mmd-081 Block 1 - Child Development
mmd-081 Block 1 - Child Development
mmd-081 Block 1 - Child Development
Perspectives on
Disability
Indira Gandhi National Open University
National Centre for Disability Studies
Block
1
CHILD DEVELOPMENT
UNIT 1
Principles and Factors Influencing Child Development 5
UNIT 2
Area of Child Development 15
UNIT 3
Theories of Child Development 30
UNIT 4
Developmental Deviations 45
Expert Committee
Dr. Latha Pillai Prof. Manmohan Singh Dr. Saroj Arya
Pro-Vice Chancellor Retd. Professor of Psychology Retd. Head, Dept. of Rehabilitation
IGNOU, New Delhi Usmania University, Hyderabad Psychology, Andhra Pradesh
Prof. (Mrs). Amulya Khurana Dr. Seema Bhattacharya Dr. J.P. Singh
Dept. of Psychology Psychologist Member Secretary
IIT, Delhi Prayas, Jaipur Rehabilitation Council of India
New Delhi
Prof. J.P. Mittal Dr. S.K. Mishra Dr. Hemlata
Psychologist Dy. Director Dy. Director
Retd. Professor Rehabilitation Council of India NCDS,IGNOU
NCERT New Delhi New Delhi
Acknowledgement
We express our heartfelt gratitude to the Dr. Latha Pillai, Pro V.C., IGNOU for her
constant guidance and support in the initiation and development of this programme
of study.
4
Principles and Factors
Influencing Child
UNIT 1 PRINCIPLES AND FACTORS Development
INFLUENCING CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What is development
1.3 Principles of Child Development
1.3.1 Development is Continuous
1.3.2 Development is Sequential
1.3.3 Development Proceeds from General to Specific Responses
1.3.4 Development has Individual Differences
1.3.5 Development is Cumulative in Nature
1.3.6 Holistic Child Development
1.3.7 Development Occurs in a Context
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Child development is a discipline in human behavioural sciences which focuses on
the qualitative and quantitative ways children change over a given span of time
period. Child Development is a field of science which studies child from conception
to adolescence. We need to study about the principles and factors influencing
child development in rehabilitation psychology as we need to know about the
various factors which have an influence on the growth and development of children.
In this Unit, we will discuss the principles of child development and factors
influencing child development in detail.
Objectives
After studying this Unit, you will be able to:
explain the major concepts and principles of child development;
enumerate the principles of child development;
delineate the factors influencing child development; and
discuss the relevance of socio-cultural and biological influences on child
development. 5
Child Development
1.2 WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT
Development can be seen as changes which are reasonably enduring and occurs
in a sequence. Development can be defined as changes occurring in an individual’s
physical, neurological structures, behaviours and traits. Development is adapting
to newer and improved ways of behaviour to survive and adapt as per the
environment. For example, babling to talking, crawling to walking, scribbling to
writing, etc.
Development is continuous which means that each stage of child development has
its foundations built upon a preceding stage and has a definite influence on the
child in the succeeding stage of development. Every development or behaviour is
dependent on the development that has occurred before.
Mothers who suffered from Rubella or German measles during the first trimester
(three months) of pregnancy generally gave birth to children with hearing defects
and mental retardation. The protein energy malnutrition prevalent among children
of 0-6 years results in poor cognitive and physical development of children even
when they grow up.
The rate and speed of development may vary in individual cases, but the sequence
of the development is always same. All children over the world would follow
same sequence of development even though at different pace due to individual or
socio-economic reasons.
The developmental pattern across all children is same but time table of development
among all children is unique and individualistic. Development is influenced by both
heredity and environment. Always remember that each child is a unique individual.
