museums and monuments xx

Cevat Erder

Our architectural
heritage:from
consciousness a

to conservation

unesco
museums and monuments xx
 Titles in this series:

I Sites and monuments: problems uf tudq.

loo pages, I I y illustrations,plans, index,2nd ed.,1913 (bilingual), out of print.
11 The care of paintings.
164pages,87 illustrations,diagrams,index,2nd ed.,195 2 (bilingual), out of print.
111 Cuxco: reconstruction of the town and restoration of its monuments.
64 illustrationsand maps, 19jz (also in French and Spanish), out of print.
IV Saint Sophia uf Ocbrida: preservation and restoration uf tbe building and itsfrescues.
z8 pages,37 illustrations and maps, 1953 (also in French), out of print.
V Manual of travelling exhibitions.
I I z pages, I 8 diagrams,70 illustrations,19j3 (also in French), out of print, see number X
below.
VI Lebanon: suggestionsjor the plan of Tripoliandfor the surroundings ujthe Baalheck Acropolis.
48 pages, I map, 7 diagrams,44 illustrations,1gj4(out of print).
VI1 Syria: problems of preservation and presentation of sites and monuments.
12 pages,61 illustrations,3 maps, 1954(also in French and Arabic), out of print.
VI11 Protection of culturalproperty in the event of armed conflict.
346 pages, 124 figures,137 illustrations,195 8 (French edition is out of print).
IX The organixation of museums: practical advice.
188 pages, 18 figures,8 tables, 91 illustrations,1919(also in French).
X Temporay and travelling exhibitions.
123 pages, 23 figures,88 illustrations,1963 (also in French).
XI The conservation of culturalproperty, with special reference to tropical conditions.
Prepared in co-operationwith the International Centre for the Study of the Preservationand
Restoration ofCultural Property (ICCROM),Rome,341 pages,60 figures,43 illustrations,1967
(also in French and Spanish).
XI1 Field manualfor museums.
176pages,44 figures,3 j plates, 1970(also in French).
XI11 Underwater archaeulogy: a nascent discipline.
308 pages, 97 figures,67 plates, 1972(also in French).
XIV Preserving and restoring monuments and historic buildings.
267 pages,36 figures,37 plates, 1972 (also in French).
XV Museums, imagination and education.
148pages, 70 plates, 1973 (also in French).
XVI The man-made landscape.
Prepared in co-operationwith the International Federation of Landscape Architects,I78 pages,
8 figures,46 illustrations,1977.
XVII Conservation standards fir works of art in transit and on exhibition.
By Nathan Stolow,126pages, j j illustrations,1979 (also in French).
XVIII La conservation priventive de la pierre.
By Wieslaw Domaslowski,I 5 8 pages, 40 illustrations,1982.
XIX Manual on ystems of inventoying immovable culturalproperty.
By Meredith H.Sykes, 180 pages,figures,1984.
XX Our architectural heritage:from consciousness lo conservation.
By Cevat Erder,236 pages, 3 2 illustrations,1986.
our architectural
7-
/-

heritage:
from consciousness
to conservation

Cevat Erder
Translated by
Professor Ayfer Bakkalcioglu

unesco
 The designations employed and the presentation of
material throughout this publication do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of
Unesco concerning the legal status of any country,
territory,city or area or of its authorities,or
concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or
boundaries.

Published in 1986 by the United Nations

Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization,7 place de Fontenoy,
7j 700 Paris
Typeset by Asco Trade Typesetting Ltd
(Hong Kong)
, Printed by Richard Clay Ltd, Bungay
(United Kingdom)

ISBN 92-3-102363-2

0Unesco 1986
Prinied in the United Kingdom
 Preface

This volume is the second translated work to through his training and career,in close con-
appear in the ‘Museums and Monuments’ tact with the latest developments in archi-
series. Responding to a need expressed by tectural conservation in Europe and North
many specialists throughoutthe world,these America?
translations aim to make accessible seminal H e had noted in his own research and
or fundamental technical works originally teaching activitiesthat European examples in
written in languages of limited circulation. the protection of historic monuments and
While the scale of the present study,writ- sites were a reference point shared by a wide
ten originally in Turkish,destined it for the variety of publications and conservation proj-
‘Museums and Monuments’ series, whose ects. Particularly in developing countries,
volumes present technical information in where an appreciation of historic monu-
J
some depth and at a fairly advanced level, ments and sites has only recently begun to
this text is quite different from the others.It take hold,there has been a natural tendency
is not a technical manual but a historical ac- to turn to Europe’sexperience for guidance.
count of individual and social attitudes to- Since most of these comparisons tend to be
wards man’s built environment, particularly superficial and selective,it is difficult to de-
monuments and sites seen as part of the termine how applicable they may be in other
fabric of human settlements. Together with countries.All too often,examples are chosen
these attitudes, the study also analyses the without understanding the background
evolution of human attempts to safeguard behind the conservation of a specific monu-
and conserve monuments and sites, from ment or area. Taken out of their own context
antiquity to the present day. Prepared by and analysed purely by visual observation,
Professor Cevat Erder while he was Chair- they are passed on to conservators as well as
man of the Department of-Restorationand to the public without making explicit the rea-
Preservation of Historic Monuments at the sons for the protection of one particular
Middle East TechnicalUniversity in Ankara, monument in preference to another.
the present work is a somewhat condensed Professor Erder found that his own coun-
version of a study first published in two vol- try, Turkey, and in particular his own stu-
umes: in 1971,Turihi Cevre Kuygiisi [Concern dents,were faced with just this problem and
for the Historic Environment] and in I 97 5, that written sources which might help them
Turihi Cevre Bilinci [Consciousnessof the His- clarify the issues were extremely limited.
toric Environment]. His study aimed therefore at systematically
What were the motivations of the author, examining a wide set of historical examples
a leading professional in monuments con- and their contexts as well as the physical
servation in his country,who had also been, results of the conservation carried out. His
I
ultimate objective was to provide a broader spread of specialized knowledge and expe-
and deeper perspective for conservation de- rience in the field of the cultural heritage and
cisions in Turkey. The book was also in- its protection.
tended to provide a basic methodological The author is responsible for the choice
reference for tracing the influence of histori- and the presentation of the facts contained in
cal change on the care of historic monuments this book and for the opinions expressed
and sites. therein, which are not necessarily those of
At a time when awareness of the impera- Unesco and do not commit the Organization.
tives of conservation has taken root even
more firmly in all countries, regardless of
their level of economic development,the re- The author
levance of such an undertaking is obvious.
To be sure,many concepts have been con- Born in 1931 in Istanbul, Turkey, Cevat
siderably refined since the present book Erder obtained his Ph.D.in Classical Ar-
was researched and completed.Conservation chaeology at Ankara University.H e was an
projects and the accompanying crystalli- instructor at Princeton University, 19j 8-62,
zation of doctrine in many non-European and was Chairman of the Department for the
countries have enriched the ‘case-law’in this Restoration and Preservation of Historic
field.Nevertheless,neither the validity of the Monuments at the Middle East Technical
facts revealed nor the conclusions stated in University,Ankara, between I 964 and I 973.
the original work have been affected by these During this time he was also an instructor at
developments. Thus the author has chosen Harvard University, a visiting lecturer at
to make no fundamental changes in his ten- Princeton and Rome Universities, a visiting
year-old text, although if he were writing professor at the Institute for Advanced
today there would certainly be many more Studies,Princeton, Professor in the Depart-
concrete examples he would want to include. ment for the Restoration and Preservation
Unesco is therefore most grateful to Pro- of Historic Monuments, Ankara, and from
fessor Erder, now Director of the Interna- 1977 to 1981 Dean of the Faculty of Archi-
tional Centre for the Study of the Preser- tecture of the Middle East Technical
vation and Restoration of Cultural Property University.
(ICCROM)in Rome, for having authorized Appointed Director of ICCROM in 1981,
the Organization to translate and publish his Professor Erder has a wide and varied ex-
work in its present form,and for all the as- perience as an international consultant, has
sistance he has provided for this purpose.W e written numerous articles, conference papers
are convinced that this volume w ill prove to and reports and has given many public lec-
be of considerable practical interest to archi- tures in Turkey and in other countries.H e
tects, architect restorers, town-planners- was Founder and President of the Turkish
and particularly to students of these National Committee of ICOMOS,1978-84,
disciplines-and w ill thus contribute effec- and was a member of the Executive Com-
tively to Unesco’s aim of promoting the mittee of ICOMOS from 1972 to 198I.
 Contents

List of plates 9
Foreword I1
Introduction:the evolution of
the concept ‘I

Part I
ANTIQUITY
I Preliminary examples:the question Egypt and Mesopotamia,2 2
of environmental order 21

2 Aegean civilization 27 The contribution of Troy and Crete,27;

Greek concern for the environment,2 7 ;
The Hellenistic attitude and its aftermath, 3 2

3 The Roman era 39 Collectorship,39; Marcus Vitruvius Pollio,

4 2 ; The warfaring Roman and the defeated
Greek,43;Environmentalorder in the
capital,4 8 ; The Eastern Roman Empire, j I;
‘TheBarbarian Champion of Civilization’:
Theodoric, 5 6

Part I1
F R O M THE M I D D L E A G E S
ONWARDS
I Italy 69 The transition to the Middle Ages in Rome,
69;The influence of religious development,
7I; Petrarch and Cola di Rienzo, 7I; Leone
Battista Alberti,73;Pope Nicholas V,74;
Return to the classical, 76;Sixtus V and
public resistance,79;Baroque and Rococo
Rome,8 4 ; Rome after 1710,88; Rome
during the age of ‘activerespect for monu-
ments’,9 I ; The era of scientific research,
96;Informed scientific criticism, IOO
z France: centralized organization II3 The Middle Ages, I I 3; Relations with Italy,
I I 6;Vitruvianism, I I 7;Destruction in the
name of order, I I 8;Destruction in the name
of beauty: Louis XIV,I 19;The Republic
and destruction,122; The Napoleonic era,
I 2 5 ; The period of active respect,I 26;
Destruction in the name of repair, 127;
National monuments and education, I 29;
Public consciousness,I 29;Eugkne
Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc,I 3 0;
‘Haussmanniana’,I 3 J; Camillo Sitte, 140;
The controversial end of the nineteenth
century, 140;Public opinion and charity
organizations,141;Education and the
Commission des Monuments Historiques,
141;The two world wars, 144;The general
aspect after restoration, I 5 o

3 The United Kingdom: the Britain in the Middle Ages, 165;The

institutionalization of individual Renaissance and religious reform,165;
concern 161 Return to Gothic architecture, 167;
Public involvement:the era of charity
organizations,169; Sir Gilbert Scott,170;
Reaction:Ruskin,Morris,Webb, 171;
Private enterprise:the National Trust,I 74;
The role of the state, I 80;The Second
World W a r and its aftermath, I 8I

Conclusion ‘9‘
Appendices 193 I. O n restoration:Eugkne Emmanuel
Viollet-le-Duc, 193; 2. International
Congress of Architects,Madrid (1904),209;
3. Conclusions of the Athens Conference
(I 93 I), z I I; 4. Carta del restaur0 italiana
(1931).215;J. Athens Charter (1933),219;
6.Venice Charter (1964),221

Bibliography
 List of plates

I. Catalhoyuk,Turkey,copy of drawing before restoration.

found on the eastern and northern walls 19. The project designed and applied by
of House VII,14. Viollet-le-Ducfor the ChBteau de
2. Karnak,general plan. Pierrefonds in I 863.
3. Olympia,axonometric view of the 20. The east faqade of the Basilica of Saint-
Sacred Area (from Durm). Denis in 1843.
4. Pergamum,plan of Upper Town. 21. The east faqade of the Basilica of Saint-
j . Pompeii,Rectangular Forum (Foro Denis,late nineteenth century.
Civile). 22. View from the east of the fortifications
6. Rome,plan of Sixtus V,showing major of Carcassonne,France,in I 8j I.
monuments and sacred sites. 23. View from the east of the fortifications
7. Istanbul,Hippodrome,circa 14jo (from of Carcassonne as they are today.
Helmotts). 24. Arras, Pas-de-Calais,France,faqades in
8. The Colosseum and the Lateran area in the main square after the severe damage
Rome. of the First World War.
9. A sixteenth-centurydrawing showing 2 j . The main square of Arras after
the transportation of an obelisk. restoration.
IO. Domenico Fontana’sproject to 26. Bodiam Castle, Sussex,England,built
transform the Colosseum into a wool- in 1386 to withstand French attacks,
spinning establishment. preserved today by the National Trust.
I I. Rome,Hadrian’s Pantheon with 27. Bury St Edmunds,Suffolk,England,
Bernini’stowers named ‘Donkeyears’. the ruins of St Edmund’smonastery in
12. Rome,the Pantheon after the removal a park.
of additions. 28. Salisbury,Wiltshire, England,the Old
I 3. Rome, the sixteenth-centuryappearance Deanery in 19j7,before restoration.
of the Arch of Titus,built in A.D. 70. 29. Salisbury,the Old Deanery in 1963,
14. Rome, the Arch of Titus after after being restored to its original
Valadier’s restoration. medieval form.
I j, Florence,the fagade ofthe Church of San- 30. Coventry Cathedral,England,preserved
ta Croce as re-builtin I 8> 7 by N.Matas. as a ruin while a modern church was
16. Arles, France,Church of Sainte-Anne constructed next to it.
used as a museum. 3 I. Bristol,England,Old Vic and New Vic
17. A watercolour drawing by Viollet-le- theatres side by side.
Duc of the east fagade of the Church of 32. Leicester,England,the new roof cover-
St Madeleine at Vizelay,France. ing the Old Market,photographed in 9
18. The Chiteau de Pierrefonds,France, 197’.
 Foreword

The reader should approach this work in the tivities in the conservation of the architec-
knowledge that it has no intention of pre- tural heritage.
senting a comprehensive history of the con- A history of architectural conservation
servation of the architectural heritage.It can would clearly have to take account of devel-
be said, in all fairness, that quite a large opments in other European countries and
vacuum exists in this area and studies are other continents such as the new trends in
being carried out in an attempt to fill it and North America and East and South-East
that this book m a y be considered as a contri- Asia. It would be essential to include their
bution to such scholarship. important contributions and to cite such
Certain chapters,especially those devoted examples as the international campaigns of
to France and the United Kingdom,are nec- Assuan, Borobudur and so on.
essarily somewhat sketchy and would have This is precisely why the present work ends
been dealt with in greater detail had the aim where it does and why an ample bibliog-
been to present a comprehensive study.W e raphy is provided to assist those who may
also regret the omission for the same reason be interested in updating their information or
of other countries or personalities who have in studying different aspects of the subject.It
made important contributions to the field- is also why w e have dwelt on the documents
for example, Alois Riegl-but the chosen reflecting the prevailing attitudes rather than
scope of the work imposed restraint on the on specific conservation interventionscarried
temptation to become too deeply involved in out in different periods.
detail. This study was begun in the 1960s in Tur-
It is also true that if one aims to write key, where a fully alerted public opinion,
a history of architectural conservation, it which is the basic necessity for the protection
would certainly require a more voluminous of the architectural heritage, was still lack-
work, especially for the section devoted to ing. As a result, conservation activity had
developments after the Second World War- vacillated between the adoption of various
a period which saw a sudden expansion in European concepts and local points of view.
conservation activities at the international For a long time the protection of monu-
level. In this context it would suffice to ments in Turkey was the responsibility of a
consider the development and scale of small organization with a modest budget.
Unesco’sactivities,not to mention the found- With the development of tourism public at-
ing of such international organizations as tention was attracted to this question, and
ICCROM, primarily, then I C O M O S and the situation changed considerably. Larger
many others after the Second World War, all subsidieshave helped to increasethe capacity
of which act as channels for the major ac- for intervention and thus to extend the scope
Foreword

of the problem, making it necessary to im- ing a ‘consciousnessof the historical envi-
prove techniques and knowledge. As in ronment’,and even being considered a sepa-
many similar instances,solutions are sought rate branch of study and practice. This part
in the expertise of countries having system- aims at tracing and analysing past develop-
atically worked in the same field for several ments in the restoration and evaluation of
centuries.Yet as experience has shown,im- historical monuments in three Western Eu-
ported solutions have proved unsuitable for ropean countries.Indeed,to be able to iden-
resolving local problems and have resulted in tify future trends in Turkey, a study of past
piecemeal restoration of monuments while,in stages in development is essential.
a few cases, endless disputes have prevented However,it is difficult to find a reference
the successful progress of the work. The book of this kind in Turkey, perhaps even
lack of a broad and strong foundation for abroad.The guiding principle in this part of
decision-makinghas thus become apparent. the work has been to select, from the con-
However,there are an increasing number siderable amount of existing material, ele-
of people who are conscious of the lack of a ments helpful in evaluating the historical
propitious atmosphereand who are working trend in Turkey,bearing in mind its location
to create it. Today there is tangible evidence and its means, which are also relevant to the
that their efforts are bearing fruit. For country’s socio-economicstatus.In view of
example, a restoration department has been the abundance of ancient monuments and
created in the Faculty of Architecture at the their location within the environment,Italy,
Middle East Technical University,and sim- with particular reference to Rome,provides
ilar endeavours exist at other universities and a good comparative example. France has
in official organizations. been chosen because, like Turkey, it has a
The first part of the present work, en- central administration whose influence has
couraged by the development of this more been strong,especially over the past hundred
favourable climate,is based on the assump- years.The United Kingdom has a similar tra-
tion that a study of the attitudes of different dition of foundationsfor looking after build-
societies at different times, giving their rea- ings and provides an example for the grow-
sons and methods,can be helpful in defining ing number of Turkish societies and organiz-
and clarifying the subject.Because of limits ations which influence decisions regarding
of time and space, w e have preferred to con- historic buildings and sites.
centrateour efforts on the Greek and Roman The treatment of the historic environment
periods which provide a sufficient number of in these three countries in the past has led to
well-documentedexamples. This study e m - cross-currentsbetween them and has affected
phasizes the contemporary trend in conser- other Western countries; their influence is
vation from single monuments to sites as well clearly noticeable in legal and administrative
as the need for local evaluations.Although it measures even in the United States and
can be shown that a concept of historic Canada.It is no coincidence that these three
monuments has always existed, in spite of countries are always represented on the
being evaluated in different ways at different decision-making bodies of international or-
times and places, it has been referred to as a ganizations. Their representatives play a
‘concernfor the historical environment’due leading role in decisionstaken by the Council
to the inadequacy of documents from Greek of Europe and other international organi-
and Roman times. zations regarding the treatment of cultural
The second part of the work deals with property. It was, therefore,considered bene-
12 the historical extension of the subject,reach- ficial to analyse the reasons behind the his-
 Foreword

torical development of present-dayattitudes our own century but has occupied the human
in these three countries. mind for a long time.In this study,therefore,
It is apparent that no detailed account of emphasis is placed on historical development
th‘e political and social developments in these as a dimension that will illustrate the reasons
countries is possible within the confines of behind such contradictions.
this work, nor should it be treated as a his- The subject of restoration is in a state of
tory of art, architecture or city planning:it is continuous flux and it is unreasonable to
necessarily rather limited in scope.The study expect any stability in the near future. The
therefore concentrates on a few relevant facts, term ‘historic monument’ is now being
ignoring personalities, events and develop- replaced by the term ‘cultural property’.
ments which,from a personal view,have had This widening of perspective makes future
little effect,either positively or negatively,on decision-makingincreasinglydifficult.In this
the shaping of the awareness of the historical study,and in selecting materials that would
environment. O n the other hand, person- be relevant to Turkey, w e have emphasized
alities who have had a strong influence,such the direction of change in certain situations
as Philibert de I’Orme,Viollet-le-Duc,Rus- as a guide for future researchers.
kin, Morris and a few others, have been In order to understand the new theoretical
treated in some detail. and practical developments in the protection
The inevitability of omitting details in of monuments,and the difficulties of estab-
some cases while making generalizations in lishing a terminology, it is useful to throw
others,and the large timespan covered,ren- light on the historical background of con-
der this study vulnerable to criticism. Being servation with specific cases and trends.
fully aware that some questions will remain Apart from a few short historical essays,
unanswered, it is accepted that concern for to our knowledge no study of this kind has
vulnerability may unnecessarily hinder the yet been undertaken.
task of the historian. Based on this precept, the present inves-
In simple terms, the subjectof our study is tigation has been planned along the lines of
the physical environment.What is sought is tradition and developmert as seen in the his-
an account of the attitudes of people towards tory of art over a long period of time.Within
buildings which themselves reflect historical this temporal frame a horizontal cross-section
facts, social conditions,intellectual currents through different countries has been taken
and life-styles. Attitudes towards the con- in order to compare and contrast examples
servation of historical monuments and their from various periods. This is an attempt to
environmentare not as simple,matter-of-fact establish a basis for discussing contemporary
and contemporary as they may seem at first problems encountered by those who are
sight,but full of contradictions.The decision involved, directly or indirectly, in the care
to preserve is not only a question of repair, of the architectural heritage.
nor is it an effort to prolong the lifespan of The need for such a conceptualfoundation
old buildings by putting them to new uses, arises from a lack of definite responses to the
though such cases do exist. problems created by the nature and limits of
Today w e should consider the reasons interventions in historic structures. There
behind the difficulty in deciding how to treat are numerous theories on what should or
a historic building or site-at its most basic, should not be done, yet their application is
whether priority should be given to his- left mainly to the interpretation of prac-
torical or aesthetic values-without for- titioners. Neither is there a consensus on
getting that this problem is not peculiar to whether buildings require intervention or ‘3
Foreword

not.As a result,solutions pertaining to con- outside Turkey and in developing countries,

servation reflect the attitudes of individuals where it has aroused a similar reaction.This
and groups to historic buildings, and the was the reason for the proposal that the work
only constant is the perpetual change in the be translated into English, to be used by
types of solution chosen.These vary with the other students of the conservation of the ar-
values attributed to a monument at a given chitectural heritage.
time, making it difficult to differentiate the Unfortunately,the author himself has no-
main issue of intervention from that of ticed several drawbacks: arguments, doubts
evaluation.Since the historical development and even historical facts have had to be read-
ofthe one has influenced the other,it would justed;lack of time has made it impossible to
seem expedient to use the tools of the ar- make modifications in the original content.
chaeologist as well as the historian of art But the material as it stands gathered in this
and architecture until a specific methodology work,together with the abundant references,
can be established for this new and fast- convinced us that it was worth while con-
developing science-the conservation of cul- tinuing. The aim,however,has been merely
tural property. to fill the gap.
The selection and evaluation of buildings This publication would not have ma-
has been made solely on the basis of their terialized without the important help of
conformity to the aims described above, set many people. It would require a long list to
without regard to their historical and artistic enumerate them all. Those already men-
value. Sites have also been considered as tioned in the Turkish edition will forgive m e
architectural assemblages creating a relation- if their names are not repeated here. I would
ship with their immediate surroundings. add to them the National Endowment for
O n this understanding, this study,which Humanities, the staff of ICCROM, Ayfer
is intended as an introduction for courses on Bakkalcioglu, the late Tarik Okyay, John
the history of architectural conservation,has Stewart, Nur Altmyilh, Irene Jack, Gordon
been found highly useful in establishing ter- Michell, Bertrand Monnet,Jukka Jokilehto,
minology and discussing the concepts and Roberto Marta and Raj Isar for their invalu-
ethics of conservation.It has been tried out able help.
in a series of lectures on different occasions

'4
Introduction:the evolution
of the concept

Historical evidence indicates that when man ciently developed today to be considered an
first considered settlements and the order independent field of study,capable of stimu-
pertaining therein, he showed concern for lating internationalco-operation.W e possess
the conservation of this order and of monu- enough evidence to know that in the past
ments. In general,monuments,especially in also,even if not to the same extent as today,
primitive societies,were accepted as symbols major civilizations were concerned with pro-
rather than relics of the past.' It is therefore tecting their historic monuments. These
appropriate to include politically oriented were conserved for a variety of reasons:re-
motives among the basic reasons for pro- ligious, practical or aesthetic. Research has
tecting them.Whether the motivations were been conducted to evaluate such phenomena
related to religious or other purposes,pro- from both historical and technical points of
tective measures were always implemented view; these investigations have, however,
within the framework of the artistic and generally been limited to the study of single
aesthetic trends of their time. monuments.Historic monuments were con-
While the impact of the social structure sidered as historical documents and no other
and artistic trends of the era in which a par- particular interest was accorded to them.2
ticular monument was built,and of the one This attitude was also responsible for the
in which it was later restored,can be detected, progressive efforts to salvage monuments
it is impossible to expect a consistent and after the Second World War. But as the con-
orderly evolutionary trend in aesthetic values cept developed, the monument was no
influencing intervention as regards monu- longer considered only within its immediate
ments. O n the other hand,aesthetic changes, surroundings but as part of a complex of
which have been causes of instability and buildings,a settlement or a region,thus ex-
which enable us to follow trends,are, in re- panding the physical concept of architectural
ality, all products of an era and its social heritage.3 Furthermore, authorities con-
values. Protective activity, because of the sciously concentrated their efforts on conser-
variety of reasons which inspire it, is a com- vation and took legal measures,thus securing
plex subject and, whatever the activating the serious and responsible involvement of
force behind it, tends to become a social official organizations.'' This movement has
issue. led to a new concept of evaluation within
It is not always possible to establish the framework of modern architecture and
whether the motivation for restoration has town planning.At the same time it has con-
its roots in a tendency, a practical need, an demned traditional attitudes of evaluation
impulse,or a conscious logical thought.But and the destructivenessof the Second World
it is clear that 'conservation work' is suffi- War.
Introduction

A representative of this trend is Eliel THE REASONS

Saarinen, who approached the subject from
the architectural point of view while analys- Some maintain that identification with his-
ing the development of town planning.5 tory is a desire to belong, to be associated
Saarinen and some other critics were of the with a place; as such,it is an attempt to re-
opinion that contemporary urban planning turn to the past, and therefore the sign of
was not scaled to the human being. They extreme conservatism and opposition to
maintained that the pedestrian, the human change.10 Still others believe that any effort
being,was not taken into consideration.As a to protect monuments is alien to the realities
remedy,the consideration of historical build- of an ever-changingworld.11
ings as an educational, comparative and Between the proponents of these two ex-
evaluative tool was advocated.Brandi noted treme views there is an encouraging rise in
that a bond should be established with the the number of those who contend that har-
future without 'condemning the modern and mony between the past and the present is an
without destroying the past'.6 It is interesting essential part of city planning. Many city
to observe the consequent rapprochement and planners and architects now endeavour to
fusion of these two ideas. preserve the best of the past while building
The expansion of this concept and the the best for the future.12They contend that
application of seemingly contradictory ideas widespread concern for the environmentcan
are evident in the basic definition that experts be met in modern building by establishing
of the Council of Europe attempted to es- economic feasibility and by formulating
tablish during the symposium at Barcelona in aesthetic standards.13Their support for the
I96j .7 Their definition encompassed areas to conservation of monuments as an extension
be preserved for their natural, scientific, of the new concept of environmental plan-
aesthetic, historical and ethnological value ning must therefore be accepted as part of an
while specifying that these can be urban as overall philosophy.
well as rural and that some of the latter can The disciples of this school of thought
contain one or more settlements. Further- base their idea of conservation on retaining
more,the frame of reference was widened by examples of past living conditions and build-
the'statementthat these areas can be sur- ing techniques.Furthermore,by introducing
rounded by scientifically, aesthetically, his- the problem of man and his environment,
torically and ethnologically interesting or they endow the question with greater sig-
uninteresting outer areas which are instru- nificance. Such a philosophy can also be
mental in framing the character of the main viewed as a defensive attitude towards our
areas.8 In a paper presented to the sym- times, which have been subjected to rapid
posium, Piero Gazzola maintained that the changes induced by the dominance of
whole of Europe is one historic city. technology.
Although this may appear exaggerated,it is This evolution in the understanding of the
illustrative of changing values and their problem is partly prompted by a concern
ramifications.9 The scope of the problem among some contemporary architects for
thus spread beyond the concept of single the improvement of the environment in
monuments to that of concern for the his- accordance with twentieth-centuryrealities.
torical environment with all its implica- Paul Thiry explainsthis by harmonizing con-
tions. tinuity with the concept of progress: within
the continuity of time, the architect can suc-
16 ceed in creating an agreeable life and envi-
 Introduction

ronment by linking the past to the future.To ly changing societies,a completely ‘original’
achieve this he ‘musthave understood well architecture is not possible and a return to
the past and the present’.14 the human scale of the past is necessary to
Trying to eliminate the past is as useless as re-establishcontinuity.19
trying to live in it. It is equally difficult to This revision can be observed in recent
deny the role of the past in the present.While developments,such as the relationship estab-
concepts and systems change,the main rules lished between new settlements and attrac-
of life remain constant. tive,older features surrounding them.20It is
The massive and devouring power of the a reaction against the eradication of natural
past and the creativity of the future are the and historical values,21 and against any ten-
two sources from which man and society dency to destroy,in the name of moderniza-
have always drawn inspiration.15 It is ob- tion,monuments capable of arousing public
vious that neither source can be ignored or interest,monuments that give a special char-
eliminated. Thus creativity should be consi- acter to the site on which they stand, or
dered in relation to the past,selecting from it which influence artistic sensibilities and have
the materials needed to shape the dialectics of a catalytic effect.22
the future. Although monuments in developing
Creative success with regard to monu- countries are often regarded as a source of
ments seems therefore to lie in the capacityto revenue because they attract tourists, in re-
select what to preserve and what to demol- ality there is a basic need to consider them
ish.In making the selection,the human scale as part of the human element of life itself.
must be respected,as must those who w ill do Allsopp has maintained that the sense of secu-
the selecting after us and the context in rity drawn from the past is a human require-
which their aesthetic evaluation will be ment;the only way to realize the beauty and
made.16 Preservation thus transcends the meaning of life is to understand its continu-
single building and embraces the conser- ity;and that mankind’s creativity is revealed
vation and rehabilitation of the whole envi- in past and present monuments.23It is consi-
ronment in which society maintains an dered conducive to the development of a
interest.17 positive personality to establish a parallel be-
Not to be ignored in this development is tween examples of the past and examples of
the part played by a reaction which has the present in order to prevent the ‘negative
manifested itself in architecture.As Brandi new’from being born.
has noted,in Renaissance,Baroque and even It is only in the second half of the twen-
in nineteenth-century attitudes,there was at tieth century that monuments have begun to
least a small-scaleconcern for perspective in be considered as environmental complexes,
architecture and for order and relationship in as human creations essential to the security
the creation of an environment.In contrast, and continuity of life, as opposed to the for-
modern architecture has broken all its ties mer concept of protecting them as religious,
with the past in its denial of perspective national,political and artistic objects.
through Cubism and Abstraction.**Existen-
tialism, so much in vogue after the Second NOTES
World War, has tried to deny the past in I. Mainly due to increasing activities aimed
much the same way. Efforts to destroy the at ensuring the survival and utilization of
inherent continuity in architecture have suc- monuments and to dynamic changes in cul-
ceeded only in providing simplistic proto- tural evaluation, there are difficulties in es-
types.It is now understood that even in rapid- tablishing terminology in the domain of ‘7
Introduction

conservation of cultural property. Thus, nouvelle du problitme’,De@e et mise en valeur

throughout this work which deals with the des sites et ensembles hirtoriques ou artistiques,p.I,
subject in its general historical outline, the Strasbourg,Council of Europe,August 1965.
term ‘monument’has been used in its broad- (No.CCC/CDS/CT/8.)
est sense to designate buildings as well as IO. G.L.Mosse, ‘Comment’, Historic Preservation
immovable objects, settlements and areas Today, ‘pp. 73-6, Williamsburg, Va., The
having an historic, artistic, architectural, University Press of Virginia, 1966.
social, cultural or scientific attribute. The I I. R.Pane,‘Actualittet raison d’ttre des quar-
term ‘protection of monuments’ designates tiers anciens’, Monumentum, Vol. 11, 1968,
the variety of activities involved,for example, P.97.
the restoration, renovation, reconstruction, 12. Ibid.,pp. 97-102; A. A. Schmidt, ‘Amtn-
rehabilitation and conservation of the above. ager et sauvegarder:du r81e des monuments
2. H.Huth, Observations Concerning the Conser- dans la vie moderne’, Unsere KunstdenkmaLer,
vation of Monuments in Europe and America, Vol. XVI,1965,pp. 66-73.
pp. 11-12, Washington D.C., National Park 13. J. Jacobs,The Death and Lge of Great Amer-
Service, 1940; M. A. Barbacci, ‘Le milieu ican Cities, pp. 187 et seq.,New York, Ran-
monumental et la nouvelle architecture en dom House, 1961.
Italie’,Congrh International des Architectes et 14.P.Thiry,‘TotalDesign’,Journal of the Amer-
Techniciens de Monuments Historiques, Paris, ican Institute of Architects, Vol. XXXII,A6. 6,
1917, pp. 425-30. December 1919,pp. 19-28.
3. Council of Europe,The Preservation and Devel- 15. L. Mumford, The Culture of Cities, pp. 439-
opment of Ancient Buildings and Historical and 40,New York,Harcourt,Brace, 1938.
Artistic Sites, p. IO, Strasbourg,Council of 16. A. Mumcu, ‘Eski Eserler Hukuku re Tiir-
Europe, 1963;D. Kuban,‘Istanbulda Tarihi kiye’, Ankara #niversifesi H u k u k Fakiltesi
Gevrenin Onemli Bir Kismi Ortadan Kal- Dergisi, Vol. XXVI,No. 3/4,1969,p. 50.
kiyor’, Mimarlik, No. 24, October 1965, 17. D.W.Riley,‘HistoricTowns and Cities: The
p. 21. York Conference’,Town and County Planning,
4. This trend can be followed in the dates of Vol. X X X V I , July/August1968, pp. 344-6;
changes in legislation in the countries at- V.Novotny,‘Lartgtntrationdes sites histor-
tempting to apply it: Japan, 1950; Egypt, iques urbains’,Monumentorum Tutela (Bratis-
195 3; Switzerland and Czechoslovakia,191 8; lava), 1967,pp. 17-24.
Yugoslavia, 1959; Sweden, 1960; Nether- 18. Brandi,op.cit.,pp. 3 56-60.
lands, 1961;Poland, 1962; France, 1962; 19. For this development in the field of civil
USA,1966;United Kmgdom, 1962and 1968. engineering, see D.P. Billington, ‘From
j. E.Saarinen, The Cig: Its Growth, Its Decay, Theory to Practice via Research in Thin Shell
Its Future, New York, Reinhold Publishing Concrete Structure’, International Colloquium
C o m P ~ Y ‘943.
, on Progress Shell Structures in the Last Ten
6. C. Brandi, ‘Processo all’architettura mod- Years and Its Future Development, Madrid 1969,
erna’, L‘architettura cronache e storia, No. 11, Session 111,pp. 1-7.
September 1956, p. 316; A. Badawy, A r - 20. Riley,op. cit.,p. 34j.
chitecture in Ancient Egypt and the Near East, z I. Unesco, Recommendation concerning the Preser-
p.v,Cambridge,Mass.,MIT Press, 1966. vation of Cultural Property Endangered bJ, Public
7. Council of Europe,Symposium A,Criteria and or Private Works, Paris, Unesco, 1968; see
Methods for a Protective Inventoty, Preservation especially Article 8,p. 9.
and Development of Groups and Areas of Buildings 22. A.T.Edwards, Towards Tomorrow’s Architec-
of Historical or Artistic Interest, p. 26, Bar- ture; The Triple Approach, p. 96, London,
celona,17-19May 1965. Phoenix House, 1968.
8. For comparison,see the technical rather than 23. B. Allsopp, ‘Why do Architects need His-
political definition in the Charter of Venice tory?’,Journal of the R y a l Institute of British
(Appendix 6). Architects, Vol. LXXV, No. IO, October
18 9. P. Gazzola, ‘Introduction i une position 1968,p.472.
Part I Antiquity
Preliminary examples: the question of I
environmental order

One of man's basic instincts seems to be his conservation. Those responsible for monu-
desire to leave to future generations traces of ments,witnesses to the feats and ideas which
his passage on earth.This can be observed in were to become legacies for future gener-
the existence of a pile of stones on a grave,a ations,must have shown the desire and the
mound, an inscribed or non-inscribedpiece ingenuity to preserve them, even if their
of rock,a building erected in the name of a motives were different from ours. It is not
ruler, a group of buildings, a settlement or unreasonable to expect that individuals or
even a group of settlements.Those examples societieswho endeavour to erect monuments
that survive suggest that this interest in should also concern themselves with their
monuments originates with the beginnings perpetuity.
of humanity.It is not incorrect to state that Following the same line of argument,w e
ever since man became aware of the concept can assume that monuments,like other archi-
of past and future,monuments were valued tectural creations, were not considered as
as symbols;' monuments have furthermore separate entities isolated from their environ-
acquired meaning ever since man has valued ments, and that from earliest times concern
his past and his future as much as his present. for environment and for habitation were in-
Although it is not known exactly why primi- terrelated.2 One can follow this trend from
tive societies displaced large rocks and tried the moment when settlements became stan-
to carve and shape them,it can be maintained dardized, and to a lesser extent the same in-
that the motivation was some incident, terest is apparent in prehistoric cave pictures
death or accomplishment:a compelling event and in patterns of the earliest settlements.3
believed to be of interest to future genera- In addition to the influence of topography
tions. Whatever the reasons behind their on the pattern of spatial arrangement of
creation,monuments have established a link, buildings and settlements, tradition played
a continuity between generations through an important role. As for buildings, espe-
time. Thus human life has acquired a differ- cially in the early settlements,it is difficult
ent specificity,a certain weight,in conform- to establish the correlation between motiva-
ing to a known past and continuing towards tion and spatial location. The comparative
an unknown future. From time immemorial method must be used for this purpose.
men must have been aware of this fact. Normally, the development of settlements
W e can further surmise that since the erec- occurred through accretion and additions.
tion of the first monuments, measures for Order in planning is the sign of a superior
their preservation were taken;since man has social organization or central power.4
conceived the notion of physical existence, When the concept of urbanization began
he has been concerned with the problem of to take shape in the human mind, hierarchi- 21
Antiquity

Plate I.
Catalhoyiik,Turkey, copy of drawing found on the
eastern and northern walls of House VII, 14.It
depicts a densely built settlement of rectangular
houses with the active volcano, probably Hasan
Dagi, behind them. The plan is dated to 6200 B.C.
[Courtesy of ArchaeologicalMuseum, Ankara.]

cal needs were established. For example, in the needs and demands of his day. W e can
the classical period the driving power, the expect to find the oldest settlement cultures
need most strongly felt by society,was re- oriented towards conservatism,placing im-
ligion.Whereas, however,the superhuman or portance upon administrative centres where
supernatural power guided architecture in all tradition and the ruling power were concen-
the periods preceding our own,the architects trated. This comparison serves to classify,in
of today seek immediatesolutions for human a general way, the forces influencing the
habitation just as city-plannersseek futuristic choice and shaping of monuments and their
solutions for city life.5 Again, we can com- environment.
pare contemporary attitudes with those of
another era. During the Renaissance a desire
E G Y P T A N D MESOPOTAMIA
to link the past with the future found suc-
cessful expression. As regards the present, Although specific knowledge of the ancient
however, a strong emphasis on functional- civilizations of the Middle East and Egypt is
ism has led to certain inherited elements limited and speculative in nature, it can be
being considered useless;links with the past maintained that concern in this area for the
are rejected and little importance is attached conservation of monuments related to per-
to traditional aesthetic values. If modern sonalities,ideas and events was always as-
urbanism can be called practical, Renaissance sociated with religious beliefs and customs.
urbanism, which demanded quality from its Monuments of the era carry inscriptions ex-
cities, above and beyond comfort and health, plaining their miraculous capacity and reli-
can be called aesthetic. gious power as well as their place in cere-
This cursory comparison of two eras monies.6
shows that man is motivated to regulate his Indeed,the conservative attitude of Egyp-
22 environmentand does so in conformity with tian civilization since the third millennium
 Preliminary examples:the question of environmentalorder

B.C. is a matter of record.It can be seen in in religious sanctuaries;there was also a de-
architectural design and decorative trends as sire to use interesting and impressive old
well as in the organization of settlements.In forms in new buildings. This trend is also
writing about the village built within the evident in the early Roman temples built in
ruins of the Pyramid of Amenemhat around Egypt.13 The Egyptians can be considered as
2000 B.c., Mace compares it with the earliest the forerunnersin the evaluation and protec-
examples cited in his work and comments tion of monuments within their environ-
upon the extremely conservative aspect of ment; for them religious buildings and the
the Upper Egyptian village.7The natural en- sites on which they stood14 were sacred, and
vironment was the strongest influence in the as such were carefully tended.
evolution of Egyptian urbanism. Owing to Another supporting element in this envi-
the dependence of the country on the River ronmental order was the use of natural amen-
Nile, cities and their design were also related ities. Certain documents reveal that in Egypt
to it. T w o examples of designed settlements and Mesopotamia the role of trees in the
give an idea of the Egyptian method of plm- urban landscape was exploited. Describing
ning.One is the city of Kahun,dating back to the town of Bubastis in Egypt, Herodotus
2700 B.c., which was constructed for the states that he saw very tall trees on both sides
workers employed in building the pyramids. of the wide road leading to the temple.15In
The streets of the city are absolutely straight addition,trees and other plants were used to
and houses are grouped in square blocks.8 shade city streets, and large buildings were
Similar in plan is Tel El-Amarna,built in surrounded by parks. In the tomb frescos at
1400E3.C.O These two examples suggest the Thebes,houses were depicted with gardens
existence of a developed administration and a in front and,in general,trees and plants were
strong ruling power. used for design and decorative purposes.16
When one studies the plans of ancient tem- In Mesopotamia, too, plants and trees
ples, such as Karnak, Luxor and Medinet were assigned their place in the general de-
Habu,their arrangement and the ceremonial sign. Inscriptions concerning Gudea men-
roads leading from one to the other indicate tion a beautiful tree whose shade covered the
that they were conceived not as single build- city and gardens near the temple.17Mention
ings but as part of a larger complex.10The can also be made of the Hanging Gardens
planning and organization of Egyptian tem- of Babylon. In Hammurabi’s Code, a tree
ples reveal an advanced and sophisticated sys- that was cut down illegally is mentioned.
tem of symmetricalexpansion around a focal Hammurabi specified rules for the control of
point” and an orderly development.12Their building construction in Mesopotamia,even
impressive, forceful design implies that the if this did not fall within the framework of
same order existed in the cities of which they physical planning. H e established the fees to
were a part. be paid to the architect as well as the pen-
Justas decorative reliefs on the stone walls alties for poor construction. Builders were
of the temples illustrate the daily life of the required to erect good, strong buildings. If,
Egyptians,the planning and location of the because of bad construction,a building col-
temples themselves indicate the Egyptians’ lapsed and killed the owner, the building
sense of environmental order. This view contractor was put to death; if the owner’s
is further strengthened by palaces which son was killed,then the contractor’sson suf-
were inspired by temples. Indeed,during the fered the same fate.18
Middle and New Kingdom periods, palace Similarly, strong measures were later
plans reflected an order related to ceremonies taken for aesthetic reasons to safeguard the 23
Antiquity

0 1M)M .

Plate 2.
Karnak, general plan.
 Preliminary examples:the question of environmentalorder

design of streets. In the seventh century B.c., NOTES

Sennacherib threatened to hang from the I. A. Riegl,‘Der Moderne Denkmalkultur,sein
roof of his house anyone who dared to spoil Wesen, seine Entstehung (1983)’,Gesammelte
the prospect and appearance of the Royal Aufsitxe, pp. 160 et seq., Vienna, Benno
Road of Nineveh.19 These measures may be Filser Verlag, 1929.The same author writes
considered severe, but they do prove that on modern concepts in: Spatromiscbe Kunst-
in Mesopotamia environmental order was Industrie,Vienna, 1927.
2. R. Bonelli, ‘Principles of Architectural and
taken seriously and that rulers showed a
Urban Restoration and Conservation’,Ency-
close interest in it.20 In addition, Ham-
clopedia of World Art, Vol. XII,col. 196,New
murabi’s decree for keeping streets clean York, McGraw-Hill,1966.
and Sennacherib’s endeavours to decorate 3. The wall fresco c. 6500 B.C. showing a city
them can be cited.21 plan found at Catalhoyiik can be considered
It is difficult to maintain that concern for exemplary. See J. Mellaart, Earliest Civilip
the environment in Mesopotamia was any- tions of the Near East, p. 83, Figs. 5 I and 5 2,
thing but conservative. Amongst the main London,Thames &Hudson,1965.
accomplishments of the last Babylonian 4. G. Sjoberg, ‘The Origin and Evolution of
king,Nabonidus (5 5 5 -5 3 8 B.c.), clay tablets Cities’, Scientzfc American, Vol. 213, No. 3,
indicate that he rebuilt the Temple of the September 1965,pp. 5 5-6.
5. L.Mumford,The Culture of Citaes, p. 43,New
Sun God at Sippar which had been restored
York,Harcourt,Brace &Co.,1938.
forty-fiveyears earlier by Nebuchadnezzar.22 6. R. Assunto, ‘Monuments’,Enqclopedia of
This shows the existence of a concept of his- World Art, op. cit., Vol. X,col.275.
tory in Mesopotamia even if only in a re- 7. ‘The Egyptian Expedition’, New York Me-
ligious context. The same clay documents tropolitan Museum Bulletin, Vol. XVI, I 92I,
mention the unearthing of an inscription p. I I; A.Badawy,Architecture in Ancient Egypt
belonging to the first builder of the Temple and the Near East, p. 4, Cambridge, Mass.,
Naramsin, son of Sargon, which had been MIT Press, 1966.
buried j,zoo years before.23 Furthermore, 8. Abercrombie maintains that this was the re-
Mesopotamian settlements were always on sult of the canal irrigation system built along
the Nile: P.Abercrombie, Town and County
the same site; every new settlement was the Planning, 3rd ed., rev. by D.Rigby Childs,
continuation of a previous one,which led to pp.29-30, London,Oxford University Press,
the development of mounds. Long-term,
‘959.
continuous settlement locations very often 9. B. Smith, Egyptian Architecture as Cultural
carry cultural particularities and religious Expression, p. 213, New York, Appleton-
attributes.In Sumerian settlements the same Century, 1938;Badawy,op.cit.,pp. 18-19.
temples were frequented for millennia and IO. Abercrombie,op.cit.,pp. 30-1.

were consistently repaired.24 In Ur,the city I I. ‘Karnak,being the best preserved of these,
centre was continuouslyrebuilt.25The use of provides the most striking example of such
the same sites for habitation and worship for structural accumulation over the centuries.’
thousands of years is an expression of the
W.S. Smith, The A r t and Architecture of A n -
cient Eupt,p. 132, Baltimore, Md.,Penguin
theocratic attitude and consistent tradition- Books, 1958; Badawy, op.cit., p. 38.
alism of Mesopotamian culture.26 12. Giedion states that Egyptians considered their
temples as human entities, capable of life,
death and rebirth: S. Giedion, The Eternal
Present: The Beginnings of Architecture, p. 3 5 2,
New York, Pantheon Books, 1964. 25
Antiquity

13. Characteristic examples are the temple and Palace of Sennacherib, Plate 3. The Hague, Mar-
other buildings of Philae:see ibid.p. 25 4.For tinus Nijhoff, 191 5. For the London stele, see:
statues, see N.von Holst, Creators, Collectors H.C. Rawlinson, A Selectionfrom the Histor-
and Connoisseurs, p. 31, N e w York, G. P. ical Inscriptions of Chaldaea, Assyria and
Putnam’s Sons, 1967. Babylonia, Plate 7, No. VIII, P, London,
14. F. R. Hiorns, Town-Building in Histov. A n P.H.Bowler, 1861;for the translation of the
Outline Review of Conditions, InJuences, Ideas and inscription,see:D.D.Luckenbill, Ancient Rec-
Methods Affecting ‘Planned’ Towns through ords of Assyria and Babylonia, Vol. 11, p. 195,
Five Thousand Years, pp. 14-15, London, No. 476,Chicago,The University of Chicago
George G.Harrap, 1956.For a concept of the Press, 1927.
home in Ancient Egypt, see Giedion,op. cit., 20. Badawy, op. cit., pp. 84-5; Luckenbill, op.

p. 504. cit.,pp. 162-7 and pp. 176-7.

I 5. Herodotus, The Histories o f Herodotus o jHali- 21. Luckenbill, op. cit.,p. 195,Nos. 474-7.
curnassus (translated by H.Carter), Book 11, 22. For the building stele erected by Nabupalid-
para. I 3 8, p. 147,London, Oxford University diaa in 870 B.C. concerning same temple, see
Press, 1962. H.Frankfort, The A r t and Architecture of the
16. P. Lavedan and J. Hugueney, L‘histoire de Ancient Orient, p. 106, Plate 21, Baltimore,
Purbanisme: Pantiquiti, 2nd ed., p. 71, Paris, Md., Penguin Books, 1963.
Henry Laurens, 1966; M. L. Gothein, 23. For the use of this document in establishing
Geschichte der Gartenkunst, Vol. I, 1926,Figs. the date, see British Museum, A Guide to the
10-14. Babylonian and Assyrian Antiquities, pp. I 24- 5 ,
17. Lavedan and Hugueney, op. cit.,Fig. 22. 171-2,No. 65 (91-109). Plate XXX, Lon-
18. Ibid., p. 72; R. Johnson, Great Events by don, Harrison &Sons, 1900.
Famous Historians, Vol.I, pp. 36-7, No. 228- 24. It was also expected that the monuments be
33, N e w York, The National Alumni, 1905. maintained and restored by future genera-
Also, if a slave died when a building col- tions:see Luckenbill, op.cit.,p. 181, No. 427.
lapsed, the builder had to provide a replace- zy . For building activities of the Babylonian
ment, pay for all the damage and reconstruct king, Kuri-Galzu,c. 1400B.c., see L.Wooley,
the house. Ur of the Chaldees, rev. ed., p. 130, London,
19. This inscription concerning Sennacherib is Penguin Books, 1954.
seen on two stele. One is in the British 26. The orderly development of main streets in
Museum (BM 124800),the other in the Istan- settlements that were not pre-planned is a
bul Museum of Archaeology.For the one at mark of this attitude: see Badawy, op. cit.,
Istanbul, see: A. Paterson, Assyrian Sculptures, pp. 82-3.

26
Aegean civilization 2

The theocratic concept of temples and pal- cessive rebuilding campaigns, however, is
aces,' as in Mesopotamia where political limited.'
power and religion were represented by a At earthquake-prone Knossos, alongside
single person: also occurs with some similar- the fidelity to the basic order of the palace
ity in settlementsprior to the first millennium complex at every rebuilding,there existed a
B.C. in the Aegean area.3 more colourful and aesthetic attitude com-
pared with that of Mesopotamia. Around
the original palace courtyard multi-storied
T H E CONTRIBUTION O F T R O Y A N D C R E T E
galleries were later added. Archaeological
excavation has shown, however, that small
The most renowned example of a theocratic earlier shrines were carefully protected and
settlement of the period is Knossos in Crete. even restored at the foundationsofthe palace
It would, however, be enlightening to in- during subsequent reconstructions.8The im-
clude Troy since it possesses other particu- portant innovation was the concern for light,
larities as an Anatolian settlement." flowers and colourful decorations.This can
It is generally acknowledged that Troy be considered as the Minoan civilization's
comprised nine layers of human habitation.5 particular contribution to the Egyptian and
Although the first archaeologistscalled Troy Mesopotamian emphasis on the impressive-
a city,in reality it consisted of a palace and ness, functionalism and sanctity of places
public buildings protected by a wall. The that establish a link with the past.
second Trojan settlement,destroyed in about
2000 B.c., is of particular interest,especially
GREEK CONCERN F O R THE
the Megaron-typebuildings located behind a
ENVIRONMENT
courtyard after the entrance through the
walls.The shape of the courtyard,influenced In order to study the development of this
by the physical resemblance of the Megarons trend in other areas of the Aegean,one need
and of the gate, indicates the rapport be- only refer to the numerous archaeological
tween the buildings. The asymmetrical rela- discoveries of the past century.9
tionship between the entrance gate and the One significant architectural development
largest Megaron implies a deliberate attempt of the classical Greek period consists of
to achieve harmony among all the buildings. monuments erected in honour of famous
Changes between the first settlement and persons.In Mesopotamia these were built by
those that followed have certain elements in the rulers for themselves.In the Aegean,the
common,6 proving that order was intended; individualin whose name the monument was
our knowledge of the dates of these suc- erected was not the person who ordered it to 27
Antiquity

be built. Other differences lie in the profane tails of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, its
nature and in the historical values attached to original construction, and the legends and
monuments. myths associated with it. The temple in
The concept of art in the Greek world is front of which he stood was, to his amaze-
described by Aristotle in his Poeticu: ‘Allart ment, five centuries old at the time of his
is imitation’.Thus the repetition of shape visit.15 From Pausanias’ description of the
and subject or their imitation was not consi- Temple of Hera at Olympia,*b which he
dered demeaning or a sign of lack of imagina- visited when it was eight centuries old, w e
tion and artistic ability.The artist’s function learn that the original wooden columns had
was to follow the masters without showing rotted and been replaced by marble ones.H e
ambition, vanity or a desire for change. writes that in the opisthodomos, where
Within this order of things, new and cons- climatic exposure was less severe,one of the
tructive ideas could be appraised. Artists oak columns remained. In addition, archae-
were not belittled for repeating or copying ological excavations have shown that the re-
designs or for using them to express new placement columns are in the style of the
forms or concepts.10This attitude expresses period in which the restoration work was
the balanced relationship between discipline conducted.Thus the temple is of further in-
and independence that existed in the Greek terest in the study of historical trends in
world. conservation.
The natural result of the Greeks’ attitude Other citations from Pausanias illustrate
to imitation and repetition is a regard for that special attention was accorded not only
monuments built by their ancestors and con- to buildings that were still in use or those of
cern for their protection and repair. Borelli special aesthetic interest but also to notable
gives an extensive list of repair work con- ruins.One of these was at Olympia,near the
ducted on statues during this period.” Temple of Zeus:it was a wooden beam, the
During the second century B.c., Damaphon last vestige of a house belonging to Oina-
of Messenius replaced pieces of ivory fallen maos, kept in a square building resembling
from the statue of Zeus sculpted by Phidias an open-airmuseum of today and bearing an
at Olympia. In 160 B.C. the same artist inscription of a legend as to its nature and
worked on the gold coverings stolen by origin.Pausanias also mentions an obelisk at
Lachares in 296 B.C. from Phidias’ ‘Athena Olympia with an inscription describing the
Parthenos’.W e also find the great-grandson historic peace treaty between Sparta and
of the famous sculptor Scopas repairing two Athens, and relates that the house used by
statues of Agasias at Delos.12 The repairs by Amphytrion at Thebes when in exile from
Timotheos to the head of the statue of Tiryns was also considered a monument.17
Artemis in the Temple of Apollo are de- Yet one more example can be added.
scribed by Pliny at length.13 Pliny mentions While recounting Theseus’ life, Plutarch
not only the repairs but also the techniques writes that the boat in which Theseus re-
and materials employed.14 turned together with the other Athenian
Pausanias,the famous Roman traveller of youths had thirty oars and was preserved by
the second century A.D., describes the ancient the Athenians until the time of Demetrius of
monuments he encountered during his jour- Phaleron (317-307 ~.~.).18This was accom-
neys, and by stating that they were still in plished by replacing rotten planks with new
use,furnished valuable examples which rein- ones to such an extent that the boat became a
force what was surmised from the attention subjectof debate among philosophers.While
28 paid to small monuments. H e provides de- discussing the logic of the birth and growth
 Aegean civilization

of matter, some maintained that the boat re- ment and development of cities, imposed
mained as it was, others that it was no longer certain administrative rules and regulations
the same boat.19 in order to ensure their continuity.24What
The Temple of Hera at Olympia and strikes us most about this system, remini-
Theseus’boat are two interesting examples scent of modern city administration,is the
of monuments that were conserved for en- existence of a body of architects charged
tirely different reasons. The temple was the with the maintenance and repair of public
only sacred building with wooden supports buildings. There is mention of an architect
and was restored, according to the norms responsible for the inspection of streets
prevalent at the time, as a memorial of anti- and public buildings at Miletus,25 while an
quity and archaic methods of construction; Athenian decree of 420 B.C. provides a detailed
the boat in Athens was faithfully renewed for description of a position for an architect in
centuries because of its affiliation with a na- the city administration,whose duty it was to
tional hero.One m a y well ask whether these maintain and, if necessary, rapidly repair
are the first two examples of the technique of public buildings.26
conservation of monuments which can be These examples show that, in the Greek
treated methodologically. world,concern for the organization of built-
In addition to the specific examples cited up areas was officially acknowledged and
above,Herodotus’interest in historic build- accorded a permanent place in the adminis-
ings, together with the fact that Strabo, trative mechanism.27 When analysing the
though interested mainly in geography, Acropolis of Athens,authorities on the class-
often mentions historic buildings encoun- ical Greek period never fail to cite the Greeks’
tered during his travels and accuses Kam- educated vision with regard to the spatial
byses of barbarism for destroying monu- location of buildings.28 Outstanding fea-
ments and temples,20 demonstrate that the tures are the non-axial approach and the
ancient Greeks had a conscious interest in ‘oblique view revealing the three dimen-
history, in past events and the monuments sionality of the building’.29The controlled
thereof. Our interpretation of the aesthetic angle of vision from the Propylaea, the
interest inherent in this approach is rein- covered entrance of the Acropolis designed
forced by observing their attitude towards by Mnesicles,leads to a spacious square with
works of art. the buildings sited at the corners. Each
Certain modern studies have attempted to building is placed in such a way that it does
prove the sensitivity of the environmentally not spoil the appearance of the others; fur-
conscious Greeks in matters of city planning thermore,the space between the structures is
and landscape design.21 One historian has never square or rectangular.30In his analysis
even tried to establish the validity of thirty- of the Hekatompedon on the Acropolis,
to-sixty-degree visual angles and conical Dinsmoor realized that the Propylaea was
series in spatial planning.22 Although this planned with other buildings and courtyards
thesis of equation and formulae in decipher- in mind, and he strove to document this.31
ing the order in Greek architecture has not It is unreasonable to assume that every-
gathered many followers,they can neverthe- thing on the Athenian Acropolis was cal-
less be viewed as evidence of regularity in the culated in advance with the same degree of
patterns.23 contemplation.None the less, architects of
Written sources, archaeological discov- every period intelligently placed their own
eries and remains of settlements show that contributions alongside those of their prede-
the Greeks,always attentive to the establish- cessors, as w e observe in Mnesicles’ build- 29
Antiquity

Plate J.
Olympia, axonometricview of the Sacred Area
(from Durm).
 Aegean civilization

ings and in other sacred places.The religious commercial and intellectual intercourse and
precincts of other cities support this view. all types of social activity took place, w e can
The sacred area of Apollo at Delos, built witness the balance maintained between the
in the sixth century B.c., is another example. environmentof day-to-dayexistenceand that
Although it contains a large number of of the sacred milieu.
buildings in proportion to its surface area, Human beings have always experienced
later additions,such as the outer Stoa and the the need to come together,not only to trade
Treasury, were sited with the central com- and to exchange ideas,but also for religious
plex in mind. At Delphi the steep slope of and political reasons. These requirements
the terrain may have influenced the confused were satisfied either within a closed or open
order of the buildings; yet even in the flat, location. Such gatherings may have taken
sacred precinct of Zeus at Olympia, the place first of all in sacred precincts.Egyptian
statues and buildings dating from different temples, approached by wide roads, and
periods are also presented in a cluttered where large crowds gathered on ceremonial
manner. The only visible order here is days,must have assumed on such occasions
that between the rectilinear outer wall the aspect of a trade fair. Hittite temples,
built in the fifth century B.c., the alignment with their large, colonnaded courtyards,
of treasury buildings,the Altar of Zeus near were obviously places of political as well as
the centre,the central temples with a loose of religious encounters.In addition to tem-
axial order and buildings erected at different ples, squares for trading and other purposes
times, such as the Bouleuterion and Stoa.32 existed within the city gates, as at Zincirli.34
Also in the sacred area of Olympia,there is It is, however,in the Greek world,and spe-
an interesting example of the traditional de- cifically during the Hellenistic period, that
sire to establish a relationship between these multi-purposebuildings and areas were
groups of buildings and contiguous spaces. integrated into the city plan.35
T o the south are two buildings erected dur- The first such examples in Greek civili-
ing the fifth and sixth centuries B.C. respec- zation,the archaic agora as in Athens, were
tively;their length is twice their width,their placed at cross-roads,irregularly oriented to-
western ends terminate in apses and their wards temples and private buildings. This
roofs are supported by a series of central was due to the initial, disorderly develop-
columns.During the Hellenistic period they ment of the cities.36 In the wake of the disas-
were joined together by a square structure. trous Persian wars, when the ideal city con-
In order to unify the two buildings further, cept was formulated,the agora ceased to be a
they were linked in front and on both sides haphazard assembly of multi-purposebuild-
by a peristyle Ionic portico. This complex, ings on the fringesof the city and became the
whose additions can be easily discerned in most important element in the city plan it-
the stylistic differences of each period, is self. When Greek city planning reached its
a good illustration of the re-evaluation of peak of development during the fifth and
historical structures. It can be interpreted fourth centuriesB.c.,the agora commanded a
as the normal manifestation of a conserva- definite urban position. With political,eco-
tion attitude to be expected at the most sacred nomic and sacred activities taking place
place of the period.33 therein,it was the most animated place in the
The Greeks' attachment to monuments city; from the fifth century B.C. onwards it
and their commitment to environmental evolved continuously and positively as an
order was not confined to sacred areas. If w e urban element acquiring new qualities and
consider the agoras,or urban markets,where significance. 3'
Antiquity

During this process, the Greek agora re- stone of the building first erected in 460 B.c.;
mained architecturally simple,even as a cen- the Bouleuterion was built before 400 B.c.,
tre of human activity. Generally the build- and around 300 B.C. a gallery was added
ings were in the Doric style. Within this there-to.40
simplicity,the basic aesthetic rules of Greek The large Stoa to the south,the enclosed
architecture are evident. Buildings were market place, was divided by a low wall in
always adapted to their specific functions; the middle and open on two sides.The east-
practical considerations dominated.37 ern fasade looked on to a small square which
The Athenian Agora, situated below the was presumably used primarily for daily mar-
north-western flank of the Acropolis since keting. At the western end of this market
the third century B.c., is a case of continuous place are the ruins of a nine-spoutfountain
development.More than a century of archae- (Inneakrounos)and a public library.
ological excavations have shown that its The Greek method of preserving old
slow growth complied with certain rules and buildings,assigning them new functions and
demands.Before adding a new structure,not harmonizing new buildings with the old,de-
only the ambient architecture, but also its veloped considerably during the Hellenistic
spatial relationship to surrounding buildings period. One example can be attributed to
were taken into consideration.Although not Attalos I1 (139-138 B.c.), King ofPergamum.
all solutions were yithout conflict,an inter- As a sign of gratitude to Athens, the city
esting level of planning was maintained.38As where he was educated,Attalos built a two-
a result,the Agora of the second century A.D. storey Stoa in the Agora. This harmonized
was a perfectly developed area capable of re- with adjacent buildings and was placed near
sponding to the needs of a city of zoo,ooo the Panothena processional road which cut
inhabitants.39 across the square diagonally from one cor-
The northern section of the Agora,buried ner to another.The Stoa thus commanded a
beneath the modern railway,is still being ex- good view of this road and further defined
cavated, but the greater part has been un- the eastern limits of the Agora square.41
earthed, revealing a square surrounded on
four sides by official buildings, with colon- T H E H E L L E N I S T I C A T T I T U D E A N D ITS
naded galleries as protection against rain AFTERMATH
and sun. T o the west are the remains of The integration of old and new in the Athe-
the administrative buildings such as the nian Agora was frequent in the Hellenistic
Bouleuterion or the council building, the period,as shown by excavations of buildings
Metroon, where state archives were kept; dating from later periods. The number of
alongsideit are the foundationsofthe Tholos, shops and offices increased;those constructed
a small meeting place for state representa- during the second century B.C. were followed
tives, and near that the Office of Standard yet again by new ones, such as the large
Weights and Measures. Further to the north building of the first century B.C. extending
stand the ruins of the Temple of Apollo, the to the east.
small colonnaded building where Socrates The last additions to the ever-expanding
and his students used to meet, and the Stoa Agora were those erected after the Roman
dedicated to Zeus. These buildings are the invasion. The section called the Roman
products of various periods: the Stoa was Agora was an open-air market-place, a
constructed towards the end of the fifth cen- permanent mercantile centre complete with
tury; the small round building, the sacred eating places, vendors of beverages and
32 Tholos, was a first-century B.C. replica in public rest-rooms.The old Agora, on the
 Aegean civilization

other hand,had become a centre of cultural,

rather than commercial, activity. During
Agrippa’s reign a large concert and con-
ference hall was built there, and small
monuments and buildings, displaced by the
new construction, were re-erected in other
parts of the square.42Among other things,
the statues of the Tyrannicides Harmodius
and Aristogeiton were moved and the large
Altar of Zeus Agoraios was transferred to
the Agora from the nearby hill of Pynx.43Yet
another incidence of moving a monument
from one location to another to be used and
maintained is of special significance owing to
the fact of its being the first case on such a
scale.The building known as the Temple of
Ares, measuring I T x 3 ) metres,@‘ and built
between 440-436 B.C.,45was transferred to
the Agora during the reign of Augustus. It
has been established that two other large
temples, similar to that of Ares, as well as
I-
small-scalebuildings,were dismantled stone
by stone and re-erected in the Agora on new
foundations.46 The Temple of Ares was
transported from Akharnai, 9 kilometres
to the north of Athens, more than four
centuries after it was originally built, to a
site alongside the contemporary Temple
of Hephaestus. Greek stone-masons’signs,
found side by side with Roman markings
on each block, illustrate how the temple
was dismantled and systematically rebuilt.47
Augustus,who encouraged and revived re-
ligious customs and beliefs in the countries
he conquered, presumably transferred the
temple in order to impress the Greeks.
Nevertheless, he must also have been moti-
vated by the Greek respect for monuments.
In addition,a member of the imperial family
was deified and his name was attached to that
of the original patron of the temple, thus
i\

imparting a new meaning to the building in

its new site.48 It is also worth while noting
that the monuments may also have been
transplanted because their original site was Plate 4.
neglected and their upkeep had become diffi- Pergamum,plan of Upper Town. 33
Antiquity

cult. Also of interest in the Agora was the Certain scholars claim that the city’s plan
display of statues and shrines alongside the is the work of a single master, in spite of the
two temples, thus creating a museum-like fact that the buildings belong to different
environment not unlike those in certain periods.57It is more likely that the organiza-
urban centres today.49 The same phenome- tion of this settlement, unrelated to the
non occurs in other places such as Olympus Hippodamian system applied in other cities,
and Delphi.50These latter examples suggest was formulated by several planners over a
an evolution in the Greek attitude towards protracted period of time.
monuments similar to the changes in the con- Buildings of the upper town were erected
cept of the Agora. They show a conscious by the Attalids family during the second cen-
concern for the environment51which extends tury ~.c.;58 the settlement later expanded
to the whole; as in architecture and sculpture. downwards into the valley.59The manner in
Further examples from the Hellenistic pe- which temples and public buildings were
riod can be cited,which strongly influenced erected on terraces is an example of the ju-
the attitudes and customs of the Romans. dicious use of the terrain for the purpose of
These were built within a short span of time, expansion.The terraces are orderly and geo-
but illustrate various trends.They enable us metrical in shape and the streets uniting them
to study the interrelationship between the are unpretentious.The few public staircases
Agora,the Acropolis and the structureof the are not monumental.Buildings are generally
entire city. Pausanias,who travelled in the oriented in relation to the main north-south
second century A.D., intimates the charac- road and to the direction of the theatre
teristics of this arrangement in his descrip- overlooking the valley,to the west. A certain
tion of the Agora of Elis in the Peloponnesus order is discernible in this pattern, despite
built around 479 B.C.52H e declares that it is the lack of symmetry.60
not after ‘the fashion of the cities of Ionia The Agora at Pergamum, developed on
and of the Greek cities near Ionia’,thus mak- terrain below the Altar of Zeus,exemplifies
ing a distinction between the Doric and the this order.61 When built during the second
Ionic attitudes.Indeed,the remains of Ionian century B.c.,the agora format of the period
settlements in western Anatolia demonstrate was already firmly codified.The area was to
that these people were the forerunners of be square or rectangular in plan and enclosed
orderly city planning.53 on all sides;free symmetry was the rule.The
Representative of this region is the work Ionian agora had one further particularity:it
of Hippodamus of Miletus. His plans, aus- was to have access to a main street and be
tere to the point of dryness,as in the case of surrounded by a U-shaped stoa.62 Political
Priene,54can be accepted as ideal. W e shall, and topographical requirements, however,
however,concentrate on a settlement that is imposed a different solution at Pergamum;
considered compelling by some modern ar- thus it is not possible to find a full appli-
chitects and city planners, unaesthetic by cation of all contemporary rules.In addition
others.55This is Pergamum,built ingenious- to the pre-existing platform of the Altar of
ly on a steep hill some 271 metres above the Zeus to the north-west,earlier palaces and
valley. The city, with its monumental sil- other buildings restricted the planning of the
houette,is asymmetricalowing to an irregular Agora. The ceremonial street leading to the
site and a winding road. It is a perfect Acropolis cuts across the terrain in an awk-
example of the use of Greek principles of ward way, imposing further limitations on
composition,which take advantage of all the the architect. Nevertheless, the designer
34 available land on a steep incline.56 formulated a very successfulsolution.63It is a
 Aegean civilization

concept of city planning based upon general NOTES

rules and unconditional respect for the en-
vironment and for the past, as indicated by I. G.Sjoberg, ‘The Origin and Evolution of
the harmony established with the Altar of Cities’,Scient@ American, Vol. 213, No. 3,
Zeus and with the ceremonial street. September 1965, p. 18.
This is not the only such example of the 2. A.Badawy, Architecture in Ancient Egypt and

period.The layout of the Assos Agora offers the Near East,pp. 209-10,Cambridge,Mass.,
certain parallels.64 At Kos,when the Agora MIT Press, 1966.
was reconstructed during the second century 3. For Egypt’s influence on this change, see
B.c., buildings dating from the previous
A. W.Lawrence, Greek Architecture, p. 34,
Harmondsworth,Penguin Books, 19j7.
two centuries were incorporated into the
4. For other Anatolian cases, see Badawy, op
scheme.65 The Agora of Delos can also be cit.,pp. 122-8.
cited.66 These examples illustrate the fact that 1. W.B.Dinsmoor, The Architecture of Ancient
architects and city planners were able to use Greece, p. 16,London,Batsford Ltd, 1910.
the general principles guiding the design of 6. Lawrence,op.cit.,pp. 8-12, Figs. 1 and 6.
agoras,taking into consideration the terrain, 7. Ibid.,p. 297, note 4.
pre-existingstructures,and the specific needs 8. Ibid.,pp. 34-9, Fig.20.
of everyday life.67 Since the agora was a 9. For research on this period,technicians con-
mirror of city life, it contained elements re- cerned with the repair and care of small ob-
flecting the religious,political and economic jects have found various sources and
materials useful.See M.C.de Azevedo,‘Con-
tendencies of the time. Greek agoras can
servazione e restaur0 presso i Greci e i
therefore be considered as open-airmuseums, Romani’, Bollettino dell’lstituto Centrale del
relating the history of the cities with their Restauro, Vols.IX-X,19j2, pp. 13-60.
customs and main events.68 IO. This tradition constitutes the most interesting
Pergamum is the prototype of a new con- aspect of the study of Greek art; see G.Lip-
cept in the Hellenistic city.It is a monument pold, ‘Antike Gemaldekopien’,Abb. A h d .
reflecting the power and reputation of its Munchen, N.S. XXXIII,1911.The compe-
ruler.The influence of Attalos and Eumenes tition between artists must not be forgotten:
is pervasive throughout.@ This emerging N.von Holst,Creators, Collectors and Connois-
seurs, p. 22, New York,G.P.Putnam’s Sons,
trend was to continue without interruption.
The new rulers of the Greek world, the 1967.
I I. L.V.Borelli,‘Restorationand Conservation:
Romans,would develop it further. Sculpture’, Enylopedia of World Art, Vol.
The urbanization of Roman society,and XII,col. 191, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1966.
the importanceattached to city planning,fol- 12. T.Homolle, ‘Les Romains a Dtlos’, Bulletin
low the Hellenistic tradition. It is generally de correspondance hkllinique, Vol. VIII, I 884,
believed that the Romans’conversion from pp. 143-4;L.Bizard and P.Roussel,‘Fouilles
village to city life dates from the conquest of de Dklos’,ibid.,Vol. XXXI,1907,p. 41 8.
the Greek world in the second century B.c., 13. Pliny, Naturalis Historiae, XXXVI,3 2 ; the
and particularly after their adoption of the restoration of the marble statues on the west-
ern facade of Olympia Zeus can also be
Pergamum Laws70 of Attalos I11 around
added: C.Erder, ‘HellenistikDevir Anadolu
133 B.C7’
Mimarisinde Kyma Rekta-Kyma Reversa’,
O.D.T.U., Mimarlik Fakultesz, Dergisi Say1 8,
1967, pp. 11-16, Plate IV,b-c; for other
examples,see G.Lippold, Kopien und Umbil-
dungengriechischer Statuen,Munich,C.H.Beck,
‘923. 31
Antiquity

