A HISTORY OF THE SIKHS

Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive

in 2010 witii funding from
University of Toronto

littp://www.arcliive.org/details/liistoryofsiklisfrOOcunn
HISTORY OF THE SIKHS
FROM
THE ORIGIN OF THE NATION
TO

THE BATTLES OF THE SUTLEJ

BY

JOSEPH DAVEY CUNNINGHAM

LIEUTENANT OF ENGINEERS, AND CAPTAIN IN THE ARMY OF INDIA

EDITED BY

H. L. O. GARRETT, M.A., I.E.S.

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, GOVERNMENT COLLEGE, LAHORE

NEW AND REVISED EDITION 1(503 ^ (f

WITH TWO MAPS

3j. 3. a I

HUMPHREY MILFORD
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK
TORONTO MELBOURNE CAPE TOWN BOMBAY
19I8
 H

PRINTED AT OXFORD, ENGLAND

BY FREDERICK HALL
PRINTER TO THE UNrVERSITY
 EDITOR'S NOTE
The author's original spelling of Indian names is archaic
and almost intolerable to the modern reader. I have there-
fore adopted the modern accepted spelling, and for the

arduous work of transliteration I am indebted to L. Tej

Ram, M,A., Professor of Mathematics at the Randhir College,
Kapdrthala.
The author's text and notes have remained unaltered,
but where necessary I have added additional notes, which
will be found in brackets.
By permission of the Government of the Punjab, I am
enabled to reproduce some of the results obtained by the
recent examination of the manuscript records of the Sikh
days, which have long been lying in the archives of the Civil
Secretariat. In this connexion I have been greatly assisted
by L. Sita Ram Kohly, M.A., the research student in charge
of the work. Apart from this, he has been of great help
in preparing the entire volume and, in particular, in the

drawing up of the Bibliography. Finally, I tender my very

grateful thanks to the Hon. Mr. J. P. Thompson, I.C.S.,

Chief Secretary to the Government of the Punjab, who has

kindly looked through the manuscript and to whom I am
indebted for many valuable hints and suggestions.

H. L. O. GARRETT.
Lahore,
November 1915.
 INTRODUCTORY
The original edition of Capt. Cunningham's book appeared
in 1849. A second edition was finished in 1851, but, as is
explained in the second preface by his brother, this edition
did not make its appearance till 1853, after the death of the
author. The second edition did not differ materially from
the first beyond certain re-arrangements and certain addi-
tions to the notes, with the exception of Chapter IX. This
chapter, which deals Avith the events leading up to, and the
progress and result of, the first Sikli War, was considerably
modified in the second edition. Even in this form the
chapter contains many statements of an injudicious nature.
Indeed, as the result of certain strictures upon the policy of
the Government of India in dealing with Gulab Singh of
Jammu, the author was dismissed from his employment in
the Political Department by the Honourable East India
Company and sent back to regimental duty. These
strictures, together with a note upon the subsequent
punishment meted out to the author, will be found in
their proper place in Chapter IX.
To turn to the volume as a whole. The author, as he tells
us in his own prefatory note, spent eight years of his service
(from 1838 to 1846) in close contact with the Siklis, and that
too during a very important period of their history. His
experiences began with the interview between Lord Auckland
and Ranjit Singh in 1838 and lasted down to the close of
the first Sikh War, when he became resident in Bhopal. The
result of his eight years' residence was to give him a great
insight into the history of the Siklis and to inspire in him a
partiality which is only too clearly visible in his handling
of the events leading up to the outbreak of hostilities
with the British. Tlie whole book bears evidence of most
meticulous care, and the voluminous footnotes show the
breadth and variety of the author's study.
Chapter I deals with the country and its people. There
viii INTRODUCTORY
is a detailed description of the industries of the Punjab and
its dependencies, much of which has been rendered
archaic by the natural march of events. The ethno-
logical part of this chapter has been carefully done, though
this again is in need of supplementation in the light of
modern research. It seems hardly necessary to guide the
modern reader in this direction when so many excellent
gazetteers are now available, but for a very lucid summary
of the Hill States of the Punjab and their peoples, a subject
in which the author is a little difficult to follow, reference
may well be made to an article (in vol. iii of The Journal
of thePunjab Historical Society) by Messrs. Hutchison and
Vogcl, which is admirably exi^licit and is supplemented by a

short bibliography on the subject.

Chapter II is concerned with the old religions of India.
Here again knowledge has moved forward and much of the
author's information is His conception of the lin-
archaic.
gam and its significance, is not in consonance
for example,
with modern theory. Unfortunately, too, he lived before
the days when the labours of the Archaeological Department
had thrown a flood of light upon the teaching of Buddlia
and the prevalence of his religion in India. Indeed, his
only reference to the British in this connexion is an accusa-
tion of iconoclasm which reads strangely to a modern
generation. His accoimt of modern reforms naturally
' '

stops at an early point, and he seems to have been led into

the somewhat erroneous conclusion that the whole Indian
— —
world Hindu and Muhammadan at the time that he
wrote, was moving in the direction of a hew revelation. As
I have pointed out in a supplementary note, the tendency
is rather, in the case of both creeds, towards a reversion to

ancient purity and the removal of accretions and corruptions.

The chapter concludes with an account of Guru Nanak
and his teaching.
Chapter III is concerned with the lives and teaching of
the Guriis. The gradual spread of the Sikh religion in
the Punjab led to the establishment of a sort of r/«j^er/«Ht in
imperio. This development caused the Mughal emperors to
follow a line of policy much like that adopted by the Roman
emperors when confronted by the rising organization of
 INTRODUCTORY ix

—
the Christian Church. This policy one of repression and
—
persecution caused a profound modification of the whole
Sikh system. The simple altruism of the early days was
laid aside and, under Gobind Singh, the tenth and last
Guru, the Sikhs became a definite fighting force. At first
the armies of the Khalsa met with little success, and the
death of Gobind Singh in 1708, followed by that of Banda,
his successor in the command of the armies, in 1716,
seemed to sound the knell of Sikh hopes and ambitions.
But the fervour of their belief rose triumphant over
persecution, and the Sikhs found their opportunity in the
years of disorder which followed the death of the Emperor
Bahadur Shah in 1712.
Chapter IV relates the gradual establishment of Sikh
independence down to 1764. Northern India was a wild
welter of confusion. The Mughal Empire was falling
rapidly to pieces under the repeated blows of invaders from
north and south. First Nadir Shah and his Persian hosts,
and then the Afghan Ahmad Shah Durrani, swept down
upon the imperial capital. Like Rome of old, Delhi felt
again and again the hand of the spoiler, and its glories
became a thing of the past. The advent of the Marathas
upon the scene seemed at first the prelude to the establish-
ment of Hindu supremacy in the north of India. But the
battle of Panlpat (1761) jjroved fatal to their ambitions
and left the stage open for the development of a new
power in the Punjab.
Amid all this confusion the Sikhs gradually achieved
their independence. At first they were mere bands of
plunderers, but gradually these bands became united into
a formidable fighting force. In 1748 the army of the
Khalsa became a recognized organization under Jassa
Singh, and though it frequently suffered defeat, it never
lost its definite character after that date. The Sikhs
sustained their greatest disaster at the hands of the Afghans
at Ludhiana in 1762, but the waves of Afghan invasion
had spent their strength. In 1763, at Sirhind, the Siklis
avenged their defeat of the previous year and permanently
occupied the province of Sirhind. In the following year,
which witnessed the last Afghan invasion, they became
X INTRODUCTORY
masters of Lahore, and in the same year, at a meeting at
Amritsar, organized tliemselves into a ruling political
system, described by the author as a theocratic con- '

federate feudalism '. The condition of the Punjab during

these years of bloodshed and disorder was miserable in the
extreme. To find any parallel in European history one
would have to go back to the days of King Stephen in
England or to some of the worst episodes of the Thirty
Years' War. Waris Shah, the author of the story of Hlr
and Ranjha, who flourished during this period, gives, in
the epilogue of this poem, a vivid account of the state of
the country :

Fools and sinners give counsel to the world,

The words of the wise are set at naught.
No man tells the truth or cares for justice.
Telling what is untrue has become the practice in the world.

With violence men commit fiagi'ant iniquity,

In the hands of tyrants there is a sharp sword.
There is no Governor, Ruler, or Emperor.
The country and all the people in it have been made desolate.
Great confusion has fallen on the country.
There is a sword in every man's hand.
The purdah of shame and modesty has been lifted
And all the world goes naked in the open bazaar.
Thieves have become leaders of men.
•Harlots have become mistresses of the household.
The company of devils has multiplied exceedingly.
The state of the noble is pitiable.
Men of menial birth flourish and the peasants are in great prosperity.
The Jats have become masters of our country,
Everywhere there is a new Government.^

The Sikhs had becoine a nation and, in theory, a united

nation, but in actual fact such was far from being the case.
The new State was composed of a number twelve is the —
usually recognized total —of leagues or 'Misals'. Instead of
uniting and forming a solid State, these Misals' were almost
'

constantly engaged in civil war, grouping and regrouping

in the struggle for pre-eminence. It needed a strong hand
to check these internecine disputes, and, fortunately for the

^ [I am indebted to Mi-. C. F. Usborne, C.S., for the above translation.]

 INTRODUCTORY xi

Punjab, Ranjit Singh appeared on the scene. The career of

the one-eyed Lion of the Punjab is fully described in the
text and needs but little reference at this point. The
Maharaja's real career commences with his acquisition of
Lahore in 1799. From that date he steadily extended his
sway over the whole Punjab. Many books have been written
on the career of this remarkable man and upon the systein
of comparatively orderly government which he introduced.
There exist in the Secretariat at Lahore a number of manu-
script records (accounts, muster rolls, pay sheets, &c.) of
his government. These are now under examination, and
it is hoped that a great deal of additional light will be thrown

upon his system of government as a result. The papers

that have been examined up to the present time (1915)
show how actively Ranjit Singh interested himself in the
details of his administration. As regards his character,
he was not altogether without faults. Temperance and
chastity were not his conspicuous virtues. But with all his
shortcomings, he was a strong and able ruler admirably
suited to the conditions of the time. The Maharaja's
territorial expansion brought him into contact with the
Cis-Sutlej States, which were under English protection, and
so into contact with the English. The result of this was the
Treaty of 1809, which Ranjit Singh loyally observed down
to his death in 1839, although at times he showed symptoms
of irritation at the rising power of the English.
The death of Ranjit Singh in 1839 was the signal for the
outbreak of a series of palace revolutions, in which the army
of the Klialsa played a part hardly dissimilar from that of
the Praetorian Guards at their very worst. This period of
the story is fully dealt with by the author in Chapter VIII.
The disorder culminated in the crossing of the Sutlej by the
Sikh forces and the consequent outbreak of the first Sikh
War. From this point of the story the partiality of the
author causes many of his statements to be viewed with
suspicion. In his eyes the war represents a national tide of
self-preservation rising against the ever-encroaching power
of England. Such was far from being the case, and very
different motives actuated the corrupt administration of
Lahore. Terrified of the power of the army, that adminis-
xii INTRODUCTORY
tration flung its legions across the Sutlej in the hope that

tliey would be either annihilated or so seriously crippled as

to cease to be a danger in the future. At the same time the
outbreak of hostilities would divert attention from the short-
—
comings of the central government a political manoeuvre
strongly reminiscent of some of the actions of Napoleon III.
The author gives a somewhat turgid description of the battles
—
of the war indeed, the language in the account of the
battle of Sobraon reminds one of the story of the battle in
the poems of Mr. Robert Montgomery and he concludes —
his narrative by some general remarks upon English policy
in India. From the latter I have removed some passages
which are not only injudicious but which have been stultified
by the march of events.
Beyond a bare reference the author does not touch on the
second Sikli War and the resultant annexation at all but, ;

as he was transferred to Bhopal at the conclusion of the

first war, he probably lost touch with Punjab politics.

It is not possible in a short introduction of this nature to

follow the history of the Sikhs in detail since the Punjab
came under British control. That the Sikhs settled down
peacefiUlyand loyally under the new regime is sufficiently
borne out by the records of the Mutiny, when the newly
raised Sikh regiments —
many of them composed of the
disbanded regiments of the Khalsa army did excellent —
service. The Sikhs have displayed their warlike aptitude in
other fields since 1857 and are to be found to-day taking
their share in the great European War.
In 1911 the Sildi population of the Punjab numbered a
little over two millions out of a total population of some

twenty-three and a half millions. As regards modern con-

versions to Sikhism and the relation of that religion to
Hinduism, Mr. Candler has the following interesting remarks
in an article which appeared in Blackwood's Magazine in
September 1909 The truth is that the Siklis have only
:
'

partially rid themselves of caste. They were able to suppress

the instinct so long as it endangered their existence, but
when they became paramount in the Punjab and the Khalsa
was sufficient for its own needs, the old exclusive Brahmani-
cal spirit returned. The influence of Ilanjit Singh's Court
 INTRODUCTORY xiii

increased this retrogressive tendency, and in spite of the

Guru's teaching it is not always easy for a low-caste Hindu
to become a Sikli to-day. Still, it is not always impossible.
The acceptance or rejection of a convert is likely to depend
on whether the majority in the district Singh Sabha or
Sikh Council is conservative or progressive. The so-called
Conservative Party is naturally exclusive, while the so-
who would revert
called Progressive Party are really purists
to the injunctions of Nanak and Gobind. They are ready
to receive all converts whomthey believe to be genuine, of
whatever caste. The Siklis now number
a little over two
millions, and in the last ten years the numbers have only
risen in proportion to the general increase in the Punjab.
The lack of converts is due as much to apathy as to obstacles
placed in the way by the priests.'
H. L. O. GARRETT.

ADDENDUM
Page xii, 11. 12-1+. The passages referred to, with the exception
of a single note (see p. 325), have now been restored, and the
original text is given unaltered, as stated in the Editor's Note.

Cunninyhams Sikhs
 BIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
ON THE CUNNINGHAM FAMILY
Allan Cunningham, the father of the author of this
volume, was born in the parish of Keir, Dumfriesshire, in
1784. Although apprenticed to his elder brother, then a
stonemason, he soon showed a literary bent. At the age of
eighteen he made the acquaintance of Hogg, the Ettrick
shepherd, and the acquaintance ripened into a warm friend-
sliip. Early in the nineteenth century he commenced his
career as an author, and his poems began to appear in
various periodicals, ^^^len R. H. Cromek, the engraver,
was travelling in Scotland in 1809, collecting Scottish songs,
he met Cunningham, who showed him some of his work.
Upon Cromek's advice Cunningham then went up to London
to try his fortune at literature. For some years he worked
both as a mason and as a literary man, producing a number
of poems in the Day and the Literary Gazette. In 1814,
Chantrey, the sculptor, to whom he had been introduced by
Cromek, engaged him as his superintendent of works, and this
connexion lasted down toChantrey's death, in 1841. During
this period he produced a quantity of literary work of a
varied nature. He had become acquainted with Sir Walter
Scott, when the latter was sitting for Chantrey, and in 1820
submitted to him a drama, Sir Marmaduke Maxwell. It was
considered unsuitable to the stage, but Scott was favourably
impressed with the style. In 1825 appeared The Songs of
Scotland, Ancient and Modern, which contained the well-
known sea song, A Wet Sheet and a Flowing Sea.' His
'

connexion with Chantrey gave him an intimate knowledge

of the artistic world, which he turned to account in his Lices
of theMost Eminent British Painters, Sculptors, and Architects,
which he published from 1829-33. His last important work
was an edition of Burns, which appeared in 1834. Late in
life he made the acquaintance of Carlyle, who had a warm
 NOTE ON THE CUNNINGHAM FAMILY xv

regard for him. Cunningham died in 1842, leaving five sons

and a daughter.
Joseph Davey Cunningham, the eldest son and the author
of the present volume, was born in 1812. At an early age
he showed such aptitude for mathematics that his father
was advised to send him to Cambridge. But as he was
keenly desirous of becoming a soldier a cadetship in the
East India Company's service was procured for him, through
the good offices of Sir Walter Scott. After a brilliant career
at Addiscombe he sailed for India in 1834, and was at first
employed on the staff of the chief engineer of the Bengal
Presidency. In 1837 he was appointed assistant to Colonel
(afterwards Sir Claude) Wade, the political agent on the
Sikh frontier. For the next eight years he held various
appointments under Colonel Wade and his successors, and
at the time of the outbreak of the first Sikh War was political
agent in the State of Bahawalpur. Upon the commence-
ment of hostilities he was attached first to the staff of Sir
Charles Napier and then to that of Sir Hugh Gough. He
was present, as political officer, with the division of Sir Harry
Smith at the battles of Buddawal and Allwal. At Sobraon
he served as an additional aide-de-camp to the Governor-
General, Sir Henry Hardinge. His services earned him a
brevet and the appointment of political agent to the State
of Bhopal. In 1849 appeared his History of the Sikhs. As
has been noted elsewhere in this edition, the views taken
by the author were anything but pleasing to his superiors.
As a punishment, he was removed from his political appoint-
ment and sent back to regimental duty. The disgrace un-
doubtedly hastened his death, and soon after his appointment
to the Meerut Division of Public Works he died suddenly at
Ambala, in 1851.
Like Joseph Davey Cunningham, his younger brothers
inherited their father's literary abilities.Alexander, the
second brother, had a distinguished career in India. He,
too, obtained his cadetship through the influence of Sir
Walter Scott, and arrived in India in 1833. Lord Auckland
appointed him one of his aides-de-camp, and while on the
Governor-General's staff he visited Kashmir, then almost
an unknown country. He served with distinction in the
xvi NOTE ON THE CUNNINGHAM FAMILY
Gwalior campaign of 1843 and acted as executive engineer
of Gwalior until the outbreak of the first Sikh War. In this
war and also in the second Sikh War he did good service,
and then returned to Gwalior. In 1856 he was appointed
chief engineer in Burma (after a brief period of service in
Multan, where he designed the Vans Agnew and Anderson
momnnent), and remained there till 1858. He was trans-
ferred to the North- Western Provinces in 1858, and remained
there till his retirement in 1861 with the rank of major-
general.
It at this stage that he commenced his archaeological
was
career. The Government of India decided to appoint an
archaeological surveyor, and Cunningham, who during his
whole career in India had displayed the greatest activity in
this direction, was appointed to the post. This he held (with
an interval from 1865 to 1870) down to his final retirement
in 1885. His work in this capacity is too well known to need
detailed treatment in a note of this nature. He continued
his interest in Indian archaeology after his retirement, and
the collection of coins in the British Museum bears testimony
to his generosity. He died in 1893 as Sir Alexander Cunning-
ham, having been created a K.C.I.E. in 1887.
Peter Cunningham, the third brother, under whose
editorship the second edition of this book appeared in
1853, was a well-known antiquary. He held an appoint-
ment in the Audit Office, which he obtained through Sir
Robert Peel in 1834. His chief work was the Handbook of
London, which first appeared in 1849 and is still regarded as
a standard authority. He also edited a large number of
—
books ^the collected letters of Horace Walpole (1857) and
the works of Oliver Goldsmith (1854) being well-known
examples of his work. He retired from the public service
in 1860 and died in 1869.
Francis Cunningham, the youngest brother, also served
in India. He joined the Madras army in 1838 and won
distinction at the siege of Jalalabad. He retired from the
army in 1861, and after his retirement devoted himself to
literature, for which he displayed the family aptitude. He
published editions of Marlowe (1870), Massinger (1871), and
Ben Jonson (1871). His death took place in 1875.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
SECTION A. PRINTED BOOKS
(1) English
Archer, J. H. Laurence. Commentaries on the Punjab Campaign
(1848-9). London, 1878.
Baird, J. G. A. Private Letters of the Marquess of Dalhoiisie. Black-
wood, 1910.
Broadfoot, Major. Career of Major George Broadfoot, C.B., in
Afghanistan and the Punjab, London, 1888.
Burnes, Sir A. Travels into Bokhara. London, 1834.
Burton, Lt. -Col. R. G. The First and Second 8ikh Wars. Simla, 1911.
Coley, J. Journal of the Sutlej Campaign (1845-6). London, 1856.
Cotton, .J. J. Life of General Avitabile. Calcutta, 1906.
Despatches of Lords Hardinge and Gough and General Sir Harry
Smith, tfcc, relative to the En/jagements of Moodkee, Ferozeshah,
d;c. (2nd edition.) London, 1846. (Olivier, Pall Mall.)
Dunlop, J. Multan, during and after the Siege. London, 1849.
Edwardes, Sir H. B. (vol. i), and H. Merivale (vol. ii). Life of Sir
H. Laurence. London, 1872.
Fane, H. E. Five Years in India, 1835-39. (Author was aide-de-
camp Lord Auckland.) London, 1842.
to
Foster, G. A
Journey from Bengal to England through North India,
Kashmir, Afghanistan, and Persia, into Russia ( 1 783-4). London,
1798.
Gardner, A. Memoirs of Col. A. Gardner. London (re-edited), 1898.
Gazetteer of the Punjab. Provincial Series of the Imperial Gazetteer
of India. Oxford, 1908.
Gough, Sir C, and A. D. Innes. The Sikhs and the Sikh Wars.
London, 1897.
Gough, Lord. Despatches of Lord Goiigh (Parliamentary Papers, 1846).
Griffin, L. H. Ranjit Singh (' Rulers of India Series). Oxford, 1892.
'

Hardinge, Lord. Despatches of Lord Hardinge (Parliamentary Papers,

1846).
Honigberger, J. M. Thirty-Five Years in the East. (The author
was court physician at Lahore for some time.) London, 1852.
Huegel, C. von. Travels in Kashmir and the Country of the Sikhs.
Written in German, translated by T. B. Jervis. London, 1845.
Humbly, W. W. W. Journal of a Cavalry Officer {Sikh Campaign,
1845-6). London, 1854.
Irvine, W. The Later Moguls. Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal, vols. Ixiii (1894), Ixv (1896), Ixvii (1898).
Jacquemont, V. Letters from India {iv3^ns\a.iedi). London, 1835.
b
xviii BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kaye, Sir J. W. Life and Correspondence of Lord Metcalfe. London,
1854.
Khazan Singh. History and Philosophy of the Sikh Religion. Lahore,
1914.
Latif, M. AHistory of the Punjab. Calcutta, 1891.
Laurence, J. The Sikhs and their Country. Journal of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal, vol. iii.
Laurence, Major W. M. Some Passages of the Life of an Adventurer
in the Punjah. Delhi, 1842.
Macauliffe, M. A. The Sikh Religion, its Gurus, Sacred Writings,
and Authors. 6 vols. Oxford, 1909.
Macgregor, W. L. The History of the Sikhs. London, 1846.
Malcolm, J. A Sketch of the Sikhs. London and Bombay, 1812.
Marshman, J. C. Memoirs of Sir H. Havelock. London, 1860.
Masson, 0. Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghan-
istan, and the Punjah (1826-38). 3 vols. London, 1842,
Massy, C. F., and Griffin, L. H. The Chiefs and Families of Note in
the Punjah, 1909. Revised ed., 1907. '

Mohana Lala. Travels in the Punjab, Afghanistan, TurHstan. Lon-

don, 1846.
Moorcroft and Trebeck. Travels in the HimalayanProvinces (1819-25),
edited by H. H. Wilson. London, 1841.
Osborne, W. G. Court and Camp of Runjeet Sing. (Author was
military secretary to Lord Auckland.) London, 1840.
Prinsep, H. T. The Origin of the Sikh Power in the Punjab. Calcutta,
1834.
Rait, R. S. Life of Hugh, Viscount Gough. Constable, London, 1903.
Smyth, G. History of the Reigning Family of Lahore. Calcutta, 1847.
Steinbach, Lt.-Col. H. The Punjab. (Author was employed in
Ranjit Singh's army for about eight years.) London, 1845.
Thackwell, E. J. Narrative of the Second Sikh War. London, 1851.
Thorburn, S. S. The Punjab in Peace and War. Blackwood, London,
1904.
Wade, C. Our Relations with the Punjah. London, 1823.

(2) Persian
Kanhya Lai. Nama. Lahore, 1876.
Ranjit
Khafi Khan. Muntakhab ul luhab. (Translation in History of India
as told by its own Historians, Elliot and Dowson. Vol. vii.
1877.)
Mohsin Fani. Dabistdn. (Translation by D. Shea and A. Troj^er.
London, 1843.) (Author was a contemporary of Gurus Far
Gobind and Har Rai, Vlth and Vllth Gurus.)
Sohan Lai. Diary of Ranjit Singh or Umdat-ul-Taimrikh. 1885.
The MS. copy of this book in Bankipur Oriental Public Library
closes at 1831. The published copy goes down to 1849. (Sohan
Lai was Ranjit Singh's Court vakil and historian, A very
faithful narrative of Ranjit Singh's life.)
 BIBLIOGRAPHY xix

SECTION B. DOCUMENTS, UNPUBLISHED MSS.

1. Sarup Lai. (MSS. undated.)
Tarikh-Sil-Mn.
2. State Records. MSS. Civil Secretariat, Punjab, 1812-49.
OiTieial documents of Eanjit Singh's government. Papers of
various descriptions. Civil and military departments. Written
in the Persian language, and now under examination by a
research student.
3. Eecords of Ludhiana, Ambala, and Delhi agencies. MSS. Civil
Secretariat, Punjab, 180-4-1:9.
Dispatches and communications between the Sikh Govern-
ment and the East India Company and their Agents. Written
in English.
4. In the Library of the India Office,
M. Ali ud din. Ihrat Nama-. M. Khya Bux. Sher Singh
Nanm. Tarikh Mulk-i-Haza'ra.
 —

ADVERTISEMENT TO THE
SECOND EDITION, 1853
The and corrected by
sheets of this Edition were seen
their Author, and were ready months
for publication several
previous to his death, in February, 1851. The reasons
—
of a painful, though temporary character for the delay
in the appearance of the work will be found in a Memoir
already written and to be published hereafter, when regard
for the living will no longer interfere with the truth of
History.
The author fell a victim to the truth related in this book.

He wrote History in advance of his time, and suffered

for it but posterity will, I feel assured, do justice to his
;

memory.
My brother's anxiety to be correct was evinced in the
unceasing labour he took to obtain the most minute
information, ^^^lerever he has been proved to be wrong
—
and this has been in very few instances ^lie has, with
ready frankness, admitted and corrected his error. In
—
matters of opinion he made no change not from obstinacy,
but from a firm conviction that he was right.
The new notes to this Edition contain some informa-
tion of moment, contributed by LordGough, Sir Charles
Napier, and others, and all received my brothers sanction.
The printed materials for the recent History of India are
not of that character on which historians can rely. State
Papers, presented to the people by both Houses of Parlia-
'

ment ', have been altered to suit the temporary views of

political warfare, or abridged out of mistaken regard to the
tender feelings of survivors.^ In matters of private life,.

1 The character and career of Alexander Burnes have both been

misrepresented in those collections of State Papers which are supposed
to furnish the best materials of history, but which are often only one-
sided compilations of garbled documents, — counterfeits, which the
 —

ADVERTISE^IENT xxi

some tenderness may be shown to individual sensitiveness,

but History, to be of any value, should be written by one
superior to the influences of private or personal feelings.
What Gibbon calls '
truth, naked, unblushing truth, the
first virtue of more ', should alone direct
serious history
the pen of the historian and truth alone influenced the
;

mind and guided the pen of the Author of this book.

Peter Cunningham.
Kensington,
ISth January, 1853.

ministerial stamp forces into cmrency, defrauding a present genera-

tion, and handing down to posterity a chain of dangerous lies.
Kaye, AjfgJianislan, ii. 13.
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE TO THE
SECOND EDITION
In this Second Edition the author hasmade some
where it seemed
alterations in the text of the last chapter,
that his readers had inferred more than was meant but
;

the sense and sj^irit of what was originally MTitten have

been carefully preserved, notwithstanding the modifications
of expression now introduced. Throughout the gram-
matical imijerfections detected on reperusal have been
removed but no other changes have been made in the
;

text of the first eight chapters. Some notes, however,

altogether new, have been added, while others have been
extended ; and such as by their length crowded a series of
pages, and from their subject admitted of separate treat-
ment, have been formed into Appendices.
The author's principal object in writing this history has
not always been understood, and he therefore thinks it
right to say that his main endeavour was to give Sikhism
its place in the general history of humanity, by showing
its connexion with the different creeds of India, by exliibit-
ing it as a natural and important result of the Muhammadan
Coiiguest, and by impressing upon the people of England
the great necessity of attending to the mental changes now
in progress amongst their subject millions in the East, who
are erroneously thought to be sunk in superstitious apathy,
or to be held spell-bound in ignorance by a dark and
designing priesthood. A secondary object of the authors
was to give some account of the connexion of the English
with the Sikhs, and in part with the Afghans, from the
time they began to take a direct interest in the affairs of
these races, and to involve them in the web of their policy
for opening the navigation of the Indus, and for bringing
Turkestan and liliorasan within their commercial influence.
It has also been remarked by some public critics and
private friends, that the author leans unduly towards the
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION xxiii

Sikhs, and that an officer in the Indian army should appear

to say he sees aught unwise or objectionable in the acts of
the East India Company and its delegates is at the least
strange. The author has, indeed, constantlj^ endeavoured
to keep his readers alive to that undercurrent of feeling or
principle which moves the Sikh people collectively, and
which will usually rise superior to the crimes or follies of
individuals. was the history of Sikhs, a new and
It
peculiar which he wished to make known to
nation,
strangers and he saw no reason for continually recurring to
;

the duty or destiny of the English in India, because he was

addressing himself to his own countrymen who know the
merits and motives of their supremacy in the East, and
who can themselves commonly decide whether the parti-
cular acts of a viceroy are in accordance with the general
policy of his government. The Sikhs, moreover, are so
inferior to the English in resources and knowledge that
there no equality of comparison between them.
is

The glory to England is indeed great of her Eastern

Dominion, and she may justly feel proud of the increasing
excellence of her sway over subject nations but this ;

general expression of the sense and desire of the English

people does not show that every proceeding of her delegates
is necessarily fitting and far-seeing. The wisdom of England

is not to be measured by the views and acts of any one of

her sons, but is rather to be deduced from the characters

of many. In India it is to be gathered in part from the
high, but not always scruiDulous, qualities which dis-
tinguished Clive, Hastings, and Wellesley, who acquired
and secured the Empire in part from the generous, but
;

not always discerning, sympathies of Burke, Cornwallis,

and Bentinck, who gave to English rule the stamp of
moderation and humanity and also in part from the
;

ignorant well-meaning of the people at large, who justly

deprecating ambition in the abstract vainly strive to check
the progress of conquest before its necessary limits have
been attained, and before the aspiring energies of the
conquerors themselves have become exliausted. By con-
quest, I would be understood to imply the extension of
supremacy, and not the extinction of dynasties, for such
 ;

xxiv AUTHOR'S PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

imperial form of domination should be the aim and scope of
English sway in the East. England should reign over
kings rather than rule over subjects.
The Sikhs and the English are each irresistibly urged
forward in their different ways and degrees towards remote
and perhaps diverse ends the Sikhs, as the leaders of
:

a congenial mental change the English, as the promoters

;

of rational law and material wealth and individual chiefs

;

and rulers can merely play their parts in the great social
movements with more or less of effect and intelligence.
Of the deeds and opinions of these conspicuous men, the
Author has not hesitated to speak plainly but soberly,
whether in praise or dispraise, and he trusts he may do
both, without either idly flattering or malignantly traducing
his country, and also without compromising his own
character as a faithful and obedient servant of the State ;

for the soldiers of India are no longer mere sentinels over

bales of goods, nor is the East India Company any longer
a private association of traffickers which can with reason
object to its mercantile transactions being subjected to
open comment by one of its confidential factors. The
merits of the administration of the East India Company
are many and undoubted but its constitution is political,
;

its authority is derivative, and every Englishman has

a direct interest in the proceedings of his Government
while it is likewise his country's boast that her children can
at fitting times express in calm and considerate language
their views of her career, and it is her duty to see that
those to whom she entrusts power rightly understand both
their own position and her functions.

25th October, 1849.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION ^

One who possesses no claims to systematic scholarship,

and who nevertheless asks the public to approve of his
labours in a field of some difficulty, is bound to show to his
readers that he has at least had fair means of obtaining
accurate information and of coming to just conclusions.
Towards the end of the year 1837, the author received,
through the unsolicited favour of Lord Auckland, the
appointment of assistant to Colonel Wade, the political
agent at Ludhiana, and the officer in charge of the British
relations with the Punjab and the chiefs of Afghanistan.
He was at the same time required as an engineer officer,
to render Ferozepore a defensible post, that little place
having been declared a feudal escheat, and its position
being regarded as one of military importance. His plans
for effecting the object in view met the approval of Sir
Henry Fane, the Commander-in-Chief ; but it was not
eventually thought proper to do more than cover the town
with a slight parapet, and the scheme for reseating Shah
Shuja on his throne seemed at the time to make the English
and Sikli Governments so wholly one, that the matter
dropped, and Ferozepore was allowed to become a canton-
ment with scarcely the means at hand of saving its am-
munition from a few predatory horse.
The author was also present at the interview which took
place in 1838, between Ranjit Singh and Lord Auckland.
In 1839 he accompanied Shahzada Taimur and Colonel
Wade to Peshawar, and he was with them when they
forced the Pass of IQiaibar, and laid open the road to
Kabul, In 1840 he was placed in administrative charge
of the district of Ludhiana and towards the end of the
;

same year, he was deputed by the new frontier agent,

Mr. Clerk, to accompany Colonel Shelton and his relieving
brigade to Peshawar, whence he returned with the troops

' PubUshed in 1 vol. 8vo 19th March, 1849.

xxvi AUTHOR'S PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION
escorting Dost Muliammad Khan under Colonel Wheeler.
During part of 1841 he was in magisterial charge of the
Ferozepore district, and towards the close of that year,
—
he was appointed on the recommendation again of Mr.
—
Clerk to proceed to Tibet to see that the ambitious Rajas
of Jammu surrendered certain territories which they had
seized from the Chinese of Lassa, and that the British trade
with Ladakli, &c., was restored to its old footing. He
returned at the end of a year, and was present at the inter-
views between Lord Ellenborough and Dost Muhammad
at Ludhiana, and between his lordship and the Sikli chiefs
at Ferozepore in December 1842. During part of 1843
he was in civil charge of Ambala but from the middle of
;

that year till towards the close of 1844, he held the post of
personal assistant to Colonel Richmond, the successor
of Mr. Clerk. After Major Broadfoot's nomination to the
same office, and during the greater part of 1845, the author
was employed in the Bahawalpur territory in connexion
with refugee Sindhians, and with boundary disputes
between the Daudputras and the Rajputs of Bikaner and
Jaisalmer. \Mien war with the Siklis broke out, the
author was required by Sir Charles Napier to join his army
of co-operation ; but after the battle of Ferozeshah, he
was summoned to Lord Gough's head-quarters. He was
subsequently directed to accompany Sir Harry Smith,
when a diversion was made towards Ludhiana, and he was
thus present at the skirmish of Badowal and at the battle
of Aliwal. He had likewise the fortune to be a participator
in the victory of Sobraon, and the further advantage of
acting on that important day as an aide-de-camp to the
Governor-General. He was then attached to the head
quarters of the Commander-in-Chief, until the army broke
up at Lahore, when he accompanied Lord Hardinge's camp
to the Simla Hills, preparatory to setting out for Bhojial,
the political agency in which state and its surrounding
districts, his lordship had unexpectedly been pleased to
bestow upon him.
The author was thus living among the Sikli people for
a period of eight years, and during a very important
portion of their history. He had intercourse, under every
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION xxvii

variety of circumstances, with all classes of men, and he

had at the same time free access to all the public records
bearing on the affairs of the frontier. It was after being
required in 1844, to draw up reports on the British con-
nexion generally with the states on the Sutlej, and especially
on the military resources of the Punjab, that he conceived
the idea, and felt he had the means, of writing the history
which he now offers to the public.
The author's residence in Malwa has been beneficial to
him in many ways personally ;and it has also been of
advantage in the composition of this work, as he has had
the opportunity of becoming acquainted with the ideas and
modes of life of the military colonies of Sikhs scattered
through Central India.

Sehore, Ehopal,
December 9, 1848.
 NOTE
In the references, and also in the text, from Chap. V to the end
of the volume, the names of military officers and civil functionaries
are quoted without any nice regard to the rank they may have held
at the particular time, or to the titles by which they may have been
subsequently distinguished. But as there is one person only of each
name to be referred to, no doubt or inconvenience can arise from this
laxity. Thus the youthful, but discreet Jlr. Metcalfe of the treaty
with Ranjit Singh, and the Sir Charles Metcalfe so honourably
connected with the history of India, is the Lord Metcalfe of rijjer
years and approved services in another hemisphere. Lieutenant-
Colonel, or more briefly Colonel, Pottinger, is now a Major-General
and a Grand Cross of the Bath ;while Mr. Clerk has been made
a knight of the same Order, and Lieutenant- Colonel Lawrence has
been raised to an equal title. CaiDtain, or Lieutenant- Colonel, or
Sir Claude Wade, mean one and the same person :and similarly the
late SirAlexander Burnes sometimes appears as a simple lieutenant,
or as a captain, or as a lieutenant-colonel. On the other hand.
Sir David Ochterlony is referred to solely under that title, although,
when he marched to the Sutlej in 1809, ho held the rank of lieutenant-
colonel only.
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
THE COUNTRY AND PEOPLE
PAGE
Geographical Limits of Sikh Occupation, &c. 1
Climate, Productions, &c., of the Sikh Dominions 1
Grain and Shawl wool of Ladakh . 2
Silks, Indigo, and Cotton of Multan 2
Black Cattle of the Central Punjab 3
The Persian wheel used for Irrigation 3
The Sugar of the Upper Plains 3
The Saffron and Shawls of Kashmir 4
The Rice and Wheat of Peshawar . 4
The
Inhabitants, Races, Tribes ....
Drugs, Dyes, and Metals of the Hills

Immigration of the Jats, and Introduction of Muham

4
4

madanism 4
The Tartars of Tibet . 5
The ancient Dardus 5
The Turkomans of Gilgit 5
The Kashmiris
— their western neighbours, the Kukas, Bambas,
Gujars, &c. 6
The Gakhars and Janjuas 6
The Yusufzais, Afridis, &c. 6
Waziris and other Afghans 6
Baluchis, Jats, and Rains of the Middle Indus G
Juns, Bhutis, and Kathls of the Central Plains 6
Chibs and Buhows of the Lower Hills 6
The Johiyas and Langahs of the South 7
The Dogras and Kanets of the Himalayas 7
The Kohlis of the Himalayas 7
The Jats of the Central Plains 7
— mixed with Gujars, Rajputs, Pathans, &c. 8
Relative Proportions of some principal Races 8
Kshattriyas and Aroras of the Cities 9
The Wandering Changars 9
The Religions of the Sikh Country 9
The Lamaic Buddhists of Ladakh . 9
The Shiah Muhammadans of Bultee 9

Multan, &c. ....

The Sunni Muhammadans of Kashmir, Peshawar

The Brahmanist Hill Tribes .

9
9
The Sikhs of the Central Plains mixed with Brah
manists and Muhammadans 9
Hindu Shopkeepers of Muhammadan Cities 9
Village Population about Bhatinda purely Sikh 10
XXX CONTENTS
A. D. PAGE
The debased and secluded Races, Worshippers of
Local Gods and Oracular Divinities
Characteristics of Race and Religion
...
.... 10
10
Brahmanisin and Buddhism rather forms than
feelings .11
— yet strong to
. . . . . . .

resist innovation . . .
.11'
Muhammadanism, although corrupted, has more of

—
vitality . . . .

All are satisfied with their owti Faith

and cannot be reasoned into Christianity
.

....11
.

.
.

.
12
12
Sikhism an active and pervading Principle . . 13
The Jats industrious and high-spirited .14
.......
. .

The Rains and some others scarcely inferior as tillers

of the ground
The peasant Rajputs ......
....
14
14
The
The
The
Gujars, a pastoral peojile
...
...
Baluchis, pastoral and predatory
Afghans, industrious but turbulent
14
14
14
The Kshattriyas and Aroras, enterprising but frugal 15

......
.

The Kashmiris, skilful but tame and spiritless . 15 .

The
The
The
unmixed Rajputs
Tibetans plodding and debased...
Custom of PoZya «c?)'^ one of necessity .
15
15
15 .

The Juns and Kathis pastoral and peaceful . IG .

Partial Migrations of Tribes . . . . Ifi .

Causes of Migrations . . . . .IT)

.

Recent ^Migration of Baluchis up the Indus, and of

Daudputras iip the Sutlej . . . . .17
Migrations of Dogras, Johiyas, and Meh turns . 17 .

Religious Proselji;ism . . . . . .17

Islamism extending in Tibet . . . . .17
— and generally in Towns and Cities . . .17
Lamaic Buddliism progressive in some parts of the
Himalayas . . . . . . .17
Brahmanism likewise extending in the wilder parts of
the Plains 18
But the Peasantry and Mechanics generally are be-
coming seceders from Brahmanism . . .18

CHAPTER II
OLD INDIAN CREEDS, MODERN REFORMS, AND THE
TEACHING OF NANAK
UP TO A. D. 1539
A. D. PAOE
India and its successive Masters —
the Buddhists, the

and the Christians ......

Brahmans and Kshattriyas, the Muhammadans,

Brahmanism struggling with Buddhism becomes elabor-

19

ated ; its acliievements and characteristics . . 20

 CONTENTS xxxi

A. D.
Brahmanism
—
victorious over
loses its unity and vigour
Buddhism...
.....
PAGE
25
25
800-1000. Shankar Acliarj methodizes Polytheism
Reaction of Buddliisra on Brahmanism ... . . 27
27

pre-eminence to Saivism .....

Shankar Acharj establishes ascetic Orders, and gives
27

as a tutelary God ......

1000-1200. Ramanuj establishes other Orders, with Vishnu

Spiritual Teachers or Heads of Orders arrogate infalli-

28

biUty
Scepticism and heresy increase ..... 29
29
The Dogma of Maya receives a moral application
'

General decline of Brahmanism

'

Early Arab incursions into India but little felt

.... .
.

.
30
30
30
Muhammadanism receives a fresh impulse on the con- .

version of the Turkomans

1001. Muhammad invades India .....
.

120fi. Hindustan becomes a separate portion of the Muham-

. . . .31
31

—
madan World under the Ibaks
and the conquerors become Indianized
Action and reaction of Muhammadanism and Brahmanism
.

....31
. .

32
32
The popular belief imsettlcd .33
........
. . . .

About 1400. Ramanand establishes a comprehensive Sect at

—
—
•
Benares
....
and introduces Hero-worship
but maintains the equality of true believers before
34
34

God 34
Gorakhnath establishes a Sect in the Punjab . 35
— and maintains the equalizing effect of religious penance
.

35
—
.......
but causes further diversity by adopting Siva as the
type of God 35
About 1450.
of Ramanand .......
The Vedas and Koran assailed by Kabir, a disciple
30

strument ........
— and the mother tongue the People used as an
— but Asceticism upheld .....
still
of
30
in-

3fi
1500-50. Chaitan preaches religious reform in Bengal
— upon the efficacy of Faith
insists
— and admits of secular occupations
37
37
37
....
....
. .

— Vallabh extends the Reformation to the South 37

.......
— and further discountenances celibacy .

.38 . .

Recapitulation 38
The reforms and leading to Sectarianism only
partial, . 38
Nanak's views more comprehensive and profound 38

......39
.

1469-1539. Nanak's Birth and early Life . , ,

The mental struggles of Nanak 40

He becomes a Teacher . . .41
. . .

Dies, aged Seventy

The Godhead
.

The excellences of Nanak's Doctrine

. .

.....41
. . .

42
42
Muhammadans and Hindus equally called on to worship
God in Truth . 43
xxxii CONTENTS
A. D. PAGE
1469- Faith, Grace, and Good Worka all necessary . . 43
1539. Nanak adopts the Brahmanical Philosophy ; but in
a popular sense, or by wa,j of illustration only 43

......
.

Nanak admits the Mission of Muhammad, as well as the

Hindu Incarnations
.....
......
Disclaims miraculous powers
Discourages Asceticism
44
45
45
Conciliatory between Muhammadans and Hindus . 45
Nanak fully extricates his followers from error 46

........
.

—
.

but his Reformation necessarily religious and moral

only 46
Nanak
.....
left his Siklis
laws as a separate People
or Disciples without

— but guarded against their narrowing into a Sect

new social

.
46
47
Nanak declares Angad to be his successor as a Teacher
4 of Men 47

CHAPTER III

THE SIKH GURUS OR TEACHERS, AND THE MODIFICATION

OF SIKHISM UNDER GOBIND
A. D. 1539-1716
A. D. PAGE
Angad upholds the broad principles of Nanak 49

.......
. .

1552. Dies . . .49

Amar Das succeeds
Separates the Sikhs from the Udasis
His views with regard to Sati
.... '
' ....
49
50
50
1574. Dies 50
Ram Das succeeds, and establishes himself at Amritsar 50
1581. Dies 51
Arjun succeeds and fairly grasps the idea of Nanak 51
Makes Amritsar the Holy City of the Sikhs
Compiles the Adi Granth
'

.....
Reduces customary Offerings to a" systematic Tax or
' 51
52

Tithe . . 52
—and engages in traffic . . . . 52
Arjiin provokes the enmity of Chandii Shah 53
Becomes a partizan of Prince Khusru in rebellion 53
1000. Imprisonment and death of Arjun
Diffusion of Sikhism
The Writings of Gur Das Bhulleh
.... 53
54
54

—
of a People ......
The conceptions of Nanak become the moving impulses

and his real History a Mythical narrative

54
54
Har Gobind becomes Gurii after a disputed succession 55
Chandu Shah slain or put to death ^55

leader ....
Har Gobind arms the Sikhs and becomes a military

The gradual modification of Sikhisn 56

 CONTENTS
A. D. PAGE
1606. — and
Dissenters ......
comiilete separation of the Sikhs from Hindu
57
Har
— imprisoned
is
— and released
......
Gobind falls under the displeasure of Jahangii-

......
57
57
57
1628. Jahangir dies, and Har Gobind engages in a petty warfare 57
Har Gobind retires to the wastes of Hariana 58
Returns to the Punjab 58
Slays in fight one Painda Khan, his friend 58
1645. Death of Har Gobind 59
Self-sacrifice of disciples on his pyre ' . 59
The Body of Sikhs forms a separate Establishment
within the Empire 59
Some anecdotes of Har Gobind 59
—
.

his philosophical views . 60

Har Rai succeeds as Guru . 60
Becomes a political partisan 61
1661. Dies 61
Har I^shan succeeds
1664. Dies ......
Tegh Bahadur succeeds as ninth Guru
62
62
63
Ram Rai disputes his claims 63
Tegh Bahadur retires for a time to I'cngal 64
—returns to the Punjab . 64
—leads a life of violence . 64

1675.
—his character and influence
....
and is constrained to appear at Delhi
put to death
.
64
65
65
The title Sachcha Padshah applied to the Gmus
' '
66
Gobind succeeds to the Apostleship . 66
—but lives in retirement for several years 67
Gobind's character becomes developed 67
About 1695. He resolves on modifying the system of Nanak,

power
Gobind's views and motives
.....
and on combating the Muhammadan faith and

— and mode of presenting his Mission

The Religions and a new
of the world held to be corrupt,
Dispensation to have been vouchsafed

of Nanak .......
The Legend regarding Gobind's reformation of the Sec

The Principles inculcated by Gtobind .

The Khalsa
'
'

Old Forms useless. God is One. All men are equal

The '
......
Idolatry is to be contemned, and Muhammadanism
destroyed
Pahul ' or Initiation of the Sect of ' Singhs
'

The visible distinctions of Sikhs, or Singhs .

Lustration by Water. Reverence for Nanak. The Ex
Hail Gurii
clamation ' !
' .

Unshorn Locks ; the Title of

— and Devotion to Arms .... '
Singh
'
 ..

xxxiv CONTENTS
A. D, PAGE
About 1695. The character and condition of the Mughal Empire

Akbar ..........74
when Gobind resolved to assail it

........
. . .

75
Aurangzeb
.......
Sivaji the Maratha
75
76
Guru Gobind
....
......
Gobind' s plans of active opposition
— military posts
liis
76
76
77
— and leagues with the Chiefs the Lower Himalayas
...
— his influence as a Religious Teacher
of

Gobind quarrels with the Rajas of Nahan and Nalagarli

77
77
77

Imperial forces .......

Aids the Raja of Kuhlur and other Chiefs against the

About 1701. Gobind's proceedings excite the susi^icions of the

78

...
Hill Chiefs, and cause the Emperor some anxiety
Gobind reduced to straits at Anandpur
, 78
78
—
— .....
his childi-en escape, but are subsequently put to death

....
he himself flies to Chamkaur
1705-6. Gobind escapes from Chamkaur
79
79
79
Successfully resists his pursuers at Muktsar
—and rests at Dam-Dama near Bhatinda
Gobind composes the Vichitr Natak
...
....
. . 79
80
80
—is summoned by Aurangzeb to his presence . . 80
—replies to the Emperor in a denunciatory strain . 80
1707. Aurangzeb dies, and Bahadur Shah succeeds
Gobind proceeds to the South of India
—
...
.....
. . 81
81

1708.
enters the Imperial service
Gobind wounded by assassins
— and
..... 81
82
declaring
dies, Mission to be
his
Khalsa to be committed to God ....
fulfilled, and the

Gobind's end untimely, but his labours not fruitless .

82
83
A new character impressed upon the reformed Hindus 84
— although not fully apparent to strangers, if so to
Indians . . . . . . . .85
Banda succeeds Gobind as a temporal leader . , 86
1709-10. Proceeds to the North and captures Sirhind
The Emperor marches towards Lahore ... . . 86
86

1712.
—
.....
but Banda is in the meantime driven towards
Bahadur Shah dies at Lahore
Jammu 87
87
1713.
Emperor ........
Jahandar Shah slain by Farrukhslyar, who becomes
87

Sirliind is ......
The Sikhs reappear under Banda, and the j)rovince of
plundered 87
1716.
.....
Banda eventually reduced and taken
— and put to death at Delhi
prisoner

The views of Banda confined and his memory not revered

. . 88
88
89

Banda
Recapitulation
........
The Sikhs generally much depressed after the death of

Nanak. Amar Das.

: Arjun. Har
89

Gobind. Gobind Singh 89

 CONTENTS XXXV

CHAPTER IV
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SIKH INDEPENDENCE
A. D. 1716-6-4
A. D. PAGE
1710-38. The Mughal Empire rapidly declines. Nadir Shah,
the Marathas, &c 91
The weakness of the Muhammadan Government favour-
able to the Sikhs 92

1738-9. The Sikhs form bands of plunderers ...

The Sikhs kept together by the fervour of their Belief . 92
92

at last dispersed
1747-8. Ahmad Shah's first Invasion of India
......
About 1745. Establish a fort at Dalhwal on the Ravi but are

...
;

93
93
March, 1748. —
retires from Sirhind. and is harassed by the
Sikhs
Mir Mannu Governor of the Punjab
—
rules vigorously, and employs Kaura Mai and Adina
.....94
• .

94

Beg Khan 94
But the Sikhs reappear, and Jassa Singh Kalal jDroclaims

End of 1748,
the existence of theDal or army of the Khalsa
'
'

Mir Mannu disperses the Sikhs ... . 9.5

95

crossed the Indus ......

— and comes to terms with Ahmad Shah, who had again
95

—
cession in Mult an ......
1749-51. Mir Mannu breaks with Delhi by resisting his super-
95

....
and withholds tribute from Ahmad Shah, who crosses

.....
the Indus for the third time
1752. The Abdali reaches Lahore
96
96

.....
April, 1752. The Abdali defeats Mir Mannu
as Governor of the Punjab
...
The Sikhs gradually increase in strength
but retains him
;

90
96

them favourable terms

Jassa the Carpenter
.....
But are defeated by Adina Beg, who nevertheless gives

....... 97
97
End of 1752. Mir Mannu dies, and Lahore is reannexed to Delhi 97
1755-6. Ahmad Shah's fourth Invasion Prince Taimur
:

Governor of the Punjab, and Najib-ud-daula placed

at the head of the Delhi army
Taimiir expels the Sikhs from Amritsar
....
... 97
98
1750-8. But the Afghans eventually retire, and the Sikhs
occupy Lahore and coin money
1758. The Marathas at Delhi
.... 98
99
Maratha aid against the Afghans sought by Atlina Beg
Khan 99
May, 1758. Raghuba enters Lahore,
Governor of the Punjab .....
......
and appoints Adina Beg
99
End of 1758. Adina Beg dies
1759-01. Ahmad Shah's fifth expedition ....
1760. Delhi occupied by the Afghans, but afterwards taken by
99
99

the Marathas 100

xxxvi CONTENTS
A. D.
Jan. 7, The Marathas signally defeated at Panipat, and
17G1.
expelled temjjorarily from U^jper India 100
The Sikhs unrestrained in the open Country 100
17(il-2. Gujranwala successfully defended by Charat Singh
and the Durranis confined to Lahore 101
The Sikhs assemble at Anu'itsar and ravage the country
on either side of the Sutlej 101
Ahmad Shah's sixth invasion 101
Feb. 1762. The Ghulu Ghara ', or great Defeat of the Sikhs
'

near Ludhiana . 101

Alha Singh of Patiala 102
Kabuli Mai Governor of Lahore 102
End of 1762.
excesses .....
Ahmad Shah retires after committing various
102

Kasur plundered
•

Dec. 1763. The Afghans defeated near Sirhind

....
The Sikhs continue to increase in strength 102
102
102
Sirhind taken and destroyed, and the Province perma
nently occupied by the Sikhs 103
1764. The Sikhs aid the Jats of Bhailpur in besieging Delhi 103
Ahmad Shah's seventh expedition and speedy retirement 103
The Sikhs become masters of Lahore 103
A general assembly held at Amritsar, and the Sect es
tablished as a ruling People 104
The Sikhs form or fall into a political system 104
— which may b(^ termed a Theocratic confederate feu
dalism 104
Their Gurumattas ', or Diets
'
105
The System not devised, or knowingly adojjted, and
therefore incomplete and temjDorary 106
'
The Confederacies called Misals '
106
Their names and particular origin 107
The relative pre-eminence of the Misals or Confederacies 108
The original and acquired possessions of the Misals 108
The gross forces of the Sikhs, and the relative strengtl
of the Misals 109
The Order of Akalis . 110
Their origin and principles of action 110

CHAPTER V
FliOM THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE SIKHS TO THE AS-
CENDANCY OF RANJiT SINGH AND THE ALLIANCE
WITH THE ENGLISH
1765—1808-9
A. D. PAGE
1767 The Sikhs hurried into activity by Ahmad Shah's final
descent . . . . . . . .112
Amar Singh of Patiala and the Rajput Chief of Katotch
appointed to command under the Abdali . .113
Ahmad Shah retires . . . . . .113
 CONTENTS xxxvii

A. D. . PAGE
1768. Rhotas taken by the Sikhs 113
The Sikhs ravage the Lower Punjab . .113
—
. .

and enter into terms with Bhawalpur . . .114

Threaten Kashmir . . . . . . .114:
1770. And press NajiU-ud-daula on the Jumna and Ganges . 114
Jhanda Singh of the BhangI Misal pre-eminent
'
' . 114'
Jammu rendered tributary .114
......
. . . .

Kasur reduced to submission . .114 . . .

1772. — and Multan occupied 114

1774. Jhanda Singh assassinated by Jai Singh Kanhaya 115 .

Jai Singh Kanhaya and Jassa Singh Kalal expel Jassa

the Carpenter . '
. .115
. . . .

Kangra falls to the Kanhaya Misal '

.115' . . .

1779. Taimiir Shah of Kabul recovers Multan .115 . .

1793. Taimiir Shah dies, leaving the Sikhs masters of the

Upper Punjab as far as Attock . . . .115
1708-78. The Phulkias master Hariana IKi
. . . .

1779-80. An
expedition sent from Delhi against the Malwa
Sikhs succeeds in part onlv .116
. . .

1781. Amar Singh of Patiala dies "

116
1776. Zabita Khan, son of Najib-ud-daula, aided in his designs
on the Ministry by the Sikhs .116
. . .

1781-5. The ravages of the Sikhs in the Doab and Rohilkhand

under Baghel Singh Krora Singhia .117 . .

1783. The Sikhs defeated at Meerut 117

The Rajputs of the Lower Himalayas rendered tributary 1 17
1784-5. Jai Singh Kanhaya pre-eminent .118
. . .

Rise of Mahan Singh Sukerchukia .118. .

1785-6. The Kanhay as reduced . . .118

. . .

Jassa the Carpenter restored, and Kangra macie over to

Sansar Chand of Katotch , . . . .118
1785-92. Mahan Singh pre-eminent among the Sikhs . .118
1792. Mahan Singh dies 118
1793. Shah Zaman succeeds to the throne of Kabul . . 119
1795-6. Invited to enter India by the Rohillas and the Wazir
ofOudh 119
1797. Shah Zaman at Lahore 119
1798-9. The Shah's second march
1799. Ranjit Singh rises to eminence
to Lahore
.....
— and obtains a cession of Lahore from the Afghan King
. . .119
120
120
1785. The power of the Marathas under Sindhia in Upper
India
Sindhia's alliance with the Sikhs
1788. Ghulam Kadir blinds Shah Alam
120
121
.121
....
. . .

Sindhia masters Delhi and curbs the Sikhs . 121 . .

1797. General Perron appointed Sindhia's deputy in Northern

India \ . .122
and Perron's views crossed by Holkar and
Sindhia's
George Thomas . .122
. . . .

1798. George Thomas establishes himself at Hansi 122 . .

1799. Engages in hostilities with the Sikhs 123 . . . .

1800. Thomas marches towards Ludhiana ,123 .

-'
. .
xxxviii CONTENTS
A. D. PAGE
1800. Opposed by Sahib Singh Bedl 123
Retires to Hansi, but afterwards masters Safidon near
Delhi 128
1801. Thomas rejects Perron's overtures, and resorts to arms 124
1802. Surrenders to Perron . . . . . .124
1802-3. The Marathas under Perron paramount among the
Sikhs of Sirhind 124
Perron forms an alliance with Ranjit Singh . .124
Is distrusted by Sindhia . . . . . .124
1803. Flees to the English, then at war with the Marathas . 125
First intercourse of the English with the Sikhs . .120
1715-17. The Mission to FarrukJisiyar detained by the campaign
against Banda . . . . .125 . .

1757. Clive and Omichand 12(i

1784. Warren Hastings tries to guard Oudh against the Sikhs 12r)
1788. The Sikhs ask English aid against the Marathas 12<) . .

Early English estimates of the Sikhs . . . . 12()

Colonel Francklin . . . . . . .126
The traveller Forster . . . . . .126
1803. Sikhs opposed to Lord Lake at Delhi 127
. . .

The Sikhs of Sirhind tender their allegiance to the English 127

The Chiefs of Jind and Kaithal . , . . .127
Shah Alam freed from Maratha thraldom . .127
1804-5. The English wars with Holkar .127
........
. . .

The Sikhs mostly side with the English, and render good

1805.
service

Delays at Patiala
....
Holkar retires towards the Sutlej
, ,
128
128
128
Halts at Amritsar, but fails in gaining over Ranjit Singh 128
1805-0. Holkar comes to terms with the English, and marches
to tlie South 129
1803-8. Friendly Relations of the English with the Sikhs of
Sirliind J29
1806. Formal Engagement entered into with Ranjit Singh and
Fateh Singh Ahluwalia ... .120 . .

The English correspond with Sansar Chand of Katotch 129

The Sikhs of Sirhind regarded as virtually dependents of
the English by Lord Lake .130
.......
. . . .

But the connexion not regularly declared, or made bind-

ing in form 130
Retrospect with reference to Ranjit Singh's rise . .130
1799. Ranjit Singh masters Lahore . . . . .131
1801-2. Reduces the BhangI Misal and the Pathans of Kapur 131
Fateh Singh Ahluwolia
Allies himself with 131 . .

1802. Ranjit Singh acquires Amritsar . .131 . .

1803-4. —
and confines Sansar Chand to the Hills 131 .

—
.

who becomes involved with the Gurkhas 131

.....
. .

1800-3. Shah Zaman deposed by Shah Mahmfid, and the

Durrani Empire weakened 132
1 805. — wherefore Ranjit Singh proceeds to the South-West of
tlie Punjab 132
Returns to the North on Holkar's approach .132 .
 .

CONTENTS xxxix

A. D. PAGE
1805. A Sikh Gurumatta, or National Council, held .132.

— but the Confederate system found decayed and lifeless 133

— and a single temporal authority virtually admitted in
the person of Ranjit Singh . . .133
. .

1806. Ranjit Singh interferes in the affairs of the Sikhs of

Sirhmd 133
1806. Takes Ludhiana 133

180;").
•
— and receives offerings
Sansar Chand and the Gurkhas .....
from Patiala . .134
134

the North of the Sutlej

— and the Gurkhas invest Kangra
...
Sansar Chand and his confederate of Nalagarh driven to

. . .
.134
.134
1807. Ranjit Singh expels the Pathan Chief Kasur of 135
— and partially succeeds against Multiin
. .

. . .135
Ranjit Singh employs Mohkam Chand . . .135
Crosses the Sutlej for the second time .135
— and
. .

returns to seize the territories of the deceased

Dalle wala Chief 136
The Sikhs of Sirhind become apprehensive of Ranjit Singh 136
1808. British Protection asked 136
•
— but not distinctly acceded .136
— whereupon the Chiefs repair to Ranjit Singh
. . . .

. . 136
1808-9. The imderstood designs French on India modify
of the
the policy of the English towards the Sikhs .137 .

The Chiefs of Sirhind taken under protection, and a close

alliance sought with Ranjit Singh .137
. .

Mr. Metcalfe sent as Envoy to Lahore .138

. .

Aversion of Ranjit Singh to a restrictive treaty, and his

third Expedition across the Sutlej . . .138
1S09. British troops moved to the Sutlej .. . .138
The views of the English become somewhat modified . 139
— but Ranjit Singh still required to keep to the North

—
of the Sutlej
Ranjit Singh yields .......
and enters into a formal treaty ..
139
140
. .140
The terms of Sikh dependence and of English supremacy
in Sirhind 140
Sir David Ochterlony shows that the English regarded
themselves alone in offering Protection 141 . .

The relations of the Protected Chiefs among themselves 141

Perplexities of the Britisli Authorities regarding the
rights of supremacy, and the operation of inter-
national laws . . . . . . .142
Sir David Ochterlony' s frank admission of the false
basis of his original policy . . .1^.1. .
 .

xl CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI
FROM THE SUPREMACY OF RANJlT SINGH TO THE RE-
DUCTION OF MULTAN, KASHMIR, AND PESHAWAR
1809—1823-4
A. D. PAGE
1809. The English

—
their joint treaty ......
suspicious of Ranjit Singh, notwithstanding

and Ranjit Singh equally doubtful on his part .146

145

— but distrust gradually vanishes on either side .. 146

Ranjit Singh acquires Kangra, and confines the Gurkhas
to the left of the Sutlej 146

1811.
.......
The Gurkhas urge the English to effect a joint conquest
of the Punjab
But Ranjit Singh told he may cross the Sutlej to resist
147

the Nepal leader . . . . . .147

1813. Amar Singh Thappa again presses an alliance against the
Sikhs 147
1814-15. The War between the English and Gurkhas . . 148
Sansar Chand of Katotch, Ranjit Singh, and the English 148
1809-10. Shah Shuja expelled from Afghanistan
Ranjit Singh's suspicions and plans .....

1810. The Maharaja meets the Shah, but no arrangement come

. . 148
149

to 149
Ranjit Singh attempts Multan, but fails . . .149
— and proposes to the English a joint expedition against it 149
1810-12. Shah Shuja's Peshawar and Multan campaign, and
subsequent imprisonment in Kashmir . . . 150
1811. Ranjit Singh meets Shah Mahmiid . . . .151
The blind Shah Zaman repairs for a time to Lahore . 151
1812. The family of Shah Shuja repairs to Lahore . . 151
Ranjit Singh uses the Shah's name for purposes of his own 152
Ranjit Singh meets Fateh Khan, the Kabul Wazir . 152
— and a joint enterprise against Kashmir resolved on . 152

...."'....
1813. Fateh Khan outstrips the Sikhs, and holds the valley for
Mahmud
Shah Shuja joins Ranjit Singh, who acquires Attock .
152
152
— while Mohkam Chand defeats the Kabul Wazir in a
pitched battle . . . . . . .152
1813-14. Ranjit Singh obt;tins the Koh-i-nur diamond . . 153
— and promises aid to Shah Shuja . . . .153
Makes a movement towards the Indus . . . 153
Shah Shuja's distresses . . . . . ,153
1814. The flight of his family from Lahore to Ludliiana . 154
— and his own escape to Kishtwar . . . .154
1816. Fails against Kashmir, and retires to Ludhiana . . 154
1814. Ranjit Singh attempts Kashmir, and is repulsed 154

......
.

1815-16. Various Cliiefs in the Hills, and various places towards

the Indus, reduced 155
1818. Ranjit Singh captures Multan .
" . . . . 156
Fateh Khan, Wazir of Kabul, put to death . . 157
 CONTENTS xli

A. D. PAGE
1818. Muhammad Azim proclaims Shah
Ranjit Singh marches to Peshawar
— which he makes over to Jahan Dad Khan
157
157
Ayub
.... . . .

Ranjit Singh intent upon Kashmir

1819. Delayed by a discussion with the English
158
158
158
.... . .

—
. . .

but finally annexes the Valley to his dominions 159 .

1819-20. The Derajat of the Indus annexed to Lahore 159 . .

1818-21. Muhammad AzIm Khan desirous of securing Peshawar 159

1822. — from which Ranjit Singh demands and receives tribute 160
But the prosecution of his plans interfered with by
a discussion with the English about his mother-in-
law and a place called Whadni .160 . . .

1823. The Sikhs march against Peshawar .161 . . .

The Battle of Noshahra 161

Muhammad Khan
Death of Muhammad Azim Khan
......
Peshawar reduced, but left as a dependency with Yar
162
. . . .162
1823-4. Ranjit Singh feels his way towards Sind .162 . .

1824. Sansar Chand of Katotch dies 163

Ranjit Singh's power consolidated, and the mass of his
dominion acquired . .1()3 . . . .

1818-21. Miscellaneous transactions. Shah Shuja's expedition

against Shikarpur and Peshawar .163 . . .

1821. The Shah returns to Ludhiana .164

— and is followed by Shah Zaman, who takes up his
. . . .

abode at the same place

1820-2. Appa Sahib, Ex-Raja of Nagpur
His idle schemes with the son of Shfih Zaman
.164
.

164
164
....
. . .

. .

1816-17. The petty Ex-Chief of Niirpur causes Ranjit Singh

some anxiety, owing to his resort to the English
•
165 .

1820. The traveller Moorcroft in the Punjab 166 . . .

Ranjit Singh's general system of government, and view

of his means and authority as leader of the Sikhs 167 .

The Sikh Army 169

1822. Arrival of French Officers at Lahore .169 . . .

Excellences of the Sikhs as soldiers .170

.......
. . .

Characteristics of Rajputs and Pathans .170

— of Marathas
. .

170
— and Gurkhas
of . . . . . . .171
Aversion of the older military tribes of India to regular
discipline .171
— with the exception
. . . . . . .

of the Gurkhas, and, partially, of

the Muhammadans . . . . . .171
The Sikh forces originally composed of horsemen armed
with matchlocks . . . . . .171
1783. Notices of the Sikh troops, by Forster .171
— by Malcolm
. .

1805. .
'
171
— by Ochterlony
.

1810. 171
Characteristic Ai'ms of different Races, including the
English 171
The general importance given to Artillery by the Indians,
a consequence of the victories of the English . , 172
xlii CONTENTS
A. D. PAGE
1810. Ranjit Singh laboiirs to introduce discipline 172
— and
Infantry and Artillery Soldiers ....
at length succeeds in making the Sikhs regular
173

—
the arrival of French officers ....
European discipline introduced into the Punjab before
174

.....
whose services were yet of value to Ranjit Singh, and
honourable to themselves
Ranjit Singh's marriages and faimily relations
174
174
His wife Mehtab Kaur, and mother-in-law Sada Kaur 175

.....
.

1807. Sher Singh and Tara Singh, the declared sons of Mehtab
Kaur, not fully recognized 175
1810. Sada Kaur's vexation of spirit and hostile views . 175
1802. Kharak Singh born to Ranjit Singh by another wife 17(5
1S21. Nau Nihal Singh born to Kharak Singh 170
Ranjit Singh's personal licentiousness and intemperance,
in connexion with the vices vaguely attributed to the
mass of the Sikh people 170
Ranjit Singh's favourites . 178
KJiushal Singh, a Brahman 178
The Rajputs of Jammu 178
Ranjit Singh's chosen servants 179
Fakir Aziz-ud-din 179
Dlwan Sawan Mai 179
Harl Singh Nalwa 179
Fateh Singh Ahluwalia 179
Desa Singh Majithia 179

CHAPTER VII

FROM THE ACQUISITION OF MULTAN, KASHMIR, AND

PESHAWAR TO THE DEATH OF RANJlT SINGH
1824-39

Change in the Position of the Sikhs, relatively to the

English, after the year 1823 .180
........
. . .

1824-5. Miscellaneous transactions . . . . .181

Peshawar 181
Nepal 181
Sindh
BharatiJur ........
Fateh Singh, the Ahluwalia Chief
181
181
.182
........
. . .

1826. Ranjit Singh falls sick, and is attended by an English

surgeon 182
1827. Anecdotes. Lord Amherst, theBritish Governor-General 182
Lord Combermere, the British Commander-in-Chief 183

........
.

C!aptain Wade made the immediate Agent for the affairs

of Lahore 183
Discussions about rights to districts South of the Sutlej 184
Anandpur, Whadni, Ferozepore, &c. . , . .184
 CONTENTS xliii

A. D. PAGE
1820-8.
and his son .......
Gradual ascendancy of Dhian Singh, his brothers,

1828. Proposed marriage of Hira Singh into the family of

185

Sansar Chand . . . .185 . . .

Flight of Sansar Chand' s widow and son 185 . . .

1829. Raja Hira Singh's marriage . .185 . . .

1827. Insurrection at Peshawar imder Saiyid Ahmad Shah

Ghazi
History of the Saiyid ...... 186
186

His pilgrimage .......

His doctrines of religious reform

His journey through Rajputana and Sind to Kandahar

.186
187
. .

and Peshawar . . . .187 . . .

Rouses the Usufzais to a religious war .188 . .

Saiyid Ahmad Shah fails against the Sikhs at Akora 188 .

1829. But defeats Yar Muhammad, who dies of his wounds 189 .

1830. Saijrid Ahmad Shah crosses the Indus 189 . . .

He is compelled to retire, but falls upon and routs Sultan

Muhammad Khan, and occupies Peshawar
The Saiyid's influence decreases.
He relinquishes Peshawar .
....
.
.189
190
. .
.

.190
18.31. And retires towards Kashmir, and surprised and slain
is 190
Ranjit Singh courted by various parties . . .190
The Baluchis 191
Shah Mahmud
The Baiza Bai of Gwalior
The Russians and the English
...... . . . . .191
191
191

Lord Bentinck, the Governor- General, at Simla . . 191

A Meeting proposed with Ranjit Singh, and desired by
both parties for different reason.s . . .191
The Meeting at Rupar
Ranjit Singh's anxiety about Sind
The scheme of opening the Indus to commerce
.... . .193
192
192

Proposals made to the Sindians and Sikhs . . . 193

Ranjit Singh's views and suspicions . . . .194
He repels the Daudputras from the Lower Punjab . 194
—and declares his superior right to Shikarpur . .195
1832. Ranjit Singh yields to the English demands 195

........
. .

Declaring, however, that their commerce interfered with

his policy 195
1833-5. Shah Shuja's second expedition to Afghanistan . 196
1827, &c. The Shah's overtures to the English . . .196
1831. His negotiations with the Sindians . .196
— and with Ranjit Singh
. .

. . . . . .196
The gates of Somnath and the slaughter of kine . .196
1832. Further negotiations with the Sikhs and Sindians . 197
The English indifferent about the Shah's attempts 1 97

—
.

but Uost Muhaminad Khan is alarmed, and courts

their friendship . . . . . . .198
1833. The Shah sets out 198
1834. Defeats the Sindians
— but is routed at Kandahar ..... 199
199
xliv CONTENTS
A. D. PAGE
183.1. Shtih returns to Ludhiana
The 199
1834. Ranjit Singh, susiiicious of Shah Shuja, strengthens him-
self by annexing Peshawar to his dominions .

1832-6. Huzara and the Derajat more completely reduced

1833. Sansar Chand's grandson returns

1821. Ranjit Singh and Ladakh

1834-5. Ladakh reduced by the Jammu Rajas
....
1834-6. Ranjit Singli sends a Mission to Calcutta

.....
1835-6. Ranjit Singh recurs to his claims on Shikarpur, and

.......
his designs on Sind
Negotiations
Ranjit Singh's ambition displeasing to the English
The Maharaja nevertheless keeps in view his plans of
aggrandizement

......
. . . . . .

1836. The objects of the English become political as well as

commercial
— and they resolve on mediating between Ranjit Singh
and the Sindians .....
.....
The English desire to restrain Ranjit Singh without
threatening him

Ranjit Singh equally ready

— but yields to the representations
....
The Sindians impatient, and ready to resort to arms

of the English
Yet continues to hold Rojhan with ulterior views
1829-36. Retrospect. The English and the Barakzais .

1829. Sultan Muhammad Khan the friendship or pro-

solicits
tection of the English against the Sikhs
1832. Dost Muhammad Khan does the same
The Barakzais, apprehensive of Shah Shiija, again press
for an alliance with the English .

—and Jabbar Khan sends his son to Ludliiana

.......
.

1834. Dost Muhammad formally tenders his allegiance to the

English
—but defeats Shah Shuja, and recovers confidence

The English decline interfering ....

Dost Muhammad attempts to recover Peshawar

1835. Ranjit Singh and Dost Muhammad in force at Peshawar

.

Dost Muhammad retires rather than risk a battle

an English alliance .....

1830. Dost Muhammad looks towards Persia, but still prefers

The Kandahar Chiefs desirous of English aid

1836-7. But the Amir prefers war

Hari Singh's designs
....
Ranjit Singh endeavours to gain over Dost Muhammad

.....
1837. Battle of Jamrud

retire ......
The Sikhs defeated and Hari Singh Idlled, but the
Afghans
Ranjit Singh's efforts to retrieve his affairs at Peshawar 212
His negotiations with Dost Muhammad and Shah Shujii 212
The English resolve on mediating between the Sikhs and
Afghans .212
— the more especially as they are apprehensive of Russia 212
 CONTENTS xlv

A. U. I'AUE
1^37. — aud are further dissatisfied with tlie proceci-Ungs of
General Allard
The marriage of Nau Nihiil Singh
Sir Henry Fane at Lahore .
....
. . .
.213
.214
214

The Sikh Military Order of the Star .214

........
. . .

Ranjit Singh's object the gratification of his guests and

allies 215
Anecdotes showing a similar purpose . . . 215
The British scheme of opening the Indus to commerce

1837-8. Sir Alexander Bm-nes at Kabul ....

ends in the project of restoring Shah Shuja . . 21G
217

and Russia .......

Dost Muhammad eventually falls into the views of Persia

The original policy of the English erroneous . .

218
218
But under the circumstances brought about, the Ex-
pedition to Kabul wisely and boldly conceived . 218
1838. Negotiations regarding the restoration of Shah Shuja . 219
Ranjit Singh dissatisfied, but finally assents . . 219
1839. Ranjit Singh apparently at the height of greatness 221 .

— but chafed in mind and enfeebled in health .221 .

Death of Ranjit Singh 221

genius of Ranjit Singh .....

The political condition of the Sikhs as modified by the
222

succession of Kharak Singh ....

The artifices of Dhian Singh to bring about the quiet
223

CHAPTER VIll
i RUM THE DEATH OF MAHARAJA RANJIT SINGH TO THE
DEATH OF WAZlR JAWAHIR SINGH
1839-45
rAGE
1839. Sher Singh claims the succession 224
— but Nau Nihal Singh assumes power
all real . 224
— and temporarily himself with the Jammu Rajas
allies 224
The favourite, Chet Singh, put to death 225
1840. Mr. Clerk succeeds Lieut. -Col. Wade as Agent 225
The relief of the British troops in Kabul 227
English negotiations about trade 228
Nau Nihal Singh's schemes against the Rajas of Jammu 229

Afghanistan .......
Interrupted by discussions Avith the English about

The death of Maharaja Kharak Singh

230
.231 . .

Death of the Prince Nau Nihal Singh

Sher Singh proclaimed Sovereign
—
....
. .231
232
. .

power, and Sher Singh retires

Dalip Singh's birth and pretensions made known
....
but Chand Kam% the widow of Kharak Singh, assumes
232
233 .

The English remain neutral at the time 233, . .

 xlvi CONTENTS
A. D.
1840. Dost Miiliammad attempts Kabul, but eventually sur
renders to the English

1841. Sher Singh attacks Lahore ....

Sher Singh gains over the troops with Dhian Singh's aid

....
Chand Kaur yields, and Sher Singh proclaimed Maharaj
The Sindhianwala Family

......
The Army becomes uncontrollable
Sher Singh alarmed

—
undervalue the Sikhs .....
The English anxious about the general tranquillity
—
and are ready to interfere by force of arms

suspicious of the English ....

The military disorders subside, but the people become

Major Broadfoot's passage across the Punjab

The Sikhs further irritated against the English .

The changed relation of the Lahore Army to the State

become the repre
Its military organization enables it to
sentative body of the Khalsa '
' .

Negotiations with the English about inland trade

— and seizes
.....
Zorawar Singh, the deputy of the Jammu Rajas, takes
Iskardo
Garo from the Chinese .

The English interfere

The Sikhs defeated by a force from Lhasa
1842. The Chinese recover Garo
Peace between the Chinese and Sikhs
1841.
Indus .....
The ambitious views of the Jammu Rajas towards

Clash with the policy of the English .

th^

The Insurrection at Kabul (November 1841

•
1842.
them
An army
for aid ....
The English distrustful of the Sikhs, but yet urgent ujjon

of retribution assembled

Kabul retaken ....

Gulab Singh sent to co-operate .

Discussions regarding Jalalabad and the limits of Sikh

dominion . . . . . '
.

apparent at Ferozepore ....

The Governor- General meets the Sikh minister and
252
heir

1S43. Dost Muhammad returns to Kabul

Anxieties of Sher Singh .....
The Sindhianwala Chiefs and the Jammu Rajas coalesce
254
254
255
Sher Singh assassinated by Ajit Singh 256
—who likewise puts Dhian Singh to death 256
Hira Singh avenges his father . 256
Dallp Singh proclaimed Maharaja 257
The power of the Army increases 257
Raja Gulab Singh 258
Sardar Jawahir Singh 258
Fateh Khan Tiwana 258
1844. The insurrection of Kashmira Singh ar d Peshawara Singh 258
Jawahir Singh 259
 CONTENTS xlvii

A. D. PAGE
1844. Tlie attempt of Raja Suchet Singh . . . . 259

1843.
The Governor of Multan submits
Gilgit reduced
....
The insurrection of Sardar Attar Singh and Bhai BTr Singh 259
260
261
1844. Hira Singh professes suspicions of the English • 261

.....
. .

The mutiny of the British Sepoys ordered to Sind 261

.....
.

Discussions with the English 262

— about the village Moran 262
— and about treasure buried by Suchet Singh 262

.....
. .

Hira Singh guided by Pandit Jalla, hia preceptor . 264

Pandit Jalla and Gulab Singh 265
Pandit Jalla irritates the Sikhs, and offends the Queen
Mother 265
Hira Singh and Pandit Jalla fly, but are overtaken and
put to death 266
Jawahir Singh and Lai Singh attain power . . . 266
1845. The Sikh Army moves against Jammu . . , 267
Gulab Singh submits, and repairs to Lahore . . 268

1844.
Jawalur Singh formally appointed Wazir
Sawan Mai of Multan assassinated
Mulraj, his son, succeeds
....
......
. . . 268
269
269
—
1845. and agrees to the terms of the Lahore Com't
The rebellion Peshawara Singh
of
— who submits, but put to death
is
....
....
. . 269
270
270
The Sikh soldiery displeased and distrustful . .271
The perplexity of Jawahir Singh .271
......
. . .

The Army condemns him, and puts him to death . 271

The Army all-powerful 272
Lai Singh made Wazir, and Tej Singh Commander-in-
Chief, in expectation of an English war . . 273

CHAPTER IX
THE WAR WITH THE ENGLISH
1845-6
A. 1). PAGJi
1845.
and English .......
The Indian public prepared for a war between the Siklis

....
The apprehensions of the English
274
275
The fears of the Siklis 275

The English views about Peshawar, and

....
The English advance bodies of troo}is towards the Sutlej,
contrary to their policy of 1809
their offer to
276

support Sher Singh, all weigh with the Sikhs 277

......
.

The Sikhs further moved by their estimate of the British

Agent of the
day 279

pleasing to the Sikhs

Major Broadfoot's proceedings
.....
Major Broadfoot's views and overt acts equally

lield to virtually denote

dis-
280

war . . . . , . . . . 281
xlviii CONTENTS
A. D.
1845. And Sir Cliarles Napier's
hostile views .......
acts considered further proof of

The
.....
Laliore Chiefs make use of the persuasion of the
people for their own ends
And
may be destroyed
The Sikhs cross the Sutlej
......
urge the Army against the English in order that it

.....
The English unprepared for a campaign

The numbers of the Sikhs ......

The English hasten to oppose the Sikhs

Ferozepore threatened, but purposely not attacked

The objects of Lai Singh and Tej Singh
The tactics of the Sikhs . . .

The Battle of Mudkl

The Battle of P'heerooshuhur, and retreat of the Sikhs
The difficulties and ap]>rehcnsions of the English
ISK).
......
The Sikhs recross the Sutlej, and threaten Ludhiana
The Skirmish of Badowal

to Lahore ........
The Sikhs encouraged, and Gulab Singh induced to repair

The Battle of Aliwal

An
.....
The Sikh Chiefs anxiousto treat, and the English de-
sirous of ending the war
understanding come to, that the Sikh Army shall be

....
attacked by the one, and deserted by the other

.....
The defensive position of the Sikhs

......
84G. The English plan of attack
The Battle of Sobraon
The passage of the Sutlej the submission of the Maha-

........
;

raja ; and the occupation of Lahore

Negotiations
Gulab Singh
Lai Singh
........ ~

........
. . . . . .

The Partition of the Punjab, and independence of Gulab

Singh
Supplementary arrangements of 1846, placing Dalip
Singh under British tutelage during his minority .

The Sikhs not disheartened by their reverses

Conclusion. The position of the English in India
 APPENDIXES
r.VGE
APPENDIX I
The Jats and Jats of Ui^per India . . . . .331
APPENDIX II
Proportions of Races and Faiths : Population of India . . 332

The Kshattrij^as and Aroras

APPENDIX
of the Punjab
III
.... 33-4

Caste in India .........APPENDIX IV

335

The Philosophical Systems

APPENDIX V
of the Indians .... 337

APPENDIX VI
On the Maya of the Indians . . ... . . 339

APPENDIX VLl
The Metaphysics of Indian Reformers . . . . .341
APPENDIX VIII
Scientific .........
Nanak's Philosopliical Allusions Popular or iloral rather than
342

APPENDIX IX
The Terms Raj and Jog, Deg and Tegh . ... 343

Caste among the Sikhs .......

APPENDIX X
345

Rites of Initiation into Sikhism ......

APPENDIX XI
34G

APPENDIX XII
The exclamation Wah Guru and the expression Deg, Tegh,
Fath 347

APPENDIX XIII
The Sikh Devotion to Steel, and-the Term Sachcha Padshah
'
' 347

Distinctive Usages of the Sikhs .....

APPENDIX XIV
348
 APPENDIXES

APPEXDIX XV
On
cation in India . .......
the Use of Arabic and Sanskrit for the purposes of Edu-
349

On the Land-tax in India ......APPENDIX XVI

. 351

APPENDIX XVII
The Adi Granth, or First Book ; or, the Book of Nanak, the First

Preliminary Note
The Japi
.......
Gurii or Teacher of the Siklis

.....
(or simply the Jap)
352
353
Sudar Rah Ras
Kirit Sohila
.

........
"

The Thirty-one JNtetres (or Forms of Verse)

. 353
354
354

......
. . .

The Bhog 355

Supplement to the Granth 355

APPENDIX XVIII
The Daswln Padshah Ka Granth, or, Book of the Tenth King, or

Preliminary Note .......

Sovereign Pontiff, i. e. of Gurii Gobind Singh

.....
The Japji (or simply the Jap)
356
356
Akal Stut 357

......
The Vichitr Natak, or Wondrous Tale

......
Chandi Charitr (the greater)
Chandi Charitr (the lesser)
. . .

357
357
.357

Chandi ki Var 357

Gyan Prabodh _ .357.

Chaupayan Chaubis Avataran Kian (Twenty-four Avatars) 357

MihdiMir
Avatars of Brahma
Avatars of Rudr or Siva
.......
......
358
358
358
Shastr Nam Mala 358
Sri Muldi Vak, Sawava Battis 358
HazaraShabd .
"

Istri C'haritr, or Tales of Women .....

The Hikayats, or Tales (addressed to Aurangzeb)
359
359
359
. .

APPENDIX XIX
Some Principles of Belief and Practice, as exemplified in the opinions
of the Sikli Gurus or Teachers with an Addendum showing the
;

modes in which the Missions of Nanak and Gobind are represented

or regarded by the Siklis.
God ; the Godhead 359
Incarnations, Saints, and Prophets 360
The Sikh Gurus not to be worshipped 361

jMiracles .....
Images, and the AVorship of Saints

....
Transmigration
361
362
362
 APPENDIXES
PAGE
Faith 362
Grace 363
Predestination 363
The Vedas, the Purans, and the Koran 363
Asceticism . 363
Caste 364
Food . 364
Brahmans, Saints, &c. 365
Infanticide . 365
SatI . 365
Addendum.
Bhai Gurdas Bhalla's mode of representing the Mission of
Nanak 366
Guru Gobind's mode of representing his own Mission 367

......
.

Extract from the Twenty-four Avatars and the Mihdi Mir

of Gobind's Granth 369

APPENDIX XX
The Admonitory Letters of Nanak to the fabulous monarch Karun,
and the Prescriptive Letters of Gobind for the guidance of the
•
Sikhs.
Pre] iTninary
The
Note ......
Nasihat Nama, or Admonition of Nanak
.
* 370
370

.....
. . .

The Reply of Nanak to Karun . . . . .371

The Rabat Nama of Gobind 372
The Tankha Nama of Gobind 374

APPENDIX XXI
A List of Sikh Sects, or Orders, or Denominations . . 377

APPENDIX XXII
A Genealogical Table of the Sikh Gurus or Teachers facing 378

APPENDIX XXIII
The Treaty with Lahore of 1806 379

APPENDIX XXIV
Sir David Ochterlony's Proclamation of 1809 . . . 380

APPENDIX XXV
The Treaty with Lahore of 1809 381

APPENDIX XXVI
Proclamation of Protection to Cis-Sutlej States against Lahore,
dated 1809 382

APPENDIX XXVII
Proclamation of Protection to Cis-Sutlej States against one
another, dated 1811 383
lii APPENDIXES
PAGE

Indus Navigation Treaty of 1832

APPENDIX XXVIII
..... 385

APPENDIX XXIX
Supplementary Indus Xa\igation Treaty of 1834 . . . 387

APPENDIX XXX
The Tripartite Treaty with RanjTt Singh and Shah Shuja of
1838 389

APPENDIX XXXI
Indus and Sutlej Toll Agreement of 1839 . . . .393
APPENDIX XXXII
Indus and Sutlej Toll Agreement of 1840 . . . .394
APPENDIX XXXIII
Declaration of War of 1845 396

APPENDIX XXXIV
First Treaty with Lahore of 1846 . . . . .398
APPENDIX XXXV
Supplementary Articles to first Treaty with Lahore of 1846 402

APPENDIX XXX\T
Treaty with Gulab Singh of 1846 ... . . 403

APPENDIX XXXVII
Second Treaty with Lahore of 1846 405

APPENDIX XXXVIII
Revenues of the Punjab in 1844 . ... . . . 409

APPENDIX XXXIX
The Army of Lahore in 1844 413

APPENDIX XL
Genealogical Tree: Lahore Family . . . . .417
APPENDIX XLI
Genealogical Tree : Jammu Family . . . . .418

MAPS
Political Divisions of the Punjab 1764-1803 . . To face p. 1.

Political Divisions of the Punjab after 1846 . . . At end.

 A HISTORY OF THE SIKHS
CHAPTER I

THE COUNTRY AND PEOPLE

—
Geographical Limits of Sikh Occupation or Influence Climate, Pro-
—
ductions, &c. of the Sikh Dominions Inhabitants, Races, Tribes
— —
Religions of the People Characteristics and Effects of Race
— —
and Religion Partial Migrations of Tribes Religious Prose-
lytism.

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries of the Geographi-

Christian era, Nanak and Gobind, of the Kshattriya race, ^^^ hmits.

obtained a few converts to their doctrines of religious

reform and social emancipation among the Jat peasants
of Lahore and the southern banks of the Sutlej. The
' Sikhs ',
or ' Disciples ', have now become a nation and
;

they occupy, or have extended their influence, from Delhi

to Peshawar, and from the plains of Sind to the Karakoram
mountains. The dominions acquired by the Sikhs are thus
included between the 28th and 36th parallels of north
latitude, and between the 71st and 77th meridians of east
longitude ; and if a base of four hundred and fifty miles
be drawn from Panlpat to the Khaibar Pass, two triangles,
almost equilateral, may be described upon it, which shall
include the conquests of Ranjit Singh and the fixed colonies
of the Sikh people.
The country of the Sikhs, being thus situated in a medium Climate,
degree of latitude, corresponding nearly with that of north- tbns^&c.
ern Africa and the American States, and consisting either
of broad plains not much above the sea level, or of moun-
tain ranges which rise two and three miles into the air,
possesses every variety of climate and every description of
natural produce. The winter of Ladakh is long and rigorous,
snow covers the ground for half the year, the loneliness of
B
 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. I

vast solitudes appals the heart, and naught living meets

its
Grain, and the eye yet the shawl-wool goat gives a value to the rocky
;

'^^stes of that elevated region, and its scanty acres yield

of Ladikh
unequalled crops of wheat and barley, where the stars can
be discerned at midday and the thin air scarcely bears the
sound of thunder to the ear.^ The heat and the dust storms
of Multan are perhaps more oppressive than the cold and
the drifting snows of Tibet but the favourable position of
;

the cit3% and the several overflowing streams in its neigh-

Silks, in- bourhood, give an importance, the one to its manufactures
digo, and
cotton of
of silks and carpets, and the other to the wheat, the indigo,
Multan. and the cotton of its fields. ^ The southern slopes of the

1 Shawl wool produced most abundantly, and of the finest

is
quality, in the steppes between the Shayuk and the main branch of
the Indus. About 100,000 rupees, or £10,000 worth may be carried
down the valley of the Sutlej to Ludhiana and Delhi. (Journal Asiatic
Society of Bengal, 1844, p. 210.) The importation into Kashmir alone
isestimated by Moorcroft (Travels, ii. 165) at about £75,000, and thus
the Sutlej trade may represent less than a tenth of the whole.
Moorcroft speaks highly of the cultivation of wheat and barley in
Tibet, and he once saw a field of the latter grain in that country such
as hehad never before beheld, and which, he says, an English farmer
would have ridden many miles to have looked at. (Travels, i. 269,
280.)
The gravel of the northern steppes of Tibet yields gold in grains,
but the value of the crude borax of the lakes surpasses, as an article
. of trade, that of the precious metal.
In Yarkand an intoxicating drug named churrus, much used in
India, is grown of a superior quality, and while opium could be taken
across the Himalayas, the Hindus and Chinese carried on a brisk
traffic of exchange in the two deleterious commodities.
The trade in tea through Tibet to Kashmir and Kabul is of local
importance. The blocks weigh about eight pounds, and sell for 12s.
and 16s. up to 36s. and 48s. each, according to the quality. (Cf.
Moorcroft, Travels, i. 350, 351.)
2 The wheat of Multan is beardless, and its grain is long and heavy.

It is exported in large quantities to Rajputana, and also, since the

British occupation, to Sind to an increased extent. The value of
the carpets manufactured in Multan does not perhaps exceed 50,000
rupees annually. The silk manufacture may be worth five times that
sum, or, including that of Bahawalpur, 400,000 rupees in all but ;

the demand for such fabrics has markedly declined since the expulsion
of a native dynasty from Sind. The raw silk of Bokhara is used in
preference to that of Bengal, as being stronger and more glossy.
English piece-goods, or (more largely) cottori twists to be woven
 CHAP. I THE COUNTRY AND PEOPLE
Himalayas are periodically deluged with rain, which is almost
unknown beyond the snow, and is but little felt in Multan
or along the Indus. The central Punjab is mostly a bushy
jungle or a pastoral waste its rivers alone have rescued
;

it from the desert, but its dryness keeps it free froin savage

beasts, and its herds of cattle are of staple value to the Black
cattle
country while the plains which immediately bound the
;
of the
hills, or are influenced by the Indus and its tributaries, are central

not surpassed in fertility by any in India. The many Punjab.

populous towns of these tracts are filled with busy weavers
of cotton and silk and wool, and with skilful workers in
leather and wood and iron. Water is foimd near the surface,
and the Persian wheel is in general use for purposes of irri- The Per-
sian wheel
gation. Sugar is produced in abundance, and the markets used for
of Sind and Kabul are in part supplied with that valuable irrigation.
article by the traders of Amritsar, the commercial emporium Sugar of
of Northern India. ^ The artisans of Kashmir, the varied the upper
plains.

into cloth, have been introduced everywhere in India ; but those

well-to-do in the world can alone buy foreign articles, and thus while
about eighteen tons of cotton twist are used by the weavers of
Bahawalpur, about 300 tons of (cleaned) cotton are grown in the
district, and wrought up by the villagers or exported to Rajputana.
The Lower Punjab and Bahawalpu yield respectively about 750
and 150 tons of indigo. It is worth on the spot from 9d. to Is. 6d-
the pound. The principal market is Khorasan ; but the trade has
declined of late, perhaps owing to the quantities which may be intro-
duced into that country by way of the Persian Gulf from India. The
fondness of the Sikhs, and of the poorer Muhammadans of the Indus,
for blue clothing, will always maintain a fair trade in indigo. [It
seems hardly necessary to state that the prosperity of the Western
Punjab to-day depends principally upon its grain, and that cultiva-
tion has received a great stimulus from the canal system.
As regards the second paragraph of the note the statement about
the consumption of foreign cotton, &c., reads strangely to a modern
generation .
—
E d .]
1 In 1844 the customs and excise duties of the Punjab amounted

to £240,000 or £250,000, or to one-thirteenth of the whole revenue of

Ranjit Singh, estimated at £3,250,000. [' Under the present system
of decentralization in finance, the Imperial Government delegates to
the Punjab Government the control of expenditure on the ordinary
administrative services, together with the whole or a certain propor-
tion of certain heads of revenue sufficient to meet those charges. Of
the various heads of revenue, post office, telegraphs, railways, opium,
and salt are entirely Imperial. Land revenue, stamps, excise, income
B2
 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. 1

The saffron productions of that famous valley, its harvests of saffron,

and the
shawls of
and its important manufacture of shawls, are well known
Kashmir. and need only be alluded to.^ The plains of Attock and
Rice and Peshawar no longer shelter the rhinoceros which Babar
wheat of
Peshawar. delighted to hunt, but are covered with rich crops of rice,
of wheat, and of barley. The mountains themselves pro-
Drugs, duce drugs and dyes and fruits their precipitous sides
;

dyes, and support forests of gigantic pines, and veins of copper, or

molals of
I he hills. extensive deposits of rock salt and of iron ore are contained
within their vast outline. The many fertile vales lying
between the Indus and Kashmir are perhaps unsurpassed
in the East for salubrity and loveliness the seasons are :

European, and the violent monsoon of India is replaced

' '

by the genial spring rains of temperate climates.

Inhabi- The people comprised within the limits of the Sikh rule
tants.
or influence, are various in their origin, their language, and
their faith. The plains of Upper India, in which the Brali-
mans and Kshattriya had developed a peculiar civilization,
have been overrun by Persian or Scythic tribes, from the
age of Darius and Alexander to that of Babar and Nadir
Shah. Particular traces of the successive conquerors may
yet perhaps be found, but the main features are (1) the :

Innnigra-
introduction of the Muhammadan creed and (2) the long
;
tion of the
Jats, and antecedent emigration of hordes of Jats from the plains of
introduc-
tion of Mu-
Upper Asia. It is not necessary to enter into the anti-
hammad- quities of Grecian ' Getae ' and Chinese Yuechi ', to discuss
'

anism. the asserted identity of a peasant Jat and a moon-descended

Yadu, or to try to trace the blood of Kadphises in the veins
tax, and major irrigation works are divided between the Imperial and
Provincial Governments in the proportion of one-half to each. Minor
irrigation works and some minor heads are divided in varying pro
po.rtions, while the revenue from forests, registration, courts of law,
jails, police, and education are wholly provincial, as well as the income
of district boards and municipalities. The Budget for 1914-15 shows
a total revenue (including opening balance) of Rs. 6,44,50,C00 and
a total expenditure of Rs. 5,00,29,000, leaving a closing balarce of
Rs. 1,44,21,000.'— /n^^iaw Year Book, 1915.]
1 Mr. Moorcroft (Travels, ii. 194) estimates the annual value of the

Kashmir manufacture of shawls at £300,000, but this seems a small

estimate if the raw material be worth £75,000 alone (Travels, ii. 165,
&c.), that is, 1,000 horse loads of 300 pounds, each pound being
worth 5s.
 CHAP. I THE COUNTRY AND PEOPLE 5

of Ranjit Singh. It is sufficient to observe that the vigorous

Hindu civilization of the first ages of Cliristianity soon
absorbed its barbarous invaders, and tliat in the lapse of
centuries the Jats became essentially Brahmanical in lan-
guage and belief. Along the southern Indus they soon
yielded their conscience to the guidance of Islam those ;

of the north longer retained their idolatrous faith, but they

have lately had a new life breathed into them they now ;

preach the unity of God and the equality of man, and,

after obeying Hindu and Muhammadan rulers, they have
themselves once more succeeded to sovereign power.^ The
Musalman occupation forms the next grand epoch in
general Indian history after the extinction of the Buddhist
religion the common speech of the people has been par-
;

tially changed, and the tenets of Muhammad are gradually

revolutionizing the whole fabric of Indian society but the ;

difference of race, or the savage manners of the conquerors,

struck the vanquished even more forcibly than their creed,
and to this day Jats and others talk of Turks as synony-
' '

mous with oppressors, and the proud Rajputs not only

bowed before the Musalmans, but have perpetuated the
remembrance of their servitude by ado'pting Turkhana ', '

or Turk money, into their language as the equivalent of

tribute.
In the valley of the Upper Indus, that is, in Ladakli and The
°^
Little Tibet, the prevailing caste is the Bhoti subdivision ^^u*f'^'^
of the great Tartar variety of the human race. Lower doAvn
that classical stream, or in Gilgit and Chulass, the remains The ancient
of the old and secluded races of Dardus and Dungars are I^^i'dus.

still to be found, but both in Iskardo and in Gilgit itself, Turkomans

there is some mixture of Turkoman tribes from the wilds °^ Gilgit.

of Pamer and Kashkar. The people of Kashmir have from The Kash-
'"^^'^
time to time been mixed with races from the north, the
south, and the west and while their language is Hindu
;

and their faith Muhammadan, the manners of the primitive

Kash or Katch tribes, have been influenced by their proxi-
mity to the Tartars. The hills westward from Kashmir to .^nd tiipjj,

the Indus are inhabited by Kukas and Bambas, of whom western

little is known, but towards the river i*eelf,the Yusufzais
bours
1 Sec Appendix I.
 6 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. I

Kukas, and other Afghan tribes prevail while there are many
;

Baiiibas,
secluded valleys peopled by the widely spread Gujars,
Gujars, &c.
whose history has yet to be ascertained, and who are the
vassals of Arabian saiyids ', or of Afghan and Turkoman
'

lords.
The Gak- In the south of Kashmir, and west of the Jhelum
hills
hars and
the
to Attock and Kalabagh on the Indus, are found Gakhars,
Janjuas. Gujars, Kliattars, Awans, Janjuas, and others, all of whom
may be considered to have from time to time merged into
the Hindu stock in language and feelings. Of these, some,
as the Janjiias and especially the Gakliars, have a local
reputation. Peshawar and the hills which surround it, are
The Yfisuf- peopled by various races of Afghans, as Yijsufzais and
zais,
Afrldis,
Mohmands in the north and west, Khalils and others in the
centre, and Afrldis, Khattaks, and others in the south and
east. The hills south of Kohat, and the districts of Tank
^^'azili.s, and Bannu, are likewise peopled by genuine Afghans, as
and other
Afghans. the pastoral Wazlris and others, or by agricultural tribes
claiming such a descent and, indeed, throughout the
;

mountains on either side of the Indus, every valley has its

separate tribe or family, always opposed in interest, and
sometimes differing in speech and manners. Generally it
may be observed, that on the north, the Afghans on one
side, and the Turkomans on the other, are gradually pressing
upon the old but less energetic Dardus, who have been
already mentioned.
Baluchls, In the districts on either side of the Indus south of
Jats, and
llains, of
Kalabagh, and likewise around Multan, the population is
the Middle partly Baluch and partly Jat, intermixed, however, with
Indus.
other tribes, as Aroras and Rains, and towards the moun-
Juns, tains of Suleiman some Afghan tribes are likewise to be
Bhutis, and
found located. In the waste tracts between the Indus and
Kathis.
of the Sutlej are found Juns, Bhutis, Sials, Kurruls,, Kathis, and
central
other tribes, who are both pastoral and predatory, ana who,
plains.

rhibs and
with the Chibs and Buhows south of Kaslimir, between the
Buhows (if Jhelum and Chenab, may be the first inhabitants of the
the lower
country, but little reclaimed in manners by Hindu or
hills.
Muhammadan conquerors or one or more of them, as
;

the Bhutis, who boast of their lunar descent, may represent

a tribe of ancient invaders or colonizers who have yielded
 '

THE COUNTRY AND PEOPLE

to others more powerful than themselves. Indeed, there
seems little doubt of the former supremacy of the Bhuti or
Bhati race in North-Western India the tribe is extensively
:

diffused, but the only sovereignty which remains to it is

over the sands of Jaisalmer.^ The tracts along the Sutlej,
about Pakpattan, are occupied by Wattus and Johiya
Rajputs,^ while lower down are found some of the Langah
tribe, who were once the masters of Uch and Multan.
The hills between Kashmir and the Sutlej are possessed The
Johiyas
by Rajput families, and the Muhammadan invasion seems
and Lang-
to have thrust the more warlike Indians, on one side into ahs of the
the sands of Rajputana and the hills of Bundelkliand, and south.

on the other into the recesses of the Himalayas. But the

mass of the population is a mixed race called Dogras about TheDogras
and Kanets
Jammu, and Kanets to the eastward, even as far as the of the
Jumna and Ganges, and which boasts of some Rajput Himalayas.
blood. There are, however, some other tribes intermixed,
as the Gaddis, who claim to be Kshattriya, and as the
Kohlis, who may be the aborigines, and who resemble in T^e
manners and habits, and perhaps in language, the forest Kohlis of
the Himu-
tribes of Central India. Towards the snowy limits there is laj-as.

some mixture of Bhutis, and towards Kashmir and in the

towns there is a similar mixture of the people of that valley.
The central tract in the plains stretching from the Jhelum The Jats of
the central
to Hansi, Hissar, and Panlpat, and lying to the north of
plains
IQiushab and the ancient DIpalpur, is inhabited chiefly
by Jats and the particular country of the Sikh people
;

may be said to lie around Lahore, Amritsar, and even Gujrat

to the north of the Sutlej, and around Bhatinda and Sunam

1 The little chiefship of Karauli, between Jaipur and Gwalior, may

also be added. The Raja is admitted by the genealogists to be of
the Yadu or Lunar race, but people sometimes say that his being an
AJiir or Cowherd forms his only relationship to Krishna, the pastoral
Apollo of the Indians.
2 Tod [Rajasihan, i. 118) regards the Johiyas as extinct ; but they
still flourishas peasants on either bank of the Sutlej, between Kasur
and Bahawalpur they are now Muhammadans. The Dahia of Tod
:

(i. 118) are likewise to be found as cultivators and as Muhammadans

on the Lower Sutlej, under the name of Deheh, or Dahur and Duhur ;
and they and many other tribes seem to have yielded on one side to
Bahtor Rajputs, and on the other to Baluchis.
 8 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAI-. 1

to the south of that river. The one tract is pre-eminently

called Manjha or the middle land, and the other is known
as Malwa, from, it is said, some fancied resemblance in
greenness and fertility to the Central Indian province of
mixed with that name. Many other people are, however, intermixed,
Gujars,
Rajputs,
as Bhutis and Dogras, mostly to the south and west, and
Pathans, Rains, Rurs, and others, mostly in the east. Giijars are
and others. everywhere numerous, as are also other Rajputs besides
Bhutis, while Pathans are found in scattered villages and
towns. Among the Pathans those of Kasur have long been
numerous and powerful, and the Rajpiits of Rahon have
Relative a local reputation. Of the gross agricultural population of
proportions this central tract, perhaps somewhat more than four-tenths
of some
principal may be Jat, and somewhat more than one-tenth Gujar,
races.
while nearly two-tenths may be Rajputs more or less pure,
and less than a tenth claim to be Muhammadans of foreign
origin, although it is highly probable that about a third of
the whole people profess the Musalman faith.^
In every town and city there are, moreover, tribes of
religionists, or soldiers, or traders, or handicraftsmen, and
thus whole divisions of a provincial capital may be peopled
by holy Brahmans ^ or as holy Saiyids, by Afghan or
Kshattri- Bundela soldiers, by Kshattriyas, Aroras, and Banias en-
yas and
Aroras of
gaged in trade, by Kashmiri weavers, and by mechanics and
the cities. dealers of the many degraded or inferior races of Hindustan.
None of these are, however, so powerful, so united, or so
numerous as to affect the surrounding rural population,
although, after the Jats, the Kshattriyas are perhaps the
most influential and enterprising race in the country.^
The wan- Of the wandering houseless races, the Changars are the
dering
Changars.
most numerous and the best known, and they seem to
deserve notice as being probably the same as the Chinganehs

^See Appendix II.