No two children, even twins behave or develop in an identical manner, there is
always individual differences among them. Hence, both the rate of development
as well as characteristic of development is different among all the children. Even
though we use a particular chronological age to represent characteristic traits of
that age group or cohort, the developmental sequence among individual children
varies.
a) Read the following questions carefully and answer in the space provided
below:
1.5.1 Heredity
At the moment of conception when the parent cells fuse and then a unique
biological pattern is fixed, is the most important moment in life of a child. At that
time a pattern for future growth and development of individual is set. To what
extent and in what direction a child’s potentialities will be realized will depend
upon his environment. Certain potentials may be partially or entirely repressed.
A potential genius may become a mentally handicapped because of a birth injury.
Influences of heredity and environment are so closely interlocked that one cannot
be considered separately from the other.
The dynamic relationship between these two factors may be seen by the influence
that a child’s genetic make up may have upon his or her use of the environment.
Given the same environment and all other factors being constant, a child with
higher intellectual capabilities will tend to exploit his/her environment more
completely than one with lesser potential. Thus, a very bright child may learn more
from a meager environment than a less gifted child may learn from richer
environment. Some people inherit a high resistance capacity other inherit so little
resistance that they cannot be protected by best of environment; though most
people fall ill.
Environment includes habits of living, such as sleeping, eating, activity and adjustment
to one’s circumstances and to other people around you.
How Heredity Operates:
In the nucleus of the fertilized egg are found units that comprise the heredity of
the individual and in which lay his potentialities for development. At the time of
conception the new organism receives, in equal parts from each parent, 46
chromosomes (44 autosome chromosomes and the sex chromosomes -XX or
XY). These chromosomes contain probably about 10,000 pairs of genes. It is
thought that the substance of the genes is a chemical, deoxyribose nucleic acid or
DNA, which contains nucleotides of four bases which in a number of varieties of
combinations appear to be capable of encoding all the characteristics that an
organism transmits from one generation to the next. Sometimes the individual has
10 less or more than 46 chromosomes because of abnormal chromosome in the
Principles and Factors
ovaries of the mother or in the sperm of the father. Certain abnormalities have Influencing Child
been found to be associated with this condition. For example the mongoloid has Development
47 chromosomes and is characterised by specific abnormalities in structure and
related physical and mental development.
Genes do not act alone. They react with the cytoplasm of the cell, and they act
also with one another. Genetic action may not be expressed because the environment
has not provided the necessary elements, for example -dietary habits and diabetes.
Expression may be modified by environments as illustrated by the serial differences
in the height of children in the United States and other countries and handedness,
which has a genetic component but is often influenced by social pressure.
Characteristics influence by heredity:
Heredity and environment cannot be separated. Certain characteristics can be
attributed to heredity almost exclusively. In others, there is strong environmental
character. Yet again, others can be attributed primarily to heredity in one set of
circumstances and to environment in another.
Sex of the child is basically determined by the genes of a special pair of
chromosomes called sex chromosomes. Every ovum that is ready to fertilize
contains one X. Some sperms may contain X; some sperms may contain Y. If
an X bearing sperm fertilized the ovum, the new organism will be a XX, a girl.
If a Y bearing sperm fertilizes the ovum the sex of the organism will be XY a boy.
It is therefore, the father who determines whether his child will be a girl or a boy.
The characteristics that are accepted as due almost exclusively to heredity are: -
Colour of eyes and hair, blood types, form of physical features and structure of
body.
Though, research indicates that both heredity and environment plays a role in
development of intelligence and personality. But, a person with low IQ cannot be
converted into a genius by the environment.
The resemblance between “identical” twins who have been reared apart is likely
to be higher than that between ordinary brothers and sisters reared in the same
home.
The personality of an individual can be viewed as the resultant of the interaction
of this “metabolic personality” with the psychological, social and cultural forces
from its surrounding. That environmental forces are potent in formation of personality
is evident in a number of studies.
Implications for child development:-
All children have certain needs for growth. All children do not meet these needs
in the same way. Children will differ in sleep and activity requirements and in
sensitivity and response to emotional stimuli. Therefore no programme can be
standardized in details for all children in the home or school. It is to be remembered
that children in the same family do not generally have exactly the same genetic
make up, so their response to the home environment will be different.