14. For metals, especially for bronze and copper Archaeology, No. j i , 1947,pp. 127-51, (es-
rust, see Pliny, op. cit., XXXIV,XXI,99. pecially p. 137,note I io); Martin, op. cit.,
For other materials, see Azevedo, op. cit., p. 266. Abercrombie maintains that the plan-
PP.58-9. ning of the Acropolis is not based only on
I 5. Pausanias,Descrdption of Greece (trans.by J. B. aesthetic values as in Delphi, but is an
Frazer,London, Macmillan, 1898), Book X, example of ‘dynamicplanning’:P.Abercrom-
v, 9-13, bie, Town and County Planning, 3rd ed. rev.by
16. Ibid.,pp. 260-1,Book V,XVI, 1-8. D.Rigby Childs,pp. 84-1, London,Oxford
17. Ibid.,v, 20, v, 2 3 , IX, 11. University Press, 19~9.
I 8. Plutarch, Lives (translation called Dryden’s, 3 2. Lawrence,op.cit.,pp. 151-3.
corrected from the Greek and revised by A. 3 3 . Ibid.,p. 252.
H.Clough), Vol I, p. 21, Book I, I, Boston, 3 4. ‘In peacetime the gates of the town on the
Mass.,Little,Brown, 1863. Citadel played an important role which the
19. Auxanomenos-pseudomenos (The grower and market-placefulfilled in the Greek cities’;see
the liar), a discussion on whether growing H.Frankfort, The A r t and Architecture of the
things keep their ties with their origins; see Ancient Orient, p. 170, Fig. 82, Baltimore,
ibid.,p. 2 1 and notes. Md.,Penguin Books, 1963.
20. M.S.Briggs,Goths and Vandals.A Study ofthe 31. Lavedan and Hugueney,op.cit.,p. 2 2 2 .
Destruction, Neglect and Preservation of Historical 36. R. Martin, Recherches sur l‘Agora Grecque,
Buildings in England, pp. 1-2, London, Con- pp. 363-71,j43-5, Paris, Editions de Boccard,
stable,1952. 195 1.
z I, R.D. Martienssen, The Idea of Space in Greek Ibid.,p.545.
Architecture, pp. 126-30, Fig. XXI,Johan- H.A.Thompson,‘Agora’,Scient.@ American,
nesburg, Witwatersrand University Press, vol. CLXXXIII,August 1950,p. 47.
I95 8. 39. Lawrence,op.cit.,p. 216, Fig. 144.
22. K.A. Doxiadis, Raumordnung in griechischen 40. Ibid,pp. 256-7.
Studtebau, Heidelberg,Kurt Vowinckel, 1937. 41. For the excavations in the Agora, see H.A.
23. P. Lavedan and J. Hugueney, L’histoire de Thompson, ‘Excavations in the Athenian
I’urbanisme: fantiquati, 2nd ed., pp. 243-6, Agora, I9j z’, American ]ournal of Archaeology,
Paris,Henry Laurens, 1966. Vol.LVII,January 19~3,pp. 21-5; ‘Activi-
24. R.Martin, L’urbanisme dans la Grice Antique, ties in the Athenian Agora, 195 j’, ibid.,Vol.
pp. 48-72, Paris,A.&J. Picard, 19j6. LX,April 1960,pp. I 3 5 -6; ‘Activity in the
2 5.Milet, Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen und Untersu- Athenian Agora, I960- I96j ’, Hesperia, Vol.
chungen sed dem labre 1899,Vol,I, No. 7, p.3I, XXXV,No. I, 1966,pp. 37-14; ‘TheAnnex
Berlin, 1907. to the Stoa of Zeus in the Athenian Agora’,
26. Martin,op. cit., p. 69. ibid.,Vol. XXXV,No. 2, 1966,pp. 171-87;
27. For the Greek origin of the concept of envi- Martin,Recherches ...,op.cit.,pp. 43 I-3.
ronment,see S. Giedion, The Eternal Present: 4 2 . This building,called the Odeon, was 42.5 x
The Beginnings of Architecture, pp.494-5, New 5z.j m and resembled a covered theatre; its
York,Pantheon Books, 1964. date of constructionis estimated as 16B.C. See
28. For a special study on the subject,see Focil- W.B. Dinsmoor, ‘The Temple of Ares at
Ion,L a vie desformes, Paris,Librairie Ernest Athens’,Hesperia, Vol. IX,1940,p. 5 I.
Leroux,1934. 43. R.H.Howland, ‘Travelersto Olympus’,in
29. R. Stillwell, ‘The Siting of Classical Greek A.Rains (ed.), Vith Heritage So Rich,p. 142,
Temples’,Journal of the Society of Architectural N e w York,Random House,1966.
Historians, Vol. XIII, No. 4, December 1914, 44. The measurements of the frieze are 14 x j I x
P.I. 34.04m.See American Journal of Archaeology,
30. Lawrence,op.cit.,p. 156, Fig.91. VOl XLIV,1940,P.240.
3 I. W.B.Dinsmoor,‘TheHekatompedonon the 45 Dinsmoor,‘TheTemple of Ares at Athens’,
’

36 Athenian Acropolis’, American Journal of op.cit.,pp. 1 - j ~ ; for the date see p. 42.
 Aegean civilization

46. One of them was the Temple of Athena j 5. Lawrence,op. cit.,p. 279.
brought from Sunion and rebuilt in the 56. Abercrombie,op.cit.,p. 85.
south-west corner of the Agora, the other j7. T.Fyfe, Hellenistic Architecture, pp. 170-1,
was the Temple of Demeter brought from London, Cambridge University Press, 1936;
Thorikos,1 2 kilometres north of Sunion,to Hiorns, op. cit., p. 42.For a comparison of
be re-erectedin the south-eastcorner of the the angles and curves in the plan of Per-
Agora.For the way in which they were trans- gamum with the work of Paul Klee and
ported see H.A.Thompson,‘ItinerantTem- Kenzo Tange, see: Bacon, op. cit.,
ples of Attica,Paper Read before the Annual pp. 46-7.
Meeting of the Archaeological Institute of 18. E.V.Hansen, The Atfalides of Pergamon, p.
America, Detroit,December 27, 1961’, Amer- 219, Ithaca,N.Y., 1947.
ican journal of Archaeology, Vol. LXVI,1962, 59. Lavedan and Hugueney,op.cit., p. 249.
p. zoo; The Athenian Agora, A Guide fo the 60. Martin’s theories on Pergamum have been
Excavation and Museum, pp. 26-7, Athens, strongly opposed: see A. Kriesis, Gnomon,
American School of Classical Studies, 1962; Vol. 29. ‘957. pp. 362-3.
M.H.McAllister, ‘The Temple of Ares at 61. The Pergamum and other agoras are studied
Athens, A Review of the Evidence’,Hespe- by Martin, Recherches ..., op.cit.
ria, Vol. XXVIII,No. I, 1959,pp. 2, 47 et 62. Ibid.,p.420.
seq. 63. Altertimer von Pergamon, Vol. 111, No. I,
47. For its original site and its re-erection,see pp. 93 et seq., Plate XXVIII,I, Berlin, 1896;
H.S. Robinson, American Journal of Arcbae- W. Zschietzchmann, Paulb- Wissowa Real-
ology, Vol. XLVII,1943.pp. 291-301; Dins- Enylopadie der klassiscben Altertumswissen-
moor, ‘The Temple of Ares and the Roman schaff, Vol.XIX,cols, 12jz-3; M.Collignone
Agora’,ibid.,pp. 383-4. and E.Pontremoli,Pergame: restauration et de-
48. Thompson, The Athenian Agora ..., op. cit., scription des monuments de PAcropole,pp. j 2-4,
p. 1 5 , Paris,L.H.May, 1900.
49. For the development of the Athens Agora see 64. Martin,op.cit.,p.429.
E.N. Bacon, Design of Cities, pp. j 2-7, New 6j. Ibid,pp. 437-46.
York,Viking Press, 1967. 66. Bollettino d’arte, 1950, pp. 60 et seq.,Figs. I,
jo. Lawrence,op.cit.,pp.151-6, 253-79. 21-1.

j I. A feature that attracts much attention in 67. These types of concessions are seen not only
Greek settlements is their large number and in the agoras but also in the general order of
their small size. Greek social structure and city plans. In Palmyra for example the other-
deliberate city planning are offered as expla- wise straight main street skirts around impor-
nations. Aristotle says that for a settlement tant buildings; see A. Gabriel, ‘Recherches
(polis), ‘Ten are too few, IOO,OOO are too archkologiques h Palmyre’,Syria, Vol. VII,
many’;see F.R.Hiorns,Town Building in His- 1926,pp. 71-92.
tory. A n Outline Review of Conditions, Influences, 68. A n attractive example of this is Delos: see
Ideas and Methods Affecting ‘Planned’ Towns Martin,L‘urbanisme . . . , op.cit.,pp. 266-8.
through Five Thousand Years, p. 3 7, London, 69. The stoa built by Attalos in the Agora of
George G.Harrap, 19j6. Athens, and the stoa called the Philippeion
jz. Pausanias,VI, 24, 2; A Tritsch, ‘Die Agora after Philip of Macedonia in the Agora of
von Elis und die altgriechische Agora’,jah- Megalopolis (Arcadia) are similar examples.
resbejte des Cherreicbischen Archaologiscben In- Their character is related to such eastern
StitUtS, vol. XXVII,1932, P.64. monuments as the Mausoleum of Halicar-
13. For Miletus and other examples, see nassus built in the fourth century B.C. for an
Lawrence, op. cit., p. 254; Bacon, op. cit., Oriental ruler.
pp. 60-2. 70. There is a wealth of information at Per-
14. Dinsmoor,The Arcbifecture of Ancient Greece, gamum on municipal rules, such as the up-
op.cit.,p. 2 6 2 , Fig.96. keep of roads, disposal of rubbish, open 37
Antiquity

sewers, etc. W h e n compared with contem- Athens sacred arena with its works belonging
porary city regulations their progressive na- to the period between the sixth and third cen-
ture is obvious. See Martin, L’urbanisme ..., turies B.C. assembled by Eumenes in 170B.c.,
op. cit., pp. 1 8-9. can be cited as a leading example. See von
71. Lavedan and Hugueney, op. cit.,p. tjz. T h e Holst, op. cit., pp. 24-1.
T h e R o m a n era 3

COLLECTORSHIP Of the two main roads,the central street of

decumanus is the east-west axis;perpendicular
In our attempt to find early examples, w e to it is the cardo. As at Aosta, the cardo is
lack the necessary evidence to establish a usually slightly closer to one side of the city.
continuity in the evolution of settlements It can also be interrupted by the forum,
from one civilization to another.Settlements which encompasses several insulae,or by offi-
far distant from each other chronologically cial buildings. The streets are often flanked
and geographically can show similarities. by colonnades. N o special provisions are
Trying to discover repeated patterns and made within the plan for the theatre or
links between them demands perseverance officialstructures.The only axis is the central
and often succeeds only by chance. street which may sometimes lead to the
It is difficult, for example, to prove the forum.
existenceof a relationship between the settle- When compared with Pergamum or
ments created for Egyptian workers at Tel Miletus and Priene,which have more elabo-
El-Amarna, the texture of perpendicular rate plans, Roman settlements have a mech-
roads and square blocks of houses in anical and simple pattern.Here one does not
Babylonia1 attributed to Nebuchadnezzar,2 find the elegance of Greek cities, created by
and the plans of Hippodamus.The same dif- orderly development and by a concept of
ficulty is faced in explaining the uniformity settlement governed by concern for beauty
of Italian settlements dating from pre- and aesthetics.It must be remembered,how-
Roman times.3 It may be unjustified to claim ever, that the plans of Aosta and Timgad
that they were copied from Greece or the were devised by military engineers for
Orient, since the same type of planning, al- colonial and military programmes and thus
beit more primitive,is found in the western their main aim was order and functionalism.
settlementsof Terramare. The early Romans placed practicality and
The question becomes more complicated expediency before artistic considerations.
when the remains of well-planned Roman Their sentiment towards works of art was
colonial military camps are considered.The initially quite different from that of the
example provided by Timgad in North Greeks;it was negative to the point of appar-
Africa4 is quite a common one. Military ent total denial.6They viewed art as a toy to
foundations from the period of Augustus be tolerated for the amusement of the people
possessing similar features are to be found in they conquered. This attitude, based upon
Turin and Aosta.5The plan of Aosta is com- the assumption that the societies they sub-
posed of square and rectangular blocks jugated had succumbed to a state of sub-
(insulae), practical to measure and to build. servience because of their indulgence in art, 39
Antiquity

may be characteristic of a race chiefly con- O n the Italian peninsula, Pompeii, pre-
cerned with agriculture and world domi- served by the ashes of Mount Vesuvius, is
nation. It took centuries to change this exemplary of the transition period and shows
attitude. the Greek-Roman liaison.Here we also see
However,w e are concerned here with the the preservation of works of art and of build-
Romans’ progressive nature which eventu- ings belonging to former periods.As a prod-
ally transformed them into art collectors and uct of archaeological discoveries,Pompeii in
changed their attitude towards their environ- its present state is an appropriate illustration
ment. Today it is believed that this change of the expression that ‘cities are indexes of
should be evaluated in terms of the strong the civilization that produced them’.ll
influence of Hellenistic culture.7 The ‘symmetrical’Roman concept and the
While discussing Pergamum, chosen ‘free-form’ Greek concept exist side by side
because it reflects the social and political at Pompeii.Indeed the Doric temple and the
changes throughout the Hellenistic era, it Triangular Forum of the Greek period re-
can be seen that the two basic necessities for main intact.The Forum civile, which was re-
the realization of a large settlementplan were built to constitute the centre of the city,was
observed-economic potential and a policy expanded to a piazza three times its previous
of ostentation. These conditions were ap- length, with colonnaded galleries on three
plied in Pergamum by the Attalids. As a re- sides and a large temple at one narrow end.
sult,Greek town planning gained the further Administrative buildings had access to these
dimension of monumentalization.Economic galleries. The most frequented public build-
and political stability was necessary if this ings have thus been assembled in an attrac-
concept (devised by the Attalids) was to en- tive manner.12
dure and spread. The Romans were capable During Pompeii’s most prosperous
of ensuring such stability.The fact that they period, the old Triangular Forum near the
imitated most of the Greek architectural Stabian Gate was preserved as it was in the
forms attests to their attachment to Greek fourth century B.C. T w o theatre buildings,
civilization.They were happy to apply their adjacent to a colonnaded courtyard of the
own methods of construction and express first century B.c.,stood harmoniously along-
their own taste and concept of power.8 side new civic buildings near the Forum,and
Similarly, in analysing the relation between the old temple within the triangular space.
Roman environmental design and the Greek Thus the town of Pompeii shows the
approach, it is possible to observe the re- Romans’ concern for the preservation and
lationship between Greek and Roman archi- re-evaluationof monuments left by previous
tecture on social and city-planninglevels.9 generations as well as their concept of art,
The successfulplanning of the city of Per- architecture and city planning within earlier
gamum, which was the culmination of the settlements.
Greek concepts of order and rational site The Romans often rebuilt entire parts of
settlement,was adopted by the Romans,who their principal cities in order to make them
inevitably came under the influence of its tra- more imposing and spacious.13 They did so
dition.10By accepting the concept of monu- primarily, however, by adding to existing
mentalism,by adding a concern for symme- buildings and spaces without altering the old
try and axial order,and by establishing a pro- pattern. This Roman concept of urbanization
portional relationship between masses and spread out to the Middle East and the British
empty spaces,the Romans created their own Isles, blending the old with the new;Baalbek
40 type of urban form. and Ostia are two such cases.14
 The Roman era

Plate 1.
Pompeii, Rectangular Forum (Foro Civile).
Antiquity

M A R C U S VITRUVIUS P O L L 1 0 information is given on the design of civic

architecture,such as the forum,the basilica,
Ruins and archaeological research provide theatres and administrative structures;it in-
physical evidence of the continuous effort to cludes an introductionto the theory of Pytha-
harmonize the new with the traditional. A goras and his laws on harmony and acoustics,
literary source, a book written during the as well as general building information.
first century B.c.; defends forcefully the idea The sixth part concerns settlements and
that contact with the past cannot be abol- their planning. Private dwellings, building
ished.15 This work,entitled Ten Books on Ar- methods and types,farm and country houses,
chitecture, was written by Marcus Vitruvius buildings of stone, brick and mud, and the
Pollio for the Emperor Augustus and has arrangement of rooms are treated in a way
come down to us almost intact. Vitruvius, that interests a modern reader. The seventh
who later had an important influence on Eu- part on the decoration of buildings expounds
ropean architecture,states that there is con- the ideas of Greek and Roman sculptors;also
tinuity in life, that there is no contradiction discussed are mosaics, arches, wall cover-
in accepting a new trend while protecting the ings,special wall cavities to prevent humid-
old,and that it is wrong to think that confu- ity,and various moulds.
sion is created by mixing them.H e provides The last chapters of Vitruvius’ work are
examples to illustratethis thesis.H e demands devoted to subjects of concern to architects
that the architect be interested in all branches but which today lie in the domain of en-
of science,because creativity without knowl- gineers.Part 8 deals with hydraulic engineer-
edge, as much as knowledge without crea- ing,including its history;the construction of
tivity, does not make man complete. H e viaducts; instruments and materials used;
expects the architect to keep abreast of lit- water-pipes;the detection of mineral-water
erature, to be an expert draughtsman and sources and other information on obtaining
knowledgeablein geometry,to have a com- water. The ninth part, on the scientific
prehension of optics, to be well-versed in knowledge of the Greek world, concerns
mathematics, well-read in history,analytical geometry,the law of Archimedes,astronomy
in philosophy,endowed with a good ear and and related subjects.
taste in music, to be initiated in physics and The final section treats mechanies and de-
medicine,to understand law and be conver- scribes instrumentsof measure: lifts, pulleys,
sant with astronomy and the cosmos. pumps, water-mills,spiral tubes for convey-
The initial part of the book deals with the ing water, and instruments attached to wheels
science of architecture and what the architect to measure distances on land and water. It
must know,and with basic architecturalrules also includes a detailed description of antique
and concepts such as solidity, utility and war machines with illustrations.
beauty.In the second part, materials are dis- Vitruvius’concept of architectureas a uni-
cussed,with both ancient and contemporary versal discipline,as an undertaking related to
examples. Ancient systems of the definition every subject,has not, except for a certain
of matter devised by Thalos,Heraclitus and degree of specialization,changed to this day.
Democritusare explained. Since time immemorial the architect builder
The third part, devoted to an analysis of has necessarily been concerned with every-
architectural design, explains symmetry and thing related to his profession. As Vitruvius
proportions.This is completed in the fourth pointed out,he has to be concerned with his-
part by the particularitiesof the Ionic,Doric tory,with the accomplishments of architects
42 and Corinthian orders. In the fifth part, who preceded him.16
 The Roman era

Vitruvius offers us valuable information speech. Furthermore,they decided to pre-

on architecture and settlements.17His is the serve statues of the hero in other cities.This
earliest known treatise discussing various was an unusual action for the Romans,as for
theories of city planning.Although his ideas any other conqueror,whose custom it was to
are based on the principles of city planners plunder and to suppressthe vanquished.21
whose names and theories have not other- Literary records illustrate the contrast be-
wise come down to us,they are still relevant, tween the Greek world,where works of art
for they describe the attitudes prevalent in were identified with the city to which they
his time. H e begins by stating the funda- belonged as well as with religion, and the
mentals of settlement design.In the selection Roman world, where completely different
of the site, the foremost consideration is concerns reigned. T o begin with, the Ro-
health,then comfort and lastly beauty. This mans indiscriminatelycarried off their loot to
system of priorities was common among Ro- Rome. In 180 B.C. the Roman commander
mans during the first century B.C. Vitruvius Marcus Fulvius Nobilior returned from a
analyses individually the components that campaign loaded with 285 bronze and 230
constitute a city. H e shows how to take ad- marble statues, and nearly 60 kilograms of
vantage of climate, topography and other gold jewellery. As tastes developed, booty
elements, without being too inflexible and was chosen more carefully and some Roman
strict in his principles.18This master architect commanders even embarked on their cam-
also establishes the liaison between every paigns with art experts in their company.22
subject and its history. Following the Greek tradition, the Ro-
mans initially donated all works of art to
T H E W A R P A R I N G R O M A N A N D THE temples. Later, commanders kept part of
DEFEATED GREEK their spoils for themselves, marking the
beginning of private collections in Rome
Vitruvius’ statement that aesthetics in archi- and,it could be maintained,the beginning of
tecture is monumentalism was originally in- art appreciation in Roman society.This de-
spired by the Greek predilection for erecting sire to collect and embellish their homes may
buildings for the glorification of individuals. even have taught them discrimination.23
It is possible to study closely the reasons for The first Roman general to accumulate
the attention accorded to single buildings systematically a collection of art was Sulla,
and their relation to their environment. who became dictator in 82 B.C. His collection
Existing written documents reveal that the was a very large one, which comprised loot
Romans gradually developed a conscious- from the richest sanctuaries of the Greek
ness of place related to historicalevents.This world, such as the Temple of Apollo at
they carried even further in the field of art.19 Delphi, the Temple of Zeus at Elis and
Polybius bemoaned the fact that the sol- the Temple of Aesculapius at Epidaurus.
diers of the Roman Consul Lucius Mummius Though Mark Antony and Agrippa also
pillaged Corinth in 146B.C. without any re- acquired a reputation as discriminating col-
gard for its monuments and works of art,20 lectors, the administrator Verres, in emula-
some of which possessed a moral value for tion of his master Sulla,was by far the richest
the population.In another instance Polybius of his time.24
realized that destruction by Roman soldiers Artistic sensibility was, however, not the
of the statue of a local hero called Philopoe- sole reason that these Romans collected
men would offend the Corinthians; the sol- works of art, nor did they obtain it by pur-
diers refrained from so doing after Polybius’ chase. They acted from greed and passion 43
Antiquity

which sometimes went to extremes,even re- tained that it was preferable to steal or to
sulting in quarrels and fights25 One of the take away forcibly the artistic heritage of the
best documented cases is again that of Greeks rather than to swindle them through
Verres, when he was serving as governor of mock purchases, because ‘They account it
Sicily. His corruption and extortion were so the height of disgrace to have it set down in
notorious there that he was brought to trial their public records that their community
and became the subject of Cicero’s thunder- was induced by the offer of money, and of
ing Verrine Orations. a small sum of money at that, to sell and
In his On Worh of Art Cicero describes alienate its ancestral heirlooms.’Cicero also
Verres’ criminal ways of extorting works of stated that: ‘Becauseof this, our forefathers
art from their rightful owners.26 He com- were ready to let them keep as many of such
pares Verres’ actions with the attitudes of things as possible:to let our allies keep them,
other Roman warriors, noting that these so that they might enjoy the utmost splen-
generals never monopolized paintings and dour and prosperity as members of our
works of art they had plundered by installing empire.’31
them in their own homes, but instead had Cicero’s attitude found more support
used them to decorate the city of Rome and among other Romans than among selfish col-
its temples. H e mentions Publius Servilius, lectors like Sulla and Verres. There were
the conqueror of the richest area in the people such as Pompey,whose Greek edu-
Greek world,Olympia, who donated all his cation had given him an interest in art, and
gains to the people of Rome and had them who collected and displayed works of art in
registered at the treasury. Through Cicero public places.32 This practice illustrates the
w e also learn that registration at the treasury change that occurred among the Romans
was not by number alone, but that descrip- during the first century ~.c.33
tions and measurements of the objects were In Rome, full of the prizes of victory,
also rec0rded.~7 In contrast, the treasures there were also statues and monuments dedi-
that Verres obtained by theft and murder cated to famous people commissioned either
were displayed only in his own home and in by the Senate or by the individuals them-
those of his friends. selves. Although these were personal prop-
As Rome became filled with plunder, the erty, the Romans accepted them as public
Romans started to take ar. interest in such monuments erected to adorn the city.
objects.Some,like Cicero,did not show the Towards the end of the first century B.C.
same intense attachment to these objects as the Romans were described as regarding ad-
did the Greeks.28They were unable to under- miration of Greek art as an evolution in
stand the Greeks’bitter reaction at the loss of taste. They were eager to listen to and read
their artistic heritage.29When Verres claimed everything that was said and written on art34
to have bought works of art during his gov- and defended jealously the idea that works of
ernorship in Sicily,however,Cicero declared art belong to the public.A n incident related
that ‘nocommunity anywhere in Asia or in by Pliny concerning the statue of Apoxyo-
Greece has of its own free w il
l sold any menos by Lysippius characterizes this atti-
statue,or any picture, or any civic work of tude.35
art whatever to anyone on any occasion’.30 According to Pliny,this statue,which was
While some of his contemporaries were coveted by Tiberius,was placed in front of
well-versed in art appreciation, Cicero was the Baths of Agrippa. Though the Emperor
not.Nevertheless,he admired the Greek atti- controlled his desire for the piece during the
44 tude even though it mystified him.H e main- first years of his reign (A.D. 14-37), Tiberius
 The Roman era

finally gave in to his passion. He had the rebuilt damaged fortifications and improved
statue transported to his palace and replaced urban vistas.40While the generals built new
it with another. But popular reaction was structuresbearing their own names,they also
strong.When the Emperor was at the theatre endeavoured to maintain others, decorating
the audience clamoured: ‘Return to us our these older buildings with statues while
Apoxyomenos!’and in the end Tiberius was erecting new monuments in honour of lead-
forced to restore it to its original location. ing citizens and deities.41
Sometimes the Roman people’s desire to These activities could be undertaken only
appropriate works of art and monuments as with correspondinglegal measures under the
public property reached unexpected propor- responsibility and authority of a suitable ad-
tions owing to their refusalto accept the pre- ministrative mechanism. During the reign
rogative of commanders to keep plundered of Augustus,42 special magistrates were ap-
acquisitions to decorate their own homes. pointed to deal not only with administrative
For instance, Marcus Agrippa organized and legal duties, but also with the control of
public meetings and delivered speeches criti- public baths, fountains, water and sewage
cizing the behaviour of wealthy Romans on systems, as well as with archives and public
this matter and protesting against their re- ceremonies, and private and public build-
moval of certain works of art from the city.36 ings,43 to ensure that all were properly
Around A.D. 44, and again approximately maintained.44
ten years later, two bronze plaques inscribed It is not difficult to understand the Ro-
with decrees were displayed on a wall in the mans’ conservative attitude regarding prop-
city of Herculaneum. They issued warnings erty as described by Cicero;they considered
that anyone who demolished a building for it a dishonour to sell, or even to put a price
speculative purposes was obliged to pay dou- on the houses left to them by their ancestors,
ble the amount of the purchase price to the and consequently they accepted the laws re-
treasury.37These rules should be seen in con- quiring a sacrifice of the rights of the owner
junction with the Roman desire to protect of private property.45 Indeed the Her-
buildings and the urban environment within culaneum edict against property speculation
the concept of joint ownership. The Ro- referred to above was extended during
mans’ awareness in these matters affected Hadrian’s reign to become the ‘Codex de
their environment and prompted laws to Aedificatis Privatis’.46 Thus the sale of a
protect it. In spite ofthe fact that the right of dwelling to a buyer who intended to pull
individual property ownership formed the down its valuable parts was forbidden.The
basis of Roman law, this did not prevent sale was annulled and a penalty of twice the
them from enacting restrictive legislation amount of the purchase price was imposed
concerning environmental order.38 That on the would-be buyer. The Codex further
legal measures were harsh indicates the close specified that columns,piers, marble pieces,
interest taken in the surroundings. roof-tiles,doors,library shelves,in short,all
At the end of the second and during the items whose absence would render a dwel-
first century B.c.,when the Romans began to ling unaesthetic could not be removed.Also,
view art as more than just a prize of victory, movable items which were not part of the
when their might was universally acknowl- building but which served a beautifying pur-
edged and they felt themselvesto be the mas- pose, such as statues, paintings, vases, etc.,
ters ofthe world,they began to take an inter- could not be removed or sold. The owner
est in beautifying cities, particularly by im- was, however, granted certain rights; he
proving and decorating urban spaces.39They could transfer his furniture to his second
Antiquity

house or donate it and his dwelling to the construction after any form of demolition,
public. throughout the empire. The penalties for
These and other laws relating to the up- offences were harsh; expropriation for the
keep of public buildings also regulated city public benefit was the usual practice. Laxity
planning and administration in the Roman in upkeep and repairs was punished accord-
Empire.One of the best known is ‘LexJulia ing to the degree of importance.52Since it is
Municipalis’,enacted in 46 B.C.before Julius difficult to enforce rules under threat of pun-
Caesar conquered Iberia.47 It charged the ishment in every instance, certain mechan-
magistrate with control of the upkeep of isms, such as government assistance, must
streets, which was the property owners’ also have been offered. This is indicated by
responsibility; the maintenance of temples, Hadrian’s role in quickly rebuilding cities de-
public and private dwellings, and squares; stroyed by earthquakes in Asia Minor.
and public contracts tendered by open bid- The increasing appreciation of art and the
ding in the forum. Landowners were re- growing concern for the environment in
quired to construct pavements in front of Roman society,the enactment of laws for the
their buildings following certain norms.The improvement of the quality of life, were de-
same law regulated the use of the streets, pendent,as always,on the attitudes of those
established traffic rules for wheeled convey- in power. Indeed rules and regulations on
ances, laid down regulations for the tran- environmental order were due mostly to
sport of refuse to areas outside the city limits, Julius Caesar, Vespasian, Hadrian, Caracalla
for public contractors,for those in charge of and Diocletian. These emperors are known
building temporary roads for ceremonies,for to have been among the most enlightened,
government employees, for state slaves and which would seem to establish some corre-
for religious ceremonies.It provided for the lation between education and environmental
elimination of obstructions to traffic and the concern.
refusal of permits for buildings which might Hadrian spent more than half of his
hinder circulation.48 twenty-one years of reign (A.D. 117-138)
The maintenance of the street in front of away from the capital in the imperial pro-
his building was one of the responsibilitiesof vinces attempting to lessen the distance
the property owner.@ Clauses regulated any between the ruler and the ruled.53 Well
alterations which might affect neighbouring educated and refined, he endeavoured to
houses,such as blocking their light or view, bring lasting peace to the empire by person-
and even the height of dwellings was regu- ally overseeing that the laws of state were
lated.50 In certain places standards were es- applied equally in all corners of his vast
tablished for the upkeep of buildings, and domain. H e has been called the ‘good for-
types of dwellings were specified as guide- tune’ of the Roman Empire.54 W e read of
lines for new construction.51 Hadrian defending local customs wherever
These requirements were imposed to he travelled, helping Roman or conquered
achieve the order necessary for the crea- cities with equal generosity,donating water-
tion of a habitable environment.Along with works to some, ports to others, as well as
the precautions taken against destruction bestowing honours and titles. One of those
and negligence, new construction was en- so honoured was the village of Stratonikeia
couraged.Vespasian (A.D. 69-79) demanded near Pergamum which received from Had-
that owners whose homes had been de- rian the title ofpolis (city) and thus acquired
stroyed in a large fire should reconstruct the new name of Hadrianopolis, which
46 them. In A.D. 127 Hadrian imposed re- placed it in his custody.In the year A.D. 127
 The Roman era

Hadrianopolis was appointed the centre for is considered a landmark in private collect-
the collection of taxes due to Rome from ing. This was a period when Romans ac-
nearby cities. Here Hadrian became inter- cumulated every obtainable object to sym-
ested in a lawsuit concerning a house owned bolize their wealth and high social status.
by a certain absentee landlord, Tiberius Greek artists who were brought to Rome to
Claudius Socrates.55 The dwelling, in the restore old works60 or to create new ones
town square,was rundown due to lack of also produced numerous copies to satisfy the
maintenance.Hadrian ordered that the land- growing demand.61 Auctions were held,62
lord should either have it repaired or transfer numerous antique shops were opened63 and a
ownership to someone who lived in class of art experts appeared on the scene.64
Hadrianopolis. As noted above,taste and interestin art go
Upon crossing Gulek, a mountain pass hand in hand with wealth and a desire for
in the Taurus Range in southern Turkey display. The philosophy that associated col-
known in ancient times as Pylae Ciliciae,56 lecting with weakness of character, alive in
Hadrian ordered the repair of the Kaparia Cicero’s time, completely vanished. The
and Antium temples, as well as the comple- wealthy and the powerful in Rome attached
tion of many theatres and public buildings more importance, however, to poets and
left unfinished due to lack of local funds.The writers than to painters and sculptors;these
same practices could be observed in Britain, latter were considered merely as imitators of
Gaul,Germany and North Africa. The cities Greek art. They were expected solely to fill
which benefited most from Hadrian’s gen- private dwellings and public buildings with
erosity were those of the Greek world whose copies of existing works of art. Individual
art and literature the Emperor greatly ad- creativity was shown only in the painting of
mired. Athens was perhaps the most portraits-the Romans tended to honour
favoured.57 The Temples of Hera and public figu-resand had strong family ties-
Zeus,the Library,the Gymnasium,the Olym- and even then,the body was usually a proto-
pieion, the colonnaded streets, the repairs type.65 The character of the patron and of his
to the Theatre of Dionysios and to the sacred time influenced the types of imitation; for
place of Eleusis all date from the reign of instance, Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli revealed
Hadrian,as do a number of triumphal arches the Emperor’sown personality and taste.
and statues.The Emperor was also generous In the Romans’ encouragement of imita-
towards Delphi,Olympia and Ephesus. tion and mass production two aspects stand
Hadrian was not only an astute politician, out:their interest in smalyworks of art66 and
an exemplary soldier and administrator,but their concept of decoration, indicating that
also an architect and a dedicated lover of the they were more interested in an environment
arts. H e applied his intimate knowledge of embellished with artistic objects than in in-
art and architecturenot only to the design of dividual items themselves.
individual buildings,58 but also to the design Following the reign of Hadrian there is
of cities, to beautify the environment and to evidence that personality gained in impor-
improve the quality of life.A rich example is tance and individual taste increasingly in-
the Emperor’sown villa at Tivoli near Rome fluenced the environment.Indeed, the role
which, with its priceless collections, resem- of the patronus in endeavouring to ornament
bled an open-airmuseum.59 cities with monumental buildings alongside
Hadrian’sVilla exemplifies the fashion for well-designed highways and aqueducts was
erudite collections which developed in Rome very effective. A n inscription dedicated to
during the second century A.D.; even today it Mannachius, the patronus of the city Aek- 47
Antiquity

lanum,at the end of the third or the begin- occasionally assumed power and tried to
ning of the fourth century,67 indicates that reinforce regulations,but in such cases ever
many public buildings were donated by him harsher measures were felt necessary to ob-
and that, along with his practical contri- tain results. Indeed, when the young, dy-
butions, he did not neglect to beautify the namic and cultured Majorian became Em-
city. peror of the Western Roman Empire in A.D.
Towards the end of the fourth century 417, the monuments of Rome’s past glory
A.D. and the beginning of the fifth,however, had long lost their significance, and served
the number of public ceremonies and build- only as convenient sources of marble, closer
ings erected by patroni diminished. Reasons at hand than the quarries.72Practical Roman
advanced for this change include the rising builders of the fourth century preferred fin-
power of the Christians,the diminishing in- ished and sculpted marble to unworked
fluence of the patsonus, and the economic quarry stone. Already in A.D. 349 the Em-
crisis that had begun in the third century, peror Constans had reduced the sentence for
resulting in heavy taxation and a decreasing funerary-inscriptionthieves from death to a
number of wealthy people.68With this poli- fine.73Numerous petitions to the administra-
tical transformation,to the detriment of the tion for permission to use stone and bricks
rich,the number of inscriptions praising the were approved; as a result many important
contributions of citizens also diminished.69 monuments were plundered while some
The impoverished benefactors of the cities buildings were totally demolished.
did not, however, entirely lose interest;in- When Majorian ascended the throne, he
stead they turned their attention to the re- enforced strong measures to remedy this
newal and repair of older buildings.70 situation.According to the new regulations,
Another result of impoverishment can, the Senate alone was empowered to issue a
however, be observed during the reign of permit for the demolition of a monument.74
Constantine, who assumed power in A.D. A magistrate implicated in an act of vandal-
3 12.It had become daily practice to demolish ism was to be fined 21 kilograms of gold.
old buildings to obtain material for new Any employee under his direction was to be
ones.Landani71 states that during the fourth whipped in public and to have his hands
century A.D. the marble-quarry administra- severed.By means of such severe measures
tion, the Statio Marmorum, was abolished the young ruler attempted to preserve monu-
and that it is therefore impossible to find a ments of a glorious past in which he himself
building constructed with newly quarried would have liked to have lived.75
marble after the time of Constantine.
It was to be expected that the political and E N V I R O N M E N T A L O R D E R IN T H E
economic unrest in the empire which dis- CAPITAL
turbed the balance in society would in turn
influence attitudes towards art and monu- The period so much admired by Majorian
ments. Despite numerous protective laws and others like him is best exemplified by
and decrees, municipal regulations were also Rome, the imperial capital. Rome reflected
compromised by this crisis. Furthermore, the cultural diversity of all its various sub-
Christianity, which was exerting an ever- jects. In Rome was concentrated the ex-
stronger influence,was intolerant of customs pression of a civilization comparable to that
and traditions associated with earlier re- of Athens,a civilization which was the cul-
ligions. mination of the progress and accomplish-
48 Rulers conscious of traditional values ments of her empire.
 The Roman era

The city of Rome, like Athens, had suc- who had come to see the hero Aphrodite’s
ceeded in preserving its traditional historic son, who in Homer’s epics had defended
pattern. Its first inhabited site, the Palatine Troy,and the boat of Aeneas who had taken
Hill,continued to be the most prominent part in the wars before the establishment of
section.The old Roman Forum developed in Rome, according to Virgil. Lucianus relates
some ways like the ancient Agora of Athens. that Greek guides in Rome were most in
Located at the skirt of a fortified hill like the demand, and contributed to the richness of
Agora, it was also at a crossroads and grew Roman folklore with their many tales and
organically.76 The Forum’s complexity con- legends. Lucianus also claims that certain
trasted with the simplicity of the Agora, visitors were only attracted by fictional tales
however. Crowded throughout were monu- and were not at all interested in the truth
ments of all sorts and sizes,the expression of even if it was told to them free of charge.
the Romans’ belief that their city was the The architecture of the Forum was also an
centre of the world. attraction for visitors.In order to display the
Documents relate that large numbers of power and importance of the state, no ex-
foreigners visited Rome.77 Most of them pense was spared in its decoration. The
were particularly attracted by the Porta arcades were frequently reconstructed. The
Capena Temples which resembled modern senate building, or Curia, and the archives
art galleries and were continuously open to building, the Tabularium, which hid the
visitors.According to Pliny and other chron- Capitoline Hill,were simple in appearance
iclers, visitors to Rome usually followed a and defined the north-western end of the
basic itinerary.Nobili writes that the tourists square.The finest architectural features were
of Antiquity began their tour at the Palatine to be found in the temples and on the monu-
Hill,continued along the Appian Way and ments dedicated to the emperors. These
also visited the Temple of Apollo which had elaborate buildings constituted an appropri-
inspired an elegy by Horace. They admired ate backdrop for the ceremonies and pro-
this handsome temple with its fifty-two cessions taking place there.
columns and fifty-six statues. The ivory- This concern for the impressive pro-
faced marble Temple of Luni was a museum cessions that began in the highly decorated
where a carriage pulled by four horses and Forum presumably influenced the planning
carrying a gilded bronze god was displayed. of the city of Rome. The control along the
The temple had a collection of precious route of moving spectators, the manipu-
gems and a silver-decorated room of the lation of visual elements affecting the overall
‘SibyllineOracles’. There were paintings by spatial concept,and the placement of guiding
Apelles in the Temple of Venus, and at the barricades must have occupied the minds of
best art market, called Cares, the Bacchae of Roman authorities of the time. Since the
Aristeides were to be found. The famous function of triumphal arches, columns and
Mursias could be seen in the Temple of Con- inscribed plaques was to evoke lasting re-
cord, Zeuxis’ Thesezrs on the Capitoline,the membrance, great skill was required in se-
Soldier by Polygonotus in the portico of the lecting appropriate sites for them. A monu-
Forum of Pompey, and a famous work by ment could thus serve two purposes: as a
Protegenesand Timante’sHero in the Temple dynamic visual focus and as a symbol of
of Peace. state. Many examples show the care with
W e also learn that visitors came to hear which they were sited. Principal thorough-
fantasticstoriesof legendary heroes.Accord- fares into the imperial capital were flanked
ing to Procopius, among them were those with monuments, each one reflecting the 49
Antiquity

characteristics of its time. Thus every im- peror. There were various buildings on both
portant artery, with its triumphal arches, sides of the axis,the focal point of the com-
became a glorified ceremonial road. plex being this temple. A study of the impe-
Scholars who have studied the evolution rial forums reveals that the environmentwas
of public buildings in ancient Rome empha- completely controlled by the use of perspec-
size the contrast between the asymmetrical tive. Even visual angles were calculated to
ancient Forum Romanum and the later metic- focus on selected objects.
ulously symmetrical imperial Forums,dedi- The Forum recalls the architectural ar-
cated to various emperors. Although they rangements of a theatre stage set, with its
possess a certain geometrical order, their statues and reliefs forming a scenographic
development follows a philosophy not op- backdrop. Orators no doubt succeeded in
posed to general concepts of environmental captivating their audience,but to do so also
design. Each one is an enclosed symmetrical by means of physical design can only be ac-
space with a temple at one end of the main cepted as characteristic of an authoritarian
axis, serving as a focal point. Unlike the society. Robertson,in his study of Roman
curved axis of the old Forum,the principal forums, states: ‘Trajan would have felt at
axes of the later forums are straight.This is home in the Piazza di San Pietro or the Place
because they were planned as self-contained de la Concorde. These would have puzzled
units, conceived and built over a short and oppressed an ordinary fifth-centuryAth-
period of time; the old Forum, in contrast, enian: Mnesicles would have understood,
grew organically over several centuries.For but perhaps he would have shuddered.’80
our purpose it w ill be more appropriate to These architectural complexes, whether
study the relationship between these com- single focal points, like temples,places, and
plexes rather than the characteristics of each baths, or groups of buildings like the
forum individually. forums,were planned taking their environ-
A peculiar feature of the Roman road sys- ment into consideration. The conservation
tem is the existence of secondary axes cut- of architectural monuments from previous
ting across the main one,making it possible periods and their harmonious blending with
to develop architectural elements on both new ones was one principal concern.Even at
sides of the intersection and to spread out- the time of the Emperor Nero,who was not
wards at these given intervals.In the impe- known for being constructive, care was
rial forums this technique was used skilfully. taken to evaluate existing features in the new
The main axis of each new forum falls on the context.81
secondary axis of an older adjacent one. The Roman emperors, like others who have
strict symmetry of the axes is relieved by enjoyed the ability to influence the urban de-
buildings and spaces of different shapes and sign throughout history, sought to create
sizes.78 rich,expressive,and impressivecity centres.
The largest of them, Trajan’s Forum, T o this end,they endeavoured to collect,dis-
began in a wide colonnaded square with cir- play and exploit historical documents and
cular open-air market buildings on either monuments even if they had to buy, steal,
side? Following the main axis, the visitor plunder, rebuild or copy. Some rulers, men
passed through a covered basilica and of power and influence, such as Sulla and
reached a courtyard with the commemora- Verres, coveted these objects of value and
tive column relating Trajan’s Dacian cam- beauty;while others,such as Majorian,drew
paigns and flanked by library buildings. up extremely strict rules and penalties for
Beyond stood the temple of the deified em- their protection.
 The Roman era

For the Roman citizen of the imperial Roman Empire under the name ‘Constan-
period,the whole city was a work of art. T o tinopolis’. After Emperor Theodosius de-
hm it was a place where public buildings clared Christianity the official religion of the
were expertly designed and,when necessary, empire, forbidding the worship of pagan
converted to fill a new use;where a beautiful gods (based on the decision of the Council of
and fitting environment was created for the Nicrea in A.D. 380),B6 the city was replanned
people.82 and embellished. Here again the dominant
concern was to create new surroundings and
to remodel the environment to meet emerg-
THE EASTERN R O M A N E M P I R E ing needs.
In contrast to the new capital, there was
The creation of Byrantitm still a tradition of continuity in Rome,which
gave birth to emperors such as Majorian in
Hundreds of late imperial buildings in Rome the fifth century.This is believed to be the
were constructed from the remains of pre- reason why Constantinefailed to make Rome
vious monuments.83Such was building prac- the Christian capital87 and conceived of Con-
tice in the fourth century of our era. Various stantinopleas a physical replica of Rome.88
events induced this state of affairs. One was Writing about Byzantium,Pausanias states
the decree showing leniency towards the that one of the strongest fortifications of
Christians, issued by Emperor Galerius on Hellas was there.89 Septimius Severus had
his deathbed (A.D. 3 I I); another was the legal rebuilt the city in A.D. 16990 and there were
recognition of Christianity in 3 1 3 by Con- some remains of the Greek settlement91 and
stantine’s Edict of Milan. New attitudes traces of Greek construction.9~ Nevertheless,
ensued. Libanus relates that the Emperor at the time of Constantine’s proclamation,
gave away temples as if distributing horses Byzantium was not a very large settlement.
and dogs.Ammanius has left us a list of those The achievement of turning this small
who benefited from this distribution.Em- town into the largest and richest city of its
peror Constantius Gallus (3 j 0-3 60) ordered time93 was certainly the result of a forceful
the closure of ‘heathen’temples. The ulti- policy.Byzantium’s strategic site and natural
mate blow was dealt to Roman temples in beauty, its similarity to the topography of
38j when the Emperor Gratian took away Rome with its seven hills, together with
their privileges and revenue. the incentives offered to settlers94 were no
This new attitude caused those attached to doubt further elements in this successful
the old beliefs to revolt.Following the sup- foundation.
pression of the revolt,a decision was taken in Despite the new perception of art and the
394 which prepared the way for the final clo- way of life brought about by Christianity,
sure of the temples. N o information has the physical development of Constantinople
come down to us as to the use to which followed the traditional Roman pattern.95
temples were subsequently put;84 their Situated on a prominent peninsula,Constan-
closing benefited Rome in other ways,how- tinople resembled an arrowhead in plan. At
ever, because statues taken from temples its tip, and within the confines of the fortifi-
were treated purely as works of art and cations built by Constantine, an imperial
erected throughout the city for decorative palace stood inside earlier walls of the Greek
purposes.85 town.96 Near the palace was the Hippod-
In 3 3 0 Constantine the Great dedicated rome,97begun by Septimius Severus and ex-
Byzantium as the capital of the Eastern tended by Constantine.98 I’
Plafe 6.
Rome, plan of Sixtus V, showing major
monuments and sacred sites.
 The Roman era

Plate 7.
Istanbul, Hippodrome, circa 14jo (from Helmotts).
Antiquity

The Church of Hagia Sophia, built on a art were intermingIed.105In addition to those
hill on the foundations of the temples of Ar- brought from Rome, original Greek pieces
temis, Aphrodite and Apollo,99symbolized decorated the Hippodrome and other public
the state and religion.1m The Golden Mile- places.106
stone was placed in the atrium of the Constantine was also well aware of the ris-
church,101 and from here the main street of ing power of Christianity,107and accordingly
the city commenced. increased the number of Christian monu-
The street led to the west, as it still does, ments in Constantinople. In due time, they
through the city’s commercial areas; col- became landmarks in the development of the
onnaded porticos gave access to adjacent city.
market-places,grouped according to types of Constantine’s own tomb is interesting.
trade. Near the palace were the jewellers. During his lifetime he attempted to transfer
These were followed by the silk-merchants, the remains of the Twelve Apostles to the
clothiers,furniture dealers,bakers,etc. Prin- city to be reburied with his own. This may
cipal market activities and wholesale trade indicate an ambition to be deified and identi-
took place on the shores of the Golden fied with the ‘entourage’of Christ.In doing
Horn. After reaching the Theodosius or so, he maintained an old Roman tradition:
Tauri Forum,this main street forked to the the identification of emperors with sacred
north-west and south-west. The former elements,the gods.During Justinian’sreign
passed the Church of the Apostles,where the the sacred spot was rebuilt as the five-domed
Mosque of Fatih stands today, eventually Church of the Apostles.By this time,the fact
reaching the gate of Kharision. In the other that Constantine was also buried there had
direction, the street crossed the forums of been forgotten.108
Bovis and Arcadius, reaching the Golden It is the measure of the success of Con-
Gate. This was the route of triumphal pro- stantine’spolicy in the city that his succes-
cessions,replete with five forums connected sors to the throne of Byzantium followed
by colonnaded streets.102 Each forum consti- his example. There was now a growing un-
tuted the focal point of secondary streets, derstanding of historical continuity. Works
which were themselves focused on architec- of art were brought from various parts of the
tural monuments,as in Rome.103 empire to decorate the Hippodrome. The
In the city, where a statue placed high on bronze Heracles by Lysimachus, a bronze
a column characteristically dominated the boar,statues of Castor and Pollux,and Athe-
Forum which, in turn, occupied a central na,log the Hera of Samos, Paris offering an
point of the main street, Constantine suc- apple to Aphrodite, as well as the four gilt
ceeded in a short span of time in emulating horses later placed above the portal of the
Rome. In order to achieve this goal, how- Basilica of San Marco in Venice, are ex-
ever,many cities in Italy,Greece,Asia Minor amples of the fine quality of artistic decora-
and Egypt were of necessity neglected and tion in the Hippodrome.110 One monument
sacrificed.104 that still occupies its original site today is an
The architectural language used in Rome anonymous stone obelisk,111 restored by
to represent prestige and authority was also Constantine VI1 Prophyrogenitus (A.D. 913-
employed in the New Rome. In order to em- 9j9) in the name of his grandfather Basil I.
bellish Constantinople in a manner reminis- It was once covered with bronze plates, and
cent of the ancient capital,the city was filled according to an inscription at its base it was
with triumphal arches and commemorative erected as a rival to one of the seven wonders
columns. The result was a city-museum of the world,the Colossus of Rhodes.
J4 where new monuments and ancient works of Another case was the transfer of an obelisk
 The Roman era

from Karnak in Egypt to the Hippodrome. last-ditch defenders threw Greek statues
A first attempt was abandoned because of the down on the invaders from the Mausoleum
death of Emperor Julian in A.D. 363. The of Hadrian.116 Thus, despite the protective
shipment was finally accomplished in 390 by efforts of rulers such as Majorian, Rome
‘Theodosius, who also brought Phidias’ faded while Constantinople increased in
statue of Zeus from Olympia.112The granite importance.
obelisk,which measures 2.2 by 2.75 metres at This state of affairs also affected the pat-
its base and is 19 metres high,was placed in tern of Roman civilization. Raids were car-
the stadium on four bronze cubes on a ped- ried out not only on Rome but also on other
estal. The pedestal,decorated with bas-reliefs cities of the empire, endangering general
from the reign of Theodosius,is valuable in security and economic stability.Attempts to
its own right as an example of the late anti- secure the safety of the cities resulted in
que period. The bas-reliefson the north side greater isolation. Simultaneously, the in-
illustrate how the obelisk was transported by fluence of Christianity grew.The uniformity
the Romans. O n the other sides of the ped- of the causes resulted in uniformity of
estal, the Emperor is depicted presiding over counter-measures and effects. A new envi-
the games from his box and distributing ronmental pattern, new attitudes towards
prizes to the winners of various competitions monuments,and the influence of Christianity
in the Hippodrome.The obelisk,which was became prevalent throughout the Western
originally dedicated to the memory of Tuth- Roman Empire.117
mosis 111,has thus been integrally preserved; In order to study the effects of this situ-
placed on a pedestal-monumentdedicated to ation on an earlier settlement,Athens,which
another ruler, it has survived as a living has already served as an example for a pre-
monument in another country and another vious period, would be an appropriate
context. choice.118 By the fourth and fifth centuries
Works of art continued to be imported A.D., the city had lost many of the qualities it
into Constantinople at an intensive rate dur- possessed during the fifth century B.C. The
ing the following two centuries. Examples Heruli conquest of Athens in A.D. 2 6 7 had
are the bronze ox-head brought from Per- not been difficult. During the occupation a
gamum and displayed in the Bovis Forum;113 large part of the city, as well as the fortifi-
the gorgon’s head brought from Ephesus114 cations,was destroyed.With the plundered
and placed among the statues decorating the remains, a small city wall was built which
Great Palace, which was destroyed in A.D. was followed by the rebuilding of the
5 3 2 and subsequently rebuilt; and many original fortifications which served the city
other materials brought by Justinian from until the twelfth century A . D . I ~ ~ One aspect
various sites for the construction of Hagia which Athens retained was its reputation as a
Sophia. city of learning;this, in turn, influenced its
During this period, the city of Rome shaping and development.
was gradually declining in importance and The famous Academy ofthe Neo-Platonists,
wealth. This is exemplified by the fact that the Gymnasium, was built in this later
Belisarius, on finding eighty years later in period. A n interesting development was the
Carthage the Roman treasures carried away transformation of the educational precincts
in A.D. 455 by the Vandals from the palace on in the Agora into gymnasia.Public baths and
the Capitoline H i
ll and from the Temple of private schools were built in this area while
Jupiter,took them to Constantinople rather Hadrian’s Library and the old Agora build-
than returning them to Rome.115 Further- ings were brought back into use.120
more, when the Goths sacked Rome in J 36, In eradicating the traces of war and van-
Antiquity

dalism, great changes were avoided. Fortifi- The pattern of development observed in
cations were repaired and strengthened, the capital city soon spread to the rest of the
buildings were repaired within existing empire. The system of displaying and pre-
economic limitations, while alterations in serving religious relics, evident in Constan-
plan were restricted to strategic needs. The tinople,was copied by Athens as well as other
greatest changes were brought about by Byzantine cities, thus influencing architec-
Christianity. After the recognition of the ture and environmental design. Under dec-
Christian faith by Constantine and its accep- orated domes were placed the remains of
tance as the official religion by Theodosius, saints and sacred artefacts. The basilica plan
the building of churches increased.The first and dome were eventually fused,and to this
were usually erected outside the city walls.121 a courtyard, or atrium, reminiscent of the
Theodosius’decree of A.D. 437,which closed ancient forums,was added.Thus a new type
the temples, allowed churches to be built of space emerged in architecture,the covered
within the walls and the transformation building for religious assembly.
of certain temples such as that of Hephaes- Concurrently, changes in the concept of
tus,the Erechteum and the Parthenon, into art were also taking place. The bas-reliefs on
churches. Meanwhile, profound changes the pedestal of the obelisk of the Hippod-
were occurring in social customs and daily rome show that Byzantine artists were mov-
life. Buildings connected with daily activities ing away from the classical Greek concepts,
exerted an important influence on the plan- marking the end of an aesthetic ideal which
ning of the city.Previously,religious,legal, had lasted for centuries under Roman patron-
economic, recreational and artistic activities age. The collection of works of art, which
took place in specially designated areas, usu- had been a part of Roman culture,was an-
ally in the open air, and the general tendency other custom in decline.
had been towards group-related activities. Justinian’s Corpus Juris Civilis contains a
With the spread of Christianity all this section on artistic objects,particularly on the
changed. The Church altered the nature of right of ownership between the artist and
assembly and forced the dispersion of vari- the possessor of the painting. Justinian sup-
ous activities to different places in the city, ported the artist by declaring that judges
confining religious meetings to enclosed who favoured the owner were in the wrong
spaces and dividing masses into small and devoid of artistic understanding.123
groups.A society which formerly took plea- Artistic codes in the Eastern Empire ulti-
sure in discussion, whose activities usually mately surrendered to the theological doc-
took place in the open air, was being re- trine of the Byzantine Church.In support of
placed by a society enclosed within build- the iconoclasts, Leo I11 forbade the repro-
ings; one whose habits were more accus- duction of physical likenesses of sacred per-
tomed to listening than to speaking. This sonages.This edict of A.D. 726 was strongly
mode of life profoundly affected the environ- enforced for the following sixty-oneyears.
mental pattern and the design of cities.
Byzantine settlements of the sixth and sev-
enth centuries were protected by strong for- ‘THE B A R B A R I A N C H A M P I O N OF
tifications against frequent raids.122But their CIVILIZATION’: T H E O D O R I C
main characteristic was the great number of
churches built in proportion to the inhabited After the division of the Roman Empire,
area. Scattering them throughout the city when the Church remained vehemently hos-
behind small squares resulted in a distinct tile to everything that was considered alien
lack of a central assembly point. to Christianity, and when economic weak-
 The Roman era

ness and political unrest were ripe, the art- ments in this domain are remarkable.129 W e
istic heritage was largely ignored or de- owe to Theodoric’s secretary, Cassiodorus,
stroyed. Respect for and interest in historic detailed accounts of his activities throughout
monuments in Italy diminished. Their de- Italy and the guiding ideas behind them.130
struction was actually legitimized: it was From these written accounts w e learn that
claimed that the re-utilizationof the remains Theodoric improved cities and settlements
of ancient works of art was a sign of respect all over the country.H e attempted to restore
for them,since it meant that the honour and Naples and Nola, both victims of Vesuvius;
the power of the old were transferred to the he rebuilt the fortifications of Arles and
new.124 Kutana and transported marble blocks and
In the weak and isolated settlementsof the columns to Ravenna.In all these endeavours
Dark Ages, clever justifications were in- he accorded importance to ancient works of
vented for destruction and they were struggl- art as well as to the material.
ing to survive continuous attacks by Goths, Upon learning that a bronze statue had
Vandals and other barbarians who,after cap- been stolen from Como, Theodoric was
turing their cities,pillaged and burned them. angry and disgusted.H e declared,according
Some enlightened barbarian leaders, how- to Cassiodorus: ‘It is vexatious that while
ever, conscious of the past glory of Rome, w e are labouring to increase the ornaments
appear to have believed that they were main- of our cities, those which Antiquity has
taining the continuity of Roman rule.125 bequeathed to us should by such deeds be
In complete contrast with rulers such as diminished.’H e offered a substantial reward
Alaric, who stripped decorations from the to anyone who would denounce the culprits
temples of Rome (A.D. IO), or Genseric, and even promised a pardon if the denouncer
who carried away Rome’s bronze statues was one of the thieves.131
(A.D. 4)j), there followed an Ostrogoth who Around the year joo Theodoric revived
would be considered remarkable even today. the office of curator statuarum (curator of
H e was Theodoric the Great (4jj-jz6). statuary) in order to protect statues from the
Educated in Constantinople,he reigned in hands of masons and quick-lime makers.132
Italy with Ravenna as his capital.During his This office,which had long been inoperative,
thirty-twoyear rule,he was a successfulcom- was held by a magistrate selected by the
mander, soldier and administrator.It is also people of Rome. H is duty was to protect
maintained that he sustained Greek and statues that decorated public edifices, parks
Roman civilization into the Middle Ages.126 and streets by ensuring that abandoned
Theodoric, who has been called ‘the bar- buildings were not plundered and by con-
barian champion of civilization’, can be trolling quick-limedealers so that statues did
credited with the beautification of cities and not disappear into their pits.133
the protection of monuments.127 The most Theodoricalso concerned himself with the
interesting aspect of his attitude is the fact famed capital of the Roman emperors.In a
that he conceived of buildings within their letter to Sabinus he states:
environment; he did not treat them as
museum pieces but as working, functional
entities.128
It is important to preserve as well as create. W e
are earnestly anxious to keep the walls of Rome in
The dominating authority of Christianity good repair, and have therefore ordered the Luc-
did not seem to have exerted an appreciable rine port to furnish z 1,000tiles annually for this
influence on Theodoric. H e most likely ac- purpose. See that this is done, that the cavities
quired a sensibility to architectureduring his which have been formed by the fall of stones may
youth in Constantinople,and his accomplish- be roofed over with tiles, and so preserved, and 17
Antiquity

that thus w e m a y deserve the thanks of ancient men, but to repair cities also, that the re-
kings, to whose works w e have given immortal newed fortune of the citizens may be dis-
youth.134 played by the splendour of their build-
Another letter reveals that his goodwill had ings.’140 Further details for the beautification
been betrayed and that the money sent for of Arles were enumerated in a letter to
repairs had been embezzled.135Theodoric ex- Sura.141 H e demanded that unsightly objects
pressed his satisfaction to the Roman praetor be eliminated. Men were dispatched to re-
Artemidorus for having reported this crime place fallen pieces of marble lying in the
without trying to hide it, and declared that in streets and to repair walls. Only public build-
this instance he would not punish the culprit ings were repaired, however, private prop-
but would expect the situationto be rectified. erty being left untouched even in the inter-
Again, in a letter to Argolious136 he wrote: ests of orderliness in the city. In a letter to
‘It is especially fitting that all ruined build- Apoleto,instructions were given concerning
ings should be repaired in Rome. In Rome, environmental order.142 If a section of the
praised beyond all other cities by the world‘s town was to be demolished, it would be
mouth, there should be nothing sordid or chosen where only public buildings were
mediocre.’137 situated and suggestions were made with
In correspondence addressed to the Senate regard to the design of buildings to replace
of Rome he stated his concern for the whole them.
country and his attempts to restore every- A technically detailed letter was sent to the
thing to its original condition; he also re- architect Aloysius concerning the repair of
marked that he had a special attachment to the old thermal baths at Aponum (Abano),
Rome.138 H e then enumerated certain affairs IO kilometres from Padua.143 This began by

of the city that were not in order and re- describing the beneficial qualities of the baths
quested that they be given attention; he in- and ended with proposals for their repair.
sisted that the increasing theft of lead and One suggestion was to enclose the hot spring
brass from public buildings be stopped. H e in a building and surroundingsworthy of its
also announced that an emissary had been fame, and funds were sent for this purpose.
sent to take into his custody recently repaired A request was made for the clearing of
temples and public buildings which had fal- thorns and bushes around the spring, the
len into decay owing to the inefficiency of clearing of wild trees and plants from the
local officials.H e demanded that the Senate area between the spring and the public build-
support his emissary. ings,the restoration of the palace which had
W e also learn that a Roman named Sym- decayed over the years,and the creation of a
machus was rewarded for decorating the city green lawn which would harmonize with the
and its vicinity with new buildings,for his colour of the hot springs.
efforts to save the great Theatre of Pompey In another letter w e find further evidence
and for contributing funds to such causes. of Theodoric’sattention to detail and his in-
The praetor of Rome was urged to take in- terest in architecture and environmental de-
spiration from such acts.139 sign. H e described the qualities required of
Theodoric showed the same concern for an architect to be appointed for the city of
the city of Arles on the western frontier.In Rome in the following words:
the budget allocated to the city, a certain It is desirable that the necessary repairs to this
amount was set aside for the repair of an old forest of walls and the population of statues which
tower and fortifications.‘ W e wish to refresh make up R o m e should be in the hands of a learned
 The Roman era

man who w ill make the new work harmonizewith 5. Abercrombie,op.cit.,p. 39,Figs.6 and 7.
the old....Let him read the books of the ancients; 6. J. J. Pollitt,The A r t of Rome c. 713 ~.c.-j37
but he w ill find more in this city than in his A.D.Sources and Documents, Englewood C liffs,
books... . The ancients speak of the wonders of N.J., Prentice-Hall,1966,p. xii.
the world (here enumerated and described), but 7. C. Erder, ‘Hellenistik Devir Anadolu Mi-
this one of the City of Rome surpasses them all. It marisinde Kyma Rekta-Kyma Reversa’,
had need to be a learned man who is charged with ODTU,Mimarlik Fakiiltesi, Dergisi Say1 8,
the care of upholding all these works;else, in his pp. 78-9, ‘967.
despair, he will deem himself the man of stone, 8. The Romans are accused of imitation
and the statuesabout him the truly living men.144 because they used Greek temple plans.For a
defence of the Romans, see T.F. Hamlin,
Similarly, general knowledge was a primary Architecture Through the Ages, 3rd ed.,New
requisite in order to establish harmony be- York,C.P.Putnam’s Sons, 19j3, p. I jz.
9. For an analysis of the Roman concept of
tween the old and the new.145
space, see S. Giedion, The Eternal Present:
In instructions to all his architects The Beginnings of Architecture, pp. 5 23-4,
Theodoric clearly defined his philosophy: New York,Pantheon Books, 1964.
IO. Martin has studied the influence of Per-
These excellent buildings are m y delight, the gamum on Roman colonnaded ceremonial
noble image of the Empire’s power and the wit- streets. H e maintains that their precedents
nesses of its grandeur and its glory.It is m y wish may be the terrace porticos of Pergamum:
that you shall preserve in its originalsplendourall see R.Martin,L’urbanismedons la Grice Anti-
that is ancient and that whatever you may add w ill que, p. 185, Paris,A.&J. Picard,1956.
conform to it in style....It is your duty to express 1 1 . F. R.Hiorns, Town Building in Histov. A n
in your own art the same vitality and joy of life Outline Review of Conditions, Injuences, Ideas
that I express as your ruler.Thus whether you are and Methods Affecting ‘Planned Towns through
building a city or a castle or a praetorum, you are Five Thousand Years, p. 75, London, George
the one who will turn m y dreams into reality.T o G.Harrap, 1956. For the development of
leave to future generations,to humanity,monu- the first settlement,believed to be Etruscan,
ments that w ill fill them with admiration is a ser- see Abercrombie,op.cit.,pp.44-5.
vice full of honour and worthy of every man’s IZ. It is unanimously maintained that Romans
strongest desire.146 planned settlements and consciously modi-
fied old cities in order to create an elaborate,
functional and impressive environment for
NOTES the population. See Hamlin,op.cit., p. I j 3.
13. P. Lavedan and J. Hugueney, L’histoire de
I, G.K.von Weinberg,Die Baukunst im Kaiser- Purbanisme: Pantiquit;, 2nd ed.,pp. 209-10,
reich, Romische Kunst IV,Munich, Rowohlt, Paris,Henry Laurens, 1966.
1963,p. 9,Fig. 1; E.W.Andrae, Vorderasien, 14.Robertson,op. cit., pp. 191-2.
Handbuch der Archaologie, Vol. I, p. 730, 1 5 . Erder, op. cit., p. 5; Pollitt, op. cit.,
Munich, 1939. pp. 120-9.
2. A.Badawy,Architecture in Ancient Eupt and 16. M.S. Briggs (Goths and Vandals. A Stu4 oj
the Near East, pp. 8o-j, Cambridge,Mass., the Destruction, Neglect and Preservation of His-
MIT Press, 1966. torical Buildings in England, p. 3, London,
3. P. Abercrombie, Town and Countv Planning, Constable, 195 2) maintains that Vitruvius’
3rd ed. rev.by D.Rigby Childs,pp. 39-41, interest in monuments was aesthetic and
London,Oxford University Press, 19j9. technical rather than antiquarian.
4. Ibid.,p.41;D.S. Robertson,A Handbook of 17. Lavedan and Hugueney,op.cit.,p. 188.
Greek and R o m a n Architecture, Cambridge, 18. Ibid.,p. 189.
University Press, 1959,p. 190. 19. Pollitt,op.cit.,p. xiii. 19
Antiquity

20. Polybius, Histories, XXXI,13; F. Hultsch, considered by him as being his only valuable
The Histories of Pohbim,translatedby Evelyn possessions;Verrem II, IV, 14.
S. Schuckburg, Vol. 11, pp. 136-8, Bloo- 3 I. Ibid.,IV, 60.
mington,Indiana University Press, 1962. 32. Nobili,op.cit.,p. 41.
z I. ‘Aprtsla chute de Corinthe [146B.c.] quand 33. This change has led certain writers to as-
la Grtce conquise a conquis son vainqueur, sume that the Romans’love of art hindered
les artistes emments ou appelts i Rome the development of their literature: see G.
par Mttellus Mackdonicus y ont apportt et Boissier,Revue des deux mondes, I 5 September
propagk les traditions de I’architectureet de 1906,p. 168;Pollitt,op.cit.,p. 68.
la sculpture grecques; Hermodore, archi- 34. Bornecque,op.cit., p. vii.
tecte, Timarchidts et ses fils Polyclts et 3j. Pliny, N.H . XXIV,XIX,61,pp. 172-5;
Dionysos, sculpteurs, etc.’:Henry Bornec- for the Apoxyomenos statue at the Vatican
que, CicLron, discours, seconde action contre being a late copy, see G. Lippold, Die
VerrLs, Book IV,Les euvres dart (text edited Griechische Plastik, Handbuch der Archaologie
by H.Bornecque and translated by Gaston III, pp. 278-9, Plate 100,I, Munich, C.H.
Rabaud), Vol. V,p. iv, note 3, Paris, Les Beck‘sche Verlag, 1950. For information
Belles Lettres, 1944. concerning the Romans’ interest in Greek
22. One of them is the poet Ennius mentioned artists and their commuting between Greece
by Strabo.According to Nobili,the fact that and Rome,see Pliny,N.H. XXXV.
Ennius was permitted to give his advice on 36. Nobili,op.cit.,p.43;Pollitt,op.cit., p. I 15.
the transfer and arrangement of the statues 37. Earl of Euston, ‘Principlesof Conservation
taken from Ambracia upon its conquest and and Repair of Ancient Buildings’,Monumen-
placed at the Temple of Heracles is the first forum TutelalOchrana Pamiatok (Bratislava),
conquest of art over the Romans; see Vol. 3, p. 63, 1967.
R.Nobili,The Gentle A r t of Faking,pp. 21-2, 38. P. F. Girard, Manuel eleinentaire de droit
London, Seeley Service, 1922; Pollitt, op. romain, 5th ed.,p. zjj, Paris, Arthur Rous-
cit., p. 44. seau, 191 I; B. d’orgeval, L‘Empereur
23. Nobili,op.cit., p. 22. Hadrien, euvre l&islative et adminirtrative,
24. Ibid.,pp. 37-8. p. I IO, Paris, Domat Montchrestien, 1950;
25 . Such as the assassination of Verres by Mark A. Mumcu, ‘Eski Eserler Hukuku ve
Antony upon his refusal to give up the Tiirkiye’,Ankara &+~ersitesiHukuk Fakiltesi
bronze vases demanded by the latter;Nobili, Dergisi (Ankara), Vol. XXVI,No. 3-4, p.
ibid.,pp. 22-3. 54.
26. Pollitt,op. cit., pp. 66-75. 39. For legislation concerning festivities,archi-
27. Cicero, Verrem 11, I, 21; L.H.G.Green- tecture, embellishment of cities and im-
wood (trans.), London, Cicero, The Vewine provement of living conditions-the Lex
Orations, pp. 179-8 I, London, Heinemann, Malacitana,see J. Gaudement,Institutions de
‘953. lantiquiti, pp. 5 18-19,Paris, 1967; Mumcu,
28. Cicero, Verrem 11,IV, j9. op.cit.,p. 54.
29. N.von Holst,Creators, Collectors and Connois- 40. L.Harmand, Le patronat sur le5 collectivitLs
seurs,p. 26, New York,G.P.Putnam’s Sons, publiquef des or&ines au Bas-Empire, pp. 373-
1967. Among the faults of Greek slaves, 8j, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France,
their admiration for paintings is mentioned. ‘917.
30. Cicero, ‘Douleur des cites dtpouillkes’, 41. For examples from Paleria,Narona and Mi-
Discours, Seconde Action Contre Verres, Book senum,see ibid.,pp. 375-6. The desire that
IV, 53, pp. 82-3 (translated by Gaston all paintings and sculptures should be public
Rabaud), Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1944;he property is quite common: see Pollitt,op.
mentions the bribe given to Verres’ men by cit.,p. I I 5.
Pamphilus of Lilibaeum in order to save the 42. ‘TribunusRerum Nitentium’,‘ComitesNit-
60 ‘cups’ inherited from his ancestors and entium Rerum’, see P. Willems, Le droit
 The Roman era

public romain, p. 577, Louvain, 1880; for Caesar Hadrianus has passed through this
the ‘Curator Operum Publicorum’, see steep road by lucky coincidence and had
T.Mommsen, Le droitpublic romain, Vol.V, monuments in the area repaired and
pp. 3 j 2-3, Paris,Ernest Thorin, I 896. reinforced.’
43, For a more detailed study of the subject, j7. D’Orgeval,op.cit.,pp.271-3.
see Gaudement, op. cit., pp. 329-49 and 18. M.S. Briggs,M e n of Taste,from Pharaoh to
Cicero, Traiti des Lois (trans. by G. de Ruskin, pp. 17-21,London,Batsford,1947.
Plinval), 111, 3,7,pp. 84 et seq.,Paris, I9j 9. 19. E.N.Bacon,Des@ of Cities, pp.71-7, New
44. ‘SenatusConsultum’and the widening of its York,Viking Press, 1967,
powers during the reign of Hadrian, see 60. For late Hellenistic and Roman restorations
Gaudement,op.cit.,pp. j72-3. on the fasade of the Temple of Zeus at
E.Cuq, Manuel des znstitutionsjuridiques des Olympia,see Erder, op. cit., pp. 1 5 et seq.,
Romains, p. 244;Paris,Librairie Plon,1 9 2 8 . and G. Lippold, Kopien und Umbildungen
46. D’Orgeval,op.cit., pp. I 10-1 I. griechischer Statuen, pp. 101-26, Munich,
47. W.E. Heitland, The R o m a n Republic, Vol. C.H.Beck, 1923.We also learn that certain
111,pp. 341-3,Cambridge, 1909;for a dis- artists,such as Aristandros of Delos,never
cussion on the name of the law,see G.Bloch created original works but restored and dec-
and J. Carcopino, Histoire romaine, L a RC orated old ones: see T. Homolle, ‘Les
publique Romaine de 133 a 44 avant]. C., Part 2, Romains a Delos’,Bulletin de correspondance
p. 979, Paris, Presses Universitaires de hellinique, Vol. VIII, 1884,pp. 143-4.Pliny
France,I9 j 0;Mumcu, op.cit.,p. j4. relates that an artist by the name of Avienius
48. E.G.Hardy, Six Roman Laws, Translated Evander made a new head to replace that of
with Introduction and Notes, pp. 136-68, the statue in the Temple of Apollo in Rome:
Oxford,Clarendon Press, 191 I. see Pliny,N . H.XXXVI,IV, 3 2. Pliny and
49. For ‘Lex Coloniae Juliae Genetivae’and a Vitruvius teach us the technique of dis-
study of the securing of resemblance in ap- mantling and carrying mural paintings as
plication of legal measures in the Roman well as the method for restoring them; see
Empire, see Bloch and Carcopino, op. cit., Pliny,N.H.XXXV,XL, IX, 173;Vitruvius
pp. 1027-8. (trans.by F.Granger), Ten Books on Architec-
Cuq,op.cit.,p. 247; the maximum allowable ture (11, VIII,9), London, Heinemann, 1934),
height of houses, which was seventy feet pp. 116-18;it is observed that these paint-
under Augustus, was reduced to sixty feet ings are used in a different environment for
by Trajan. different purposes as seen at Herculaneum
Girard,op.cit.,p. 2 j 7,note 6. and Pompeii: see M.C.de Azevedo, ‘Con-
D’Orgeval,op.cit.,p. I I I. servazione e restaur0 presso i Greci e i
G.B.Brown, The Care of Ancient Monuments. Romani’, Bollettino dell’lstituto Centrale del
A n Account of Legislative and Other Measures Restauro, Vols. IX-X,19j2,p. jj.
Adopted in European Countries for Protecting 61. Pliny mentions the existence of experts who
Ancient Monuments and Objects and Scenes of could distinguish originals from copies and
Natural Beaug, andfor Preserving the Aspect of of books to teach the manufacture of fakes:
Historical Sites, p. I 3, Cambridge University see Nobili,op. cit.,pp. 5 8 et seq.
Press, 190j. 62. Ibid.,p. 29: ‘Speaking of auctions and the
D.Magie, Roman Rule in Asia Minor to way Romans disposed of their goods to the
the E n d of the Third Century after Christ, highest bidder,it is worth while to refer to
pp. 611-29, Princeton University Press, what Suetonius tells us happened at the sale
‘950. held by Caligula,who being short of money
Ibid.,p. 616. thought fit one day to put up to auction
The translation of the Gulek Bogaz stele by everything in the royal palace that was either
A.Erzen, in CumhurGet Gaqetesi, I 3 Decem- useless or considered out of fashion,quidquid
ber 1966, p. j, col. 4: ‘Roman Emperor instrumenti veretis aulae erat. According to 61
Antiquity

