Educational Research and Curriculum Development: The Case For Synergy
Educational Research and Curriculum Development: The Case For Synergy
Educational Research and Curriculum Development: The Case For Synergy
Looking at what students actually do! Kimbell has identified the 'three ideas
The emerging mismatch between theory paradigm' that pervades much of technology
and practice teaching and formalises the development of
In a series of small-scale studies Welch (1996, several solutions from the onset (Kimbell
1998, 1999; Welch, Barlex and Lim, 2000) 1997: 21). The Nuffield Project has produced
investigated assumptions in the literature materials that provided a suite of strategies
about the strategies used by novice designers students could use as and when they are
to solve a technological problem, and how needed for generating and developing design
students model ideas while designing and ideas (Figure 5). These strategies place no
making. A review of literature describing undue emphasis on sketching or the need to
models of the design process used in produce several solutions initially. Clearly
technology education suggested a there was emerging a resonance between the
discontinuity between the theoretical models, approach to making design decisions being
that is, models derived by thinking about what developed by the Nuffield Project and the
designers ought to do, and empirical models, findings of Welch's research. The authors of
that is, models which describe what designers this paper met at the International Conference
actually do. This discontinuity was further on Design and Technology Educational
supported by the classroom observations of Research (held annually at the University of
the researcher; that students, left to their own Loughborough, England) in 1996 and heard
devices, do not design in the way prescribed each other's presentations. The resonance was
by textbooks (Welch, 1999). Hence the confirmed through later discussions, with the
research questions which drove a first study result that David Barlex was invited to
were designed to lead to an understanding of Queen's University for two months in October
how untutored designers go about the business and November 1996 as a visiting scholar
of designing and making a solution to a funded by a Royal Bank Fellowship. During
technological problem. this time the authors explored with teacher
candidates a new model for technology
In the first study, 10 Grade (Year) 7 students education, and used this to write a policy
(six boys and four girls) were paired into five document for math, science and technology
single-sex dyads. Each dyad was provided education at the faculty. Both the model and
with a copy of a design brief that described the policy document were informed by the
the technological problem to be solved. The Nuffield Project's approach to pedagogy. This
problem, entitled 'Paper Tower', read as pedagogy is predicated on the use of tasks for
follows: particular learning purposes. It is based on the
Using ONE sheet of 220mm x 280mm use of Big Tasks and Small Tasks. The Big
white paper and 100mm of clear tape, Tasks are designing and making assignments
construct the tallest possible tower. You in which children have to design and make
will also be given pink paper. This you things that are useful, both to them and for
may use in any way as you develop your other people. Clearly children cannot be
solution. However, NONE of the pink successful in this endeavour unless they have
paper may be used in the tower you submit been taught relevant knowledge, skill, and
as a final product. Limitations: There is a understanding. The Small Tasks in each unit
time limit of one hour. The tower must be of work have been designed to help children
free standing. It cannot be taped to the learn this so that they can be successful in the
floor nor to anything else. When you have Big Task (Barlex, 1998).
finished, the tower must stand for 30 During the time ofthe Royal Bank Fellowship
seconds before having its height measured. the presenters discussed ways of developing
Welch's original research. An obvious
extension was to use a different task put into a three-dimensional modelling when this is
more realistic situation, as indicated by the possible. In addition to the type of modelling
Nuffield Design and Technology project and techniques used by the students this study
the APU research. Funded by a Queen's suggested their ability to generate, develop
Advisory Research Committee (ARC) grant, and communicate design ideas is enhanced by
new research investigated whether the both the dynamic relationship between
strategies used by novice designers are students' talk and three-dimensional
dependent on the nature of the task? The data modelling and the way the task is
from this follow-up study confirmed the contextualised (Welch, Barlex and Lim,
findings of the first study. Both studies show 2000).
that significant differences exist between the
The results of the APU research and that
strategies used by novice designers and
occurring in Ontario, combined with the
theoretical models contained in many
approach developed by the Nuffield Projects,
textbooks and curriculum documents. These
prompted the authors to investigate the
results suggested that teachers must think
relationship between curriculum development
carefully about the way in which students are
and educational research (Barlex and Welch,
expected to generate, develop and
2000). In addition, evidence from a four-year
communicate their design proposals.
study in England, showing that 'pupils'
The success of this research led to a second attainment in designing lags behind that in
ARC grant in 1998/1999 that built the making ... because pupils are either not
Nuffield Big Task/Small Task approach into introduced to a sufficiently wide range of
the research design. The purpose of this study designing strategies ... or are not taught to
was to investigate the effect of instruction in use them effectively' (Office for Standards in
two-dimensional modelling skills on the Education, 1998: 17) further encouraged the
ability of novice designers to produce a authors to investigate ways in which
solution to a technological problem (Welch, educational research could support the
Barlex and Lim, 2000). The study addressed development of curriculum materials to teach
the questions: Does teaching two-dimensional students to generate, develop, and
modelling enable Grade 7 students to better communicate design ideas.