If the parent has knowledge of the family background with its assets and liabilities,
this knowledge may allay unnecessary fears on the one hand and give a realistic
approach to possible difficulties on the other. Knowledge of possible potentialities
will help parents to plan intelligently for their children. 11
Child Development Environment is a strong factor to be remembered. Todd once said, “The adult
physical form is determined by heredity but enhanced, dwarfed, warped or mutilated
in its expression by the influence of environment in the adventure of life.”
Influence of the interaction of heredity and environment on growth
patterns:-
Various longitudinal growth studies, at the University of Michigan, Fels institute for
Research, and Brush Foundation provide evidence that children of the same
family tend to show a notable similarity in their patterns of growth.
In physical growth there also is evidence of similarity in families. Similar growth
patterns in height, in bone development and in tooth decay and similar speed of
maturing have been seen. There are slow maturing and fast maturing families. By
knowing the father and mother of a child may help in the interpretation of child’s
health status and growth. There are some children who inspite of the best
environment are underweight, perhaps have poor muscular tone or are just not
robust. Members of a family may have different as well as similar patterns of
growth.
Effect of parental environment on development:-
It has been stated above that the immediate environment within the body influences
the action of the genes. The normal course of development as set by them can
be affected by changes in the environment of the fetus in the uterus. Some
contributing factors may be maternal dietary, inadequacies, viral infections for
example-german measles during first six to ten weeks of pregnancy. A child
whose mother has had German measles in early pregnancy may have congenital
defects.
Among woman who smokes cigarettes during pregnancy, there is a tendency to
have babies of lower birth weight and had greater chance of having premature
deliveries. In the study of literature from 1956 to 1961 it was concluded that
unsuccessful attempts to induce abortion with drugs was one of the causes of
congenital malformation. (Kucera and Benesova, 1962).
Maternal health during pregnancy is also important. Passamanick, Liend field and
co-workers have found an association between frequencies of abnormalities of
perinatal and immediately postnatal periods and the frequency of cerebral palsy,
epilepsy, mental deficiency, reading disorders and behaviour disorder as reported
by teachers. Asian pregnancy has been found to increase the number of infantile
abnormalities/anomalies; the incidence of anomalies was higher when the disease
occurred during the 1st three months of pregnancies. Asian flu also increased the
number of premature births as well as still birth rate and prenatal mortalities. In
study of 19 drugs addicted mothers and their 12 premature and 11 full-term
infant, addiction was thought to be associated with the fact that of the 23 infants
in the study, 6 were born in the breech position, 19 had respiratory distress and
17 had withdrawal symptoms.
A history of anxiety during pregnancy has been found to be associated in the
children who are products of that pregnancy with lower scores on tests of intelligence
and indices of emotional adjustment than are found in the children of non anxious
mother.
12
Principles and Factors
1.5.2 Environment Influencing Child
Development
There are two types of environments; shared environment and non-shared
environment. Shared environment is a set of experiences that is shared by children
raised in the same family with each other; especially sharing of experiences by
identical twins and fraternal twins reared in the same family is higher than even
siblings reared in the same family than friends reared in different families. Non-
shared environment is a set of experiences that is, experienced by one child
reared in one family and another child not reared in the same family. This
provides activities, behaviours, attitude and prejudices which are not same among
the children in the same class or group.
Genes are said to make individuals choose other people who are compatible with
their inherited traits. This is called “Niche Picking”. It is a process in which
people look for, search, select or build environments that are compatible with
their genetic make-up.