Suetonius not only was the Emperor himself consul, undertook to improve the quality of
present at the auction, but he put prices on the cities were honoured by the attribution
the various objects,bidding on them as well. of titles such as reformator, restorator, rein-
A n old praetor, Aponius Saturninus,became tegrator or renovator.
sleepy during the sale,and in dozing kept on 71. R. Lanciani, The Destruction of Ancient Rome:
nodding his head. Caligula noticed it, and A Sketch of the Histov of the Monuments,
told the auctioneer not to lose sight of that pp. 31-4,N e w York, Macmillan, 1899.
buyer and to put up the price each time 72. T.C.Bannister, ‘Comment’,Historic Preser-
Saturninus nodded.When the old man finally vation Today, p. 23, Williamsburg, Va., The
awoke he realized that without knowing University Press of Virginia, 1966; J. H.
it he had bought at the imperial auction Morrison, Historic Preservation L a w , p. I,
about L80,ooo worth of goods (Cal.,39).’It Washington D.C., National Trust for His-
is also mentioned that silverware was dis- toric Preservation, 1965.
played so that any defects were hidden; see 73. Lanciani, op. cit.,p. 92.
Von Holst, op. cit.,pp. 26 and 33. 74. Bannister (op.cit.,p. 33) maintains that this
63. Many of the shops were in the Via Saeva. right w a s also accorded to the prince.
For others see Von Holst, op. cit. pp. 29 et 75. R. Lanciani, Ancient R o m e in the Light of
seq. Recent Discoveries, pp. 292-3, N e w York,
64. For a comparison with modern experts, see Houghton, Mifflin, 1898.For the date of this
B.Hollander, T h e International Law of A r tfor decision he takes 45 7 as definite;C.Gibbon,
Lawyers, Collectors and Artists, p. 161,Lon- T h e Decline and Fall of the R o m a n Empire,
don, Bowes &Bowes, 1959. vol. 11:391 A.D.-ZZ8J A.D.,pp. 3 14-1 5, N e w
65. The serialization of fakes influenced this York, The Modern Library, 1951; for the
technique.See G.M.A.Richter, Three Crit- complete decision, see note 43; R. H.H o w -
ical Periods in Greek Sculpture, Oxford, 195 I; land, ‘Travelers to Olympus’, in A. Rains
and G. Lippold, ‘Antike Gemaldekopien’, (ed.), With Heritage So Rich, p. 149, New
Abh. A k a d . Minchen, Vol. XXXIII,195 I. York, Random House, 1966.
66. Seneca furnishes two good examples to illus- 76. Bacon, op. cit.,pp. 70-2.
trate the Romans’ collecting mania: one was 77. For Titus Livius and Pliny, see Nobili, op.
a collector of rusted or broken items, the cit.,pp. 61-2.
other collected only vases made out of 78. Lavedan and Hugueney, op. cit.,p. 244.
Corinthian bronze and spent all his days tak- 79. As observed in Gerasa, Palmyra, Hierapolis
ing them off the shelves and putting them and Aphrodisias, the straight-line axis had
back again; see Seneca, D e Brev V, it. XII; become obsolete and w a s replaced by smooth
Nobili, op. cit.,p. 32. gentle curves that attracted the eye to monu-
67. Harmand, op. cit., p. 432; Corpus inscrzj- mental perspectives; ibid.,p. 223.
tionum latinarum (CIL), IX, I 128. 80. Robertson,op. cit.,p. 194.
68. In response,Diocletian fixed new wages and 81. In the construction of the palace known as
prices and took anti-inflationary measures; the Golden House of Nero, water w a s pro-
R.H.Barrow, T h e Romans, pp. 171-3, Har- vided for the decorative pool in its garden,
mondsworth, Penguin Books, 1964. and for the games of sea battles at the Colos-
69. Harmand, op. cit., p. 433; Rostovtzeff’s in- seum.Also,laws pertaining to the height of
terest in this question is also noted: see Bar- buildings were strictly applied.
row, op. cit., p. 173: land and industry are 82. Hamlin, op. cit.,p. 1j3.
being nationalized. 83. The best information concerning the state of
70. Harmand, op. cit., pp. 434-1. The Procon- the letters as well as city planning in this
sul for Africa, Hermogenians Olybrius, re- period is given in the SaDricon ofG.Petronius
moved ruins which obstructed traffic and Arbiter, the Epigramme of M. Valerius
had the fagades of two important buildings Martialis and Satires of Dojunius Juvenalis:
62 restored.Administrators who, like the Pro- see A. Von Gerkan, Von antiker Architektur
 The Roman era

und Topographie, Stuttgart,1959; Pollitt,op. 94. E.Stein, Geschichte des spatromischen Reiches,
cit.,pp. 147et seq. Vol. I,pp. 194-1,Vienna, 1928.
84. We do know,however,that ‘heathen’build- 95, Barrow, op.cit.,pp. 173-4.
ings were not initially used by the Christians: 96. ‘For centuries he who dominated this spot
see Lanciani,Destruction. ..., op.cit.,p. 37. has dominated the Empire’;Runciman, op.
85. For a multitude of examples, see CIL,VI, cit.,p. 63.
Section I. This attitude,prevalent after the 97. 0. Oberhummer, ‘Constantinopolis’,Real-
decree of A.D. 394, can be qualified as the enylopadie des klassischen Altertamswirsen-
officialization of an old disposition. For ex- schaft, Vol. IV,col.994, Stuttgart,1901.
ample, the prefect Anicius Paulinus had 98. Runciman,op.cit.,p. 5 8
statues taken to the Baths of Decii in the 99. Maclagen,op.cit.,p. 17.
year 3 3 I (CZL, VI, 161I). The Baths of Titus, 100. O n the symbolic meaning of this building,
the Baths of Trajan in 3 3 5 and the Basilica see C.Stewart, A Prospect of Cities, pp. 48-
Julia in 370 were decorated in the same 50, London, 1952.
manner (CIL, VI, 16j8). Some of these works 1 0 1 . Janin,op.cit., pp. 104-j.
were of Hellenistic origin and were created 102. Ibid.,pp.43-1.
by famous artists, such as Praxiteles,Poly- 103 Ibid.,pp.49-64.
cleitus and Bryaxis. 104.F. Harrison, ‘Constantinopleas a Historic
86. Barrow,op.cit.,p. 184, City’, The Meaning of History, pp. 330-1,
87. J. M.Wallace-Hadrill, The Barbarian West, New York,Macmillan, I 894.
p. 14, London, 1959. IOj. E.Mamboury, Constantinople, p. 2 3 , Istan-
88. This idea is reflected on coins issued to com- bul,Rizzo, 1925.The author states that this
memorate the dedication of the city as the is not a city but a museum.
new capital.One side of the coin, showing 106. Of the monuments brought by Constantine
the Pantheon and the wolf feeding Romulus to decorate the city,one that has survived,at
and Remus,represents old Rome while the least in part, the vandals and the iconoclasts
woman carrying the world on her shoulders is the Serpentine Column. This bronze
represents New Rome or Constantinople: column,with its three serpents carrying on
R. Janin,Constuntinople Byxantine, dheloppe- their heads a gold cauldron,was taken by the
ment urbain et ripertoire topogruphique, pp. Greeks from Persia after the battle of Plataea
50-1, Paris, Institut FranGais d’Etudes and erected in the sacred court of the Tem-
Byzantines,I95 0. ple of Apollo at Delphi. It is thought that
89. Pausanias, Description of Greece (trans. by the golden cauldron disappeared long before
J. B. Frazer, London, Macmillan, 1898), the column was brought from Delphi.
Book X,IV, 31-1. Except for a large part of a head in the Istan-
90. M. Maclagan, The CiO of Constantinople, bul Museum of Archaeology all the heads
p. 16,New York,Praeger,1968, were broken by Michael I11 (A.D. 842-67). A
91. For buildings of the pre-Hellenisticera and miniature commemorating the circumcision
a bibliography of early sources, see W.P. of Sultan Murad 111’sson (I 582) and part of
Newskaja, Bypans in der Klassisichen and the Surname-i Vehbi manuscript,which is at
Hellenistischen Epoche, pp. 49- 5 0, Leipzig, the Topkapi Museum, shows,however,the
Kohler &Amelang 19j5. heads intact; another drawing (Folio 302)
92. Maclagan (op. cit.,p. 17) describes the re- shows the lower jaw missing from one of
mains unearthed during archaeological the heads. Certain travellers write that they
excavations between Hagia Sophia and saw the heads at the beginning of the seven-
Hagia Irene. teenth century.Documents for later periods
93. S. Runciman, ‘Christian Constantinople, are rare. See: Maclagan, op. cit., pp. 26-7;
10th-11th Century’, in M. Bowra et al. Janin,op. cit.,pp. 185-6; W.H.Hutton,
(eds.), Golden Ages ofthe Great Cities,pp. 1 9- Constantinople, The Story .fthe Old Capital of
60,London,Thames &Hudson,1912. the Empire, p. 324, London, J. M.Dent, 63
Antiquity

1909;Mamboury,op. cit.,pp. 290-1; A.M. replica was already adorning St Mark’s

Mansel, Bulletin XXXIV,No. 134, April piazza in Venice, and that smashing granite
1970,pp. 189-209. W e may also note that sarcophagi is not enough to wipe out glori-
the statue atop the Column of Constantine at ous history,culture and civilization of over
Cemberlitas in Istanbul was brought from a thousand years.’
the Heliopolis at Frygia:Mamboury,op.cit., 109. Janin,op.cit., pp. 187-8.
p. 286; Janin,op.cit.,p. 83. 1 1 0 . These horses, believed to be by Lysippos,
107. Constantine, who embraced Christianity are quite well travelled.They were brought
only on his death-bed,had sent his mother to Rome by Augustus from Alexandria.They
St Helen to Jerusalem to carry out research were then taken to Constantinople by Con-
and to conduct excavations.As a result the stantine. During the fourth crusade they
purported cross on whch Jesus was crucified were transported to Venice;later they were
and other sacred items were found and taken to Paris by Napoleon, and after his
brought to Constantinople, which subse- death they were returned to Venice,where
quently became an important place of pil- they remain:Maclagan,op.cit.,pp. 112-13;
grimage:Maclagan,op.cit.,pp. 20-1. Hutton,op.cit.,p. 232.
108. Here are some of the differing opinions III. Mamboury, op. cit., pp. 386-7; Janin,op.
about the demolition of this building and its cit.,pp. 186-7.
replacementby a mosque by Sultan Mehmet IIZ. Janin,op.cit.,pp. 183-5.
I1 (The Conqueror); they illustrate differing 113. Ibid.,p. 102.
views on the use of monuments. Maclagan, 114. Maclagan,op.cit.,p.66.
op. cit.,p. j 2: ‘Atthe Turkish conquest the I I 5. Lanciani,The Destruction . .., op.cit.,p. 7j.
church was in poor repair ... ruthlessly 116. Ibid.,p. 8.
looted by the men of the Fourth Crusade 117. Barrow,op.cit.,p. 181.
(I 204)’. S. Eyice,Irtanbul: Petit guide d traverr 118. The main sources of our study of Athens
les monuments branttns et turcr, p. 76, Istan- during this period are the archaeological
bul, 195 j: ‘Mehmet 11, surnommt Fatih,fit documentation of the Agora by Travlos and
tlever, sur l’emplacement de 1’Eglise des Kriesis’s critical and analyticaltranslation of
Saints ApBtres, qui d’ailleurs ktait dkji it. See I. Travlos, Poleodomzke Ekseliksis ion
minke avant la chute de Byzance,une grande Athenon, Athens,1960, and A.Kriesis,Greek
mosquke.’ Oberhummer, op. cit., cols. Town Building, pp. 143-8,Figs.46-9.
992-3: ‘Die zweite Stelle an tatsachlicher 119. H. A. Thompson, ‘Itinerant Temples of
Bedeutung (nicht an Kirchlichem Rang, Attica’,p. 2, Detroit,A.I.A., 1961.
s.u.H. Eirene) unter den Kirchen von C. 120. Kriesis, op.cit.,p. 144,Fig.46.
nahm jene der Apostel ein,von Constantin 121. The Roman Law of Associations forbidding
d. Gr. erbaut, die Begrabnisstatte der impromptu meetings can be considered one
Kaiser, nach der Eroberung von C. kurze of the reasons for this: Barrow, op. cit.,
Zeit (145 3-145 j) Patriarchatskirche (an PP. 178-9,
Stelle der H.Sophia), dann auf Befehl M o - 122. Kriesis, op.cit.,pp. 148 et seq.
hammeds I1 nieder-gerissen,u m der grossen I 23.Justinian concluded: ‘Think of comparing
Moschee dieses Sultans (erbaut 1463-1469), the value of the work of Appelles of Parr-
Platz zu machen.’ For the interpretation hasius with the price of a board of very little
based on this reference,see A.Kriesis, Greek value’;see Nobili,op.cit.,p. 64.
Town Building, p. 166,Athens,The National 124. This attitude was later expressed by Char-
Technical University, 196j: ‘In a deliberate lemagne. Eginhard, his personal secretary
political act, Mehmet Fatih destroyed the and,later,his administrator of public build-
Church of the Holy Apostles and the ings,explains at length the decoration of the
Mausoleum of all past Emperors and Em- empire with columns and mosaics brought
presses, to build his mosque.What he most from Rome and Ravenna: see J. L.M o m -
64 probably did not know was that the Church‘s bert, A Hirtory of Charles the Great, pp. zj4,
 The Roman era

271-2, New York, D.Appleton Co.,1888; Empire,de la disparition de PEmpire d’occident

Eginhard, Lzye of Charlemagne (translated d la mort de Justinien (476-j6j), Vol. 11,
from the text of the Monumenta Germaniae by pp. I 32-4, Paris, 1949.
Samuel Epes Turner), pp. 4j-7, New York, I 30. Senator Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cas-
American ‘BookCompany, I 880; Lanciani, siodorus was a descendant of a well-known
The Destruction . . . , op. cit., p. 183; family of Syrian origin.It is also known that
H.Lutzer, Vom Sinn der Bauformen, Vol. I, he was well educated and exerted some in-
Freiburg,1953. fluence on Theodoric. See ‘Cassiodorus’,
12j. ‘Les Goths, les Francs, les Vandales, atta- Realenylopadie der klassischen Altertumswis-
chaient vkritablement du prix d la possession senschaft, Vol.111,2, Cols.1672-6, Stuttgart,
d’un beau marbre, d’un beau bronze. Les I 899.Letters written as if by Theodoric and
souvenirs se rattachant i un ouvrage,la per- assembled under the heading of ‘Various
fection de la main-d’ceuvre,k s skduisaient au- Letters’ constitute our source from T.
tant que la valeur de la matiere premitre.. . .’: Hodgkin, The Letters of Cassiodorus, Being a
see E. Muntz, Hisfoire de /art pendant la Condensed Translation of the ‘T.Lriae Epistolae’
Renaissance, Vol. I, pp. 209-10, Paris, Li- of Magnus Anrelzns Casszodorns Senator,
brairie Hachette,1889;J. B.Bury, The Later London, Henry Frowde, I 886; henceforth
Roman Empire,Vol.I,p. 5, New York, 1950; referred to as Cuss. Kzr., with page refer-
F. Harrison, Byzantine History in the Earll, ences to Hodgkin’stranslation.
Ages, pp. 5-11, London,Macmillan, 1900. 1 3 1 . Hodgkin,Cuss. Var., 11, 3j, p. 190.
126. P.P.Courcelle,L e 5 letfresgrecques en Occident, I 3 2. Ibid.,VII, I 3; Lanciani, The Destruction ...,
de Macrobe 2 Cassiodore, p. 392, Paris, op. cit.,p. 38.
Boccard, 1948; P. Lamma, Theodorico, I 3 3 , Hodgkin,Cuss. TGr., 111,IO;see Mommsen,
pp. 133-7,Brescia, La Scuola Editrice, 1950. op. cit., Vol.V.It must also be remembered
127. T.Hodgkin, Theodoric the Goth, Barbarian that the marbles and columns of Domus Pin-
Champion of Civilization, pp. 128-3 I, ciana were taken from Rome to Ravenna by
London, G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1891:‘Our Theodoric.
chiefauthority,who is believed to have been 134.Hodgkin,Cuss. Var., I,p. 152.
a Catholic Bishop of Ravenna,says: “He was 13). Ibid.,11, 34,p. 189.
an illustrious man,and full of good-willto- 136. Ibid.,111,29,p. 212.
wards all ... he w a s a lover of manufacturers 137. Ibid.,111,30, p. 212.
and a great restorer of cities”; and Procopius 138. Ibid.,111, 31,pp.213-14.
says: “Theodoric was an extraordinarylover 139. Ibid.,IV,5 1 , p. 263.
of Justice,and adhered rigorously to the 140. Ibid.,111, 44,p. zzo.
laws . . . he died,having been a terror to all 141. Ibid.,11,7, p. 174.
his enemies but leaving a deep regret for his 142. Ibid.,IV,24,p. 247.
loss in the hearts of his subjects.”’ 143. Ibid.,11, 39,pp. 191-2.
I 28. C. Bannister, ‘Comment’,Hzstoric Preser- 144. Ibid.,VII,15, p. 331.
vation Today, pp. 3 3-4, Charlottesville,Va., 145. Ibid.,VII,5, p. 3 2 3 .
The University Press of Virginia, 1966. 146. Bannister,op.at., pp. 33-4; C.I.Clkrisseau,
129. For the building activities and bibliography Antiquitis de la France, Introductory Section,
of Theodoric,see E.Stein,Histoire du Bas- Paris, lmprimerie de P.Dido1 l’AinC, I 804.
Part I1 From the
Middle
Ages
onwards
Italy I

THE TRANSITION TO THE MIDDLE A G E S nical advance.4 Rome, crushed under the
IN R O M E tremendous weight of the great empire it
had itself created, was witnessing its own
The Byzantines, who inherited the eastern disintegration.
territories of the Roman Empire, also fol- The empire was not even able to maintain
lowed the Graeco-Roman artistic tradition, its former capital city.5 In the sixth century
both in theory and in practice,while adapting A.D. Rome was compelled to look after its
it to their own concepts.In Italy,however, monuments when Theodoric personally su-
the Western Roman Empire was in rapid de- pervised the activities of the officials in
cline. The obscure history of its transition charge of the projects.6 The repairs were car-
through to medieval times is reflected in the ried out not with materials obtained from
difficulty of tracing how the perception of other monuments, as had been the custom
the major Roman monuments in Italy,espe- previously, but with bricks specially made
cially in Rome,reached the Middle Ages.Yet and stamped.7 Apart from minor repairs,
certain isolated events can be evaluated.For such as those of the catacombs undertaken
example,the three-dayinvasion of Rome by by Pope Vigilius in 137, it is hard to trace
the Visigoths,under the leadership of Alaric major projects after this period. In these
(A.D.410), and later by the Vandals in 411, troubled years the Church leaders took over
caused great confusion. The sacking of its the city’s affairs.8 The Pantheon, from
temples came as a particular shock.’The Hadrian’s period,first erected in 27 B.C. by
Western Roman Empire had indeed reached Augustus’ consul, Agrippa, to honour the
its lowest ebb.2 gods protecting the Julian family,was trans-
The signs of cultural decline first appeared formed into a church in A.D. 609,at the re-
in literature, subsequently in engineering quest of Pope Boniface IV during the reign
and architecture.?The Christian faith had in- of Phocas.9 This event marked the end of
filtrated Roman society,and new forms,new any hesitation regarding the conversion of
spaces were needed to reflect it. The w ill of Roman monuments into Christian sanc-
the emperors,the disintegration of the exist- tuaries,and gives a strong indication of the
ing settlements and the need for their change in attitude.
eventual reorganization made change imper- From the time of Justinian’sconquest of
ative. The introversive nature of the new the city,the Byzantine approach towards the
faith was also an influentialfactor.Architects historical heritage of Rome was never con-
and builders sought new forms in an effort to structive.Heraclius gave the bronze tiles of
satisfy the changing demands, but the de- the Temple of Venus and Roma to the Pope
teriorating education system hindered tech- to be used in the Basilica of St Peter’s.When 69
From the Middle Ages onwards

he visited the city in 663, Constantine I1 in the West, developing within the realm of
ordered the removal of the bronze roof tiles Christianity.
of the Roman monuments, including those One of Charlemagne’s scholars, Alcuin,
of the Pantheon.10Among other political fac- described Rome thus: ‘Once head of the
tors,this contemptuous lack of respect also world,the world’spride, the city of gold .. .
greatly disturbed the Romans and provoked now a pitiful ruin,the wreck of its glory of
the Popes into turning towards the west.” old.’17 Charlemagne, however, only helped
The only strong western nation was that of to precipitate this ruin and the following cen-
the Franks12 who had annexed the kingdom turies were an even more dismal period for
of the Lombards. The foundation of the Rome,where building activity in the city was
Carolingian dynasty in the eighth century was limited to the repair of its ramparts for de-
the first step towards the creation of the Holy fensive purposes.18
Roman Empire, the main political entity of Rome was not, however, the only city to
the Middle Ages. The papal alignment with suffer such a fate. It was common practice
the Carolingian court made it possible for the to take masonry from ancient buildings to
Church to become a political force in central provide materials for city walls, to neglect
Italy,and this event is generally accepted as monuments or to use them for unsuitable
marking the beginning of the Middle Ages in purposes such as shelters for the poor or as
Europe. workshops. It can be surmised that the ex-
Political instability and economic weak- treme poverty and insecurity in which people
ness characterized the transitional period lived from the fall of Rome until the eleventh
when concepts which developed with the century A.D. were partly the cause of changes
advent of Christianity began to replace not only in social attitudes but also in the
Roman ideals.Works of art were deliberately physical environment. Even in significant
neglected or destroyed13 and respect for the buildings,it was common to find weak walls,
past and its representative forms of art and re-used material, columns and capitals of
monuments diminished. Among the justifi- differing sizes, disproportionate sculptures,
cations for destruction was the notion that etc.10
with the re-useof elements of ancient build- The natural tendency of the weary masses
ings in new edifices, the honour and power was to seek security and peace; even the
of the old was transmitted to the new. smallest villages were justified in building
Charlemagne, proclaimed Emperor by defensive walls. But isolation and factional-
Pope Leo I11 in the year 800,was a powerful ism led to disorder and social decline.Only
promoter of Christian influence on the built in military architecture was any progress
environment.14 H e appointed the historian made, particularly in the ingenious design
Einhard (or Eginhard) as curator of ancient and construction of city walls and defences.
monuments.15 Documents left by Einhard Fortified towns brought security in trade,
record how Aachen was embellished with stability in politics and changes in land use.20
columns,mosaics and marble brought from But the medieval city appears to have been
Rome and Ravenna and describe the con- ‘aboveall things a stage for the ceremonies
struction and repair of religious buildings. of the Church’.21
The tomb of Charlemagne, which was a
Roman sarcophagus decorated with Chris-
tian symbols,16illustrates the spirit of these
times. This was the period when the Holy
70 Roman Empire became a political power
 Italy

T H E I N F L U E N C E O F RELIGIOUS erected by Trajan29 and Marcus Aurelius was

DEVELOPMENT that interest in them was a source of such
income. What could be called a ‘tourist
It is difficult to trace the development of guidebook’, entitled Mirubilia Urbir Romae
early medieval towns, although sufficient and published towards the middle of the
material for study exists about the pattern twelfth century,30 gave equal importance to
that was established for defensive purposes.22 monuments connected with Christian and
According to Lavedan, it is hard to prove pagan Rome.The itinerariesit gave followed
that at the end of the tenth century a persis- the ancient roads.31
tent scheme of development existed in towns By this time the Romans had recovered
founded around castles and monasteries and from the depression caused by the Norman
those already existing from Roman times.23 sack and a truce was accomplished in the
The preservation of certain features of previ- longstanding rivalry which had erupted be-
ous times in medieval settlements was due tween the empire and the Papacy. In 1143
mainly to primary practical or topographic Roman citizens formed a Senate and declared
reasons, or to the merging of traditional their city independent of the Pope, if only
functions with the needs of the day.24 for a short time. Order was to some extent
The adaptation of the old to the new can restored and peace reigned once more over
be seen in the utilization of ancient religious Rome. This period of calm had an adverse
areas for the construction of new religious effect on monuments, however. In the ab-
buildings. Temples dedicated to ancient de- sence of effective regulations,masonry from
ities were transformed into churches of new the ruins was used indiscriminately for pur-
saints.25 In later settlements, a deliberate poses of new construction and,in spite of the
effort was made to preserve the character- fact that the Senate had ultimate authority in
istics of the old alongside the new.26 One of this matter,the Popes ceded public buildings
the best examples of man’s attachment to the to the Church or individuals.
past, to historic monuments and to patterns Although some of the buildings sold to
of settlements can again be observed in the individuals were saved from destruction by
city of Rome,which succeeded for various rea- being used for different purposes,32 those
sons in preserving much ofits ancient heritage. donated to the Church were usually de-
Even though the sack of Rome by the molished to provide material for new ones.
Normans in 1084 was one of the most drastic Marble-cutters,purveyors of quick-lime as
in the city’shistory,27 the Cardinal of Tours well as ecclesiastics wishing to build new
was still able to express his admiration for churches contributed greatly to this irrev-
the magnificent ruins and for the enormous erent destruction.33 Rome came to resemble
variety of extant sculptures when he visited an open public quarry,the art objects being
the city in I 107.Documents record that trav- removed from their original locations to be
ellers flocked to Rome as pilgrims or visitors used elsewhere or to be kept. Nevertheless,
and even paid to obtain a better view of the the people and the Senate attempted, albeit
city from certain vantage points.28 A n in- ineffectually, to preserve their monuments
scription dated I I 19 states that the Column of from speculative and clerical vandalism.
Marcus Aurelius and a small adjoining build-
ing were rented out to the highest bidder, P E T R A R C H A N D C O L A DI RlENZO
who in turn charged pilgrims and visitors
for a view of Rome from a height. One of During the thirteenth century,Rome showed
the reasons for preserving the two columns interesting contradictions in culture and 7’
From the Middle Ages onwards

education. Although the Popes were well to preserve and protect the historic heritage.
educated,especially in law,there was no insti- Modern Renaissance scholars designate this
tution of higher learning in the city.Students period as the one where definite and far-
were compelled to study in Paris or in one of reaching changes began,especially in the at-
the best law schools of the time at Bologna. titudes of artists and intellectuals towards
The Popes later encouraged the founding of Antiquity. Culturally,there was a profound
schoolsat Naples and Padua,but were against admiration for Classicism41 in which Petrarch
their establishment in Rome so as to avoid played a central role.In I 340,he also partici-
the risk of excited and enthusiastic students pated in the political Republican movement
gathering in the capital.34 The suspicious at- of Cola di Rienzo through letters and mani-
titude of the Church towards culture was re- festos.As well as sharing common political
flected in its behaviour towards historic sites. views,both men had a boundless passion for
In 1298, Pope Boniface undertook the sys- ancient Rome.42 Cola di Rienzo studied its
tematic destruction of Palestrina,near Rome, ancient monuments and recorded them on a
which had up to that time preserved its plan of the city. H e had inscriptions on
Roman character with its sanctuaries,palaces monuments collected and deciphered, thus
and other buildings. This ruthless ‘sacking’ anticipating a systematic survey of ancient
of Palestrina was unequalled even by the Rome.43Likewise,in 137j, a specialist from
barbarians.35 Padua, Giovanni Dondini, proceeded to
Rome in the thirteenth century,with the copy inscriptions from temples and trium-
ceremonial road leading to the papal palace phal monuments in Rome. At the same
littered with rubbish, was presumably not time, Trajan’s Column, the Colosseum,the
a very inviting city.36St Benedict,Bishop of Pantheon,the Vatican obelisk and the basi-
Canusia,wrote, ‘Romew ill not be destroyed licas of St Peter and St Paul were measured
by the nations but, shaken by weather,light- and drawings made.44
ening, hurricanes and earthquakes, w ill Petrarch‘s and Cola di Rienzo’s attitude
moulder to decay.’37 towards seemingly isolated monuments was
When in 1337 and 1341Petrarch fulfilled widely shared among those interested in art
his childhood dream of visiting Rome, a city at the dawn of the Renaissance.45 In fact,
that he regarded as unique,38he was shocked those Romans who took an interest in cul-
by its general appearance.This great human- ture strove to regain self-confidenceand re-
ist, whose account of the ‘DarkAges’is said spect by appropriating the inherited cul-
to mark the beginning of modern history ture.46 While some Romans, especially the
and historical objectivism,was disgusted and Popes,maintained a destructiveattitude,47an
greatly saddened by the sight of the iniqui- edict of 1363made vandalism against ancient
tous marble and quick-limeworks near the monuments punishable by a fine.48 Artists
Colosseum. H e vehemently condemned the sought inspiration in antiquities. However,
ignorance of the Romans and their disrespect the fact that they interpreted rather than
for their history.39For Petrarch,who yearned imitated these models showed a growing in-
for the ‘GoldenAge’ of Rome, this era was tellectual awareness.49 The fourteenth cen-
indeed one of darkness.40 tury, with its rediscovery of the ancient
Nevertheless,Rome and the Italian penin- world,was a period of great significance,es-
sula as a whole made more sustained and pecially for Western art and for Italy, which
intensive efforts to protect historic monu- was beginning to find an identity in its litera-
ments than any other European country. ture and language.50The recognition of in-
72 Here began the first modern conscious effort dividuality and the discriminating adoption
 Italy

of the ideals of the Roman and the Greek L E O N E BATTISTA ALBERT1

periods were two basic tenets of the Renais-
sance. In Italy, this phenomenon took the In the fifteenthcentury,two prominent Italian
form of a more profound interest in the representativesof the trend to perpetuate and
study and imitation of classical art and litera- revalue the classical heritage were Filippo
ture, which had been much less influential Brunelleschi (I 3 77-1446) and Leone Battista
throughoutthe Middle Ages. Alberti (1404-72).Brunelleschi’sfortress-like
Such ideas were expounded by Petrarch, palaces and squares surrounded by arcades
who considered monuments not as indi- were widely copied and adorn many towns in
vidual representations of the past and as Italy.57Although Brunelleschi’sarchitectural
aesthetic treasures,but as important entities language is similar to that of Alberti, it was
inseparable from the environment in which the latter who formulated theories of the
they were created.51Most Renaissance artists Early Renaissance.
shared this basic attitude. The study of the O n the ideal city, Summerson relates
classical era was a key to the artist’s under- Alberti’s sentiments: ‘if any Roman ruins
standing of his own development and to his existed upon the site, they ought to be pre-
own search for reality.52 Classical art was served’.Summerson claims that this is the
thus an inspirational force,not a hard-and- first written statement of a concern for his-
fast rule. torical buildings from a cultural point of
Paintings produced after the mid-fifteenth view,whereas formerly any such concern was
century depict groups of monuments, often motivated by a desire to secure influence or
set within a panoramic view of a city, repre- fame.5*Indeed, Alberti’s main concern was
senting the way of life in the past. Drawings to establish a rapport with the artistic heri-
of Rome increased in number,allowing us to tage of the past, not through imitation but
follow the development of the city? through using it as a source of inspiration in
While hundreds of new settlements were planning,building and detail.
established at the end of the Middle Ages, In his book D e Re Aedificatoria,59published
emphasis during the Renaissance was also in 148)in Florence,Alberti’s definitions of
placed on reshaping and embellishing exist- functionalism (cammoditas)and attractiveness
ing ones.In most European cities the trend (valzlptas) are based upon a revivalist and
was towards the erection of new buildings in conciliatory approach rather than a revo-
the classical style,54 but in Italy, where au- lutionary one.H e collected examples to illus-
thentic classical monuments abounded,there trate the aesthetic and functionalconcepts of
was also a tendency to protect and revitalize architecture.H e gave priority to commoditas,
them. Unity and order along classical lines without finding it fully satisfactory unless it
were introduced into the city centres.In ac- harmonized with volzlptas. Alberti considered
cordance with the needs of the day, squares that urban settlements should not only sat-
were restructured after the example of agoras, isfy the residents’ practical needs but also
stoas and forums.In Florence,for example, create aesthetically pleasing spaces. H e in-
the old rectilinear plan of the Roman settle- sisted on respect for art and harmonious
ment was retained throughout the Middle beauty, stating that to embellish an object
Ages.55 Thus, the evolution from classical was to give it greater value and respect-
through medieval to Renaissance city plan- ability.60
ning was smooth.56 T o emphasize his view,he borrowed from
the writers of the classical period, such as
Pliny, who related that King Demetrius 73
From the Middle Ages onwards

decided not to burn Rhodes in order to save POPE NICHOLAS V

a painting by Propogenes.61
In expounding these principles, Alberti As Alberti developed these tenets during the
discussed at length streets and their use,pub- first half of the fifteenth century, the view
lic buildings and even the minute details of held by the administrators of Rome, espe-
private dwellings.Public buildings should be cially that taken by the Popes,was much less
both attractive and functional;they should positive towards the monuments of the past.
also relate harmoniously to each other. In Despite measures taken in 1402as a result of
private dwellings, which are more complex popular pressure to prevent the use of an-
because they must satisfy a multiplicity of tique marble for the production of lime,67
needs, some concessions might be necessary the Popes,many of whom came from other
in order to create a harmonious outward ap- cities, showed little concern for pre-Christian
pearance.62 Alberti was always sensitive to monuments; some of them even obtained
the environment and expected others to re- material gain from their destruction.A docu-
spond to its stimulus. ment in the Vatican archives68 records that in
Undoubtedly,difficulties were involved in 1426, the stones of the Basilica Julia in the
reconciling respect for antiquities with the Roman Forum were handed over to makers
desire to harmonize them with the contem- of quick-lime in exchange for half of the
porary environment.63Alberti was accused of product, and some were given to Cardinal
‘destructiveness’because of his predilection Isolani for church repairs.
for classical monuments and his apparent dis- However, there were some extenuating
like of contemporary architecture.His efforts circumstances for the Popes’actions.At the
to preserve and to achieve harmony are beginning of the fifteenth century Rome was
exemplified in Rimini and Florence.64As he in a state of decay,a city where wolves used
admitted,the result could be faulty if an ele- to come in at night and dig up bodies from
ment that was foreign to the basic purpose of cemeteries69 O n his arrival,Pope Martin V
a building were brought into play. (1417-3I), who had previously restored Flo-
As Paul-HenriMichel notes,Alberti could rence extensively,70found Rome unfit to live
not be excessive or independent either in in. The streets were full of rubbish and de-
his destructiveness or his protectiveness.H e bris, abandoned houses and ruined churches
tried to preserve what circumstanceallowed, on every side; signs of famine and pestilence
and in so doing he respected not only the were everywhere. Martin decided that he
material of a historic building but also its would have to clean up the city before any
essence and soul. When he stated that old construction could be carried out. O n 3 0
houses should not be hastily torn down,65 he March 1425,he founded the Magistri Viarum
was revealing his firm belief that every build- to clean and repair the streets.71 H e also
ing erected by man had some value and issued a decree ordering the eviction of
therefore should be respected.It is important squatters from public buildings and the de-
to keep in mind the general attitude of the molition of dilapidated and uncontrolled
times in which this belief was held. buildings.72Some buildings were obviously
Since Alberti professed his desire to elimi- being used for purposes other than those for
nate gloom and destruction from the remains which they had been intended. 73 Roman
of former civilizations, this concern has butchers had appropriated the Forum of
become part of the responsibilitiesof learned Nerva and the lower vaults of the Theatre of
men and architects.66 Marcellus;fishmongers the Portico of Octa-
74 via;leather-workersthe crypts of the Statium
 Italy

of Domitian;lime-workers and cordmakers Thus,it is not out of ostentationor ambition,or a

the Circus Flaminius; candlemakers the vainglorious desire of immortalizing our name,
Portico of Balbus,and glass-and bottlemakers that w e have conceived and commenced all these
the Baths of Agrippa. Other ancient public great works,but for the exaltation of the power of
buildings had been appropriated by wealthy the Holy See throughout Christendom, and in
order that future Popes should no longer be in
families, and some had even been repaired
danger of being driven away, taken prisoner,
and strengthened.Pope Martin was only able besieged,and otherwise oppressed.83
to bring relativeorder in the city and repair a
few churches and bridges.74 H is successor,
Eugenius IV (1431-47),also found it in a Pope Nicholas’ enlightened attitude arose
dilapidated state on his arrival in Rome.75H e from religious politics,whereas Alberti’s at-
repaired the walls of the city, along with a tempts to retain the historical environment
few churches and bridges.76 Although he originated from cultural concerns.Both men
built little, he showed interest in Renaissance reflected their times.
art.77During the second half of the century Following Pope Nicholas’ decision to re-
this interest grew, as clerics followed the in- build Rome, Alberti, with other architects,
tellectuals in their pursuit of knowledge developed a plan for the area between the
about ancient Rome. Vatican and Castel Sant’Angelo.Considering
The Pope most representative of Early the Basilica of St Peter as the focal point,he
Renaissance thought was Nicholas V (1447- designed an approach to it from Castel Sant’
j j),78 who had the benefit of better political Angelo, embellished with arcaded buildings
and financial circumstances than his prede- on both sides in the style of the Roman
cessors. When he arrived in Rome, condi- forums.84H e envisaged a new city to be built
tions were opportune for the launching of within Rome itself.By separating the Vatican
ambitious embellishment projects.The pro- from Rome,he aimed at protecting it.85
jects on which architects and artists such as Unlike Sprigge,86 w e are reluctant to ac-
Alberti worked79 were designed to encom- cept as a strong indication of the prevailing
pass the city as a whole rather than indi- attitude the edict of 14>2which condemned
vidual buildings. Although many historic people guilty of dumping rubble on historic
buildings and areas suffered from these a m - buildings (edzjciantipi) in Piazza Navona to
bitious projects,80 even Lanciani,a staunch a fine of ten pieces of gold.The approach of
defender of ancient Roman monuments,pre- Pius 11, who ascended the papal throne in
sents Pope Nicholas as the first administrator 14j8, to the buildings of Rome, however,
to effectively ‘restore’Rome and bring order reflects the general spirit of the times.87
to it.81 The new Pope,who worked to establish
It has been debated whether Nicholas’ unity in Europe and endeavoured to extend
efforts were motivated by a desire to secure the boundaries of Christianity to the east by
his own fame or to widen the influence of inviting the Ottoman Sultan Mehmet the
Christianity.82The Pope’s own words on the Conqueror to become a Christian,aE was
subject are more instructive. more a man of thought than a man of action.
In rebuilding Rome, he followed his prede-
If w e had been able to accomplish all that w e cessors’practice of using antique remains,89
wished, our successors would find themselves but unlike them, he was more receptive to
more respected by all Christian nations, and the artistic and literary trends of the times.90
would be able to dwell in Rome with greater H e was not interested in Nicholas’ambitious
security both from external and internal foes. building projects but was impressed by
From the Middle Ages onwards

Rome’stransition from the old to the new,as more a lively city fit for habitation.Properly
shown by a decree of 28 April 1462.91Pius I1 constructed roads passing through ruins and
ordered that in Rome and the surrounding disorderly settlements,as well as new build-
countryside historic buildings were not to be ings, created an impression of orderly plan-
demolished, even on private property. H e ning. During the reign of Alexander VI
personally inspected ruins and monuments (1492-1j03),’~ the renowned architect Bra-
and severely punished those guilty of the mante came to Rome. Although he was in-
offence.Thus Pius I1 is recognized as the fluenced by the historic monuments he ad-
first Pope to protect historic monuments. mired and reflected in his buildings,his work
The fifteenth century was also the period was not readily acclaimed.In a pamphlet of
when antiquarian studies flourished.Classical the day, he was accused of being a destroyer
writers regained favour, inscriptions were and a threat to ancient Rome.A posthumous
collected,monuments were studied and clas- drawing depicts him after his death kneeling
sified;in fact,collecting became the fashion.92 before St Peter and beseeching him to widen
The Venetian Pope,Paul I1 (1464-71),owned the narrow and difficult road leading to
a rich collection before his accession to the Heaven.100
Papacy.93 H is collections purportedly in-
cluded Greek, Roman and Byzantine jewel-
lery,statues and coins,and he is said to have R E T U R N T O T H E CLASSICAL
spent most of his days contemplating them.94
Art collecting became an obsession and even The sixteenth century is generally regarded
excavations were undertaken to satisfy it.95 as the period when Renaissance Classicism
H e was followed by Pope Sixtus IV (1471- was fully expressed in all areas of cultural
84), who laid the basis for the Capitoline endeavour.101In architecture,a revival of the
Museum in Rome. Although Sixtus IV was forums of imperial Rome came about.102
also the founder of the famous Vatican Li- When compared with other west European
brary, the builder of the Sistine Chapel and countries,103 Italy, and Rome in particular,
patron of numerous artists, he was extremely adopted a conservative attitude which was
ambitious and was accused of causing serious typified by Brunelleschi, Alberti, Bramante
damage to the ancient buildings of the city.96 and Raphael.
By an order of 1471he permitted the Vatican The architect and sculptorAntonio Filarete
architects to dig where they pleased for stone declared in a book written between 1460and
to be used in new construction.97 1464:‘I,too, used to like modern [Gothic]
In contrast,he was praised for construct- buildings, but when I began to appreciate
ing new streets in the city and widening the classical ones, I came to be disgusted with
old ones. In 1480 he reformed the Streets the former.’104When the Duke of Urbino
and Monuments Authority (Magistri Eadi- decided to build a palace in 1461,he sought
ficiorum et Stratarum Urbis),98 authorizing an architect capable of designing along clas-
it to buy and demolish buildings for road sical Roman lines.In the convergence of the
building purposes, thus introducing expro- ideas of Filarete and the Duke of Urbino,
priation.It is worth while studying this atti- the influence of Alberti and Brunelleschi is
tude, which was conducive to the mainte- apparent.105 This tendency materialized in
nance of order in traffic and living conditions. the buildings designed by Bramante,Raphael
Medieval Rome of the fourteenth century and their contemporaries. The designs of
assumed a more ‘modern’aspect; towards Bramante’s later Roman period (such as the
76 the end of the fifteenth century it was once Belvedere courtyard and St Peter’sBasilica at
 Italy

the Vatican) are dynamic continuations of prepare a detailed plan of all classical monu-
the spirit of classical Roman architecture ments in Rome, for which he carried out
rather than mere copies or interpretations of archaeological excavations. H e then com-
it.106 pared the discoveries with descriptions by
In the first three decades of the sixteenth Vitruvius and other classical writers. Al-
century, from the popular reaction against though its completion was pre-emptedby his
Bramante’s destructive clearance of the site death, he had accomplished enough to in-
for the new Basilica of St Peter,107to Charles fluence Roman archaeology.113 A commen-
V’ssack of Rome in 1327, there was a per- tary on the state of Roman monuments is a
ceptible change in the attitude towards the letter written during Raphael’s lifetime to
conservation of historic monuments. Leo X.It is debatable whether he or his
During the pontificate of JuliusI1 ( I > o ~ - friend Baldassare wrote it, but there is no
I j), Francesco Albertini prepared a guide- doubt that Raphael shared the views it ex-
book of the new and antique buildings of pressed.114 After lamenting the destruction
Rome and of the ‘new city’ built by the of Rome by the Goths and Vandals,the letter
Popes.Pope Juliuswas a dedicated collector accused the Popes of doing likewise. Ex-
of antiquities.108 With the objects he had amples were cited of monuments and sculp-
collected while a cardinal, he established ture,witnesses to Rome’s honour and glory,
a museum in the gardens of a Roman villa, pulverized to dust in order to produce quick-
opened to the public in I ~ O O .Nevertheless, lime. This state of affairs was called a bar-
the Romans reacted strongly when he placed barian attitude,a dishonour to the age. The
in his museum a recently discovered statue of Pope was then solicited to protect the re-
Apollo.Later,when he became Pope,he had maining monuments of Italy.This document
the statue placed in the courtyard of the Bel- exposed the weakness of the traditional papal
vedere built by Bramante.109Under Julius11, measures and demonstrated concern for his-
Rome became a centre of political activities toric monuments and the environment they
as well as a forum of scientists and artists. had created.
The Pope’sknowledgeable interest in pagan Further evidence of such interest for
works led to the development of classical Rome’s past is to be found in a papal docu-
culture and Christian thought side by side. ment signed by Leo X in I > I 5, appointing
Meanwhile, Julius,too,followed the exam- the Vatican architect Raphael as commis-
ple of his predecessors in creating a ‘Great sioner of antiquities (Commissario delle
Rome’ with the help of famous artists and Antichit&).115 This proclamation made the
architects.T o this day a number of buildings destruction of statues and inscriptions pun-
and monuments, including the famous Re- ishable by heavy fines. The Pope, insisting
naissance street, the Via Giulia, bear his specifically on decorated inscriptions,stated:
imprint.110 ‘Such things often contain some important
Pope Leo X (I j I 3-22) held office during memorial, and are worth safeguarding for
Raphael’s lifetime (1483-1jzo).111 The cele- the advantage of science and the classic pu-
brated painter and architect was a master of rity of the Latin tongue.’116 With the ap-
subjects taken from Antiquity.112His paint- pointment of Raphael,this public office was
ings re-create the idealism of Antiquity, for the first time entrusted to a competent
fusing past and present.His architecture also and responsible individual. Yet interest in
reveals an intimate knowledge of Antiquity antiquities and in the prevention of their de-
and a profound understanding of Vitruvius. structionhad ceased to be a one-manaffair as
One of his first papal assignments was to its manifold aspects became apparent.117 77
From the Middle Ages onwards

The efforts of Raphael and Leo X to pro- stroying works of art be put to death.124 But
tect and classify historic monuments11* suf- even the threat of execution did not deter the
fered with the fall of Rome to Charles V in vandals from plying their nefarious trade.
I > 27 and the ensuing destruction.119 This Simultaneously, more and more statues
lasted for eight days and was comparable to found their way into private collections,
the sack of the city by the Gauls in 390 B.C. their value increased and copying became
and by the Normans in 1084.1~0 widespread.125 The Pope himself acted in
Papal building activities abated consider- complete disregard of his own decree. In
ably in the following years; interest in his- I 1 40,he issued an order permitting excava-
toric monuments was, nevertheless,as keen tions in and around Rome to obtain building
as ever. The Dutchman Marten von Heem- material for the rebuilding of a Christian St
skerck resided in Rome from I j 3 z to I 1 3 y to Peter’s.126
prepare a study of monuments,ruins and the Although this decision was taken while
work of Michelangelo (1473-1>64).121In Manetti was away from Rome,it is difficult
I > 34,the year Paul I11 (I 5 34-49) was elected to exonerate him from all blame. Indeed,he
Pope, proof of growing interest in Rome’s was not only the commissioner of anti-
classical heritage is evidenced by the forma- quities (Commissariodelle Antichith), he was
tion of a team of experts headed by Giove- also in charge of road building and main-
nale Manetti,a scientist and a leading citizen tenance (Maestro delle Strade).127 It wodrd
of Rome.122 Manetti’s collection of statues at be expected of him to halt destruction *€or
his residence in Campo dei Fiori was open to the sake of construction.Not a stone was left
the public. unturned by the Pope,whose responsibility
In his letter appointing Manetti to this for the preservation of the pagan antiquities
post,in his Delegato sopra la conservarione delle of Rome was compromised by his desire to
antichit2 di R o m a , the Pope declared: build a Christian city that was both aesthetic
and habitable.H e concentrated his efforts on
Not without deep sorrow are w e aware that the streets of Rome, promoting a road sys-
not merely Goths,Vandals and other barbarians, tem that would efficiently link the main roads
not merely C-reeks and the ravages of time, but and squares to each other.128
our own indifference and guilt, our greed and It was Paul I11 who ordered the equestrian
cunning have torn down, destroyed and squan- statue of Emperor Marcus Aurelius trans-
dered the venerable adornments of the city of the ported from the Lateran to the Capitoline
Quirites. W e are burdened with the thought that Hill.Saved from destruction in the Middle
briers, ivy and other plants have taken root in the
ancient buildings and split asunder the masonry,
Ages due to its being erroneously identified
that small dwellings and shops cluster round the as Constantine the Great, the first Christian
monuments and mar their beauty and, last and Emperor,the statue was correctly identified
worst of all, that statues,pictures, brazen and mar- only in the sixteenth century.The new dedi-
ble tables, objects of porphyry, Numidians and catory inscription on the pedestal states that
other marbles have been carried out of the city the Pope undertook this feat to ‘perpetuate
and dispersed among strangers.123 the memory of the Emperor and to restore
the adornment of the city of their fathers.’lZg
H e called for measures against vandalism, Michelangelo was chosen as papal architect
including fines,but since the infamous lime- to design the Piazza del Campidoglio,which
works continued its activities, the Pope de- was to receive the statue of Marcus Aure-
creed, for the first time since the Emperor lius.130The great artist and architect brilliantly
78 Constantine in 349,that those guilty of de- rearranged existing and new buildings around
 Italy

the square,with the antique statue as its focal of his plan138 was Domenico Fontana (I j43-
point.131 The fact that Manetti and Paul I11 1607)from northern Italy.139Working with a
expressed ideas,only later to act in contradic- Pope who always complained bitterly about
tion of them,shows the inner conflict within the slownessof architects,l40Fontana did not
the theoreticidn who became practitioner. have time to design impressivebuildings,yet
Michelangelo, however, combined the two his contribution to town planning is irrefu-
roles. Such is the integration of the pagan table. At the same time, he also took part in
heritage of Rome with Christianity and its ac- the destruction of classical and medieval
ceptance by intellectuals,artists and clergy.132 buildings that stood in the way of the pro-
ject.141
The main aim of Sixtus V’sproject was to
SIXTUS V A N D PUBLIC RESISTANCE
link together the twenty or more widely dis-
The Vitruvian Academy, a school founded persed religious sites, many of them centres
during the time of Paul 111, represents the of pilgrimage. T o this end, many buildings
impact of classicist culture in Rome and its were razed to the ground, while others,
influence on architecture.133 The activities considered more significant, were re-
of the academy sought to link the classical evaluated.142The streets, unusually wide for
period with contemporary times,134 specifi- the time, were lined with aesthetically pleas-
cally to purify the greatly modified versions ing buildings, and terminated in important
of Vitruvius and publish a more under- monuments.143 Historic structures, arches,
standable critical version in Latin with com- gates, fountains,columns and statues on the
mentaries and illustrations.At the same time, roads were fitted into the new scheme.
an inventory of all monuments, obets dart Squares,important points on the roads,and
and artefacts of ancient Rome was foreseen, especially intersections,were given greater
eventually to be published. The academy’s topographicalsignificance by the erection of
programme reflects an approach that can be antique columns and obelisks, transformed
considered valid even today,at the same time by Christian symbols.This was done by clear-
establishing basic principles for the evalu- ing the area surrounding the monument to
ation of historic monuments.The emerging create a new ambience,as in the case of the
consciousness follows the line of develop- Column of Trajan and the Column of Marcus
ment starting with the contradictions that Aurelius, which were also provided with
Pope Paul Ill and Manetti faced, later to be gilded statues of St Peter and St
remedied in Michelangelo’swork.135 In this massive reorganization of the
Rome, which had become a centre of the urban structure,monuments were sometimes
arts at the beginning of the sixteenth century, moved from one place to another.The four
also led the development in town planning obelisks erected by Fontana still stand at
towards the end of the century.136Paul 111 their intended focal points in Rome.The first
played an important role in the organization obelisk was transported from the Circus of
of the city after the Popes returned to Rome Nerol45 to its present site in front of the
from Avignon.His major achievement,whch Basilica of St I’tter in 1 ~ 8 3 ,after 1 0 3 days’
has been widely acclaimed, was the evalua- ~0rk.146 One obelisk decorating the Mauso-
tion of existing forms and volumes within the leum of Augustus was transferred to the
proposed reorganization of the city.It was the crossroads on top of the Esquiline Hill in
forceful Pope Sixtus V (I 5 8 j 90)who,using
~
I j 87.The third obelisk,4) metres high,was
existing legal schemes,succeeded in restoring placed on the axis of the Via Merulana,lead-
Rome’spast prestige.I37 The skilful executor ing to the Lateran Basilica and Palace.Finally 79
From the Middle Ages onwards

Plate 8
The Colosseum and the Lateran area in Rome; in
this drawing by Antonia Tempesta (xj93),
corresponding to the period just after the death of
Sixtus V, the recent straight roads can be seen.

80
 Italy

Plate 9
A sixteenth-centurydrawing showing the
transportationof an obelisk (from the Lafreri
Speculum published in R o m e in I > 66).

the fourth was erected in the Piazza del their surprise and admiration.150Rome had
Popolo. been rejuvenated by its monuments, new
The resulting impressive arrangement roads,new buildings,waterworks and foun-
shows that the topography of the city and the tains. Sixtus had also found the city bank-
existing roads were also taken into consider- rupt, full of beggars and vagabonds.151 H e
ation.It was an attempt to link the old with dealt with this problem by establishing shel-
the new and,in some instances,for the new ters and stimulating employment. In ad-
to surpass the old,as Sixtus expressed it, ‘to dition to the public works which employed
tear down the ugly old and repair the many workers, he activated the export trade
worthwhile’.147 by reviving the old wool and silk industries
The new spirit that aimed at turning Rome and by passing a law stipulating that mul-
into the most modern, most attractive and berry trees be planted in the city.
most beautiful city of Christianity might be A n especially interesting project prepared
called the ‘Catholic Restoration’.”+* When by Domenico Fontana proposed to use the
the French philosopher Montaigne, full of Colosseum as a wool-spinning establish-
admiration for classical culture, arrived in ment; the ground floor was to become a mill
Rome five years before the reign of Sixtus,he and the upper storeys were to be used as
was heartbroken at the sight of this city in lodgings for workers.If realized,this project
shambles and felt that he had seen nothing would have turned the Colosseum into ‘the
but the tomb of ancient Rome.149Visitors first workers’settlement and large-scaleunit
who had known the city and returned after of manufacture’.152Although it is difficult to
the death of Sixtus could not help showing assess whether this transformation would 81
From the Middle Ages onwards

have caused further harm to the Colosseum bridge;when he was unable to pay,two large
than had its state of neglect,153 the project statues in his possession were taken in lieu of
exemplifies early purposeful efforts to give a the fine. These statues,one of Julius Caesar
new function to an old monument. and the other ofa Roman admiral,are today
It must be remembered that public opin- in Rome museums.157 Similarly,in I j 74,the
ion was a major contributing factor that City Council laid down certain conditions
even the powerful Pope Sixtus V had to take when asking the Pope to repair for public use
into consideration in his endeavour to re- a bridge destroyed during a flood. It stipu-
build Rome.154 The influence of the Romans lated that stones lying around the Colosseum
and their representativeson the City Council could be used on condition that none were
accounts for changes in the Pope’s initial de- taken from standing parts of the building.In
cisions. If certain doomed monuments were areas under the control of the Senate, no
salvaged,it was due to the public attitude to- standing monuments were to be endangered
wards them and the difficulty of opposing the by the search for stone. Any statues or his-
public will.Thus, Lanciani, the nineteenth- toric objects unearthed became the property
century defender of Roman monuments, of the Senate and the people of Rome
illustrates that the early civic institutions (SPQR-Senatus Populusque Romanus). In
abided by the laws defending historic monu- 1176,the City Council pawned some valu-
ments.155 To demonstrate the cautious atti- able city property in order to recover a
tude towards historic buildings, he cites a bronze inscription from Vespasian’s time
decision of the City Council in I ~ Z O ,grant- which had fallen into the hands of clergy-
ing a senator permission to re-usestones in men. Four years later, a delegation was sent
the vicinity of the Arch of Septimius Severus to the Pope to protest against the mutilation
until he reached a certain level,when he was of ruins and the search for marble that en-
to inform the city judiciaries who would dis- dangered the historic heritage of Rome. In
patch a group of ten citizens to ensure that spite of this objection,Gregory XI11 (I j 72-
this and other monuments in the Forum had 8j) issued in the same year a contradictory
not been harmed in any manner. Another papal order which gave permission to dis-
decision in I j zj appropriated bas-reliefsfrom mantle the ruins of Ostia and Porto in
the Column of Marcus Aurelius without order to build St Peter’s.The City Council
compensation being paid to the priest who remained undaunted by lack of money and
held them. Furthermore, the City Council papal indifference.In I j 84,by selling the ex-
subsidized certain projects,such as the trans- ploitation rights to collect income from two
portation of the statue of Marcus Aurelius in city quarters,it was able to repair the statues
I j 3 8 to its new site at the Campidoglio,de- of Castor and Pollux and erect them on their
signed by Michelangelo. present site.
The same council opposed the Pope if By the end of the sixteenth century there
necessary.In I j 40 it fought a papal decision was conflict between Pope Sixtus V, who
to take every usable stone from the Forum was determined to create a new Rome within
and the Via Sacra for the construction of St the framework of Christianity, and the
Peter’s.A decree of I 561 shows that Pius IV population, who were proud of their past
allowed the clergy to utilize part of the Baths and wanted to preserve traces of their his-
of Diocletian,being quite aware of possible tory. Domenico Fontana, who had been
public reaction.156The same year,a contrac- given permission to demolish any monument
tor working for the Pope was fined by the for the embellishment of the city, had asked
82 City Council for the unsuccessful repair of a the Pope for protection against popular reac-
Plate IO.

Domenico Fontana's project to transform the

Colosseum into a wool-spinning establishment
during the pontificate of Sixtus V (from a work by
Domenico Fontana,published in 1694).
From the Middle Ages onwards

tion. In some cases, such as the tomb of ishing of autocracy and the centralization of
Cecilia Metella, public outcry was strong power.In the seventeenth and the following
enough to save monuments from destruc- centuries in Europe, France became in-
tion.The news of the death of Sixtus V was creasingly influential politically,socially and
thus received with joy by the people and economically through its early separation of
the City Council. A city document dated Church and State. Rome remained the centre
24 August 1590 reads: ‘Today,our most of Christianity and one of the strongest in-
Holy Lord,Pope Sixtus V,has departed this dependent states in Italy.161 Foreign artists
life, amidst the rejoicing and mutual con- were still attracted by its monuments and
gratulationsof all classes of citizens.’158 sites.As Sprigge put it, Rome was the studio
In Rome of the fifteenth and sixteenth of Europe.162Its importance as a cultural and
centuries, recently emerged from the Dark artistic centre was recognizedby France with
Ages,the traces of classical Greek and Roman the foundation of the AcadCmie de France in
civilizations were deep and the public was Rome by Louis XIV;other European states
well aware of their renewed influence.159 It followed.As interest in classical monuments
would be unjust to apportion blame to those grew,foreign countries protested even more
who were using the remains of ancient build- vehemently than the Romans against disre-
ings to construct new ones, since building spectful treatment of them.163
material in Rome at the time was scarce.The The seventeenth century witnessed un-
difficulties in the transition from old to new precedented advances in astronomy,physics
norms of settlement should be appreciated, and medicine,but this progressive interest in
as historical continuity can run counter to the sciences in no way lessened concern for
the desired level of historical achievement. antiquities;164up to the nineteenth century,
In most cases, builders tried to evaluate classical erudition progressed side by side
historic monuments and environments, but with such concern. Monuments were not
the preconceived ideas in the Rome of that evaluated as archaeological artefacts, but as
period were different from those of today. models and sources of inspiration for the
The Roman of the fifteenth and sixteenth decorative and building arts.165 Artists and
centuries was nostalgic about the ‘Roman writers took pride in a first-handknowledge
Empire’;he wanted to be as creative as the of them.
ancient Romans and even to surpass them. Since interest in historic monuments was
Indeed,Palladio,by the end of the sixteenth limited to the classical period, medieval and
century,gives examples of a trend to recreate Renaissance works suffered. As was their
not only classical buildings but a whole way wont, the Popes continued to plunder an-
of life.160 Similar tendencies continued in the cient monuments without discrimination.
Baroque period to the detriment of medieval Paul V (1605-21) destroyed the eastern half
and Renaissancebuildings. of the Basilica of St Peter for so-calledim-
provements,and completely razed the Baths
of Constantine and the Temple of Minerva.
BAROQUE AND ROCOCO ROME
Similarly,Urban VI11 (1623-44) demolished
At the beginning of the seventeenth century two churches and several Roman monu-
Rome started changing as it acquired a ments and scattered their stones or sold
Baroque aspect. New roads had been con- them.166 Meanwhile, Bernini was building a
structed; ancient aqueducts had been re- palace for the Pope’s nephew, Barberini,
established and life had become agreeable with stones taken from the Colosseum.167
84 once more. This period was to see the flour- The Romans’hostile response was expressed
 Italy

in the motto: ‘Quodnonfecerunt Barbara’fecerunt work started by the Rainaldis, father and
Barberini’ (What the Barbarians did not son, on Sant’Agnese in Agone, retained
do, the Barberinis did).168 Alexander VI1 their plan but conceived a building in his
(16j1-67), who had dismantled a triumphal own style. After the death of the Pope, the
arch, gave orders to the same architect to church was returned to the Rainaldis for
remove the bronze additions to the portico completion. Sant’Agnese in Agone faces the
of the Pantheon and to repair it in an obvious Piazza Navona,which Innocent X (1644-jj)
manner.169 wanted to make the most prominent square
The time-honouredinterest of the Popes in Rome.175The piazza still retains the form
in collecting smaller 0bjet.r d’art had not of the Roman Hippodrome on which it is
abated. The palaces of the rich were dec- located. Bernini had erected an obelisk on
orated with statues,reliefs and other antique a plinth and Borromini respected the form of
objects. Decorative elements of historic the piazza by pulling the faqade of Sant’
monuments,including columns and capitals, Agnese back.A similar approach was adopted
thus fared better than the buildings them- for other squares in Rome.176
selves as the Popes tried to prevent the ex- At the end of the seventeenth century,
port and unregistered sale of such pieces.170 many religious groups and aristocrats
A commission had been formed in 1634 to throughout Europe were patrons of the arts.
protect Roman antiquities. In 1624 Urban In particular, the splendour and wealth of
VI11 published a decree forbidding the ex- Louis XIV’scourt attracted much artistic ac-
port of antiquities while he himself carried tivity to France,and Paris challenged Rome
on dismantling monuments.In 1646,the reg- as the cultural centre of Europe. In 1690
ister of art objects was extended and certain Arcadia, the association for literati, was
regulations about excavations were added. founded in Rome and was later to play an
With decrees of 16jj and 16j7, the Papacy important role in cultural activity. Foreign
began to exercise control over excavations. artists continued their pilgrimages to Rome
In 168j another order forbidding the export to study its ancient monuments and works of
of antiquities was published,171thus raising art, and the Acadkmie de France in Rome
doubts about their usefulness. retained its importance. Graduates of the
The Baroque period introduced novel Ecole de Rome were considered far superior
concepts of design to Rome which were also to their fellows who had studied in France.
reflected in additions made to old buildings. Meanwhile, the mania for collecting
One of the most influential architects of reached new heights.As the number of trav-
the period was Francesco Borromini (I 599- ellers to Rome increased,so did the quantity
1677),172 whose work was so revolutionary of ancient Roman works of art crossing the
that his relation to preceding periods has frontiers.Measures aimed at controlling this
been doubted.173Yet, in fact, like all great illicit trade reveal how serious the situation
artists, his style was firmly embedded in the had become. The decree of Innocent XI
past. His work was inspired by the old but (1676-89) forbidding the export of works of
did not imitate it. His incorporation of the art was followed by those of Clement XI
existing fabric of the Basilica of San Giovanni (1700-21) in 1701 and 1704, when manu-
in Laterano into his own project was partic- scripts and other documents were added to
ularly successful.Presumably,it was also the the list of prohibited exports.Another decree
Pope’s wish to preserve parts of the existing was issued in 1707 by Clement XI,who was
structure.174 also interested in museums.Work had begun
Borromini,who was asked to continue the on the Galleria Lapidaria and the museum of
From the Middle Ages onwards

PLate II.
Rome, Hadrian’s Pantheon with Bernmi’s towers
named ‘Donkeyears’. [Photo:Gabinetto Fotografico
Nazionale.]

86
 Italy

Plate 19

Rome, the Pantheon after the removal of additions.

