16, 1865. inserted in it in Jan. 1866.
New Parliament opened by the Queen in person, 390. India.—Much dissatisfaction at mildewed cotton
Feb. 6, 1866. goods being received from England, July—Oct.
286. Ethyl ; read " compounds with metals." 1865.
293. Executions.—Stephen Forward, alias Ernest 398. Ireland.—Stephens escapes from jail, Nov. 25,
Bouthey, for murder of his wife and four 1865.
children, at Maidstone, Jan. 11, 1866. Fenian trials began at Dublin, Nov. 27 ; Thos.
294. Extradition Trkaty between Great Britain Clarke Luby convicted of treason-felony ; sen
and France was concluded in 1843. In Dec. tenced to 20 years' penal servitude, Dec. 1,
1865, tbo French government gave notice of 1865.
withdrawing from it in six months. O'Lcary and others convicted, Dec. ; O'Donovan
297. Fenians.—They establish a provisinnal govern or Rossa sentenced to imprisonment for life,
ment at Now York, and a congress of 600 Dec. 13, 1865.
members held at Philadelphia, Oct. 1865. More Fenians arrested and convicted at Cork and
Fierce disputes between tho senate and Dublin, Jan., Feb. 1866.
O'Mahony, tho head-centre, who is charged Discovery of an arms manufactory at Dublin ;
with corruption and deposed ; Mr. Roberts the city and county proclaimed as put under
appointed his successor, Dec. 1865. the provisions of the peace preservation act,
Fenians in United States said to have raised Jan. 11, 1866.
200,000/. in October ; they prepare to attack 404. Ita ly. —Serious financial deficiency ; heavy
Canada, Dec. 1865. taxation proj»oscd, Dec. 13; much dissatisfac
380,000 Fenians reported in tho United States tion : the ministers resign, Dec. 21 ; a new
Jan. 1866. ministry formed under La Marmora, Doc. 31,
302. FiRm—Great fire at Bcalo's wharf, ; about 1865.
i8,ooof. damage, Oct. 30, 1865. Death of the patriot and soldier, Massimo
Immense fire at St Katherino's docks, Jan. 1, D'Aueglio, Jan. 15, 1866.
1866. 406. Jamaica.—note. Moses, not. Paul, Bogle was
300. Firk-bricade. —The new one camo into action hanged at once ; in December sir Henry
and its energies wero tested at the great fire at Storks was summoned from Malta and sent to
St. Katherino's docks, Jan. 1, 1866. Jamaica (Dec. 11) as commissioner to inquire
313. France. —Extradition treaty signed, 1843. rcsjKjeting tho disturbances, and the mex-sures
316. Convention with Italy resjweting tho evacua taken in suppressing them ; Governor Kyre
tion of Rome, Ac, Sept. 15, 1864. was temporarily suspended. Sir Henry Storks
Death of M. Mocquard, Dec. 9, 1864. arrives in Jamaica, Jan. 6, 1866.
Notice given of the abrogation of tho Extradition 458. Madras.—Lord Napier appointed governor, Jan.
treaty in six months, Dec. 1865. 31, 1866.
Riots of republican students at Paris ; several 472. Master or the Rolls.—Sir John Romilly was
expelled from the Academy of Medicine, made a peer as baron Romilly, Dec. 1865.
Dec. 1865. 489. Monaco.—A commercial convention between
Emperor opens chambers with a pacific speoch, the prince and France signed, Nov. 9, 1865,
Jan 22, 1866. was much discussed, as tending towards the
337. Giants.—and column. It is stated that M. Brico abolition of the French navigation laws.
is Auak. 507. New Zealand—The Maoris treacherously kill
339. Glasgow.—Industrial exhibition opened, Dec. the envoys of peace : resignation of the Weld
12, 1865. ministry ; one formed by Mr. Stafford, Oct.
347. Graphotype, a new process for obtaining blocks 1865.
for surface-printing, the invention of Mr. Do Prospects of peace reported, Jan. 1866.
Witt Clinton Ilitchcock in i860. It was de 539. Palestine, note.—The party arrived at Damas
scribed by Mr. Fitz-Cook at tho Society of Arts, cus, Dec 20, 1865.
Dec. 6, 1865. Drawings aro made on blocks of 544. Parkesine.—A new substance, composed of
chalk with a silicious ink; when dried, the gun-cotton, obtained from various vegetable
soft parts arc brushed away, and the drawing uodics, and oil. It can be formed with the pro
ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 833
PAGE PAOE
perties of ivory, tortoisesholl, wood, india- 596. Prisons.—An act to consolidate and amend the
rubber, gutta-percha, &c. It is the invention law relating to prisons was passed July 5,
of Mr. Alexander Farkes, of Birmingham, and 1865.
was shown by him at the Exhibition, in 1862. 601.—Prussia.—The chambers opened with a super
In Doc. , 1865, at the Socioty of Arts, Parkesine cilious speech from M. Bismarck, Jan. 15, 1866.
was proved to be an excellent electric insulator, 603. Pyx.—The ceremony of the trial was again
and therefore likely to bo suitable for tele performed, Jan. 19-20, 1865.
graphic purposes. 631. Royal Academy.—Sir Edwin Landseer elected
551. Peabody Fund. —The first block of buildings for president, declines, Jan. 24; Francis Grant
working classes in Commercial-street, Spital- elected, Feb, 1, 1866.
flelds, opened Feb. 29, 1864; others erecting 634. Russell Administrations (third); resignation
in Islington, Shadwell, ChelBea, and Bermond- of sir Charles Wood ; carl de Grey becomes
soy ; they have been found to be self-sup secretary for India ; and lord liartiiigton,
porting. Mr. Peabody presented 100,000/. in secretary of war, Feb. 1866.
addition, Jan. 1866. 66a. Sculpture.—John Gibson died Jan. 37, 1866.
568. Planerr.—No. 86 discovered, M. TIetjcn, Jan. 678. Spain.—Prim enters Portugal and lays down
4, 1866. arms ; the insurrection ends, Jan. ao, 1866.
587. Post Office.—Number of letters dolivored in 691. Storms.—Severe gales ; many vessels and lives
the United Kingdom, in 1864, 679,084,822. lost (sco Wreck* Jan. 6-ix x866.
THE END.
MAt. . ft lair.
mfKl l9Ju
MAY 7 t<85
29Sej:l
29Sep51LU
HOV 0 1 WO'
LD 21-100m-8,'34
-37
hi *?%