14
Area of Child Development
UNIT 2 AREA OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Different Areas of Child Development
2.3 Physical and Motor Development
2.3.1 Physical Development
2.3.2 Reflexes in New Born Child
2.3.3 Gross Motor Development
2.3.4 Fine Motor Development
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Child development consists of the development of child. It is generally similar for
all children irrespective of caste, creed, region or class differences. Children from
all parts of the world would undergo relatively orderly changes over time in
physical and neurological structures, thought processes and behaviour. Like children
all over the world would walk at the same time, start babbling, using telegraphic
speech at the same time. Children of the same age would play ‘peek-a-boo’
game. And there are many such examples. In this unit, we would study about the
processes and areas of child development.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Enlist the areas of development
Understand the various developmental areas and their role in child’s
development 15
Child Development Differentiate the skills child learns in the different areas of development
Eye Blink: Child blinks or closes eyes when a bright light is flashed on the eyes.
It is a permanent reflex.
Rooting: Baby turns his/her head towards the finger which is stroking the child’s
cheek lightly and opens the mouth and sucks the finger. Involuntary reflex disappears
in about 3 months and becomes permanent.
Moro: A startled response to sudden loss of support or when a loud voice is
made near the baby, the child would throw his arms outward and extends legs
and clenching fists in the centre of the body. The reflex lasts about 6 months.
Palmar grasp: When a finger is placed in the centre of the baby’s palm then the
baby grasps finger. This reflex is shown by the child till about 3-4 months.
17
Child Development Sucking: When a finger is inserted inside the mouth of the baby it will suck it
rhythmically. It is less in the first four days and later is replaced to voluntary
response by 4-6 months.
Babinski: When the foot of the baby is stroked from heel to toes then the baby
curves up his/her big toe and other toes fan and curl. It disappears by about 12
months.
Stepping: when the baby is held up and his/her bare feet touches flat surface then
the baby takes one step after another in a rhythmic movement. It disappears at
about 3-4 months.
As the child grows so does his/her emotions. With the growth of emotions children
learn to manage their emotional experiences. Managing of one’s emotions or
regulation of emotions also called emotional self regulation is corelated with increased
cognitive abilities in children. Emotional self-regulation refers to the strategies we
use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can
accomplish our goals (Berk, 2007). Emotional self regulation is a voluntary process
and with efforts and training child is taught self-regulation during late childhood
period.
2.5.5 Temperament
Temperament is the general emotional state of a person. It is generally said that
the Bollywood actor Meena Kumari, had a sad temperament or was a tragic
queen. Some persons have happy, angry, sad or calm expressions. Reactivity
refers to variations in quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention and
motor action and self regulation refers to the strategies that modify reactivity
(Rothbart, 2004; Rothbart & Bates, 1998). Childhood temperaments is believed
to have an impact on adult person’s personality. According to Berk there are
three types of children based on their temperaments. These are:
The easy child: Is the child who quickly establishes regular routines, in infancy,
is generally cheerful, and adapts easily to new experiences.
The difficult child: Is the child who has irregular daily routines, is slow to
accept new experiences and tends to react negatively and intensely.
The slow to warm up child: Is the child who is inactive, shows mild, low-
key reactions to environmental stimuli, is negative in mood, and adjusts
slowly to new experiences.
Pre attachment phase (birth to 6 weeks): Signals like grasping, smiling, crying
and gazing into adult eyes by the infant are used, some babies recognize
mothers smell, walking, noice, etc during this stage. Mother or significant
others encourage them by giving them comfort during this stage.
Clear-cut attachment phase (6-8 months to 18-2 years): During this phase
infants shows separation anxiety from mother, a secure base to the child.
Child response to the mother when she comforts the child shows the
perception of infants trust on mother.
Secure attachment: It is the type of attachment in which children unite with their
mothers with least distress and happily unite with their mothers.
A genetic factor seems to regulate some social emotional development that occurs
at a set and specific, predetermined age such as all the basic emotions. Experiences
allow us to determine which people we should become close, which social rules
to be observed and how to express emotions appropriately according to the
situation.