[Photo:Gabinetto Fotografico Naaionale.]
From the Middle Ages onwards

early Christian art in the Vatican. Clement modern sense appeared in urban centres such
XI1 (I 730-40) and Benedict XIV (I 740- 5 8) as London and Paris. Kings and princes were
followed in the footsteps of their predeces- collecting works of art which, eventually,
sor, and the first large public museum, the would result in the formation of such
Capitoline Museum, founded by Sixtus IV, museums as the Louvre in Paris and the
was developed.Benedict XIV went further National Gallery in London. As Baroque
still and opened four new academies in music flourished, concert halls began to
Rome, one of which was concerned only appear. The Renaissance era, when cities
with the antiquities of the city.177 were renowned only for their wide streets,
Interest in ruins of the classical period and was passing.182 The pace of life quickened
ancient works of art continued to grow, and the pressures of religious criticism,
though with deviations. Pagan inscriptions economic expansion and mechanization were
were no longer obliterated in order to carve felt. The objectivism and positive thinking
Christian symbols.In a document signed by that were characteristic of the seventeenth
Cardinal Albani and dated ZI October 1726, century hindered self-reliantcreativity. The
the reworking of decorated and inscribed return to classicism in art and architecture
pieces of marble was forbidden. In 1733, was also considered as a reaction to the period
another decree concerning the preservation that was passing. In the years from 17jo to
of ancient monuments was published. In the beginning of the nineteenth century,
I 738 Herculaneum and in I 748 Pompeiiwere which was a transitional period from late
the scene of archaeological excavations Baroque to Neo-Classicism,Rome witnessed
which aroused widespread interest not only interesting developments.1*3
among scholars but also among the public. With the ever-growinginterest in antiqui-
The word ‘archaeology’was introduced in ties, the number of collectors and archae-
this period as the foundations of its science ological excavations increased. The Papacy
were laid.Indeed,the discovery of the buried multiplied its efforts to prevent thefts and to
cities178 ‘was not just the excavation of an collect newly discovered antiquities for dec-
old world but the confirmation of an exist- orating the squares and public buildings of
ing aesthetic’.179 The forerunner of Neo- Rome. Benedict XIV was known as the
Classicism, Anton Raphael Mengs (1728-79), ‘Gothic Pope’ because of his interest in the
creator of the Parnassus fresco on the ceiling accomplishments of his ancient predecessors
of Villa Albani,became known for his work rather than in his 0~11.184H e had re-erected
on these sites.180 This event symbolized the on a new site the base of a monument dec-
end of the Baroque-Rococo period and orated with reliefs depicting Antoninus Pius
the beginning of a new analytical taste for (A.D. 138-61) and his wife Faustina, but he
antiquity. Johann Joachim Winkelmann’s was unable to decide what monument was
(1717-68)lE1evaluation and criticism of the to stand on it and so abandoned the whole
classical period is significant in the develop- project. Similarly, an obelisk rediscovered
ment of art history in this period. during the excavation of a house was left
lying where it was found because he could
not decide where to re-erectit.
R O M E AFTER I 7j 0
However, Benedict’s interest in the
As the Church relinquished its administrative Colosseum had more concrete results.After
authority to those holding the political and SixtusV’sproject to transform the arena into
economic power, cities came under the in- a wool-spinning establishment was aban-
88 fluence of the aristocracy.The theatre in its doned,the place had reverted to its use as a
 Italy

shelter for the poor and the destitute.In 1675 H e eventually created the Vatican Museum,
Clement V had the outer arches filled and the which has one of the richest collectionsin the
interior transformed into a religious centre world. H e spared neither effort nor money
for the enactment of the Stations of the to obtain statues, bas-reliefs, sarcophagi,
Cross.A n earthquake in 1703 put an end to mosaics and coins,all of which went to the
this project. The famous French explorer Vatican. Clerics sent artefacts found outside
de Brosses (1709-77)185 suggested that the Rome to add to his already priceless collec-
section of the Colosseum west of the hill tion.Moreover,the Pope bought items from
be pulled down and the rest rebuilt in its local and foreign antique dealers189 and had
original form, claiming that a well-ordered excavations carried out at his own expense.
part would be preferable to a dilapidated During his pontificate, the Vatican collec-
whole. H e also advocated the building of a tion is said to have doubled. The enlarged
fountain in the middle or having the whole museum was opened to the public,who were
arena flooded for mock Roman naval bat- able to see not only Roman but also Egyp-
tles. The Pope preferred to see the arches re- tian, Greek, medieval and contemporary
paired,however,and in 1749decided to turn items on display. Pius VI also had a house,
the biggest monument of Rome into a me- discovered at Montalto,opened to the public
morial to Christ’smartyrdom.H e had a huge so that everybody could enjoy the beauty of
crucifix placed in the middle of the arena and his finds.190
repaired the fourteen surrounding crosses. The period under consideration was one
Thousands attended ceremonies held there. of great intellectual activity and change.The
Pope Benedict XIV reinforced the ban polemic views of the architect-critic Fran-
against the smuggling of antiquities in I 7j o cesco Milizia (I 725 -99) had wide reper-
and tried to exercise stricter control on cussions.Milizia waged war on the architec-
excavations. In the same year the first two ture of unnecessary columns, false faqades
volumes ofthe Capitoline Museum catalogue and non-functionalniches;he attacked Bor-
appeared. The Pope endowed the museum romini, the master of illusion, and his fol-
with contemporary as well as ancient works lowers.Basing his arguments on the theories
of art and opened a gallery of oil paintings. of Vitruvius, reinforced by the examples of
Thus the artistic concept of a link between ancient buildings, he declared that architec-
old and new was manifested in the museum. tural beauty could be achieved by creating
The successor to Benedict XIV was Cle- functional buildings. Thus, Greek and Ro-
ment XI11 (1778-69), who prepared the way man monuments ceased to be a source of
for the scientific development of the subject inspiration;they were being copied all over
by appointing Winckelmann as curator of Europe. The intellectual approach was at
antiquities of Rome.186 It fell to Pius VI odds with the romantic.
(I 77j-99) to erect three obelisks,including As the number of visitors to Rome with
the one found by Benedict XIV,in Roman various aims increased,guidebooksto works
squares.187 H e thus continued the tradition, of art, printed in several European lan-
started by Sixtus V,of raising these represen- guages,multiplied.Guided tours lasting two
tatives of Egyptian art, brought to Rome months, five hours each day, were con-
during the imperial period,to honour Chris- ducted.Each item was illuminated by torch-
tianity. The Pope’s system for sharing ex- light and explained during night tours of
cavated finds allocated a quarter to the Pope, museums, which were especially popular.
a quarter to the Holy See, a quarter to the Hotels,cafks and restaurantsfor foreign visi-
landowner and a quarter to the excavator.188 tors could be found mostly around the Piazza 89
From the Middle Ages onwards

di Spagna,191which had become a centre for Among the objects that were repaired, it
foreigners.As Rome became a universal cul- was possible to find statues with only one
tural centre,further activities such as meet- original limb and the remainder reconsti-
ings and festivals were planned to enrich the tuted.The fame of Roman restorerswas such
experience of the city.192 that objects were dispatched to them from
The enterprising Roman was always polite Venice and Naples. Even priests, including
to his guests,providing they had money.The members of the papal household, practised
Catholic Roman consorted with the Protes- restoration work. O n the other hand, there
tant German;at worst he pitied him.193 The were those who were against restoring an-
British, respected for their money, bought tiques,opposing the idea that their value was
many works of art which form present-day thereby increased.
collections.~~~ The famous antique dealer In addition to paintings and drawings,
Jenkins195 started as a money-lender to his marble, plaster or porcelain copies of statues
compatriots and later made his fortune were in demand,199 especially reproductions
through the sale of works of art. Gavin of monumental statues by Cavaceppi.Sculp-
Hamilton is known for his excavations tors sent to the Acadtmie de France in Rome
around the Tivoli Gardens;he took most of were required to produce at least one copy of
his finds back to England. Among the a sculpture. Some of them executed copies
wealthy collectors, Lord Bristol bought a for sale. Some plaster of Paris copies of
number of works of art, while Derry settled Roman sculptures were displayed in certain
in Rome and helped young artists. European museums. Reproduction work-
Some visitors to Rome, for example shops in Florence employed up to IOO
Dupaty,who preferred to visit the ruins at workers. The Pope encouraged reproduc-
night,196 complained that there were too tions by allowing his works to be copied,
many tourists.The Germans used to arrive since this prevented smuggling and attracted
in large groups,and in 1799,Schlozer com- more and more visitors to Rome.
plained of their great number.”’ Rome had Engravings, paintings and drawings of
become the stop-overfor the German Idterutd. ruins drew many people to the Forum exca-
The British founded the Dilettanti Society in vations.200 The trees and various types of
order to promote travel to Italy.Parliament’s vegetation that covered the ruins were found
decision to found the British Museum was in- especially attractive and picturesque.The site
fluenced by the influx of large quantities of an- became the subject of literary works, par-
tiquities and works of art. The Germans also ticularly poems, as well as scientific publi-
began to create their museums;France,Rus- cations.The romantic approach,side by side
sia, Spain and Sweden were quick to follow. with scientific interest,also characterized the
This plunder was instrumental in the de- philosophical outlook of Europe of the time.
velopment of other trades. Parallel to the It was the French Revolution that upset
proliferation of antique dealers,art restorers the established values of the era and it was
came into in great demand.198Marble items the French sack of Rome in 1798 that seri-
in particular sold better if repaired and re- ously damaged the city. In conformity with
stored. Some sculptors turned completely the Treaty of Tolentino,the French appro-
to such repair work. One of them,Winckel- priated countless works of art and trans-
mann’s friend Cavaceppi, who carried out ported them to France.201Certain records re-
historical research in order to perfect his skill, late that,in one day,more than 500 carriages
also published catalogues of items with the laden with thousands of items,from Renais-
90 names of the owners. sance paintings to ancient Roman sculptures,
 Italy

left the city under military guard.202 The torians looked at the past as philosophers
French took everything they could carry: and philologists,emphasizing the role of ob-
palaces and churches were sacked indiscrimi- jective reasoning.They were sometimes di-
nately,and in the process old buildings were vided into two groups: ‘romantics’working
damaged. They even attempted to carry on old legends and on the creation of new
away the obelisks.203 The clergy protested ones; and ‘historicists’concerned with the
bitterly. Posters were put up declaring that evolution of man.209
sculptures,paintings and inscriptions would The conflict between these roughly de-
not leave Rome.204 The population demon- fined tendencies created scientific histori-
strated en niasJe against the French. cism. The nineteenth-century historian
Many French artists spoke out forcefully studied the documents in detail so as to un-
against the sack of Rome,fifty of them sign- derstand the cultural life of the period and
ing a manifesto expressing their reaction. thus formulate objective impressions of his-
Quatremtre de Quincy declared that the torical characters. At universities,new chairs
well-beingof the artistic and literary world of history were endowed,the number of in-
was more important than the interests of one stitutions concerned with historical study in-
country.205French administrators,indifferent creased, and official societies gathered tog-
to such demands and demonstrations,tried ether and published historical documents.210
to justify themselves by stating that they In the European evaluation of history,it is
were the protectors of works of art, since by useful to establish the place of historic monu-
transporting them to France they were put- ments and works of art and the nature of
ting them under impartial guardianship.206 attitudes toward them in order to clarify the
However,it is noteworthy that art connois- attitudes prevailing in our much narrower
seurs were aware of the fact that works of art subject.
were valuable only in the environment that Despite the French plunder of Rome at the
had produced them. The Romans’ and the end of the eighteenth century,and the grow-
French artists’ reactions converged at a com- ing interest in Egyptian and Greek civili-
mon point of understanding; the former zations occasioned by the Napoleonic Wars,
were protesting about an environment de- Europeans still looked upon Rome as a major
nuded of its monuments, while the latter cultural centre.Even the French occupation,
were objecting to monuments apart from which lasted until I 8 14,led to important de-
their environment. velopments from the viewpoint of the con-
servation of historic monuments.
Economic problems caused popular up-
R O M E D U R I N G T H E A G E OF ‘ACTIVE risings from time to time, forcing the occu-
RRSPIICT F O R MONIJMhNT.5’2 0 7 pation troops into acts of repression that
undermined the rulers’ effectiveness. In the
While studying the evaluation of historic midst of this troubled period, Pius VI1
monuments and works of art in the (1800--2s) was elected. During the term of
nineteenth century, it is important to re- office of this capable man, new measures
member the development of historical re- were taken to preserve monuments and ob-
search. In the seventeenth century docu- tain the return of works of art transported
ments were collected,classified and studied to Paris.211.Pius VI1 appointed the famous
as a means of understanding the past. In the sculptor of the time,Antonio Canova (1757-
following period, concerned with the analy- I 8 2 ~ ) , ?as~ commissioner
~ of antiquities,the
sis and criticism of these documents,2”8his- position formerly held by Raphael.213 H e 9’
From the Middle Ages onwards

later also worked as consultant on the evalu- measures,penalties for infringementwere in-
ation of works of art.214 Canova enlarged the cluded.223 In Rome, the utmost care was
Vatican Museum in order to receive more shown in the handling of particular monu-
works of art, but above all he went to Paris ments, under the influence of Winckelmann;
and succeeded in recovering the stolen Roman large-scale archaeological excavations were
treasures.215 undertaken with a view to the study of the
Bearing strict instructions from the Pope, whole environment,instead of being limited
Canova spent 1815 and 1 8 1 6 in Paris, where to treasure-hunts.Unity and order became
he was well received.216His main concern was the rule.
to retrieve works taken from the Vatican,217 One of the first examples of this new atti-
but he was forced to sell some of these to tude was the excavation of the Forum
pay for the transport of the others back Romanum initiated by the Swedish ambas-
to Rome. The munificence of the British on sador in 1788, and continued throughout
this occasion is worth mentioning.218 The the period 1801-17 and in 1827. At a time
treasures were finally taken to Rome in a when the Industrial Revolution was causing
British vessel and the Vatican Museum was massive changes within European cities,224it
re-openedin 1822. is remarkablethat a large area in the centre of
The Canova mission exemplifies the expert Rome was utilized for historical research,
planning, co-operation and administration bearing in mind that Rome was having dif-
necessary in the preservation and salvaging ficulties in keeping up with the develop-
of works of art. T w o other persons should ments in other European countries.The plan
be noted: one is Cardinal Doria Pamphili219 of Rome of this period shows that urban
who prepared the way for the Canova mis- planning was limited to the adornment of
sion and also established the legal basis for the existing city.225 A scientific approach to
the ‘jurisdictionon the antiquarian works of history was coming into being, as a result of
art of the Papal State’;this document,dated which buildings were once again studied and
I 802, is known as Editto Doria Pamphili.220 sketched, but with greater precision. This
The other is Cardinal Pacca, who was in work consisted of determining the original
charge of the archaeological excavations in appearance of monuments and retaining
Ostia, and was founder of a small museum it. Among the best examples were the
there.221 Cardinal Pacca is known for a legal excavations in the Forum Romanum and
document,published in I 820, acknowledged in Trajan’s Forum by Giuseppe Camporese
as the most advanced of its time.222 It was (1763-1822), the work on the Colosseum by
based on the edicts of 1750 and 1802. Among Raffaello Stern (1774-1820) and that on the
the measures foreseen was the establishment Arch of Titus by Giuseppe Valadier (1762-
of a network of commissions of experts in I 8 39),226
the principal papal cities, with its centre in A n early example of the nineteenth-
Rome, to organize the administration and century approach to historic buildings is the
provide unity. The commissions would pre- Arch of Constantine,built in A.D. 3 I 5, to a
pare a coherent catalogue of monuments,in- great extent with re-usedmaterial. The area
cluding ethnographic material (this inclusion surrounding it was cleared in 1803, during
is remarkable in itself). A customs tariff on the time of Pius VI1 (1800-23), to expose
works of art and antiquarian objects would the ancient Roman street pavement. This
be imposed and,finally,a set of rules govern- practice of enhancing a monument through
ing the repair of monuments would be pre- its immediate surroundings is still accepted
92 pared. T o facilitate the effectiveness of these today.227
 Italy

The Colosseum, dedicated by Emperor arch’s restoration. Work was completed in

Titus in A.D. 80 for gladiatorial games and I 82I ,235 Apart from the placing of a new in-
aquatic races, has been Rome’s foremost scription on the western faGade, the comple-
attraction throughout all its existence.228 tion of the upper part and the discrepancies
Although repaired several times and ex- in proportion, the Arch of Titus is a good
ploited as a quarry for countless buildings,it example of the establishment of techniques
has inspired poets, writers, painters, archi- and principles for the repair of monuments
tects, engineers and administrators. It has of the classical period. It can be claimed
given birth to legends and has been used for that Valadier, who replaced Stern,respected
countless purposes.229 When its walls were the existing remains,including details.236 A
crumbling, historical research and resto- slightly different coloured travertine stone
ration of the Colosseum were begun by Pius was used rather than the original marble for
VI1 in 180j-07.~~~ This restorationwork can the new parts. The engaged columns in the
still be seen on the eastern exterior walls. The restoration had smooth, plain shafts com-
large supporting wall can be clearly distin- pared with the fluted originals.The acanthus
guished by its difference of height from the leaves of the column capitals were left crude-
original. Successive Popes continued the ly sculpted rather than finished,so that the
work.However,the restoration work that is repaired parts could be clearly distinguished.
considered most exemplary in terms of mod- Among the administrative responsibilities
ern principles231 was carried out during the of Pius VI1 and his successors,conservation
pontificate of Leo XII,in 182~/26. The con- of historic buildings and their repair seem
sideration for preserving the general ap- to have taken a prominent place,as the result
pearance of the edifice,together with the use of public concern in this regard.Thus,Leo
of easily distinguishable material from that XI1 initiated the excavation of the Circus
originally employed-brick instead of Maximus and the Forum Romanum while
stone-are two outstanding aspects of the the Colosseum was being restored.Gregory
work carried out.The strengthening of the XVI (I 83 I-46) continued such restoration
western wall consisted of the introduction of and archaeological activity,while adding the
a series of reclining buttresses on each floor, Etruscan collection to the Vatican.237Several
instead of a single large one. years before his death, he also founded the
The Arch of Titus is considered the most Lateran Museum. Pius IX (1846-78) added
prominent example of the use of distinguish- interest in archaeology of the Christian era.
able material in restoration.232 The monu- While there was a definite trend towards
ment, commemorating Titus’ conquest of present-day European standards, further
Jerusalem in the year A.D. 70 and erected progress was yet required. In 1868, for
after his death in A.D. 81, was placed at the example, a Roman bath disappeared.238Pius
highest point of the Via Sacra. During the IX sacrificed one of the best-preserved
Middle Ages a room was built on it and the Roman gates in order to save time and
arch was incorporated into the Frangipani money in transporting stone from Tivoli.239
family fortifications.Paintings dating back In I 8z 3 one of the oldest landmarks of Chris-
to I j 3 2-3 j233 show the arch in a ruined state, tendom was destroyed by fire. This was St
with the exception of the eastern fasade and Paul’s Basilica Outside the Walls, begun in
its inscription.234 Giuseppe Valadier, who 386 by Valentinian I1 and Theodosius and
had worked with Giuseppe Camporese on finished by Honorius.240 Numerous resto-
the Forum Romanum, had taken over from ration projects were proposed, including
Raffaello Stern the responsibility for the Valadier’s which respected the original re- 93
From the Middle Ages onwards

Plate 13.
Rome, the sixteenth-centuryappearance of the
Arch of Titus,built in A.D. 70 (engraving by
Piranesi).

94
 Italy

Plate 14
Rome, the Arch of Titus after Valadier’s restoration
[Photo:Gabinetto Fotografico Nazionale.]
From the Middle Ages onwards

mains, but it was finally decided to rebuild Rome was chosen as the new national capital
the basilica to the detriment of its historical and thus became the scene of a great urban
integrity. renewa1.245 The architects’ concept of con-
Many fanciful publications appeared in servation of historic buildings in their plan-
these years. One published in 1819 by ning activity,motivated by a desire to bring
Antonio Nibby contained erroneous draw- their city up to modern standards,meant de-
ings of the Forum R0manum.~~1 None the struction once more. Although a few monu-
less, careful excavations made it possible to ments were salvaged through rescue excava-
rectify such mistakes. tions,historical research was highly neglected.
Another interesting trend was in the evo- It is also regrettable that the documents
lution of architecture. Classical revivals, pertaining to the few archaeological acti-
abundant at the beginning of the century, vities undertaken were not published and,
were diminishing towards its end. At this consequently, were lost. Much of ancient
time, Europeans were rediscovering Greek Rome was buried under urban renewal,but
architecture,even to the extent of salvaging the wide area enclosing the Palatine Hill,the
and transferring pieces from the Athenian Forums,the Colosseum and the Appian Way
Acropolis,but their influence on art and ar- was preserved;a compromise had thus been
chitecture was less conspicuous than ex- reached between the needs of an expanding
pected.242 As scientific discoveriesinfluenced city and its past. A review of the process of
education,scientific disciplines replaced clas- renewal that Rome went through exemplifies
sical art and languages.In spite of develop- what many other cities were to experience in
ments in archaeology, reproduction of clas- due course of time.246
sical examples diminished,243 and towards Rome was a Baroque city of 226,000 in-
the end of the century they ceased to be a habitants when Victor Emmanuel I1 ended
dynamic source of inspiration. Courses on papal rule in 1870 to become king. The
history,art and literature emphasized syste- changes that ensued, with the rise in land
matic research and analysis. However, this prices, severely contrasted with the previous
must not be interpreted as a movement away methods of conservation of historic monu-
from classical studies: it was rather an en- ments. Ten days after Rome had become the
deavour to place this period and its produc- capital,a commission on planning and urban
tions within a larger historical frame of renewal was formed.The first plan,prepared
reference. in one month, having been received with
some hostility,a master plan was prepared in
1873, which,with the changes made in 1885,
T H E E R A O F SCIENTIFIC R E S E A R C H remained in force for twenty-fiveyears.
During this time,the population of Rome
The period when the classical tradition was increased. The administrators of the plan
the major source of inspiration had ended. were closely following the precedent of
Old traditions and myths no longer had a Baron Haussmann in Paris. While new sub-
forceful influence on the creative mind, yet urbs built on a grid plan were foreseen as
new trends had not yet filled the void.244At a residential areas, large tracts of land were
time when the forces of change were active, ‘cleared’in the centre to create breathing
and scientific doubt was prominent,the role space. Necessary legislation was enacted and
of the ancient Roman monuments was also planners had the right to purchase and use as
affected. they desired any area of the city. However,
96 Following the unification of Italy in I 870, conditions such as the city’s poverty and the
 Italy

Plate I).
Florence,the fapde of the Church of Santa Croce
as re-built in I 8 j 7 by N.Matas. [Photo:Museo
Storico Topografico.]

97
From the Middle Ages onwards

lack of an industrial infrastructure favoured ment. The slow urban change of Rome was
the defenders of the ancient monuments accelerated by his desire to modernize the
against those who were in favour of total ancient city. In 1 9 3 1 , he approved a plan
renewal.Moreover,influential Romans such which artificially raised the city’s population
as Quintino Sella, the Minister of Finance, to 1,190,000by 1936. The new plan was a
were determined to protect the monuments continuation of the old ones, based on pro-
by moving the city centre to the periphery. jects requiring destruction.Moreover, Mus-
The plan was full of contradictory as well solini,with his belief in modern architecture,
as conservative measures. The government introduced many foreign elements to the tra-
tried to employ some of the old buildings for ditional city. Quantitative growth was his
administrative purposes, a tendency preva- aim in every field. His desire to integrate
lent in Europe in the second half of the twen- certain imperial monuments into the plan of
tieth century.However,in certain instances the modernized Fascist capital led to the
the inadequacies of the old structures for the building of the Via dell’Impero,now called
new needs were the cause of their destruc- the Via dei Fori Imperiali. The construction
tion. Meanwhile, the city was undergoing of this wide macadam road necessitated the
changes as new elements, such as railways, destruction of a medieval quarter and crosses
were introduced. A few of the significant over the ruins of several ancient forums.
existing buildings were sacrificed for the Luckily,Mussolini’s plan was not strictly ap-
construction of the railway station.247 plied. Certain concessions were made for an-
The plans of 1873 and 1906 were known cient monuments,partly due to the presence
as ‘traffic’plans, inviting land speculation. of famous archaeologists and art historians
New streets, tunnels and squares were pro- such as Giovannoni and Munoz248 on city
posed.A large square was created around the planning commissions.The inclusion of such
Mausoleum of Augustus. The creation of people indicates a qualified respect for antiqui-
parks and squares around city landmarks had ties and a desire to protect them (selective-
become a common tendency in Europe,not ly). It can also be seen as a demonstration of
unlike the measures adopted by Pius VI1 a consciousness of the historic past.
and his architect,Valadier,with his undertak- It must be remembered that the demo-
ings to clear the areas around important monu- lition of old buildings,the realignmentof old
ments. squares, and the introduction of traffic to
The 1906 plan also discouraged the con- calm, well-preserved neighbourhoods were
servation of existing buildings. Following phenomena experienced by many rapidly
the example of Sixtus V’s sister in the mid- growing cities ofnineteenth-centuryEurope.
sixteenth century,who had invested in build- Prestigious monuments were sacrificed in
ings in the areas of future urban develop- order to build factories, railways, stations
ment,modern speculators aimed at growing and office buildings.Little consideration was
rich. Aristocrats succumbed to the specu- given to whether the new was as attractive or
lators’ offers, and thus contributed to the as useful as the old.
destruction of historic buildings. Architects None the less, Rome escaped complete
and planners, mostly from noble back- mutilation.The new government reactivated
grounds, considered the legacy of ancient a former administration of the papal period,
Rome as an obstacle to development. the Directorate of Antiquities,with a quali-
Mussolini provides the foremost example fied team.249 Results of archaeological exca-
of the promotion of political considerations vations in Rome were steadily published.250
98 in his decisions to alter the physical environ- With the participation of the English,
 Italy

French, Swedish and Romanian schools of numerous committees were merged and their
archaeology,the German Institute and the duties defined.They were divided into four
American Academy, new techniques and sys- groups: the first was in charge of rnonu-
tems in this field were developed. ments;the second,antiquities,museums and
The role of the Commission for the Pro- excavations;the third,galleries and works of
tection of Works of Art and Ancient Monu- art; and the fourth, export and smuggling
ments, founded in 1863, was also changing. problems. From the standpoint of monu-
A law was passed in 1861,aimed at prevent- ments, Italy was divided into ten administra-
ing damage to, and mutilation of, Italian tive areas. In local organizations the teams
works of art and monuments in private pos- were composed of experts on maintenance
session. Among the measures foreseen was and repair, surveyors,architects and techni-
the possible purchase by the state of private cians.The law also established a central com-
land on which an ancient monument was dis- mission of eighteen learned archaeologists
covered.Similarly,private individuals found and art historians to assist the Minister on
mutilating antique monuments in their pos- questions of conservation and restoration of
session were to be punished.251 During dis- ancient buildings, divided into two groups,
cussions on a proposed bill in the Senate in pre- and post-medievalperiod.254
1873, the minister in charge252 defended ex- Expropriations of religious and private
propriation measures by emphasizing that buildings,the evaluation of new building ac-
the government attached great importance to tivities in their vicinity and their effects on
ancient monuments, which belonged to the the appearance and lighting conditions of the
people,and therefore only the state was e m - former were left to administrative organiza-
powered to intervene in their regard. It was tions.255 A n official permit was required for
maintained that excavations should not be modifications of privately owned monu-
started without prior permjssion. The sale ments.The maintenance and repair of monu-
and export of documents,inscriptions,coin ments in private hands were to be done
collections, and the works of artists no within a certain time limit,otherwise the
longer living,should be forbidden.Further- government could have the work carried out
more, if the owners of historical items and charge the owners.The authorities were
wished to sell them or take them out of the to be notified of the sale of such buildings
country, priority of purchase should be and the state had priority of purchase with-
given to the government.This proposal was in three or six months under certain condi-
severely criticized and finally shelved.It was tions. It was made more difficult to sell
not until 1902 that an extensively modified to foreigners and to export works of art.
version was finally accepted by Parliament. No archaeological object, even of doubtful
The new law was, at best, ambiguous.As a value,was to be exported for two years fol-
matter of fact, in 1903 an addendum was lowing its discovery. For the first few years
passed and in 1904 the principles of appli- after adoption of the law,more repair work
cation were accepted. Thus, while the 1902 was undertaken than regulations enforced.256
law comprised 37 items, in 1904there were The second section of the law categorized
418 items,in three sections. antiques into two types: movable and im-
The first section of this important docu- movable.O n the basis of this distinction,the
ment contains rules and regulations govern- Ministry was to compile a list of historic and
ing the commissionsand directorates respon- artistic buildings and objects.Private owners
sible for the preservation of monuments were to be informed of the classification and
and works of art.253 Under the new scheme the legal status of the objects in their pos- 99
From the Middle Ages onwards

session. The law of 1902-4 also laid down tures which might be detrimental to squares
the classification procedure.The state of each and streets.257The new building code of 1887
monument or ruin was to be described;the contained eleven articles, three of which
owner’s name,the title of the monument, its dealt with existing buildings having historic
date of construction and, if possible, the or artistic value.258 It provided a list of his-
name ofits builder were to be listed.T o this, toric structures,including those on the out-
the text of any inscriptions,illustrations or skirts of Rome,259 which were not to be
decorative features and other particulars modified in any way.Only under special cir-
were to be added. Although the 1902 law cumstances could municipalities grant cer-
required that this list be prepared within a tain exemptions or permits, for which a re-
year, it was still far from being completed at port of the architectural commission and the
the end of the year. agreement of the Ministry of Education were
The last section of the law dealt with necessary. Under the presidency of a mem-
museums and archaeological excavations, ber of the Municipal Council, the Build-
and contained regulations on modern art, ings Commission (Commissione Edilizia) of
musical and theatrical education. Rome was composed of twelve members,
To understand fully the importance ac- of whom six were also members of the
corded to antiquities and the fine arts in Italy Municipal Council. This commission was
in the late nineteenth century,mention should responsible for the beauty of new buildings
be made of road construction and urban de- and their harmonious integration with old
velopment.This will also explain the role of edifices.Though the concepts of beauty and
art historians, archaeologists and historians harmony were difficult to define, certain
in the city planning commissionsof Rome. guidelines facilitated the work of this com-
Complying with the long-standing sensi- mission. It had the right to define the colour
tivity of Romans to environmental monu- and the decoration of a new building as well
mentality,special consideration in large-scale as to limit its height. When it submitted a list
urban developments was given to street of the buildings to be conserved to Parlia-
junctions,fagades of new buildings,and the ment in 1898,it expressed the wish that the
relationship between existing and new build- centuries-oldartistic heritage left to Rome be
ings.A law of 186j was concerned with ad- preserved integrally.
vanced planning for the possible expansion
of urban districts exceeding 10,000 people.
Construction of new buildings as well as re- I N F O R M E D SCIENTIFIC CRITICISM
pair of existing ones was to be executed in
accordance with this twenty-five-yearplan. Beginning with the nineteenth century,
Any new constructions in violation of the when large sums of money were spent on the
plan were to be demolished and the owners preservation and restoration of monuments,
punished. In practice, the effect of the rules as on Valadier’s prominent examples, dis-
and regulations depended on the means cussions were focused on the way in which
available and especially on administrativein- the money was spent,as reflected in the ap-
terpretations. The practical result of this in- pearance of the buildings. As the number
terrelationship between the maintenance of of examples increased, informed criticism
environmental order and the preservation of mounted around them.
antiquities can be found in the building code Luca Beltrami260 was among those who
which delegated the city councils to exercise crystallized the discussions on the technical
IO0 strict control on the building of new struc- aspects of restoration.His own work on the
 Italy

Castello Sforzesco in Milan had important easy to sympathize with Boito.In Milan the
repercussions.261Beltrami was an advocate Sforza Castle was partly demolished and re-
and practitioner of renovative contributions built with the Filarete tower, according to
to existing buildings.H is ideas followed the dubious evidence and inspired by similar
approach characterized by the identification contemporary towers. The Palazzo di Re
of the restorer with the original designer of a Enzo in Bologna, again inspired by similar
building as creative artists. H e was severely examples, was completed and the fagade of
criticized for the inclusion of personal inter- the Palazzo Salimbeni in Siena was rebuilt in
pretations as well as those taken from similar the Gothic style.264
buildings. The defenders of the opposite Boito defended his views at the Third
view,that each building should be studied as Convention of Architects and Engineers held
a unique whole, were gaining ground.They in Rome in 1881. Ceschi summarizes Boito’s
maintained that serious research-consult- principles in eight points: (a) difference in
ing documents, drawings, inscriptions and style between the original and the new; (b)
remains-was preferable to creative urges as use of distinguishable material; (c) refraining
a basis for intervention.The Roman Camillo from reproduction of decoration; (d) display
Boito (1836-1914) was a leader of this of remaining original elements near the
school.262 building;(e) imprintof date of repair on each
By evaluating already executed resto- new element;(f) inclusion of an inscription
rations, the theories of Viollet-le-Ducin describing the restoration work; (g) the pre-
France and those of Ruskin in England, paration of a document to present various
Boito was able to establish the basic prin- stages of repair, to be kept within the build-
ciples of contemporary restoration.H e was ing or to be published; and (h) conspicuous-
against the evaluation of historic monuments ness of accomplished work.265 These prin-
based only on their architectural features. ciples, appreciated even today by experts,
Demanding respect for the buildings as helped establish the document that became
documents of human achievement,he con- law in 1902.Credit must be given also to the
sidered any alteration as deceptive. H e ad- spirit of the time which fostered the reali-
mitted that certain additions might be neces- zation of such a law.266
sary to consolidatethe structure of a building, Another leading personality in the field
but these should be easily distinguishable was Gustavo Giovannoni (1873-1947).H e is
and unobtrusive. Furthermore, he insisted known not only for his contribution to the
that any additions made in the past should be master plan, for his work in various com-
considered as integral parts of the building missions and for his lectures at the Univer-
and not be tampered with, unless strictly sity of Rome on the history of art and archi-
necessary. H e preferred a clumsy restoration tecture as well as documentation and repair
to a skilful one because the demarcation line of historic buildings,but also for ‘updating’
is apparentin the former,while in the latter it Boito’s principles. For Giovannoni,historic
is difficult to differentiate the old from the monuments had to be conserved,regardless
new. Therefore,in his view, the more suc- of their date and without attempting to
cessful a restorationwas, the more dishonest create a ‘unity of style’.However,his main
it was. Boito wanted to ‘read’a monument, contribution was on the historic centres.267
without abbreviations, additions and alter- H e drew attention to the change in scale
ations,in brief,as it was written originally.263 when new buildings rise around a monument
Some restoration work carried out in the and, conversely,to the effect created when
first quarter ofthe twentieth century makes it the area surrounding a monument is cleared. IO1
From the Middle Ages onwards

H e thus emphasized the significance of the the R o m a n Empire,Boston, 1962;M.Cham-

environment as a whole, rather than single bers, The Fall of Rome: Can It Be Explained?
monuments. Giovannoni’s work268 greatly New York, 1963; F.W.Walbank,The Awful
influenced the general principles and doc- Revolution, The Decline of the R o m a n Empire in
the West,University of Toronto Press, 1969.
trines adopted by Italy’sCarta del Restaur0269
4. Walbank,op. cit.,pp. 101-6, 124-j.
and also by the Recommendations of the
j. In his work written towards the middle of
Athens Conference in I93 I. the sixth century, Procopius describes the
Ambrogio Annoni, known for his work Romans’love of their city,their care in pre-
entitled Scienxa ed arte del restaur0 archi- serving their ancestral monuments and their
teffonico, criticized general methods of repair attachment to memories of the past. Pro-
and their execution.H e emphasized his belief copius of Caesarea, Histo9 of Wars, VII,
that for every subject there exists a rule.270 XXII, pp. j-9.
Italy’s long tradition in the protection of 6. See pages 16-9 above: “‘The Barbarian
historic monuments and their environment, Champion of Civilization”:Theodoric’.
as reflected in its legislation,has continued in- 7. Lanciani found it interesting that bricks
from the time of Theodoric were being un-
to the twentieth century.271 A n article was
earthed in most excavations in Rome; see
added in 1922 to include the natural environ- R.Lanciani, Destruction of Ancient Rome: A
ment.272 In 1938 the Ministry of Education Sketch of the Historj of the Monuments, p. 78,
published rules governing the restoration of New York,Macmillan,1899.
ancient monuments and in 1939 the Italian 8. Pirenne,op. cit.,Vol. I,p.42.
Parliament engaged in lengthy debates to 9. M. R. Scherer, Marvels of Ancient Rome,
bring together and develop laws pertaining pp. 119-20, New York, Phaidon Press,
to historic buildings and works of art, which ‘91j.
constitute the basis of the legislation cur- IO. Barker,op. cit.,pp. zji-2.
11. Scherer,op.cit., p. 2.
rently in use. Additions were later made to
I 2. It should be noted that the economic expan-
cover residential buildings and gardens.273
sion of this kingdom was not due to internal
Eventually, historic centres and sites were causes but to the influence of Islam in the
included,thus broadening the concept to the Mediterranean: see H. Pirenne, Medieval
urban dimension. Cities; Their Origins and the Revival of Trade,
Princeton University Press, 192j, pp. 26-1 j.
13. ‘Andsince the Popes of these times built so
largely,they must necessarily be regarded as
NOTES
chief destroyers of the ancient city’: F.A.
I. J. W.Barker, Justinian and the Later R o m a n Gregorovius,Histoty of the Cig of Rome in the
Empire,p. 28, Madison, University of Wis- Middle Ages (translated by A. Hamilton),
consin Press, 1966. Vol.111, p. 21, New York,AMS Press, 1967.
2. As expressed by Gregory of Tours:‘ M u n d m 14. Pirenne, A Historj of Europe . . ., op. cit.,
senescit’ (‘The world is growing old’): see Vol. I,p. 66.
H.Pirenne,A HistorJ, of Europe, Vol. I, p. I j . Gregorovius,op.cit.,Vol.11, p. 3 74,note I.
17, New York,Doubleday, 1916. 16. Ibid.,Vol. 111,p. 18.
3. The reasons for the decline of the Roman 17. Scherer,op.cit., p. 3.
Empire have been and still are being de- I 8. Pope Leo Ill and Gregory IV among them
bated. Some useful references with biblio- repaired water-mains and fortifications.
graphies are W.Rehm, Der Untergang R a m s Later popes were preoccupied with internal
im Abendlandischen Denken: Ein Beitrag p r fighting,see Gregorovius,op.cit., Vol. 111,
Geschichtsscbriebung und x u m DekadenQroblem, pp. 2 2 et seq.,pp.65 et seq.,pp.134 et seq.A
IO2 Leipzig, 1930; D.Kogan, Decline and Fall of guide prepared for the pilgrims in the ninth
 Italy

century,the Einsiedeln Itinerary,reveals that I 162for the protection of Trajan’s Column,

Rome had not undergone any fundamental ‘inorder that it should never be mutilated or
change. The main roads described are the destroyed,but should remain as it stands to
ancient Roman ones. Lanciani, op. cit., the honour of the Roman people as long as
PP.142-r3. the world endures’.It was also decreed that
19. Lanciani,op.cit.,p. I j 9. those harming the monument should be put
20. L.Mumford (TheCulture o f Cities, pp. I 8 et to death and their possessions handed over
seq.,New York, Harcourt Brace, 1938) cites to the Treasury: see Gregorovius,op. cit.,
these reasons in the analysis of medieval Vol.IV,pp. 685-6.
settlements. For the relationship between 30. For the English translation,see F.M.Ni-
urban settlement,the progress of civilization chols,The Marvels of Rome: or a Picture of the
and the revival of trade, see Pirenne, Golden Cig,London, Ellis & Elvey, 1889.
Medieval Cities ..., op.cit.,pp. 77-1oj. Scherer, op. cit., pp. 4-6. It is maintained
21. Mumford,op.cit.,p. 61. that this work was inspired by the guide-
22. Ibid.,pp. 14-15; F.R.Hiorns, Town Building book, the Einsiedlen Itinerag, written by a
in Hzstog.A n Outline Review of Conditions, Swiss monk in the ninth century,see ibid.,
Injziences, Ideas and Methods Affecting PlanneB pp. 3-4; Lanciani,op.at., pp. 142-j 3.
Towns throigh Five Thousand Years, pp. 81 et 3 I. One of the first documented plans of Rome,
seq.,London,George G.Harrap, 1916.It is drawn in the thirteenth century, may have
wrong to ignore the influence of medieval been inspired by this work. Gregorovius,
settlements on the development of modern op.cit.,Vol.V,p. 679.
urban planning. 3 2 . For example,the Arch of Septimius Severus,
23. P Lavedan, Histoire de Pwbanisme, Renais- the columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius.
sance et tenips modernes, Vol. 11, pp. 228 et seq., For the upper-class Romans’ attempts to
Paris,Henri Laurens, 19j9. identify their renown with monuments of
24. Paris can be cited as an example of this. the past,see ibid.,Vol.IV,pp. 683-93.
D.Douglas, ‘Medieval Paris; Izth-Ijth 3 3, E.Miintz, Histoire de Part pendant la Renais-
Century’,in M.Bowra et al. (eds.), Golden sance, Vol.I,pp. 214et seq.,Paris,Hachette,
Ages of the Great Cities,pp. 82-3, London, 1889; W. J. Heckscher, ‘Relics of Pagan
19j2; P.M.Duval,‘Lutkcegauloise et gallo- Antiquity in Christian Setting’, Waarburg
romaine’,in Guy Michaud et al. (eds.), Journal, Vol.I, 1937,p. 204.
Croissance dune capitale, pp. 41-72, Paris, 34. The first university in Rome was founded in
Librairie Hachette, 1961;M.R.G.Conzen, I 26 5 ; Gregorovius,op. cit., Vol. V,pp. 6 I 2,
‘The Use of Town Plans in the Study of 616.
Urban History’, in H.J. Dyos (ed.), The 3 j. Ibid.,pp. j 5 2-4.
Stub of Urban Histoy,p. I 20, New York,St 36. Ibid.,pp. 6j8-60 et seq.,680.
Martin’s Press, 1968. 37, D.L. Shirey, ‘Rome Moves to Prevent
2 j . It was also common occurrence to copy the Decline of Colosseum’, New York Times,
layout of sacred cities. Lavedan, op. cit., 4 October 1972,p. 49, cols. 1-8, and p. 93,
Vol.I,p. 272.For comparison,the construc- cols.1-2.
tion of churches on ancient religious sites in 38. T.E. Mommsen, Medieval and Renaissance
South America, see H.Daifuku,‘Monument Studies (ed. by E. F. Rice), p. 114,New
Conservation Programmes’, Preserving and York, Cornell University Press, 1959.
Restoring Monuments and Historic Buildings, 39. E. €3. R. Tatham, Francesco Petrarca, The
p. 31, Paris, Unesco, 1972 (Museums and First Modern M a n of Letters, His Lije and Cor-
Monuments,XIV). respondence, Vol. I, p. 342, London, 1 9 2 ~ ;
26. Hiorns,op. cit.,pp. 8 1 et seq. J. F. P. A.De Sade, Mimoirspour la vie de
27. Gregorovius,op. cit., Vol.IV,pp. 246-jo. Franfois Petrarque, Vol. 11, pp. 3 24-9,
28. Lanciani,op. cit.,pp. 166-7. Amsterdam, 1764; Gregorovius, op. at.,
29. The Roman Senate published a decree in Vol.VI,pp. 71 5 et seq.
From the Middle Ages onwards

40. Mommsen, op. cit., pp. 128-9. 5 6. Vitruvius’influence is significantin this mat-
41. H.Baron, The Crisis of the E a r b Renaissance, ter. See also ibid.,pp. j8-60.
Vol. I, pp. 3 et seq., Princeton University 57. Hiorns,op.cit., pp. 208-9.
Press, 19jj. It should be remembered that j8. J. N.Summerson,Heaven4 Mansions, p. 219,
admiration for Classicism did not manifest New York,Charles Scribner’sSons, 1965.
itself in mindless imitation, see 0. Pacht, j9. L.B.Alberti, De Re Aed.ij’icatoria,Florence,
‘The Pre-CarolingianRoots of Early Ro- Nicolo di Lorenzo Alemanno, 1485; Ten
manesque Art’,in M.Meiss (ed.), Roman- Book on Architecture (ed. by J. Rykwert),
esque and Gothic Art, pp.67 et seq.,Princeton, London,Alec Tiranti,I 9j j .
N.J., Princeton University Press, 1963.For 60. P.H.Michel, Un idkal humain du XVe si&e,
a good analysis of the time,see E.E.Panof- la pensie de L. B. Alberti (1404-1472),
sky,‘Renaissanceand Renascences’,Meaning pp. 272-3, 278-9, 335, Paris, Les Belles
in the Visual Arts, Garden City, N.Y., Lettres, 1930.
Anchor, 1957. 6 I. Pliny, Naturalis Histortae, XXXV, XXXVI,
42. E.John (ed.), The Popes, A Concise Biograph- 105;J. R.Spencer,Leon Battista Alberti,On
ical History, p. 271, New York, Hawthorn Painting, p. 6j, London, 1956; Michel, op.
Books, 1964;G.Trevor,Rome; From the Fall cit.,p.494.
of the Western Empire, p. 264, London,Reli- 62. Michel,op.cit.,pp.478-9.
gious Tract Society,1868. 63. For Alberti,see B.Lowry,Renaissance Archi-
43. Gregorovius,op.cit., Vol. VI,pp. 683-5. tecture, pp. 21-9, New York, Georges Bra-
44. Ibid.,p.686. ziller, I 962;R.Krautheimer,L o r e q o Ghiberti,
45. J. Burckhardt, La civiltd del Rinascimento Princeton,N.J., Princeton University Press,
in Italia (trans. by D. Valbusa), Vol. I, 19j6; J. White, The Birth and Rebirth of Pic-
pp. 207-8, Florence, 1899. torial Space, Chapter VIII, London, 1957;
46. Ibid.,p. 206. P. Frankl, The Gothic Literary Sources, and
47. Urban V (1362-70) ordered the repair of the InterpretationsBrough Eight Centuries,pp. 2 j 7-
ruins there, but this was limited to religious 60, Princeton, N.J., Princeton University
buildings: L.Von Pastor, The History of the Press, 1962.
Popes, Vol.I,pp. 96-7, London,1891. 64. Michel,op.cit.,pp.472-3.
48. Lavedan,op.cit.,Vol.11,p. 66;H.Giesker, 65. Alberti,op.cit., p.111.
Der Rechtliche Heimatschut~ in der Schweix, 66. For the place of the history of architecturein
pp. 108-10,Aarau, 1910. architecturaleducation,see P.Gazzola,‘The
49. B.Rowland,The Classical Tradition in Western Training of Architectural Restorers’,Monu-
Art, pp. 120-1, Cambridge,Mass.,Harvard mentum, Vol.111,1969,p. I j.
University Press, 1963. 67. Lavedan,op.cit., Vol. 11, p. 66.
50. Ibid.,p. 136. 68. Lanciani,op.cit.,pp. 190-1.
j I. Ibid.,pp. 146-7. 69. Von Pastor,op.cit.,Vol.I, p. 216.
5 2 . Petrarch saw salvation in the classical age: 70. M.Creighton, A Histoy Oftbe Papaq from
see H.Pirenne et al., L a fin du M y e n Age, the Great Schism to the Sack of Rome, Vol.11,
p. 284, Paris, Librairie Filix Alcon, 1931. p. 161, New York, Longmans, 1950; for
A. Riegl (Der Moderne Denkmalkultus, seine Florence,see von Pastor,op.cit.,p. 216.
Wesen und seine Entstehung, ViennaILeipzig, 71. C.Sprigge,‘Romeof the Popes; 1jth-16th
W.Braumiiller,1903) takes the Renaissance Century’,in M.Bowra et al. (eds.), Golden
as the beginning for restoration. Ages of the Great Cities,pp. 137-8, London,
j 3 . Scherer,op.cit.,pp. 7 et seq. 1953; George Goyau et al., Le Vatican, le5
54. E. E. Panofsky, Renaissance and Renascences Papes et les civilisations,le gouvernement central
in Western Art, pp. 83-100, Stockholm, de PEglise, pp. 468-70, Paris,1895;Lanciani,
Almquist &Wiksell, 1960. op. cit., p. 207.
5 5. For regulations on medieval urban plans,see 72. Von Pastor,op. cit.,p. 217.
Mumford, op.cit.,pp. 5 1-8. 73. R. Lanciani, The Golden 0 4 5 of the Re-
 Italy

naissance in Rome, pp. 10-11, New York, 83. Ibid.,pp. 166et seq.
1906. 84. Ibid.,pp. 173-4.
74. Miintz,op.cit.,Vol.I,p. 83. 8 j . For Pope Nicholas’s other building acti-
7). Von Pastor, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 3 3 2 . The vities, see Creighton, op. cit., Vol. 111,
Pope’s secretary, Flavio Biondo, gives a pp. 160 et seq.
topographcal description of Rome’s chur- 86. Sprigge (op.cit.,p. 141) maintains that the
ches and ancient monuments in his R o m a Romans were not interested in Greek
Instaurata; von Pastor cites this as the first works.
example of a topographical study of the 87. Gregorovius,op. cit.,Vol. VII,pp. 673 et
city, dated 1443:ibid.,pp. 304-j. Poggius seq. Pius 11, while admiring Nicholas’s
(I 3 80-14j9) gives details of Rome’s unfor- Roman genius, did not share his ideas.
tunate situation: C. Gibbon, The Decline Creighton,op.cit.,Vol. 111,pp. 35 j-7.
and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. VII, 88. Gregorovius,op.cit.,Vol.VII,pp. 203-4.
pp. 301-2, New York,The Modern Library, 89. Lanciani, The Destruction..., op. cit.,
‘9j 1. pp. 208-9.
76. Lavedan, op. cit., p. 67. In 1432, the Pope 90. Miintz, Histotre de Part . . . , op. cit., Vol. I,
appointed a guardian to patrol the public P.9’.
buildings and gardens of Rome.He attached 91. Miintz, ‘Les arts... ’, op. cit., Vol. I,
this person to the magistri aedzjciorum,respon- Appendix IV,pp. 3 j 2-3; A.Theiner,Recueil
sible for the ancient buildings of Rome. de documents pour ~ervira Phistoire du gouverne-
Lanciani,Destruction.. . , op. cit., p. 207.The ment temjoral des itats du Saint-Si&e, Vol. 111,
Pope also forbade the dismantling of marbles pp. 422-3, Rome, 1862;Giesker, op. cit.,
from the Colosseum. p. 1 1 0 .
77. Von Pastor,op.cit.,p. 3 j 8. 92. Scherer,op.cit.,p. 8.
78. Creighton,op.cit., Vol. 111,pp. I jo-60. 93. Creighton,op.cit., Vol. IV,pp. 60-1.
79. Among others are A.D i Francesco,B.Ros- 94. Gregorovius,op. cit., Vol. VII,pp. j90-I;
sellino, R. Fioravante, G. di Cristoforo. Burckhardt,op.cit.,Vol.I, pp. 212-13.
Miintz, op. cit., Vol. I,pp. 88-9. For work 9j. The best Greek and Roman pieces of bronze
accomplished by Nicholas V,see E.Miintz, at the Capitoline Museum were acquired
‘Les arts a la Cour des Papes, nouvelles during his tenure: Gregorovius, op. cit.,
recherches sur le Pontificat’, Milanges Vol. VII,pp. j9z-j.
d‘archiologie et d’histoire, Vol. IX,pp. 49-60, 96. Sprigge,op. cit., p. 142.
Rome,Ecole Frangaisede Rome, 1889. 97. Lanciani,The Destruction...,op.cit.,p. 209.
80. Burckhardt, op. cit.,Vol. I, pp. 219-29. 98. Gregorovius, op. cit.,Vol. VII, p. 680;
Among the buildings most harmed during G.Goyau et al.,Le Vatican, L e 5 Papes et les
the time of Nicholas were the Colosseum, civilisations, le gouvernement central de PEglise,
the Circus Maximus, the Curia and the p. 470, Paris, 189j. It is interesting to note
Temple of Venus and Roma.The same Pope that the Pope was anxious to remove from
demolished the Arch of Valentinian and sight the newly discovered sarcophagus of
Gratian and that of Theodosius,Arcadius a woman whose beauty had aroused much
and Honorius, and used the sculptures and admiration and excitement among the
decorative pieces from the Mausoleum of people. Von Pastor (op. cit.,Vol. V, pp.
Hadrian in some churches.E.Miintz, ‘Les 330-3) interprets this as an indication of
monuments antiques de Rome au XVe the establishment of the Renaissance in
sitcle’, Revue archiologiqne,Vol. XXXII,I 876, Rome.
pp. I j 8-7j: according to one document,an 99. Miintz (‘Lesmonuments antiques ...’, op.
entrepreneur had z,jzz cartloads of stones cit.,p. 306) claims that Sixtus IV,Innocent
taken from the Colosseum in nine months. VI11 and Alexander VI took pleasure in de-
81. Lanciani,The Golden Dq5 . . . , op.cit.,p. I j . struction.In an edict dated 1499,Pope Alex-
82. Von Pastor,op.cit.,Vol. 11, pp. 167-9. ander VI permitted the installation of mar-
From the Middle Ages onwards

ble quarries for one-third of their profits in sa vie, son auure et son temps, pp. 604 et seq.,
the Colosseum and the Forums. Paris, 188j; F.Mariotti, La legisla+one delle
100.Lavedan,op.cit.,Vol. 11,p. 69;Von Pastor, belle arti, p. xxxvi,Rome. 1892.
op.cit.,Vol. VI,pp.469-70. 115. Lanciani, The Golden Days.. . , op. cit.,
101, E.E.Panofsky,Renaissance and Renascences in p. 246.
Western Art, p. I I, Stockholm,1960. I 16. Von Pastor,op.cit.,Vol.VIII,p. 373.
102. Architecture of the late Gothic and early I 17. 0. Ferrari, ‘Preservationof Art Works’,En-
Renaissance periods is controversial.Frankl yclopedia of World Art, Vol. X,col. 693,
insists that the architecture of the Gothic is London, I 96 5.
diagonal and multifaceted,while that of the I 18. R.Wittkower, A r t and Architecture in Itab,
Renaissance emphasizes fagades and single 1600-17~0, p. I, Baltimore, Md., Penguin
images: P. Frankl, Gothic Architecture, Books, 19j8.
pp. 213 et seq., Baltimore, Md., Penguin 119.Lanciani (Destruction..., op. cit., pp. 214-
Books, 1962. 3 I) describes this plunder in detail.
103. ‘LateRomanesque and early Gothic ... dif- 120. The destruction of Christian works by a
fered, however, from another in place as Christian army took place during the occu-
well as in the direction of interests.’ See pation of Constantinople during the Fourth
Panofsky, Renaissance ..., op. cit., pp. j4, Crusade: see M.Maclagan, The CitJlof Con-
1 1 3 , 166-7, 202-5. stantinople, pp. I I 1-13, New York, Praeger,
104. Ibid.,pp. 19-20. 1968.O n the other hand, for Charles V’s
105. Lowry, op. cit., pp. 9-10. For a general criticism of the chapel built within the Great
bibliography on this period, see ibid., Mosque of Cordoba,see K.A.C.Cresswell,
pp. 117-20. E a r 4 Muslim Architecture, Vol. 11, p. 14j,
106. Ibid.,pp. 36-40, Figs.78-80. Oxford,Clarendon Press, 1940.
107. Von Pastor, op. cit., Vol. VI,p. 477: ‘The IZI. Scherer,op.cit.,p. IO.
men of the Renaissance had as little sense of 122. L. Hautecmur, Rome et la Renaissance de
reverence for the past as those of the Middle I’Antiquite‘ 2 la i n du XVIIIe siicle, p. 5 7,
Ages.’ Paris,1912.
108. Ibid.,p. 501. 123. Von Pastor,op.cit.,Vol. XII,pp. 562-3,
109. For examples such as the famous Belvedere 124.Lanciani, Destruction . .. , op. cit., p. 191;
Apollo and the Laocoon Group, Grego- Miintz, ‘Les monuments antiques ...’, op.
rovius,op.cit.,Vol.VIII,pp. 14j et seq. For cit., p. 308.
the restoration of the Laocoon Group, see 125. E.Miintz, Histotre de Part ... , op. cit.,Vol.
also L.V.Borelli,‘Other Techniques’,E n - 111,p. I 12,note I; Panofsky,Renaisfance .. .,
gclopedia of World Art, Vol. XII,1966,cols. op. cit.,p.41.
191-2. 126. Von Pastor,op.cit., Vol. XII,pp. j64-6j6.
I IO. Gregorovius,op.cit.,Vol.VIII,pp. 122-44, 127. Ibid.,pp. j65-6; Lanciani, The Golden Days
I I I. Creighton,op. cit., Vol. IV,p. Z O J. . .., op. cit.,pp. 23-4.
112. SeeRowland,op.cit.,pp. 188-91,Plate 133, 128. S. Giedion, Space, Time and Architecture,
for the critical study of Raphael’s Galuteu in pp. 81-2, Cambridge,Mass., Harvard Uni-
the Villa Farnesina. See Panofsky, op. cit., versity Press, 1954.
pp. 202-5, Plates 112-4, for his School of 129. Von Pastor, op. cit., Vol. XII, p. 571.
Athens and Parnassos. Creighton (op.cit.,Vol. IV,p. 120) claims
1 1 3 . Von Pastor,op.cit.,vol. VIII,pp. 247-8. that Sixtus V was responsible for moving
114. E.E. Panofsky, Meaning in the Visual Arts, this statue.It is more logical to accept that
p. 182, note 22, New York, 1957;B.Hol- this was done according to Michelangelo’s
lander,The International Law of A r t for Law- wishes, Giedion, op. cit.,pp. 65-8. The
yers, Collectors and Arfisfs, p. 5 >, London, statue was, according to Michelangelo,‘the
Bowes &Bowes, 1959;Von Pastor,op.cit., jewel ofthe Capital Place’:Lavedan,op.cit.,
106 Vol.VIII,p. 245; J. D.Passavanti,Raphael, Vol.I,p. 70.
 Italy

130. Rowland, op. cit., pp. 194-2oj; Panofsky, lots,Sixtus V granted certain rights and pre-
Meaning ... , op. cit., pp. 30-1; Renaissance rogatives to builders, as was customary in
. . . , op.cit.,pp. 3 1-4. cities built during the Middle Ages. Accord-
1 3 1 . Giedion,op.cit.,pp. 64-9, Fig.2 3 . ing to rumour,Sixtus’sister,Donna Camila,
132. R.Lanciani,Pagan and Christian Rome,p: 19, benefited from the rents of shops she had
Boston, 1896. built in appropriate places.See Giedion,op.
I 3 3. Miintz,Histoire de Part ..., op.cit.,Vol. 111, cit.,p.94.
pp. 108-9. 143. P.Abercrombie, Town Planning Review, Vol.
I 34. For this academy’s place in architectural V, 1914,PP. 198-9; Lavedan, op. cit.,
learning,see Gazzola,op. cit.,p. I 5. pp. 97-8; Giedion,op.cit.,pp. 97-8.
I 3 j . ‘Ifthe men of the Renaissance saved some of 144. Von Pastor,Sirto I,’. . . , op.cit.,Vol.XXII,
the treasures of Antiquity with one hand, p. 2 3 8 .
they destroyed almost as much with the 141. The obelisk is rt.tj metres high and weighs
other’:Creighton,op.cit.,Vol.IV.p. 120. 326 tons, see Lavedan, op. cit., Vol. 11,
136. Giedion,op.cit.,pp. 75-6: ‘It was in Rome P.65.
that the lines of the traffic web of a modern 146. The Constantinople obelisk, set on four
city were first formulated,and were carried bronze pieces forming a cube, measures at
out with absolute assurance .. . here was its base 2.2 by 2.7 metres. Its height is 19
created one of the most sumptuous achieve- metres. Giedion (op. cit., pp. ~Y-IOO), not
ments of civic design,Baroque Rome,which remembering this and others brought to
even today dominates the entire face of the Rome from Egypt, relates this to advanced
city. Naturally, this is bound up with the technique.The obelisk erected in the Place
pervading presence of antiquity.’ Giedion de la Concorde in Paris in 1836 is zz.zy
points out that all those involved in the pro- metres high and weighs rjo tons, see
gress of Rome came from other cities- Lavedan,op. cit.,Vol. 11, p. 6j, note I.
popes, merchants or artists such as Bram- 147. R.H.Marijnissen,Digradation, conservation et
ante and Raphael who came from Urbino restauration de lImvre d’art, p. 78, Brussels,
and Michelangelo from Florence. Editions Arcade, 1967.
I 3 7. For a prejudiced opinion,but detailed bio- 148. Von Pastor,Sisto 17. .., op.cit.,Vol.XXII,
graphy of Sixtus V,see L.Von Pastor,Sist0 pp. 302-4; Wittkower,op.cit., p. 6.
V,il creatore della Nuova R o m a , Rome, I 922. 149. Von Pastor,Sirto V . .. , op. cit., Vol. XX,
I 3 8. The scale of Sixtus’plan can be seen on the PP.jj2-3.
‘fresco’painted under his instruction on the I ~ O .Von Pastor (ibid.,Vol. XXII,pp. 304-j)
ceiling of the Vatican Library:see Giedion, quotes Angelo Grillo: ‘Here a m I in Rome
op.at., Plate 29. and yet I cannot find the Rome I know: so
139. Opinions on Domenico Fontana differ. great are the changes in the buildings, the
Some claim that he was known to the Pope streets, the piazzas, the fountains, the
before, see ibid., pp. 88-9, while others aqueducts,the obelisks,and the other mar-
maintain that he was selected from among vels with which the glorious memory of Six-
seven other competitors, see Lavedan, op. tus has beautified this old and ruinous city,
cit.,Vol. 11,p. 6j.He is considered a minor that I cannot recognize nor find,so to speak,
palace architect. Giedion, op. cit., p. 90; any trace of that old Rome which I left ten
Wittkower,op.cit.,p. 7. years ago,when I came away.’
140. Von Pastor,Sirto I,’. . ., op.cit.,Vol. XXII, I j I. Giedion,op. cit.,pp. 103-j.
P.303. I jz. Giedion (ibid.,p. IO^, Plate 45) is the first to
141.Lanciani has made a long list of these in mention it. However, it is also appropriate
Derfrnction . .. , op. cit., pp. 84-j, 148, to mention previous Egyptian ‘workshops’.
209-10, 237-44. and in his Storia degli 1 j 3 . Apart from vegetation, the effect of the
scavi di R o m a , 4 vols.,Rome, 1902-10. 200,ooo or so vehicles circling it daily,and
142.In order to encourage building in empty the impact of underground trains rolling
107
From the Middle Ages onwards

through the tunnel below every ten minutes, is Etienne du Ptrac with his Vestigi
have made the walls of the Colosseum dan- dell’cintichitidi Roma, published in I 5 7j.
gerous,and it was temporarily closed to the 164. The invention of the printing press helped
public at the end of September 1971:Time the dissemination and realistic presentation
Magaxine, 9 October 1972,p. 66, cols. 1-2; of architectural drawings and the graphic
N e w York Times, 4 October 1972,pp. 5 8-93. arts in general.
154. Sixtus was labelled as a destroyer of historic 165. Rowland,op.cit.,pp. 248-9.
monuments.Even Giedion (op.cit.,p. 64), 166. Lanciani,Destruction ..., op.cit.,pp. zj 3-7.
one of his admirers, accuses him of this 167. The Barberini Palace is quite controversial,
crime for his addition of a library building see Wittkower, op. cit., p. 70, note 7; for
on the platform of the Cortile steps,origin- Barberini’s admiration of the classics, see
ally designed by Bramante. Rowland,op. cit.,pp. zj7-61.
Lanciani, Destruction ..., op. cit.,pp. 288- 168. R.A.Frin,‘EuropeanGovernmental Expe-
52.
rience’,Historic Preservation Today,p. 82, Wil-
E.P.Rodocanachi,L e 5 monuments de Rome liamsburg,1966.This popular saying seems
apds la chute de /Empire, p. 127,Paris, Ha- to have been used on different occasions,
chette, 1914:‘Car,dit le texte de la dklibkr- one of them being the transfer of bronzes
ation du Conseil communal,les Thermes de- from the portico of the Pantheon to St
perissent ...’. Stating that the baths dis- Peter’s. R. Mertz and B. Mertz, T w o
appear gradually every day, the text de- Thousand Years in Rome,p. 263, New York,
fends the idea of conserving them through 1968.For the opening of the Colosseum as
re-use. a public stone quarry, see Nobili, op. cit.,
Lanciani, Destruction . . . , op. cit., p. 2 3 2 . p. 1 0 5 .
The provenance of the statues of the 169,Meanwhile Bernini added two towers to the
Conservator’sPalace is not definite. building.However, the towers,named ‘the
Ibid., p. 238. It is pointed out that the donkey’s ears’ by the public, were demol-
people had destroyed a statue of the Pope ished in 1883; see Scherer,op.cit.,Plate 192.
erected during his lifetime and therefore it 170. Hautecmur,op. cit.,p. 57; Giesker,op. cit.,
was decreed that statues would not be p. I I 3; Mumcu, op.cit.,p. 5 j .
erected to living popes: Sprigge, op. cit., 171. The decision taken in 1685 was reiterated
P. ‘j9. in 1701 and 1704,see Hautecmur, op. cit.,
‘j9. It is at this time that history of architecture p.60.
became part of architectural education; see 172. For a bibliography,see Wittkower,op.cit.,
Gazzola,op.cit.,pp. I j -16. P.398.
160. Lowry,op. cit.,p. 48; C.Bannister, ‘Com- 173. For a comparison of Borromini’sprinciples
ment’, Historic Preservation Today, p. 34, of design with the ancient buildings of Petra
Charlottesville, Va., The University of and Hadrian’s Villa near Tivoli, see:
Virginia Press, 1966. ‘A later generation Giedion, op. cit.,pp. 1 1 1 - 1 3 ; Millon, op.
that included Serlio, Vignola and Palladio cit.,p. 19.For the Gothic aspect of his work,
took the first steps in organizing these see Wittkower,op.cit.,pp. 138-39, 14j.
archaeological gleanings into an architec- 174. M.DvoI-Lk,‘FrancescoBorromini als Res-
rhetoric capable of remarkable elo- taurator’,Beiblattfur Denkma@jege rum kuns-
quence.’ geshichtlicbes Jahrbuch der K. K. Zentralkom-
161. H.A.Millon,Baroque and Rococo Architecture, mission, Vols. 111-IV, pp. 89-98, Vienna,
pp. 11-22, bibliography: pp. 113-22, New 1907. Pope Innocent X presumably de-
York, George Braziller, 1961:Wittkower, manded the conservation of the remains of
op.cit.,pp. 389-jo7. the early Christian basilica, see Wittkower,
162. Sprigge,op.cit.,p. 160. op.cit.,p. 140.
163. One example is the famous French philo- 175. Ibid.While studying Borromini’scelebrated
I08 sopher Michel de Montaigne and another work, S. Ivo della Sapienza, Wittkower
 Italy

(ibid.,p. 140)attempts to trace the medieval statue of Dionysos was sold to an English-
influence on his architecturalstyle.Giedion, man who had offered a better price: Von
op. cit.,p. 1 1 3 . Pastor, Histoty of the Popes, op. cit.,Vol.
176. Wittkower, op. cit., pp. 249 et seq. The XXXIX,pp. 70-2.
Spanish Steps can be included as another 190. 0. Harnack, Deutscbes Kunstleben in Rom im
example. Zeitalter der Klassik, pp.21-2, Weimar, 1896.
177. For the developments on this subject, see 191. Mumford (op. cit.,p. 143) finds the fore-
A. Mariotti, L a legislarione delle belle arti, runners of present-day hotels in sixteenth-
pp. 208 et seq., Rome, 1892;Giesker, op. century Rome. Innkeepers used antique
cit.,pp. 113-14; Von Pastor, op. cit., Vol. dealers to attract customers: L. Lewis,
XXXV;C.Justi,Winckelmann und seine Zeit- Connoisseurs and Secret Agents in Eighteenth
genossen, Vols. 11-111, Leipzig, F. C. W. Centuy Rome, p. 227, London, Chatto &
Vogel, 1898. Windus, I96I.
178. For the first excavations of Pompeii and 192.Von Pastor,Histoy of the Popes, op.cit., Vol.
Herculaneum,see P.Grimal,In Search of An- XXXIX,pp. 87-97, 100.
cient Itah, pp. 1 3 j-9 et seq.,London, 1964. 193. F. Noack, Deutsches Leben in Rom 1700 bis
‘79, Rowland,op.cit., p. 290. 1900, p. 104,Stuttgart,Cotta, 1907.
180. For a comparativediscussion ofthe architec- 194.Von Pastor, Histoy of the Popes, op. cit.,
ture of the first part of the eighteenth cen- pp. 100-1; Hautecmur, op. cit., p. 72.
tury, and the terms ‘eclectic’,‘academic The Landsdowne and Townley galleries
classicism’and ‘late Baroque classicism’,see started their collectionsat this time.
Wittkower,op. cit.,pp. 240-4, 19j. H e worked under the protection of Cardinal
181. O n the evolution of art history, see Alessandro Albani who was also a British
W.Leppmann, Winckelmann, pp. 263-300, secret agent. It was fairly common for an-
New York,Alfred A.Knopf,1970. tique dealers to act as spies; see Lewis, op.
182. ‘One may discover a Renascence square, a cit.,pp. 176et seq.
street, a place: but one looks in vain for a 196. Hautecmur,op.cit., p. 224.
Renascence avenue or a Renascence city:so 197. Ibid.,p. 227.
far they existed only in the mind’:Mumford, 198. Ibid.,pp. 58-63,
op. cit., p. 129. 199. Ibid.,pp. 74-6.
183. Wittkower,op.cit.,p. 22. zoo. The first organized excavation at the Roman
I 84. Von Pastor (History o f the Popes, op. cit., Forum was started by the Swedish ambas-
Vol. XXXV,pp, :69-73, 178-9) relates in sador to Rome in 1788;see Scherer,op. cit.,
detail the building and repair activities of P.33.
Benedict XIV. 201. For a detailed description of the French con-
185. Scherer, op. cit., p. 104. The author is fiscation and transfer of European art to
known for his work first published in 1799 Paris, see D.M.Quynn, ‘The Art Confis-
with the detailed description of Roman cations of the Napoleomc Wars’,American
monuments and Herculaneum’s first exca- Historical Review, Vol. L, No. 3, 1945.
vations. C.de Brosses,Lettres familtires sur pp. 437-60.
I’ltalie, Vol. 11, pp. 190 et seq.,Paris, Firmin- 202. I. Ranieri,Il Caporale Trasteverino,pp. 76 et
Didot,1931. seq.,Rome, 1904.
186.Wittkower,op.cit., p. 236. 203. Von Pastor,Histoy ofthe Popes, op.cit., Vol.
187. Von Pastor,Histoy ofthe Popes, op.cit.,Vol. XL,p. 344.
XXXIX,pp.68-9. 204. Gendry,Pie 1’7, Vol.11,p. 249,Paris, 1907.
188. Hautecmur,op.cit., p. j7. 2oj R.Schneider,Quatremire de Quincy et son in-
,

189. From the English antique dealer Hamilton, tervention dans les arts (1788-1830), Paris, Ha-
he bought the busts of Apollo Sauroktonos chette,1910.
and Hannibal, while from Jenkins he pur- 206. In addition to large-scale plunder by the
chased Menander and Poseidippus; the French, the British carried out a series of
From the Middle Ages onwards

transfers such as the removal of the Parthe- trop belles pour chercher d’autre loyer que
non friezes to London by Lord Elgin. The dans leurs propre valeur’:ibid.,p. 107.
examples can be extended to include other 220. A.Mumcu, ‘EskiEserler Hukuku ve Tiir-
areas of the Mediterranean,such as Egypt. kiye’, Ankara Universitesi H u k u k Fakultesi
207. ‘Il rirpetto attivo del monumento’; for this ex- Dergisi, Vol.XXVI,No. 314, 1969,pp. j 5-6.
pression, applicable to the nineteenth cen- 221. J. J. Dwyer,‘CardinalPacca and the Tem-
tury, see C.Perogalli,Monumenti e metodi di poral Power’, The Dublin Review, No. 183,
valorirrarione, p. 3 j , Milan,Tamburini,I95 4. 1928,pp. 266-81.
208. The protagonistsof the attitude are Voltaire, 222. C.Ceschi, Teoria e storia de restauro, p. 39,
H u m e and Gibbon. Rome, Bulzoni Editore, 1970.This docu-
209. Goethe is representativeof this trend. ment, together with that prepared in 1821,
210. Historische Zeitschryt in Germany I 8 j 9, the was adopted by the administrators of
Revue Historique in France 1876 and the En- Naples.
glish Historical Review in England 1886, 223. Meanwhile, the French had taken over the
began publication. Borghese collection, see Goyau, op. cit.,
2 1 1 . Some even maintain that more pieces were p. 634;Lanciani (op.cit.,p. 189)expressed his
returned than taken away, see Goyau et al., surprise at the fact that permission had been
op. cit., p. 632. The Pope had a comme- granted by the Pope to use old ruins in order
morative medal issued,on which there was to build a house on the Piazza del Popolo.
the picture of the Laocoon group and the 224. France and England supply examples such
inscription, ‘Monumentorum Veterum Restitu- as Versailles and Bath. Later their in-
tori’, see ibid.,p. 633. adequacies became apparent. This was a
212. Canova was trusted by Napoleon as well time of rivalry between the Ecole des Beaux-
as by the Pope, see Rowland, op. cit., Arts,founded in 1806 by Napoleon,and the
pp. 293-6. For Canova’s works, see I. Ecole Polytechnique,founded in 1794 for
Albrizzi, The Works of Antonio Canova, 3 the sciences of architecture and engineering.
vols.,London, 1849. It was at this time that Henri Labrouste
213. A.C.Quatremere de Quincy, Canova et ses (I 801-7j) returned to France after having
owvrages, pp. 104-9,Paris,1834. stayed in Rome for five years to study its
214. Ibid.,p. 3 IO.It is noteworthy that the same monuments from the standpoint of an
person was put in charge of encouraging the archaeologist-engineer.
study of antiquities and of developing edu- rtj. P.Lavedan,Hisfoire de lurhanisme:Antipiti-
cation in the arts. Myen Age, pp. 364-1, Paris, 1926;for work
2 I j . Quynn,op. cit.,pp. 4j j et seq. on the Piazza del Popolo, see Giedion, op.
216. J. S. Memes, Memoirs of Antonio Canova with cit.,pp. 1j0-4;for Valadier’s work in co-
Critical Anahsir of His Works, p. 469, ordinating the monuments on the piazza,
Edinburgh, 182). see articles by R.Pierce and T.Ashby, Town
217. M.Le Chevalier Artaud, Histoire du Pape Pie Planning Review, Vol. XI,1924.
VII,Vol. 11, pp.442-3, Paris,1837. 226. Perogalli, op. cit.,p. 3j; Ceschi (op. cit.,
218. J. T.E llis,Cardinal Consalvi and Anglo-Papal pp. 39, 45) later added Luigi Canina and
Relations, 1814-1824, pp. 168-70,Washington Comuccini,with his work on the Via Appia
D.C.,1942;Quynn, op. cit.,pp. 448-51. Antica among others.
W.R.Hamilton,in charge at the time,was 2 2 7 . The remains of the round fountain called the
also personally present at the transfer of the Meta Sudans were removed from the north
Parthenon friezes from Athens to the British of the Arch of Constantine in 1934,and its
Museum. See also ibid.,pp. 4j 3 et seq. site was marked by paving stones of a differ-
219. Quatremitre D e Quincy, op.cit.,pp. ~oj-6, ent colour. Also noteworthy is the project
note. I; letter dated I O August 1801. The prepared by Valadier for the area surround-
writer approved the return of the Roman ing the Arch of Septimius Severus:Ceschi,
I10 objects by quoting Montaigne: ‘Elkssont op.cit.,Fig.47.
 Italy

228. Grimal, op. cit.,pp. 2j-9. The section ‘A 242. See Ceschi, op. cit.,p. 4j, on the transfer
Short History of Colosseum’,contains in- of the marble frieze of the Parthenon from
formation on the destruction. Athens to London.
229. Ibid.,pp. 26-8. The Frangipanis used the 243’ Rowland, op. cit., pp. 304-6. This was the
Colosseum as a fortress until the end of the beginning of the age of mechanization and
thirteenth century, then the Senate took it of the international exhibitions in London
over;it was annexed in 1381 to the Lateran (185 I) and Paris (1889); see S. Giedion,
and in 143 I to the monastery of Santa Maria Mechanixation Takes Command, pp. I 7-41,
Nuova. Eventually the municipality took it New York,Oxford University Press, 1948.
back. Rowland, op. cit., pp. 3 2 2 - 3 ; A.Warburg,
230. In Flora Colisea, published in 1813, Antonio ‘ALecture on Serpent Ritual’,Warburg Jour-
Sebastini cites the names of 261 different na4 1939140,P.292.
plants found growing in the Colosseum. In 1871,the Pope was given royal preroga-
The plants had been partially cleared away tives along with the privilege of conducting
in I 8I 2 by the French,and in I 871 the struc- religious ceremonies. He was also granted
ture was totally cleared of vegetation.Some an allocation from the state budget.With the
people, however,found this detrimental to Lateran Treaty of 1929, internal indepen-
the charm of the building;Scherer,op. cit., dence and thus the power of state was
pp. 87-8. passed to the Vatican.
2 3 1 , Ceschi,op.cit., pp. 40-1. 246. H.H.Reed, ‘Rome:The Third Sack’,The
232. Frin,op.cit.,p. 96. Architectural Review, Vol. CVII,February
233. Perogalli,op.cit.,Plate 27; Scherer,op. cit., 19j0, pp. 9 1 - 1 1 0 .
Plate 1 2I. 247. Reed (ibid.,p.92)quotes Augustus Hare: ‘If
234. For the western faGade,see P.F.Darsy,‘Lois they have done well by archaeology,they
modulaires et anastylose’,Rendiconti della have done more for the destruction of the
Pontzfica Accademia Romana di Archeologia artistic beauty of Rome than all the inva-
(Vatican), Vol. XXXVI, 1964, Figs. j-6. sions of the Goths and Vandals.’
Darsy places the date of destruction to the 248. The fact that Munoz studied the architect of
tenth century.H e declaresthis an unsuccessful Sixtus V is interesting:A.Munoz, Domenico
restoration since the proportions are not re- Fontana, Architetto, 1143-1607, Rome,
spected (ibid.,pp. 66-7). Ceschi disagrees. Cremonese Editore, 1944.
See also,D.Linstrum,‘Lecoup d’mil retro- 249. The secretary of the Municipal Commission
spectif:Giuseppe Valadier et l’Arc de Titus’, on Archaeology was R.Lanciani,who was
Monumentum, Vol. XXV, No. I, 1982, also known for his opposition to destruction.
PP.43-71, 250. Bolletino dell’ Archaeologica Municipale, Notixie
2 3 5 . Ceschi,op.cit.,p. 41,Plates 44-6. degli Scavi di Antichita.
236. Examples of anastylosis can be cited,such as 251, While making his proposal, Correnti, the
the erection of the four broken columns at Minister of Public Education, summarized
the Temple of Agrigento in Sicily in I 836. the legislation in use in different parts of the
237. Goyau,op.cit.,p. 635.Interest in the Etrus- country. It was thus observed that various
cans began in the seventeenth century; for measures taken since the beginning of the
the development of this study, see Grimal, century, including those taken by Cardinal
op.cit., pp. 163-204. Pacco,had been put together.
238. Lanciani,Destruction .. . , op. cit., p. 264. Mariotti, op. cit., pp. 317-34;Giesker (op.
239. Ibid.,pp. 189-90. cit.,pp, 141-2)points out that similar bills
240. J. White,A r t and Architecture in Rome 1210 to had been submitted to the Senate on several
1400, Baltimore, 1966,pp. 94-5; Lanciani, occasions until 1888. O n the subject of leg-
Pagan and Christian Rome,op. cit.,pp. ~ j eto islation,an edict published in I 8I 8 by Louis
seq. I, Duke of Hesse (17j3-1830), should also
241.Grimal, op.cit., pp. 37-40. be mentioned,G.Moller,Denkmaler der deut- I11
From the Middle Ages onwards

schen Baukunst, Darmstadt, 1819-22;for the arti, Milan, Hoepli, 1893.Ceschi’s approach
English translation of this work, see A n to Boito’s works is more critical (op. cit.,
Essq on the Origin and Progress of Gothic pp. 107-10).
Architecture, Traced in and Deduced from the 263. Perogalli, op. cit., pp. j1-63; L. Grassi,
Ancient Edzjces of Germany, pp. j 8-60, Lon- Storia e cuItura dei monumenti, pp. 433-9,
don, 1824;Harvey cites this as a basic docu- Milan, 1960.
ment; J. Harvey, ‘The Origin of Official 264. A.Barbacci (IIrestauro dei monumenti in Italia,
Preservation of Ancient Monuments’,Trans- p. j6, Rome,Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato,
actions of the Ancient Monuments Socieg 19j6) calls this an ‘artistic’ or ‘romantic’
(London), Vol.9, 1961,pp. 27-31. restoration,its alternative being ‘scientific’
tj3. Giesker,op.cit.,pp. 142-10;Regolamentoper restoration.
PEsecuxione della Legge 1.2 Giugno 190.2 sulla 26j. Ceschi,op. cit.,p. 109;the author also men-
Conseruarione dei Monumenti, Rome, Cecchini, tions that this is accepted as the first ‘Carta
1904.See also Mumcu, op.cit.,p. j6. del Restauro’.At the same meeting Boito
2j4. The text of the law defined monuments, established the famous formula: ‘In archi-
movable and immovable works of art, ob- tectural monuments an intervention cannot
jects of historic and artistic value. The be avoided;it is better to consolidate than
works of artists and architects still living and repair, better to repair than restore and by
those completed in the last fifty years were all means additions and renovations should
left off the list. be avoided.’
zjj. Ceschi (op.cit.,p. IIO) mentions C.Boito’s 266. Barbacci (op. cit.,pp. 59-62) draws atten-
influence on this subject. tion to critics and experts such as Alfonso
zj 6. L’Amministraxione delle Antichitd e Belle Arts’ Rubbiani (1848-1913)and Giuseppe Bac-
in Italia,pp. 1-160,Rome,Cecchini,1902. chelli.
2 5 7. In the use of this prerogative,the Municipal 267. G.Giovannoni, ‘Vecchie citti ed edilizia
and Regional Law, No. 164,dated 4 May nuova, il quartiere del Rinascimento a
1898,required the approval of and control Roma’,Nuova Antologia, 191 3.
of the Ministry of Public Works. 268. G.Giovannoni clarified the technical aspects
2 j 8. Regolamento Edilixio del Comune di Roma, of application in his work Il restauro dei
Rome, Cecchini,I 887. monumenti, published in 1913, which con-
zj9. A period of three days was allowed for the tains three sections: definition of a monu-
preparation of the list. For the inclusion of a ment, the analytical history of monuments
building on the list, the approval of the Ar- and architectural restoration.Perogalli, op.
chitectural and Archaeological Commissions cit.,pp. 81-9;Grassi, Storia e cultura ...,op.
and of the Ministry of Public Works were cit.,pp.441-8,
required. 269. D.Kuban, ‘RestorasyonKriterleri ve Carta
260. L.Beltrami, ‘I1 restauro dei monumenti e la del Restauro’,Vakifar Dergisi,Vol.V,1962,
critica’,Il Marxocco, Vol. VI,No. 49, 1901, pp. ‘49-52.
p. I. 270. A.Annoni, Scieqa ed arte del restauro archi-
261. L. Beltrami, Indagini e documenti riguardanti tettonico, Milan, Framer, I 946;Grassi,Storia
la torre principale del Castello Sforresco, Milan, e cultura . .., op.cit.,pp. 448-10.
1901;Ceschi,op.cit., p. 107. 271. Ceschi (op. cit.,pp. 209-23) lists the rules
262. L.Grassi (CamiIlo Boito, Il Balcone, pp. 41- and regulations related to Italian legislation
68, Milan, 1919) gives the complete list passed between 1902 and 1966.
of his publications. Among the more in- 272. For the first article of law No. 778, dated I I
fluential are I restauratori, Florence, I 884; June 1922,see ibid.,p. 218.
‘I nostri vecchi monumenti: conservare o 273. Ministro della Pubblica Istruzione, Le&
restaurare?’,Nuova Antologia, No. 87, I 886, sulla tutela delle cose &interesse artistic0 o storico
pp. 480-106; and ‘Sulk antichiti e belle e sulla proterione naturali e panoramiche, Rome,
II2 arti’,ibid., 1889;Questioni pratiche di belle Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato, 1961.
France: centralized organization 2