2In the Punjab, and along the Ganges, Brahmans have usually
the appellation of Missar or Mitter (i. e. Mithra) given to them, it not
distinguished as Pandits (i. e. as doctors or men of learning). The
title seems, according to tradition, or to the siurmise of well-informed
native Indians, to have been introduced by the first Muhammadan
invaders, and it may perhaps show that the Brahmans were held to
be worshippers of the sun by the Unitarian iconoclasts.
^ See Appendix III.
 '

CHAP. I THE COUNTRY AND PEOPLE

of Turkey, the Russian Tzigans, the German Zigueners, the
Italian Zingaros, the Spanish Gitanos, and the Enghsh
Gypsies, About Delhi the race is called Kanjar, a word
which, in the Punjab, properly implies a fcourtezan dancing
girl.'^

The limits of Race and Religion are not the same, other- The
wise the two subjects might have been considered together religions
of the
with advantage. In Ladakli the people and the dependent Sikh
rulers profess Laniaic Buddhism, which is so widely diffused countrj'.

throughout Central Asia, but the Tibetans of Iskardo, the The

Lamaic
Dardus of Gilgit, and the Kiikas and Bambas of the rugged Buddliist s

mountains, are Muhammadans of the Shiah persuasion. The of Ladakh.

The Shiah
people of Kashmir, of Kishtwar, of Bhimbar, of Paklili, !Muliamma-
and of the south and west to the salt range and the
hills dans of
Bultee.
Indus, are mostly Sunni Muhammadans,- as are likewise
The Sunni
the tribes of Peshawar and of the valley of the Indus Muhamma-
dans of
southward, and also the inhabitants of Multan, and of the
Kavslunir,
plains northward as far as Pind-Dadan-Klian, Chiniot, and Peshawar,
Dipalpur. The people of the Himalayas, eastward of Kisht- and
Multan,
war and Bhimbar, are Hindus of the Brahmanical faith, with The Brah-
some Buddhist colonies to the north, and some Muham- manist hill
tribes.
madan families to the south-west. The Jats of Manjha '

The Siklis
and Malwa are mostly Siklis, but perhaps not one-third
' '
of the cen-

of the whole population between the Jhelum and Jumna tral plains
mixed
has yet embraced the tenets of Nanak and Gobind, the with Brah-
other two-thirds being still equally divided between Islam manists
and
and Brahmanism. Muhamma-
In every town, excepting perhaps Leh, and most of in dans.
Hindu
the villages of the Muhammadan districts of Peshawar and shop-
Kashmir, and of the Sikh districts of Manjha and Malwa, keepers of
there are always to be found Hindu traders and shopkeepers. Muhamma-
dan cities.
The Kshattriya prevail in the northern towns, and the
Aroras are numerous in the province of Multan. The Kash-
miri Brahmans emulate in intelligence and usefulness the
[^For the whole question of Indian gipsies the reader is referred to
an article on The Indian Origin of the Gipsies in Europe ', by
'

Mr. A. C. Woolner, which appears in vol. ii of the Journal of the

Punjab Historical Society.']
2 The author learns from his brother, Major A. Cunningham who

has twice visited Kashmir, that the Muhammadans of that valley are
nearly all Shiah, instead of Sunni, as stated in the text. — J. D. C.
 10 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. 1

Maratha Pandits and the Babus of Bengal they are a good

;

deal employed in official business, although the Kshattriya

and the Aroras are the ordinary accountants and farmers
Village of revenue. In ' Malwa
'
alone, that is, about Bhatmda and
population
about Bha- Sunam, can the population be found unmixed, and
Sikli
tinda there it has passed into a saying, that the priest, the soldier,
purely
Sikh. the mechanic, tlie shopkeeper, and the ploughman are all
equally Sikli.
The de- There are, moreover, in the Punjab, as throughout India,
based and
several poor and contemned races, to whom Brahmans will
secluded
races, wor- not administer the consolations of religion, and who have
shippers
not been sought as converts by the ^Nluhammadans. These
of local
gods and worship village or forest gods, or family progenitors, or they
oracular
invoke a stone as typical of the great mother of mankind ;
divinities.
or some have become acquainted with the writings of the
later Hindu reformers, and regard themselves as inferior
members of the Sikh community. In the remote Himalayas,
again, where neither INIulla, nor Lama, por Brahman, has
yet cared to establish himself, the people are equally without
instructed priests and a determinate faith they worship
;

the Spirit of each lofty peak, they erect temples to the

limitary god of each snow-clad summit, and believe that
from time to time the attendant servitor is inspired to utter
the divine will in oracular sentences, or that when the
image of the Daitya or Titan is borne in solemn procession
on their shoulders, a pressure to the right or left denotes
good or evil fortune.^
Character- The characteristics of race and religion are everywhere
istics of
of greater importance than the accidents of position or the
race and
religidU. achievements of contemporary genius but the influences
;

of descent and manners, of origin and worship, need not

1 In the Lower Himalayas of the Punjab there are many shrines to

Giiga or Goga, and the poorer classes of the plains likewise reverence
the memorj' of the ancient hero. His birth or appearance is variously
related. One account makes him the chief of Ghazni, and causes lu'ra
to war with his brothers Arjiin anci Surjan. He was slain by them,
but behold a rock opened and Guga again sprang forth armed and
!

mounted. Another account makes him the lord of Durd-Dm-ehra, in

the wastes of Rajwara, and this corresponds in some degree witli
what Tod [Rajasihdn, ii. 447) says of the same champion, who died
fighting against the armies of Mahmud.
 —

CHAP. I THE COUNTRY AND PEOPLE 11

be dwelt upon in all their ramifications. The systems of

Buddha, of Brahma, and of Muhammad are extensively
diffused in the Eastern world, and they intimately affect the
daily conduct of millions of men. But, for the most part,
these creeds no longer inspire their votaries with enthusiasm;
the faith of the people is no longer a living principle, but
—
a social custom, a rooted, an almost instinctive deference
to what has been the practice of centuries. The Tibetan, Brahman-
ism and
who unhesitatingly believes the Deity to dwell incarnate in
Buddhism
the world, and who grossly thinks he perpetuates a prayer rather
forms than
by the motion of a wheel, and the Hindu, who piously con- feelings;
siders his partial gods to delight in forms of stone or clay,
would indeed still resist the uncongenial innovations of
strangers but the spirit which erected temples to Sakya
;

the Seer from the torrid to the frigid zone, or which raised
the Brahmans high above all other Indian races, and which
led them to triumph in poetry and philosophy, is no longer to
be found in its ancient simplicity and vigour. The Buddhist
and the reverer of the Vedas, is indeed each satisfied with his yet
own chance of a happy immortality, but he is indifferent strong to
resist inno-
about the general reception of truth, and, while he will not vation.
himself be despotically interfered with, he cares not what
may be the fate of others, or what becomes of those who
differ from him. Even the Muhammadan, whose imagina- Muhamma-
tion must not be assisted by any visible similitude, is prone danism,
although
to invest the dead with the powers of intercessors, and to corrupted,
make pilgrimages to the graves of departed mortals and has more of
;
'^

vitality.
we should now look in vain for any general expression of
that feeling which animated the simple Arabian disciple.

[^ Such a phenomenon is not confined to Islam alone. It would

seem to be a characteristic development in many religions. When
once what one may call the human touch weakens, and when the
' '

gulf separating the worshipper and the founder of his creed seems
sharply definfed, there is a tendency to interpose some form of media-
tion to bridge such an imaginary gulf. To such a feeling Catholic
Europe owes the introduction of the worship of the Blessed Virgin
and the invocation of countless saints. To such a feeling, also,
Buddhism owes the introduction of the Bodhisattva or Pusas the —
mediators for lost souls. And it will further be found that in
course of time such mediating forces tend to lose their general
character and to become localized tutelary powers. Ed.]
 12 HISTORY OF THE SHvHS CHAP. I

or the hardy Turkoman convert, to plant thrones across

the fairest portion of the ancient hemisphere. It is true
that, in the Muhammadan world, there are still many
zealous individuals, and many mountain and pastoral tribes,
who up arms, as well as become passive martyrs,
will take
and few will deny that Turk, and Persian,
for their faith,
and Pathan would more readily unite for conscience's sake
under the banner of Muhammad, than Russian, and Swede,
and Spaniard are ever likely to march under one common
All are '
Labarum '. The Musalman feels proudly secure of his
satisfied
with their
path to salvation he will resent the exhortations of those
;

owii faith. whom he pities or contemns as wanderers, and, unlike the

Hindu and the Buddhist, he is still actively desirous of
acquiring merit by adding to the number of true believers.
and can- But Buddhist, and Brahmanist, and Muhammadan have
not be rea-
soned into each an instructed body of ministers, and each confides in
Chris- an authoritative ritual, or in a revealed law. Their reason
tianity.
and their hopes are both satisfied, and hence the difficulty
of converting them to the Christian faith by the methods
of the civilized moderns. Our missionaries, earnest and
devoted men, must be content with the cold arguments of
science and criticism they must not rouse the feelings, or
;

appeal to the imagination they cannot promise aught

;

which their hearers were not sure of before they cannot

;

go into the desert to fast, nor retire to the mountain-tops to

pray they cannot declare the fulfilment of any fondly
;

cherished hope of the people, nor, in announcing a great

principle, can they point to the success of the sword and
the visible favour of the Divinity. No austerity of sancti-
tude convinces the multitude, and the Pandit and the Mulla
can each oppose dialectics to dialectics, morality to morality,
and revelation to revelation. Our zealous preachers may
create sects among ourselves, half Quietist and half Epi-
curean, they may persevere in their laudable resolution of
bringing up the orphans of heathen parents, and they may
gain some converts among intelligent inquirers as well as
among the ignorant and the indigent, but it seems hopeless
that they should ever Christianize the Indian and Muham-
madan worlds.^
^ The masses can only be convinced by means repudiated by reason
 —

CHAP. I THE COUNTRY AND PEOPLE 13

The observers of the ancient creeds quietly pursue the

even tenor of their way, self satisfied and almost indifferent
about others but the Sikhs are converts to a new religion, Sikhism an
;

the seal of the double dispensation of Brahma and Muham- per^dfng

mad their enthusiasm is still fresh, and their faith is still principle.
:

an active and a living principle. They are persuaded that

God himself is present with them, that He supports them
in all their endeavours, and that sooner or later He will
confound enemies for His own glory. This feeling of
their
the Sikh people deserves the attention of the English, both
as a civilized nation and as a paramount government.
Those who have heard a follower of Guru Gobind declaim
on the destinies of his race, his eye wild with enthusiasm
and every muscle quivering with excitement, can under-
stand that spirit which impelled the naked Arab against the
mail-clad troops of Rome and Persia, and which led our
own chivalrous and believing forefathers through Europe
to battle for the cross on the shores of Asia. The Sikhs do
not form a numerous sect, yet their strength is not to be
estimated by tens of thousands, but by the unity and
energy of religious fervour and warlike temperament. They
will dare much, and they will endure much, for the mystic
'
Khalsa or commonwealth they are not discouraged by
'
;

defeat, and they ardently look forward to the day when

Indians and Arabs and Persians and Turks shall all acknow-
ledge the double mission of Nanak and Gobind Singh.
The characteristics of race are perhaps more deep-seated
and enduring than those of religion but, in considering
;

any people, the results of birth and breeding, of descent

and the instructedintellect of man, and the futility of endeavouring
to convince the learned by argument is exemplified in Martyn's
Persian Controversies, translated by Dr. Lee, in the discussion
carried on between the Christian missionaries at Allahabad and the
Muhammadan Mullas at Lucknow, in Ram Mohan Roy's work on
Deism and the Vedas, and in the published correspondence of the
Tatubodhni Siibha of Calcutta. For an instance of the satisfaction
of the Hindus with their creed, see Moorcroft, Travels, i. 118, where
some Udasis commend him for believing, like them, in a God ! [Col.
Kennedy {Res. Hind. Mythol., p. 141) states that the Brahmans
think little of the Christian missionaries (as propagandists), although
the English have held authority in India for several generations.
J. D. C]
 " —
14 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS
The Jats and instruction, must be held jointly in view. The Jats
indus-
trious
are known and west of India as industrious and
in the north
and high- successful tillers of the soil, and as hardy yeomen equally
spirited.
ready to take up arms and to follow the plough. They
form, perhaps, the finest rural population in India. On the
Jumna their general superiority is apparent, and Bhartpur
bears Avitness to their merits, while on the Sutlej religious
reformation and political ascendancy have each served to
give spirit to their industry, and activity and purpose to
The Eaiiis their courage.^ The Rains, the Mails, and some others, are
and some not inferior to the Jats in laboriousness and sobriety,
others
scarcely although they are so in enterprise and resolution. The
inferior as Rajputs are always brave men, and they form, too, a de-
tillers of
the sirable peasantry. The Giijars everywhere prefer pasturage
ground. to the plough, whether ol the Hindu or Muhammadan faith.
The
peasant
The Baluchls do not become careful cultivators even when
Kajpiits. long settled in the plains, and the tribes adjoining the hills
The Gujars are of a disposition turbulent and predatory. They mostly
a pastoral
people. devote themselves to the rearing of camels, and they tra-
Tlie verse Upper India in charge of herds of that useful animal.
Baluchls
The Afghans are good husbandmen when they have been
pastoral
and accustomed to peace in the plains of India, or when they
predatory. feel secure in their own valleys, but they are even of a more
The Af-
ghans in-
turbulent character than the Baluchls, and they are every-
dustrious, where to be met with as mercenary soldiers. Both races
but turbu-
are, in truth, in their own country little better than free-
lent.
booters, and the Muhammadan faith has mainly helped
them to justify their excesses against unbelievers, and to
1 Under the English system of selling the proprietary right in
villages when the old freeholder or former purchaser may be unable
to pay the land tax, the Jats of Upper India are gradually becoming
the possessors of the greater portion of the soil, a fact which the
author first heard on the high authority of Sir. Thomason, the
Lieutenant-Governor of the North-Western Provinces. It is a common
saying that if a Jat has fifty rupees, he will rather dig a well or buy
a pair of bullocks with the money than spend it on the idle rejoioings
of a marriage. [' Sociall}' the landed classes stand high, and of these
the Jats, numbering nearly five millions, are the most important.
Eoughly speaking, one-half of the Jats are Mahomedan, one-third
Sikh, and one-sixth Hindu. In distribution they are ubicjuitous and
are equally divided over the five divisions of the province.' Indian
Year Bool; 1915.]
CHAP. I THE COUNTRY AND PEOPLE 15

keep them together under a common banner for purposes

of defence or aggression. The Kshattriya and Aroras of the Tlie Kshat-
triyas and
cities and towns are enterprising as merchants and frugal
Aroras
as tradesmen. They are the principal financiers and enterpris-
ing but
accountants of the country but the ancient military spirit
;
frugal.
frequently reappears amongst the once royal ' Kshattriya ',
and they become able governors of provinces and skilful
leaders of armies.^ The industry and mechanical skill of
the stout -limbed prolific Kashmiris are as well known as The Kash-
miris skil-
their poverty, their tameness of spirit, and their loose
ful, but
morality. The people of the hills south and east of Kashmir tame and
spiritless.
are not marked by any peculiar and well-determined
character, excepting that the few unmixed Rajpiits possess The un-
the personal courage and the pride of race which distinguish mixed
Rajpiits.
them elsewhere, and that the Gakhars still cherish the
remembrance of the times when they resisted Babar and
aided Humayun. The Tibetans, while they are careful The Tibe-
tans plod-
cultivators of their diminutive fields rising tier upon tier, ding and
are utterly debased in spirit, and at present they seem debased.

incapable of independence and even of resistance to gross

oppression. The system of polyandry obtains among them, The
custom
not as a perverse law, but as a necessary institution. Every of polyan-
spot of ground within the hills which can be cultivated has dry one of
necessity.
been under the plough for ages the number of mouths
;

Hari Singh, a Sikh, and the most enterprising of Ranjit Singh's

1

generals, was a Kshattriya and the best of his governors, Mohkam

;

Chand and Sawan Mai, were of the same race. The learning of Bolu
Mai, a Khanna Kshattriya, and a follower of the Sikh chief of Ahlu-
walia, excites some little jealousy among the Brahmans of Lahore
and of the JuUundur Doab and Chandu Lai, who so long managed
;

the affairs of the Nizam of Hyderabad, was a Khattri of Northern

India, and greatly encouraged the Sikh mercenaries in that princi-
pality, in opposition to the Arabs and Afghans. The declension of
the Kshattriya from soldiers and sovereigns into traders and shop-
keepers, has a parallel in the history of the Jews. Men of active minds
will always find employment for themselves, and thus we know what
Greeks became under the victorious Romans, and what they are
under the ruling Turks. We likewise know that the vanquished
Moors were the most industrious of the subjects of mediaeval Spain ;

that the Mughals of British India are gradually applying themselves

to the business of exchange, and it is plain that the traffickers as well
as the priests of Saxon England, Frankish Gaul, and Gothic Italy
must have been chiefly of Roman descent.
 16 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, i

must remain adapted to the number of acres, and the

proportion is preserved by limiting each proprietary family

to one giver of children. The introduction of Muham-

madanism in the west, by enlarging the views of the people
and promoting emigration, has tended to modify this rule,
and even among the Lamaic Tibetans any casual influx of
wealth, as from trade or other sources, immediately leads
to the formation of separate establishments by the several
members of a house.'^ The wild tribes of Chibs and Buhows
in the hills, the Juns and Kathls, and the Dogras and
Bhutis of the plains, need not be particularly described ;

the idle and predatory habits of some, and the quiet pas-
toral occupations of others, are equallj'^ the result of position
The Juns ^g ^f character. The Juns and Kathls, tall, comely, and

Kathis long-lived races, feed vast herds of camels and black cattle,
pastoral which furnish the towns with the prepared butter of the
peaceful, east, and provide the people themselves with their loved
libations of milk.-
Partial mi- The limits of creeds and races which have been described
trR)es"*iid
"^^^* ^^^ ^^ regarded as permanent. Throughout India
prosely- there are constant petty migrations of the agricultural
m
tisin
population taking place. Political oppression, or droughts,
Causes of ^^ floods cause the inhabitants of a village, or of a district,
migrations, to seek more favoured tracts, and there are always chiefs

and rulers who are ready to welcome industrious emigrants

1 Regarding the polyandry of Ladakh, Moorcroft (Travels, ii. 321,

322) may be referred to, and also the Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal for 1844, p. 202, &e. The effects of the system on bastardy seem
marked, and thus out of 760 people in the little district of Hungrung,
around the junction of the Sutlej and Pittee (or Spiti) rivers, there
were found to be twentj'-six bastards, which gives a proportion of
about one in twenty-nine ;and as few grown-up people admitted
themselves to be illegitimate, the number may even be greater. In
1835 the population of England and Wales was about 14,750,000 and
the number of bastards affiliated (before the new poor law camo into
operation) was 65,475, or 1 in about 226 (Wade's British History,
pp. 1041-55) ;and even should the number so born double those
affiliated, the proportion would still speak against polyandry as it
affects female purity.
2 On milk sustained, and blest with length of days,
The Hippomolgi, peaceful, just, and wise.
Iliad, xiii. Cowper's Translation.
 THE COUNTRY AND PEOPLE 17

and to assign them lands on easy terms. This causes some

fluctuation in the distribution of races, and as in India the
tendency is to a distinction or separation of famiUes, the
number become almost infinite.
of clans or tribes has
Within the Sikli dominions the migrations of the Baluchis Recent mi
gration of
up the Indus are not of remote occurrence, while the occu- the Balu-
pation by the Sindhian Daudputras of the Lower Sutlej chis up
the Indus,
took place within the last hundred years. The migration and of the
of the Dogras from Delhi to Ferozepore, and of the Johiyas Daud-
putras up
from Marwar to Pakpattan, also on the Sutlej, are historical the Sutlej.
rather than traditional, while the hard-working Hindu Migrations
Mehtums are still moving, family by family and village by of the
Dogras,
village, eastward, away from the Ravi and Chenab, and are Johiyas,
insinuating themselves among less industrious but more and Meh-
tums.
warlike tribes.
Although religious wars scarcely take place among the
Buddhists, Brahmanists, and Muhammadans of the present
day, and although religious fervour has almost disappeared
from among the professors at least of the two former
faiths, proselytism is not unknown to any of the three
creeds, and Muhammadanism, as possessing still a strong
vitality within it, will long continue to find converts among
the ignorant and the barbarous. Islamism is extending up Islamism
extending
the Indus from Iskardo towards Leh, and is thus encroach- in Tibet;
ing upon the more worn-out Buddhism while the limits
;

of the idolatrous Kafirs ', almost bordering on Peshawar,

'

are daily becoming narrower. To the south and eastward

of Kashmir, Muhammadanism has also had recent triumphs,
and in every large city and in every Musalman principality and gene-
rally per-
in India there is reason to believe that the religion of the
haps in
Arabian prophet is gradually gaining ground. In the towns and
Himalayas to the eastward of Kishtwar, the Rajput con- cities.
Lamaic
querors have not carried Brahmanism beyond the lower Buddhism
valleys and into the wilder glens, occupied by the ignorant progressive
;
in some
worshippers of local divinities, the Buddhists have recently parts of
the Hima-
begun to advance, and Lamas of the red or yellow sects layas.
are now found where none had set foot a generation ago. Brahman-
Among the forest tribes of India the influence of the Brah- ism like-
wise
mans continues to increase, and every Bhil, or Gond, or extending
Kohli who acquires power or money, desires to be thought in the
C
 18 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS ch.\p. i

snider a Hindu rather than a ' Mlechlia ' ^ but, on the other hand,
;

the Indian laity has, during the last few hundred years,
Fh'^^^K^

B t th largety assumed to itself the functions of the priesthood,

peasantry and although Hinduism may lose no votaries, Gusains and
and me- secular Sadhs usurp the authority of Brahmans in the direc-
Cil3.IllCS
generally tion of the conscience." The Sikhs continue to make con-
are becom-
yerts, but chiefly within the limits of their dependent sway,
^ »/ i. %/ ^
in^ S6C6ci6rs
from Brah- for the colossal powcr of the English has arrested the pro-
manism. gress of their arms to the eastward, and has left the Jats of
the Jumna and Ganges to their old idolatry.

^ Half of the principality of Bhopal, in Central India, was founded

on usurpations from the Gonds, who appear to have migrated in force

towards the west about the middle of the seventeenth century, and
to have made themselves supreme in the valley of the Narbada about
Hoshangabad, in spite of the exertions of Aurangzeb, until an Afghan
adventurer attacked them on the decline of the empire, and completely
subdued them. The Afghan converted some of the vanquished to his
own faith, jiartly bj' force and partly by conferring Jagirs, partlj^ to
acquire merit and partly to soothe his conscience, and there are now
several families of Muhammadan Gonds in the possession of little
fiefs on either side of the Narbada. These men have more fully got
over the gross superstition of their race, than the Gonds who have
adopted Hinduism.
[2 The recent spread of the '
Marwari traders over the centre, and
'

to the south and east of India, may also be noticed, for the greater
number of them are Jains. These traffickers of Rajputana seem to
have received a strong mercantile impulse about a hundred years
ago, and their spirit of enterprise gives them at the same time a social
and a religious influence, so that many families of Vaishnava or
Brahmanical traders either incline to Jainism or openly embrace
that faith. Jainism is thus extending in India, and conversion is
rendered the more easy by the similarity of origin and occupation of
these various traders, and by the Quietism and other characteristics
common to the Jains and Vaishnavas. J. D. C]—
 —

. CHAPTER II

OLD INDIAN CREEDS, MODERN REF0R3IS, AND

THE TEACHING OF NANAK, UP TO 1539 a.d.
The Buddhists —
The Brahmaus and Kshattriyas —
Reaction of
—
Buddhism on victorious Brahmanism Latitude of orthodoxy
—
Shankar Acharj and Saivism Monastic orders Ramanuj and —
—
Vaishnavism The Doctrine of Maya —
The Muhammadan
' '

—
conquest The reciprocal action of Brahmanism and Muhamma-
—
danism The successive innovations of Ramanand, C4orakhnath,
—
Kabir, Chaitan, and Vallabh The reformation of Nanak.

The condition of India from remote ages to the present India and
tinie, is an episode in the history of the world inferior only i*^ sue-
to the fall ofRome and the establishment of Christianity, masters.
At an early period the Asiatic peninsula, from the southern
'
Ghats to the Himalayan mountains, would seem to have
'

been colonized by a warlike subdivision of the Caucasian

race, which spoke a language similar to the ancient Medic
and Persian, and which here and there, near the greater
rivers and the shores of the ocean, formed orderly commu-
nities a religion resembling the worship of rp, „
professing ,

Babylon and Egj^pt —

a creed which, under varying types, dhisls.
is still the solace of a large portion of mankind. Arya- '

varta ', the land of good men or believers, comprised Delhi

and Lahore, Gujrat and Bengal but it was on the banks The Brah-
;

of the Upper Ganges that the latent energies of the people "i^^^^ and
first received an impulse, which produced the peculiar triyas.

civilization of the Brahmans, and made a few heroic

families supreme from Arachosia to the Golden Chersonese.
India illustrates the power of Darius and the greatness of
Alexander, the philosophy of Greece and the religion of
China ;and while Rome was contending with Germans
and.Cimbri, and yielding to Goths and Huns, the Hindus
absorbed, almost without an effort, swarms of Scythic
c2
 —

20 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ii

barbarians they dispersed Saeae/ they enrolled Getae

:

among their tribes,^ and they made others

most famous
serve as their valiant defenders .^ India afterwards checked
the victorious career of Islam, but she could not wholly
resist the fierce enthusiasm of the Turkoman hordes she ;

The became one of the most splendid of Muhammadan empires,

madans ^^^ *^^^ character of the Hindu mind has been permanently
altered by the genius of the Arabian prophet. The well-
being of India's industrious millions is now linked with the
The Chris- fate of the foremost nation of the West, and the representa-
tives of Judaean faith and Roman polity will long Avage
a war of principles with the speculative Brahman, the
authoritative Mulla, and the hardy believing Sikh.
Brahinan- r^j^^
ism Strug-
Brahmans and their valiant Kshattriyas had a long
'' *'

gling^^^th and arduous contest with that ancient faith of India,

Buddhism ^yhich, as successively modified, became famous as Bud-
becomes *'
• 1
elaborated, dliism.* "Wlien Manu wrote, perhaps nine centuries before
J.

1 Vikramajitderivedhistitleof Sakarifromhisexploitsagainstthe

Sacae (Sakae). The race is still perhaps preserved pure in the wilds of
Tartary, between Yarkand and the Mansarawar Lake, where the
Sotpos called Kelmaks (Calmucs) by the Muhammadans, continue
to be dreaded by the people of Tibet. [A dread effectually removed
by the systematic conquest of Eastern Turkestan by the Chinese
during the nineteenth century. Ed.]
2 The Getae are referred to as the same with the ancient Chinese

Yuechi and the modern Jats, but their identity is as j'ct, perhaps,
rather a reasonable conclusion than a logical or critical deduction.
^ The four Agnikula tribes of Kshattriyas or Rajputs are here

alluded to, viz. the Chohans, Solunkees, Powars (or Prumars), and
the Purihars. The unnamed progenitors of these races seem clearly
to have been invaders who sided with the Brahmans in their warfare,
partly with the old Kshattriyas, partly with increasing schismatics,
and partly with invading Graeco-Bactrians, and whose warlike merit,
as well as timely aid and subsequent conformitj^, got them enrolled
as fireborn ', in contradistinction to the solar and lunar families.
'

The Agnikulas are now mainly found in the tract of country extending
from Ujjain to Rewah near Benares, and Mount Abu is asserted to be
the place of their miraculous birth or appearance. Vikramajit, the
champion of Brahmanism, was a Powar according to the common
accounts.
* The relative priority of Brahmanism and Buddhism continues

to be argued and disputed among the learned. The wide diffusion at

one period of Buddhism in India is as certain as the later predominance
of Brahmanism, but the truth seems to be that they are of indepen-
dent origin, and that they existed for a long time contemporaneously ;
CHAP. II OLD INDIAN CREEDS 21

Christ, when Alexander conquered, and even seven hundred its

achieve-
years afterwards, when the obscure Fahian travelled and
-'
mentsand
^^'
the former chiefly in the south-west, and the latter about Oudh and ^^^^^^
Tirhut. It is not, however, necessary to suppose, with M. Burnouf,
that Buddhism is purely and originally Indian {Introduction a
VHistoire du Buddhisme Indien, Avertissement i), notwithstanding
the probable derivation of the name from the Sanskrit Buddhi ',
'

intelligence or from the bo or bodee ', i. e. the ficus religiosa or

;
' ' '

peepul tree. The Brahmanical genius gradually received a develop-

ment which rendered the Hindus proper supreme throughout the
land but their superior learning became of help to their antagonists,
;

and Gautama, himself a Brahman or a Kshattriya, would appear to

have taken advantage of the knowledge of the hierarchy to give a
purer and more scientific form to Buddhism, and thus to become its
great apostle in succeeding times. [The whole subject, however, is
complicated in the extreme ; and it is rendered the more so by the
probability that the same Gautama is the author of the popular
'
Nyaya ' system of Philosophy, and that Buddha himself is one form
of the favourite divinity Vishnu : although the orthodox explain
that circumstance by saying the Preserving Power assumed an hereti-
cal character to delude Deodas, king of Benares, who bj^ his virtues
and authority endangered the supremacy of the Gods. (Cf Kennedy,
.

Bes. Hind. Mytjiol, p. 248, &c.)—J. D. C] Of the modern faiths,

Saivism perhaps most correctly represents the original Vedic worship,
(Cf. Wilson, As. Res., x\ai. 171, &c., and Vislimi Piirdn, preface, Ixiv.)
Jainism and Vaishnavism are the resultants of the two beliefs in a
Buddhist and Brahmanical dress respectively, while Saktism still
vividly illustrates the old superstition of the masses of the people,
whose ignorant minds quailed before the dread goddess of famine,
pestilence, and death. The most important monument of Buddhism
now remaining is perhaps the ' tope or hemisphere, near Bhilsa in
'

Central India, which it is a disgrace to the English that they partially

destroyed a generation ago in search of imaginary chambers or vessels
containing relics, and are only now about to have delineated, and so
made available to the learned. The numerous bas-reliefs of its singu-
lar stone enclosure still vividly represent the manners as well as the
belief of the India of Asoka, and show that the Tree, the Sun, and the
—
Stupa (or ' tope ') itself apparently the type of Meru or the Central
—
Mount of the World were, along with the impersonated Buddha,
the principal objects of adoration at that period, and that the country
was then partly peopled by a race of men wearing high caps and short
tunics, so different from the ordinary dress of Hindus. [It is now
usually accepted that by about 600 b. c. Brahmanism was generally
the chief religion of India, and the probable date of the birth of
Gautama (567 B.C.) makes Buddhism the younger of the two religions.
It seems hardly necessary to add that, since the author wrote the
above note, our knowledge of Buddhism in India has been enormously
increased by the careful researches of the Archaeological Department,
 —

22 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, n

studied, there were kingdoms ruled by others than Aryas ' '
;

and ceremonial Buddhism, with its indistinct apprehensions

of a divinity, had more votaries than the monotheism of
the Vedas, which admitted no similitude more gross than
fire, or air, or the burning sun.^ During this period the
genius of Hinduism became fully developed, and the Brah-
mans rivalled the Greeks in the greatness and the variety
of their triumphs. Epic poems show high imaginative and
descriptive powers, and the Ramayana and Mahabharata ^
still move the feelings and affect the character of the

These liave resulted in the discovery of a very large number of Buddhist

—
remains which in great contrast to the iconoclastic vandalism men-
—
tioned by the author have been carefully preserved. Collections of
—
such remains may be seen in many museums in India there is one
—
typical collection in the Central Museum in Lahore and to such
collections and the various descriptive works on the subject the
reader is referred. Ed.]
^ '
There seem to have been no images and no visible types of the
objects of worship,' says Mr. Elphinstone, in his most useful and judi-
cious History (i. 73), quoting Professor Wilson, Oxford Lectures, and
the Vishnu Purdn ; wliile, with regard to fire, it is to be remembered
that in the Old Testament, and even in the New, it is the principal
symbol of the Holy Spirit. (Strauss, Life of Jesus, 361.) The Vedas,
however, allude to personified energies and attributes, but the mono-
theism of the system is not more affected by the introduction of the
creating Brahma, the destroying Siva, and other minor powers, than
the omnipotence of Jehovah is interfered with by the hierarchies of
the Jewish heaven. Yet, in truth, much has to be learnt with regard
to the Vedas and Vedantism, notwithstanding the invaluable labours
of Colebrooke and others, and the useful commentary or interpreta-
tion of Ram Mohan Roy. (
Asiatic Researches, viii
; Transactions
Royal Asiatic Society, i and ii and Ram Mohan Roy on the Vedas.)
;

The translation of the Vedant Sarin Ward's Hindoos (ii. 175), and
the improved version of Dr. Roer {Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal,
February 1845, No. 108), may be consulted with advantage. If trans-
lators would repeat the Sanskrit terms with expanded meanings in
English, instead of using terms of the scholastic or modern systems
which seem to them to be equivalent, they would materially help
students to understand the real doctrine of the original speculators.
[2 These epics are rarely read in extensp by a modern generation,

owing to a lack of knowledge of Sanskrit and also to their enormous

length and the numerous later interpolations. A literal translation
in English of the Mahabharata was made by Mr. P. C. Roy in 1894.
But it is intolerably lengthy and, for a simple summary of this Indian
epic, the reader is referred to The Great War of India, by Thakur
—
Rejendra Singh, published in Allahabad in 1915. Ed.]
 — )

CHAP. II OLD INDIAN CREEDS 23

people. Mathematical science was so perfect, and astro-

nomical observation so complete, that the paths of the sun
and moon were accurately measured.^ The philosophy of
the learned few was, perhaps, for the first time, firmly
allied with the theology of the believing many, and Brah-
manism laid down as articles of faith, the unity of God,
the creation of the world, the immortality of the soul, and
the responsibility of man. The remote dwellers upon the
Ganges distinctly made known that future life about which
Moses is silent or obscure, ^ and that unity and omnipotence
of the Creator which were unknown to the polytheism of
the Greek and Roman multitude,^ and to the dualism of the

^ The so-called solar year in common use in India takes no account

of the precession of the equinoxes, but, as a sidereal year, it is almost
exact. The revolution of the points of intersection of the ecliptic
and equator nevertheless appears to have been long known to the
Hindus, and some of their epochs were obviously based on the
calculated period of the phenomenon. (Cf . Mr. Davis's paper in the
As. Res., vol. ii, and Bentley's Astronomy of the Hindoos, pp. 2-6,
88.)
2 One is almost more willing to admit that, in effect, the Jews

generally held Jehovah to be their God only, or a limitary divinity,

than that the wise and instructed Moses (whom Strabo held to be an
Egyptian priest and a Pantheist, as quoted in Volney's Ruins, chap,
xxii, § 9 note) could believe in the perishable nature of the soul ; but
the critical Sadducees nevertheless so interpreted their prophet,
although the Egyptians his masters were held by Herodotus {Euterpe,
cxxiii) to be the first who defended the undying nature of the spirit
of man. Socrates and Plato, with all their longings, could only feel
assured that the soul had more of immortality than aught else.
(Phaedo, Sydenham and Taylor's translation, iv. 324.)
3 The unknown God of the Athenians, Fate, the avenging Nemesis,

and other powers independent of Zeus or Jupiter, show the dissatis-

faction of the ancient mind with the ordinary mythology [yet the
unity of the Godhead was the doctrine of the obscure Orpheus, of
Plato the transcendentalist, and of such practical men as Cicero and
Socrates. —
J. D. C] and unless modern criticism has detected inter-
;

polations, perhaps both Bishop Thirlwall {History of Greece, i. 192, &c.

and Mr. Grote {History of Greece, i. 3 and chap, xvi, part i generally)
have too much disregarded the sense which the pious and admiring
Cowper gave to Homer's occasional mode of using theos '. {Odyssey,
'

xiv with Cowper's note, p. 48, vol. ii, edition of 1802.) [Cf. also the
care of the Greek or the Roman in addressing a deity, and in particular
Zeus or Jupiter, in his particular capacity most suited to the
'
'

occasion, Ed.]
 ^
;

24 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, n

Mithraic legislators while Vyasa perhaps surpassed Plato
;

in keeping the people tremblingly alive to the punishment

which awaited evil deeds. ^ The immortality of the soul was
indeed encumbered with the doctrine of transmigration,
the active virtues were perhaps deemed less meritorious
than bodily austerities and mental abstraction,^ and the
Brahman polity was soon fatally clogged with the dogma

1 Ritter {Ancient Philosophy, ii. 387) labours to excuse Plato for

his inattei tion to the subject of duty or obligation, on the plea that
' '

the Socratic system did not admit of necessity or of a compulsory

principle. [Nevertheless, Socrates, as represented by Xenophon, may
be considered to have held Worship of the Gods to be a Duty of Man.
—
(See the Memorabilia, b. iv, c. iii, iv, vi, and vii.) J. D. C] Bacon
lies open in an inferior degree to the same objection as Plato, of under-
rating the importance of moral philosophy (cf Hallam's Literature of
.

Europe, iii. 191, and Macaulay, Edinburgh Review, July 1837, p. 84)
and yet a strong sense of duty towards God is essential to the well-
being of society, if not to systems of transcendental or material
philosophy. In the East, however, philosophy has always been more
closely allied to theology than in civilized Greece or modern Europe.
Plato, indeed, arraigns the dead and torments the souls of the wicked
(see for instance Gorgias, Sydenham and Taylor's translation, iv. 451),
and practically among men the doctrine may be effective or sufficient
but with the Greek piety is simply justice towards the gods, and a
matter of choice or pleasure on the part of the imperishable human
spirit. (Of. Schleiermacher's Introductions to Plato's Dialogues, p. 181,
&c., and Ritter's Ancient Philosophy, ii. 374.) Nor can it be dis-
tinctly said that Vyasa taught the principle of grateful righteousness
as now understood to be binding on men, and to constitute their duty
and obligation and probably the Indian may merely have the advan-
;

tage of being a theological teacher instead of an ontological speculator.

2 The more zealous Christian writers on Hindu theology seize upon

the doctrine of transmigration as limiting the freedom of the will and

the degree of isolation of the soul, when thus successively manifested
in the world clouded with the imperfection of previous appearances.
A man, it is said, thus becomes subject to the Fate of the Greeks and
Romans. {Ci.y^axAonThe Hindoos,ii; Introductory Remarks, xxviii,
&c. ) But the soul so weighed down with the sins of a former existence
does not seem to differ in an ethical point of view, and as regards our
conduct in the present life, from the soul encumbered with the sin of
Adam. Philosophically, the notions seem equally but modes of
accounting for the existence of evil, or for its sway over men. [See
also note 3, p. 44. —
J. D. C.] [Socrates, who inculcated every active
virtue, nevertheless admitted, that he who wanted least was nearest
'

to the Divinity ; for to need nothing was the attribute of God.'

(Memorabilia, b. 1, c. vi, s. 10.) J. D. C.]
 — ^ ;

CHAP. II OLD INDIAN CREEDS 25

of inequalityamong men, and with the institution of a body

of hereditary guardians of religion.
The Brahmans succeeded in expelling the Buddhist faith Brahman-
from the Indian peninsula, and when Shankar Acharj ism vic-
torious
journeyed and disputed nine hundred years after Christ, over
a few learned men, and the inoffensive half-conforming Buddhism.
Jains, 2 alone remained to represent the Mlechhas ', the '

barbarians or gentiles of Hinduism.

'
The Kshattriyas
'

had acquired kingdoms, heathen princes had been subdued

or converted, and the Brahmans, who ever denounced as
prophets rather than preached as missionaries, were power-
less in foreign countries if no royal inquirer welcomed
them, or no ambitious warrior followed them. Hinduism
if Loses its
unity and
had attained its limits, and the victory brought with it the vigour.
seeds of decay. The mixture with strangers led to a partial
adoption of their usages, and man's desire for sympathy
ever prompted him to seek an object of worship more

^ See Appendix IV, on Caste '. '

2 The modern Jains frankly admit the connexion of their faith with
that of the Buddhists, and the Jaini traders of Eastern Malwa claim
the ancient tope near Bhilsa, as virtually a temple of their own
' '

creed. The date of the general recognition of the Jains as a sect is

doubtful, but it is curious that the Kosh ', or vocabulary of Aniar
'

Singh, does not contain the word Jain, although the word Jin is ' '

enumerated among the names of Mayadevi, the regent goddess of the

material universe, and the mother of Gautama, the Buddhist patri-
arch or prophet. In the Bhagavad, again, Baudh is represented as
the son of Jin, and as about to appear in Kikat Des, or Bihar. (See
Colonel Kennedy, Bes. Hind. Mythol., pp. 243-50.) Amar Singh, the
author of the Sanski'it Kosa ', or vocabulary, was himself a Buddhist
'

and he is differently stated to have flourished in the first century

before, or in the fifth after, Christ (Colonel Kennedy, as above, pp. 127,
128), but in Malwa he is traditionally said to have been confuted in
argument by Shankar Acharj, which would place him in the eighth or
—
ninth century of our era. J. D. C] [' Jainism is professed by a com-
paratively small sect, and it tends to shade off into ordinary Hindu-
ism. Many Jains employ Brahmans in their domestic worship,
venerate the cow, and often worship in Hindu temples. Jainism and
Buddhism have much in common, and up to recent years Jainism was
believed to be an offshoot of Buddhism. It is now known that it
originated independently of, though at the same time as, Buddhism ;

—
that is, in the sixth century before Chi'ist.' Holderness, Peoples and
Problems of India. (See Stevenson, The Heart of Jainism. Oxford
University Press, 1915.) Ed.]
26 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ii

nearly allied to himself in nature than the invisible and

passionless divinity.^ The concession of a simple black
stone as a mark of direction to the senses,^ no longer
satisfied the hearts or understandings of the people, and
Shankar Acharj, who could silence the Buddha materialist,
and confute the infidel Charvak,^ was compelled to admit
^ Mr. Elphinstone {History of India, i. 189) observes that Rama
and Krishna, with their human feelings and congenial acts, attracted
more votaries than the gloomy Siva and I have somewhere noticed,
;

I think in the Edinburgh Eevieiv, the truth well enlarged upon, viz. that
the sufferings of Jesus materially aided the growth of Chi'istianity by
enlisting the sympathies of the multitude in favour of a crucified God.
The bitter remark of Xenophanes, that if oxen became religious their
gods wouJd be bovine in form, is indeed most true as expressive of a
general desire among men to make their divinities anthropomorphous.
(Grote, History of Greece, iv. 523, and Thirlwall, History, ii. 136.)
2 Hindu Saivism, or the worship of the Lingam, seems to represent

the compromise which the learned Brahmans made when they en-
deavoured to exalt and purify the superstition of the multitude, who
throughout India continue to this day to see the mark of the near
presence of the Divinity in everything. The Brahmans may thus
have taught the mere fetichist, that when regarding a simple black
stone, they should think of the invisible ruler of the universe and
;

they may have wished to leave the Buddhist image worshijipers

some point of direction for the senses. That the Lingam is typical of
reproductive energy seems wholly a notion of later times, and to be
confined to the few who ingeniously or perversely see recondite
meanings in ordinary similitudes. (Cf. Wilson, Vishnu Purcin,
preface, Ixiv [and Colonel Kennedy (Bes. Hind. Mythol. pp. 284, 308),
,

who distinctly says the Lingam and Youi are not held to be typical of
the destructive and reproductive powers and that there is nothing
;

in the Purans to sanction such an opinion. —

J. D. G.].) [The latter
part of the author's note, which begs the wTiole question of phallic
worship, is hardly in agreement with modern theory. Ed.] —
3 Professor Wilson (Asiatic Researches, xvi. 18) derives the title of
the Charvak school from a Muni or seer of that name but the
;

Brahmans, at least of Malwa, derive the distinctive name, both of

the teacher and of the system, from Charu, persuasive, excellent,
—
and VaJc, speech thus making the school simply the logical or
dialectic, or perhaps sopliistical, as it has become in fact. The
Charvakites are wholly materialist, and in deriving consciousness
from a particular aggregation or condition of the elements of the
body, they seem to have anticipated the physiologist, Dr. Lawrence,
who makes the brain to secrete thought as the liver secretes bile.
The system is also styled the Varhusputya, and the name of Vri-
haspatijthe orthodox Regent of the planet Jupiter, became connected
with Atheism, say the Hindus, owing to the jealousy with which the
CHAP. II OLD INDIAN CREEDS 27

the worship of Virtues and Powers, and to allow images, shankar

as well as formless types,
•"^ to be enshrined in temples.
^ The ^°^^^J,.
. methodizes
'
needed no longer to be addressed direct,
self-existent ' polytheism,
and the orthodox could pay his devotions to the Preserving gAP;^f^^
Vishnu, to the Destroying Siva, to the Regent of the Sun,
to Ganesh, the helper of men, or to the reproductive energy
of nature personified as woman, with every assurance that
his prayers would be heard, and his offerings accepted, by
the Supreme Being.^
The old Brahman worship had been domestic or solitary, Reaction of
and that of the Buddhists public or congregational the ;
Jj"
3^,^/^"^

Brahman ascetic separated himself from his fellows, but manism.

the Buddhist hermit became a coenobite, the member of
a community of devotees the Brahman reared a family
;

before he became an anchorite, but the Buddhist vowed

celibacy and renounced most of the pleasures of sense.
These customs of the vanquished had their effect upon the Shankar
conquerors, and Shankar Acharj, in his endeavour to estaWishes
strengthen orthodoxy, enacted the double part of St. Basil ascetic

and Pope Honorius.'^ He established a monastery of Brah- gj^es pre-

eminence
secondary or delegated powers of Heaven saw the degree of virtue to Saivism.
to which man was attaining bj' upright living and a contemplation
of the Divinity ; wherefore Vrihaspati descended to confound the
human understanding by diffusing error. (Cf. Wilson, As. lies., xvii.
308, and Troyer's Dabistdn, ii. 198, note.)
^ The five sects enumerated are still held to represent the most
orthodox varieties of Hinduism, [and of the eighteen Piu'ans, five
only give supremacy to one form of Divinity over others. (Colonel
Kennedy, Res. Hind. Mythol., pp. 203, 204.)—J. D. C]
2 All scholars and inquirers are deeply indebted to Professor Wilson

for the account he has given of the Hindu sects in the sixteenth and
seventeenth volumes of the Asiatic Researches. The works, indeed,
which are abstracted, are in the hands of many people in India,
particularly the Bhagat Mala (or History of the Saints) and its epi-
tomes but the advantage is great of being able to study the subject
;

with the aid of the notes of a deep scholar personally acquainted with
the country. It is only to be regretted that Professor Wilson has not
attempted to trace the progress of opinion or reform among sectaries :

but neither does such a project appear to have occurred to Mr. Ward,
in his elaborate and valuable but piecemeal volumes on the Hindus.
Muhsin Fani, who wrote the Dabistdn, has even less of sequence or of
argument, but the observations and views of an intelligent, although
garrulous and somewhat credulous, Muhammadan, who flourished
nearly two centuries ago, have nevertheless a peculiar value ; and
 —
28 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS
man he converted the soUtary Dandi ', with his
ascetics ;
'

staff into one of an order, a monk or friar,

and waterpot,
at once coenobitic and mendicant, who lived upon alms
and who practised chastity.^ The order was rendered still
further distinct by the choice of Siva as the truest type of
God, an example which was soon followed and, during ;

Ramanuj the eleventh century, Ramanuj established a fraternity of

establishes Brahmans, named
other
after himself, who adopted some refined
orders, rules of conduct, who saw
the Deity in Vishnu, and who
with degraded the Supreme Being by attributing to him form
Vishnu as
a tutelary and qualities.- A consequence of the institution of an
god, A. D. order or fraternity is the necessity of attention to its rules,
1000-1200.

Capt.Troyer's careful translation has nowrendered the book accessible

to the English public. [Colonel Kennedy, in his valuable Researches,
takes no notice of the modern reformers and he even says that the
:

Hindu religion has remained unchanged for three thousand years

(p. 192, &c.) meaning, however, it would seem, that the Unity of
;

the Godhead is still the doctrine of Philosophy, and that Brahma,

Vishnu, and Siva are still the principal divinities of Polytheism.
J. D. C]
1 Shankar Acharj was a Brahman of the south of India, and

according to Professor Wilson {As. Ees., xvii. 180), he flourished

during the eighth or ninth century but his date is doubtful, and if,
:

as is commonly said, Ramanuj was his discijjle and sister's son, he

perhaps lived a century or a century and a half later. He is believed
to have established four muths, or monasteries, or denominations,
headed by the four out of his ten instructed disciples, who faithfully
adhered to his views. The adherents of these four are specially
regarded as Dandis ', or, including the representatives of the six
'

heretical schools, the whole are called Dasnames '. (Cf. Wilson,
'

As. Res., xvii. 169, &c.)

2 Ramanuj is variously stated to have lived some time between

the beginning of the eleventh and the end of the twelfth century.
(Wilson, As. Res., xvi. 28, note.) In Central India he is understood
to have told his uncle that the path which he, Shankar Acharj, had
chosen, was not the right one and the nephew accordingly seceded
;

and established the first four sumprdaees ', or congregations, in

'

opposition to the four muths or orders of his teacher, and at the same
time chose Vishnu as the most suitable type of God. Ramanuj
styled his congregation that of Sri, or Lakshmi. The other three were
successively founded by, first, Madhav secondly, by Vishnu Swami
;

and his better-known follower Vallabh and thirdly, by Nimbharak

;

or Nimbhaditya. These, although all Vaishnavis, called their assem-

blies or schools respectively after Brahma, and Siva, and Sannakadik,
a son of Brahma. (Cf. Wilson, As. Res., xvi. 27, &c.)
 :

CHAP. II OLD INDIAN CREEDS 29

or to the injunctions of the spiritual superior.The person

of a Brahman had always beenheld sacred. It was believed
that a pious Buddhist could disengage his soul or attain
to divinity even in this world and when Shankar Acharj
;

rejected some of his chosen disciples for nonconformity or

disobedience, he contributed to centre the growing feelings
of reverence for the teacher solely upon a mortal man ;

and, in a short time, was considered that all things were

it Spiritual
teachers or
to be abandoned for the sake of the Guru ', and that to '

heads of
him were to be surrendered Tan, Man, Dhan ', or body,
'
orders arro-
gate infalli-
mind, and worldly wealth.^ Absolute submission to the
biHty.
spiritual master readily becomes a lively impression of the
divinity of his mission the inward evidences of grace are
;

too subtle for the understanding of the barbaric convert ;

fixed observances take the place of sentiment, and he

justifies his change of opinion by some material act of
devotion.'- But faith is the usual test of sincerity and
pledge of favour among the sectarians of peaceful and
instructed communities, and the reformers of India soon
began to require such a declaration of mystic belief and
reliance from the seekers of salvation.
Philosophic speculation had kept pace in diversity with Scepticism
and heresy
religious usage learning and wealth, and an extended increase.
:

intercourse with men, produced the ordinary tendency to-

wards scepticism, and six orthodox schools opposed six
heretical systems, and made devious attempts to acquire
a knowledge of God by logical deductions from the pheno-
mena of nature or of the human mind.^ They disputed
about the reality and the eternity of matter about con- ;

sciousness and understanding and about life and the soul,

;

1 Wilson, As Res., xvi. 90.

Cf.
2The reader will remember the fervent exclamation of Clovis when,
listening after a victory to the story of the passion and death of
Christ, he became a convert to the faith of his wife, and a disciple of
the ancient pastor of Rheims Had I been present at the head of
:
'

my valiant Franks, I would have revenged his injuries.' (Gibbon,

Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vi. 302.) The Muhammadans
tell precisely the same story of Taimiir and Husain the son of Ali
'
I would have hurried ', said the conquering Tartar, from remotest '

India, to have prevented or avenged the death of the martyred

Imam.' 3 ggg Appendix V.
 30 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ii

as separate from, or as identical with one another and with

God. The results were, the atheism of some, the belief of
others in a limitary deity, and the more general reception
The dogma of the doctrine of '
Maj^a or illusion, which allows sensa-
'

of Maya ^.j^j^ ^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^^ guide on this side of the grave, but sees
receives a ° & '

moral nothing certain or enduring in the constitution of the

apphca-
material world ; a doctrine eagerly adopted by the subse-
quent reformers, who gave it a moral or religious appli-
cation.^
General de- Such was the state of the Hindu faith or polity a thousand
BraLiian-
y^^^^ after Christ. The fitness of the original system for
ism. general adoption had been materially impaired by the
gradual recognition of a distinction of race the Brahmans
;

had^solated themselves from the soldiers and the peasants,

and they destroyed their own unanimity by admitting
a virtual plurality of gods, and by giving assemblies of
ascetics a pre-eminence over communities of pious house-
holders. In a short time the gods were regarded as rivals,
and their worshippers as antagonists. The rude KshattriyiJ,
warrior became a politic chief, with objects of his own, and
ready to prefer one hierarchy or one divinity to another ;

while the very latitude of the orthodox worship led

the multitude to doubt the sincerity and the merits of
a body of ministers who no longer harmonized among
themselves.
Early Arab A new people now entered the country, and a new element
incursions
into India
hastened the decline of corrupted ^
Hinduism. India had
but little but little felt the earlier incursions of the Arabs during the
felt.
j]jj,g|. g^j^jj second centuries of the Hijri
' 'and when the
;

Abbasides became caliphs, they were more anxious to con-

solidate their vast empire, already weakened by the separa-
tion of Spain, than to waste their means on distant con-
quests which rebellion might soon dismember. The Arab,
moreover, was no longer a single-minded enthusiastic
soldier, but a selfish and turbulent viceroy the original
;

• impulse given by the prophet to his countrymen had

achieved its limit of conquest, and Muhammadanism re-
quired a new infusion of faith and hardihood to enable it
to triumph over the heathens of Delhi and the Christians
^ See Appendix VI.
CHAP. II MODERN REFORMS 31

of Constantinople. This awakening spirit was acquired Muham-

partly from the mountain Kurds, but chiefly from the madanisiii
receives a
pastoral Turkomans, who, from causes imperfectly under- fresh im-
stood, were once more impelled upon the fertile and wealthy pulse on
the con-
south. During the ninth century, these warlike shepherds version of
began to establish themselves from the Indus to the Black the Turko-
mans.
Sea, and they oppressed and protected the empire of Mu-
hammad, as Goths and Vandals and their own progenitors
had before entered and defended and absorbed the dominions
of Augustus and Trajan. Tughril Beg and Saladin are the
counterparts of Stilicho and Theodorie, and the Mullas and
Saiyids of Bagdad were as anxious for the conversion of
unbelievers as the bishops and deacons of the Greek and
Latin Churches. The migratory barbarians who fell upon
Europe became and those who plundered Asia
Christians,
adopted, with perhaps greater ease and ardour, the more
congenial creed of Islam. Their vague unstable notions
yielded to the authority of learning and civilization, and
to the majesty of one omnipotent God, and thus armed with
religion as a motive, and empire as an object, the Turks
precipitated themselvesupon India and upon the diminished
provinces of the Byzantine Caesars.
Muhammad crossed the Indus in the year 1001, not long Muham-
after Shankar Acharj had vainly endeavoured to arrest the mad in-
vades
progress of heresy, and to give .limits to the diversity of India,
faith which perplexed his countrymen. The Punjab was A. D. 1001.
permanently occupied, and before the sultan's death,
Kanauj and Gujrat had been overrun. The Ghaznivides
were expelled by the Ghorls about 1183. Bengal was con-
quered by these usurpers, and when the Ibak Turks sup-
planted them in 1206, Hindustan became a separate portion Hindustan
of the Muhammadan world. During the next hundred and becomes a
separate
fifty years the whole of India was subdued a continued portion of
;

influx of Mughals in the thirteenth, and of Afghans in the the Mu-

hammadan
fifteenth century, added to their successive authority as world
rulers, gradually changed the language and the thoughts imder the
Ibaks,
of the vanquished. The Khiljis and Tughlaks and Lodls A. D. 1206.
were too rude to be inquisitorial bigots they had a lawful
;

option in tribute, and taxation was more profitable, if less

meritorious, than conversion. They adopted as their own
 32 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. II

the country which they had conquered. Numerous mosques

attest their piety and munificence, and the introduction of
the solar instead of the intractable lunar year, proves their
attention to ordinary business and the wants of agriculture.^
And the The Muhammadans became Indianized and in the sixteenth
;
conquerors
become century the great Akbar conceived the design of establishing
Indianized. a national government or monarchy which should unite the

elements of the two systems but political obedience does

:

not always denote social amalgamation, and the reaction

upon the Muslim mind perhaps increased that intolerance
of Aurangzeb which hastened the ruin of the dynasty.
Action and The influence of a new people, who equalled or surpassed
reaction of
Muham- Kshattriyas in valour, who despised the sanctity of Brah-
madanism mans, and who authoritatively proclaimed the unity of God
and Brah-
1nanism.
and his abhorrence of images, began gradually to operate on
the minds of the multitudes of India, and recalled even the
learned to the simple tenets of the Vedas, which Shankar
Acharj had disregarded. The operation was necessarily
slow, for the imposing system of powers and emanations
had been adapted with much industry to the Jocal or pecu-
liar divinities of tribes and races, and in the lapse of ages
the legislation of Manu had become closely interwoven with
the thoughts and habits of the people. Nor did the proud
distinctions of caste and the reverence shown to Brahmans
fail to attract the notice and the admiration of the barbarous

1 The solar, i. e. really sidereal year, called the

'
Shabur San ', or
vulgarly the Sur San ', that is, the year of (Arabic) months, was
'

apparently introduced into the Deccan by Tughlak Shah towards the

middle of the fourteenth century of Christ, or between 1341 and 1344,
and it is still used by the Marathas in all their more important docu-
ments, the dates being inserted in Arabic words written in Hindi
(Marathi) characters. (Cf. Prinsep's Useful Tables, ii. 30, who refers
to a Report by Lieut. -Colonel Jervis, on Weights and Measures.) The
other Fasli ', or harvest years of other parts of India, were not
' '
'

introduced until the reigns of Akbar and Shah Jahan, and they
mostly continue to this day to be used, even by the English, in revenue
accounts. The commencement of each might, without much violence,
be adapted to the 1st of July of any year of the Christian era, and the
Muhammadans and Hindus could at the same time retain, the former
the Hijri, and the latter the Shak (Saka) and Sambat names of the
months respectively. No greater degree of uniformity or simplicity
is required, and the general predominance of the English would
render a measure so obviously advantageous of easy introduction.
CHAP. II modf:rn reforms :3;j

victors. Shaikhs and Saiyids had an innate hohness assigned

to them, and IMughals and Pathans copied the exclusiveness
of Rajputs. New superstition also emulated old credulity.
'
Pirs and ' Shahlds ', saints and martyrs, equalled Krishna
'

and Bhairon in the number of their miracles, and the

Muhammadans almost forgot the unity of God in the
multitude of intercessors whose aid they implored. Thus The popu-
custom jarred with custom, and opinion with opinion, and ij'/^spttlu.l.
while the few always fell back with confidence upon their
revelations, the Koran and Vedas, the public mind became
agitated, and found no sure resting-place with Brahmans or
^luUas, with INIahadev or Muhammad.^
1 Gibbon has shown {History, ii. 356) how the scepticism of learned
Greeks and Romans proved favourable growth of Christianity,
to the
and a writer in the Quarterly Review (for June 1846, p. 116) makes
some just observations on the same subject. The cause of the
scepticism is not perhaps sufficiently attributed to the mixture of
the Eastern and Western superstitions, which took place after the
conquests of Alexander, and during the supremacy of Rome.
Similarly, the influence of Muhammadan learning and civilization
in moulding the European mind seems to be underrated in the present
day, although Hallam {Literature of Europe, i. 90, 91, 149, 150, 157,
158, 189, 190) admits our obligations in physical, and even in mental
science and a representative of Oxford, the critical yet fanciful
;

William Gray {Sketch of English Prose Literature, pp. 22, 37), not only
admires the fictions of the East, but confesses their beneficial effect
on the Gothic genius. The Arabs, indeed, were the preservers and
diffusers of that science or knowledge which was brought forth in
Egypt or India, which was reduced to order in Greece and Rome, and
which has been so greatly extended in particular directions by the
moderns of the West. The pre-eminence of the iluhammadan over
the Christian mind was long conspicuous in the metaphysics of the
schoolmen, and it is still apparent in the administrative system of
Spain, in the common terms of astronomical and medicinal science,
and in the popular songs of feudal Europe, wliich ever refer to the
Arabian prophet and to Turks and Saracens, or expatiate on the
actions of the Cid, a Christian hero with a Musalman title.
Whewell {History of Inductive Sciences, i. 22, 276), in demonstrating
that the Arabs did very little, if aught, to advance exact science,
physical or metaphysical, and in likening them to the servant who
had the talent but put it not to use, might yet have excused them on
the plea that the genius of the people was directed to the propagation
of religious truth —
to subjecting the Evil Principle to the Good in
Persia, to restoring Monotheism in India, and to the subversion of
gross idolatry in regions of Africa still untrodden by Europeans.
With this view of the English Professor may be contrasted the opinion
D
 ; —

34 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ii

Rumanand The first was the institution, about

result of the conflict
establishes ^j^g Q^d Qf fourteenth century, of a comprehensive sect
^j^g

hensive by Ramanand of Benares, a follower of the tenets of

sect at Be- Ranianuj. Unity of faith or of worship had already been
about destroyed, and the conquest of the country by foreigners
A. D. 1400 ; diminished unity of action among the ministers of religion.
Learning had likcAvise declined, and poetic fancy and family
tradition were allowed to modify the ancient legends of the
'
Purans or chronicles, and to usurp the authority of the
'

and Intro- Vedas.^ The heroic Rama was made the object of devotion
i'i^!^;^®™'
worship
to this new sect of the ^Middle Ganges, » and as the doctrine
'

but main- ^^ the innate superiority of Brahmans and Kshattriyas had

tains the been rudely shaken by the Muhammadan ascendancy, Ra-
t?ue*be-
'^
nianand seized upon the idea of man's equality before God.
hevers be- He instituted no nice distinctive observances, he admitted
fore God.
all classes of people as his disciples, and he declared that the
true votary was raised above mere social forms, and became
free or liberated.^ During the same century the learned

of Humboldt, who oniphatically says that the Ai-abs are to be re-

garded as the pi'oper founders of the physical sciences, in the sense
which we are now accustomed to attach to the term. (Kosmos,
Sabine's trans., ii. 212.)
^ Modern criticism is not disposed to allow an ancient date to the

Purans, and doubtless the interpolations are both numerous and

recent, just as the ordinary copies of the rhapsodies of the Rajput
Bhat, or Bard, Chand, contain allusions to dynasties and events
subsequent to Pirtlii Raj and Mahmud. The difficulty lies in separa-
ting the old from the new, and jierhaps also objectors have too much
lost sight of the circumstance that the criticized and less corrupted
Ramayana and Mahabharata are only the chief of the Purans. They
seem needlessly inclined to reject entirely the authority or authenticity
of the conventional Eighteen Chronicles, merely because eulogiums
on modern families have been introduced by successive flatterers.
Nevertheless, the Purans must rather be held to illustrate modes of
thought, than to describe historical events with accuracy. [Colonel
H
Kennedy {Bes. ind. Mythol.,j)Y>. 130, 15.3, &c.) regards them mainlj'
as complementary to the Vedas, explaining religious anci moral
doctrines, and containing disciuisitions concerning the illusive nature
of the universe, and not as in any way intended to be historical.
J. D. C]
2 ii. 179, and Wilson, As. Res., xvi. 36, &c.
Cf. Dabistan, Professor
Wilson remarks (ibid., p. 44, and also xvii. 183), that the sects of
Shankar Acharj and Ramanuj included Brahmans only, and indeed
chiefly men of learning of that race. The followers of Ramanand,
 — ;

CHAP. II MODERN REFORMS

enthusiast Goraklinath gave popularity, especially in the Gorakh-
Punjab, to the doctrine of the Yog ', which belonged more nath estab-
'

lishes a
jjroperly as a theory or practice to the Buddhist faitli, but sect in the
which was equally adopted as a philosophic dogma by the Punjab,
followers of Vyasa and of Sakya. It was, however, held
that in this Kalyug ', or iron age, fallen man was unequal and main-
^

to so great a penance, or to the attainment of complete tains the

equalizing
beatitude but Gorakli taught that intense mental ab- effect of
;

straction would etherialize the body of the most lowly, and religious
penance
gradually unite his spirit with the all-pervading soul of the
world. He chose Siva as the deity who would thus bless but causes
further
the austere perseverance of his votaries of whatever caste diversity ;

and, not content with the ordinary frontal marks of sects by adopt-
Siva as
and persuasions, he distinguished his disciples by boring ing the type of
their ears, whence they are familiarly known as the Kan- (iod. '

phata ', or ear-torn Jogis.^

or the Vaishnavas, were long violently opposed to the Saivic denomi-
nations ; so much so, according to tradition, that they would not,
on any account, cross the Narbada river, which is held to be pecu-
liarly sacred to Mahadev or Mahesh, but would rather, in performing
a journey, go round by its sources.
Among the people of Central India there is a general persuasion
that the Narbada will one day take the place of the Ganges as the
most holy of streams but the origin of the feeling is not clea'-, as
;

neither is the fact of the consecration of the river to Siva. At Mahe-

shwar, indeed, there is a whirlpool, which, by rounding and polishing
fallen stones, rudely shapes them into resemblances of a Lingam,
and which are as fertile a source of profit to the resident priests as
are the Vaishnava fossil ammonites of a particular part of the
Himalayas, The labours of the whirlpool likewise diffuse a sanctitude
over all the stones of the rocky channel, as expressed in the vernacular
sentence, Rehwa ke kunkur sub sunkur suman,' i. e. each stone of
'

the Narbada (Rehwa) is divine, or equal to Siva.

Maheshwar was the seat of Sahsar Bahu, or of the hundred-handed
Kshattriya king, who was slain by Paras Ram, of the not very far
distant town of Niraawar, opposite Hindia ; a probable occurrence,
which was soon made the type, or the cause, of the destruction of the
ancient warrior race by the Brahmans. The same is declared by the
Siva Puran. (Colonel Kennedy, Res. Hind. Mythol., p. 309, note.)
J. D. C]
Cf. Wilson {As. Res., xvii. 183, &c.) and the Dabistan (Troyer's
^

translation, i. 123, &c.). In the latter, Muhsin Fani shows some

points of conformity between the Jogis and the Muhammadans,
With regard to Yog, in a scientific point of view, it may be observed
that it corresponds with the state of abstraction or self-consciousness
d8
 36 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ii

The Vedas A step was thus made, and

faith and abandonment of
and l^oran
^j^g were held to abrogate the distinctions
pleasures of life
"

Kabir, a of race which had taken so firm a hold on the pride and
disciple of
vanity of the rich and powerful. In the next generation,
nand, or about the year 1450, the mysterious weaver Kablr, a
^ " disciple of Ramfmand, assailed at once the worship of idols,
?i°n-
the authority of the Koi'an and Shastras, and the exclusive
and the use of a learned language. He addressed Muhammadans as
mother
tongue of
^^,gjj ^^ Hindus, he urged
t>'
them to call upon
f him, the'
in-
the people visible Kablr, and to strive continually after inward pinity.
iised as an ^^
instru-
personified creation or the world as
^ Maya ', or as '

ment. woman, prolific of deceit and illusion, and thus denounced

But asce- man's weakness or his proneness to evil. Practically Kablr
upheld^
*
admitted outward conformity, and leant towards Rama or
Vishnu as the most perfect type of God. Like his prede-
cessors, he erringly gave shape and attributes to the divinity,
and he further limited the application of his doctrines of
reform, by declaring retirement from the world to be de-
sirable, and the Sadh ', or pure or perfect man, the passive
'

or inoffensive votary, to be the living resemblance of the

which raised the soul above mortalitj' or chance, and enabled it to

apprehend the true and to grasp Plato's idea ', or archical form
' ' '

of the world, and that neither Indians nor Greeks considered man
capable, in his present imperfect condition, of attaining to such a
. degree of union with God or knowledge of the true '. (Cf. Ritter,
' ' '

Ancient Philosophy, Morrison's translation, ii. 207, .334—6, and Wilson,

As. Bes., xvii. 185.) Were it necessary to pursue the correspondence
firrther, it would be found that Plato's whole system is almost identi-
cal, in its rudiraental characteristics, with the schemes of Kapil and
Patanjal jointly thus, God and matter are in both eternal ; Mahat,
:

or intelligence, or the informing spirit of the world, is the same with

vov.f or logos, and so on. With both God, that is Poorsh in the one ' '

and the Supreme God in the other, woiUd seem to be separate from
the world as appreciable by man. It may further be observed that
the Sankhya system is divided into two schools, independent of that'
of Patanjal, the first of which regards Poorsh simply as life, depend-
' '

ing for activity upon adri.sht ', chance or fate, while the second holds
'

the term to denote an active and provident ruler, and gives to vitality
a distinct existence. The school of Patanjal differs from this latter,
principally in its terminology and in the mode (Yog) laid down for
—
attaining bliss one of the four subdivisions of which mode, viz.
that of stopping the breath, is allowed to be the doctrine of Gorakh,
but is declared to have been followed of old ))y Markand, in a manner
more agreeable to the Vedas, than the practice of the recent Reformer.
 ;

CHAP. II MODERN REFORMS 37

Almighty. The views, however, of Kabir are not very

distinctly laid down or clearly understood but the latitude
;

of usage which he sanctioned, and his employment of a

spoken dialect, have rendered his writings extensively
popular among the lower orders of India. "^

In the beginning of the sixteenth century the reforms of Chaitan

preaches
Ramanand were introduced into Bengal by Chaitan, a religious
Brahman of Nadia. He converted some Muhammadans, reform ia
Bengal,
and admitted all classes as members of his sect. He insisted A. D. 1500
upon Bliakti ', or faith, as chastening
' the most impure 1550. ;

he allowed marriage and secular occupations but his Insists;

upon the
followers abused the usual injunction of reverence for the etlicacy of
teacher, and some of them held that the Guru was to be faith,
and admits
invoked before God.- About the same period Vallabh of secular
Swami, a Brahman of Telingana, gave a further impulse occupa-
tions.
to the reformation in progress, and he taught that married
Vallabh
teachers were not only admissible as directors of the con- extends the
science,but that the householder was to be preferred, and reforma-
tion to the
that the world was to be enjoyed by both master and south.

1 Cf the DaliistaH,u. 184, &c., Wilson, As. Bes., xvi. 53, and Ward's
.

Hindoos, ill. -lO*). Kabir is an Arabic word, meaning the greatest,

and Professor Wilson doubts whether any such person ever existed,
and considers the Kabir of Muhsin Fani to be the personification of
an idea, or that the title was assumed by a Hindu free-thinker as a
disguise. The name, however, although significant, is now at least
not uncommon, and perhaps the ordinary story that Kabli' was a
foundling, reared by a weaver, and subsequently admitted as a dis-
ciple by Ramanand, is sufficiently probable to justify his identity.
His body is Btated to have been claimed both by the Hindus and
Muhammadans, and Muhsin Fani observes that many Muhammadans
became Bairagis, i. e. ascetics ot tlie modern Vaishnava sect, of
which the followers of Ramanand and Kabir form the principal sub-
divisions. (Dabistdn, ii. 193.) As a further instance of the fusion of
feeling then, and now, going forward, the reply of the Hindu deist,
Akamnath, to the keepers of the Kaba at Mecca may be quoted. He
first scandalized them bj' asking where was the master of the house ;
and he then inquired why the idols had been thrown out. He was
told that the works of men were not to be worshipped whereupon
;

he inquired whether the temple itself was not reared with hands, and
therefore undeserving of respect (Dabistdn, ii. 117).
* For an account of Chaitan and his followers, cf. Wilson, Asiatic

Researches, xvi. 109, &c., and Ward, on The Hindoos, iii. 467, &c.
and for some apposite remarks on Bhakti or faith, see Wilson, As
lies., xvii. 312.
 38 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. 11

and disciple. This principle was readily adopted by the peace-

further
discounte- fulmercantile classes, and ' Gusains ', as the conductors of
nances family worship, have acquired a commanding influence over
celibacy,
about the industrious Quietists of the country but they have ;

A. D. 1550. at the same time added to the diversity of the prevailing

idolatry by giving pre-eminence to Bala Gopal, the infant
Krishna, as the very God of the Universe.^
Recapitu- Thus, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, the
lation.
Hindu mind was no longer stagnant or retrogressive it ;

had been leavened with Muhammadanism, and changed

and quickened for a new development. Ramanand and
Gorakh had preached religious equality, and Chaitan had
repeated that faith levelled caste. Kablr had denounced
images, and appealed to the people in their own tongue,
and Vallabh had taught that effectual devotion was com-
patible with the ordinary duties of the world. But these
good and able men appear to have been so impressed with
the nothingness of this life, that they deemed the ameliora-
tion of man's social condition to be unworthy of a thought.
They aimed chiefly at emancipation from priestcraft, or
The le- from the grossness of idolatry and polytheism. They formed
fornis par-
pious associations of contented Quietists, or they gave
tial, and
leading to themselves up to the contemplation of futurity in the hope
sectarian- of approaching bliss, rather than called upon their fellow
ism only.
creatures to throw aside every social as well as religious
trammel, and to arise a new people freed from the debasing
corruption of ages. They perfected forms of dissent rather
than planted the germs of nations, and their sects remain
Nanak's to this day as they left them. It was reserved for Ndnak
views more
to perceive the true principles of reform, and to lay those
compre-
hensive broad foundations which enabled his successor Gobind to
and pro-
fire the minds of his countrymen with a new nationality,
found.
and to give practical effect to the doctrine that the lowest
is equal with the highest, in race as in creed, in political
rights as in religious hopes.

^ See Wilson, Asiatic Researches, xvi. 85, &c. and for an account
;

of the cwresponding Vaishnava sect of Madhav, which has, however,

a leaning to Saivism, see also Wilson, As. Res., xvi. 100. (See also
Appendix VII for some remarks on the Metaphysics of Indian
Ri'formers.)
CHAP. II TEACHING OF NANAK 39

Nanak was born in the year 1469, in the neighbourhood 1469-1539.

of Lahore.^ His father, Kalu, was a Hindu of tlie Bedl ,T
~
subdivision of the once warlike Kshattriyas, and he was, birtii and
perhaps, like most of his race, a petty trader in his native ^arly life,
village.^ Nanak appears to have been naturally of a pious
disposition and of a reflecting mind, and there is reason to
believe that in his youth he made himself familiar with the
popular creeds both of the Muhammadans and Hindus, and
that he gained a general knowledge of the Koran and of
the Brahmanical Shastras.^ His good sense and fervid

1 Nauak is generally said to have been born in Talwandi, a village

on the Ravi above Lahore, which was held by one Rai Bhua of the
Bhutti tribe. (Cf. Malcolm, Sketch of the Sikhs, p. 78, and Forster,
Travels, i. 292-3.) But one manuscript account states that, although
the father of Nanak was of Talwandi, the teacher himself was born in
Kanakatch, about fifteen miles southerly from Lahore, in the house
of his mother's parents, It is indeed not uncommon in the Punjab
for women to choose their own parents' home as the place of their con-
finement, especially of their first child, and the children thus born are
frequently called Nanak (or Nanki, in the feminine), from Nanke,
one's mother's parents. Nanak is thus a name of usual occurrence,
both among Hindus and Muhammadans, of the poor or industrious
classes. The accounts agree as to the year of Nanak's birth, but
differ, while they affect precision, with regard to the day of the
month on which he was born. Thus one narrative gives the 13th, and
another the 18th, of the month Kartik, of the year 1525 of Vikra-
majit, which corresponds with the latter end of 1469 of Clirist.
- In the Star id Mutakharin (Brigg's translation, i. 110) it is stated

that Nanak's father was a grain merchant, and in the Dabistdn

(ii. 247) that Nanak himself was a grain factor. The Sikh accounts
are mostly silent about the occupation of the father, but they repre-
sent the sister of Nanak to have been married to a corn factor, and
state that he was himself placed with his brother-in-law to learn, or
to give aid, in carrying on the business.
3 A manuscript compilation in Persian mentions that Nanak's

first teacher was a Muhammadan. The Siar idM utdkharin (i. 110)
states that Nanak was carefully educated by one Saiyid Hasan, a
neighbour of his father's, who conceived a regard for him, and who was
wealthy but childless. Nanak is further said, in the same book, to
have studied the most approved writings of the Muhammadans.
According to Malcolm {Sketch, p. 14), Nanak is reported, by the
Muhammadans, to have learnt all earthly sciences from Khizar,
i. e. the prophet Elias. The ordinary Muhammadan accounts also
represent Nanak, when a child, to have astonished his teacher by ask-
ing him the hidden import of the fust letter of the alphabet, which
is almost a straight stroke in Persian and Arabic, and which is held
 -

40 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ii

1469-1539. temper left him disi)leased with the corruptions of the

vulgar faith, and dissatisfied with the indifference of the
learned, or with the refuge which they sought in the spe-
cious abstractions of philosophy nor is it improbable that
;

the homilies of Kablr and Gorakh had fallen upon his

susceptible mind with a powerful and enduring effect.^ In
The meiit al a moment of enthusiasm the ardent inquirer abandoned his
Nanak
"^^ °^
home, and strove to attain wisdom by penitent meditation,
by study, and by an enlarged intercoui'se with mankind.
He travelled, perhaps, beyond the limits of India, he prayed
in solitude, he reflected on the Vedas and on the mission
of Muhammad, and he questioned with equal anxiety the
learned priest and the simple devotee about the will of
God and the path to happiness.^ Plato and Bacon, Des

even vulgarly to denote the unity of God. The reader will remember
that the apocrjrphal gospels state how Christ, before he was twelve
years old, perplexed his instructors, and explained to them the
mystical signihcance of the alphabetical characters. (Strauss, Life
of Jesus, i. 212.)
Extracts or selections from the writings of Kabir aj^pear in the
1

Adi-Grautk, and Kabir is often, and Gorakh sometimes, quoted or

referred to.
2 chance meeting with some Fakh-s (Malcolm, Sketch, pp. 8, 13)
A
and the more methodical instructions of a Dervish {Dahistun, ii. 247)
are each referred to as having subdued the mind of Nanak, or as
-havin» given him the impvUse which determined the future course
ot his life. In Malcolm may be seen those stories which please the
multitude, to the effect that although Nanak, when the spirit of God
was upon him, bestowed all the grain in his brothor-indaw's stores
in charity, they were nevertheless always found replenished ; or that
Daulat Khan Lodi,the employer of Nanak's brother-indaw, although
aware that much had really been given away, nevertheless found
everything correct on balancing the accounts of receipts and expendi-
ture.
The Sikh accounts represent Nanak to have met the Emperor
Babar, and to have greatly edified the adventurous sovereign by his
demeanour and conversation, while he perplexed him by saying that
both were kings and were about to found dynasties of ten. 1 have
traced but two allusions to Babar by name, and one by obvious in-
ference, in the Adi-Granlh, viz. in the Asa Rag and TaUang portions,
and these bear reference simply to the destruction of a village, and
to his incursions as a conqueror. Muhsin Fani (DaUstdn, ii. 249)
preserves an idle report that Nanak, being dissatisfied with the
Afghans, called the Mughals into India.
^ Nanak is generally said to have travelled over the whole of India,
 —

CHAP. II TEACHING OF NANAK 41

Cartes and Alghazali, examined the current philosophic 14G9-1539.

systems of the world, without- finding a sure basis of truth
for the operations of the intellect ; and, similarly, the heart
of the pious Nanak sought hopelessly for a resting-place
amid the and practices of men. All was
conflicting creeds
error, he had read Korans and Purans, but God
he said ;

he had nowhere found. ^ He returned to his native land, he

threw aside the habit of an ascetic, he became again the
father of his family, and he passed the remainder of his jj^,
long life in calling upon men to worship the One Invisible becomes a
God, to live virtuously', and to be tolerant of the failmgs
of others. The mild demeanour, the earnest piety, and per-
suasive eloquence of Nanak, are ever the themes of praise,
and he died at the age of seventy, leaving behind him many Dies, aged
seventy,
zealous and admiring disciples.-
A.D. 1539.

to have gone through Persia, and to have visited Mecca (cf. Malcolm,
Sketch, p. IG, and Forster, Travels, 1. 295-G), but the number of years
he employed in wandering, and the date of his final return to his
native province, are alike uncertain. He had several companions,
among whom Mardana, the rababi or harper (or rather a chanter,
and player upon a stringed instrument like a guitar), Lahna, who was
his successor, Bala, a Hindhu Jat, and Ram Das, styled Buddha or
the Ancient, are the most frec[uently referred to. In pictorial repre-
sentations Mardana always accompanies Nanak. When at Mecca,
a story is related that Nanak was found sleeping with his feet towards
the temple, that he v.as angrilj- asked how he dared to dishonoiu- the
house of the Lord, and that he replied, Could he turn his feet where
'

the house of God was not ? (Malcolm, Sketch of the Sikhs, p. 159.)
'

Nanak adopted, sometimes at least, the garb of a Muhammadan

Dervish, and at Multan he visited an assembly of Musalman devotees,
saying he was but as the stream of the Ganges entering the ocean of
holiness. (Cf. Malcolm, Sketch, p. 21, and the Siar ul Mutakharin,
i. 311.)
^ Therecurrent a verse imputed to Nanak, to the effect that
is
Several scriptures and books had he read,
'

But one (God) ho had not found :

Several Korans and Purans had he read.

But faith he could not put in any.'
The Adi-Granth abounds with passages of a similar tenor, and in the
supplemental portion, called the Ratan Mala, Nanak says, Man may '

read Vedas and Korans, and reach to a temporary bliss, but without
God salvation is unattainable.'
^ The accounts mostly agree as to the date of Nanak's death, and

they place it in 1596 of Vikramajit, or 1539 of Christ. A Gurmukhi

abstract states precisely that he was a teacher for seven years, five
 ;

42 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ii

1469-1539. Nanak combined the excellences of preceding reformers,

'lb ' 1-
^^^ ^^ avoided the more grave errors into which they had
lences of fallen. Instead of the circumscribed divinity, the anthro-
Nanak's
doctrine
pomorphous God of Ramanand and Kablr, he loftily in-
vokes the Lord as the one, the sole, the timeless being ;

the creator, the self-existent, the incomprehensible, and the

The god- everlasting. He likens the Deity to Truth, which was
before the world began, which is, and which shall endure for
ever, as the ultimate idea or cause of all we know or behold .'^

months, and seven days, and that he died on the 10th of the Hindu
naonth Asauj. Forster {Travels, i. 295) represents that he travelled
for fifteen years. Nanak died at Kartarpui", on the Ravi, about forty
miles above Lahore, where there is a place of worship sacred to him.
Helcf t two sons, Sri Chand, an ascetic, whose name lives as the founder
of the Hindu sect of Udasis, and Lachmi Das, who devoted himself
to pleasure, and of whom nothing particular is known. The Nanak-
putras, or descendants of Nanak, called also Sahibzadas, or sons of
the master, are everywhere reverenced among Sikhs, and if traders,
some privileges are conceded to them by the chiefs of their country.
Muhsin Fani observes (Dabistdn, ii. 253) that the representatives of
Nanak were known as Kartaris, meaning, perhaps, rather that they
were held to be holy or devoted to the service of God, than that they
were simply residents of Kartarpur.
^ See the Adi-Granth in, for instance, the portion called Gowree Bag,

and the prefatory Jiij), or prayer of admonition and remembrance.

Cf. also Wilkins, Asiatic Hesearches, i. 289, &c.
Akalpurik ', or the Timeless Being, is the ordinary Sikh apiiellation
'

of God, corresponding idiomatically with the 'Almighty ', in English.

Yet Gobind, in the second Grauth (Hazara Shabd portion), apostro-
phizes Time itself as the only true God, for God was the first and the
last, the being without end, &c.
Milton assigns to time a casual or limited use onlj', and Shake-
tipeare makes it finite :

'
For time, though in eternity applied
To motion, measures all things durable
By present, past, and future.'
Paradise Lost, v.

'
But thought the slave of life, and life, time's fool
's

And time, that takes survey of all the world.

Must have a stop.'
1 Henri/ I V, v. iv.
Three of the modern philosophizing schools of India, viz. a division
of the Sankhyas, the Puraniks, and the Saivas, make Kal,ortime,
one of the twenty-seven, or thirty, or thirty-six component essences
or phenomena of the universe of matter and mind, and thus give it
distinct functions, or a separate existence.
CHAP. II TEACHING OF NANAK 48

He addresses equally the Mulla and the Pandit, the Dervish 1469-1539.
and the SannyasI, and tells them to remember that Lord of
Lords who has seen come and go numberless Muhammads, Muham-
niadaiis
and Vishnus, and Sivas.^ He tells them that virtues and and Hindus
charities, heroic acts and gathered wisdom, are nought of equally
called on to
themselves, that the only knowledge which availeth is the worship
knowledge of God - and then, as if to rebuke those vain God in
;

men who saw eternal life in their own act of faith, he truth.
Faith,
declares that they only can find the Lord on whoni the grace, and
Lord looks with favour.^ Yet the extension of grace is good works
all neces-
linked with the exercise of our will and the beneficent use sary.
of our faculties. God, said Nanak, places salvation in good
works and uprightness of conduct the Lord will ask of
:

' '
—
man, What has he done ? * and the teacher further
required timely repentance of men, saying, If not until
'

the day of reckoning the sinner abaseth himself, punishment

shall overtake him '.^
Nanak adopted the philosophical system of his country- Nanak
men, and regarded bliss as the dwelling of the soul with adopts the
Brahiuani-
God after its punitory transmigrations should have ceased. cal philo-
sophy but
Life, he says, is as the shadow of the passing bird, but the ;

in a popu-
soul of man is, as the potter's wheel, ever circling on its lar sense,
He makes the same uses of the current language or or by way
l^ivot.®
of illustra-
notions of the time on other subjects, and thus says, he tion only.
who remains bright amid darkness (Anjan), unmoved amid
deceit (Maya), that is, perfect amid temptation, should

1 A passage of Nanak's in the supplement to the Adi-Granth, after

saying that there have been multitudes of prophets, teachers, and

holy men, concludes thus :

The Lord of Lords is the One God, the Almighty God himself ;
Oh Nanak his qualities are beyond comprehension.'
!

- See the Adi-Granth, towards the end of the portion called Asa.

^ See the Adi-Granth, end of the Asa Rag, and in the supplementary

portion called the Ratan Mala.

* The Adi-Granth, Parbhdti Ra/jni. Cf. Malcolm {Sketch, p. IGl)
and Wilkins (As. Res., i. 289, &c.).
^ See the Nasihat Nama, or admonition of Nanak to Karon, a

fabulous monarch, wluoh, however, is not admitted into the Granth,

perhaps because its vcrsonal or particular ajjplication is not in keeping
with the abstract and general nature of that book. Neither, indeed,
is it certainly known to be Nanak's eom]josition, although it embodies

many of his notions. ^ Adi-Granth, end of the Asa Rag.

 44 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ii

1469-1539. attain happiness.^ But it would be idle to suppose that he

speculated uiJon being, or upon the material world, after
the manner of Plato or Vyasa and it would be unreason-
;
''

able to condemn him because he preferred the doctrine of

a succession of habiliments, and the possible purification of
the most sinful soul, to the resurrection of the same body,
Nanak and the pains of everlasting fire.^ Nanak also referred
ad-
nuts the
^^ the Arabian prophet,
mission of t f and to the Hindu incarnations, not
'
>

Muhammad as impostors and the diffusers of evil, but as having truly

th H ^d
^^^^ ^^^^ ^y God to instruct mankind, and he lamented
incarna- that sin should nevertheless prevail. He asserted no special
tions.
divinity, although he may possibly have considered himself,
as he came to be considered by others, the successor of
these inspired teachers of his belief, sent to reclaim fallen
mortals of all creeds and countries within the limits of his
knowledge. He rendered his mission applicable to all times
and places, yet he declared himself to be but the slave, the
himible messenger of the Almighty, making use of universal
truth as his sole instrument.* He did not claim for his

^ Adi-GrantJi, in the Siihi and Riuukali portions.

2 See Appendix VIII.
^ The usual objection of the Muhamniadans to the Hindu doctrine

of transmigration is, that the wicked soul of this jiresent world has no
remembrance of its past condition and bygone punishments, and
does not, therefore, bring willi it any inherent incentive to holiness.
The Muhammadans, however, do not show that a knowledge of the
sin of Adam, and consequent corruption of his posterity, is instinctive
to a follower of Christ or to a disciple of their own prophet ; and,
metaphysically, an impartial thinker will perhaps prefer the Bralaman
doctrine of a soul finally scjmrated from the changeable matter of
our senses, to the Egyptian scheme of the resurrection of the cor-
—
ruptible body, a notion which seems to have impressed itself on
the Israelites, notwithstanding the silence of Moses, and which re-
sisted for centuries the action of other systems, and which was at
length revived with increased force in connexion with the popular
belief in miracles. See also note 2, p. 24 ante.
* The whole scope of Nanak's teaching is that God is all in all, and

that purity of mind is the first of objects. He urges all men to practise
devotion, and he refers to ])ast prophets and dispensations as being
now of no avail, but he nowhere attributes to himself any superiority
over others. He was a man among men, calling u])on his fellow
creatui'es to live a holy life. (Cf the Jjabistdn, ii. 241), 250, 25;j
. and
;

see Wilson, As. Res., xvii. 234, for the expression Nanak thy slave
'

is a freewill offering unto thee '.)

CHAP. 11 TEACHING OF NANAK 45

writings, replete as they were with wisdom and devotion,^ 1469-1539,

'
the merit of a direct transcription of the words of God ;

nor did he say that his own preaching required or would be Disclaims
"^
sanctioned by miracles.^ Figlit with no weapon,' said he,
j'ol^e'rs
'
save the word of God a holy teacher hath no means save
;

the purity of his doctrine.' ^ He taught that asceticism dIs-

or abandonment of the world was unnecessary, the pious courages
tisccticism
hermit and the devout householder being equal in the eyes
of the Almighty but he did not, like his contemporary
;

Vallabh, express any invidious preference for married

teachers, although his own example showed that he con-
sidered every one should fulfil the functions of his nature.*
In treating the two prominent external observances of
Hindus and Muhammadans, veneration for the cow and
abhorrence of the hog, he was equally wise and conciliatory, Con-
yielding perhaps something to the prejudices of his educa- cihatory

tion as well as to the gentleness of his disposition. ' The Muham-

rights of strangers,' said he,are the one the ox, and the '"avians
'

other the swine, but " Pirs " and " Gurus " will praise Hindus.
those who partake not of that which hath enjoyed life.' ^
^ The Muhammadan writers are loud in their praises of Nanak's
writings. (Cf. the Star iilMvtakharin, i. 110, 111, and the Dabistan,
ii. 251, 252.)
With these sober views of the Orientals may be contrasted the
opinion of the European Baron Hiigel, who says (Travels, p. 283)
that the Grant/i is a compound of mystical absui'dities '. He admits,
'

however, that the Sikhs worship one God, abhor images, and reject
caste, at least in theory.
2 See particularly the Sri Rag chapter of the Adi-Granth. In the
Maj Var portion Nanak says to a pretender to miracles, 'Dwell thou
in flame uninjured, remain unharmed amid eternal ice, make blocks
of stonethy food, spurn the solid earth before thee with thy foot,
weigh the heavens in a balance, and then ask thou that Nanak
'
perform wonders !

Strauss (Life of Jesns, ii. 237) points out that Christ censured the
seeking for miracles (John iv. 48), and observes that the apostles in
their letters do not mention miracles at all.
3 Malcolm, Sketch, pp. 20, 21, 165.
Adi-Granth, particularly the Asa Ragni and Ramkali Bagni. (Cf.
*

the Dahistdn, ii. 271.)

^ Adi-Granth, Maj chapter. Cf. Malcolm (Sketch, p. 36, note, and
p. 137), where it is said Nanak prohibited swine's flesh but, indeed, ;

the" flesh of the ta7n.e hog had alwaj^s been forbidden to Hindus.
(Manu's Institutes, v. 19.) The Dabistan (ii, 248) states that Nanak
 46 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ii

1469-1539. Thus Nanak extricated his followers from the acciimu-

^^ lated errors of ages, and enjoined upon them devotion of
fully ex- thouoht and excellence of conduct as the first of duties.
tricates his He left them, erect and free, unbiassed in mind and un-
from error, fettered by rules, to become an increasing body of truthful
But his re- worshippers. His reform was in its immediate effect re-
'
formation ligious and moral only believers were regarded as Sikhs
;
'

rehgi^om
'^
or disciples, not as subjects; and it is neither probable,
and moral nor is it necessary to suppose, that he possessed any clear
°" ^'
and sagacious views of social amelioration or of political
Nanak left advancement. He left the progress of his people to the
his Sikh-s operation of time for his congregation was too limited,
;
or disciples '
„ . .„ . , , . ,
without and the state of society too artincial, to render it either
new social requisite or possible for him to become a municipal law-
laws
separate
asa.
givcr, to
, ,,.,. «,,
subvert the legislation ot Manu, or to change the
people. immemorial usages of tribes or races.^ His care was rather
prohibited wine and pork, and himself abstained from all flesh :but,
in truth, contradictory passages about food may be quoted, and thus
Ward (The Hindoos, iii. 466) shows that Nanak defended those who
eat flesh, and declared that the infant which drew nurture from its
mother lived virtually upon flesh. The author of the Gur RatnavaU
pursues the idea, in a somewhat trivial manner indeed, by asking
whether man does not take woman to wife, and whether the holiest
of books are not bound with the skins of animals !

The general injunctions of Nanak have sometimes been mis-

interpreted by sectarian followers and learned strangers, to mean
'
great chariness of animal life ', almost in a mere ceremonial sense.
(Wilson, As. Bes., xvii. 233.) But the Sikhs have no such feeling,
although the Jains and others carry a pious regard for worms and
flies to a ludicrous extent —
a practice which has reacted upon at
least some families of Roman Catholic Christians in India. Those in
Bhopal reject, during Lent, the use of unrefined sugar, an article of
daily consumption, because, in its manufacture, the lives of many
insects are necessarily sacrificed ! [It is curious that the Greeks and
Romans believed the life of the ox to have been held sacred during
the golden age ; and Cicero quotes Aratus, to show that it was onlj'
during the iron age the flesh of cattle began to be eaten. (On the
—
Nature of the Gods, Francklin's translation, p. 154.) J. D. C]
^ Malcolm (Sketch,
pp. 44, 147) says Nanak made little or no altera-
tion in the civil institutions of the Hindus, and Ward (The Hindoos,
iii. 463) says, the Siklis have no written civil or criminal laws. Simi-
lar observations of dispraise or applause might be made with regard
to the code of the early Christians, and we know the difticulties under
which the apostles laboured, owing to the want of a new declaratory
law, or owing to the scruples and prejudices of their disciples. (Acts
CHAP. II TEACHING OF NANAK 47

to prevent his followers contracting into a sect, and his 1469-1539.

comprehensive principles narrowing into monastic distinc-
tions. This he effected by excluding his son, a meditative But guaid-
and perhaps bigoted ascetic, from the ministry when he ^hp^'^'"^
should himself be no more and, as his end approached, narrowing
;

he is stated to have made a trial of the obedience or merits

of his chosen disciples, and to have preferred the simple
and sincere Lahna. As they journeyed along, the body of
a man was seen lying by the wayside. Nanak said, Ye '

who trust in me, eat of this food.' All hesitated save Lahna ;

he knelt and uncovered the dead, and touched Avithout

tasting the flesh of man but, behold
; the corpse had
!

disappeared and Nanak was in its place. The Guru em-

braced his faithful follower, saying he was as himself, and
that his spirit would dwell within him.^ The name of Nanak de-
Lahna was changed to Angi-Khud, or Angad, or own body,^ Angad to
and whatever may be the foimdation of the story or the ^^ ^'^ ^^^'
cpssor <is n.

truth of the etymology, it is certain that the Sikhs fully fpachcr of

believe the spirit of Nanak to have been incarnate in each "^t^""-

succeeding Guru.^ Angad was acknowledged as the teacher

XV. 20, 28, 29, and other passages.) The seventh of the articles of
the Church of England, and the nineteenth chapter of the Scottish
Confession of Faith, show the existing perplexity of modern divines,
and, doubtless, it willlong continue to be disputed how far Christians
are amenable to some portions of the Jewish law, and whether Sikhs
should wholly reject the institutions of Manu and the usages of race.
There were Judaizing Christians and there are Brahmanizing Sikhs ;

the swine was a difficulty with one, the cow is a difficulty with the
other and yet the greatest obstacle, perliaps, to a complete oblitera-
;

tion of caste, is the rooted feeling that marriages should properly

take place only between people of the same origin or nation, without
much reference to faith. (Cf Ward on The Hindoos, iii. 459 Malcolm,
. ;

Slcetch, p. 157 note ; and Forster's Travels, i. 293, 295, 308.)

^ This story is related by various Punjabi compilers, and it is given

with one of the variations by Dr. Macgregor, in his History of the

Sikhs (i. 48). In the Dnhistan (ii. 268, 269) there is a story of a similar
kind about the successive sacrifice in the four ages of a cow, a horse,
an elephant, and a man. The pious partakers of the flesh of the last
offering were declared to be saved, and the victim himself again
appeared in his bodily shape.
2 Cf. Malcolm, Sketch of tJie Sikhs, p. 24 note. [Angad, however,
is an old Hindu name, and the ambassador of Rama to Ravan was
so called. (Kennedy, Res. Hind. Mythoh, p. 438.)—J. D. C]
^ This belief is an article of faith with the Sikhs. Cf the Dabistan
.
 4S HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ii

1469-1539. of the Siklis, and Sri Chand, the son of Nanak, justified his
fathers fears, and became the founder of the Hindu sect
of Udasis ', a community indifferent to the concerns of
'

this world.^

(ii. The Guru Har Gobiiid signed himself Nanak in a

253, 281). ' '

letter toMuhsin Fani, the author of that work.

1 For some account of the Udasis, see Wilson, Asiatic Researches,

xvii. 232. The sect is widelj- diffused its members are proud of
;

their connexion with the Sikhs, and all reverence, and most possess
and use, the Granth of Nanak.

—
Note. For manj' stories regarding Nanak himself, which it has
not been thought necessary to introduce into the text or notes, the
curious reader may refer with profit to Malcolm's Sketch, to the
second volume of the Dahistan, and to the first volume of Dr. ilac-
gregor's recently published History.
 —

CHAPTER III

THE SIKH GURrS OR TEACHERS, AND THE

MODIFICATION OF SIKHISM UNDER GOBIND
1539-1716

Guru Angad —Guru Amar Das and the Udasi Sect— Guru Ram Das
—Giiru Arjun—The First Granth and Civil Organization the of
Sikhs — Guru Har Gobind and the Military Ordering the Sikhs
of
—Guru Har Rai— Gurii Har Kishan— Guru Tegh Bahadur
Guru Gobind, and the Political Establishment of the Sikhs
Banda Bairagi the Temporal Successor of Gobind-— The Dis-
persion of the Sikhs.