24
Check Your Progress 2 Area of Child Development
Note: Reply in the space provided below and later check your answers with
that provided at the end of this unit.
i) Enlist types of children on the basis of temperament expressed by.....
infants.
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ii) List different emotions expressed by child which are related to basic emotions.
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ii) List different emotions expressed by child which are related to basic Area of Child Development
emotions.
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Note: Reply in the space provided below and later check your answers with
that provided at the end of this unit.
1. Match the following:
Column A Column B
i) Morphenes a) Two words
ii) Holophrase b) At the time of birth
iii) Telegraphic Speech c) One word which gives
complete meaning
iv) Cooing d) Vowel sounds
v) Crying e) Smallest unit of language
with Meaning
e) Drawing
f) Scribbling
Check Your Progress Excercise 2
1. a) Easy child
b) Difficult child
c) Slow to warm up child
v) b
2.11 GLOSSARY
Neonate : Newborn child
Gross motor development : Child uses the large muscles of the body
Fine motor development : Child uses the small muscles of the body
29
Child Development
UNIT 3 THEORIES OF CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
3.4 Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
3.5 Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Answers to Check Your Progress
3.8 Unit End Excercise
3.9 Suggested Readings
3.10 Glossary
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit, we will learn about the basic and important theories of personality
development. These are psychoanalytic theory of psychosexual development
given by Sigmund Freud, psychosocial theory by Erik Erikson and Cognitive
theory by Jean Piaget. First, we will study about the psychoanalytic theory
given by Frued, we will discuss the three personality structures, defense
mechanisms and psychosexual stages of personality development. The second
part of Unit deals with psychosocial theory of Erik Erikson. We will learn
about the various psychosocial stages of personality development. Finally,
we will discuss Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
describe psychoanalytic theory of psychosocial stages;
explain psychosocial theory by Erik Erikson; and
describe theory of cognitive development.
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Piaget has focused on studying one of the most significant human behaviour –
cognition. All the intellectual abilities encompassing thinking, information processing,
remembering, abstracting, and generalizing are included in the term “cognition”.
Piaget like other cognitive theorist recognized that an important part of cognition
is the acquisition of categorization of concept. Concepts are sets of common
characteristics among symbols or events. A concept serves as a representation of
a feature or features common to a variety of experiences.
Schema – It is the basic cognitive unit. This concept involves a pattern of action
or a mental structure that is involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge, or a
child’s conceptualization of a specific situation observable behaviour. We have
schemata of sight, sucking, shaking and include any other controlled activity.
Organisation – It involves the integration of all processes into one overall system.
The schemas are organized so as to increase the understanding of the concepts.
Adaptation – It is a two fold process through which children create new structures
to deal effectively with their surrounding. It involves both assimilation and
accommodation.
Stages of Development
3. Each stage includes the cognitive structures and abilities of the previous
stage.
4. At each stage the child’s schemas and operations form an integrated whole.
The sensorimotor stage is further divided into six sub-stages, these are:
5. Tertiary Circular Reaction (12-18 months): In this sub stage, the child
discovers new means of doing things through active trial and error
experimentation and also develops intentionality, which refers to the ability to
act in a goal directed manner.
37
Child Development 6. Invention of new means through mental combinations (18-24
months): In this stage child works with mental representation, that means,
ability to picture events in his minds and to follow them through to some
degree.
Imitation: Invisible imitation (imitation with parts of the body that infant can’t
see for themselves, such as mouth) doesn’t begin until 9 months of age. Visible
imitation although starts earlier.
Symbolic functioning is the ability to make one thing represent a different thing
which is not present. The hall mark of symbolic function is acquisition of language
skills developed at this age. Development of symbolic functions may be inferred
from five types of activities.
i) Delayed imitation: Imitation after some time the events has been observed.
ii) Symbolic Play: Children make one object stand for something else. eg.
using a hairbrush to represent a microphone.
iii) Drawing: Piaget sees elements of play and imitation in this activity. He
considers drawing halfway between symbolic play and mental image.
iv) Mental Image: Mental image is closely related to drawing and Piaget
denies that mental image can be product of perception but an internalization
of imitation. This images are not an exact copy but rather includes errors
38 i.e., there is a gap between the object and its images we create.
v) Language Proper: Acquisition of language enables the child to have a Theories of Child
mental representation of chain of events quickly and easily evokes that which Development
is not physically present. It is a fully elaborated social system capable
of representing any kind of relationship or object.