Besides Italy, which has kept its leading parallel developments can,however, be wit-
position in the field of conservation,due in nessed on a smaller scale.
particular to the attention that Rome always France experienced a smooth transition
received,France has also had a considerable from paganism to Christianity. In order to
influence on the definition and development avert social conflict and avoid unpopularity,
of the concept, mainly in its legal aspects. the Church did not tamper with the tra-
One of the milestones in the history of con- ditional pagan feast days and holidays.Exist-
servation was the French legislation of I 887. ing sacred sites and their environment were
Its adoption owes much to the well-known also maintained.The pagan gods in the tem-
French writers of the time who were in fact ples gradually gave way to images of Christ,
voicing widely held public attitudes on the the Virgin and the Saints.In some cases,the
subject.' pagan objects of reverence were simply
moved to secondary positions in the build-
ings.The continued use of the objects, the
T H E MIDDLE A G E S
buildings and the sites was probably instru-
Ruins of prehistoric and of later periods in mental in their preservation and enabled
France exist in various parts of the country. many importantmonuments to survive up to
It was the occupation of Gaul by Julius modern times? However, only a detailed
Caesar, and the ensuing four centuries of analysis of the subject can verify this general
security and wealth,that played an important observation.
role in unifying the disposition of monu- Certain French historians,taking a critical
ments and settlements.France bears the deep view, regard the fifth-centurymigrations as
imprint of Roman civilization which spread the starting point of the destruction of monu-
to the north, across the Greek colonies of ments.4 Documents relating the passage of
the Mediterranean.Today many French cities the Goths and Vandals5 through France on
still contain monuments belonging to this their way to Italy,Spain and North Africa are
period, somewhat comparable to those in worth careful scrutiny.U p to the eleventh
Italy, and some cities still retain the general century, France suffered from continuous
characteristics of Roman settlements.2 Viking raids.It was attacked by the Huns in
From Caesar's time on,every new trend or the fifth century and by the Moors from the
concept left its imprint,positive or negative, seventh to the middle of the eighth century.
on monuments and sites. The development In 732, the Arabs advanced as far north as
of Christianity through the fourth and fifth Poitiers and Tours, and for a while French
centuries had less effect in France than in settlements on the Mediterranean coast
such centres as Rome or Constantinople; repeatedly changed hands.
From the Middle Ages onwards

During this period when France was churches,which were generally constructed
under occupation, it is ironic to note that over a sacred burial ground or a relic. Any
Roman monuments and cities were harmed change of location was deemed practically
more by the local population than by the impossible once the relic, or the building
invaders,6 since the former used material or parts of it, had been incorporated in the
from the Roman monuments in order to church. Moreover, limitations of space in
build defensive fortifications.7 Many peoples medieval settlementscreated another,almost
subjected to foreign invasion have done like- insurmountable, difficulty. Another claim,
wise. Medieval castles and fortifications often more difficult to accept,was that the builders
contain the remains of nearby Roman tem- of Louis IX’stime were sure to erect better
ples and other buildings.* buildings than those they destroyed. This
Although the dismantling of ancient period,which gave a completely new face to
monuments in time of war can, to a certain France, came to an end with the Hundred
extent, be justified, such is not the case in Years War.13 Most of the unfinished Gothic
time of peace,when demolitionis repeated to buildings existing today date from this
obtain materials for new buildings. This sys- period.14
tem, common in Rome,continued in France Before this disastrous war was forgotten,
from the Middle Ages up to the nineteenth France was once again in the throes of reli-
century.9 gious strife. Luther in Germany and Calvin in
In the period following the invasions,be- France opposed the doctrines of the Catholic
tween the eleventh century and the Hundred Church and the repercussions ofthis struggle
Years War (1337-14j3), France gradually ac- continued for another century.Beginning in
quired its distinctive national character.This the reigns of Louis XI1 (1498) and Fransois I
was, however,accomplished to the detriment (I 5 I j), the struggle between the two religious
of the ancient monuments, and new build- groups continueduntil Henry IV (1j89-1610)
ings were constructed on the remains of the put an end to it by repressing the reformists.
old; Gothic architecture was built on the France was in a state of ruin once more; the
Romanesque. population of Paris had fallen from 400,000
The reign of Louis IX (1226-70) is partic- to zoo,ooo. It was impossible to recognize
ularly interesting.Wealth and power created the united, strong France of a few decades
conditions more detrimental to conservation earlier.15
than poverty and misery.10 The small, dark Despite the efforts of poets and philoso-
churches were replaced by others,taller and phers like Ronsardlb and Montaigne,blood-
larger. At other times, additions to existing shed and violence continued. The French
buildings were made in the new style.It has consider rj6z a dark year in their history,17
been claimed that every Gothic cathedral in when statues were decapitated and churches
France owes its existence to the dismantling were sacked and burned.In the second half
of an ancient monument.11 O n the other of the sixteenth century, the accomplish-
hand, interesting justifications were found ments of Henry I1 and Franqois I were thus
for this situation.12Even Rkau, who would effaced.
have preferred new churches to have been Calvin and Luther themselves were
constructed on different sites, admits that against the destructiveness of the French
this would have been practically impossible Protestants (Huguenots),who were often led
in most cases. by foreigners and mercenaries. A swiss Pro-
In the Middle Ages, strict religious and testant, expressing the prevailing attitude,
traditional norms regulated the building of said: ‘Once their nest is destroyed, storks
Plate 16.
Arles,Francc, Church of Sainte-Anneused as a museum. The internal organization is very common for the
period. [Photo:0 Arch. Phot. ParisiSPADEM.1
From the Middle Ages onwards

don’tcome back.’18The Huguenots believed RELATIONS W I T H ITALY

that by destroying the monuments, they
could destroy the beliefs.” Furthermore, Military considerations had a great influence
they maintained that better buildings could on the relationship between Renaissance
always replace those destroyed.This attitude Italy and France and in turn its reflection on
caused the destruction of countless churches French settlement patterns. French incur-
and monasteries as well as works of art. sionsinto Italy,beginning in 1483 during the
Starting with the eleventh century, the reign of Charles VI11 and reaching as far
necessity of living in fortified towns in France as Naples,continued until I 5 j 9.24 They also
as a defensive measure against invasions led encouraged travel to Italy. This history-
to the creation of new settlements or the oriented influence helps to clarify the pre-
modification of old ones as in Italy.In these valent thinking in France, despite the great
cities, ruled by the nobility and clergy,the variety in the settlements.Another character-
existing social classes became organized and istic pointed out by Paul Frank1 is the dif-
new rules were established for communal ference in purpose of religious and secular
living.20 Religion and religious buildings architecture.25 As a matter of fact, Gothic
occupied an important place in this develop- architecture also shows national character-
ment.Although France’sinfluentialrelations istics.26 During the period when the Italian
with Italy,especially with Rome,played a pri- Renaissance had much influence in France,
mary role, it never went as far as a total local architecturaltraditions were opposed to
transfer of the structural and visual charac- the foreign style. At the beginning of the
teristics of one to the other. Furthermore, sixteenth century,27 local artists were more
medieval cities do not easily lend themselves interested in the details than in the general
to generalization.Whether settlements were appearance and environmental ramifications
built on ancient Roman sites, around castles of this style? In medieval France, prin-
or monasteries, or on virgin land, it is not ciples of a unique synthesis were already
possible to define common patterns.21 To- established.29 Philibert de I’Orme reflects
pography seems to have been the dominating this consciousness of tradition and its evalua-
factor.A n example is the city of Bazas which tion.
is built on a triangular pattern,22where three The son of a Lyons builder,Philibert de
roads coming down from three hills con- I’Orme (I j 1r-70)~~ was not only himself a
verge on to a triangular market place. In successful architect, but also played a pri-
Marseilles, a former Greek colony,the close mary role in the recognition of his country’s
relationship between the old and the new building tradition.His talent was recognized
was preserved.Paris offers the best example in Italy where, in 1533, he was engaged
of a close correlation between past and to measure and make drawings of Ro-
present during the thirteenth century. The man monuments. H e subsequently received
streets leading to the cathedral of Notre several commissions from Pope Paul 111.
Dame, built within the Roman administra- When he returned to Lyons in I j 3 6,his fame
tive centre,were the sites of ancient roads.23 had preceded him and offers of work were
Since so many different examples exist, the numerous. As a result, he went to Paris,
only common rule seems to have been com- where he designed and constructed one or
plete diversity. Only after the twelfth and two buildings.H e was then appointed archi-
thirteenth centuries,when attempts at unifi- tect of military constructions in Brittany and
cation were made, did a certain homogeneity Normandy,31 and was finally commissioned
116 emerge. to build castles. H e wrote two treatises ex-
 France:centralized organization

pounding his architectural concepts and VITRUVIANJSM

building theories.32 His books show that
he was intimately familiar with Rome and The influence of Vitruvius developed under
Roman works,as well as the writings of Vit- the reign of FranGois I (1j1~-47),
who
ruvius, whom he greatly admired. In prac- brought to France Italian artists such as
tice, however,he did not limit himself to the Leonard0 da Vinci and Sebastian0 Serlio.38
thories of the Vitruvian school,but also e m - This was beneficial to the extent that it intro-
ployed the medieval techniques of his own duced order to new settlements, but also
country.As Clouzot says: ‘Althoughhe be- harmful because it was not compatible with
lieved he spoke Latin, he expressed himself the existing urban areas. Vitruvianism em-
in perfect French.’33 Philibert de I’Orme bodied a negation of the existing norms,a fa-
advocated the adoption of existing forms natical faith in the basics, and a pronounced
rather than their abolition, and the use of tendency to imitate. Vitruvius’ book was
new and old elements in harmony. first translated into French by Jean Martin
There was a difference between the Italian and Jean Poullant,and the first two editions
and French concepts of monument and en- of 1j47 and 1j64 were followed by many
vironment conservation.Buildings in France others.39 Books by Alberti, Palladio and
were not the monuments of a great civili- Vignola were also popular in France, as
zation but expressions of a specific local tra- in the rest of Europe. As a result, classical
dition.It was more the consciousness of the town planning was widely applied and
significance of the existing value rather than caused the destruction of several medieval
its physical presence that influenced treat- cities.40
ment of the building heritage. The lessons learnt from Italy, and espe-
Indeed, Philibert de I’Orme was always cially from Rome,went further.The French
successful when he had to work with med- kings built triumphal arches at the entrances
ieval buildings and their surroundings.34 to cities, accommodating ceremonies much
H e inserted windows to admit air and light like those adopted by the Roman emperors.
into the towers of old medieval castles and O n the other hand,urban development with
transformed their thick exterior walls into its accent on wide roads,introduced by Pope
galleries. Thus, architectural elements in Sixtus V to Rome,was also influential.41The
buildings erected for military purposes were introduction of classically inspired elements
now used in country houses. Towers and to an otherwise contemporary city may seem
castle gates became the status symbols of the contradictory. This contradiction had its
aristocracy,thereby ensuring historical con- basis in the ideas of Vitruvius. His book on
tinuity and giving old architectural norms architecture,which was used as a handbook
contemporary significance.35 As national in Europe until the nineteenth century,was
unity developed, de I’Ormepromoted the first acknowledged in the ninth century.Of
assimilation of adapted styles within the sixty-oddeditions of the book, twelve date
French tradition.Yet he was severely critical from the twelfth century and most of the rest
of some of his colleagues who bIindly fol- appeared between that time and the fifteenth
lowed foreign building styles.36 Promoting century.42Its use as a textbook in religious
consideration for the natural properties of schools even contributed to the spread of
materials and for climatic conditions,he said: Classicism in Europe. During the Middle
‘In this country, nature has created stones Ages and the Renaissance, the book was
not to stand erect like trees but to be used published with commentaries by Italian ar-
horizontally.’37 chitects, so that it also reflected the contem- “7
From the Middle Ages onwards

porary attitudes of those rebuilding Rome Nantes of I 5 98,he recognized the necessity
and ‘otherItalian cities. for religious tolerance in a strong central ad-
Conscious planning as reflected in the ministrative system. H e was assassinated in
visual effects of street faqades and squares 1610,but left behind one of the strongest
was a characteristic of the Roman Empire,to states in Europe, with one of the simplest,
be re-adopted during the fifteenth century. most enlightened and modern administrative
France in the seventeenth cerrtury gave systems of its time. Henri IV also led a new
powerful examples of the same principles.43 approach to urban administration.
Versailles is a good illustration.44It was de- H e developed a scheme for enhancing
cided that the materials used in the buildings Paris, which he had found impoverished and
surrounding the palace would be the same as in ruins at the beginning of his reign in
or similar to those of the palace. The height 1589.~8Taking practical and simple mea-
of the buildings would be limited.The area sures, Henri IV established certain basic
surrounding the palace was thus arranged principles that long remained valid. H e took
with a concern for order and symmetry.45 a keen interest in every project, and devel-
Lavedan cites the rebuilding of the oped worthwhile schemes formulated before
Grande Place in Brussels, which was de- his own reign. One such project initiated
stroyed by the French in I69r, as an example by his predecessor was the Pont Neuf, the
of environmental order in the same period.46 bridge and its surrounding area.49 The origi-
The City Council of Brussels decided in 1697 nal design accommodated houses on the
that,in order to prevent disfigurement of the bridge and arches at both ends.Henri simpli-
square,models of the buildings to be erected fied the project by eliminating the houses and
should first be submitted to it for approval. the arches.Foreseeing that the bridge,which
In addition,any action to the detriment of linked the university on the south bank to
the area would result in guilty parties being the administrative and commercial centre of
punished and the building demolished;the Paris,would require further development,he
expenses thus incurred would be paid by the opened up the Rue Dauphine where narrow,
builder.47 In accordance with this decision, winding streets formerly existed. The trian-
and taking as models two buildings still ex- gular square at the intersection of the bridge
tant, tall, narrow edifices were erected in with the new road was also rearranged and
which the influence of medieval architecture provided with a row of houses.The ground
was surprisingly strong. The only distinct floor housed arcaded shops,through which a
contemporary sign was the effort to achieve courtyard was reached,giving access to the
unity in the faqades of the buildings on the upper-storey apartments. The brick build-
southern side of the square. Even when the ings did not contain much ornament and the
roads leading to the square were widened, area eventually accommodated upper-class
their medieval character was retained,many residents.A similar scheme was later applied
still being cul-de-sacs. in another part of Paris.
The Place Royale,designed by Metezeau,
which was part of another project halted by
D E S T R U C T I O N IN T H E N A M E O F the Wars of Religion, was taken up and de-
ORDER veloped as a gathering place for the people,
with dwellings for the wealthy surrounding
It has been claimed that Henri IV’s most it. T w o prominent buildings were erected
tangible achievement was the order that he at the north and south ends of the square
118 restored to administration.With the Edict of and the empty lots were sold at low prices
 France:centralized organization

to those who wanted to build within the spread and certain monuments continued to
established norms. The nobility and the be used as quarries. Moreover, the famous
wealthy were attracted by the project and the statue of Aphrodite from Nimes was pre-
Marais developed to become an eminent sented to the King,and the people of Nimes
neighbourhood.Still another of the King’s later offered the Maison Carrke for the gar-
projects, though unrealized, was a market- dens at Versailles. Such gifts were not rare.
place, the Place de France, with the streets In his travel notes from France,Thomas Jef-
leading on to it named after French pro- ferson relates that in 1787 the Maison Carrke
vinces. The unpretentious but functional was in a pitiful state and that he was horrified
buildings were part of a geometric order.A n to watch historic buildings demolished to
early example of bourgeois settlement would pave the streets of Ari.nes.53Compared with
thus be created, where the middle classes the dismantling of castles where rebellious
would be proud to live and conduct their barons once lived,however,the destruction
business. This type of residential develop- of Roman ruins seems less hazardous.54
ment was quickly adopted by other countries
in Europe,especially England.50
It is not hard to imagine that while Henri
D E S T R U C T I O N IN T H E N A M E O F B E A U T Y :
IV attempted to improve the environ-
LOUIS XIV
ment,many existing buildings were probably
demolished to make way for new ones. In France, after achieving peace during the
order to centralize power in the country,he reign of Henri IV,continued developing to
ordered the demolition of castles,symbols of become the strongest country in Europe
independent local power. Roman buildings under the direction of Richelieu and M a -
also suffered,as large-scale destruction con- zarin.It was in this period that French Clas-
tinued hand-in-handwith endeavours to im- sicism was born. The goal and the inspir-
prove the city. ation of many French artists was Rome,
Surprisingly few documents remain from though northern European artists had also
this period concerning measures taken to started to influence Paris. Yet with develop-
preserve historic monuments. A decree of ing French identity, the basis of a national
1 1 4 8 ~enacted
~ by the Governor of Lan- concept of art that accommodated various
guedoc to guard the monuments of Nimes, influenceswas being established.55
though weakly stated, indicates interest in Louis XIV’sdecision to rule alone,rather
the subject.Stating that at Nimes ‘beautiful than appoint another Prime Minister upon
and great antique structures,from which the Mazarin’s death in 1661,was the beginning
connoisseursdraw pleasure and profit in the of an interesting period in French history.56
art of architecture,ornament of the country The King exercised effective control over
of Languedoc and pride of this kingdom’ all political,economic,religious,artistic and
were being destroyed, the decree forbade military activities.Art too was promoted and
their demolition in any way and the erection taught in a manner that befitted a powerful
of other buildings in their place; it also monarchy. The hidden aim was to impress
ordered that the areas surrounding such the aristocracy by the size of buildings and
monuments be kept clear. Any exception the wealth of decoration.Louis’sclosest aid,
would require a special permit in the King’s Jean-BaptisteColbert,had decided to adopt
name.52 the seemingly successful Italian academic
This concern for the conservation of system. Consequently, in 163 5 the French
Roman monuments was not,however,wide- Academy of Letters and in 1648 the Aca-
From the Middle Ages onwards

demy of Painting and Sculpture were estab- that the new was not always an improvement
lished in Paris. With the reform of 1663,the over the existing,59 everything, from me-
foundations of the ‘state art’ mechanism dieval sculptures to the smallest details,was
were laid. By centralized administration of ‘beautified’so as to reflect the new age.
the teaching and theory of the arts, desired Such activities were not limited to impor-
principles and ideas could be promoted.The tant buildings but spread to their surrounding
academies, where theory and practice were areas and habitations,and there were several
united,became model organizations and the suggestions to clear some of the narrow,
system was extended to other branches- winding Paris streets and old buildings,60 in-
thus, dancing (1661),science (1666), music cluding the removal of seventeen small
(I 669) and architectural (I 67I) academies churches around the cathedral of Notre
were formed. The Acadtmie de France in Dame. Medieval houses built on bridges were
Rome was established in 1666.57 pulled down,and not a single bridge akin to
As a result of this programme,uniformity Florence’sPonte Vecchio was left in the city.
prevailed throughout France in the practice In order to create a Paris that all Europe
of the arts. Official doctrines seemed to be would admire, ‘ugly’old churches, monu-
accepted by all who tried to follow the ments considered aesthetically disturbing,
models set by Paris. This tendency spread houses blocking the view of the Seine, all
beyond the frontiers of France, for even were to be eliminated.61French writers of the
politically hostile countries such as Holland period condemned Gothic buildings as being
and England followed suit. The relation- too coarse in comparison with Hellenistic
ship between Rome, whose superiority had and Roman buildings.62 This negative atti-
hitherto been unquestioned, and Paris, was tude towards medieval architecture can be
bound to change.Indicative of this shift was explained by the Academy’s programme,de-
the fact that Bernini’s plans for the Louvre signed to express the greatness of Louis
were criticized and rejected during his official XIV’sreign.It concentrated on the study of
visit to Paris,58 which can also be taken as the classical period, and students were con-
an indication that France now possessed the stantly asked to produce copies and models
artists and architects it needed. O n the other of ancient works of art. Successful students
hand, important honours were bestowed were sent to Rome in order to copy the
upon French artists in Rome. Thus,the flow originals.It should not,therefore,be surpris-
of influence was no longer in one direction; ing to find statues of Louis XIV clad in the
the exchange had become mutual as Paris garb of Apollo or Alexander the Great.63
developed as a centre of the arts. Although the classical ideal was definitely
Unfortunately,a confident France was to adopted to represent the monarchy,it cannot
follow a trend detrimental to ancient monu- be maintained that traditional art and archi-
ments and works of art. Louis XIV’saes- tecture were totally ignored.64Church archi-
thetic pretensions were particularly harmful tects, while condemning Gothic decoration
to antiquated features of religious monu- as uncouth,could not as easily refute struc-
ments. Priests vied with one another in their tural and technical renovationsthat had been
efforts to make religious buildings conform introduced. One defender was Claude Per-
to the latest fashion. Those who repaired rault,65 a follower of Philibert de l’Orme,
monuments showed contempt for,and even who also translated the work of Vitruvius.
pilfered from, the buildings they were sup- Although he had received a medical training,
posed to renovate. Sometimes buildings he turned to architecture and engineering
I20 were destroyed completely. Failing to see and was one of the three members of the
 France: centralized organization

committee selected to prepare a project for sidered effective; but on the other hand,
the new Palais du Louvre after the rejection it could be quite harmful to historic monu-
of the Bernini design.66 Perrault studied ments and their environment if respect for
medieval architecture with scholarly interest history is confused with mindless imitation
and care while he criticized the ‘Italiani- of the past. The former can be accomplished
, zation’ of architecture. H e demanded that by evaluating various phases of the past;
climatic conditions be taken into consider- the latter seems to have been the approach of
ation and pointed out that imported building the French period we are studying. A late
techniques were not in keeping with French eighteenth-century example of the trans-
traditions and requirements. According to portation of a historic monument from its
Perrault,blind adherence to ancient architec- original site to a new location manifests an
ture was wrong;architects should study and attitude of re-evaluation.The ‘Fontainedes
be aware of the ‘changes that the skilful of Innocents’,71built in I j 47-49 and inspired
their art have introduced through reason’.67 by a Roman sarcophagus,was removed from
Noting that contemporary needs and cus- the corner of a building to decorate a market
toms were differentfrom those of the past, he square. Since a fourth side was needed for
endeavoured to apply his ideas to the Louvre the now free-standingfountain,the bas-relief
project.68 was reproduced, but so skilfully that it is
One example of a harmonious combina- very difficult to tell the difference between
tion of old and new is considered ingenious the sixteenth- and the eighteenth-century
even today.@ It is the harmony established parts. Although the instance can be evalu-
between two old quarters of Nancy by the ated as an indication of respect for a relic
creation of a monumental square in the va- of the past, it should not be forgotten that
cant space between them. When Louis XV the object was in line with the classical tra-
sent his father-in-law,the former King of dition and also of undeniable beauty.
Poland, Stanislas Leczinski, to Nancy as Classical art was the ideal for intellectuals
Duke of Lorraine in 1736, the fortifications and the manifestation of their reaction to the
between two sections of the town had long existing order during the Renaissance;it pro-
since crumbled,leaving an empty area.It was vided the desired image for the aristocracy
there that squares, wide streets and public and the deification of the King as a Greek
buildings were built, combining significant god in the seventeenth century; and it
edifices and the activities of the two settle- became a true political expression and, con-
ments to create a unique administrative sequently,a tool for progress and education
centre. in the eighteenth century.In due course the
O n the other hand,there are more numer- foundations of scientific archaeology were
ous examples of changes made under the in- laid by Winckelmann and spread from Rome,
fluence of the Roman tradition.Vauban, ac- Pompeii and Herculaneum to Egypt and the
claimed by Voltaire as a genius,changed the Western Mediterranean. This was accom-
urban plans and aspects of about I j o towns panied by the romantic movement in art
after Louis XIV put him in charge of defence and literature.Interest in the Middle Ages
construction.70Vauban’s transformations re- emerged only towards the beginning of the
flected the ideas of Vitruvius and Italian city nineteenth century.Goethe,Sir Walter Scott,
planning, and his influence continued in Chateaubriand and Victor Hugo became the
France until the nineteenth century.From the champions of the Middle Ages previously
standpoint of defence strategy, this method vilified by Rabelais,Montaigne,Molitre and
of using historical precedents might be con- Jean-Jacques Roussea~.~~ I21
From the Middle Ages onwards

In France there were hitherto countless uals but also the destruction of whole quar-
examples of ignorance, effacement of the ters. This was, in a sense,an effort to annihi-
traces of former periods,harmful attitudes in late the nation’s past and indeed during the
the name of beautification, and the oppor- ten years of revolution more buildings were
tunistic use of old monuments for their destroyed than in zoo years of Renaissance
material value. The disturbing influence of and Baroque architectural practice. During
industrializationalso arrived at the end of the the process of the eradication of feudal rule,
eighteenth century.73 royalty and the Catholic Church,a countless
number of palaces, castles, churches,monas-
teries and statues were destroyed.79Artists,
T H E R E P U B L I C A N D DESTRUCTION seen as part of the intellectual&lite,were mal-
treated out of revolutionaryzeal.The French
The political and social upheaval caused by artists in Rome stayed there, while those in
the French Revolution of 1789 and the ensu- Paris either left the town for the provinces or
ing declaration of the Republic affected the emigrated.80
attitude to historic monuments. Though a Despite its negative aspects, however,the
revolutionary decree of 1792,aimed at eras- Revolution brought about a fresh approach
ing all traces of despotic and feudal rule,74 to historic monuments as well as to archi-
was instrumental in the destruction of many tecture and planning. The freedom and re-
historic buildings reminiscent of that period, sponsibility attributed to individuals in the
the same administration created the first new social order was reflected in their activ-
body for the conservation of historic monu- ities. Plans to create an architecture receptive
ments.75 The forces behind such contradic- to the new ideas of political, social and
tory actions are worthy of analysis. economic freedom were attempted though
One zealous action was the change in the not brought to completion.81 References to
calendar in order to eradicate Christian in- models from Greek and Roman civilization
fluence. The republican calendar,76 which in the French Revolution are obvious since
was used from 1792 to 1806,started with the any ruler, whether he were King, Prince or
declaration of the Republic in 1792; the President,wanted to strengthen his image by
names of the months and days were changed, using symbols from the past. The revo-
the year was divided into twelve months of lutionaries felt the same need and protected
thirty days each, and four newly named ancient monuments as symbols of prestige.
seasons. Place-names inspired either by the Between 1792 and 1799, some deputies
saints or royalty were altered, and streets, tried to control the excessive and blind de-
squares, religious and non-religious monu- structiveness by proposing new legislation.
ments were renamed to evoke republican Some positive decisions were taken, but
concepts such as equality,brotherhood and were never effectively implemented.One of
justice.77 The change in names facilitated them specified that in the name of the people,
the destruction of buildings and monu- the new administration would claim owner-
ments, which became more vulnerable ship of the property belonging to the King
when stripped of their identity. Modifica- and the aristocracy and thus protect it. In
tion became such an obsession that even the 1791,legislation was enacted to form a Na-
figures on playing cards were replaced by tional Education Committee for the preserva-
new ones.78 tion of monuments.82In 1792 another deci-
Furthermore, revolutionary zeal caused sion supplemented it, imposing a term of im-
It2 not only the deaths of reactionary individ- prisonment of up to two years for those
 France:centralized organization

damaging works of art thzt were considered A n interesting point is that the Com-
national property.At the same time all offi- mission used a Greek example to promote
cial organizations were asked to take mea- enthusiasm for the conservation of monu-
sures to protect the patrimony of historic and ments. Demetrius Poliorcetes’ famous de-
artistic value. In the same year, discrimi- claration, ‘I waged war against the Tyrants,
nation against monuments was abolished but the arts, sciences and letters have never
when even monuments bearing titles of claimed m y support in vain’,85was quoted in
the aristocracy were declared worthy of a decision taken in 1794.Although the re-
conservation. sponse is dubious, members of the Com-
When the Commission des Monuments mission were trying to be worthy of their
became unable to operate owing to its bur- ancestors. This and other isolated examples
eaucratic structure, another was formed show that the contemporary Roman attitude
on a temporary basis, the Commission Tem- to conservation of antiquities had influenced
poraire des Arts,but it, too,was ineffective the revolutionaries.
for the same reason.83 The Commission es- Although few in number, individual de-
tablished a set of principles regarding the fenders of monuments were nevertheless in-
conservation and documentation of all ob- fluential.During the first year of the Revo-
jects useful for education,science and art.84 lution,the archaeologist Aubin-LouisMillin
The aim was to establish a national network (I 739-1 8 I 8) submitted his work, Monuments
of advisers composed of writers and scien- historips nationaux to the Assembly, thus in-
tists. The Commission would then transfer troducing the term into the language.86The
certain movable works of art to national col- 1793 law on the punishment of mutilators of
lections and leave others in their places to be ancient monuments is attributed to the im-
conserved and maintained there. passioned plea of Joseph Lakanal.87 In the
Manuscripts, books, maps, graphic arts, same year the mathematician R o m m e joined
documents of all kinds,antique and medieval Lakanal in accusing vandals of what he called
objets dart, paintings and drawings and their anti-revolutionaryaction.
other artefacts would be documented,classi- Henri Grtgoire (I 75 0- I 8 3 1),88 a clergy-
fied and then gathered into collections, man known for defending black slaves and
museums, libraries and archives for whose Jews against persecution,also provides valu-
establishment provision was also made. But able information on instances of destruction
the system was oversimplified and did not ofmonuments in his there reports submitted
lead to the desired results since local commit- to the Assembly in 1794.H e popularized the
tees lacked the necessary knowledge to make term ‘vandalisme’,~9 still used in this regard.
a judicious selection. In addition,the Com- In his first report, he concentrates on the
mission had no financial resources, and its destruction of books and paintings. The se-
members were not paid. The undertaking cond and third reports mainly deal with the
became dependent on goodwill and chance demolition of 0ljet.r dart and buildings, re-
when all kinds of organizations,including garding this attitude as harmful to the aims
the military, were asked to contribute of the Revolution.H e claims that ‘barbarians
their time. The experience of the Commis- and slaves hate science and art, whereas free
sion shows that activities depending on people respect them’.90 Grtgoire showed
the spontaneous enthusiasm of individuals that the preservation of monuments should
prove to be ineffective and inconsistent be made a part of public education and that
since the work demands specialized knowl- newspapers should devote space to the
edge and sound judgement. sciences and the arts. H e tried to awaken
From the Middle Ages onwards

national pride by accusing the French of lack parts of Europe,be returned to Rome. This
of interest compared with the Italians’con- attitude resulted soon afterwards in the resti-
cern for their monuments.91 The establish- tution to Rome of Canova’sworks.95Others
ment of a nationalistic basis for conservation were to follow.96
was a contribution of this period. The fact that religious buildings all over
From the first years of the Revolution, France were transformed into museums had
Frenchmen of all backgrounds and religions helped in the protection of the works of art
donated 0bet.r dart, gold and silver and they contained.JManysuch works collected
ethnographic materia1.92In the meantime,ob- in Paris were kept in nine large warehouses,
jetr dart already declared public property the most famous of which was the Petits
were being assembled. The terms ‘public Augustins.97 After 1791, under the adminis-
museum’ and ‘national monument’ were tration of Alexandre Lenoir,a pioneering ex-
popularized. Throughout France museums hibition of over 1,000 pieces of medieval
were opened to display nationalized works art produced between the thirteenth and the
of art. In many instances churches and sixteenth centuries was displayed there.98
religious buildings were used for this pur- This museum not only attracted large
pose. The most noteworthy achievement of crowds,but also became a study and research
the Republic of 1792 was the establishment centre where artistic and nationalistic feel-
of two museums, the MusCe National du ings merged. Lenoir prepared an excellent
Louvre and the MusCe des Monuments catalogue of the collection as he established
Franqais. a precedent for many such museums to be
The Louvre, opened in 1793 under the formed in other parts of France.99However,
name ‘The Republican Museum’, was the the repair of objects to be displayed turned
culmination of an idea dating back to the mid- out to be quite disastrous.Any aristocratic
eighteenth century.It contained works of art symbols were effaced and missing parts of
taken from churches,convents,palaces and some were made up with parts of others.
castles and was later enriched by works of art Certain principles adopted in this period
brought back from invasions of Italy and set standards for other European countries
Holland.In 1794 the National Committee on as well as for successive French administra-
Public Education asked the Assembly to re- tions.These measures can be summarized as
cruit art experts to assess and arrange the the recognition of the responsibility of the
transport of works of art from the countries central government for the protection of na-
invaded by the French forces.93 tional monuments;’oO the abolition of the
This action was, at best, controversial. discrimination of certain periods of art over
The majority were overjoyed by the idea that others; the establishment of a permanent
works of art would come into the hands organization; the extension of the signifi-
of a free people such as themselves.Another cance of monuments to include historic and
group, headed by Quatremcre de Quincy,94 educational as well as aesthetic aspects; and
reacted against this attitude. A declaration the awareness of the importance of docu-
prepared by this second group and signed by mentation.101
many notable individuals is still a valuable For political,economic and financial rea-
document,since for the first time it refers to sons,the ten years following 1789 left certain
the significance of the environment on a gaps in the field of art. Architectural compe-
work of art. Thus Quatremcre de Quincy titions were held for projects to be realized
proposed that Raphael’s works in various later. Many plans prepared for Paris con-
museums, not only in France but in other tained projects for monuments of accepted
 France:centralized organization

national value. The noteworthy aspect of the kind in the world. In spite of the fact that
designs was that the monuments were most of these treasures were returned to their
evaluated within their context.102 rightful owners during the Allied occupation
of 1814/1j,111 the Louvre is still one of the
most important museums in the world.
THE NAPOLEONIC E R A O n the other hand, the Muste des Monu-
ments was being neglected, and considered
The last decade of the eighteenth century left merely an annexe to the Louvre.Quatremere
France in a shambles. In 1800 returning de Quincy criticized the filling of the Louvre
French refugees103 and British travellers104 with plundered foreign art, saying:
could not hide their surprise at the state in
which they found Paris. The public, weary Thank God the Colosseum, the Farnese Palace,
of anarchy, turned to Napoleon Bonaparte, the Sistine Chapel,the beautiful rooms in the Vati-
who paradoxically named himself Emperor can and the mosaics cannot be transported.If the
of the French Republic.One of his first pub- French are so eager to renew their Interest in anti-
lic acts was to return religious property to quities,why don't they search for what they have
the Church and to establish official relations in Vienne, Arks or Orange instead of ruining
with Pope Pius VI1 in 1801. H e simulta- Rome?l'2
neously succeeded in creating an atmosphere
of national unity and security. Napoleon's H e was at the head of those responsible
ambition to dominate Europe, however, for dismantling the Muste des Monuments.
dissipated any positive results that might H e maintained that the objects displayed
have been achieved.His desire for personal there were 'dead', since they had been re-
fame further influenced his priorities.Unlike moved from their environments.113
Louis XIV,who was concerned with beauty, In another way, the empire encouraged
Napoleon only desired monumentality.The the preservation of monuments and was
new streets in Paris, complying with the aware of the concepts of protecting the
classical tradition of terminating with monu- urban environment and re-establishing the
ments,were named after his successful cam- relationship with tradition. The former
paigns.105 The triumphal arches depicted Royal Academy was reopened as the Ecole
Julius Caesar next to Napoleon.106 Some des Beaux-Artswith emphasis on traditional
existing buildings were re-evaluated while architecture. The re-establishment of rela-
some others were destroyed107 as he changed tions with the Pope helped the preservation
the face of the city to promote the continuity of religious buildings.In I 8I O the documen-
of his own name.108 tation and classificationof churches and cas-
With the aim of making Paris the centre of tles started again under the direction of the
the arts in Europe,he had works of art from Ministry of the Interior with the help of local
many cities transported to his capital.109 In organizations.Alexandre de Laborde,better
his memoirs written on St Helena he main- known as soldier,diplomat and economist
tained that what was brought to the Louvre, than as an art historian, was active in this
which was renamed the Napoleon Museum, respect. His admiration for ancient monu-
was obtained legally either by purchase or by ments had developed while he was ambas-
special agreements with other nations.110The sador to Spain.Upon his return to France he
museum received countless works of art was disappointed at the lack of interest in
from Egypt, Belgium, Germany, Holland, existing buildings,especially of the medieval
Spain and Italy and became the richest of its period. Entrusted consequently with the
From the Middle Ages onwards

documentation of monuments, he prepared ment of French monuments.Louis XIV de-

the first exhaustive work on medieval art in stroyed monuments out of contempt for
France.114The publication of the catalogue FranGois I and Henri IV.Napoleon tried to
of monuments115 and the drawings carried erase all memory of Louis XIV and,after his
out by travellers to France not only attracted own death, efforts were made to annihilate
the interest of artists and historians but also traces of his term as Emperor.lZoOnly in
influenced writers,116 who contributed sig- I 830, when Louis-Philippedecided to have
nificantly to the role played during the nine- Napoleon's mausoleum constructed and the
teenth century by religion,history and poli- obelisk donated by Mehmet Ali Pasha trans-
tics in the preservation of national monu- ported from Luxor and erected in the Place
ments. Interest in the past appeared first in de la Concorde, do w e see the government
the form of historical novels.117 In Victor taking measures to recognize officially monu-
Hugo's Notre Dame de Parts the main charac- ments representing national glory, and to
ter is not a man,but a monument,a cathedral protect them.12l
reflecting the society of the day. In this The historian FranSois Guizot,122 upon
novel, objects think, feel and suffer like being made a Minister, appointed Ludovic
people. Writers and poets, by their interest Vitet as Inspector General of Historic Monu-
in history,obliged those historians who ap- ments.123 Vitet was responsible for the
parently paid only secondary attention to gradual development of all protective mea-
French history to take more active interest sures concerning monuments in France.124
in their own country's past.118 It was in fact Following his first nationwide inspection
the historian Guizot who came to lead the tour, he submitted a report in I 83 I stating
movement aimed at the discovery of, and that his first aim would be to compile a list of
pride in, the national past.119 Consequently, all the monuments within the borders of the
historians began to evaluate the remains of empire that were worthy of interest to his-
the built environment as a source for the torians, artists and archaeologists.Detailed
study of social history. descriptions of their history, their architec-
When the perverse effect of industriali- tural features and the historical events con-
zation on crafts was realized,hand-madeob- nected with them would be included.Then
jects and ethnographic material also became he would inform the authorities of the mea-
collectors' items. Catalogues and exhibi- sures necessary for their preservation.125
tions led to the development of a new field of Only when work began did all the dif-
study, later resulting in the distinction of ficulties inherent in this ambitious project
local,regional and national characteristics in become clear, especially in terms oftime and
art. Following the founding of archaeology money. The technical staff needed specialized
and art associations in northern France,the training. Surveyors had to be able to draft
French Institute of Archaeology was created plans, copy old drawings, decipher archival
in 1834.It was concerned mainly with the documents,endure travelling great distances
classification and preservation of historic on horseback or on foot and,finally,be famil-
monuments. iar with various notions of archaeology and
art history in order to prepare coherent re-
ports. The result of their work, however,
THE PERIOD O F ACTIVE RESPECT was not sophisticated documentation, but
a primitive list of monuments. The well-
The rivalry between reigning monarchs and intentioned, enthusiastic undertaking was
I 26 their predecessors had worked to the detri- destined to be a disappointment.126 It was
 France:centralized organization

only thirty-twoyears later that Vitet’s project control of excavations and finally,in 1841,
could become reality. the nationalization of monuments, were
Prosper MCrimte, who succeeded Vitet in signs of this tendency. Attempts to clarify
1834,changed the structure of the organi- and define the meaning of conservation were
zation and the system of inventory.H e pro- also encountered, as in an official statement
posed the formation of a seven-man com- of 1841:‘Public interest does not only in-
mittee, the Commission des Monuments volve material values; traditions, customs,
Historiques,127aiming at providing an even history and art also belong to the people and
distribution of financial means.First the pro- serve them.’132
vincial and then the central administrations The foremost voice of public opinion in
were asked to prepare lists of monuments in this period was that of Victor Hugo, who in
order of importance.The response was posi- addition to Notre Dame de Paris, published an
tive and lists started arriving.However,the article in I 8 3 z entitled,‘Guerreaux dtmolis-
classification system was a failure since it was seurs’ (war on wreckers), in which he ex-
based on an abstract scale of aesthetic and pressed the stronger opinions against the
historic ‘importance’.The Commission was demolition of monuments that he had de-
kept busy for years with this intricate prob- veloped during the twelve years since the
lem. Although there was unanimous agree- publication of his novel.133
ment on giving priority to significantmonu- O n the subject of ownership of monu-
ments in immediate need of repair, it was ments, Hugo stated that a monument has
difficult to determine which buildings met two aspects: its beauty,and its function;the
the requirements, while concepts of what use value may belong to its owner,but the
made a building ‘important’changed con- beauty belongs to the whole world. H e sug-
tinuously.128O n the other hand,public pres- gested that private ownership of ancient
sure for the allocation of repair funds was monuments be restricted and public rights
another complicating factor.In spite of the recognized.
fact that in presenting the 1833 budget the Montalembert was one of the first to sug-
administrators mentioned their primary in- gest that legal steps be taken if the upkeep
terest in ‘the Gothic monuments and the and repair of monuments were not ade-
beautiful churches of the Middle Ages,these quately carried out by private owners.In an
precious souvenirs of Old France to which article entitled ‘Du vandalisme en France,
time brings some new destruction every lettre k M.Victor Hugo’,published a year
day’,129part of the budget was spent on the after Victor Hugo’sarticle, he describes mis-
repair of the Roman ruins at Orange,Nimes fortunes that had befallen ancient monu-
and Arles. In another document,dated 1873, ments in France over the previous fifteen
no mention whatsoever is made of historical years.134Such open discussions helped to ac-
value,though it is difficult to distinguish his- celerate legislation on the preservation of
tory from art and attempt to evaluate the monuments,which had by now become con-
latter without reference to history.130A con- crete symbols of the nation’shonour and cul-
sequence of this attitude was the priority tural development.
given to buildings with effective visual
characteristics.
The period after I 830 nevertheless marked D E S T R U C T I O N IN T H E N A M E O F R E P A I R
the beginning of serious efforts at the pre-
servation of monuments and their environ- One of two prominent aspects of the devel-
ment.131 The prevention of destruction,the opment of increased public interest in his-
From the Middle Ages onwards

toric buildings was the tendency to isolate bas-reliefsfrom the fasade to achieve symme-
them by means of urban planning;135 the try and added others dating from various
other was the inconsistency in repair work. periods. H e also added a new kings’gallery
The period up to the adoption of some of to the building.140 His work weakened the
the general principles laid down by Viollet- structure instead of reinforcing it. In 1837,
le-Ducis called the ‘apprenticeship period’, the steeple of the north tower was struck by
and it entailed high costs in terms of the lightning and destroyed, so he replaced it
historic buildings of France.136 with a false one, which, because of its un-
Apart from exterior renovations during usual weight,put the whole tower in danger
the time of Louis XIV,medieval buildings in of collapsing.It was decided in 1846 to re-
France had never been the subject of consis- move the addition.But,instead of removing
tent repair work.In addition to monuments the part he had added, Debret pulled down
of Antiquity, which had received constant the whole tower.Only then,and as a result
attention, and small objects which were of the ensuing publicity, was he forced to
repaired and completed, monuments of the resign.
medieval and Renaissance periods were now MCrimCe tried to take advantage of the
taken up by the Commission’s architects. case of Saint-Denis to promote his own
However, interventions were not always views against such ‘restoration’of historic
beneficial and archaeologists as well as in- buildings, but he was not successful.141Yet
spectors of monuments frequently protested another issue that troubled MirimCe was the
against them. development of such cases as medieval build-
In a letter written in 1834, Prosper ings divided into two or pulled down,gates
Mtrimte137 declared that restorers were per- widened, castles demolished and historic
haps as dangerous as demolishers.In another cemeteries disturbed to make way for new
letter written the same year,he stated that the roads and railways.H e was only informed of
repair of medieval buildings showed enough these after the destruction had already taken
bad taste to compare with the vandalism in- place.142 Archaeologist Didron voiced his
flicted by revolution and internal strife. H e protest by saying: ‘Engineers seem to take
added that those who had wanted to erase pleasure in laying their roads over the dead
memories of the past had only destroyed bodies of our monuments.’The military also
statues, whereas restorers changed the total disfigured historic buildings allocated to
appearance of buildings. their use by filling in windows, whitewash-
A typical example illustrating the reasons ing walls, subdividinglarge rooms,and add-
for such reaction is the Cathedral of Saint- ing new floors.The Commission also fought
Denis. Under Napoleon, restoration work against the transportation of monuments
had started on the foundations and roof of that stood in the way of new road schemes.
the building.138 However, the fabric was Sometimes compromises were reached for
weakened when the piers were shaved to in- military reasons;at other times streets were
sert new bases. The first cracks observed on laid around monuments, or the latter were
the arches were simply filled in. In 1813 enclosed in parks.143 One solution adopted
Fransois Debret was appointed architect to was to demolish only those buildings on one
Saint-Denisand remained at this post until side of a street to be widened.This approach,
I ~ 6 . 1 3H
i
~s activities there were, however, as well as being economical,allowed at least
widely criticized. In order to clean the some buildings to be saved from destruction.
faqade, he had about a centimetre of the It was eventually to be abolished in favour of
1.28 stone surface scraped off. H e removed some a strict geometrical layout and straight streets.
 France:centralized organization

In spite of these difficulties,Mtrimte made on architecturewas inevitable.The architect

an unwieldy organization with poorly de- J. F.Dulson (1797-1870), who was praised
fined responsibilities operate.H e also estab- for his restoration work at the Louvre,i48
lished criteria for restoration which are still also modified the former school of art and
being discussed today. According to his architecture to convert it into the Ecole des
principles, a monument was considered a Beaux-Arts.H e connected existing build-
whole, and conservation meant complying ings and decorated the main courtyard with
with the existing structure. Any additions pieces of national architecture brought from
had to be made in accordance with existing the Musee des Monuments Fransais.
documentation. Where this did not exist, Victor Hugo,who had been a promoter of
similar features from other monuments in national awareness in students of art and ar-
the vicinity and of the same period could be chitecture,wrote:
reproduced.These precepts were to inspire Whatever the future of architecture,no matter
Viollet-le-Duc, who worked under Mtrimte, how our young architects resolve the problenis of
and led to the concept of ‘unityof style’. their art one day, let us protect old monuments
In 1841,Mtrimte demanded that all repair while awaiting new monuments.If possible,let us
work be preceded by a careful survey of the inspire in the nation the love of the nation’s
building,including the documentation of de- architecture.149
corative features.Private buildings left to the Architects were expected to produce designs
mercy of their owners would be treated in
referring to various historical precedents and
the same way.144Mtrimte was concerned not this was considered not as a lack of creativity
only with individual monuments, but also
on the part of the architect, but rather as a
with their environment.H e considered the desired outcome of sound education. The
natural setting, the spatial aspects and classical education of former times was re-
the general layout of a site when fighting placed by the study of national monuments
destruction.145 in the curriculum,which now included tech-
nical courses on the maintenance and repair
NATIONAL MONUMENTS AND of historic monuments. Successful students
EDUCATION were then dispatched all over France to take
care of ancient buildings. This was perhaps
At the beginning of the nineteenth century the basis of the Academy’s influential attitude
and especially after the reign of Louis-
towards conservation which has continued
Philippe,national history gained importance to this day. It may also account for the con-
in the French education system.l46 After the servative approach leading to the concept of
incorporation of the Committee of Arts and
‘unityof style’ in restoration.The contribu-
Monuments in the Academy of Fine Arts in
tion of close ties between education and prac-
1837,the Academy itself began to take an tice is an undeniable factor in the effective
interest in the nation’shistory.The inclusion concern for and conscious evaluation of his-
ofmembers of the Academy in the Committee
toric monuments in France since the nine-
of Historic Buildings,created the same year,
teenth century.
reinforced this involvement.
At a time when the concept of history
was based on an objective account of the
P U B L I C CONS CIO U SN E S S
past through critical research into sound
sources,147 and Guizot was emphasizing na- At the beginning of the nineteenth century,
tionalism in history,the influence of history France witnessed the positive contribution
From the Middle Ages onwards

of individuals who supported public organi- support of individuals and private organiza-
zations responsible for historic buildings or, tions.Developmentsin France,together with
at least, directed their attention to certain the reflection of this attitude in education,
aspects of the problem. The development became highly influential throughout Eu-
of archaeology into a field of knowledge rope.However,the Revolutionof I 848,which
beyond personal interest was also a posi- brought power to the working class, proved
tive force in the conservation of monuments. to be a temporary setback.A turning point in
The number of archaeological associations the political and cultural life of nineteenth-
was on the upswing.1so The archaeologist century Europe,this also influenced modern
Arcisse de Caumont aroused public interest town planning.
with his nationwide lectures and learned T w o representatives of these develop-
meetings. In 1834 he founded the Socittt ments as well as those of succeeding years in
FranGaise d’Archtologie pour la Conserva- architecture,town planning and the conser-
tion et la Description des Monuments His- vation of the historical environment were
toriques.Its Balletin monumental proved to be Eugtne Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc (I 814-
a most valuable publication for the period.151 79)’55 and Georges Eugtne Haussmann
The Congrts Archtologique de France in- (1809-91). The former was a disciple of
creased public awareness of monuments Prosper Mtrimte and, with his strong per-
through annual conferences in various parts sonality,his writings and drawings as well as
of the country.The interest activated among his executed projects, he left his imprint on
the French aristocracy was especially gratify- the history of French monuments,The latter
ing,since it aroused their concern for history tried to rebuild Paris into what he envisaged
and historic monuments.152 D e Caumont’s as the first large city to comply with the
desire to spread the idea of conservation to emerging values of the Industrial Age.
all levels of society was thus realized.In I 839 Viollet-le-Duc,who came to be identified
he established the Instituts de Province with with the emerging consciousness of the his-
this aim. The nationwide network of corre- torical environmentin France,has been both
spondents reported the condition of monu- praised and severely criticized.156In his per-
ments to the Archaeological Association. D e sonality,an impeccable logic and analytical
Caumont also formed local organizations power clashed with a nostalgic sentimen-
concerned with regional history and small tality. H e had no difficulty in pursuing several
works of art.153 This scheme, financed par- professions: he was at once architect, en-
tially by the government, partially by local gineer, art historian, educator, geologist,
contributions,proved successful.Yet in the ethnographer and critic. In architecture and
beginning, there were frequent disputes be- restoration, where he fully professed his
tween the organizations and the central gov- creativity, he is known mainly for his in-
ernment,which later grew less.154 fluentialtheories.
Viollet-le-Ducbegan teaching at an early
age, and opposed the mentality of the &ole
EUGBNE E M M A N U E L VIOLLET-LE-DUC des Beaux-Arts while still very young. H e
adopted a rationalapproach,which ran count-
The developments that followed the changes er to the eclectic Neo-Classicismprevalent in
in the administration of I 830 resulted in the French architectureafter the Renaissance,by
setting up of public institutions responsible studying medieval architecture.H e revealed
for the study of national history and the his enthusiasm by publishing prolifically on
conservation of historic buildings, with the the conservation of the architecture of this
 France:centralized organization

period when no research or publication had dieval period, although he would have re-
yet been undertaken on the subject.157 For jected being considered a historian. Neither
him the medieval was not just a superficial would he have accepted the existence of two
style,but a mode of thought in which every separate groups of architects, one involved
element was present for the flowering ofnew in creating new buildings to meet current
ideas. However,it had to be taken up not as requirements, the other in restoring old
imitation but as an inheritance.This concept ones. According to him, an architect who
demanded that medieval style and techniques understood the building methods and ma-
be studied in their minutest detail before terials of another era and identified him-
being practised. By applying this method he self with the concepts of that era could better
acquired a wealth of knowledge,transmitted understand contemporary needs and values.
in his writings which had a profound in- H e tried to establish the place of architecture
fluence on architectural thinking. H e has in social history by employing analytical
been proclaimed as the forerunner of the methods used in the natural and physical
transition from romanticism to materialism. sciences. H e evaluated a monument first
According to Viollet-le-Duc, the basis of within the context of its time and society,and
architecture was rational thinking, whereas then by defining the place of its components
relying purely on taste was a sign of igno- in the whole of the anatomy. In analysing
rance.The architect and artist alike should be buildings he used the methods devised by the
able to evaluate what pleases them,and this contemporary naturalist Cuvier to reas-
capacity derives from a profound knowledge semble the skeletons of extinct animals,start-
of works of the past. Consequently, they ing with a few bones. The influence of this
would be able to make their own synthesis, technique can specifically be observed in his
using contemporary means and material. restorationwork.159
This approach left no room for imitation Viollet-le-Duc sought to focus on the
since independent thinking, which means whole rather than on individual parts and
being aware of what no one else is aware of to create unity through objectivity and con-
and doing what no one else does,was a vital scious effort. A firm believer in ‘unity of
condition of it. style’,he maintained that every building and
The complex relationship between mat- building component must be restored or
erialism and rationalism peculiar to the completed in its one predominant style,
nineteenth century found its reflection in which was important not only from the
Viollet-le-Duc’s thinking. H e defined ra- standpoint of appearance,but also from that
tional architecture by insisting that it should of structure.
strive to accomplish specific objectives from H e insisted that this methodology be
the standpoint of economy and sufficiency.It applied specifically to medieval buildings,
should express its function in a dialectic man- which in most cases had acquired accretions
ner and illustrate clearly the purpose and the during later periods,which had to be identi-
form.Viollet-le-Duc’sfew architectural en- fied. H e attached importance to retaining
deavours are not considered significant; his documents or the remains of any phases that
buildings are bold, economical, disciplined the building went through and reports and
and eminently logical, but not attractive.158 drawings to establish its various character-
His real interest lies in his written works. istics. H e believed that incorrect restoration
Through his close association with archae- of one part could harm the character of the
ology,Viollet-le-Ducwas known as the first whole.
archaeologist-architectinterested in the me- While it would be difficult to disagree with ‘3‘
From the Middle Ages onwards

these principles,their practical application led ing. If completion of the existing is neces-
to certain problems. Viollet-le-Duchimself sary,they maintained that creativity must be
encountered such problems when documents laid aside,and buildings in the same area and
or the remains of certain phases of a building of the same period taken as models. This
did not exist,or when the function had to be modest and sensible project was carried out
changed. H is most prominent undertaking, up to the death of Lassus in 18j7. When
the restoration of the Church of Vtzelay, Viollet-le-Ducwas on his own,he could not
posed problems of all kinds when work was restrain himself from exercising his own
entrusted to him in 1840 at the age of ~6.~60 creativity and desire to contribute. After
Faulty construction,faulty repair and addi- hesitating between the existing state and the
tions, negligence as well as systematic de- state that might have been, he chose the lat-
struction had taken their toll of the basilica. ter; thus he ceased to be a protector and
H e undoubtedly succeeded in saving the became a contributor.The period after I 8j 7
monument from ruin, but a few aspects of can be identified as the second phase in
the restorationwork can be criticized. Viollet-le-Duc’scareer.164
While his reinforcement work at Vtzelay The restoration of Notre D a m e con-
is still considered successful,Viollet-le-Duc tinued until I 864. Viollet-le-Ducreplaced
sought to provide the building with ‘unityof the thirteenth-century windows with those
style’.161After a thorough examination to de- he designed on twelfth-century examples.
fine the structure, he discarded Gothic ad- Although he was unable to execute the de-
ditions and retained the Romanesque ele- sign for the part of the fagade between the
ments while completing the missing portions two front towers,he made additions to the
in the latter style. Moreover, he also trans- central transept. H e placed statues there
formed areas not in need of repair into the taken from the west fagade of Bordeaux
Romanesque style, for example the main Cathedral while eliminating decorations of
entrance.162 The details on pediments and the classical period. Paintings and tapestries
the sculptures were copies.H e saw no harm of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
in using paint in order to give an impression were also removed.Clerical opposition pre-
of the original alternating colour scheme of vented him from making other changes.
the stones on the side arches of the main hall. Meanwhile,Viollet-le-Ducundertook many
These are some of the details which have other restoration projects, including, from
been severely criticized.163 1846to 1867,that of the Cathedral of Saint-
As work at Vtzelay was going on,the at- Denis,l65 which was endangered by the
tention of the public and the administrators eccentricities of Debret. H e began by
was attracted to the Cathedral of Notre Dame, strengthening the piers and vaults, but once
since Victor Hugo’srenowned book had just again he allowed his imagination to carry
been published.In I 843 a project jointly pre- him away. H e designed two towers of equal
sented by Viollet-le-Ducand Lassus won a height, which, however, were never built.
competition for the restoration of the cathe- Nevertheless, he completed the statues on
dral. The main aim of their project was the the main entrance by taking examples from
strengthening of the fabric of the building Chartres Cathedral,and carved new capitals
as against total renovation.They even pro- for the columns.
posed leaving it in a ruinous state rather than Certain principles of repair considered haz-
that it should undergo a faulty restoration. ardous today were opposed even at the time,
They considered it essential to respect the but Viollet-le-Duccarried on his work,rely-
material, form and proportions of the build- ing on his profound knowledge and credi-
 France:centralized organization

Plate 17.
'33
A watercolour drawing by Viollet-le-Ducof the east faagade of the Church of St Madeleme at Vkzelay, France.
[Photo:0Arch. Phot. Paris/SPADEM.]
Plate 18
The Chateau de Pierrefonds,France, before restora-
tion. [Photo: 0Arch. Phot.Paris/SPADEM.]

Plate 19.
The project designed and applied by Viollet-le-Duc
for the Chateau de Pierrefonds in 1865.[Photo: 0
Arch.Phot.Paris/SPADEM.]
 Frame:centralized organization

bility. Above all, he wanted to eradicate all temporary concepts of historic buildings and
traces of the eighteenth century.T o this end, the different methods of intervention. Dis-
the ornate iron doors of the Cathedrals of cussion on restoration had not yet begun and
Sens and Troyes were replaced and the altar- Viollet-le-Ducstood out with his knowledge
piece of Sainte-Croix in Bordeaux was re- and experience in the field. H e was even
moved. H e went beyond repairs to include spared any critical comment, whether cons-
alterations and completions.Meanwhile,fol- tructive or negative,on his work,which left
lowing the example of Saint-Denis,spires him free to do whatever he desired. H e was
were erected on many churches.166 understandably captivated by drawing re-
T w o secular buildings that Viollet-le-Duc constructions of what he believed to be the
worked on reflect two stages in the develop- original state of buildings even when there
ment of his views. The first is a manifesta- was not sufficient documentary evidence to
tion of his theoretical concepts;the second, support them, and lack of criticism only
after I 8 > 0, is a further development of these made it easier for him to carry out what had
concepts through his practical experience. actually been put on paper.
The city walls of Carcassonne exemplify Such examples, which are the objects
the former stage,where an attempt was made of severe criticism today, make us ignore
to create an atmosphere of the desired past Viollet-le-Duc’s pioneering work in the field
with modest additions.167 The latter stage of restoration. H e also deserves credit for
finds its expression in the restoration of the the continuing existence of many medieval
Castle of Pierrefonds which Viollet-le-Duc buildings in France.169His understanding of
undertook under the orders of Napoleon 111. historic monuments and his efforts to save
Here, a merging of the present with the past them distinguished him from his contempo-
was desired to accommodate the imperial raries. He was also influential through his
feasts and hunting parties in the medieval studies on structure and craftsmanship.H is
castle. The restoration of a part thus turned books were translated into several languages,
into a reconstruction168 and Pierrefonds spreading his views beyond the boundaries
became a victim of double vandalism- of France to influence the Chicago School in
destruction and restoration. the United States,as well as Gaudi in Spain.
The lenient approach of Viollet-le-Ducin The period between 18>4and 1879,dur-
his later years manifests itself in his work on ing which Viollet-le-Ducreplaced Prosper
the Cathedral of Lausanne,the town where Mkrimke, was one of intense activity on the
he chose to spend the last years of his life part of the Commission des Monuments His-
(1873-79). The octagonal tower with its toriques.Architects in the provinces,follow-
pyramidal roof was in danger of collapse and ing the example of Viollet-le-Duc,restored
his arrival was considered a solution to the many rnonuments.170 Although Viollet-le-
precarious state of the building. However, Duc’s influence was not always positive, a
Viollet-le-Ducdid not hesitate to demolish strong mechanism of criticism and public
the whole tower. Moreover, he added de- awareness ultimately developed.171
coration to the roof which had never existed.
The residents of the city were certainly not
satisfied with the results of his work and a
Swiss architect consequently set out to ‘de-
restore’the building. Baron Georges-EugeneHaussmann,173 born
It should be borne in mind that this was in 1801 of a family of German immigrants,
merely the period of development of con- illustrates the widespread effect of an influen-
From the Middle Ages onwards

PLah 20
The east fagade of the Basilica of Saint-Denisin
1843.[Photo:0Arch. Phot.Paris/SPADEM.]
 France:centralized organization

Plate ZI

The east fagade of the Basilica of Saint-Denis,

late nineteenth century. [Photo: 0Arch. Phot. '37
Paris/SPADEM.]
From the Middle Ages onwards

Plate 22.
View from the east of the fortificationsof
Carcassonne,France,in 18jI. [Photo:0Arch. Phot.
Paris/SPADEM.]

Plate 23
View from the east of the fortifications of
Carcassonne as they are today. [Photo: 0Arch. Phot.
Paris/SPADEM.]
 France:centralized organization

tial person on historic buildings and settle- successful financial system to execute his
ments with his work in Paris between 181 3 plan;without raising taxes he made judicious
and I 870.174 Large-scalecity planning began use of the increased value of urban land in
in the second half of the nineteenth cenury in areas where his projects were implemented.
Europe.175 Such activity was motivated by H e also co-ordinatedall administrativeorga-
the idealistic approach of planners affected by nizations concerned with construction.184
the revolutions as well as the desire of con- Haussmann preferred to work with engi-
servatives to attain political stability in the neers,and excluded architects from his team,
changing society of the age of industrializa- declaring that they were unable to work on
tion.176 Haussmann,a conservative,disagreed more than one building at a time and could
with Viollet-le-Duc on many issues and never think in broader terms.185 H e also con-
succeeded in keeping his work apart from sidered buildings as mere elements to e m -
political currents although he accepted the bellish a city.
patronage of Napoleon 111.177 H is person- Haussmann started by clearing areas where
ality and administrative capacity, however, street demonstrationswere wont to take place
allowed him also to defend his work on and demolished some joo buildings in the
political grounds.178 Rue de Rivoli. His desire to construct
The credit for the planning of Paris must straight streets was not hampered by respect
not go to Haussmann alone.Some work was for ancient monuments.Even the fagades or
begun before him; Napoleon I11 himself, apses of churches standing in the way were
well-versedin the subject,’?’believed that in razed.The fagade of one church was disman-
the city of the future ‘no longer will one tled completely and rebuilt in front of the
house be built at a time .. . but the whole will Cluny Museum; other churches were de-
be begun on the same day and shall be fin- stroyed,with only their towers left standing.
ished at the same time’.l80 Haussmann was severely criticized for his
After the cholera epidemics of 1 8 5 2 and clearing activity around the Cathedral of
1849, Haussmann and Napoleon I11 were Notre D a m e on the ile de la Citt.186 Even
more concerned with public health and Montalembert’s impassioned plea that ‘Our
clean air than with the embellishment of the cathedrals were not built for the desert as the
city. They were also intent on reflecting pyramids in Egypt, but to soar over the
Napoleon’s power in his capital city, but dense habitations and the narrow streets of
Haussmann never tried to hide this aim.181 our city’ did not stop him. Later another
The first step was to eliminate the danger writer stated: ‘The old monuments still
of public demonstrations and riots in the standing no longer express anything because
streets,1*2 and to clear spaces for imperial everything has been changed around them.
ceremonies.Hygiene considerations,as well Notre D a m e and the Tour Saint-Jacquesare
as the fact that the population of Paris had no different from an obelisk.’187Yet Hauss-
doubled during the first half of the nine- mann also took the opposite stand, as if to
teenth century,lent support to the pIan.183 restore balance,’BB when he built the Palace
Among other things,the establishment of a of Justice within the medieval walls. In the
transportation network to link the railway same area, existing buildings around the
stations with the city centre,thus providing Sainte Chapelle were re-evaluatedin the new
access from all the provinces of France to the scheme.
capital,was needed. Haussmann’s wide-ranging plan, which
Haussmann transformed Paris into a me- provided order and gave breathing space
tropolis of the industrial age by devising a and green areas to the city, was widely ac- ‘39
From the Middle Ages onwards

claimed.189O n the other hand,the clearing of sized the spontaneous development of settle-
whole areas in the process was highly con- ments and the organic liaison of streets and
troversial.But Haussmann was not alone in squares in medieval and Renaissance cities.
his endeavour to evaluate monuments indi- By stating that four walls do not make a
viduaIly,190 since the same attitude prevailed room,he pointed out the importance of form
when the Louvre, which was built on me- and how it is equipped to develop the neces-
dieval fortifications,was connected to the sary identification of human beings with ar-
Palais des Tuileries with a gallery built along chitecture.197H e also considered the cities of
the Seine, much as the Vatican Palace was the future and contemporary spatial patterns.
connected to the Castel Sant’ Angelo in H e maintained,however,his strong commit-
Rome.191 The project, which had been con- ment to organic growth rather than to dras-
sidered for 300 years, meant that the area tic change.Although modern transportation
between the two complexes had to be and other public services should be taken
cleared.192 Similarly, the planning of the into consideration, this should not mean
Place de I’Etoile,started under Napoleon I, total negligence or destruction of existing
was completed by encircling the Arc de aesthetic values.198
Triomphe with buildings. The evaluation Sitte has been criticized because of his
of monuments as single entities was a excessive admiration for the past and for
nineteenth-century attitude whicb found its aesthetic values to the detriment of the
place in the teachings of the Ecole des Beaux- solution of contemporary practical prob-
Arts and was applied all over France;l93not lems.199 His contribution to the recognition
surprisingly,this attitude prevailed until Le of existing values in the environment,how-
Corbusier.It soon ,spread to other countries ever, had a positive influence on modern
as well.194 town planning.