Nanak died in 1539, and he was succeeded by the Angad 1539-52,

of his choice, a Kshattriya of the Tihan subdivision of the
Angad up-
race, who himself died in 1552, at Kadiar, near Goindwal, holds the
on the Beas river. Little is related of his ministry, except broad
principles
that he committed to writing much of what he had heard of Nanak.
about Nanak from the Guru's ancient companion, Bala Dies 1552.
Sindhu, as well as some devotional observations of his own,
which were afterwards incorporated in the Granth. But
Angad was true to the principles of his great teacher, and,
not deeming either of his own sons worthy to succeed him,
he bestowed his apostolic blessing upon Amar Das, an
assiduous follower.'^
Amar Das was likewise a Kshattriya, but of the Bhalla Amar Das
succeeds.
He was active
subdivision. in preaching, and successful in
obtaining converts, and it is said that he found an attentive
listener in the tolerant Akbar, The immediate followers of

1 Angad was born, according to most accounts, in 1561 Sambat, or

A. D. 1504, but according to others in 1.567 (or a. d. 1510). His death
is usually placed in 1609 Sambat (a. d. 1552), but sometimes it is
dated a year earlier, and the Sikh accounts affect a precision as to
days and months which can never gain credence. Forster {Travels,
i. 296) gives 1542, perhaps a misprint for 1552, as the period of his

death.
 ^

50 HISTORY or THE SIKHS CHAP. Ill

1552-74. Sri Chand, the son of Nanak, had hitherto been regarded
as ahnost equally the disciples of thefirst teacher with the
Separates direct adherents of Angad but Amar Das declared passive
;

the Sikhs
from the and recluse Udasis to be wholly separate from active and
' '

Udasis. domestic Sikhs ', and thus finally preserved the infant
'

church or state from disappearing as one of many sects.

In the spirit of Nanak he likewise pronounced that the
His views '
true SatI was she whom grief and not flame consumed,
with regard
to '
Sati '. and that the afflicted should seek consolation with the
Dies 1574. Lord thus mildly discountenancing a perverse custom,
' ;

and leading the way to amendment by persuasion rather

than by positive enactment.^ Amar Das died in 1574, after
a ministration of about twenty-two years and a half.^ He
had a son and a daughter, and it is said that his delight
with the uniform filial love and obedience of the latter led
him to prefer her husband before other disciples, and to
bestow upon him his Barkat or apostolic virtue. The
'
'

fond mother, or ambitious woman, is further stated to have

obtained an assurance from the Guru that the succession
should remain with her posterity.
Ram Das \ Ram Das, the son-in-law of Amar Das, was a Kshattriya
succeeds
and of the Sodhi subdivision, and he was worthy of his master's
establishes choice and of his wife's affection. He is said to have been
himself at
Amritsar.
held in esteem by Akbar, and to have received from him
a piece of land, within the limits of which he dug a reservoir,
since well known as Amritsar, or the pool of immortality ;(
but the temples and surrounding huts were at first named

^ Malcolm (Sketch, p. 27) says distinctly that Amar Das made this
separation. The Dahistdn (ii. 271) states generally that the Gurus
had effected it, and in the present day some educated Sikhs think
that Arjun first authoritatively laid down the difference between an
Udasi and a genuine follower of Nanak.
- The Adi-Gmnth, in that part of the SuTii chapter which is by

Amar Das. Forster (Travels,!. 309) considers that Nanak prohibited

SatI, and allowed widows to marry but Nanak did not make positive
;

laws of the kind, and perhaps self -sacrifice was not authoritatively
interfered with until first Akbar and Jahangir (Memoirs of Jaliangir,
p. 28), and afterwards the English, endeavoured to put an end to it.
^ The accounts agree as to the date of Amar Das's birth,

placing it in 1566 Sambat, or a. d. 1509. The period of his death,

1631 Sambat, or a. d. 1574, seems likewise certain, although one
places it as late as a. d. 1580.
 !

CHAP. Ill SIKH GURUS ; ARJUN 51

Ramdaspur, from the founder.^ Ram Das is among tlie 1574-81.

most revered of the Gurus, but no precepts of wide applica-
value or force, are attributed
tion, or rules of great practical
to him. His own
ministry did not extend beyond seven
years, and the slow progress of the faith of Nanak seems
apparent from the statement that at the end of forty -two Dies 1581.
years his successor had not more than double that number
of disciples or instructed followers.^
Arjun succeeded his father in 1581, and the wishes of Arjunsuc-
^"'^
his mother, the daughter of Amar Das, were thus accom- j^? ,
j

plished.^ Arjiin was perhaps the first who clearly under- grasps the
stood the wide import of the teachings of Nanak, or who
xinak
perceived how applicable they were to every state of life
and to every condition of society. He made Amritsar the Makes
proper seat of his followers, the centre which should attract fV""^?^!"
their worldl}' longings for a material bond of union and city of ; '

the obscure hamlet, with its little pool, has become a popu- ^^'^ Sikks.
lous city and the great place of pilgrimage of the Sikh
people.* Arjun next arranged the various writings of his

Malcolm, Sketch, p. 29
1 Forster, Travels, i. 297 ; the Dabistan,
;

ii. The Sikh accounts state that the possession of Akbar's gift
275.
was disputed by a Bairagi, who claimed the land as the site of an
ancient pool dedicated to Ram Chandra, the tutelary deity of his
order but the Sikh Guru said haughtily he was himself the truer
;

representative of the hero. The Bairagi could produce no proof ;

but Ram Das dug deep into the earth, and displayed to numerous
admirers the ancient steps of the demi-god's reservoir
2 Such seems to be the meaning of the expression, He held holy
'

converse with eighty-four Sikhs,' iised by Bhai Kanh Singh in a

manuscript compilation of the beginning of this century.
Ram Das's birth is placed in 1581 Sambat, or A. D. 1524, his marriage
in A. D. 1542, the founding of Amritsar in a. d. 1577, and his death
in A. D. 1581.
^ seems doubtful whether Ram Das had two or three sons,
It
Pirthi Chand
(or Bharut Mai or Dhi Mai), Arjun, and Mahadev, and
also whether Arjun was older or younger than Pirthi Chand. It is
more certain, however, that Pirthi Chand claimed the succession on
the death of his brother, if not on the death of his father, and he was
also indeed accused of endeavouring to poison Arjiin. (Cf. Malcolm,
Sketch, p. 30, and the Dabistcni, ii. 273.) The descendants of Pirthi
Chand are still to be found in the neighbourhood of the Sutlej, espe-
cially at Kot Har Sahai, south of Ferozepore.
* The ordinary Sikh accounts represent Arjun to have taken up

his residence at Amritsar but he lived for some time at least at

;

e2
 52 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, iii

1581-1606. predecessors added to them the best known, or the

;
^ lie

Compiles
"^ost some other religious re-
suitable, compositions of
the Adi- formers of the few preceding centuries, and completing the
whole with a prayer and some exliortations of his own, he
'
declared the compilation to be pre-eminently the Granth '

or Book and he gave to his followers their fixed rule of

;

and moral conduct, with an assurance that multi-

religious
tudes even of divine Brahmans had wearied themselves
with reading the Vedas, and had found not the value of an
Reduces oil-seed within them.- The Gurii next reduced to a system-

o^dngsTo ^tic tax the customary offerings of his converts or adherents,

asystema- who, luider his ascendancy, were to be found in everj" city
^^
tithe ^ ^"<^^ province. The Sikhs were bound by social usage, and
disposed from reverential feelings, to make such presents
to their spiritual guide but the agents of Arjun were
;

spread over the country to demand and receive the contri-

butions of the faithful, which they proceeded to deliver to
the Guru in person at an annual assembly. Thus the Sikhs,
says the almost contemporary Muhsin Fani, became ac-
customed to a regular government.^ Nor was Arjun heed-
and en- jggg Qf other means of acquiring wealth and influence he ;

tr^Tic." dispatched his followers into foreign countries to be as keen

in traffic as they were zealous in belief, and it is probable
that his transactions as a merchant were extensive, although
confined to the purchase of horses in Turkestan.*
Arjun became famous among pious devotees, and his
biographers dwell on the number of saints and holy men
who were edified by his instructions. .Nor was he unheeded
Taran Taran, which lies between that city and the junction of the
Beas and Sutlej. (Cf. the Dabistan, ii. 275.)
1 Malcolm, Sketch, p. 30. General tradition and most writers attri-
bute the arrangement of the First Granth to Arjun but Angad is
;

. understood to have preserved many observations of Nanak, and

Forster (Travels, i. 297) states that Ram Das compiled the histories
and precepts of his predecessors, and annexed a commentary to the
work. The same author, indeed {Travels, i. 296 note), also contra-
dictorily assigns the compilation to Angad.
2 Adi-Granth, in that portion of the Suhi chapter written by Arjun.

For some account of the Adi, or First Granth, see Appendix T.

3 The Dabistan, ii. 270, &c. Cf. Malcolm, Sketch, p. 80.
* The ordinary Sikh accounts are to this effect. Cf. the Dnhistdn,
ii. 271.
 SIKH GUROS ; ARJON 53

by those in high station, for he is said to have refused to 1581-1606

betroth his son to the daughter of Chandu Shah, the finance
Arjun pro-
administrator of the Lahore province ^ and he further ; vokes the
appears to have been sought as a political partisan, and to enmity of
Chandu
have offered up prayers for Khusru, the son of Jahangir, Shah.
when in rebellion and in temporary possession of the Punjab. Becomes a
partisan of
The Guru was summoned to the emperor's presence, and Prince
fined and imprisoned at the instigation chiefly, it is said, Khusru in
rebellion.
of Chandu Shah, whose alliance he had rejected, and who
represented him as a man of a dangerous ambition.- Arjun Iniprisoa-
ment and
died in 1606, and his death is believed to have been hastened death of
by the rigours of his confinement but his followers piously
; Arjun,
1606.
assert that, having obtained leave to bathe in the river
Ravi, he vanished in the shallow stream, to the fear and
wonder of those guarding him.''

^ Cf Forster, Travels, i. 298.

. The Sikh accounts represent that the
son of Arjun was mentioned to Chandu as a suitable match for his
daughter, and that Chandu slightingly objected, saying, Ai-jun,
although a man of name and wealth, was still a beggar, or one who
received alms. This was reported to Arjun he resented tlie taunt,
;

and would not be reconciled to the match, notwithstanding the per-

sonal endeavours of Chandu to appease him and bring about the
union.
Shah a corrupted suffix to names, extensively adopted in India.
is
It is a Persian word signifying a king, but applied to Muhammadan
Fakirs as Maharaja is used by or towards Hindu devotees. It is also
used to denote a principal merchant, or as a corruption of Sahu or
Sahukar, and it is further used as a name or title, as a corruption of
Sah or Saliai. The Gond converts to Muhammadanism on the
Narbada all add the word Shah to their names.
2 Dabistdn, ii. 272, 273. The Sikh accounts correspond sufficiently
as to the fact of the Guru's a-rraignment, while they arc silent about
his treason. They declare the emperor to have been satisfied of his
sanctity and innocence (generally), and attribute his continued
imprisonment to Chandu's malignity and disobedience of orders.
(Cf. Malcolm, Sketch, p. 32.) Muhsin Fani also states that a Muham-
madan saint of Thanesar was banished by Jahangir for aiding
Khusru with his prayers. {Dabistdn, ii. 273.) The emperor himself
simply states {Memoirs, p. 88) that at Lahore he impaled seven
hundred of the rebels, and on his way to that city he apjiears {Memoirs,
p. 81) to have bestowed a present on Shaikh Nizam of Thanesar but ;

he may have subsec|uently become aware of his hostility.

^ Cf. Malcolm, /S^eicA, p. 33; the Dabistdn, ii.2T2-^ and Forster,
;

Travels,!. 298.
A. D. 1553 seems the most probable date of ArjCfti's birth, although
 54 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, hi

1581-1606. During the ministry of Arjun the principles of Nanak

^J^~. , took a firm hold on the minds of his followers/ and a disciple
Diffusion of . . .
\ .

Sikhisin. named Gur Das gives a lofty and imagmative view oi the
The writ- mission of that teacher. He regards him as the successor
Gur Das ^^ Vyasa and Muhammad, and as the destined restorer of
Bhullch. purity and sanctity the regenerator of a world afflicted
;

with the increasing wickedness of men, and with the savage

contentions of numerous sects. He declaims against the
bigotry of the Muhammadans and their ready resort to
violence he denounces the asceticism of the Hindus, and
;

he urges all men to abandon their evil ways, to live peace-

fully and virtuously, and to call upon the name of the one
true God to whom Nanak had borne witness. Arjun is
commonly said to have refused to give these writings of
his sternbut fervid disciple a place in the Granth, perhaps
as unsuited to the tenor of Nanak's exhortations, which
scarcely condemn or threaten others. The writings of Gur
Das are, indeed, rather figurative descriptions of actual
than simple hymns in praise of God
affairs but they ;

deserve attention as expounding Nanak's object of a

gradual fusion of jNIuhainmadans and Hindus into common
The con- observers of a new and a better creed, and as an almost
ceptions of contemporary instance of the conversion of the noble but

come the obscure idea of an individual into the active principle of

moving im- a multitude, and of the gradual investiture of a simple fact
° ^ with the gorgeous' mj^hism of memory and imagination.
people
and his The unpretending Nanak, the deplorer of human frailty
a*^mvt'hical ^^^ t^^ lover of his fellow men, becomes, in the mind of
narrative. Gur Das and of the Sikli people, the first of heavenly
powers and emanations, and the proclaimed instrument of
God for the redemption of the world and every hope and
;

feeling of the Indian races appealed to in proof or in

is

illustration of the reality and the splendour of his mission.-

one accoimt places it as late as a. d. 1565. Similarly 1663 Sambat, or

1015 Hijri, or a. d. 1006, seems the most certain date of his death.
^ Muhsin Fani observes {Dahi-itan, ii. 270) that in the time of

Arjijn Sikhs were to be found everywhere throughout the country.

^ The work of Bhai Gur Das BhuUeh, simply known as such, or as

the Gyan Ratnavali (Malcolm, S/cetch, p. 30, note), is much read by

the Sikhs. It consists of forty chapters, and is written in different
kinds of verse. Some extracts may be seen in Appendix XIX, and
CHAP. Ill SIKH GURUS ; HAR GOBIND 55

On the death of Arjun, his brother Pirthi Chand made 1606-45.

some attempts to be recognized as Guru, for the only son Har Gobind
of the deceased teacher was young, and ecclesiastical usage becomes
Guru after
has everywhere admitted a latitude of succession. But a disputed
some suspicion of treachery towards Arjun appears to have succession.
attached to him, and his nephew soon became the acknow-
ledged leader of the Sikhs, although Pirthi Chand himself
continued to retain a few followers, and thus sowed the
first fertile seeds of dissent, or elements of dispute or of

change, which ever increase with the growth of a sect or

a system.^ Har Gobind was not, perhaps, more than eleven
years of age at his father's death, but he was moved by
his followers to resent the enmity of Chandu Shah, and he
isrepresented either to have procured his condemnation by Chandu
the emperor, or to have slain him by open force without Shah slain
or put to
reference to authority.- Whatever may be the truth about death.
the death of Chandu and the first years of Har Gobind's Har Gobind
ministry, it is became
certain that, in a short time, he arms the
Sikhs and
a military leader as well as a spiritual teacher. Nanak had becomes a
sanctioned or enjoined secular occupations, Arjun carried mihtary
leader.
the injunction into practice, and the impulse thus given
speedily extended and became general. The temper and
the circumstances of Har Gobind both prompted him to

in Malcolm, Sketch, p. 152, &c. Gur Das was the scribe of Arjun, but
his prideand haughtiness are said to have displeased his master, and
his compositions were refused a place in the sacred book. Time and
reflection — —
and the Sikhs add a miracle made him sensible of his
failings and and Arjun perceiving his contrition, said he
inferiority,
would include his writings in the Granth. But the final meekness of
Gur Das was such, that he himself declared them to be unworthy of
such association whereupon Arjun enjoined that all Sikhs should
;

nevertheless read them. He describes Arjun (Malcolm, Sketch, p. 30,

note) to have become Guru without any formal investitme or con-
secration by his father, which may further mark the commanding
character of that teacher.
Malcolm {Sketch, p. 32) appears to confound Chandu Shah (or
Dhani Chand) with Gur Das.
^ Malcolm, Sketch, p. 30, and Dabistan, ii. 273. These sectaries
were called Mina, a term commonly used in the Punjab, and which is
expressive of contempt or opprobrium, as stated by Muhsin Fani.
The proneness to sectarianism among the fii'st Christians was noticed
and deprecated by Paul (1 Cor. i. 10-13).
- Cf. Forster, Travels, i. 298.
 56 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS
1606-45. innovation he had his father's death to move his feelings,
;

and in surpassing the example of his parent, even the

jealous dogma of the Hindu law, which aUows the most
lowly to arm in self-defence, may not have been without
its influence on a mind acquainted vrith the precepts of
IManu.^ Arjun trafficked as a merchant, and played his
part as a priest in affairs of policy but Har Gobind ;

grasped a sword, and marched with his devoted followers

among the troojjs of the empire, or boldly led them to
oppose and overcome provincial governors or personal
The gra- enemies. Nanak had himself abstained from animal food,
dual modi- and the prudent Arjun endeavoured to add to his saintly
lication of
Sikhisiu ;
merit or influence by a similar moderation but the ad- ;

\-enturous Har Gobind became a hunter and an eater of

flesh, and his disciples imitated him in these robust prac-
tices.- The genial disposition of the martial apostle led
liim to rejoice in the companionship of a camp, in the
dangers of war, and in the excitements of the chase, nor is
it improbable that the policy of a temporal chief mingled

with the feelings of an injured son and with the duties of

a religious guide, so as to shape his acts to the ends of his
ambition, although that may not have aimed at more than
a partial independence under the mild supremacy of the
son of Akbar. Har Gobind appears to have admitted
criminals and fugitives among his followers, and where a
principle of antagonism they may lia\e
had already arisen,
served him zealously without greatly reforming the practice
of their lives and, indeed, they are stated to have believed
;

that the faithful Sikli Avould pass unquestioned into heaven.^

He had a stable of eight hundred horses three hundred ;

mounted followers were constantly in attendance upon Mm,

and a guard of sixty matchlock-men secured the safety of
his person, had he ever feared or thought of assassination.*
The impulse Avhich he gave to the Sikhs was such as to

For this last supposition, see Maleolnij Sketch, pp. 44, 189. There
1

is perhaps some straining after nicety of reason in the notion, as

Manu's injunction had long become obsolete in such matters, espe-
cially under the Muhammadan supremacy.
2 The Dahistan,u. 248, and Malcolm, S/cctdt, p. 36.

3 The Dahistan, ii. 284, 280. * The Dahistdn, ii. 277.

 ;

CHAP, in SIKH GURUS ; HAR GOBIND 57

separate them a long way from all Hindu sects, and after 1606-45.
the time of Har Gobind the disciples were in little danger
' '

and com-
of relapsing into the limited merit or utility of monks plete sepa-
ration of
and mendicants.^
the Sikhs
Har Gobind became a follower of the Emperor Jahanglr, from Hindu
and to the end of his life his conduct partook as much of dissenters.
the military adventurer as of the enthusiastic zealot. He HarGobind
falls under
accompanied the imperial camp to Kashmir, and he is at the dis-
one time represented as in holy colloquy with the religious l)leasure of
Jahanglr
guide of the Mughal, and at another as involved in diffi-
culties with the emperor about retaining for himself that
money which he should have disbursed to his troops. He
had, too, a multitude of followers, and his passion for the
chase, and fancied independence as a teacher of men, may
have led him to offend against the sylvan laws of the court.
The emperor was displeased, the fine imposed on Arjun had
never been paid, and Har Gobind was placed as a prisoner is un-
on scanty food in the fort of Gwalior. But the faithful prisoned,
Siklis continued to revere the mysterious virtues or the real
merits of their leader. They flocked to Gwalior, and bowed
themselves before the walls which restrained their perse-
cuted Guru, till at last the prince, moved, perhaps, as much and re-
by superstition as by pity, released him from confinement.^ leased.
On the death of Jahanglr in 1628, Har Gobind continued Jahanglr
in the employ of the Muhammadan Government, but he dies 1628,
and Har
appears soon to have been led into a course of armed resist- Gobind en-
ance to the imperial officers in the Punjab. A disciple gages in a
petty war-
brought some valuable horses from Turkestan they were fare.
;

seized, as was said, for the emperor, and one was con-
ferred as a gift on the Kazi or Judge of Lahore. The Guru
^ Sec Appendix IX.
2 Cf. the Dabistdn,ii. 273, 274, and Forster, Travels, i. 298, 299.

But the Kashmir, and the controversy witli Muhammadan

joiu'ney to
saints or Mullas, are given on the authority of the native chronicles.
Muhsin Fani represents Har Gobind to have been imprisoned for
twelve years, and Forster attributes liis release to tlie intervention
of a Muhammadan leader, vvlio had originally induced liim to submit
to the emperor.
The Emperor Jahanglr, in his Memoirs, gives more tlian one
instance of his credulity and superstitious reverence for reputed
saints and magicians. See particularly his Memoirs, p. 129, &c.,
where his visit to a worker of wonders is narrated.
 58 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, m
1606-45. recovered this one animal by pretending to purchase it the ;

judge was deceived, and his anger was further roused by the
abduction of, the Sikhs say liis daughter, the Muhammadans
his favourite concubine, who had become enamoured of the
Guru. Other things may have rendered Har Gobind ob-
noxious, and it was resolved to seize him and to disperse
his followers. He was assailed by one Muklilis Khan, but
he defeated the imperial troops near Amritsar, fighting, it
is idly said, with five thousand men against seven thousand.

Afterwards a Sildi, a converted robber, stole two of the

emperor's prime horses from Lahore, and the Guru was
again attacked by the provincial levies, but the detachment
Har Gobind was routed and its leaders slain. Har Gobind now deemed
^* prudent to retire for a time to the wastes of Bhatinda,
the^M-astcs
of Hariana. south of the Sutlcj, where it might be useless or dangerous

to follow him but he watched his opportunity and

;

Keturns to sjjcedily returned to the Punjab, only, however, to become

'
engaged in fresh contentions. The mother of one Painda
Ivlian, who had subsequently risen to some local eminence,
had been the nurse of Har Gobind, and the Guru had ever
been liberal to his foster brother. Painda Ivlian was moved
to keep to himself a valuable hawk, belonging to the Guru's
eldest son, which had flown to his house by chance he :

was taxed with the detention of the bird he equivocated ;

before the Guru, and became soon after his avowed enemy.
The presence of Har Gobind seems ever to have raised
a commotion, and Painda Khan was fixed upon as a suitable
Slays in leader to coerce him. He was attacked but the warlike
;

fight one
apostle slew the friend of his youth with his own hand, and
Khan, his proved again a victor. In this action a soldier rushed
fiiend. furiously upon the Guru but he warded the blow and
;

laid the man dead at his feet, exclaiming, ' Not so, but thus,
is the sword used an observation from which the author
'
;

of the Dabistdn draws the inference ' that Har Gobind

struck not in anger, but deliberately and to give instruction ;

for the function of a Guru is to teach '.^

1 See the Dabistan, ii. 275 but native accounts, Sikh and Muham-
;

madan, have been mainly followed in narrating the sequence of events.

Compare, however, the Dabistdn, ii. 281, for the seizure of horses
belonging to a disciple of the Guru.
CHAP, in SIKH GURCS ; HAR GOBIND 59

Har Gobind appears to have had other difficulties and 1606-45.

adventures of a similar kind, and occasionally to have been

reduced to great straits but the Sikhs always rallied
;

round him, his religious reputation increased daily, and

immediately before his death he was visited by a famous
saint of the ancient Persian faith. ^ He died in peace in Death of
Har Gobind
1645, at Kiratpur on the Sutlej, a place bestowed upon him A.D. 1645.
by the hill chief of Kahlur, and the veneration of his
followers took the terrible form of self-sacrifice. A Rajput Self-

convert threw himself amid the flames of the funeral pyre, sacrifice of
disciples
and walked several paces till he died at the feet of his on his pyre.
master. A Jat disciple did the same, and others, wrought
upon by these examples, were ready to follow, when Har
Rai, the succeeding Guru, interfered and forbade them.-
During the ministry of Har Gobind, the Sikhs increased The body
of Siklis
greatly in numbers, and the fiscal policy of Arjun, and the forms a
armed system of his son, had already formed them into separate
estabUsh-
a kind of separate state within the empire. The Guru was, ineiit with-
perhaps, not unconscious of his latent influence, when he in the
empire.
played with the credulity or rebuked the vanity of his
Muhammadan friend. ' A Raja of the north ', said he, has '
Some anec-
dotes of
sent an ambassador to ask about a place called Delhi, and
Har Go-
the name and parentage of its king. I was astonished that bind.
he had not heard of the commander of the faithful, the lord
of the ascendant, Jahangir.' ^ But during his busy life he
1 The Dabistan, ii. 280.
2 This is related on the authority of the Dahistan, ii. 280, 281. Har
Gobind's death is also given agreeably to the text of the Dahistan as
having occurred on the 3rd Mohurrum, 1055 Hijri, or on the 19th Feb.,
A. D. 1645. Malcolm, Sketch, p. 37, and Forster, Travels, i. 299, give
A. D. 1644 as the exact or probable date, obviously from regarding
1701 Sambat (which Malcolm also quotes) as identical throughout,
instead of for about the first nine months only, with a. d. 1644, an
error which may similarly apply to several conversions of dates in
this history. The manuscript accounts consulted place the Guru's
death variously in a. d. 1637, 1638, and 1639 ; but they lean to the
middle term. All, however, must be too early, as Muhsin Fani
(Dabistdn,n. 281) says he saw Har Gobind in A. D. 1643. Har Gobind's
birth is placed by the native accounts in the early part of 1652 Sambat,
corresponding with the middle of A. D. 1595.
^ See the Dabistan, ii. 276, 277. The friend being Muhsin Fani
himself. The story perhaps shows that the Sikh truly considered
the Muhammadau to be a gossiping and somewhat credulous person.
 60 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. Ill

1606-45. never forgot his genuine character, and always styled him-
self Nanak ', in deference to the firm belief of the Siklis,
'

that the soul of their great teacher animated each of his

successors.^ So far as Har Gobind knew or thought of
His philo- philosophy as a science, he fell into the prevailing views of
sophical
views.
the period God, he said, is one, and the world is' an
:

illusion, an appearance without a reality or he would

;

adopt the more Pantheistic notion, and regard the universe

as composing the one Being. But such reflections did not
occupy his mind or engage his heart, and the rebuke of
a Brahman that if the world was the same as God, he, the
Guru, was one with the ass grazing hard by, provoked a
laugh only from the tolerant Har Gobind.'^ That he thought
conscience and understanding our only divine guides, may
probably be inferred from his reply to one who declared
the marriage of a brother with a sister to be forbidden by
the Almighty. Had God prohibited it, said he, it would be
impossible for man to accomplish it.^ His contempt for
idolatry, and his occasional wide departure from the mild
and conciliatory ways of Nanak, may be judged from the
following anecdote One of his followers smote the nose
:

off an image the several neighbouring chiefs complamed

;

to the Guru, who summoned the Sildi to his presence the ;

culprit denied the act, but said ironically, that if the god
bore witness against him, he would die willingly. Oh, '

fool ! said the Rajas, how should the god speak ?

' '
'It '

is plain ', answered the Sikh, ' who is the fool if the god;

cannot save his own head, how will he avail you ? * '

Har Rai Giirdit, the eldest son of Har Gobind, had acquired
succeeds as g^ high reputation, but he died before his father, leaving

The dates would rather point to Shah Jahan as the emperor alluded
to than Jahangir, as given parenthetically in the translated text of
the Dubistdn. Jahangir died in A. D. 1028, and Muhsin Fani's acquain-
tance with Har Gobind ajopears not to have taken place till towards
the last years of the Guru's life, or till after A. D. 1640.
1 Cf. the Dabistan, ii. 281. - Cf. the Dahistan,ii. 277, 279, 280.
^ The Dabistan ii. 280. , [Cicero seems to have almost as high an
opinion of the functions of conscience. It points out to us, he says,
without Divine assistance, the difference between virtue and vice.
—
{Nature of the Gods, Francklih's translation, p. 213.) J. D. C]
* The Dabistan, ii. 276.
CHAP. Ill SIKH GURCS ; HAR RAI 61

two sons, one of whom sncceerled to the apostleship.^ Har 1645-61

Rai, the new Guru, remained at Klratpur for a time, until
the march of troops to reduce the Kahlur Raja to obedience
induced him to remove eastward into the district of Sarmor.^
There he also remained in peace until he was induced, in
1658-9, to take part, of a nature not distinctly laid down, Becomes a
political
with Dara Shikoh, in the struggle between him and his partisan.
brothers for the empire of India. Dara failed, his adherents
became rebels, and Har Rai had to surrender his elder son
as a hostage. The youth was treated with distinction and
soon released, and the favour of the politic Aurangzeb is
believed to have roused the jealousy of the father.^ But
the end of Har Rai was at hand, and he died at Klratpur in Dies a.d.
the year 1661.* His ministry was mild, yet such as won

^ For some allusions to Gurdit or Gurditta, see the Dabistdn, ii. 281,

282. His memory is yet fondly preserved, and many anecdotes are
current of his personal strength and dexterity. His tomb is at
Klratpur, on the Sutlej, and it has now become a place of pilgrimage.
In connexion with his death, a story is told, which at least serves to
mark the aversion of the Sikh teachers to claim the obedience of the
multitude by an assumption of miraculous powers. Gurditta had
raided a slaughtered cow to life, on the prayer, some say, of a poor
man the owner, and his father was displeased that he should so en-
deavour to glorify himself. Gurditta said that as a life was rec^uired
by God, and as he had withheld one, he would yield his own where-
;

upon he lay down and gave up his spirit. A similar story is told of
Atal Rai, the youngest son of Har Gobind, who had raised the child
of a sorrowing widow to life. His father reproved him, saying,
Gurus should display their powers in purity of doctrine and holiness
of living. The youth, or child as some say, replied as Gurditta had
done, and died. His tomb is in Amritsar, and is likewise a place
deemed sacred.
Gurditta's younger son was named Dhirmal, and his descendants
are still to be found at Kartarpur, in the Jullundur Doab.
^ See the Dahistan, ii. 282. The place meant seems to be Taksal or
Tangsal, near the present British station of Kasauli to the northward
of Ambala.
The important work of Muhsin Fani brings down the history of the
Sikhs to this point only.
^ The Gurii's leaning towards Dara is given on the authority of

native accounts only, but it is highly probable in itself, considering

Dara's personal character and religious principles.
* The authorities mostly agree as to the date of Har Eai's death,

but one'account places it in a. d. 1662. The Guru's birth is differently

placed in 1628 and 1629,
 ^

62 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, hi

1661-74. for him general respect ; and many of the '

Bhais ', or
brethren, the descendants of the chosen companions of a
Guru, trace their descent to one disciple or otlier distin-
guished by Har Rai.^ Some sects also of Sikhs, who affect
more than ordinary precision, had their origin during the
peaceful supremacy of this Guru.-
Har Ki- Har Rai left two sons, Ram Rai, about fifteen, and Har
ceeds^"*^
Kishan, about six years of age but the elder was the off-
;

1661. spring of a handmaiden, and not of a wife of equal degree,

and Har Rai is further said to have declared the younger
his successor. The disputes between the partisans of the
two brothers ran high, and the decision was at last referred
to the emperor. Aurangzeb may have been willing to allow
the Sikhs to choose their own Guru, as some accounts have
it, but the more cherished tradition relates that, being
struck with the child's instant recognition of the empress
among a number of ladies similarly arrayed, he declared
the right of Har Kishan to be indisputable, and he was
accordingly recognized as head of the Siklis but before :

the infant apostle could leave Delhi, he was attacked with

Dies 1664. small-pox, and died, in 1664, at that place.
^ Of these Bhai Bhagtu, the founder of the Kaithal familj% useful

partisans of Lord Lake, but now reduced to comparative insignificance

under the operation of the British system of escheat, was one of the
best known. Dharam Singh, the ancestor of the respectable Bhais
of Bagrian, a place between the Sutlej and Jumna, was likewise a
follower of Har Rai.
Nowadays the title of Bhai is in practice frequentl_v given to any
Sikh of eminent sanctity, whether his ancestor were the companion
of a Guru or not. The Bedls and Sodhls, however, confine themselves
to the distinctive names of their tribes, or the Bedis call themselves
Baba or father, and the Sodhis sometimes arrogate to themselves the
title of Guru, as the representatives of Gobind and Ram Diis.
" Of these sects the Suthris or the Suthra-Shahis are the best known.

Their founder was one Sucha, a Brahman, and they have a st'han or
dera, or place under the walls of the citadel of Lahore. (Cf. Wilson,
As. Res., xvii. 2.3(5.) The name, or designation, means simply the
pure. Another follower of Har Rai was a Khattri trader, named
Fattu, who got the title, or adopted the name of Bhai P'hiru, and who,
according to the belief of some people, became the real founder of
the Udasis.
3 Cf. Malcolm, Shdch, p. 38, and Forster, Travels, i. 299. One
native account places Har Kishan's death in a. d. 1666, but 1664
seems the preferable date. His birth took place in a. d, 1656.
 CHAP. Ill SIKH GURUS ; TEGH BAHADUR 63

AVhen Har Kishan was about to expire, he is stated to 1664-75.

have signified that his successor would be found in the Tegh Ba-
village of Bakala, near Goindwal, on the Beas river. In hadur
succeeds as
this village there were many of Har Gobind's relatives, and
ninth Guru,
his son, Tegh Bahadur, after many wanderings and a long 1664.
sojourn at Patna, on the Ganges, had taken up his residence
at the same place. Ram Rai continued to assert his claims, Ram Rai
disputes
but he never formed a large party, and Tegh Bahadur was his claims.
generally acknowledged as the leader of the Sildis, The
son of Har Gobind was rejoiced, but he said he was un-
worthy to wear his father's sword, and in a short time his
supremacy and his life were both endangered by the
machinations of Ram Rai, and perhaps by his own sus-
picious proceedings.^ He was summoned to Delhi as a pre-
tender to power and as a disturber of the peace, but he
had found a listener in the chief of Jaipur the Rajput ;

advocated his cause, saying such holy men rather went on

pilgrimages than aspired to sovereignty, and he would take
him with him on his approaching march to Bengal.- Tegh
1 Cf., generally, Malcolm, Sketch, p. 38 ; Forster, Travels, i. 299 ;

and Browne's India Traces, ii. 3, 4. Tegh Bahadur's refusal to wearthe

sword of his father is given, however, on the authority of manuscript
native accounts, which likewise furnish a story, showing the particular
act which led to his recognition as Guru. A follower of the sect named ,

Makhan Sah (or Shah), who was passing through Bakala, wished to
make an offering to the Guru of his faith, but he was perplexed by the
number of claimants. His offering was to be 525 rupees in all, but the
amount was known to him alone, and he silently resolved to give a
rupee to each, and to hail him as Gurii who should (from intuition)
claim the remainder. Tegh Bahadur demanded the balance, and so on.
2 Forster and Malcolm, who follow native Indian accounts, both

give Jai Singh as the name of the prince who countenanced Tegh
Bahadur, and who went to Bengal on an expedition but one manu- ;

script account refers to Bir Singh as the friendly chief. Tod {Rdjafi-
thdn, ii. 355) says Ram
Singh, the son of the first Jai Singh, went to
Assam, but he is silent about his actions. It is not unusual in India
to talk of eminent men as living, although long since dead, as a Sikh
will now say he is Ranj it Singh's soldier and it is probable that R am
;

Singh was nominally forgotten, owing to the fame of his father, the
'
Mirza Raja ', and even that the Sikh chroniclers of the early part of
the last century confounded the first with the second of the name,
their contemporary Sawai Jai Singh, the noted astronomer and patron
of the learned. Malcolm {Sketch, p. 39), who, perhaps, copies Forster
(Travels, i. 299, 300), says Tegh Bahadur was, at this time, imprisoned
for two years.
 ^

64 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, hi

1664-75. Bahadur accompanied the Raja to the eastward. He again

„ , T, resided for a time at Patna, but afterwards ioined the arniv,
, - *
Tegh Bana- , , , . ,
"'
. .

diir retires to brmg success, says the chronicler, to the expedition

for a time
against the chiefs of Assam. He meditated on the banks
of the Brahmaputra, and he is stated to have convinced the
heart of the Raja of Kamrup, and to have made him a
behever in his mission.^
Tegh Baha- After a time Tegh Bahadur returned to the Punjab, and
dui' re-
bought
*=
a piece
*^ ground, now known as Makhowal, on the
of *=
turns to
the Punjab, banks of the Sutlej, and close to Ivlratpur, the chosen resi-
dence of his father. But the hostility and the influence of
Ram Rai still pursued him, and the ordinary Sikh accounts
represent him, a pious and innocent instructor of men, as
once more arraigned at Delhi in the character of a criminal ;

but the truth seems to be that Tegh Bahadur followed the

example of his father with unequal footsteps, and that,
Leads a life choosing for his haunts the wastes between Hansi and the
and^^s con-
Sutlej, he subsisted himself and his disciples by plunder,
strained to in a way, indeed, that rendered him not unpopular with

J)eM^
^^
*^^^peasantry. He is further credibly represented to have
leagued with a Muhammadan zealot, named Adam Hafiz,
and have levied contributions upon rich Hindus, while
to
his confederate did the same upon wealthy Musalmans.
They gave a ready asylum to all fugitives, and their power
. interfered with the prosperity of the country the imperial
;

troops marched against them, and they were at last de-

feated and made prisoners. The Muhammadan saint was
banished, but Aurangzeb determined, that the Sikh should
be put to death.
When Tegh Bahadur was on his way to Delhi, he sent
for his youthful son, and girding upon him the sword of
Har Gobind, he hailed him as the Gurfx of the Siklis. He
. told him he was himself being led to death, he counselled
him not to leave his body a prey to dogs, and he enjoined
1 These last two clauses are almost wholly on the authoritj' of a

manuscript Gurmukhl summary of Tegh Bahadur's life.

2 The author of the Siar id Mutak'harin (i. 112, 113) mentions these

predatory or insurrectionary proceedings of Tegh Bahadur, and the

ordinary manuscript compilations admit that such charges were
made, but deprecate a belief in them. For Makhowal the Guru is
said to have paid 500 rupees to the Raja of Kahlur.
 —
CHAP. Ill SIKH GURCS : TEGH BAHADUR 65

upon him the necessity and the merit of revenge. At Delhi, 1664-75.

the story continues, he was summoned before the emperor,

and half -insultingly, half - credulously, told to exhibit
miracles in proof of the alleged divinity of his mission.
Tegh Bahadur answered that the duty of man was to pray
to the Lord ; yet he would do one thing, he would write
a charm, and the sword should fall harmless on the neck
around which it was hung. He placed it around his own
neck and inclined ^his head to the executioner a blow :

severed it, to the surprise of a court tinged with superstition,

and upon the paper was found written, Sir dia, Sirr na '

dia,' —he had given his head but not his secret his life ;

was gone, but his inspiration or apostolic virtue still re-

mained in the world. Such is the narrative of a rude and
wonder-loving people yet it is more certain that Tegh Tegh
;
Bahadur
Bahadur was put to death as a rebel in 1675, and that the put to
stern and bigoted Aurangzeb had the body of the unbeliever death,
1675.
publicly exposed in the streets of Delhi.^
Tegh Bahadur seems to have been of a character hard Tegh Baha-
dur's char-
and moody, and to have wanted both the genial temper of acter and
his father and the lofty mind of his son. Yet his own influence.

example powerfully aided in making the disciples of Nanak

a martial as well as a devotional people. His reverence for
the sword of his father, and his repeated injunction that
his disciples should obey the bearer of his arrows, show
more of the kingly than of the priestly spirit ; and, indeed,

^ All the accounts agree that Tegh Bahadur was ignominiously put
to death. —
The end of the year a. d. 1675 as Maugsar is sometimes
—
given as the month seems the most certain date of his execution.
His birth is differently placed in a. d. 1612 and 1621. [It was on this
occasion that the famous prophecy on the ultimate sovereignty of the
white race in Delhi is said to have been uttered (though some modern
critics consider it a later invention). 'I see', he said dauntlessly to
the emperor, a power rising in the West which will sweep your
'

empire into the dust.' His body was quartered and hung before the
city gates ; but the Sikhs never forgot his prophetic words. They
have accounted largely for Sikh loyalty to British rule and they ;

were on the lips of the gallant Punjab regiments before Delhi in 1857
when at last they avenged in blood the martyrdom of their leader
(Rawlinson, Indian Historical Studies, p. 177, and Macauliffe, vol. i.
Preface, pp. xiii-xviii and vol. iv, 381). The story is related by two
Sikh authors. Ed.]
 66 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS
1675-1708. about this time the Sikh Gurus came to talk of themselves,
and to be regarded by their followers as Sachcha Pad-
'

The title
'True shahs', or as veritable kings ', meaning, perhaps, that they
'

king ap-
'
governed by just influence and not by the force of arms, or
plied to the
Gurus. that they guided men to salvation, while others controlled
their worldly actions. But the expression could be adapted
to any circumstances, and its mystic application seems to
have preyed upon and perplexed the minds of the Mughal
princes, while it illustrates the assertion of an intelligent
Muhammadan writer, that Tegh Bahadur, being at the head
of many thousand men, aspired to sovereign power.^
Gobind When Tegh Bahadur was put to death, his only son was
succeeds
to the in his fifteenth year. The violent end and the last injunction
apostle- of the martyr Guru made a deep impression on the mind
ship, 1675.
of Gobind, and in brooding over his own loss and the fallen
condition of his country, he became the irreconcilable foe
of the Muliammadan name, and conceived the noble idea
of moulding the vanquished Hindus into a new and aspiring
people. But Gobind was yet young, the government was
suspicious of his followers, and among the Sikhs themselves
there were parties inimical to the son of Tegh Bahadur.
His friends were therefore satisfied that the mutilated body
of the departed Gurii was recovered by the zeal and dex-
terity of some humble disciples,- and that the son himself
performed the funeral rites so essential to the welfare of the
living and the peace of the^ead. Gobind was placed in

^ Saiyid Ghulam Husain, the author of the Siar ul Mutalcharin

(1. 112), is the writer referred to.
Browne, in his India Tracts (ii. 2, 3), and who uses a compilation,
attributes Aurangzeb's resolution to put Tegh Bahadiu- to death, to
his assumption of the character of a true king ', and to his use of the
'

title of ' Bahadur ', expressive of valour, birth, and dignity. The
Giiru, in the narrative referred to, disavows all claim to miraculous
powers. For some remarks on the term Sachcha Padshah ', see
'

Appendix XIII.
Tegh Bahadur's objections to wear his father's sword, and hia
injunction to reverence his arrows, that is, to heed what the bearer
of them should say, are given on native authority.
2 Certain men of the unclean and despised caste of Sweepers were

dispatched to Delhi to bring away the dispersed limbs of Tegh Baha,-

dur, and it is said they partly owed their success to the exertions of
that Makhan Shah, who had been the first to hail the deceased as Guru.
 ;

CHAP. Ill SIKHISM UNDER GOBIND 67

retirement amid the lower hills on either side of the Jumna, 1675-1708.
and for a series of years he occupied himself in hunting the
But lives in
tiger and wild boar, in acquiring a knowledge of the Persian retirement
language, and in storing his mind with those ancient legends for several
years.
which describe the mythic glories of his race.^
In this obscurity Gobind remained perhaps twenty Gobind's
years ^ but his youthful promise gathered round him the
;
character
becomes
disciples of Nanak, he was acknowledged as the head of the developed.
Sikhs, the adherents of Ram Rai declined into a sect of
dissenters,and the neighbouring chiefs became impressed
with a high sense of the Guru's superiority and a vague
dread of his ambition. But Gobind ever dwelt upon the He resolves
on modify-
fate of his father, and the oppressive bigotry of Aurangzeb ;
ing the
study and reflection had enlarged his mind, experience of system of
Nanak, and
the world had matured his judgement, and, under the on combat-
mixed impulse of avenging his own and his country's ing the Mu-
hammadan
wrongs, he resolved upon awakening his followers to a new faith and
life, and upon giving precision and aim to the broad and power.

general institutions of Nanak. In the heart of a powerful Gobind's

views and
empire he set himself to the task of subverting it, and motives
from the midst of social degradation and religious cor-
ruption, he called up simplicity of manners, singleness
of purpose, and enthusiasm of desire.^

^ The accounts mostly agree as to this seclusion and occupation of

Gobind during his early manhood but Forster [Travels, i. 301) and
;

also some Gurmukhi accounts, state that he was taken to Patna in

the first instance, and that he lived there for some time before he
retired to the Srinagar hills.
2 The period is nowhere definitely given by English or Indian
writers but from a comparison of dates and circumstances, it seems
;

probable that Gobind did not take upon himself a new and special
character as a teacher of men until about the thirty-fifth year, or
Tintil the year 1695 of Christ. A Sikh author, indeed, quoted by
Malcolm {Sketch, p. 186, note) makes Gobind's reforms date from
A. D. 1696 ; but contradictorily one or more of Gobind's sayings or
writings are made to date about the same period from the south of
India, whither he proceeded only just before his death.
^ The ordinary accounts represent Gobind, as they represent his

grandfather, to have been mainly moved to wage war against Muham-

madans by a desire of avenging the death of his parent. It would be
unreasonable to deny to Gobind the merit of other motives likewise ;
but, doubtless, the fierce feeling in question strongly impelled him
F2
 '

68 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, hi

1675-1708. Gobind was equally bold, systematic, and sanguine ;

but it is not necessary to suppose him either an unscru-
pulous impostor or a self-deluded enthusiast. He thought
that the minds of men might be -wrought upon to great
purposes, he deplored the corruption of the world, he
resented the tyranny which endangered his own life, and
he believed the time had come for another teacher to arouse
the latent energies of the human will. His memory was
filled with the deeds of primaeval seers and heroes his ;

imagination dwelt on successive dispensations for the

instruction of the world, and his mind was not perhaps
untinged with a superstitious belief in his own earthly
and mode destiny.^ In an extant and authentic composition,- he
of present- traces his mortal descent to ancient kings, and he extols
mission. the piety of his immediate parents which rendered them
acceptable to God. But his own unembodied soul, he says,
reposed in bliss, wrapt in meditation, and it murmured
that it should appear on earth even as the chosen messenger
of the Lord — ^the inheritor of the spirit of Nanak, trans-

in the prosecution of his lofty and comprehensive design. The senti-

ment is indeed common to all times and places it is as common in :

the present Indian as it was in the ancient European world ; and

even the most Christian of poets has used it without rebuke to
' '

justify the anger of a shade in Hades, and his own sympathy as a

mortal man yet dwelling in the world :

Oh guide beloved
'
!

His violent death yet unavenged, said I,

By any who are partners in his shame

Made him contemptuous therefore, as I think.
;

He passed me speechless by, and'doing so

Hath made me more compassionate his fate.'
Dante, Hell, xxix. Gary's translation.
^The persuasion of being moved by something more than the mere
human will and reason, does not necessarily imply delusion or in-
sanity in the ordinary sense of the term, and the belief is everywhere
traceable as one of the phenomena of mind ', both in the creation
'

of the poet and in the recorded experience of actual life. Thus the
reader will remember the unaccustomed spirit of Romeo, and the
'
'

'
rebuked genius of Macbeth, as well as the star of Napoleon ;
' ' '

and he will call to mind the martial transports of Ajax infused by

' '

Neptune, as well as the daemon of Socrates and the inspiration

'
'
'

of the holy men of Israel.

2 The Vichitr Natal; or Wondrous Tale, which forms a portion of

the Daswin Padshah ka Granth, or Book of the Tenth King.

 —— .

CHAP. Ill SIKHISM UNDER GOBIND 69

mitted to him as one lamp imparts its flame to another.^ 1675-1708

He describes how the ' Daityas ' had been vainly sent to
reprove the wickedness of man, and how the succeeding
'
Devtas procured worship for themselves as Siva and
'

Brahma and Vishnu. How the Siddhs had established

divers sects, how Gorakhnath and Ramanand introduced
other modes, and how Muhammad had required men to
repeat his own name when beseeching the Almighty. Each
perversely, continues Gobind, established ways of his own
and misled the world, but he himself had come to declare
a perfect faith, to extend virtue, and to destroy evil. Thus, The
religions of
he said, had he been manifested, but he was only as other the world
men, the servant of the supreme, a beholder of the wonders held to be
corrupt,
of creation, and whosoever worshipped him as the Lord
and a new
should assuredly burn in everlasting flame. The practices dispensa-
tion to
of Muhammadans and Hindus he declared to be of no avail,
have been
the reading of Korans and Purans was all in vain, and the vouchsafed
votaries of idols and the worshippers of the dead could The legend
regarding
never attain to bliss. God, he said, was not to be found Gobind's
in texts or in modes, but in humility and sincerity.^ refonna
tion of the
Such is Gobind's mode of presenting his mission but ;
sect of
his followers have extended the allegory, and have variously Nanak.
given an earthly close to his celestial vision. He is stated
to have performed the most austere devotions at the fane
of the goddess-mother of mankind on the summit of the
hill named Naina, and to have asked how in the olden times

1 The reader will contrast what Virgil says of the shade of Rome's
'
great emperor ', with the devoted Quietism of the Indian reformer :

There mighty Caesar waits his vital hour.

'

Impatient for the world, and grasps his promised power.'

Aeneid, vi.
He will also call to mind the sentiment of Milton, which the more
ardent Gobind has greatly heightened.
He asked, but all the heavenly quire stood mute,
'

And silence was in heaven : on man's behalf.

Patron or intercessor none appeared.'
Until Christ himself said
'
Account me man, I for his sake will leave
Thy bosom, and this glory next to thee
Freely put off.' Paradise Lost, iii.
2 Cf. the extracts given by Malcolm from the Vichitr Natak {Sketch,
p. 173, &c.)
 70 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, hi

1675-1708. the heroic Arjun transpierced multitudes with an arrow.

He was told that by prayer and sacrifice the power had been
attained. He invited from Benares a Brahman of great
fame for piety and for power over the unseen world. He
himself carefully consulted the Vedas, and he called upon
his numerous disciples to aid in the awful ceremony he was
about to perform. Before all he makes successful trial of
the virtue of the magician, and an ample altar is laboriously
prepared for the Horn, or burnt offering. He is told
that the goddess will appear to him, an armed shade, and
that, undaunted, he should hail her and ask for fortune.
The Guru, terror-struck, could but advance his sword, as
if in salutation to the dread appearance. The goddess
touched it in token of acceptance, and a divine weapon,
an axe of iron, was seen amid the flames. The sign was
,
declared to be propitious, but fear had rendered the sacrifice
incomplete, and Gobind must die himself, or devote to
death one dear to him, to ensure the triumph of his faith.
The Guru smiled sadly he said he had yet much to accom-
;

plish in this world, and that his fathers spirit Avas still
unappeased. He looked towards his children, but maternal
affection withdrew them twenty-five disciples then
:

sprang forward and declared their readiness to perish ;

one was gladdened by being chosen, and the fates were

satisfied.^
The prill- Gobind is next represented to have again assembled
'^'^'''Vdh
^^^^ and made known to them the great objects
followers,
Gobind. of his mission. A new faith had been declared, and hence-
The _
forth the Khalsa ', the saved or liberated,- should alone
'

* prevail. God must be worshipped in truthfulness and

useless. sincerity, but no material resemblance must degrade the
God is one. Omnipotent the Lord could only be beheld by the eye
;

^ This legendgiven with several variations, and one may be seen

is
in Malcolm and another in Macgregor's History
{Sketch, p. 53, note)
of the Sikhs (i. 71). Perhaps the true origin of the myth is to be
found in Gobind's reputed vision during sleep of the great goddess.
(Malcolm, p. 187.) The occurrence is placed in the year a. d. 1696.
(Malcolm, Sketch, p. 86.)
2 Khalsa, or Khalisa, is of Arabic derivation, and has such original

or secondary meanings as pure, special, free, &c. It is commonly

used in India to denote the immediate territories of any chief or state
CHAP. Ill SIKHISM UNDER GOBIND 71

of faith in the general body of the IQialsa.^ All, he said, 1675-1708.

must become as one; the lowest were equal
' ^ with the .„„
All men are
highest ; must be forgotten they must accept the
caste ; equal.
Idola^try to
'
Pahul or initiation from him,^ and the four races must
'
be con-
eat as one out of one vessel. The Turks must be destroyed, temned,
and the graves of those called saints neglected. The ways ^^,
of the Hindus must be abandoned, their temples viewed danism
destroyed.
as holy and their rivers looked upon as sacred the Brah-;

man's thread must be broken by means of the Khalsa

;

alone could salvation be attained. They must surrender

themselves wholly to their faith and to him their guide.
Their words must be Kritnash, Kulnash, Dharmnash,
'

Karmnash,' the forsaking of occupation and family, of

belief and ceremonies. Do thus,' said Gobind, and the
' '

world is yours.' ^ Many Brahman and Kshattriya followers

murmured, but the contemned races rejoiced they re- ;

minded Gobind of their devotion and services, and asked

that they also should be allowed to bathe in the sacred pool,
and offer up prayers in the temple of Amritsar. The mur-
murings of the twice-born increased, and many took their
departure, but Gobind exclaimed that the lowly should be
raised, and that hereafter the despised should dwell next
to himself.* Gobind then poured water into a vessel and
as distinguished from the lands of tributaries and feudal followers.
Khalsa can thus be held either to denote the kingdom of Gobind, or
that the Sikhs are the chosen people.
^ This assurance is given in the Rehet Nameh, or Rule of Life of

Gobind, which, however, is not included in the Granth. In the same

composition he says, or is held to have said, that the believer who
wishes to see the Guru shall behold him in the Khalsa.
Those who object to such similitudes, or to such struggles of the
mind after precision, should remember that Abelard likened the
Trinity to a syllogism with its three terms and that Wallis, with
;

admitted orthodoxy, compared the Godhead to a mathematical cube

with its three dimensions. (Bayle's Dictionary, art. Abelard '.)
'

^ Pahul (pronounced nearly as Fowl), means literally a gate, a door,

and thence initiation. The word may have the same origin as the
Greek itiXr].
The text gives the substance and usually the very words of the
3

numerous accounts to the same purport. (Of. also Malcolm, Sketch,

pp. 148, 151.)
Churhas, or men of the Sweeper caste, brought away the remains
*

ofTegh Bahadur from Delhi, as has been mentioned {ante, p. 66, note).
Many of that despised, but not oppressed race, have adopted the
 — —
72 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, hi

1675-1708. stirred it with the sacrificial axe, or with the sword ren-
"^^ dered divine by the touch of the goddess. His wife passed
by, as it were by chance, bearing confections of five kinds :

he hailed the omen as propitious, for the coming of woman

denoted an offspring to the Klialsa numerous as the leaves
The Pahul of the forest. He mingled the sugars with the water, and

tion^of th
*^^^ sprinkled a portion of it upon five faithful disciples,
sect, of a Brahman, a Kshattriya, and three Sudras. He hailed
Singhs.
them as Singhs ', and declared them to be the Khalsa.
'

He himself received from them the Pahul of his faith,

'
'

and became Gobind Singh, saying, that hereafter, when-

Sikh faith in the Punjab, and they are commonly known as Rangh-
rheta Sikhs. Eangghar is a term applied to the Rajputs about Delhi
who have become Muhammadans ; but in Malwa the predatory
Hindu Rajputs are similarly styled, perhaps from Rank, a poor man,
in opposition to Rana, one of high degree. Ranghrheta seems thus
rather a diminutive of Rangghar than a derivative of rang (colour) as
commonly understood. The Ranglirheta Sikhs are sometimes styled
Mazhabi, or of the (Muhammadan) faith, from the circumstance that
the converts from Islam are so called, and that many Sweepers
throughout India have become Muhammadans.
[These Mazhabis in the past have proved themselves, and are at the
present time, extremely good soldiers. The Pioneer regiments
23rd, 32nd, 34th — into which they are recruited have a proud
record of service in many campaigns. Mr. Candler, in an article in
Blackwood's Magazine, September 1909, observes : The general
'

reluctance of the low-caste Hindu to elevate himself by becoming

a Sikh may perhaps be explained by the historical exception of
the Mazhabis. These Sikhs, the descendants of converts from the
despised Sweeper caste, were welcomed by the Khalsa at a time when
they were engaged in a desperate struggle with the forces of Islam.
But when theSikhs dominated the Punjab they found that the equality
their religion promised them existed in theory rather than in fact.
They occupied much the same position among the Jat and Khalsa
descended Sikhs as their ancestors, the Sweepers, enjoyed among
Hindus. They were debarred from all privileges and were, at one
time, excluded from the army.'
According to the Census Report of 1912 the Mazhabi population
now numbers 21,691. They have taken to husbandry and have been
'

declared as a separate agricultiu-al tribe in the districts of Gujran-

wala and Lyallpur.' {Census Report, 1912.) Ed.]
In allusion to the design of inspiring the Hindus with a new life,
Gobind is reported to have said that he would teach the sparrow to
'

strike the eagle '. (See Malcolm, Sketch, p. 74, where it is used with
reference to Aurangzeb, but the saying is attributed to Gobind under
various circumstances by different authors.)
 —

CHAP. Ill SIKHISM UNDER GOBIND 73

ever five Sikhs should be assembled together, there he also 1675-1708.

'
would be present.^
Gobind thus abolished social distinctions,^ and took away The visible
from his followers each ancient solace of superstition but of sj^j^'q^ ;

he felt that he must engage the heart as well as satisfy the Singhs.
reason, and that he must give the Sikhs some common
bonds of union which should remind the weak of their new
life, and add fervour to the devotion of the sincere. They
should have one form of initiation, he said, the sprinkling Lustration
of water by five of the faithful ^ they should worship the
;
R^^^gnce
One Invisible God they should honour the memory of for Nanak.
;

Nanak and of his transanimate successors ;* their watchword

should be, Hail Gurii ^ but they should revere and bow to The excla-
!

nought visible save the Granth, the book of their belief.^ Hail Guru!

^ The Brahman novitiate is stated to have been an inhabitant of

the Deccan, and the Kshattriya of the Punjab one Sudra, a Jhin-
;

war (Kahar), was of Jaganath, the second, a Jat, was of Hastinapur,

and the third, a Chhimba or cloth printer, was of Dwarka in Gujrat.
For the declaration about five Sikhs forming a congregation, or
about the assembly of five men ensuring the presence or the grace of
the Guru, cf. Malcolm, Sketch, p. 186. [Five is also the number of
the necessary attributes of the true follower of Gobind Singh,
viz. Kes, Khanda, Kangha, Kara, Kach —
long hair, dagger, comb,
bangle, breeches. Ed.]
Gobind had originally the cognomen, or titular name, of Rai ', '

one in common use among Hindus, and largely adopted under the
variation of Rao by the military Marathas
' '
but on declaring the
;

comprehensive nature of his reform, the Guru adopted for himself

and followers the distinctive appellation of Singh ', meaning literally
'

a lion, and metaphorically a champion or warrior. It is the most

common of the distinctive names in use among Rajpiits, and it is now
the invariable termination of every proper name among the disciples
of Gobind. It is sometimes used alone, as Khan is used among the
Muhammadans, to denote pre-eminence. Thus Sikh chiefs would
talk of Ranjit Singh, as ordinary Sikhs will talk of their own immedi-
ate leaders, as the Singh Sahib ', almost equivalent to Sir King',
' '

or Sir Knight ', in English. Strangers likewise often address any

'

Sikh respectfully as Singhji '.

'

2 See Appendix X. ^ See Appendix XI.

* The use of the word transanimate may perhaps be allowed.
' '

The Sikh belief in the descent of the individual spirit of Nanak upon
each of his successors, is compared by Gobind in the Vichitr Natak
to the imparting of flame from one lamp to another.
^ See Appendix XII.
* Obeisance to the Orant}i alone is inculcated in the Rabat Nama
 74 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS
1675-1708. They should bathe, from time to time, in the pool of
Unshorn Amritsar their locks should remain unshorn they should
; ;

locks ; the all name themselves Singhs ', or soldiers, and of material
'

title of
Singh;
things they should devote their finite energies to steel alone>
and devo- Arms should dignify their person they should be ever
;

tion to waging war, and great would be his merit who fought in
arms.
the van, who slew an enemy, and who despaired not although
overcome. He cut off the three sects of dissenters from all
intercourse the Dhirmalis, who had laboured to destroy
:

Arjun the Ram Rais, who had compassed the death of

;

his father and the Masandis, who had resisted his own
;

authority. He denounced the shaven ', meaning, perhaps,

'

all Muhammadans and Hindus and for no reason which

;

bears clearly on the worldly scope of his mission, he held up

to reprobation those slaves of a perverse custom, who
impiously take the lives of their infant daughters .^
Gobind had achieved one victory, he had made himself
master of the imagination of his followers but a more
;

laborious task remained, the destruction of the empire of

unbelieving oppressors. He had established the Khalsa,
the theocracy of Singhs, in the midst of Hindu delusion and
Muhammadan error he had confounded PIrs and MuUas,
;

Sadhs and Pandits, but he had yet to vanquish the armies

of a great emperor, and to subdue the multitudes whose
faith he impugned. The design of Gobind may seem wild
and senseless to those accustomed to consider the firm sway
and regular policy of ancient Rome, and who daily witness
the power and resources of the well-ordered governments
The cha- of modern Europe. But the extensive empires of the East,
racter and
condition of
as of semi-barbarism in the West, have never been based
the Mughal on the sober convictions of a numerous people they have ;

empire
been mere dynasties of single tribes, rendered triumphant
when Go-
bind re- by the rapid development of warlike energy, and by the
solved to
assail it.
comprehensive genius of eminent leaders. Race has suc-
ceeded race in dominion, and what Cyrus did with his
Persians and Charlemagne with his Franks, Babar began

or Rule of Life of Gobind, and he endeavoured to guard against being

himself madfe an object of future idolatry, by denouncing (in the
Vichitr Natak) all who should regard him as a god.
1 See Appendix XIII. ^ ggg Appendix XIV.
 —
CHAP. Ill SIKHISM UNDER GOBIND 75

and Akbar completed with a few Tartars their personal 1675-1708.

followers. The Mughals had even a less firm hold of empire

than the Achaemenides or the Carlovingians the devoted ;

clansmen of Babar were not numerous, his son was driven

from his throne, and Akbar became the master of India as Akbar.
much by political sagacity, and the generous sympathy of
his nature, as by military enterprise and the courage of his
partisans. He perceived the want of the times, and his
commanding genius enabled him to reconcile the conflicting
interests and prejudices of Muhammadans and Hindus, of
Rajputs, Turks, and Pathans. At the end of fifty years he
left his heir a broad and well-regulated dominion yet one
;

son of Jahanglr contested the empire with his father, and

Shah Jahan first saw his children waging war with one
another for the possession of the crown which he himself
still wore, and at length became the prisoner of the ablest

and most successful of the combatants. Aurangzeb ever Aurangzeb.

feared the influence of his own example his temper was
:

cold ; his policy towards Muhammadans was one of sus-

picion, while his bigotry and persecutions rendered hiin
hateful to his Hindu subjects. In his old age his wearied
spirit could find no solace no tribe of brave and confiding
;

men gathered round him yet his vigorous intellect kept

:

him an emperor to the last, and the hollowness of his sv/ay •

was not apparent to the careless observer until he was laid

in his grave. The empire of the Mughals wanted political
fusion, and its fair degree of administrative order and
subordination was vitiated by the doubt which hung about
the succession.' It comprised a number of petty states
which rendered an unwilling obedience to the sovereign
power it was also studded over with feudal retainers, and
;

all these hereditary princes and mercenary Jagirdars were

' '

^ Notwithstanding this defect, the English themselves have yet to

do much before they can establish a system which shall last so long
and work so well as Akbar's organization of Pargana Chaudris and
Qanungos, who may be likened to hereditary county sheriffs, and
registers of landed property and holdings. The objectionable heredi-
tary law was modified in practice by the adoption of the most able
or the most upright as the representative of the family. [A somewhat
pessimistic statement viewing the way in which modern administra-
tors have dealt with the land c^uestion. Ed.]
 —

76 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS

1675-1708. ever ready to resist, or to pervert, the measures of the central
government. They considered then, as they do now, that
a monarch exercised sway for his own interests only, with-
out reference to the general welfare of the country no ;

public opinion of an intelligent people systematically

governed controlled them, and applause always awaited
the successful aspirant to power. Akbar did something to
remove this antagonism between the rulers and the ruled,
but his successors were less wise than himself, and religious
discontent was soon added to the love of political inde-
pendence. The southern portions of India, too, were at
this time recent conquests, and Aurangzeb had been long
absent,^ hopelessly endeavouring to consolidate his sway in
that distant quarter. The Himalayas had scarcely been
penetrated by the Mughals, except in the direction of
Kashmir, and rebellion might rear its head almost unheeded
Sivajl the amid their wild recesses. Lastly, during this period, Sivajl
Maratha.
had roused the slumbering spirit of the Maratha tribes. He
had converted rude herdsmen into successful soldiers, and
had become a territorial chief in the very neighbourhood of
Guru the emperor. Gobind added religious fervour to warlike
Gobind.
temper, and his design of founding a kingdom of Jats upon
the waning glories of Aurangzeb's dominion does not
appear to have been idly conceived or rashly undertaken.
Gobind's Yet it is not easy to place the actions of Gobind in due
plans of
active op-
order, or to understand the particular object of each of his
position, proceedings. He is stated by a credible Muhammadan
(about)
1695.
author to have organized his followers into troops and bands,
and to have placed them under the command of trust-
worthy disciples.- He appears to have entertained a body
of Pathans, who are everyn^here the soldiers of fortune,^
and it is certain that he established two or three forts along
[^ A reference to the conquest by Aurangzeb of the kingdom of

Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687). From 1681 to his death in 1707
the Emperor was almost incessantly engaged in a series of campaigns
against these kingdoms and the rising power of the Marathas.
Ed.]
2 Siar ul Mutakharin, i. 113.

^ The Maratha histories .show that Sivaji likewise hired bands of

Pathans, who had lost service in the declining kingdom of Bijapur.
(Grant Duff, Hist, of the Marathas, i. 165.)
 ;

CHAP. Ill SIKHISM UNDER GOBIND 77

1675-1708.
the skirts of the hills between the Sutlej and Jumna. He
had a post at Paunta in the Kirda vale near Nahan, a place His mili-
long afterwards the scene of a severe struggle between the tary posts
Gurkhas and the English. He had likewise a retreat at and leagues
with the
Anandpur-Makhowal, which had been established by his chiefs of the
father,^ and a third at Chamkaur, fairly in the plains and Lower
Himalayas,
lower down the Sutlej than the chosen haunt of Tegh
Bahadur. He had thus got strongholds which secured him
against any attempts of his hill neighbours, and he would
next seem to have endeavoured to mix himself up with the
affairs of these half-independent chiefs, and to obtain a
commanding influence over them, so as by degrees to esta-
blish a virtual principality amid mountain fastnesses to
serve as the basis of his operations against the Mughal His influ-
ence as a
government. As a religious teacher he drew contributions religious
and procured followers from all parts of India, but as a teacher.
leader he perceived the necessity of a military pivot, and as
a rebel he was not insensible to the value of a secure retreat.
Gobind has himself described the several actions in which Gobind
quarrels
he was engaged, either as a principal or as an ally.^ His with the
pictures are animated they are of some value as historical Rajas of
;
Nahan and
records, and their sequence seems more probable than that Nalagarh,
of any other narrative. His first contest was with his old
friend the chief of Nahan, aided by the Raja of Hindur, to
whom he had given offence, and by the mercenary Pathans
in his own service, who claimed arrears of pay, and who may
have hoped to satisfy all demands by the destruction of
Gobind and the plunder of his establishments. But the
Guru was victorious, some of the Pathan leaders fell, and
Gobind slew the young warrior, Hari Chand of Nalagarh,
1 Anandpur is situated close to Makhowal. The first name was
given by Gobind to his own particular residence at Makhowal, as
distinguished from the abode of his father, and it signified the place
of happiness. A knoll with a seat upon it, is here pointed out, whence
,

it is said Gobind was wont to discharge an arrow a coss and a quarter

— about a mile and two-thirds English, the Punjabi coss being small.
2 Namely, in the Vichitr Natak, already quoted as a portion of

the Second Granth. The Guru Bilas, by Sukha Singh, corroborates

Gobind's account, and adds many details. Malcolm {Sketch, p. 58, &c.)
may be referred to for translations of some portions of the Vichitr
Natak bearing on the period, but Malcolm's own general narrative of
the events is obviously contradictory and inaccurate.
 78 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, hi

1675-1708. with his own hand. The Guru nevertheless deemed it

Aids the
prudent to move to the Sutlej he strengthened Anandpur,
;

Eaja of and became the ally of Bhim Chand of Kuhlur, who was in
resistance to the imperial authorities of Kot Kangra. The
^h*^" h^"!^
against the Muhammadan commander was joined by various hill chiefs,
imperial j^^^ jj^ ^j^^ gj^^j j^g ^g^g routed, and BhIm Chand's rebellion
seemed justified by success. A period of rest ensued, during
which, says Gobind, he punished such of his followers as
were lukewarm or disorderly. But the aid which he rendered
to the chief of Kuhlur was not forgotten, and a body of
Muhammadan troops made an unsuccessful attack upon his
position. Again an imperial commander took the field,
partly to coerce Gobind, and partly to reduce the hill rajas,
who, profiting by the example of Bhim Chand, had refused
to pay their usual tribute. A desultory warfare ensued ;

some attempts at accommodation were made by the hill

chiefs, but these were broken off, and the expedition ended
in the rout of the Muhammadans.
^Gobind's The success of Gobind, for all was attributed to him,
proceedings
caused the Muhammadans some anxiety, and his designs
suspicions appear likewise to have alarmed the hill chiefs, for they
^*^^dly claimed the imperial aid against one who announced
°h'*f 1

cause the himself as the True King. Aurangzeb directed the governors
emperor ^f Lahore and Sirhind to march against
'^
the Guru, and it was
some
anxiety, rumoured that the emperor's son, Bahadur Shah, would
himself take the field in their support.^ Gobind was sur-
i7m"*^^
P ,
.'
, rounded at Anandpur by the forces of the empire. His own
ducedto resolution was equal to any emergency, but numbers of
straits at
Anandpur.
j, jg followers deserted him He cursed them in this world and
.

in the world to come, and others who wavered he caused to

renounce their faith, and then dismissed them with igno-
1 Malcolm (Sketch, p. 60, note) says that this allusion would place

the warfare in a. d. 1701, as Bahadur Shah was at that time sent

from the Deccan towardsKabul. Some Sikh traditions, indeed,, repre-
sent Gobind as having gained the goodwill of, or as they put it, as
having shown favour to, Bahadur Shah and Gobind himself, in the
;

Vichitr Natak, says that a son of the emperor came to suppress the
disturbances, but no name is given. Neither does Mr. Elphinstone
(History, ii. 545) specify Bahadur Shah and, indeed, he merely
;

seems to conjecture that a prince of the blood, who was sent to put
down disturbances near Multan, was really employed against the
Sikhs near Sirhind.
CHAP. Ill SIKHISM UNDER GOBIND 79

miny. But his difficulties increased, desertions continued 1675-1708.

and at last he found himself at the head of no
to take place,
more than forty devoted followers. His mother, his wives, His
and his two youngest children effected their escape to gsd^p^g^.'^but
Sirhind, but the boys were there betrayed to the Muhamma- are subse-

dans and put to death.^ The faithful forty said they were ^"^^"^"[1?"*

ready to die with their priest and king, and they prayed him
to recall his curse upon their weaker-hearted brethren, and
to restore to them the hope of salvation. Gobind said that
his wrath would not endure. But he still clung to temporal
success the fort of Chamkaur remained in his possession, He himself
;

and he fled during the night and reached the place in safety. Q^amkaur.
At Chamkaur Gobind was again besieged.- He was called qqJjjjj^]^
upon to surrender his person and to renounce his faith, but escapes
Ajit Singh, his son, indignantly silenced the bearer of the ^^am^^*^^"^"
message. The troops pressed upon the Siklis the Guru 1705-6.
;

was himself everywhere present, but his two surviving sons

fell before his eyes, and his little band was nearly destroyed.

He at last resolved upon escape, and taking advantage of

a dark night, he threaded his way to the outskirts of the
camp, but there he was recognized and stopped by two
Pathans. These men, it is said, had in former times received
kindness at the hands of the GurQ, and they now assisted
him in reaching the town of Bahlolpur, where he trusted his
person to a third follower of Islam, one PIr Muhammad,
with whom it is further said the Guru had once studied the
Koran. Here he ate food from Muhammadans, and declared
that such might be done by Sikhs under pressing circum-
stances. He further disguised himself in the blue dress of
a Musalman Dervish, and speedily reached the wastes of
Bhatinda. His disciples again rallied round him, and he Success-
succeeded in repulsing his pursuers at a place since called u'^'^^^g^g^s
at Muktsar;
1 The most detailed account of this murder of Gobind's children
is given in Browne's India Tracts, ii. 6, 7.
2 At Chamkaur, in one of the towers of the small brick fort, is still

shown the tomb of a distinguished warrior, a Sikh of the Sweeper

caste, named Jiwan Singh, who fell during the siege. The bastion
itself is known as that of the Martyr. A temple now stands where
Ajit Singh and Jujhar Singh, the eldest sons of Gobind, are reputed
to have fallen.
Gobind's defeat and flight are placed by the Sikhs in a.d. 1705-6.
 80 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, m
1675-1708. '
Muktsar ', or the Pool of Salvation. He continued his
~~, ' flight to Dam-Dama, or the Breathing Place, half way
at Dam- between Hansi and Ferozepore the imperial authorities
;

Darna, thought his strength sufficiently broken, and they did not
Bhatinda. follow him further into a parched and barren country.
Gobind At Dam-Dama Gobind remained for some time, and he
composes occupied himself in composing the supplemental Granth,
Natak. '
the Book of the Tenth King', to rouse the energies and
sustain the hopes of the faithful. This comprises the
Vichitr Natak, or Wondrous Tale ', the only historical
'

portion of either Granth, and which he concludes by a hymn

in praise of God, who had ever assisted him. He would, he
says, make known in al^othe^ book the things which he had
himself accomplished, the glories of the Lord which he had
witnessed, and his recollections or visions of his antecedent
existence. All he had done, he said, had been done with the
aid of the Almighty and to Loh ', or the mysterious
;
'

Summoned virtue of iron, he attributed his preservation. While thus

zJb to^his^
living in retirement, messengers arrived to summon him to
presence, the emperor's presence but Gobind replied to Aurangzeb
;

in a series of parablesadmonitory of kings, partly in which,

and partly in a letter which accompanied them, he remon-
strates rather than humbles himself. He denounces the
wrath of God upon the monarch, rather than deprecates the
Eeplies to imperial anger against himself he tells the emperor that
;

peroT^n a ^^ P*^*^ "^ trust in him, and that the Khalsa will avenge
' '

denuncia- him. He refers to Nanak's religious reform, and he briefly

tory strain.
^Uudes to the death of Arjun and of Tegh Bahadur. He
describes his own wrongs and his childless condition. He
was, as one without earthly link, patiently awaiting death,
and fearing none but the sole Emperor, the King of Kings.
Nor, said he, are the prayers of the poor ineffectual and ;

on the day of reckoning it would be seen how the emperor

would justify his manifold cruelties and oppressions. The
Guru was again desired to repair to Aurangzeb's presence,
and he really appears to have proceeded to the south some
time before the aged monarch was removed by death .^

1 In this narrative of Gobind' s warlike actions, reference has been

mainly had to the Vichitr Natak of the Guru, to the Guru BiUs of
Sukha Singh, and to the ordinary modern compilations in Persian and
CHAP. Ill SIKHISM UNDER GOBIND 81

Aurangzeb died in the beginning of 1707, and his eldest 1675-1708.

~
son, Bahadur Shah, hastened from Kabul to secure the Aurangzeb ~.

succession. He vanquished and slew one brother near Agra, dies, and
and, marching ° to the south, he defeated a second, Kam- Shah
j?,*^,'*'^^^
suc-
bakhsh, who died of his wounds. Wliile engaged in this ceeds, a.d.
last campaign, Bahadur Shah summoned Gobind to his '^^*^'^-

camp.^ The Guru went he was treated with respect,

;
t-
and Crobmd
proceeds to
'

he received a military command in the valley of the Goda- the south

vari. The emperor perhaps thought that the leader of of India.
insurrectionary Jats might be usefully employed in opposing inters the
rebellious Marathas, and Gobind perhaps saw in the imperial service.
service a ready way of disarming suspicion and of re-
organizing his followers.^ At Dam-Dama he had again
denounced evil upon all who should thenceforward desert
him ;in the south he selected the daring Banda as an
instrument, and the Sikhs speedily reappeared in over-
whelming force upon the banks of the Sutlej But Gobind's
.

race was run, and he was not himself fated to achieve aught
more in person. He had engaged the services of an Afghan,
half-adventurer, half-merchant, and he had procured from
him a considerable number of horses.^ The merchant, or
servant, pleaded his own necessities, and urged the payment

Gurmukhi; transcripts, imperfect apparently, of some of which

latter have been put into English by Dr. Macgregor {History of the
Sikhs, pp. 79-99).
^ The Sikh writers seem unanimous in giving to their great teacher

a military command in the Deccan, while some recent Muhammadan

compilers assert that he died at Patna. But the liberal conduct of
Bahadur Shah is confirmed by the contemporary historian, Khafi
Khan, who states that he received rank in the Mughal army (see
Elphinstone, Hist, of Iiidia, ii. 566 note), and it is in a degree cor-
roborated by the undoubted fact of the Gurii's death on the banks of
the Godavari. The traditions preserved at Nader give Kartik, 1765
(Sambat), or towards the end of a. d. 1703, as the date of Gobind's
arrival at that place.
^ It would be curious to trace how far India was colonized in the

intervals of great invasions by petty Afghan and Turkoman leaders,

who defrayed their first or occasional expenses by the sale of horses.
Tradition represents that both the destroyer of Manikiala in the
Punjab, and the founder of Bhatnair in Hariana, were emigrants so
circumstanced ; and Amir Khan, the recent Indian adventurer, was
similarly reduced to sell his steeds for food. {Memoirs of Amir
Khan, p. 16.)
6
 82 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. Ill

1675-1708. of large sums due to him. Impatient with delay, he used an

angry gesture, and his mutterings of violence provoked
Gobind to strike him dead. The body of the slain Pa than
was removed and buried, and his family seemed reconciled
to the fate of its head. But his sons nursed their revenge,
and awaited an opportunity of fulfilling it. They succeeded
Gobind in stealing upon the Guru's retirement, and stabbed him
wounded mortally when asleep or unguarded. Gobind sprang up
by
assassins. and the assassins were seized but a sardonic smile played
;

upon their features, and they justified their act of retribu-

tion. The Guru heard he remembered the fate of their
:

father, and he perhaps called to mind his own unavenged

parent. He said to the youths that they had done well, and
he directed that they should be released uninjured.^ The
expiring Guru was childless, and the assembled disciples
asked in sorrow who should inspire them with truth and
lead them to victory when he was no more. Gobind bade
them be of good cheer the appointed Ten had indeed ful-
;

and dies, filled their mission, but he was about to deliver the Khalsa
~A.D. 1708,
declaring
to God, the never-dying. He who wishes to behold the
'

his mission Guru, let him search the Granth of Nanak. The Guru will
to be ful- be firm and be faithful wherever
dwell with the Klialsa ; :
filled, and
^
the Khalsa five Siklis are gathered together there will I also be present.'
to be com-
mitted to 1 All the common accounts narrate the death of Gobind as given in
God.
the text, but with slight differences of detail, while some add that the
widow of the slain Pathan continually urged her sons to seek revenge.
Many accounts, and especially those by Muhammadans, likewise
represent Gobind to have become deranged in his mind, and a story
told by some Sikh writers gives a degree of countenance to such a
belief. They say that the heart of the Guru inclined towards the
youths whose father he had slain, that he was wont to play simple
games of skill with them, and that he took opportunities of incul-
cating upon them the merit of revenge, as if he was himself weary of
life, and wished to fall by their hands. The Star ul Mvtakharin
(i. 114) simply says that Gobind died of grief on account of the loss

of his children. (Cf. Malcolm, Sketch, p. 70, &c. ; and Elphinstone,

History, ii. 564.) The accounts now furnished by the priests of the
temple at Nader, represent the one assassin of the Guru to have been
the grandson of the Painda Khan, slain by Har Gobind, and they do
not give him any further cause of quarrel with Gobind himself.
2 Such is the usual account given of the Gurii's dying injunctions
;

and the belief that Gobind consummated the mission or dispensation

of Nanaks eeras to have been agreeable to the feelings of the times,
CHAP. Ill SIKHISM UNDER GOBIND 83

Gobind was Nader, on the banks of the 1675-1708

killed in 1708, at
Godavari.^ He was and if it be Qo^jj^d's
in his forty-eighth year,
thought by any that his obscure end belied the promise of endun-
his whole life, it should be remembered that—
llSs not
r fruitless.
4 rr.1
The hand1I,
oi man
but a tardy servant of the brain,
Is
And follows, with its leaden diligence.
The fiery steps of fancy '; ^

that when Muhammad was a fugitive from Mecca, the '

lance of an Arab might have changed the history of the

world '; ^ and that the Achilles of poetry, the reflexion of
truth, left Troy untaken. The lord of the Myrmidons,
destined to a short life and immortal glory, met an end
almost as base as that which he dreaded when struggling
with Simois and Scamander and the heroic Richard, of
;

eastern and western fame, whose whole soul was bent upon
the deliverance of Jerusalem, veiled his face in shame and

while it now forms a main article of faith. The mother, and one wife
of Gobind, are represented to have survived him some years but ;

each, when dying, declared the Guriiship to rest in the general body
of the Khalsa, and not in any one mortal ; and hence the Sikhs do not
give such a designation even to the most revered of their holy men,
their highest religious title being Bhai ', literally ' brother ', but
'

corresponding in significance with the English term elder'. '

1 Gobind is stated to have been born in the month of Poh, 1718

(Sambat), which may be the end of a. d. 1661 or beginning of 1662,

and all accounts agree in placing his death about the middle of 1765
(Sambat), or towards the end of a. d. 1708.
At Nader there is a large religious establishment, partly supported
by the produce of landed estates, partly by voluntary contributions,
and partly by sums levied annually, agreeably to the mode organized
by Arjun. The principal of the establishment dispatches a person to
show his requisition to the faithful, and all give according to their
means. Thus the common horsemen in the employ of Bhopal give
a rupee and a qiiarter each a year, besides offerings on occasions of
pilgrimage.
Ranjit Singh sent considerable sums to Nader, but the buildings
commenced with the means which he provided have not been com-
pleted.
Nader is also called Apchalanagar, and in Southern and Central
India it is termed pre-eminently the Gurudwara ', that is, the house
'
'

of the Gurus '.

2 8ir Marmaduke MaxuxU, a dramatic poem. Act iv, scene 6.

^ Gibbon, Decline and Fall

of the Roman Empire, ix. 285.
g2
 :

84 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. Ill

1708-16. sorrow that God's holy city should be left in the possession
of infidels he would not behold that which he could not
:

redeem, and he descended from the Mount to retire to

captivity and a premature grave.^ Success is thus not
always the measure of greatness. The last apostle of the
Sikhs did not live to see his own ends accomplished, but he
Anew effectually roused the dormant energies of a vanquished
character
impressed people, and filled them with a lofty although fitful longing
upon the for social freedom and national ascendancy, the proper
reformed
Hindus adjuncts of that purity of worship which had been preached
by Nanak. Gobind saw what was yet vital, and he
relumed it with Promethean fire. A li\ang spirit possesses
the whole Sikh people, and the impress of Gobind has not
only elevated and altered the constitution of their minds,
but has operated materially and given amplitude to their
physical frames. The features and external form of a whole
people have been modified, and a Sikh chief is not more
distinguishable by his stately person and free and manly
bearing, than a minister of his faith is by a lofty thoughtful-
ness of look, which marks the fervour of his soul, and his
persuasion of the near presence of the Divinity.^ Notwith-
standing these changes it has been usual to regard the Siklis
as essentially Hindu, and they doubtless are so in language
and everyday customs, for Gobind did not fetter his
^ For this story of the lion-like king, see Gibbon {Decline and Fall,
xi. 143). See also Turner's comparison of the characters of Achilles
and Richard {History of England, p. 300), and Hallam's assent to its
superior justness relatively to his own parallel of the Cid and the
English hero {Middle Ages, iii. 482).
2 This physical change has been noticed by Sir Alexander Burnes

{Travels,!. 285, and ii. 39), by Elphinstone {History of India, ii. 564),
and it also slightly struck Malcolm {Sketch, p. 129). Similarly a change
of aspect, as well as of dress, &c., may be observed in the descendants
of such members of Hindu families as became Muhammadans one or
two cent\iries ago, and whose personal appearance may yet be readily
compared with that of their undoubted Brahmanical cousins in many
parts of Malwa and Upper India. That Prichard {Physical History of
Mankind, i. 183 and i. 191) notices no such change in the features,
although he does in the characters, of the Hottentots and Esquimaux
who have been converted to Christianity, may either show that the
attention of our observers and inquirers has not been directed to
the subject, or that the savages in question have embraced a new
faith with little of living ardour and absorbing enthusiasm.
CHAP. Ill SIKHISM UNDER GOBIND 85

discipleswith political systems or codes of municipal laws ; 1708-16,

yet, in religious faith and worldly aspirations, they are although

wholly different from other Indians, and they are bound not fully
apparent to
together by a community of inward sentiment and of out- strangers,
ward object unknown elsewhere. But the misapprehension if so to
Indians.
need not surprise the public nor condemn our scholars,^
when it is remembered that the learned of Greece and Rome
misunderstood the spirit of those humble men who obtained
a new life by baptism. Tacitus and Suetonius regarded the
early Christians as a mere Jewish sect, they failed to per-
ceive the fundamental difference, and to appreciate the
latent energy and real excellence, of that doctrine, which has
added dignity and purity to modern civilization.^

1 The author alludes chiefly to Professor H. H. Wilson, whose

learning and industry are doing so much for Indian history. (See
Asiatic Researches, xvii. 237, 238 ; and continuation of Mill's History,
vii. 101, 102.) Malcolm holds similar views in one place {Sketch,
pp. 144, 148, 150), but somewhat contradicts himself in another
{Sketch, p. 43). With these opinions, however, may be compared the
more correct views of Elphinstone {History of India, ii. 562, 564) and
Sir Alexander Burnes {Travels, i. 284, 285), and also Major Browne's
observation {India Tracts, ii. 4) that the Sikh doctrine bore the same
relation to the Hindu as the Protestant does to the Romish.
2 See the Annals of Tacittis, Murphy's translation (book xv, sect. 44,

note 15). Tacitus calls Christianity a dangerous superstition, and

regards its professors as moved by a sullen hatred of the whole
'

human race '

—
the Judaic characteristic of the period. Suetonius
talks of the Jews raising disturbances in the reign of Claudius, at the
instigation of one Chrestus', thus evidently mistaking the whole of
'

the facts, and further making a Latin name, genuine indeed, but
misapplied, of the Greek term for anointed.
Again, the obscure historian, Vopiscus, preserves a letter, written
by the Emperor Hadrian, in which the Christians are confounded with
the adorers of Serapis, and in which the bishops are said to be espe-
cially devoted to the worship of that strange god, who was introduced
into Egypt by the Ptolemies (Waddington, History of the Church,
p. 37) ; and even Eusebius himself did not properly distinguish
between Christians and the Essenic Therapeutae (Strauss, Life of
Jesus, i. 294), although the latter formed essentially a mere sect, or
order, affecting asceticism and mystery.
It is proper to add that Mr. Newman quotes the descriptions of
Tacitus and others as referring really to Christians and not to Jews
{On the Development of Christian Doctrine, p. 205, &c.). He may be
right, but the grounds of his dissent from the views of preceding
scholars are not given.
 86 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. Ill

1708-16. Banda, the chosen disciple of Gobind, was a native of the

Banda suc- south of India, and an ascetic of the Bairagi order ^ and ;

ceeds the extent of the deceased Guru's preparations and means

Gobind as
will be best understood from the narrative of the career of
a temporal
leader. his followers, when his own commanding spirit was no more.
Proceeds to The Siklis gathered in numbers round Banda when he
the north,
reached the north-west, bearing with him the arrows of
and cap-
tures Gobind as the pledge of victory. Banda put to flight the
Sirhind, Mughal authorities in the neighbourhood of Sirhind, and
1709-10.
then attacked, defeated, and sIcav the governor of the pro-
vince. Sirhind was plundered, and the Hindu betrayer and
Musalman destroyer of Gobind' s children were themselves
put to death by the avenging Siklis.^ Banda next established
a stronghold below tlie hills of Sirmiir,^ he occupied the
country between the Sutlej and Jumna, and he laid waste
the district of Saharanpur.*
The em- Bahadur Shah, the emperor, had subdued his rebellious
peror
brother Kambakhsh, he had come to terms with the
marches
towards Marathas, and he was desirous of reducing the princes of
Lahore.
Rajputana to their old dependence, when he heard of the
defeat of his troops and the sack of his city by the hitherto
unknown Banda.^ He hastened towards the Punjab, and

1 Some accounts represent Banda to have been a native of Northern

India, and the writer, followed by Major Browne (India Tracts, ii. 9),
says he was born in the Jullundur Doab.
'Banda' signifies the slave, and Sariip Chand, the author of the
Gur-Ratndvall, states that the Bairagi took the name or title when
he met Gobind in the south, and found that the powers of his tutelary
god Vishnu were ineffectual in the presence of the Gurii. Thence-
forward, he said, he would be the slave of Gobind.
2 For several particulars, true or fanciful, relating to the capture of

Sirhind, see Browne, India Tracts, ii. 9, 10. See also Elphinstone,
History of India, ii. 565, 566. Wazlr Khan was clearly the name of
the governor, and not Faujdar Khan, as mentioned by Malcolm
(Sketch, pp. 77, 78). AVazir Khan was indeed the Faujdar ', or mili-
'

tary commander in the province, and the word is as often used as a

proper name as to denote an office.
^ This was at Mukhlispur, near Sadowra, which lies north-east from

Ambala, and it appears to be the Lohgarh ', that is, the iron or
'

strong fort, of the Siar ul Mutakharin (i. 115).

* Forster, Travels, i. 304.
Cf. Elphinstone, History of India,
^ ii. 561, and Forster, Travels, i.

304. This was in a. d. 1709-10.

CHAP. Ill BANDA 87

he did not pause to enter his capital after his southern 1708-16.
successes but in the meantime his generals had defeated But Banda
;

a body of Sildis near Panipat, and Banda was surrounded in is in the

his new stronghold. A zealous convert, disguised like his meantime
driven to-
leader, allowed himself to be captured during a sally of the wards
besieged, and Banda withdrew with all his followers.^ After Jammu.
some skirmishes he established himself near
successful
Jammu in the hills north of Lahore, and laid the fairest
part of the Punjab under contribution. Bahadur Shah had Bahadur
Shah dies
by time advanced to Lahore in person, and he died
this
at Lahore,
there in the month of February, 1712.- 1712.
The death of the emperor brought on another contest for Jahandar
Shah slain
the throne. His eldest son, Jahandar Shah, retained power by Far-
for a year, but in February 1713 he was defeated and put rukhslyar,
who
to death by his nephew Farrukhslyar. These commotions
becomes
were favourable to the Sikhs they again became united
; emperor,
1713.
and formidable, and they built for themselves a considerable
fort, named Gurdaspur, between the Beas and Ravi.' The
viceroy of Lahore marched against Banda, but he was
defeated in a pitched battle, and the Sikhs sent forward a
party towards Sirhind, the governor of which, Bayazid KJian, The Sikhs
reappear
advanced to oppose them. A fanatic crept under his tent under Ban-
and mortally wounded him the Muhammadans dispersed,
; da, and the
province of
but the city does not seem to have fallen a second time a Sirhind is
prey to the exulting Sikhs.* The emperor now ordered plundered.
Abdus Samad Klian, the governor of Kashmir, a Tiirani noble
and a skilful general, to assume the command in the Punjab,
and he sent to his aid some chosen troops from the eastward.
Abdus Samad Khan brought with him some thousands of
his own warlike countrymen, and as soon as he was in

1 Cf Elphinstone, History,
. 11. 566, and Forster, Travels, i. 305. The
zeal of the devotee was applauded without being pardoned by the
emperor.
2 Cf. the Siar ul Mutakharin, i. 109, 112.
' Gurdaspur is near Kalanaur, where Akbar was saluted as em-

peror, and it appears to be the Lohgarh of the ordinary accounts

followed by Forster, Malcolm, and others. It now contains a mona-
stery of Sarsut Brahmans, who have adopted many of the Sikh modes
and tenets.
* Some accounts nevertheless represent Banda to have again
possessed himself of Sirhind.
 88 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, hi

1708-16. possession of a train of artillery he left Lahore, and falling

upon the Sikh army he defeated it, after a fierce resistance
on the part of Banda. The success was followed up, and
Banda retreated from post to post, fighting valiantly and
inflicting heavy losses on but he was at length
his victors ;

Banda compelled to shelter himself in the fort of Gurdaspur. He

^ ^^^ closely besieged nothing could be conveyed to him
reduced ;

and taken from without and after consuming all his provisions, and
;

^^t^i^g horses, asses, and even the forbidden ox, he was

a^dTtig-
reduced to submit.^ Some of the Sikhs were put to death,
and their heads were borne on pikes before Banda and others
as they were marched to Delhi with all the signs of ignominy
usual with bigots, and common among barbarous or half-
civilized conquerors, 2 A hundred Siklis were put to death
daily, contending among themselves for priority of martyr-
dom, and on the eighth day Banda himself was arraigned
before his judges. A Muhammadan noble asked the ascetic
from conviction, how one of his knowledge and imder-
standing could commit crimes which would dash him into
hell ;but Banda answered that he had been as a mere
scourge in the hands of God for the chastisement of the
wicked, and that he was now receiving the meed of his own
crimes against the Almighty. His son was placed upon his
knees, a knife was put into his hands, and he was required
to take the life of his child. He did so, silent and unmoved ;

° ^^^ ^^^ flesh was then torn with red-hot pincers, and amid
death^t
Delhi. these torments he expired, his dark soul, say the Muhamma-
dans, winging its way to the regions of .the damned.^

1 Cf. Malcolm, Sketch,

pp. 79, 80; Forster, Travels, i. 306 and note ;

and the Siar ulMutdkharin, 1. 116, 117. The ordinary accounts make
the Sikh army amount to 35,000 men (Forster says 20,000) they also
;

detain Abdus Samad a year at Lahore before he undertook anything,

and they bring down all the hill chiefs to his aid, both of which circum-
stances are probable enough.
2 Siar ulMutdkharin,i.ll8, 120. Elphinstone {History, \i. 574, 575),
quoting the contemporary Khafi Khan, says the prisoners amounted
to 740. The Siar ul Mutdkharin relates how the old mother of
Bayazld Khan killed the assassin of her son, by letting fall a stone
on his head, as he and the other prisoners were being led through the
streets of Lahore.
3 Malcolm {Sketch, p. 82),who quotes the Siar ulMutdkharin. The
defeat and death of Banda are placed by the Siar ul Mutdkharin
CH.^p. in SIKHISM: RECAPITULATION 89

The memoryof Banda is not held in much esteem by the 1708-16.

Sikhs he appears to have been of a gloomy disposition, and The views
;

he was obeyed as an energetic and daring leader, without of Banda

confined
being able to engage the personal sympathies of his followers. and his
He did not perhaps comprehend the general nature of memory
Nanak's and Gobind's reforms the spirit of sectarianism not ;
revered.
possessed him, and he endeavoured to introduce changes
into the modes and practices enjoined by these teachers,
Avhich should be more in accordance with his own ascetic
and Hindu notions. These unwise innovations and restric-
tions were resisted by the more zealous Sikhs, and they may
have caused the memory of an able and enterprising leader
to be generally neglected.^
After the death of Banda an active persecution was kept The Sikhs
generally
up against the Sikhs, whose losses in battle had been great much de-
and depressing. All who could be seized had to suffer death, pressed
after the
or to renounce their faith. A price, indeed, was put upon death of
their heads, and so vigorously were the measures of prudence, Banda.
or of vengeance, followed up, that many conformed to Hindu-
ism ; others abandoned the outward signs of their belief,
and the more sincere had to seek a refuge among the recesses
of the hills, or in the woods to the south of the Sutlej. The
Sikhs were scarcely again heard of in history for the period
of a generation.^
Thus, at the end of two centuries, had the Sikh faith Recapitu-
lation.
become established as a prevailing sentiment and guiding
principle to work its way in the world. Nanak disengaged Nanak.
his little society of worshippers from Hindu idolatry and

(i. 109), {History, ii. 22), and apparently by Elphinstone

by Orme
{History, 564), in the year A. D. 1716 ; but Forster {Travels, i.
ii.

306 note) has the date 1714.

Cf Malcolm, Sketch, pp. 83, 84. But Banda is sometimes styled
1 .

Guru by Indians, as in the Siar ul Mutdkharin (i. 114), and there is

still an order of half -conformist Sikhs which regards him as its founder.
Banda, it is reported, wished to establish a sect of his own, saying
that of Gobind could not endure and he is further declared to have
;

wished to change the exclamation or salutation, Wah Guru ke '

Fateh which had been used or ordained by Gobind, into Fateh

!

'
'

Dharam!' and Fateh Darsan (Victory to faith

'
Victory to the
!
'
!

sect !
). Cf. Malcolm, Sketch, pp. 83, 84.
2 Cf. Forster {Travels, i. 312, 313), and Browne {Iridia Tracts,
ii. 13), and also Malcolm {Sketch, pp. 85, 86).
 90 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. Ill

1708-1716. Muhammadan superstition, and placed them free on a broad

Amar Das.
basis of religious and moral purity Amar Das preserved
;

the infant community from declining into a sect of quietists

Arjun. or ascetics , Arjiin gave his increasing followers a written
Har Go- rule of conductand a civil organization ; Har Gobind added
bind.
the use of arms and a military system and Gobind Singh
;

Gobind bestowed upon them a distinct political existence, and

Siiigh.
inspired them with the desire of being socially free and
nationally independent. No further legislation was re-
quired ;a firm persuasion had been elaborated, and a vague
feeling had acquired consistence as an active principle.
The operation of this faith become a fact, is only now in
progress, and the fruit it may yet bear cannot be foreseen.
Sikhism arose where fallen anS corrupt Brahmanical doc-
trines were most strongly acted on by the vital and spreading
Muhammadan belief. It has now come into contact with
the civilization and Cliristianity of Europe, and the result
can only be known to a distant posterity.^

1 There are also elements of change within Sikhism itself, and dis-
sent is everywhere a source of weakness and decay, although some-
times it denotes a temporary increase of strength and energy. Sikh
sects, at least of quietists, are already numerous, although the great
development of the tenets of Guru Gobind has thrown other denomina-
tions into the shade. Thus the prominent division into Khulasa ',
'

meaning of Nanak ', and Khalsa ', meaning of Gobind ', which is
' ' '

noticed by Forster {Travels, i. 309), is no longer in force. The former

term, Khulasa, is almost indeed unknown in the present day, while
all claim membership with the Khalsa. Nevertheless, the peaceful
Sikhs of the first teacher are still to be everywhere met with in the
cities of India, although the warlike Singhs of the tenth king have
become predominant in the Punjab, and have scattered themselves
as soldiers from Kabul to the south of India.

—
Note. The reader is referred to Appendices I, II, III, and IV
for some account of the Granths of the Sikhs, for some illustrations
of principles and practices taken from the writings of the Gurvis, and
for abstracts of certain letters attributed to Nanak and Gobind, and
which are descriptive of some views and modes of the Sikh people.
Appendix V may also be referred to for a list of some Sikh sects or
denominations.
 —

CHAPTER IV
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SIKH INDEPENDENCE
1716-64

—
Decline of the Mughal Empire Gradual reappearance of the Sikhs
The Sikhs coerced by Mir Mannu, and persecuted by Taimiir the
—
son of Ahmad Shah The Army of the Khalsa and the State
' '

of the '
Khalsa proclaimed to be substantive Powers Adina
' —
—
Beg Khan and the Marathas under Raghuba Ahmad Shah's
—
incursions and victories The provinces of Sirhind and Lahore
—
possessed in sovereignty by the Sikhs The political organization
of the Sikhs as a feudal confederacy —
The Order of Akalis.

AuRANGZEB Taimur who pos-

w^as the last of the race of 1716-38.

sessed a genius for command, and in governing a large empire The

of incoherent parts and conflicting principles, his weak suc- Mughal
cessors had to lean upon the doubtful loyalty of selfish and empire
rapidlj' de-
jealous ministers, and to prolong a nominal rule by opposing clines.

insurrectionary subjects to rebellious dependents. Within Nadir

Shah, the
a generation Muhammadan adventurers had established Marathas,
separate dominations in Bengal, Lucknow, and Hyderabad &c.
;

the Maratha Peshwa had startled the Muslims of India by

suddenly appearing in arms before the imperial city,^ and
the stern usurping Nadir had scornfully hailed the long
descended Muhammad Shah as a brother Turk in the heart
of his blood-stained capital. ^ The Afghan colonists of
Rohilkhand and the Hindu Jats of Bhartpur had raised
themselves to importance as substantive powers,^ and when
1 This was in a. d. 1737, when Bajl Rao, the Peshwa, made an

incursion from Agra towards Delhi. (See Elphinstone, History, ii. 609,
and Grant Duff, History of the Mahrattas, i. 533, 534.)
2 See Nadir Shah's letter to his son, relating his successful invasion

of India. (Asiatic Researches, x. 545, 546.)