1) Structure of Personality
Id,
Ego,
Superego
Repression,
Identification,
Projection,
Displacement,
Reaction formation,
Rationalization, and
Regression
Oral stage
Anal stage
Phallic stage
Genital stage
42
Check Your Progress 2 Theories of Child
Development
1. Psychosocial stages of personality development:
i) Trust vs Mistrust
ii) Autonomy vs Doubt
iii) Initiative vs Guilt
iv) Industry vs Inferiority
v) Identity vs Role confusion
vi) Intimacy vs Isolation
vii) Generativity vs Self absorption
viii) Integrity vs Despair
Check Your Progress 3
1. Key concepts of cognitive theory:
i) Schema
ii) Organization
iii) Adaptation
iv) Assimilation
v) Accommodation
vi) Equilibrium
2. Stages of Cognitive Development are:
i) Sensorimotor stage
ii) Preoperational stage
iii) Concrete operational stage
iv) Formal operation stage
3.10 GLOSSARY
Anal stage : The second stage of psychosexual development
during which bowel control is achieved and
libidal pleasures are focused on the expulsion
or retention of faeces.
Basic trust : The inner feeling that one’s social world is a
safe and stable place and that caring others
and nurturing are reliable
Schema : A pattern of action or a mental structure that is
involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge
Cognition : Inner processes and products of the mind which
result in attaining knowledge
Mental Representation : It is an internal description of information that
the mind can use accordingly
Adaptation : It is the process of building schema through
direct interaction with the surrounding.
44
Developmental Deviations
UNIT 4 DEVELOPMENTAL DEVIATIONS
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Developmental Deviation: Definition
4.4 Types of Deviation
4.4.1 Positive Deviation
4.4.2 Negative Deviation
4.4.3 Multiple Deviation
4.1 INTRODUCTION
You have studied in child development; principles of development, areas of
development and some theories related to child development in earlier units in
this Block. Now, in this Unit, we will discuss about the developmental deviations.
We will define deviations and exceptionality. We will deal with different types
of deviations namely positive deviation, negative deviation and mixed deviation.
We will also study about the different models of exceptionality. In this Unit,
we will learn about the concept of impairment, disability and handicap. After
studying this Unit, you will be acquainted with knowledge on causes of
exceptionality and would be able to assess the basic and special needs of
exceptional children.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you will be able to:
l explain developmental deviation and its types;
45
Child Development l explain the models of exceptionality;
l differentiate impairment, disability and handicap;
l discuss the causes of exceptionality; and
l delineate the needs of exceptional children.
46
4.4.1 Positive Deviation Developmental Deviations
48
4.5.1 Statistical Model Developmental Deviations
40%% 40%%
8% 8%
2% 2%
Below Above
(Average Mean)
Idiots Average Average Gifted
Normal
Hence, on the bases of this model, we can defined exceptionality as the deviation
in variable degree for more areas of development is comparison to set medical
standards of development for a particular age group, and the children can be
termed above average or below average, or commonly exceptional children.
ii) Environmental Factors: The external factors that affect the child development
during pre-natal, ante natal and post natal period are known as environmental
factors. Environmental factors are further categorized under three groups,
these are:
i) Prenatal factors,
i) Prenatal factors: The factors that effect the child’s development during
pregnancy period that is from conception till delivery of child are known
as prenatal factors. These are consumptions of alcohol, smoking by
expectant mother, use of un-prescribed or prescribed drugs during
pregnancy etc.
ii) Ante-natal factors: Factors that affect the child’s development during the
time of delivery are known as ante-natal factors, for example, absence of
oxygen (anoxia), head injury during delivery, long periods of labour pain,
fetal distress etc.
iii) Post-natal factors: Factors that affect the child development after birth
are known as post-natal factors for example, malnutrition, childhood
diseases, rheumatic fever, polio, head injury accidents etc.