CAMILLO SITTE T H E CONTROVERSIAL E N D O F T H E

NINETEENTH CENTURY
Haussmann’s Paris set the style for other
European cities of the industrial age. Long, The period between the end of the Second
wide streets,lined with rows of similar build- Empire,marked by the Franco-PrussianWar
ings, became the prototype which was ap- of 1870 and the ensuing civil war which
plied even to old city centres.195 The Vien- resulted in the Third Republic, and the be-
nese Camillo Sitte (1843-1903) was a strong ginning of the First World W a r in 1914, is
opponent of Haussmann’s example as being considered to be full of conflicts.T o the des-
inhuman in scale, monotonous and artificial, truction of existing buildings resulting from
as well as demanding much destruction.His the application of Haussmann’s ideas were
significant contribution to town planning added the consequences of the separation of
was contained in his reference to historical Church and State in 190j.
precedents. The nationalization of church property re-
In I 889, Sitte published a book196 in which sulted in the neglect of some monuments
he cited his views and his reactions to Hauss- that were abandoned.200Meanwhile,the use
mann. By using Roman, medieval and Re- of religious buildings as museums became
naissance cities as examples,he endeavoured widespread. Other cases of inappropriate
to establish a connection between settle- re-use,such as army barracks and prisons,
‘40 ments and individual buildings. H e empha- proved to be destructive to the historic
 France:centralized organization

building stock.201 Although many monu- illustrated monthly journal to present the
ments in France were saved by Viollet-le- monuments of France to tourists which is
Duc and his followers,the practice of restor- still a valuable source,210 and in 1904 it
ing a monument to its former state no longer formed a committee for historic monuments
found favour.202Even if such restorationwas and settlements. Eventually, it began pur-
based on detailed research, some of the work chasing historic buildings with the aim of
relied on hypothesis, which was rejected by preserving them.211 Nationwide interest was
the critics.203 on the rise and the wealthy contributed to
the conservation effort by purchasing ancient
monuments and buildings.212
PUBLIC OPINION A N D CHARITY
ORGANIZATIONS
E D U C A T I O N A N D T H E COMMISSION DES
M O N U M E N T S HISTORIQUES
With newly developing concepts, the gap
between architect-restorers and archaeolo- By the end of the nineteenth century,another
gists was narrowing.The national and local influential force-architectural education-
societies of art and archaeology founded at had also acquired a controversial aspect.The
the turn of the century were making them- conflict between classicists and proponents
selvesheard more and more.204One organiza- of the French Gothic had gained consider-
tion based in Paris, the Sociktk des Amis des able momentum.
Monuments Parisiens,became active in 1884 The 6cole des Beaux-Arts was closely
with the motto, ‘Notrestoration but main- linked with the evaluation and conservation
tenance’.It not only issued bulletins but also of monuments through its former students as
published a valuable book on the monu- members in committees.Despite certain ad-
ments of Paris. The Commission du Vieux ditions to its curriculum,however, discon-
Paris,established in 1897,on the other hand, tent with the Ecole’s heavy classical orienta-
kept a close check on city planners through tion was strong.In his youth,Viollet-le-Duc
its work and criticism.205 A result of this had protested against the students of the
medium of discussion and criticism was the Ecole,‘dressedlike Romans and Greeks’,and
development of the concept .of restoration against its system of education.213The main
towards a recognition of the validity of all point of his attack was the fact that those
past interventions in a building as part of its ‘who have opened their eyes in Genoa and
history to be conserved.206 Florence returned home with their files full
Another model organization,not directly of drawings,and started work without hav-
linked with the field,played an important role ing set foot in a single building of their own
in reflecting the British influence207 which country’.214A further deficiency was the lack
had already inspired Napoleon I11 and spread of coherence between courses on the history
the views of Ruskin.208 This organization of architecture,sculpture and art,and finally,
was the Touring Club de France,209 whose the absence of courses on structure.215
aim was to co-ordinatethe rapidly develop- Viollet-le-Duchad at one time been ap-
ing tourism in the country.With no scientific pointed to the &ole des Beaux-Arts,yet he
pretensions,the club evaluated astutely the was able to deliver only three lectures
relationship between tourism, archaeology because of antagonism to his course. At-
and public opinion, and sided with those tempts were later made to incorporate
opposing the abuse of the historic heri- courses in Gothic architecture into the pro-
tage.In 1900,it started to publish a sparsely gramme, but since Gothic was identified 74’
From the Middle Ages onwards

with national architecture, these courses, sponsible for the inclusion on previous
too, were not well received. Eventually it lists of many structuresof dubious merit. By
became necessary to widen the programme giving the state the power of control,the law
to include Renaissance architecture.It was respected the spirit of centralization,but in-
finally understood that each period deserved evitably created discord between those who
recognition but not imitation. A compro- had the power to supervise while remaining
mise was thus reached between the defenders at the centre, and those who were actually
of Classicism and those of ‘unityof style’in responsible for executing the work, such as
Gothic. Practitioners as much as theorists local administrators, associations and ex-
contributed to this rational turn of events. perts. As distrust for local craftsmen on the
The Commission des Monuments Histori- part of the administrators grew,the idea of
ques experienced a period of crisis with the giving restorationwork to specialized archi-
departure of Viollet-le-Duc,having already tects emerged. This was discussed at the
lost the forceful personalities of Mttrimte and meeting of the InternationalUnion of Archi-
Vitet.216 The dependence of the organization tects in Madrid in 1904.According to a deci-
on individuals raises doubts as to the ade- sion taken at this meeting,220restoration and
quacy of its structure.However,the period maintenance were to be entrusted only to
after 1837 was also a formative one that architects either holding diplomas issued by
helped the Commission to define its goals the state or those under the supervision of
and responsibilities.In 1879 it was reorga- the state departments of technology, art or
nized, its membership was increased, its archaeology. The training of technical per-
authority was defined and its field of in- sonnel for maintenance and restoration was
fluence was expanded.217It became necessary first mooted by Viollet-le-Ducand had ever
to accelerate the preparation of new legisla- since concerned officials and forced changes
tion on which work had been continuing in the curriculum of the Ecole des Beaux-
since 1871. With this law,the Commission Arts.One of Viollet-le-Duc’s students,Ana-
would acquire the power to supervise work tole de Baudot,was responsible for the final
on historic buildings.Opposition was fierce, and successful solution.
however, especially from local administra- One of Viollet-le-Duc’sendeavours had
tors who were anxious to preserve their own been to found a museum of sculpture that
rights and privileges.Thus,the law prepared would allow comparative study,in order to
by Edmund Rousse, in close co-operation illustrate the progression of art throughout
with the Commission,was much transformed history. This was realized when the Muste
when it was passed on 3 0 March 1 8 8 7 . ~ ~ ~ des Monuments FranGais was established at
The law restricted private ownership in the Trocadero Palace in 1882. The museum,
the name of public interest;it established a which contained nearly 7,000 architectural
tight bureaucratic system by defining the pieces varying in length from 30 centimetres
duties of its administrativebranches and thus to 14 metres, was an ideal place for training
created an effective legal mechanism for the architects in restoration.As a matter of fact,
conservation of historic monuments.2’9 It it was here that Baudot presented his pro-
was soon adopted by other countries.Certain gramme of education for restoration in
aspects of it were open to criticism, such as 1887.221The institution acquired the status of
the power accorded to the Minister of Educa- an accredited school with the contribution of
tion to classify and expropriate monuments. the Ecole des Beaux-Artsand the Instituteof
O n the other hand,it succeeded in eliminat- City Planning. Courses on history, archae-
ing the power of local administrators, re- ology,law and techniques were included in
 France:centralized organization

the curriculum.Graduates were required to Since not only small objects but whole
acquire practical experience before taking an buildings,such as the Abbaye de Marciac and
examination,after which they would be eli- the King’s House at Abbeville which were
gible to enter the Department of Historic dismantled and transported to the United
Monuments.In this way the Commission ob- States to be reconstructed there,228 were re-
tained the staff it needed to intervene in moved from France,public opinion began to
buildings along its own lines. oppose the export of works of art. Strongly
Baudot himself applied his own teachings. worded articles appeared in the press.
H e was the first to use reinforced concrete in Such pressure forced a revision of the law
restoration work.222Due to this new material, of 1887, and a new law was enacted on 3 1
he eliminated the need for dismantling and December 1913z29 which filled the gaps left
rebuilding monuments.H e was also influen- by the former.This new legislation facilitated
tial in replacing the dominant principle of the listing of private and religious monu-
‘unityof style’with respect for each element ments by the use of the term ‘publicinterest’
of a building. H e advocated the use of the rather than ‘nationalimportance’,rendered
same material in repairs as in originals,thus possible the supervisionof proposed changes
concealing interventions. on classified buildings, restricted construc-
The Commission des Monuments Histori- tion in the vicinity of monuments, and se-
ques developed its views in time.The legisla- cured the right to be informed of changes of
tion of 1887 enabled the documentation and ownership. Provisions concerning the en-
classification of monuments and that of 1889 vironment of a monument were the most
further increased the powers of the Com- significant. A right of easement was estab-
mission.223 As the new legislation was put lished on buildings,private or public,within
into practice, however,its shortcomings be- sight of a monument, later to be defined as
came apparent. Measures for conservation within 5 00 metres. These surrounding build-
at archaeologicalas well as historic sites were ings could, if required, be listed or com-
insufficientsince the legislation was designed pulsorily purchased.230 Thus, the recurring
for individual monuments. Only the pre- tendency, especially in Paris, to regulate
sence of a historic monument permitted changes in the environment was finally
an intervention by the Commission.Conse- legalized.231The protection of historic build-
quently, a decree of the Ministry of Public ings and sites hitherto in the care of private
Works in 1904 demanded that settlements individuals and groups was made partially
and sites of natural beauty be protected.224A the responsibility of official organizations.
law passed in 1910 prohibited the sticking of Yet it was soon realized that a well-devised
posters on protected monuments and in their legislation and a well-organized institution
surroundings.225A special decree was pub- were not enough; financial resources were
lished for the listing of buildings of historical necessary to render them effective.A bill to
interest but not necessarily significant in create a Caisse Nationale des Monuments
terms of art history.226Thereafter,places re- Historiques (National Treasury of Historic
lated to significant personalities of French Monuments) was introduced in the Assem-
history and literature were included in the bly in 1912. This autonomous body, which
list; the houses of Victor Hugo, Balzac, La was established in 1914,232 was to super-
Fontaine and Flaubert were thus preserved. vise the budget allocated to the Ministry of
Even a building outside France,on Rhodes, Fine Arts for purchasing listed objects and
was purchased because of its connection with buildings. It was administered by a council
the Crusades.227 composed of representatives of Parliament, ‘43
From the Middle Ages onwards

the State Council, the Ministry of Finance mission advocated that thirty monuments
and prominent archaeologists and art his- beyond repair be taken off the list of classi-
torians.233All resources,including donations fied monuments while some be kept as ruins,
and investments,were freely used. witnesses to the ravages of war. The situa-
By the beginning of the twentieth century, tion, much like the aftermath of the Revo-
France was well equipped to cope with the lution, demanded immediate provisions to
new problems that the First World W a r halt further damage. But this time a more
would soon bring. This event was to in- acute awareness as well as experience and
fluence strongly the course of development new techniques were at hand. Furthermore,
in the field of conservation. the systematic destruction by the invading
armies had stimulated strong national feeling
and a desire to retrieve damaged monu-
THE T W O WORLD W A R S ments. The Department of Historic Monu-
ments was reorganized and,to achieve unity,
During the first half of the twentieth century, all restoration work was placed under the
from 1914to 1918 and from 1939 to 194j, authority of one architect.The team-workof
France suffered the effects of two wars, and restorationarchitects who had all undergone
the damage to historic monuments was the same training in history,archaeology and
great.234 Stained-glass windows, doors, construction techniques further contributed
tombs and statues were removed for safe- to the endeavour.
keeping,while some monuments were pro- The architects started work by clearing the
tected with sandbags and wooden and iron buildings, reassembling fallen pieces of ma-
casings.235But many buildings had to be left sonry and selecting those that could be reused.
to the mercy of bombs and fire. Strangely, Meanwhile,measures were taken to prevent
most of the damage was done at the begin- further collapse.After the preliminary work,
ning and at the end of the war, when the which lasted until 1922, restoration projects
country was invaded and then liberated. were begun. Within ten years almost all the
buildings on the primary list were ready for
use.238
After the First World War
This centralized system of repair, some-
The invading German armies did not re- times criticized for its dryness and mono-
strain themselves from damaging French tony,was based on the principles of respect
monuments when they entered the country for the existing features of a building and
as well as when they left it.236 The areas most their conservation. The prevailing tendency
affected by vandalism during and after the was to use similar materials in repair so that
First World W a r were northern and eastern it would not be distinguishable.Meanwhile,
France.237The Commission des Monuments new techniques such as cement injection
Historiques multiplied its efforts to protect and reinforced concrete were introduced to
national monuments, while the number of strengthen buildings.239
ruins increased. As the war spread, the A characteristic example is the restoration
organization was expanded and received the of the fifteenth-centuryresidence of Jacques
support of the army. As soon as hostilities Coeur at Bourges between 1927 and 1937.240
ended, the Commission started activities for The building had been used as the town hall
repair,which were not limited only to classi- during the seventeenth century and later as
fied monuments. Out of over 8jo damaged the court house. The project, based on a
I44 buildings, 600 were churches. The Com- four-yearstudy of the building and its his-
 France:centralized organization

tory, had to resolve the problem of alter- With the new legislation, constructions
ations made at various periods,such as parti- obstructing monuments could be halted or
tioned or combined rooms, changed floor even demolished.A quarry endangering the
levels, walled-up doors and windows, fire- ChBteau de Gaillard,a covered market on the
places and chimneys, and opened passage- square in front of Laon Cathedral, and
ways. First and foremost, cement was in- buildings obscuring the front view of the
jected into the walls and foundationsin order Chheau de Chinon were thus eliminated.
to strengthen the fabric. Alterations and ac- The Administration gave financial assistance
cretions were elimjnated.The stone quarries to the municipality for the expropriation of a
used for the original structure were located factory which endangered the Valentri.
and re-openedto provide material for repair. Bridge at Cahors. At Vizelay, the hill on
Stone, wood and wrought-iron decorative which the basilica was built was declared a
items were reproduced using old techniques. protected zone.At Mont Saint-Michel,new
The decayed wooden floor beams of the buildings disturbing the natural slopes of the
ground floor were replaced with reinforced hill were purchased and some were demol-
concrete beams and covered with boards re- ished;the construction of a hotel on the hill
sembling the originals. facing the site was also supervised. Similar
The legislation,accepted before the First measures were also applied to historic ceme-
World W a r but enacted after it, introduced teries and archaeological sites. The enforce-
a supplementary list, Inventuire Supplimen- ment of this legislation met with opposition
tuZre,241 to include buildings of historical or from private interest groups and was labelled
archaeological interest which were not con- ‘outsidethe realities of contemporary social
sidered monuments. Any intervention in and economic developments’.245
such buildings required the permission of the In the 1930s, all listed buildings in Ftance,
authorities who, fortunately,adopted a per- regardless of their style, period or owner-
missive and helpful attitude instead of im- ship, were receiving government aid. The
posing definite prohibitions, thus enabling Commission’sannual list of financially aided
technical and financial assistance to be pro- buildings included cathedrals,private dwel-
vided for such projects. lings, country houses, and buildings of
The legislation introduced in 1919 and the classical, Renaissance and medieval
1 9 2 4 expanded the control of the authorities periods.246 Naturally, large expenditure was
over the built environment.Cities of more required and certain restrictions were there-
than I 0,000 inhabitants,and having historic, fore applied.Major restorationwork was not
artistic or natural significance,were required undertaken unless buildings were in dan-
to prepare urban plans centred on ‘archaeo- ger.247 The tendency was to preserve the
logical and aesthetic’evaluati0n.2~~ The plans building in its existing state. Thus decayed
would specify height,width,relationshipbe- wooden elements were replaced, roofs re-
tween the existing and future buildings,and paired,foundations reinforced and walls and
even building materials and colour schemes. piers strengthened to stop further damage.248
A law passed on 2 M a y 1930 was concerned The Commission’s principal creed was to
with protection of the natural environment prolong the life of a monument and preserve
surrounding monuments outside urban cen- its authenticity.249The scope of knowledge
tres.243 With this law a buffer zone (Zone de of restoration architects had widened.By co-
protection) was devised to protect settlements operating with archaeologists in the conser-
of historical, artistic, scenic or scientific vation of archaeological sites,with engineers
interest.244 in the restoration of monuments, and with
From the Middle Ages onwards

Phte 24.
Arras, Pas-de-Calais,France, faqades in the main
square after the severe d a m a g e of the First World
W a r . [Photo: 0Arch.Phot.Paris/SPADEM.]
 France:centralized organization

Plate 21.
The main square of Arras after restoration. [Photo:
0Arch. Phot.Paris/SPADEM.]
From the Middle Ages onwards

urban planners in the development of cities, strategy of encircling the Germans from the
they had become influential through their south caused damage to the monuments in
understanding of the needs of various this part of the country.
disciplines.250 Those in charge of the protection of
monuments worked hard throughout the
war with the limited means available to
The Second World War them. Their main efforts were concentrated
During the invasion in I940 and liberationin on temporary upkeep and protection. Out
1945, France endured two periods when of the 8,000monuments on the main list and
monuments and sites were extensively 12,000 on the supplementary list, 600 were
damaged. First the invasion,and then, to- damaged at the beginning of the war. How-
wards the end of the war, aerial bombard- ever, by the end of the war, 3,000 required
ment,were particularly destructive. immediate attention.254 In 1948 work was
Preventive measures proved effective going on at 1,776sites. Priority was given
when some 4j,ooo objects on the inventory not only to the most important monu-
list were stored safely at the beginning of the ments, but buildings of all kinds were being
war. Stained glass, significant architectural repaired for quick return to active use.
elements, statues and carvings were pro- Restorers remained hesitant in completing
tected behind sandbags.Nevertheless, those partially destroyed monuments. But ad-
cities which showed the fiercest resistance to ditions in modern architectural style or
the German advance suffered greatly. At sculpture, stained glass and bas-reliefs re-
Rouen, where the bridges had been blown flecting contemporarytrends could occasion-
up by the French to delay the advance, the ally be seen on such buildings.255 By this
historic part of the city was completely time, co-operation between the Ministry of
destroyed and its wooden houses burnt to Public Works and the Department of His-
the ground.The same fate befell Orleans and toric Monuments had become more effective
Tours. since monuments were considered integral
Normandy, selected for the Allied landing parts of their environment.The consent of
of June 1944,was the site of the country’s the Department was required on such issues
most significant medieval and Renaissance as the fasade, roof configuration, material
monuments. Caen, one of its main cities, and colour of new buildings.256
which had remained intact until then, lost These relations were institutionalized by a
three-quarters of its buildings as a result of law passed while France was still occupied.257
aerial attacks.251 Meanwhile,many towns had The legislation of I z February 1943 strength-
been wiped off the map. Rouen was bom- ened that of 1930and the environmentaland
barded for the second time. At Le Havre, visual protection of buildings on the sup-
bombed 172 times, only 4,000 out of 20,ooo plementary list was ensured.258Another law
buildings were left standing.252Only Paris, concerned with city planning, passed four
like Rome, emerged miraculously intact months later on ~j June 1943,gave further
from this disastrous period. In spite of dy- environmental protection to monuments by
namite placed on its bridges and important designating a radius of joo metres for the
buildings by a special team sent from Berlin, area surrounding them. This law concerned
and Hitler’s orders to destroy the city totally, planning for protected zones,establishment
Paris was saved by the personal resistance of of aesthetic norms, use of building lots,
the military governor.253 While Paris itself height of buildings,open spaces and compo-
remained a witness to events, the Allied sition of parks.259 The law was intended to
 France:centralized organization

encourage solutions rather than to impose deaux. At Saint Malo, 90 per cent of which
restrictions.260 The experience of France was almost totally destroyed,houses in the
illustrates,however, that legal measures are historic centre were rebuilt by Louis Ar-
never fully satisfactory and must be periodi- retche, while in the surrounding areas only
cally revised.261 height, density and materials were restricted
Work undertaken at the end of the Second in order not to discouragenew construction.
World W a r shows that restorationspecialists The ancient buildings in the centre of
found a uniform method of approach to Amiens were preserved and re-evaluated
the problems of single buildings, while the within a well-planned street system. At the
concept of a larger-scale environmental ap- entrance to the city, however, a tower was
proach was less clearly defined.262 It is not erected which contrasts with the church
surprising,therefore, that a bill was intro- towers in the centre.In towns like Mulhouse
duced proposing the construction of modern and Toulon, where contemporary planning
dwellings on the site of historical buildings procedures were adopted, the architects
destroyed during the war, proclaiming that managed to preserve the silhouette of the
the ruins might attract foreign tourists but city.
would provide no comfort to the population Sometimes, however, structures undam-
that had lost 3 million dwellings.263 The aged by war suffered in the name of recon-
specialists had to ensure comfort on a par struction.267City gates, churches and foun-
with contemporary norms without sacrifi- tains disappeared, but such acts met with
cing any monument. This was a delicate and negative reactions.In places where the popu-
complex issue,full of contradictions.264 lation was extremely attached to its history
The general tendency in France, as in and buildings, as in Alsace, it w a s difficult
other parts of Europe, was to rebuild as to introduce modern amenities.268By pre-
quickly as possible. Among those whose serving certain architectural characteristics
vocation was to preserve the old, the ten- and using contemporary techniques and
dency was to work fast in order to save concepts,a satisfactory result was achieved.
more, since a danger existed that urban re- According to the architect Stoskopf,it was
newal might harm the historical environ- sufficient to use well-proportionedvolumes,
ment. O n the other hand,the ugliness of the dark-coloured roof tiles, whitewashed walls
new buildings strengthened the appreciation and coloured window shutters.
of the old.The need to secure historical con- The most striking aspect of work carried
tinuity through the conservation of the tra- out after the Second World W a r was the
ditional environment had become more im- compromise reached between conservation
perative than ever.265 and new developments.269Striking examples
Post-war administrators allowed the ne- of providing old buildings with new facil-
cessary flexibility in the approach to whole ities270 were given, especially in Paris.271
settlements which showed various topo- Eventually this concept led to the planning
graphical,functional and physical character- of major urban quarters such as Mont-
istics. In Orleans,in order to widen the main martre.272
street which had been partly destroyed dur- In Paris, where monuments were pre-
ing the war, the architect had the old build- served with great care,the enthusiasm directed
ings reconstructed but compromised by in- towards the protection of their environment
stalling arcaded pavements below.266 The proved to be destructive in certain cases,
same solution was adopted for the re- since the necessary sensitivity could not
construction of the Place de la Bourse at Bor- be shown.273 Architects fascinated by the I49
From the Middle Ages onwards

monumental scale of the urban environment ranean architecture,he stressed the signifi-
wished to turn the city into a museum and at cance of observing all constituents of the
the same time add their own contribution to environment.280 During the Second World
it.274 War, he personally edited for publication the
decisions taken in Athens.281
It is not surprising that after the Second
T H E G E N E R A L ASPECT A F T E R World War architects began to pay attention
RESTORATION not only to the environment of monuments,
but also to the protection of the urban
The post-war restoration effort made it fabric.282 The question had transcended the
possible to identify various aspects of the limits of monuments and reached the pro-
environmental conservation problem.275 Al- portions of the city. Debate centred on the
though France possessed no legislation shaping of the environment while the tra-
embracing the totality of historic buildings ditional historic development was main-
and sites until the Malraux legislation of tained and linked with the contemporary
1962,276 successful examples of restoration way of life. Buildings gained significance as
were nevertheless carried out. The concen- a part of the traditional whole, even when
trated efforts of several centuries made it pos- they lacked aesthetic or historic importance.
sible to evaluate the architecture of the past Compromisesusually favoured the conserva-
and at the same time build modern structures tive view.
using advanced techniques. France is in a None the less, change and progress were
privileged position because it is able to pre- inevitable.Pragmatic approaches were consi-
sent a comprehensive and unified view of dered attentively.283 Relationships between
restoration principles, owing to its central- old and new buildings were carefully studied
ized system,which reflects the contributions and projects for renewal were proposed.The
of literary and intellectual sources and of error of preserving everything as it stood
various organizations on a nationwide scale. was admitted as new principles were adopted
Those influential in contemporary archi- concerning the evaluation of monuments.A
tecture also contributed to the solution of balance was sought between the require-
conservation problems with respect to the ments of contemporary civilization and
environment.The leading figure at the In- the existing environmental heritage. The
ternational Conference of I93I, held in economic, social and artistic values of his-
Athens,277 was the Belgian architect Victor toric monuments were defined as well as
Horta (1861-1947),2~~ a prominent leader in their historic significance. The need to es-
new developments in architecture who sub- tablish a rapport with the present was
mitted 2 paper entitled,‘TheEnvironment of acknowledged in order to secure the con-
Monuments and General Principles’. H e tinuity of the past. A larger framework was
called special attention to the immediate area defined284for new actions and public opinion
surrounding a monument, to the larger peri- exercised influence in its formation.285Pub-
phery and to problems of approach and ac- lications increased,286the press became more
cess.279 The same subject was taken up two influential and technology advanced. As the
years later at the International Congress of forces controlling it became more powerful,
Modern Architecture,also held in Athens.At the organization responsible for monuments
this congress Le Corbusier, whose book also gained in strength.287 This favourable
Urbanisme was published in 1924,expressed trend288 culminated at the InternationalMeet-
similar concern. A n admirer of Mediter- ing held in Paris in I9j 7,bringing together
 France:centralized organization

architects and technicians in the field of con- While writing about the museum of Chilis,
servation of monuments.289 Rtau (op. cit.,p. 47) forgave the destruc-
tion of the old building because of the
NOTES beauty of the new one. At the Cathedral of
Saint-Etienne at Bourges, traces of former
I.At the beginning of the present century, churches constructed in the third, fourth,
French influence in the evaluation of monu- ninth, eleventh, thirteenth and fourteenth
ments, as in many fields, was strong in centuries have been found.
Turkey. 13. At that time French was used in London as
2. Roman bridges, aqueducts, triumphal ar- the language of law and in Parliament.
ches, theatres and temples which come Parliament opened with a speech in English
readily to mind are those at Nimes,Arles, for the first time in 1363:Rkau,op.cit.,p. 5 I.
Grad, Orange, Frtjus, Narbonne, Saintes, 14.J. Vivent, L a Guerre de Cents Ans, Paris,
Poitiers,Autun,Reims and even Paris. Flammarion,I 95 4.
3. As examples of a similar attitude,the use of 1 5 . Rtau,op.cit.,p. 98.For a bibliography on
the Parthenon in Athens as a church and these wars,see PP.104-5.
mosque and the Maison Carrke at NEmes as a 16. P.de Ronsard,Discours de misires de ce temps,
church,and the salvaging of the mosque at 1562.
Cordoba by the presence of the chapel in its 17. Riau,op.cit.,p.68;A.Blunt,A r t and Arcbi-
centre can be cited. tecture in France, I J O O to 1700, pp. 73 et seq.,
4. For a detailed study,see L.Reau,Histoire du Baltimore,Md.,Penguin Books, 1957.
vandalisme, les monuments dktruits de Part fran- 18. ibid.,p. 100,note 3.
fais,Paris, Librairie Hachette, 1959, 2 vols. I9. F.Puaux,Histoire de la Rqormation franfaise,
For a list of French monuments destroyed or Vol.Ii, pp. 155-8, Paris, 1859.
damaged from the fifth century to the middle 20. Such as the development of trade, the
of the twentieth century, see ibid.,Vol. I, organization of the middle classes and the de-
PP.297-3’3. velopment of a peasant class attached to an
9. Vandals are responsible for the origin of the administrative system, see H. Pirenne,
expression ‘vandalism’used first at the end Medieval Cities, pp. 212-34,Princeton,N. J.,
of the eighteenth century and during the Princeton University Press, 1925.
nineteenth and twentieth centuries to indi- 2 1 . P. Lavedan, Histoire de Purbanisme, Renais-
cate the destruction of works of art. ibid., sance et temps modernes, Vol. 11,p. 2 2 8 , Paris,
P. 13. Henri Laurens, 19j9.
6. Ibid.,Vol. I, pp. 38-40. 22. Ibid., p. 229. For models of settlements
7. L.Gillet, ‘Histoiredes arts’, in G.Hano- during the thirteenth century,see C.Higou-
taux (ed.), Histoire de la nationfrancaise, Vol. net,‘France.Nouvelle approche sur les Bas-
XI,p.454,Paris, 1922. tides du sud-ouest Aquitaine’, Urbanisme,
8. In Turkey, a number of castles, such as NO.IOI, 1967,pp. 32-5.
Ankara Kalesi, can be cited as examples. 23. D.Douglas, ‘Medieval Paris, Izthb-Ijth
9. Up to the nineteenth century examples are century’,in M.Bowra et al. (eds.), Golden
numerous such as the reburial of Roman Ages of Great Cities, pp. 82-104, London,
artefacts discovered during the construction 1 9 5 2 : ‘No town has ever better reflected the
of the Papal Palace at Avignon and the de- civilization of which it formed a part than
molition of the Roman fortifications at did medieval Paris’. In the same way the
Bourges in order to build a palace;see Rtau, cities of Aigues-Mortesand Carcassonne can
op.cit.,Vol.1,p. 40. be given as examples;F.Hiorns, Town Build-
IO. Ibid.,p.46. ing in Histov.An Outline Review of Conditions,
1 1 . J. Ganther, L’art monumental roman en Injuences,Ideas and Methods Affecting ‘Planned’
France, Paris, I95 5 . Towns tbrougb Five Thousand Years,p. 84,Lon-
12. This is often rationalized,see Gillet, op.cit. don,George G.Harrap, 1956.
From the Middle Ages onwards

24, W.H.Ward, The Architecture ofthe Renaissance 33. Clouzot,op.cit., p. 169:‘I1 croit parler latin
in France, Vol. I, pp. 2 1 et seq., New York, et s’exprime en excellent francais.’
Charles Scribner’sSons, 1926. 34. P. Lton, L a vie des monuments franfais:
25. P.Frankl (Gothic Architecture, p. zjo, Balti- destruction-restauration,pp. 22-6, Paris,A.&
more, Md.,Penguin Books, 1962)says that J. Picard, 19j I.
‘thepurpose of Gothic church architecture.. . 35. Blunt (op.cit.,p. 23) has difficulty explain-
was to symbolize Man as a fragment of the ing the buildings with turrets and galleries
Kingdom of God, the purpose of Gothic built in Paris during the reign of Francois I.
forms in secular architecture was to symbol- 36. See the introduction of the sixth book.For
ize Man as a fragment of Society.’ de l’Orme’s strong criticism of contempo-
26. Ibid.,p. zj I. rary architects,see ibid.,pp. 49- 5 4.
27. At a time when it was fashionable for 37, Lton,op.cit.,pp. 26-7.
French artists such as Rabelais and Mon- 3 8. For the influence of Vitruvius and Serlio,see
taigne to go to Rome, Romans such as Fra Blunt,op.cit.,pp. 38 et seq.
Giocondo,Serlio,Guarini and Bernini came 3 9. Hiorns,op.cit., pp. 2 38 et seq.
to France.Ward, op.cit., pp. 21-j. 40. T w o early examples of the period are Vitry-
28. Blunt, op. cit.,pp. 3-j. H e notes the in- le-Francois and Charleville (Meuse), see
fluence of Northern Italy on France,not in ibid.,p. 239.
form but in detail. 41.Lavedan, op.cit.,pp. 138 et seq. Paris was
29. W.Pater, The Renaissance: Studies in A r t and influenced by this and efforts were made to
Poetry, pp. 165-6, Portland,Maine, T.B. build roads, beginning with the time of
Mocher, 1902:‘What is called the Renais- Fransois I.
sance in France is thus not so much the in- 42. G.K.Lukomski, I maestri della architettura
troduction of a wholly new taste ready-made classtca, p. 65, Milan, 1933; P. Frankl, The
from Italy,but rather the finest and subtlest Gothic: Literav Sources, pp. 86 et seq.,Prince-
phase of the Middle Age itself... . The old ton,N.J., Princeton University Press, 1960.
Gothic manner had still one chance more,in 43. Lavedan,op. cit., pp. 237-8.
borrowing something from the rival which 44. T w o detailed works on Versailles are: P.de
was about to supplant it. In this way there Nolhac,Histoire du Chbteau de Versailles, Ver-
was produced ... a new and peculiar phase sailles sous Louis XIV, Paris, 1911;and
of taste with qualities and a charm of its C.Mauricheau-Beauprk,Versailles, fhistoire
own, blending the somewhat attenuated de Part, Paris,1949.
grace of Italian ornament with general out- 41. For the plan prepared by Henri Prost in
lines of northern design.’See also Ward, op. 1932 for protecting the Versailles area, see
cit.,p. xxiv. L‘euvre de Henri Prost, p. 1j9,Paris, Acad-
30. For a comparison with other famous French tmie d’Architecture,1960.
architects,see H.Clouzot,Philibert de forme, 46. Lavedan,op.cit.,pp. 388 et seq.
pp. 170-2, Paris, Librairie Plon, 1910. 47. H.Gerson and E.H.Ter Kuile, A r t and
3 I. H e became Superintendent of Buildings dur- Architecture in Belgium,1600 to 1800,p. 30>Bal-
ing the reign of Henri 11: Blunt, op. cit., timore,Md.,Penguin Books, 1960.
p. 48. 48. Blunt,op. cit.,pp. 91,93-103.
32, P. de L’Orme,Nouvelles inventions pour bien 49. Ibid.,p.94,Fig.IO.
bbtir et d petits frais trouvies naguire par Ph.de jo. Ibid.,p. 97. As well as the rational attitude
POrme, Lyonnais, architecte conseil et aumdnier shared by Henri IV,de I’Ormeand archi-
dufeu Roy Henry et AbbC de Saint-Ely-Les- tects like Salomon de Brosse,there existed at
Noyons, Paris, I j 61.Another edition of the the same time an ostentatious form of archi-
same work: Architecture de Ph. de /Orme, tecture, satisfying the demands of rich and
avec une belle invention pour bien bbtir, Rouen, aristocraticfamilies.
D.Ferrand, 1648.A second book, entitled 3 1 . Rkau,op.cit., Vol.I,p. 143.
Architecture, was published in I j 67. jz. W e learn from Jean-JacquesRousseau, in
 France: centralized organization

his Confeessions, two centurieslater (1737)that tecture, even J. F. Blondel was forced to
this decision was no longer valid: ‘Levaste admit the contribution of the Middle Ages
et superbe cirque est entour6 de vilaines pe- to education: ibid.,pp, 46 et seq.; Haute-
tites maisons et d’autres maisons plus pe- cmur,op.cit.,pp. I I 3, 1 2 9 .
tites et plus vilaines encore, en remplissent 69. See Hiorns, op. cit.,pp. 247-9. See also A.
l’arhe’:Rtau,op.cit.,Vol. I,p. 143. Hallays, N a n g , Paris, T ,ibrairie Renouard,
j 3. L. RCau, L’art franfais aux Etats-Unis, 1906 (Les villes d’art ctlkbres). The har-
pp. 77-8, Paris,Henri Laurens, 1926;A.A. mony between old and new in Nancy and its
Lipscomb (ed.), The Writing of Thomas Jeffer- comparison to Bath in England is brought
son, Vol.VI,pp. 102-6, Washington,D.C., up by S. Giedion, Space, Time and Archi-
‘903. tecture, pp. 146-7, Flgs.72, 73, Cambridge,
j4. RCau (Hirtoire du vandalisme . .., op. cit., Mass.,Harvard University Press, 19j4.
Vol.I,pp. 146--60) has prepared a long and 70. Hiorns, op. cit., pp. 196-7. R. Blomfield,
detailed list of these. Sebastien, le prestre de Vauban, London,
j j. Blunt,op. cit.,p. I 14. Methuen, 1938;it is stated that Vauban con-
56, Ibid.,pp. 183-99. structed the defences for 300 settlements
j7. For the role of this academy in the use of and built 30 new ones.
monuments for educational purposes and 71. Rowland, op. cit., pp. 238-9, Fig. 171;
Fransois Blondel’s courses, see P. Gazzola, Blunt, op. cit.,pp, 45, 68-9, Plates j3, jj;
‘TheTraining of Architect-Restorers’, Monu- Lavedan,op.cit.,Vol.11,p. 3 j I.
mentum, Vol.111,1969,p. 16. 72. Lton (op.cit.,pp. 39-42) quotes Rousseau:
j8, L. Hautecmur, Le Louvre et fe.r Tuiferies de ‘LesFrangais n’ontsoin de rien et ne respec-
Louis XIV,pp. I jo et seq., Paris, 19f7.O n tent aucun monument.11s sont tout feu pour
this controversial subject,Bernini’s attitude entreprendre et ne savent rien finir,ni rien
to French art is also discussed. entretenir.’See also RCau, Histoire du vandal-
j 9. RCau,Histoire du vandalisme . . . , op.cit.,Vol. isme ... , op.cit.,Vol.I,p. 143.
I, p. 1 3 1 . 73. Giedion, op. cit.,pp. 1j9-60. The use of
60. P. Patte, Monuments &&i5 en France a la gloire standing religious buildings for other pur-
de Lou25 XV,Paris,176). poses or their demolition to make way for
61. S. Mercier (Tableau de Paris, Vol. XI, new buildings can be remembered.
Amsterdam, 1782-88, pp. 1-3) criticizes 74. The journal, L’ami des monuments et de5
those statements and glves the complete text arts, which began publication in Paris in
(Vol.I, p. 163). For monuments and castles 1887,widely discussed the decisions taken at
sold and demolished with Louis XVI’sper- this time in its eleventh and twelfth volumes
mission, see Rkau,Histoire dn vandalisme .,
, ,
(‘897-98).
op.cit., Vol. I, pp. 164-7. Many properties 71, F. Rucker, Les origines de la conservation des
were also abandoned or demolished owing monuments historigues en France, Paris, Jouve
to lack of maintenance when aristocrats lost &Cie.,1913.
their revenues:ibid.,pp. 171-8. 76. There was an attempt to revive this calendar
62. Lton,op.cit.,pp. 39-42. in 1871 and Mussolini introduced a similar
63. B.Rowland, The Classical Tradition in West- one in Italy in 1922:Rkau,Histoire du vandal-
ern Art, p. 266, Cambridge,Mass.,Harvard i m e ..., op.cit.,Vol.I, p. 190.
University Press, 1963. 77. Ibid.,pp. 19j-6.
64. Ward, op.cit.,Vol.I, p. xxv. 78. Ibid.,pp. 198-9; H.D’Allemagne,Histoire
65. C.Perrault,Abrige‘ de5 dix livres darchitecture des cartes 6jouer du XVIe au XXe siicle, Paris,
de Vitruve, Paris, 1673,1684. 1906. Some national committees had re-
66. Blunt,op.cit., p. 190. quested that the public surrender all playing
67. LCon,op.cit.,pp. 43-4, note 3. cards to the government.
68. One of the strongest defenders of the oppo- 79. The destruction of the statues of the Jewish
site view and founder of a school of archi- kings in the Cathedral of Notre Dame, 153
From the Middle Ages onwards

because it was thought that they were of aux arts, aux sciences, et l'enseignement,
French monarchs, is a classic example of proposie par la Commission Temporaire des
ignorance; see Rtau, Histoire du vandalisme Arts,et adoptie par le Comiti:d'Instruction
. .., op.cit.,Vol. I,pp. 229-31. For different Publique de la Convention Nationale,Paris,
techniques to demolish buildings,see ibid., A n I1 de la Rtpublique: Lion, op. cit.,
Vol.11,p. 15; see also Lion,op.cit.,pp. IO- PP.63-I.
I I, and C. Bannister, 'Comment', Historic 8j . 'J'ai fait la guerre aux Tyrans:mais les arts,
Preservation Today,p. 34, Charlottesville,Va., les sciences et les lettres n'ont jamais en vain
The University of Virginia Press, 1966. reclamimon appui'; Rtau,Histoire du vandal-
80. Numerous artists were denounced,were un- zsme ..., op.cit., Vol. I,p. 382.
able to sell their work or were thrown into 86. Millin considered the Bastille as his first
gaol in Paris.Those who immigrated to Eng- example in his Antiquitis nationales,see ibid.,
land, Germany and the United States were p. 382.
able to continue their work: Riau, Histoire 87. J. Lakanal, Expose' sommaire des travaux,
du uandalisme ..., op. cit, Vol. I, pp, 371-8; pp. 13-14,Paris,Firmin Didot Frtres, 1838;
L'artjranyais . .., op.cit.,pp. 134-71. P.Le Gendre says (in Lakanal,p. 22, Paris,
8I. E.Kaufmann,Architecture in the Age of Rea- Eugtne Weill) that the word 'vandalism'
son: Baroque and Post Baroque in England,Itab was first introduced by Lakanal; see also 1.
and France, New York, Dover Publications, G.Saint-Hilaire,Lakanal, sa vie, ses trauaux
1968. The forerunners of contemporary d la convention et au conseil des cinq-cents au
theory and design were Louis Boullte,C.N. bureau de la revue, pp. 9-10, Paris, 1894.
Ledoux, J.-J. Lequeu; they also reflected 88. P. Grunebaum-Ballin,Henri Grigoire, Pami
political tendencies: Rtau,Histoire du vandal- des hommes de toutes les couleurs,Paris, 1948.
isme .. . ,op.cit.,Vol. I,p. 339. 89. For the term 'vandalism', see M.Frey, Les
82. For the legislation,see Rtau,Histoire du van- transfrmationsdu vocabulairefranfais2 Pqoque
dalisme .. ., op.cit.,Vol. I, p. 380: de la Rbolutzon,Paris, 1921,p. 26j; 'Je crtai
I. Prods-verbaux du Comite'$Instruction Pub- le mot pour tuer la chose', Riau,Histoire du
lique de L'Assemble't!L@slative (publishedin vandalisme..., op.cit.,Vol.I,p. 13.
the series of hitherto unpublished docu- 90. H.Grtgoire, Troisiime rapport sur le vandal-
ments on the history of France by James isme,Se'ancedu 24 Frimaire,pp. 16-17,Paris,
Guillaume), Paris, 1889. Imprimerie Nationale des Lois, Frimaire,
2. Procis-verbauxdu Comite'$Instruction Pub- Year I11 (14 December 1794).
lique de la Convention Nationale (as above), 91. Lion,op.cit.,p. 73.
Paris, 1891. 92. Ibid.,p. 6j.
3. Prods-verbaux de la Commune Ge'nirale des 93. Rtau, Histoire du vandalisme . .., op. cit.,
Arts et de la Socie'tiPopulaire et RQublicaine Vol. I,p. 386.
des Arts (published by Henri Lapauze), 94. R.Schneider,Quatremhe de @in9 et son in-
'903. terventiondans le5 arts (1788-r830), Paris,Lib-
4. Prods-verbaux de la Commission des Monu- rairie Hachette, 1910.For the declaration,
ments (published by Louis Tuetey,N o w . see C.Saunier, Les conque'tesartistiques de la
Arch. de YArt francais, 3rd series, Vols. Re'volutionet de /Empire,pp. 48-9, Paris, H.
XVII and XVIII),Paris, I 902/3. Laurens, 1902.As for the letter sent to Gen-
5. Procis-verbauxde la Commission Temporaire eral Miranda, see H.Foramitti,Kulturgiiter-
des Arts (published in the series of hith- schutx, Vol. I, pp. 20-1, Vienna/Cologne,
erto unpublished documents on the his- Verlag Bohlau, 1970.
tory of France by L.Tuetey), Paris, 19 I 2. 95. L. Hautecmur, Rome et la Renaissance de
83. Ibid.,Vol. I,p. 381. L'Antiquite'd la j n du XVIIIe siicle, p. 263,
84. 'Instruction sur la manitre d'inventorier et Paris, 1912.
de conserver dans toute l'ttenduede la Rt- 96. C.Piot,Rapport sur les tableaux enlevis d la Bel-
publique tous les objets qui peuvent servir gtque en 1784 et restitue'x en r81j, Brussels,I 883.
 France: centralized organization

97. Lion, op. cit.,pp. 69-70; Rtau, Histoire du 107. Rtau,Histoire du vandalisme ... ,op.cit., Vol.
uanddisme ..., op.cit.,Vol. I, pp. 390-5, 11, pp. 14-44. Napoleon thus ignored the
98. It was the earliest museum of Renaissance demolition of Cluny, while saving Saint-
and medieval works of art: P. Clemen,Die Denis.
Denkma4Jege in Frankreich, p. 3, Berlin, 108. The Madeleine,the Bourse,and the Temple
W.Ernst,1898. de 1’Argent can be added to the examples
99. A newspaper in Toulouse declared that given above. It is even rumoured that
the city was proud of opening the second Napoleon himself chose the Greek temple
museum in the country to house objects that style.Of this building, started under Louis
were saved from destruction by counter- XV,he said: ‘My intention is to build a
revolutionaries:Rtau, Histoire du vandalisme temple, not a church. I do not want to
.. . , op.cit.,Vol. I,p. 395. tear down everything, nor protect every-
100. For the public endorsement of the preser- thing.By temple I mean a building found in
vation of monuments in the eighteenth cen- Athens and not in Paris.’ L. Hautecoeur,
tury, see J. Guillerme, ‘La naissance au Histoire de Parcbitecture clamique en France,
XVIIIe siecle du sentiment de responsabilitt Vol.6,p. 206, Paris, A.&J. Picard, 1953.
collective dans la conservation’, Gaxette 109. D.M.Quynn,‘TheArt Confiscations of the
des beaux-arts, Vol. LXV, March 1965, Napoleonic Wars’, American Historical Re-
pp. I 5 5 -62. view, Vol. L,No. 3, 194j,pp. 437-60. For a
1 0 1 . R.Bonelli, ‘Principlesof Architectural and list of items returned,see Saunier,op. cit.,
Urban Restoration and Conservation’,En- p. 121. For international agreements for the
cyclopedia of World Art, Vol. XII, 1966, protection of works of art in time of war,
Col. 194. see Foramitti,op.cit.,pp. 19-22,and Office
102. L. Hautecceur, ‘L’Urbanismea Paris de la International des Musees, La protection
Renaissance i la Monarchie de Juillet’,in G. des monuments et auvres d’art en temps de
Michaud et al. (eds.), Paris, croissance dnne guerre, Paris, OIM,1939,
capitale,p. 125, Paris,Hachette,1961, I IO. For the ceremonies held on the occasion of
103. In his ‘Mtmoiresd’outre-tombe’, Chateau- the placing of the bronze horses that had
briand,upon his return to France,expresses been taken from Istanbul by Venetians on
his sorrow at the sight of abandoned cas- the Arc du Carrousel in Paris, see Quynn,
tles, empty churches,graves without tomb- op. cit., p. 438. For their removal, see
stones,and belfries without bells. Saunier,op. cit., back cover.
104. An English traveller,mentioning the numer- I I I . For Canova’s role in the return of Italian
ous ruins encountered in France,exclaimed: works of art, see J. S. Memes, Memoirs of
‘It is to be believed that the French are Antonio Canoua with Critical A4na&is of His
horrified by everything reminding them of Works,pp. 469 et seq.,Edinburgh,1825.
the past’:Lton,op.cit.,p. 94. 112. Saunier,op. cit., pp. 46-8; Quynn, op. cit.,
105. Napoleon’s scheme for Paris had reper- p. 441.
cussions all over the world. For its influence 113. Lion,op. cit.,pp. 84-j. Later Cluny,within
on St Petersburg,Venice and Rome, see: the ruins of the Roman bath, replaced the
Riau,Histoire du vandalisme ..., op.cit., Vol. museum;ibid.,p. 89-90.
11, p. 53; H. R. Hitchcock, Architecture: I 14. A.de Laborde, Vqage pittoresque et historique
Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Baltimore, de PEspagne, Paris,Didot, 1806.
Md.,Penguin Books, 1958; Michaud, op. I I 5 . A. de Laborde, L e s monnments de la France
cit.,pp. 126et seq. dassis chronologiquement, Paris, I 8 16.
106. The Arc de Triomphe of the Etoile and of I 16. The contribution of Baron Taylor,a French-
the Carrousel, the Vend6me Column in- man of Irish origin,with his twenty-volume
spired by that of Trajan, the Temple de la work, Hyages romantiqaes et pittoresqnes dans
Gloire inspired by the Maison Carrte of Pancienne France, published between I 8I 8
Nimes,are examples of this. and 1878,is noteworthy.
From the Middle Ages onwards

117. For the influence of Sir Walter Scott in the Cardinal Pacca’s decision: see 0.Ferrari,
historical novel,see Lton,op. cit.,pp. 108- ‘Preservationof Art Works’,Enyclopedia of
9; V.Hugo, ‘SirWalter Scott i propos de World Art, Vol.X,col.694,London, 1961.
Quentin Durward’,Littirature et philosophie 124. For official developments after Vitet until
mtlie, June 1823;F.Riicker,Conservation der 1854,see P.Verdier, ‘Leservice des monu-
monuments historiques en France, p. 161,Paris, ments historiques’,Congrts Arcbiologiques de
‘9‘3. France en 1934,97e session, Vol. I, pp. 52-98,
I I 8. This reaction is expressed in an article in the Paris,A.Picard, 1936.
Mercure du XIXe siicle, published in 1821; 125. Lton.op. cit.,p. 1 1 8 .
it was considered shameful not to know I 26. Sainte-Beuve,‘Viollet-le-Duc’, Noweau Lun-
Rome, Athens, Carthage and Babylonia dis, Vol.VII,p. I 5 9;Lton,op.cit.,p. I 20.
well, while France interested Frenchmen 127. This Committee was finally established
very little: Lton, op. cit., pp. 112-13. The within the Ministry of the Interior in 1837:
beginning of interest can be seen in a poem Lton,op.cit.,p. 126.
by EmileDeschamps,‘Surle Caste1de M.de 128. Huth,op.cit.,p. 3.
Beauchcne’ (Poisies, Nouvelle Edition revue et 129. Lton,op.cit.,p. 129.
considirablement augmentie par tauteur, p. 2 1 2, 130. Houses of prominent citizens and buildings
Paris, H.-L. Delloye,1841);Victor Hugo,in ofhistorical importancewere put under pro-
the foreword to Cromruell, pointed out the tection only towards the end of the nine-
beginning of this trend: ‘On commence i teenth century:ibid.,pp. 129-30.
comprendre de nos jours que la localitt I 3 I. For a study of the establishment of modern
exacte est un des premiers tltments de la France through difficulties in the coexi-
Rtalitt.’For other examples in literature, stence of liberalism and order, see P.L.R.
see Riicker,Conservation ..., op.ut.,pp. I 2 5 - Higonnet and T.B. Higonnet, ‘Class Cor-
42. ruption and Politics in the French Chamber
119. F. Guizot, Collection des mimoires relatqs d of Deputies, 1846-1848’,in D.K.Rowney
/histotre de France, Paris, I 8z3. and J. Q.Graham (eds.), Quantitative His-
120. A. de Laborde, ‘Introduction’,Versailles, toy,pp. 129-47, Chicago, 1969.
ancien et moderne, Paris, 1841.The period of 132. G.B.Brown, The Care of Ancient Monuments,
restoration,contrary to its connotation,en- A n Account of Legislative and Other Measures
tailed destruction,see Rtau,Histoire du van- Adopted in European Countries for Protecting
dalisme . .., op. cit.,Vol. 11,pp. 63-90. O n Ancient Monuments and Ohects and Scenes of
the other hand, the conservation of Napo- Natural Beau9 and for Preservation Aspects of
leon’s chambers at the Palace of Fontaine- Historical Sites, p. 74, Cambridge University
bleau as it was the day he left for exile is an Press, I 905.
example of an opposite attitude;H.Huth, I 3 3. V. Hugo, ‘Guerreaux dtmolisseurs’,Revue
Observation concerning the Conservation of Monu- der deux mondes (Paris), 1832, pp. 607-22;
ments, p. 3, Washington,D.C., 1940. Littirature et philosophie melies, nowelle idition
I zI. Rtau,Histoire du vandalisme ..., op.cit.,Vol. ornie de vignettes, pp. 379-404, Paris, Alex-
11,p. 253, andre Housseaux, 1857; Ceci tuera cela,
122. R.H.Howland, ‘Travelersto Olympus’,in Mainz, Verlag der Giitenberg-Gesellschaft,
A.Rains (ed.), With Heritage So Rich,p. 149, 1926.
New York, Random House, 1966:‘Guizot 134. C. F. R. de Tyron (Comte de Montalem-
consciously created among Frenchmen a bert), ‘Duvandalisme en France,lettre i M.
strong identification with the glories of Victor Hugo’, Revue des deux rnondes (Paris),
French history and the achievementsof their 2nd series, Vol. I, 1833, pp. 421-68; ‘Le
ancestors. H e urged them to become chau- vandalisme en 1838’, ibid.,4th series, Vol.
vinistic. H e capitalized on the tradition of XVI,1838, pp. 509-31; D u uandalisme et du
the greatness of France.’ Catholicisme d a m Part, Paris, Debe-Court,
123. It is suggested that Guizot was inspired by 1839.
 France:centralized organization

13j. P. Lavedan, Histoire de furbanisme, @que the SociCti.des Antiquaires de Picardie.

contemporaine, pp. I2 j , I 3 2-3, Paris, Henri Towards the end of the nineteenth century,
I 74.
Laurens, 1912. the number and influence of such organi-
I 36. Rtau,Histoire du vandalisme ..., op.cit.,Vol. zations increased, and their relations with
11, p. 107, governmental authorities developed, see
I 3 7. P. Mtrimk, Correspondanre ge’ne’rale,e’tablie Rtau,Histoire du vandalisme ..., op.cit.,Vol.
e t annote‘par Maurice Parturier, Vols. I-XIV, 11,pp. 221-9.
Paris,Le Divan, 1941-61; P.Trahard,Pros- I j j . For an extensive bibliography on Viollet-le-
per Mirime‘e de 1894 a 18~3,Paris, 1928;P. Duc, see ibid.,Vol. 11, pp. 179-80; Gout,
Lton, Mlrime‘e et son temps, Paris, Presses op. cit.; Lton, L a vie des monuments ..., op.
Universitaires de France, 1962; A. Hallays, cit.,pp. 201 et seq.;C.Ceschi, Teoria e storta
‘Mtrimee,Inspecteur des Monuments His- del restauro, pp. 68-79, Rome, Bulzoni
toriques’,Revue des deux mondes (Paris), Vol. Editore, 1970;J. P.Paquet,‘Techniquede la
11, 1911,pp. 761-86. restauration des monuments historiques’,
138. P. Lton, ‘Les principes de la conservatjon Congrh Archiologique, pp. 41I -24, Paris,
des monuments historiques, evolution des I 936, and ‘Viollet-le-Duc’, L e 5 monuments
doctrines’,Congris Archiologique de France, histortques de la France, Vol, XI,pp. 1-10,
op.cit.,pp. 32-3. Paris, 1965 ; J. Dupont, ‘Viollet-le-Ducand
I 39. E a u ,Histoire du vandalisme . .., op.cit.,Vol. Restoration in France’,Historic Preservation
11, p. 107. Today, pp. 3-22, Charlottesville,Va., The
140. Lton, L a vie des monuments ..., op. cit., University Press of Virginia, 1966,
p. 2 3 0 . 156. Today the expression, ‘C‘est du Viollet-le-
141. For the famous saying ‘Traduttore,tradi- DUC’has a pejorative meaning in France.
tore,restauratore,distruttore’,claiming that This can be compared with the reaction felt
translators are traitors and restorers are de- against the word ‘restoration’in the United
stroyers,see Reau,Histoire du vandalisme ..., liingdom.
op. cit.,Vol.11, p. 107. ij7. For his life, his publications and his in-
142. Ibid.,pp.99-103. fluence outside France, see P. M. Auzas,
143. Ibid.,pp. 314-15. IGollet-le-Duc 1814-1879, Paris, Caisse Na-
144. Verdier, op.cit.,p. 124. tionale des Monuments Historiques/Impri-
145. P.Merimte,‘Rapportdu I I aoiit I 847’,Ar- merie Planchard,196j.
chives des Monuments Historiques, mentioned 1j8. Hitchcock (op. cit., pp. 197-8) draws at-
in Leon, L a vie des monuments ..., op. cit., tention to the Church of Est& at Saint-
p. 312. Denis and to certain aspects of his private
146. J. Ehrard and G. Palmande, L’histoire, buildings.
pp. 68-71, New York, McGraw-Hill,1964. I 5 9. H e tried to apply to medieval buildings the
147. Ibid.,pp. 69-70. technique devised by Cuvier for fossils.His
148. Hitchcock,op.cit.,p. jz. imagination,however, led to divergences,
149. V.Hugo, note added to the 8th edition of which were criticized and accused of being
Notre-Dame de Paris, Vol. I,p. 8, 1832;for a re-creations;Gout,op. cit.,p. I 12.
reference and evaluation, see P. E.Gout, 160. It was also a hold move on the part of
TGollet-Le-Duc:sa vie, son euvre, sa doctrine, Mtrimee to give this position,which had
p. vii,Paris,E.Champion, 1914. been refused by architects like Caristie and
I ~ O . Riicker,Les origines. . . ,op.cit., pp. 167-79. Duban, to a young architect. However, he
~j I. Lion, L a vie des monuments ..., op. cit., closely followed Viollet-le-Duc’swork and
PP.9j-7. advised him to respect the existing fabric of
152. Clemen,op.cit.,pp. 78-82. the building and only to reconstruct when
1 1 3 . The most important ones were the Societe conservation was not possible: Riau, Hi-
des Antiquaires de Normandie. the Socittt toire du vandalisme ....op.cit.,Vol.11. t ~ . I 6s .
. I , , I

Archtologique du Midi de la .France,and 161. The concept of ‘unityof style’was developed ‘j7
From the Middle Ages onwards

by Merimbe but attributed to Viollet-le-Duc, 172. For the idiom, ‘nuova urbanistica Haus-
see Bonelli,op.cit.,col. 194, smanniana’,see Ceschi,op.cit.,p. 73
162. ‘Unityof style’was a distinctive attribute of I 73. Urban historians have written extensively
the thirteenth century:Leon, ‘Lesprincipes about Haussmann because of his contro-
...’, op. cit.,p. 40. versial work. For extensive bibliography on
163.A. Hallays, En jinant, pp. 21j-17,Paris, Haussmann, see RCau,Histoire du vanddisme
Societe d‘Edition Artistique, 1900. ...,op.cit.,Vol.11, pp. 160-1;Giedion,op.
164.Although the events of 1848 did not cause cit.,pp. 642-79; G.N.Lameyre,Haussmann
extensive changes in the Commission,Mkri- ‘Preyet de Parts’, pp. 338-46, Paris, Flam-
mke’s influence diminished while Viollet-le- marion, 1958.See also G.E.Haussmann,
Duc’sincreased. Me’moires du Baron Haussmann, Paris,Victor-
16j. See E.E.Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raison- Havard,1890-93, 3 vols.
ne‘e de I’architecturefranfais du XIe d c l e , Vol. 174. For a list of monuments damaged by Hauss-
VIII, pp. 14-34, Paris, A. Morel et Cie, mann, see Rkau, Histoire do vandalisme . . . ,
I 868-74, for Saint-Denis; for English trans- op.cit.,Vol.11,p. 309.
lation, see Appendix I. See also G.Britre 175. As in Brussels (1867-77), Vienna (Ring-
and P.Vitry, L’Abbaje de Saint-Denis,Paris, strasse in I 8j 7), Barcelona (I 8j 9), Florence
Nouvelles Editions,1948. (I 864-77), London (constructionof sewers
166. In 1845 Henri Grkgoire demolished two of and tunnels began in I 848), and Paris (I 8j 3-
the towers of Rouen Cathedral, which he 69).
considered ‘impure’,in order to rebuild 176. Undertaken by Bismarck in Germany,Dis-
them:Ceschi,op.cit.,p. 67. raeli in Great Britain and Napoleon I11 in
167. The rebuilding of a structure across the France.
tower of Narbonne and the use of slates in- 177. Ceschi,op.cit.,p. 73.
stead of tiles on the roof are aspects that 178. H e defended Article 13 of the legislation of
have been criticized in the restoration of 1 3 April 1 8 ~ 0 passed
, after the cholera epi-
Carcassonne,often described as a ‘stageset’. demic to allow expropriation for the public
168. A.Hutret,L a vh-zte‘surla restauration de Pterre- benefit,as a recognition of the supremacy of
fonds, Paris, 1949.Some evaluated this inter- public rights over private;L.Benevolo,The
vention within the concept of romanticism: Origins of Modern Town Planning, pp. I 3 j -6,
L. Grodecki, ‘La restauration du Chateau Boston,Mass.,MIT Press, 1971,
de Pierrefonds, I 85 7-1 879’, L e 5 monuments 179. Giedion,op. cit.,pp. 642 et seq.
historiques de la France, No. 11, 1965,p. 77. 180. Benevolo,op.cit.,pp. 132-3; Napoleon 111,
169. P. Abraham, ‘Viollet-le-Duc et le Rational- while preparing a plan for Paris during his
isme Mkditval’,Bulletin Monumental, I 934: exile in England,was influenced by English
‘On ne peut nier qu’il avait trouvC nos gardens, artificial lakes and greenery. It is
monuments profondkment alter&, mtcon- maintained that he introduced the word
naissables et que la science et le talent qu’il ‘square’to French, meaning an area sur-
dkpense pour leur rendre leur style confinent rounded by railings and planted with trees.
peut-@tre au gknie.’ See also Bonelli, op. I 8I. E. M. Bouillat, Georges-Eugine Haussmann,
cit.,col.194. pp..8 et seq.,Paris,1901;for other defenders
170. The most harmful was Paul Abadie, respon- of this idea,see Lameyre,op.cit.,p. 285.
sible for southwestern France; Ruprich- 182. For the influence of military manoeuvres on
Robert, active in Normandy, and Emile settlements,see L.Mumford, The Culture of
Coeswillwald, in charge of Alsace, contri- Cities, p. 96, New York, Harcourt Brace,
buted good and bad examples:Rtau,Histoire ‘938.
du vandalisme...,op.cit.,Vol.11,pp. 171-6. I 83. The rapid growth of cities and their popu-
171. Archaeologists reacted most strongly lation is an important factor in nineteenth-
against interventions to achieve ‘unity of century urbanism; the population of Paris,
style’,see Verdier,op.cit.,pp. 1 0 3 - 1 1 . which was joo,ooo in 1801,reached I mil-
 France:centralized organization

lion by the middle of the century. Rambu- the United States,are interesting.
teau’swork before Haussmann must be re- 19j. For the root of the word ‘boulevard’
membered;only his attempt at achieving san- (French boulevard, from German BoberA =
itation and order was not developed accord- ‘bulwark’),meaning a path on city walls,
ing to a plan: Giedion, op. cit.,pp. 644-6. see Giedion,op.cit.,p.660.
184.Benevolo,op.cit.,p. 1 3 j . 196. C.Sitte, Der Staedtebau nach seinen Kiinstleris-
I 8 j Giedion,op. cit.,pp. 666-8; L.Hautecaeur,
, cbe Grundsaetxen, Vienna I 889.English trans-
‘Paris:urbanisme 1789-1830’,in G.Michaud lations: The A r t of Building Cities (trans.by
et al. (eds). Paris, croissance d’une capitaale, C.T.Stewart), New York,Reinhold, 1945;
p. 126, Paris, G.Michaud, 1961. Cig Planning According to Artistic Principles
186. Leon, L a vie des monuments ..., op. cit., (trans.by G.R.Collins and C.C.Collins),
pp. 326 et seq. New York,Random House, 1965.
I 87. Reau (Histoire du vandalisme ..., op.cit.,Vol. 197. E. Sarrinen, The Cig, its Growth, its
11,pp. 147-79) criticizes Haussmann for not Decay, its Future, pp. 128-33, Cambridge,
having seen Rome to appreciate the fact that Mass.,MIT Press, 1971.
out of joo churches only 4 were clear on 198. Ibid.,p. 132.
all sides. Sitte states that out of Z Jj churches 199. Giedion,op cit., pp. 682-4; Lavedan,His-
in Rome, 41 with one side, 96 with two toire de Purbanisme (poque contemporaine, op.
sides, 7 1 0 with three sides and 2 with four cit.,pp. 124et seq.
sides were attached to other buildings.Only zoo. ‘La Loi dtcretant la separation des Eglises
6 churches, z of them new, were com- et de 1’Etat votee le 9 dicembre 190) par
pletely freestanding:Lavedan, L’histoire de des politiciens anticltricaux,a eu les const-
Pnrbanisnie, (poqne contemporaine, op. cit., quences les plus funestes tant au point de
P.‘33. vue du patrimoine artistique de la France
I 88. Lion, L a vie des monnments . :., op. cit., que de l’expansion frangaise h I’etranger’:
pp. 34~-7,Plates 173-1. Rtau,Histoire du vandalisme . . ., op.cit.,Vol.
189,Lameyre, op. cit., pp. 278-87; J. E.Tour- 11,p. 213.
nant, ‘Suggestion pour une renovation de 207. Ibid.,pp.211-20.
Paris’,Urbanisme,No. 5 j, 1957,pp. 178-8j; 202. C.Wethered,On Restoration b~ E. Lriollet-le-
H.S.Churchill,The Cit~lis the People,pp. 20- DUGand a Notice of His IE’brk in Connection
I, New York, Reynal & Hitchcock, 1945. with the Historical Monuments of France, p. 81,
For a comparison of Haussmann with Hip- London,Sampson Low, 1875.
podamus,see R.E.Wycherly,How the Greeks 203, Ruprich-Robert,‘De l’influence de l’opin-
Built Cities, pp. 320-1, New York, Anchor ion publique sur la conservation des anciens
Books, 1964. monuments’,Speech at a public meeting of
190. The practice of clearing the areas surround- the SociCtt des Antiquaires de Normandie,
ing monuments was defended also by Quatre- 1887: in Leon,L a vie des monumentJ . .., op.
mtre de Quincy: ‘I1 faut degager, desob- tit., PP.412,r43.
struer les grands monuments qui veulent de 204. Leon, ‘Lesprincipes ..’,op. cit.,pp. 41-2.
,

grands accompagnements’;see Schneider, The most influential organization is the

op.cit.,p. zj. Societe Frangaise de I’Archtologie,with its
191. Leon,op. cit.,p, 317. monthly Bulletin monumental and its yearly
192.When the Tuileries was burnt down in 1871 congress. To this w e can add the Societe
and its area totally cleared in 1882, the exten- pour la Conservation des Monuments His-
sion took the shape of a horseshoe. toriques d’Alsace, founded in 18jj, and
I 93. Lavedan, Histoire de Purbanisme, Antiquiti- those at Poitiers and Picardy.
M y e n - A g e , op.cit.,pp. 446-7, Fig. 319. zoj Reau,Histoire du vandalisme ..., op.cit., Vol.
,

194. Rtau, Histoire du vandalisme . .., op. cit., 11, pp. 223-9.
Vol. 11, pp. I j j-6; examples from Brussels, 206. See Leon, L a uie des monuments . . . , op.
Rome and other European cities,and from cit., pp. 542-4, for the conflict between
From the Middle Ages onwards

architects and archaeologists, between the Museums, Fine Arts,National Palaces and
preservation of the existing state and Religious Affairs, persons responsible for
restoration. buildings as well as eight architects, seven
207. For the strongest opposition to ‘unity of archaeologists and artists and two painters
style’,see Hallays,Enflinant,op.cit.,pp. 2 1 j appointed by competition. Some very pro-
et seq. See also Perrin,A travers la France, minent Frenchmen were among the members
Paris,Librairie Academie Didres, I 903. of the Commission.
208. Leon,‘Lesprincipes . ..’,op.cit.,p.42. 218. A good guide to the evolution of French
209. The increasing activities of the Touring legislation connected with historic monu-
Club of Turkey during recent years could ments is: R.Brichet,Le right! des monuments
also be evaluated as a consequence of devel- historiper en France, Paris, Librairie de la
oping consciousnessin conservation. Cour de Cassation,19j2.
210. Meanwhile, the Societe de Protection des 219. Verdier, op.cit.,pp. 135-8.
Paysages de France was founded in 1901 to 220. Brown, op.cit., p. 83.
protect natural sites, and in 1906 a law was 221. Lton, La vie der monumests ... , op. cit.,p.
passed to regulate the protection of natural 246.
monuments and sites having artistic charac- 222. Ibid.,p. 43,Figs 24j-j I; concrete was first
teristics,see Giesker, op.cit., pp. 139-40. used at the church of Saint-Jeande Mont-
211. Such as the purchase of the park of Ermen- martre in 1902.After that,it was decided to
onville, associated with Rousseau, to pre- use concrete and cement only in concealed
vent it from being divided into building parts of a historic building.
lots:Rtau,Histoire du vandalisme ..., op.cit., zt j. ‘Monuments historiques’, Journal Oficieel
Vol.11,p. 2 2 2 . (Paris,Imprimerie Nationale), 8 March I 889,
212. Among the best examples are the purchase p. 13. With this document,the Commission
of the Chiteau de Malmaison by Osiris in was empowered to inventory monuments
1904,the Chiteau de Montal by M.Fenaille and objects of worthy historical or artistic
in 1913, and the Abbaye de Fontenay by E. value, to determine which were in need of
Aynard, all to be used as museums. For repair, to supervise restoration projects, to
others,see ibid.,pp. 227-9. prepare a budget for repairs and restoration,
2 1 3 . E. E. Viollet-le-Duc,‘L’enseignement des and to submitit to the Minister.
arts’, GaTette der beaux-arts, Vol. XIII, 1862, 224. Brown,op. cit.,pp. 91-2.
P.72. 221. Brichet,op. cit.,pp. 13-14.
214. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictdannaire ...,op.cit.,Vol. 2 2 6 . Huth, op. cit.,pp. 3-4;Verdier, op. cit.,
I,p.vi. PP.171-6,
2 1 5 . C. E.Beule, ‘L’Ecole de Rome au XIXe 227. Verdier, op. cit., p. 176. The Auberge
siecle’, Revue des deux mondes, Vol. 48, ~j de France in Rhodes was purchased by
December 1863,pp. 916-38. the French Ambassador in Istanbul, M.
216. Verdier, op. cit.,pp. 129 et seq.Founded in Bompard.
1792 under the name Commission des 228. Ibid.,p. 186;Rtau,Histoire duvandalisme ...,
Monuments,it became influentialafter I83 7 op.cit., Vol.11,pp.264-7j.
when it received the name Commission des 229. Brichet,op.cit.,p. I j. The same law forbids
Monuments Historiques. the dismantling, transportation and sale of
217. The number of the members of the Com- monuments,see ibid.,pp. 106-10.
mission was raised from eight to thirty. The 230. Ibid., pp. 47-8, 100-1;Verdier, op. cit.,
president of the Directorate of Historical PP.193-5.
Monuments was secretary and his assistant 2 j I. This has often been reflected in royal decrees
associate secretary.The Minister of Educa- and in municipal and administrative deci-
tion and Fine Arts was president;among the sions. Some examples are: Henri IV’s1605
members were seven deputies and senators, decree for the protection of the Place
I 60 the directors of Public Works, National Royale; that of the Royal Council for the
 France:centralized organization

Place des Victoires in 1661,and Place Ven- 24j. Verdier, op. cit.,p. 227.
dBme in 1609;Brichet,op. cit.,p. 100,nos.3 246. Ibid.,p. 2 3 1 .
and 4.A n article of a law is cited concerning 247. Lion, ‘Lesprincipes . . .’,op.cit.,p. jo.
the protection of certain streets in C.Char- 248, Architects were criticized for neglecting the
pentier and J. Ogi, ‘Plan d’amenagement existing buildings in order to work on big-
du site de Montmartre’,Urbanisme, no. j j, ger undertakings:Verdier, op.cit.,p. 238.
1957,pp. 1j0-5. 249. Their objective was to confine the recon-
232. Brichet,op.cit.,pp. 197-8. structions of previous phases of monuments
2 3 3 . The council was to be modified in 1930, to paper and avoid their use in restoration:
1938 and 194j,see ibid.,p. 197. R. C. de Lasteyrie, L’arcbitecture religieuse
234. For a list of monuments demolished or dam- en France a Pepope gotbique, Vol. I, pp. j 1-6,
aged during the two world wars, see Lion, Paris,A.Picard, 1962.
La vie des monuments . . . , op.cit.,pp. 5 47- j 6. 210. Lton, La vie des monuments . . . , op. cit.,
For a bibliography, see Rtau, Histozre dn p. j45.
vandalzsme . . .,op.cit.,vol.11,p. z j I; for the 211. For detailed study of the damage done to
list of damaged and demolished monuments, monuments during the Second World War,
seep. 3 1 1 - 1 3 . see:Reau,Histoire dn vandal~sme.. . , op. cit.,
2 3 5 . Verdier, op. cit., pp. 196-7. Vol.11, pp. 239 et seq.;also,for the list, see
236. One of the most severely damaged cities was Lion, L a vie des monuments . . . , op. cit.,
Reims. The historian Emile Mile, writing pp. j47-56; in France in 1849 settlements
on the burning of Reims Cathedral, stated had to be planned and rebuilt. See also Ur-
that ‘those crying for their sons found banisme, Vol. SXV, Nos. 45-8, 19j6,
also tears for the Cathedral’:E.Mile, ‘Le p. 163.
vandalisme allemand’,L’art allemand et /art 212. For the destruction of French cities during
franfaais du Mo_yen Age (Part 11), Paris, the German retreat,see Reau,Histoire du van-
A. Colin, 1917;Leon, ‘Les principes . . ., dalisme ..., op. at., Vol. 11,p. 243.
op.cit.,p. 50. 2 j 3. For the Swedish Consul Nordling’s success-
237, P.Lion, L a Renaissance des ruines, maisons, ful attempts to save Paris from destruction,
monuments, Paris,H.Laurens, 1918. see ibid.,p. 246.
238. Verdier,op.cit., p. zoo. 254. Lion, L a tiie des monuments ..., op. cit.,
239. P. Paquet, ‘Techniquede la restauration’, PP.j26-7.
Congris Arcbiologique,pp. 41 1-24, Paris, 1936. 2 1 j. B. Monnet, ‘Mttamorphoses’, Bullletm de la
240. Lhon, L a vie des monriments . .., op. cit., Sociltl des -4misde la Catbedrule de Strasbourg,
pp. 468-73. 2nd series,No.9, 1970,pp. 11-47
241. Buildings on the primary list were termed 236. Li-on,L a vie des monuments ... , op. cit.,pp.
classis, those on the supplementary list, in- 537-8.
scrits. 237. That of 1941provides for the omission of
242. Verdier (op.cit., pp. 222-9) cites examples monuments demolished beyond repair and
for environmental settlements.Article I1 of the inclusion of architectural elements and
the Law of 14 March 1919concerns archae- statues:see Brichet,op. cit.,p- 17.
ological and aesthetic considerations in zj8. Ibid.,pp. 102-3.
town planning: L’oeuwe de Henri Prost, 259. Ibid., pp. 103-12. A law enacted on 1 2
p. 227, Paris,Acadimie d’ilrchitecture,1960. April of the same year forbade the display-
243. Brichet, op. cit., pp. 101-2; the second ing of advertisements within the vicinity of
article of the law foresaw fasades of new monuments;it required a permit for posting
buildings conforming to those of the four- signs:ibid.,pp. 112-17.
teenth through to the eighteenth century. 260. Due to the expense involved in the repair
244. In administrationsunder the jurisdiction of and maintenance of privately owned large
the same law,a Commisslon des Sites, Per- buildings such as castles,a special tax reduc-
spectives et Paysages w a s to he formed. tion was enacted and a 40 per cent contri- 161
From the Middle Ages onwards

bution to expenses foreseen: Brichet, op. also prepared the first master plan for
cit.,pp. I 19 et seq.;RCau,Histoire du vanda- Istanbul.
bme...,Vol.11, pp. 277-8. Charpentier and Oge,op. cit.,pp. 150-5.
261. Since Le Corbusier was still alive in 1919, There are numerous publications on this
the demolition of Villa Savoie at Poissy subject.A few of the more significant con-
could only be prevented by internationalde- tributions are: Hallays, En flrinant,op. cit.;
monstrations. Settlements had to await the G.Pillement,Destruction de Paris, Paris, 19j0,
‘AndrtMalraux’law of 1962for protection. and Paris disparu, Paris, Bernard Grosset,
262. The 19jo revised edition of Paul Lkon’s 1966;M.Cornu, L a conqutte de Paris, Paris,
19I 7 book reveals uncertaintiesin the evalu- Edition du Mercure de France, 1972.
ation of settlements:Lton,L a vie des monu- A.Gukrard, ‘Urbanismeparisien: servitude
ments ..., op.cit.,p. j 3 2. de beaute‘,Urbanisme,No.j j, 1957,pp. 146-
263. G.Araud, ‘Lareconstruction du cadre de 7:‘Parisest une ville historique.Mais ce n’est
vie des populations sinistries’, Urbanisme, pas une ruine,ni une boutique antiquailles.’
Vol. zj, 19j6,No. 4)-48,p. 168. A n interesting underground project to pro-
264. Urbanisme reflects trends and developments tect the hstoric centre of Paris was proposed
of French city planning after 1932, its date by M.Gaillard,‘Poursauver les quartiers an-
of publication.Issue No. 4j-48, 19j6,is de- ciens:l’urbanismesouterrain,’Paris: Fesfival
voted to historic sites, and the sixty-five du Marais, pp. 22-5, Paris, 196j.
examples cited are especially interesting: Urbanisme,No.79, 1963,pp. 83-4.
Urbanisme,op.cit., pp. 183-287. L a conservation des monuments d’art et d’his-
26j. F. Sorlin, ‘La sauvegarde des villages an- toire (Papers presented at the Athens Inter-
ciens’,Les monuments historiques de la France national Conference of 193 I), pp. 448-j 3,
(Paris), Vol.IV,19j8,pp. 49-j 8. Paris,Office Internationaldes Musees, 1933.
266. Lton, L a vie des monuments ..., op cit., For the development of modern architecture
pp. j 36-7. The demolition of Joan of Arc’s during this period, see Hitchcock, op. cit.;
house at Orltans was halted because of pub- for Victor Horta as the leading Art Nouveau
lic reaction:J. Howe, ‘ForeignPreservation’, architect,see ibid.,pp. 287 et seq.
Historic Preservation, 19j8, Vol. X, No. 2, 279. V.Horta, L a conservation des monuments dart
p. 64. et d’histoire,pp. I j o et seq.,Paris, I 933.
267. P. Verdier, ‘Le vandalisme ne reste pas 2 8 0 . Le Corbusier, Urbanisme, Paris, G.Crks &
toujours impuni’, Les montlments historiques Cie.,1924.
de la France (Paris), Vol. 11, 19j8, pp. 1-12. 281. The first edition does not list the name of
In certain instances buildings have been the author.A later edition rectifiesthis over-
displaced for restoration purposes, such sight; Le Corbusier. L a Charte d’Ath?nes,
as in Blois, see Urbanisme, No. j9, 1958, avec un discours liminaire de Jean Giraudoux,
pp. 24-j. Paris,Editions de Minuit, 1957.
268. G.Stoskopf,‘Lareconstruction en Alsace’, 282. In this context, two other names should be
Urbanisme,No.71,1961,pp. j4-j. added: U. Cassan (Hommes, maisons, pay
269. Sorlin,op.cit.,pp. 49-j8. sages, Paris, 1946) and P.Lavedan (op.cit.).
270. I. Mulliez (‘Plaidoyer pour la restauration 283. M. Berry, ‘La valeur actuelle du cadre
des logements anciens’,Urbanisme, No. 3 9- ancien’, Urbanisme, No. 39/40,pp. 1jj-7;
40,195 j, p. 163)maintains that the restora- Lavedan, Histoire de Purbanisme, @que con-
tion of 1 2 million old buildings is less ex- temporaine, op.cit., pp. 134-6.
pensive than the construction of new ones; 284. The Law of 4 August 1962and the decisions
see also G.Roux, ‘La renovation urbaine’, taken during the conference on ‘Old Quar-
Urbanisme, No. 80, 1963, pp. 43-7. ters and Cities’were the results of this work:
271. Tournant, op. cit., pp. 178-85. For Henri see Urbanisme, No. 64, pp. j6-8; No. 79,
Prost’swork on suburban Paris, see L’Oeuvre 1963, pp. 83-4; No. 80, 1963, pp. ii-iii;
162 de Henri Prost, op. cit.,pp. 143-75. Prost R. Auzelle, Citations sur Purbanisme, Paris,
 France:centralized organization