^ A valuable account of the Rohillas may be found in Forster's

Travels (i. 115, &c.), and the public is indebted to the Oriental Trans-
lation Committee of London for the memoirs of Hafiz Rahmat Khan,
one of the most eminent of their leaders.
The Jats of Bhartpur and Dholpur, and of Hathras and other minor
places, deserve a separate history.
 —

92 HISTORY OF THE SIIOIS CHAP. IV

1716-38. the Persian conqueror departed with the spoils of Delhi/

the government was weaker, and society was more dis-
organized, than when the fugitive Babar entered India in
search of a throne worthy of his lineage and his personal
merits.
The weak- These commotions were favourable to the reappearance
ness of the of a depressed sect but the delegated rule of Abdus Samad
;

Muham-
niadan go- in Lahore was vigorous, and, both under him and his weaker
verimient successor,^ the Sikhs comported themselves as peaceful
favourable
to the subjects in their villages, or lurked in woods and valleys to
Sikhs, obtain a precarious livelihood as robbers.^ The tenets of
1716-38.
Nanak and Gobind had nevertheless taken root in the hearts
of the people the peasant and the mechanic nursed their
;

faith in secret,and the more ardent clung to the hope of

ample revenge and speedy victory. The departed Guru had
declared himself the last of the prophets the believers were
;

without a temporal guide, and rude untutored men, accus-

tomed to defer to their teacher as divine, were left to work
their to greatness, without an ordained method, and
way
The Sikhs without any other bond of union than the sincerity of their
kept to- common faith. The progress of the new religion, and the
gether by
the fervour
ascendancy of its votaries, had thus been trusted to the
of their be- pregnancy of the truths announced, and to the fitness of
hef.
the Indian mind for their reception. The general acknow-
ledgement of the most simple and comprehensive principle
is sometimes uncertain, and is usually slow and irregular,

and this fact should be held in view in considering the

history of the Sikhs from the death of Gobind to the present
time.
The Sikhs During the invasion of Nadir Shah, the Sikhs collected
form bands and plundered both the stragglers of the
in small bands,
of plunder-
ers, Persian army and the wealthy inhabitants who fled towards
1738-9.
the hills on the first appearance of the conqueror, or when
the massacre at Delhi became generally known.* The
1 [These included the famous peacock throne of Shah Jahan and

the celebrated Koh-i-Nur. The subsequent history of the latter is too

well known to need repetition. Ed.]
2 He was likewise the son of the conqueror of Banda. His name
was Zakariya Khan, and his title Khan Bahadur.
3 Cf. Forster's Travels,!. 313, and Browne's lyidia Tracts, ii. 13.
* Browne, India Tracts,u. 13, 14. Nadir acquired from the Mughal
 :

CHAP. IV THE SIKHS REAPPEAR 93

impunity which attended these efforts encouraged them to 1738-46.

bolder attempts, and they began to visit Amritsar openly

instead of in secrecy and disguise. The Sikla horseman, says
a Muhammadan author, might be seen riding at full gallop
to pay his devotions at that holy shrine. Some might be
slain, and some might be captured, but none were ever
known to abjure their creed, when thus taken on their way
to that sacred place. ^ Some Sikhs next succeeded in estab- Establish
a fort at
lishing a small fort at Dalhwal on the Ravi, and they were
Dalhwal on
unknown or disregarded, until considerable numbers the Ravi
assembled and proceeded to levy contributions around
Eminabad, which lies to the north of Lahore. The marauders
were attacked, but the detachment of troops was repulsed
and its leader slain. A larger force pursued and defeated but are at
last dis-
them many prisoners were brought to Lahore, and the
; persed,
scene of their execution is now known as Shahid Ganj ', or
' (about)
1745-6.
the place of martyrs.^ It is further marked by the tomb of
Bhai Taru Singh, who was required to cut his hair and to
renounce his faith but the old companion of Guru Gobind
;

would yield neither his conscience nor the symbol of his con-
viction, and his real or pretended answer is preserved to the
present day. The hair, the scalp, and the skull, said he,
have a mutual connexion the head of man is linked with
;

life, and /«ewas prepared to yield his breath with cheerfulness.

The viceroyalty of Lahore was about this time contested Ahmad

between the two sons of Zakariya Khan, the successor of Shah's first
invasion of
Abdus Samad, who defeated Banda. The younger. Shah India,
Nawaz Khan, displaced the elder, and to strengthen himself 1747-8.
emperor the provinces of Sindh and Kabul, and four districts of the
province of Lahore, lying near the Jhelum river.
Zakariya Khan, son of Abdul Samad, was viceroy of Lahore at
the time.
The defeat of the Delhi sovereign, and Nadir's entry into the
capital, took place on the 13th of February and early in March, 1739,
respectively, but were not known in London until the 1st of October,
so slow were the communications, and of so little importance was
Delhi to Englishmen, three generations ago. (Wade's Chronological
British History, p. 417.)
^ The author
is quoted, but not named by Malcolm, Sketch, p. 88.
2 Browne, India Tracts, ii. 13
Cf. ; Malcolm, Sketch, p. 86 and
;

Murray's Ranjit Singh, by Prinsep, p. 4. Yahya Khan, the elder son

of Zakariya Khan, was governor of the Punjab at the time.
 94 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, iv

1747-8. in his usurpation, he opened a correspondence with Ahmad

Shah Abdali, who became master of Afghanistan on the
assassination of Nadir Shah, in June 1747. The Durrani
king soon collected round his standard numbers of the hardy
tribes of Central Asia, who delight in distant inroads and
successful rapine. He necessarily looked to India as the
most productive conquest or incursion, and he could
field of
cloak his ambition under the double pretext of the tendered
allegiance of the governor of Lahore, and of the favourable
reception at Delhi of Ms enemy, Nadir Shah's fugitive
governor of Kabul. ^ Alimad Shah crossed the Indus but :

the usurping viceroy of Lahore had been taunted with his

treason; generosity prevailed over policy, and he resolved
upon opposing the advance of the Afghans. He was defeated,
and the Abdali became master of the Punjab. The Shah
pursued his march to Sirhind, where he was met by the
Retires Wazir of the declining empire. Some desultory skirmishing
hind and is
^^^^ ^^^ more decisive action took place, but the result of
-harassed bj' the whole was SO unfavourable to the invader that he pre-
the Sikhs,
cipitately recrossed the Punjab, and gave an opportunity
1748. to the watchful Sikhs of harassing his rear and of gaining
own prowess. The minister of Delhi was
confidence in their
by a cannon ball during the short campaign, but the
killed
MirMannu gallantry and the services of his son, Mir Mannu, had been
°^ conspicuous, and he became the viceroy of Lahore and
fu^p"°?^
Multan, under the title of Muln-ul-mulk.^
MirMannu The new governor was a man of vigour and ability, but
rules vigor-
j^jg object was rather to advance his .own interests than to
ously, and "'
« ,
employs serve the emperor and
; m . .

the admmistration of his pro-

.

KauraMal yinces he could trust to no feelings save those which he

and Adina „ . •, -r^ • i- T • •

personally inspired. He judiciously retamed the services

i i
Beg Khan,
1748. Qf t^Q experienced men, Kaura Mai and Adina Beg Khan,
the one as his immediate deputy, and the other as the
manager of the Jullundur Doab. Both had dealt skilfully
^ Cf Murray's Ranjit Singh, by Prinsep, p. 9, and Browne, hidia
.

Tracts, ii. 15. Nasir Khan, the governor, hesitated about marrying
his daughter to Ahmad Shah, one of another race, as well as about
rendering obedience to him as sovereign. Cf., however, Elphinstone
(Accountof Kahul,i\.2%5), who makes no mention of these particulars.
2 Cf. Elphinstone, Kabul, \i. 285, 286, and Murray's Eanjlt Singh,

pp. 6-8.
 ' ; '

CHAP. IV ARMY OF THE KHALSA 95

for the times with the insurrectionary Sikhs, who continued 1748.

to press themselvesmore and more on the attention of their

unloyal governors.^ During the invasion of Ahmad Shah But the
Sikhs re-
they had thrown up a fort close to Amritsar, called the appear, and
Ram Rauni, and one of their most able leaders had arisen, Jassa Singh
Kalal pro-
Jassa Singh Kalal, a brewer or distiller, who boldly pro- claims the
claimed the birth of a new power in the state the Dal — ' existence of
the Dal
'

of the Khalsa ', or army of the theocracy of ' Singhs '.^

'
or army of
As soon as Mir Mannu had established his authority, he the Khalsa.
marched against the insurgents, captured their fort, dis- Mannu dis-
perses the
persed their troops, and took measures for the general Sikhs, and
preservation of good order." His plans were interrupted by comes to
terms with
the rumoured approach of a second Afghan invasion he ;
Almiad
marched to the Chenab to repel the danger, and he dispatched Shiih, who
had again
agents to the Durrani camp to avert it by promises and crossed the
concessions. Ahmad Shah's own rule was scarcely consoli- Indus, end
of 1748.
dated, he respected the ability of the youth who had
checked him at Sirhind, and he retired across the Indus on
the stipulation that the revenues of four fruitful districts
should be paid to him as they had been paid to Nadir Shah,
from whom he pretended to derive his title.*
Mir Mannu gained applause at Delhi for the success of his Mir Mannu
breaks with
measures, but his ambition was justly dreaded by the Wazir Delhi by
Safdar Jang, who knew his own designs on Oudh, and felt resisting
his super-
that the example would not be lost on the son of his pre-
cession in
1 Kaura Mai was himself a follower of Nanak, without having
Multan
adopted the tenets of Gobind. (Forster, Travels, i. 314.) Adina Beg
Khan was appointed manager of the Jullundur Doab by Zakariya
Khan, with orders to coerce the Sikhs after Nadir Shah's retirement.
(Browne, India Tracts, ii. 14.)
2 Cf. Browne, India Tracts, ii. 16, who gives Charsa Singh, Tuka

Singh, and liirwar Singh, as the confederates of Jassa Kalal.

^ Both Kaura Mai and Adina Beg, but especially the former, the

one from predilection, and the other from policy, are understood to
have dissuaded Mir Mannu from proceeding to extremities against the
Sikhs. Cf. Browne, Tracts, ii. 16, and Forster, Travels, i. 314, 315,
327, 328, which latter, however, justly observes, that Mannu had
objects in view of greater moment to himself than the suppression of
an infant sect.
* The Afghans state that Mir Mannu also became the Shah's tribu-

tary for the whole of the Punjab, and, doubtless, he promised anything
to get the invader away and to be left alone. (Cf. Elphinstone, Kabul,
ii. 286, and Murray, Ranjit Singh,
pp. 9, 10.)
 ;

96 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, iv

1749-52. decessor. It was proposed to reduce his power by conferring

the province of Multan on Shah Nawaz Khan, whom Mir
Mannu himself had supplanted in Lahore ^ but Mannu
;

had an accurate knowledge of the imperial power and of

his own resources, and he sent his deputy, Kaura Mai, to
resist the new governor. Shah Nawaz Klian was defeated
and slain, and the elated viceroy conferred the title of
Maharaja on his successful follower.^ This virtual inde-
pendence of Delhi, and the suppression of Sikli disturbances,
emboldened Mannu to persevere in his probably original
design, and to withliold the promised tribute from Ahmad
and with- Shah. A pretence of demanding it was made, and the
holds tn-
payment of all arrears was offered, but neither party felt that
Ahmad the Other could be trusted, and the Afghan king marched
Shah, who
towards Lahore. Mannu made a show of meeting *'
him on
crosses the
Indus for the frontier, but finally he took up an entrenched position
the third
under the walls of the city. Had he remained on the defen-
*'
time,
1749-51. sive the Abdali might probably have been foiled, but, after
Abdali a four months' beleaguer, he was tempted to risk an action.
L^or^e Kaura Mai was killed Adlna Beg scarcely exerted himself
;

1752, Mannu saw that a prolonged contest would be ruinous, and

Mannu
-^ he prudently retired to the citadel and gave in his adhesion
but retains to the conqueror. The Shah was satisfied with the surrender

eovemor of ^^ ^
considerable treasure and with the annexation of Lahore
the Punjab, and Multan to his dominions. He expressed his admiration
April 175...
^£ Mannu's spirit as a leader, and efficiency as a manager,
and he continued him as his own delegate in the new acquisi-
tions. The Shah took measures to bring Kashmir also under
his sway, and then retired towards his native country.^
The Sikhs This second capture of Lahore by strangers necessarily
gradually
increase in
weakened the administration of the province,
f and the Sikhs,'
j

strength; ever ready to rise, again became troublesome but Adlna

;

Beg found it advisable at the time to do away with the

1 Hayatulla Khan, the younger son of Zakariya Khan, is stated in
localMultan chronicles to have held that province when Nadir Shah
entered Siad, in 1739-40, to fairly settle and subdue it, and to have
then tendered his allegiance to the Persian conqueror, from whom he
received the title of Shah Nawaz Khan.
2 Cf Murray's Ranjit Singh, p. 10.
.

3 Cf. Elphinstone, Kabul, ii. 288, and Murray's Ranjit Singh,

pp. 10, 13.

CH.U'. IV JASSA THE CARPENTER hi

suspicions which attached to his inaction at Laliore, and to 1752-6.

the belief that he temporized with insurgent peasantry for

purposes of his own. He was required to bring tlie Sikhs
to order, for they had virtually possessed themselves of the
country lying between Amritsar and the hills. He fell but are de-
feated by
suddenly upon them during a day of festival at Makliowal, Adina Beg,
and gave them a total defeat. But his object was still to be who never-
theless
thought their friend, and he came to an understanding with gives them
them that their payment of their own rents should be nomi- favourable
terms, a.d.
nal or limited, and their exactions from others moderate or 1752.
systematic. He took also many of them into his pay one Jassa the ;

of the number being Jassa Singh, a carpenter, who after- carpenter.

wards became a chief of consideration.^
Mir Mannu died a few months after the re-establishment Mir Mannu
dies, and
of his authority as the deputy of a new master.^ His widow Lahore is
succeeded in procuring the acknowledgement of his infant reannexed
Delhi,
son as viceroy under her own guardianship, and she en- to end of
deavoured to stand equally well with the court of Delhi and 1752.
with the Durrani king. She professed submission to both,
and she betrothed her daughter to Ghazi-ud-din, the grand-
son of the first Nizam of the Deccan, who had supplanted
the viceroy of Oudh as the minister of the enfeebled empire
of India.^ But the Wazir wished to recover a province for
his sovereign, as well as to obtain a bride for himself. He
proceeded to Lahore and removed his enraged mother-in-
law and the Punjab remained for a time under the nominal
;

rule of Adlna Beg Khan, until Alimad Shah again marched Ahmad
Shah's
and made it his own. The Durrani king passed through fourth in-
Lahore in the winter of 1755-6, leaving his son Taimur under vasion.
Prince Tai-
the tutelage of a chief, named Jahan Khan, as governor. mur, go-
The Shah likewise annexed Sirhind to his territories, and vernor of
Punjab,
although he extended his pardon to Ghazi-ud-dln personally, the
and Najib
he did not return to Kandahar until he had plundered Delhi ud-daula
placed at
^Browne, India Tracts, ii. 17, and Malcolm, Sketch, p. 82.
Cf.
2 Forster (Travels, i. 315) and Malcolm {Sketch, p. 92), say 1752.

Browne (Tracts, ii. 18) gives the Hijri year, 1165, which corresponds
with A. D. 1751, 1752. Murray (Ranjlt Singh, p. 13) simply says
Mannu did not long survive his submission, but Elphinstone ( Kabul,
ii. 288) gives 1756 as the date of the viceroy's death.
^ The original name of Ghazi-ud-din was Shahab-ud-din, cor-

rupted into Sahoodeen and Shaodeen by the Marathas.

 98 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. IV

1756-8. and Mathura, and placed Najib-ud-daula, a Rohilla leader,

the head of
near the person of the Wazlr's puppet king, as the titular
the Delhi commander of the forces of the Delhi empire, and as the
army,
eflieient representative of Abdali interests.^
1755-6.
Taiinur
Prince Taimur's first object was to thoroughly disperse
expels the the insurgent Sikhs, and to punish Adina Beg for the support
Sikhs from
Amritsar.
which he had given to the Delhi minister in recovering
Lahore. Jassa, the carpenter, had restored the Ram Rauni
of Amritsar that place was accordingly attacked, the fort
;

was levelled, the buildings were demolished, and the sacred

reservoir was filled with the ruins. Adina Beg would not
trust the prince, and retired to the hills, secretly aiding and
encouraging the Sikhs in their desire for revenge. They
assembled in great numbers, for the faith of Gobind was
the living conviction of hardy single-minded villagers,
rather than the ceremonial belief of busy citizens, with
thoughts diverted bj^ the opposing interests and conven-
But the tional usages of artificial society. The country around La-
Afghans
- eventually hore swarmed with horsemen the prince and his guardian
;

retire, and were wearied with their cumbrous efforts to scatter them,
the Sikhs
occupy and they found it prudent to retire towards the Chenab.
Lahore Lahore was temporarily occupied by the triumphant Sikhs,
and coin '

money, and the same Jassa Singh, who had proclaimed the Khalsa '

1756-8. to be a state and to possess an army, now gave it another

• symbol of substantive power. He used the mint of the
Mughals to strike a rupee bearing the inscription, Coined '

by the grace of the " Khalsa " in the country of Ahmad,

conquered by Jassa the Kalal.' ^
1 Cf. Forster, TrawZs,i.316,317; Browne, Tracts, ii. 48 ; Malcolm,
Sketch, pp. 92, 94 ; Elphinstone, Kabul, ii. 288, 289 ; and Murray,
Ranjit Singh, pp. 14, 15.
During the nominal viceroyalty of Mir Mannu's widow, one Bikari
Khan played a conspicuous part as her deputy. He was finally put
to death by the lady as one who designed to supplant her authority ;

but he was, nevertheless, supposed to have been her paramour.

(Cf. Browne, ii. 18, and Murray, p. 14.) The gilt mosque at Lahore
was built by this Bikari Khan.
2 Cf Browne, Tracts, ii. 19
. Malcolm, Sketch, p. 93, &c.
;
Elphin- ;

stone, Kabul, ii. 289 and Murray, Ranjit Singh, p. 15.

;

Elphinstone, using Afghan accounts, says Adina Beg defeated a

body of Taimur troops and Murray, using apparently the accounts of
;

Punjab Muhammadans, omits the occupation of Lahore by the Sikha.

 THE SIKHS COIN MONEY 99

The Delhi minister had about this time called in the 1758-61.
Marjlthas to enable him to expel Najlb-ud-daula, who, by The Jlarfi-
liis own address and power, and as the agent of Ahmad Shah thas at
Delhi, 1758.
Abdali, had become paramount in the imperial councils.
Ghazi-ud-dln easilyinduced Ragliuba, the Peshwa's
brother, to advance Delhi was occupied by the Marathas,
;

and Najib-ud-daula escaped with difficulty. Adina Beg

found the Sikhs less willing to defer to him than he had
hoped they were, moreover, not powerful enough to
;

enable him to govern the Punjab unaided, and he accordingly

invited the Marathas to extend their arms to the Indus. Maratha
aid against
He had also a body of Sikh followers, and he marched from the Afghans
the Jumna in company with Raghuba. Ahmad Shah's sought by
Adlna Beg
governor of Sirhind was expelled, but AdIna Beg's Sikli Khan.
allies incensed the Marathas by anticipating them in the
])lunder of the town, which, after two generations of rapine,
they considered as peculiarly their right. The Sikhs eva- Eaghuba
enters La-
cuated Lahore, and the several Afghan garrisons retired and hore, and
left the Marathas masters of Multan and of Attock, as well appoints
Acuna Beg
as of the capital itself. Adlna Beg became the governor of
viceroy of
the Punjab, but his vision of complete independence was the Punjab,
arrested by death, and a few months after he had established May 1758.
Adlna Beg
his authority he was laid in his grave. ^ The Marathas end of
dies,

seemed to see all India at their feet, and they concerted 1758.

witli Ghazi-ud-din a scheme pleasing to both, the reduction

of Oudh and the expulsion of the Rohillas.^ But the loss of
the Punjab brought Ahmad Shah a second time to the
banks of the Jumna, and dissipated for ever the Maratha
dreams of supremacy.^
The Durrani king marched from Baluchistan up the Ahmad
Shah's fifth
Indus to Peshawar, and thence across the Punjab. His
expedition,
presence caused Multan and Lahore to be evacuated by the 1759-61.
Marathas, and his approach induced the Wazir Ghazi-ud-
din to take the life of the emperor, while the young prince,
1 Cf Browne, India Tracts,ii. 19, 20 ; Forster, Travels, i. 317, 318 ;
.

Elphinstone, Kabul, ii. 290 ; and Grant Duff, History of the Mara-
thas, ii. 132. Adina Beg appears to have died before the end of 1758.
2 Cf Elphinstone, History of India, ii. 669, 670.
.

^ Najib-ud-daula, and the Rohillas likewise, urged Ahmad to

return, when they saw their villages set on flames by the Marathas.
(Elphinstone, India, ii. 670, and Browne, Tracts, ii. 20.)
H2
 100 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, iv

1760-1. afterwards Shah Alam, was absent endeavouring to gain

strength by an alliance with the English, the new masters
of Bengal. The Maratha commanders, Sindhia and Holkar,
Delhi occu- were separately overpowered the Afghan king occupied
;

pied by the
jjgUij ^nd then advanced towards the Ganges
' o to engage
o »
Afghans,
but after- Shuja-ud-daula, of Oudh, in the general confederacy against
wards ^-j^g southern Hindus, who were about to make an effort for

by the the final extinction of the Muhammadan rule. A new

?7fin
'^^^^' commander, untried in the northern wars, but accompanied
by the Peshwa's heir and by all the Maratha chiefs of name,
was advancing from Poona, confident in his fortune and in
his superior numbers. Sedasheo Rao easily expelled the
Afghan detachment from Delhi, while the main body was
occupied in the Doab, and he vainly talked of proclaiming
The Mara- young Wiswas Rao to be the paramount of India. But
thas signal-
Ahmad Shah gained his great victory of Panlpat in the
at Panlpat, beginning of 1761, and both the influence of the Peshwa
and expel- among his own people, and the power of the Marathas in
led tempo- ,^. , _ , „ . ... , .^.
,
„ „
rarilyfrom Hindustan, received a blow, trom which neither lully re-
Upper covered, and which, indirectly, aided the accomplishment
Jan., 1761. of their desires by almost unheeded foreigners.^
The Afghan king returned to Kabul immediately after
the battle, leaving deputies in Sirhind and Lahore,- and the
Sikhs only appeared, during this campaign, as predatory
The Sikhs bands hovering round the Durrani army but the absence ;

"t"^^ d
^^ ^^^ regular government gave them additional strength,
the open and they became not only masters of their own villages, but
country. began to erect forts for the purpose of keeping stranger
communities in check. Among others Charat Singh, the
grandfather of Ranjit Singh, established a stronghold of
the kind in his wife's village of Gujrnauli (or Gujranwala),
to the northward of Lahore. The Durrani governor, or his
deputy, Kliwaja Obed, went to reduce it in the beginning

1 Browne, Itidia Tracts, ii. 20, 21 ; Elphinstone, History of India,

ii. and Murray, Ran jit Singh, pp. 17, 20.
670, &c. ;

Elphinstone says the Maratha leader only delayed to proclaim

Wiswas the paramount of Hindustan until the Durranis should be
driven across the Indus. See also Grant DufiE, History of the Marathas,
ii. 142 and note.
2 Baland Khan in Lahore, and Zain Khan in Sirhind, according to

Browne, India Tracts, ii. 21, 23.

CHAP. IV THE AFGHANS AND MARATHAS 101

of 1762/ and the Siklis assembled for its relief. The Afghan 1761-2.
was repulsed, he left his baggage to be plundered, and fled Gujraiiwala
to shut himself up within the walls of Lahore.- The governor success-
fully defen-
of Sirhind held his ground better, for he was assisted by an ded by
active Muhammadan leader of the country, Hinghan Khan Charat
and
of Maler Kotla but the Siklis resented this hostility of an Singh,
;
the Durra-
Indian Pathan as they did the treason of a Hindu religionist nis con-
fined to
of Jindiala, who wore a sword like themselves, and yet
Lahore,
adhered to Ahmad Shah, The army of the
' Khalsa 1761-2.
'

asseinbled at Aniritsar, the faithful performed their ablu- The Siklis

assemble
tions in the restored pool, and perhaps the first regular at -:Vmrit-
'
Gurumatta ', or diet for conclave, was held on this occasion. sar, and
The possessions of Hinghan Khan were ravaged, and ravage
the
country on
Jindiala was invested, preparatory to attempts of greater either side
of the
moment.^ Sutlej.
But the restless Alimad Shah was again at hand. This Ahmad
prince, the very ideal of the Afghan genius, hardy and Shah"s
sixth inva-
enterprising, fitted for conquest, yet incapable of empire, sion, 1762.
seemed but to and recovering
exist for the sake of losing
provinces. He
reached Lahore towards the end of 1762,
and the Siklis retired to the south of the Sutlej, perhaps
with some design of joining their brethren who were watching
Sirhind, and of overpowering Zain Ivlian the governor,
before they should be engaged with Ahmad Shah himself ;

but in two long and rapid marches from Lahore, by way of

Ludhiana, the king came up with the Siklis when they were
about to enter into action with his lieutenant. He gave The Ghu- '

Ghara
them a total defeat, and the iVIuhammadans were as active lu
',

or great de-
in the pursuit as they had been ardent in the attack. The feat of the
Siklis near
Sikhs are variously reported to have lost from twelve to Ludhiana,
twenty-five thousand men, and the rout is still familiarly Feb. 1762.

^ Murray {Ranjlt Singh, p. 21) makes Khwaja Obed the governor,

and he may have succeeded or represented Balaud Khan, whom

other accounts show to have occasionally resided at Rohtas. Gui-
ranwala is the more common, if less ancient, form of the name of the
village attacked. It was also the place of Ranjlt Singh's birth, and
is now a fair-sized and thriving town. (Cf. Munshi Shahamat All's
Sikhs and Afghans, p. 51.)
2 Murray, Ranjlt Siwjh, pp. 22, 23.
^ Cf. Browne, India Tracts, ii. 22, 23 ; and Murray, Ranjlt Sinyh,
p. 23.
 ^

102 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. IV

1762-3. known as the Ghulu Ghara ', or great disaster.^ Allia

'

Singh, the founder of the present family of Patiala, was

Alha Singh
of Patiala. among the prisoners, -but his manly deportment pleased

the warlike king, and the conqueror may not have been
insensible to the policy of widening the diiference between
a Malwa and a Mdnjha Singh. He was declared a raja of
the state and dismissed with honour. The Shah had an
interview at Sirhind Avith his ally or dependent, Najlb-ud-
Kabuli Mai daula; he made a Hindu, named Kabuli Mai, his governor
governor of
Lahore. of Lahore, and then hastened towards Kandahar to suppress
an insurrection in that distant quarter but he first gratified
;

Ahmad his own resentment, and indulged the savage bigotry of his
Shah re-
tires after
followers, by destroying the renewed temples of Amritsar,
committing by polluting the pool with slaughtered cows, by encasing
various ex-
cesses, end
numerous pyramids with the heads of decapitated Siklis,
of 1762. and by cleansing the walls of desecrated mosques with the
blood of his infidel enemies.
The Sikhs The Siklis were not cast down they received daily
;
continue to
increa.se in accessions to their numbers a vague feeling that they
;

strength. were a people had arisen among them all were bent on;

revenge, and their leaders were ambitious of dominion and

of fame. Their first efforts were directed against the Pathan
Kaaur colony of Kasur, which j)lace they took and plundered, and
plundered.
they then fell upon and .slew their old enemy Hinghan Khan
of Maler Kotla. They next marched towards Sirhind, and
the court of Delhi was incapable of raising an arm in support
of Muhammadanism. Zain Ivlian, the Afghan governor,
The gave battle to the true or probable nujnber of 40,000 Siklis
Afghans
defeated, in the month of December 1763, but he was defeated and
Doc. 1763. slain, and the plains of Sirhind, from the Sutlej to the

Jumna, were occupied by the victors without further ojipo-

sition. Tradition still describes how the Sikhs dispersed
as soon as the battle Avas won, and how, riding day and
night, each horseman would throw his belt and scabbard,
his articles of dress and accoutrement, until he was almost
^ The scene of the fight lay between Gujerwal and Bcrnala, perhaps

twenty miles south from Ludhiana. Hinghan Khan, of Maler Kotla,

seems to have guided the Shah. Cf Browne, Tracts, ii. 23 Forster,
. ;

Travels, i. 310; and Murray, Ranjlt Siiujh, pp. 23, 25. The action
appears to have been fought in February 1762.
^ Cf. Forster, Travels, i. 32U
; and Murraj% Raujlt Siiu/h, p. 25.
 ^

CHAP. IV INCREASE OF SIKH POWER 103

naked, into successive villages, to mark them as his. Sirhind 1763-4.

itself was totally destroyed, and the feeling still lingers

Sirhind
which makes it meritorious to carry away a brick from the taken and
destroyed,
place which witnessed the death of the mother and children
and the
of Gobind Singh. The impulse of victory swept the Siklis province
across the Jumna, and their presence in Saharanpur recalled pemia-
nently oc-
Najib-ud-daula from his contests with the Jats, under cupied bv
Suraj Mai, to protect his own principality, and he found it the Sikhs.

prudent to use negotiation as well as force, to induce the

invaders to retire.
Najib-ud-daula was successful against the Jats, and Stiraj The Sikhs
aid the Jats
Mai was killed in fight but the wazir, or regent, was him-
;
of Bhart-
self besieged in Delhi, in 1764, by the son of the deceased pur in
besieging
chief, and the heir of Bhartpur was aided by a large body of
Delhi, 1764.
Sikhs, as well as of Marathas more accustomed to defy the
imperial power .^ The loss of Sirhind had brought Ahmad
Shah a seventh time across the Indus, and the danger of
Najib-ud-daula led him onwards to the neighbourhood of
the Jumna but the siege of Delhi being raised partly
;
— Ahmad
Shah's
through the mediation or the defection of the IMaratha chief, seventh ex-
Holkar, and the Shah having perhaps rebellions to suppress pedition
and speedJ'
in his native provinces, hastened back without making any
retirement.
effective attempt to recover Sirhind. He was content with
acknowledging Alha Singh of Patiala as governor of the
province on his part, that chief having opportunely pro-
cured the town itself in exchange from the descendant of
an old companion of the Guru's, to whom the confederates
had assigned it. The Sikh accounts do not allow that the
Shah retired unmolested, but describe a long and arduous
contest in the vicinity of Amritsar, wiiich ended without
either party being able to claim a victoiy, although it
precipitated the already hurried retirement of the Afghans.
The Siklis found little difficulty in ejecting Kabuli Mai, the Tlie Sikhs
become
governor of Lahore, and the whole country, from the masters of
Jhelum to the Sutlej, was partitioned among chiefs and Lahore.

^ Cf.Browne, India Tracts, ii. 21, and Murray, JiaiijitSitifjh, pp. 26,
27. Some accounts represent the Sikhs to have also become tempo-
rarily possessed of Lahore at this period.
^ Cf. Browne, Traces, ii. 24. Sikh tradition still preserves the names
•of the chiefs who plundered the vegetable market at Delhi on this
occasion.
 104 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, iv

1764. their followers, as the plains of Sirhind had been divided in

the year previous. Numerous mosques were demolished,
and Afghans in chains were made to wash the foundations
A general ^ith the blood of hogs. The chiefs then assembled at
held at Am- Amritsar, and proclaimed their own sway and the preva-
ritsar, and lence of their faith, by striking a coin with an inscription to
established th^ effect that Guru Gobind had received from Nanak
a-s a ruhng
Deg, Tegh, and Fath
' or Grace, Power, and Rapid
',

Victory.^
The Sikhs The Sikhs were not interfered with for two years, and the
intlTa poll- ^'lort interval was employed in ascertaining their actual
tical sys- possessions, and in determining their mutual relations in
^"^'
their unaccustomed condition of liberty and power. Every
Sikh was free, and each was a substantive member of the
commonwealth but their means, their abilities, and their
;

opportunities were various and unequal, and it was soon

found that all could not lead, and that there were even then
which maj' masters as well as servants. Their system naturally re-
theocratic solved itself into a theocratic confederate feudalism, with
confederate all the confusion and uncertainty attendant upon a triple
alliance of the kind in a society half-barbarous. God was
their helper and only judge, community of faith or object
was their moving principle, and warlike array, the devotion
to steel of Gobind, was their material instrument. Year bj'
year the Sarbat Khalsa ', or whole Sikli people, met once
'

at least at Amritsar, on the occasion of the festival of the

1 Cf. Browne, India Tracts,n. 25, 27 For^ter, Travels,!. 321, 323 ;

;

Elphinstone, Kabul, ii. 296, 297? and Murray, Ranjtt Singh, pp. 26, 27.
The rupees struck were called Gobindshahi ', and the use of the
'

emperor's name was rejected (Browne, Tracts, \\. 28), although exist-
ing coins show that it was afterwards occasionally inserted by petty
chiefs. On most coins struck by Ranjit Singh is the inscription,
Deg, tegh, wa fath, wa nasrat be darang
'

Yaft az Nanak Gurii Gobind Singh ',

that is, literally, Grace, power, and victory, victoj-y without
'

pause. Guru Gobind Singh obtained from Nanak.' For some observa-
tions on the words Deg, and Tegh, and Fath, see Appendices IX and
XII. Browne {Tracts, ii. Introd. vii) gives no typical import to Deg ',
'

and therefore leaves it meaningless but he is perliaps more prudent

;

than Col. Sleeman, who writes of the sword, the 2^ot victory, and
'

conquest being quickly found', &c. &c. (See Eamhles of an Indian

Official, ii. 233, note.)
 — -

CHAP. IV INDEPENDENCE OF THE SIKHS 105

mythological Rama, when the cessation of tiic periodical 1764.

rains rendered military operations practicable. It was

perhaps hoped that the performance of religious duties, and
the awe inspired by so holy a place, might cause selfishness
to yield to a regard for the general welfare, and the assembly
of chiefs was termed a Guriimatta ', to denote that, in
'
Their Gu-
conformity with Gobind's injunction, they sought wisdom rumattas,

and unanimity of counsel from their teacher and the book

of his word.^ The leaders who thus piously met, owned no
subjection to one another, and they were imperfectly obeyed
by the majority of their followers but the obvious feudal, or
;

military notion of a chain of dependence, was acknowledged

as the law, and the federate chiefs partitioned their joint
conquests equally among themselves, and divided their
respective shares in the same manner among their own
leaders of bands, while these again subdivided their portions
among their own dependents, agreeably to the general
custom of subinfeudation.^ This positive or understood
rule was not, however, always applicable to actual condi-
tions, for the Sikhs were in part of their possessions ' earth

1'
Mat means understanding, and Matta counsel or wisdom.
'
' '

Hence Gurumatta becomes, literally, the advice of the Guru.'

'

Malcolm (Sketch, p. 52) considers, and Browne (Tracts, ii. vii) leaves
it to be implied, that Gobind directed the assemblage of Gurumatta ;

but there is no authority for believing that he ordained any formal

or particular institution, although, doubtless, the general scope of
his injunctions, and the peculiar political circumstances of the times,
gave additional force to the practice of holding diets or conclaves
a practice common to mankind everywhere, and systematized in
India from time immemorial. Cf. Forster, Travels, i. 328, &c., for
some observations on the transient Sikh government of the time,
and on the more enduring characteristics of the people. See also
Malcolm, Sketch, p. 120, for the ceremonial forms of a Gurumatta.
- Cf. Mui-ray, Ranjit Singh,
pp. 33-7. From tracts of country
which the Sikhs subdued but did not occupy, Rakhi (literally,'
'

protection money) was regularly levied. The Rakhi varied in amount

from perhaps a fifth to a half of the rental or government share of the
produce. It corresponded with the Maratha Chowt ', or fourth, and
'

both terms meant blackmail ', or, in a higher sense, tribtite. Cf.
'

Browne, India Tracts, ii. viii,and Murray, Eanjtt Singh, p. 32. The
subdivisions of property were sometimes so minute that two, or three,
or ten Sikhs might become co-partners in the rental of one village, or
in the house tax of one street of a town, while the fact that jurisdiction
accompanied such right increased the confusion.
 106 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, iv

1764. born ', or many held lands in which the mere withdrawal of
a central authority had left theni wholly independent of
control. In theory such men were neither the subjects nor
the retainers of any feudal chief, and they could transfer
their services to whom they pleased, or they could them-
selves become leaders, and acquire new lands for their own
The system use in the name of the Khalsa or commonwealth.^ It would

vised, or ^e idle to call an everchanging state of alliance and depen-

knowingl}' dence by the name of a constitution, and we must look for
and there- ^^^^ existence of the faint outline of a system, among the
fore incoin- emancipated Sikhs, rather in the dictates of our common

temporary,
^lature, than in the enactments of assemblies, or in the
injxinctions of their religious guides. It was soon apparent
that the strong were ever ready to make themselves obeyed,
and ever anxious to appropriate all within their power, and
that unity of creed or of race nowhere deters men from
preying upon one another. A full persuasion of God's grace
was nevertheless present to the mind of a Sikli, and every
member of that faith continues to defer to the mystic
Khalsa but it requires the touch of genius, or the operation
;

of peculiar circumstances, to give direction and complete

effect to the enthusiastic belief of a nmltitude.
The con- The confederacies into which the Sikhs resolved them-
called l\Iis-
selves have been usually recorded as twelve in number,
als. .and the term used to denote such a union was the Arabic
word Misal ', alike or equal.- Each Misal obeyed or
'

followed a ' Sirdar ', that is, simply, a chief or leader but ;

so general a title was as applicable to the head of a small

band as to the commander of a large host of the free and
equal Singhs of the system. The confederacies did not
' '

all exist in their full strength at the same time, but one
'
Misal gave birth to another
' for the federative principle
;

,
necessarily pervaded the union, and an aspiring chief could

1 Hallam shows that the Anglo-Saxon freeholder had a similar

latitude of ehoiee with regard to a lord or superior. (Middle Ages,

Supplemental Notes, p. 210.)
2 Notwithstanding this usual derivation of the term, it may be

remembered that the Arabic term Musluhut (spelt with another s

'
'

than that in misal' ) means armed men and warlike people. 'Misal',
'

moreover, means, in India, a lile of pajDers, or indeed anything serried

or placed in ranks.
CHAP. IV CONFEDERACIES OF THE SIKHS 107

separate himself from his immediate party, to form, perhaps, 1764.

a greater one of his own. The Misals were again distin- '^^jj^jj,

guished by titles derived from the name, the village, the names and
district, orthe progenitor of the first or most eminent chief, P^' -^^
or from some peculiarity of custom or of leadership. Thus,
of the twelve : (1) the Bhangls were so called from the
real or fancied fondness of its members for the use of an
intoxicating drug ^ (2) the Nishdnias followed the standard
;

bearers of the united army (3) the Shahids and Nihangs

;

were headed by the descendants of honoured martyrs and

zealots (4) the Rdmgarhias took their name from the
;

Ram Rauni, or Fortalice of God, at Amritsar, enlarged into

Ramgarh, or Fort of the Lord, by Jassa the Carpenter ;

(5) the Nakkais arose in a tract of country to the south of

Lahore so-called ;(6) the Ahluwalias derived their title
from the village in which Jassa, who first proclaimed the
existence of the army of the new theocracy, had helped his
father to distil spirits ;(7) the Ghanais or Kanhayds (8) ;

the Feizalapurias or Singhpurias (9) the Sukerchiikias,

;

and (10), perhaps, the Dallehivalas, were similarly so deno-

minated from the villages of their chiefs (11) the Krora
;

Singhias took the name of their third leader, but they were
sometimes called Punjgurhias, from the village of their first
chief ; and (12) the Phi'dkids went back to the common
ancestor of Alha Singh and other Sirdars of his family .-
1 Bhang is a product of the hemp plant, and it is to the Sikhs what

opium is to Rajputs, and strong liquor to Europeans. Its qualities

are abused to an extent prejudicial to the health and understanding.
^ Capt. Murray (Ranjlt Singh, pp. 29, &c.) seems to have been the

first who perceived and jjointed out the Sikh system of '
Misals '.

Neither the organization nor the term is mentioned specifically bj'

Forster, or Browne, or Malcolm, and at first Sir David Ochterlony
considered and acted as if misal meant tribe or race, instead of
'
'

party or confederacy. (Sir D. Ochterlony to the Government of

India, December 30, 1809.) The succession to the leadership of the
Krora Singhia confederacy may be mentioned as an instance of the
uncertainty and irregularity natural to the system of Misals ', and
'

indeed to all jjowers in process of change or development. The founder

was succeeded by his nephew, but that nephew left his authority to
Ki'ora Singh, a petty personal follower, who again bequeathed the
command to Baghel Singh, his own menial servant. The reader will
remember the parallel instance of Alfteghin and Sebekteghin, and it
is cm'ious that Mr. Macaulay notices a similar kind of descent among
 108 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. IV

1764. Of the Misals, all save that of Phulkia arose in the Punjab
or to the north of the Sutlej, and they were termed Mdnjha
The rela-
tive pre- Singhs, from the name of the country around Lahore, and
eminence of
in contradistinction to the Mdlwd Singhs, so called from the
the ]Misals
or con- general appellation of the districts lying between Sirhind
federacies. and Sirsa. The Feizulapurias, the Ahluwalias, and the
Ramgarhias, were the first who arose to distinction in
Manjha, but the Bhangis soon became so predominant as
almost to be supreme they were succeeded to some extent
;

in this pre-eminence by the Ghanais, an offshoot of the

Feizulapurias, until all fell before Ranjit Singh and the

Sukerchukias. In Malwa the Phiilkias always admitted

the superior merit of the Patiala branch this dignity was
;

confirmed by Ahmad Shah's bestowal of a title on Alha

Singh, and the real strength of the confederacy made it
perhaps inferior to the Bhangis alone. The Nishanias and
Shahids scarcely formed Misals in the conventional meaning
of the term, but complementary bodies set apart and
honoured by all for particular reasons.^ The Nakkais never
achieved a high power or name, and the Dallehwalas and
Krora Singhias, an offshoot of the Feizulapurias, acquired
nearly all their possessions by the capture of Sirhind and ;

although the last obtained a great reputation, it never

became predominant over others.
The origi- The native possessions of the Bhangis extended north,
nal and from their cities of Lahore and Amritsar to the Jhelum, and
acquired
possessions then down that river. The Ghanais dwelt between Amritsar
of the and the hills. The Sukerchukias lived south of the Bhangis,
Misals.
between the Chenab and Ravi. The Nakkais held along the
Ravi, south-west of Lahore. The Feizulapurias possessed
tracts along the right bank of the Beas and of the Sutlej,
below its junction. The Ahluwalias similarly occupied the

the English admirals of the seventeenth century, viz. from chief to

cabin-boy, in the cases of Myngs, Narborough, and )Shovel [History
of Englaiid, i. 306).
^ Perhaps Capt. Murray is scarcely warranted in making the Nisha-

nias and Shahids regular Misals. Other bodies, especially to the west-
ward of the Jhelum, might, with equal reason, have been held to
represent separate confederacies. Capt. Murray, indeed, in such
matters of detail, merely expresses the local opinions of the neighbour-
hood of the Sutlej.
CHAP. IV CONFEDERACIES OF THE SIKHS 109

left bank of the former river. The Dallehwalas possessed 1764.

themselves of the right bank of the Upper Sutlej, and the
Ramgarhias lay in between these last two, but towards the
hills. The Krora Singhias also held lands in the Jullundur
Doab. The Phulkias were native to the country about
Sunam and Bhatinda, to the south of the Sutlej, and the
Shahlds and Nishanias do not seem to have possessed any
villages which they did not hold by conquest and thus
;

these two Misals, along with those of Manjha, who captured

Sirhind, viz. the Bhangis, the Ahluwalias, the Dallehwalas,
the Ramgarhias, and the Krora Singhias, divided among
themselves the plains lying south of the Sutlej and under
the hills from Ferozepore to Karnal, leaving to their allies,
the Phulkias, the lands between Sirhind and Delhi, which
adjoined their own possessions in Malwa.'^
The number of horsemen which the Siklis could muster The gross
forces of
have been variously estimated from seventy thousand to the Sikhs,
four times that amount, and the relative strength of each and the
relative
confederacy is equally a subject of doubt. ^ All that is strength of
certain is the great superiority of the Bhangis, and the low the Misals.
position of the Nakkais and Sukerchukias. The first could
jjerhaps assemble 20,000 men, in its widely scattered posses-
sions, and the last about a tenth of that number and the ;

most moderate estimate of the total force of the nation may

likewise be assumed to be the truest. All the Siklis were
horsemen, and among a half-barbarous people dwelling on
plains, or in action with undisciplined forces, cavalry must
ever be the most formidable arm. The Siklis speedily
became famous for the effective use of the matchlock when
mounted, and this skill is said to have descended to them

^ Dr. Macgregor, in his History

of the Sikhs (i. 28, &c.), gives an
abstract of some of the ordinary accounts of a few of the Misals.
* Forster, in 1783 {Travels, i. 333), said the Sikh forces were esti-

mated at 300,000, but might be taken at 200,000. Browne [Tracts,

Illustrative Map) about the same period enumerates 73,000 horsemen
and 25,000 foot. Twenty years afterwards Col. Francklin said, in one
work {Life of Shah Alam, note, p. 75), that the Sikhs mustered
248,000 cavalry, and in another book {Life of George Thomas, p. 68
note) that they could not lead into action more than 64,000. George
Thomas himself estimated their strength at 60,000 horse and 5,000
foot. [Life, by Francklin, p. 274.)
 ^

110 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, iv

1764. . from their ancestors, in whose hands the bow was a fatal
weapon. Infantry were almost solely used to garrison forts,
or a man followed a misal on foot, until plunder gave him
a horse or the means of buying one. Cannon was not used
by the early Sikhs, and its introduction was very gradual,
for its possession implies wealth, or an organization both
civil and military.^
Besides the regular confederacies, with their moderate
degree of subordination, there was a body of men who
threw off all subjection to earthly governors, and who
peculiarly represented the religious element of Sildiism.
The order These were the Akalis ', the immortals, or rather the
'

of Akahs.
gQidigj-g Qf God, who, with their blue dress and bracelets of
steel, claimed for themselves a direct institution by Gobind
Theirorigin Singh. The Guru had called upon njen to sacrifice every-
and prin-
ciples of " for their faith, to leave their homes and to follow the
^j^i^o- '

action. profession of arms but he and all his predecessors had

;

likewise denounced the inert asceticism of the Hindu sects,

and thus the fanatical feeling of a Sikli took a destructive
turn. The Akalis formed themselves in their struggle to
reconcile warlike activity with the relinquishment of the
world. The meek and humble were satisfied with the
assiduous performance of menial offices in temples, but the
fierce enthusiasm of others prompted them to act from time
•to time as the armed guardians of Amritsar, or suddenly to

go where blind impulse might lead them, and to win their

daily bread, even single-handed, at the point of the sword.

^ George Thomas, giving the supposed status of a.d. 1800, says the

Sikhs had 40 pieces of field artillery. {Life, by Francklin, p. 274.)

2 Cf. Malcolm (Sketch, p. 116), who repeats, and apparently ac-

quiesces in, the opinion, that the Akalis were instituted as an order
by Guru Gobind. There is not, however, any writing of Gobind's on
. record, which shows that he wished the Sikh faith to be represented
by mere zealots, and it seems clear that the class of men arose as
stated in the text.
So strong is the feeling that a Sikh should work, or have an occupa-
tion, that one who abandons the world, and is not of a warlike turn,
will still employ himself in some way for the benefit of the community.
Thus the author once found an Akali repairing, or rather making,
a road, among precipitous ravines, from the plain of the Sutlej to the
petty town of Kiratpur. He avoided intercourse with the world
generally. He was highly esteemed by the people, who left food and
cii.^. IV THE AKALIS 111

They also took upon themselves something of the authority 1764.

of censors, and, although no leader appears to have fallen

by their hands for defection to the Ivlialsa, they inspired
awe as well as respect, and would sometimes plunder those
who had offended them or had injured the commonwealth.
The passions of the Akalis had full play until Ranjit Singh
became supreme, and it cost that able and resolute chief
much time and trouble, at once to suppress them, and to
preserve his own reputation with the people.

clothing at particular places for him, and his earnest persevering

character had made an evident impression on a Hindu shepherd boy,
who had adopted part of the Akali dress, and spoke with awe of the
devotee.
 —

CHAPTER V
FROM THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE SIKHS TO
THE ASCENDANCY OF RANJIT SINGH AND
THE ALLIANCE WITH THE ENGLISH
1765—1808-9

Ahmad —
Shah's last Invasion of India The Pre-eminence of the
—
BhangI Confederacy among the Sikhs Taimiir Shah's Expedi-
tions — —
The Phulkia Sikhs in Hariana Zabita Khan The —
Kanhaya Confederacy paramount among the Sikhs Mahan —
—
Singh Sukerchukia becomes conspicuous Shah Zaman's In-
—
vasions and Ranjit Singh's rise The Marathas under Sindhia
—
Predominant in Northern India General Perron and George
— —
Thomas Alliances of the Marathas and Sikhs Intercourse of
—
the English with the Sikhs Lord Lake's Campaigns against
—
Sindhia and Holkar First Treaty of the English with the Sikhs
—
Preparations against a French Invasion of India Treaty of
Alliance with Ranjit Singh, and of Protection with Cis-Sutlej
Sikh Chiefs.

1767 The Sikhs had mastered the upper plains from Karnal
The Sikhs and Hansl to the banks of the Jhelum. The necessity of
m^jQj^ ^y^g no longer paramount, and rude untaught men
hurried into

Ahmad are ever prone to give the rein to their passions, and to
Shah's final
prefer their own interests to the welfare of the community.
A.D. 1767. Some dwelt on real or fancied injuries, and thought the
time had come for ample vengeance others were moved
;

by local associations to grasp at neighbouring towns and

districts and the truer Sikli alone at once resolved to
;

extend his faith, and to add to the general domain of the

lOialsa, by complete conquest or by the imposition of
tribute. \Vlien thus about to arise, after their short repose,
refreshed and variously inclined, they were again awed into
unanimity by the final descent of Ahmad Shah. That
monarch, whose activity and power declined with increase
of years and the progress of disease, made yet another
attempt to recover the Punjab, the most fertile of his
 ; ;

CH.\P. V AHMAD SHAH DURRANI 113

provinces. He crossed the Indus in 1767, but he avoided 1767-8.

Lahore and advanced no farther than the Sutlej. He en-

deavoured to conciliate when he could no longer overcome,
and he bestowed the title of Maharaja, and the office of
military commander in Sirhind, upon the warlike Amar Amar
Singh of
Singh, who had succeeded his grandfather as chief of Patiala,
Patiala, oroftheMalwa Siklis. He likewise saw a promising and the
Rajput
ally in the Rajput chief of Katotch, and he made him his chief of
deputy in the JuUundur Doab and adjoining hills. His Katotch,
appointed
measures were interrupted by the defection of his own troops to com-
twelve thousand men marched back towards Kabul, and mand
under the
the Shah found it prudent to follow them. He was harassed Abdali.
in his retreat, and he had scarcely crossed the Indus before Ahmad
Sher Shah's mountain stronghold of Rohtas was blockaded Shah re-
by the Sukerchukias, under the grandfather of Ranjit Singh, tires.
Rohtas
aided by a detachment of the neighbouring BhangI con- taken by
federacy. The place fell in 1768, and the Bhangis almost the Sikhs,
1768.
immediately afterwards occupied the country as far as
Rawalpindi and tlue vale of IQianpur, the Gakhars showing
but little of that ancient hardihood which distinguished
them in their contests with invading Mughals.^
The Bhangis, under Hari Singh, next marched towards The Sikhs
ravage the
Multan, but they were met by the Muhammadan Daudpu- Lower
tras, who had niigi'ated from Sind on learning Nadir Shah's Punjab
intention of transplanting them to Ghazni, and had esta-
blished the principality now known as Bhawalpur.^ The
1 Forster, Travels, i. 323 ; Elphinstone, Kabul, ii. 297 ; Murray,
Ranjit Singh, p. 27 ; Moorcroft, Travels, i. 127 ; and manuscript
accounts consulted by the author.
2 When Nadir Shah proceeded to establish his authority in Sindh,

he found the ancestor of the Bhawalpur family a man of reputation

in his native district of Shikarpur. The Shah made him the deputy
of the upper third of the province but, becoming suspicious of the
;

whole clan, he resolved on removing it to Ghazni. The tribe then

migrated up the Sutlej, and seized lands by force. The Daudputras
are so called from Daud (David), the first of the family who acquired
a name. They fabulously trace their origin to ithe Caliph Abbas ;
but they may be regarded as Sindian Baluchis, or as Baluchis
changed by a long residence in Sind. In establishing themselves
on the Sutlej, they reduced the remains of the ancient Langahs and
Johiyas to fiurther insignificance but they introduced the Sindian
;

system of canals of irrigation, and both banks of the river below Pak-
pattan bear witness to their original industry and love of agriculture.
 ;

114 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. V

1770. chief, Mobarik Ivlian, after a parley with Hari Singh,

arranged that the neutral town of Pakpattan, held by a
and enter
into terms Musalnian saint of eminence, should be the common
with Bha- boundary. Hari Singh then swept towards Dera Ghazi
walpur
Khan and the Indus, and while thus employed, his feudatory
of Gujrat, who had recently taken Rawalpindi, made an
threaten attempt to penetrate into Kashmir by the ordinary road,
Kashmir,
but was repulsed with loss. On the Jumna, and in the great
and press Doab, the old NajTb-ud-daula was so hard pressed by Rai
Najib-ud-
daula on Singh Bhangi, who emulated him as a paternal governor in
the Jumna his neighbouring town and district of Jagadhri, and by
and Ganges,
1770.
Baghel Singh Krora Singhia, that he proposed to the
Marathas a joint expedition against these new lords. His
death, in 1770, put an end to the plan, for his succeeding
son had other views, and encouraged the Sikhs as useful
allies upon an emergency.^
.Ihanda Hari Singh Bhangi died, and he was succeeded by Jhanda
Singh of
Singh, who carried the power of the Misal to its height. He
the BhangI
iMisal pre- rendered Jammu tributary, and the place was then of con-
eminent siderable importance, for the repeated Afghan invasions,
1770.
.lammu and the continued insurrections of the Siklis, had driven the
rendered transit trade of the plains to the circuitous but safe route of
tributary.
the hills and the character of the Rajpiit chief, Ranjit Deo,
;

was such as gave confidence to traders, and induced them

Kasur re- to flock to his capital for protection. The Pathans of Kasur
duced to
submission,
were next rendered tributary, and Jhanda Singh then
deputed his lieutenant, Mujja Singh, against Multan but ;

that leader was repulsed and slain by the united forces of

the joint Afghan governors and of the Bhawalpur chief.
Next year, or in 1772, these joint managers quarrelled, and
andMultan as one of them asked the assistance of Jhanda Singh, that
occupied,
1772.
unscrupulous leader was enabled to possess himself of the
citadel. On his return to the northward, he found that a
rival claimant of the Jammu chiefship had obtained the aid
of Charat Singh Sukerchukia, and of Jai Singh, the rising
leader of the Kanhaya Misal. Charat Singh was killed by
Jhanda the bursting of his own matchlock, and Jai Singh was then
Singh as-
so base as to procure the assassination of Jhanda Singh.
sassinated
^ The memoirs of the Bhawalpur family, and manuscript Sikh
histories. Cf. also Forster, Travels, i. 148.
CHAP.v BHANGI MISAL PRE-EMINENT 115

Being with the removal of this powerful chief, the

satisfied 1772-4.

KanliayS. left the Jammu claimant to prosecute his cause .

j^j
alone, and entered into a league with the old Jassa Singh Singh
Ahluwalia, for the expulsion of the other Jassa Singh the J'^^']'^'*^'^'

Carpenter, who had rendered Ahmad Shah's nominal deputy, j^i singh
Ghamand Chand of Katotch, and other Rajputs of the hills, Kanhaya
his tributaries. The Ramgarhia Jassa Singh was at last singhKalnl
beaten, and he retired to the wastes of Hariana to live by expel Jassa
arpen-
plunder. At this time, or about 1774, died the Muhammadan ^gj
governor of Kangra. He had contrived to maintain himself
in independence, or in reserved subjection to Delhi or Kabul,
although the rising chief of Katotch had long desired to
possess so famous a stronghold. Jai Singh Kanhaya was ^,.
Ivanffra
prevailed on to assist him, and the place fell but the Sikh
; fails to the
chose to keep it to himself, and the possession of the imperial {'^^^"^^7^

fort aided him in his usurpation of Jassa Singh's authority 1774.

over the surrounding Rajas and Thjlkurs.^
In the south of the Punjab the Bhangi Sikhs continued Taimur
predominant they seem to have possessed the strong fort
;
k^|,ui j.^.
of Mankera as well as Multan,- and to have levied exactions covers Mul-
from Kalabagh downwards. They made an attempt to *^"' ^ '^^^•

carry Shujabad, a place built by the Afghans on losing

Mvdtan, but seem to have failed. Taimur Shah, who succeeded
his father in 1773, was at last induced or enabled to cross
the Indus, but his views were directed towards Sind,
Bhawalpur, and the Lower Punjab, and he seems to have
had no thought of a reconquest of Lahore. In the course of
1777-8, two detachments of the Kabul army unsuccessfully
endeavoured to dislodge the Sikhs from Multan, but in the
season of 1778-9 the Shah marched in person against the
place. Ghanda Singh, the new leader of the BhangTs, was
embroiled with other Sikh chiefs, and his lieutenant surren- t, -j^-j.
dered the citadel after a show of resistance. Taimur Shah Shah dies,
leaving the
^ The memoirs of the Bhawalpur chief and manuscript Sikh Sikhs
of
accounts. Cf. Murray, Banjit Singh, p. 38, &c.
; and Forster, Travels, "^fi^^^rs
i. 283, 286, 336.

Ranjit Deo, of Jammu, died in a. d. 1770.

Charat Singh was killed accidentally, and Jhanda Singh was
assassinated, in 1774,
Harl Singh Bhang! appears to have been killed in battle with Amar
Singh of Patiala, about 1770.
12
 '

•
116 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, v

1773-93. reigned until 1793, but he was fully occupied with Sindian,
Kfishmlri, and Uzbeg rebellions the Sikhs were even un-
th U jer
;

Punjab a.s molested in their possession of Rawalpindi, and their pre-

<l^tory horse traversed the plains of Chach up to the walls
t^'^'^k^ms
of Attock.^
The Phul- In the direction of Ilariana and Delhi, the young Amar
kias master
gj(^g}i phuikia began systematically to extend and con-
1768-78.' solidate his authority. He acquired Sirsa and Fatehabad,
his territories marched with those of BIkaner andBhawalpur,
and his feudatories of Jind and Kaithal possessed the open
countiy around Hansi and Rohtak. He was recalled to his
capital of Patiala bj^ a final effort of the Delhi court to re-
An expedi- establish its authoritj^ in the province of Sirhind. An army,
tion sent
headed by the minister of the day, and by Farkhimda Buklit,
"^ ./ ..
from Delhi
against the one of the imperial family, marched m
the season 1779-80.
Malwu Karnal was recovered some payments were promised
; :

1779-80. and the eminent Ki'ora-Singhia leader, Baghel Singh,

tendered his submission. Dehsu Singh, of Kaithal, was
seized and heavily mulcted, and the army approached
Patiala. Amar Singh promised fealty and tribute, and
Baghel Singh seemed sincere in his mediation but suddenly
;

it was learnt that a large body of Sildis had marched from

Succeeds in Lahore, and the Mughal troops retired with precipitation

part only.
^^ Panlpat, not without a suspicion that the cupidity of the
minister had been with Sikh gold, and had induced
gratified
Amar him to betray his master's interests.Amar Singh died in
1781, leaving a minor son of imbecile mind. Two years
PaUala^
dies, 1781. afterwards a famine desolated Hariana the people perished
;

or sought other homes Sirsa was deserted, and a large

;

tract of country passed at the time from under regular sway,

. and could not afterwards be recovered by the Sikhs."
Khan, son In the Doab of the Ganges and Jumna, the Sikhs rather
of Najib- subsidized Zabita Khan, the son of Naiib-ud-daula, than
ud-daula,
aided in his i
Me^oirg of the Bhawalpur chief, and other manuscript hiptories.
Cf.Browne, India Tracts, ii. 28, and Forster, Travels, i. 324 Elphin-
;

stone (Kabul, ii. 303) makes 1781, and not 1779, the date of the re-
• covery of Multan from the Sikhs.
2 Manuscript histories, and Mr. Ross Bell's report of 1836, on the

Bhattiana boundary. Cf Francklin, Shah Alam, pp. 86, 90, and Shah
.

Nawaz Khan's Epitome of Indian History, called Mirrit-i-Aftdb

Nimm.
 ^

CHAP. V THE SIKHS ON THE GANGES 117

became his delerential allies. That chief had designs, 1781-5.

perhaps, upon the titular ministry of the empire, and having

designs on
obtained a partial success over the imperial troops, he pro- the minis-
try b}^ the
ceeded, in 1776, towards Delhi, with the intention of laying
8ikhs, 1776.
siege to the city. But when the time for action arrived he
mistrusted his power the emperor, on his part, did not care
;

to provoke him too far a compromise was effected, and

;

he was confirmed in his possession of Saharanpur. On this

occasion Zabita Ivlian was accompanied by a body of Sikhs,
and he was so desirous of conciliating them, that he is
credibly said to have adopted their dress, to have received
the Pahul, or initiatory rite, and to have taken the new
name of Dharam Singh.
Jassa Singh Ramgarhia, when compelled to fly to the The
ravages of
Punjab by the Kanhaya and Ahluwalia confederacies, Avas the Sikhs
aided by Amar Singh Phulkia in establishing himself in the in the Doab
and llohil-
country near Hissar, whence he proceeded to levy exactions khand
up to the walls of Delhi. In 1781 a body of Phulkia and under Ba-
ghel Singh
other Sikhs marched down the Doab, but they were success-
Krora
fully attacked under the walls of Meerut by the imperial Singhia,
1781-5.
commander Mirza Shaft Beg, and Gajpat Singh of Jind was
The Sikhs
taken jirisoner. Nevertheless, in 1783, Baghel Singh and tlefeatod at
other commanders were strong enough to propose crossing Meerut,
1783.
the Ganges, but they were deterred by the watchfulness of
the Oudh troops on the opposite bank. The destructive •

famine already alluded to seems to have compelled Jassa

Singh to move into the Doab, and, in 1785, Rohilkhand was
entered by the confederates and plundered as far as Chan- A.D. 1785.

dosi, which is within forty miles of Bareilly. At this period

Zabita Khan was almost confined to the walls of his fort
of Ghausgarh, and the hill raja of Garhwal, whose ancestor
had received Dara as a refugee in defiance of Aurangzeb, had
been rendered tributary, equally with all his brother Rajpiits,
in the lower hills westward to the Chenab. The Siklis were The Raj-
puts of the
l)redominant from the frontiers of Oudh to the Indus, and Lower Hi-
the traveller Forster amusingly describes the alarm caused malayas
rendered
to a little chief and his people by the appearance of tzvo Sikh tributary.
horsemen under the walls of their fort, and the assiduous
^ Cf. Forster, Travels, i. 325
; Browne, India Tracts, 11. 29 ; and
I'rancklin, Shah Ataiii,, p. 72.
 118 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. V

1784-92. services and respectful attention wliich tlie like number of

troopers met with from the local authorities of Garhwal, and
from the assembled wayfarers at a place of public reception.^
Jai Singh In the Punjab itself Jai Singh Kanhaya continued to
Kaiiha3'a
pre-emi- retain a paramount influence. He had taken Mahan Singh,
nent, the son of Charat Singh Sukerchukm, vmder his jirotection,
1784-5.
and he aided the young chief in capturing Russulnaggar on
Rise of the Chenab, from a Muhammadan family. Mahan Singh's
Jlahan
Singh 8u- reputation continued to increase, and, about 1784-5, he
kerchukia. so far threw off his dependence upon Jai Singh as to inter-
fere in the affairs of Jammu on his own account. His
interference is understood to have ended in the plunder of
the place but the wealth he had obtained and the inde-
;

pendence he had shown both roused the anger of Jai Singh,

who rudely repelled Mahan Singh's apologies and offers of
atonement, and the spirit of the young chief being fired, he
went away resolved to appeal to arms. He sent to Jassa
Singli Ramgarhia, and that leader was glad of an opportunity
of recovering his lost possessions. He joined Mahan Singh,
and Chand, the grandson
easily procured the aid of Sansar
The Kan- of Ghamand Chand of Katotch. The Kanliayas were
hayas re-
duced,
attacked and defeated Gurbaldish Singh, the eldest son
;

1785-6. of Jai Singh, was killed, and the spirit of the old man was
Jassa the effectually humbled by this double sorrow. Jassa Singh
"

Carj)enter
restored,
was restored to his territories, and Sansar Chand obtained
andKangra the fort of Kangra, which his father and grandfather had
made over
been so desirous of possessing. INIahan Singh now became
to Sansar
Chand of the most influential chief in the P*unjab, and he gladly
Katotch.
assented to the proposition of Sudda Kour, the widow of
Jai Singh's son, that the alliance of the two families should
be cemented by the union of her infant daughter with
Mahan Ranjlt Singh, the only son of Mahan Singh, and who was
Singh pre- born to him about 1780. Mahan Singh next proceeded to
eminent
among the attack Gujrat, the old Bhangi chief of which, Gujar Singh,
Sikhs, his father's confederate, died in 1791 but he was himself
;
1785-92.
taken ill during the siege, and expired in the beginning. of
Mahan
Sinjjh dies, the following year at the early age of twenty-seven.^
1792.
1 Forster, Travels,!. 228, 229, 202, 326 and note. Cf. also Fraucklin,
Shah Alum, pp. 93, 94, and the Persian o\)\iomG Mirrit-i-A^tah Numa.
2 Manuscript histories and chronicles. Cf. Forster, Travels,i. 288;
CHAP. V SHAH ZAMAN lid

Shah Zaman succeeded to the throne of Kabul in the 1793-7.

year 1793, and his mind seems always to have been filled Shah Za-
with idle hopes of an Indian empire. In the end of 1795 he man suc-
ceeds to the
moved to Hassan Abdal, and sent forward a party which is throne of
said to have recovered the fort of Rohtas but the exposed
; Kabul,
1793.
state of his western dominions induced htm to return to
Kabul. The rumours of another Durrani invasion do not
seem to have been unli ceded by the princes of Upper India,
then pressed by the Marathas and the English. Ghulam
Muhammad, the defeated usurper of Rohilkhand, crossed Invited to
enter India
the Punjab in 1795-6, with the view of inducing Shah by the Ro-
Zaman to prosecute his designs, and he was followed by hillas and
the Wazii'
agents on the part of Asaf-ud-daula of Oudh, partly to of Oudh,
counteract, perhaps, the presumed machinations of his 1795-6.
enemy, but mainly to urge upon his majesty that all
Muhammadans would gladly hail him as a deliverer. The Shah Za-
man at
Shah reached Lahore, in the beginning of 1797, with thirty Lahore,
thousand men, and he endeavoured to conciliate the Siklis 1797.

and to render his visionary supremacy an agreeable burden.

Several chiefs jomed him, but the proceedings of his brother
Mahmud recalled him before he had time to make any
progress in settling the country, even had the Sikhs been
disposed to submit without a struggle but the Sikhs were
;

perhaps less dismayed than the beaten Marathas and the

ill-informed English. The latter lamented, with the Wazlr
of Oudli, the danger to which his dominions were exposed ;

they prudently cantoned a force at Anupshahr in the Doab,

and their apprehensions led them to depute a mission to
Teheran, with the view of instigating the Shah of Persia to
invade the Afghan territories. Shah Zaman renewed his The Shahs
second
invasion in 1798 ; a body of five thousand men, sent far march to
in advance, was attacked and dispersed on the Jhelum, but Lahore,
1798-9.
he entered Lahore without opposition, and renewed his
measures of mixed conciliation and threat. He found an
Murray, Eanjit Singh, pp. 42, 48 ;and Moorcroft, Travels, i. 127.
The date Kanhayas and the restora-
of 1785-6,for the reduction of the
tion of Jassa Singh, &c., is preferred to 1782, which is given by
Murray, partly because the expedition to Rohilkhand took place in
1785, as related by Forster (Travels, i. 326 note), and Jassa Singh is
generally admitted to have been engaged in it, being then in banish-
ment.
 120 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, v

1798-9. able leader, but doubtful partisan, in Nizam-ud-din Khan,

a Pathan of Kasur, who had acquired a high local reputation,
and he was employed to coerce such of the Siklis, including
the youthful Ranjit Singh, as pertinaciously kept aloof.
Tliey distrusted the Shah's honour ;but Nizam-ud-dIn
distrusted the permanence of his power, and he prudently
forbore to proceed to extremities against neighbours to
whom he might soon be left a prey. Some resultless
skirmishing took place, but the designs of Mahmud, who
had obtained the support of Persia, again withdrew the
ill-fated king to the west, and he quitted Lahore in the
Kanjit beginning of 1799. During this second invasion the charac-
^nig uses
^^^ ^^ Ranjit Singh seems to have impressed itself, not only
eminence, on other Sikh leaders, but on the Durrani Shah. He coveted
Lahore, which was associated in the minds of men with the
possession of power, and, as the king was unable to cross his
hea%y artillery over the flooded Jhelum, he made it known
to the aspiring chief that their transmission would be an
acceptable service. As manj' pieces of cannon as could be
and obtains readily extricated were sent after the Shah, and Ranjit Singh

Lahore*"
procured what he wanted, a royal investiture of the capital
from the of the Punjab. Thenceforward the history of the Sildis
kiiitj^^"l799
S'r^^ually centres in their great Maharaja but the revival
;

of the Maratha power in Upj^er India, and the appearance

of the English on the scene, require that the narrative of
his achievements should be somewhat interrupted.^
1785-8. The abilities of Madliagi Sindhia restored the power of
of The Ma-
^^^^ Maratlias in Northern India, and the discipline of his
ratlias regular brigades seemed to place his administration on a
under
^ Elj^hinstone {Kdhul,'n. 308) states that Shah Zamau was exhorted

to undertake his exj^edition of 1795 by a refugee prince of Delhi,

and encouraged in it by Tipu Sultan. The journey of Ghulam
Muhammad, the defeated Rohilla chief, and the mission of the Wazir
of Oudh, are given on the authority of the Bhawalpur family annals,
and from the same som-ce may be added an interchange of deputa-
tions on the j^art of Shah Zaman and Sindhia, the envo3'S, as in the
other instance, having passed through Bhawalpm* town. A suspicion
of the .complicity of Asaf-ud-daula, of Lucknow, does not seem to
have occurred to the English historians, who rather dilate on the
exertions made by their government to protect their pledged ally
from the northern invaders. Nevertheless, the statements of the
Bhawalpur chronicles on the subject seem in every way credible.
CHAP. V SINDHIA TAKES DELHI 121

lirra and lasting basis. He mastered Agra in 1785, and was 1785-97.

made deputy vicegerent of the empire by the titular emperor, j,. „ . .

Shah Alam. He entered at tlie same time into an engage- Upper

ment with the confederate Sikli chiefs, to the effect that of all I"aia,178o.
Smdhia's
their joint conquests on either side of the Jumna, he should
have two-thirds and the Ivhalsa the ' remainder.^
' This with the
alliance was considered to clearly point at the kingdom of S'^hs.
Oudh, which the English were bound to defend, and perhaps
to affect the authority of Delhi, which they wished to see
strong ; but the schemes of the Maratha were for a time
interrupted by the Rohilla Ghulam Kadir. This chief suc-
ceeded his father, Zabita lOian, in 1785, and had contrived,
by an adventurous step, to become the master of the
emperor's person a little more than a year afterwards.
He was led on from one excess to another, till at last, in Ghulam
1788, he put out the eyes of his unfortunate sovereign, j^j-^j^^jg
plundered the palace in search of imaginary treasures, and Shah Alaia,
declared an unheeded youth to be the successor of Akbar ' '

and Aurangzeb. These proceedings facilitated Sindhia's sindhia

views, nor was his supremacy unwelcome in Delhi after the 'J^^^?''^
atrocities of Ghulam Kadir and the savage Afghans. His curbs the
regular administration soon curbed the predatory Siklis, ^}P^'
and instead of being received as allies they found that they
would merely be tolerated as dependants or as servants.
Rai Singh, the patriarchal chief of Jagadliri, was retained for
the time as farmer of considerable districts in thcDoab, and,
during ten years, three expeditions of exaction were directed
against Patiala and other states in the province of Sirhind.
Patiala was managed with some degree of prudence by
Nanu Mai, the Hindu Diwan of the deceased Amar Singh ;

but he seems to have trusted for military support to Baghel

Singh, the leader of the Krora Singhias, who contrived to
maintain a large body of horse, partly as a judicious media-
tor,and partly by helping Patiala in levying contributions
on weaker brethren, in aid of the Mughal and Maratha
demands, which could neither be readily met nor prudently
resisted."^
General Perron succeeded his countryman, De Boigne, in
^ Browne, India Tracts, 11. 29.
2 Manuscript accounts. Cf. Franckliu, Shah Alum, pp. 179-85.
 — —

122 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. V

1787-97. the command of Daulat Rao Sindhia's largest regular force,

General in the year 1797, and he was soon after appointed the
Perron INIaharaja's deputy in Northern India. His ambition sur-
appointed
Siadliia"s passed liis powers but his plans were nevertheless sys-
;

deputy in tematic, and he might have temporarily extended his own,

Northern
India, or the Maratha, authority to Lahore, had not Sindhia's
1797. influence been endangered by Holkar, and had not Perron's
Sindhia's own purposes been crossed by the hostility and success of
and Per- the adventurer George Thomas.^ This Englishman was bred
ron's views
crossed by to the sea, but an eccentricity of character, or a restless love
Holkar and of change, caused him to desert from a vessel of war at
George
Thomas, Madras in 1781-2, and to take military service with the
petty chiefs of that presidency. He wandered to the north
1787-97. of India, and in 1787 he was employed by the well-known
Begum Samru,2 and soon rose high in favour with that lady.
In six years he became dissatisfied, and entered the service
of Appa Kliande Rao, one of Sindhia's principal officers,
and under whom De Boigne had formed his first regiments.
AV^hile in the JNIaratha employ, Thomas defeated a party of
Sikhs at Karnal, and he performed various other services ;

but seeing the distracted state of the country, he formed the

George not impracticable scheme of establishing a separate authority
Thomas
of his own. He repaired the crumbling walls of the once
estabUshes
important Hansi,he assembled soldiers about him, cast guns,

1 [For an excellent sketch of the life of this adventurer see the

article 'A Free Lance from Tipperary' in Strangers within the Gates,
by G. Festing. Edinburgh and London, 1914. Ed.]
- [This remarkable woman, whose origin is wrapped in mystery,

was said to have been a dancing-girl in Delhi. She subsequently

married Somru ', a European adventm'er, who had entered the
'

service of the Emperor and had received the Jagir of Sardhana, a few
miles from Delhi. '
Somru '
—
whose real name was Reinhard was —
a man of the foulest antecedents, and among his other exploits he had
been principally concerned in the miu^dcr of the English prisoners at
Patna in 1763. Upon her husband's death the Begum succeeded to
his estate and to the leadership of the disreputable band of cut-
throats who formed his army. After the battle of Assaye she sub-
mitted to the English, embraced Cluristianity about 1781, and was
jjublicly embraced by Lord Lake, to the great horror of the spectators.
She ended her days in great sanctity, and was buried in the Roman
Catholic Cathedral at Sardhana which she herself had built. See
also Sleeman, Rambles and Recollections, ed. V. A. Smith, chap. 75,
Oxford University Press, 1915. Ed.]
CHAP. V PERRON AND GEORGE THOMAS 123

and deliberately proceeded to acquire territory. Perron was 1798-1800.

—
apprehensive of his power the more so, perhaps, as Thomas himself at
was encouraged by Holkar, and supported by Lakwa Dada Hansi,
1798,
and other Marathas, who entertained a great jealousy of the
French commandant. '^

In 1799 Thomas invested the town of Jind, belonging to and en-

gages in
Bhag Singh, of the Phulkia confederacy. The old chief, hostilities
Baghel Singh Krora Singhia, and the Amazonian sister of with the
Sikhs,1799.
the imbecile Raja of Patiala, relieved the place, but they
were repulsed when they attacked Thomas on his retreat to
Hansi. In 1800 Thomas took Fatehabad, which had been
deserted during the famine of 1783, and subsequently
occupied by the predatory Bhattis of Hariana, then rising
into local repute, notwithstanding the efforts of the Patiala
chief, who, however, affected to consider them as his
subjects, and gave them some aid against Thomas. Patiala
was the next object of Thomas's ambition, and he was en-
couraged by the temporary secession of the sister of the
chief but the aged Tara Singh, of the Dallehwala con-
;

federacy, interfered, and Thomas had to act with caution.

He obtained, nevertheless, a partial success over Tara Singh, Thomas
inarches
he received the submission of the Pathans of Maler Kotla, owards f

and he was welcomed as a deliverer by the converted Muham- Ludhiana,

madans of Raikot, who had held Ludhiana for some time, IbOO.
and all of whom were equally jealous of the Sikhs. At this Opjiosed by
Sahib Singh
time Sahib Singh, a Bedl of the race of Nanak, pretended Bedl.
to religious inspiration, and, having collected a large force^
he invested Ludhiana, took the town of Maler Kotla, and
called on the English adventurer to obey him as the true
representative of the Sikli prophet. But Sahib Singh could
not long impose even on his countrymen, and he had to
retire across the Sutlej. Thomas's situation was not greatly Ketires to
improved by the absence of the Bedl, for the combination Hansi, but
afterwards
against him was general, and he retired from the neighbour- masters
hood of Ludhiana towards his stronghold of Hansi. He Safidon,
near Delhi.
again took the field, and attacked Safidon, an old town
belonging to the chief of Jind. He was repulsed, but the

^ Francklin, Life oj George Thomas, pp. 1, 79, 107, &c., and Major
Smith, Account of Regular Corps in the Service of Indian Princes,
p. 118, &c.
 124 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, v

1801-3. place not appearing tenable, it was evacuated, and he

obtained possession of it. At this time he is said to have

had ten battahons and sixty guns, and to have possessed a
territory yielding about 450,000 rupees, two-thirds, of which
he held by right of seizure, and one-third as a Maratha
Thomas feudatory but he had rejected all Perron's overtures with
;

rejects Per-
suspicion,
' '
and Perron was resolved to crush him. Thomas
ron's over-
turesand was thus forced to come to terms with the Siklis, and he
resorts to
^yighed it to appear that he had engaged them on his side
against Perron but they were really desirous of getting
;

rid of one who plainly designed their ruin, or at least their

subjection, and the alacrity of Patiala in the Maratha service
induced a promise, on the part of the French commander,
of the restitution of the conquests of Amar Singh in Hariana.
After twice beating back Perron's troops at points sixty
Surrenders miles distant, Thomas was comiaelled to surrender in the
"°"' beginning of 1802, and he retired into the British provinces,
1802
where he died in the course of the same year.'^
thas under
Perron had thus far succeeded. His lieutenant, by name
Perron Bourquin, made a progress through the Cis-Sutlej states to
contributions, and the commander himself dreamt of
amonsTh ^^^
Sikhs of a dominion reaching to the Afghan hills, and of becoming
180^-3 ^^ independent of Sindhia as that chief was of the Peshwa.^
Perron
^^^ formed an engagement with Ranjit Singh for a joint
forms an expedition to the Indus, and for a partition of the country
w th R south of Lahore ^ but Holkar had given a rude shock to
;

jit Singh. Sindhia's power, and Perron had long evaded a compliance
Is dis- with the Maharaja's urgent calls for troops to aid him where
trusted by support was most essential. Sindhia became involved Avith
the English, and the interested hesitation of Perron was

^ See generally Francklin, Life

of George Thoiimn, and Major Smith,
Account of Beguhr Corps in IndianStates,-p.2l, &c. The Sikh accounts
attribute many exploits to the sister of the Raja of Patiala, and among
them an expedition into the hill territory of Nahan, the state from
which Patiala wrested the vale of Pinjaur, with its hanging gardens,
not, however, without the aid of Bourquin, the deputy of Perron.
2 Malcolm {Sketch, p. 106) considers that Perron could easily have

reduced the Sikhs, and mastered the Punjab.

^ This alliance is given on the authority of a representation made

to the Resident at Delhi, agreeably to his letter to Sir David Ochter-

lony of July 5, 1814.
 —
CHAP. V THE SIKHS AND THE ENGLISH 125

punished by his supersession. He was not able, or he did 1803.

not try, to recover his authority by vigorous military

operations he knew he had committed himself, and he
;

Flees to
effected his escape from the suspicious Marathas to the
theEngUsh,
safety and repose of the British territories, which were then then at war
with the
about to be extended by the victories of Delhi and Laswari,
Marathas,
of Assaye and Argaon.^ 1803.
In the beginning of the eighteenth century the agents of First inter-
course of
the infant company of English merchants were vexatiously
the English
detained at the imperial court by the insurrection of the with the
Sikhs.
Sikhs under Banda, and the discreet factors ', who were
'

The
petitioning for some trading privileges, perhaps witnessed mission to
the heroic death of the national Singhs, the soldiers of the Farrukh-
siyar de-
'
Ivlialsa ', without comprehending the spirit evoked by
l-ained by
the genius of Gobind, and without dreaming of the broad the cam-
paign
fabric of empire about to be reared on their own patient
against
labours. 2 Forty years afterwards, the merchant Omichand Banda,
1715-17.
1 Cf. Major Smith, Account of Regular Corps hi Indian States,
p. 31, &c.
- See Orme, History, ii. 22, &c., and Mill, Wilson's edition, iii. 34, &c.

The mission was two years at Delhi, dm-ing 1715, 1716, 1717, and
the genuine patriotism of Mr. Hamilton, the surgeon of the deputation,
mainly contributed to procure the cession of thirty-seven villages
near Calcutta, and the exemption from duty of goods protected by
English passes. This latter privilege was a tiu-ning-point in the history
of the English in India, for it gave an impulse to trade, which vastly
increased the importance of British subjects, if it added little to the
profits of the associated merchants. [It may be added that a dispute
about the issue of those passes brought about an open rupture between
the East India Company and Mir Kasim, Nawab of Bengal, in 1763.
The latter was utterly defeated at the Battle of Bunar in 1764 and,
as one of the terms of peace in the following year —the year of Clive's
—
return to India the Diwani (fiscal administration) of Bengal, Bihar
and Orissa was granted by the Emperor Shah Alam to the Company,
in return for a yearly payment of 26 lakhs, while the Nawab, the
successor of Mir Kasim, was deprived of all power and pensioned.
Ed.]
In the Granth of Guru Gobind there are at least four allusions to
Europeans, the last referring specially to an Englishman. First, in
the AkdlStut, Europeans are enumerated among the tribes inhabiting
India ; second and third, in the Kalki chapters of the 24 Autars,
apparently in praise of the systematic modes of Europeans and ;

fourth, in the Persian Hikayat>f, where both a European and an

Englishman appear as champions for the hand of a royal damsel,
to be vanquished, of course, by the hero of the tale.
 126 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS
1757-88. played a conspicuous part in the revolution which was
crowned by the battle of Plassey but the sectarian Sikh, ;
Clive and
Omichand. the worldly votary of Nanak, who used religion as a garb
1757.
of outward decorum, was outwitted by the audacious false-
hood of Clive he quailed before the stern scorn of the
;

English conqueror, and he perished the victim of his own

base avarice.^ In 1784 the progress of the genuine Siklis at-
^^'arren tracted the notice of Hastings, and he seems to have thought
Hastings
tries to
that the presence of a British agent at the court of Delhi
guardOudh might help to deter them from molesting the Wazir of Oudh.-
against the
8iklLS,1784.
But the Siklis had learnt to dread others as well as to be a
The Sikhs cause of fear, and shortly afterwards they asked the British
ask English Resident to enter into a defensive alliance against the
aid agaiast
the ^lara- Marathas, and to accept the services of thirty thousand
thfis, 17<S8.
horsemen, who had posted themselves near Delhi to watch
Earh- Eng- the motions of Sindhia.^ The English had then a slight
lish esti-
mates of knowledge of a new and distant people, and an estimate,
theSiklis. two generations old, may provoke a smile from the protectors
Col.
of Lahore. The Siklis ', says Col. Francklin, are in their
' '

Francklin.
persons tall, . . . their aspect is ferocious, and their eyes
piercing ; they resemble the Arabs of the Euphrates,
. . .

but they speak the language of the Afghans their ; . . .

collected army amounts to 250,000 men, a terrific force,

The travel- yet from want of union not much to be dreaded.' * The
For.ster.
Ii'T
judicious and observing Forster put some confidence in
similar statements of their vast array, but he estimated more
surely than any other early writer the real character of
the Sikhs, and the remark of 1783, that an able chief would
probably attain to absolute power on the ruins of the rude
commonwealth, and become the terror of his neighbours,
has been amply borne out by the career of Ranjit Singh.^

^ That Omichand was a Sikh is given on the authority of Forster,

Travels, i. 337. That he died of a broken heart is doubted by Pro-
fessor Wilson. (Mill, India, iii 192 note, ed. 1840.)
2 Browne, Itidia Tracts, ii. 29, 30 and Francklin, Shah Alam,
;

pp. 115, 116.

^ Auber, Rise and Progress
of the British Power in India, ii. 26, 27.
The chief who made the overtures was Dulcha Singh of Rudaur on
the Jumna, who afterwards entered Sindhia's service. Cf. Francklin,
Shah Alam, p. 78 note. * Francklin, Shah Alam, pp. 75, 77, 78.
^ Forster's Travels, ii. 340. See also p. 324, where he saj's the Sikhs
 — —

CHAP. V LORD LAKES CAMPAIGNS 127

The ^ was fought on the 11th September, 180S-5.

battle of Delhi
1803, and thousand Sikhs swelled an army which the 4.;].},^,^
five
speedy capture of Allgarh had taken by surprise.^ The posed to
Marathas were overthrown, and the Sikhs dispersed but ^°J^^ ^^^'^ ;

the latter soon afterwards tendered their allegiance to the 1803.

British commander. Among the more important chiefs The Sikhs
whose alliance or whose occasional services were accepted tender tlieir
were Bhai Lai Singh of Kaithal, who had witnessed the allegiance
success of Lord Lake, Bhag Singh, the patriarchal chief of E^gj-gij
Jind, and, after a time, Bhanga Singh the savage master The chiefs
of Thanesar.^ The victory of Laswari was won within two of Jmd and
months, and the Maratha power seemed to be annihilated
in Northern India. The old blind emperor Shah Alam Shah Alam
was again flattered with the semblance of kingly power, ^jaratlla"
his pride was soothed by the demeanour of the conqueror, thraldom.
and, as the Mughal name was still imposing, the feelings of
the free but loyal soldier were doubtless gratified by the
bestowal of a title which declared an English nobleman to
be the sword of the state of the great Tamerlane.*
' '

The enterprising Jaswant Rao Holkar had by this time The Eng-
determined on the invasion of Upper India, and the retreat ,|fit\i^Ho^l.
of Col. Monson ^ buoyed him up with hopes of victory kar,1804-5.
had raised in the Punjab a solid structure of religion. The remark of
the historian Robertson may also be quoted as apposite, and with the
greater reason as prominence has lately been given to it in the House
of Commons on the occasion of thanking the army for its services
during the Sikh campaign of 1848-9. He says that the enterprising
commercial spirit of the English, and the martial ardovir of the Sikhs,
who possess the energy natural to men in the earlier stages of society,
can hardly fail to lead sooner or later to open hostility. {Disquisition
Concerning Ancient India, note iv, sect. 1, written in 1789-90.)
^ [For an interesting discussion as to the exact site of this battle,

the result of which was the occupation of Delhi by the English and the
placing of the Emperor Shah Alam under their protection, the reader
is referred to an article by Sir Edward Maclagan, in the Journal of the
Punjab Historical Society, vol. iii.- Ed.]
2 Major Smith, Account
of Regular Corps in Indian States, p. 34.
^ Manuscript memoranda of personal inquiries.

* Mill, History
of British India, Wilson's ed., vi. 510.
^ [He had made a rash advance into Holkar's territory in July 1804,

to unite with another English force under Col. Murray. Lack of

supplies caused him][to retreat, and he only reached Agra at the end
of August, after losing the major part of his army. However, he
took his revenge at Dig, as that victory was mainly his work. Ed.]
 128 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. V

1805. and dominion. Delhi was invested, and the Doab was filled
with troops but the successful defence of the capital by Sir
;

David Ochterlony, and the reverse of Dig, drove the great

marauder back into Rajputana. During these operations
The Sikhs a British detachment, under Col. Burn, was hard pressed
mostly side
with the at Shamll, near Saharanpur, and the opportune assistance
f^ngUsh of Lai Singh of Kaithal and Bhag Singh of Jind contributed
and render
good ser- to its ultimate relief.^ The same Sikh chiefs deserved and
vice. received the thanks of Lord Lake for attacking and killing
one Ika Rao, a Maratha commander who had taken up a
position between Delhi and Panlpat but others were dis-
;

posed to adhere to their sometime allies, and Sher Singh of

Buriya fell in action with Col. Burn, and the conduct
of Gurdit Singh of Ladwa induced the British general to
deprive him of his villages in the Doab, and of the town of
Karnal.^
Holkar In 1805 Holkar and Amir Klian again moved northward,
retires to-
wards the and proclaimed that they would be joined by the Siklis, and
Sutlej, even by the Afghans but the rapid movements of Lord Lake
;
1805.
converted their advance into a retreat or a flight. They
Delays at delayed some time at Patiala, and they did not fail to make
Patiala.
a pecuniary profit out of the differences then existing be-
tween the imbecile Raja and his wife ^ but when the
;

English army reached the neiglibourhood of Karnal, Holkar

continued his retreat towards the north, levying contribu-
tions where he could, but without being joined by any of
Halts at the Sikh chiefs of the Cis-Sutlej states. In the Punjab
Amritsar, itself he is represented to have induced some to adopt his
but fails in
gaining cause, but Ranjit Singh long kept aloof, and when at last
over Ran- he met Holkar at Amritsar, the astute young chief wanted
jlt Singh.

^ Manuscrijit memoranda. Both this aid in 1804, and the opposi-

tion of the Sikhs at Delhi, in 1803, seem to have escaped the notice
of English observers, or to have been thought undeserving of record
by English historians. (Mill, History, vi. 503, 592, ed. 1840.)
^ Manuscript memoranda of written documents and of personal

inquiries.
^ Amir Khan, in his Memoirs (p. 276), says characteristically, that

Holkar remarked to him, on observing the silly differences between

the Raja and the Rani, God has assuredly sent us these two pigeons
'

to pluck ;do you espouse the cause of the one, while I take up with
the other.'
CHAP. V TREATY WITH ENGLISH OF 1806 129

aid in reducing the Pathans of Kasur before he would give 1803-8.

the Marathas any assistance against the English. Amir

Ivhan would wish it to be believed, that he was unwilling
to be a party to an attack upon good Muhanimadans, and
it is certain that the perplexed Jaswant Rao talked of .

hurrying on to Peshawar but Lord Lake was in force on

; comes to
the banks of the Beas, the political demands of the British ^?_^"^ ^*{^
commander were moderate, and, on the 24th December, and
1805, an arrangement was come to, which allowed Holkar marches to
7 ^
. -, , , , . the south,
to return quietly to Central India.^ 1805-6.
Lord Lake was joined on his advance by the two chiefs. Friendly
Lai Singh and Bhag Singh, whose services have already been ^^^^^^^jig]^
mentioned, and at Patiala he was welcomed by the weak with the
and inoffensive Sahib Singh, who presented the keys of q-H^j*
his citadel, and expatiated on his devotion to the British 1803-8.'

Government. Bhag Singh was the maternal uncle of

Ranjit Singh, and his services were not unimportant in
determining that calculating leader to avoid an encounter
with disciplined battalions and a trained artillery. Ranjit
Singh is believed to have visited the British camp in disguise,
that he might himself witness the military array of a leader
who had successively vanquished both Sindhia and Holkar,^
and he was, moreover, too acute to see any permanent
advantage in linking his fortunes with those of men reduced
to the condition of fugitives. Fateh Singh Ahluwalia, the
grand-nephew of Jassa Singh Kalal, and the chosen com-
panion of the future Maharaja, was the medium of inter-
course, and an arrangement was soon entered into with Formal en-
Sardars
' Ranjit Singh and Fateh Singh jointly, which
'
f^eredhito
provided that Holkar should be compelled to retire from with Ranjit
Amritsar, and that so long as the two chiefs conducted p'J^i^^"
themselves as friends the English Government would never Singh Ahlu-
form any plans for the seizure of their territories.^ Lord Yme'
Lake entered into a friendly correspondence with Sansar rp^^^
g
Chand, of Kat5tch, who was imitating Ranjit Singh by lish corre-

bringing the petty hill chiefs under subjection but no ;

g^aj?^'

1 Of. Amir Khan, Memoirs, pp. 275, 285 and Murray, Ranjit Singh,
;

p. 57, &c.
2 See Moorcroft, Travels, i. 102.
^ See the treaty itself. Appendix XXIII.
K
 ;

130 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, v

1804. engagement was entered into, and the British commander

~ returned to the provinces by the road of Ambala and
Chand
\

of ^^ .,
^ "^
,
Katotch. Karnal/
The Sikhs The connexion of Lord Lake with many of the Sikli chiefs
<^f SLrhind Qf giriiind had been intimate, and the services of some had
virtuaUy been opportune and valuable. Immediately after the battle
dependants of DeUii, Bhag Singh of Jind was upheld in a jagir which he
lishby
^ possessed near that city, and in 1804 another estate "vfras
Lord Lake, conferred jointly on him and his friend Lai Singh of Kaithal.
In 1806 these leaders were further rewarded with life
gTants, yielding about £11,000 a year, and Lord Lake was
understood to be willing to give them the districts of
Hansi and Hissar on the same terms but these almost ;

desert tracts were objected to as unprofitable. Other petty

chiefs received rewards corresponding with their services,
and all were assured that they should continue to enjoy
the territorial possessions which they held at the time of
British interference without being liable to the payment of
But the tribute. These declarations or arrangements were made
connexion
not regu- when the policy of Lord Wellesley was suffering under con-
larly de- demnation the reign of the English was to be limited by
;
clared, or ^, ^ ^ f %.
, . ^ ^.
the Jumna, a formal treaty with Jaipur was abrogated, the
, .
made bind-
inginforai. relations of the Indian Go vernment with Bhartpur were left
doubtful, and, although nothing was made known to the
- Sikli chiefs of Sirhind, theirconnexion with the English
came virtually to an end, so far as regarded the reciprocal
benefits of alliance.^
Retrospect It is now necessary to return to.Ranjit Singh, whose
with refer- authority had gradually become predominant among the
Ranjit Sikh people. His first object was to master Lahore from
Singh'srise. the incapable chiefs of the Bhangi confederacy who possessed

^ The public records show that a newswriter was maintained for

some time in Katotch, and the correspondence about Sansar Chand

leaves the impression that Ranjit Singh could never wholly forget
the Raja's original superiority, nor the English divest themselves of
a feeling that he was independent of Lahore.
2 The original grants to Jind, Kaithal, and others, and also similar

papers of assurance, are carefullj' preserved by the several families

and the various English documents show that Bhag Singh, of Jind,
was always regarded with much kindliness by Lord Lake, Sir John
Malcolm, and Sir David Ochterlony.
CHAP. V ASCENDANCY OF RANJiT SINGH 131

it,and before Shah Zaman had been many months gone, 1799-1804.

effect was given to his grant by a dexterous mixture of Eanjit

force and artifice. Ranjit Singh made Lahore his capital, Singh mas-
ters La-
and, with the aid of the Kanhayas (or Ghani) confederacy, hore, 1799.
he easily reduced the whole of the Bhangis to submission, Reduces
although they were aided by Nizam-ud-din Iflaan of Kasur. the BhangI
Misal and
In 1801-2 the Pathan had to repent his rashness his strong-
;
thePathans
holds were difficult of capture, but he found it prudent to of Kasur,
1801-2.
become a feudatory, and to send his best men to follow a
new master. After this success Ranjit Singh went to bathe
in the holy pool of Taran Taran, and, meeting with Fateh Allieshim-
with
self
Singh Ahluwalia, he conceived a friendship for him, as Fateh
has been mentioned, and went through a formal exchange Singh
Ahluwalia.
of turbans, symbolical of brotherhood. During 1802 the
Ranjit
allies took Amritsar from the widow of the last BhangI
Singh ac-
leader of note, and, of their joint spoil, it fell to the share quires Am-
ritsar,1802;
of the master of the other capital of the Sikh country. In
1803 Sansar Chand, of Katotch, in prosecution of his and con-
fines San-
schemes of aggrandizement, made two attempts to occupy sar Chand
portions of the fertile Doab of JuUundur, but he was re- to the hills,
1803-4,
pulsed by Ranjit Singh and his confederate. In 1804 who be-
Sansar Chand again quitted his hills, and captured Hoshiar- comes in-
volved
pur and Bajwara but Ranjit Singh's approach once more
;
with the
compelled him to retreat, and he soon afterwards became Gurkhas.
involved with the Gurklias, a new people in search of an
empire which should comprise the whole range of Himalayas.^

Murray, Ranjit Singh, pp. 51, 55.

1 Cf.

Capt. Murray, the political agent at Ambala, and Capt. Wade, the
political agent at Ludhiana, each wrote a narrative of the life of
Ranjit Singh, and that of the former was printed in 1834, with a few
corrections and additions, and some notes, by Mr. Thoby Prinsep,
secretary to the Indian Gqvernment. The author has not seen
Capt. Wade's report, or narrative, but he believes that it, even in a
greater degree than Capt. Mm-ray's, was founded on personal recol-
lections and on oral report, rather than on contemporary English
documents, which reflected the opinions of the times, and which
existed in sufficient abundance after 1803 especially. The two narra-
tives in question were, indeed, mainly prepared from accounts drawn
up by intelligent Indians, at the requisition of the English functiona-
ries, and of these the chronicles of Buta Shah, a Muhammadan, and
Sohan Lai, a Hindu, are the best known, and may be had for purchase
The inquiries of Capt. Wade, in especial, were extensive, and to both
K2
 :

132 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. V

1803-5. In little more than a year after Shah Zaman quitted the
Shah Za- Punjab, he was deposed and blinded by his brother Mahmud,
man de- who was in his turn supplanted by a third brother, Shah
posed by
Shah Mah-
Shuja, in the j^ear 1803. These revolutions hastened the
mud and fall of the exotic empire of Alimad Shah, and Ranjit Singh
theDurrani
empire
was not slow to try his arms against the weakened Durrani
weakened governors of districts and provinces. In 1804^5 he marched
to the westward ;he received homage and presents from
wherefore the INIuhammadans of Jhang and Sahiwal, and Muzaffar
Ranjit
Singh pro- Khan of Multan, successfully deprecated an attack by rich
ceeds to the offerings. Ranjit Singh had felt his way and was satisfied ;
south-west
of the Pun- he returned to Lahore, celebrated the festival of the Holi
jab, 1805. in his capital, and then went to bathe in the Ganges at
Hardwar, or to observe personally the aspect of affairs to
the eastward of the Punjab. Towards the close of 1805 he
made another western inroad, and added weight to the
fetters already imposed on the proprietor of Jhang but ;

Returns to the approach of Holkar and Amir Khan recalled, first

the north
on Holkar's
Fateh Singh, and afterwards himself, to the proper city of
approach, the whole Sikh people. The danger seemed imminent, for
1805.
a famed leader of the dominant Marathas was desirous of
bringing down an Afghan host, and the English army, exact
in discipline, and representing a power of unknown views
and resources, had reached the neighbourhood of Amritsar.'^
A Sikh _ A formal council was held by the Siklis, but a portion
Guru- only of their leaders were present The singleness of purpose,
.
matta, or
national the confident belief in the aid of God, which had animated
council, mechanics and shepherds to resent persecution, and to
held;
triumph over Ahmad Shah, no longer possessed the minds
of their descendants, born to comparative power and
affluence, and who, like rude and ignorant men broken
loose from all law, gave the rein to their grosser passions.

officersthe public is indebted for the preservation of a continuous

narrative of Ranjit Singh's actions.
The latter portion of the present chapter, and also chapters VI
and VII, follow very closely the author's narratives of the British
connexion with the Sikhs, drawn up for Government, a [literary] use
which he trusts may be made, without any impropriety, of an un-
printed paper of his own writing.
^ See Elphinstone, Kabul, ii. 325; and Miuray, Ranjit Singh,
pp. 56, 57.
 . . .

CHAP. V ASCENDANCY OF RANJlT SINGH 133

Their ambition was personal and their desire was for 1805.

worldly enjoyment. The genuine spirit of Sikliism had , . ,

again sought the dwelling of the peasant to reproduce itself confederate

in another form the rude system of mixed independence
; p^'^'^i^j

and confederacy was unsuited to an extended dominion ; cayed and

it had served its ends of immediate agglomeration, and the
^^^'^I'^ss,

'
Misals were in effect dissolved. The mass of the people
'

remained satisfied with their village freedom, to which

taxation and inquisition were unknown but the petty
;

chiefs and their paid followers, to whom their faith was

the mere expression of a conventional custom, were anxious
for predatory licence, and for additions to their temporal
power. Some were willing to join the English, others were
ready to link their fortunes with the Marathas, and all had
become jealous of Ranilt Singh, who alone was desirous of andasingle
, , , , . , , , temporal
excludmg the stranger invaders, as the great obstacles to authority
his own ambition of founding a military monarchy which ^\''*^Vf'''y
, , , . -. admittedin
should ensure to the people the congenial occupation oi the person
conquest. In truth, Ranjit Singh laboured, with more or °f
E^njit

less of intelligent design, to give unity and coherence to

diverse atoms and scattered elements to mould the in-
;

creasing Sikh nation into a well-ordered state or common-

wealth, as Gobind had developed a sect into a people, and
had given application and purpose to the general institutions
of Nanak.^
Holkar retired, and Ranjit Singh, as has been mentioned, Ranjit
entered into a vague but friendly alliance with the British jJJ^ /n the
Government. Towards the close of the same year he was affairs of
invited to interfere in a quarrel between the chief of Nabha of Sirhind
and the Raja of Patiala, and it would be curious to trace 1806.

whether the English authorities had first refused to mediate

in the dispute in consequence of the repeated instructions
to avoid all connexion with powers beyond the Jumna.
Ranjit Singh crossed the Sutlej, and took Ludhiana from Takes
the declining Muhammadan family which had sought the f^^'^"^'
protection of the adventurer George Thomas. The place
was bestowed upon his uncle, Bhag Singh of Jind, and as
1 Malcolm {Sketch, pp. 106, 107) remarks on the want of unanimity
among the Sikhs at the time of Lord Lake's expedition. Cf Murray,
.

Ranjit Singh, pp. 57, 58.