Note: Reply in the space provided below and later check your answers with
that provided at the end of this unit.
51
Child Development 2. Fill in the blanks:-
i) Down Syndrome, Fragile X-Syndrome, Triple X Syndrome are
examples of ........................ .
ii) Pre-natal factors affect the child development during .........................
period.
iii) Ante-natal factors like lack of oxygen, head injury, fetal distress may
lead to .........................
“Raj Kumar was a very good athlete and wanted to represent his country in
major competitions like Common Wealth Games, Olympics etc. One day he
met with an accident and lost one of his legs. Now, although he overcome
that mishappening and was able to walk with the help of artificial limb, but
his dream to represent his country in athletic event will remain unfulfilled”.
In the above case vignette ‘Rajkumar lost his leg’ is an impairment. Now, he
can not walk or run is disability. The present state of Rajkumar (that is lost
of leg) hinders him to participate in athletic activities is handicap. Through this
discussion we can conclude that all three terms have linear relationship i.e.
This relationship states that one condition leads to another, ie, impairment, leads
in disability and disability leads to handicap.
52
Functional Developmental Deviations
Limitations
Impairment
Societal
Limitation
* Source: S K Mangal
According to this model, pathophysiology is the initial phase of development
of disability in a person. In this the person will experience basic biological and
psychological disturbances. Impairment is second phase to development of
disability which characterized more specific effect of these disturbances for
example, absence of limbs leads to abnormal motor functions. The third phase
is functional limitations which specify the particular set of related activities that
are affected due to the impairment. Disability is the fourth component or phase
of this model, which discriminate the person from the normal or average person
of that age due to impairment and functional limitations. Finally, the handicap
is the fifth and last phase of this model which is renamed as ‘societal limitation’,
refers to the role of the society and environment in limiting the opportunities
for one’s growth and development (Mangal, 2009).
l It may mislead the teachers and other adults to set the norms of expectations
according to their developmental deviation. They may expect too much or
too less from these children as they are labeled exceptional.
But except this disadvantage, exceptional children should be classified and labeled
because of following reasons (Kauffman 1998, Macmillan and Mujers 1979,
Mesibov, Adams, and Klinger 1997):
i) Giftedness
ii) Creativeness
i) Visual impairment
i) Emotional disturbances
7. Multiple disability
i) Cerebral palsy
ii) Autism
54
Developmental Deviations
Exceptional Children
Exceptional Children
Mentally Exceptional
Giftedness Creativeness
Mental Retardation
Sensory Exceptional
Locomotor / Orthopedics
Impairment
Communication
Disturbances
Emotional Disturbances Delinquency / Social Disability
Multiple Disability
56
vii) Need of getting equal educational opportunities. Developmental Deviations
58
Kirk, S.A., Gallagher, J.J., Anasterscow, N.J. and Coleman, M.R. (2006). Developmental Deviations
Educating Exceptional Children (11th Ed.) Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company.
Kliewer, C. and Beckline, D. (1996). Labelling: Who wants to be called
retarded? (2nd Ed.) Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
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4.14 GLOSSARY
Pre-natal factors : Factors that affects the child development before birth
of child, i.e. during pregnancy
Ante-natal factor : Factors associated with birth or delivery process
Post-natal factors : After birth factors
Impairment : Impairment can be defined as fundamental, structural,
psychological or physiological deficit
Disability : The functional deficit that a person experiences as a
result of impairment
Handicap : The disadvantage the person with disability experiences
in various societal settings as a result of disability
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