Vincent FrCal, 1964;A.Rapoport,‘SomeAs- 2,000 examples: P. de Lagarde, Guides des

pects of Urban Renewal in France’, The chgs d’azvrer en Phil, Paris, J. J. Pauvert,
Town Planning Review, Vol. 37, October 1966, 1967.For detailed information on listing,
No. 3, pp. 217-27. For new proposals, see see Brichet, op. cit.,pp. 61-126, 143-17,
J. Hourticq,‘Legislationnouvelle des monu- and A. Dale, ‘Listing and Preserving His-
ments historiques, une adaptation ntces- toric Buildings:The European Picture’,The
saire’,Les monuments historiques de la France, Architectural Review, Vol. CXXXVIII,
Vol.XIII, 1967,p. 11. No.822, 196j,pp. 100-1.
28 j The influence of the organizationshad risen
, 287. Rapoport,op. cit., pp. 217-18;J. Alaurent,
proportionately.Through organizationslike ‘Villesnouvelles’,Urbanisme, No. 14, 19j7,
Demeure Historique and Vieilles Maisons pp. 78-82; P.Mahieu, ‘Crker de nouveaux
Frangaises,over fifty thousand buildings not centres autour de Paris’,Urbanisme, No. 74,
on official lists received contributions for 1962,p. j; J. Piret,‘L’opinionet I’urban-
maintenance and restoration; Rtau, Histoire isme’, L’urbanisation franfaise, pp. 287-304,
des monuments ..., op. cit., vol. 11,pp. 279- Paris, Centre de Recherche d’urbanisme,
81;Historic Preservation, Vol.XI,19j9,p. 9 1 . 1964.
286. O n these aspects,consultibid.,especially the 288. J. H.Calsat, ‘La rtnovation de l’habitat
bibliography on page 284. Worthy of men- i l’kranger’, Urbanisme, No. 39-40, 195j,
tion is the campaign conducted by Pierre de p. 1j7; for post-1960 developments, see
Lagarde on radio and television.As a result R. Brichet, ‘La protection juridique des
of his campaign, de Lagarde received more villes anciennes’, Monumentum, Vol. VIII,
than 40,000letters. He estimated the number ‘972,PP.1 1 r - 3 5 .
of monuments at around IOO,OOO and pointed 2 89. Congr2s International des Architectes et Tech-
out that of these, 10,000 on the main list niciens der Monuments Historiques, Paris, 6- II
(classis) and I 1,ooo on the secondary list (in- Mg 1917,Paris, Editions Vincent, Frtal &
wits) could be preserved. H e gives nearly Cie,1960.
The United Kingdom: 3
the institutionalization of individual concern

Great Britain's attitude towards the conser- clear. It would appear, however, that the
vation of historic monuments and sites has newest trends were usually followed and
been different from that of other European therefore the old fast disappeared to be re-
countries.Here,although the subject entered placed by the new." Since this attitude was
the public domain much later than in France also prevalent in the Church, old religious
and Italy,private organizations and individ- buildings were abandoned, demolished, or
uals assumed responsibility much earlier.' became unrecognizable through accretion.
Consequently, legislation for conservation The use of stone instead of wood for protec-
was late in arriving in Britain. tion against fire, the creation of new win-
dows to admit more light, the enlargement
of churches to increase capacity were among
BRITAIN IN T H E M I D D L E A G E S
other factors influencingdestruction.Further-
Alongside some prehistoric remains, the more, the improving economic situation fa-
imprint of the Romans in Britain, as in voured the construction of more impressive
France, is prominent.2Drainage and water- churches.5
distribution systems and strong walls, roads
and foundations have survived through the
centuriesand,in certain instances,influenced T H E RENAISSANCE A N D RELIGIOUS
the planning of contemporary towns. The REFORM
tumultuous period following the fall of the
Roman Empire had a negative influence on The beginning of the Tudor dynasty towards
Britain, as on the rest of Europe, until the the close of the fifteenthcentury is commonly
medieval era and the spread of Christianity accepted as the end of the Middle Ages in
brought a new order. The feudal system, England. A n era of peace and economic de-
which developed in England during the velopment was ushered in and astute inter-
ninth and tenth centuries,altered the pattern national policies enabled England to assume
of settlements and,for security reasons,col- an important position in Europe. English
lective living became the norm of the times. cities grew without losing much of their
With the arrival of the Normans, existing medieval character. London especially ex-
settlements were developed and new ones perienced a large increasein population at the
created.3 Between the second half of the thir- beginning of the seventeenth century.In ar-
teenth century and the beginning of the four- chitecture,the first Renaissance influence in
teenth,the number of towns increased. England came not from Italy or France,but
The attitude of medieval builders in Eng- rather from Holland,with which it had strong
land towards historic structures is not very commercialrelations.
From the Middle Ages onwards

The pioneer of Renaissance architecture gain for the King, who sold much of the
and town planning in England was Inigo property for cash. Of the medieval monas-
Jones(1>73-16jz),anadmirerofAndreaPa1- teries, the ruins of only a third remain stand-
ladio of Italy. H e was appointed Sur- ing today. Buildings were either partly or
veyor of Royal Buildings in 161j. When entirely demolished by their new owners,
King James I decided to ‘modernize’Lon- among w h o m were the King’s men, land
don,he appointed Inigo Jonesas head of the speculators and middlemen. The stone was
Royal Building Commission. London thus re-usedfor other buildings,roofing lead and
acquired its first Renaissance building, the bells were melted down for re-useand tim-
church of St Paul,Covent Garden,dominat- bers were used as firewood.
ing the first Renaissance square,much like a Another Protestant reaction against
temple in a Roman forum.A small obelisk churches was initiated in I j 3 6 by Thomas
was even placed to adorn the square.6 Cromwell, who attacked them as sources
T w o disasters, occurring shortly after of superstitious belief. The demolition of
Inigo Jones’sdeath,greatly affected London: religious artefacts continued on and off
the plague of 1665 and the Great Fire of Sep- until the middle of the seventeenth century.
tember 1666.The latter,which destroyed some Under Elizabeth I,stone baptismal fonts and
14,000 houses and 90 churches, necessitated wooden objects were damaged and, under
substantial redevelopmeni in the city. The Edward VI, stained-glasswindows, which
decision to use fire-proofmaterials changed had been cherished until that time, were
the appearance of London. Wider streets, smashed.9
green areas along the river, monumental In I j j 3, when Mary Tudor was crowned
buildings and the removal of unhealthy and married the King of Spain,events took
workshops reflected the new concerns. the opposite course: there was a return to
Sir Christopher Wren (163~-1723),who Catholicism and a strong reaction against the
replaced Inigo Jonesas the leader of the Re- Protestants. Efforts were made to replace
naissance school,took as little as five days to what had been destroyed and burnt. H o w -
prepare a new street plan for London.7H e ever,Mary’s reign was short-lived,and when
had not visited Italy but was influenced by Elizabeth I acceded to the throne in I j j 8,the
trends in France and Holland. Although trend was again reversed.10
Wren’s plan was finally rejected,his influence Meanwhile,many castles having lost their
on London was to be persistent. former importance had been abandoned or
The Renaissance contribution was marked neglected. Some were also demolished to
by additions to, and improvement of, the prevent them from becoming places of re-
existing medieval fabric rather than by com- fuge in times of civil disorder. During the
plete renewal. But even such intervention fifteenth century many of them were already
meant the destruction of many Gothic build- in ruins. The invention of cannons and gun-
ings.In addition,medieval religious buildings powder had influenced the techniques of de-
suffered great damage after the dissolution of fence.In I J 39,Henry VI11 built castles along
the monasteries by Henry VI11 in I j 34.The the southern coast of England in order to
wealth of over 600 monasteries,which owned defend the country against France,but these
a quarter of the land in England, attracted were mainly utilized for mounting cannons.
Henry,whose treasury was depleted after the Stone from the demolished monasteries had
war with France. As noted by Briggs,g the been used to build them.11
seemingly justified dispersion of Church An analysis of available sources reveals
166 property was, in reality, a means of capital that at the beginning of the Renaissance
 The United Kingdom:institutionalizationof individualconcern

period it was difficult to detect any tendency ing.Although this controversial project was
to appreciate and protect monuments in temporarily shelved,in 1 6 7 ~work started on
England.12One can thus assume that Inigo a new cathedral and continued for thirty-
Jonesencountered no resistance in his efforts five years.
to introduce Renaissance architecture,since Since the fire had destroyed 90 of the City
neither Norman nor Gothic architecture was of London's I IO churches,further opportu-
particularly favoured. Destruction of reli- nities were opened up to Wren. H e rebuilt
gious buildings and sacred objects continued j I churches,some of which reflect his power-
during his lifetime.Even the army helped the ful personal Renaissance style. Traces of
demolition under a decree of Parliament. Gothic, to which he reacted strongly, can
People involved in planning and building also be discerned in some of his designs,due
constructionwere opposed to the destruction, in some instancesto the necessity of complet-
however. One example is John Evelyn ing a partially destroyed Gothic church15
(1620-76), a diarist who was appointed a and,in the case of St Mary Aldermary,to his
commissioner for the improvement of the obligation to comply with the wishes of
streets and buildings of London,had worked thosewho were paying forthe reconstruction.
with Wren and was known for his admira- Subsequently, Wren assumed responsi-
tion of Renaissance architecture.A Protes- bility for the repair of numerous buildings,
tant and a Royalist, he reacted against the including Westminster Abbey.16 In his later
ongoing demolition. work, he became more conservative and
The Cathedral of St Paul is a prominent turned more towards Gothic architecture.
example, reflecting the tendencies of the Only in large-scaleprojects,such as Windsor
age.13Work on the faqades of the cathedral, Town Hall, did he continue to show his ten-
begun by Inigo Jones in 1634,had stopped dencies towards the Renaissance.
with the Civil War, but started again in 1 6 6 ~ .
In 1666a detailed report was prepared by Sir
Christopher Wren.14 Used by the cavalry R E T U R N T O GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
during the Civil War, the cathedral was then
in a state of disrepair. The tower was shored In the years following Wren, through the
up both inside and out.The whole fabric was eighteenth century,17changes in the physical
in a dangerous condition. While preparing environment were not dramatic and certain
his proposal for repair, Wren studied the principles were already taking root.18The in-
building closely and described in minute crease in the number of publications on ar-
detail its pitiful state. Being a product of the chitecture also contributed to this stability.
Renaissance, he could not restrain himself Nicholas Hawksmoor and James Gibbs,
from commenting on the lack of refinement who followed Wren, respected the existing
of the Gothic style. H e prepared a Renais- architecture when they designed new build-
sance design in what he termed a 'good ings or made additions. In London, at-
Roman style'. To replace the tower,he pro- tempts to harmonize the new with the exist-
posed a high, ribbed rotunda.While he was ing buildings were found.The architectural
still working on the details of his project,the integrity of the old Parliament buildings
Great Fire broke out,burnt down the scaf- was taken into consideration when exten-
folding around the cathedral and substan- sions were constructed.Development plans
tially damaged the building itself. Conse- carefully considered and respected the exist-
quently, Wren abandoned repair work and ing structure of the city, as exemplified by
produced plans for a completely new build- Covent Garden,Regent Street and Blooms- '67
From the Middle Ages onwards

bury.Among towns that developed without educated in Italy,and began his restoration
sacrificing the existing order were Oxford, work at the end of the eighteenth century.A
Cambridge,Bath and Edinburgh.Their med- striking example of his work is Westminster
ieval aspects successfully harmonized with Abbey. Wyatt’s controversial approach to
Renaissance trends. restoration was the cause of lively debates.
Towards the middle of the century an in- Unlike his conservative intervention at
teresting trend became fashionable:adorning Westminster, his work on the cathedrals of
spacious gardens with various imitations of Lichfield, Salisbury, Hereford and Durham
classical temples inspired by Italian land- and at Windsor Castle,as well as other places,
scape paintings. Complete or half-ruined was renovative in nature. Revealing the in-
buildings were thought to add a human fluence of Gothic architecture on his work,
touch to the scene. The appearance of clas- he also designed buildings in that style.
sical buildings copied from Italian models, Wyatt’suncompromising attitude with re-
the evaluation of medieval ruins and even the spect to Gothic monuments and his boldness
reproduction of fake Gothic ruins became in making drastic alterations are difficult to
common practice. Interest in Gothic archi- justify when one remembers that he under-
tecture was spreading, as revealed by the stood this traditional style so well.Yet, bear-
increasing number of publications on the ing in mind that neo-Gothic developed
subject.19Literature too exerted an influence alongside the neo-classicalapproach,his work
on this romantic development.20 must be judged within the context of the
The revival of a taste for Gothic architec- times and, therefore, with tolerance. Wyatt
ture towards the middle of the eighteenth may not have deserved the epithet, ‘theD e -
century is therefore not surprising.21 The stroyer’,but the contemporary criticism he
movement was accompanied by efforts to aroused was a sign of progress towards the
preserve existing examples. Articles pub- conscious evaluation of restoration concepts.
lished in the Gentleman’s Magaxine, which John Carter, a severe critic of Wyatt,
began publication in 1731, described the adopted a conservative approach to restora-
endangered state of medieval monuments. tion. H e made a significant contribution to
This was followed in 1770 by the Society of the classification of monuments undertaken
Antiquaries’ official publication, entitled by the Society of Antiquaries of London,
Archaeologia. Attraction to medieval works chartered in 17)I, and wrote a basic refer-
of art and an interest in ruins provoked a ence work, especially conceived for the
movement for their conservation,Zz while Gothic revival, entitled Ancient Architecture
the British love of nature heightened con- in England, published in I 795.
cern for the protection of monuments in the John Nash (1752-1835) promoted the
countryside.23 spread of the picturesque movement that
Among the outstanding restorers of this was developing in the countryside into new
period were James Essex (1722-84) and settlements.25 His environmental design for
James Wyatt (1746-1813). Essex, who was Regent’s Park reflected the dominant trends
versed in traditional English Gothic archi- in Europe,combining the scheme of terraced
tecture, made extensive use of the existing houses that was developed in France under
materials in restorations at Cambridge. A Napoleon I with ideas conceived in Italy.By
conservative historian-architect,he was far joining Carlton House to the park at the
more interested in the monuments of his northern edge of the city, he both preserved
own country than developments in Italy.24 and enhanced the existing elements.Without
168 James Wyatt, on the contrary, had been widening existing streets, he connected the
 The United Kingdom:institutionalizationof individualconcern

two areas with a new one.To carry the load History Society, formed in 1836,27 and the
of traffic,he introduced Picadilly Circus and Royal Institute of British Architects, founded
Oxford Circus. Nash proved that he was a two years earlier, which was concerned for
creative environmental designer who re- many years with the history of architecture.
flected the picturesque movement in his The Oxford Architectural Society, founded
work by evaluating existing buildings of all in 1839 and open to professionals and non-
periods and styles and himself designing new professionals alike,was followed within ten
ones. years by similar organizations at Cambridge
and elsewhere.Various societies for the pro-
tection of nature, archaeology or archtecture,
PUBLIC I N V O L V E M E N T : T H E ERA O F though emphasizing special interests as in-
CHARITY O R G A N I Z A T I O N S dicated by their names,demonstrated equally
a concern for the conservation and docu-
Although they professed the same ideas, mentation of monuments.
Nash’s followers at the beginning of the In Great Britain, religious buildings have
nineteenth century did not clearly show the always been categorized separately from
same finesse and concern for existing build- public and private buildings. The Church
ings and the environment.Regarding conser- Building Society,formed in 1818, led to the
vation, the Romantic historians and writers construction of new churches and also con-
were concerned with the architectural heri- cerned itself with the repair of existing ones.
tage while the professionalsadopted a radical The creation of the society illustrates an in-
attitude. In nineteenth-century Britain, his- teresting trend. The widespread demorali-
tory and literature,social development and zation and unrest which followed the Na-
the national pastime of travel contributed to poleonic wars were attributed by the state
the realization of the need to save monu- to revolutionary attitudes and to lack of re-
ments. The eighteenth-century predilection ligious faith. A strong religious tendency
for picturesque views also encouraged this manifested itself among the middle classes.
development. In 1818, Parliament consented to allow a
The Society of Antiquaries, which had sizeable sum in the budget for church build-
gathered strength through its experienced ing.28 As a result, between 1818 and 183 > ,
and influentialmembers,became involved in Great Britain was endowed with 214 new
repair work as well as documentation and churches, 1 7 4 of which were in the Gothic
publication. Restorations that had been style.
executed were discussed and severely criti- There are various explanations for the
cized at its meetings. The society even re- Gothic revival and the deviation from con-
fused the candidature of ‘the Destroyer’, temporary concepts and classicism. Briggs
James Wyatt, though he was later admitted. quite correctly doubted the theory that
Events as related by John Harvey indicate Gothic was used because of its low cost.H e
that the question of the conservation of saw in it an Anglican reaction to those who
monuments became a widespread issue of were gathering in modern churches.29Archi-
public concern.26Meanwhile,numerous new tects who defended the modern style vehe-
societies were formed; organizations con- mently attacked the neo-Gothic churches,
cerned with art and science also became justifiably so, since most of them gave the
involved. impression of having been hastily and care-
Among the specialized groups were the lessly built.
Warwickshire Archaeological and Natural In restoration work the ‘unity of style’ ‘69
From the Middle Ages onwards

concept of French origin was adopted. The tecture,claiming ‘purity’, was detrimental to
Pugins,father and son,were notable for their other styles. Late Gothic and Tudor were
excessive attachment to the Gothic style. scorned and hundreds of churches were
During his short life,the younger A.W.N. stripped of additions made through the
Pugin (I 8Iz- j 2) carried out extensive build- years, acquiring an artificial appearance in
ing and restoration activities. H e was an ad- the process. After such ‘restoration’,most
mirer of medieval architecture,and Gothic buildings had become unrecognizable and
for him was ‘a crusade, a religion, an ob- the Gothic Revivalthus caused more damage
session .. . Christian and Gothic were syn- than the Civil War.
onymous’.30H is design for the new Houses It is not easy to justify this attitude in an
of Parliament clearly reveals his preferences, era named the ‘sixtyglorious years’of Queen
which also led him to train craftsmen in Victoria,when a sophisticatedconsciousness
medieval building techniques. of the evaluation of historic monuments and
Another influential trend in church build- their environment had already been reached,
ing and restorationwas initiated by the Cam- and even institutionalized,through various
bridge Camden Society,founded in I 83 9 by organizations. One possible explanation of
two university students. Its aim was to en- this might have been Parliament’sdecision to
courage architectural research and the resto- allocate large sums to church building and
ration of dilapidated buildings, besides con- restoration without considering what the
centrating on religious order.31 It had 700 impact might be.
members four years after its founding, in- Sir Gilbert Scott (181 1-78), whose exten-
cluding Members of Parliament and leading sive contribution to church building and res-
clergymen.The defiant claim that true Chris- toration falls into this period, can easily be
tian architecture was Gothic aroused fierce held responsiblesincehe dealt with an average
polemic, and the society was eventually of twenty-fivebuildings each year during his
forced to change its name. It advocated professional lifespan of thirty years (I 847-
‘unity of style’,concealed behind religious 77). A n episode relating that Scott, upon
fervour,proclaiming that churches should be reaching a station, sent a telegraph message
restored ‘to the best and purest style of to his office asking ‘Whya m I here?’is often
which traces remain’.32 Even the materials repeated to demonstrate the haphazardness
were specified by recommending that ‘in of his too-activeprofessional life.34
God’s House, everything should be rea1’.33 However, an examination of his struggle
Thus,stucco decoration was to be abolished, against the two groups who accused him of
which meant that ornamental work belong- being either conservative or destructive pro-
ing to different periods was cleared from vides some justification for his behaviour,
many churches. without forgetting the fashionable concern
for ‘unity of style’ in medieval architecture
that prevailed at the time.35 In his memoirs,
SIR G I L B E R T S C O T T
published a year after his death,36 Scott re-
During the reign of Queen Victoria, at- gretted not being aware of the existence of
tempts to improve and embellish churches the Cambridge Camden Society, although
became widespread,acquiring the aspect of a the society itself was very much aware of
religious duty. Since this approach was ex- Scott. Though critical of his first work at
tensively debated at the time and reflected in Chesterfield,it praised his restoration of St
numerous publications,its evolution can be Mary’s at Stafford. Scott often had to fight
followed.The return to early styles of archi- against subcontractors and financers of con-
 The United Kingdom:institutionalizationof individual concern

structionor restorationwork.H e very much Throughout his career, even as president

regretted the faqadeadded to a small medieval of the Royal Institute of British Architects,
chapel on Wakefield Bridge by the subcon- Sir Gilbert Scott defended his practice in
tractor,while at Worcester and St Albans he papers,speeches and memoirs.H e maintained
had to satisfy his patron’swishes which con- that his approach was that of a conservation-
tradicted his own. ist, and even established various guiding
A n event that greatly influenced his work principles for his successors.40H e demanded
was an iiiternational competition to build a that buildings first be strengthened and that
church at Hamburg. In 1844,he won this masonry be repaired only when necessary.
competition which exposed him to the Go- H e was against the scraping of plasterwork
thic architecture of northern Europe and and advocated the preservation ofwall paint-
France.37Within the new horizons opened to ings,windows and roof coverings.If altera-
him, Scott developed a more scientific atti- tions were inevitable,he insisted on the re-
tude,based on research,which in turn resulted use of original material. H e also advised that
in further sensitivity in his repair work. repairs be made on an ad hoc basis, rather
When he sent his son to rebuild the central than under long-termcontracts.
tower of Chichester Cathedral, he gave in- Scott’scritics accused him of ignoring his
structions to have the rubble cleared, each own precepts. Even his advocate, Briggs,
architectural element documented, photo- criticizes his removal of various elements and
graphed and stored for later use. The tower his use of foreign features like intricate
was accordingly reconstructed leaving no metalwork, shiny floors and other decora-
room for hypothesis. O n the other hand, tions;in short,his new order of church in-
while working on Ripon Cathedral between teriors.In particular,the Cambridge Camden
1862 and 1870, he tried to eliminate all Society condemned his replacement of the
fourteenth-centuryvestiges from the west pre-fifteenth-century vaulting with new
wall and the towers in order to restore their arches using features from French and Dutch
thirteenth-century appearance. Likewise, at architecture.41 Scott must also be judged,
Rochester Cathedral (according to old docu- however,in the light of his refusal to demol-
ments), he reconstituted the windows on the ish buildings, his archaeological and tech-
east wall and the additions to the transepts. nical knowledge and his at least verbal and
H e also left documents himself, describing written defence of monuments.
how carefully he removed the old decoration.
His work at Westminster Abbey from REACTION: RUSKIN, M O R R I S , WEBB42
1849 until his retirement has been the most
severely criticized,in spite of the fact that his At this time, a strong reaction set in against
reportto the Royal Instituteof British Archi- the eighteenth-centurydevelopment of inter-
tects in 1861revealed that he had studied the est in medieval architecture which had re-
building in minute detail.38 H e succeeded sulted in the excessive restoration of churches
in reinforcing the much damaged building, at the beginning of the nineteenth century,
then used as an archive, by the use of but- encouraged by political as well as religious
tresses concealed in arches and iron braces. zeal. The influence of this reaction is still
The most controversial part of his work was felt today in the United Kingdom.The word
the fasade of the north transept, which he ‘restoration’, which acquired a negative con-
rebuilt according to his interpretation of notation at that time, is still used to refer to
Gothic architecture;the discussions centred incompetent restoration. The reaction was
on the authenticity of this style.39 initiated and sustained by private organiza-
From the Middle Ages onwards

tions. The foremost of them,the Society of and Renaissance schools fiercely, maintain-
Antiquaries, following a proposal by John ing they relied basically on imitation, and
Ruskin, had attempted in 1854 to secure annihilated art.46 He mistrusted art that
funds for the preservation of medieval build- lacked an ideal.H e maintained that to ask the
ings. Although it was not successful in the artist to do something which had already
realization of this project, it remained influ- been done over and over again was simply to
ential through its publications and criticism. render him mechanical. For him,the Gothic
John Ruskin (1819-1900)occupies an im- age had left vestiges of contented men of
portant place among the art critics of his good taste,while the Renaissance was an era
day.43 The son of a wealthy family and an when artists abandoned creativity for imita-
Oxford graduate, Ruskin’s interest in art tion and material gain.Ruskin assailed modi-
began early in life.H e completed the conven- fications to authentic works of art in order to
tional grand tour of Italy at a young age and perpetuate imitation.
in a letter to his father he wrote of the low It is inconceivable that Ruskin was not at
quality of repair work at Pisa. In his Seven odds with Scott.Indeed,when the Royal In-
Lamps of Architecture, published in 1849,he stitute of British Architects,under the presi-
summarized his reaction by stating:‘Donot dency of Scott, decided to award a gold
let us talk of restoration. The thing is a Lie medal to Ruskin he refused it, denouncing the
from beginning to end.’& His emotional at- Royal Institute as a group of demolition ex-
tachment to historic monuments made him a perts. However,when consulted on a specific
resolute opponent of any alteration to them. piece of restoration work, he was more re-
H e stated his views forcefully: sponsive and offered appropriate solutions.47
When Count Zorzi asked his opinion on
[Restoration] means the most total destruction restorations foreseenin Venice, he replied by
which a building can suffer:a destruction accom- letter in 1877 that the restoration practice of
panied with false description of the thing de- the previous twenty years in England and
stroyed. D o not let us deceive ourselves in this France had surpassed in harmfulness all that
important matter; it is impossible,as impossible as
had been done previously. As regards the
to raise the dead, to restore anything that has ever
been great or beautiful in architecture. That restoration work proposed in Venice, he al-
which I have above insisted upon as the life of the lowed the use of stone from the original
whole, that spirit which is given only by the hand quarries to replace crumbling parts of monu-
and eye of the workman, can never be recalled. ments, but insisted that the new masonry be
Another spirit m a y be given by another time and devoid of any decoration and that the date of
it is then a new building.... Take proper care restoration should be marked on it for
of your monuments and you will not need to re- the sake of honesty.
store them.... Watch an old building with an an- Ruskin is considered the forerunner of ‘ro-
xious care; guard it as best you may, and at any mantic’as opposed to ‘stylistic’restoration.48
cost, from every influence of dilapidation. Count
H e saw no difference between the restoration
its stones as you would jewels of a crown; set
watches about it as if at the gates of a besieged and the abandonment of a building;to him
city; bind it together with iron where it loosens; both were synonymous with demolition.
stay it with timber where it declines; do not care Therefore,he advised the more honest alter-
about the unsightliness of the aid: better a crutch native of pulling a building down and avoid-
than a lost limb.45 ing its replacement with a ‘lie’.H e eventually
extended this idea to the entire built envi-
In his lectures on painting and architecture ronment.
delivered in I 85 3, he attacked the modern Ruskin was also against the English prac-
 The United Kingdom:institutionalization of individualconcern

tice of creating green areas around historic the scraping ofparts and the addition of for-
buildings. For him ‘planting’monuments eign elements to old monuments in the name
among shrubbery was akin to exhibiting of retrieving the original.53 Drawing atten-
them in museums.49 H e passionately defended tion to the dishonesty of contemporary res-
the beauty of the old within its original set- toration,he pointed out that previous repairs
ting,as well as harmonizing of the old with could always be recognized,bearing the im-
the new to ensure continuity. print of their own times. Although such
William Morris (1834-96) was as impas- alterations could be conspicuous and brutal,
sioned in the application of Ruskin’sideas as they nevertheless gave the monument some
the latter was excited by their formulation. additional interest and educational value be-
Morris concerned himself with the impact of sides being readily discernable.
industrialization in Britain and towards the According to Morris, those who tried to
end of his life became involved in politics restore the original appearance of a building
and popular movements in order to dissemi- by fashioning missing elements were re-
nate his views. H e and Ruskin had much in sponsible for effacing its authenticity. In
common:they both came from wealthy fami- short, such work resulted in a false object.
lies,were educated at Oxford and were inter- Regretting the fact that such mistakes were
ested in art, especially in the Gothic style.50 repeated all over Europe, he expressed sur-
By the time he left school, Morris was an prise that otherwise well-informedand well-
expert on archaeology and the English educated people should lack an understand-
Gothic.H e admired Ruskin’swork and,as a ing of history and literature. Preservation
result,reacted against the Renaissance.Mor- was achieved,according to Morris,through
ris channelled his reaction against excessive constant maintenance and tf the building
restoration by founding a society devoted to reached an advanced state of dilapidation,it
the ‘preservation’of monuments.H e tried to should be demolished and a new one erected
spread his ideas in the influential review Athe- in its place.
naeanz. In his writings he attacked Gilbert Morris’s attitude illustrates the extreme re-
Scott and tried to attract public attention to action in England against restoration.It also
monuments ruined through ‘restoration’. In explains his antagonism towards Wren and
1877,he founded the Society for the Protec- Scott. Morris, who practised what Ruskin
tion of Ancient Buildings.51This society up- preached, also attacked industrialization for
held the interest developed over the preced- its degrading effects on personality and on
ing fifty years in works of art, as well as the art, proposing to counteract it by achieving
intense attitudes developed from the stand- continuity in the physical environment as
point of religion, history and art. H o w - well as in the way of life.54 H e maintained
ever,over-enthusiasticintervention under the that rapid technical progress was accom-
guise of ‘restoration’was condemned as ren- panied by ugliness and that the only method
dering works of art unrecognizable,and the of defence was to preserve historic monu-
necessity of prevention was emphasized.52 ments. H e was against the exploitation of
In a further statement of clarification made nature,the pollution of the air with industrial
shortly after the formation of the society, smoke,and of rivers by the dumping of re-
Morris maintained that, although knowledge fuse.55 With his Manifesto of 1877,Morris
of medieval art had increased,the quality of became the spokesman of the new trend.The
architecture was on the decline; and these similarities between this document and that
two elements combined were responsiblefor issued by the Society of Antiquaries in I 8 j j
the curious practice of restoration involving under Ruskin’s influence reveal that consis- ‘73
From the Middle Ages onwards

tency was achieved.56 The rapid increase in The best repair is a sort of building surgery which
the number of people who joined Morris’s aims at conservation. A building properly cared
group indicates the spread of interest and for will be all the more lovely becauS’eit bears the
consciousness. But the idealistic, unpragma- evidence that it is understood and valued. Such
tic quality of the views of Ruskin and Morris principles open up a whole new art of building
conservation. A well done, unaffectedly modern
should also be indicated.The single year that
piece of building cannot be offensive and a study
Morris spent in the practice of architecture of old art should teach that every manner of build-
could not have given him much understand- ing belongs to its own day only. Right under-
ing of the difficulties restorers actually faced. standing of the ancient would make us modern
Indeed,Morris did not clarify the difference and produce a form of building art proper for
between the repair of existing elements and today.60
the reconstruction of those that were miss-
ing. H is suggestions do not take scale into H e thus connected the repair of existing
consideration and his criticism is too general. buildings with the design of new ones. Le-
His opposition to the modification of build- thaby also defended the protection of the
ings which have become functionally obso- natural environment.H e maintained that the
lete seems quite logical;in practice,however, architect’s main task was to solve housing
an unused building deteriorates rapidly, problems, to plan new towns, to upgrade
therefore concessions in its use should be urban and rural buildings and to protect his-
made. toric monuments.61 By founding the Art
Faithful disciples of Ruskin and Morris, Workers Guild in I 884, he ensured the con-
such as Philip Webb, tried to apply their tinuity of a certain philosophy and the main-
ideas but had to acknowledge some of the tenance of standards.Meanwhile,parallel to
shortcomings.Webb, who was successfulin endeavours for conservation,the systematic
strengthening buildings without rebuilding documentation of monuments had begun.62
them or completing missing details, was The Society for the Protection of Ancient
occasionally obliged to depart from the strict Buildings was not the only body promoting
theoreticalprinciples of the two critics.57The the conservation of monuments.The Society
fact that followers of Wren and Scott were of Antiquaries, founded in 17)I, the British
accepted by the Society indicates that the Archaeological Association,founded in I 843,
other members also felt it necessary to and many other large and small groups were
compromise.58 active.63Among local organizations,the So-
ciety for Checking the Abuses of Public
Advertising published A Beautijid World;an-
PRIVATE ENTERPRISE:T H E N A T I O N A L other, called Open Spaces and Footpaths
TRUST Preservation Society, reflects the sensitivity
of the British to their physical environment.64
William Richard Lethaby (18j7-1931), who One organization peculiar to Great Britain
became a spokesman for’theRuskin-Morris- and a product of private enterprise deserves
Webb trio, reflects the British attitude to- special mention. This is the National Trust
wards the end of the nineteenth century. which, although it differs in aim and struc-
Lethaby was acknowledged as a fine artist ture from all its European counterparts,re-
and technician who regretted the loss of sembles in some respects France’sDemeures
works of art in the name of restoration in Historiques, an organization more limited
Great Britain and Europe.59 According to in its aim. The National Trust is a private
‘74 Lethaby: organization financed by donations and
 The United Kingdom: institutionalization of individual concern

Plate 26.
Bodiam Castle, Sussex, England, budt in I 3 86 to
withstand French attacks,preserved today by the
National Trust.[Photo: 0Aerofilms Library.]

‘71
From the Middle Ages onwards

Plate 27,
Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk,England,the ruins of St
Edmund’s monastery in a park. [Photo:British
Tourist Authority.]
 The United Kingdom:institutionalizationof individual concern

membership fees,65 though it receives certain local associations was accepted by eighteen
privileges from Parliament. such groups within two years. Shortly after-
The Trust's objective is the preservation wards, over eighty organizations had joined
of land and buildings having natural,histori- the National Trust.It thus emerged as a trust-
cal and architectural significance.66In I 884, worthy and influential organization.One of
at the annual meeting of the National Union its assets was the clear definition and limits of
for the Development of Social Sciences,one its aims. It limited its activities mainly to the
speaker pointed out the difficulties encoun- countryside and private buildings. Its scope
tered in purchasing public grazing land and encompassed archaeological sites, medieval
called for the founding of an association duly castles, seventeenth-and eighteenth-century
empowerzd to buy land. The speaker was villages,houses belonging to historically sig-
Robert Hunter,who later demonstrated that nificant personalities, buildings and groups
such a non-profit-making, voluntary organi- of buildings dating from various periods.69
zation based on charity could also have legal During its first years of activity,the Na-
foundations.In 1893,the National Trust was tional Trust accepted all kinds of real estate,
founded by three prominent people who were ranging from small plots of land to gems of
particularly concerned that industrialization medieval architecture.However,soon realiz-
would increasingly threaten the countryside ing the difficulty of preserving all these do-
and ancient buildings.67 It was formed as nations, it imposed certain limitations in its
a public company enabling landowners and acceptance policy. From 1919,it only took
other persons to donate or entrust areas of possession of items whose conservation it
natural beauty or historical significance to could guarantee.Meanwhile restoration and
the organization,which would then safeguard repair were entrusted to specialists. The
them in the public interest. Trust also began to consult the Society for
The National Trust first devoted attention the Protection of Ancient Buildings (SPAB)
to the protection of land along the coasts.By as co-operationbetween the two organiza-
the outbreak of the First World War, it had tions developed.
acquired sixty-twoproperties. Twenty-eight The National Trust gave priority to pre-
of these were gifts, twenty-one were pur- servation and did not accept speculative re-
chased and thirteen were obtained through constructions.It required that additions be
public contributions. The first building, easily distinguishable and dated. It tried to
bought in 1896, was a fourteenth-century avoid conflicts inherent in refurnishing old
wooden dwelling. The house, almost in houses, attaching great importance to a
ruins, was repaired through donations. building's character. In house interiors, it
Others soon followed. In 1912 an attempt sought to re-create the former domestic at-
was made to purchase a village which had mosphere rather than produce a museologi-
kept its historic character. Although this cal environment.Later additions to a build-
project was realized only twenty years later, ing were respected.
it shows the enlarged scale on which the Na- Although obviously affected by the Sec-
tional Trust operated.68T w o years after its ond World War, the Trust is today one of the
founding,it was imposing its views on the United Kingdom's largest landowners, and
right of way of railways, and it also pub- the greatest conservation society,with over a
lished a paper on the importance ofprotecting million subscribing members. Its property in
churchyard trees. sixteen regions is supervised by twenty-five
The National Trust's appeal in 1900 for representatives.Together with hundreds of
the unification of archaeological and other smaller organizations, the National Trust '77
From the Middle Ages onwards

Plate 28.
Salisbury,Wiltshire, England,the Old Deanery in
19j 7 before restoration. [Photo:Royal Commission
on Historical Monuments.]
 The United Kingdom: institutionalization of individual concern

Plate 29
Salisbury,the Old Deanery in 1963,after being
restored to its original medieval form. [Photo:Royal
Commission on Historical Monuments.]
From the Middle Ages onwards

exemplifies the effectiveness of public re- was also authorized. Thus Great Britain ac-
sponsibility in the conservation of monu- quired an official body responsible for the
ments and sites.70 upkeep and acquisition of monuments.At its
inception, the law was far from effective:
only twenty-fourof the sixty-eightspecified
T H E R O L E O F T H E STATE monuments were acquired. However, once
county councils were authorized in I 889 to
Interest in ancient monuments on the part purchase historically important land and
of the state did not materialize until the end buildings with their owners’consent,official
of the nineteenth century in Great Britain. organizations became more active,especially
G.Baldwin Brown complained about the in London.75At the same time, legal means
limited funds provided by the nation for the were sought for the protection of the natural
upkeep of ancient monuments, schools and environmentand flora and fauna therein.76In
churches. The administration of churches 1900 an amendment to the existing law pro-
and institutions of learning such as Oxford vided for state protection for buildings sig-
and Cambridge Universities was, however, nificant from the standpoint of art, tradition
in private hands.Governmentfunds for their and history, unoccupied except by a care-
maintenance were allocated in the form of a taker.77
lump sum to the private body concerned, Meanwhile, the classification of ancient
with no direct control on how the money monuments progressed, especially in Lon-
was spent. In fact, until the late nineteenth don. The Historic Building Section of the
century,no official body for maintenance,re- County of Greater London78 also included
pair or supervision of monuments existed.71 residences on its lists and even purchased a
The first bill on the protection of historic few to maintain them.79 Other counties fol-
monuments was introduced in Parliament in lowed suit;even the general public became
1873 by Sir John Lubbock under pressure interested although new buildings tended
from private archaeological organizations.72 to be overlooked.In time,however,the aes-
It was, however, opposed on the grounds thetic aspect ofnew buildings also became an
that it interfered with the rights of private issue of concern.80
ownership and allowed expropriation of pri- A statute of 1910extended the limited act
vate property.In spite of intensive lobbying of 1882 to include a wider range of monu-
by landowners,the law was passed in I 8 82, ments. Historic sites and houses were also
albeit in diluted form.73 added to the list. From I 9I 3, advisory boards
The first British law of its kind, the An- were instituted81 to furnish information to
cient Monuments Protection Act, placed the Ministry on listed monuments and those
under the government’s jurisdiction sixty- in need of urgent repair,and to assist private
eight ancient monuments,most of them pre- owners in the restoration of their property.
historic, and all selected by archaeological Additions to and alterations of listed build-
organizations.74 The law did not authorize ings were restricted. The lists of classified
expropriation: the placing of a monument buildings published from 1921onwards be-
under the protection of official organizations came useful in assuring the protection of
was left to the owner. The Office of Works monuments.
was, however, empowered to carry out re- With the inclusion of experts on the
pairs as well as to prevent owners from advisory boards, a powerful network was
damaging a monument. The purchase of a created, which worked in co-operationwith
I 80 monument with the consent of the owner research bodies such as the Industrial and
 The United Kingdom: institutionalizationof individual concern

Scientific Research Section,the Forest Prod-

ucts Research Section and the Building Re-
search Section. Information and techniques
thus developed were published for the
benefit of the individuals and organizations
concerned.
The act of I9 I 3 contained a separate sec-
tion on the maintenance and repair of religi-
ous buildings,but before it was presented to
Parliamentthe Church expressed its desire to
take care of its own buildings.Consequently,
buildings used for religious purposes were
left outside the jurisdiction of the law.Every
diocese initially formed its own advisory
board, as if to proclaim its independence;
these were subsequently united under the
title of Central Council of Diocesan Advisory
Committees for the Care of Churches.82 A
separate advisory council was formed for the
maintenance of cathedrals,which were large
buildings demanding particular attention.
In 1931, an amendment to the 1913 act
demanded three months’advance notice for
any repairs to or demolition of listed build-
ings.The period that work could be delayed Plate 30.
was increased from eighteen to twenty-one
Coventry Cathedral, England, destroyed during the
months. The environment of historic build- Second World War, preserved as a ruin while a
ings was also protected under the law by modern church was constructed next to it. [Pbofo:
measures such as the prohibition of felling British Tourist Authority.]
surrounding trees and the regulation of new
construction around monuments.A 1944de-
cision foresaw the inclusion of historic build- the Germans revealed their intimate know-
ings with their environment in town plans. ledge of England’s historic monuments.85
However,it was only in 1947 that the Town The British,who had foreseen the danger,
and Country Planning Act provided some took provisions to minimize the damage. T o
solutions to the environmental conservation safeguard their treasures, they transported
problem.83 movable art objects to isolated parts of the
country and placed them in caves and deep
shelters, removed stained-glass windows
T H E S E C O N D W O R L D W A R A N D ITS
from churches and protected architectural
AFT E R M A T H
features and large statues with sandbags
Although Great Britain had come through and brick walls. These measures, however,
the First World W a r with little damage, the proved insufficient to prevent damage to the
severe bombardment during the Second buildings themselves.86
World War had disastrous effects.84 In re- Administrators and architects, realizing
taliating against the bombing of Cologne, the imminent danger,were also aware of the I81
From the Middle Ages onwards

importance of documentation of all historic conservation:private houses were brought

monuments. The Royal Institute of British within the framework of national monu-
Architects, at its meeting of 18 November ments, and the economic hardships pertain-
I940, underlined the importance of photo- ing to their upkeep were acknowledged.90
graphs showing the undamaged state of Large country houses,formerlywell main-
monuments for historians and architects who tained,had fallen into disrepair in the chang-
later would have to repair the damage. ing socio-economic conditions. The report,
Within three months the hastily formed Na- comparing the state of these houses with that
tional Buildings Record appealed with a let- of the monasteries sequestered from papal
ter published in the press for funds and vol- authority in the sixteenth century, blamed
untary aid to document the state of national the taxation system and the difficulty and ex-
monuments.87 With the assistance of two pense of finding people to look after them.In
capable architects, facilities supplied by the fact, it was then a common occurrence that
Royal Institute and the voluntary help of the country houses were abandoned by their
public, the work was executed better and owners or demolished and their contents
faster than expected. The National Build- auctioned or sold to antique dealers. Some
ings Record was thus compiled, comprising owners had bequeathed their stately homes
400,000catalogued negatives,drawings and to the National Trust on the condition that
prints. they be allowed to live in them until their
A unit created by the British army before death;others had retreated to a small section
the invasion of Europe by the Allies and of the building and opened up other parts
placed under the command of the celebrated to paying visitors. Some houses had been
archaeologist Sir Leonard Wooley is note- turned into museums, schools, or old peo-
worthy.88Together with a group of experts ple’s homes. But all these solutions were
recommended by the Royal Institure of Brit- limited and mansions or large properties
ish Architects, it was responsible for protect- were not always suitable for such re-use.
ing abets $art, architecture and archives Although the documentation and treatment
in the war zones of Italy, Greece, Malta, of ancient monuments were well defined,
Austria and Germany.89Thus,the protection protection of private houses was obviously
of monuments was not neglected during the lagging behind.
war; measures taken within the country were The Gowers Report included two basic
extended to other countries, involving the recommendations. The first was the estab-
army itself as well as private and official or- lishment of a council to work with the Royal
ganizations. Commission on Historic Monuments. The
In 1948 a small committee was formed Historic Buildings Council was to be formed
within the Ministry of Finance, under the by the Ministry of Finance and ratified by
chairmanship of Sir Ernest Gowers,to study Parliament.Deriving its authority from the
houses of historic or architectural interest modified Town and Country Planning Act
and to devise methods for their protection, of 1947,it would prepare a list of country
their use and their eventual restoration. houses and propose solutions that would
When no other remedy could be found,the allow their owners to remain in residence.
building was to be made the responsibility of Among other solutions was that of making
the state.In certain cases the contents and the expenses for their maintenance tax-deduct-
house would be treated as one unit. The able.91 Another recommendation was for the
Gowers Report, which took two years to creationof specialized courses for restoration
182 prepare, reveals two significant aspects of architects and technicians.92
 The United Kingdom: institutionalization of individual concern

Plate jr.
Bristol,England,Old Vic and N e w Vic theatres
side by side. [Photo:0British Central Office of
Information.]
From the Middle Ages onwards

Plate 32
Leicester, England,the new roof covering the Old
Market,photographed in 1971.The structure is
formed of joo pyramid-shaped units of glass-
reinforced polyester.Each of the four-sided
pyramids is I I feet square and j f feet high with a
brick-red outer skin and white liner,and filled with
fire-resistant polyurethene foam. The dished units
between rhe supports are designed to act as water
drainage outlets and the roof is carried on columns
which house drainage and cable channels.The new
roof was part of the City of Leicester Corporation’s
restoration scheme for the whole of the centuries-
old cobbled market, which included replacing the
corrugated-ironroof structure,paving the walk-
ways to improve drainage,and installing tungsten
lighting to provide true colour lighting over the
market stalls.[Photo:0British Central Office of
Information.]
 The United Kingdom: institutionalization of individual concern

Although the Gowers Report established to mean mere imitation,and the creation of
certain guidelines which were not always ob- contrasts should be kept in mind as a pos-
served,it can still be considered as a valid sible alternative.95 This approach indicates
document reflecting the attitude of conser- the progress which has led to concepts still
vation policy of the time in the United valid today.
Kingdom. In the search for form,harmony and con-
The financial situation of churches was no tinuity in town planning and street forma-
better than that of country houses. In this tion,96 British experts rely on tradition and
case, however, appeals were made to the the evolution of the concept from Ruskin
public, which responded with enthusiasm. and Morris, followed by other influential
O n the side of the official organizations which defenders of the architectural heritage like
dealt with the public contributionto the cause Bertram Clough William-Ellis,97 William
of conservation,a complicated and seemingly Harvey,98Albert P.Powys,99 Sir John Sum-
haphazard division of labour was noticeable. merson, Osbert Lancaster, Sir John Betje-
For example, when funds were allocated for man, Sir Patrick Abercrombie and Thomas
repairs to a historically important house,the Sharp."JONumerous organizations represent-
permission of the Ministry of Works was re- ing their views carry the responsibility for the
quired.The Ancient Monuments Branch of actual protection of monuments and sites.101
the Ministry,which possessed a team of spe- A recent act requiring the notice of five of
cialists,was charged with the supervision of these institutions,besides that of the Royal
the restorationwork.The other officialbody Commission on Historic Monuments,before
was the Ministry of Housing and Local Gov- the demolition of any listed building gives
ernment,which was concerned with the list- them further legal strength.102
ing of historic buildings and the determina-
tion of their place in future plans. In 1932,
local authorities had acquired (through Build- NOTES
ing Preservation Orders) the right to evaluate
and preserve buildings.In I947 this preroga- I. Private organizations have been influential
tive was ceded to the Ministry of Housing in most European countries; however, in
most cases their influence was advisory, they
together with responsibility for listing for
did not have practical powers as those in
planning purposes.93 For the preparation of
England.
inventories,an advisory council was formed, 2. G.V. Childe, Prehistoric Communities o j the
which included experts such as architects and British Isles, London, Chambers, 1949;for
historians.94 bibliography, see pp. 264-7. R. C.Colling-
The handbook prepared by the Ministry wood and J. N. L. Myres, R o m a n Britain
of Town and Country Planning in 1947 and the English Settlement, Oxford, Clarendon
states that the location,appearance and shape Press, 1937.
of new buildings should be planned in con- 3. M.Beresford,New Towns ojthe Middle Ages;
formity with existing ones, especially those Town Plantation in England, Wales and Gascony,
of historical and architectural significance. N e w York,Praeger, 1967,Almost forty new
settlements were established between the
New buildings should be designed so as to Norman Conquest in 1066 and the end of
harmonize with the appearance of old ones. the twelfth century.
In denser areas of historic buildings, the 4. 'Great epochs of art were times of adventure
height,faqades and colour of new buildings and discovery. History and criticism are
should harmonize with those already exist- pure forms of originality': W.R. Lethaby,
ing.Harmony should not,however,be taken Mediaeval Art,from the Peace of the Church to
From the Middle Ages onwards

the Eve of the Renaissance, jrz-rjjo, p. 61, 17. The architecture of this period, generally
London, 1904. See M.S. Briggs, Goths and placed between 1714and 1800, is known as
Vandals, pp. 9-10, London,Constable,195 2, the Georgian style.
a major sourcefor the history of the concern 18. ‘Generally,the changes made in towns in
for monuments in Britain;see also his M e n of the Georgian Age were unobtrusive, sani-
Taste from Pharaoh to Ruskin, pp. 214-24, tary, and attractive, involving little altera-
London,Batsford,1947. tion of plan-form.A considerable extent of
j. Briggs,Goths and Vandals, op. cit., pp. 9 et rebuilding on old sites replaced wood con-
seq. See also J. Harvey, The Gothic World, struction by brick’:F.Hiorns, Town Building
London, 1950; The Muster Builders, Architec- in History.A n Outline Review of Conditions,In-
ture in the Middle Ages, New York,McGraw- juences, Ideas and Methods Affecting ‘Planned
Hill, 1971;see especially, Conservation of Towns through Five Thousand Years, p. 274,
Buildings, pp. I j 7-77, London,John Baker, London,George G.Harrap, 19j6.
‘972. 19. With about twenty books each to their
6. D.J. Olsen, Town Planning in London, The credit, Batty Langley and William Half-
Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, Figs. penny contributed much to the Gothic
11-14,New Haven,Conn.,Yale University revival.
Press, 1964. 20. The poet Thomas Gray and the novelist
7. Harvey, Conservation of Buildings, op. cit., Horace Walpole led this movement. In his
pp. I j 8 et seq.;for examples of repairs carried correspondence,collected in nineteen vol-
out until the seventeenth century, see umes,Walpole accords great importance to
pp. 161 et seq. historic buildings: see Briggs, Goths and
8. Briggs,Goths and Vandals, op. cit.,pp. 19- Vandals, op. cit.,pp. 122-9. For the devel-
20. opment of neo-classicalarchitecture during
9. Ibid.,pp. 34-3. this period, see J. M.Crook, Neo-Classical
IO. Puritanism was an endeavour to discard the Attitudes in British Architecture 1760-1870,
ways of the Church of Rome and rediscover London,JohnMurray, 1972,which includes
the ‘truths’of religion. a large bibliographical section.
1 1 . Harvey, Consewation of Buildings, op. cit., 21. For the influence of this revival between
p. 165.As a result of changes in religiousand 1720 and 1870, see K.Clark, The Gothic
political views during the reign of Henry Revival, London,John Murray, 1971.
VIII,some protective measures were taken. 22. R.Macaulay, The Pleasure o f Ruins, London,
12. When John Leland (c. 1jo6-52) was ap- Weidenfeld &Nicolson, 19 5 3.
pointed by the King to collect English 23. Interest in the ‘picturesque’, starting at the
works, he showed interest only in manu- end of the seventeenth century,had spread
scripts.H e was limited in his knowledge of to every field of art by the end of the eigh-
architecture.JohnStow,the author ofSurvy teenth century.
of London (published in London by Dent in 24. Harvey, Conservation of Buildings, op. cit.,
19j8), also reveals the same deficiency in pp. 170-1;Monasticon by I(.Dadsworth and
Gothic architecture. A.Dugdale, published in 16jj-73, and A
I3. W. Harvey,The Preservation of St Paul’s Cathe- Sumy of
Cathedrals by B.Willis, published
dral and Other Famous Buildings, London,The in 1727-30. are given as examples. See also
Architectural Press, 192j. B. Langley, Gothic Architecture Improved by
14. Ibid.,pp. 146-7; Briggs,Gothr and Vandals, Rules and Proportions,London,I. &J. Taylor,
op.cit.,pp. 82-93. ‘942.
15. Such as the churches of St Sepulchre at 2). T.Davis,]ohn Nash, The Prince Regent’s Ar-
Holborn, St Dunstan-in-the-East, and St chitect,pp. 73 et seq.,London,Country Life
Michael Cornhill. Limited, 1966.
16. Briggs, Goths and Vandals, op. cit.,pp. 91- 26. Harvey, Conservation of Buildings, op. cit.,
I 86 107. pp. 171-2.
 The United Kingdom: institutionalizationof individual concern

27. Ibid.,p. 173. fluence on Scott of Viollet-le-Duc,who was

28. H.S.Goodhart-Rendel, ‘EnglishGothic Ar- active during the same period.
chitecture of the Nineteenth Century’,Jour- 42. Sir J. N.Summerson adds a fourth person
nal of RIBA, Vol. XXXI,No. 11, j April -W. R.Lethaby;see ‘Ruskin,Morris and the
1924,p. 323. Also quoted by Briggs,Goths “Anti-Scrape” Philosophy’,Historic Preser-
and Vandals,op.cit.,pp. 149-50: ‘Thelower vation T o d q , pp. 21-32, Charlottesville,Va.,
orders in towns were becoming dangerously The University Press of Virginia, 1966.
discontented,and it was plainly the duty of 43. C.Ceschi, Teoria e storia del restauro, pp. 87-
the national church to preach them back 92, Rome, Bulzoni Editore, 1970.For a de-
into a more convenient state of mind. For tailed study, see R. di Stefano,John Ruskin,
the success of this operation,the town poor interprete dell’architettura e del restauro,Naples,
must go to church.’ Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane,1969.
29. Briggs,Gothsand Vandals, op.cit.,pp. 150-1. 44. J. Ruskin, The Seven Lamps of Architecture,
30. Ibid.,p. 1j9. 2nd ed.,p. 3 5 j, London, George Allen &
31. The first issue of The Ecclesiologist published Unwin, 192j.
by the society is remarkable for its emphasis 4J. Ibid.,pp.3J3-7.
on church architecture rather than religion. 46. J. Ruskin, Lectures on Architecture and Paint-
32. Briggs, Goths and Vandals, op.cit.,p. 168. ing, Delivered at Edinburgh in November 1813,
33. Ibid.,p. 163. pp. 108-13, New York, Wiley & Halsted,
34. Harvey, Conservation of Buildings, op. cit., 1856.
pp. 17j-6. For a study of a similar period 47. E.T.Cook and A.Wedderburn (eds.), The
in Turkey, see C.Erder, ‘Mimar ve Tarihi Works of John Ruskin,Vol. XXIV,pp. 401 -
Anitlarin Onarimi Sorunu’,Mimarlik, No. I I, London, George Allen, 1866;Summer-
34, 1966-68,pp. 23-4, and W.Kennet,Pre- son, op.cit.,p. 2 8 .
servation, p. 20, London, Temple Smith, 48. R. Bonelli, ‘Principlesof Architectural and
‘972, Urban Restoration and Conservation’,Eney
3 j . The first reasonably objective evaluation of clopedia of World Art, Vol. XII,1966,cols.
the work of Scott is Briggs, Goths and 194-5. For the movement followjng this
Vandals, op. cit.,pp. I ~ O - Z O Z . in France,see A.Hallays, Enflrinant,le5 idies,
36. G.G.Scott,Personal and Projesszonal Recollec- lesfaits et les oeuvres, Paris, Socikti:d’Editions
tions (edited by his son, S. Low), London, Artistiques, 1900.
Marston,Searle &Remington,1879. 49. C. H.D.Rawnsley, A Nation’s Heritage,
37. Briggs,Goths and Vandals, op.cit.,p. 174. pp. 1 8 et seq.,London,Allen &Unwin, 1920.
3 8. This paper,entitled ‘Onthe Conservationof IO. J. W. Mackail, The Lfe of Willzam Mor-
Ancient Architectural Monuments and Re- ris, New Impressions, London, Longman’s
mains’,was later published as: G.G.Scott, Green, 1899.
‘Gleanings from Westminster Abbey’, I. L. Benevolo, The Origins of Modern Town
in P. Ferriday (ed.), Kctorian Architecture, Planning, p. 146, Cambridge, Mass., MIT
pp. 181-2, London,JonathanCape, 1963. Press, 1971.
39. Though Briggs learned from Scott’s son,J. 2. Mackail,op. cit.,Vol.I,pp. 342 et seq.
0. Scott,that the new fasade of the transept 3. This attitude developed with Morris and is
was reconstructed according to evidence, called ‘anti-scrape’; see Summerson,op. cit.,
the fact that Scott makes no mention of it pp. 28-32; see also Mackail,op.cit.,Vol. I,
arouses suspicion; see Briggs, Goths and p. 346.
Vandals, op.cit.,p. 186. 54. W.Morris, ‘Artand Socialism’,The Collected
40. D.Cole (‘Sir Gilbert Scott’,in Ferriday,op. Works of William Morris, Vol.XXIII,pp. 207
cit., pp. 1 8 2 et seq.) maintains that through et seq.,London, Longman’s Green, 191 j .
these principles Scott showed the way to j j. Ibid.,p. 210.
Ruskin. j 6. Harvey, Conservation of Buildings, op. cit.,
41. It might be relevant to consider the in- pp. 178 et seq.,209-12. ‘87
From the Middle Ages onwards

5 7. W.R.Lethaby,Philip Webb and His Work, book of Sciefitificand Learned Societies of Great
pp. 143-59, London, Oxford University Britain and Ireland, which started publication
Press, 193 5. in 1884.
Briggs, Goths and Vandals, op. cit., pp. 210- 71. Brown,op.cit.,p. I j I. When the first super-
11. visor of monuments appointed in I 882 died,
W.R. Lethaby, ‘The Preservation of An- his post remained unoccupied for a long
cient Architecture, I906’,Form in Civilixation; time.
Collected Papers on A r t and Labour, pp. 234- 72, Ibid.,p. 152; Briggs,Goths and Vandals, op.
42, London,Oxford University Press, 1922. cit., p. 228; Harvey, Conservation of Buildings,
60. Summerson,op.cit.,p. 32. op. cit., p. 185. A decree of 1861,declaring
61. Lethaby,‘Preservationof Ancient Architec- that all antiquities found during excavations
ture’,op.cit., pp. 126 et seq. were Crown property, should also be cited;
62. As references,the hundred volumes of The H.Giesker,Der rechtliche Heimatschutx in der
History of the Counties of England, the twenty- Schweix, pp. 178-9, Aarau, 1910;Kennet,
two volumes of The Sum9 of London, pre- op.cit.,pp. 23 et seq.
pared by the London County Council,and 73. A governmentalcommission was formed in
the work done by the Historical Monuments 1869 to carry out research on documents
Commission can be cited. Briggs,Goths and deemed important from the standpoints of
Vandals, op. cit.,pp. 220-3; G.B.Brown, literature, history, science and law; after
The Care ofAncient Monuments, A n Account of studying over 500 collections in private
Legislative and Other Measures Adopted in Eu- hands, a remarkable archive was formed.
ropean Countries jor Protecting Ancient Monu- During the parliamentary debateson the Act
ments and Objects and Scenes of Natural Beau0 of 1882, the difference in attitudes shown
and for Preservation Aspect of Historical Sites, between ‘writtenand unwritten documents’
pp. 160et seq.,Cambridge University Press, was discussed.
‘905. 74. Some interestingincidents were brought up
63. See list of organizations participating in a during the parliamentary debates of 1882:
conference held in London on this subject in one was that English farmers had acquired
I 897,Brown, op.cit.,pp. I 5 9-60. the habit of using soil from ancient graves
Ibid.,p. 164; SCAPA, A Beautijul World, because it was a good fertilizer. Another
London,1903. related to a wealthy Irish landowner: when
In 1959 it had 70,000 members, each pay- he had a wall built around the ruins of an
ing dues of LI every year. R. R.Fedden, ancient castle he wished to protect, he dis-
‘England’sNational Trust’, Museum News, covered that the builder had u’sedthe same
Vol. XXXVIII,No. I, September 19j9, ruins to acquire stone for the wall.
P.24. 75. Harvey, Conservation of Buildings, op. cit.,
66. For a detailed history of the organization,see p. I 8j ; Kennet,op.cit.,p. 36.
R.R.Fedden,The Continuing Purpose, A History 76. Giesker,op.cit., p. 179.
of the National Trust, Its A i m s and Works, 77. Briggs,Goths and Vandals, op.cit.,p. 228.
London,Longman,1968. 78. Harvey, Conservation of Buildings, op. cit.,
67. The full name of the organization became p. 186.
The National Trust for Places of Historic 79. The work on houses was published in three
Interest and Natural Beauty: Fedden, The small volumes entitled,Indication of Houses of
Continuing Purpose ..., op.cit.,p. 6. Historical Interest in London (London, P. S.
68. Ibid.,pp. 11-12; W.Kennet, Preservation, King &Son).
p. 31, London,Temple Smith,1972, 80. A.Webb, ‘TheOpening Address Delivered
69. More than a million people visited these by PresidentAston Webb’,Journal of RIBA,
during one summer: Fedden, ‘England’s Serial No.111,Vol.XI,1904,p. I I.
National Trust’,op.cit., p. 26. 8I. O n Advisory Boards for England,Wales and
I88 See Brown,op.cit.,pp. 34 et seq.,and Year- Scotland,see Briggs,Goths and Vandals, op.
 The United Kingdom: institutionalizationof individual concern

cit., pp. 228-9; on Ancient Monuments and financial aid for maintenance and re-
Boards, see A. Dale, ‘Listing and Preserv- pairs.
ing Historic Buildings: The European 92. In 19j0, University College London started
Picture’, The Architectural Review, Vol. to conduct courses for architects on the con-
CXXXVIII,NO.822, 196j,pp. 97-104. servation of old buildings.
The council gained legislative strength in 93. H.Stewart, ‘BriefSummary of the Act of
1938,see Briggs,Goths and Vandals, op.cit., 1947, Designed for Simplified Reference’,
PP.238-9. Jorrrnal of the Town Planning Institute, Vol.
For some fifteen acts dealing with historic XXXII1,No.6, 1947,pp. 166-9.
monuments enacted up to 1967,see Cam- 94. By establishing Civic Trusts as from 19j7,
bridgeshire and Isle of Ely County Council, local authorities regulated the relationship
A Guide to Historic Buildings L a w , County between private organizationsand thus ren-
Planning Department, 1967, and Kennet, dered public control more efficient. It was
op. cit.,pp. 44-6. closely associated with the drafting of the
J. M. Richards and J. N. Summerson, Civic Amenities Act, 1967,which created
Bombed Buildings of Britain, London, Archi- the concept of the Conservation Area, and
tectural Press, 1947;W.Kent,L m t Treawres of the Town and Country Amenities Act,
of London, London,Dent, 1947;Ministry of 1974. At the request of the government,it
Works, W a r and Archaeology in Britain, Lon- provided the United Kingdom Secretariat
don, ‘949. for European Architectural Heritage Year
These bombardments were called ‘Baedeker 1975,
raids’after the famous German guidebooks; 91. Ministry of Town and Country Planning,
Briggs (Goths and Vandals, op. cit., p. 2 3 2 ) Adviror Handbook on the Redevelopment of
cites the rumour that the Germans had Central Areas, pp. 72-3, H is Majesty’s Sta-
threatened to wipe out Oxford and Cam- tionery Ofice,London,1947.
bridge if the British bombed the university 96. For a critical study of British experience in
city of Heidelberg. city planning,see C.Buchanan,The State of
Ministry of Works,op. cit. Britain, London, Faber & Faber, 1972.H e
The Times, 26 February 1941;Briggs, Goths says,‘Whata country does with its land is an
and Vandals, op.cit.,p. 234. index of its level of culture.’
This must be compared with art critics who 97. B.C.William-Ellis,O n Trirstfor the Nation,
accompanied Napoleon’s army during its London,Paul Elek, 1947.
invasions. 98. W.Harvey,Preservation of St PauPs Cathedral,
A n account of their achievements was pub- pp. 102 et seq.,London,1925.
lished by His Majesty’s Stationery Office in 99. A. R.Powys, Repair and Ancient Buildings,
194j-46. See also L.Woolley,‘ThePreser- London, 1929; The English Parish Church,
vation of Historical Architecture in the W a r pp. 160-j, London, Longman’s,Green &
Zones’, Joirrnal of RIBA, Vol. j3, 1941, Co.,1930.
pp. 3 1-42. 100. For numerous articles on the conservation
Briggs,Goths and Vandals, op. cit.,pp. 2 3 j et of monuments in Britain,consult the Archi-
seq. tectural Review, the Journal of RIBA and the
His Majesty’sTreasury,Houses of Outstanding Transactions of the Ancient Monuments Societ_.
Hzstoric or Architectural Interest,London,His I O I . Over j 00 large and small organizations con-
Majesty’s Stationery Office, 19jo. This re- cerned with the conservation of monuments
port also explains the difference between could be cited:R.R.Garvey, ‘EuropePro-
‘negativeand positive preservation’.Nega- tects Its Monuments’,With Heritage so Rich,
tive preservation prevents misuse and basic p. I j4,New York,Random House, 1966.
transformation of a building, but does not 102. These are: the Ancient Monuments Society;
help it to continue to function.Positive pre- the Council for British Archaeology; the
servation provides technical information Georgian Group; the Society for Protection ’89
From the Middle Ages onwards

of Ancient Buildings; and the Victorian Care of Old Buildings Todq, a Practical Guide,
Society; see Harvey, The Conservation of p. 14, London, The Architectural Press,
Buddings, op. cit., p. 206; D.W.Insall, The 1973;Kennet, op. cit.,pp. 49 et seq.
 Conclusion

Contemporary man has more power over his problematic but,by their nature,they can be
environment than ever before.There is little clearly defined and attacked, whereas ethical
doubt, however, that this power has fre- questions are often impossible to resolve
quently been misused and abused. Natural within a consensus. Failure to protect the
scientists and designers of the man-madeen- historical heritage has sometimesbeen attrib-
vironment have realized the necessity for in- uted to ‘cultural discontinuity,’as in the
terdisciplinary co-operation.The idea that case of Turkey.Changing values,beliefs and
architects can only collaborate with other behaviour patterns of people,whose support
architects has become outdated.They have is indispensable for firmly established and
also acknowledged the diversity in the per- effective conservation,are increasingly being
ception of the environment by various indi- taken into consideration. Administrative
viduals or groups.’The process of developing and legislative measures are, however, still
technology,which alienated designers of the favoured over long-term endeavours to se-
physical environment from the people they cure public support. As long as no need is
were working for,has ended. Furthermore, taken of social realities,complaints about the
the role of the environment on the shap- destructiveness of the priority given to
ing of man has been verified by different economic development and material gain
branches of natural and social sciences.The and the proposing of solutions to technical
same variety of disciplines should contribute problems w ill not be sufficient to tackle the
to the design process. The task does not lie complicated range of problems concerned.3
in the domain of a single architect. The widening of the concept from ‘his-
The values inherentin the definition of the toric building and its environment’to ‘his-
place of a historic building or site within the toric site’,from ‘monument’to ‘culturalprop-
environment becomes a complicated issue. erty’ as defined by the Charter of Venice, is
The specialist (usually an architect) respon- also an acknowledgement of the social im-
sible for resolving the conflicting priorities plications of the subject.The trend to include,
and values concerned with fitting an often among other things, the natural environ-
functionally obsolete object in plans for the ment has been a process over time, which is
future must take into consideration the es- also reflected in the development of legal
tablishment of continuity between past and measures. The wide-ranging concept, how-
future, and the effects of his decisions on ever,involves the risk of causing digressions
people-as well as on the built environ- in specific endeavours or discouragement in
ment.2The effectiveness of such decisions w ill face of the dimensions of the task.
otherwise be seriously questioned. In spite of the growing number of publi-
Technical aspects of conservation can be cations since the Second World W a r on con- ‘9’
Conclusion

servation programmes, organization, legal of the future lie in the past and acknowledge
aspects, documentation, survey, laboratory the influence of the environmenton man and
work,remedies for various kinds of deterior- on his culturalshaping,then w e should accept
ation,materials and technical education,the that conscious, rational and effective so-
field of conservation is still far from becom- lutions lie in such an approach.
ing a science in the true sense of the word.
It is in the process of developing scientific
methods to deal with specific problems. In
the process, further specialization must be NOTES
expected, leaving architects to co-ordinate I. Ibn Khaldun (I 3 3 t- 1406)reflects on this mat-
teams of experts from various fields.4 ter: the centre of Ibn Khaldun’s universe is
In addition to the misleading conse- man, and he is in harmony with his physical
quences of failure in detailed study and re- environment.Changes in the environment af-
search, and insufficiency of technical exper- fect and shape his character,habits and out-
tise, the nature of the subject lends itself look, The Mugaddimah, A n Introduction to His-
easily to speculation on matters like aesthe- toy (trans.by F. Rosenthal), p. x, London,
tics,art and culture.The continuous progress Routledge &Kegan Paul Ltd,1967.
z. For the relationship between monuments and
in the field necessitates the acknowledgement
man, see Collogue sur les monuments et la rocit%,
of its dynamic character and the lack of a Leningrad, 2-8 Sepfember 1969, Paris,
stable medium affects all interventions. ICOMOS,1971;H.F.Joway,‘L’environment
By evaluating the development of con- urbain, des ensembles anciens: leur valeur
sciousness within the dense historical envi- sociale,’I[ monumento per fuomo, pp. 7j-So,
ronment of Italy, the basic principles estab- Padova,Marsilio Editori,1971.
lished in France, the respectful individual 3. H.J. van der Berg,‘ThePreservation of His-
approach and efforts to harmonize old and toric Monuments and Groups of Buildings in
new in Great Britain within the scientific Studies in Economics, Social and Demo-
progress and continuous development of con- graphic Research Undertaken for Planning
Purposes’, Active Maintenance and Regional
cepts in conservation,numerous lessons can
Planning, 5jmporium,DCCC,pp. 15-86, Stras-
be found for countries that are in the process bourg,Council of Europe,1967.
of defining their own procedures, provided 4. W.J. Locke, ‘The Sixth International Con-
they take into consideration their own cul- gress of Architects, 1904,Madrid, Report of
tural, social and political realities as well as the Secretary of the Institute,’JournalofRIBA,
economic means. If w e believe that the roots Serial No.111,Vol.XI,1904,p. 344.
Appendix I
O n restoration:
EugZne Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc
(18 I4-79Y