 :

134 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. V

1806. both Jaswant Singh of Nabha, whom he had gone to aid,

and Sahib Singh of Patiala, whom he had gone to coerce,
and were glad to be rid of his destructive arbitration, he retired
receives
offerings
with the present of a piece of artillery and some treasure,
from Pati- and went towards the hills of Kangra, partly that he might
ala.
pay his superstitious devotions at the natural flames of
Juala Mukhi.i
Sansar At this time the unscrupulous ambition of Sansar Chand
Chand and
of Katotch had brought him into fatal collision with the
the Gur-
khas, 1805, Gurldias. That able chief might have given life to a con-
federacy against the common enemies of all the old mountain
principalities, who were already levying tribute in Garhwal
Sansar but Sansar Chand in his desire for supremacy had reduced
Chand and
his con-
the chief of Kahlijr, or Belaspur, to the desperate expedient
federate of of throwing himself on the support of the Nepal commander.
Nalagarh
driven to
Amar Singh Thappa gladly advanced, and, notwithstanding
the north the gallant resistance offered by the young chief of Nalagarh,
of the Sut-
Sansar Chand's coadjutor in his own aggressions, the
4ej, 1805;
Gurkha authority was introduced between the Sutlej and
Jumna before the end of 1805, during which year Amar
and the Singh crossed the former river and laid siege to Kangra.
Gurkhas
invest
At the period of Ranjit Singh's visit to Juala Mukhi, Sansar
Kangra. Chand was willing to obtain his aid but, as the fort was
;

strong and the sacrifices required considerable, he was

induced to trust to his own resources, and no arrangement
was then come to for the expulsion of the new enemy.^

1 See Murray, Ranjit Singh, pp. 59, 60. The letter of Sir Charles
Metcalfe to Government, of June 17, 1809, shows that Ranjit Singh
was not strong enough at the time in question, 1806, to interfere,
by open force, in the affairs of the Malwa Sikhs, and the letters of
Sir David Ochterlony, of February 14, March 7, 1809 and July 30,
1811, show that the English engagements of 1805, with the Patiala
and other chiefs, were virtually at an end, so far as regarded the
reciprocal benefits of alliance.
2 Cf. Murray, Ranjit Singh, p. 60; and Moorcroft, Travels,!. 127, &c.

Sansar Chand attributed his overthrow by the Gurkhas to his dis-

missal of his old Rajput troops and employment of Afghans, at the
instigation of the fugitive Rohilla chief, Ghulam Muhammad, who
had sought an asylum with him.
The Gurkhas crossed the Jumna to aid the chief of Nahan against
his subjects, and they crossed the Sutlej to aid one Rajput prince
—
against another ^paths always open to new and united races. Refe-
 ; ;

CHAP. V ASCENDANCY OF RANJiT SINGH 135

In 1807 Ranjit Singh first directed his attention to 1807.

Kasur, which was again rebelHous, and the relative inde- Ranjit
pendence of which caused him disquietude, although its Singh ex-
pels the
able chief, Nizam-ud-dm, had been dead for some time ;
Pathan
nor was he, perhaps, without a feeling that the reduction of chief of Ka-
sur, 1807
a large colony of Pathans, and the annexation of the mytho-
logical rival of Lahore, would add to his own merit and
importance. The place was invested by Ranjit Singh, and
by Jodh Singh Ramgarhia, the son of his father's old ally,
Jassa the Carpenter. Want of unity weakened the resistance
of the then chief, Kutb-ud-dln, and at the end of a month
he surrendered at discretion, and received a tract of land on
the opposite side of the Sutlej for his maintenance. Ranjit
Singh afterwards proceeded towards Multan, and succeeded and partial-
ly succeeds
in capturing the walled town but the citadel resisted such
;
against
efforts as he was able to make, and he was perhaps glad that Multan.

the payment of a sum of money enabled him to retire with

credit he was, nevertheless, unwilling to admit his failure,
;

and, in the communications which he then held with the

Nawab of Bahawalpur, the ready improver of opportunities
endeavoured to impress that chief with the belief that a
regard for him alone had caused the Afghan governor to be
left in possession of his stronghold.^
During the same year, 1807, Ranjit Singh took into his Ranjit
Singh em-
employ a Kshattriya, named Mohkam Chand, an able man, ploys
who him. With this Mohkam
fully justified the confidence reposed in
Chand,
new servant in his train he proceeded to interfere in the 1807.
dissensions between the Raja of Patiala and his intriguing
wife,which were as lucrative to the master of Lahore as they
had before been to Holkar and Amir Khan. The Rani
wished to force from the weak husband a large assignment
for the support of her infant son, and she tempted Ranjit
Singh, by the offer of a necklace of diamonds and a piece of
brass ordnance, to espouse her cause. He crossed the Sutlej, Crosses the
and decreed to the boy a maintenance of 50,000 rupees Sutlej for
the second
per annum. He then attacked Naraingarh, between Ambala time

rences in public records show that the latter river was crossed in
A. D. 1805.
^ Murray, Ranjit Singh,
pp. 60, 61, and the manuscript memoirs of
the Bahawalpur family.
 136 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. V

1808-9. and the hiUs, and held by a family of Rajputs, but he only
secured it after a repulse and a heavy loss. Tara Singh, the
old chief of the Dallehwala confederacy, who was with the
Lahore force on this occasion, died before Naraingarh, and
and returas Ranjit Singh hastened back to secure his possessions in the
to seize the
territoriesJullundur Doab. The widow of the aged leader equalled
of the the sister of the Raja of Patiala in spirit, and she is
deceased
Dallewala described to have girded up her garments, and to have
chief. fought, sword in hand, on the battered walls of the fort
of Rahon.^
The Sikhs In the beginning of 1808 various places in the Upper
of Sirhind
Punjab were taken from their independent Sikh proprietors,
become ap-
prehensive and brought under the direct management of the new
of Ranjit
kingdom of Lahore, and Mohkam Chand was at the same
Singh.
time employed in effecting a settlement of the territories
which had been seized on the left bank of the Sutlej. But
Ranjit Singh's systematic aggressions had begun to excite
fear in the minds of the Sikhs of Sirhind, and a formal
deputation, consisting of the chiefs of JTnd and Kaithal,
and the Diwan, or minister, of Patiala, proceeded to Delhi,
British in March 1808, to ask for British protection. The communi-
protection
cations of the English Government Avith the chiefs of the
asked,
1808; Cis-Sutlej states had not been altogether broken off, and the
Governor-General had at this time assured the Muhammadan
Khan of Kunjpura, near Karnal,^ that he need be under no
apprehensions with regard to his hereditary possessions,
while the petty Sikh chief of Sikri had performed some
services which were deemed worthy of" a pension.^ But the
but not deputies of the collective states could obtain no positive
distinctly
assurances from the British authorities at Delhi, although
acceded.
they were led to hope that, in the hour of need, they would
Whereupon not be deserted. This was scarcely sufficient to save them
the chiefs from loss, and perhaps from ruin and, as Ranjit Singh
;

repair to
Ranjit had sent messengers to calm their apprehensions, and to
Singh. urge them to join his camp, they left DeUii for the purpose

1 Cf. Murray, Ranjit Singh,

pp. 61, 63. The gun obtained by
Ranjit Singh from Patiala on this occasion was named Karri Khan,
and was captured by the English during the campaign of 1845-6.
2 In a document dated 18th January, 1808.
3 III. Clerk of Ambala to the agent at Delhi, 19th May, 1837.
 — — —

CHAP. V BRITISH POLICY IN 1808 137

of making their own terms with the acknowledged Raja of 1808-9.

Lahore.^
The Governor-General of 1805,^ who dissolved or depre- The under-
cated treaties with princes
^
beyond
^ the Jumna, and declared stood de-
signs of the
that river to be the limit of British dominion, had no French on
personal knowledge
^ * of the hopes
^ and fears with which the ^^'^1% ^,the
„ .„ modify
mvasions of Shah Zaman agitated the minds of men for policy of
the period of three or four years and had the Sikhs of j^'' Enghsh
;

Sirhind sought protection from Lord Cornwallis, they would the Sikhs,
doubtless have received a decisive answer in the negative. 1808-9.

But the reply of encouragement given in the beginning of

1808 was prompted by renewed danger and the belief
;

that the French, the Turkish, and the Persian emperors

meditated the subjugation of India led another new Gover-
nor-General to seek alliances, not only beyond the Jumna,
but beyond the Indus.^ The designs or the desires of Napo-
leon appeared to render a defensive alliance with the Afghans
and with the Sikhs imperative Mr. Elphinstone was
;

deputed to the court of Shah Shuja, and in September 1808

Mr. Metcalfe was sent on a mission to Ranjit Singh for the
purpose of bringing about the desired confederation.* The The chiefs
chiefs of Patiala, Jind. and Kaithal were also verbally
°^^J,i
assured that they had become dependent princes of the under
British Government for the progress of Ranjit Singh
;
^ndrdosL'
seemed to render the interposition of some friendly aUiance
states, between his military domination and the peace- ^^"^^ „ut
ful sway of the English, a measure of prudence and Singh.
foresight.^

1 See Murray, Ranjit Singh, pp. 64, 65.

2 [Lord Cornwallis had been sent out in 1805 with strict orders to
pursue a pacific and economizing policy, as the Directors were alarmed
—
at the expense of the wars waged by his predecessor Lord Wellesley.
But Cornwallis died two months after his arrival, and was temporarily
succeeded by Sir G. Barlow. Ed.]
^ Mr. Auber {Rise and Progress of the British Power in India, ii.

461), notices the triple alliance which threatened Hindustan. [Lord

Minto had arrived as Governor-General in 1807. Ed.]
* [Col. Malcolm was dispatched on a similar mission to Persia at

the same time, and concluded a treaty (1809) which did away with
the possibility of French interference in that quarter. Ed.]
5 Government to Sir David Ochteriony, 14th Nov., 1808. Cf.
Murray, Ranjit Singh, pp. 65, 66.
 138 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, v

1808-9. Mr. Metcalfe was received by Ranjit Singh at his newly

Mr Met-
conquered town of Kasiir, but the chief affected to consider
calfe sent himself as the head of the whole Sikh people, and to regard
as envoy to
^j-^g possession of Lahore as giving him an additional claim

1808-9.' to supremacy over Sirhind. Pie did not, perhaps, see that
Aversion a French invasion would be ruinous to his interests he ;

of Ranjit
rather feared the colossal power
^ on his borders, and he
Smeh to a '

restrictive resented the intention of confining him to the Sutlej.^ He

"'^ suddenly broke off negotiations, and made his third inroad
{v^^}?' (f
expedition to the south of the Sutlej. He seized Farldkot and Ambala,
across the levied exactions in Maler Kotla and Thanesar, and entered
Sutlej.
into a symbolical brotherhood or alliance witli the Raja of
Patiala. The British envoy remonstrated against these
virtual acts of hostility, and he remained on the banks of
the Sutlej until Ranjit Singh recrossed that river.^
British The proceedings of tlie ruler of I/ahore determined the
troops Governor-General, if doubtful before, to advance a detach-
moved to
the Sutlej,
_, . r
ment of troops to the Sutlej, to support Mr. Metcalfe lo
m
1809. his negotiations, and to effectually confine Ranjit Singh to
the northward of that river.^ Provision would also be thus
made, it was said, for possible warlike operations of a more
extensive character, and the British frontier would be
covered by a confederacy of friendly chiefs, instead of
threatened by a hostile military government. A body of
troops was accordingly moved across the Jumna in January
1809, under the command of Sir David Ochterlony. The
General advanced, by way of Buriya and Patiala, towards
Ludhiana he was welcomed by all the Sirhind chiefs, save
;

Jodh Singh Kalsia, the nominal head of tJie Krora-Singhia

confederacy but during his march he was not without
:

apprehensions that Ranjit Singh might openly break with

his government, and, after an intervniew with certain
agents whom that chief had sent to him with the view
of opening a double negotiation, he made a detour and
1 Moorcroft ascertained (Trave is, i. 94) that Ranjit Singh had serious

thoughts of appealing to the sword, so unpalatable was English inter-

ference. The well-known Fakir Uziz-ud-din was one of the two
persons who dissuaded him from war.
2 Murray, Ranjit Singh, p. 66.

3 Government to Sir David Ochterlony, 14th Nov. and 29th Dec.,

1808.
 —

CHAP. V BRITISH POLICY IN 1808 139

a halt, in order to be near his supplies should hostilities 1809.

take place.^
Ranjit Singh was somewhat discomposed by the near The views
presence of a British force, but he continued to evade com- become
{jsh
pliance with the propositions of the envoy, and he complained somewhat
that Mr. Metcalfe was needlessly reserved about his acquisi- ^^^ Raniit
tions on the south banks of the Sutlej, with regard to which Singh still
the Government had only declared that the restoration of ^e*^p^to^the
his last conquests, and the absolute withdrawal of his troops north of the
Sutlej.
to the northward of tlie river, must form the indispensable
basis of further negotiations. ^ were in this way
Affairs
when intelligence from Europe induced the Governor-
Gen.eral to believe that Napoleon must abandon his designs
upon India, or at least so far suspend them as to render
defensive precautions unnecessary.^ It was therefore made
known that the object of the English Government had
become limited to the security of the country south of the
Sutlej from the encroachments of Ranjifc Singh for that,
;

independent of the possible approach of a European enemy,

it was considered advisable on other grounds to afford
'

protection to the southern Siklis. Ranjit Singh nuist still,

nevertheless, withdraw his troops to the right bank of the
Sutlej, his last usurpations must also be restored, but the

^ Sir David Ochterlony to Government, 20th Jan., and 4th, 9th,

and 14th Feb., 1809, with Government to Sir David Ochterlony, of

13th March, 1809. Government by no means approved of what Sir
David Ochterlony had done, and he, feeling aggrieved, virtually
tendered his resignation of his command. (Sir David Ochterlony
to Government, 19th April, 1809.)
2 Sir David Ochterlony to Government, 14th Feb., 1809, and

Government to Sir David Ochterlony, 30th July, 1809. Lieut.-Col.

Lawrence {Adventures in the Punjab, p. 131, note g) makes Sir Charles
Metcalfe sufficiently communicative on this occasion with regard to
other territories, for he is declared to have told the Maharaja that
by a compliance with the then demands of the English, he would
ensure their neutrality with respect to encroachments elsewhere.
3 Government to Sir David Ochterlony, 30th J'&n., 1809. [Pro-
bably the altered relations between Napoleon and Turkey were the
main cause of this. The Franco-Turkish alliance of 1807 had come
to an end with the deposition of Mustapha IV and accession of
— —
Mahmud II July 1808 and the improved relations of England and
Turkey led to the signature by the latter powers of the Treaty of the
Dardanelles (January 1809). Ed.]
 140 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, v

1809. restitution of iiis first conquests would not be insisted on ;

while, to remove all cause of suspicion, the detachment under

Sir David Ochterlony could fall back from Ludhiana to
Karnal, and take up its permanent position at the latter
place. ^ But the British commander represented the advan-
tage of keeping the force where it was his Government
;

assented to its detention, at least for a time, and Ludhiana

thus continued uninterruptedly to form a station for British
troops.^
Ranjit In the beginning of February 1809, Sir David Ochterlony
'^^^ issued a proclamation declaring the Cis-Sutlej states to
M* •

be under British protection, and that any aggressions of the

Chief of Lahore would be resisted with arms.^ Ranjit Singh
then perceived that the British authorities were in earnest,
and the fear struck him that the still independent leaders of
the Punjab might likewise tender their allegiance and have
it accepted. All chance of empire would thus be lost, and
he prudently made up his mind without further delay. He
withdrew his troops as required, he relinquished his last
acquisitions, and at Amritsar, on the 25th April, 1809, the
and enters now single Chief of I^ahore signed a treaty which left him
into a for-
^j^^ master of the tracts he had originally occupied to the

25th April' south of the Sutlej, but confined his ambition for the future
1809.
^^ ^j^g north and westward of that river.*
The terms The Sikh, and the few included Hindu and Muhammadan
pendence chiefs, between the Sutlej and Jumna, having been taken
and of under British protection, it became necessary to define the
prmiacvTn terms on which
they were secured from foreign danger.
Sirhind. Sir David Ochterlony observed,^ that wlien the chiefs first
sought protection, their jealousy of the English would have
yielded to their fears of Ranjit Singh, and they would have
agreed to any conditions proposed, including a regular
tribute. But their first overtures had been rejected, and

^ Government to Sir David Ochterlony, 30th Jan., 6th Feb., and

13th March, 1809.

2 Sir David Ochterlony to Government, 6th May, 1809, and

Government to Sir David Ochterlony, 13th June, 1809.

3 See Appendix XXIV.

* See the treaty itself, Appendix XXV. Cf Murray, Ranjit Singh,

.

pp. 67, 68.

5 Sir David Ochterlony to Government, 17th March, 1809.
CHAP. V THE TREATY OF 1809 141

the mission to Laliore had taught them to regard their 1809.

defence as a secondary object, and to think that English Sir David
apprehensions of remote foreigners had saved Ihem from tlie Ochter-
lony
arbiter of tlve Punjab. Protection, indeed, had become no
shows that
longer a matter of choice they must have accepted it, or the Eiighsh
;

they would have been treated as enemies.^ Wherefore, con- regarded

themselves
tinued Sir David, the chiefs expected that the protection alone in
offering
would be gratuitous. The Government, on its part, was protection.
inclined to be new dependants, and finally a
liberal to its
proclamation was issued on the 3rd May, 1809, guaranteeing
the chiefs of Sirhind and Malwa against the power of
' '

Ranjit Singh, leaving them absolute in their own territories

exempting them from tribute, but requiring assistance in
time of war, and making some minor provisions which need
not be recapitulated.^
No sooner were the chiefs relieved of their fears of Ranjit The rela-
Singh, than the more turbulent began to prey upon one tions of the
protected
another, or upon their weaker neighbours and, although chiefs
;

the Governor- General had not wished them to consider among

themselves.
themselves as in absolute subjection to the British power,^
Mr. Metcalfe pointed out * that it was necessary to declare
the chiefs to be protected singly against one another, as well
as collectively against Ranjit Singh for, if such a degree
;

of security were not guaranteed, the oppressed would

necessarily have recourse to the only other person who
could use coercion with effect, viz. to the Raja of Lahore
The justness of these views was admitted, and, on the
22nd August, 1811, a second proclamation was issued,
warning the chiefs against attempts at usurpation, and re-
assuring them of independence and of protection against
Ranjit Singh.^ Nevertheless, encroachments did not at
1 See also Government to Resident at Delhi, 26th Dec, 1808.
Baron Hiigel (Travels, p. 279) likewise attributes the interference of
the English, in part at least, to selfishness, but with him the motive
was the petty desire of benefiting by escheats, which the dissipated
character of the chiefs was likely to render sjieedy and numerous !

This appetite for morsels of territory, however, really arose at a sub-

sequent date, and did not move the English in 1809.
2 See Appendix XXVI.

2 Government to Sir David Ochterlony, 10th April, 1809.

* Mr. Metcalfe to Government, 17th June, 1809.
^ See the proclamation. Appendix XXVII.
,
 142 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, v

1809-18. once cease, and the Jodh Singh Kalsia, who avoided giving
in his adhesion to the British Government on the advance
of Sir David Ochterlony, required to iiave troops sent
against liim in 1818 to compel the surrender of tracts which
he had forcibly seized.^
The history of the southern or Malwa Sikhs need not be
continued, although it presents many points of interest
to the general reader, as well as to the student and to those
Perplexi- concerned in the administration of India. The British
British
functionaries soon became involved in intricate questions
authorities about interference between equal chiefs, and between chiefs

their confederates or dependants they laboured to

theTiahu ^^*^ ;

of supre- reconcile the Hindu laws of inlieritance with the varied

the^on^a-
^ustoms of different races, and with the alleged family
tion of in- usages of peasants suddenly become princes. They had to
ternational
(jecjjjg on questions of escheat, and being strongly impressed

with the superiority of British municipal rule, and with the

undoubted claim of the paramount to some benefit in return
for the protection it afforded, they strove to prove that
collateral heirs had a limited right only, and that exemption
from tribute necessarily implied an enlarged liability to
confiscation. They had to define the common boundary
of the Sikh states and of Bi-itish rule, and they were prone
to show, after the manner of Ranjit Singh, that the present
possession of a principal town gave a right to all the villages
which had ever been attached to it as the seat of a local
authority, and that all waste lands belonged to the supreme
power, although the dependant might have last possessed
them in sovereignty and intermediately brought them under
the jilough. They had to exercise a paramount municipal
control, and in the surrender of criminals, and in the demand

^ Resident at Delhi to Agent at Anibala, 27th Oct., 1818, mulcting

the chief in the military expenses incurred, 65,000 rupees. The head
of the family, Jodii Singh, had recently returned with Ranjit Singh's
army from the capture of Multan, and he was always treated with
consideration by the Maharaja and, bearing in mind the different
;

views taken by dependent Sikhs and governing English, of rights of

succession, he had fair grounds of dissatisfaction. He claimed to be
the head of the Krora Singhia ilisal, and to be the heir of all child-
'
'

less feudatories. The British Government, however, made itself the

valid or efficient head of the confederacy.
 —

CHAP. V THE PROTECTED SIKHS 143

for compensation for property stolen from British subjects, 1809-18.

the original arbitrary nature of the decisions enforced has

not yet been entirely replaced by rules of reciprocity. But
the government of a large empire will always be open to
obloquy, and liable to misconception, from the acts of offi-
cious and ill-judging servants, who think that they best
serve the complicated interests of their own rulers by lessen-
ing the material power of others, and that any advantage
they may seem to have gained for the state they obey will
surely promote their own objects. Nor, in such matters,
are servants alone to blame, and the whole system of internal
government in India requires to be remodelled and made
the subject of a legislation at once wise, considerate, and
comprehensive. In the Sikh states ignorance has been the
main cause of mistakes and heart-burnings, and in 1818
Sir David Ochterlony frankly owned to the Marquis of Sir David
Ochter-
Hastings^ that his proclamation of 1809 had been based on lony 's
an erroneous idea. He thought that a few great chiefs only frank
admission
existed between the Sutlej and Jumna, and that on them of the false
would devolve the maintenance of order ; whereas he found basis of his
original
that the dissolution of the Misals ', faulty as was their
'
poliey.
formation, had almost thrown the Sildis back upon the
indi\ idual independence of the times of Alimad Shah. Both
in considering the relation of the chiefs to one another, and
their relation collectively to the British Government, too
little regard was perhaps had to the peculiar circumstances
of the Sikh people. They were in a state of progression
among races as barbarous as themselves, when suddenly
the colossal power of England arrested them, and required
the exercise of political moderation and the practice of a
just morality from men ignorant alike of despotic control
and of regulated freedom.^

^ In a private commiinication, dated 17th May, 1818.

2 In the Sikh States on either side of the Sutlej, the British Govern-
ment was long fortunate in being represented by such men as Capt
Miuray and Mr. Clerk, Sir David Ochterlony, and Lieut. -Col. Wade
so different from one another, and yet so useful to one common
purpose of good for the English power. These men, by their personal
character or influence, added to the general reputation of their
countrymen, and they gave adaptation and flexibility to the rigid
unsympathizing nature of a foreign and civilized supremacy. Sir
 144 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chaf. v

1809-18. David Ochterlony will long live in the memory of the people of
Northern India as one of the greatest of the conquering English chiefs;
and he was among the very last of the British leaders who endeared
himself both to the army which followed him and to the princes who
bowed before the colossal power of his race.
Nevertheless, the best of subordinate authorities, immersed in
detailsand occupied with local affairs, are, liable to be biassed by
views which promise immediate and special advantage. They can
seldom be more than upright or dexterous administrators, and they
can still more rarely be men whose minds have been enlarged by
study and reflexion as well as by actual experience of the world.
Thus the ablest but too often resemble merely the practical man of
the moment ; while the supreme authority, especially when absent
from his councillors and intent upon some great undertaking, is of
necessity dependent mainly upon the local representatives of the
Government, whose notions must inevitably be partial or one-sided,
, for good, indeed, as well as for evil. The author has thus, even during
his short service, seen many reasons to be thankful that there is a
remote deliberative or corrective body, which can survey things
through an atmosphere cleared of mists, and which can judge of
measiu-es with reference both to the universal principles of justice
and statesmanship, and to their particular bearing on the English
supremacy in India, which should be characterized by certainty and
consistency of operation, and tempered by a spirit of forbearance
and adaptation.
 —
• ;

CHAPTER VI
FROM THE SUPREMACY OF RANJiT SINGH TO
THE REDUCTION OF MULTAN, KASHMIR, AND
PESHAWAR
1809—1823-4

Mutual distrust of Ranjit Singh and the English gradually removed —

—
Ranjit Singh and the Gurkhas Ranjit Singh and the ex-kings
of Kabul — Ranjit Singh and Fateh Khan, the Kabul Wazlr
—
Ranjit Singh and Shah Shuja each fail against Kashmir Fateh
—
Khan put to death Ranjit Singh captures Multan, overruns
Peshawar, occupies Kashmir, and annexes the Derajat of the
'
'

—
Indus to his dominions The Afghans defeated, and Peshawar
—
brought regularly under tribute Death of Muhammad Azim
—
Khan of Kabul, and of Sansar Chand of Katotch Ranjit Singh's
— —
power consolidated Shah Shuja's expedition of 1818-21 Appa
— —
Sahib of Nagpur The traveller Moorcroft ^Ranjit Singh's
— —
Government The Sikh Army The Sikhs and other military
—
tribes — —
French officers Ranjit Singh's family Ranjit Singh's
failings and Sikh vices —Ranjit Singh's personal favourites and
trusted servants.

A TREATY of peace and friendship was thus formed 1809.

between Ranjit Singh and the English Government but ;
The
confidence is a plant of slow growth, and doubt and suspicion English
are not always removed by formal protestations. Wliile suspicious
of Ranjit
arrangements were pending with the Maharaja, the British Singh, not-
authorities were assured that he had made propositions to withstand-
ing their
Sindhia ^ agents from Gwalior, from Holkar, and from joint
;

Amir IChan,^ continued to show themselves for years at treaty

Lahore, and their masters long dwelt on the hope that the
tribes of the Punjab and of the Deccan might yet be united
against the stranger conquerors. was further believed
It
by the English was anxiously trying
rulers that Ranjit Singh
to induce the Sikhs of Sirhind to throw off their allegiance,

*Resident at Delhi to Sir David Ochterlony, 28th June, 1809.

^ Sir D. Ochterlony to Government, 15th Oct., 1809 5th, 6th,
;

and 7th Dec , 1809 ; and 5th and 30th Jan., and 22nd Aug., 1810.
 146 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vi

1809-11. and to join him and Holkar against their protectors.^ Other
special instances might also be quoted, and Sir David
Ochterlony even thought it prudent to lay in supplies and
and Kanjit. to throw up defensive lines at Ludhiana.^ Ranjit Singh had
Singh
likewise his suspicions,
j- '
but they were necessarily
./ j expressed
i
equally
doubtful on in ambiguous terms, and were rather to be deduced from his
his part: ^^.^g g^j^^j correspondence, and from a consideration of his
than to be looked for in overt statements or remon-
position,
but distrust strances. By degrees the apprehensions of the two govern-
gradually
vanishes on
ixients mutually vanished, and, while Raniit
*' j o felt he
Singh
either side, could freely exercise his ambition beyond the Sutlej, the
English were persuaded he would not embroil himself with
its restless allies in the south, so long as he had occupation
elsewhere. In 1811 presents were exchanged between the
Governor-General and the Maharaja,^ and during the
following year Sir David Ochterlony became his guest at
the marriage of his son, Kharak Singh,* and from that period
until within a year of the late war, the rumours of a Sikh
invasion served to amuse the idle and to alarm the credulous,
without causing uneasiness to the British viceroy.
Ranjit On the departure of Mr. Metcalfe, the first care of Ranjit
Singh ac- Singh
quires » was to strengthen
» both his frontier post
t-
of Phillaur
Kangra, opposite Ludhiana, and Gobindgarh the citadel of Amritsar,
and con- which he had begun to build as soon as he got possession of
Gurkhas to the religious capital of his people.^ He was invited, almost
at the same time, by Sansar Chand of Katotch, to aid in
th^M^ti^^
1809. 'resisting the Gurklias, who were still pressing their long-
continued siege of Kangra, and who had effectually dispelled
the Rajput prince's dreams of a supremacy reaching from
the Jumna to the Jhelum. The stronghold was offered to
the Sikh ruler as the price of his assistance, but Sansar Chand
hoped, in the meantime, to gain admittance himself, by

^ Sir D. Ochterlony to Government, 5th Jan., 1810.

2 Sir D. Ochterlony to Government, 31st Dec, 1809, and 7th Sept.,
1810.
^ A carriage was at this time sent to Lahore. See, further, Resident
of Delhi to Sir D. Ochterlony, 25th Feb., 1811, and Sir D. Ochterlony
to Government, 15th Nov., 1811.
* Sir D. Ochterlony to Government, 18th July, 1811, and 23rd
Jan., 1812.
^ Of. Murray, Ranjit Singh, p. 76.
CHAP. VI DISTRUST OF RANJiT SINGH 147

showing to the Gurkhas the futility of resisting Ranjit Singh, 1809.

and by promising to surrender the fort to the Nepal com-

mander, if allowed to withdraw his family. The Maharaja
saw through the schemes of Sansar Chand, and he made the
son of his ally a prisoner, while he dexterously cajoled the
Khatmandii general, Amar Singh Thappa, who proposed
a joint warfare against the Rajpiit mountaineers, and to
take, or receive, in the meantime, the fort of Kangra as
part of the Gurkha share of the general spoil. The Sikhs
got possession of the place by suddenly demanding admit-
tance as the expected relief. Sansar Chand was foiled, and
Am.ar Singh retreated across the Sutlej, loudly exclaiming
that he had been grossly duped.^ The active Nepalese The Gur-
khas urge
commander soon put down some disorders which had the English
arisen in his rear, but the disgrace of his failure before to effect a
joint con-
Kangra rankled in his mind, and he made preparations for quest of the
another expedition against it. He proposed to Sir David Punjab,
1809.
Ochterlony a joint march to the Indus, and a separate
appropriation of the plains and the hills ^ and Ranjit
;

Singh, ignorant alike of English moderation and of inter-

national law, became apprehensive lest the allies of Nepal
should be glad of a pretext for coercing one who had so
unwillingly acceded to their limitation of his ambition. He
made known that he was desirous of meeting Amar Singh
Thappa on his own ground and the reply of the Governor-
; But Ranjit
Singh told
General that he might not only himself cross the Sutlej to he may
chastise the invading Gurklias in the hills, but that, if they cross the
Sutlej to
descended into the plains of Sirhind, he would receive resist the
English assistance, gave him another proof that the river Nepal
of the treaty was really to be an impassable barrier. He leader,
1811.
had got the assurance he wanted, and he talked no more of Amar
carrying his horsemen into mountain recesses.^ But Amar Singh
Singh long brooded over his reverse, and tried in various Thappa
again
ways to induce the British authorities to join him in assailing presses an
alliance
^ Murray, Ranjit Singh, pp. 76, 77. Ther Maharaja told Capt. Wade against the
that the Gurkhas wanted to share Kashmir with him, but that he Sikhs,1813.
thought it best-to keep them out of the Punjab altogether. (Capt.
Wade to Government, 25th May, 1831.)
2 Sir D. Ochterlony to Government, 16th and 30th Dec., 1809.
3 SirD. Ochterlony to Government, 12th Sept., 1811, and Govern-

ment to Sir D. Ochterlony, 4th Oct. and 22nd Nov., 1811.

Ii2
 148 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vi

1811-15. the Punjab. The treaty with Nepal, he would say, made all
strangers the mutual friends or enemies of the two govern-
ments, and Ranjit Singh had wantonly attacked the Gurkha
possessions in Katotch. Besides, he would argue, to advance
is the safest policy, and what could have brought the English
to the Sutlej but the intention of going beyond it ? ^ The
Ween the ^^P^^ ^^^ ^^ 1814! followed, and the English became the
English neighbours of the Siklis in the hills as well as in the plains,
r°*^kh
^^^ ^^^ Gurkhas, instead of grasping Kashmir, trembled for
1

1814^15.'' their homes in Khatmandu. Ranjit Singh was not then

Sansar asked to give his assistance, but Sansar Chand was directly
K^rfh^ called upon by the English representative to attack the
Ranjit
'
—
Gurklias and their allies, a hasty requisition, which
Singh and produced a remonstrance from the Maharaja, and an

English. admission, on the part of Sir David Ochterlony, that his

supremacy was not questioned while the experienced
;

Hindu chief had forborne to commit himself with either

state, by promising much and doing little.^
ShahShuja Ranjit Singh felt secure on the Upper Sutlej, but a new
ffom Af-
danger assailed him in the beginning of 1810, and again set
ghanistan, him to work to dive to the bottom of British counsels.
1809-10.
Mr. Elphinstone had scarcely concluded a treaty with Shah
Shuja against the Persians and French, before that prince
was driven out of his kingdom by the brother whom he had
himself supplanted, and who had placed his affairs in the
hands of the able minister, Fateh IQian. The Maharaja was
^ Government, 20th December, 1813.
Sir D. Ochterlony to
2 Governmentto Sir D. Ochterlony, 1st and 20th Oct., 1814.
Resident at Delhi to Sir D. Ochterlony, 11th Oct., 1814, and Sir
David's letter to Ranjit Singh, dated 29th Nov., 1814.
During the war of 1814 Sir David Ochterlony sometimes almost
despaired of success and, amid his vexations, he once at least re-
;

corded his opinion that the Sepoys of the Indian army were unequal
to such mountain warfare as was being waged. (Sir D. Ochterlony
to Government, 22nd Dec, 1814.) The most active and useful ally
of the English during the war was Raja Ram Saran of Hindur
(or Nalagarh), the descendant of the Hari Chand slain by Guru
Gobind, and who was himself the ready coadjutor of Sansar Chand in
many aggressions upon others, as well as in resistance to the Gurkhas.
The venerable chief was still alive in 1846, and he continued to talk
with admiration of Sir David Ochterlony and his 'eighteen pounders',
and to expatiate upon the aid he himself rendered in dragging them
up the steeps of the Himalayas.
 —

CHAP, VI RANJIT SINGH AND GURKHAS 149

at Wazirabad, sequestering that place from the family of 1809-10.

a deceased Sildi chief, when he heard of Shah Shuja's progress
to the eastward with vague hopes of procuring assistance
from one friendly power or another. Ranjit Singh remem- Ranjit
bered the use he had himself made of Shah Zaman's grant Singh's
suspicions
of Lahore, he feared the whole Punjab might similarly be and plans.
surrendered to the English in return for a few battalions,
and he desired to keep a representative of imperial power
within his own grasp.^ He amused the ex-king with the
offer of co-operation in the recovery of Multan and Kashmir,
and he said he would himself proceed to meet the Shah to
save him further journeying towards Hindustan.^ They The Maha-
saw one another at Sahiwal, but no determinate arrange- raja meets
the Shah,
ment was come to, for some prospects of success dawned but no
upon the Shall, and he felt reason to distrust Ranjit Singh's arrange-
ment come
sincerity.^ The conferences were broken off but the
; to, 1810.
Maharaja hastened, while there was yet an appearance of
union, to demand the surrender of Multan for himself in the Ranjit
name of the king. The great gun called 'Zamzam',* or the Singh at-
tempts
' BhangI Top ', was brought from Lahore to batter the walls Multan,
of the citadel but all his efforts were in vain, and he retired,
:
but fails,
Feb.-April,
foiled, in the month of April, with no more than 180,000
1810;
rupees to soothe his mortified vanity. The Governor,
Muzaffar KJian, was by this time in correspondence with
the British viceroy in Calcutta, and Ranjit Singh feared
that a tender of allegiance might not only be made but
accepted.^ He therefore proposed to Sir David Ochterlony and pro-
that the two allied powers should march against Multan poses to the
' '

English a
and divide the conquest equally.^ It was surmised that he joint ex-
pedition
1 Sir D. Ochterlony to Government, 10th and 30th Dec., 1809. against it.
2 Sir D. Ochterlony to Government, 7th, 10th, 17th, and 30th
Dec., 1809, and 30th Jan., 1810.
^ Shah Shuja's ' Autobiography ', chap, xxii, published in the

Calcutta Monthly Journal for 1839. The original was undoubtedly

revised, if not really written, by the Shah.
* [Known to all the world as 'Kim's' gun, it now reposes in its last

resting-place outside the Central Museum in Lahore. Ed.]

^ Sir D. Ochterlony to Government, 29th March and 23rd May,

1810. In the latter it is stated that 250,000 rupees were paid, and
the sum of 180,000 is given on Capt. Murray's authority, {Life of
Banjit Singh, p. 81.)
^ SirD. OchterlonytoGovernmpnt, 23rd July and 13th Aug., 1810.
 ^

150 HISTORY OF THE SIIOIS chap, vi

1810-12. wanted the siege train of the English, but he may likewise
have wished to know whether the Sutlej was to be as good
a boundary in the south as in the north. He was told
reprovingly that the English committed aggressions upon
no one, but otherwise the tenor of the correspondence was
, such as to lead him to believe that he would not be inter-
fered with in his designs upon Multan.^
Shah Shah Shuja proceeded towards Attock after his interview
^'^"i^h Ranjit Singh, and having procured some aid from the
PesMwar
andJMultan rebellious brother of the Goyernor of Kashmir, he crossed
campaign,
^j^^ Indus, and. in March 1810, made himself master of
'
and subse- '

quent im- Peshawar. He retained possession of the place for about

prisonment gj^^ months, when he was compelled
' to retreat southward by *^
in Kashmir,
1810-12. the Wazir s brother, Muhammad Azim Khan. He made an
attempt to gain over the Governor of Multan, but he was
refused admittance within its walls, and was barely treated
with courtesy, even when he encamped a few miles distant.
He again moved northward, and, as the enemies of Mahmud
were numerous, he succeeded in mastering Peshawar a
second time, after two actions, one a reverse and the other
a victory. But those who had aided him became suspicious
that he was in secret league with Fateh KHian the Wazir,
or, like Ranjit Singh, they wished to possess his person ;

and, in the course of 1812, he was seized in Peshawar by

Jahan Dad Khan, Governor of Attock. and removed, first
to that fort, and afterwards to Kashmir, where he remained
as a prisoner for more than twelve months.
After the failure before Multan, Ranjit Singh and his
minister, Mohkam Chand, were employed in bringing more
fully under subjection various Sikh and Muhammadan
chiefs in the plains, and also the hill Rajas of Bhimbar,
^ Government, 29th March and 17th Sept.,
Sir D. Ochterlony to
1810, and Government to Sir D. Ochterlony, 25th Sept., 1840.
(Cf.Murray, Ranjit Singh, pp. 80, 81.)
2 Sir D. Ochterlony toGovernment, 10th Jan. and 26th Feb.,
1810, and 27th April, 1812. Shah Shuja's 'Autobiography ', chaps,
xxiii-xxv, in the Calcutta Monthly Journal for 1839, and Murray,
Banjit Singh, pp. 79, 87, 92.
Shah Shuja's second appearance before Multan in 1810-11 is
given mainly on Capt. Murray's authority, and the attempt is not
mentioned in the Shah's memoirs, although it is admitted that he
went into the Derajat of the Indus, i.e. to Dera Ismail Khan, &c.
 ATTEMPT ON MULTAN 151

Rajaori, and other places. In the month of February 1811, 1811-12.

the Maharaja had reached the salt mines between the Jhelum
and Indus, and hearing that Shah Mahmud had crossed the
latter river, he moved in force to Rawalpindi, and sent to
ascertain his intentions. The Shah had already deputed
agents to state that his object was to punish or overawe the
Governor of Kashmir, who had sided with his brother. Shah
Shuja, then in the neighbourhood of Multan and the two
; Ranjit
Singh
princes being satisfied, they had a meeting of ceremony
meets Shah
before the Maharaja returned to Lahore, to renew his con- Mahmud,
1811.
fiscation of lands held by the many petty chiefs who had
achieved independence or sovereignty while the country
was without a general controlling power, but who now fell
unresistingly before the systematic activity of the young
Maharaja.^
In the year 1811, the blind Shah Zaman crossed the The bhnd
Shah Za-
Punjab, and was visited by Ranjit Singh. He took up his man repairs
residence in Lahore for a time, and deputed his son Eunus for a time
to Lahore,
to Ludhiana, where he was received with attention by
1811.
Sir David Ochterlony but as the prince perceived that
;

he was not a welcome guest, his fatlier quitted Ranjit Singh's

city, and became a wanderer for a time in Central Asia.^
In the following year the families of the two ex-kings took The family
of Shah
up their abode at Lahore, and as the Maharaja was preparing Shuja
to bring the hill chiefs south of Kashmir under his power, repairs to
Lahore,
with a view to the reduction of the valley itself, and as he 1812.
always endeavoured to make success more complete or more
easy by appearing to labour in the cause of others, he pro-

1 Murray, Ranjit Singh, p. 83, &c. The principal of the chiefs

whose territories were usurped was Budh Singh, of the Singhpuria
or Feizulapuria Misal. See also Sir D. Ochterlony to Government,
15th Oct., 1811.
2 Murray, Ranjit Singh, p. 87. The visit of the prince was considered

very embarrassing with reference to Ranjit Singh ;for Shah Shuja

might follow, and he was one who claimed British aid under the treaty
of 1809. It was regretted that the obligations of political necessity
'

should supersede the dictates of compassion '

;it was argued that
the treaty referred to defence against the French, and not against
a brother and the loyal-hearted Sir David Ochterlony was chidden
;

for the reception he gave to the distressed Shahzada. (Government

to Sir D. Ochterlony, 19th Jan., 1811, and the correspondence
generally of Dec. 1810 and Jan. 1811.)
 152 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vi

1812-13. fessed to the wife of Shah Shuja that he would release her
"
husband and replace Kashmir under the Shah's sway but ;

Ranjit he hoped the gratitude of the distressed lady would make

?.l"^ii^^^ the great
° diamond, Koh-i-nur, the reward of his chivalrous
the Shah's , , , . ,
name for labours when they should be crowned with success. His
purposes of principal obiect was doubtless the possession of the Shah's
his own. r r J
„,. ,..
person, and when, after his preliminary successes against
the hill chiefs, including the capture of Jammu by his newly
married son, Kharak Singh, he heard, towards the end of
Ranjit 1812, that Fateh Khan the Kabul Wazir had crossed the
meets Indus with the design of marching against Kashmir, he
Fateh sought an interview with him, and said he would assist in
Kabui bringing to punishment both the rebel, who detained the
Wazir, king's brother, and likewise the Governor of Multan, who
1812 •
'
had refused obedience to Mahmud. Fateh Khan had been
equally desirous of an interview, for he felt that he could not
and a joint take Kashmir if opposed by Ranjit Singh, and he readily

agaii^r^*'
promised anything to facilitate his immediate object. The
Kashmir re- Maharaja and the Wazir each hoped to use the other as a
solved on.
^qq]^ y^^ ^j^g success of neither was complete. Kashmir was
Fateh occupied in February 1813 but Fateh Khan outstripped
;

Khan out- ^j^g Sikhs under Mohkam Chand, and he maintained that
Sikhs, and as he alone had achieved the conquest, the Maharaja could
holds the not share in the spoils. The only advantage which accrued
Mahmud to Ranjit Singh was the possession of Shah Shuja's person,
1813. for the ill-fated king was allowed by Fateh Klian to go
Shah Shuja whither he pleased, and he preferred joining the Sikh army,
jomsRanjit ^hich he accompanied to Lahore, to- becoming virtually

acquires a prisoner In Kabul. ^ Rut the Maharaja's expedients did

Attock; j)ot entirely fail him, and as the rebel Governor of Attock
was alarmed by the success of Shah Mahmiid's party in
Kashmir, he was easily persuaded to yield the fort to Ranjit
Singh. This unlooked-for stroke incensed Fateh Klian, who
accused the Maharaja of barefaced treachery, and endea-
voured further to intimidate him by pretending to make
while Moh- overtures to Shah Shuja but the Maharaja felt confident
;

kam Chand of his strength, and a battle was fought on the 13th July,
QGIGEttS tllG

^ Murray, Banjit Singh, pp. 92, 95 Sir D. Ochterlony to Govern-

;
Wazi!-^ in
a pitched ^ent, 4th March, 1813; and Shah Shuja's 'Autobiography',
battle. chap. xxv.
 ^ ;

CHAP. VI RANJIT SINGH AND FATEH KHAN 153

1813, near Attock, in Avhich the Kabul Wazir, and his 1813-14.
brother Dost Muhammad Khan, were defeated by Mohkam
' Chand and the Sikhs.
Ranjit Singh was equally desirous of detaining Shah Ranjit.
Singh ob-
Shuja in Lahore, and of securing the great diamond which tains the
had adorned the throne of the Mughals. The king evaded Koh-i-nur
diamond,
a compliance with demands for a time, and rejected even
all
1813-14
the actual offer of moderate sums of money but at last
;

the Maharaja visited the Shah in person, mutual friendship

was declared, an exchange of turbans took place, the diamond
was surrendered, 2 and the king received the assignment of
a jaglr in the Punjab for his maintenance, and a promise and pro-
mises aid
of aid in recovering Kabul. Ranjit Singh then moved to Shah
towards the Indus to watch the proceedings of Fateh Khan, Shuja.

who was gradually consolidating the power of Mahmud, Makes a

movement,
and he required Shah Shuja to join him, perhaps with some towards the
design of making an attempt on Kashmir but Fateh Khan
; Indus.
was likewise watchful, the season was advanced, and the
Maharaja suddenly returned. Shah Shuja followed slowly, Shah Shu-
ja's dis-
and on the way he was plundered of many valuables, by tresses.
ordinary robbers, as the Sikhs said, but by the Siklis
themselves, as the Shah believed. The inferior agents of
Ranjit Singh may not have been very scrupulous, but the
Shah had traitors in his own household, and the high officer
who had been sent to conduct Mr. Elphinstone to Peshawar,
embezzled much of the Shah's property when misfortune
overtook him. This Mir Abdul Hassan had originally in-
formed the Sikh chief of the safety of the Koh-i-nur and
other valuables, he plotted when in Lahore to make it
appear the king was in league witli the Governor of Kashmir,
and he finally threw difficulties in the way of the escape of

Murray, Ranjit Singh, pp.

'
95, 100; Sir D. Ochterlony to
Government, 1st July, 1813.
2 M\irra,j, Ranjit Singh, ji.dQ, &c.; Shah Shuja's 'Autobiography',

chap. XXV ; Sir D. Ochterlony to Government, 16th and 23rd April,

1813, and to the Resident at Delhi, 15th Oct., 1813. The Shah's own
account of the methods practised to get possession of the diamond
is more favourable than Capt. Murray's to Ranjit Singh. The Shah
wanted a jagir of 100,000 rujjees, and one of 50,000 was assigned to
him but effect to the assignment was never given, nor perhaps
;

expected.
 154 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. VI

1814-16. his master's family from the Sikh capital. The flight of the
The flight of
Begums was at last effected in December 1814
to lAidhiana ;

his family for Shah Shuja perceived the design of the Maharaja to
from La- detain him a prisoner, and to make use of his name for
hore to
Ludhiana, purposes of his own. A few months afterwards the Shah
1814; himself escaped to the hills he was joined by some Sikhs
;

April,1815;
discontented with Ranjit Singh, and he was aided by the
and his own chief of Kishtwar in an attack upon Kashmir. He
penetrated
escape to
Kishtwar. into the valley, but he had to retreat, and, after residing
Fails for some time longer with his simple, but zealous, mountain
against
host, he marched through Kulu, crossed the Sutlej, and
Kashmir,
and retires joined his family at Ludhiana in September 1816.^ His
to Ludhi-
presence on the frontier was regarded as embarrassing by
ana, 1816.
the British Government, which desired that he should be
urged to retire to Karnal or Saharanpur, and Sir David
Ochterlony was further discretionally authorized to tell
Ranjit Singh that the ex-king of Kabul was not a welcome
guest within the limits of Hindustan. Nevertheless the
annual sum of 18,000 rupees, which had been assigned for
the support of his family, was raised to 50,000 on his
arrival, and personally he was treated with becoming
respect and consideration.^
Ranjit Shah Shuja thus slipped from the hands of the Maharaja,
Singh
attempts
and no use could be made of his name in further attempts
Kashmir upon Kashmir; but Ranjit Singh continued as anxious as
and is re-
ever to obtain possession of the valley, although the Governor
pulsed,
1814. had, in the meantime, put himself in communication with
the English.^ The chiefs south of the PIr Panjal range
having been brought under subjection, military operations
were commenced towards the middle of the year 1814.
Sickness detained the experienced Mohkam Chand at the
but he Avarned the Maharaja of the difficulties which
capital,
would beset him as soon as the rains set in, and he almost
1 Murray, Ranjit Singh, pp. 102, 103; Shah Shuja's 'Autobio-
graphy ', chaps. XXV, xxvi.
2 Government to Sir D. Ochterlony, 2nd and 20th Aug., 1815,

and 14th, 21st, and 28th Sept., 1816. The Wafa Begam had before
been told that the Shah's family had no claims to British protection
or intervention. (Government to Resident at Delhi^ 19th Dec, 1812,
and Ist July, 1813.)
3 Government to Sir D. Ochterlony, 29th Oct. and 23rd Nov., 1813.
CHAP. VI EXPEDITION AGAINST KASHMIR 155

urged the postponement of the expedition. But the neces- 1815-16.

sary arrangements had been completed, and the approach
was made in two columns. The more advanced division
surmounted the lofty barrier, a detachment of the Afghan
force was repulsed, and the town of Supain was attacked ;

but the assault failed, and the Sikhs retired to the mountain
passes. Muhammad Azim Khan, the Governor, then fell
on the main body of Ranjit Singh, which had been long in
view on the skirts of the valley, and compelled the Maharaja
to retreat with precipitation. The rainj'^ season had fairly
set in, the army became disorganized, a brave chief, Mit'h
Singh Behrania, was slain, and Ranjit Singh reached his
capital almost alone about the middle of August. The
advanced detachment was spared by Muhammad Azim
Khan, out of regard, he said, for Mohkam Chand, the grand-
father of its commander and as doubtless the aspiring
;

brother of the WazTr Fateh Khan had views of his own amid
the struggles then going on for power, he may have thought
it prudent to improve every opportunity to the advantage

of his own reputation.^

The made during the expedition to Kashmir had Various
efforts
been great, and the Maharaja took some time to reorganize chiefs in
the hills,
his means. Towards the middle of 1815 he sent detachments and various
of troops to levy exactions around Multan, but he himself places to-
wards the
remained at Adinanagar, busy with internal arrangements, Indus, re-
and perhaps intent upon the war then in progress between duced,
1815-16.
the British and the Nepalese, which, for a period of six
months, was scarcely worthy of the F^nglish name. The
end of the same year was employed in again reducing the
Muhammadan tribes south-east of Kashmir, who had
thrown off their allegiance during the retreat of the Sikhs.
In the beginning of 1816 the refractory hill Raja of Niirpur
sought poverty and an asylum in the British dominions,
rather than resign his territories and accept a maintenance.
The Muhammadan chiefship of Jhang was next finally con-
fiscated, and Leiah, a dependency of Dera Ismail Khan, was
laid under contribution. Ilch on the Chenab, the seat of

1 Murray, Ranpt Sinrjh,

pp. 104, 108, and Sir D. Ochterlony to
Government, 13th Aug., 1814. Diwan Mohkam Chand died soon
after Ranjit Singh's return.
 156 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vi

1816-18. families of Saiyids, was temporarily occupied by Fateh

Singh Ahluwalia, and the possessions of Jodli Singh Ram-
garhia, lately deceased, the son of Jassa, the Carpenter (the
confederate of the Maharaja's father), were seized and
annexed to the territories of the Lahore government.
Sansar Chand was honoured and alarmed by a visit from
his old ally, and the year 1816 terminated with the Maha-
raja's triumphant return to Amritsar.^
Eanjit The northern plains and lower hills of the Punjab had
f"^^^M^^
been fairly reduced to obedience and order, and RanjTt
tan, 1818. Singh's territories were bounded on the south and west by
the real or nominal dependencies of Kabul, but the Maha-
raja's meditated attacks upon them were postponed for a
. year by impaired health. His first object was Multan, and
early in 1818 an army marched to attack it, under the
nominal command of his son, Kharak Singh, the titular
reducer of Jammu. To ask what were the Maharaja's
reasons for attacking Multan would be futile he thought
;

the Sikhs had as good a right as the Afghans to take what

they could, and the actual possessor of Multan had rather
asserted his own independence than faithfully served the
heirs of Ahmad Shah, A large sum of money was demanded
and refused. In the course of Februarj'^, the city was m
possession of the Sikhs, but the fort held out until the begin-
ning of June, and chance had then some share in its capture.
An Akali, named Sadhu Singh, went forth to do battle for
the ' Khalsa ', and the very suddenness of the onset of his
small band led to success The Sikhs, seeing the impres-
sion thus strangely made, arose together, carried the out-
work, and found an easy entry through the breaches of a
four months' batter. Muzaffar Khan, the governor, and
two of his sons, were slain in the assault, and two others
were made prisoners. A considerable booty fell to the share
of the soldiery, but when the army reached Lahore, the
Maharaja directed that the plunder should be restored.
He may have felt some pride that his commands were not
altogether unheeded, but he complained that they were not
so i3roductive as he had expected.^
1 Cf. Murray, RanjU Singh, pp. 108, 111.
^ The placefell on the 2nd June, 1818. See Murray, RanjU Singh,
CHAP. VI FATEH KHAN PUT TO DEATH 157

During the same year, 1818, Fateh Khan, the Kabul 1818.
Wazir, was put to death by Kamran, the son of Mahmud,
the nommal ruler. He had gone to Herat to repel an attack Khan,
of the Persians, and he was accompanied by his brother, 5-^^""°^

Dost Mulianimad, who again had among his followers a to death

Sikh chief, Jai Singh Atariwala, who had left the Punjab in 1818.

displeasure. Fateh Khan was successful, and applause was

freely bestowed upon his measures but he wished to place
;

Herat, then held by a member of Ahmad Shah's family,

within his own gTasp, and Dost Muhammad and his Sikh
ally were employed to eject and despoil the prince-governor.
Dost Muhammad effected his purposes somewhat rudely,
the person of a royal lady was touched in the eagerness of
the riflers to secure her jewels, and Kamran made this affront
offered to a sister a pretext for getting rid of the man who
from the stay had become the tyrant of his family. Fateh
Khan was first blinded and then murdered and the crime
;

saved Herat, indeed, to Ahmad Shah's heirs, but deprived

them for a time, and now perhaps for ever, of the rest of
his possessions. Muhammad Azim Klian hastened from
Kashmir, which he left in charge of Jabbar lOian, another
of the many brothers. He at first thought of reinstating Muham-
Shah Shuja, but he at last proclaimed Shah Ayub as king, "lad Azim

and in a few months he was master of Peshawar and Ghazni, gi^aii Ayub.
of Kabul and Kandahar. This change of rulers favoured,
if it did not justify, the views of Ranjit Singh, and towards Ranjit
the end of 1818 he crossed the Indus and entered Peshawar, Singh
which was evacuated on his approach. But it did not peshawar
suit his purposes, at the time, to endeavour to retain the
district ; he garrisoned Kliairabad, which lies on the right
bank of the river, so as to command the passage for the
p. 114, &c. The Maharaja told Mr. Moorcroft that he had got very
little of the booty he attempted to recover. (Moorcroft, Travels,
i. 102.) Muhammad Muzaffar Khan, the governor, had held Multan
from the time of the expulsion of the Siklis of the Bhangi 'Misal', in
1779. In 1807 he went on a pilgrimage to Mecca, and, although he
returned in two years, he left the nominal control of affairs with his
son, Sarafraz Khan. On the last approach of Ranjit Singh, the old
man refused, according to the Bahawalpur annals, to send his family
to the south of the Sutlej, as on other occasions of siege ; but whether
he did so in the confidence, or in the despair, of a successful resistance
is not clear.
 158 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vi

1818-19. future, and then retired, placingJahan Dad Khan, his old
hch h ^^^y ^^ Attock, in possession of Peshawar itself, to hold it as
makes over he could by his own means. The Barakzai governor, Yar
^-^j^}u-
Dad Khan,
Muhammad ^ had
Klian, returned as soon as Rani It Singh •*

1818. gone, and the powerless Jahan Dad made no attempt to

defend his gift.^
Ranjit Ranjit Singh's thoughts were now directed towards the
tent upon annexation of Kashmir, the garrison of which had been re-
Kashmir, duced by the withdrawal of some good troops by Muhammad
Azim Ivhan but the proceedings of Desa Singh Majithia
;

and Sansar Chand for a moment changed his designs upon

others into fears for himself. These chiefs were employed on
an expedition in the hills to collect the tribute due to the
Delayed by Maharaia and the Raia of Kahlixr, who held territories
;
SLQISCUSSIOII
with the on both sides of the Sutlej, ventured to resist the demands
English, made. Sansar Chand rejoiced in this opportunity of revenge
1819. upon the friend of the Gurkhas the river was crossed, but
;

the British authorities were prompt, and a detachment of

troops stood ready to oppose force to force. Ranjit Singh
directed the immediate recall of his men, and he desired
Sirdar Desa Singh to go in jjerson, and offer his apologies
to the English agent.^ This alarm being over, the Maharaja
proceeded with his preparations against Kashmir, the troops
occupying which had, in the meantime, been reinforced by
"
a detachment from Kabul. The Brahman, Diwan Chand,
who had exercised the real command at Multan, was placed
in advance, the Prince Kharak Singh headed a supporting
column, and Ranjit Singh himself remained behind with a
reserve and for the purpose of expediting the transit of the
various munitions of war. The choice of the Sikh cavalry
marched on foot over the mountains along with the infantry
But finally soldiers, and they dragged with them a few light guns the ;

annexes the
passes were scaled on the 5th July 1819, but Jabbar Klian

1 Cf. Murray, Ranjit Singh,

pp. 117, 120; Shah Shuja's 'Auto-
biography ', chap, xxvii and Munshi Mohan Lai, Life of Dost
;

Muhammad, i. 99, 104.

Capt. Murray 131) places the defection of Jai Singh of Atari
(p.
in the year 1822 but cf. also Mr. Masson, Travels, iii. 21, 32, in
;

support of the earlier date assigned.

2 Cf. Murray, Ranjit Singh,
pp. 121, 122, and Moorcroft, Travels,
1 10, for the duration of the Maharaja's displeasure with Desa Singh.
CHAP. VI KASHMIR ANNEXED 159

was found ready to receive them. The Afghans repulsed 1819-20.

the invaders, and mastered two guns but they did not
; , . , .

improve their success, and the ralhed Siklis again attacked nions,1819.
them, and won an almost bloodless victory.^
A few months after Kashmir had been added to the The Dera-
Lahore dominions, Ranjit Singh moved in person to the indus an-
south of the Punjab; and Dera Ghazi Khan on the Indus, nexed to
another dependency of Kabul, was seized by the victorious 1819-20
Siklis. The Nawab of Bahawalpur, who held lands under
Ranjit Singh in the fork of the Indus and Chenab, had two
years before made a successful attack on the Dm-rani chief
of the place, and it was now transferred to him in form,
although his Cis-Sutlej possessions had virtually, but not
formally, been taken under British protection in the year
1815, and he had thus become, in a measure, independent
of the Maharaja's power.^ During the year 1820 partial
attempts were made to reduce the turbulent Muhammadan
tribes to the south-west of Kashmir, and, in 1821, Ranjit
Singh proceeded to complete his conquests on the Central
Indus by the reduction of Dera Ismail Khan. The strong
fort of Mankera, situated between the two westernmost
rivers of the Punjab, was held out for a time by Hafiz
Ahmad Khan, the father of the titular governor, who
scarcely owned a nominal subjection to Kabul ; but the
promise of honourable terms induced him to surrender
before the end of the year, and the country on the right bank
of the Indus, including Dera Ismail Khan, was left to him
as a feudatory of Lahore.^
Muhammad Azim had succeeded to the power of his Muham-
brother, Fateh Khan, and, being desirous of keeping Ranjit ^^ ^^™
Singh to the left bank of the Indus, he moved to Peshawar sirous of
in the year 1822, accompanied by Jai Singh, the fugitive ^curing

1818-21;'
^ Ranjit Singh, pp. 122-4.
Cf. Mxirray,
2 Government to Superintendent Ambala, 15th Jan., 1815, and

Sir D. Ochterlony to Government, 23rd July, 1815. Cf. Murray,

Ranjit Singh, p. 124. The Bahawalpur Memoirs state that Ranjit
Singh came down the Sutlej as far as Pakpattan, with the view of
seizing Bahawalpur, but that a show of resistance having been made,
and some presents offered, the Maharaja moved westward.
3 Cf. Murray, Ranjit Singh,
pp. 129, 130, and Sir A. Burnes' Kabul,
p. 92.
 160 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vi

1822-3. Sikli chief, with the intention of attacking Kliairabad

opposite Attock. Other matters caused him hastily to
retrace his steps, but his proceedings liad brought the
from which Maharaja to the westward, who sent to Yar Muliammad

Singh de- I^^an, the governor of Peshawar, and demanded tribute.

mandsand This leader, who apprehended the designs of his brother,
trfbule^
Muhammad Azim lOian, almost as much as he dreaded
1822. Ranjit Singh, made an offering of some valuable horses.^
The Maharaja was satisfied and withdrew perhaps the
more readily, as some differences had arisen with the British
authorities regarding the right to a place named Whadni,
to the south of the Sutlej, which had been transferred by
Ranjit Singh to his intriguing and ambitious mother-in-law,
But the Sada Kaur, in the year 1808. The lady was regarded by the
P^9^^'^"^°'^ English agents as being the independent representative of

interfered the interests of the Kanliaya (or Ghani) confederacy of Siklis

with by a qjj ffigij- side of the river, and therefore as having a right to
'^
discussion
with the their protection. But Ranjit Singh had quarrelled with and
^"Slish imprisoned his mother-in-law, and had taken possession of
mother-in- the fort of Whadni. It was resolved to eject him by force,
law, and a and a detachment of troops marched from Ludhiana and
Whadni restored the authority of the captive widow. Ranjit Singh
1822. prudently made no attempt to resist the British agent, but
he was not without apprehensions that his occupation of
the place would be construed into a breach of the treaty,
and he busied himself with defensive preparations. A
friendly letter from the superior authorities at Delhi relieved
him of his fears, and allowed him to prosecute his designs
against Peshawar without further interruption.^

1 Murray, Ranjit Singh, pp. 134-7.

Cf.
2 Murray, Ranjit Singh, p. 134, where the proceedings are given
Cf.
very briefly, and scarcely with accuracy. Capt. Murray's and Capt.
Ross's letters to the Resident at Delhi, from Feb. to Sept. 1822, give
details, and other information is obtainable from the letters of
Sir D. Ochterlony to Capt. Ross, dated 7th Nov., 1821, and of the
Governor-General's Agent at Delhi to Capt. Murray, of 22nd June,
and to Government of the 23rd Aug. 1822 and from those of Govern-
;

ment to the Governor-General's Agent, 24th April, 13th July, and

18th Oct., 1822. On this occasion the Akali Phula Singh is reported
by Capt. Murray to have offered to retake Whadni single-handed, and
Ranjit Singh to have commissioned him to embody a thousand of his
brethren. Sir Claude Wade [Narrative oj Personal Services, -p. 10 note)
CHAP. VI MARCH AGAINST PESHAWAR IGl

Muhammad Azim Kiian disapproved of the presentation 182R.

of horses to Ranjit Singh by Yar Muhammad lOian, and

The Sikhs
he repaired to Peshawar in January 1823. Yar Muhammad march
fled into the Usufzal hills rather than meet his brother, and against
Peshawar,
the province seemed lost to one branch of th^ numerous 1823.
family ; but the chief of the Siklis was at hand, resolved to
assert his equality of right or his superiority of power. The
Indus was forded on the 13th March, the guns being carried
across on elephants. The territory of the Khattaks bordering
the river was occupied, and at Akora the Maharaja received
and pardoned the fugitive Jai Singh Atariwala. A religious
war had been preached, and twenty thousand men, ot the
Kliattak and Usufzai tribes, had been assembled by their
priests and devotees to fight for their faith against the un-
believing invaders. This body of men was posted on and
around heights near Noshahra, but on the left bank of the
Kabul river, while Muhammad AzIm Khan, distrustful of
his influence over the independent militia, and of the fidelity
of his brothers, occupied a position higher up on the right
bank of the stream. Ranjit Singh detached a force to keep The batde
of Noshah-
the Wazir in check, and crossed the river to attack the ra, 14th
armed peasantry. The Sikli ' Akalis at once rushed upon
'
March,
1823.
the Muhammadan Ghazis ', but Phiila Singh, the wild
'

leader of the fanatics of Amritsar, was slain, and his horse-

men made no impression on masses of footmen advantage-
ously posted. The Afghans then exultingly advanced, and
threw the drilled infantry of the Lahore ruler into confusion.
They were checked by the fire of the rallying battalions,
and by the play of the artillery drawn up on the opposite
bank of the river, and at length Ranjit Singh's personal
exertions with his cavalry converted the check into a victory.
The brave and believing mountaineers reassembled after
their rout, and next day they were willing to renew the
fight under their ' PIrzada ', Muhammad Akbar ; but the
Kabul WazIr had fled with precipitation, and they were
without countenance or support. Peshawar was sacked, Peshawar
reduced,
and the country plundered up to the Miaibar Pass but ;
but left as

represents Sir Charles Metcalfe to have considered the proceedings

of the English with regard to Whadni as unwarranted — for with the
domestic concerns of the Maharaja they had no political concern.
M
 162 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vi

1823-4. the hostile spirit of the population rendered the province

adepen- ^^ difficult retention, and the prudent Maharaja gladly
dency with accepted Yar Muhammad's tender of submission. Muham-

hiunmad
"^^^ Azim Khan died shortly afterwards, and with him
Khan. expired all show of unanimity among the bands of brothers
Death of who possessed the three capitals of Peshawar, Kabul, and
mad^im Kandahar while Shah Mahmud and his son Kamran
;

Khan, exercised a precarious authority in Herat, and Shah Ayub,

1823.
^Yio had been proclaimed titular monarch of Afghanistan,
remained a cipher in his chief city.^
Ranjifc Towards the end of the year 1823, Ranjit Singh marched
hiswavTo- ^^ *^^ south-west corner of his territories, to reduce refrac-
wards tory Muhammadan Jagirdars, and to create an impression
1823-4 ^^ ^'^ power on the frontiers of Sind to tribute from the —
Amirs of which country he had already ad^'anced some
claims.^ He likewise pretended to regard Shikarpur as a
usurpation of the Talpur dynasty but his plans were not
;

yet matured, and he returned to his capital to learn of the

death of Sansar Chand. He gave his consent to the succes-

' Cf. Murray, Ranjit Singh, p. 137, &c. ; Moorcroft, Travels,n. 333,
334 ; and Masson, Journeys,ui. 58-60. Ranjit Singh told Capt. Wade
that, of his disciplined troops, his Gurkhas alone stood firm under
the assault of the Muhammadans. (Capt. Wade to Resident at Delhi,
3rd April, 1839.)
The fanatic, Phiila Singh, already referred to in the preceding note,
was a man of some notoriety. In 1809 he attacked Sir Charles
Metcalfe's camp, and afterwards the party of a British officer em-
ployed in surveying the Cis-Sutlej states. In 1814-15 he fortified
himself in Abohar (between Ferozepore and Bhatnair), since con-
strued into a British possession (Capt. Murray to Agent, Delhi,
15th May, 1823); and in 1820 ho told Mi-. Moorcroft that he was
dissatisfied with Ranjit Singh, that he was ready to join the English,
and that, indeed, he would carry fire and sword wherever Mr. Moor-
croft might desire. [Travels, i. 110.)
With regard to Dost Muhammad Khan, it is well known, and Mr.
Masson [Journeys, iii. 59, 60) and Munshi Mohan Lai [Life nj Dost
Muhammad, i. 127, 128) both show the extent to which he was an
intriguer on this occasion. This circumstance was subsequently lost
sight of by the British negotiators and the British public, and Sikh
and Afghan leaders were regarded as essentially antagonistic, instead
of as ready to coalesce for their selfish ends under any of several
probable contingencies.
2 Capt. Murray to the Governor-General's Agent, Delhi, 15th Dec.

1825, and Capt. Wade to the same, 7th Aug. 1823.

CH.VP; VI DEATH OF S.\NSAR CHAND 163

sion of the son of a chiefwhose power once surpassed his 1824.

own, and the Prince Kliarak Singh exclianged turbans, in
Sansiir
token of brotherhood, with tlie heir of tributary Katotch.'^ Chand of
Katotch
end
dies, of
RanjTt Singli liad now brought under his sway the three 1824.
Muhammadan provinces of Kashmir, Multan, and Pesha- Ranjit
war : he was supreme in the hills and plains of the Punjab Singh's
power con-
proper ; the mass of his dominion had been acquired and
; soHdated,
although his designs on Ladakh and Sind were obvious, and the
mass of his
a pause in the narrative of his actions may conveniently dominion
take place, for the purpose of relating other matters neces- acquired.

sary to a right understanding of his character, and which

intimately bear on the general history of the country.
Shah Shuja reached Ludliiana, as has been mentioned, Miscellane-
ous trans-
in the year 1816, and secured for himself an honoured actions.
repose : but his thoughts were intent on Kabul and Kanda- Shah Shu-
ja's
har ; he disliked the British notion that he had tamely expedition
sought an asylum, and he wished to be regarded as a prince against
Shikarpur
in distress, seeking for aid to enable him to recover his and Pesha-
crown. He had hopes held out to him by the Amirs of Sind war, 1818-
21.
when hard pressed, perhaps, by Fateh Klian, and he con-
ceived that an invasion of Afghanistan might be successfully
prosecuted from the southward. He made offers of advan-
tage to the English, but he was told that they had no concern
with the affairs of strangers, and desired to live in peace with
all their neighbours. He was thus casting about for means
when Fateh Klian was murdered, and the tenders of alle-
giance which he received from' Muhammad Azim Klian at
once induced him to quit Ludhiana. He left that place in
October 1818 ; with the aid of the Nawab of Bahawalpur,
he mastered Dera Ghazi Khan he sent his son Timur to
;

occupy Shikarpur, and he proceeded in person towards

Peshawar, to become, as he believed, the king of the Durranis.
But Muhammad AzIm Klian had, in the meantime, seen fit to
proclaim himself the Wazir of Ayiib, and Shah Shuja, hard
pressed, sought safety among some friendly clans in the Kliai-
bar hills. He was driven thence at the end of two months,
and had scarcely entered Shikarpur when Muhammad
^ Murray, i?anjf<^zn^A,
p. 141. For an interesting account of Sansar
Chand, his family, and his country, see Moorcroft, Travels,!. 126-46.
M 2
 164 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS ch.vp. vi

1821-2. Azim compelled him to retire. He went

Ivlian's api)roach
first and afterwards to Hyderabad, and, having
to Khairpur,
procured some money from the Sindians, he returned and
recovered Shikarpur, where he resided for a j^ear. But
Muhammad AzIm Khan again approached, the Hyderabad
chiefs pretended that the Shah was plotting to bring in the
English, and their money was this time paid for his expul-
TheShah sion. The ex-king, finding his position untenable, retired
returns to
through Rajputana to Delhi, and eventually took up his
1821; ' residence a second time at I.udhiana, in June 1821. His
and is brother, the blind Shah Zaman, after visiting Persia, and
followed bj- perhaps Arabia, arrived at the same place about the same
man wlio time and nearly by the same road. Shah Shuja's stipend
takes up had all along been drawn by his family, represented by the
at\he°same ^^^^ ^^^ faithful Wafa Begum, and an allowance, first of
place. 18,000, and afterwards of 24,000 rupees a year, was assigned
for the support of Shah Zaman, when he also became a
petitioner to the English Government.^
Appa In the year 1820, Ajjpa Sahib, the deposed Raja of the
Ka'ja o/^ Maratha kingdom of Nagpur, escaped from the custody of
Nagpur, the British authorities and repaired to Amritsar. He would
18^0--.
seem to have had the command of large sums of money, and
he endeavoured to engage Ranjit Singh in his cause but the ;

Maharaja had been told the fugitive was the violent enemy of
his English allies, and he ordered him to quit his territories.
The chief took up his abode for a time in Sansar Chand's
principality of Katotch, and while there he would appear
Ilis idle to have entered into some idle schemes with Prince Haidar,
schemes ^ gQ^ ^f ghah Zaman, for the subjugation of India south and
with the JO
son of Shah east of the Sutlej. The Durrani was to be monarch of the
Zaman. whole, from Delhi to Cape Comorin but the Maratha was
;

1 Cf. Shah Shuja's 'Autobiography', chaps, xxvii, xxviii, xxix, in

the Calcutta Monthly Journaliov 1839, and the BaJiawalpur Family
Annals (Manuscript). Capt. Murray {History of Ranjit Singh,
p. 103) merely states that Shah Shuja made an unsuccessful attempt
to recover his throne; but the following letters may be referred to
in support of all that is included in the paragraph: Government to
Resident, Delhi, 10th May and 7th June 1817 ; Capt. Murray to
Resident, Delhi, 22nd Sept. and 10th Oct. 1818, and 1st April 1825;
and Capt. Murray to Sir D. Ochterlony, 29th April, 30th June, and
27tli Aug. 1821.
CHAP. VI APPA SAHIB of NAGPUR 165

to be Wazir of the empire, and to hold the Deccan as a 1822.

dependent sovereign. The Punjab was not inehided but ;

it did not transpire that either Ranjit Singh, or Sansar

Chand, or the two ex-kings of Kabul, were privy to the

design, and, as soon as the circumstance became known,
Sansar Chand compelled his guest to proceed elsewhere.
Appa Sahib repaired, in 1822, to Mandi, which lies between
Kangra and the Sutlej but he wandered to Amritsar
;

about 1828, and only finally quitted the country during the
following year, to find an asylum with the Raja of Jodhpur.
That state had become an English dependency, and the
ex-Raja's surrender was required but the strong objections
;

of the Rajpiit induced the Government to be satisfied with

a promise of his safe custody, and he died almost forgotten
in the year 1840.i
As has been men+ioned, the Raja BIr Singh, of Nurpur, in The petty
ex-chief of
the hills, had been dispossessed of his chiefship in the year
Nurpur
1816. He sought refuge to the south of the Sutlej, and causes Ran-
immediately made proposals to Shah Shuja, who had just jit Singh
some
reached Ludhiana, to enter into a combination against anxiety
Ranjit Singh. The Maharaja had not altogether despised owing to
his resort
similar tenders of allegiance from various discontented to the
chiefs, when the Shah was his prisoner-guest in Lahore he English.;

remembered the treaty between the Shah and the English,

and he knew how readily dethroned kings might be made
use of by the ambitious. He wished to ascertain the views
of the English authorities, but he veiled his suspicions of
tliem in terms of apprehension of the Nurpur Raja. His
troops, he said, were absent in the neighbourhood of Multan,
and Bir Singh might cross the Sutlej and raise disturbances.
The reception of emissaries by Shah Shuja was then dis-
countenanced, and the residence of the exiled Raja at
Ludhiana was discouraged ; but Ranjit Singh was told
that his right to attempt the recovery of his chiefship was
admitted, although he would not be allowed to organize the
^ Cf. Murray, Eaiijlt iSinrjh,
p. 120; Moorcroft, Travels, i. 109;
and the quasi-official authority, the Benr/aland AgraGazeitecr for 1841,
184:2 (articles'
Nagpiu- and Jodhpur '). Sec alwo Capt. Murray,
'
'

letters to Resident at Delhi, 21tli Nov. and 22nd Dec. 1821, the
13th Jan. 1822, and 10th June 1824 ; and likewise Capt. Wade to
Resident at Delhi, 15th March 1828.
 166 HISTORY OF' THE SIKHS chap, vi

1819-20. means of doing so within the British Umits. The Maharaja

seemed satisfied that Lahore would be safe while he was
absent in the south or west, and he said no more.^
The travel- In the year 1819 the able and adventurous traveller,
croft in the ^looreroft, left the plains of India in the hope of reaching
Punjab, Yarkand and Bukhara. In the hills of the Puniab he
experienced difficulties, and he was induced to repair to
Lahore to wait upon Ranjit Singh. He was honourably
received, and any lurking suspicions of his own designs, or
of the views of his Government, were soon dispelled. The
INIaharaja conversed with frankness of the events of his life ;

he showed the traveller his bands of horsemen and battalions

of infantry, and encouraged him to visit any part of the
capital without hesitation, and at his own leisure. Mr.
INIoorcroft's medical skill and general knowledge, his candid
manner and personal activity, produced an impression
favourable to himself and advantageous to his countrymen ;

but his proposition that British meichandise should be

admitted into the Punjab at a fixed scale of duties was
received with evasion. The Maharaja's revenues might be
affected, it was said, and his principal officers, whose advice

Mas necessary, were absent on distant expeditions. Every

facility was afforded to Mr. Moorcroft in prosecuting his
journey, and it was arranged that, if he could not reach
Yarkand from Tibet, he might proceed through Kashmir
to Kabul and Bukliara, the route which it was eventually
found necessary to pursue. Mr. Moorcroft reached Ladakli
in safety, and in 1821 he became possessed of a letter from
the Russian minister. Prince Nesselrode, recommending a
merchant to the good offices of RanjTt Singh and assuring
him that the traders of the Punjab would be well received
in the Russian dominions —
for the emperor was himself a
benign ruler, he earnestly desired the prosperity of other
countries, and he was especially the well-wisher of that

^ The public correspondence generallj^ of 181(3-17 has here been

eferred to, and especially the letter of Government to Resident

at Delhi, dated 11th April 1817. In 1826 BIr Singh made another
attempt to recover his principality ; but he was seized and imjnisoned.
(Murray, Ranjit Siwjh, p. 145, and Caijt. Murray to Resident at
Delhi, 25th Feb. 1827.) He was subsequently released, and was
alive, but unheeded, in 1811.
CHAP. VI RANJlT SINGH'S GOVERNMENT 167

reigned over by the King of the Sikiis. The person recom- 1821.

mended had died on his way southward from Russia and;

it appeared that, six years previously, he had been the

bearer of similar communications for the Maharaja of
Lahore, and the Raja of Ladakli.'^

Ranjit Singh now possessed a broad dominion, and an Kanjit

instructed intellect might have rejoiced in the opportunity ^g^i-gj

afforded for wise legislation, and for consolidating aggre- system of

gated provinces into one harmonious empire. But such a n°g^™and

task neither suited the Maharaja's genius nor that of the view of his
n^eans and
Sikli nation; nor is it, perhaps, agreeable to the constitution
of any political society, that its limits shall be fixed, or that as leader of
the pervading spirit of a people shall rest, until its expansive ^^^ Sikhs.
force is destroyed and becomes obnoxious to change and
decay. Ranjit Singh grasped the more obvious characteris-
tics of the impulse given by Nanak and Gobind he dex-
;

terously turned them to the purposes of his own material

ambition, and he appeared to be an absolute monarch in the
midst of willing and obedient subjects. But he knew that
he merely directed into a particular channel a power which
he could neither destroy nor control, and that, to prevent
the Siklis turning upon himself, or contending with one
another, he must regularly engage them in conquest and
remote warfare. The first political system of the emancipated
Sildis had crumbled to pieces, partly through its own defects,
partly owing to its contact with a well-ordered and civilized
goverimient, and partly in consequence of the ascendancy
of one superior mind. The Misals had vanished, or were
' '

only represented by Ahluwalia and Patiala (or Phulkia),

the one depending on the personal friendship of Ranjit Singh
for its chief, and the other upheld in separate portions by
the expediency of the English. But Ranjit Singh never
thought his own or the Sikli sway was to be confined to the
Punjab, and his only wish was to lead armies as far as faith
in the Khalsa and confidence in his skill would take brave
and believing men. He troubled himself not at all with the
theory or the pracLical niceties of administration, and he

1 Moorcroft, Traveld, i. 99, 103 ; and see also pp. 383, 387, with

respect to a previous letter to Raujit Singh.

 168 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vi

]821. would rather have added a province to liis rule than have
" received the assurances of his English neighbours that he
legislated with discrimination in commercial affairs and
with a just regard for the amelioration of his ignorant and
fanatical subjects of various persuasions. He took from
the land as much as it could readily yield, and he took from
merchants as much as they could profitably give he put;

down open marauding ; the Sikli peasantry enjoyed a light

assessment ; no local officer dared to oppress a member of
the Khalsa ; and if elsewhere the farmers of revenue were
resisted in their tyrannical proceedings, they were more
likely to be changed than to be supported by battalions.
He did not ordinarily punish men who took redress into
their own hands, for which, indeed, his subordinates were
prej^ared, and which they guarded against as they could.
The whole wealth and the whole energies of the people
were devoted to war, and to the preparation of military
means and equipment. The system is that common to all
feudal governments, and it gives much scope to individual
ambition, and tends to produce independence of character.
It suited the mass of the Sikh population they had ample
;

em])loyment, they loved contention, and they were pleased

that city after city admitted the supremacy of the Khalsa
and enabled them to enrich their families. But Ranjit Singh
never arrogated to himself the title or the powers of despot
or tyrant. He was assiduous in his devotions he honoured
;

men of reputed sanctity, and enabled them to practise an

enlarged charity he attributed every success to the favour
;

of God, and he styled himself and people collectively the

'
Khalsa ', or conmionwealth of Gobind. Wliether in walk-
ing barefooted to make his obeisance to a collateral repre-
sentative of his prophets, or in rewarding a soldier distin-
guished by that symbol of his faith, a long and ample beard,
or in restraining the excesses of the fanatical Akalis, or in
beating an army and acquiring a province, his own name
and his own motives were kept carefully concealed, and
everything was done for the sake of the Guru, for the
advantage of the Ivlialsa, and in the name of the Lord.^
1 Ranjit Singli, in wi-iting or in talking of his government, always

used the term Khalsa '. On his seal he wrotej as any Sikh usually
'

writes, his name, with the prefix Akal Sahai ', that is, for instance.
'
 THE SIKH ARMY 169

In the year 1822 the French Generals, V^entura and 1822.

Allard, reached Lahore by way of Persia and Afghanistan,
The Sikh
and, after some little hesitation, they were employed and army.
treated with distinction.^ It has been usual to attribute the
army to the labours of these two
superiority of the Sildi
and of their subsequent coadjutors, the Generals
officers, Arrival of
French
Court and Avitabile but, in truth, the Sikli owes his excel-
;
officers at
lence as a soldier to his own hardiliood of character, to that Lahore,
1822.
'
Godthe helper, Ranj it Singh '
—
an inscription strongly resembling
the God with us of the Commonwealth of England. Professor
' '

Wilson {Journal Royal Asiatic Society, No. xvii, p. 51) thus seems
scarcely justified in saying that Ranj it Singh deposed Nanak and
Gobind, and the supreme ruler of the universe, and held himself to
be the impersonation of the Khalsa !

With respect to the abstract excellence or moderation, or the

practical efficiency or suitableness of the Sikh government, opinions
will always differ, as they will about all other governments. It is not
simjily an unmeaning truism to say that the Sikh government suited
the Sikhs well, for such a degree of fitness is one of the ends of all
governments of ruling classes, and the adaptation has thus a degree of
positive merit. In judging of individuals, moreover, the extent and
the peculiarities of the civilization of their times should be remembered,
and the present condition of the Punjab shows a combination of the
characteristics of rising mediaeval Europe and of the decaying
—
Byzantine emi^ire semi-barbarous in either light, but possessed at
once of a native youthful vigour, and of an extraneous knowledge of
many of the arts which adorn life in the most advanced stages of
society.
The a city like Amritsar is the creation of the Sikhs
fact, again, that
at once refutes manycharges of oppression or misgovernment, and
Col. Francklin only repeats the general opinion of the time when he
says (Life of Shah Alain, p. 77) that the lands under Sikh rule were
cultivated with great assiduity. Mr. Masson could hear of no com-
plaints in Multan (Journeys, i. 30, 398), and. although Moorcroft
notices the depressed condition of the Kashmiris (Travels, i. 123) he
does not notice the circumstance of a grievous famine having occurred
shortly before his visit, which drove thousands of the people to the
plains of India, and he forgets that the valley had been under the
sway of Afghan adventurers for many years, tlie severity of whose
rule is noticed by Forster (Travels, ii. 2(5, &c.). The ancestors of the
numerous families of Kashmiri Brahmans, now settled in Delhi,
Lucknow, &c., were likewise refugees from Afghan oppression ; and
it is curious that the consolidation of Ranj it Singh's jjower should
have induced several of these families to repair to the Punjab, and
even to retui-n to their original country. This, notwithstanding the
Hinduism of the Sikh faith, is still somewhat in favour of Sikh rule.
^ MuiTay, Ranjlt Sinrjh,
p. 131, &c.
 ;
:

170 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. VI

1822 spirit of adaptation which disstinguishes every new people,

Excel-
and to that feeling of a common interest and destiny im-
lences of planted in him by his great teachers. The Rajputs and
the Sikhs
Pathans are valiant and high-minded warriors but their
:
as soldiers.
pride and their courage are personal only, and concern them
Character-
istics of as men of ancient family and noble lineage they will do
;

Rajputs nothing unworthy of their birth, but they are indifferent to

and
Pathans, the political advancement of their race. The efforts of the
of Mara- Marathas, in emancipating themselves from a foreign yoke,
thas, were neither guided nor strengthened by any distinct hope
or desire. They became free, but knew not how to remain
independent, and they allowed a crafty Brahman ^ to turn
their aimless aspirations to his own profit, and to found a
dynasty of Peshwas on the achievements of unlettered
' '

Sudras. Ambitious soldiers took a further advantage of the

spirit called up by Sivajl, but as it was not sustained by any
pervading religious principle of action, a few generations saw
the race yield to the expiring efforts of Muhammadanism,
and the Marathas owe their present position, as rulers, to
the intervention of European strangers. The genuine
Maratha can scarcely be said to exist, and the two hundred
thousand spearmen of the last century are once more
shepherds and tillers of the ground. Similar remarks apply
and of to the Gurklias, that other Indian people which has risen to
Gurkhas.
greatness m latter times by its own innate power, unminglcd
with religious hope. They became masters, but no peculiar
1 [The reference isNana Farnavis, who became Prime Minister
to
of the Peshwa and who died in 1800, having exercised an
in 1775
extraordinary influence over Maratha politics during his years of
ascendancy. '
He had consistently been opposed to the political
progress of the English as subversive of Maratha power, and he
objected to the employment of foreign troops under any conditions
but he was faithful to his political engagements, and his devotion to
the maintenance of the honour of his own nation is attested by the
respect of all his contemijoraries. The faithless materials with which
he had to deal at the close of his life threw him into intrigues and
combinations for his own preservation which would otherwise have
been avoided and left him at liberty to continue the able administra-
tion he had conducted for twenty-five years '
(Meadows Taylor).
On the occasion of his death the English Resident at Poona wrote
'
With him has departed all the wisdom and moderation of the
Maratha Government.' See Grant Duff, History of the Maratlids,
ed. 182G, p. 188.—Ed.]
 ;

CHAP. VI THE SIKH ARMY 171

institution formed the landmark of tlieir thoughts, and the 1822.

vitahty of the original impulse seems fast waning before the

superstition of an ignorant priesthood and the turbulence
of a feudal nobility. The difference between these races and
the fifth tribe of Indian warriors will be at once apparent.
The Sikh looks before him only, the ductility of his youthful
intellect readily receives the most useful impression, or takes
the most advantageous form, and religious faith is ever
present to sustain him under any adversity, and to assure
him of an ultimate triumph.
The Rajput and Pathan will fight as Pirthi Raj and Aversion

Jenghiz Khan waged war they will ride on horses in

;
n^jiitaiy
tumultuous array, and they will wield a sword and spear tribes of

with individual dexterity : but neither of these cavaliers will reliiar*^

deign to stand in regular ranks and to handle the musket of discipline,
the infantry soldier, although the Muhammadan has always with the
been a brave and skilful server of heavy cannon. The of*tlwGur-
Maratha is equally averse to the European system of warfare, khas, and
and the less stiffened Gurkha has only had the power or the of^the ^
opportunity of forming battalions of footmen, unsupported Muham-
"'^'i^"^-
by an active cavalry and a trained artillery. The early
force of the Sikliswas composed of horsemen, but they seem forces oriL'i-
intuitively to have adopted the new and formidable match- nally com-
lock of recent times, instead of their ancestral bows, and the {^grsenien
spear common to every nation. Mr. Forster noticed this armed with
peculiarity in 1783, and the advantage it gave in desultory "q^^
warfare.^ In 1805, Sir John Malcolm did not think the Sikli Notices of
was better mounted than the Maratha ^ but, in 1810, Sir the Sikh
;

David Ochterlony considered that, in the confidence of Forster

untried strength, his great native courage would show him 1783
more formidable than a follower of Sindhia or Holkar, and by Mal-
readily leadhim to face a battery of well-served guns.^ The ^ ' '

peculiararm of the contending nations of the last century Ochtedo-

passed into a proverb, and the phrase, the Maratha spear, ny, 1810.
the Afghan sword, the Sikli matchlock, and the English Character-

cannon, is still of common repetition nor does it gratify

;
of dinp|en(
the pride of the present masters of India to hear their races, in-

success attributed ratlier to the number and excellence of £"„ii"h

1 Forster, Travels,!. 332. 2 Malcolm, Sketch of the Sikhs, pp. 150, 151.
^ Sir D. Ochterlony to Government, 1st Dec. 1810.
 — —

172 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS ch.vp. vi

1822. than to that dauntless courage and firm

their artillery,
~
array which have enabled the humble footmen to win most
;
-1iiG 2GnGrjil
importance of those distant victories which add glory to the English
given to name. Nevertheless it has always been the obiect of rival
a/rtillorv bv
thelndians powers to obtain a numerous artillery ; the battalions of
aeon- De Boigne would never separate themselves from their
the victo- cannon, and the presence of that formidable arm is yet,
ries of the perhaps, essential to the full confidence of the British
l''^'!'"'-
Sepoy.i
Singh Ranjit Singh said that, in 1805, he went to see the order
labours to of Lord Lake's army,^ and it is known that in 1809 he
discipline • admired and praised the discipline of Mr. Metcalfe's small
escort, which repulsed the sudden onset of a body of en-
raged Akalis.^ He began, after that period, to give his
attention to the formation of regular infantry, and in 1812
Sir David Ochterlony saw two regiments of Sikhs, besides
several of Hindustanis, drilled by men who had resigned or
^ This feeling is well known to all who have had any experience of

Indian troops. A gunner is a pi'ouder man than a mufeketeer when :

battalions are mutinous, they will not allow strangers to approach

their guns, and the best-dispositioned regiments will scarcely leave
them in the rear to go into action unencumbered, an instance of which
happened in Perron's warfare with George Thomas, (Major Smith,
Regular Corps in Indian Employ, p. 24.)
The ranks of the British Army are indeed filled with Rajputs and
Pathans so called, and also with Brahmans but nearly all are from
;

the jjrovinces of the Upper Ganges, the inhabitants of which have

become greatly modified in character by complete conquest and
mixture with strangers ; and, while they retain some of the distin-
guishing marks of their races, they are, as'soldiers, the merest mer-
cenaries, and do not possess the ardent and restless feeling, or that
spirit of clanship, which chai-acterize the more genuine descendants
of Kshattriyas and Afghans. The remarks in the text thus refer
especially to the Pathans of Rohilkliand and Hariana and similar
scattered colonies, and to the yeomanry and little proprietors of
Rajputana. [Much of this is of coiu-se incorrect and refers to the
pre-Mutiny conditions of the Army. With the exception of a few
mountain batteries the artillery is now entirely in the hands of
Briti.sh troops. The Brahman element in the Army has also been
greatly reduced. At the present time 63 per cent, of the efficient
fighting forces of the Indian Army came from the Punjab. Ed.]
^ Moorcroft, Travels, i. 102. [The fact of this visit having been
made is also borne out by a passage in the Diary of L. Sohan Lai.
The latter was Com't Vakil to Ranjit Singh. Ed.]
^ Murray, Banjit Singh, p. 08.
CHAP. VI THE SIKH ARMY 173

deserted the British service.^ The next year the Maharaja 1820.
talked of raising twenty-five battalions,^ and his confldenee
in discipline was increased by the resistance which the
Gurkhas offered to the British arms. He enlisted people
of that nation, but his attention was chiefly given to the
instruction of his own countrymen, and in 1820 Mr. Moor-
croft noticed with approbation the appearance of the Sikli
foot-soldier.^ Ranjit Singh had not got his people to resign
their customary weapons and order of battle without some
trouble. He encouraged them by good pay, by personal
attention to their drill and equipment, and by himself
wearing the strange dress, and going through the formal
exercise.* The old chiefs disliked the innovation, and Desa
Singh Majlthia, the father of the present mechanic and
disciplinarian Lahna Singh, assured the companions of
Mr. Moorcroft that Multtin and Peshawar and Kashmir and at
length fully
had all been won by the free Khalsa cavalier.^ By degrees succeeds
the infantry service came to be preferred, and, before in making
the Sikhs
Ranjit Singh died, he saw it regarded as the proper warlike regular in-
array of his people. Nor did they give their heart to the fantry and
artillery
musket alone, but were perhaps more readily brought to soldiers.
serve guns than to stand in even ranks as footmen.
Such was the state of change of the Sikh army, and such European
discipline
were the views of Ranjit Singh, when Generals AUard and introduced
Ventura obtained service in the Pimjab. They were fortu- into the
1 Sir D. Ochterlony to Government, 27th Feb. 1812.
2 Sir D. Ochterlony to C4overnraent, 4th March 1813.
2 Moorcroft, Travels, i. 98. There were at that time, as there are
still, Gurkhas in the service of Lahore.
* The author owes this anecdote to Munshi Shahamat All, other-

wise favourably known to the public by his book on the Sikhs and
Afghans.
^ Moorcroft, Travels, i. 98. Ranjit Singh usually required his
feudatories to provide for constant service, a horseman for every
500 rupees which they held in land, besides being ready with other
fighting-men on an emergency. TMs proportion left the Jagirdar
one-half only of his estate untaxed, as an efficient horseman cost
about 250 rupees annually. The Turks (Ranke, Ottoman Emjnre,
ed. 184.3, Introd., p. 5) required a horseman for the first 3,000 aspers,
or 50 dollars, or say 125 rupees, and an additional one for every other
5,000 aspers, or 208 rupees. In England, in the seventeenth century,
a horseman was assessed on every five hundred pounds of income.
(Macaulay, History of England, i. 291.)
 —

174 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS

1820. nate in having an excellent material to work with, and, like
skilful officers, they made a good use of their means and
Punjab
before the opportunities. They gave a moderate degree of precision
arrival of
and completeness to a system already introduced ; but
French
officers ;
their labours are more conspicuous in French words of
whose ser- command, in treble ranks, and in sqviares salient with guns,
vices were
yet. of value than in the ardent courage, the alert obedience, and the
to Eanjit long endurance of fatigue, which distinguished the Sikli
Singh, and
honourable horsemen sixty years ago, and which pre-eminently charac-
to them- terize the Sikh footman of the present day among the other
selves.
soldiers of India.^ Neither did Generals Ventura and AUard,
Court and Avitabile, ever assume to themselves the merit
of having created the Sikh army, and perhaps their ability
and independence of character added more to the general
belief in European superiority, than all their instructions
to the real efficiency of the Siklis as soldiers.
Ranjit Wlien a boy, Ranjit Singh was betrothed, as has been
Singh's
marriages related, to Mehtab Kaur, the daughter of Gurbaklish Singh,
and family the young heir of the Kanhaya (or Ghani) chiefship, who
relations.

^For notices of this endurance of fatigue, see Forster, Travels, 1.

332, 333 ; Malcolm, Sl-etch, p. 141 ; Mr. Masson, Journeys, i. 433 ;
and Col. Steinbach, Punjab, pp. 63, 64.
Tlie general constitution of a Sikh regiment was a commandant and
adjutant, with subordinate officers to each company. The men were
paid by deputies of the Bakshi ', or paj^master ; but the rolls were
'

checked by Mutasaddis ', or clerks, who daily noted down whether

'

the men were absent or present. To each regiment at least one

'
Grantlii ', or reader of the scriptures, was attached, who, when not
paid by the government, was sure of being supported by the men.
The Granth was usually deposited near the jhanda ', or flag, which
'

belonged to the regiment, and which represented its head-quarters.

Light tents and beasts of burden were allowed in fixed proportions
to each battalion, and the state also provided two cooks, or rather
bakers, for each companj', who baked the men's cakes after they had
themselves kneaded them, or who, in some instances, provided un-
leavened loaves for those of their own or an inferior race. In canton-
ments the Sikh soldiers lived to some extent in barracks, and not
each man in a separate hut, a custom which should be introduced
into the British service. [The barrack system has been introduced.
The whole organization of the Sikh army under Eanjit Singh is of
much interest. Quite recently some research has been initiated and
is still in progress upon the Sikh records in the Secretariat at Lahore.
The result of this, as far as it concerns the army, will be found in the
Appendix, section XXXIX. Ed.J
CHAP. VI RANJIT SINGH- S FAMILY 175

fell in battle with his father Mahan Singh. Sada Kaur, 1807-20.

the mother of the girl, possessed a high spirit and was ambi- His
wifp,
tious of power, and, on the death of the Kanhaya leader, Mehtrtb
Jai Singh, about 1793, her influence in the affairs of the con- Kaur, and
mother-in-
federacy became paramount. She encouraged her young law, Sada
son-in-law to set aside the authority of his own widow Kaur.
mother, and at the age of seventeen the future Maharaja
is not only said to have taken upon himself the management

of his affairs, but to have had mother put to death as an

his
adultress. The support Kaur was of great use to
of Sada
Ranjit Singh in the beginning of his career, and the co-
operation of the Kanliaya Misal mainly enabled him to
master I-ahore and Amritsar. Her hope seems to have been
that, as the grandmother of the chosen heir of Ranjit Singh,
and as a chieftainess in her own right, she would be able to
exercise a commanding influence in the affairs of the Siklis ;

but her daughter was childless, and Ranjit Singh himself

was equally able and wary. In 1807 it was understood that
Mehtab Kaur was pregnant, and it is was
believed that she
really delivered of a daughter on Ranjit Singh's Sher Singh
; but,
and Tura
return from an expedition, he was presented with two boys Singh, the
as his offspring. The Maharaja doubted ; and perhaps he declared
sons of
always gave credence to the report that Sher Singh was Mehtab
the son of a carpenter, and Tara Singh the child of a weaver, Kaur, not
fully recog-
yet they continued to be brought up under the care of their nized, 1807,
reputed grandmother, as if their parentage had been ad-
mitted. But Sada Kaur perceived that she could obtain Sada
no power in the names of the children, and the disappointed Kaur's
vexation of
woman addressed the English authorities in 1810, and spirit and
denounced her son-in-law as having usurped her rights, and hostile
views,
as resolved on war with his new allies. Her communications 1810.
received some attention, but she was unable to organize an
insurrection, and she became in a manner reconciled to her
position. In 1820, Sher Singh was virtually adopted by the
Maharaja, with the apparent object of finally setting aside
the power of his mother-in-law. She was required to assign
half of the lands of the Kanhaya chiefship for the main-
tenance of the youth ; but she refused, and she was in
consequence seized and imprisoned, and her whole posses-
sions confiscated. The little estate of ^Miadni, to the south
 176 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vi

1802-21. of the Sutlej, was however restored to her through British

intervention, as has already been mentioned.^
Kharak Ranjit Singh was also betrothed, when a boy, to the
t"K nit" flfiwghter of Ivliazan Singh, a chief of the Nakkais con-
Singh by fedcracy, and by her he had a son in the year 1802, who was
another
wife, lb02.
named Ivliarak Singh,^ ^
and brought
& up
I-
as his heir The
youth was married, in the year 1812, to the daughter of a
Kanhaya leader, and the nuptials were celebrated amid
many rejoicings. In 1816 the Maharaja placed the mother
under some degree of restraint owing to her mismanagement
of the estates assigned for the maintenance of the prince, and
he endeavoured to rouse the spirit of his son to exertion and
enterprise
; but he was of a weak and indolent character,
Nau Nihai and the attempt was vain. In the year 1 821 a son was born
Singh born iq Ivliarak Singh, and the child, Nau Nihal Singh, soon

Singh,l82l. came to be regarded as the heir of the Punjab.^

Ranjit Sucli were the domestic relations of Ranjit Singh, but he
Singh's per- shared largely in the opprobrium heaped upon his country-
°
sonalhcen-
tiousness
^-
men as the practisers K •
,-4.
of every immorality, and
•
\
^ ihe is not
and intern- only represented to have frequently indulged in strong drink,

connexwn" but to have occasionally outraged decency by appearing in

with the public inebriated, and surrounded with courtesans.^ In
v^^uely his earlier days one of these women, named Mohra, obtained
attributed a great ascendancy over him, and, in 1811, he caused coins

of the Sikh*
or medals to be struck bearing her name ; but it would be
people. idle to regard Ranjit Singh as an habitual drunkard or as
one greatly devoted to sensual pleasures and it would be
;

equally unreasonable to believe the mass of the Sikh people

as wholly lost to shame, and as revellers in every vice which
disgraces humanity. Doubtless the sense of personal honour
and of female purity is less high among the rude and ignorant
of every age, than among the informed and the civilized ;

and when the whole peasantry of a country suddenly attain

to power and wealth, and are freed from many of the
restraints of society, an unusual proportion will necessarily

1 Cf Murray, Eanjit Singli, pp. 46-51, 63, 127, 128, 134, 135. See
.

also Sir D. Ochterlony to Government, 1st and 10th Dec. 1810, and
p. 160 of this volume.
2 Cf. Murray, Banjit Singh, pp. 48, 53, 90, 91, 112, 129.
3 Cf. Murray, Ranjit Siwjli, p. 85.
CHAP. VI RANJTT SINGH'S FAILINGS 177

resign themselves to the seductions of pleasure, and freely 1802-21.

give way to their But such ex-
most depraved appetites.
cesses are nevertheless exceptional to the general usage, and
those who vilify the Sikhs at one time, and describe their
long and rapid marches at another, should remember the
contradiction, and reflect that what common-sense and the
better feelings of our nature have always condemned, can
never be the ordinary practice of a nation. The armed
defenders of a country cannot be kept under the same degree
of moral restraint as ordinary citizens, with quiet habits,
fixed abodes, and watchful pastors, and it is illogical to
apply the character of a few dissolute chiefs and licentious
soldiers to the thousands of hardy peasants and industrious
mechanics, and even generally to that body of brave and
banded men which furnishes the most obvious examples of
degradation.^ The husbandman of the Punjab, as of other
provinces in Upper India, is confined to his cakes of millet
or wheat and to a draught of water from the well the ;

soldier fares not much better, and neither indulge in strong

liquors, except upon occasions of rejoicing. The indolent
man of wealth or station, or the more idle religious fanatic,
may seek excitement, or a refuge from the vacancy of his
mind;, in drugs and drink but expensiveness of diet is
;

rather a Muhammadan than an Indian characteristic, and

the Europeans carry their potations and the pleasures of
the table to an excess unknown to the Turk and Persian,
and which greatly scandalize the frugal Hindu.^

^ Col. Steinbach {Punjab, pp. 76, 77) admits general simplicity of

diet, but he also makes some revolting practices universal. Capt.
Murray (Ranjit Singh, p. 85) and llr. Masson (Journeys, i. 435) are
likewisesomewhat sweeping in their condemnations, and even Mr.
Elphinstone {History of India, ii. 5G5) makes the charge of culpable
devotion to sensual pleasures very comprehensive. The morals, or
the manners, of a people, however, should not be deduced from a few
examples of profligacy ; but the Indians equally exaggerate with
regard to Europeans, and, in pictorial or pantomimic pieces, they
usually represent Englishmen drinking and swearing in the society
of courtesans, and as equally prompt to use their weapons with or
without a reason.
2 Forster {Travels, i. 333) notices the temperance of the Sikhs, and

their forbearance from many enervating sensual pleasures, and he

quotes, he thinks. Col. Polier to a similar effect. Malcolm {Sketch,
N
 178 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS cnAi'. VI

1802-21. Yet Ranjit Singh not only yielded more than was becom-
ing to the promptings of his appetites, but, like all despots
E an jit
Singh's fa- and solitary authorities, he laid himself open to the charge
vourites.
He had placed
of extravagant partiality and favouritism.
himself in some degree in opposition to the whole Sikh
people the free followers of Gobind could not be the
;

observant slaves of an equal member of the Idialsa, and he

sought for strangers whose applause would be more ready
if less sincere, and in whom he could repose some confidence
as the creatures of his favour. The first who thus rose to
Khushal distinction was lOiushal Singh, a Brahman from near
Singh, a
Saharanpur, who enlisted in one of the first raised regiments,
Brahman,
1811-20. and next became a runner or footman on the Maharaja's
establishment. He attracted Ranjit Singh's notice, and was
made Jamadar of the De\Tii, or master of the entry, about
the year 1811. His brother seemed likely to supplant him,
but his refusal to become a Sikli favoured lOiushal Singh's
The Raj- continuance in power, until both yielded to the Jammu
puts of
.Ityiimu,
Rajpiits in the year 1820. Gulab Singh, the eldest of three
1820. sons, claimed that his grandfather was the brother of the
well-known Ranjit Deo but the family was perhaps ille
;

gitimate, and had become impoverished, and Gulab Singh

took service as a horseman in a band commanded by
Jamadar Idiushal Singh. He sent for his second brother,
Dhian Singh, and then, again like the reigning favourite,
they both became running footmen under Ranjit Singh's
eye. Their joint assiduity, ^nd the graceful bearing of the
younger man, again attracted the Maharaja's notice, and
Dhian Singh speedily took the place of the Brahman
chamberlain, without, however, consigning him to neglect,
for he retained his estates and his position as a noble.
Gulab Singh obtained a petty command and signalized
himself by the seizure of the turbulent Muhammadan Chief
of Rajauri. Jammu was then conferred in jagir or fief upon
the family, and the youngest brother, Suchet Singh, as well
as the two elder, were one by one raised to the rank of Raja,
and rapidly obtained an engrossing and prejudicial influence
p. 141) likewise describes the Sikhs as hardy and simple ; but,
doubtless, as the power of the nation has increased since these times,
luxuries and vicious pleasures have, in numerous instances, followed
wealth and indolence.
 ;

CHAP. VI RANJIT SINGH'S FAVOURITES 179

in the counsels of the Maharaja, excepting, perhaps, in 1802-2L

connexion with his Englisli relations, the importance of
wliich required and obtained the exercise of his own ini-
biassed opinion. The smooth and crafty Gulab Singh
ordinarily remained in the hills, using Sildi means to extend
his own authority over his brother Rajputs, and eventually
into Ladakh the less able, but more polished, Dhian Singh,
;

remained continually in attendance upon the Maharaja,

ever on the watch, in order that he mJght anticipate his
wishes while the elegant Suchet Singh fluttered as a gay Ranjit
;

Singh's
courtier and gallant soldier, without grasping at power or
chosen
creating enemies. The nominal fakir or devotee, the servants.
Muhammadan Aziz-ud-din, never held the place of an ordi- Fakir Aziz-
nary favourite, but he attached himself at an cai'ly period ud-din.
to Ranjit Singh's person, and was honoured and trusted as
one equally prudent and faithful and, during the ascendancy
;

both of Khushal Singh and Dhian Singh, he was always

consulted, and invariably made the medium of communica-
tion with the British authorities. The above were the most
conspicuous persons in the Lahore court but the mind of
;

Ranjit Singh was never prostrate before that of others, and

he conferred the government of Multan on the discreet
SaAvan Mai, and rewarded the military talents and genuine Dlwan
Sikh feelings of Plari Singh Nalwa by giving him the com- SawanMal.
mand on the Peshawar frontier while his ancient com- Hari
;
Nalwa.
Singh

panion, Fateh Singh Ahluwalia, remained, with increased Fateh

wealth, the only representative of the original Misals ', and Singh Ah-
'

Desa Singh Majlthia enjoyed the Maharaja's esteem and con- luwalia.
Desa Singh
fidence as governor of Amritsar and of the Jullundur Doab.^
Majlthia."
1 Cf. Murray, Ranjit Singh, pp. 84, 113, 125, 147; Miinshi Shaha-
mat All's Sikhs and Afghans, chaps, iv and vii and, with regard to
;

Aziz-ud-din and Desa Singh, see Moorcroft, Travels,!. 94, 98, 1 10, &c.
Lieut. -Col. Lawrence's work. The Adventurer in the Punjab, and
Capt. Osborne's Court ami Camp of Ranjit Singh, likewise contain
some curious information about the Maharaja's chiefs and faA'Ourites
and the author has had the further advantage of referring to a
memorandum on the subject, drawn up by Mr. Clerk for Lord Ellen-
borough. Mohkam Chand has already been alluded to (see ante,
p. 136), and the Brahman Dlwan Chand may also be mentioned.
He was the real commander v\'hen Multan was stormed, and he led the
advance when Kashmir was at last seized. Of genuine Sikhs, too,
Mit'h Singh Bchrania was distinguished as a brave and generous
soldier.
N 2
 —

CHAPTER VII

FROM THE ACQUISITION OF MULTAN, KASHMIR,

AND PESHAWAR, TO THE DEATH OF RANJiT
SINGH
1824^39

Changed Relations of English and Sikhs —Miscellaneous Trans-

tlie
actions—Capt. Wade, the Political Agent for Sikh Affairs—The
Jammii Rajas—Syed Ahmad Shah's Insurrection at Peshawar
The Fame of Ranj Singh —The Meeting at Rupar with Lord Wil-
it
liam Bcntinck—Ranjit >Singh's views on Sindh,and the English
Scheme of Navigating the Indus—Shah Shuja's Expedition of
1833-5, and Ranjit Singh's Regular Occupation of Peshawar
—
Ladfikh reduced by Raja Gulab Singh ^Ranjit Singh's Claims
on Shikarpur and designs on Sindh crossed by the Commercial
—
Policy of the English The connexion of the English with the
Barakzais of Afghanistan —
Dost Muhammad retires before
— —
Ranjit Singh The Siklis defeated by the Afghans The Marriage
of Nau Nihal Singh —
Sir Henry Fane —
The English, Dost
Muhammad, and the Russians, and the Restoration of Shah
— —
Shuja Ranjit Singh feels curbed by the English ^The Death of
Ranjit Singh.