express their ideas and organise their
The influence of the writings of David
thoughts? What role does discussion play in
students' attempts to generate a design Layton on secondary Nuffield design and
proposal? Does the use of contextualising technology
items make a difference to students' success David Layton, Emeritus Professor of
with designing? Education at Leeds University, was a member
of the working party, chaired by Lady Parkes,
Eight Grade 7 students were drawn from each responsible for writing the report that
of two classes. One class received instruction informed the first set of National Curriculum
in sketching; the other served as a control Orders for design and technology in England
group. Each group of eight students was and Wales (Department of Education and
divided into single-sex dyads. The eight dyads Science, 1988). Since then David has written
were videotaped while producing a solution to widely on design and technology education,
a common design brief: Design and make a particularly with reference to the relationship
toy or game that will amuse and intrigue a between science and technology. He explains
bed-ridden hospital patient aged that the scientific tradition constructed an
approximately 12 years and that can be played ideal world
with on a bed tray.
'a mathematical 'shadO\\ world' of points
As in the earlier studies, students did not view which occupied no space, of material
sketching as a mediating instrument between bodics unblemishcd by departures from
mind and hand, between thinking and doing. perfect rigidity and glabrcity and for which
This is perhaps not surprising, because linear inertial motion (or rest) was the
although design professionals use sketching as norm, of fluid media untroubled by
a means of thinking they are already highly turbulence or eddies, and of a space which
ski lled and fluent in its use. Students, on the was homogencous and isotropic. In this
other hand, are of necessity likely to have abstracted world therc was no intrusion of
limited skills and insufficient experience of those scale effects which disconcerted
sketching to be fluent. It is important that this enginccrs and with which Galileo had once
lack of skill is not permitted to inhibit wrestled ... The same laws of mechanics
students' ability to generate, develop and described events on both a terrestrial and
communicate design ideas. The data also celestial scale.' (Layton, 1991: 45)
showed that students take action themselves to
resolve this dilemma by moving straight to
Layton compares this to the world of the Figure 6: Fastening
technologist, using the ideas of John chooser chart.
Staudenmaier (1985) on the relationship
between scientific and technological
knowledge. According to Layton (1993),
Staudenmaier holds that:
'Tcchnological knowledge is to be
understood as knowledgc 'structurcd by
the tension between the demands of
functional dcsign and the specific
constraints of its amhience.' Design
concepts cannot remain on the abstract
level, but 'must be continually restructured
hy the demands of thc available matcrials,
Figure 7a and b:
which are themselves governed hy further
constraints of cost and time pressures and Mechanism chooser
the abilities of availahle personnel' chart.
(p.104). The integration of 'the abstract
universality of a dcsign conccpt and the
necessarily specific constraints of cach
amhicncc in which it opcrates' would seem
to be the primary cognitivc prohlcm of
tcchnological kno\\ledge.' (p. 51)
Young Foresight is a curriculum development The research is demonstrating very clearly the
initiative in which students in Grade 9 are success of a curriculum development initiative
given the opportunity to work co-operatively and putting it in the context of its challenge to
to conceive products and services for the the prevailing orthodoxy.
future in consultation with mentors from It is clearly important that new entrants to the
industry using Foresight principles. These profession are made aware of the contribution
principles include identifying possible future educational research can make to informing
scenarios, appreciating existing and potential curriculum development and good classroom
markets, utilising new and emerging practice. The uffield approach to teaching
technologies, responding flexibly to changes design and technology informed by research
in global and local economies. Young and itself informing research activity provides
Foresight tasks require students to anticipate a powerful means of engaging new teachers
future trends and consumer behaviour and with educational research, as described in the
create ideas for products and services that will following section.
perform well in a world that hasn't yet
arrived.
Closing the gap: Teachers' use of be successful in the Capability Task. This led
research in classroom materials to the identification and development of a
development series of Resources Tasks to teach simple
Twenty teacher candidates from Queen's designing skills, construction skills and
University in Ontario, meeting for three hours technical understanding. Finally, teacher
on three consecutive days, were introduced to candidates were asked to identify
the uffield approach to teaching design and opportunities for using information and
technology, in which capability is communications technology and to consider
demonstrated through the completion of a assessment issues.