The term ‘restoration’and the thing itselfare Hadrian undertook the rehabilitation of
both modern.To restore a building is not to several public buildings in Ancient Greece
preserve it, to repair or rebuild it; it is to and Asia Minor, he proceeded after a fash-
reinstate it in a condition of completeness ion against which all the archaeological so-
which could never have existed at any given cieties of Europe, had they then existed,
time. It is only since the first quarter of the would have protested:though he made some
present century that the idea of restoring claim to antiquarian knowledge.W e cannot
buildings of another age has been enter- consider the renovation of the Temple of the
tained; and w e are not aware that a clear Sun at Baalbec as a restoration but as a re-
definition of architectural restoration has as building in the style then prevailing. The
yet been given.Perhaps it may be as well to Ptolemies themselves, who affected ar-
endeavour at the outset to gain an exact no- chaism,did not altogether respect the forms
tion of what w e understand or ought to un- of the buildings of the old dynasties of
derstand by restoration;for it is evident that Egypt, but replaced them according to the
considerable ambiguity has insensibly ga- fashion of their own times.As to the Greeks,
thered about the meaning w e attach,or ought so far from restoring,-that is to say, from
to attach,to this operation. reproducing exactly the forms of the edifices
W e have said that both the word and the which had suffered decay,-they evidently
thing itself are modern; and, in fact, no believed it better to give the stamp of the day
civilization,no people of bygone ages, has to repairs that had become necessary.Build-
conceived the idea of making restorations in ing a triumphal arch like that of Constantine
the sense in which w e comprehend them. in Rome,with fragments torn from the Arch
In Asia,both in ancient and modern times, of Trajan, is neither a restoration nor a re-
when a temple or a palace has become dilapi- construction; it is an act of vandalism-a
dated, another has been, or is now, erected barbarian pilfering. Nor can the covering
beside it. Its decay is not regarded as a reason with stucco of the architecture of the Temple
for destroying the ancient edifice; it is left to to Fortuna Virilis,at Rome,be considered as
the action of time,which lays hold of it as its a restoration-it is a mutilation.
rightful possessor and gradually consumes it. The middle ages had no more of the sen-
The Romans replaced,but did not restore;a timent of restoration than the ancients; far
proof of which is that there is no Latin word
corresponding with our term ‘restoration’in I. Dictonnaire raisonni de Parchitecture franfaise du
its modern sense. ‘Instaurare’, ‘rejcere’, ‘ren- ,YIe au sitkle, Paris, A. Norel & Cie,
ovare’ do not mean ‘to restore’,but ‘to rein- 1868-74; trans.by Charles Wethered, London,
state’-‘to make anew’.When the Emperor Sampson Low & Searle, 1 8 7 ~ . ‘93
Appendices

from it. If it became necessary to replace a the origin of European languages,all issuing
broken capital in an edifice of the twelfth from the same source. The ethnologist ex-
century, it was a capital of the thirteenth, tends his labours to the study of races and
fourteenth or fifteenth century that was sub- their aptitudes.Lastly,comes the archaeolo-
stituted for it. If on a long frieze of crockets gist who, investigating the productions of
of the thirteenth century, a portion, or a art from India to Egypt and Earope, com-
single one, should be wanting, it was an pares, discusses and discriminates them, un-
ornament in the taste of the day that was masking their origins and their affiliations;
inserted.Thus it often happened that before and by the analytical method succeeds grad-
an extremely careful study had been devoted ually in co-ordinating them according to
to the styles of various periods,archaeologists certain laws. To see in this process a mere
were led to regard these modifications as caprice,a fashion of the hour or a state of
anomalies,and to give a wrong date to frag- moral distemper is to judge hastily a fact of
ments which should have been regarded as considerableimportance.As well might it be
interpolationsin a text. asserted that all the facts revealed by science
W e might say that it is as unadvisable to since Newton's time, are the result of a
restore by reproducing a facsimile of all that caprice of the human mind.If the fact is con-
w e find in a building, as by presuming to siderable as a whole,how can it be destitute
substitute for later forms those which must of importance in its details? All the labours
have existed originally.In the first case,the above referred to are linked together,and co-
good faith and sincerity of the artist may lead operate with each other.If the European has
to the gravest errors, by consecrating what reached this phase in the development of the
may be called an interpolation;in the second, human intellect,that while advancing with
the substitution of a primary form for an redoubled speed towards the destinies of the
existing one of a later period,also obliterates future, and perhaps even because he ad-
the traces of a reparation, whose cause, if vances thus rapidly,he feels the necessity of
known, would perhaps have rendered evi- collecting all that belongs to his past, just
dent the existence of an exceptional arrange- as w e collect a large library to prepare for
ment.W e shall explain this presently. future labours,is it rational to accuse him of
Our age has adopted an attitude towards being led by a caprice, an ephemeral phan-
the past in which it stands quite alone among tasy? O n the other hand, are not the back-
historical ages. It has undertaken to analyse ward and the blind the very persons who
the past, to compare and classify its pheno- disdain these studies,pretending to regard
mena and to construct its veritable history, them as useless rubbish? Is not, on the con-
by following step by step the march,the pro- trary,the dispelling of prejudices and the dis-
gress,the successive phases of humanity. So interment of forgotten truths one of the most
remarkable a fact cannot be, as some super- efficient means of furthering progress?
ficial thinkers suppose, a mere fashion, a Should our time have nothing to transmit
caprice or a weakness,for the phenomenon is to future ages but this new method of study-
a complex one.Cuvier,by his works on com- ing the monuments of the past-whether in
parative anatomy, and by his geological re- the material or the moral sphere-it will
searches, unveiled all at once to the eyes of have deserved the gratitude of posterity. But
his contemporaries the history of the world w e know also that our age is not satisfied
before the reign of man.Imagination follows with casting a scrutinizing glance behind it;
him with eagerness along this novel path. this work of retrospection cannot fail to de-
'94 Next comes the philologist,who discovers velop the problems presented by the future
 Appendices

and to facilitate their solution.Synthesis fol- But what shall w e say of those fanatics
lows in the wake of analysis. who are the seekers of treasures of a certain
These investigators of the past-these kind, who do not allow us to delve in a
archaeologists who patiently disinter those ground which they have neglected, but re-
fragmentary remains of the arts which had gard the past as a material to be worked by a
been supposed to be lost-have to conquer monopoly, and loudly assert that humanity
prejudices studiously fostered by the nu- has produced results worth collecting only
merous class of persons for whom every during certain historical periods defined by
discovery-each new horizon-is the loss of themselves;who presume to tear out entire
tradition, that is to say, of a conveniently chapters of the history of human achieve-
tranquil state of mind.The story of Galileo is ments; who set themselves up as censors of
applicable to all times. It presents itself one the whole class of archaeologists, saying:
or two steps higher, but it always reappears ‘Such or such a vein is insalubrious,do not
on the ladder which humanity is ascending. disturb it; if you bring it to light w e will
W e may remark, in passing,that the periods denounce you to your contemporariesas cor-
marked by a great movement in advance rupters!’This was the treatment experienced
have always been distinguished by at least a a few years ago by men who passed their
partial study of the past. In the West, the lives in bringing to light the arts, the cos-
twelfth century was a veritable renaissance, tumes,and the literature of the middle ages.
political,social,and philosophic, of art and If these fanatics have diminished in number,
of literature; at the same time some men those who persist are only the more violent
aided this movement by researches into the in their attacks, and have adopted a line of
past. The sixteenth century presented the tactics capable of deceiving people who are
same phenomena. Archaeologists therefore little inclined to look deeply into things.
need not feel very uneasy at the charge of They reason thus:‘Youstudy yourselves and
retardation which some have presumed to you undertake to make us acquainted with
bring against them; for not only in France, the arts of the middle ages; therefore you
but throughout Europe their labours are wish to make us return to the middle ages,
appreciated by a public eager to penetrate and you prohibit the study of classical anti-
with them into the recesses of anterior ages. quity; if you could have your way, there
And if these archaeologistsoccasionally leave would be oubliettes in every prison, and a
the dust of the past to throw themselves into torture-room attached to courts of justice.
polemics, it is not time lost; for polemics You talk to us about the labours of the
engender ideas,and induce a more attentive monks; therefore you want to take us back
examination of doubtful problems; contra- to the monastic regime,to tithes,-to bring
diction helps to solve them.Let us not then us again into subjecting to an enervating
bring accusations against those whose intel- asceticism. You tell us about feudal castles;
lects riveted to the contemplation of the pre- therefore you must be opposed to the prin-
sent,or attached to prejudices dignified with ciples of ’89,and if you had your way, forced
the name of tradition,close their eyes against labour would be restored.’
the treasures disinterred from the past, and The amusing part of the matter is that
presume to make the date of their own birth these fanatics (we keep to the word) lavish
that of humanity;for w e are thus forced to on us the epithet exclusive,probably because
make up for their short-sightedness,and to w e do not exclude the study of medieval art,
show them more distinctly the result of our and even venture to recommend it.
researches. W e shall be asked, perhaps, what relation ’9j
Appendices

these wranglings can have with the subjectof tain individuals who, not being artists, were
this article:w e will answer the question.Ar- beyond the reach of the academical lash,
chitects in France are in no hurry. Towards opened the campaign by labours which were
the end of the first quarter of the present very remarkable for the time at which they
century medieval studies had already been were undertaken.
earnestly taken up;but architects still saw in In 1830, M.Vitet was appointed Inspector
Gothic vaulting only the imitation of Ger- General of Historical Monuments. That ac-
man forests (it was a consecrated phrase), complished writer was able to bring to bear
and in the pointed arch only diseased art. on these novel functions,not great archae-
The pointed arch is a broken curve,therefore ological knowledge-which no one could
it is in a state of disease: that is conclusive. then be expected to possess-but a spirit of
The churches of the middle ages, despoiled criticism and of analysis which first threw
during the Revolution, deserted, darkened light on the history of our ancient buildings.
by time and decayed by damp, presented In I 81 I M.Vitet addressed to the Minister of
only the aspect of large empty tombs. Hence the Interior a vivid and methodical report on
the funereal phrases of Kotzebue, which the inspection to which he had devoted him-
have been repeated after him. The interior self in the northern dipartements, and which
of Gothic buildings inspired only gloom suddenly disclosed to enlightened minds
(which may be readily conceived in the state treasures till then unknown;a report which
to which they had been reduced). The open- even at the present day is regarded as a mas-
work spires looming in the haze called forth terpiece ofits kind.W e shall venture to cite a
romantic effusions;-descriptions of the few extracts from it: ‘I am aware,’ says the
lace-workof stone,the pinnacles raised aloft author,
upon buttresses, the elegant clustered col-
umns sustaining fretted ceilings at fearful that in the estimation of many who are author-
heights.These witnesses to the piety (others ities, it is strangely paradoxical to speak seriously
say the fanaticism) of our forefathers,only of the sculpture of the middle ages. If w e are to
believe them, there has been no such thing as
reflected a kind of mental condition, half
sculpture in Europe from the time of the Anto-
mystical, half barbarous, in which caprice nines to that of Francis the First;and statuaries
reigned paramount.It is needless to enlarge have been nothing more than rude and uncul-
here on these high-soundingcommon-places tivated masons. It is sufficient,however, to have
which were in vogue in I ~ Z Jbut , which are eyes and a little candour of judgement to see the
no longer found except in the pages of jour- erroneous character of this prejudice,and to elicit
nals that are behind the times. Be that as it the acknowledgement that at the close of the age
may, these empty phrases, aided by the of pure barbarism there arose in medieval times a
Muske des Monuments Fraqais and a few noble school of sculpture characterized by grand-
collections like those of D u Sommerard, eur and beauty, inheriting the procedures and
even the style of ancient art,although quite mod-
became the means of inducing several archi-
ern in its spirit and its effects; and which, like
tects to examine with interest these remnants
every other school,had its phases and its changes,
of the ages of ignorance and barbarism. that is to say its infancy,its maturity,and its de-
Somewhat superficial and timid at first, this cline.,.. W e should, therefore, esteem ourselves
examination did not the less provoke some fortunate when chance discovers to us in a well-
sharp remonstrances. The delineation of sheltered nook, which the hammer could not
these buildings, erected by the Goths, as reach, some fragment of this noble and beautiful
some sage persons used to say, had to be sculpture.
secretly accomplished.Then it was that cer-
 Appendices

And further on, as if to contravene the in- tirety and in its minutest details, of a fortress of
fluence of the sepulchral phraseology made the middle ages, the reproduction of its interior
use of in the description of medieval build- decoration,even to its furniture;in a word giving
ings,M.Vitet thus expresses himself apropos back its form,its colour,and-if I may venture to
of colouring as applied to architecture: say so-its former life; such is the undertaking
which suggested itself to m e immediately on en-
In fact, recent travels and incontestable proofs tering the enclosure of the Chiteau de Coucy.
have now removed all doubt that ancient Greece Those enormous towers, that colossal keep,
extended the taste for colour so far as to have seem-under some aspects-as if built but
covered with painting even the exterior of its yesterday.And in their dilapidated portions what
buildings;our savants,however,on the strength interesting vestiges cf painting,of sculpture,and
of a few bits of untinted marble, have for three of interior arrangements! What subjects for the
centuries led us to imagineits architecture as cold imagination! H o w many trustworthy landmarks
and uncoloured. Much the same has been done to guide us in the discovery of the past; to say
with regard to the middle ages.It happened that nothing of the ancient plans of Cerceau, which,
at the end of the sixteenth century,thanks to Prot- though incorrect,may also give important aid!
estantism,pedantry, and many other causes,our Hitherto this species of labour has been de-
imagination becoming every day less lively,less voted to the buildings of classical antiquity alone.
natural, and more dull-if w e may so call it- I believe that in the medieval domain it might lead
people set to work to whitewash the beautifully to results still more satisfactory;for the indica-
decorated churches: Naked walls and wainscot- tions w e follow,having as their basis facts more
ings became the fashion, and if a few internal recent and buildings more complete,what is often
painted decorationswere still allowed,it was only only conjecture with regard to antiquity would
as it were in miniature.Because this has been the become almost certainty if the middle ages were in
state of things for two or three hundred years,w e question: The restorations I have been speaking
are in the habit of concluding that it was always of,for example,confronted with the Chiteau such
so,and that these unfortunate buildings appeared as it exists now, would encounter, I venture to
from time immemorial pale and bare as they are say,very few incredulous critics.
now.But ifyou observe them attentively,you w ill
very soon discover some remnants of their old
T h e programme so vigorously sketched
dress:wherever the whitewash has scaled off you
find the original painting..., by the illustrious critic thirty-fouryears ago,
w e now see realized, not on paper, not in
In concluding his report on the ancient perishable drawings,but in stone,wood,and
buildings of the northern provinces visited iron in a castle not less interesticg, that of
by him, M.Vitet, having been remarkably Pierrefonds. M a n y events have occurred
impressed by the imposing aspect of the since the presentation of the Inspector
ruins of the ChBteau de Coucy, addresses to General's Report on the Historical Monu-
the minister this request, which has at the ments in 1831;many discussions on art have
present day a significanceof extreme interest: been raised; still the seed first sown by
M.Vitet has borne its fruit.M.Vitet was the
In concludinghere what concerns the monuments first to interest himself seriously in the resto-
and their preservation, allow me, Monsieur le
ration of our ancient buildings; he was the
Ministre,to add a few words respecting a monu-
ment more wonderful and valuable perhaps first to enunciate practical views on this sub-
than any of which I have been speaking,and whose ject: the first to bring criticism to bear on
restoration I purpose to attempt. It is indeed a work of this kind. T h e way was opened;
restoration which w ill require neither stones nor other critics and other m e n of learning have
cement, but only a few sheets of paper. The re- entered upon it, and artists have followed in
construction, or rather the reinstating in its en- their track. '97
Appendices

Fourteen years later, the same writer, plete demonstrations.Much remains to be done;
faithful to the work he had so well begun, but the results obtained are such as to render it
wrote the history of Noyon Cathedral; certain that the object aimed at will some day be
and in that remarkable work he thus bears satisfactorilyaccomplished.
witness to the stages passed through by the
savants and artists devoted to the same W e should have to cite the greater part of the
studies: text to show how far its author had advanced
in the study and appreciation of the arts of
In fact, to know the history of an art it is not the middle ages,and how light dawned in the
enough to determinethe differentperiods through
midst of the darkness that overspread them.
which it has passed in any given place;it is neces-
sary to trace its progress in all the localities in
‘It is,’ says M.Vitet, after having clearly
which it has appeared,to indicate the varieties of demonstrated that the architecture of those
form it has successively assumed,and to present a times is a complete art, with new laws and a
comparative sketch of all its varieties, having rationalprocedure of its own,‘fromnot hav-
regard not only to each notion but to each pro- ing our eyes open that we treat all these
vince of a country.... It is with this double view truths as chimeras,and shut ourselves up in a
and in this spirit that almost all the researches contemptuousincredulity.’
undertaken among us in reference to medieval At that time M.Vitet had given up the
buildings during the last twenty years have been Inspector Generalship of Historical Monu-
conducted.About the beginning of the present
ments;since I 83 j its functions had been en-
century some English and German savants had
already set us the example, by essays especially
trusted to one of the most distinguished in-
devoted to the edifices of these two countries. tellects of our time-M. Mkrimke. It was
Their works had no sooner found their way into under these two sponsors that a first nucleus
France-Normandy, in particular-than they of artists was formed,of young men desirous
excited a lively emulation there. In Alsace, Lor- of gaining an intimate knowledge of these
raine,Languedoc,and Poitou-in fact in all our forgotten arts; it was under their wise inspi-
provinces-the love for studiesof this kind rapid- ration, guided always by severe criticism,
ly extended;and in every quarter w e are working, that restorations were undertaken, at first
investigating,preparing and collecting materials. with great reserve,but soon more boldly and
Unhappily fashion, which creeps in and mixes
on a more extensive scale. From I 83 5 to
itself up with everything new,very frequently to
I 848,M.Vitet presided over the Commission
spoil it, has not respected this infant science,and
has perhaps somewhat endangered its progress. des Monuments Historiques;and during this
The world is in a hurry to enjoy;they have asked period a great number of buildings, of the
for easy methods of learning,which would enable Roman and medieval periods in France,were
them to give a date to every building they saw. studied and also preserved from ruin.It must
On the other hand, a few studious men, carried be observed that the idea of restoration was
away by excess of zeal,have been betrayed into a then quite novel. Leaving out of view the
dogmatism not sustained by proof, and bristling restorations made in previous ages, and
with trenchant assertions, calculated to produce which were only substitutions,attempts had
incredulity among those w h o m they undertake to
indeed been made since the beginning of the
convert.But despite these drawbacks, which are
inseparable from every new intellectual pursuit,
century to give an idea of the arts of elder
the real workers continue their labours with pa- times by compositions,which though some-
tience and moderation. The fundamental truths what fanciful,aimed at reproducing ancient
are ascertained;the science exists;it only remains forms.M.Len&, in the Muske des Monu-
to consolidate and to extend it, by getting rid of ments Franqais formed by him, had tried to
notions that impede it, and by completing incom- arrange in chronological order all the frag-
 Appendices

ments saved from destruction.But it must be a kind of specimen of the development of art
confessed that the imagination of the cele- in France from the thirteenth to the sixteenth
brated conservator was more conspicuous in century.Funds were appropriated by the em-
this work than learning and criticism.It was peror to this restoration; but from the
thus, for example, that the tomb of Heloi'se beginning of the works the effect so little
and AbClard, now transferred to the Eastern answered his expectations that the architect
cemetery, was composed;with arcades and to whom the commission had been given
colonnettes from the aisle of the abbey was reproached somewhat severely by the
church of St Denis and bas-reliefs from the emperor,and, it is said, took this treatment
tombs of Philip and Louis (brother and son so much to heart that he died of chagrin.
of St Louis), heads from the Lady Chapel of This unfortunate church of St Denis was a
St Germain des Pr&, and two statues of the sort of anatomical subject on which artists
beginning of the fourteenth century.It was who first entered on the path of restoration
thus that the statues of Charles V and Jeanne made their first essays in restoration.During
de Bourbon from the tomb of St Denis were thirty years it suffered every possible mutila-
placed on wainscoting of the sixteenth cen- tion;to such a degree in fact that its stability
tury,taken from the chapel of the Chgteau de being endangered, after considerable outlay
Gaillon and surmounted by a canopy of the and when its ancient dispositions had been
close of the thirteenth century;that the so- altered, and all the fine monuments it con-
called hall of the fourteenth century was dec- tained tumbled about,it became necessary to
orated with arcading from the roodscreen of conclude this costly series of experiments,
the Sainte Chapelle, and the thirteenth- and to revert to the programme laid down
century statues placed against the columns of with respect to restoration by the Com-
the same edifice; that for want of a Louis IX mission des Monuments Historiques.
and a Marguerite de Provence,the statues of W e proceed, then, to explain the pro-
Charles V and of Jeannede Bourbon,which gramme now adopted in England and in
formerly decorated the portal ofthe Celestins Germany, which have preceded us in the
at Paris,had been christened by the name of path of the theoretical study of ancient art, a
the sainted king and his wife.' The MusCe programme accepted also in Italy and Spain,
des Monuments FranGais having been de- which seek in their turn to bring criticism to
stroyed in 1816, the confusion was only in- bear on the preservation of their ancient
creased among this collection of monuments, buildings.This programme lays down at the
which were transferred for the most part to outset the general principle that every build-
St Denis. ing and every part of a building should be
By the desire of the Emperor Napoleon I, restored in its own style,not only as regards
who was in everything in advance of his appearance but structure. There have been
times, and who comprehended the impor- few buildings,particularly during the middle
tance of restorations,this church of St Denis ages,built all at one time; or if so built,that
was intended not only to serve as a place of have not undergone some considerable
sepulture for the new dynasty but to present modifications, either by additions, trans-
formations,or partial changes.It is therefore
I. It has happened,as a result of this substitution, essential, previous to every work of repair,
that nearly every painter and sculptor, since to ascertain exactly the age and character of
that time, who has been commissioned to rep- each part-to form a kind of specification
resent these personages,has given to St Louis based on trustworthy records,either by writ-
the head of Charles V. ten description or by graphical represen- '99
Appendices

tation. Moreover in France each province been disturbed,be re-established;or, should

has its own style-a school whose principles the whole with the later modifications be ex-
and practical methods should be ascertained. actly reproduced?In such a case the absolute
Data derived from a building of the Ile-de- adoption of one of the two alternatives may
France cannot therefore serve as a guide to be objectionable;and it may be necessary,on
restoration in an edifice of Champagne or the contrary, to admit neither of the two
Burgundy.These diversities of schools exist principles absolutely,but to proceed accord-
to a rather late period: they follow a law to ing to the special circumstances of the case.
which there are many exceptions. Thus, for What are these special circumstances? It
example,while the fourteenth-centuryart of would be impossible to indicate all: it will
Sequanian Normandy bears a great similarity suffice to call attention to some of the most
to that of the Ile-de-Franceat the same important,so as to exemplify the critical side
epoch,the Norman renaissance differs essen- of the work. In preference to the posses-
tially from the renaissance of Paris and its sion of every other accomplishment-
environs.In some southern provinces the ar- archaeological skill among the rest-the ar-
chitecture called Gothic was at no time any- chitect entrusted with a restoration should be
thing other than an importation: a Gothic a clever and experienced builder,not only in
building at Clermont,for instance,might be a general but a special sense;that is to say,he
the product of one school,and at the same should be acquainted with the methods of
epoch a building at Carcassonne of another. construction employed at different periods
The architect entrusted with a restoration of our art and in the various schools.These
should therefore be exactly acquainted,not methods have a comparative value; they are
only with the style appertaining to each ngt equally good. Some, indeed,had to be
period of art, but also with the styles belong- abandoned because of their defective charac-
ing to each school. It is not in the middle ter. Thus,for example,an edifice built in the
ages alone that these diversities are met with, twelfth century, and which had no gutters
the same phenomenon presents itself in the under the eaves of the roofs, had to be re-
buildings of Greek and Roman antiquity. stored in the thirteenth century and fur-
The Roman buildings of the Antonine pe- nished with gutters combined with escapes.
riod,which cover the south of France,differ The whole of the crown work is in a bad
in many respectsfrom the buildings in Rome state; and an entire renewal is contemplated.
of the same period.The Roman of the eastern Should the thirteenth-century gutters be
shores of the Adriatic cannot be confounded done away with in order to replace the an-
with the Roman of Central Italy,of Provence, cient twelfth-centurycornice,of which traces
or of Syria. are also found? Certainly not: the cornice-
But to confine ourselves to the middle gutter of the thirteenth century should be
ages: difficulties multiply in problems of res- replaced, retaining the form of this period,
toration. It has frequently happened that since there is no such thing as a cornice-
buildings of a certain period, or of a certain gutter of the twelfth century:and to put a
school,have been repaired again and again, hypothetical one, pretending to give it the
and that by artists who do not belong to the character of the architecture of that period,
province where the edifice is found.This has would be to commit an anachronism in
been an occasion of considerable embarrass- stone. Again: the vaulting of a nave of the
ment. If both the original and the altered twelfth century had by some accident been
parts are to be restored,should the latter be partially destroyed, and rebuilt at a later
200 disregarded,and the unity of style,which has period,not in its primitive form,but accord-
 Appendices

ing to the mode then in vogue. This latter blocks to prevent the recurrence of the acci-
vaulting,threatening in its turn to give way, dents which have necessitated our operation.
has to be reconstructed. Shall it be restored But some of these pillars have had their sec-
in its later form,or shall the primitive vault- tions altered in consequence of changes
ing be replaced? Yes; because there is no ad- which it was desired the building should un-
vantage in doing otherwise,and there is a dergo, changes vhich in respect of the pro-
considerable advantage in restoring unity to gress of art, are of great importance, such,
the edifice.The question here is not,as in the for instance,as occurred at Notre D a m e in
previous example, that of preserving an im- Paris,in the fourteenth century.Shall we, in
provement made on a defective system, but rebuilding them, destroy that so-interesting
one in which w e have to bear in mind that trace of a project which was not entirely car-
the later restoration was made according to ried out,but which indicates the tendencies
the ancient method-which consisted in of a school?No:w e shall reproduce them in
adopting the forms in vogue at the time, their altered form,since these alterations m a y
when an edifice had to be renewed or serve to throw light upon a point in the his-
restored-whereas w e proceed on a contrary tory of art. In an edifice of the thirteenth
principle-that of restoring every building century,where the water ran off by means of
in its own style.But this vaulting,which is of drips-as in the cathedral of Chartres, for
a character foreign to the first, and which has instance-it was thought necessary during
to be rebuilt,is remarkably beautiful. It has the fifteenth century to add gargoyles to the
given occasion to the opening of windows gutters,for the better regulations of the es-
adorned with fine painted glass. It has been cape. These gargoyles are in a bad state and
contrived in harmony with a system of ex- have to be replaced. Shall w e on the pretext
ternal construction of great value. Shall all of unity substitute gargoyles of the thir-
this be destroyed for the mere sake of an teenth century for them? No: for w e should
absolute restoration of the primitive nave? thus destroy the traces of an interesting
Shall this painted glass be consigned to the primitive arrangement.O n the contrary,w e
lumber room? Shall exterior buttresses and shall persist in following the later work, ad-
flying buttresses,which no longer have any- hering to its style.
thing to support, be left purposeless? No, Between the buttresses of a nave, chapels
certainly.W e see, therefore,that in solving have been afterwards added. The walls
problems of this kind, absolute principles beneath the windows of these chapels and
may lead to absurdities. the jambs of the windows do not in any way
Suppose it were required to replace the tie into the more ancient buttresses; but
detached pillars of a hall which are giving show clearly enough that these constructions
way under the weight they support,because are of later date. It is found necessary to
the materials employed are too fragile,and in rebuild both the exterior faces of these
courses that are not thick enough.At several buttresses, which are decayed by time, and
different periods some of these pillars have the enclosing walls of the chapels. Should we
been replaced, and sections given them unite these two constructions of different
which differ from the form originally traced. periods,and which w e at the same time re-
Shall w e in renewing these pillars reproduce store?No:we shall carefully preserve the dis-
those various sections, and preserve the tinct jointing of the two parts-the unbond-
heights of the old courses which are weak? ings;so that it may always be apparent that
No! w e shall reproduce the original section the chapels were afterwards added between
in all the pillars, and erect them with large the buttresses. Similarly,in the unseen parts 201
Appendices

of buildings w e should scrupulously respect to the whole,though that scale always bears
any trace that may be seen to give evidence a relation to the human size.It is necessary,
of additions and modifications. therefore,to be extremely careful when defi-
Among the French cathedrals rebuilt at cient parts in a medieval building have to be
the close of the twelfth century, there are supplied,and to appreciate exactly the scale
some which have no transepts; such, for adapted by the original builder.
example, are the cathedrals of Sens, Meaux, In restorations there is an essential con-
and Senlis. In the fourteenth and fifteenth dition which must always be kept in mind.It
centuries transepts were added to the naves, is, that every portion removed should be re-
by taking two of their bays. These modifi- placed with better materials, and in a stron-
cations were more or less skilfully made; but ger and more perfect way. As a result of the
to experienced eyes they leave traces of the operation to which it has been subjected,the
original dispositions. In such cases the re- restored edifice should have a renewed lease
storer ought to be scrupulous even to excess, of existence, longer than that which has
and should bring these modifications into re- already elapsed. It cannot be denied that a
lief rather than disguise them.But if portions process of restoration is, in every case, a
of buildings of which no traces remain have somewhat severe trial for a building. The
to be renewed, either on account of neces- scaffolding,the shores,the necessary wrench-
sities of construction or to complete a muti- ing away,and the partial removal of masonry,
lated work, the architect should thoroughly shake the work, so as sometimes to occasion
imbue himself with the style proper to the very serious accidents.It is reasonable,there-
building with whose restoration he is en- fore, to expect that every building thus
trusted.A pinnacle of the thirteenth century, treated w ill lose something of its strength in
copied from a building of the same date,w ill consequence of this shaking;and this dimi-
be unsightly if you transfer it to another.A nution of solidity ought to be counteracted
moulding taken from a small building w ill by increasing the strength of the parts re-
look out of place if applied to a large one.It newed, by improvements in the system of
is, moreover,a gross mistake to suppose that construction,by well-contrivedtie-rods,and
an architectural member of the medieval by providing better appliances for resistance.
period can be enlarged or diminished at plea- It need scarcely be observed,that the choice
sure.In medieval architecture,every member of materials is a most important consider-
is adapted to the scale of the building for ation in a work of restoration. Many build-
which it is designed.To change the scale is to ings are threatened with ruin solely through
deform the member. And in reference to this the weakness or inferior quality of the
subject w e shall remark, that most of the materials employed.Each stone that is taken
Gothic buildings in our days are reproduc- out ought, therefore,to be replaced by one
tions on another scale of well-known build- of better quality.Every system of cramping
ings.One church is a miniature of Chartres that had to be replaced should be exchanged
Cathedral,another of the Church of St Ouen for a continuous tie-rodin the same position;
at Rouen. This is starting from a contrary for it is not possible to change the conditions
principle to that admitted with such good of equilibrium in a building that has lasted
reason by the masters of the middle ages.But six or seven centuries without risk. Build-
if these defects are jarring in new buildings, ings,like individuals,acquire idiosyncrasies,
and deprive them of all excellence,they are which must be taken into account. They
monstrous when restoration is in question. have a temperament peculiar to themselves,
202 Every medieval building has its scale relative if w e may so term it; and which must be
 Appendices

studied and intimately known before a reg- W e must not forget that the buildings of
ular course of treatment. The nature of the middle ages do not resemble those of
the materials, the quality of the mortars, Roman antiquity,which were constructed on
the ground, the general structural system, the plan of opposing inert resistance to active
whether by vertical points of support or by forces.In medieval buildings every member
horizontal bindings,the weight and greater is in action.If the vaulting thrusts,the flying
or less concreteness of the vaultings, and buttress or the buttress counter-thrusts.If a
the comparative elasticity of the structure- springer is crushed,it is not enough to stay it
constitute different temperaments. In a vertically; provision must be made for the
building in which the vertical points of sup- various pressures which act upon it in con-
port are strongly stiffened by edge-bedded trary directions.If an arch gets out of shape,
columns-as in Burgundy, for instance- it is not enough to support it with centring,
constructions deport themselves quite dif- for it serves to counter-thrust other arches
ferently from what they do in a building which have an oblique action,If on a pier
in Normandy or Picardy, where the whole you remove a weight of any kind, that
structure is composed of small thin courses. weight has an action of pressure which must
The means adopted for underbuilding and be compensated for.In a word,you have to
shoring, which succeed here, would cause maintain forces which all act in a contrary
accidents elsewhere. Though w e can under- direction,to establish an equilibrium;the re-
build a portion entirely composed of thin moval of any part tends, therefore, to de-
courses with impunity, the same work ex- range that equilibrium. While these prob-
ecuted behind edge-bedded columns would lems that present themselves in the process
cause fractures.In this case,it is necessary to of restoration incessantly puzzle and embar-
ram the mortar joints with jointing tools and rass the builder who has not exactly appre-
the hammer, to avoid any sinking,however ciated those conditions of equilibrium, they
slight; and, in certain cases, to remove the become a stimulus to him who is thoroughly
monostyles during the underpinning of the acquainted with the edifice to be repaired. It
courses,and replace them after all the work is a war that has to be carried on-a series of
of underpinning is finished and has had time manoeuvres which must be modified every
to settle. day by a constant observation of the effects
While the architect entrusted with the res- that may occur. For instance,w e have seen
toration of an edifice ought to be acquainted towers and belfries resting on four points of
with the forms and styles belonging to that support, bear their weight, now on one
edifice, and the school to which it owed its point, now on another, in consequence of
origin,he should, if possible, be still better works of underpinning, and whose centre
acquainted with its structure, its anatomy, changed its point of horizontal projection an
its temperament;for it is essential above all inch or two during the twenty-fourhours.
things that he should make it live.H e ought These are effects of a kind with which the
to have mastered every detail of that struc- experienced architect can play: But only on
ture, just as if he himself had directed the the condition of having always an abundance
original building; and having acquired this of appliances for preventing an accident,and
knowledge, he should have at command of being able to inspire the workmen with
means of more than one order for under- sufficient confidence,so that panics may not
taking the work of renewal.If one of these deprive him of the means of meeting every
fails, a second and a third should be in contingency, without delay or hesitation,
readiness. and without showing fear as to the issue.In
Appendices

those difficult cases which often present works of restoration, often in remote towns
themselves during processes of restoration, or villages, having no other resource, have
the architect ought to have anticipated every been obliged to find out quarries, or in case
chance, even of the unlikeliest kind, and of need, to have old ones re-opened, and to
should have in reserve, without having to form workshops. So far from finding the re-
hurry or agitate himself, the means of pre- sources furnished in the great centres, they
venting any disastrous consequences that have been obliged to create them-to educate
might ensue. I m a y add that in undertakings workmen, and establish orderly methods, in
of this kind the workmen-who in our economical administration and in the direc-
country thoroughly understand the measures tion of the works. Thus materials which had
they are required to carry out-exhibit as not been worked have been brought into
m u c h confidence and readiness when they use; orderly methods have been introduced
have witnessed the foresight and presence of into departments which did not possess
mind of their chief, as of mistrust when they them; centres of properly instructed work-
become aware of an appearance of hesitation m e n have supplied good hands throughout
in the orders given. an extensive circle; and the habit of solving
The works of restoration of an earnest and problems in construction has been intro-
practical character which belong to our time, duced among populations that were scarcely
will be an honour to it. They have obliged capable of erecting the simplest houses. The
architects to extend their knowledge; to dis- system of French administration and cen-
cover vigorous expedients and reliable tralization has merits and advantages which
methods; to form close relations with the w e do not dispute; it has cemented political
builders’ workmen; to instruct them also, unity; but we must not disguise from our-
and to form nucleuses in the provinces and in selves its inconveniences. To confine our-
Paris which, on the whole, furnish the best selves here to architecture, centralization has
workmen in the great building yards. not only deprived the provinces of their
It is owing to these enterprises in resto- schools, and with them, of their special
ration that important branches of industry methods of procedure and local industries,
have been revived,’ that the execution of but of the capable workmen, w h o all become
masons’ work has become more careful, and absorbed in Paris, or in two or three great
that materials have been procured from a centres, to such a degree that in the chief
wider area; since architects entrusted with towns of the departments thirty years ago
there w a s not to be found either an architect
I. It is in the workshops connected with resto- or builder or foreman or workman capable
rations that such branches of industry as finely of directing and executing works of any im-
forged smiths’work, wrought plumbers’work, portance. T o prove our assertion it is enough
properly constructed joiners’ work, painted to cast a passing glance at the churches,
glass work, and mural decoration have been mayoralty-houses, markets, hospitals, etc.,
raised from the debased condition into which built between I 8 I 5 and I 8 3 5, which remain
they had fallen at the beginning of the century.
standing in our provincial towns-for many
It would be interesting to give a list of all the
ateliers that have been formed as the result of
had only an ephemeral existence.Nine-tenths
works of restoration,and to which the warmest of these erections-we say nothing of their
opponents of undertakings of this kind have style-exhibit a deplorable ignorance of the
come in search of workmen and of methods. most elementary principles of building. In
The motive which prevents our furnishing architecture centralization was leading us to
204 such a list will be readily understood. barbarism. Knowledge, traditions, methods,
 Appendices

material execution, were withdrawing more first the important results of their work in a
and more from the extremities of the coun- purely utilitarian respect. They were not
try.If, however,at Paris, a school (of archi- long,however,in recognizing that the more
tecture) pursuing a useful and practical aim isolated the localities in which the works
had been able to give back to the distant they executed were carried on,the larger was
members of the state artists capable of di- the radiation-if w e may so call it-of the
recting constructive works, the provincial beneficial influence which those works pro-
schools would indeed have been lost, but duced. In a few years’time, localities where
there would thus have been sent through the fine quarries had ceased to be worked, and
land men who-as in the Service des Ponts et where there was not to be found a mason or
Chausstes-could maintain at an equal level a carpenter, or a blacksmith capable of
all the constructive work undertaken in the making anything but horseshoes-supplied
departments.But the school of architecture all the neighbouring districts with excel-
established in Paris, and in Paris alone,had lent workmen and economical and reliable
in view something very different: It trained methods; and had seen good builders and
laureates for the French Academy in Rome, skilful foremen arise among them,and prin-
who were good draughtsmen,but who, fed ciples of order and regularity inaugurated in
on chimeras, were very unfit to direct prac- the conduct of the works. Some of these
tical building operations in the France of the building establishments saw the greater part
nineteenth century. Those who belonged to of their stone-cutters furnish foremen to a
this select body,returning to their native soil large number of workshops. Happily, if
after an exile of five years,during which they routine sometimes reigns permanently in the
had sketched and measured a few ancient high places of our country,it is easy to con-
buildings,preferred remaining in Paris in the quer it in lower stations by dint of care and
expectation of being commissioned with persistency.Our workmen,because they are
some work worthy of their talents, to the intelligent, scarcely recognize any other
toilsome labour which the provinces offered power but that of intelligence.In the same
them. If a few of them went back to the proportion as they are negligent and inactive
departments it was only to occupy superior in establishments where wages are the sole
positions in our largest towns.Those of sec- recompense and discipline the only impul-
ondary importance thus remained altogether sive force,are they active and careful where
outside the pale of progress in art and knowl- they become aware of a direction which is
edge,and were obliged to entrust the direc- methodical and steadily consistent in its
tion of municipal works to road, land, or course of action,and where pains are taken
town surveyors-even to schoolmasters who to explain the advantage or inconvenienceof
had a slight knowledge of geometry.Certain- the processes adopted. Amour propre is the
ly the first who conceived the idea of saving most efficient stimulus to men whose occu-
from ruin the finest buildings in the country pation is manual labour;and by appealing to
that had been bequeathed by the past, and their intelligence and their reason their most
who organized the Service des Monuments zealous co-operationmay be secured.
Historiques,acted under an inspiration simp- And with what interest did the architects
ly artistic.They were shocked at the destruc- engaged in this work of restoring our ancient
tion that threatened all these so-remarkable monuments observe,week by week,the pro-
remains, and by the acts of vandalism per- gress of these workmen,gradually acquiring
petrated every day with the blindest indif- a love for the work in which they were co-
ference;but they could not foresee from the operating! It would be ungrateful on our
Appendices

part not to testify in these pages to the disin- difficulties which present themselves to the
terestedness and devotion which the crafts- architect who is entrusted with a restoration;
men of our restoration works have often only indicated-as stated above-a general
manifested; the readiness with which they programme laid down by critical intellects.
helped us to overcome difficultiesthat seemed These difficulties,however, are not limited
insurmountable; the perils which they to purely material considerations. Since all
cheerfully confronted when once they had the edifices whose restoration is undertaken,
perceived the object to be attained.W e find have a special destination-a particular
these noble qualities in our soldiers;is it sur- use-the role of restorer of antique arrange-
prising that they exist among our craftsmen? ments, now obsolete,cannot be assumed to
The works of restoration undertaken in the utter exclusion of the question of actual
France, at first under the direction of the utility. The edifice ought not to be less
Commission des Monuments Historiques, convenient when it leaves the architect’s
and later on by the body engaged in the in- hands than it was before the restoration.
terest of what are called diocesan buildings, Speculative archaeologists very often disre-
have therefore not only saved from ruin gard present requirements,and severely cen-
works of incontestable value, but have ren- sure the architect for having made con-
dered direct practical service. The work un- cessions to them;as if the building confided
dertaken by the commission has thus coun- to his treatment were his own, and as if he
teracted to a certain extent the dangers were not pledged to carry out the pro-
of administrative centralization, as affecting gramme given him.
public works;it has restored to the provinces But it is in these circumstances,which
what the Ecole des Beaux-Artswas incapable frequently present themselves,that the in-
of imparting to them.If, confronted by such telligence of the architect is called into play.
results, whose importance we by no means H e always possesses the means of reconciling
exaggerate, some of those doctors who lay his role as restorer with that of artist com-
claim to a dictatorship in architecture with- missioned to meet unforeseen requirements.
out having ever superintendedthe laying of a Moreover the best means of preserving a
brick, decree in the recesses of their studies building is to find a use for it, and to satisfy
that these artists who have devoted a not its requirements so completely that there
inconsiderable portion of their life to this shall be no occasion to make any changes.It
perilous and trying labour-from which for is evident, for example, that it was the duty
the most part neither great honour nor profit of the architect commissioned to adapt the
is derived-are not architects;if they seek to beautiful refectory of St Martin des Champs
condemn them to a kind of ostracism and to to the purposes of a library for the Ecole
exclude them from works that bring more des Arts et Mktiers-whilst respecting the
honour and advantage,and which are,be it edifice,and even restoring it, so to contrive
remarked, less difficult;their manifestos and for the bookcases that it should never be
expressions of contempt w ill at no distant necessary to make serious alterations in the
future have fallen into oblivion; but these arrangements of the hall.
edifices-which contribute to the glory of In such circumstances the best plan is to
our country-preserved by them from ruin, suppose oneself in the position of the original
will remain standing for ages,to testify to the architect,and to imagine what he would do if
devotion of a few men who have been more he came back to the world and had the pro-
anxious to perpetuate that glory than to pro- gramme with which w e have to deal laid be-
mote their individual interests. fore him.Fortunately,that medieval art which
to6 W e have given only a general idea of the to those who are unacquainted with it seems
 Appendices

limited to a few narrow formulas,shows it- buildings.But then must he not consider the
self, on the contrary-when thoroughly disposition of the points of support? Ought
mastered-so supple,so subtle,so compre- he to alter the conditions of equilibrium?
hensive and liberal in its means of execution, If the timber framing weighted the walls
that there is no programme whose require- equally, ought he not to seek a structural
ments it cannot meet. It rests on principles, sytem in iron which would present the same
not on a formulary;it w ill serve for any age, advantages? Certainly:and he will make it a
and can satisfy all architectural needs; in matter of special attention that the iron roof
the same way as a competent language can be no heavier than the wooden one.This is a
express any idea without sacrificing gram- consideration of the greatest moment. W e
matical consistency.It is its grammar,there- have too often had to regret the overweight-
fore,with which w e should make ourselves ing of old work:the restorationof the upper
acquainted-and thoroughly acquainted. parts of edifices with materials heavier than
W e must admit that w e are on slippery those originally employed.These oversights
ground as soon as w e deviate from literal and negligences have caused more than one
reproduction;and that the adoption of such catastrophe. W e cannot repeat it too often:
deviation should be reserved for extreme the medieval buildings are planned with de-
cases; but it must be allowed that it is some- liberate skill;their organism is delicate. W e
times commanded by imperious necessities, find in them nothing more than is requited,
which w e cannot evade with a non posstrmus. nothing useless in their composition;if you
That an architect should refuse to introduce change one of the conditions of the orga-
gas-pipes into a church, in order to avoid nism, you alter all the rest. Many point to
mutilations and accidents,is intelligible,for this as a defect; in our judgement it is an
the edifice can be lighted by other means;but excellence which w e are too apt to disregard
that he should refuse to lend himself to the in our modern constructions,from which w e
formation of a heating apparatus, for in- might remove more than one member with-
stance,under the pretext that the middle ages out endangering their existence.For what in
did not employ this system of warming fact is the use of science and calculation in
ecclesiastical buildings; and that he should construction if it does not enable us to ac-
thus expose the faithful to the risk of catch- complish the work with no more than the
ing cold for the sake of archaeology is, to say necessary appliances? W h y those columns,if
the least, ridiculous.As this means of warm- w e can remove them without compromising
ing necessitates chimney stacks, w e should the strength of the work? W h y build expen-
proceed as a master of the middle ages would sive walls two yards thick,if walls of half a
have done if he had been obliged to contrive yard,strengthened at intervals by buttresses
them;and above all, not try to hide this novel a yard square in section, afford sufficient
feature;since the ancient masters, so far from stability? In medieval construction every
dissembling a necessity,sought on the con- portion of the work fulfils a function and has
trary to invest it with a becoming form,even an action.The architect should make a point
making decorative features of such material of ascertaining the value of both before com-
requirements. A n architect, who having to mencing his undertaking.H e should proceed
renew the roof of a building, should reject like the skilful and experienced operator,
iron-workconstruction,because the medieval who does not touch an organ until he has
masters did not make iron framing,is in our acquired a thorough acquaintance with its
opinion wrong; since by so doing he would function, and provided for the immediate
obviate the terrible contingencyof fire, which and remote consequences of his operation.
has so often proved destructive to our ancient Rather than proceed at hazard he should not 207
Appendices

undertake it. Rather let the patient die than fortunatelyadopted an arrangement which is
kill him. at variance with the right one-with that
Photography,which assumes every day a originally followed-you are led by a course
more important phase in scientific studies, of logical deduction into a wrong path,from
seems to have appeared for the very purpose which it will be no longer possible to escape:
of aiding this grand work of restoration of and in such a case the better you reason,the
ancient buildings,in which the whole of Eu- farther you are from the truth.Hence,when
rope has begun to take an interest. for example, the completion of a building
In fact,while architectspossessed only the partly in ruin is in question;before begin-
ordinary means of sketching,even the most ning it will be necessary to search for and ex-
exact-the camera lucida for example-it amine all that remains;to collect the smallest
was very difficult for them not to make some fragments-taking care to note the point
omissions-not to overlook certain scarcely where they were found;and not to begin the
apparent traces. Moreover, when the work work until their place and use have been as-
of restoration was completed,it was always signed to all these remains,as with the pieces
possible to dispute the correctness of the of a puzzle. If these precautions are ne-
graphical reports-of what is called the glected, the most annoying misconceptions
existing state. But photography presents may result,and a fragment discovered after
the advantage of supplying indisputable the completion of a restoration may clearly
reports-documents which can be perma- prove that you were mistaken.It is necessary
nently consulted when the restorations mask to examine the beds, joints,and dressing of
the traces left by the ruin. Photography has the fragments collected in the clearing;for
naturally led architects to be still more some kinds of tooling could only have been
scrupulous than before in their respect for adopted with the view of producing a partic-
the slightest vestiges of an ancient arrange- ular effect at a certain height. The slightest
ment, and to take more accurate observa- indications, even the way in which these
tions of the construction; while it provides fragments have behaved in falling,may not
them with the permanent means of justifying infrequently show the place they occupied.
their operations.Photography cannot be too In these difficult cases of rebuilding the de-
sedulously used in restorations;for very fre- molished parts of an edifice, the architect
quently a photograph discovers what had ought, therefore, to be present during the
not been perceived in the building itself. clearing and entrust it to intelligent exca-
An all-importantprinciple to be observed vators. In erecting the new constructions he
in restoration,and one which should not be should as far as possible replace these old
departed from on any pretext whatever,is to remains even if injured: this w ill furnish a
pay regard to every vestige indicating an guarantee for the sincerity and exactitude of
architectural arrangement. The architect his investigations.
should not be thoroughly satisfied, nor set W e have said enough to show the diffi-
his men to work until he has discovered the culties which the architect commissioned
combination which best and most simply ac- with a restoration must encounter if he is in
cords with the vestiges of ancient work: T o earnest in the performance of his duties,if he
decide on an arrangement a priori, without desires,not merely to appear truthful,but to
having gained all the informationthat should carry through his work with the conscious-
regulate it, is to fall into hypothesis; and in ness of having left nothing to chance and of
works of restorationnothing is so dangerous never having sought to practise a deception
208 as hypothesis. If at any point you have un- upon himself.
Appendix z
International Congress of Architects,
Madrid (I 904)1

I. Monuments may be divided into two 6. A society for the preservation of histor-
classes: dead monuments,i.e.those belong- ical and artistic monuments should be es-
ing to a past civilization or serving ob- tablished in every country.They might be
solete purposes,and livzng monuments,i.e. grouped for common effort and collabo-
those which continue to serve the pur- rate in the compilation of a general inven-
poses for which they were originally tory of national and local treasures.
intended.
2. Dead monuments should be preserved
only by such strengthening as is indis-
pensable in order to prevent their falling
into ruin; for the importance of such a
monument consists in its historical and
technical value, which disappears with
the monument itself.
3. Living monuments ought to be restored
so they m a y continue to be of use, for in
architecture utility is one of the bases of
beauty.
4. Such restoration should be effected in the
original style of the monument,so that it
may preserve its unity, unity of style
being also one of the bases of beauty in
architecture, and primitive geometrical
forms being perfectly reproducible. Por-
tions executed in a different style from
that of the whole should be respected, if I. W.J. Locke, ‘The Sixth International Con-
this style has intrinsic merit and does not gress of Architects, 1904,Madrid; Report of
destroy the aesthetic balance of the the Secretary of the Institute’,Journal of the
monument. Royal Institute of British Architects (London),
Vol. XI,Series 111, p. 344; M.L.Cloquet,‘La
j. The preservation and restoration of
restauration des monuments anciens’,L a revue
monuments should be entrusted only to de Partcbritien, Vol.44 (Series 5, Vol. IZ), 1901,
architects ‘diplomks par le Gouverne- pp. 498-503; Vol. 45 (Series 4, Vol. 13), 1902,
ment’,or specially authorized and acting pp. 41-1; M.Charles Buls, L a restauration des
under the artistic, archaeological, and monuments anciens, Brussels, Weissenbruch,
technical control of the state. I 903 (pamphlet).
Appendix 3
Conclusions of the Athens
Conference (2 I-30 October, I3 3 I)'

G E N E R A L CONCLUSIONS certain right of the community in regard to

private ownership.
I. Doctrines. General principles It noted that the differences existing be-
The Conference heard the statement of the
tween these legislative measures were due to
general principles and doctrines relating to
the difficulty of reconciling public law with
the protection of monuments.
the rights of individuals.
Whatever may be the variety of concrete
Consequently, while approving the gen-
cases, each of which are open to a different
eral tendency of these measures,the Confer-
solution, the Conference noted that there
ence is of the opinion that they should be in
predominates in the different countriesrepre-
keeping with local circumstances and with
sented a general tendency to abandon res-
the trend of public opinion so that the least
torations in toto and to avoid the attendant
possible opposition may be encountered,due
dangers by initiating a system of regular and
allowance being made for the sacrifices
permanent maintenance calculated to ensure
which the owners of property may be called
the preservation of the buildings.
upon to make in the general interest.
When, as the result of decay or destruc-
tion,restorationappears to be indispensable,
It recommends that the public authorities
in each country be empowered to take con-
it recommends that the historic and artistic
servatory measures in cases of emergency.
work of the past should be respected,without
excluding the style of any given period.
It earnestly hopes that the International
Museums Ofice will publish a repertory and
The Conference recommends that the
a comparative table of the legislative mea-
occupation of buildings, which ensures the
sures in force in the different countries and
continuity of their life, should be maintained
that this information will be kept up to date.
but that they should be used for a purpose
which respects their historic or artistic
111. Aesthetic enchangement of ancient
character.
monuments
The Conference recommends that, in the
11. Administrative a n d legidative measures construction of buildings, the character and
regarding historical monuments external aspect of the cities in which they are
The Conference heard the statement of legis- to be erected should be respected, especially
lative measures devised to protect monu- in the neighbourhood of ancient monu-
ments of artistic,historic or scientific interest
and belonging to the different countries. I, La conservation des monuments d'art et dhistoire,
It unanimously approved the general ten- pp. 448-j 3, International Office of Museums,
dency which,in this connection,recognizesa 7933,
Appendices

ments, where the surroundings should be That,in each country,the architects and
given special consideration. Even certain curators of monuments should collabo-
groupingsand certain particularly picturesque rate with specialists in the physical,chem-
perspective treatment should be preserved. ical and natural sciences with a view to
A study should also be made of the orna- determining the methods to be adopted in
mental vegetation most suited to certain specific cases.
monuments or groups of monuments from That the International Museums Office
the point of view of preserving their ancient should keep itself informed of the work
character. being done in each country in this field
It specially recommends the suppression and that mention should be made thereof
of all forms of publicity, of the erection of in the publications of the Office. With re-
unsightly telegraph poles and the exclusion gard to the preservation of monumental
of all noisy factoriesand even of tall shafts in sculpture,the Conferenceis of the opinion
the neighbourhood of artistic and historic that the removal of works of art from
monuments. the surroundings for which they were de-
signed is, in principle,to be discouraged.
IV.Restoration materials It recommends, by way of precaution,
The experts heard various communications the preservation of original models when-
concerning the use of modern materials for ever these still exist or, if this proves im-
the consolidation of ancient monuments. possible,the taking of casts.
They approved the judicious use of all the
resources at the disposal of modern tech- VI. The technique of conservation
nique and more especially of reinforced The Conference is gratified to note that the
concrete. principles and technical considerations set
They specified that this work of consolida- forth in the different detailed communications
tion should whenever possible be concealed are inspired by the same idea,namely:
in order that the aspect ,nd character of the In the case of ruins,scrupulous conserva-
restored monument may be preserved. tion is necessary, and steps should be taken
They recommended their adoption more to reinstate any original fragments that may
particularly in cases where their use makes it be recovered (anastylosis), whenever this is
possible to avoid the dangers of dismantling possible;the new materials used for this pur-
and reinstating the portions to be preserved. pose should in all cases be recognizable.
When the preservation of ruins brought to
V. The deterioration of ancient monuments light in the course of excavations is found to
The Conference noted that,in the conditions be impossible,the Conference recommends
of present-daylife, monuments throughout that they be buried,accuraterecords being of
the world were being threatened to an ever- course taken before filling-inoperations are
increasing degree by atmospheric agents. undertaken.
Apart from the customary precautions and It should be unnecessary to mention that
the methods successfully applied in the pre- the technical work undertaken in connection
servation of monumental statuary in current with the excavation and preservation of an-
practice, it was impossible,in view of the cient monuments calls for close collaboration
complexity of cases and with the knowledge between the archaeologistsand the architect.
at present available,to formulateany general With regard to other monuments,the ex-
rules. perts unanimously agreed that before any
The Conference recommends: consolidation or partial restoration is under-
 Appendices

taken,a thorough analysis should be made of ations and during the study cruise which
the defects and the nature of the decay of they were able to make on this occasion,
these monuments.They recognized that each a number of excavation sites and ancient
case needed to be treated individually. Greek monuments, unanimously paid a tri-
bute to the Greek Government,which, for
VII. The conservation of monuments and many years past, has been itself responsible
internationalcollaboration for extensive works and, at the same time,
(a) Technicaland moral co-operation has accepted the collaboration of archaeolo-
The Conference, convinced that the ques- gists and experts from every country.
tion of the conservation of the artistic and The members of the Conference there saw
archaeologicalproperty of mankind is one an example of activity which cannot but con-
that interests the community of the states, tribute to the realization of the aims of in-
which are wardens of civilization: tellectual co-operation,the need for which
Hopes that the states, acting in the spirit of manifested itself during their work.
the Covenant of the League of Nations,
will collaborate with each other on an (b) The role of education in the respect of
ever-increasing scale and in a more con- monuments
crete manner with a view to furthering The Conference, firmly convinced that the
the preservation of artistic and historic best guarantee in the matter of the preser-
monuments. vation of monuments and works of art
Considers it highly desirable that qualified derives from the respect and attachment
institutions and associations should,with- of the peoples themselves;
out in any manner whatsoever prejudicing Considering that these feelings can very
internationalpublic law, be given an op- largely be promoted by appropriate action
portunity of manifesting their interest in on the part of public authorities;
the protection of works of art in which Recommends that educators should urge
civilization has been expressed to the children and young people to abstain from
highest degree and which would seem to disfiguring monuments of every descrip-
be threatened with destruction. tion and that they should teach them to
Expresses the wish that requests to attain take a greater and more general interest
this end, submitted to the Intellectual in the protection of these concrete testi-
Co-operationOrganization of the League monies of all ages of civilization.
of Nations, be recommended to the earnest
attention of the states. (c) Value of internationaldocumentation
It will be for the International Committee The Conference expresses the wish that:
on IntellectualCo-operation,after an inquiry I. Each country,or the institutions created
conducted by the International Museums or recognized competent for this pur-
Office and after having collected all relevant pose, publish an inventory of ancient
information, more particularly from the monuments, with photographs and ex-
National Committee on Intellectual Co- planatory notes.
operation concerned,to express an opinion I. Each country constitute official records
on the expediency of the steps to be taken which shall contain all documents re-
and on the procedure to be followed in each lating to its historic monuments.
individualcase. 1. Each country deposit copies of its publica-
The members of the Conference, after tions on artistic and historic monuments
having visited in the course of their deliber- with the InternationalMuseums Office.
Appendices

4. The Office devote a portion of its publi- servation of historic monuments.

cations to articles on the general pro- 7. The Office study the best means of uti-
cesses and methods employed in the pre- lizing the information so centralized.
Appendix 4
Carta del restaur0 italiana (I 93I)

The Advisory Council for Antiquities and d e q e ) responsible for the study and con-
Fine Arts (I1 Consiglio Superiore per le servation of monuments;
Antichith e Belle Arti) bringing its study Considering that the work of restoration
to bear on the norms that must govern should incorporate and not exclude even
the restoration of monuments, which in in part any of the criteria of various kinds,
Italy constitutes a great national problem such as, the historical criteria which de-
and being aware of the necessity to mand that no phase which has contributed
maintain and advance the indisputable to the composition of the monument be re-
preeminence of our country in such ac- moved,no additionsthat falsify the monu-
tivity comprising science,art and techni- ment and lead scholars into error be tole-
que; rated and no material which was brought
Being convinced of the multiple and serious to light during analytical study be lost;
responsibilities each work of restoration the architectural concept which aims at
(whether accompanied by excavation or giving back to the monument its aspect
not) involves, such as ensuring the sta- as work of art and,when possible,its unity
bility of crumbling elements, conserving of form (not to be confused with unity of
or restoring to the monument its value as a style); the criterion that derives from the
work of art, dealing with the complex of very sentiments of the people, from the
historic and artistic documents translated spirit of the city with its memories and
into stone, not less precious than those nostalgia;and finally,that often indispens-
kept in museums and archives, allowing able criterion which refers to the adminis-
analytical studies that might induce new trative exigencies relating to available
and unforeseen results in the history of art means and practical use;
and construction; Considers that after more than thirty years
Being convinced, therefore, that no justifi- of activity in this field,carried out on the
cation for haste, practical utility or person- whole with excellent results,that it is and
al susceptibility can impose in this mat- must be possible to derive from these re-
ter manifestations that are not thorough, sults a body of concrete precepts to cor-
that are not continuouslyand reliably con- roborate and specify a theory of restoration
trolled and that do not correspond to an already firmly established in the delibera-
affirmed set of criteria; ascertaining that tions of the Superior Council and adhered
such principles must be applied in resto- to by the Superintendences of antiquities
rations carried out by private as well as and of medieval and modern art, sets out
public bodies,starting with those executed the essential principles of this theory as
by the very Superintendences (soprznten- confirmed by practice.
Appendices

It consequently declares: ment of such related values and elimi-

I. That above all else, maximum impor- nations must in all cases have valid justi-
tance should be attributed to assiduous fication and not rely on the personal
care for the maintenance and consolida- judgment of the author of the restora-
tion of monuments, in order to restore tion project.
to them renewed resistance and dura- 6. That respect for the monument and for
bility, and to protect them from impair- its various phases should be accom-
ment or damage. panied by respect for its environment
2. That the problem of reconstitution (r+- which should not be altered to isolate
rdstino) motivated by reasons of art and the monument or to create a n e w urban
architectural unity, closely related to his- fabric that would dominate the m o n u -
torical criteria, can be justified only ment with its mass, colour or style.
when it is based on absolutely reliable 7. That in terms of additions which might
data furnished by the monument itself prove necessary for consolidation or for
and not on hypothesis, on elements pre- a total or partial reintegration or for the
valently existing rather than those pre- practical reuse of the monument, the
valently new. essential principle to follow, in addition
1. That all attempts towards completion to that of limiting such n e w elements to
should be avoided in monuments that a minimum, is that of lending them an
are remote in time from our civilization aspect of nude simplicity and adherence
and from our use, such as the m o n u - to structural outline, allowing only the
ments of antiquity; alone to be consi- continuation of existing lines if they are
dered is anastylosis, meaning the recom- expressed geometrically and are devoid
position of existing parts that have fallen, of any decorative features.
with the eventual addition of minimum 8. That these additions should be accu-
neutral elements to integrate the form rately and discernibly indicated with the
and to ensure the conditions for con- use of material different from the origi-
servation. nal, or with the adoption of a simple cor-
4. That new use may be designated for ‘liv- nice without decorative carvings, or
ing’ monuments, only provided it is not with the application of monograms or
radically different from that for which inscriptions such that the restoration
the monument was originally designed could never mislead scholars or repre-
and such that the necessary adaptation sent a falsification of a historic document.
would not require major alterations in 9. That all the most modern building
the building. methods m a y prove to be of invaluable
5. That all elements having artistic or his- help and thus be appropriately used to
toric value should be preserved, which- reinforce the weakened structure of a
ever period they may belong to, with- monument and to reintegrate its mass
out a desire to establish unity of style or when the adoption of building methods
to return to the original without inter- similar to those used to construct the
vening to exclude some elements to the ancient structure are not adequate; the
detriment of others; and only those fea- support of various sciences, hitherto not
tures considered useless disfigurements employed, should also be called upon
and devoid of importance and meaning, to contribute to the solution of the intri-
such as the fillings of windows or por- cate and complicated problems of the
216 ticos, m a y be eliminated, but that judge- conservation of crumbling structures,
 Appendices

in which the use of empiric procedures in excavations,an essential and compul-

must now give way to those that are sory condition should be that an accu-
strictly scientific. rate documentation accompany the work
IO. That in excavations and in searches by means of analytical descriptions pub-
which bring to light antique works,the lished in a restoration journal and il-
process of liberation must be methodi- lustrated by drawings and photographs
cally and immediately followed by the in order that all the components of the
arrangement of the ruins and the sound structure and form of the monument, all
protection of those works of art that phases of the work of recomposition,
were discovered and that can be con- liberation and completion be permanent-
served in sit#. ly and reliably preserved.
I I. That in the restoration of monuments as
Appendix 5
Athens Charter (I 93 3)

T H E HISTORIC H E R I T A G E O F CITIES be respected. If the continuance of certain

significant and majestic presences from a
6I . Architectural assets must be protected, bygone era proves injurious to the interests
wbetberfomd in isolated buildings or in of the city, a solution capable of reconciling
urban agregations. both points of view w ill be sought. In the
case where one is confronted with structures
The life of a city is a continuous event that is repeated in numerous examples,some will be
expressed through the centuries by material
preserved as documents and the others w ill
works-lay-outs and building structures-
be demolished;in other cases, only the por-
which form the city’s personality,and from
tion that constitutes a memorial or a real
which its soul gradually emanates. They are
asset can be separated from the rest, which
precious witnesses of the past which will be
will be serviceably modified.Finally,in cer-
respected, first for their historical or senti-
tain exceptional cases, complete transplanta-
mental value, and second,because certain of
tion may be envisaged for elements that
them convey a plastic virtue in which the
prove to be inconveniently located but that
utmost intensity of human genius has been
are worth preservation for their important
incorporated.They form a part of the hu-
aesthetic or historical significance.
man heritage,and whoever owns them or is
entrusted with their protection has the
responsibility and the obligation to do 67. And if their preservation does not entad the
whatever he legitimately can to hand this racrz3ce of keeping people in mhealtb
noble heritage down intact to the centuries conditions .. .
to come.
By no means can any narrow-mindedcult of
the past bring about a disregard for the rules
of social justice.Certain people, more con-
66. Thy will be protected ij”the_yare the cerned for aestheticism than social solidarity,
expression of a former cuhure and zfthy militate for the preservation of certain pic-
respond to a universal interest . . .
turesque old districts unmindful of the pov-
Death, which spares no living creature,also erty,promiscuity,and diseases that these dis-
overtakes the works of men.In dealing with tricts harbour.They assume a grave respon-
material evidence of the past, one must know sibility. The problem must be studied,and
how to recognize and differentiatethat which occasionally it m a y be solved through some
is still truly alive. The whole of the past is ingenious solution; but under no circum-
not, by definition, entitled to last forever;it stances should the cult of the picturesque
is advisable to choose wisely that which must and the historical take precedence over the
Appendices

healthfulness of the dwelling, upon which stroy an age-old ambience. This is regret-
the well-being and the moral health of the table, but it is inevitable. The situation can
individual so closely depend. be turned to advantage by the introduction
of verdant areas. There, the vestiges of the
past will be bathed in a new and possibly
68. A n d if it is possible to reme4 their
unexpected ambience, but certainly a toler-
detrimentalprestnce means of radical
able one,and one from which the neighbour-
measures,such as detouring vital elements of
ing districts will amply benefit in any event.
the traflc system or even displacing centres
hitherto regarded as immutable.
The exceptional growth of a city can create a 70. Thepractice of using soles of thepast on
aestheticpretexts for new structures erected
perilous situation, leading to an impasse
in historic areas has harmful consequences.
from which there is no escape without some
Neither the continuation of such practices nor
measure of sacrifice.A n obstacle can only be
the introduction of such initiatives will be
removed by demolition. But whenever this
tolerated in a y form.
measure is attended by the destruction of
genuine architectural,historical,or spiritual Such methods are contrary to the great les-
assets, then it is unquestionably better to son of history.Never has a return to the past
seek another solution.Rather than removing been recorded, never has man retraced his
the obstacle to traffic flow, the traffic itself own steps. The masterpieces of the past
can be diverted or,conditions permitting,its show us that each generation has had its way
passage can be forced by tunnelling beneath of thinking, its conceptions, its aesthetic,
the obstacle. Finally, it is also possible to which called upon the entire range of the
displace a centre of intense activity and, by technical resources of its epoch to serve as
transplanting it elsewhere, entirely change the springboard for its imagination.T o imi-
the traffic pattern of a congested zone. tate the past slavishly is to condemn our-
Imagination, invention, and technical re- selves to delusion,to institute the ‘false’as a
sources must be combined in order to disen- principle, since the working conditions of
tangle even the knots that seem most former times cannot be re-createdand since
inextricable. the application of modern techniques to an
outdated ideal can never lead to anything
but a simulacrum devoid of all vitality. The
69. The destruction of the slums around historic
mingling of the ‘false’ with the ‘genuine’,
monuments willprovide an opportunio to
far from attaining an impression of unity and
create verdant areas.
from giving a sense of purity of style,merely
In certain cases, it is possible that the demo- results in artificial reconstruction capable
lition of unsanitary houses and slums around only of discrediting the authentic testimonies
some monument of historical value w ill de- that w e were most moved to preserve.

220
Appendix 6
Venice Charter (I 964)

ICOMOS (INTERNATIONALCOUNCIL OF have been brought to bear on problems

M O N U M E N T S A N D SITES) which have continually become more com-
plex and varied; now the time has come to
INTERNATIONAL C H A R T E R F O R T H E examine the Charter afresh in order to make
C O N S E R V A T I O N A N D RESTORATION O F a thorough study of the principles involved
M O N U M E N T S A N D SITES and to enlarge its scope in a new document.
Accordingly, the Second International
Imbued with a message from the past, the Congress of Architects and Technicians of
historic monuments of generations of people Historic Monuments, which met in Venice
remain to the present day as living witnesses from 25-31 May 1964,approved the follow-
of their age-oldtraditions.People are becom- ing text:
ing more and more conscious of the unity
of human values and regard ancient monu-
DEFINITIONS
ments as a common heritage. The common
responsibility to safeguard them for future Article I. The concept of an historic
generations is recognized.It is our duty to monument embraces not only the single ar-
hand them on in the full richness of their chitectural work but also the urban or rural
authenticity. setting in which is found the evidence of a
It is essential that the principles guiding particular civilization,a significant develop-
the preservation and restoration of ancient ment or an historic event. This applies not
buildings should be agreed and be laid down only to great works of art but also to more
on an international basis, with each country modest works of the past which have ac-
being responsible for applying the plan quired cultural significance with the passing
within the framework of its own culture and of time.
traditions.
By defining these basic principles for the Article 2. The conservation and restoration
first time, the Athens Charter of 1931 con- of monuments must have recourse to all the
tributed towards the development of an ex- sciences and techniques which can contribute
tensive international movement which has to the study and safeguarding of the archi-
assumed concrete form in national docu- tectural heritage.
ments,in the work of ICOM and Unesco and
in the establishment by the latter of the Inter-
AIM
national Centre for the Study of the Preser-
vation and the Restoration of Cultural Prop- Article 3. The intention in conserving and
erty. Increasing awareness and critical study restoring monuments is to safeguard them 22 I
Appendices

no less as works of art than as historical value of the monument and is based on re-
evidence. spect for original material and authentic
documents.It must stop at the point where
conjecture begins, and in this case moreover
CONSERVATION
any extra work which is indispensable must
Article 4. It is essential to the conservation be distinct from the architectural compo-
of monuments that they be maintained on a sition and must bear a contemporary stamp.
permanent basis. The restorationin any case must be preceded
and followed by an archaeological and his-
Article J. The conservation ofmonuments is torical study of the monument.
always facilitated by making use of them for
some socially useful purpose. Such use is Article IO. Where traditional techniques
therefore desirable but it must not change prove inadequate, the consolidation of a
the lay-outor decoration ofthe building.It is monument can be achieved by the use of any
within these limits only that modifications modern technique for conservation and
demanded by a change of function should be construction,the efficacy of which has been
envisaged and may be permitted. shown by scientific data and proved by
experience.
Article 6. The conservation of a monument Article II. The valid contributions of all
implies preserving a setting which is not out periods to the building of a monument must
of scale. Wherever the traditional setting
be respected, since unity of style is not the
exists,it must be kept.No new construction, aim of a restoration. When a building in-
demolition or modification which would al- cludes the superimposed work of different
ter the relations of mass and colour must be periods, the revealing of the underlying state
allowed. can only be justified in exceptional circum-
stances and when what is removed is of little
Article 7.A monument is inseparable from interest and the material which is brought to
the history to which it bears witness and light is of great historical,archaeological or
from the setting in which it occurs. The aesthetic value, and its state of preservation
moving of all or part of a monument cannot good enough to justify the action. Evalu-
be allowed except where the safeguarding of ation of the importance of the elements in-
that monument demands it or where it is volved and the decision as to what may be
justified by national or internationalinterests destroyed cannot rest solely on the indivi-
of paramount importance. dual in charge of the work.
Article 8. Items of sculpture, painting or Article 12. Replacements of missing parts
decoration which form an integral part of must integrate harmoniously with the whole,
a monument may only be removed from it but at the same time must be distinguishable
if this is the sole means of ensuring their from the original so that restoration does not
preservation. falsify the artistic or historic evidence.

Article rj. Additions cannot be allowed

RESTORATION
except in so far as they do not detract from
Article 9. The process of restoration is a the interesting parts of the building, its tra-
highly specialized operation.Its aim is to pre ditional setting, the balance of its compo-
222 serve and reveal the aesthetic and historic sition and its relation with its surroundings.
 Appendices

HISTORIC SITES of analytical and critical reports, illustrated

with drawings and photographs.
Article 14. The sites of monuments must be
Every stage of the work of clearing,con-
the object of special care in order to
solidation,rearrangement and integration,as
safeguard their integrity and ensure that they
well as technical and formal features identi-
are cleared and presented in a seemly man-
fied during the course of the work,should be
ner. The work of conservation and resto-
included.This record should be placed in the
ration carried out in such places should be
archives of a public institution and made
inspired by the principles set forth in the
available to research workers. It is recom-
foregoing articles.
mended that the report should be published.
The following persons took part in the
work of the Committee for drafting the In-
EXCAVATIONS ternational Charter for the Conservation and
Article I). Excavations should be carried Restoration of Monuments:
out in accordance with scientific standards
and the recommendation defining interna- Mr Piero Gazzola (Italy), Chairman
tional principles to be applied in the case of Mr Raymond Lemaire (Belgium), Reporter
archaeological excavation adopted by Unesco Mr Josi:Bassegoda-Nonell(Spain)
in 1956. Mr Luis Benavente (Portugal)
Ruins must be maintained and measures Mr Djurdje Boskovic (Yugoslavia)
necessary for the permanent conservation Mr Hiroshi Daifuku (Unesco)
and protection of architectural features and Mr P.L.de Vrieze (Netherlands)
of objects discovered must be taken. Fur- Mr Harald Langberg (Denmark)
thermore, every means must be taken to Mr Mario Matteucci (Italy)
facilitatethe understanding of the monument Mr Jean Merlet (France)
and to reveal it without ever distorting its Mr Carlos Flores Marini (Mexico)
meaning. Mr Roberto Pane (Italy)
All reconstruction work should however Mr S. C.J. Pave1 (Czechoslovakia)
be ruled out apriuri. Only anastylosis, that Mr Paul Philippot (InternationalCentre for
is to say, the reassembling of existing but the Study of the Preservation and Resto-
dismembered parts can be permitted. The ration of Cultural Property)
material used for integration should always Mr Victor Pimentel (Peru)
be recognizable and its use should be the Mr Harold Plenderleith (International Cen-
least that will ensure the conservation of a tre for the Study of the Preservation and
monument and the reinstatement of its form. Restoration of Cultural Property)
Mr Deoclecio Redig de Campos (Vatican)
Mr Jean Sonnier (France)
PUBLICATION
Mr Fransois Sorlin (France)
Mr Eustathios Stikas (Greece)
Article 16. In all works of preservation, M r s Gertrud Tripp (Austria)
restoration or excavation, there should Mr Jan Zachwatovicz (Poland)
always be precise documentation in the form Mr Mustafa S. Zbiss (Tunisia)
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ISBN 92-3-102363-2