1823. RanjTt Singh liad brought Peshawar under his sway,

'^"^ *^^^ complete reduction of the province was yet to cost
Ch nse'n
the posi- liim an arduous warfare of many years. He had become
master of the Punjab almost unlieeded by the English but
SkhT^ j^f ;

lively to the position and views of that people had changed since
^^"'^"^''•^'Hhey asked his aid against the armies of Napoleon. The
year 1823. Jumna and the sea-coast of Bombay were no longer the
proclaimed limits of their empire the Narbada had been
;

crossed, the states of Rajputana had been rendered tribu-

tary, and, with the laudable design of diffusing wealth and
of linking remote provinces together in the strong and useful
bonds of commerce, they were about to enter upon schemes
of navigation and of trade, which caused them to deprecate
the ambition of the king of the Sikhs, and led them, by sure
yet unforeseen steps, to absorb his dominion in their own,
 —

CHAP, vii MISCELLANEOUS TRANSACTIONS 181

and to grasp, perhaps inscrutably to chasten, with the cold 1824-5.

unfeeling hand of worldly rule, the youthful spirit of social

change and religious reformation evoked by the genius of
Nanak and Gobind.
In the year 1824;, the turbulent Muhammadan tribes on Miscel-

either side of the Indus above Attock arose in rebellion, and trans-^''
the Sikli General, Hari Singh, received a severe check. The actions,
18'' 4-5
Maharaja hastened by forced marches to that quarter,
and again forded the rapid, stony-bedded Indus but the ; Peshawar.
mountaineers dispersed at his approach, and his display of
])ower was hardly rewarded by Yar Muhammad Ivhan's
renewed protestations of allegiance.^ In 1825 Ranjit Singh's
attention was amused with overtures from the Gurklias, who Nepal,

forgot his former rivalry in the overwhelming greatness of

the English ; but the precise object of the Nepalese did not
transpire, and the restless spirit of the Sikh chief soon led
him to the Chenab, with the design of seizing Shikarpur.j,
The occurrence of a scarcity in Sind, and perhaps the Sind.
rumours of the hostile preparations of the English against
Bharatpur,* induced him to return to his capital before the Bharatpur
end of the year. The Jdt usurper of the Jumna asked his
brother J at of the Ravi to aid him but the Maharaja
;

affected to discredit the mission, and so satisfied the British

authorities without compromising himself with the master
of a fortress which had successfully resisted the disciplined
troops and the dreaded artillery of his neighbours.* But
about the same time Ranjit Singh likewise found reason to
distrust the possessors of strongholds ; and Fateh Singh

^ Capt. Murray, Ranjit Singh, jjp. 141, 142.

2 Agent at Delhi to Capt. Murray, 18th March 1825, aud Capt.
Murray in reply, 28th March. Cf also Murray, Ranjit Singh, p. 144.
.

^ [This famous fortress was besieged by the English forces (20,000

men and 100 guns) on 10th Dec. 1825, and fell on 18th Jan. 1826.
Its caiJture made a great impression, as it had been deemed impreg-
nable. The operations were under the direction of Lord Combermere,
the Commander-in-Chief who, as Sir Stapleton Cotton, had fought
under Wellington in the Peninsula. Ed.]
* Capt. Murray to the Resident at Delhi, 1st and 3rd Oct. 1825,

and Capt. Wado to Capt. Murray, 5th Oct. 1825. Capt. Wade,
however, in the printed Narrative of his Services, p. 7, represents
Ranjit Singh as pausing to take advantage of any disasters which
might befall the English.
 — ;

182 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vii

1826. Ahluwalia was constrained by his old brother in arms to

p . leave a masonry citadel unfinished, and was further induced
Singh the by his own fears to fly to the south of the Sutlej. He was
Ahluwaha assured of English protection in his ancestral estates in
the Sirhind province, but Ranjit Singh, remembering
perhaps the joint treaty with Lord Lake, earnestly endea-
voured to allay the fears of the fugitive, and to recall a chief
so dangerous iii the hands of his allies. Fatch Singh re-
turned to Lahore in 1827 he was received with marked
;

honour, and he was confirmed in nearly all his possessions.^

Ranjit Towards the end of 1826, Ranjit Smgh was attacked with
'^ ^ sickness, and he sought the aid of European skill. Dr.
^"if d^^
attended Murray, a surgeon in the British-Indian army, was sent to
y^^y.] attend him, and he remained at Lahore for some time,
surgeon, although the Maharaja was more disposed to trust to time
1820. and abstinence, or to the empirical remedies of his own
physicians, than to the prescribers of unknown drugs and
the practisers of new ways. Ranjit Singh, nevertheless,
liked to have his foreign medical adviser near him, as one
from whom information could be gained, and whom it
Anecdotes, might be advantageous to please. He seemed anxious about
the proposed visit of Lord Amherst, the Governor-General,
to the northern jn'ovinces ; he asked about the qualities of
the Burmese troops," and the amount of money demanded
by the English victors at the end of the war with that people
he was inquisitive about the mutiny of a regiment of Sepoys

^ Resident at Delhi to Capt. Murray, 13th Jan. 1S2G, and Capt.

Murray, Ranjit Singh, p. 144. The old chief had, as early as 1811,
desired to be regarded as separately connected with the English, so
fearful had he become of his turban- brother '. (Government to
'

Sir D. Ochterlony, 4th Oct. 1811.)

The Cis-Sutlej Muhammadan Chief of Mamdot, formerly of Kasur,
fled and returned about the same time as Fateh Singh, for similar
reasons, and after making similar endeavours to bo recognized as an
English dependant. (Government to Resident at Delhi, 28th April
1827, with correspondence to which it relates, and cf. Murray, Ranjit
Singh, p. 145.)
^ [The Burmese War broke out on 24th Feb. 1824 as the result of

distm'bed relations going back as far as 1818. It lasted till 24th Feb.
1826, when, by the Treaty of Yandabu, the Burmese Government
ceded the jn-ovinces of Tenasserim, Aracan, and Assam, and paid an
indemnity of one million sterling. Ed.]
 —
CHAP, vn CAPTAIN WADE 183

at Barrackpore, and he wished to know whether native 1827.

~
troops had been employed in queUing it.^ On the arrival of '
Lord Amherst at Simla, in 1827, a further degree of intimacy Amherst,
became inevitable , a mission of welcome and inquiry was tiie British
sent to wait upon his lordship, and the compliment was General
returned by the deputation of Capt. Wade, the British 1827.
frontier authority, to the Maharaja's court.^ During the
following year the English Commander-in-Chief arrived LordCom-
at Ludhiana, and Ranjit Singh sent an agent to convey to t^g^r^^jsh
him his good wishes but an expected invitation to visit Commaud-
;

er-in-Chicf.
tlie strongholds of the Punjab was not given to the captor of
Bharatpur.^
The little business to be transacted between the British Capt. Wade
and Sikh governments was entrusted to the management of •jiyj^edia'te
the Resident at Delhi, who gave his orders to Capt. IMurray, agent for
the affairs
1 Capt. Wade to the Resident at Delhi, 2-4th Sept. and 30th Nov. fjt?'^°'^^'
1826, and 1st Jan. 1827. Cf. Murray, Eanjlt Singh, p. 145. [The °''''
mutiny at Barrackpore was the result of the disinclination of the
troops to go on service in Bui-ma. There were three native regiments
— —
at this station 26th, 47th, and 62nd and all of them became dis-
affected. On 1st Nov. 182-t, the 47th broke into open mutiny.
English troops were sent to the station, and the 47th were dispersed
by artillery and the regiment was struck off the army list. The other
two regiments escaped without punishment. Ed.]
2 Government to Capt. Wade, 2nd May, 1827.

^ Murray, RanjU Singh, p. 147. About this time the journeyings

and studies of the enthusiastic scholar Csoma do Koros, and the
establishment of Simla as a British post, had made the Chinese of
Tibet as curious about the English in one way as Ranjit Singh was
in another. Thus the authorities at Garo appear to have addressed
the authorities of Bissehir, an English dependency, saying, 'that
in ancient times there was no mention of the " Filingha " (i.e.
Faranghis or Franks), a bad and small people, whereas now many
\'isited the upper coimtrics every year, and had caused the chief of
Bissehir to make preparations for their movements. The Great Lama
was displeased, and armies had been ordered to be watchful. The
English shoiild be urged to keep within their own limits, or, if they
wanted an alliance, they could go by sea to Pekin. The people of
Bissehir should not rely on the wealth and the expertness in warfaring
of the English : the emperor was 30 imklsat (120 miles) higher than
they ; he ruled over the fom* elements ; a war would involve the
six nations of Asia in calamities ; the English shoiild remain within
their boundaries ; '
—
and so on, in a strain of deprecation and hyper-
bole. (Political Agent Sabathu to Resident at Delhi, 26th March
1827.)
 184 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vn
1827-8. the political agent at Ambala, who again had under him an
assistant, Capt. Wade, at Ludhiana, mainly in connexion
with the affairs of the garrison of that place. When Capt.
W^ade was at Lahore, the Maharaja expressed a wish that,
for the sake of dispatch in business, the agency for his Cis-
Sutlej possessions should be vested in the officer at Ludliiana
subordinate to the resident at Delhi, but independent of the
officer at Ambala.* This wish was complied with ^ but ;

in attempting to define the extent of the territories in

question, it was found that there were several doubtful
Discussions points to be settled. Ranjit Singh claimed supremacy over
rights to
Chamkaur, and Anandpur Makliowal, and other places
districts belonging to the Sodliis, or collateral representatives of
th"*s u
Guru Gobmd. He also claimed Whadni, which, a few years
1827-8. before, had been wrested from him on the 'plea that it was
'

Anandpur, jjjg niother-in-law's and he claimed Ferozepore, then held

;

Feroze- ' by a childless widow, and also all the Aliluwalia districts,
pore, &c. besides others which need not be particularized.^ The
claims of the Maharaja over Ferozepore and the ancestral
possessions of Fateh Singh Alduwalia were rejected but ;

the British title to supremacy over Whadni could no longer,

it was found, be maintained. The claims of Lahore to
Chamkaur and Anandpur Makliowal were expediently
admitted, for the British right did not seem worth maintain-
ing, and the affairs of the priestly class of Siklis could be
best managed by a ruler of their own faith.* Ranjit Singh
disliked the loss of Ferozepore, which the English long
continued to admire as a commanding position ; * but the

1 Capt. Wade to Resident at Delhi, 20th June 1827.

- Government to Resident at Delhi, 4th Oct. 1827.
3 Capt. Wade to the Resident at Delhi, 20th Jan. 1828, and Capt.
Murray to the same, 19th Feb, 1828.
In the case of Ferozepore, Government subsequently decided
(Government to Agent at Delhi, 24th Nov. 1838) that certain
collateral heirs (who had put in a claim) could not succeed, as,
according to Hindu law and Sikh usage, no right of descent existed
after a division had taken j^lace. So uncertain, however, is the
practice of the English, that one or more jjrecedents in favour of
the Ferozepore claimants might readily be found within the range
of cases connected with the Sikh states.
4 Government to the Resident at Delhi, 14th Nov. 1828.
^ In 1823 Capt. Murray talked of the '
strong and important
CHAP. VII THE JAMi\IU RAJAS 185

settlement generally was such as seemed to lessen the chances 1828.

of future collision between the two governments.
Ranjit Singh's connexion with the English thus became Gradual
more and more close, and about the same time he began to ascendancy of Dhian
resign himself in many instances to the views of his new Singh, his
brothers,
favourites of Jammu. The Maharaja had begun to notice and his son,
the boyish promise of Hira Singh, the son of Dhian Singh, 1820-8.
and he may have been equally pleased with the native
simplicity, and with the tutored deference, of the child.
He gave him the title of Raja, and his father, true to the
Indian feeling, was desirous of establishing the purity of his
descent by marrying his son into a family of local power and
of spotless genealogy. The betrothal of a daughter of the Proposed
marrietge of
deceased Sansar Chand of Kangra was demanded in the
Hira
year 1828, and the reluctant consent of the new chief, Singh into
Anrudli Chand, was obtained M'hen he unwittingly had put the family
ofSansar
himself wholly in the power of Dhian Singh by visiting Chand,
Lahore with his sisters for the purpose of joining in the 1828.

nuptial ceremonies of the son of Fateh Singh Ahluwalia.

The proposed degi'adation rendered the mother of the gins
more indignant perhaps than the head of the family, and
she contrived to escape with them to the south of the Sutlej. Flight of
Sausar
Anrudh Chand was required to bring them back, but he Chand's
himself also fled, and his possessions were seized. The widow and
son.
mother died of grief and vexation, and the son follov/cd her
to the grave, after idly attempting to induce the English
to restore him by force of arms to his little principality.
Sansar Chand had left several illegitimate children, and in
1829 the disappointed Maharaja endeavoured to obtain
some revenge by marrying two of the daughters himself,
and by elevating a son to the rank of Raja, and investing him
with an estate out of his father's chiefship. The marriage Raja Hira
of Hira Singh to a maiden of his own degree was celebrated Singh's
marriage,
during the same year with much splendour, and the greatness 1829.

fortress of Ferozepore having been recovered by Ranjit Singh, for

'

the widow proprietress from whom it had been seized by a claimant

(Capt. Murray to the Agent at Delhi, 20th July 1823), and the supreme
authorities similarly talked (Government to Agent at Delhi, 30tli Jan.
1821) of the political and military advantages of Ferozepore over
Ludhiaua.
 186 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vii

1829. of RanjJt Singh's name induced even the chiefs living under
British protection to offer their congratulations and their
presents on the occasion.^
Insuiiec- In the meanwhile a formidable insurrection had been
Peshawar
organized in the neighbourhood of Peshawar, by an un-
under Sai- heeded jierson and in an unlooked-for manner. One
sSh Ghfi^ Alunad Shah, a aiuhammadan of a family of Saiyids of
zi, 1827. Bareilly in Upper India, had been a follower of the great
History of mercenary leader, Amir Khap, but he lost his employment
t e baiyid.
y^^i^^ |-}^g was broken up on the
military force of his chief
successful termination of the campaign against the joint
Maratha and Pindari powers, and after Amir Kiian's own
recognition by the English as a dependent prince. The
Saiyid went to Delhi, and a preacher of that city, named
His doc- Abdul Aziz, declared himself greatly edified by the superior
rciicrTous
sanctity of Ahmad, who denounced the corrupt forms of
reform. worship then prevalent, and endeavoured to enforce atten-
tion to the precepts of the Koran alone, without reference
to the expositions of the early fathers. His reputation
increased, and two Maulais, Ismail and Abdul Hai, of some
learning, but doubtful views, attached themselves to the
Saiyid as his humble disciples and devoted followers.^

1 Murray, Ranjlt Singh,

pp. HI, liS, and Resident at Delhi to
.Government, 28th Oct. 1828.
2 A book was composed by Mauli Ismail, on the part of Saiyid

Ahmad, in the Urdii, or vernacular language of Upper India, at once

exhortative and justificatory of his views. It is called the Takvia-ul-
Iindn, or Easis of the Faith ', and it was printed in Calcutta. It is
'

divided into two portions, of which the first only is understood to be

the work of Ismail, the second part being inferior, and the production
ofanother person.
In the preface the writer deprecates the opinion that the wise and
'

learned alone can comjn-ehcnd God's word. God himself had said
a prophet had been raised up among the rude and ignorant for their
instruction, and that He, the Lord, had rendered obedience easy.
There were two things essential a belief in the imity of God, which
:

was to know no other, and a knowledge of the Prophet, which was

obedience to the law. Many held the sayings of the saints to be their
guide ; but the word of God was alone to be attended to, although
the writings of the pious, which agreed with the Scrij^tm-es, might be
read for edification.'
The first chapter treats of the unity of God,^ and in it the writer
CHAP. VII SAIYID AHMAD SHAH 187

A pilgrimage was preached as a suitable beginning for all 1822-6.

undertakings, and Ahmad's journey to Calcutta in 1822,

for the purpose of embarkation, was one of triumph,
although his proceedings were little noticed until his
presence in a large city gave him numerous congi-egations.
He Mecca and Medina, and he is commonly
set sail for His pilgri-
mage.
believed, but without reason, tohave visited Constantinople.
After an absence of four years he returned to Delhi, and
called upon the faithful to follow him in a war against in-
fidels. He acted as if he meant by unbelievers the Siklis
alone, but his precise objects are imperfectly understood.
He was careful not to offend the English but the mere
;

supremacy of a remote nation over a wide and populous

country gave him ample oiDportunities for unheeded agita-
tion. In 1826 he left Delhi with perhaps five hundred His
journey
attendants, and it was arranged that other bands should
thi'ougli
follow in succession under appointed leaders. He made Kajputaua
and Sind,
some stay at Tonk, the residence of his old master, Amh' to Kanda-
Klian, and the son of the chief, the present Nawab, was har and
enrolled among the disciples of the new saint. He obtained Peshawar.
considerable assistance, at least in money, from the youthful
convert, and he proceeded through the desert to Khairjjur
in Sind, where he was well received by Mir Rustam Khan,
and where he awaited the junction of the Ghazis ', or '

fighters for the faith, who were following him. Ahmad

deprecates the supplication of saints, angels, &c., as impious. He

declares the reasons given for such worship to be futile, and to show
an utter ignorance of God's word. '
The ancient idolaters had like-
wise said that they merely venerated powers and divinities, aiad did
not regard them as the equal of the Almighty ; but God himself had
answered these heathens. Likewise the Christians had been admo-
nished for giving to dead monks and friars the honour due to the
Lord. God is alone, and companion ho has none prostration and
;

adoration are due to him, and to no other.' The wi'itor proceeds in

a similar strain, but assumes some doubtful positions, as that Muham-
mad says God is one, and man learns from his parents that he was
born ; he believes his mother, and yet he distrusts the apostle or :

that an evil-doei' who has faith is a better man than the most pious
idolater.
The printed Urdu Korans are eagerly bought by all who can
afford the money, and who know of their existence.
 188 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. VII

1827-9. marched to Kandahar, but liis jDrojects were mistrusted or

misunderstood ; he received no encouragement from the

Kouses the
Usufzais to Barakzai brothers in possession, and he proceeded northward
a religious
through the Ghilzai country, and in the beginning of 1827
war.
he crossed the Kabul river to Panjtar in the Usufzai hills,
between Peshawar and the Indus.^
Saiyid Ah- The Panjtar family is of some consequence among the
mad Shah warlike Usufzais, and as the tribe had become apprehensive
fails
against of the designs of Yar Muhammad Klian, whose dependence
the Sikhs
at Akora,
on Ranjit Singh secured him from danger on the side of
1827. Kabul, the Saiyid and his Ghazis ' were hailed as deliverers,
'

and the authority or supremacy of Alimad was generally

admitted. He led his ill-equipped host to attack a detach-
ment had been moved forward to Akora,
of Siklis, which
a few miles above Attock, under the command of Budh
Singh Sindhanwala, of the same family as the Maharaja.
The Sikli commander entrenched his position, and repulsed
the tumultuous assault of the mountaineers with con-
siderable loss, but as he could not follow up his success, the
fame and the strength of the Saiyid continued to increase,
and Yar Muhammad deemed it prudent to enter into an
agreement obliging him to respect the territories of the
Usufzais. The curbed governor of Peshawar is accused of
a base attempt to remove Ahmad by poison, and, in the
year 1829, the fact or the report was made use of by the
Saiyid as a reason for appealing to arms. Yar Muhammad

1 Cf Murray, Ranjit Singh, pp. 145, 146;

. About Saiyid Ahmad,
the author has learnt much from the Ghazi's brother-in-law, and
'
'

from a respectable Mauli, who likewise followed his fortunes, and

both of whom are now in honourable employ in the chiefship of Tonk,
He has likewise learnt many ^particulars from Munshi Shahamat Ali,
and especially from Pir Ibrahim Khan, a straightforward and intel-
ligent Pathan of Kasur, in the British service, who thinks Ahmad
right, notwithstanding the holy neighbourhood of Pak^jattan,
Multan, and Utch Indeed, most educated Muhammadans admit
!

the reasonableness of his doctrines, and the able Regent-Begum of

Bhopal is not indisposed to emulate the strictness of the Chief of
Tonk, as an abhorrer of vain ceremonies. Among humbler people
the Saiyid likewise obtained many admirers, and it is said that his
exhortations generally were so efficacious, that even the tailors of
Delhi were moved to scrupulously return remnants of cloth to their
employers !
CHAP, vii SAIYID AHMAD AT PESHAWAR 189

was defeated and mortally wounded, and Peshawar was 1830,

perhaps saved to his brother, Sultan Muhammad, by the But defeats
presence of a Sikh force under the Prince Sher Singh and Yar Mu-
General Ventura, which had been moved to that quarter hammad,
who dies of
under pretence of securing for the Maharaja a long-promised his wounds,
horse of famous breed named Laila, the match of one of 1829.
equal renown named Kahar, which Ranjit Singh had already
prided himself on obtaining from the Barakzai brothers.^
The Sikh troops withdrew to the Indus, leaving Sultan Saiyid Ah-
Muhammad Khan and his brothers to guard their fief or mad Shah
crosses the
dependency as they could, and it would even seem that Indus,
1830.
Ranjit Singh hoped the difficulties of their position, and the
insecurity of the province, would justify its complete reduc-
tion.2 But the influence of Saiyid Ahmad reached to
Kashmir, and the mountaineers between that valley and the
Indus Were unwilling subjects of Lahore. Ahmad crossed
the river in June 1830, and planned an attack upon the
Sikh force commanded by Hari Singh Nalwa and General
AUard but he was beaten off, and forced to retire to the
;
He is com-
pelled to
west of the river. In a few months he was strong enough to retire, but
attack Sultan Muhammad Ivhan the Barakzai was de-
;
fallsupon
and routs
feated, and Peshawar was occupied by the Saiyid and his Sultan Mu-
'
Ghazis '. His elation kept pace with his success, and, hammad
Khan, and
according to tradition, already busy with his career, he occupies
proclaimed himself Kiialif, and struck a coin in the name of Peshawar,
1830.
'
Alimad the Just, the defender of the faith, the glitter of
whose sword scattereth destruction among infidels '. The
fall of Peshawar caused some alarm in Lahore, and the force
on the Indus was strengthened, and placed under the

1 Cf. Murray, Ranjit Singh, pp. 146, 149. The followers of Saiyid
Ahmad believe that poison was administered, and describe the
'
Ghazi ' as suffering much from its effects.
General Ventura at
last succeeded in obtaining a Laila, but that
the real horse, so named, was transferred, is doubtful, and at one
time it was declared to be dead. (Capt. Wade to the Resident,
Delhi, 17th May 1829.)
2 Capt. Wade to the Resident, Delhi, 13th Sept. 1830. The
Maharaja also reserved a cause of quarrel with the Barakzais, on
account of their reduction of the Khattaks, a tribe which Ranjit
Singh said Fateh Khan, the WazTr, had agreed to leave independent.
(Capt. Wade to Government, 9th Dec. 1831.)
 ;

190 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. VII

1830-1. command of Prince Slier Singh. The petty Muhammadan

The chiefs generally, with whom overcame faith,
self-interest
Saiyid's were averse to the domination of the Indian adventurer,
influence
decreases.
and the imprudence of Saiyid Ahmad gave umbrage to his
Usufzai adherents. He had levied from the peasants a tithe
of their goods, and this measure caused little or no dis-
satisfaction, for it agreed with their notion of the rights of
a religious teacher but his decree that all the young women
;

of marriageable age should be at once wedded, interfered

with the profits of Afghan parents, proverbially avaricious,
and who usually disposed of their daughters to the wealthiest
bridegrooms. But when Saiyid Ahmad was accused, perhaps
unjustly, of assigning the maidens one by one to his needy
He relin- Indian followers, his motives were impugned, and the dis-
quishes
Teshfiwar,
content was loud. Early in November 1830 he was con-
1830 strained to relinquish Peshawar to Sultan Muhammad at a
fixed tribute, and he proceeded to the left bank of the Indus
to give battle to the Sikhs. The Saiyid depended chiefly on
the few Ghazis who had followed his fortunes throughout,
' '

and on the insurrectionary spirit of the Muzaffarabad and

other chiefs, for his Usufzai adherents had greatly decreased.
The hill klians were soon brought under subjection by
' '

and retires the efforts of Sher Singh and the governor of Kashmir yet ;

t owards

Kashmir,
Ahmad continued active, and, in a desultory warfare amid
and is sur- rugged mountains, success for a time attended him but, ;

prised and
during a cessation of the frequent conflicts, he was surprised,
slain, May
1831. early in May 1831, at a place called Balakot, and fallen
upon and slain. The Usufzais at once expelled his deputies,
the Ghazis dispersed in disguise, and the family of the
' '

Saiyid hastened to Hindustan to find an honourable asylum

with their friend the Nawab of Tonk.^
Ranjit, The fame of RanjTt Singh was now at its height, and his
Singh
friendship was sought by distant sovereigns. In 1829,
courted by
various agents from Baluchistan brought horses to the Sikh ruler,
parties.
and hoped that the frontier posts of Harrand and Dajal,

1 Capt. Wade to Resident at Delhi, 21st March 1831, and other

dates in that and the previous year. Cf. Murray, Ban jit Singh,
p. 150. The followers of the Saiyid strenuously deny his assumption
of the title of Khalif, his new coinage, and his bestowal of Usufzai
maidens on his Indian followers.
CHAP. VII LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK 191

westward of the Indus, which his feudatory of Bahawalpur 1831.

had usurped, would be restored to the Khan.'^ The Maha- The Bahi-
raja was Hkewise in communication with SJiah Mahmiid of chls.

Herat,^ and in 1830 he was invited, by the Baiza Bai of Shah Mah-
mud.
Gwahor, to honour the nuptials of the young Sindhia with
The Baiza
his presence.^ The English were at the same time not with- Bai of
out a suspicion that he had opened a correspondence with Gwalior.

Russia,* and they were themselves about to flatter him as The Eus-
siansand
one necessary to the fulfilment of their expanding views of the
just influence and profitable commerce. EngHsh.
In the beginning of 1831, Lord William Bentinck, the Lord Ben-
tinck, the
Governor-General of India, arrived at Simla, and a Sikh Governor-
deputation waited upon his Lordship to convey to him General, at
Simla,
Ranjit Singh's complimentary wishes for his own welfare 1831.
and the prosperity of his Government. The increasing
warmth of the season prevented the dispatch of a formal
return mission, but Capt. Wade, the political agent at
Ludhiana, was made the bearer of a letter to the Maharaja,
thanking him for his attention. The principal duty of the
agent was, however, to ascertain whether Ranjit Singh
wished, and would propose, to have an interview with Lord
William Bentinck, for it was a matter in which it was
thought the English Viceroy could not take the initiative.^
The object of the Governor-General was mainly to give the A meetins;
proposed
world an impression of complete unanimity between the with Ran-
two states ; but the Maharaja wished to strengthen his jit Singh,
and desired
own authority, and to lead the Sikh public to believe his by both
parties for
1 Capt. Wade to the Resident at Delhi, 3rd May 1829, and 29th different
April 1830. Harrand was once a place of considerable repute. (See reasons.
Munshi Mohan Lai, Journal, under date 3rd March 1836.) The
Bahawalpur Memoirs show that the Nawab was aided by the treachery
of others in acquiring it. The place had to be retaken by General
Ventura (as the author learnt from that officer), when Bahawal
Khan was deprived of his territories west of the Sutlej.
2 Capt. Wade to Resident at Delhi, 21st Jan. 1829, and 3rd Dec.

1830.
^ Capt. Wade to Resident at Delhi, 7th April 1830. The Maharaja
declined the invitation, saying Sindhia was not at Lahore when
his son was married.
« Capt. Wade to Resident at Delhi, 24th August 1830.

^ Government to Capt. Wade, 28th April 1831, and Murray, Ranjit

Singh, p. 162.
 192 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. VII

1831. dynasty was acknowledged as the proper head of the

' Ivlialsa ', by the predominant English rulers. The able
chief, Harl Singh, was one of those most averse to the recog-
nition of the right of the Prince Kharak Singh, and the
heir apparent himself would seem to have been aware of
the feelings of the Sikh people, for he had the year before
opened a correspondence with the Governor of Bombay, as
if to derive hope from the vague terms of a complimentary

The meet- reply .^ Ranjit Singh thus readily proposed a meeting, and
ing at
Rupar,
one took place at Riipar, on the banks of the Sutlej, in the
17th July month of October (1831). A present of horses from the
1831.
King of England had, in the meantime, reached Lahore, by
the Indus and Ravi rivers, under the escort of Lieut. Burnes,
and during one of the several interviews with the Glovernor-
31st Oct. General, Ranjit Singh had sought for and obtained a written
1831.
assurance of perpetual friendship.^ The impression went
abroad that his family would be supported by the English
Government, and ostensibly Ranjit Singh's objects seemed
,Ranjit wholly, as they had been partly^ gained. But his mind was
Singh's
anxiety not set at ease about Sind vague accounts had reached
:

about him of some design with regard to that country he plainly

;
Sind.
hinted his own schemes, and observed the Amirs had no
efficient troops, and that they could not be well disposed
towards the English, as they had thrown difficulties in the
way of Lieut. Burnes's progress.^ But the Governor- General
^ With regard to this interchange of letters, see the Persian

Secretary to the Political Secretary at Bombay, 6th July 1830.

That Ranjit Singh was jealous, personally, of Harl Singh, or that
the servant would have proved a traitor to the living master, is not
probable : but Harl Singh was a zealous Sikh and an ambitious
man, and Kharak Singh was alwaj-s full of doubts and apprehensions
with respect to his succession and even his safety. Ranjit Singh's
anxiety with regard to the meeting at Riipar, exaggerated, perhaps,
by M. AUard, may be learnt from Mr. Prinsep's account in Murray,
Ranjit Singh, p. 162. Col. Wade has informed the author that
the whole of the Sikh chiefs were said by Ranjit Singh himself to
be averse to the meeting with the British Governor-General.
2 Murray, Ranjit Singh, p. 166.

2 Murray, Ranjit Singh, p. 167. This opinion of Ranjit Singh

about Sindian troops may not be pleasing to the victors of Dabo and
Miani, although the Maharaja impugned not their courage, but their
discipline and equipment. Shah Shuja's expedition of 1834, never-
theless, served to show the fairness of Ranjit Singh's conclusions.
 —
CHAP. VII NAVIGATION OF THE INDUS 193

would not divulge to his inquiring guest and ally the tenor 1831.

of propositions already on their way to the chiefs of Sind,

confessedly lest the Maharaja should at once endeavour to
counteract his peaceful and beneficial intentions.^ Ranjit
Singh may or may not have felt that he was distrusted, but
as he was to be a party to the opening of the navigation of
the Indus, and as the project had been matured, it would
have better suited the character and the position of the
British Government had no concealment been attempted.
The traveller Moorcroft had been impressed with the The scheme
use which might
^ be made of the Indus as a channel of British ^l opening
the Indus
commerce,^ and the scheme of navigating that river and its to
tributaries was eagerly adopted by the Indian Gktvernment, commerce.
and by the advocates of material utilitarianism. One object
of sending King William's presents for Ranjit Singh by
water was to ascertain, as if undesignedly, the trading value
of the classical stream,^ and the result of Lieut. Burnes's
observations convinced Lord William Bentinck of its
superiority over the Ganges. There seemed also, in his
Lordship's opinion, good reason to believe that the great
western valley had at one time been as populous as that of
the east, and it was thought that the judicious exercise of
the paramount influence of the British Government might
remove those political obstacles which had banished
commerce from the rivers of Alexander.* It was therefore
resolved, in the current language of the day, to open the
Indus to the navigation of the world.
Before the Governor-General met Ranjit Singh, he had PioposaJ
directed Col. Pottinger ^ to proceed to Hyderabad, to nego- sindians
tiate with the Amirs of Sind the opening of the lower and the
portion of the river to all boats on the payment of a fixed

1 Murray, Ranjit Singh, pp. 167, 168. The whole of the tenth
chapter of Capt. Murray's book, which includes the meeting at
Rupar, may be regarded as the composition of Mr. Prinsep, the
Secretary to Government, with the Governor-General.
2 Moorcroft, Travels, ii. 338.

^ Government to Col. Pottinger, 22nd Oct. 1831, and Murray,

Ranjit Singh, p. 153.
* Government to Col. Pottinger, 22nd Oct. 1831.
^ [Afterwards Sir H. E. Pottinger, Bart., first Governor of Hong
Kong. Ed.]
O
 194 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. VII

1831. toll ; ^ and, two months afterwards, or towards the end of

19th Dec.
1831, he wrote to the Maharaja that the desire he had
1831. formerly expressed to see a steamboat, was a proof of his
enlightened understanding, and was likely to be gratified
before long, as it was wished to draw closer the commercial
relations of the two states. Capt. Wade was at the same
time sent to explain, in person, the object of Col. Pottinger's
mission to Sind, to propose the free navigation of the Sutlej
in continuation of that of the Lower Indus, and to assure
the Maharaja that, by the extension of British commerce,
was not meant the extension of the British power .^ But
Han jit Ranjit Singh, also, had his views and his suspicions.^ In the
Singh's
views and south of the Punjab he had wrought by indirect means, as
suspicions, long as it was necessary to do so among a newly conquered
people. The Nawab of Bahawalpur, his manager of the
country across to Dera Ghazi lOian, was less regular in his
payments than he should have been, and his expulsion from
the Punjab Proper would be profitable, and unaccompanied
with danger, if the English remained neutral. Again,
Bahawal Khan was virtually a chief protected by the British
Government on the left bank of the Sutlej, and Lieut.
Burnes was on his way up the Indus. The Maharaja, ever
mistrustful, conceiNcd that the political status of that
officer's observation v/ould be referred to and upheld by
his Government as the true and permanent one,^ and hence
the envoy found affairs in process of change when he left
the main stream of the Indus, and previous to the interview
He repels at Rupar, General Ventura had dispossessed Bahawal Khan
the Daud-
both of his Lahore farms and of his ancestral territories on
putras from
the Lower the right bank of the Sutlej.^ Further, Shikarpur formed no
Punjab,
1831,
^ Murray, Ranjit Singh, p. 168.
2 Government Wade, 19th Dec. 1831.
to Capt. It is admitted
that the mission, or the schemes, had a political reference to Russia
and her designs, but the Governor-General would not avow his
motives. (Murray, Ranjit Singh, p. 168.)
3 Ranjit Singh's attention was mainly directed to Sind, and

a rumoured matrimonial alliance between one of the Amirs, or the

son of one of them, and a Persian princess, caused him some anxiety.
(Capt. Wade to Government, 5th Aug. 1831.)
* This view appears to have subsequently occurred to Capt. Wade

as having influenced the Maharaja. See his letter to Government,

18th Oct. 1836. 5 Capt. Wade to Government, 5th Nov. 1831.
CHAP. VII RANJIT SINGH'S DESIGNS ON SIND 195

part of the Sind of the Kalhoras or Talpurs it had only 1831-2.

;

fallen to the latter usurpers after the death of Muhammad

and
Azim Klian, the wazir of the titular king, Shah Ayub, and declares
his superior
it continued to be held jointly by the three families of
right to
lOiairpur, MIrpur, and Hyderabad, as a fortuitous posses- Shikarpur.
sion. Ranjit Singh considered that he, as the paramount
of the Barakzais of the Indus, had a better right to the
district than the Amirs of south-eastern Sind, and he was
bent upon annexing it to his dominions.^
Such was Ranjit Singh's temper of mind when visited by Ranjit
Capt. Wade to negotiate the opening of the Sutlej to British Singh
yields to
traders. The Maharaja avowed himself well pleased, but the English
he had hoped that the English were about to force their way demands,
1832.
through Sind he asked how many regiments Col. Pottinger
;

had with him, and he urged his readiness to march and

coerce the Amirs. ^ It was further ascertained that he had
made propositions to Mir All Murad of MIrpur, to farm Dera
Ghazi Khan, as if to sow dissensions among the Talpurs,
and to gain friends for Lahore, while Col. Pottinger was
winning allies for the English.^ But he perceived that the
Governor- General had resolved upon his course, and he
gave his assent to the common use of the Sutlej and Indus,
and to the residence of a British officer at Mithankot to
superintend the navigation,* He did not desire to appear Declaring,
as if in opposition to his allies of many years, but he did not however,
that their
seek to conceal from Capt. Wade his opinion that the com- commerce
mercial measures of the English had really abridged his interfered
with his
political power, when he gave up for the time the intention policy.
of seizing Shikarpur.^
^ This argument was continually used by Ranjit Singh. See,
for instance, Capt. Wade to Government, 15th Jan. 1837.
2 Capt. Wade to Government, 1st and 13th Feb. 1832.

3 Capt. Wade to Government, 21st Dec. 1831 ; and Col. Pottinger

to Government, 23rd Sept. 1837.
* See Appendices XXVIII and XXIX. A tariff on goods was at
first talked of, but subsequently a toll on boats was preferred. From
the Himalayas to the sea the whole toll was fixed at 570 rupees, of
which the Lahore Government got Rs. 155, 4, for territories on the
right bank, and Rs. 39, 5, 1 for territories on the left bank of the
Sutlej. (Government to Ca^it. Wade, 9th June 1834, and Capt.
Wade to Government, 13th Dec. 1835.)
5 Capt. Wade to Government, 13th Feb. 1832.

O 2
 196 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vii

1833-5. The connexion of the Enghsh with the nations of the

Shah Shu- I^*^^^ ^^s about to be rendered more complicated by the
ja's second revived hopes of Shah Shuja. That ill-fated king had taken
to Af h'n"- '^P
^^^ abode, as before related, at Ludhiana, in the year
Stan, 1821, and he brooded at his leisure over schemes for the
1833-5.
reconquest of Khorasan. In 1826 he was in correspondence
with Ranjit Singh, who ever regretted that the Shah was
The Shah's not his guest or his prisoner.'^ In 1827 he made propositions
toThe"^^ to the British Government, and he was told that he was
Enghsh, welcome to recover his kingdom with the aid of Ranjit Singh
or of the Sindians, but that, if he failed, his present hosts
might not again receive him.^ In 1829 the Shah was in-
duced, by the strange state of affairs in Peshawar consequent
on Saiyid Ahmad's ascendancy, to suggest to Ranjit Singh
that, with Sikh aid, he could readily master it, and reign
once more an independent sovereign. The Maharaja
amused him with vain hopes, but the English repeated their
His nego- warning, and the ex-king's hopes soon fell.^ In 1831 they
withThe figain rose, for the Talpur Amirs disliked the approach of
Sindiaas, English envoys, and they gave encouragement to the tenders
and with ^^ their titular monarch.* Negotiations were reopened with
Ranjit Ranjit Singh, who was likewise out of humour with the
English about Sind, and he was not unwilling to aid the
18^
Shah in the recovery of his rightful throne but the views of
;

the Sildi reached to the Persian frontier as well as to the

shores of the ocean, and he suggested that it would be well
The gates if the slaughter of kine were prohibited throughout Afghani-

Stan, and if the gates of Somnath were restored to their

and t'he^
slaughter original temple. The Shah was not prepared for these con-
of kine.
cessions, and he evaded them by reminding the Maharaja
that his chosen allies, the English, freely took the lives
of cows, and that a prophecy foreboded the downfall
of the Sikh empire on the removal of the gates from
Ghazni.5
1 Capt. Wade to the Resident at Delhi, 25th July 1826.
2 Resident at Delhi to Capt. Wade, 25th July 1827.
2 Government to Resident at Delhi, 12th June 1829.
* Capt. Wade to Government, 9th Sept. 1831.
5 Capt. Wade to Government, 21st Nov. 1831. —Considering the
ridicule occasioned by the subsequent removal by the English of
these traditional gates, it may gratify the approvers and originators
CHAP. VII SHAH SHU J A AND RANJiT SINGH 197

In 1832 a rumoured advance of the Persians against 1832.

Herat gave further encouragement to Shah Shuja in his F^jtiigi, qo,
designs.^ The perplexed Amirs of Sind offered him assistance gotiations
if he would relinquish his supremacy, and the Shah promised guL*^®^

acquiescence if he succeeded.^ To Ranjit Singh the Shah Sindians,

offered to waive his right to Peshawar and other districts '^^^^•
beyond the Indus, and also to give an acquittance for the
Koh-i-nur diamond, in return for assistance in men and
money. The Maharaja was doubtful what to do he was ;

willing to secure an additional title to Peshawar, but he

was apprehensive of the Shah's designs, should the expedi-
tion be successful.^ He
wished, moreover, to know the
precise views of the English, and he therefore proposed that
they should be parties to any engagement entered into, for
he had no confidence, he said, in Afghans.* Each of the
three parties had distinct and incompatible objects. Ranjit
Singh wished to get rid of the English commercial objections
to disturbing theAmirs of Sind, by offering to aid the right-
paramount in its recovery. The ex-king thought
ful political
the Maharaja really wished to get him into his power, and
the project of dividing Sind fell to the ground.^ The
Talpur Amirs, on their part, thought that they would save
Shikarpur by playing into the Shah's hands, and they
therefore endeavoured to prevent a coalition between him
and the Sikh ruler.^
The Shah could not come to any satisfactory terms with The
Ranjit Singh, but as his neutrality was essential, especially indifferent
with regard to Shikarpur, a treaty of alliance was entered about the
Shah's
of that measure to know that they were of some local importance, attempts;
When the author was at Bahawalpur in 1845, a number of Afghan
merchants came to ask him whether their restoration could be
—
brought about for the repute of the fane (a tomb made a temple by
superstition), and the income of its ptr or saint, had much declined.
They would carefully convey them back, they said, and they added
that they understood the Hindus did not want them, and that of
course they could be of no value to the Christians !

1 Government to Capt. Wade, 19th Oct. 1832.

2 Capt. Wade to Government, 15th Sept. 1832.
3 Capt. Wade to Government, 13th Dec. 1832.
* Capt. Wade to Government, 31st Dec. 1832.
5 Capt. Wade to Government, 9th April 1833.
" Capt. Wade to Government, 27th March 1833.
 )

198 HISTORY OF THE SH^HS chap, vii

1832. into by which the districts beyond the Indus, and in the
possession of the Siklis, were formally ceded to the Maharaja.^
The English had also become less averse to his attempt, and
he was assured that his annual stipend would be continued
to his family, and no warning was held out to him against
returning, as had before been done.^ A third of his yearly
allowance was even advanced to him but the political
:

agent was at the same time desired to impress upon all

people, that the British Government had no interest in the
Shah's proceedings, that its policy was one of complete
but Dost neutrality, and it was added that Dost Muhammad could be
Muhain- so assured in reply to a letter received from him.^ Dost
isalarmed Muhammad had mastered Kabul shortly after Muhammad
and courts Azim Khan's death, and he soon learnt to become appre-
friendship
hensive of the English. In 1832 he cautioned the Amirs of
Sind against allowing them to establish a commercial
factory in Shikarpur, as Shah Shuja would certainly soon
follow to guard it with an army,* and he next sought,
in the usual way, to ascertain the views of the para-
mounts of India by entering into a correspondence with
them.
The Shah Shah Shuja left Ludhiana in the middle of February
sets out, 1833, He had with him about 200,000 rupees in treasure,
and nearly 3,000 armed followers.^ He got a gun and some
camels from Bahawal Klian, he crossed the Indus towards
1 This treaty, which became the foundation of the Tripartite

Treaty of 1838, was drawn up in March 1833, and finally agreed to

in August of that year. (Capt. Wade to Government, 17th June 1834.
Government to Capt. Wade, 19th Dec. 1832.
2

Government to Capt. Faithful, Acting Political Agent, 13th Dec.

3

1832, and to Capt. Wade, oth and 9th of March 1833.

4 The Bahawalpur Memoirs state that such a recommendation was

pressed by Dost Muhammad on the Amirs the belief in the gradual

;

conversion of 'Kothis', or residencies or commercial houses, into

'
Chaonis '
or military cantonments, having, it may be inferred,
,

become notorious as far as Kabul. Dost Muhammad's main object,

however, was to keep Shah Shuja at a distance and he always seems
;

to have held that he was safe from the English themselves so long as
Lahore remained unshaken. For another instance of the extent to
which the English were thought to be identified with Shah Shuja, see
the Asiatic Journal, xix. 38, as quoted by Professor Wilson in
Moorcroft's Travels, p. 340 ??., vol. ii.
5 Capt. Wade to Government, 9th April 1833.
CHAP, vn EXPEDITION OF SHAH SHUJA 199

the middle of May, and he entered Shikarpur without 1833-5.

opposition. The Sindians did not oppose him, but they

rendered him no assistance, and they at last thought it
better to break with him at once than to put their means
into his hands for their own more assured destruction.^ But
they were signally defeated near Shikarpur on the 9th Defeats the
Sindians,
January 1834, and they willingly paid 500,000 rupees in
9th Jan.
cash, and gave a promise of tribute for Shikarpur, to get 1834.
rid of the victor's presence.^ The Shah proceeded towards
Kandahar, and he maintained himself in the neighbourhood
of that city for a few months ; but, on the 1st July, he was
brought to action by Dost Muhammad KJaan and his But is

brothers, and fairly routed.^ After many wanderings, and routed at

Kandahar,
an appeal to Persia and to Shah Kamran of Herat, and also 1st July
an attempt upon Shikarpur,* he returned to his old asylum 1834,
and returns
at Ludhiana in March 1835, bringing with him about to Ludhia-
250,000 rupees in money and valuables.^ na, 1835.

Ranjit Singh, on his part, was apprehensive that Shah

Shuja might set aside their treaty of alliance, so he resolved Kanjit
Singh
to guard against the possible consequences of the ex-king's
suspicious
probable success, and to seize Peshawar before his tributaries of Shah
could tender their allegiance to Kabul.^ A large force, under Shuja.
Strength-
the nominal command of the Maharaja's grandson, Nau ens himself
Nihal Singh, but really led by Sirdar Hari Singh, crossed by regular-
ly annexing
the Indus, and an increased tribute of horses was demanded Peshawar
on the plea of the prince's presence, for the first time, at the to his
dominions,
head of an army. The demand would seem to have been 1834.
complied with, but the citadel of Peshawar was nevertheless
assaulted and taken on the 6th May 1834,' The hollow
negotiations with Sultan Muhammad Khan are understood
to have been precipitated by the impetuous Harl Singh,
who openly expressed his contempt for all Afghans, and
^ Capt. Wade to Government, 25th Aug. 1833, and the Memoirs of

the Bahawalpur Family.

2 Capt. Wade to Government, 30th Jan. 1834.
3 Capt. Wade to Government, 25th July 1834.
* Capt. Wade to Government, 21st OxJt. and 29th Dec. 1834, and

6th Feb. 1845. - '

^ Capt. Wade to Government, 19th March 1835.

^ Capt. Wade to Government, 17th June 1834.
' Capt. Wade to Government, 19th May 1834.
 200 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. VII

1832-6. did not conceal his design to carry the Sikli arms beyond
Peshawar.^
20th July The Siklis were, in the meantime, busy elsewhere as well
1832.
as in Peshawar itself. In 1832 Hari Singh had finally
TheHuzara routed the Muhammadan tribes above Attock, and to better
and the
Derajat ensure their obedience, he built a fort on the right side of
more com- the Indus. ^ In 1834 a force was employed against the
pletely
reduced, Afghans of Tak and Bannu, beyond Dera Ismail lOian ;

1832-6. but a considerable detachment signally failed in an attack

upon a mountain stronghold, and a chief of rank and up-
wards of 300 men were slain. The ill success vexed the
Maharaja, and he desired his agent to explain to the British
authorities the several particulars but lest they should
;

still be disposed to reflect upon the quality of his troops, he

reminded Capt. Wade that such things had happened before,

that his rash officers did not wait until a breach had been
effected, and that, indeed, the instance of General Gillespie
and the Gurklias at Kalanga afforded an exact illustration
Sansar of what had taken place ^ In 1833 the grandson of Sansar
!

Chand's
Chand, of Katotch, was induced to return to his country,
grandson
returns, and on his way through Ludhiana he was received with
1833.
considerable ceremony by the British authorities, for the
fame of Sansar Chand gave to his posterity some semblance
of power and regal dignity. A jaglr or fief of 50,000 rupees
was conferred upon the young chief, for the Maharaja was
not disposed from nature to be wantonly harsh, nor from
Eanjit policy to drive any one to desperation.* During the same
Singh year Ranjit Singh proposed to send a chief to Calcutta with
sends a
mission to presents for the King of England, and not improbably with
Calcutta, the view of ascertaining the general opinion about his designs
1834-6.
on Sind. The mission, under Gujar Singh Majithia, finally

1 These views of Hari Singh's were sufficiently notorious in the

Punjab some years ago, when that chief was a person before the
public.
2 Capt. Wade to Government, 7th Aug. 1832.
3 Capt. Wade to Government, 10th May 1834. Dera Ismail Khan
and the country about it was not fairly brought into order until
two years afterwards. (Capt. Wade to Government, 7th and 13th
July 1836.)
4 Capt. Wade to Government, 9th Oct. 1833, and 3rd Jan.
1835.
CHAP. VII SIKH MISSION TO CALCUTTA 201

took its departure in September 1834, and was absent a 1833-6.

year and a half .^
When Mr. Mooreroft was in Ladakli (in 1821, &e.), the l^anjit
fear of Ranjit Singh was general in that country, and the Lacfakh"
Sikh governor of Kashmir had already demanded the pay- 1821.
ment of tribute ; ^ but the weak and distant state was little
molested until the new Rajas of Jammu had obtained the
government of the hill principalities between the Ravi and
Jhelum, and felt that their influence with Ranjit Singh was
secure and commanding. In 1834 Zorawar Singh, Raja Ladakh
Gulab Singh's commander in Kishtwar, took advantage of j'e'iuced by
internal disorders in Leh, and declared that an estate, niu Rajas,
anciently held by the Kishtwar chief, must be restored. He 1834-5.
crossed into the southern districts, but did not reach the
capital until early in 1835. He sided with one of the con-
tending parties, deposed the reigning Raja, and set up his
rebellious minister in his stead. He fixed a tribute of
30,000 rupees, he placed a garrison in the fort, he retained
some districts along the northern slopes of the Himalayas,
and reached Jammu with his spoils towards the close of
1835. The dispossessed Raja complained to the Chinese
authorities in Lassa ;but, as the tribute continued to be
regularly paid by his successor, no notice was taken of the
usurpation. The Governor of Kashmir complained that
Gulab Singh's commercial regulations interfered with the
regular supply of shawl wool, and that matter was at once
adjusted yet the grasping ambition of the favourites never-
;

theless caused Ranjit Singh some misgivings amid all their

protestations of devotion and loyalty.^
But Ranjit Singh's main apprehensions were on the side Ranjit
of Peshawar, and his fondest hopes in the direction of Sind. ^^"| his t()^

The defeat which the Amirs had sustained diminished their claims on
confidence in themselves, and when Shah Shuja returned andhis"^"^'
designs on
1 Capt. Wade to Government, 11th Sept. 1834, and 4th April 1836. sind,
2 Mooreroft, Travels, i. 420. 1835-6.
3 Capt. Wade to Government, 27th Jan. 1835, and Mr. Vigne,

Travels in Kashmir and Tibet, ii. 352 ; their statements being

corrected or amplified from the author's manuscript notes. The
prince Kharak Singh became especially apprehensive of the designs
of the Jammu family. (Capt. Wade to Government, 10th Aug.
1836.)
 202 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. VII

1835-G. beaten from Kandahar, Nur Muhammad of Hyderabad was

understood to be wiUing to surrender Shikarpur to the
Negotia-
tions. Maharaja, on condition of his guarantee against the attempts
of the ex-king.'^ But this pretext would not get rid of the
English objections and Ranjit Singh, moreover, had little
;

confidence in the Sindians. He kept, as a check over

them, a representative of the expelled Kalhoras, as a pen-
sioner on his bounty, in Rajanpur beyond the Indus ^ and, ;

at once to overawe both them and the Barakzais, he again

opened a negotiation with Shah Shuja as soon as he returned
to Ludhiana.^ But his main difficulty was with his British
allies and, to prove to them the reasonableness of his
;

discontent, he would instance the secret aid which the

Mazari freebooters received from the Amirs * he would ;

again insist that Shikarpur was a dependency of the chiefs

of Khorassan,^ and he would hint that the river below
Mithankot was not the Indus but the Sutlej, the river of the
treaty, —
the stream which had so long given freshness and
beauty to the emblematic garden of their friendship, and
which continued its fertilizing way to the ocean, separating,
yet uniting, the realms of the two brotherly powers of the
East « !

Ranjit But the English had formed a treaty of navigation with

ambit'fon
Sind, and the designs of Ranjit Singh were displeasing to
displeasing them. They said they could not view without regret and
EngUsb
disapprobation the prosecution of plans of unprovoked
1 Capt. Wade to Government, 6th Feb. 1835.
2 Capt. Wade to Government, 17th June 1834. Sarafraz Khan,
otherwise called Ghulam Shah, was the Kalhora expelled by the
Talpurs. He received Rajanpur in jagir from Kabul, and was
maintained in it by Ranjit Singh. The place was held to yield
100,000 rupees, including certain rents reserved by the state, but fhe
district was not really worth 30,000 rupees.
3 Capt. Wade to Government, 17th April 1835, and other letters

of the same year. The Maharaja still xirged that the English should
guarantee, as it were. Shah Shuja's moderation in success ; partly,
perhaps, because the greatness of the elder dynasty of Ahmad Shah
still dwelt in the mind of the first paramount of the Siklis, but partly
also with the view of sounding his European allies as to their real
intentions.
* Capt. Wade to Government, 5th Oct. 1836.
s Capt. Wade to Government, 15th Jan. 1837.
^ Capt. Wade to Government, 5th Oct. 1836.
 ;

CHAP. VII RANJIT SINGH THWARTED 203

hostility against states to which they were bound by ties 1835-6.

of interest and goodwill.^ They therefore wished to dissuade
Ranjit Singh against any attempt on Shikarpur but they
;

felt that this must be done discreetly, for their object was
to remain on terms of friendship with every one, and to
make their influence available for the preservation of the
general peace. ^ Such were the sentiments of the English ;

but, in the meantime, the border disputes between the Sikhs

and Sindians were fast tending to produce a rupture. In
1833 the predatory tribe of Mazaris, lying along the right
bank of the Indus, below Mithankot, had been chastised
by the Governor of Multan, who jiroposed to put a garrison
in their stronghold of Rojhan, but was restrained by the
Maharaja from so doing.^ In 1835 the Amirs of Khairpur
were believed to be instigating the Mazaris in their attacks
on the Sikh posts and as the tribe was regarded by the
;

English as dependent on Sind, although possessed of such

a degree of separate existence as to warrant its mention in
the commercial arrangements as being entitled to a fixed
portion of the whole toll, the Amirs were informed that the
English looked to them to restrain the Mazaris, so as to
deprive Ranjit Singh of all pretext for interference.* The
aggressions nevertheless continued, or were alleged to be The Maha-
raja never-
continued and in August 1836, the Multan Governor took
;
theless
formal possession of Rojhan.^ In the October following the keeps in
view his
Mazaris were brought to action and defeated, and the Sikhs
plans of
occupied a fort called Ken, to the south of Rojhan, and aggrandize-
beyond the proper limit of that tribe.^ ment.

Thus was Ranjit Singh gradually feeling his way by force ;

The objects
of the
but the EngKsh had, in the meantime, resolved to go far English be-
beyond him in diplomacy. It had been determined that come poli-
tical as well
Capt. Burnes should proceed on a commercial mission to as commer-
cial, 1836
1 —
Government to Capt. Wade, 22nd Aug. 1836. This plea will
recall to mind the usual argument of the Romans for interference, viz.
that their friends were not to be molested by strangers.
2 Government to Capt. Wade, 22nd Aug. 1836.

3 Wade to Government, 27th May 1835.

Capt.
* Government to Capt. Wade, 27th May 1835, and 5th Sept. 1836 ;
and Government to Col. Pottinger, 19th Sept. 1836.
5 Capt. Wade to Government, 29th Aug. 1836.
6 Capt. Wade to Government, 2nd Nov. 1836.
 204 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP, vn
1836. the countries bordering on the Indus, with the view of
completing the reopening of that river to the traffic of the
world.^ But the Maharaja, it was said, should understand
that their objects were purely mercantile, and that, indeed,
his aid was looked for in establishing somewhere a great
entrepot of trade, such as, it had once been hoped, might
have been commenced at Mithankot.^ Yet the views of the
British authorities with regard to Sind were inevitably
becoming political as well as commercial. The condition
of that country, said the Governor-General, had been much
thought about, and the result was a conviction that the
connexion with it should be drawn closer.^ The Amirs, he
continued, might desire the protection of the English against
Ranjit Singh, and previous negotiations, Avhich their fears
and they or their hostility had broken off, might be renewed with a
resolve on
mediating
view to giving them assistance and, finally, it was deter-
;

between mined that the English Government should mediate between

Ran jit Ranjit Singh and the Sindians, and afterwards adjust the
Singh and
~the Sind- other external relations of the Amirs when a Resident should
be stationed at Hyderabad.
The With regard to Ranjit Singh, the English rulers observed
English
that they were bound by the strongest considerations of
desire
to restrain political interest to prevent the extension of the Sikh
Ranjit
Singh
power along the course of the Indus, and that, although
without they would respect the acknowledged territories of the
threaten-
Maharaja, they desired that his existing relations of peace
ing him.
should not be disturbed ; for, if war took place, the Indus
would never be opened to commerce.- The political agent
was directed to use every means short of menace to induce
Ranjit Singh to abandon his designs against Shikarpur ;

and Shah Shuja, whose hopes were still great, and whose
negotiations were still talked of, was to be told that if he
left Ludhiana he must not return, and that the maintenance
for his family would be at once discontinued. With regard
to the Mazaris, whose lands had been actually occupied by
the Siklis, it was said that their reduction had effected an
object of general benefit, and that the question of their

1 Government to Capt. Wade, 5th Sept. 1836.

2 Government to Capt. Wade, 5th Sept. 1836.
3 Government to Col. Tottinger, 26th Sept. 1836.
 ;

CHAP. VII POLICY OF THE ENGLISH 205

permanent control could be determined at a future 1836.

period.^
The Sindians, on their part, complained that the fort The
S Indians
of Ken had been occupied, and in reply to Ranjit Singh's impatient,
demand that their annual complimentary or prudential and ready
to resort to
offerings should be increased, or that a large sum should be
arms.
paid for the restoration of their captured fort, they avowed
their determination to resort to arms.^ Nor can there be Ranjit
any doubt that Sind would have been invaded by the Singh
equally
Sikhs, had not Col. Pottinger's negotiations for their pro- ready
tection deterred the Maharaja from an act which he appre-
hended the English might seize upon to declare their alliance
at an end. The princes Kliarak Singh and Nau Nihal Singh
were each on the Indus, at the head of considerable armies,
and the remonstrances of the British political agent alone
detained the Maharaja himself at Lahore. Nevertheless,
so evenly were peace and war balanced in Ranjit Singh's
mind, that Capt. Wade thought it advisable to proceed to
his capital to explain to him in person the risks he would
incur by acting in open opposition to the British Government.
He listened, and at last yielded. His deference, he said, to but yields
to the re-
the wishes of his allies took place of every other considera- presenta-
tion he would let his relations with the Amirs of Sind tions of
;

remain on their old footing, he would destroy the fort of theEnglish,

Dec. 1836.
Ken, but he would continue to occupy Rojhan and the
Mazari territory.^ Ranjit Singh was urged by his chiefs not
to yield to the demands of the English, for to their under-
standing it was not clear where such demands would stop ;
but he shook his head, and asked them what had become of
the two hundred thousand spears of the Marathas * and, ! —
1 Government to Capt. Wade, 26th Sept. 1836.
Capt. Wade to
2 Government, 2nd Nov. and 13th Dec.1836.
Capt. Wade to Government, 3rd Jan. 1837.
3
* Cf. Capt. Wade to Government, 11th Jan. 1837. Ranjit Singh
not unfrequently referred to the overthrow of the Maratha power as a
reason for remaining, under all and any circumstances, on good terms
with his European allies. See also Col. Wade's Narrative of Personal
Services, p. 44, note. [Though the Maharaja kept loyally to his
treaty of friendship with the English, he occasionally manifested
some suspicion of their victorious advance in India. On one occasion
he was shown a map of the country in which the English possessions
were marked in red. The Maharaja asked what the red portions
 —

206 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vii

1836.
if to show how completely he professed to forget or forgive
as
the check imposed on him, he invited the Governor- General
to be present at Lahore on the occasion of the marriage of
the grandson whom he had hoped to hail as the conqueror
of Sind.^ Nevertheless he continued to entertain a hope
that his objects might one day be attained he avoided;

a distinct settlement of the boundary with the Amirs, and

let con- Qf ^j^g question of supremacy over the Mazaris.^ Neither
hold Roj- was he disposed to relinquish Rojhan the place remained;

g, Sikli possession, and it may be regarded to have become

ban with

views. formally such by the submission of the chief of the tribe in

the year 1838.^
^^ ^^ '^'^^^ necessary to go back for some years to trace the
Th^E^^r^i
and Barak- connexion of the English Government with the Barakzai
zais, 1829-
rulers of Afghanistan. Muhammad Azim Khan died in
1823, as has been mentioned, immediately after Peshawar
became tributary to the Siklis. His son Hablb-ullah nomi-
nally succeeded to the supremacy which Fateh Klian and
Muhammad Azim had both exercised but it soon became ;

evident that the mind of the youth was unsettled, and his
violent proceedings enabled his crafty and unscrupulous
uncle. Dost Muhammad Jvlian, to seize Kabul, Ghazni,'and
Jalalabad as his own, while a second set of his brothers
held Kandahar in virtual independence, and a third governed
Peshawar as the tributaries of Ranjit Singh.^ In the year
1824 Mr. Moorcroft, the traveller, was upon the whole well
satisfied with the treatment he received from the Barak-
zais, although their patronage cost him money .^ A few
Suit an Mu- ygaj-g afterwards Sultan Muhammad Khan of Peshawar,
hammad -^

Khan soli- who had most to fear from strangers, opened a communica-
cits the
^Jqj^ y^^i^ ^Ijg political agent at Ludhiana,^ and in 1829 he

indicated, and on being told tossed the map aside with the impatient
remark. Sab lal hojaega (All will become red). Ed.]
1 Capt. Wade to Government, 5th Jan. 1837.
2 Capt. Wade to Government, 13th and 15th Feb., 8th July, and
10th Aug. 1837.
3 Capt. Wade to Government, 9th Jan. 1838.
* Cf. Moorcroft, Travels, ii. 345, &c and Munshi Mohan Lal,
,

Life of Dost Muhammad Khan, i. 130, 153, &c.

5 Moorcroft, Travels, ii. 346, 347.

'••Capt. Wade to the Resident at Delhi, 21st April 1828.

 ;

CHAP. VII RETROSPECT AFGHANISTAN

: 207

wished to negotiate as an independent chief with the 1829-32.

British Government.^ But the several brothers were friendship

jealous of one another, many desired separate principalities, or protec-
tion of the
Dost Muhammad aimed at supremacy, rumours of Persian English
designs alarmed them on the west, the aggressive policy against the
Siklis,
of Ranjit Singh gave them greater cause of fear on the east,
1829.
and the chance presence of English travellers in Afghani-
stan again led them to hope that the foreign masters of
India might be induced to give them stability between
contending powers.^ In 1832 Sultan Muhammad Klian
again attempted to open a negotiation, if only for the release
of his son, who was a hostage with Ranjit Singh .^ The
Nawab, Jabbar KJian of Kabul, likewise addressed letters
to the British frontier authority, and in 1832 Dost Muham- Dost Mu-
mad himself directly asked for the friendship of the English.* hammad
Khan does
All these communications were politely acknowledged, but the same,
1832.
at the time it was held desirable to avoid all intimacy of
connexion with rulers so remote.^
In 1834 new dangers threatened the usurping Barakzais. TheBarak-
zais,appre-
Shah Shuja had defeated the Sindians and had arrived in hensive
force at Kandahar, and the brothers once again endeavoured of Shah
Shuja,
to bring themselves within the verge of British supremacy. again press
They had heard of English arts as well as of English arms for an alli-
;
ance with
the
1 Capt. Wade to Government, 19th May 1832. The brothers had English
already (1823, 1824) made similar proposals through Mr. Moorcroft.
(See Travels, ii. 340.)
2 Mr. Eraser and Mr. Stirling, of the Bengal Civil Service, were in
Afghanistan, the former in 1826, apparently, and the latter in 1828.
Mr. Masson also entered the country by way of the Lower Punjab
in 1827, and the American, Dr. Harlan, followed him in a year by
the same route. Dr. Harlan came to Lahore in 1829, after leading
the English authorities to believe that he desired to constitute himself
an agent between their Government and Shah Shuja, with reference
doubtless to the ex-king's designs on Kabul. (Resident at Delhi to
Capt. Wade, 3rd Feb. 1829.) The Rev. Mr. Wolff should be included
among the travellers in Central Asia at the time in question.
3 Capt. Wade to Government, 19th May and 3rd July 1832.

« Capt. Wade to Government, 9th July 1832, and 17th Jan. 1833.

Col. Wade in the Narrative of Personal Services, p. 23, note, regards

these overtures of Dost Muhammad, and also the increased interest
of Russia and Persia in Afghan affairs, to Lieut. Burnes's Journey
(to Bokhara, in 1832) and to Shah Shuja's designs.
5 Government to Capf. Wade, 28th Eeb. 1833.
 208 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vii

1834. they knew that all were accessible of flattery, and Jabbar
nd J bbar
^^an suddenly proposed to send his son to Ludhiana, in
Khan sends order, he said, that his mind might be improved by Euro-
hissonto
Ludhiana,
pean science and civilization.^ But Jabbar Hian, while he
' '

6th May appeared to adhere to Dost Muhammad rather than to

1834. others, had nevertheless an ambition of his own, and he was
more than suspected of a wish to make his admiration of
the amenities of English life the means of acquiring political
power.2 Thus, doubtful of all about him, Dost Muhammad
left Kabul to oppose Shah Shuja, but the Sikhs had, in the
meantime, occupied Peshawar, and the perplexed ruler
grasped once more at British aid as his only sure resource.^
Dost Mu- He tendered his submission as a dependent of Great Britain,
hammad g^j^^ having thus endeavoured to put his dominions in trust,

tenders his he gave Shah Shuja battle. But the Shah was defeated, and
allegiance ^j^g rejoicing victor forgot his difficulties. He declared war
English, against the Siklis on account of their capture of Peshawar,
j^t Jy^y and he endeavoured to make it a religious contest by rousing
the population generally to destroy infidel invaders.* He
'

Shah Shuja assumed the proud distinction of ' Ghazi ', or champion of
and re- ^.j^g faith, and the vague title of Amir ', which he inter-
'

covers
confidence, preted the noble ', for he did not care to wholly offend his
'

brothers, whose submission he desired, and whose assistance

was necessary to him.^
Dost Mut Dost Muhammad Khan, amid all his exultation, was still

attempteto
willing to use the intervention of unbelievers as well as the
recover arms of the and he asked the English masters of
faithful,
Peshawar,
i^^^^ ^q j^glp recovering Peshawar.^ The youth
jjjj^^ jj^

who had been sent to Ludhiana to become a student, was

invested with the powers of a diplomatist, and the Amir
sought to prejudice the British authorities against the Sikhs,
by urging that his nephew and thtir guest had been treated
with suspicion, and had suffered restraint on his way across
the Punjab, But the English had not yet thought of re-
> Capt. Wade to Government, 9th March 1834.
2 Capt. Wade to Government, 17th May 1834. Cf. Masson,
Journeys, 218, 220.
ill.

3 Capt. Wade to Government, 17th June 1834.

4 Capt. Wade to Government, 25th Sept. 1834.
^ Capt. Wade to Government, 27th Jan. 183.5.
8 Capt. Wade to Government, 4th Jan. and 13th Feb. 1835.
CHAP. VII DOST MUHAMMAD 209

quiring him to be an ally for purposes of their own, and 1835.

Dost Muhammad was simply assured that the son of Nawab

Jabbar Klian should be well taken care of on the eastern
side of the Sutlej. A
direct reply to his solicitation was The
avoided, by enlarging on the partial truth that the Afghans English
decline in-
were a commercial people equally with the English, and on terferin".
the favourite scheme of the great traffickers of the world,
the opening of the Indus to commerce. It was hoped, it
was added, that the new impulse given to trade would
better help the two governments to cultivate a profitable
friendship, and the wondering Amir, full of warlike schemes,
was naively asked, whether he had any suggestions to offer
about a direct route for merchandise between Kabul and
the great boundary river of the Afghans ^ The English
!

rulers had also to reply to Ranjit Singh, who was naturally

and
suspicious of the increasing intimacy between his allies
his enemies,and who desired that the European lords might
appear rather as his than as Dost Muhammad's supporters ;

but the Governor- General observed that any endeavours

to mediate would lead to consequences seriously embarrass-
ing, and that Dost Muhammad would seem to have in-
terpreted general professions of amity into promises of
assistance.-
The two parties were thus left to their own means. Ranjit
Singh and
Ranjit Singh began by detaching Sultan Muhammad Klian
Dost Mu-
from the Amir, with whom he had sought a refuge on the hammad in
force at
occupation of Peshawar by the Sikhs and the ejected
;
Peshawar,
tributary listened the more readily to the INIaharaja's pro- 1835.
positions, as he apprehended that Dost Muhammad would
retain Peshawar for himself, should Ranjit Singh be beaten.
Dost Muhammad came to the eastern entrance of the
Khaibar Pass, and Ranjit Singh amused him with proposals
until he had concentrated his forces. On the 11th of May
1835, the Amir was almost surrounded. He was to have Dost Mu-
hammad
been attacked on the 12th, but he thought it prudent to retires
rather
1 Government to Capt. Wade, 19th April 1834, and 11th Feb. 1835. than risk a
Abdul Ghias Khan, the son of Jabbar Khan, reached Ludhiana in battle, 11th
June 1834, and the original intention of sending him to study at May 1835.
Delhi was abandoned.
2 Government to Capt. Wade, 20th April 1835.

P
 210 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vn

1835-6. retreat, loss of two guns and some bag-

which he did with the
gage. He had designed to carry off the Sikli envoys, and to
profit by their presence as hostages or as prisoners but;

his brother, Sultan Muhammad Khan, to whom the execu-

tion of the project had been entrusted, had determined on
joining Ranjit Singh, and the rescue of the agents gave him
a favourable introduction to the victor. Sultan Muliammad
and his brothers had considerable jagirs conferred on them
in the Peshawar district, but the military control and civil
management of the province was vested solely in an officer
appointed from Lahore.^
Dost Mu- Dost Muhammad suffered much in general estimation by
lookTr^- withdrawing from an encounter with the Sikhs. His hopes
wards in the English had not borne fruit, and he was disposed to

stnTprefers
court Persia ^ but the connexion was of less political credit
;

an English and utility than one with the English, and he tried once
rnore to move the Governor-General in his favour. The
ISSe"*^^'
Sikhs, he said, were faithless, and he was wholly devoted to
TheKanda- the interests of the British Government.^ The Kandahar
desirous ^of brothers, also, being pressed by Shah Kamran of Herat,
English aid. and unable to obtain aid from Dost Muhammad, made
Singii^en-
propositions to the English authorities ;but Kamran's own
deavours to apprehensions of Persia soon relieved them of their fears,
iTostTlii-
^^^ *'^^y ^^^ ^^* press their solicitations for European aid.*
hammad. Ranjit Singh, on his part, disliked an English and Afghan
alliance, and sought to draw Dost Muhammad within the
vortex of his own influence. He gave the Amir vague hopes
of obtaining Peshawar, and he asked Jiim to send him some
horses, which he had learnt was a sure way of leading others
to believe they had won his favour. Dost Muhammad was

1 Capt. Wade to Government, 25th April, and 1st, 15th, and 19th
May 1835. Cf. Masson, Journeys, iii. 342, &c. ; Mohan Lai, Life

of Dost Muhammad, i. 172, &c. ; and also Dr. Harlan's India and
Afghanistan, pp. 124, 158. Dr. Harlan himself was one of the envoys
sent to Dost Muhammad on the occasion.
The Sikhs are commonly said to have had 80,000 men in the
Peshawar valley at this time.
2 Capt. Wade to Government, 23rd Feb. 1836. Dost Muhammad's
overtures to Persia seem to have commenced in Sept. 1835.
3 Capt. Wade to Government, 19th July 1836,
* Capt. Wade to Government, 9th March 1836.
 —
CHAP. VII RETREAT OF DOST MUHAMMAD 211

not unwilling to obtain a hold on Peshawar, even as a tribu- 1836-7.

tary, but he felt that the presentation of horses would be
declared by the Sikh to refer to Kabul and not to that
province.^ The disgrace of his retreat rankled in his mind,
and he at last said that a battle must be fought at all risks.^ But the
He was the more inclined to resort to arms, as the Sikhs ^'"^^ P^*^'
'
lers war,
had sounded his brother, Jabbar Klian, and as Sirdar Harl 1836-7.
Singh had occupied the entrance of the Khaibar Pass and Hari
entrenched a position
^ at Jamrud, as the basis of his scheme ^'"8*^ ^
designs.
for getting through the formidable defile. ^ The Kabul troops
marched and assembled on the eastern side of Ivliaibar,
under the command of Muhammad Akbar Khan,* the
most warlike of the Amir's sons. An attack was made on Battle of
the post at Jamrud, on the 30th of April 1837 but the fou/ April
;

Afghans could not carry it, although they threw the Sikhs 1837.
into disorder. Hari Singh, by feigning a retreat, drew the The Sikhs
enemy more fully into the plains the brave leader was and Han'
;

present everjrwhere amid his retiring and rallying masses, Singh

but he fell mortally wounded, and the opportime arrival of t^p^fih-
another portion of the Kabul forces converted the confusion retire.''
of the Siklis into a total defeat. But two guns only were
lost ; the Afghans could not master Jamrud or Peshawar
itself, and, after plundering the valley for a few days, they

retreated rather than risk a second battle with the rein-

forced army of Lahore.^

1 Capt. Wade to Government, 12th April 1837.

2 Capt. Wade to Government, 1st May 1837.
3 Capt. Wade to Government, 13th Jan. 1837.
* [Afterwards the murderer of Sir W. Macnaghten and the chief

actor in the tragedy of the retreat from Kabul (1842). Ed.]

5 Capt. Wade to Government, 13th and 23rd May and 5th July

1837. Cf. Masson, Journeys, iii. 382, 387, and Mohan Lai, Life of
Dost Muhammad, i. 226, &c.
It seems that the Afghans were at first routed or repulsed with the
loss of some guns, but that the opportune arrival of Shams-ud-din
Khan, a relation of the Amir, with a considerable detachment, turned
the battle in their favour. It is nevertheless believed that had
not Hari Singh been killed, the Sikhs would have retrieved the day.
The troops in the Peshawar valley had been considerably reduced by
the withdrawal of large parties to Lahore, to make a display on the
occasion of Nau Nihal Singh's marriage, and of the expected visit
of the English Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief.
P2
 212 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vii

1837. The death of Hari Singh and the defeat of his army
~ ~, caused some anxiety in Lahore but the Maharaja promptly
;

Singh's roused his people to exertion, and all readily responded to

efforts to
jjjg ^,Q^Y. guns were dragged
It is stated that field ° ^'^ from
retrieve ms
affairs at Ramnagar, on the Chenab, to Peshawar in six days, a
Peshawar, distance by road of more than two hundred miles. ^ Ranjit

Singh advanced in person to Rohtas, and the active Dhian

Singh hastened to the frontier, and set an example of
devotion and labour by working with his own hands on the
His nego- foundations of a regular fort at Jamrud.- Dost Muhammad
with Dost ^v^s buoyed up by his fruitless \ictory, and he became
Muham- more than ever desirous of recovering a province so wholly
SlTahShuja. Afghan but Ranjit Singh contrived to amuse him, and the
;

Maharaja was found to be again in treaty with the Amir,

and again in treaty with Shah Shuja, and with both at the
The English same time.^ But the commercial envoy of the English

^^^d'^
*^"
t
had gradually sailed high up the Indus of their imaginary
between the commerce, and to his Government the time seemed to have
Sikhs and gQjj^g when political interference would no longer be em-
1837 ;
'
barrassing, but, on the contrary, highly advantageous to
schemes of peaceful trade and beneficial intercourse. It was
made known that the British rulers would be glad to be the
means of negotiating a peace honourable to both parties,
yet the scale was turned in favour of the Afghan, by the
simultaneous admission that Peshawar was a place to which
Dost Muhammad could scarcely be expected to resign all
claim.* Nevertheless, it was said, the wishes of Ranjit Singh
could be ascertained by Capt. Wade, and Capt. Burnes
could similarly inquire about the views of the Amir. The
latter officer was formally
^ invested with diplomatic
powers,^
the more ^ j •

especially and the and

-i-»
idle designs, or restless intrigues, ot Persians
a^ they are Russians, soon caused the disputes of Sikhs and Afghans to
apprehen-
^ Lieut. -Col. Steinbach {Punjab, pp. 64, 68) mentions that he had
Rus.sia
himself marched with his Sikh regiment 300 miles in twelve days, and
that the distance had been performed by others in eleven.
2 ijj.. Clerk's Memorandum of 1842, regarding the Sikh chiefs,

drawn up for Lord Ellenborough.

3 Cf. Capt. Wade to Government, 3rd June 1837, and Government

to Capt. Wade, 7th Aug. 1837.

* Government to Capt. Wade, 31st July 1837.

5 Government to Capt. Wade, 11th Sept. 1837.

CHAP. VII DOST MUHAaOIAD, SHAH SHUJA 213

merge in the British scheme of reseating Shah Shuja on the 1837.

throne of Kabul. At the end of a generation the repose of
the English masters of India was again disturbed by the
rumoured march of European armies/ and their suspicions
were further roused by the conduct of the French General, and'are
Allard. That officer, after a residence of several years in
Jii^aUsfied
the Punjab, had been enabled to visit his native country, with the
and he returned by way of Calcutta in the year 1836. ^Vllile Pf^Qg^^J^^f
in France he had induced his Government to give him a Allard.
document, accrediting him to Ranjit Singh, in case his life
should be endangered, or in case he should be refused per-
mission to quit the Lahore dominions. It was understood
by the English that the paper was only to be produced to
the Maharaja in an extremity of the kind mentioned but ;

General Allard himself considered that it was only to be so

laid in form before the English authorities, in support of
a demand for aid when he might chance to be straitened.
He at once delivered his credentials to the Sikli ruler it ;

was rumoured that General Allard had become a French

ambassador, and it was some time before the British
authorities forgave the fancied deceit, or the vain effrontery
of their guest.-

1 The idea of Russian designs on India engaged the attention of

the British viceroy in 1831 (see Murray, Eanjlt Singh, by Prinsep,

p. 168), and it at the same time possessed the inquiring but sanguine
mind of Capt. Bumes, who afterwards gave the notion so much
notoriety. (See Capt. Wade to Government, 3rd Aug. 1831.)
2 The author gives what the French officers held to be the intended

use of the credentials, on the competent authority of General Ventura,

with whom he formerly had conversations on the subject. The English
view, however, is that which was taken by the British ambassador
in Paris, as well as by the authorities in Calcutta, with whom General
Allard was m personal communication. (Government to Capt. Wade,
16th Jan. and 3rd April 1837.)
Of the two views, that of the English is the less honourable, with
reference to their duty towards Ranjit Singh, .who might have justly
resented any attempt on the part of a servant to put himself beyond
the power of his master, and any interference in that servant's behalf
on the part of the British Government.
In the letter to Ranjit Singh, Louis Philippe is styled, in French,
'
Empereur' (Capt. Wade to Government, 15th Sept. 1837) a title
;

which, at the time, may have pleased the vanity of the French,
although it could not have informed the understandings of the Sikhs,
 —

214 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. VII

1837. Ranjit Singh had invited the Governor- General of India,

the Governor of Agra (Sir Charles Metcalfe), and the
The
marriage of Commander-in-Chief of the British forces to be present at
Nau Nihal the nuptials of his grandson, which he designed to celebrate
Singh,
1837. with much splendour. The prince was wedded to a daughter
of the Sikli chief, Sham Singh Atariwala, in the beginning
SirHenry of March 1837, but of the English authorities Sir Henry Fane
Fane at alone was able to attend. That able commander was ever
Lahore.
a careful observer of military means and of soldierly
qualities ; he formed an estimate of the force which would
be required for the complete subjugation of the Punjab, but
at the same time he laid it down as a principle, that the
Sutlej and the wastes of Rajputana and Sind were the
best boundaries which the English could have in the east.^
The prospect of a war with the Sikhs was then remote, and
hostile designs could not with honour be entertained by
a guest. Sir Henry Fane, therefore, entered heartily into
the marriage festivities of Lahore, and his active mind was
amused with giving shape to a scheme, which the intuitive
sagacity of Ranjit Singh had acquiesced in as pleasing to
The Sikh the just pride or useful vanity of English soldiers. The
military
project of establishing an Order of merit similar to those
Order of
the Star. dying exponents of warlike skill and chivalrous fraternity

as, agreeably to Persian and Indian practice, king or queen is always

translated Padshah equally with emperor. Sir Claude Wade seems
' '

to think that the real design of the French was to open a regular
intercourse with Ranjit Singh, and to obtain a political influence
ill the Punjab. The Maharaja, however, after consulting the British
Agent, decided on not taking any notice of the overtures. (Sir
Claude Wade, Xarrative, p. 38, note.) [A piece of diplomacy on
the part of the French Government, typical of the chicanery of Louis
Philippe and his advisers. The monarch who could perpetrate the
sordid scandal of the Spanish marriage was equally capable of an
underhand intrigue with Ranjit Singh. Ed.]
1 These views of Sir Henry Fane's may not be on record, but they

were well known to those about his Excellency. His estimate was,
as I remember to have heard from Cajit. Wade, 67,000 men, and he
thought there might be a two years' active warfare.
This visit to Lahore was perhaps mainly useful in enabling Lieut. -
Col. Garden, the indefatigable quarter-master-general of the Bengal
Army, to compile a detailed map of that part of the country, and which
formed the groundwork of all the maps used when hostilities did at
last break out with the Sikhs.
 —
CHAP. VII IVIARRIAGE OF NAU NIHAL SINGH 215

among European nations, had been for some time entertained, 1837.
and although such a system of distinction can be adapted .

to the genius of any people, the object of the Maharaja was Singh's
simply to gratify his English neighbours, and advantage object the

was accordingly taken of Sir Henry Fane's presence to tion of his

establish the Order of the auspicious Star of the Punjab
' ' guests and

on a purely British model.^ This method of j^leasing, or

occupying the attention of the English authorities, was not
unusual with Ranjit Singh, and he was always ready to
inquire concerning matters which interested them, or which
might be turned to account by himself. He would ask for
specimens of, and for information about, the manufacture Anecdotes
of Sambhar salt and Malwa opium.- So early as 1812 he had showing a
suiular
made trial of the sincerity of his new allies, or had shown purpose.
his admiration of their skill, by asking for five hundred
muskets. These were at once furnished to him, but a
subsequent request for a supply of fifty thousand such
weapons excited a passing suspicion.^ He readily entered
into a scheme of freighting a number of boats with merchan-
dise for Bombay, and he was praised for the interest he took
in commerce, until it was known that he wished the return
cargo to consist of arms for his infantry.* He would have
his artillerymen learn gunnery at Ludhiana,^ and he would
send shells of zinc to be inspected in the hope that he might
receive some hints about the manufacture of iron shrapnels.*'
He would inquire about the details of European warfare,
and he sought for copies of the pay regulations of the Indian
1 Capt. Wade
to Government, 7th April 1837. [On the occasion
Maharaja displayed considerable interest in the great
of this visit the
wars of Europe. He wa^ particularly interested in the career of
Napoleon. Col. Wallis, one of Sir Henry's staff, had fortunately been
at Waterloo, and the Maharaja asked him many questions concern-
ing the battle. Ed.]
^ Capt. Wade to the Resident at Delhi, 2nd Jan. 1831, and to

Government, 25th Dec. 1835.

^ Cajjt. Wade to Government, 22nd July 1836.
4 Cf. Government to Capt. Wade, 11th Sept. 1837.
5 Capt. Wade Government, 7th Dec. 1831.
to
^ When the restoration of Shah Shuja was resolved on, Ranjit

Singh sent shells to Ludhiana to be looked at and commented on,

as if, being engaged in one political cause, there should not be any
reserve about military secrets !
 216 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vii

1837. army and of the English practice of courts martial, and

bestowed dresses of honour on the translator of these
complicated and inapplicable systems ^ while, to further
;

satisfy himself, he would ask what punishment had been

found an efficient substitute for flogging.^ He sent a lad,
the relation of one of his chiefs, to learn English at the
Ludhiana school, in order, he said, that the youth might
aid him in his correspondence with the British Government,
which Lord William Bentinck had wished to carry on in
the English tongue instead of in Persian ^ and he sent
;

a number of young men to learn something of medicine at

the Ludhiana dispensary, which had been set on foot by
—
the political agent but in order, the Maharaja said, that
they might be useful in his battalions.'* In such ways, half-
serious, half-idle, did Ranjlt Singh endeavour to ingratiate
himself with the representatives of a power he could not
withstand and never wholly trusted.
The British Ranjlt Singh's rejoicings over the marriage and youthful
scheme of promise of his grandson were rudely interrupted by the
-opening the ^ ^ j t- j
^
Indus to success of the Afghans at Jamrud, and the death of his able
commerce igafjej. Hari Singh, as has been alrfeady related. The old
ends in the " •'

project of man was moved to tears when he heard of the fate of the
restoring
only genuine Sikh chief of his creation ^ and he had scarcely
;

Shuja . vindicated his supremacy on the frontier, by filling the valley

of Peshawar with troops, when the English interfered to
embitter the short remainder of his life, and to set bounds to

1 Major Hough, who has added to the reputation of the Indian

army by his useful publications, put the practice of courts martial
into a Sikb dress for Ranjlt Singh. (Government to Capt. Wade,
21st November 1834.)
2 Government to Capt. Wade, 18th May 1835, intimating that
solitary coniinement had been found a good substitute.
3 Capt. Wade to Government, 11th April 1835. Some of the princes

of India, all of whomare ever prone to suspicion, were not without a

belief that, by writingin English, it was designed to keep them in
ignorance of the real views and declarations of their paramount.
* Some of these young men were employed with the force raised

at Peshawar, in 1 839, to enable Prince Taimiir to march through

Khaibar.
5 Capt. Wade to Government, 13th May 1837, quoting Dr. Wood,

a surgeon in the British army, temporarily deputed to attend on

Ranjit Singh, and who was with his camp at Rohtas on this occasion.
 ;

CHAP. VII ENGLISH POLICY ERRONEOUS 217

his ambition on the west, as they had already done on the 1837.

east and south. The commercial policy of the British people

required that peace and industry should at once be intro-
duced among the half-barbarous tribes of Sind, Khora-
san, and the. Punjab and it was vainly sought to give fixed
;

limits to newly-founded feudal governments, and to impress

moderation of desire upon grasping military sovereigns. It
was wished that Ranjit Singh should be content with his
past achievements that the Amirs of Sindh, and the chiefs
;

of Herat, Kandahar, and Kabul should feel themselves

secure in what they held, but incapable of obtaining more
and that the restless Shah Shuja should quietly abandon
all hope of regaining the crown of his daily dreams.^ These
were the views which the English viceroy required his agents
to impress on Talpurs, Barakzais, and Siklis and their
;

impracticability might have quietly and harmlessly become

apparent, had not Russia found reason and opportunity to
push her intrigues, through Persia and Turkestan, to the
banks of the Indus.^ The desire of effecting a reconciliation
between Ranjit Singh and Dost Muhammad induced the
British Government to offer its mediation ^ the predilec-
;

tions of its frank and enterprising envoy led him to seize Sir Alex.
^^'
upon the admission that the Amir could scarcely be expected j^"^"^^

to resign all pretensions to Peshawar.* The crafty chief 1837-8.

1 Cf. Government to Capt. Wade, 13th Nov. 1837, and to Capt.

Burnes and Capt. Wade, both of the 20th January 1838. With
regard to Sind, also, the views of Ranjit Singh were not held to be
pleasing, and the terms of his communication with the Amirs were
thought equivocal, or denotative of a reservation, or of the expression
of a right he did not possess. (Government to Capt. Wade, 25th
Sept. and 13th Nov. 1837.)
2 Without reference to the settled policy of Russia, or to what she

may always have thought of the virtual support which England

gives to Persia and Turkey against her power, the presence of inquiring
agents in Khorasan and Turkestan, and the progressive extension
of the British Indian dominion, must have put her on the alert, if they
did not fill her with reasonable suspicions.
3 Government to Capt. Wade, 31st July 1837.
* These predilections of Sir Alex. Burnes, and the hopes founded

on them by Dost Muhammad, were sufficiently notorious to those in

personal communication with that valuable pioneer of the English ;

and his strong wish to recover Peshawar, at least for Sultan Muhammad
Khan, is distinctly stated in his own words, in Masson, Jnurntys,
 218 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vii

1837-8. made use of this partiality, and of the fact that his friendship
was courted, to try and secure himself against the only
power he really feared, viz, that of the Sikhs and he re- ;

Dost Mu- newed his overtures to Persia and welcomed a Russian

hammad emissary, with the view of intimidating
eventually "^ & the English
& into the
falls into surrender of Peshawar, and into a guarantee against Ranjit
the views of Singh. Friendly assurances to the Kandahar brothers, and
Russia. a hint that the Sikhs were at liberty to march on Kabul,
would have given Dost Muhammad a proper sense of his
The origi- insignificance ^ but the truth and the importance of his
;

o^the''^^
hostile designs were both believed or assumed by the
English British Government, while the rumours of a northern inva-
erroneous.
^-^^^ were eagerly received and industriously spread by the

vanquished princes of India, and the whole country vibrated

with the hope that the uncongenial domination of the English
was about to yield to the ascendancy of another and less
But, under dissimilar race.^ The recall of Capt. Burnes from Kabul
stanTOs"^^^'
g^"^^ speciousness to the wildest statements the advantage ;

brought of striking some great blow became more and more obvious ;

exDedltion
^^^ *^^ ^^^^ ^^ consistency it was necessary to maintain
to Kabul peace on the Indus, and it was wisely resolved to make a
^"^ triumphant progress through Central Asia, and to leave
b 'idl^
ceived. Shah Shuja as a dependent prince on his ancestral throne.
The conception was bold and perfect and had it been ;

iii. 423. The idea of taking the from the Sikhs, either
district
for Dost Muhammad moreover apparent from
or his brothers, is
Sir Alex. Burnes's published letters of 5th Oct. 1837, and 26th Jan.
and 13th March 1838 (Parliamentary Papefs, 1839), from the Govern-
ment replies of remark and caution, dated 20th Jan., and especially
of 27th April 1838, and from Mr. Masson's statement {Journeys,
iii. 423, 448). Mr. Masson himself thought it would be but justice
to restore the district to Sultan Muhammad -Khan, while Munshi
Mohan Lai {Life of Dost Muhammad, i. 257, &c.) represents the
Amir have thought that the surrender of Peshawar to his brother
to
would have been more prejudicial to his interests than its retention
by the Sikhs.
^ Such were Capt. Wade's views, and they are sketched in his

letters of the 15th May and 28th Oct. 1837, with reference to
commercial objects, although the line of policy may not have been
steadily adhered to, or fully developed.
2 The extent to which this feeling was prevalent is known to those

who were observers of Indian affairs at the time, and it is dwelt

upon in the Governor-General's minute of the 20th Aug. 1839.
CHAP. VII DISSATISFACTION OF RANJlT SINGH 219

steadily adhered to, the whole project would have eminently 1838.
answered the ends intended, and would have been, in every
way, worthy of the English name.^
In the beginning of 1838 the Governor- General did not Negotia-
tions re-
contemplate the restoration of Shah Shuja - but in four garding the
;

months the scheme was adopted, and in May of that year restoration
of Shah
Sir William Macnaghten was sent to Ranjit Singh to unfold
Shuja,
the views of the British Government.^ The Maharaja May, July,
grasped at the first idea which presented itself, of making 1838.
use of the Shah at the head of /ii's armies, with the proclaimed
support of the paramount power in India but he disliked Ranjit
;

Singh dis-
the comj^lete view of the scheme, and the active co-opera- satisfied
;

tion of his old allies. It chafed him that he was to resign but finally
assents.
all hope of Shikarpur, and that he was to be enclosed within
the iron arms of the English rule. He suddenly broke up

1 The Governor-General's minute of 12tli May 1838, and his

declaration of the 1st October of the same year, may be referred to
as summing up the views which moved the British Government
on the occasion. Both were published by order of Parliament in
March 1839.
2 Government to Capt. Wade, 20th Jan. 1838.

2 The proximate cause of the resolution to restore Shah Shuja

was, of course, the preference given by Dost Muhammad to a Persian

and Russian over a British alliance, and the immediate object of
deputing Sir W. Macnaghten to Lahore was to make Ranjit Singh
as much as possible a party to the policy adopted. (See, among
other letters, Government to Capt. Wade, 15th May 1838.) The
deputation crossed into the Punjab at Rupar on the 20th May.
It remained some time at Dinanagar, and afterwards went to
Lahore. The first interview with Ranjit Singh was on the 31st May,
the last on the 13th July. Sir William Macnaghten recrossed the
Sutlej at Ludhiana on the 15th July, and on that and the following
day he arranged with Shah Shuja in person the terms of his restora-
tion.
Two months before the deputation waited upon Ranjit Singh, he
had visited Jammu for apparently the first time in his life, and the
same may be regarded as the last in which the worn-out prince
tasted of unalloyed happiness. Gulab Singh received his sovereign
with every demonstration of loyalty, and, bowing to the Maharaja's
feet, he laid before him presents worth nearly forty thousand pounds,
saying he was the humblest of his slaves, and the most grateful of
those on whom he had heaped favours. Ranjit Singh shed tears,
but afterwards pertinently observed that, in Jammu, gold might be
seen where formerly there was naught but stones. (Major Mackeson's
letter to Capt. Wade of 31st March 1838.)
 220 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vii

1838. his camp at Dinanagar, leaving British envoys to

the
follow at their leisure, or to return,they pleased, to Simla
if ;

and it was not until he was told the expedition would be

undertaken whether he chose to share in it or not, that he
assented to a modification of his own treaty with Shah
Shuja, and that the triple alliance was formed for the sub-
version of the power of the Barakzais.^ The English, on
their part, insisted on a double invasion of Afghanistan :

first, because the Amirs of Sind disliked a proffered

treaty of alliance or dependence, and they could conve-
niently be coerced as tributaries by Shah Shuja on his way
to Kandahar ;and, secondly, because it was not deemed
prudent to place the ex-king in the hands of RanjTt Singh,
. who might be tempted to use him for Sikh rather than for
British objects. ^ It was therefore arranged that the Shah
himself should march by way of Shikarpur and Quetta,
while his son moved on Kabul by the road of Peshawar,
and at the head of a force provided by the Maharaja of
the Punjab. The British force assembled at Ferozepore
towards the close of 1838, and further eclat was given to
1 That Ranjit Singh was told he would be left out if he did not

• choose to come in, does not appear on public record. It was, however,
the only convincing argument used during the long discussions, and
I think Major Mackeson was made the bearer of the message to that
-
effect.
2 Cf. the Governor-General's minute of 12th of May 1838, and his
instructions to Sir WilliamMacnaghten of the 15th of the same month.
Ranjit Singh was anxious to get something lasting and tangible as
his share of the profit of the expedition, and he wanted Jalalabad,
as there seemed to be a difficulty about Shikarpur. The Maharaja
got, indeed, a subsidy of two hundred thousand rupees a year from
the Shah for the use of his troops ; a concession which did not
altogether satisfy the Governor-General (see letter to Sir William
Macnaghten, 2nd July, 1838), and the article became, in fact, a dead
letter.
The idea of creating a friendly power in Afghanistan, by guiding
Ranjit Singh upon Kabul, seems to have been seriously entertained,
and it was a scheme which promised many solid advantages. Cf.
the Governor-General's minute, 12th May 1838, the author's abstract
of which differs somewhat from the copy printed by order of Parlia-
ment in 1839, and Mr. Masson {Journeys, iii. 487, 488) who refers
to a communication from Sir William Macnaghten on the subject.
For the treaty about the restoration of Shah Shuja, see Appendix
XXX.
CHAP. VII DEATH OF RANJIT SINGH 221

the opening of a memorable campaign, by an interchange 1838-9,

of hospitaUties between the EngUsh viceroy and the Sikh
ruler.^ Ostensibly Ranjit Singh had reached the summit of Ranjit
his ambition he was acknowledged to be an arbiter in the Singh ap-
;
parently at
fate of that empire which had tyrannized over his peasant the height
forefathers, and he was treated with the greatest distinction of great-
ness
by the foreign paramounts of India but his health had
:
;

become seriously impaired he felt that he was in truth

;
but chafed
in mind,
fairly in collision with the English, and he became indifferent and en-
about the careful fulfilment of the engagements into which feebled in
health.
he had entered. Shahzada Taimur marched from Lahore
in January 1839, accompanied by Col. Wade as the British
representative but it was with difficulty the stipulated
;

auxiliary force was got together at Peshawar, and although

a considerable army at last encamped in the valley, the
commander, the Maharaja's grandson, thwarted the nego-
tiations of Prince Taimxir and the English agent, by en-
deavouring to gain friends for Lahore rather than for the
proclaimed sovereign of the Afghans.- Ranjit Singh's
health continued to decline. He heard of the fall of Kan-
dahar in April, and the delay at that place may have served
to cheer his vexed spirit with the hope that the English
would yet be baffled but he died on the 27th of June, at Death of
;

Ranjit
the age of fifty-nine, before the capture of Ghazni and the .Singh,
27th June
At one of the several meetings which took place on this occasion,
1
1839.
there was an interchange of compliments, which may be noticed.
Ranjit Singh likened the friendship of the two states to an apple,
the red and yellow colours of which were, he said, so blended, that
although the semblance was twofold the reality was one. Lord Auck-
land replied that the Maharaja's simile was very happy, inasmuch
as red and yellow were the national colours of the English and Sikhs
respectively to which Ranjit Singh rejoined in the same strain
;

that the comparison was indeed in every way appropriate, for the
friendship of the two powers was, like the apple, fair and delicious.
The translations were given in English and Urdu with elegance and
emphasis by Sir William Macnaghten and Fakir Aziz-ud-din, both
of whom were masters, although in different ways, of language,
whether written or spoken.
2 See, among other letters, Capt. Wade to Government, 18th Aug.