Capability Task (a Design and Make Activity) Working in groups of four, teacher candidates
and enabled through supporting Resource then completed the workbook. At the end of
Tasks. The teacher candidates then
the first day the authors collected the written
participated in the development of a responses from the teacher candidates. These
Capability Task and supporting Resource
were collated and written into a second
Tasks using the same design brief as the version of the workbook.
pupils in the research described earlier in this
paper. On Day 2, teacher candidates used the second
version of the workbook as a basis for
On Day 1 the teacher candidates were given a
discussion as they worked in dyads on a
workbook designed to
selection of the Resource Tasks and the
a) introduce them to the Nuffield approach Capability Task. Prior to this activity the two
and the research findings authors had resourced the room with tools and
materials required. Teacher candidates each
b) involve them in the development of a completed two Resource Tasks as individuals
Capability Task and supporting Resource before working with a partner to complete the
Tasks Capability Task. The authors provided
c) prepare them to complete some Resource technical assistance with practical work and
Tasks and the Capability Task. engaged in individual discussion. As a result,
a variety of toys and games was produced by
The workbook opened with a copy of the the teacher candidates, including a tabletop
context and design brief (design and make a pool table, a marble maze, tabletop basketball,
toy or game that will amuse and intrigue a and several board games (Figure 8).
bed-ridden patient approximately 12 years old
and that can be played with on a bed tray) At the end of Day 2 the authors were able to
from the research studies referenced earlier. develop a set of questions to help teacher
This was followed by a series of questions. candidates reflect on their work. The
questions focussed on:
What learning about designing will be
important for the pupils to be successful? the Resource Tasks (e.g. Which resource
tasks did you complete? Did they help
What learning about making will be with the Capability Task? What
important for the pupils to be successful? difficulties did you have when tackling the
What learning about technical matters will Resources Tasks? What difficulties might
be important for the pupils to be your pupils have?)
successful? the Capability Task (e.g. How did you
What learning about other matters will be generate ideas for the toy or game? How
important for the pupils to be successful? did you record these ideas? How did you
develop these ideas?)
What design decisions (about the product,
the user, the performance, the appearance the product (e.g. Does it meet the
of the product, how the product will work, performance specification? Are you proud
how it will fit together, and the materials, of it? Given more time what
adhesives, fixings and components improvements would you want to make?)
required) will the pupils make? Assessment (e.g. What do you think you
Teacher candidates were also required to learned? What is the evidence for this
consider whether or not the task statement and learning?)
design brief needed to be developed in more On the third and final day the teacher
detail, and what performance specifications candidates, working first individually and then
should be provided to pupils. in pairs, developed answers to these questions.
The next step required teacher candidates to A closing tutor-led discussion resulted in a
identify the knowledge, skills and series of conclusions about:
understanding pupils would need in order to
QUEEYS
GOLF CLU>
Conclusion
Technology education is increasingly an
established part of the school curriculum
throughout the world and in many countries,
including England and Canada, designing and
making is a central feature of the technology
curriculum. It is both intellectual and
practical. It introduces children to the
powerful process of designing; a process in
which new ideas are conceived and taken
from the mind's eye into the made world. It
requires creativity and problem-solving
abilities. It develops hand-eye co-ordination in
the precise use of tools and materials. It
a) using the Nuffield model in the design fosters the ability to make decisions, plan a
Figure 8: Toys and
and technology classroom course of action and carry it out working as
games for a bed-
b) curriculum materials development an individual and as a member of a team. But
ridden child.
it has an even bigger role to play in children's
c) using research findings to inform education. It develops their cognitive skills.
classroom practice. Through designing and making children learn
to think.
For example, teacher candidates reported a
significant level of confidence as they tackled The curriculum development that has
the Capability Task. When questioned they informed technology education has often been
were able to identitY their success with the intuitive and derived from emerging best
Resource Tasks as contributing significantly practice rather than a consideration of
to this confidence. They also reported 'getting research findings. However where curriculum
better at design decision making' and development in technology education has
'learning new making skills' as a result of been informed by research then the resulting
completing the Resource Tasks. Conversation pedagogy and associated classroom materials
have stimulated effective practice on a large Performance in Design and Technology: Final
scale. And some research is beginning to Report, London: Schools Examination and
Assessment Council
challenge prevailing orthodoxy.
Layton, D. (1991) 'Science Education and Praxis:
It is clear that the promise of technology The Relationship of School Science to Practical
education evidenced from practice that is only Action', Studies in Science Education, 19: 34-79
just beginning to be informed by research Layton, D. (1993) Technology's Challenge to
leads to the conclusion that with more Science Education - Cathedral, Quarry or
Company Store? Buckingham, UK: Open
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University
enhanced. When we really understand how to
Macdonald, B., and Walker, R. (1976) Changing
construct a technology education experience
the Curriculum, London: Open Books
that empowers students to make design
Messenger, J. (1999) 'Nuffield Helps to Bridge that
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Gap', Update, 3 (4): 14-15
technology education fulfill its potential. The
Murphy, P. (2000) Young Foresight: Preliminary
emerging research agenda is wide but we are
Evaluation, Available from Young Foresight, 57
particularly interested in the nature of tasks South Lambeth Road, London, SW8 1RH,
that can be used to teach students particular England
facets of designing and how the learning from Murphy, P. and Davidson, M. (1998) Evaluation:
such tasks can be used by students to develop Second Phase-Nuffield Design and Technology in
integrated capability. the Primary Curriculum, Milton Keynes, UK: Open
University
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