1839. For some interesting details regarding Capt. Wade's military

proceedings, see Lieut. Barr's published Journal and for the
;

diplomatic history, so to speak, of his mission, see Munshi Shahamat

All, Sikhs and Afghans.
 ;

222 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. VII

1839. occupation of Kabul, and the forcing of the Khaibar Pass

with the aid of his own troops, placed the seal of success on
a campaign in which he was an unwilling sharer.
The politi- Ranjit Singh found the Punjab a waning confederacy, a
cal condi-
prey to the factions of its chiefs, pressed by the Afghans and
tion of the
Sikhs, as the Marathas, and ready to submit to English supremacy.
modified He consolidated the numerous petty states into a kingdom,
by the
genius of he wrested from Kabul the fairest of its provinces, and he
Eanjit gave the potent English no cause for interference. He
Singh.
found the railitary array of his country a mass of horsemen,
brave indeed, but ignorant of war as an art, and he left it
mustering fifty thousand disciplined soldiers, fifty thousand
well-armed yeomanry and militia, and more than three
hundred pieces of cannon for the field. His rule was founded
on the feelings of a people, but it involved the joint action
of the necessary principles of military order and territorial
extension and when a limit had been set to Sikh dominion,
;

and his own commanding genius was no more, the vital

spirit of his race began to consume itself in domestic con-
tentions.^

1 In 1831, Capt. Murray estimated the Sikh revenue at little more

than 2^ millions sterling, and the army at 82,000 men, including

15,000 regular infantry and 376 guns. (Murray, Ranjit Singh, by
Prinsep, pp. 185, 186.) In the same year Capt. Burnes {Travels,
. i. 289, 291) gives the revenue at 21 millions, and the army at 75,000,

including 25,000 regular infantry. Mr. Masson (Journeys, i. 430)

gives the same revenue ; but fixes the army at 70,000 men, of whom
20,000 were disciplined. This may be assumed as an estimate of
1838, when Mr. Masson returned from Kabul. In 1845, Lieut. -Col.
Steinbach {Punjab, p. 58) states the army to have amounted to
110,000 men, of whom 70,000 were regulars. The returns procured
for Government in 1844, and which cannot be far wrong, show that
there were upwards of 40,000 regularly drilled infantry, and a force
of about 125,000 men in all, maintained with about 375 guns or
field carriages. Cf. the Calcutta^ Review, iii. 176 ; Dr. Macgregor,
Sikhs, ii. 86, and Major Smith, Reigning Family of Lahore, appendices,
p. xxxvii, for estimates, correct in some particulars, and moderate
in others.
For a statement of the Lahore revenues, see Appendix XXXVIII
and for a list of the Lahore army, see Appendix XXXIX.
Many descriptions of Ranjit Singh's person and manners have
been written, of which the fullest is perhaps that in Prinsep' s edition
of Murray, Life, p. 187, &c. ; while Capt. Osborne's Court and Camp,
and Col. Lawrence's Adventurer in the Punjab, contain many illus-
CHAP. VII DEATH OF RANJIT SINGH 223

When Ranjit Singh was Lord Auckland's host at Lahore 1839.

and Amritsar, his utterance was difficult, and the powers of ~ ~

his body feeble he gradually lost the use of his speech, and
; fees of
of the faculties of his mind and, before his death, the
; ^.^^'^/^

Rajas of Jammu had usurped to themselves the whole of bringabout

the functions of government, which the absence of Nau tbe quiet
succGSSi on.
Nihal Singh enabled them to do with little difficulty. The „£ Kharak
army was assembled, and a litter, said to contain the dying Singh.

Maharaja, was carried along the extended line. Dhian

Singh was assiduous in his mournful attentions he seemed
;

to take orders as if from his departing sovereign, and from

time to time, during the solemn procession, he made known
that Ranjit Singh declared the Prince Kharak Singh his
successor, and himself, Dhian Singh, the wazir or minister
of the kingdom.^ The soldiery acquiesced in silence, and
the British Government was perhaps more sincere than the
Sikh people in the congratulations offered, agreeably to
custom, to the new and unworthy master of the Punjab.

trative touches and anecdotes. The only good likeness of the

Maharaja which has been published is that taken by the Hon. Miss
Eden and it, especially in the original drawing, is true and expres-
;

sive. Ranjit Singh was of small stature. When young he was dex-
terous in all manly exercises, but in his old age he became weak and
inclined to corpulency. He lost an eye when a child by the small-pox,
and the most marked characteristic of his mental powers was a broad
and massive forehead, which the ordinary portraits do not show.
1 Mr. Clerk's memorandum of 1842 for Lord EUenborough,
 —

CHAPTER VIII

FROM THE DEATH OF IVIAHARAJA RANJIT SINGH

TO THE DEATH OF WAZlR JAWAHIR SINGH
1839-45

Kharak Singh's power usui-ped by his son Nau Nihal Singh

Lieut. -Col. —
Wade and IVIr. Clerk Nau Nihal Singh and the
Rajas of —
Jammu The death of Kharak Singh The death of —
Nau Nihal Singh — Sher
Singh proclaimed Maharaja, but the
authority of sovereign assumed by the mother of Nau Nihal
—
Singh Sher Singh gains over the troops and succeeds to power
The army assumes a voice in affairs, and becomes an organized
political body —
The English willing to interfere The English —
—
undervalue the Sikhs The Sikhs in Tibet opposed by the
:
—
—
Chinese, and restrained by the English The English in Kabul
—
General Pollock's campaign The Sindhianwala and Jammu
families — —
The death of Sher Singh The death of Raja Dhian
—
Singh Dallp Singh proclaimed Maharaja with Hira Singh as
— —
Wazir Unsuccessful insurrections Pandit Jail's proceedings
—
and views Hira Singh expelled and slain .Jawahir Singh —
—
nominated WazIr Gulab Singh submits Pishaura Singh in —
rebellion —
Jawahir Singh put to death by the army.

1839. The imbecile Kharak Singh was acknowledged as the

\ master of the Punjab but Sher Singh, the reputed son of
;

clalms'the the deceased king, at once urged Ms superior claims or

succession, merits on the attention of the British viceroy ^ and Nau ;

"^ Nihal Singh, the real offspring of the titular sovereign,

1839^
but Nau hastened from Peshawar to take upon himself the duties of
assimies"all
r^ler. The prince, a youth of eighteen, was in his heart
real power, opposed to the proclaimed minister and the Rajas of

radlvTlUes
Ja^mu ; but the ascendancy of one Chet Singh over the

S
Jammu
the
^ Government to Mr. Clerk, 12th July 1839. Mr. Clerk, who was
acting for Col. Wade while absent at Peshawar, seems to have detained
Rajas, Sher Singh's messenger, and to have sent his letter to the Governor-
General somewhat in that ordinary spirit of Indian correspondence,
which transmits everything for information and for such orders
'
'
'

as may seem necessary Lord Auckland hastily desired Sher Singh

' .

to be told Kharak Singh was his master.

CHAP. VIII KHARAK SINGH 225

weak mind of the Maharaja, and lOiarak Singh's own desire 1839.

of resting upon the influence of the British agent, induced

the two parties to coalesce, first for the destruction of the
minion, and afterwards for the removal of Col. Wade. That
officer had stood high withRanjIt Singh as a liberal construer
of Sikh rights, or as one who would carefully show how a
collision with the English was to be avoided he had steadily
;

refused to make Dhian Singh the medium of his communica-

tions with the old Maharaja he had offended the heir-
;

apparent by unceremoniously accusing him of machinations

with Afghan chiefs and in the eyes of the Sikhs he was
;

pledged to Kharak Singh at all hazards, by the prominent

part he had taken in the meeting at Rupar before noticed.
His presence was thus disliked, and his interference dreaded,
by men not inclined to wholly yield themselves to English
counsels, and yet accustomed to see the suggestions of the
Governor-General regularly carried into effect by the
sovereign of Lahore.
The privacy of the Maharaja's household was rudely The
favourite,
violatedby the prince and minister at daybreak on the 8th Chet Singh,
of October 1839, and Chet Singh was awakened from his put to
death, 8th
slumbers to be put to death, within a few paces of his Oct. 1839.
terrified master.^ The removal of Col. Wade was mixed up
with the passage of British troops across the Punjab, and
had to be effected in another manner.
The Governor-General had designed that the Anglo- iMr. Clerk
succeeds
Indian army which accompanied Shah Shuja should return Lieut.-Col.
by way of Peshawar, instead of retracing its steps through Wade as
Agent,
the Bolan Pass and when his lordship visited Ranjit Singh 1st April,
;

at Lahore, the proposition was verbally conceded, although 1840.

1 Gulab Singh was perhaps the most prominent and resolute actor
in this tragedy, althougli his brotherand Nau Nihal Singh were both
present. Col. Wade was desired to express to the Lahore Court the
regret of the British Government that such a scene of violence should
have occurred (Government to Col. Wade, 28th Oct. 1839) and ;

similarly IVIr. Clerk had been directed to explain to Kharak Singh

the disapprobation with which the English viewed the practice of
sati, with reference to what had taken place at his father's funeral.
(Government to Mr. Clerk, 20th Aug. 1839.) [For a detailed account
of this sati the reader is referred to Latif. History of the Punjab,
pp. 492-0—Ed.].
Q
 —
226 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, viii

^^^' not definitively settled by an interchange of letters. ^ In

September 1839, Mr. Clerk was sent on a mission of condo-
lence and congratulation to the new Maharaja, and to
finally arrange about the return of Lord Keane with the
stormers of Ghazni.^ The prince and minister were each
conscious of their mutual enmity and secret design of
grasping supremacy, but they were even more averse to
the presence of a British army in the heart of the Punjab
than to one hovering on a distant frontier. It might be used
to take part with one or other claimant, or it might be
turned against both in favour of the contemned Kharak
Singh but the passage of the troops could not be wholly
:

refused, and they therefore urged a march by the difficult

route of Dera Ismail Khan, and they succeeded in fixing
upon a line which prudently avoided the capital, and also
in obtaining a premature assurance that an English force
should not again march through the Sikh country.^ The
chiefs were pleased with the new English negotiator, as all
have ever been with that prompt and approved functionary.
Something is always expected from a change, and when a
return mission was deputed to Simla, it was whispered that
Col. Wade had made himself personally objectionable to
those who exercised sway at Lahore and the complaint
;

was repeated to Lord Keane, when he quitted his army for

a. few days to visit the Maharaja.* In the month of Novem-
ber (1839), Col. Wade was himself at the Sikh metropolis
on his way from Kabul, but Kharak Singh was kept at a
distance on pretence of devotional observances, lest he
should throw himself on the protection of one believed to

1 Government to Mr. Clerk, 20th Aug. 1839.

2 [Kandahar had been entered by the English and Shah Shuja
proclaimed Anur on May 8th, 1839. Ghazni was stormed in July.
Kabul was entered in August, and it was then arranged that the
bulk of the army should return to India, leaving an army of occupa-
tion to maintain Shah Shuja upon his throne. Ed.]
3 Mr. Clerk to Government, 14tli Sept. 1839. The Governor-
General was not satisfied that a kind of pledge had been given that
British troops should not again cross the Punjab. (Government to
Mr. Clerk, 14th Oct. 1839.)
* See, particularly, Government to Col. Wade, 29th Jan. 1840,
and Col. Wade to Government, 1st April 1840.
CHAP. VIII COL. WADE AND MR. CLERK 227

be ill-disposed towards those who sought his life, or his 1840.

virtual relinquishment of power.^
A portion of the British army
of invasion had eventually The relief
was thought that Shah Shuja ^""
to be left in Afghanistan, as it
^^ °.^

could not maintain himself without support. The wants of in Kabul,

regular forces are manifold, and a supply of stores and
ammunition had to be collected for transmission to Kabul
on Col. Wade's resumption of his duties at Ludhiana,
towards the end of 1839. It was desired to send a regiment
of Sepoys as a guard with the convoy, but the Sikli minister
and heir apparent urged that such could not be done under
the terms of the agreement concluded a few months pre-
viously. Their aversion to their old English representative
was mixed up with the general objection to making their
country a common highway for foreign armies, and they
thus ventured to offer obstructions to the speedy equip-
ment of tlic isolated British forces, mainly with the view of
discrediting Col. Wade. The Governor-General was justly
impressed with the necessity of keeping open the straight
road to Kabul, and he yielded to the wishes of the Lahore
factions and remo\ed his agent, but not before Dhian Singh
and the prince had despaired of effecting their object, and
had allowed the convoy, bristling with bayonets, to proceed
on its way .2 In the beginning of April 1840, Mr. Clerk
succeeded to the charge of the British relations with the
Punjab and, independent of his general qualifications,
;

he was the person best suited to the requirements of the

time ;for the very reason which rendered the agency 'of

1 Cf. Munshi Shahamat Ali, Sikhs and Afghans, p. 54=3, &c., and

some remarks in a note, p. 545, about the English policy generally

towards Kharak Singh, which, note may safely be held to be Col.
Wade's own. Doubtless had Col. Wade continued to enjoy the com-
plete confidence or support of the Governor-General, the subsequent
history of the Punjab would have been different from, if not better
than, that which all have witnessed. So much may the British
representative effect at an Indian court, without directly interfering,
provided he is at once iirm, judicious, and well-informed.
2 The Governor-General was about to proceed to Calcutta, which

made him the more desirous of having an agent on the frontier,

at once approved of by himself and agreeable to the Sikhs, i. e. to
the influential parties for the time being at Lahore. (Government
to Col. Wade, 29th Jan. 1840.)
Q 2
 228 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, viii

1840. Col. Wade invaluable when it was desired to preserve

Sind and to invade Afghanistan, now rendered that of
Mr. Clerk equally beneficial to the iniieterniinate policy of
the English in India. Both officers had the confidence' of
the de facto Sikh rulers of the time, and all their recommen-
dations were held to be given in a spirit of goodwill towards
the Government of the Punjab, as well as in obedience to
the dictates of British interests.
English nc- The Sikh prince and the English viceroy had thus each
gotiations
accomplished the objects of the moment. On the one hand,
trade. the Maharaja was overawed by the vigour and success of
his aspiring son, and, on the other, the Punjab was freely
opened to the passage of British troops, in support of a policy
which connected the west of Europe with the south of Asia
by an unbroken chain of alliances. The attention of each
party was next turned to other matters of near concern,
and the English recurred to their favourite scheme of navi-
gating the Indus, and of forming an entrepot on that river,
which should at once become the centre of a vast traffic.^
The treaty of IS.*? t had placed a toll on boats which used the
channels of the Indus and Sutlej, and in 1839 the Sikhs
deferred to the changing views of their allies, and put the
duty on the goods themselves, according to an assumed
ad valorem scale, instead of on the containing vessels.^ This
-
scheme inevitably gave rise to a system of search and deten-
tion, and in June 1840 the tolls upon the boats were again
reimposed, but at reduced rates, and with the omission of
su«h as contained grain, wood, and linjestone.'^ But in spite
1 Government to Mr. Clerk, 4th May 1840. The establishment of a
great entrepot of trade was a main feature of the scheme for opening the
navigation of the Indus. (Government to Capt. Wade, 5th Sept. 1836.)
2 Mr. Clerk to Government, 19th May and 18th Sept. 1839, and

Government to Mr. Clerk, 20th Aug. 1839. For the agreement

itself, see Appendix XXXI.
3 Mr. Clerk to Government, 5thMay and 15th July 1840. For
the agreement itself, see Appendix XXXII. Subsequently, idle
discussions occasionally arose with local authorities, as to whether
lime was included under limestone, whether bamboos were wood,
and whether rice was comprehended under the technical term
'
grain which it is not in India. Similarly the limited meaning of
'
,

'
corn in England has, perhaps, given rise to the modern phrase
'

'
bread-stuffs '.
CHAP. VIII NEGOTIATIONS ABOUT TRADE 229

of every government endeavour, and of the adventitious _^^

aid of large consuming armies, the expectation of creating
an active and valuable commerce by the Indus has not yet
been fulfilled ;
partly because Sind and Afghanistan are,
in truth, unproductive countries on the whole, and are in-
habited by half-savage races, with few wants and scanty
means and partly because a large capital has for ages been
;

embarked in the land trade which connects the north of

India with the south, which traverses the old principalities
of Rajjiutana and the fertile plains of Malwa, and which
gives a livelihood to the owners of numerous herds of camels
and black cattle. To change the established economy of
prudent merchants must be the work of time in a coimtry
long subject to political commotion, and the idea of forming
an emporium by proclamation savours more of Eastern
vanity than of English sense and soberness.^
Nau Nihal Singh's great aim was to destroy, or to reduce ajneh's
to insignificance, the potent Rajas of Jammu, who wished to schemes
engross the whole power of the state, and who jointly held ^fa^Vl^^of^^^
Ladakh and the hill principalities between the Ravi and jammu.
Jlielum in fief, besides numerous estates in various parts of
the Punjab. He took advantage of the repeated dilatoriness
of the Mandl and other Rajput chiefs around Kangra in
paying their stipulated tribute, to move a large force into the
eastern hills, and the resistance his troops experienced amid
mountain fastnesses seemed fully to justify the continuous
dispatch of reinforcements. His design was, to place a
considerable army immediately to the north-east of Jammu,
to be ready to co-operate with the troops which could reach
that place in a few marches from Lahore. The commanders
chosen were the skilful General Ventura and the ardent
young chief Ajit Singh Sindhianvv'ala, neither of whom bore
goodwill towards Raja Dhian Singh.^ The plans of the

^ Nevertheless the experiment was repeated in 1846, on the annexa-

tion of the Jullundur Doab, when it was hoped, but equally in vain,
that Hoshiarpur might suddenly become a centre of exchange.
Every part of India bears various marks of the unrealized hopes
of sanguine individuals with reference to the expected benefits of
English sway, which diffuses, indeed, some moral as well as material
blessings, but which must effect its work by slow and laborious means
" Cf.
Mr. Clerk to Government, Gth Sept. 1840.
 230 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, viii

^^^0- j^oiithfiil prince thus seemed in every way well devised for
Interrupted Placing
tlie rajas in his grasp, but his attention was dis-
by discus- tracted by disputes with the English authorities about the

thJ^^li^h
li"''its of the expanding dominion of Lahore and of the re-
about Af- stored empire of Kabul, and by a direct accusation not only
ghanistan.
^^^encouraging turbulent refugees from Shah Shuja's power,
but of giving friendly assurances to Dost Muhammad Khan,
who was then preparing for that inroad which fluttered the
English authorities in Khorasan, and yet paved the way for
the surrender of their di-eaded enemy. Shah Shuja claimed
all places not specified in the treaty, or not directly held by
Lahore nor can it be denied that the English functionaries
;

about the Shah were disposed to consider old Durrani

claims as more valid than the new rights of Sikli conquerors ;

and thus the province of Peshawar, which the Punjab

Government further maintained to have been ceded in form
by the Shah separately in 1834, as well as by the treaty of
1838, was proposed to be reduced to strips of land along the
banks of its dividing river. ^ Intercepted papers were pro-
duced, bearing the seals of Nau Nihal Singh, and promising
pecuniary aid to Dost Muhammad but the charge of
;

treachery was calmly repelled, the seals were alleged to be

forgeries,and the British agent for the Punjab admitted
that was not the character of the free and confident Sikhs
it

to resort to secret and traitorous correspondence. ^ The

Barakzai chief. Sultan Muhammad Khan, was, however,
made to lead as prisoners to Ludhiana the Ghilzai rebels
who had sought an asyltlm in his fief of Kohat, near Pesha-
war, and whose near presence disturbed the antagonistic
rule of the arbitrary Shah and his moderate English
allies.^

^ See particularly Sir William Macnaghten to Government, 28tli

Feb. and 12th March 1840.

~ Government to Mr. Clerk, 1st Oct. 1840, and Mr. Clerk to Govern-

ment, 9th Dec. 1840. Cf., however, Col. Steinbach {Punjab, p. 23),
who states that the prince was rousing Nepiil as well as Kabul to
aid him in expelling the English forgetful that Nau Nihal Singh's
;

first object was to make himself master of the Punjab by destroying

the Jammu Rajas.
^ Government to Mr. Clerk, 12th Oct., and Mr. Clerk to Govern-
ment, 14th May, 10th Sept., and 24th Oct. 1840.
 —

CHAP, vin SCHEMES OF NAU NIHAL SINGH 231

Nau Nihal Singh thus seemed to have overcome the 1840.

danger which threatened him on the side of England, and Death of

to be on the eve of reducing the overgrown power of his Maharaja
grandfather's favourites. At the same time the end of the Kharak
Singh, 5th
Maharaja's life was evidently approaching and although
; Nov. 1840.
his decline was credibly declared to have been hastened by
drugs as well as by unfilial harshness, there were none who
cared for a ruler so feeble and unworthy. Kharak Singh
at kist died on the 5th November 1840, prematurely old
and care-worn, at the age of thirty-eight, and Nau Nihal
Singh became a king in name as well as in power but the ;

same day dazzled him with a crown and deprived him of

life. He had performed the last rites at the funeral pyre of Death of
the Prince
his father, and he was passing imder a covered gateway with
Nau Nihal
the eldest son of Gulab Singh by his side, when a portion of Singh, 5th
Nov. 1840.
the structure fell, and killed the minister's nephew on the
spot, and so seriously injured the prince that he became
senseless at the time, and expired during the night. It is
not positively known that the Rajas of Jammu thus designed
to remove Nau Nihal Singh but it is difficult to acquit them
;

of the crime, and it is certain that they were capable of

committing it. Self-defence is the only palliation, for it is
equally certain that the prince was compassing their degra-
dation, and, perhaps, their destruction.^ Nau Nihal Singh
was killed in his twentieth year he promised to be an able
;

and vigorous ruler and had his life been spared, and had
;

not English policy partly forestalled him, he would have

found an ample field for his ambition in Sind, in Afghani-
stan, and beyond the Hindu Kush and he might, perhaps,
;

at last have boasted that the inroads of Mahmud and of

1 Cf. Mr. Clerk to Government, 6th, 7th, and 10th Nov. 1840,

who, further, in his memorandum of 1842, drawn up for Lord Ellen-

borough, mentions Gen. Ventura's opinion that the fall of the gateway
was accidental. Lieut.-Col. Steinbach, Punjab (p. 24), and Major
Smith, Reigning Family of Lahore (p. 35, &c.), may be quoted as
giving some particulars, the latter on the authority of an eye-witness,
a European adventurer, known as Capt. Gardner, who was present
a part of the time, and whose testimony is unfavourable to Raja
Dhian Singh. [The scene of this tragedy was the gateway in the fort
at Lahore facing the Hazuri Bagh and the Badshahi Musjid. It is now
closed, but may be easily recognized by its prominent towers. Ed.]
 ,

232 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, viii

1840. Taimur had been fully avenged by the aroused peasants of

India.
Sher Singh The good-natured voluptuary, Sher Singh, was regarded
sovereign^f
by the Sikh minister and by the British agent as the only
person who could succeed to the sovereignty of the Punjab ;

and as he was absent from Lahore when the Maharaja died

and his son was killed, Dhian Singh concealed the latter
circumstance as long as possible, to give Sher Singh time to
immediate friends and the English representa-
collect his ;

tive urged him by message to maintain good order along the

frontier, as men's minds were likely to be excited by what
liad taken place. ^ But Sher Singh's paternity was more
than doubtful he possessed no commanding and few
;

popular qualities the Rajas of Jammu were odious to the

;

but Chand majority of the Sikli chiefs and thus Chand Kaur, the ;

Kaur, the ^idow of Kliarak Singh,

^ and the mother of the slain
ividow of .

Kharak prmce, assumed to herself the functions of regent or ruler,

'^'"g'l)
somewhat unexpectedly indeed, but still unopposed at the
assumes r
power, and nioment by those whom she had surprised.
,, , , , , ,
She was sup-
Sher Singh ported by several men of reputation, but mainly by tiie

Sindhianwala family, which traced to a near and common-

ancestor with Ranjit Singh. The lady herself talked of
adding to the claims of the youthful HIra Singh, by adopting
him, as he had really, if not formally, been adopted by
the old Maharaja. She further distracted the factions bj^
declaring that her daughter-in-law was jiregnant and one ;

party tried to gain her over by suggesting a marriage with

Sher Singh, an alliance which she spurned, and the other
more reasonably proposed Atar Singh Sindhianwala as a
suitable partner, for she might have taken an honoured
station in his household agreeably to the latitude of village
custom in the north-west of India. But the widow of the
Maharaja loudly asserted her own right to supreme power,
and after a few weeks the government was stated to be
composed, 1st, of the Mai ', or Mother ', pre-eminently as
' '

sovereign, or as regent for the expected offspring of Nau

Nihal Singh 2nd, of Sher Singh as vicegerent, or as president
;

of the council of state and, 3rd, of Dhian Singh as wazir,

;

1 Cf. Mr. Clerk to Government, 7tli Nov, 1840, and also Mr. Clerk's
Memorandum of 1842.
 ^

ciiAr. VIII MAI CHAND KAUR 233

or executive minister.The compromise was a mere tem- 1840.

porary expedient, and Dhian Singh and Sher Singh soon

afterwards began to absent themselves for varying periods
from Lahore the one jiartly in the hope that the mass of
:

business which had arisen with the Enghsh, and with which
he was familiar, would show to all that his aid was essential
to the government and the other, or indeed both of them,
;

to silently take measures for gaining over the army with

promises of donatives and increased pay, so that force might
be resorted to at a fitting time. But the scorn with which
Sher Singh's hereditary claim was treated made the minister
doubtful whether a more suitable instrument might not be
necessary, and the English authorities were accordingly
reminded of what perhaps they had never known, viz, that
Rani Jindan, a favourite wife or concubine of Ranjit Singh, Dalip
Singh's
had borne to him a son named Dalip, a few months before birth and
the conferences took place about reseating Shah Shuja on pretensions
made
the throne of Kabul. known.
The British viceroy did not acknowledge Mai Chand Kaur TheEnglish
as the undoubted successor of her husband and son, or as remain
neutral at
the sovereign of the country but he treated her govern-
;
the time.
ment as one de facto, so far as to carry on business as usual
through the accredited agents of either power. The Governor- Dost Mu-
hammad
General's anxiety for the preservation of order in the Punjab Khan at-
was nevertheless considerable and it was increased by the
;
tempts
Kabul, but
state of affairs in Afghanistan, for the attempts of Dost eventuallj'
Muhammad and the resolution of meeting him with English surrenders
to the
means alone, rendered the dispatch of additional troops English.
necessary, and before Kharak Singh's death three thousand
men had reached Ferozepore on their way to Kabul. ^ The
progress of this strong brigade was not delayed by the con-
tentions at Lahore it pursued its march without interrup-
;

tion, and on its arrival at Peshawar it found Dost Muham-

mad a prisoner instead of a victor. The ex-Amir journeyed
^ Mr. Clerk to Government, of dates between
Cf. the 10th Nov.
1840, and 2nd Jan. 1841, inclusive, particularly of the 11th and 24th
Nov. and 11th Dec, besides those specified. It seems almost certain
that the existence of the boy Dalip was not before known to the
British authorities.
2 Government to Mr. Clerk, 1st and 2nd Nov. 1840, and other
letters toand from that functionary.
 —
234 HISTORY OP THE SIKHS chap, viii

1840. through the Punjab escorted by a relieved brigade and ;

although Sher Singh was then laying siege to the citadel of

Lahore, the original prudence of fixing a route for British
troops clear of the Sikh capital, and the complete subjuga-
tion of the Muhammadan tribes, left the English com-
mander unaware of the struggle going on, except from
ordinary reports and news-writers.^
Sher Singh The English Government made, indeed, no declaration
^^^*'^ regard to the Lahore succession but it was believed
;
theTroops
with Dhian by all that Sher Singh was looked upon as the proper repre-
Singh'said.
tentative of the kingdom, and the advisers of Mai Chand
Kaur soon found that they could not withstand the specious
claims of the prince, and the commanding influence of the
British name, without throwing themselves wholly on the
support of Raja Dhian Singh. That chief was at one time
not unwilling to be the sole minister of the Maharani, and
the more sagacious Gulab Singh saw advantages to his
family amid the complex modes necessary in a female rule,
which might not attend the direct sway of a prince of aver-
age understanding, inclined to favouritism, and pledged to
Sikh principles. But the Mai's councillors would not consent
to be thrown wholly into the shade, and Dhian Singh thus
kept aloof, and secretly assured Sher Singh of his support
at a fitting time. The prince, on his part, endeavoured to
sound the English agent as to his eventual recognition, and
he was satisfied with the replj', although he merely received
an assurance that the allies of thirty-two years wished to
see a strong government in the Punjab.^
Sher Singh Sher Singh had, with the minister's aid, gained over some
attacks
divisions of the army, and he believed that all would declare
-^ '
Lahore,
14th-18th for Inm if he boldly put himself at their head. The eagerness
Jan. 1841. ^^f ^j^g prince,or of his immediate followers, somewhat pre-
measures
cii^itated and when he suddenly appeared at
;

Lahore, on the 14th January 1841, he found that Dhian

Singh had not arrived from Jammu, and that Gulab Singh
1 The returning brigade was commanded by the veteran Col.

Wheeler [afterwards Sir Hugh Wheeler, the ill-fated commander of

the garrison of Cawnpore Ed.], whose name is familiar to the public
in connexion both with Afghan and Sikh wars.
2 See Mr. Clerk's letters to Government of Dec. 1840 and Jan.

1841, generally, particularly that of the 9th Jan.

 ^

CHAP, viii SHER SINGH ACKNO^AXEDGED 235

would rather fight for the Maharani, the acknowledged head 1841.

of the state, than tamely beconn a party on compulsion to

his ill-arranged schemes. But Sher Singh was no longer his
own master, and the impetuous soldiery at once proceeded
to breach the citadel. Gulab Singh in vain urged some delay,
or a suspension of hostilities but on the 18th January
;

Dhian Singh and most of the principal chiefs had arrived

and ranged themselves on one side or the other. A compro- Chand
mise took place the Mai was outwardly treated with every Kaur
;
yields, and
honour, and large estates were conferred upon her but ; Sher Singh
proclaimed
Sher Singh was proclaimed Maharaja of the Punjab, Dhian
Maharaja.
Singh was declared once more to be wazir of the state, and
the pay of the soldiery was permanently raised by one rupee
per mensem. The Sindhianwalas felt that they must be The Sind-
hianwala
obnoxious to the new ruler and Atar Singh and AjTt Singh
;
family.
took early measures to effect their escape from the capital,
and eventually into the British territories but Lehna Singh,;

the other principal member, remained with the division of the

army which he commanded in the hills of Kulu and Mandl.^
Sher Singh had induced the troops of the state to make The army
becomes
him a king, but he was unable to command them as soldiers, uncontrol-
or to sway them as men, and they took advantage of his lable.

incapacity and of their own strength to wreak their ven-

geance upon various officers who had offended them, and
upon various regimental accountants and muster-masters
who may have defrauded them of their pay. Some houses
were plundered, and several individuals were seized and
slain. A few Europeans had likewise rendered themselves
obnoxious and General Court, a moderate and high-
;

minded man, had to fly for his life, and a brave young
Englishman named Foulkes was cruelly put to death. Nor
was this spirit of violence confined to the troops at the
capital, or to those in the eastern hills, but it spread to
Kashmir and Peshawar ; and in the former place Mian
Singh, the governor, was killed by the soldiery ; and in the
latter,General Avitabile was so hard pressed that he was
ready to abandon his post and to seek safety in Jalalabad.

1 See
IVIr. Clerk's letters, of dates from 17th to 30th Jan. 1841.

2 Mr. Clerk to Government, 2f)th Jan., 8th and 14th Feb., 28th
Cf.
April, and 30th Jlay 1841.
 236 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, viii

1841. It was believed at the time, that the army would not rest
satisfied with avenging what it considered its own injuries ;

it was thought it might proceed to a general plunder or

confiscation of property ; the population of either side of
the Sutlej was prepared for an extensive commotion, and
the wealthy merchants of Amritsar prophesied the pillage
of their warehouses, and were clamorous for British pro-
Sher Singh tection. Sher Singh shrank within himself appalled, and
he seemed timorously to resort to the English agent for
support against the fierce spirit he had roused and could
not control or he doubtfully endeavoured to learn whether
;

such disorders would be held equally to end his reign and

TheEnglish the British alliance. The English watched the confusion
about the with much interest and some anxiety, and when cities
general seemed about to be plundered, and provinces ravaged, the
quillity question of the duty of a civilized and powerful neighbotu*
naturally suggested itself, and was answered by a cry for
interference ; but the shapes which the wish took were
various and contradictory. Nevertheless, the natural desire
for aggrandizement, added to the apparently disorganized
state of the army, contributed to strengthen a willing belief
in the inferiority of the Sikhs as soldiers, and in the great
excellence of the mountain levies of tlie chiefs of Jammu,
who alone seemed to remain the masters of theirown servants.
"** "^^
*^^ apprehension of the English authorities, the Siklis
Ih'^^S'lf
were mere upstart peasants of doubtful courage, except
when maddened by religious persecution but the ancient
;

name of Rajput was sufiicient to invest the motley followers

of a few valiant chiefs with every warlike quality. This
erroneous estimate of the Sikhs tainted British counsels
imtil the day of P'heerooshuhur.^

1 This erroneous estimate of the troops of the Jammii Rajas and

other hill chiefs of the Punjab relatively to the Sikhs, may be seen
insisted on in Mr. Clerk's letters to Government of the 2nd Jan. and
13th April 1841, and especially in those of the 8th and 10th Dec. of
that year, and of the 15th Jan., 10th Feb., and 23rd ApriL 1842.
Mr. Clerk's expressions are very decided, such as that the Sikhs
feared the hill-men, who were braver, and that Rajputs might hold
Afghans in check, which Siklis could not do ; but he seems to have
forgotten that the ancient Rajputs had, during the century gone by,
yielded on either side to the new and aspiring Curkhas and Marathas,
CHAP. VIII APPREHENSIONS OF SHER SINGH 237

The English seemed thus called upon to do something, 1841.

and their agent in Kabul, who was committed to make \

*"d are
Shah Shuja a monarch m means as well as in rank, grasped
1 • 11 1• 1
ready to
at the death of Ranjit Singli's last representative
1 1 • 1 T • 1
pronounced the treaties with Lahore to be at an end,
1 11
;

and
he interfere
force of
arms, Feb.
by

he wanted to annex Peshawar to the Afghan sway. The 1^11.

British Ciovernment in Calcutta rebuked this hasty conclu-

sion, but cheered itself with the prospect of eventually
adding the Derajat of the Indus, as well as Peshawar, to
the unproductive Durrani kingdom, without any breach of
faith towards the Siklis for it was considered that their
;

dominions might soon be rent in two by the Sindhianwala

Sirdars and the Jammu Rajas. ^ The British agent on the
Sutlej did not think the Lahore empire so near its dissolu-
tion in that mode, and confident in his own dexterity, in
the superiority of his troops, and in the greatness of the
English name, he proposed to march to the Sikh capital
with 12,000 men, to beat and disperse a rebel army four
times more numerous, to restore order, to strengthen the
sovereignty of Sher Singh, and take the cis-Sutlej districts
and forty lakhs of rupees in coin as the price of his aid.-
This promptitude made the Maharaja think himself in
danger of his life at the hands of his subjects, and of his
kingdom at the hands of his allies ^ nor was the Governor-
;

General prepared for a virtual invasion, although he was

ready to use force if a large majority of the Sikhs as well as

and even that the Sikhs themselves had laid the twice-born princes
of the Himalayas under contribution from the Ganges to Kashmir.
^ See especially Government to Sir William Macnaghten, of 28th

Dec. 18-10, in reply to his proposals of the 26th Nov. The Governor-
General justly observed that the treaty was not formed with an
individual chief, but with the Sikh state, so long as it might last
and fulfil the obligations of its alliance.
2 Mr. Clerk to Government, of the 26th March 1841.

^ When Sher Singh became aware of Mr. Clerk's propositions, he

is said simply to have drawn his finger across his throat, meaning

that the Sikhs would at once take his life if he assented to such
measures. The readiness of the English to co-operate was first
propounded to Fakir Aziz-ud-din, and that wary negotiator said
the matter could not be trusted to paper he would himself go and
;

tellSher Singh of it. He went, but he did not return, his object
being to keep clear of schemes so hazardous.
 238 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, viii

1841. the Maharaja himself desired such intervention.^ After

^^^^^> *^^^ disorders in the army near Lahore gradually sub-
The mill-
tary dis- sided ; but the opinion got abroad that overtures had been
sMe'^but^
made to the eager English ; and so far were the Sikh
the people soldiery from desiring foreign assistance, that Lehna Singh
become Sindhianwala was imprisoned by his own men, in the Mandi
suspicious ^ ' '

of the hills, on a charge of conspiracy with his refugee brother to

Enghsh. introduce the supremacy of strangers.^
The suspicions and hatred of the Sikhs were further
Broadfoot's ^oused by the proceedings of an officer, afterwards nominated
passage to represent British friendship and moderation. Major
Punjab. Broadfoot had been appointed to recruit a corps of Sappers
and Miners for the service of Shah Shuja, and as the family
of that sovereign, and also the blind Shah Zaman with his
wives and children, were about to proceed to Kabul, he was
charged with the care of the large and motley convoy. He
entered the Punjab in April 1841, when the mutinous spirit
of the Sikh army was spreading from the capital to the
provinces. A body of mixed or Muhammadan troops had
been directed by the Lahore Government to accompany the
royal families as an escort of protection, but Major Broadfoot
became suspicious of the good faith of this detachment, and
on the banks of the Ravi he prepared to resist, with his
newly recruited regiment, an attack on the part of those
who had been sent to conduct him in safety. On his way
to the Indus he was even more suspicious of other bodies of
troops which he met or passed he believed them to be
;

intent on plundering his camjj, and he considered that he

only avoided collisions by dexterous negotiations and by
timely demonstrations of force. On crossing the river at
Attock, his persuasion of the hostile designs of the battalions
in that neighbourhood and towards Peshawar was so strong,
that he put his camp in a complete state of defence, broke
up the bridge of boats, and called upon the Alghan popula-
tion to rise and aid him against the troops of their govern-
ment. But it does not appear that his apprehensions had

1 Government to Mr. Clerk, 18th Feb. and 29th March 1841. The
Governor-General truly remarked that Mr. Clerk, rather than the
Maharaja, had proposed an armed interference.
? Mr. Clerk to Government, 25th March 1841.
CHAP. VIII THE SIKH ARMY 239

even a plausible foundation, until at this time he seized 1841.

certain deputies from a mutinous regiment when on their
way back from a conference with their commander, and
who appear to have come within the limits of the British
pickets. This proceeding alarmed both General x'Vvitabile,
the governor of Peshawar, and the British agent at that
place and a brigade, already warned, was hurried from
;

Jalalabad to overawe the Sikh forces encamped near the

Indus. But the Shah's families and their numerous followers
had passed on unmolested before the auxiliary troops had
cleared the Khaibar Pass, and the whole proceeding merely
served to irritate and excite the distrust of the Sildis The Sikhs
further
generally, and to give Sher Singh an opportunity of pointing-
irritated
out to his tumultuous soldiers that the Punjab was sur- against the
rounded by English armies, both ready and willing to make Eughsh,
war upon them.^
Before the middle of 1841 tk^ more violent proceedings The
changed
of the Lahore troops had ceased, but the relation of the relation of
army to the state had become wholly altered it was no ;
the Lahore
army to the
longer the willing instrument of an arbitrary and genial state.
government, but it looked upon itself, and was regarded by Its miH-
others, as the representative body of the Sikh people, as tary orga-
nization
the Khalsa itself assembled by tribes or centuries to take
' '
enables it
its part in public affairs. The efficiency of the army as a to become
the repre-
disciplined force was not nuich impaired, for a higher sentative
feeling possessed the men, and increased alacrity and reso- body of the
Khalsa.
lution supplied the place of exact training. They were
sensible of the advantages of systematic union, and they
were proud of their armed array as the visible body of
Gobind's commonwealth. As a general rule, the troops
were obedient to their appointed officers, so far as con-
cerned their ordinary military duties, but the position of
a regiment, of a brigade, of a division, or of the whole army,
relatively to the executive government of the country, was
determined by a committee or assemblage of committees,
termed a 'Panch' or 'Panchayat', i.e. a jury or committee
of five, composed of men selected from each battalion, or
each company, in consideration of their general character
as faithful Sikh soldiers, or from their particular influence in
1 Gf. m-. Clerk to Government, 25th May and 10th June 1841. ^
 —
240 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, viii

1841. their native villages.^ The system of Panchayats is common

throughout India, and every tribe, or section of a tribe,
or trade, or calling, readily submits to the decisions of its
elders or sui^eriors seated together in consultation. In the
Pimjab the custom received a furtlier development from
the organization necessary to an army and even in the
;

crude form of representation thus achieved, the Sikh people

were enabled to interfere with effect, and with some degree
of consistency, in the nomination and in the removal of their
rulers. But these large assemblies sometimes added military
licence to popular tumult, and the corrupt spirit of merce-
naries to the barbarous ignorance of ploughmen. Their
resolutions were often unstable or unwise, and the represen-
tatives of different divisions might take opposite sides from
sober conviction or self-willed jirejudice, or they might be
bribed and cajoled by such able and unscrupulous men as
Raja Gulab Singh.-
Negotia- The partial repose in the autumn of 1841 was taken
||°'^""'|.^ advantage of to recur to those mercantile objects, of which
about in- the British Government never lost sight. The facilities of
*^^^'^*''
ri^^'^g^tir^g the Indus and Sutlej had been increased, and
isii
it was now sought to extend corresponding advantages to

the land trade of the Punjab. Twenty years before, Mr.

Moorcroft had, of his own instance, made proposals to
Ranjit Singh for the admission of British goods into the
Lahore dominions at fixed rates of duty.^ In 1832, Col.
Wade again brought forward the subject of a general tariff
for the Punjab, and the Maharaja appeared to be not in-
disposed to meet the views of his allies but he really
;

disliked to make arrangements of which he did not fully see

the scope and tendency, and he thus tried to evade even a
settlement of the river tolls, by saying that the prosperity

[1 One is strongly reminded of the organization of the Parliamentary

army under Cromwell, with its regimental elders ', &c. Ed.]
'

2 See Mr. Clerk's letter of the Uth March 1841, for Fakir Azlz-

ud-din's admission, that even then the army was united and ruled
by its panchayats. With reference to the Panchayats of India, it
may be observed that Hallam shows, chiefly from Palgrave, that
English juries likewise were originally as much arbitrators as investi-
gators of facts. {Middle Ages, Notes to Chap. VIII.)
3 Moorcroft, Travels, i. 103,
CHAP. VIII iskArdo taken 211

of Amritsar would be affected, and by recurring to that 1841.

ever ready objection, the slaughter of kine. Cows, he said,

might be used as food by those who traversed the Punjab
under a British guarantee.^ In 1840, when Afghanistan was
garrisoned by Indian troops, the Governor- General pressed
the subject a second time on the notice of the Lahore
authorities and after a delay of more than a year, Sher
;

Singh assented to a reduced scale and to a fixed rate of duty,

and also to levy the whole sum at one place but the charges
;

stillappeared excessive, and the British viceroy lamented

the ignorance displayed by the Sikli Maharaja, and the
disregard which he evinced for the true interests of his
subjects.^
The Lahore Government was convulsed at its centre, Zorawar
Singh, the
but its spirit of progress and aggrandizement was active deputy of

on the frontiers, where not hemmed in by British armies. the Jam-

mu Rajas,
The deputies in Kashmir had always been jealous of the takes Iskar-
usurpations of Gulab Singh in Tibet, but Mian Singh, a rude do, 1840.
soldier, the governor of the valley during the commotions
at Lahore, into concessions by the powerful
was alarmed
and ambitious Rajas of Jammu, and he left Iskardo, arid
the whole valley of the LTpper Indus, a free field for the
aggressions of their lieutenants.^ Ahmad Shah, the reigning
chief of Balti, had differences with his family, and he pro-
posed to pass over his eldest son in favour of a younger one,
in fixing the succession. The natural heir would seem to
have endeavoured to interest the Governor of Kashmir,

1 Cf. Col. Wade to Government, 7th Nov. and .5th Dec. 1832.
These objections are often urged in India, not because they are felt
to be reasonable in themselves, or applicable to the point at issue, but
because religion is always a strong ground to stand on, and because
it is the only thing which the English do not virtually profess a desire
to change. Religion is thus brought in upon all occasions of appre-
hension or disinclination.
2 Government to I\Ir. Clerk, 4th May 1840 and 11th Oct. 1841, and
Mr. Qerk to Government of 20th Sept. 1841.
3 Wade {Narrative of Services, p. 33, note) represents
Sir Claude
the Jammu family to have obtained from the British Government
an assurance that the limitations put upon Sikh conquests to the
west and south by the Tripartite Treaty of 1839 would not be held
to apply to the north or Tibetan side, in which direction, it was said,
the Sikhs were free to act as they might please.
 ^

242 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, viii

1841. and Zorawar Singli, the Jammu deputy in Ladakh, in

also
his favour and in 1840 he fled from his father and sought
;

refuge and assistance in Leh. Gnodup Tanzin, the puppet

king of Ladakli, had conceived the idea of throwing off the
Jammu authority he had been trying to engage Ahmad
;

Shah in the design the absence of Zorawar Singh was

;

opportune, and he allowed a party of Iskardo troops to

march on Leh, and to carry off the son of their chief.
Zorawar Singh made this inroad a pretext for war and ;

before the middle of the year 1840 he was master of Little

Tibet, but he left the chiefship in the family of Alimad Shah,
on the payment of a petty yearly tribute of seven thousand
rupees, so barren are the rocky principalities between Imaus
and Emodus.^ Zorawar Singh was emboldened by his own
success and by the dissensions at Lahore ;he claimed fealty
from Gilgit he was understood to be desirous of quarrelling
;

with the Chinese governor of Yarkand ;and he renewed,

antiquated claims of Ladakh supremacy, and demanded the
surrender of Rohtak, Garo, and the lakes of Mansarowar,
from the priestly king of Lhasa.
Zorawar Zorawar Singh was desirous of acquiring territory, and
Singhseizes he was also intent on monopolizing the trade in shawl-wool,

the Chinese ^ considerable branch of which followed the Sutlej and more
^'^Lassa, eastern roads to Ludhiana and Delhi, and added nothing to
•
the treasury of Jammu. ^ InMay and June 1841, he occupied
the valleys of the Indus and Sutlej, to the sources of those
rivers, and he fixed a garrison close to the frontiers of Nepal,
and on the opposite side of the snovvy range from the British
post of Almora. The petty Rajput princes between the
Kali and Sutlej suffered in their revenues, and trembled
for their territories the Nepal Government had renewed
;

intrigues set on foot in 1838, and was in correspondence with

the crafty minister of Lahore, and with the disaffected
Sindhianwala chiefs * and the English Government itself
;

1 Cf.Mr. Clerk to Government, 26th April, 9th and 31st May,

and 25th Aug. 1840.
2 Cf. Mr. Clerk to Government, 25th Aug. and 8th Oct. 1840, and

2nd Jan. and 5th June 1841.

3 Cf. Mr. Clerk to Government, 5th and 22nd June, 1841
4 Cf. Mr. Clerk to Government, 16th Aug. and 23rd Nov. 1840,

and 17th Jan. 1841 and Government to Mr. Clerk, 19th Oct. 1840,
;
 —

CHAP. VIII EVACUATION OF LASSA 243

was at war with China, at the distance of half the earth's 1841.

circumference.^ It was held that the trade of British

Indian subjects must not be interfered with by Jammu
conquests in Chinese Tibet it was deemed unadvisable to
;

allow the Lahore and Nepal dominions to march with one

another behind the Himalayas and it was thought the
;

Emperor of Pekin might confound independent Sikhs with

the predominant English, and throw additional difficulties
in the wayof pending or probable negotiations.^ It was, TheEnglish
interfere.
therefore, decided that Sher Singh should require his
feudatories to evacuate the Lassa territories a day, the
;

10th of December 1841, was fixed for the surrender of

Garo and a British officer was sent to see that the Grand
;

Lama's authority was fully re-established. The Maharaja

and his tributaries yielded, and Zorawar Singh was recalled ;

but before the order could reach him, or be acted on, he

was surrounded in the depth of Avinter, and at a height of

The correspondence of Nepal with the Sikhs, or rather with the

Jamniu faction, doubtless arose in part from the presence of Matabar
Singh, an eminent Gurklia, as a refugee in the Punjab. He crossed
the Sutlej in 1838, and soon got a high command in the Lahore
service, or rather, perhaps, a high position at the court. His success
in this way, and his necessary correspondence with British function-
aries, made the Nepal Government apprehensive of him, and at last
he became so important in the eyes of the English themselves, that
in 1840, when differences with Katmandu seemed likely to lead to
hostilities, overtures were virtually made to him, and he was kept in
hand, as it were, to be supported as a claimant for power, or as a
partisan leader, should active measures be necessary. He was thus
induced to quit the Punjab, where his presence, indeed, was not
otherwise satisfactory ; but the differences with the Gurkhas were
composed, and Matabar Singh was cast aside with an allowance
of a thousand rupees a month from the potent government which
had demeaned itself by using him as a tool. (Cf particularly Govern-
.

ment to air. Clerk, 4th May and 26th Oct. 1840 and Mr. Clerk to
;

Government, 22nd Oct. 1840.)

[1 The first China or Opium War ended by the Treaty of Nankin

(1842), which resulted in the cession of Hong Kong and the opening
of the 6rst five treaty ports. Ed.]
2 Cf. Government to Mr. Clerk, 16th Aug. and 6th and 20th

Sept. 1841. The Sikhs, too, had their views with regard to China,
and naively proposed co-operation with the English, or a diversion
in Tartary in favour of the war then in progress on the sea ran si !

(Mr. Clerk to Government, 18th Aug. and 20th Oct. 1841.)

R 2
 244 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP, VIII

1841. twelve thousand feet or more above the sea, by a superior

force from Lassa inured to frost and snow. Tlie men of the
The Sikhs Indian plains and southern Himalayas were straitened for
defeated by
a force
fuel —
as necessary as food in such a climate and at such a
fromLassa. season ; some even burnt the stocks of their muskets to
warm their hands and on the day of battle, in the middle
;

of December, they were benumbed in their ranks during

a fatal pause their leader was slain, a few principal men
;

were reserved as prisoners, but the mass was left to perish,

huddled in heaps behind rocks, or at the bottoms of ravines.
The neighbouring garrison on the Nepal frontier fled on
hearing of the defeat the men were not pursued, but in
;

passing over ranges sixteen thousand feet high, on their

way to Almora, the deadly cold reduced them to half
their numbers, and left a moiety of the remainder maimed
for life.i

The Chinese During the spring of 1842 the victorious Chinese advanced
recover
Garo.
along the Indus, and not onlj' recovered their own province,
but occupied Ladakh and laid siege to the citadel of Leh.
The Kalmaks and the ancient Sokpos, or Sacae, talked of
another invasion of Kashmir, and the Tartars of the Greater
and Lesser Tibet were elate with the prospect of revenge
and plunder but troops were poured across the Himalayas
: ;

the swordsmen and cannoneers of the south were dreaded

by the unwarlike Bhotias the siege of Leh was raised,
;

and in the month of September (1842) Gulab Singh's com-

mander seized the Lassa WazTr by treachery, and dislodged
his troops by stratagem from a position between Leh and
Rohtak, where they had proposed to await the return of
winter. An arrangement was then come to betAveen the
Peace be-
tween the Lassa and Lahore authorities, which placed matters on their
Chinese old footing, agreeably to the desire of the English ; and as
and Sikhs.
1 In this rapid sketch of Ladakh affairs, the author has necessarily
depended for the most part on his own personal knowledge. After
the battle on the Mansarowar Lake, the western passes remained
closed for five weeks, and the defeat of the Sikhs was thus made
known in Calcutta and Peshawar, through the reports of the fugitives
to Ahnora, before it was lieard of in the neighboiiring Garo. From
tlie observations of Lieut. H. Strachey it would appear that the
height of the Mansarowar Lake is 15,250 feet. (Jour. As. Soc,
Bengal, Aug. 1848, p. 155.)
CHAP, vin AMBITION OF THE JAMMU RAJAS 245

the shawl-wool trade to the British provinces was also ^^^^•-

revived, no further intervention was considered necessary
between the jealous Chinese and the restrained Siklis.'^
When, in April
^
1841, the troops in Kashmir put
'^ '^
their The ambi-
tious views
governor to death, Raja Gulab Smgh was sent to restore of the Jam-
order, and to place the authority of the new manager, "i" ^a^%,
Ghulam Muhl-ud-din, on a firm footing. The mutinous indus.
regiments were overpowered by numbers and punished with
severity, and it was soon apparent that Gulab Singh had
made the governor whom he was aiding a creature of his
own, and had become the virtual master of the valley.^
Neither the minister nor his brother had ever been thought
well pleased with English interference in the affairs of the
Punjab they were at the time in suspicious communica-
;

tion with Nepal and they were held to be bound to Sultan

;

Muhammad Khan, whose real or presumed intrigues with

the enemies of Shah Shuja had occasioned his removal to
Lahore a year previously.^ General Avitabile had become
more and more urgent to be relieved from his dangerous
post at Peshawar the influence of Dhian Singh was pre-
;

dominant in Sikh counsels and the English opinion of

;

the ability of the Jammu Rajas and of the excellence

of their troops was well known, and induced a belief in
partiality to be presumed.^ It was therefore proposed by

* At Amritsar in March 1846, when Gulab Singh was formally in-

augurated as Maharaja of Jammu, he exhibited the engagements with

the Lama of Lassa, drawn out on his part in yellow, and on the part
of the Chinese in red ink, and each impressed with the open hand of
the negotiators dipped in either colour instead of a regular seal or
written signature. The Panja', or hand, seems in general use in
'

Asia as typical of a covenant, and it is, moreover, a common emblem

on the standards of the eastern Afghans.
^ Cf.
Mr. Clerk to Government, 13th May, 9th July, and 3rd Sept.
1840.
^ For this presumed understanding between the Jammu Rajas and
the Barakzais of Peshawar, Mr. Clerk's letter of the 8th Oct. 1840,
may be referred to among others.
"*
Mr. Clerk leant upon and perhaps much overrated Dhian Singh's
capacity, ' his military talents, and aptitude for business.' (Mr.
Clerk to Government, 7th Nov. 1840, and 13th May 1841.) General
Ventura, for instance, considered the Raja to possess a very slender
understanding, and in such a matter he may be held to be a fair as
well as a competent judge, although personally averse to the minister.
 246 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. VIII

1841. Sher Singh to bestow the Afghan province on the restorer of

order in Kashmir. But this arrangement would have placed
Clash with
the policy the hills from the neighbourhood of Kangra to the Kaibar
of the
Pass in the hands of men averse to the English and hostile
English.
to Shah Shuja and as their troublesome ambition had been
;

checked in Tibet, so it was resolved that their more danger-

ous establishment on the Kabul river should be prevented.
In the autumn of 184.1, therefore, the veto of the English
agent was put upon Raja Gulab Singh's nomination to
Peshawar.^
The in- About two months afterwards, or on the 2nd November
surrection
at Kabul, (1841), that insurrection broke out in Kabul which forms so
Nov. 1841. painful a passage in British history. No valiant youth arose
superior to the fatal influence of military subordination, to
render illustrious the retreat of a handful of Englishmen, or,
more illustrious still, the successful defence of their position.-
The brave spirit of Sir William Macnaghten laboured perse-
veringly, but in vain, against the unworthy fear which
possessed the highest officers of the army and the dismay
;

of the distant commanders imparted some of its poison to

the supreme authorities in India, who were weary of the
useless and burdensome occupation of Khorasan. The first
generous impulse was awed into a desire of annulling the
Durrani alliance, and of collecting a force on the Indus, or
even so far back as the Sutlej, there to fight for the empire
of Hindustan with the torrents of exulting Afghans which
the startled imaginations of Englishmen readily conjured
up.^ No confidence was placed in the efficiency or the
* Government to Mr. Clerk, 2nd Aug., and Mi'. Clerk to Government,

20th Aug. 1841.

2 There was no want of gallant and capable men in the subordinate

ranks of the army, and it is known that the lamented Major Pottinger
recorded his disapprobation of the retreat so fatuously commenced
and so fatally ended, although, to give validity to document.^?, or an
appearance of unanimity to counsels, he unfortunately put his name
to the orders requiring the surrender of Kandahar and Jalalabad.
* Cf. Government to the Commander-in-Chief, 2nd Dec. 1841, and

10th Feb. 1842 ; Government to Mr. Clerk, 10th Feb. 1842 ; and
Government to General Pollock, 24th Feb. 1842. Of those who re-
corded their opinions about the policy to be followed at the moment,
it may be mentioned that Mr. Robertson, the Lieutenant-Governor
of Agra, and Sir Herbert Maddock, the Political Secretary, advised a
 ^

CHAP. VIII DISTRUST OF THE SIKHS 247

friendship of the Siklis ^ and although their aid was always 1841.
;

considered of importance, the mode in which it was asked

and used only served to sink the Lahore army lower than
before in British estimation.
Four regiments of sepoys marched from Ferozepore The
English
without guns, and unsupported by cavalry, to vainly en- distrustful
deavour to force the Pass of Ivliaibar and the Sikh troops of the
;
Sikhs, but
at Peshawar were urged by the local British authorities in yet urgent
their praiseworthy ardour, rather than deliberately ordered uj^on them
for aid.
by their own government at the instance of its ally, to
co-operate in the attempt, or indeed to march alone to
Jalalabad. The fact that the English had been beaten was
notorious, and the belief in their alarm was welcome the :

Sikh governor was obliged, in the absence of orders, to

take the sense of the regimental punches or committees
' '
;

and the hasty requisition to march was rejected, through

fear alone, as the English said, but really with feelings in
which contempt, distrust, and apprehension were all mixed.
The district Governor- General, Avitabile, who fortimately
still retained his province, freely gave what aid he could ;

some pieces of artillery were furnished as well as abundance

stand at Peshawar ; and that Mr. Prinsep, a member of council, and
Mr. Colvin, the Governor-General's private secretary, recommended
a withdrawal to the Sutlej. All, however, contemplated ulterior
operations.
The Commander-in-Chief, it is well known, thought the means of
the English for defending India itself somewhat scanty, and Mr. Clerk
thought the Sikhs would be unable to check the invasion of moun-
taineers, which would assuredly take place were Jalalabad to fall.
(Mr. Clerk to Government, 15th Jan. 1842.)
^ Government to the Commander-in-Chief, 15th March 1842.

2 Mr. Colvin, in the minute referred to in the preceding note,

grounds his proposition for withdrawing to the Sutlej partly on Mr.

Clerk's low estimate of the Sikhs, and their presumed inability to
resist the Afghans. Col. Wade seems to have had a somewhat similar
opinion of the comparative prowess of the two races, on the fair pre-
sumption that the note (p. 535) of Munshi Shahamat All's Sikhs and
Afghans is his. He says the Sikhs always dreaded the Kiiaibaris ;
and, indeed, General Avitabile could also take up the notion with
some reason, in one sense, as the magistrate of a district surrounded
by marauding highlanders, and with sufficient adroitness in another
when he did not desire to see Sikh regiments hurried into mountain
defiles at the instance of the English authorities. (Cf. the Calcutta
Review, No. Ill, p. 182.)
 248 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, viii

1841. of ordinary supplies, and the British detachment effected

the reUef of Ali Masjid. But the unpardonable neglect of
going to the fort without the food which had been provided,
obliged the garrison to retreat after a few days, and the
disinclination of the Siklis to fight the battles of strangers
communicated itself to the mercenary soldiers of the English,
and thus added to the Governor-General's dislike of the
Afghan connexion.^
An amiy of The necessity of at least relieving the garrison of Jalalabad
assembled"
^^^ paramount, and in the spring of 1842 a well-equipped
1842. '
British force arrived at Peshawar ; but the active co-
operation of the Sikhs was still desirable, and it was sought
for under the terms of an obsolete article of the tripartite
treaty with Shah Shuja, which gave Lahore a subsidy of
two lakhs of rupees in exchange for the services of 5,000
men.2 Sher Singh was willing to assist beyond this limited
degree he greatly facilitated the purchase of grain and the
;

hire of carriage cattle in the Punjab, and his auxiliaries

could be made to outnumber the troops of his allies but ;

he felt uneasy about the proceedings of the Sindhianwala

chiefs, one of whom had gone to Calcutta to urge his own
claims, or those of Mai Chand Kaur, and all of whom re-
tained influence in the Sikh ranks. He was assured that
the refugees shoidd not be allowed to disturb his reign, and
there thus seemed to be no obstacle in the way of his full
co-operation. 3 But the genuine Sikhs were held by the
1 The statements in this paragraph are mainly taken from the

author's notes of official and demi-official correspondence. The letter

of Government to Mr. Clerk, of the 7th Feb. 1842, may also be referred
to about the failure to hold Ali Musjid ; and, further, it may be
mentioned that Mr. Clerk, in his letter of the 10th February, pointed
out, that although the Sikhs might not willingly co-operate in any
sudden assaidt planned by the English, they would be found ready
to give assistance during the campaign in the ways their experience
taught them to be the most likely to lead to success.
2 See Government to Mr. Clerk, 3rd May and 23rd July 1842. The
English agents, however, rather tauntingly and imploringly reminded
the Sikh authorities that they were bound to have such a force ready
by agreement as well as by friendship, than formally revived the
demand for its production under the stipulations of the treatj'.
3 Cf. Mr. Clerk to Government, 2nd Jan. and 31st March 1842, and

Government to Mr. Clerk, 17th Jan. and 12th May 1842. With
regard to assistance rendered by the Sikhs durin the Afghan War in
 s

CHAP, viii CO-OPERATION OF GULAB SINGH 249

English to be both mutinous in disposition and inferior in 1842.

warlike spirit the soldiers of Jammu were preferred, and
;

Gulab Singh was required to proceed to Peshawar to repress ^}^^}'

1 - , T /x^ 1
the insubordinate Khalsa
1
, ^ • 1 -r* 11 1 Singh sent
and to give General Pollock to co-
,

the assurance of efficient aid.^ The Raja was at the time operate.
completing the reduction of some insurgent tribes between
Kashmir and Attock, and his heart was in Tibet, where he
had himself lost an army and a kingdom. He went, but
he knew the temper of his own hill levies he was naturally
:

unwilling to run any risk by following the modes of strangers

to which he was unused, and he failed in rendering the Sikh
battalions as decorous and orderly as English regiments.
His prudence and ill success were looked upon as collusion
and insincerity, and he was thought to be in league with
Akbar Khan for the destruction of the army of an obnoxious
European power.^ Still his aid was held to be essential, and
the local British officers proposed to bribe him by the offer
of Jalalabad, independent of his sovereign Sher Singh. The
scheme was justly condemned by Mr. Clerk,^ the Khaibar
Pass was forced in the month of April, and the auxiliary
Sikhs acquitted themselves to the satisfaction of the English
general, without any promises having been made to the
Raja of Jammu, who gladly hurried to the Ladakli frontier
to look after interests dearer to him than the success or the
^^'
vengeance of foreigners. It was designed by General Pollock M^"^
to leave the whole of the Sikli division at Jalalabad, to
assist in holding that district, while the main English
army went to Kabul ; but the proper interposition of
furnishing escorts, grain, and carriage for the British troops, Mr. Clerk'
letters of the 15th Jan., 18th May, and 14th June 1842 may be
quoted. In the last it is stated that 17,381 camels had been procured
through Sikh agency between 1839 and 1842.
1 Cf. Mr. Clerk to Government, 15th Jan., 10th Feb., and 6th May,

1842. Government at first seemed indifferent whether Gulab Singh

went or not ; and, indeed, Mr. Clerk himself rather suggested than
required the Raja's employment ; but suggestions or wishes could
not, under the circumstances, be misconstrued.
2 Cf. Mr. Clerk to Government, 19th March 1842.

3 Mr. Clerk to Government, 13th Feb. 1842. The officers referred

to are Major Mackeson and Lieut.-Col. Sir Henry Lawrence, whose
names are so intimately, and in so many ways honourably, identified
with the career of the English in the north-west of India. ^
 ^

250 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. VIII

1842. Lawrence 1 enabled a portion of the Lahore troops

Col.
to share in that retributive march, as they had before
shared in the first invasion, and fully shown their fitness
for meeting difficulties when left to do so in their own
way.
Discussions The proposition of conferring Jalalabad on Gulab Singh
regarding ^g^g taken up in a modified form by the new Governor-
and the General, Lord Ellenborough.
'
As his lordship's views
^!?!*^ °^
• became formed, he laid it down as a principle that neither
nion. the English nor the Sikh Government should hold dominion
beyond the Himalayas and the Safed Koh of Kabul
' '
;

and as the Durrani alliance seemed to be severed, there was

little to apprehend from Jammfi and Barakzai intrigues.
It was, therefore, urged that Gulab Singh should be required
by the Maharaja to relinquish Ladakli, and to accept
Jalalabad on equal terms of dependency on the Punjab.
The Sikhs were sufficiently desirous of adding to their
dominion another Afghan district but the terms did not
;

satisfy Gulab Singh, nor did Sher Singh see fit to come to
any conclusion until he should know the final views of the
English with regard to the recognition of a government in
Kabul.3 The death of Shah Shuja and his suspicious pro-
ceedings were held to render the re-occupation of the country
unnecessary, and the trii)artite treaty was declared to be
at an end * but the policy of a march on the Afghan
;

capital was strongly urged and wisely adopted.^ There

1 Lawrence to Major Mackeson, 23rd Aug. 1842. Lieut.-
Lieut. -Col.
Col. Lawrence's article in the Calcutta Rev'ieiv (No. Ill, p. 180) may
also be advantageously referred to about the proceedings at Peshawar
under Col. Wild, Sir George Pollock, and Raja Gulab Singh.
2 Government to Mr. Clerk, 27th April 1842.
3 Mr. Clerk to Government, 18th May 1842.
4 Government to Mr. Clerk, 27th May and 29th July 1842. In the
treaty drafted by the Sikhs to take the place of the tripartite one,
they i)ut forward a claim of superiority over Sind, and somewhat
evaded the question of being parties only, instead of principals, to
the acknowledgement of a ruler in Kabul. The treaty, however,
never took a definite shape.
^ Even the Sikhs talked of the impolicy, or, at least, the disgrace, of

suddenly and wholly withdrawing from Afghanistan in the maimer

proposed. (Mr. Clerk to Government, 19th July 1842.) Mr. Clerk
, himself was among the most prominent of those who at first modestly
urged a march on Kaljul, and afterwards manfully remonstrated
CHAP, viii JALALABAD : THE SIKHS 251

seemed to be a prospect of wintering in Kabul, and it was 1842.

not until the victorious troops were on their return to India

that it was believed the English would ever forgo the
possession of an empire. The Sikhs then consented to take
it could reach
Jalalabad, but before the order transferring
General Pollock,^ that commander had destroyed the forti-
fications, and nominally abandoned the place to the king
whom he had expediently set up in the Bala Hisar.^ It is
probable that Sher Singh was not unwilling to be relieved
of the invidious gift, for his in Lahore was dis-
own sway
tracted, and Dost Muhammad wasabout to be released
under the pledge of a safe passage through the Punjab
dominions and it may have been thought prudent to
;

conciliate the father of Akbar Khan, so famous for his

successes against the English, by the surrender of a posses-
sion it was inconvenient to hold.^

against a hasty abandonment of the country. (See his letter above

quoted, and also that of the 23rd April 1842.)
1 The order was dated the 18th Oct. 1842. Lord EUenborough
himself was not without a suspicion that the victorious generals might
frame excuses for wintering in Kabul, and the expedition of Sir John
M'Caskill into the Kohistan was less pleasing to him on that account
than it would otherwise have been.
2 The Calcutta Review for June 1849 (p. 539) points out that the
king, viz. Shahpur, son of Shah Shuja, was rather set up solely by
the chiefs at Kabvd than in any way by Sir George Pollock, who had
no authority to recognize any sovereign in Afghanistan. My expres-
sion has, indeed, reference mainly to the prudent countenance
afforded to a native prince by a foreign conqueror about to retrace
his steps through a difficult country, inhabited by a warlike people ;
but as it may mislead as to Sir George Pollock's actual proceedings, .

I gladly insert this note.

3 The Sikhs were not unwilling to acquire territory, but they

wished to see their way clearly, and they were unable to do so until
the English had determined on their own line of policy. The Sikhs
knew, mdeed, of the resolution of the Governor-General to sever all
comaexion with Afghanistan, but they also knew the sentiments of
the majority of Englishmen about at least temporarily retaining it.
They saw, moreover, that recruited armies were still in possession of
every stronghold, and the policy was new to them of voluntarily
relinquishing dominion. They therefore paused, and the subsequent
release of Dost Muhammad again fettered them when the retirement
of the troops seemed to leave them free to act, for they were bound to
escort the Amir safely across the Punjab, and covild not therefore
make terms with him. The Sikhs would have worked through Sultan
 252 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, viii
1842.
The Governor-General had prudently resolved to as-
The semble an army at Ferozepore, as a reserve in case of
Governor- further disasters in Afghanistan, and to make known to the
meets the pi'inces of India that their English masters had the ready
Sikh means of beating any who might rebel.^ Lord EUenborough
rniiiiSLGr
»^ c^ o
and heir- ^as also desirous of an interview with Sher Singh, and as
apparent at gratitude was uppermost for the time, and added a grace
FcrozeDOrG
1842. ' ^^^^ to success, it was proposed to thank the Maharaja in
person for the proofs which he had afforded of his continued
friendship. To invest the scene with greater eclat, it was
further determined, in the spirit of the moment, to give
expression to British sincerity and moderation at the head
of the two armies returning victorious from Kabul, with
their numbers increased to nearly forty thousand men by
the force assembled on the Sutlej. The native English
portion of this array was considerable, and perhaps so
many Europeans had never stood together under arms on
Indian ground since Alexander and his Greeks made the
Punjab a province of Macedon. The Sikhs generally were
pleased with one cause of this assemblage, and they were
glad to be relieved of the presence of the EngUsh on their
western frontier but Sher Singh himself did not look
;

forward to his visit to Lord Ellenborough without some

misgivings, altliough under other circumstances his vanity
would have been gratified by the opportunitj' of displaying
Muhammad Khan and other chiefs until they were in a condition
to use the frequent plea of the English, of being able to govern better
than dependants. (Cf. Mr. Clerk to Government, 2nd Sept. 1842.)
1 Lord Auckland had likewise thought that such a demonstration
might be advisable. (Government to Mr. Clerk, 3rd Dec. 1841.) Of
measures practically identified with Lord Ellenborough' s administra-
tion, Lord Auckland may further claim the merit of giving the
generals commanding in Afghanistan supreme authority (Resolution
of Government, 6th Jan. 1842), and of directing Sir WilHam Nott to
act without reference to previous instructions, and as he might deem
best for the safety of his troops and the honour of the British name.
(Government to Sir William Nott, 10th Feb. 1842.) To Lord Auck-
land, however, is due the doubtful praise of suggesting the release of
Dost Muhammad (Government to Mr. Clerk, 24th Feb. 1842) and he;

must certainly bear a share of the blame attached to the exaggerated

estimate formed of the dangers which threatened tlie English after
the retreat from Kabul, and to the timorous rather than prudent
design of falling back on the Indus, or even on the Sutlej.
CHAP, viii LORD ELLENBOROUGH SHER SINGH 253
:

his power and magnificence. He felt his incapacity as a 1842.

ruler,and he needlessly feared that he might be called to

account for Sikh excesses and for a suspected intercourse
with the hostile Amirs of Sind then trembling for their fate,
and even that the subjugation of the Punjab was to be made
the stepping-stone to the complete reduction of Afghanistan.
He had no confidence in himself and he dreaded the ven-
;

geance of his followers, who believed him capable of sacri-

ficing the Ivlialsa to his own interests. Nor was Dhian Singh
supposed to be willing that the Maharaja should meet the
Governor- General, and his suspicious temper made him
apprehensive that his sovereign might induce the English
viceroy to accede to his ruin, or to the reduction of his
exotic influence. Thus both Sher Singh and his minister
perhaps rejoiced that a misunderstanding which prevented
the reception at Ludhiana of Lahna Singh Majlthia, was
seized hold of by the English to render a meeting doubtful
or impossible.^ Lord Ellenborough justly took offence at a
slight which, however unwittingly, had been really offered
to him he was not easily appeased and when the personal
; ;

by the young heir-

apologies of the minister, accompanied
apparent, had removed every ground of displeasure, tne
appointed time, the beginning of January 1843, for the

1 On
several occasions Raja Dhian Singh expressed his apprehen-
sions of an English invasion, as also did Maharaja Sher Singh. (See,
for instance, Mr. Clerk to Government, 2nd Jan. 1842.) The writer
oT the article in the Calcutta Review (No. II, p. 493), who is believed
to be Lieut. -Col. Lawrence, admits Dhian Singh's aversion to a meet-
ing between his sovereign and the British Governor-General. The
reviewer likewise describes Sher Singh's anxiety at the time, but
considers him to have been desirous of throwing himself unreservedly
on English protection, as doubtless he might have been, had he thought
himself secure from assassination, and that Lord Ellenborough would
have kept him seated on the throne of Lahore at all hazards.
About the suspected hostile intercourse with the Amirs of Sind,
see Thornton's History of India, vi. 447. The Sikhs, however, were
never required to give any explanation of the charges.
The misunderstanding to which Sardar Lahna Singh was a party
was simply as follows The Sardar had been sent to wait upon the
:

Governor-General on his arrival on the frontier, according to ordinary

ceremonial. It was arranged that the Sardar should be received by
his lordship at Ludhiana, and the day and hour were fixed, and pre-
parations duly made. Mr. Clerk went in person to meet the chief, and
 254 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. VIII

1842. breaking-up of the large army had arrived, and the Governor-
General did not care to detain his war-worn regiments any-
longer from their distant stations. No interview thus took
place with Sher Singh but the boy prince, Pertab Singh,
;

was visited by Lord Ellenborough and the rapidity with

;

which a large escort of Sikli troops was crossed over the

Sutlej when swollen with rain, and the alacrity and pre-
cision with which they manoeuvred, deserved to have been
well noted by the English captains, proud as they had reason
to be of the numbers and achievements of their own troops.
The prince likewise reviewed the Anglo-Indian forces, and
the Sildi chiefs looked with interest upon the defenders of
Jalalabad, and with unmixed admiration upon General Nott
followed by his valiant and compact band. At last the
armed host broke up the plains of Ferozepore were no
;

longer white with numerous camps and the relieved

;

Sher Singh hastened, or was hurried, to Amritsar to return

thanks to God that a great danger had passed away. This
being over, he received Dost Muhammad Khan with dis-
Dost Mu-
hammad tinction at Lahore, and in February (1843) entered into a
returns to formal treaty of friendship with the released Amir, which
Kabul,
1843. said nothing about the English gift of Jalalabad.^
Anxieties But Sher Singh principally feared his own chiefs and
of Sher subjects, and although the designed or fortuitous murder of
Singh,
Mai Chand Kaur, in June 1842,^ relieved him of some of his

conduct him to the Governor-General's presence, his understanding

being that he was to go half the distance or so towards the Sikh en-
campment. The Sardar understood or held that Mr. Clerk should
or would come to his tent, and thus he sat still while Mr. Clerk rested
half-way for two hours or more. Lord Ellenborough thought the
excuse of the Sardar frivolous, and that offence was wantonly given,
and he accordingly required an explanation to be afforded. (Govern-
ment to Mr. Clerk, 15th Dec. 1842.) There is some reason to believe
that the Lahore Vakil, who was in the interest of Raja Dhian Singh,
misled the obnoxious Lahna Singh about the arrangements for con-
ducting him to the Governor-General's tents, with the view of dis-
crediting him both with his own master and with the English.
1 Government to Mr. Clerk, ir)th Feb. and 17th Mar. 1843.

2 Mr. Clerk to Government, 15th June 1842. The widow of

Maharaja Kharak Singh was so severely beaten, as was said by her
female attendants, that she almost immediately expired. The only
exxDianation offered, was that she had chidden the servants in question
 CHAP. VIII THE SINDHIANWALA CHIEFS 255

apprehensions, he felt uneasy under the jealous domination 1843.

of Dhian Singh, and began to listen readily to the smooth
suggestions of Bhai Gurmukh Singh, his priest so to speak,
and who was himself of some religious reputation, as well as
the son of a man of acknowledged sanctity and influence.^
The English Gk)vernment,in its well-meant but impracticable
desire to unite all parties in the country, had urged the
restoration to favour of the Sindhianwala chiefs, who kept The Sind-
its own agents on the alert, and the Maharaia himself in Wan^ala
'

cxiiGis £incl
a state of doubt or alarm.- Sher Singh, from his easiness of the Jammu
nature, was not averse to a reconciliation, and by degrees he R^jas
coalesce
even became not unwilling to have the family about him
as some counterpoise to the Rajas of Jammu. Neither was
Dhian Singh opposed to their return, for he thought they
might be made some use of since Mai Chand Kaur was no
more, and thus Ajit Singh and his uncles again took their
accustomed places in the court of Lahore. Nevertheless,
during the summer of 1843, Dhian Singh perceived that his
influence over the Maharaja was fairly on the wane and ;

he had good reason to dread the machinations of Gvn-mukli

Singh and the passions of the multitude when roused by
a man of his character. The minister then again began to
talk of the boy, Dalip Singh, and to endeavour to possess
the minds of the Sindhianwala chiefs with the belief that
they had been inveigled to Lahore for their more assured
destruction. Ajit Singh had by this time become the boon
companion of the Maharaja but he was himself ambitious
;

for some fault, and the public was naturally unwilling to

believe Sher
Singh, at least, guiltless of instigating the murder.
1 In the beginning of his reign Sher Singh had leant mucli upon an

active and ambitious follower, named Jawala Singh, whose bravery

was conspicuous during the attack on Lahore. This petty leader
hoped to supplant both the Sindhianwala chiefs and the Jammu
Rajas as leading courtiers, but he proceeded too hastily; he was
seized and imprisoned by Dhian Singh in May 1841, and died by
foul means immediately afterwards. (Cf. Mr. Clerk to Government,
7th May and 10th June 1841.)
2 Mr. Clerk to Government, 7th April 1842, and Government to

Mr. Clerk, 12th May 1842 see also Lieut. -Col. Richmond to Govern-
;

ment, 5th Sept. 1843. Mr. Clerk became Lieutenant-Governor of

Agra in June 1843, and he was succeeded as Agent on the frontier by
Lieut. -Col. Richmond, an officer of repute, who had recently dis-
tinguished himself under Sir George Pollock.
 256 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, viii

1843. and he and his uncle Lahna Singh grasped at the

of power,
making the minister a party to their own designs.
idea of
They appeared to fall wholly into his views and they ;

would, they said, take Sher Singh's life to save their own.
Sher Singh On the 15th September (1843), Ajit Singh induced the

ted^v^Aiit
Maharaja to inspect some levies he had newly raised he ;

Singh, approached, as if to make an offering of a choice carbine,

1843 •
^^^^ *^ receive the commendations usual on such occasions,
but he raised the weapon and shot his sovereign dead. The
remorseless Lahna Singh took the life of the boy Pertab Singh
at the same time, and the kinsmen then joined Dhian Singh,
and proceeded with him to the citadel to proclaim a new
king. The hitherto wary minister was now caught in his
who like- own toils, and he became the dupe of his accomplices. He
Dhl^"*^ was separated
from his immediate attendants, as if for the
Singh to sake of greater privacy, and shot by the same audacious
death,
chief who had just imbrued his hands in the blood of their
1843. common master.^ The conspirators were thus far success-
'

ful in their daring and in their crimes, but they neglected

to slay or imprison the son of their last victim and the ;

minds of the soldiers do not seem to have been prepared

for the death of Dhian Singh, as they were for that of the
Hira Singh Maharaja. The youthful Hira Singh was roused by his own
avenges his danger and his filial duty he could plausibly accuse the
;

Sindhianwalas of being alone guilty of the treble murder

which had taken place, and he largely promised rewards to
the troops if they would avenge the death of their friend
and his father. The army generally responded to his call,
and the citadel was immediately assaulted yet so strong- ;

was the feeling of aversion to Jammu ascendancy among the

Sikh people, that could the feeble garrison have held out
for three or four days, until the first impulse of anger and
surprise had passed away, it is almost certain that Hira
Singh must have fled for his life. But the place was entered
on the second evening the wounded Lahna Singh was at
;

once slain and Ajit Singh, in attempting to boldly escape

;

over the lofty walls, fell and was also killed.^ Dallp Singh
was then proclaimed Maharaja, and Hira Singh was raised
1 Lieut. -Col. Richmond to Government, 17th and 18th Sept. 1843.
2 Lieut. -Col. Richmond to Government, 20th Sept. 1843.
 ^

CHAP. VIII DALIP SINGH PROCLAIMED 257

to the high and fatal office of Wazir ; but he was all-powerful 1843.

for the moment the Smdhianwala possessions were con- j.

; o- ,
',

fiscated, and their dwellings razed to the ground nor did proclaimed
:

the youthful avenger stay until he had found out and put to o^'^^^^?g4'o
death Bhai Gurmukh Singh and Missar Bell Ram, the former
of whom was believed to have connived at the death of his
confiding master, and to have instigated the assassination
of the minister and the latter of whom had always stood
;

high in the favour of the great Maharaja, although strongly

opposed to the aggrandizement of the Jaminu family.
Sardar Atar Singh Sindhianwala, who was hurrying to
Lahore when he heard of the capture of the citadel, made
a hasty attempt to rouse the village population in his favour
through the influence of Bhai BIr Singh, a devotee of gTeat
repute ; but the ' Klialsa was almost wholly represented
'

by the army, and he crossed at once into the British terri-

tories to avoid the emissaries of HIra Singh.
The new minister added two rupees and a half, or five The power
shillings a month, to the pay of the common soldiers, and
jncreas™^
he also discharged some arrears due to them. The army felt
that it had become the master of the state, and it en-
deavoured to procure donatives, or to place itself right in
public estimation, by threatening to eject the Jammu
faction, and to make the Bhai BIr Singh, already mentioned,
a king as well as a priest.' Jawahir Singh, the maternal
uncle of the boy Maharaja, already grasped the highest post
he could occupy nor was the minister's family united
;

within itself. Suchet Singh's vanity was mortified by the

ascendancy of his nephew, a stripling, unacquainted with
war, and inexperienced in business ; and he endeavoured to
form a party which should place him in power .^ The youth-
ful WazIr naturally turned to his other uncle, Gulab Singh,
for support, and that astute chief cared not who held titles
so long as he was deferred to and left unrestrained but the ;

Sikhs were still averse to him personally, and jealous lest he

should attempt to garrison every stronghold with his own
followers. Gulab Singh was, therefore, cautious in his pro-

1 Lieut. -Col. Richmond's letters from 21st Sept. to 2nd Oct. 1843.
2 Lieut. -Col. Richmond to Government, 26th Sept. 1843.
3 Lieut. -Col. Richmond to Government, 16th and 22nd Oct. 1843.
S
 258 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, viii

1843. ceedings, and before he reached Lahore, on the 10th of

RaiaGulab November, lie had sought to ingratiate himself with all
Singh. parties, save Jawahir Singh, Avhom he may have despised
Sardar Ja- as of no capacity.^ Jawahir Singh resented this conduct,
Singh Nov ^^^' t^^ij^g advantage of the ready access to the Maharaja's
24, 1843. person which his relationship gave him, he went with the
child in his arms, on the occasion of a review of some troops,
and urged the assembled regiments to depose the Jammu
Rajas, otherwise he would fly with his nephew, their
acknowledged prince, into the British territories. But the
design of procuring aid from the English was displeasing to
the Sikhs, both as an independent people and as a licentious
soldiery, and Jawahir Singh was immediately made a
prisoner, and thus received a lesson which influenced his
conduct during the short remainder of his life.^
Fateh Nevertheless, HIra Singh continued to be beset with
Khan Ti- difficulties. There was one Fateh Khan Tiwana, a personal
follower of Dhian Singh, who was supposed to have been
privy to the intended assassination of his master, and to
have designedly held back when Ajit Singh took the Raja
to one side. This petty leader fled as soon as the army
attacked the citadel, and endeavoured to raise an insurrec-
tion in his native province of Dera Ismail Klian, which
caused the greater anxiety, as the attempt was supposed
to be countenanced by the able and hostile Governor of
The insur- Multan.^ Scarcely had measures been adopted for reducing
rection of the petty rebellion, when Kashmira Singh and Peshawara
Singh and Singh, SOUS born to, or adopted by,.RanjIt Singh at the
Peshawara period of his conquest of the two Afghan provinces from

18^-4. which they were named, started up as the rivals of the child
Dalip, and endeavoured to form a party by appearing in
open opposition at Sialkot. Some regiments ordered to
Peshawar joined the two princes the Muhammadan regi-
;

ments at Lahore refused to march against them unless a

pure Sikh force did the same and it was with difficulty,
;

and only with the aid of Raja Gulab Singh, that the siege of

1 Cf. Lieut. -Col. Richmond to Government, 26th Sept. and 16th

Nov. 1843.
- Lieut. -Col. Richmond to Government, 28th Nov. 1843.
^ Lieut, -Col. Richmond to Government, 12th Dec. 1843.
 ^

CHAP.vm INSURRECTION OF KASHMlRA SINGH 259

Sialkot was formed. Tlie two young men soon showed 1844.

themselves to be incapable of heading a party Hira Singli

;

relaxed in his efforts against them and towards the end

;

of March he raised the siege, and allowed them to go at

large.^ The minister had, however, less reason to be satisfied Jawahir
Singh.
with the success of Jawahir Singh, who, about the same
time, induced his guards to release him, and he was un-
willingly allowed to assume his place in the court as the
uncle of the child to whose sovereignty in the abstract all
nominally deferred.
Raja Suchet Singh was believed to have been a secret The
attempt of
party to the attempts of Kashmira Singh, and the release Raja
of Jawahir Singh was also probably effected with his Suchet
Singh,
cognizance. The Raja believed himself to be popular with
March
the army, and especially with the cavalry portion of it, 1844.
which, having an inferior organization, began to show some
jealousy of the systematic proceedings of the regular
infantry and artillery. He had retired to the hills with
great reluctance he continued intent upon suj^planting his
;

nephew and suddenly, on the evening of the 26th of

;

March 1844, he appeared at Lahore with a few followers ;

but he appealed in vain to the mass of the troops, partly

because Hira Singh had been liberal in gifts and profuse in
promises, and partly because the shrewd deputies who
formed the Panchayats of the regiments had a sense of their
own importance, and were not to be won for purposes of
mere faction, without diligent and judicious seeking.
Hence, on the morning after the arrival of the sanguine
and hasty Raja, a large force marched against him without
demur but the chief was brave he endeavoured to make
; :

a stand in a ruinous building, and he died fighting to the

last, although his little band was almost destroyed by the
fire of a numerous artillery before the assailants could reach

the enclosure.^
Within two months after this rash undertaking, Atar The insur-
rection of
Singh Sindhianwala, who had been residing at Thanesar, Sardar
made a similar ill-judged attempt to gain over the army, Atar Singh
and Bhai
Bir Singh,
1 Lieut.-Col. Richmond to Government, 23rd and 27th March 1844.
May 1844.
2 Lieut.-Col. Richmond to Government, 27th March 1844.
3 Lieut.-Col. Richmond to Government, 29th March 1844.
S2
 260 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. VIII

1844. and to expel HIra Singh. He crossed the Siitlej on the

2nd May, but instead of moving to a distance, so as to avoid
premature colhsions, and to enable him to appeal to the
feelings of the Sikhs, he at once joined Bhai Bir Singh, whose
religious repute attracted numbers of the agricultural popu-
lation, and took up a position almost opposite Ferozepore,
and within forty miles of the capital. The disaffected
Kashmira Singh joined the chief, but HIra Singh stood as
a suppliant before the assembled Khalsa, and roused the
feelings of the troops by reminding them that the Sindhian-
walas looked to the English for support. A large force
promptly marched from Lahore, but it was wished to detach
Bhai Bir Singh from the rebel, for to assail so holy a man
was held to be sacrilege by the soldiers, and on the seventh
of the month deputies were sent to induce the Bhai to retire.
Some expressions moved the anger of Sardar Atar Singh, and
he slew one of the deputies with his own hand. This act led
to an immediate attack. Atar Singh and Kashmira Singh
were both killed, and it was found that a cannon-shot had
likewise numbered Bhai Bir Singh with the slain. The
commander on this occasion was Labh Singh, a Rajput of
Jammu, and the possession of the family of Kashmira Singh
seemed to render his success more complete but the Sikh;

infantry refused to allow the women and children to be

removed to Lahore and Labh Singh, alarmed by this
;

proceeding and by the lamentations over the death of Bir

Singh, hastened to the capital to ensure his own safety.^

The
HIra Singh was thus successful against two main enemies
Governor of his rule, and as he had also come to an understanding
of Multan
with the Governor of Multan, the proceedings of Fateh Klian
submits.
Tiwana gave him little uneasiness. ^ The army itself was
his great cause of anxiety, not lest the Sikh dominion should
be contracted, but lest he should be rejected as its master ;

for the Panchayats, although bent on retaining their own

power, and on acquiring additional pay and privileges for
their constituents the soldiers, were equally resolved on
maintaining the integrity of the empire, and they arranged

1 Lieut. -Col. Richmond to Government, 10th, 11th, and 12th May

1844.
2 Cf. Lieut. -Col. Richmond to Government, 29th April 1844.
 CHAP. VIII SUBMISSION OF MULTAN. 261

among themselves about the reHef of the troops in the 1844.

provinces. On
the frontiers, indeed, the Sikhs continued to
exhibit their innate vigour, and towards the end of 1843 the
secluded principality of Gilgit was overrun and annexed to Gilgit re-
duced,
Kashmu'. The Panchayats likewise felt that it was the 1843.
design of the Raja and his advisers to disperse the Sikh
army over the country, and to raise additional corps of
hill men, but the committees would not allow a single
regiment to quit Lahore without satisfying themselves of
the necessity of the measure and thus Hira Singh was in- Hlra Singh
;

professes
duced to take advantage of a projected relief of the British suspicions
troops in Sind, and the consequent march of several bat- of the
English.
talions towards the Sutlej, to heighten or give a colour to
his own actual suspicions, and to hint that a near danger
threatened the Sikhs on the side of the English. The
'
Khalsa was most willing to encounter that neighbour,
'

and a brigade was induced to move to Kasur, and others to

shorter distances from the capital, under the plea, as avowed
to the British authorities, of procuring forage and supplies
with greater facility.^ Such had indeed been Ranjit Singh's
occasional practice when no assemblage of British forces
could add to his ever present fears ^ but Hlra Singh's The
;

mutiny of
apprehensions of his own army and of his English allies the British
were lessened by his rapid successes, and by the disgraceful Sepoys
ordered to
spirit which then animated the regular regiments in the
Sind.
British service. The Sepoys refused to proceed to Sind, and
the Sikhs watched the progress of the mutiny with a pleased
surprise. It was new to them to see these renowned soldiers
in opposition to their government but any glimmering
;

hopes of fatal embarrassment to the colossal power of the

foreigners were dispelled by the march of European troops,
by the good example of the irregular cavalry, and by the
returning sense of obedience of the sepoys themselves.
The British forces proceeded to Sind, and the Lahore
detachment was withdrawn from Kasur.^

^ Cf. Lieut. -Col. Richmond to Government, 20th Dec. 1843, and

23rd March 1844.
- See, for instance. Sir David Ochterlony to Government, 16th Oct.
1812.
3 Cf. Lieut. -Col. Richmond to Government, 29th April 1844.
 262 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. VIII

1844. Nevertheless there were not wanting causes of real or

alleged dissatisfaction with the British Government, which
Discussions
with the at last served the useful purpose of engaging the attention
Enghsh of the Lahore soldiery. The protected Sikh Raja of Nabha
about the
village had given avillage, named Moran, to Ranjit Singh at the
Moran, Maharaja's request, in order that it might be bestowed on
Dhanna Singh, a Nabha subject, but who stood high in
favour with the master of the Punjab. The village was so
given in 1819, or after the introduction of the English
supremacy, but without the knowledge of the English
authorities, which circumstance rendered the alienation in-
valid, if it were argued that the village had become separated
from the British sovereignty. The Raja of Nabha became
displeased with Dhanna Singh, and he resumed his gift
in the year 1843 but in so doing his soldiers wantonly
;

plundered the property of the feudatory, and thus gave

the Lahore Government a ground of complaint, of which
and about advantage was taken for party purposes.^ But Hira Singh
treasure and his advisers took greater exception still to the decision
buried by
Suchet of the British Government with regard to a quantity of
Singh. coin and bullion which Raja Suchet Singh had secretly
deposited in Ferozepore, and which his servants were
detected in endeavouring to remove after his death. The
treasure was estimated at 1,500,000 rupees, and it was
understood to have been sent to Ferozepore during the
recent Afghan War, for the purpose of being offered as part
of an ingratiatory loan to the English Government, which
was borrowing money at the time from the protected Sildi
chiefs. The Lahore minister claimed the treasure both as
the escheated property of a feudatory without male heirs
of his body, and as the confiscated property of a rebel killed
in arms against his sovereign but the British Government
;

considered the right to the property to be unaffected by the

owner's treason, and required that the title to it, according
to the laws of Jammu or of the Punjab, should be regularly
pleaded and proved in a British court. It "was argued in
favour of Lahore that no British subject or dependent
claimed the treasure, and that it might be expediently
made over to the ruler of the Punjab for surrender to the
^ Lieut. -Col. Richmond to Government, 18th and 28th May 1844.
 1

CHAP. VIII DISCUSSIONS WITH THE SIKHS 263

customary owner but the supreme British authori- l^^-

legal or ;

tieswould not relax further from the conventional law of

Europe than to say that if the Maharaja would write that
the Rajas Gulab Singh and Hn-a Singh assented to the
delivery of the treasure to the Sikli state for tlie purpose of
being transferred to the rightful owners, it would no longer
be detained. This proposal was not agreed to, partly because
differences had in the meantime arisen between the uncle
and nephew, and partly because the Lahore councillors
considered their original grounds of claim to be irrefragable,
according to Indian law and usage, and thus the money
remained a source of dissatisfaction, until the English stood
masters in Lahore, and accepted it as part of the price of
Kashmir, when the valley was alienated to Raja Gulab
Singh.

1 For the discussions about the surrender or the detention of the

treasure, see the letters of Lieut. -Col. Richmond to Government of
the 7th April, 3rd and 27th May, 25th July, 10th Sept., and 5th and
25th Oct. 1844; and of Government to Lieut.-Col. Richmond of the
19th and 22nd April, 17th May, and 10th Aug. of the same year.
The principle laid down of deciding the claim to the treasure at a
British tribunal, and according to the laws of Lahore or of Jammu,
does not distinguish between public and individual right of heirship ;

or rather it decides the question with reference solely to the law in

private cases. Throughout India, the practical rule has ever been
that such property shall be administered agreeably to the customs
of the tribe or province to which the deceased belonged and very
;

frequently, when the only litigants are subjects of one and the same
foreign state, it is expediently made over to the sovereign of that state
for adjudication, on the plea that the rights of the parties can be best
ascertained on the spot, and that every ruler is a renderer of justice.
In the present instance the imperfection of the International Law
of Europe may be more to blame than the Government of India and
the legal authorities of Calcutta, for refusing to acknowledge the
right of an allied and friendly state to the property of a childless
rebel to which property, moreover, no British subject or dependent
;

preferred a claim. Vattel lays it down that a stranger's property

remains a part of the aggregate wealth of his nation, and that the
right to it is to be determined according to the laws of his own country
(Book II, chap, viii, §§ 109 and 110) but in the section in question
;

reference is solely had to cases in which subjects or private parties

are litigants although Mr. Chitty, in his note to § 103 (ed. 1834),
;

shows that foreign sovereigns can in England sue, at least, British

subjects.
The oriental customary law with regard to the estates and property
 264 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, vm
1844, Hira Singh had, in his acts and successes, surpassed the
TT- q-
J,
manner in which affairs were
general expectation, and the
guided by carried on seemed to argue unlooked-for abilities of a high

T^n^'h'
order but the Raja himself had little more than a noble
;

preceptor, presence and a conciliatory address to recommend him, and

the person who directed every measure was a Brahman
Pandit, named Jalla, the familj^ priest, so to speak, of the
Jammu brothers, and the tutor of Dhian This
Singh's sons.
crafty and ambitious man retained all the influence over
the youthful minister which he had exercised over the
boyish pupil on whom Ranjit Singh lavished favours.
Armies had marched, and chiefs had been vanquished, as
if at the bidding of the preceptor become councillor. His
views expanded, and he seems to have entertained the idea
of founding a dynasty of Peshwas among the rude Jats
' '

of the Punjab, as had been done by one of his tribe among

the equally' rude Marathas of the south. He fully perceived
that the Sikh armj^must be conciliated, and also that it must
be employed. He despised, and with some reason, the spirit
and capacity of most of the titular chiefs of the country; and
he felt that Raja Gulab Singh absorbed a large proportion of
the revenues of the countrj', and seriously embarrassed the
central government by his overgrown power and influence.
It M'as primarily requisite to keep the army well and regu-
larly paid, and hence the Pandit proceeded without scruple
to sequester several of the fiefs of the sirdars, and gradually

of Jaglrdars (feudal beneficiaries) may be seen in Bernier's Travels

(p. 181), and almost seems identical with that anciently in force
it

among the Anglo-Saxons with reference to 'nobles by service', the fol-

lowers of a lord or king. (See Kemble's Saxons in England, i. 178, &c.)
The right of the Government is full, and it is based on the feeling or
principle that a beneficiary has only the use during life of estates or
offices, and that all he may have accumulated, through parsimony or
oppression, is the property of the state. It may be difficult to decide
between a people and an expelled sovereign, about his guilt or Lis
tyranny, but there can be none in deciding between an allied state
and its subject about treason or rebellion. Neither refugee traitors
nor patriots are allowed to abuse their asjdum by plotting against the
Government which has cast them out and an extension of the prin-
;

ciple would prevent desperate adventurers defrauding the state which

has reared and heaped favours on them, by removing their property
previous to engaging in rash and criminal enterprises.
 CHAP, viii PANDIT JALLA'S INFLUENCE 265

to inspire the soldiery with the necessity of a march against 1844.

Jamniu. Nor was he without a pretext for denouncing
Gulab Singh, as that unscrupulous chief had lately taken
.possession of the estates of Raja Suchet Singh, to which he
regarded himself as the only heir.^
Jalla showed vigour and capacity in all he did, but he Pandit
proceeded too hastily in some matters, and he attempted Jalla and
Gulab
too much at one time. He did not, perhaps, understand Singh.
the Sildi character in all its depths and ramifications, and
he probably undervalued the subtlety of Gulab Singh. The
Raja, indeed, was induced to divide the Jagirs of Suchet
Singh with his nephew,^ but Fateh Khan Tiwana again
excited an insurrection in the Derajat ^ Chattar Singh ;

Atariwala took up arms near Rawalpindi,* and the Muham-

madan tribes south-west of Kashmir were encouraged in
rebellion by the dexterous and experienced chief whom
Pandit Jalla sought to crush.'' Peshawara Singh again
aspired to the sovereignty of the Punjab he was supported
;

by Gulab Singh, and Jalla at last perceived the necessity

of coming to terms with one so formidable.^ A reconciliation
was accordingly patched up, and the Raja sent his son Sohan
Singh to Lahore.^ The hopes of Peshawara Singh then
vanished, and he fled for safety to the south of the Sutlej.^
Pandit Jalla made the additional mistake of forgetting Pandit
.Jalla irri-
that the Siklis were not jealous of Gulab Singh alone, but tates the
of all strangers to their faith and race and in trying to
; Sikhs, and
offends the
crush the chiefs, he had forgotten that they were Siklis
Queen-
mother.
^ Cf. Lieitt.-Col. Richmond to Government, 13th Aug. and 10th Oct.
1844.
2 Lieut. -Col. Richmond to Government, 30th Oct. 1844.
3 Lieut.-Col. Richmond to Government, 14th June 1844.
* Lieut.-Col. Richmond to Government, 16th Oct. 1844.
5 Major Broadfoot to Government, 24th Nov. 1844.
® Lieut.-Col. Richmond to Government, 16th Oct. 1844, and
Major Broadfoot to Government, 24th Nov. 1844.
' Lieut.-Col. Richmond to Government, 30th Oct. 1844, and
Major Broadfoot to Government, 13th Nov. and 16th Dec. 1844.
8 Major Broadfoot to Government, 14th and 18th Nov. 1844.
Major Broadfoot, who succeeded Lieut.-Col. Richmond as agent on
the frontier on the 1st Nov. 1844, received Peshawara Singh with
civilities unusual under the circumstances, and proposed to assign
him an allowance of a thousand rupees a month.
 266 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, viii

1844. equally with the soldiers, and that the Klialsa

'
was a word
'

which could be used to unite the high and low. He showed

no respect even to sardars of ability and means. Lahna Singh
Majithia quitted the Punjab, on pretence of a pilgrimage,
in the month of March 1844,^ and the only person who was
raised to any distinction was the unworthy Lai Singh, a
Brahman, and a follower of the Rajas of Jammu, but who
was understood to have gained a disgraceful influence over
the impure mind of Ram Jindan. The Pandit again, in his
arrogance, had ventured to use some expressions of im-
patience and disrespect towards the mother of the Maharaja,
and he had habitually treated Jawahir Singh, her brother,
with neglect and contempt. The impulsive soldiery was
wrought upon by the incensed woman and ambitious man ;

the relict of the great Maharaja appealed to the children of

the Khalsa, already excited by the proscribed chiefs, and
Hira Singh and Pandit Jalla perceived that their rule was
Hira Singh at an end. On the 21st December 1844 they endeavoured
to avoid the wrath of the Sikh soldiery by a sudden flight
Jalla^fly^^^
but are from the capital, but they were overtaken and slain before
and^putTo
^^^^ could reach Jammu, along with Sohan Singh, the
death, 21st cousin of the minister, and Labh Singh, so lately hailed as
Dec. 1844.
^ victorious commander. The memory of Pandit Jalla con-
tinued to be execrated, but the fate of Hira Singh excited some
few regrets, for he had well avenged the death of his father,
and he had borne his dignities with grace and modesty.^
Jawahir The sudden breaking up of Hira Singh's government
<^^^s^d some confusion for a time, and the state seemed to
L"Ts' h
attain be without a responsible head but it was gradually per-
;

power.
ceived that Jawahir Singh, the brother, and Lai Singh, the
favourite of the Rani, would form the most influential
members of the administration.^ Peshawara Singh, indeed,
escaped from the custody of the British authorities, by
whom he had been placed under surveillance, when he fled
across the Sutlej but he made no attempt at the moment
;

1 Lahna Singh went first to Hardwar and afterwards to Benares.

He next visited Gaya and Jagannath and Calcutta, and he was
residing in the last-named place when hostilities broke out with the
Sikhs.
8 Cf. Major Broadfoot to Government, 24th and 28th Dec. 1844.
 ^

CHAP, VIII PANDIT JALLA'S POLICY 267

to become supreme, and he seemed to adhere to those who 1844.

had so signally avenged him on Hira Singh .^ The services

of the troops were rewarded by the addition of half a rupee
a month to the pay of the common soldier, many fiefs were
restored, and the cupidity of all parties in the state was
excited by a renewal of the designs against Gulab Singh.
The disturbances in the mountains of Kashmir were put
down, the insurgent Fateh I^an was taken into favour,
Peshawar was secure against the power of all the Afghans,
although it was known that Gulab Singh encouraged the
reduced Barakzais with promises of support ^ but it was
;

essential to the government that the troops should be em-

ployed it was pleasing to the men to be able to gratify
:

their avarice or their vengeance, and they therefore marched

against Jammu with alacrity.*
Gulab Singh, who knew the relative inferiority of his The Sikh
soldiers, brought all his arts into play. He distributed his j^^^gg
money freely among the Panchayats of regiments, he grati- against
Jammu.
fled the members of these committees by his personal
attentions, and he again inspired Peshawara Singh with
designs upon the sovereignty itself. He promised a gratuity Feb. to
March
to the army which had marched to urge upon him the pro- 1845.
priety of submission, he agreed to surrender certain portions
of the general possessions of the family, and to pay to the
state a fine of 3,500,000 rupees.^ But an altercation arose
between the Lahore and Jammu followers when the pro-
mised donative was being removed, which ended in a fatal
affray and afterwards an old Sikh chief, Fateh Singh Man,
;

and one Bachna, who had deserted Gulab Singh's service,

were waylaid and slain.^ The Raja protested against the
accusation of connivance or treachery nor is it probable
;

1 Major Broadfoot to Government, 28tli Dec. 1844, and 4th Jan.

Cf.
184.5. As Major Broadfoot, however, x^oints out, the prince seemed
ready enough to grasp at power even so early as January.
- Cf. Major Broadfoot to Government, 28th Dec. 1844, and 2nd Jan.

1845.
Major Broadfoot to Government, 16th Jan. 1845.
^

The troops further rejected the terms to which the Lahore court
*

seemed inclined to come with Gulab Singh. (Major Broadfoot to

Government, 22nd Jan. 1845.)
5 Major Broadfoot to Government, 18th March 1845.

• Major Broadfoot to Government, 3rd March 1845.

 268 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. VIII

1845. life of any one except

that at the time he desired to take the
Bachna, who had been variously employed by him, and who
knew the extent of his resources. The act nevertheless
greatly excited the Sikh soldiery, and Gulab Singh perceived
that submission alone would -save Jammu from being
Gulab sacked. He succeeded in partially gaining over two brigades,
Singh sub-
mits and
he joined their camp, and he arrived at Lahore early in
repairs to April 1845, half a prisoner, and yet not without a reasonable
Lahore,
prospect of becoming the minister of the country for the;
April 1845.
mass of the Sikh soldiery thought that one so great had been
sufficiently humbled, the Panchayats had been won by his
money and his blandishments, and many of the old servants
of Ranjit Singh had confidence in his ability and in his good-
will towards the state generally There yet, however,
.'^

existed some remnants of the animosity which had proved

fatal to Hira Singh the representatives of many expelled
;

hill chiefs were ready to compass the death of their greatest

enemy and an Akali fanatic could take the life of the
;

'
Dogra Raja with applause and impunity. Jawahir Singh
'

plainly aimed at the office of WazIr, and Lai Singh's own

ambition prompted him to use his influence with the mother
of the Maharaja to resist the growing feeling in favour of
the chief whose capacity for affairs all envied and dreaded.
Hence Gulab Singh deemed it prudent to avoid a contest
for power at that time, and to remove from Lahore to a
place of greater safety. He agreed to pay in all a fine of
6,800,000 rupees, to yield up nearly all the districts which
had been held by his family, excepting his own proper fiefs,
and to renew his lease of the salt mines between the Indus
and Jhelum, on terms which virtually deprived him of a
large profit, and of the political superiority in the hills of
Jawahir Rohtas.2 He was present at the installation of Jawahir
Singh for-
mally ap-
Singh as WazIr on the 14th May,^ and at the betrothal of
pointed the IMaharaja to a daughter of the Atari chief Chattar Singh
Wazir,
Mav
on the 10th July * and towards the end of the following
;
14,
1845.
1 Cf. Major Broadfoot to Cilovernment, 8th and 9th April and 5th
May 1845.
2 Major Broadfoot to Government, r)th May 1845.
2 Major Broadfoot to Government, 24th May 1845.
•*
Major Broadfoot to Government, 14th July 1845.
 ;

CHAP. VIII SUBMISSION OF GULAB SINGH 269

month he retired to Jammu, shorn of much real power, but 1845.

become acceptable to the troops by his humility, and to the

finalconviction of the English authorities, that the levies of
the mountain Rajpiits were unequal to a contest even with
the Sikh soldiery.^
The able Governor of Multan was assassinated in the SawanMal,
Multan,
month of September 1844 by a man accused of marauding, of assassin-
and yet imprudently allowed a considerable degree of ated, Sept.
liberty .2 Mulraj, the son of the Diw5,n, had been appointed 1844.
or permitted to succeed his father by the declining govern- Mulraj,
his son,
ment of Hira Singh, and he showed more aptitude for affairs succeeds
than was expected. He suppressed a mutiny among the
provincial troops, partly composed of Sikhs, with vigour and
success and he was equally prompt in dealing with a younger
;

brother, who desired to have half the province assigned to

him as the equal heir of the deceased Dlwan. Mulraj put
his brother in prison, and thus freed himself from all local
dangers but he had steadily evaded the demands of the
;

Lahore court for an increased farm or contract, and he had

likewise objected to the large Nazarana ', or relief, which
'

was required as the usual condition of succession. As soon,

therefore, as Gulab Singh had been reduced to obedience, it
was proposed to dispatch a force against Multan, and the
'
Khalsa approved of the measure through the assembled
'

Panchayats of regiments and brigades. This resolution and agrees

induced the new governor to yield, and in September (1845) to the
terms of
it was arranged that he should pay a fine of 1,800,000 rupees. the Lahore

He escaped an addition to his contract sum, but he was 1845. court,

deprived of some petty districts to satisfy in a measure the

letter of the original demand.^

1 Major Broadfoot confessed that 'late events had shown the Raja's

weakness in the hills where he should have been strongest, had his
'
,

followers been brave and trusty. (Major Broadfoot to Government,

5th May 1845.)
2 Lieut. -Col. Richmond to Government, 10th Oct. 1844.

^ In this paragraph the author has followed mainly his own notes

of occurrences. The mutiny of the Multan troops took place in Nov.

1844. The Governor at once surrounded them, and demanded the
ringleaders, and on their surrender being refused, he opened a fire
upon their whole body, and killed, as was said, nearly 400 of them.
Diwan Mulraj seized and confined his brother in Aug. 1845, and in
the following month the terms of his succession were settled with the
 ; — ^

270 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, viii

l ^^5. The proceedings of Pesliawara Singh caused more dis-

The rebel-
new Wazir personally than the hostility of
q^ii^tude to tlie
lion of Gulab Singh, or the resistance of the Governor of Multan.
sfng^y^''^
The prince was vain and of slender capacity, but his rela-
tionship to Ranjit Singh gave him some hold upon the minds
of the Sikhs. He was encouraged by Gulab Singh, then safe
in the hills, and he was assured of support by the brigade of
troops which had made Jawahir Singh a prisoner, when that
chief threatened to fly with the Maharaja into the British
territories. Jawahir Singh had not heeded the value to the
state of the prudence of the soldiers in restraining him he
;

thought only of the personal indignity, and soon after his

accession to power he barbarously mutilated the commander
of the offending division, by depriving him of his nose and
March ears. Peshawara Singh felt himself countenanced, and he
1845 endeavoured to rally a party around him at Sialkot, which
he held in fief. But the Sikhs were not disposed to thus
suddenly admit his pretensions he was reduced to straits
; ;

and in the month of June he fled, and lived at large on the

country, until towards the end of July, when he surprised
the fort of Attock, proclaimed himself Maharaja, and
entered into a correspondence with Dost Muhammad Khan.
Sardar Chattar Singh of Atari was sent against the pretender,
and troops were moved from Dera Ismail Khan to aid in
reducing him. The prince was beleaguered in his fort, and
who sub- became aware of his insignificance he submitted on the 30th
;

puUo^"*^
'^
August, and was directed to be removed to Lahore, but he was
death sccretly put to death at the instigation of Jawahir Singh, and
1845^ through the instrumentality, as understood, of Fateh Khan
Tiwana, who sought by rendering an important service to
further ingratiate himself with that master for the time being
who had restored him to favour, and who had appointed him
to the management of the upper Derajat of the Indus.

Lahore court. [Miilraj never paid his fine. In April 1848, when
threatened with force, he resigned, and Kahn Singh was sent from
Lahore to relieve him, accompanied by Mr. Vans Agnew and Lieut.
Anderson. The murder of these officers on their arrival at Multan
led to the second Sikh War and the final extinction of Sikh inde-
pendence. Ed.]
1 Cf. Major Broadfoot to Government, 14th and 26th July and
8th and 18th Sept. 1845.
CHAP. VIII DEATH OF JAWAHIR SINGH 271

This last triumph was fatal to Jawahir Singh, and anger 1845.
was added to the contempt in which he had always been
The Sikh
held. He had sometimes displayed both energy and perse- soldiery
verance, but his vigour was the impulse of personal resent- displeased
and dis-
ment, and it was never characterized by judgement or by trustful.
superior intelligence. His original design of flying to the
English had displeased the Siklis, and rendered them suspi-
cious of his good faith as a member of the Khalsa and no
;

sooner had his revenge been gratified by the expulsion of

HTra Singh and Pandit Jalla, than he found himself the mere
sport and plaything of the army, which had only united with
him for the attainment of a common object The soldiery
began to talk of themselves as pre-eminently the Panth '

Klialsagi ', or congregation of believers ^ and Jawahir

;
The per-
plexity of
Singh was overawed by the spirit which animated the armed Jawahir
host. In the midst of the successes against Jammu, he Singh.
trembled for his fate, and he twice laid plans for escaping
to the south of the Sutlej but the troops were jealous of
;

such a step on the part of their nominal master. He felt

that he was watched, and he abandoned the hope of escape
to seek relief in dissipation, in the levy of Muhammadan
regiments, and in idle or desperate threats of war with his
British allies. ^ Jawahir Singh was thus despised and dis-
trusted by the Siklis themselves their enmity to him was
;

fomented by Lai Singh, who aimed at the post of wazlr ;

and the murder of Peshawara Singh added to the general

exasperation, for the act was condemned as insulting to the
people, and it was held up to reprobation by the chiefs as
one which would compromise their own safety, if allowed to
pass with impunity.^ The Panchayats of regiments met in The army
condemas
council, and they resolved that Jawahir Singh should die as
him and
a traitor to the commonwealth, for death is almost the only puts him to
death,
mode by which tumultuous, half-barbarous governments Sept. 21,
1845.
1 Or, as the Sarbat Kiialsa ', the body of the elect. Major Broad-
'

2nd Feb. 1845) thought this title, which the soldiers

foot (letter of
arrogated to themselves, was new in correspondence ; but Govern-
ment pointed out, in reply, that it was an old term according to the
Calcutta records.
2 Cf. Major Broadfoot to Government, 23rd and 28th Feb., 5th

April (a demi-official letter), and 15th and 18th Sept. 1845.

'*
Cf. Major Broadfoot to Government, 22nd Sept. 1845.
 272 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, viii

1845. can remove an obnoxious minister. He was accordingly

required to appear on the 21st September before the
assembled Ivlialsa to answer for his misdeeds. He went,
seated upon an elephant but fearing his fate, he took with
;

him the young Maharaja and a quantity of gold and jewels.

On his arrival in front of the troops, he endeavoured to gain
over some influential deputies and officers by present dona-
tives and by lavish promises, but he was sternly desired to
let the Maharaja be removed from his side, and to be himself
silent. The boy was placed in a tent near at hand, and a
party of soldiers advanced and put the wazir to death by a
discharge of musketry.^ Two other persons, the sycophants
of the minister, were killed at the same time, but no pillage
or massacre occurred ; the act partook of the solemnity
and moderation of a judicial process, ordained and witnessed
by a whole people and the body of Jawahir Singh was
;

allowed to be removed and burnt with the dreadful honours

of the SatI sacrifice, among the last, perhaps, which will
take place in India.
The army For some time after the death of Jawahir Singh, no one
ful^°^^'^'^'
seemed willing to become the supreme administrative
authority in the state, or to place himself at the head of
that self-dependent army, which in a few months had led
captive the formidable chief of Jammu, reduced to sub-
mission the powerful governor of Multan, put down the
rebellion of one recognized as the brother of the Maharaja,
and pronounced and executed judgement on the highest
functionary in the kingdom, and which had" also without
effort contrived to keep the famed Afghans in check at
Peshawar and along the frontier. Raja Gulab Singh was
urged to repair to the capital, but he and all others were
overawed, and the Rani Jindan held herself for a time a
regular court, in the absence of a wazlr. The army was
partly satisfied with this arrangement, for the committees
considered that they could keep the provinces obedient, and
they reposed confidence in the talents or the integrity of
the accountant Dina Nath, of the paymaster Bhagat Ram,
1 Cf. Major Broadfoot to Government, 26th Sept. 1845. It may be
added that the Sikhs generally regarded Jawahir Singh as one ready
to bring in the English, and as faithless to the Khalsa.
CHAP, viii DEATH OF JAWAHIR SINGH 273

and of Nur-ud-din, almost as familiar as his old and infirm 1845.

brother Aziz-ud-din, with the particulars of the treaties
and engagements with the English. The army had formerly
required that these three men should be consulted by
Jawahir Singh but the advantage of a responsible head LalSingh
;

made
was, nevertheless, apparent, and as the soldiers were by zir, wa-
and
degrees wrought upon to wage war with their European Tej Singh
neighbours. Raja Lai Singh was nominated wazir, and Comman-
der-in-
Sardar Tej Singh was reconfirmed in his office of Com- Chief, in
mander-in-Chief. These appointments were made early expectation of an Eng-
in November 1845.^^ hsh war.

^ In this paragraph the author has followed mainly his own notes
of occurrences.
 —

CHAPTER IX
THE WAR WITH THE ENGLISH
1845-6

—
Causes leading to a war between the Sikhs and English The English,
being apprehensive of frontier disturbances, adopt defensive
measures on a scale opposed to the spirit of the policy of 1809
The Sikhs, being prone to suspicion, consider themselves in
—
danger of invasion And are further moved by their want of
—
confidence in the English representative The Sikhs resolve to
anticipate the English, and wage war by crossing the Sutlej— The
tactics of the Sikhs — —
The views of the Sikh leaders Ferozepore
—
purposely spared The Battle of Mudki— The Battle of P'heeroo-
—
shuhur, and retreat of the Sikhs The effect of these barren vic-
tories upon the Indians and the English themselves — The Sikhs
— —
again cross the Sutlej The Skirmish of Badowal The Battle of
— —
Aliwal Negotiations through Raja Gulab Singh The Battle of
—
Sobraon The submission of the Sikh Chiefs, and the occupa-
— —
tion of Lahore The partition of the Punjab The Treaty with
—
Dalip Singh The Treaty with Gulab Singh Conclusion,—
relative to the position of the English in India.

1845-6. The English Government had long expected that it would

"7 '.
he forced into a war with the overbearing soldiery of the
public pre- Punjab the Indian public, which considered only the fact
:

pared for of the progressive aggrandizement of the strangers, was

between prepared to hear of the annexation .of another kingdom
the Sikhs without minutely inquiring or caring about the causes
English. which led to it ;and the more selfish chiefs of the Sikhs
had always desired that such a degree of interference should
be exercised in the affairs of their country as would guaran-
tee to them the easy enjoyment of their possessions. These
wealthy and incapable men stood rebuked before the
superior genius of Ranjit Singh, and before the mysterious
spirit which animated the people arrayed in arms, and they
thus fondly hoped that a change would give them all they
could desire ;but it is doubtful whether the Sikh soldiery
ever seriously thought, although they often vauntingly
boasted, of fighting with the paramount power of Hindu-
 ;

CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 275

Stan, until within two or three months of the first battles, 1845-6.
and even then the rude and illiterate yeomen considered
that they were about to enter upon a war purely defensive,
although one in every way congenial to their feelings of
youthful pride and national jealousy.
From the moment the Sikh army became predominant Theappre-
in the state, the English authorities had been persuaded !'u^°"f- *^
that the machinery of government would be broken up,
that bands of plunderers would everywhere arise, and that
the duty of a civilized people to society generally, and of
a governing power to its own subjects, would all combine
to bring on a collision ;and thus measures which seemed
sufficient were adopted for strengthening the frontier posts,
and for having a force at hand which might prevent
aggression, or which would at least exact retribution and
vindicate the supremacy of the English name.^ These were The fears of
Sikhs.
the fair and moderate objects of the British Government the
but the Sikhs took a different view of the relative condi-
tions of the two states ;they feared the ambition of their
great and growing neighbour, they did not understand why
they should be dreaded when intestine commotions had
reduced their comparative inferiority still lower or why
;

inefficiency of rule should be construed into hostility of

purpose ;defensive measures took in their eyes the form
of aggressive preparations, and they came to the conclusion
that their country was to be invaded. Nor does this con-
viction of the weaker and less intelligent power appear to
—
be strange or unreasonable, although erroneous for it is
always to be borne in mind that India is far behind Europe
in civilization, and that political morality or moderation is
as little appreciated in the East in these days as it was in
Christendom in the Middle Ages. Hindustan, moreover,
from Kabul to the valley of Assam and the island of Ceylon,
is regarded as one country, and dominion in it is associated

in the minds of the people with the predominance of one

monarch or of one race. The supremacy of Vikramajit and
Chandra Gupta, of the Turkomans and Mughals, is familiar
1 Cf. Minute by the Governor-General, of the 16th June 1845, and

the Governor-General to the Secret Committee, 1st October 1845.

(Parliamentary Paper, 1846.)
T2
 276 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. to and thus on hearing of further acquisitions by the

all,

English, aHindu or Muhammadan will simply observe that

the destiny of the nation is great, or that its cannon is
irresistible. A prince may chafe that he loses a province
or is rendered tributary but the public will never accuse
;

the conquerors of unjust aggression, or at least of unrighteous

and unprincipled ambition.
TheEnglish To this general persuasion of the Sikhs, in common with
advance other Indian nations, that the English were and are ever
bodies of " '

troops to- ready to extend their power, is to be added the particular

wards the bearing of the British Government towards the Punjab
trary to itself. In 1809, when the apprehensions of a French
* invasion of the East had subsided, when the resolution of
n'sno'^"^^
making the Jumna a boundary was still approved, and when
the policy of forming the province of Sirhind into a neutral
or separating tract between two dissimilar powers had been
wisely adopted, the English Viceroy had said that rather
than irritate Ranjit Singh, the detachment of troops which
had been advanced to Ludhiana might be withdrawn to
Karnal.^ It was not indeed thought advisable to carry out
the proposition but up to the period of the Afghan war
;

of 1838, the garrison of Ludhiana formed the only body of

armed men near the Sikh frontier, excepting the provincial
regiment raised at Sabathu for the police of the hills after
the Gurldia war. The advanced post on the Sutlej was of
little military or political use but it served as the most
;

conspicuous symbol of the compact with the Sikhs ; and

they, as the inferior power, were alwaj^s disposed to lean
upon old engagements as those which warranted the least
degree of intimacy or dictation. In 1835 the petty chief-
ship of Ferozepore, seventy miles lower down the Sutlej
than Ludhiana, was occupied by the English as an escheat
due to their protection of all Sikli lordships save that of
Lahore. The advantages of the place in a military point of
view had been perseveringly extolled, and its proximity to
the capital of the Punjab made Ranjit Singh, in his pro-
phetic fear, claim it as a dependency of his own.^ In 1838
the Maharaja's apprehensions that the insignificant town
1 Government to Sir David Ochterlony, 30th Jan. 1809.
2 See chap. vii.
 WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 277

would become a cantonment were fully realized for ;

1845-6.

twelve thousand men assembled at Ferozepore to march

to lOiorasan and as it was learnt, before the date fixed
;

for the departure of the army, that the Persians had raised
the siege of Herat, it was determined that a small division
should be left behind, until the success of the projected
invasion rendered its presence no longer necessary.'^ But
the succeeding warfare in Afghanistan and Sind gave the
new cantonment a character of permanency, and in 1842
the remoteness from support of the two posts on the Sutlej
was one of the arguments used for advancing a considerable
body of troops to Ambala as a reserve, and for placing
European regirrients in the hills still closer to the Sikli
frontier.^ The relations of 1809 were nevertheless cherished
by the Siklis, although they may have been little heeded by
the English amid the multifarious considerations attendant
on their changed position in India, and who, assured of
the rectitude of their intentions, persuaded of the general
advantage of their measures, and conscious of their over-
whelming power, are naturally prone to disregard the less
obvious feelings of their dependants, and to be careless of
the light in which their acts may be viewed by those whose
aims and apprehensions are totally different from their
own.
It had never been concealed from the Sikh authorities, TheEnglish
views about
that the helpless condition of the acknowledged government
Peshawar,
of the country was held to justify such additions to the and their
offer to

1 This was the understanding at the time, but no document appears

to have been drawn up to that effect. It was indeed expected that
Shah Shuja would be seated on his throne, and the British army-
withdrawn, all within a twelvemonth.
2 The author cannot refer to any written record of these reasons,

but he knows that they were used. When the step in advance was
resolved on, it is only to be regretted that the cantonment was not
formed at Sirhind, the advantages of which as a military post with
reference to the Punjab, as being central to all the principal passages
of the Sutlej, Sir David Ochterlony had long before pointed out.
(Sir D. Ochterlony to Government, 3rd May 1810.) Some delicacy,
however, was felt towards the Sikhs of Patiala, to whom Sirhind
belonged ; although the more important and less defensible step of
alarming the Sikhs of Lahore had been taken without heed or hesi-
tation.
 278 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1 845-6. troops at Ludhiana and Ferozepore as would give confidence

support *^ *^^ inhabitants of these districts, and ensure the success-
Sher Singh, ful defence of the posts themselves against predatory bands.^

with ti?
^^^ ^'** *^^ ^i**^ '^^^y *^^^ abstract right of the English
Sikhs. to make what military arrangements they pleased for the
security of their proper territories but that any danger was
:

to be apprehended from Lahore was not admitted by men

conscious of their weakness and thus by every process of
;

reasoning employed, the Sikhs still came to the same con-

clusion that they were threatened. Many circumstances,
unheeded or undervalued by the English, gave further
strength to this conviction. It had not indeed been made
known to the Sikhs that Sir William Macnaghten and others
had proposed to dismember their kingdom by bestowing
Peshawar on Shah Shuja, when Ranjit Singh's line was held
to end with the death of his grandson but it would be idle
;

to suppose the Lahore government ignorant of a scheme

which was discussed in official correspondence, and doubtless
in private society, or of the previous desire of Sir Alexander
Burnes to bestow the same tract on Dost Muhammad Khan,
which was equally a topic of conversation and the Sikh
;

authorities must at least have had a lively remembrance

of the English offer of 1843, to march upon their capital,
and to disperse their army. Again, in 1844 and 1845, the
•
facts were whispered abroad and treasured up, that the
English were preparing boats at Bombay to make bridges
across the Sutlej, that troops in Sind were being equipped
for a march on Multan,^ and that the various garrisons of
1 Cf. the Governor-General to the Secret Committee, 2nd Dec. 1845,

(Parliamentary Papers, 1846) ; and also his dispatch of the 31st

Dec. 1845 (Parliamentary Papers, p. 28).
- The collection of ordnance and ammunition at Sakhar for the

equipment of a force of five thousand men, to march towards Multan,

was a subject of ordinary official correspondence in 1844-5, as, for
instance, between the Military Board in Calcutta and the officers of
departments under its control. Sir Charles Napier assures the author
that he, although Governor, had no cognizance of the correspondence
in question, and made no preparations for equipping a force for service.
Of the fact of the correspondence the author has no doubt but the;

expression collection of the means ', used in the first edition, can be
'

held to imply too much, and the meaning is now correctly restored to
'
ordnance and ammunition'. The object of the Supreme Government
 ^
;

WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 279

the north-west provinces were being gradually reinforced, 1845-6.

while some of them were being abundantly supplied with
the munitions of war as well as with troops.'^ None of these
things were communicated to the Silch government, but
they were nevertheless believed by all parties, and they were
held to denote a campaign, not of defence, but of aggression.
The Sikhs thus considered that the fixed policy of the The Sikhs
further
English was territorial aggrandizement, and that the imme- moved by
diate object of their ambition was the conquest of Lahore. their esti-
mate of the
This persuasion of the people was brought home to them by British
the acts of the British representative for the time, and by Agent of
the day.
the opinion which they had preformed of his views. Mr.
Clerk became Lieutenant-Governor of Agra in June 1843,
and he was succeeded as Agent for the affairs of the Siklis
by Lieut. -Col. Richmond, whose place again was taken by
Major Broadfoot, a man of undoubted energy and ability,
in November of the following year. In India the views of
the British Government are, by custom, made known to
allies and dependants through one channel only, namely,
that of an accredited English officer. The personal character
of such a functionary gives a colour to all he does and says
the policy of the government is indeed judged of by the
bearing of its representative, and it is certain that the Sikli
authorities did not derive any assurance of an increasing
desire for peace, from the nomination of an officer who, thirty

was not to march on Multan at that time, but to be prepared, at least

in part, for future hostilities.
1 The details of the preparations made by Lords EUenborough
and Hardinge may be seen in an on the administration of the
article
latter nobleman, in the Calcutta Review, which is understood to be
the production of Lieut. -Col. Lawrence.
Up to 1838 the troops on the frontier amounted to one regiment at
Sabathu, and two at Ludhiana, with six pieces of artillery, equalling
in all little more than 2,500 men. Lord Auckland made the total
about 8,000, by increasing Ludhiana and creating Ferozepore.
Lord EUenborough formed further new stations at Ambala, Kasauli,
and Simla, and placed in all about 14,000 men and 48 field guns on
the frontier. Lord Hardinge increased the aggregate force to about
32,000 men, with 68 field guns, besides having 10,000 men with
artillery at Meerut. After 1843, however, the station of Karnal, on
the Jumna, was abandoned, which in 1838 and preceding years may
have mustered about 4,000 men.
2 Cf. the Governor-General to the Secret Committee, Dec.
2, 1845,
 280 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. months before, had made so stormy a passage through their

country.^
Major One of Major Broadfoot's ^ first acts was to declare the
views and^ Cis-Sutlej possessions of Lahore to be under British pro-
overt acts tection equally with Patiala and other chiefships, and also

ple*^ine to
^^ ^^ liable to escheat on the death or deposition of Maha-
the Sikhs, raja Dallp Singh .^ This view was not formally announced
to the Sikh government, but it was notorious, and Major
Broadfoot acted on it when he proceeded to interfere
authoritatively, and by a display of force, in the affairs of
the priest-like Sodhls of Anandpur-Makhowal, a fief to
which some years before it had been declared to be expedient
'
to waive all claim, especially as Ranjit Singh could best deal
with the privileged proprietors.* Again, a troop of horse
had crossed the Sutlej near Ferozepore, to proceed to Kot
Kapura, a Lahore town, to relieve or strengthen the mounted
police ordinarily stationed there but the party had crossed
;

without the previous sanction of the British Agent having

been obtained, agreeabty to an understanding between the
~ . two governments, based on an article of the treaty of 1809,
but which modified arrangement was scarcely applicable to so
small a body of men proceeding for such a purpose. Major
Broadfoot nevertheless required the horsemen to recross ;

1 Sir Claude Wade, in his Narrative of Services (p. 19, note), well
.observes to be essential to the preservation of the English system
it

of alliances in India, that political representatives should be regarded

as friends by the chiefs with whom they reside, rather than as the
mere instruments of conveying the orders or of enforcing the policy
of foreign masters.
2 See p. 238, with regard to Major Broadfoot's passage of the Punjab
in 1841.
3 Major Broadfoot's letters to Government, of the 7th Dec. 1844,

30th Jan. and 28th Feb. 1845, may be referred to as explanatory of

his views. In the last letter he distinctly says that if the young
Maharaja Dalip Singh, who was then ill of the small-pox, should die,
he would direct the reports regarding the Cis-Sutlej districts to be
made to himself (through the Lahore vakil or agent indeed), and not
to any one in the Punjab.
* With regard to Anandpur, see chap. vii. About the particular
dispute noticed in the text. Major Broadfoot's letter to Government
of the 13th Sept. 1845 may be referred to. It labours in a halting
way to justify his proceedings and his assumption of jurisdiction
under ordinarj' circumstances.
CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 281

and as he considered them dilatory in their obedience, he 1845-6.

followed them with his escort, and overtook them as they
were about to ford the river. A shot was fired by the English
party, and the extreme desire of the Sikh commandant to
avoid doing anything which might be held to compromise
his government, alone prevented a coUision.'^ Further, the
bridge-boats which had been prepared at Bombay were
dispatched towards Ferozepore in the autumn of 1845, and
Major Broadfoot almost avowed that hostilities had broken
out when he manifested an apprehension of danger to these
armed vessels, by ordering strong guards of soldiers to escort
them safely to their destination, and when he began to
exercise their crews in the formation of bridges after their
arrival at Ferozepore.^
The views held by Major Broadfoot, and virtually adopted Major
by the supreme government, with respect to the Cis-Sutlej Broadfoot's
proceed-
districts, and also the measures followed in particular ings held to
instances,may all be defended to a certain extent, as they virtually
denote war.
indeed were, on specious grounds, as on the vague declara-
tions of Sir David Ochterlony or on the deferential in-
junctions of Ranjit Singh.^ It is even believed that if the

1 Cf. Major Broadfoot to Government, 27th March 1845. It is

understood that the Government disapproved of these proceedings.
The Calcutta Review for June 1849 (p. 547) states that the Governor-
General did not, as represented, disapprove, but, on the contrary,
entirely approved, of Major Broadfoot's proceedings in this matter.
The Reviewer writes like one possessed of official knowledge, but I
am nevertheless unwilling to believe that the Governor-General could
have been pleased with the violent and unbecoming act of his agent,
although his lordship may have desired to see the irregular conduct
of the Sikhs firmly checked.
2 A detachment of troops under a European officer was required to

be sent with each batch of boats, owing to the state of the Punjab.
Nevertheless, small iron steamers were allowed to navigate the Sutlej
at the time without guards, and one lay under the guns of Phillaur
for several days without meeting aught except civility on the part
of the Sikhs.
^ Major Broadfoot is understood to have quoted to the Sikhs a

letter of Sir David Ochterlony' s, dated the 7th May 1809, to Mohkam
Chand, Ranjit Singh's representative, to the effect that the Cis-Sutlej
Lahore states were equally under British protection with other states ;

and also an order of April 1824, from Ranjit Singh, requiring his
authorities south of the Sutlej to obey the English Agent, on pain of
 282 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. cession of the tracts in question had been desired, their

relinquishment might have been effected without a resort
to arms but every act of Major Broadfoot was considered
;

to denote a foregone resolution, and to be conceived in a

spirit of enmity rather than of goodwill.^ Nor did the Sikhs

having their noses slit. It is not improbable that Sir David Ochter-
lony may, at the early date quoted, have so understood the nature
of the British connexion with reference to some particular case then
before him, but that the Cis-Sutlej states of Lahore were held under
feudal obligations to the English seems scarcely tenable, for the
following reasons : (1) The i^rotection extended by the EngUsh to
the chiefs of Sirhind was declared to mean protection to thon against
Ranjit Singh, and therefore not protection of the whole country
between the Sutlej and Jumna, a portion of which belonged to Lahore.
(See the Treaty of 1809, and Article I of the declaration of the 3rd
May 1809 ; and also Government to Sir David Ochterlony, 10th April
1809.) Further, when convenient, the British Government could even
maintain, that although the Treaty of 1809 was binding on Ranjit
Singh, with reference to Cis-Sutlej states, it was not binding on the
English, whom it simply authorized to interfere at their discretion.
(Government to Capt. Wade, 23rd April 1833.) This was indeed
written with reference to Bahawalpur, but the application was made
general. (2) The protection accorded to the chiefs of Sirhind was
afterwards extended so as to give them security in the plains, but not
in the hills, against the Gurkhas as well as against Ranjit Singh
(Government to Sir David Ochterlony, 23rd Jan. 1810) while with
;

regard to Ranjit Singh's own Cis-Sutlej possessions, it was declared

. that he himself must defend them (against Nepal), leaving it a
question of policy as to whether he should or should not be aided in
their defence. It was further added, that he might march through
his Cis-Sutlej districts, to enablehim to attack the Gurkhas in the
hills near the Jumna, in defence of the districts in question, should he
so wish. (Government to Sir David Ochterlony, 4th Oct. and
22nd Nov. 1811.) The opinion of Sir Charles Metcalfe, about the
proceedings of the English with regard to Whadni (see ante, p. 163,
note), may also be quoted as bearing on the case in a way adverse to
Major Broadfoot.
1 It was generally held by the English in India that Major Broad-

foot's appointment greatly increased the probabilities of a war with

the Sikhs and the impression was equally strong that had Mr. Clerk,
;

for instance, remained as Agent, there would have been no war. Had
Mr. Clerk again, or Col. Wade, been the British representative in
1845, either would have gone to Lahore in person, and would have
remonstrated against the selfish and unscrupulous proceedings of the
managers of affairs as obviously tending to bring on a rupture. They
would also have taken measures to show to the troops that the British
Government would not be aggressors they would have told the chiefs
;
CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 283

seem to be menaced by their allies on one side only. In the 1845-6.

summer of 1845 some horsemen from Multan crossed a few

miles into the Sind territory in pursuit of certain marauders,
and in seizing them, the Lahore soldiers were reported to

that a war would compromise them with the English, nor would they
have come away until every personal risk had been run, and every
exertion used to avert a resort to arms. That Major Broadfoot was
regarded as hostile to the Sikhs may, perhaps, almost be gathered
from his own letters. On the 19th March 1845 he wrote that the
Governor of Multan had asked what course he, the Governor, should
pursue, if the Lahore troops marched against him, to enforce obedi-
ence to demands made. The question does not seem one which a
recusant servant would put under ordinary circumstances to the
preserver of friendship between his master and the English. Major
Broadfoot, however, would appear to have recurred to the virtual
overtures of Dlwan Mulraj, for on the 20th Nov. 1845, when he wrote
to all authorities in any way connected with the Punjab, that the
British provinces were threatened with invasion, he told the Major-
General at Sakhar that the Governor of Multan would defend Sind
with his provincials against the Sikhs ! —thus leading to the belief
that he had succeeded in detaching the Governor from his allegiance
to Lahore. When this note was originally written, the author thought
that Major Broadfoot' s warning in question had been addressed to
Sir Charles Napier himself, but he has subsequently ascertained that
the letter was sent to his Excellency's deputy in the upper portion
of the country, and that Sir Charles Napier has no recollection of
receiving a similar communication.
Some allusion may also be made to a falsified speech of Sir Charles
Napier's, which ran the round of the papers at the time, about the
British army being called on to move into the Punjab, especially as
Major Broadfoot considered the Sikh leaders to be moved in a greater
degree by the Indian newspapers than is implied in a passing attention
to reiterated paragraphs about invasion. He thought, for instance,
that Pandit Jalla understood the extent to which Government
deferred to public opinion, and that the Brahman himself designed
to make use of the press as an instrument. (Major Broadfoot to
Government, 30th Jan. 1845.)
In the first edition of this history the speech of Sir Charles Napier
was referred to as if it had really been made in the terms reported,
but the author has now learnt from his Excellency that nothing
whatever was said about leading troops into the Punjab, or about
engaging in war with the Sikhs. The author has likewise ascertained
from Sir Charles Napier, that the mention made in the first edition
about a proposal to station a considerable force at Kashmor having
been disapproved by the Supreme Government is incorrect, and he
offers his apologies to the distinguished leader misrepresented for
giving original or additional currency to the errors in question.
 284 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. have used needless violence, and perhaps to have committed

other excesses. Nevertheless, the object of the troopers
was evident and the boundary of the two provinces
;

between the Indus and the hills is nowhere defined, but the
Sir Charles governor, Sir Charles Napier, immediately ordered the wing
Napier's
q£ ^ regiment
° to Kashmor, a few miles below Roihan,j
to
acts con- '

sidered preserve the integrity of his frontier from violation. The

further Lahore authorities were thus indeed put upon their guard,
hostile but the motives of Sir Charles Napier were not appreciated,
views. prompt measures of the conqueror of Sind were mis-
a,nd the
takenly looked upon as one more proof of a desire to bring
about a war with the Punjab.
The Lahore The Sikli army, and the population generally, were con-
chiefs make
yjnggd iiig^i war was inevitable but the better informed
;
'
use of the
persuasion members of the government knew that no interference was
of the
likely to be exercised without an overt act of hostility on
people for "^ •'

their own their part.'^ When moved as much by jealousy of one another
ends,
g^g ijy ^ common dread of the army, the chiefs of the Punjab

had clung to wealth and ease rather than to honour and

independence, and thus Maharaja Sher Singh, the Sindhian-
walas, and others, had been ready to become tributary, and
to lean for support upon foreigners. As the authority of the
army began to predominate, and to derive force from its
system of committees, a new danger threatened the terri-
• torial chiefs and the adventurers in the employ of the govern-
ment. They might successively fall before the cupidity of
the organized body which none could control, or an able
leader might arise who would absorb the power of all others,
and gratify his followers by the sacrifice of the rich, the
selfish, and the feeble. Even the Raja of Jammu, always'
so reasonably averse to a close connexion with the English,
began to despair of safety as a feudatory in the hills, or of
1 Enclosure No. 6 of the Governor-General's letter to the Secret
Cf.
Committee of the 2nd Dec. 1845. (Parliamentary Papers, 26th Feb.
1846, p. 21.) Major Broadfoot, however, states of Gulab Singh, what
was doubtless true of many others, viz. that he believed the English
had designs on the Punjab. (Major Broadfoot to Government,
6th May 1845.) It is indeed notorious that Sikhs and Afghans
commonljf said the English abandoned Kabul because they did not
hold Lahore, and that having once established themselves in the
Punjab, they would soon set about the regular reduction of Khorasan.
CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 285

authority as a minister at Lahore without the aid of the 1845-6.

British name, and Lai Singh, Tej Singh, and many others,
all felt their incapacity to control the troops. These and urge
equally
army
men considered that their only chance of retaining power the against the
was to have the army removed by inducing it to engage in EngHsh, in
a contest which they believed would end in its dispersion, order that
it may be
and pave the way for their recognition as ministers more destroyed.
surely than if they did their duty by the people, and earnestly
deprecated a war which must destroy the independence of
the Punjab.^ Had the shrewd committees of the armies
observed no military preparations on the part of the English,
they would not have heeded the insidious exhortations of
such mercenary men as Lai Singh and Tej Singh, although
in former days they would have marched uninquiringly

1 Cf. Enclosures to the Governor-General' s letter to the Secret Com-

mittee of the 31st Dec. 1845. (Parliamentary Papers, 26th Feb. 1840,
p. 29.) It has not been thought necessary to refer to the intemperance
of the desperate Jawahir Singh, or to the amours of the Maharani,
which, in the papers laid before the British Parliament, have been
used to heighten the folly and worthlessness of the Lahore court.
Jawahir Singh may have sometimes been seen intoxicated, and the
Maharani may have attempted little concealment of her debaucheries,
but decency was seldom violated in public and the essential forms
;

of a court were preserved to the last, especially when strangers were

present. The private life of princes may be scandalous enough, while
the moral tone of the people is high, and is, moreover, applauded and
upheld by the transgressors themselves, in their capacity of magis-
trates. Hence the domestic vices of the powerful have, comparatively,
little influence on public affairs. Further, the proneness of news-
mongers to enlarge upon such personal failings is sufficiently notori-
ous ; and the diplomatic service of India has been often reproached
for dwelling pruriently or maliciously on such matters. Finally, it is
well known that the native servants of the English in Hindustan,
who in too many instances are hirelings of little education or respect-
ability, think they best please their employers, or chime in with their
notions, when they traduce all others, and especially those with whom
there may be a rivalry or a collision. So inveterate is the habit of
flattery, and so strong is the belief that Englishmen love to be them-
selves praised and to hear others slighted, that even petty local
authorities scarcely refer to allied or dependent princes, their neigh-
bours, in verbal or in wiitten reports, without using some terms of
disparagement towards them. Hence the scenes of debauchery
described by the Lahore news-writer are partly due to his professional
character, and partly to his belief that he was saying what the English
wanted to hear.
 286 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. towards Delhi at the bidding of their great Maharaja. But

the views of the government functionaries coincided with
the beUef of the impulsive soldiery and when the men were
;

tauntingly asked whether they would quietly look on while

the limits of the Ivhalsa dominion were being reduced, and
the plains of Lahore occupied by the remote strangers of
Europe, they answered that they would defend with their
lives allbelonging to the commonwealth of Gk)bind, and
that they would march and give battle to the invaders on
their own ground.^ At the time in question, or early in
November, two Sikli villages near Ludhiana were placed
under sequestration, on the plea that criminals concealed
in them had not been surrendered.^ The measure was an
unusual one, even when the Siklis and the English werq
equally at their ease with regard to one another and the;

circumstance, added to the rapid approach of the Governor-

General to the frontier, removed any doubts which may
have lingered in the minds of the Panchayats. The men
would assemble in groups and talk of the great battle they
must soon wage, and they would meet round the tomb of
Ranjit Singh and vow fidelity to the Klialsa.^ Thus wrought
upon, war with the English was virtually declared on the
The Sikhs 17th November a few days afterwards the troops began
;

cross the ^q move in detachments from Lahore they commenced

;

11th Dec. crossing the Sutlej between Hariki and Kasur on the 11th
1845. December, and on the 14th of that month a portion of the
army took up a position within a few miles of Ferozepore.*
The initiative was thus taken by .the Sikhs, who by an
overt act broke a solemn treaty, and invaded the territories
of theirallies. It is further certain that the English people
had along been sincerely desirous of living at peace with
all
the Punjab, and to a casual observer the aggression of the

^ The ordinary private conespondence of the period contained

many statements of the kind given in the text.
^ Major Broadfoot's
official correspondence seems to have ceased
after the 21st Nov. 1845 ; and there is no report on this aifair among
his recorded letters.
^ The Lahore news-letters of the 24th Nov. 1845, prepared for

Government.
* Gf. the Governor-General to the Secret Committee, 2nd and 31st

Dec. 1845, with enclosures. (Parliamentary Papers, 1846.)

 CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 287

Sikhs may thus appear as unaccountable as it was fatal ; 1845-6.

yet further inquiry will show that the policy pursued by the
English themselves for several years was not in reality well
calculated to ensure a continuance of pacific relations, and
that they cannot therefore be held wholly blameless for a
war which they expected and deprecated, and which they
knew could only tend to their own aggrandizement. The
proceedings of the English, indeed, do not exhibit that
punctilious adherence to the spirit of first relations which
allows no change of circumstances to cause a departure from
arrangements which had, in the progress of time, come to be
regarded by a weaker power as essentially bound up with
its independence. Neither do the acts of the English seem
marked by that high wisdom and sure foresight, which
should distinguish the career of intelligent rulers acquainted
with actual life, and the examples of history. Treaties of
commerce and navigation had been urged upon the Sikhs,
notwithstanding their dislike to such bonds of unequal
union they were chafed that they had been withheld from
;

Sind, from Afghanistan, and from Tibet, merely, they would

argue, that these countries might be left open to the ambition
of the English ;and they were rendered suspicious by the
formation of new military posts on their frontier contrary
to prescriptive usage, and for reasons of which they did not
perceive the force or admit the validity. The English looked
upon these measures with reference to their own schemes of
amelioration ; and they did not heed the conclusions which
the Sikhs might draw from them, although such conclusions,
how erroneous soever, would necessarily become motives of
action to a rude and warlike race. Thus, at the last, regard
was mainly had to the chance of predatory inroads, or to
the possibility that sovereign and nobles and people, all
combined, would fatuitously court destruction by assailing
their gigantic neighbour, and little thought was given to the
selfish views of factious Sikh chiefs, or to the natural effects
of the suspicions of the Sildi commonalty when wrought
upon by base men for their own ends. Thus, too, the original
agreement which left the province of Sirhind free of troops
and of British subjects, and which provided a confederacy
of dependent states to soften the mutual action of a half-
 ^

288 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. barbarous military dominion and of a humane and civilized

government, had been set aside by the English for objects
which seemed urgent and expedient, but which were good
in their motive rather than wise in their scope. The
measure was misconstrued by the Sikhs to denote a gradual
but settled plan of conquest and hence the subjective mode
;

of reasoning employed was not only vicious in logic, but,

being met by arguments even more narrow and one-sided,
became faulty in policy, and, in truth, tended to bring about
that collision which it was so much desired to avoid.
A corresponding singleness of apprehension also led the
confident English to persevere in despising or misunder-
standing the spirit of the disciples of Gobind. The unity
and depth of feeling, derived from a young and fervid faith,
were hardly recognized, and no historical associations
exalted Sikhs to the dignity of Rajputs and Pathans.
In 1842 they were held, as has been mentioned, to be
unequal to cope with the Afghans, and even to be inferior
in martial qualities to the population of the Jammu hills.
In 1845 the Lahore soldiery was called a rabble in sober
' '

official dispatches, and although subsequent descriptions

allowed the regiments to be composed of the yeomanry of
the country, the army was still declared to be daily dete-
riorating as a military body.^ It is, indeed, certain that
English officers and Indian sepoys equally believed they
were about to win battles by marching steadily and by the
discharge of a few artillery shots, rather than by skilful
dispositions, hard fighting, and a prolonged contest.

1 Major Broadfoot to Government, 18th and 25th Jan. 1845. A

year before, Lieut. -Col. Lawi-ence {Calcutta Bevieio, No. Ill, pp. 176,
177) considered the Sikh army as good as that of any other Indian
power, and not inferior, indeed, to the Gwalior troops which fought
at Maharajpur. The Lahore artillery, however, he held to be very
bad, although he was of opinion that in position the guns would be
well served. In his Adventurer in the Punjab (p. 47, note k) he had
previously given a decided preference to the Maratha artillery.
2 Major Smyth is, however, of opinion that the sepoys in the

British service had a liigh opinion of the Sikh troops, although the
English themselves talked of them as boasters and cowards. (Major
Smyth, Reigning Family of Lahore, Introduction, pp. xxiv and xxv.)
Cf. Dr. Macgregor, History of the Sikhs, ii. 89, 90.
 s

CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 289

The English not only undervalued their enemy, but, as has 1845-6.
been hinted, they likewise mistook the form which the long- ^^^
expected aggressions of the Sikhs would assume.^ It was English
unprepared
scarcely thought that the ministry, or even that the army,
would have the courage to cross the river in force, and to campaign.
court an equal contest the known treasonable views of the
;

chiefs, and the unity and depth of feeling which possessed

the troops, were not fully appreciated, and it continued to
be believed that a desultory warfare would sooner or later
ensue, which would indeed require the British to interfere,

* Cf. the Governor-General to the Secret Committee, 31st Dec. 1845

(Parliamentary Papers, 1846), and the Calcutta Review, No. XVI,
p. 475. A few words may here be said on a subject which occasioned
some discussion in India at the time, viz. Major Broadfoot's reputed
persevering disbelief that the Sikhs would cross the Sutlej, although
his assistant, Capt. Nicolson, stationed at Ferozepore, had repeatedly
said they would. The matter was taken up by the Indian public as
if Capt. Nicolson had for several months, or for a year and more, held

that the British provinces would assuredly be invaded within a definite

period ; whereas, with regard to what the Sikh army might eventually
do, Capt. Nicolson was as uncertain as others, up to within a week or
so of the passage of the Sutlej in December 184.5. The truth seems
to be, that Major Broadfoot affected to disbelieve Capt. Nicolson'
report of the actual march and near approach of the Lahore army,
of its encampment on the Sutlej, and of its evident resolution to
cross the river, giving the preference to intelligence of a contrary
nature received direct from the Sikh capital, and which tallied with
his own views of what the Sikhs would finally do. That such was the
case, may indeed be gathered from the Governor-General's dispatch
to the Secret Committee of the 31st Dec. 1845. (Parliamentary
Papers, 1846, pp. 26, 27.)
The writer of the article in the Calcutta Review, No. XVI, endeavours
to justify Major Broadfoot's views by showing that all the officers on
the frontier held similar opinions. The point really at issue, however,
is not whether, generally speaking, invasion were probable, but
whether in the beginning of December 1845 Major Broadfoot should
not have held that the Sutlej would be crossed. The Reviewer forgets
to add that of the local officers Major Broadfoot alone knew at the
time the extent of provocation which the Sikhs had received ; and
that the officers wrote with no later news before them than that of
the 17th of November. Hence all, save Major Broadfoot himself,
had very imperfect means of forming a judgement of what was likely
to take place. With regard to what the English should have been pre-
pared against, Lieut. -Col. Richmond's letter of the 3rd April 1844,
to the address of the Commander-in-Chief, may be referred to as in
favour of having stations strong if they were to be kept up at all.
u
 — ^

290 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. IX

184&-6. but which would still enable them to do so at their own con-

venience. Thus boats for bridges, and regiments and guns,

the natural and undesigned provocatives to a war, were
sufficiently numerous but food and ammunition, and
;

carriage and hospital stores, such as were necessary for a

campaign, were all behind at Delhi or Agra, or still re-
mained to be collected for the desire of the English was,
;

it is said, peace, and they had hoped that an assemblage of

troops would prevent predatory aggression, or deter the

Sikhs from engaging in suicidal hostilities.^
The The Gk)vernor- General ^ joined the Commander-in-Chief
English
hasten to
at Ambala early in December 1845, and as soon as it seemed
oppose certain that the Sikhs were marching in force towards the
the Sikhs.
Sutlej, the English troops in the upper provinces were all
put in motion. The nearest divisions were those of Ambala,
Ludhiana, and Ferozepore, which numbered in all about
17,000 available men, with 69 field guns and as the last- ;

mentioned force was the most exposed, the Ambala troops

were moved straight to its support, and Lord Hardinge
further prudently resolved to leave Ludhiana with a mere
garrison for its petty fort, and to give Lord Gough as large
a force as possible, with which to meet the Sikhs, should
they cross the Sutlej as they threatened.

1 It was a common and a just remark at the time, that although

the Indian Government was fortunate in having a practical and ap-

proved soldier like Lord Hardinge at its head, under the circumstances
of a war in progress, yet that had Lord Ellenborough remained
Governor-General, the army would have taken the field better
equipped than it did.
[2 Henry Hardinge had succeeded Lord Ellenborough as
Sir
Governor-General in July 1844. The Commander-in-Chief was
Sir Hugh Gough.- Ed.]
^ The Ferozeshah was 17,727 men, according to
effective force at
the Calcutta Review (No. X\T:, p. 472), and 16,700 according to Lord
Hardinge's dispatch of the 31st Dec. 1845. This was the available
force, out of 32,479 men in all, posted from Ambala to the Sutlej.
The author has learnt that Lord Gough is satisfied the number of
the enemy at Ferozeshah and the other battles of the campaign have
been underestimated in this narrative. There cannot, indeed, be any
statements of decisive authority referred to, but the settled conviction
of the Commander-in-Chief is of primary consideration, and requires
to be recorded in this new edition ; especially as, with a characteristic
singleness of heart, his lordship, in noticing the probable error, had
CHAP, IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 291

The Lahore army of invasion may have equalled 35,000 1845-6.

or 40,000 men, with a hundred and fifty pieces of artillery, The
exclusive of a force detached towards Ludhiana to act as numbers of
the Sikhs.
circumstances might render advantageous. The numbers
of the Sikhs were understood at the time to greatly exceed
those given, but the strength of armies is usually exaggerated
both by the victors and the vanquished and there is no
;

satisfactory proof that the regular troops of the Sikhs

exceeded those of the English by more than a half, although
numerous bodies of undisciplined horse swelled the army of
the invaders to more than double that of their opponents.^
The Sikh leaders threatened Ferozepore, but no attack Ferozepore
threatened,
was made upon its seven thousand defenders, which with
but pur-
a proper spirit were led out by their commander, Sir John posely not
Littler, and showed a bold front to the overwhelming force attacked.

of the enemy. The object, indeed, of Lai Singh and Tej The objects
of Lai Singh
Singh was not to compromise themselves with the English and Tej
by destroying an isolated division, but to get their own Singh.

troops dispersed by the converging forces of their opponents.

Their desire was to be upheld as the ministers of a dependent
kingdom by grateful conquerors, and they thus deprecated
an attack on Ferozepore, and assured the local British
authorities of their secret and efficient goodwill. But these
men had also to keep up an appearance of devotion to the
interests of their country, and they urged the necessity of
leaving the easy prey of a cantonment untouched, until the
leaders of the English should be attacked, and the fame of
the Khalsa exalted by the captivity or death of a Governor-
General. ^ The Sikh army itself understood the necessity

regard rather to the reputation of the army he led than to his own
fame.
1 The Governor-General, in his dispatch of the 31st Dec. 1845,

estimates the Sikhs at from 48,000 to 60,000 men ;but with regard
to efficient troops, it may be observed that the whole regular army
of the country did not exceed 42,000 infantry, including the regiments
at Lahore, Multan, Peshawar, and Kashmir, as well as those forming
the main army of invasion. Perhaps an estimate of 30,000 embodied
troops of all kinds would be nearer the truth than any other.
2 It was sufficiently certain and notorious at the time that Lai

Singh was in communication with Capt. Nicolson, the British Agent

at Ferozepore, but, owing to the untimely death of that officer, the
details of the overtures made, and expectations held out, cannot now
U2
 —
292 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. of unity of counsel in the affairs of war, and the power of

The *^^^ regimental and other committees was temporarily
tactics
of the suspended by an agreement with the executive heads of
Sikhs.
^Y\e state, which enabled these unworthy men to effect their
base objects with comparative ease.^ Nevertheless, in the
ordinary military arrangements of occupying positions and
distributing infantry and cavalry, the generals and inferior
commanders acted for themselves, and all had to pay some
respect to the spirit which animated the private soldiers in
their readiness to do battle for the commonwealth of Gobind.
The effects of this enthusiastic unity of purpose in an
army, headed by men not only ignorant of warfare, but
studiously treacherous towards their followers, was con-
spicuously visible in the speediness with which numerous
heavy guns and abundance of grain and ammunition were
brought across a large river. Every Sikh considered the
cause as his own, and he would work as a labourer as well
as carry a musket he would drag guns, drive bullocks,
;

lead camels, and load and unload boats with a cheerful

alacrity, which contrasted strongly with the inapt and
sluggish obedience of mere mercenaries, drilled, indeed,
and fed with skill and care, but unwarmed by one generous
feeling for their country or their foreign employers. The
youthful Khalsa was active and strong of heart, but the
soldiers had never before met so great a foe, and their

be satisfactorily known. (Cf. Dr. Macgregor's History of the Sikhs,

ii. 80.)
The Calcutta RevieiviorJune 1849 (p. 549), while doubting the fact,
or at least the extent and importance, of Lai Singh's and Tej Singh's
treachery, admits that the former was not only in communication
with Capt. Nicolson, as stated, but that on the 7th Feb. 1846 he was
understood to have sent a plan of the Sikh position at Sobraon to
Col. Lawrence, and that on the 19th Dec. 1845, the day after the
battle of Mudki, Lai Singh's agent came to Major Broadfoot, and was
dismissed with a rebuke. [As regards Tej Singh's treachery it may
be stated that, according to a reliable tradition, that officer discovered
ammunition had been tam-
early in the operations that his artillery
pered with and much of rendered useless. Such treachery on the
it

part of his own side doubtless had a considerable effect upon his
subsequent conduct. Ed.]
1 Lai Singh was appointed wazir, and Tej Singh commander-in-

chief of the army on or about the 8th Nov. 1845, according to the
Lahore News-Letter of that date, prepared for Government.
CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 293

tactics were modified by involuntary awe of the British 1845-6.

army, renowned in the East for achievements in war. The

river had been crossed, and the treaty broken but the
;

Sikhs were startled at their own audacity, and they partially

entrenched one portion of their forces, while they timorously
kept the other as a reserve out of danger's way. Thus the
valiant Swedes, when they threw themselves into Germany
under their king, the great Gustavus, revived the castrame-
tation of Roman
armies in the presence of the experienced
commanders ^ and thus the young Telemachus,
of Austria ;

tremulously bold, hurled his unaccustomed spear against

the princes of Ithaca, and sprang for shelter behind the
^
shield of his heroic father !

The Ambala and Ludhiana divisions of the British army The battle
arrived at Mudkl, twenty miles from Ferozepore, on the jg^^^^g^'
18th December and they had scarcely taken up their
; 1845.

ground before they were attacked by a detachment of the

Sikh army, believed at the time to be upwards of thirty
thousand strong, but which really seems to have consisted
of less than two thousand infantry, supported by about
twenty-two pieces of artillery, and eight or ten thousand
horsemen.3 Lai Singh headed the attack, but, in accordance
1 As at Werben, before the battle of Leipzig. Col. Mitchell says
Gustavus owed his success almost as much to the spade as to the
sword. (Life of Wallenstein, p. 210.)
2 Odyssey, xxii. The practice of the Sikhs would probably have
resolved itself into the system of fortified camps of the Romans at
night and during halts, and into the Greek custom of impenetrable
phalanxes on the battle-field, while it almost anticipates the European
—
tendencies of the day about future warfare which are, to mass
artillery, and make it overwhelming. The Sikhs would have moved
with their infantry and guns together, while they swept the country
with their cavalry ;and it is clear that no troops in India or in
Southern Asia, save the movable brigades of the English, could have
successfully assailed them.
3 See Lord Gough's dispatch of the 19th December 1845 for the

estimate of 30,000 men, with 40 guns. Capt. Nicolson. in his private

correspondence of the period, and writing from Ferozepore, gives the
Sikh force at about 3,500 only, which is doubtless too low, although
subsequent inquiries all tended to show that the infantry portion was
weak, having been composed of small detachments from each of the
regiments in position at Ferozeshah. The Calcutta Review, No. XVI,
p. 489, estimates the guns at 22 only, and, the estimate being moderate,
it is probably correct.
 —
294 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. with his original design, he involved his followers in an

engagement, and then left them to fight as their undirected
valour might prompt. The Sikhs were repulsed with the
loss of seventeen guns,^ but the success of the English was
not so complete as should have been achieved by the victors
in so many battles ;and it was wisely determined to effect
a junction with the division of Sir John Littler before
assailing the advanced wing of the Sikli army, which was
encamped in a deep horse-shoe form around the village of
P'heerooshuhur, about ten miles both from Mudki and from
Ferozepore.^ This position was strengthened by more than
a hundred pieces of artillery, and its slight and imperfect
entrenchments had, here and there, been raised almost waist
high since the action at Mudki. It was believed at the time
to contain about fifty thousand men, but subsequent in-
quiries reduced the infantry to twelve regiments, and the
cavalry to the eight or ten thousand which had before been
engaged. The wing of the Sikh army attacked did not,
therefore, greatly surpass its assailants, except in the number
and size of its guns, the English artillery consisting almost
wholly of six and nine pounders.^ But the belief in the

1 The British loss in the action was 215 killed and 657 wounded.
(See Lord Cough's dispatch of the 19th Dec, 1845.) The force under
Lord Gough at the time amounted to about 11,000 men. In this
action the English may, in a military sense, be said to have been
surprised. Their defective system of spies left them ignorant of the
general position and probable objects of the enemy and the little
;

use their commanders have usually made, of cavalry left the near
approach of the Sikhs unknown, and therefore unchecked. [Among
the killed was Sir Robert Sale, the defender of Jalalabad. Ed.]
2 The correct name of the place, which has become identified with

an important battle, is as given in the text :

—
P'heeroo' being the
'

not uncommon name of a man, and shuhur an ordinary termina-

'
'

tion, signifying place or city. The name Ferozeshah is erroneous,

'
'

but it is one likely to be taken up on hearing P'heerooshuhur badly

'
'

pronounced by peasants and others. The Sikhs call the battle

'P'heeroo ka larai', or the fight of P'heeroo simply, without the
addition of shuhur '.
'

^ Both the Sikhs and the European officers in the Lahore service

agree in saying that there were only twelve battalions in the lines of
P'heerooshuhur, and such indeed seems to have been the truth. The
Governor- General and Commander-in-Chief vaguely estimated the
whole Sikh army on the left bank of the Sutlej at 60,000 strong, and
CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 295

fortune of the British arms was strong, and the Sepoys 1845-6.
would then have marched with alacrity against ten times
their own numbers.
A
junction was effected with Sir John Littler's division The
about midday on the 21st December, and at a distance of battle of
P'heeroo-
four miles from the enemy's position. Considerable delay shuhur, and
occurred in arranging the details of the assault, which was retreat of
the Sikhs,
not commenced until within an hour of sunset. The confident 21st and
English had at last got the field they wanted they marched 22nd Dec.
;
1845.
in even array, and their famed artillery opened its steady
fire. But the guns of the Sikhs were served with rapidity
and precision, and the foot-soldiers stood between and
behind the batteries, firm in their order, and active with their
muskets. The resistance met was wholly unexpected, and
all started with astonishment. Guns were dismounted,
and their ammunition wa's blown into the air squadrons ;

were checked in mid career battalion after battalion was

;

hurled back with shattered ranks, and it was not until after
sunset that portions of the enemy's position were finally
carried. Darkness, and the obstinacy of the contest, threw
the English into confusion men of all regiments and arms
;

were mixed together generals were doubtful of the fact or

;

of the extent of their own success, and colonels knew not

what had become of the regiments they commanded, or of
the army of which they formed a part. Some portions of
the enemy's line had not been broken, and the uncaptured
guns were turned by the Siklis upon masses of soldiers,
oppressed with cold and thirst and fatigue, and who attracted
the attention of the watchful enemy by lighting fires of
brushwood to warm their stiffened limbs. The position of

Lord Gough makes Tej Singh bring 30,000 horse, besides fresh batta-
lions,and a large park of artillery into action on the 22nd December,
which would leave but a small remaiader for the previous defence of
P'heerooshuhur. (See the dispatches of the 22nd and 31st Dec. 1845.)
The author has learnt that, after the war. Lord Gough ascertained,
through the British authorities at Lahore, that the Sikhs estimated
their numbers at P'heerooshuhur at 46,808 men, of all kinds, with
88 guns, including those brought up and taken away by Tej Singh '.
'

This low estimate of the strength of the Sikhs in artillery is in favour

of the credibility of the statement, and if Tej Singh's men are likewise
included in the numbers given, the estimate may perhaps be fully
trusted.
 ;

29G HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. the English was one of real danger and great perplexity
their mercenaries had proved themselves good soldiers in
foreign countries as well as in India itself, when discipline
was little known, or while success was continuous but in;

a few hours the five thousand children of a distant land

found that their art had been learnt, and that an emergency
had arisen which would tax their energies to the utmost.
On that memorable night the English were hardly masters
of the ground on which they stood ;they had no reserve at
hand, while the enemy had fallen back upon a second armj%
and could renew the fight with increased numbers. The
not imprudent thought occurred of retiring upon Feroze-
pore ; but Lord Gough's dauntless spirit counselled other-
wise, and his own and Lord Hardinge's personal intrepidity
in storming batteries, at the head of troops of English gentle-
men and bands of hardy yeomen, eventually achieved a
partial success and a temporary repose. On the morning of
the 22nd December, the last reinnants of the Sikhs were
driven from their camp but as the day advanced the second
;

wing of their army approached in battle-array, and the

wearied and famished English saw before them a desperate
and, perhaps, useless struggle. This reserve was commanded
by Tej Singh he had been urged by his zealous and sincere
;

soldiery to fall upon the English at daybreak, but his object

was to have the dreaded army of the Khalsa overcome and
dispersed, and he delayed until Lai Singh's force was every-
where put to flight, and until his opponents had again ranged
themselves round their colours. Even at the last moment
he rather skirmished and made feints than led his men to
a resolute attack, and after a time he precipitately fled,
leaving his subordinates without orders and without an
object, at amoment when the artillery ammunition of the
English had failed, when a portion of their force was retiring
upon Ferozepore, and when no exertions could have pre-
vented the remainder from retreating likewise, if the Sikhs
had boldly pressed forward.^
^ For the battle of P'heerooshuhur, see Lord Gough's dispatch of
the 22nd, and Lord Hardinge's of the 31st Dee. 1845. The Governor-
General notices in especial the exertions of the infantry soldiers
and one of the charges made by the 3rd Light Dragoons has been a
 — —
CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 297

A battle had thus been won, and more than seventy 1845-6.
jiieces of and some conquered or confiscated
artillery
The diffi-
culties and
theme of general admiration. The loss sustained was 694 killed, and apprehen-
1,721 wounded. [The casualties among the officers were very heavy sions of the
103 in all. Among them was the political officer, Major Broadfoot, English.
who has figured so prominently in previous pages. Ed.]
After the war. Lord Gough learnt that the loss of the Sikhs in killed
probably amounted to 2,000 in all, as the heirs of 1,782 men of tlie
regular troops alone claimed balances of pay due to relatives slain.
This argues a great slaughter ; and yet it was a common remark at
the time, that very few dead bodies were to be seen on the field after
the action.
The statements of the Quarterly Review for June 1846, pp. 203-6,
and of the Calcutta Revieiv for Dec. 1847, p. 498, may be referred to
about certain points still but imperfectly known, and which it is only
necessary to allude to in a general way in this history. Two of the
points are : (1) the proposal to fall back on Ferozepore during the
night of the 21st December ; and (2) the actual movement of a con-
siderable portion of the British army towards that place on the fore-
noon of the following day.
Had the Sikhs been efficiently commanded, a retirement on Feroze-
pore would have been judicious in a military point of view, but as
the enemy was led by traitors, it was best to fearlessly keep the field
Perhaps neither the incapacity nor the treason of Lai Singh and Tej
Singh were fully perceived or credited by the English chiefs, and
hence the anxiety of the one on whom the maintenance of the British
dominion intact mainly depended.
At P'heerooshuhur the larger calibre and greater weight of metal
of the mass of the vSikh artillery, and consequently the superiority
of practice relatively to that of the field guns of the English, was
markedly apparent in the condition of the two parks after the battle.
The captured cannon showed scarcely any marks of round shot or
shells, while nearly a third of the British guns were disabled in their
carriages or tumbrils.
With regard to this battle it may be observed that the English
had not that exact knowledge of the Sikh strength and position which
might have been obtained even by means of reconnoitring ; and it
may also perhaps be said that the attack should have been made in
column rather than in line, and after the long flanks of the enemy's
position had been enfiladed by artillery. The extent, indeed, to
which the English were unprepared for a campaign, and the manner
in which their forces were commanded in most of the actions of the
war, should be carefully borne in mind ; for it was defective tactics
and the absolute want of ammunition, as much as the native valour
and aptitude of the Sikhs, which gave for a time a character of equality
to the struggle, and which in this history seems to make a compara-
tively petty power dispute with the English supremacy in Northern
India. Had the English been better led and better equipped, the
 —
298 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. territories graced the success but the victors had lost
;

a seventh of their numbers, they were paralysed after their

prodigious exertions and intense excitement, and the Sikhs
were allowed to cross the Sutlej at their leisure to prepare
for fresh contests. The sepoy mercenaries had for the first
time met an equal antagonist with their own weapons
even ranks and the fire of artillery. They loudly complained
of the inferiority of their cannon they magnified banks
;

two and three feet high into formidable ramparts, and

exploding tumbrils and stores of powder became, in their
imaginations, designed and deadly mines. Nor was this
feeling of respect and exaggeration confined to the Indians
alone the European soldiers partook of it and the British
; ;

public, as well as the dignitaries of the church and the heads

of the state, became impressed with the immensity of the
danger which had threatened the peace, and perhaps the
safety, of their exotic dominion.^ Regiments of men, and

fame of the Sikhs would not have been so great as it is, and the British
chronicler would have been spared the ungracious task of declaring un-
pleasing truths. No one, however, can be insensible to the claims which
the veteran chief of the army has established to his country' s gratitude,
m
by his cheering hardihood under ev c circumstance of danger, and by
his great successes over all opponents. The robust character of Lord
Gough has on many occasions stood England in good stead.
1 The alarm of the English about the occupation of Delhi and the

passage of the Jumna, may be likened to the nervous dread of Augus-

tus, when he heard of the defeat of Varus and the destruction of his
legions and that one so astute, and so familiar with the sources of
;

Roman power and the causes of Roman weakness, should have feared
the consequences of a German invasion of Italy, at once palliates
the apprehensions of the English in India and shows upon what
slight foundations and undreamt-of chances the mightiest fabrics of
dominion sometimes rest. Yet it is not clear that Augustus was not
alarmed rather for himself than for Rome. He may have thought
that a successful inroad of barbarians would encourage domestic
enemies, and so lead to his own downfall, without sensibly affecting
the real power of his country. Similarly, the apprehensions of the
English after P'heerooshuhur may be said to have had a personal as
much as a national reference, and there is no good reason for believing
that one or two or even three defeats on the Sutlej would have shaken
the stability of the British rule to the east and south of Delhi. All
the chiefs of India, indeed, are willing enough to be independent,
but no union for any such purpose yet exists among them, and only
one or two are at any moment ready to take up arms whereas the
;
CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 299

numerous single officers variously employed, were summoned 1845-

from the most distant provinces to aid in vindicating the

military renown of the English race, and the political supre-
macy of three generations. All longed for retribution, and
all were cheered amid their difficulties by the genial temper
and lofty bearing of one chief and by the systematic
;

industry and full knowledge of military requirements

possessed by the other. But joy and gratitude were yet
uppermost for the moment the hope of revenge was dis-
;

turbed by the remembrance of danger and, unmindful of

;

the rebuke of the wise Ulysses, a partial Divinity was praised

by proclamation, for the deliverance he had vouchsafed to
his votaries.
Unholy is the voice
Of loud thanksgiving over slaughtered men.^

resources of the English are vast, obedience among them is perfect,

and \'ictory would soon return to valour and unanimity. Still, an
unsuccessful warfare on the part of the English of three or four con-
secutive years, might justly be regarded as the commencement of
their decline ; although it is very doubtful whether any combination
of the present powers of India could drive them from Bengal, or from
the coasts of the Deccan.
* Odyssey, xxii. The Governor-General's notification of the
25th December 1845 calls upon the troops to render acknowledge-
ments to God, and the ecclesiastical authorities in Calcutta subse-
quently circulated a form of thanksgiving. The anxiety of the
Governor-General may be further inferred from his proclamation,
encouraging desertion from the Sikh ranks, with the assurance of
present rewards and future pensions, and the immediate decision of any
lawsuits in which the deserters might he engaged in the British 'provinces !
(Major Smith, Reigning Family of Lahore, Introduction, p. xxvi n.)
The feeling which prompted the troops of Cromwell or Gustavus to
kneel and return thanks to God on the field of victory must ever be
admired and honoured for it was genuine, and pervaded all ranks,
;

from the leader downwards, and it would equally have -moved the
soldiers to reproaches and humiliation had they been beaten. But
such tokens of reverence and abasement come coldly and without a
vital meaning in the guise of a general order or circular memo-
'
'
'

randum ' ; and perhaps a civilized and intelligent government might

with advantage refrain ffom such tame and passionless assurances of
devotion and gratitude, while it gave more attention to religious
exercises in its regimental regulations. God should rather be kept
ever present to the minds of the armed servants of the state by daily
worship and instruction, than ostentatiously lauded on the rare
occasion of a victory.
 300 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. The British army was gradually reinforced, and it took

~ „.. , up a position stretching from Ferozepore towards Hariki,
recross the and parallel to that held by the Sildis on the right bank of
Sutlej, and
^j^g Sutlej. But the want of ammunition and heavy guns
Ludhiana, reduced the English to inactivity, and delay produced
Jan. 1846. negligence on their part and emboldened the enemy to fresh

acts of daring. The Cis-Sutlej feudatories kept aloof from

their new masters, or they excited disturbances and the ;

Raja of Ladwa, a petty prince dependent on the English,

but who had been denounced as a traitor for a year past,^
openly proceeded from the neighbourhood of Karnal, and
army under Ranjor Singh,
joined the division of the Sikh
which had crossed the JuUundur Doab, to the neighbour-
hood of Ludhiana. This important town had been denuded
of its troops to swell the first army of defence, and it was
but slowly and partially garrisoned by fresh regiments
arriving from the eastward, although it covered the several
lines of approach from the Jumna towards Ferozepore.^
Early in January the Raja of Ladwa returned to withdraw
1 Major Broadfoot to Government, 13th Dec. 1844. This chief
received the title of Raja from Lord Auckland, partly as a compliment
to Ranjit Singh, to whom he was related, and partly in approbation
of his liberality in providing the means of throwing a bridge across
the classical Sarsuti, at Thanesar. He was a reckless, dissipated man,
of moderate capacity ; but he inherited the unsettled disposition of
his father, Gurdut Singh, who once held Karnal and some villages to
the east of the Jumna, and who caused the English some trouble
between 1803 and 1809.
^ It is not clear why Ludhiana
was not adequately garrisoned, or
rather covered, by the troops which marched from Meerut after the
battle of P'heerooshuhur. The Governor-General's attention was,
indeed, chiefly given to strengthening the main army in its unsupported
—
position of Ferozepore the real military disadvantage of which he
had ample reason to deplore ; while amidst his difficulties it may
possibly have occurred to his Lordship, that the original policy of
—
1809 of being strong on the Jumna rather than on the Sutlej was —
a truly wise one with reference to the avoidance of a war with the
Sikhs.
The desire of being in force near the capitals of the Punjab and the
main army of the Sikhs likewise induced Lord Hardinge to direct
Sir Charles Napier to march from Sind, without heeding Multan,
although, as his Lordship publicly acknowledged, that victorious
commander had been sent for when it was thought the campaign
might become a series of sieges.
CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 301

his family from his fief of Badowal near Ludhiana, and he 1845-6.
took the opportunity of burning a portion of the cantonment
at the latter place, which the paucity of infantry and the
want of cavalry on the spot enabled him to do with impunity.
About the same time, the main army of the Sikhs, observing
the supineness of their opponents, began to recross the
Sutlej and to construct a bridge-head to secure the freedom
of their passage. The English were imwillingly induced to
let the Sikhs labour at this work, for it was feared that an
attack would bring on a general engagement, and that the
want of ammunition would prevent a battle being won or
a victory being completed. The Sikhs naturally exulted,
and they proclaimed that they would again fall upon the
hated foreigners. Nor were their boasts altogether dis-
believed the disadvantages of Ferozepore as a frontier post
;

became more and more apparent, and the English began to

experience difficulty in obtaining supplies from the country
they had annexed by the pen without having secured by
the sword. The petty fort of Muktsar, where Gobind
repulsed his Mughal pursuers after his flight from Chamkaur,
was successfully defended for a time against some provincial
companies and the auxiliaries of BIkanir, which, like the
legionaries themselves, were deficient in artillery ammuni-
tion. The equally petty fort of Dharmkot was held, in
defiance of the near presence of the right wing of the English
army and other defensible places towards Sirhind over-
;

awed the population, and interfered with the peaceful

march of convoys and detachments.^
On the 17th January 1846, Major-General Sir Harry The skir-
Smith 2 was sent with a brigade to capture Dharmkot, b"X)°^-i
1 The hill station of Simla, where many English families reside, ^^"* »

and which is near the Sutlej, and the equally accessible posts of
Kasauli and Sabathu, were at this time likewise threatened by the
Lahore feudatory of Mandi, and some Sikh partisans ; and as the
regiments usually stationed at these places had been wholly withdrawn,
it would not have been difficult to have destroyed them. But the
local British authorities were active in collecting the quotas of the
hillRajputs, and judicious in making use of their means ; and no
actual incursion took place, although a turbulent siiarer in the
sequestered Anandpxu--Makhowal had to be called to account.
[2 This distinguished officer, who fought through the Peninsular War,
afterwards served in South Africa, where his memory is commemorated
 —
302 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. which was surrendered without bloodshed, and the transit

of grain to the army was thus rendered more secure. The
original object of Sir Harry Smith's diversion was to cover
the march of the large convoy of guns, ammunition, and
treasure in progress to Ferozepore, as well as to clear the
country of partisan troops which restricted the freedom of
traffic ; but when it became known that Ranjor Singh had
crossed the Sutlej in force and threatened Ludhiana, the
General was ordered to proceed to the relief of that place.
On the 20th of January he encamped at the trading town
of Jugraon, within twenty-five miles of his destination, and
the authorities of the son of Fateh Singh Ahluwalia, of
the treaty of 1805, to whom the place belonged, readily
allowed him to occupy its well-built fort. It was known on
that day that Ranjor Singh was in position immediately
to the westward of Ludhiana, and that he had thrown a small
garrison into Badowal, which lay about eighteen miles
distant on the direct road from Jugraon. The British
detachment, which had been swelled by reinforcements to
four regiments of infantry, three regiments of cavalry, and
eighteen guns, marched soon after midnight and early;

on the morning of the 21st January it was learnt that the

whole Sikh army, estimated at ten thousand men, had
moved to Badowal during the preceding day. That place
was then distant eight miles from the head of the column,
and Sir Harry Smith considered that if he made a detour to
the right, so as to leave the Sikhs about three miles on his
other flank, he would be able to effect his junction with the
Ludhiana brigade without molestation. A short halt took
place to enable the baggage to get somewhat ahead, and it
was arranged that the long strings of animals should move
parallel to the troops and on the right flank, so as to be
covered by the column. As Badowal was approached, the
Sikhs were seen to be in motion likewise, and apparently
to be bent on intercepting the English but as it was not
;

wished to give them battle. Sir Harry Smith continued his

by the towns of Aliwal and Harrismith. His wife, a Spanish lady,

who accompanied him through the Peninsular campaigns, also gave
—
her name to a South African town, 'Ladysmith', a place not without
fame. Ed.]
CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 303

march, inclining however still more to his right, and making 1845-6.

occasional halts with the cavalry to enable the infantry to

close up, it having fallen behind owing to the heavy nature
of the ground. But the Sikhs were resolved on fighting,
and they commenced a fire of artillery on the British horse,
which obtained a partial cover under sand-banks, while the
guns of the detachment opened upon the Sikhs and served
to keep their line in check. By the time that the British
infantry and small rear-guard of cavalry had closed up, the
fire of the Sikhs had begun to tell, and it was thought that
a steady charge by the infantry would throw them into
disorder, and would allow the baggage to pass on, and give
time to the Ludhiana troops to come to the aid of their
comrades. A close contest was indeed the prompting of
every one's heart at the moment but as the regiments of
;

foot were being formed into line, it was found that the
active Sikhs had dragged guns, unperceived, behind sand
hillocks to the rear of the column —
or, as matters then
stood, that they had turned their enemy's left flank. These
guns threw their enfilading shot with great rapidity and
precision, and whole sections of men were seen to fall at a
time without an audible groan amid the hissing of the iron
storm. The ground was heavy, the men were wearied with
a march of nine hours and eighteen miles, and it became
evident that a charge might prove fatal to the exhausted
victors. The infantry once more resumed its march, and
its retirement or retreat upon Ludhiana was covered with
skill and steadiness by the cavalry.^ The Sikhs did not
pursue, for they were without a leader, or without one who
wished to see the English beaten. Ranjor Singh let his
soldiers engage in battle, but that he accompanied them
into the fight is more than doubtful, and it is certain that
he did not essay the easy task of improving the success of
his own men into the complete reverse of his enemy. The
mass of the British baggage was at hand, and the temptation
to plunder could not be resisted by men who were without
orders to conquer. Every beast of burden which had not
got within sight of Ludhiana, or which had not, timorously
but prudently, been taken back to Jugraon, when the firing
[1 Under Col. Cureton.— Ed. ]
 304 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS
1845-6. was heard, fell into the hands of the Sikhs, and they were

enabled boastfully to exhibit artillery store carts as if they

had captured British cannon.^
The Sikhs Ludhiana was relieved, but an unsuccessful skirmish
encour-
aged,
added to the belief so pleasing to the prostrate princes of
and Gulab India, that the dreaded army of their foreign masters had
Singh in-
at last been foiled by the skill and valour of the disciples
duced to
repair to of Gobind, the kindred children of their own soil. The British
Lahore.
sepoys glanced furtively at one another, or looked towards
the east, their home and the brows of Englishmen them-
;

selves grew darker as they thought of struggles rather than

triumphs. The Governor- General and Commander-in-Chief
trembled for the safety of that siege train and convoy of
ammunition, so necessary to the efficiency of an army which
they had laimched in haste against aggressors and received
back shattered by the shock of opposing arms. The leader
of the beaten brigades saw before him a tarnished name after
the labours of a life, nor was he met by many encouraging
hopes of rapid retribution. The Sikhs on their side were
correspondingly elated the presence of European prisoners
;

added to their triumph Lai Singh and Tej Singh shrank

;

within themselves with fear, and Gulab Singh, who had been
spontaneously hailed as minister and leader, began to think
that the Khalsa was really formidable to one greater far
than himself, and he arrived at Lahore on the 27th of
January, to give unity and vigour to the coimsels of the
Sikhs.2 The army under Tej Singh had recrossed the Sutlej
in force it had enlarged the bridge-head before alluded to,
;

and so entrenched a strong position in the face of the British

divisions. The Sikhs seemed again to be about to carry the
war into the country of their enemy but Gulab Singh came
;

—
too late their fame had reached its height, and defeat and
subjection speedily overtook them.

1 Cf. the Governor-General to the Secret Committee, 19th Jan.

and 3rd Feb., and Lord Gough's dispatch of the 1st Feb. 1845. After
the skirmish of the 21st January there were found to be sixty-nine
killed, sixty-eight wounded, and seventy-seven missing ; of which
last, several were taken prisoners, while others rejoined their corps
in a day or two. Of the prisoners, Mr. Barron, an assistant-surgeon,
and some European soldiers were taken to Lahore.
2 Cf. the Governor-General to the Secret Committee, 3rd Feb. 1846.
CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 305

During the night of the 22nd January, Ranjor Singh 1845-6.

marched from Badowal to a place on the Sutlej about fifteen
~
miles below Ludhiana, where he immediately collected a of Aliwal
number of boats as if to secure the passage of the river. 28th Jan.

The object of this movement is not known but it may have

;

been caused by a want of confidence on the part of the Sikhs

themselves, as there were few regular regiments among them,
until joined by a brigade of four battalions and some guns
from the main army, which gave them a force of not less
than fifteen thousand combatants. Sir Harry Smith imme-
diately occupied the deserted position of the enemy, and he
was himself reinforced simultaneously with the Sikhs by
a brigade from the main army of the English. On the 28th
January the General marched with his eleven thousand men,
to give the enemy and
battle, or to reconnoitre his position
some degree of form, should circumstances render
assail it in
such a course the most prudent. The Sikhs were nearly ten
miles distant, and midway it was learnt that they were
about to move with the avowed object of proceeding with
a part or the whole of their force to relieve the fort of
Gungrana or to occupy the neighbouring town of Jugraon,
both of which posts were close to the line of the British
communications with the Jumna. On reaching the edge of
the table-land, bounding the sunken belt of many miles in
breadth within which the narrower channel of the Sutlej
proper winds irregularly, a portion of the Sikhs were observed
to be in motion in a direction which would take them clear
of the left of the British approach but as soon as they saw
;

that they were liable to be attacked in flank, they faced

towards their enemy, and occupied with their right the
village of Biindri, and with their left the little hamlet of
Aliwal, while with that activity necessary to their system,
and characteristic of the spirit of the common soldiers,
they immediately began to throw up banks of earth before
their guns, where not otherwise protected, such as would
afford some cover to themselves and offer some impediment
to their assailants. An immediate collision was inevitable,
and the British commander promptly gave the order for
battle. The regiments of cavalry which headed the advance
opened their glittering ranks to the right and left, and made
 306 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. apparent the serried battalions of infantry and the frowning

batteries of cannon. The scene was magnificent and yet
overawing the eye inchided the whole field, and glanced
:

approvingly from the steady order of one foe to the even

array of the other all bespoke gladness of mind and strength
;

of heart but beneath the elate looks of the advancing

;

warriors there lurked that fierce desire for the death of his
fellows which must ever impel the valiant soldier, ^^^len
thus deployed, the lines of battle were not truly parallel.
The Sikh line inclined towards and extended beyond the
British right, while the other flanks were, for a time, com-
pa^ati^•ely distant. The English had scarcely halted during
their march of eight miles, even to form their line but the ;

Sikhs nevertheless commenced the action. It was perceived

by Sir Harry Smith that the capture of the village of Aliwal
was of the first importance, and the right of the infantry
was led against it. A deadly struggle seemed impending ;

for the Sildi ranks were steady and the play of their guns
incessant but the holders of the post were battalions of
;

hill-men, raised because their demeanour was sober, and their

hearts indifferent to the Khalsa, and after firing a straggling
volley, tliey fled in confusion, headed by Ranjor Singh,
their immediate leadrr, and leaving the brave Sikh artillery-
men to be slaughtered by the conquerors. The British
• cavalry of the right made at the same time a sweeping and
successful charge, and one-half of the opposing army was
fairly broken and dispersed but the Sikhs on their own
;

right seemed to be outflanking their opponents in spite of

the exertions of the English infantry and artillery for ;

there tlie more regular battalions were in line, and the true
Sikh was not easily cowed. A prompt and powerful effort
was necessary, and a regiment of European lancers,^ sup-
ported by one of Indian cavalry, was launched against the
even ranks of the Lahore infantry. The Siklis knelt to
receive the orderly but impetuous charge of the English
warriors,moved alike by noble recollections of their country,
by military emulation, and by personal feelings of revenge ;

but at the critical moment, the unaccustomed discipline of

many of Gk)bind's champions failed them. They rose, yet
[1 H.M.'s 16th Lancers, under Col. Cureton.^Eo.]
 ^ —
CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 307

they reserved their fire, and dehvered it together at the 1845-6.

distance of a spear's throw nor was it until the mass had
;

been three times ridden through that the Sikhs dispersed.

The charge was timely and bold but the ground was more
;

thickly strewn with the bodies of victorious horsemen than

of beaten infantry. An attempt was made to rally behind
Bundrl but all resistance was unavailing, the Siklis were
;

driven across the Sutlej, more than fifty pieces ^ of cannon

were taken, and the General forgot his sorrows, and the
soldiers their sufferings and indignities, in the* fullness of
their common triumph over a worthy enemy, in a well-
planned and bravely fought battle.
number
\} Sixty-seven is the official Ed.]
given.
2 Cf. Sir Harry Smith's dispatch of the 30th January, and Lord
Gough's dispatch of the 1st February 1846. (Parliamentary Papers,
1846.) The loss sustained was 151 killed,413 wounded, and 25 missing.
The Calcutta Review, No. XVI, p. 499, states that Sir Harry Smith
required some pressing before he would engage the Sikhs, after his
reverse at Badowal. That active leader, however, was in no need of
such promptings, and had adequate reinforcements reached him
sooner than they did, the battle of Aliwal would have been sooner
fought. It may likewise be here mentioned, that neither does the
reviewer throughout his article do fair justice to Lord Gough, nor, in
a particular instance, to the commissariat department of the army.
Thus, with regard to the Commander-in-Chief, it is more than hinted
(gee p. 497), that Lord Hardinge was in no way to blame —
that is,
—
that Lord Gough was to blame for the delay which occurred in
attacking the Sikhs at P'heerooshuhur. It may be difficult to ascer-
tain the caiises, or to apportion the blame, but the Governor-General
can proudly stand on his acknowledged merits and services, and wants
no support at the expense of an ancient comrade-in-arms. Again,
with regard to the commissariat, it is stated, at p. 488, that supplies,
which the head of the department in the field asked six weeks to
furnish, were procured by Major Broadfoot in six days. The com-
missariat department could only use money and effect purchases by
contract, or in the open market ; but Major Broadfoot could sum-
marily require protected chiefs ', on pain of confiscation, to meet all
'

his demands ; and the writer of the article might have learnt, or must
have been aware, that the requisitions in question led to one chief
being disgraced by the imposition of a fine, and had some share in
the subsequent deposal of another. Had the British magistrates of
Delhi, Saharanpur, Bareillj', and other places, been similarly em-
powered to seize by force the grain and carriage within their limits,
there would have been no occasion to disparage the commissariat
department. Further, it is known to many, and it is in itself plain,
that had the military authorities been required, or allowed, to prepare
X2
 308 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. The victory was equally important and opportune, and

The Sikh ^^^ time-serving Gulab Singh, whose skill and capacity
chiefs might have protracted the war, first reproached the van-
trea\°Tnd'
Q^ished Sikhs for rashly engaging in hostilities with their
the Enghsh colossal neighbour, and then entered into negotiations with

ShS'the *^^ English leaders.^ The Governor- General was not dis-
war. pleased that the Lahore authorities should be ready to
yield for he truly felt that to subjugate the Punjab in one
;

season, to defeat an army as numerous as his own, to take

two capitals, and to lay siege to Multan, and Jammu, and
— —
Peshawar all within a few months was a task of difficult
achievement and full of imminent risks. The dominion of
the English in India hinges mainly upon the number and
efficiency of the troops of their owti race which they can
bring into the field and a campaign in the hot weather
;

would have thinned the ranks of the European regiments

under the most favourable circumstances, and the ordinary
recurrence of an epidemic disease would have proved as fatal
to the officers of every corps present as to the common
soldiers. But besides this important consideration, it was
feltthat the minds of men throughout India were agitated,
and that protracted hostilities would not only jeopardize
the communications with the .Jimma, but might disturb the
whole of the north-western provinces, swarming with a
. military population which is ready to follow any standard
affording pay or allowing plunder, and which already sighs
for the end of a dull reign of peace. Bright visions of
standing triumphant on the Indus and of numbering the
remotest conquests of Alexander among the provinces of
Britain, doubtless warmed the imagination of the Governor-

themselves as they wished, they as simple soldiers, who had no finan-

cial difficulties to consider, would have been amply prepared with ail
that an army of invasion or defence could have required, long before
the Sikhs crossed the Sutlej. Lord Hardinge was chiefly responsible
for the timely and adequate equipment of the army, in anticipation
of a probable war ; and with the Governor-General in the field,
possessed of superior and anomalous powers, the Commander-in-Chief
—
could only be held responsible and that but to a limited extent for—
the strategy of a campaign or the conduct of a battle.
* Cf. the Governor-General to the Secret Committee, of the 19th

Feb. 184(3.
CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 309

General ; but the first object was to drive the Siklis across 1845-6.
the Sutlej by force of arms, or to have them withdrawn to
their own side of the river by the unconditional submission
of the chiefs and the delegates of the army for, until that
;

were done, no progress could be said to have been made in

the war, and every petty chief in Hindustan would have
silently prepared for asserting his independence, or for
enlarging his territory on the first opportunity. But the
total dispersion of so large and so well equipped a body of
brave men, as that which lay within sight of the available
force of the British Government, could not be accomplished
by one defeat, if the chiefs of the country were to be rendered
desperate, and if all were to place their valour and unanimity
under the direction of one able man. The English, therefore,
intimated to Gulab Singh their readiness to acknowledge a
Sikh sovereignty in Lahore after the army should have been
disbanded but the Raja declared his inability to deal with
;

the troops, which still overawed him and other well-wishers

to the family of Ranjit Singh. This helplessness was partly
exaggerated for selfish objects ;but time pressed the
;

speedy dictation of a treaty under the walls of Lahore was

essential to the British reputation and the views of either
;

party were in some sort met by an understanding that the An under-

Sikh army should be attacked by the English, and that come to
when beaten it should be openly abandoned by its own that the
government and further, that the passage of the Sutlej g^^^jj ^™^
;

should be unopposed and the road to the capital laid open attacked by
to the victors. Under such circumstances of discreet policy deserted by
and shameless treason was the battle of Sobraon fought.^ the other.

The Sikhs had gradually brought the greater part of their The
force into the entrenchment on the left bank of the Sutlej, pos^^fjn^of
which had been enlarged as impulse prompted or as oppor- the Sikhs.
tunity seemed to offer. They placed sixty-seven pieces of

1 Cf. the Governor-General's letter to the Secret Committee, of

the 19th Feb. 1846 from which, however, those only who were mixed
;

up with the negotiations can extract aught indicative of the under-

standing with Gulab Singh which is alluded to in the text. It was for
this note chiefly, if not entirely, that the author was removed from
political employment by the East India Company. This was the
author's own conviction, from careful inquiries made in India and
;

has been the result of equally careful inquiries made by me in England.

 —

310 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. artillery in battery, and their strength was estimated at

thousand fighting men
thirty-five but it is probable that
;

twenty thousand would exceed the truth and of that

;

reduced number, it is certain that all were not regular troops.

The entrenchment likewise showed a fatal want of unity of
command and of design ; and at Sobraon, as in the other
battles of the campaign, the soldiers did everything and the
leaders nothing. Hearts to dare and hands to execute were
numerous but there was no mind to guide and animate the
;

whole :each inferior commander defended his front ac-

cording to his skill and his means, and the centre and left,
where the disciplined battalions were mainly stationed, had
batteries and salient points as high as the stature of a man,
and ditches which an armed soldier could not leap without
exertion but a considerable part of the line exliibited at
;

intervals the petty obstacles of a succession of such banks

and trenches as would shelter a crouching marksman or
help him to sleep in security when no longer a watcher. This
was especially the case on the right flank, where the loose-
ness of the river sand rendered it impossible to throw up
parapets without art and labour, and where irregular troops,
the least able to remedy such disadvantages, had been
allowed or compelled to take up their position. The flank in
question was mainly guarded by a line of two hundred
.
' zamburuks or falconets ^
'
but it derived some support
;

from a salient battery, and from the heavy guns retained on

the opposite bank of the river.^ Tej Singh commanded in

\} These were light swivel guns —

usually mounted on camels. In
the muster-rolls of the Sikh army they are shown as organized into
regular batteries like field artillery. Specimens of these guns may be
seen in the Armoury in the Fort at Lahore. Ed.]
2 The ordinary belief that the entrenchments of Sobraon were

jointly planned and executed by a French and a Spanish colonel, is

as devoid of foundation as that the Sikh army was rendered effective
solely by the labours and skill of French and Italian generals.
Hurbon the brave Spaniard, and Mouton the Frenchman, who were
at Sobraon, doubtless exerted themselves where they could, but their
authority or their influence did not extend beyond a regiment or a
brigade, and the lines showed no trace whatever of scientific skill or
of unity of design. [This note is typical of the author's belittling style.
The works were really of an extremely strong nature. For some
'

weeks the Sikhs under the direction of a Spanish officer named

CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 311

this entrenchment, and Lai Singh lay with his horse in loose 1845-6.

order higher up the stream, watched by a body of British

cavalry. The Sikhs, generally, were somewhat cast down
by the defeat at Aliwal, and by the sight of the unhonoured
remains of their comrades floating down the Sutlej but the ;

self-confidence of a multitude soon returns they had been

:

cheered by the capture of a post of observation established

by the English and left unoccupied at night, and they
resumed their vaunting practice of performing their military
exercises almost within hail of the British pickets. Yet the
judgement of the old and experienced could not be deceived ;

the dangers which threatened the Sikli people pressed upon

their minds they saw no escape from domestic anarchy or
;

from foreign subjection, and the grey-headed chief Sham

Singh of Atari made known his resolution to die in the first
conflict with the enemies of his race, and so to offer himself
up as a sacrifice of propitiation to the spirit of Gobind and to
the genius of his mystic commonwealth.
In the British camp the confidence of the soldiery was The
likewise great,
" and none there despaired
' '^ of the fortune of English
plan of
England. The spirits of the men had been raised by the attack.
victory of Aliwal, and early in February a formidable siege
train and ample ammunition arrived from Delhi.
stores of
The sepoys looked upon the long array of
with- delight
stately elephants dragging the huge and heavy ordnance
of their predilections, and the heart of the Englishman
himself swelled with pride as he beheld these dread symbols
of the wide dominion of his race. It was determined that the
Sikli position should be attacked on the 10th February, and
various plans were laid down for making victory sure, and
for the speedy gratification of a burning resentment. The
officers of artillery naturally desired that their guns, the

Huerba had been employed in constructing a remarkably powerful

t^te de pont at the village of Sobraon to cover a bridge of boats which
they had thrown across the river Sutlej . .and it was now completed
.

in a series of half-moon bastions, connected by curtains, and covered

by a ditch in front, both flanks resting on the river. This great work,
two and a half miles in length, was protected by batteries on the
right bank of the river, so as to command the passage, and manned
by 35,000 of the best of the Sikh troops with G7 guns.' (Meadows
Taylor.)—Ed.]
 312 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. representatives of a high art, should be used agreeably to

the established rules of the engineer, or that ramparts should
be breached in front and swept in flank before they were
stormed by defenceless battalions ; but such deliberate
tediousness of process did not satisfy the judgement or the
impatience of the commanders, and it was arranged that
the whole of the heavy ordnance should be planted in masses
opposite particular points of the enemy's entrenchment,
and that when the Siklis had been shaken by a continuous
storm of shot and shell, the right or weakest part of the posi-
tion should be assaulted in line by the strongest of the three
investing divisions, which together mustered nearly fifteen
thousand men. A large body of British cavalry was likewise
placed to watch the movements of Lai Singh, and the two
divisions which lay near Ferozepore were held ready to push
across the Sutlej as soon as victory should declare itself.
The precise mode of attack was not dividged, or indeed
finally settled, until noon of the preceding day, for it was
desired to surprise the commanding post of observation,
which indifference or negligence had allowed to fall into the
hands of the Sikhs a short time before. The evening and
the early hours of darkness of the 9th February were thus
occupied with busy preparations the hitherto silent camp
;

poured all its numbers abroad ; soldiers stood in groups,

. talking of the task to be achieved by their valour officers
;

rode hastily along to receive or deliver orders and ;

on that night what Englishman passed battalion after

battalion to seek a short repose, or- a moment's solitary
communion, and listened as he went to the hammering
of shells and the piling of iron shot, or beheld the sentinel
pacing silently along by the gleam of renewed fires, with-
out recalling to mind his heroic king and the eve of
Agincourt, rendered doubly immortal by the genius of
Shakespeare ? .

The battle The British divisions advanced in silence, amid the dark-
of Sobraon, ness of night and the additional gloom of a thick haze. The
1846. coveted post was found unoccupied the Sikhs seemed
;

everywhere taken by surprise, and they beat clamorously to

arms when they saw themselves about to be assailed. The
English batteries opened at sunrise, and for upwards of
CHAP. IX \1'^AR WITH THE ENGLISH 313

three hours an incessant play of artillery was kept up upon 1845-6.

the general mass of the enemy. The round shot exploded
tumbrils, or dashed heaps of sand into the air the hollow
;

shells cast their fatal contents fully before them, and the
devious rockets sprang aloft with fury to fall hissing amid a
flood of men but all was in vain, the Sikhs stood unappalled,
;

and flash for flash returned, and fire for fire '. The field
'

was resplendent with embattled warriors, one njoment

umbered in volumes of sulphurous smoke, and another
brightly apparent amid the splendour of beaming brass and
the cold and piercing rays of polished steel. The roar and
loud reverberation of the ponderous ordnance added to the
impressive interest of the scene, and fell gratefully upon the
ear of the intent soldier. But as the sun rose
and enduring
higher, it was that a distant and aimless cannonade
felt
would still leave the strife to be begun, and victory to be
achieved by the valiant hearts of the close-fighting infantry.
The guns ceased for a time, and each warrior addressed him-
self in silence to the coming conflict —
a glimmering eye and
a firmer grasp of his weapon alone telling of the mighty
spirit which wrought within him. The left division of the
British army advanced in even order and with a light step
to the attack, but the original error of forming the regiments
in line instead of in column rendered the contest more un-
equal than such assaults need necessarily be. Every shot
from the enemy's lines told upon the expanse of men, and
the greater part of the division was driven back by the
deadly fire of muskets and swivels and enfilading artillery.
On the extreme left, the regiments effected an entrance amid
the advanced banks and trenches of petty outworks where
possession could be of little avail but their comrades on
;

the right were animated by the partial success they chafed

;

under the disgrace of repulse, and forming themselves in-

stinctively intowedges and masses, and headed by an old
and they rushed forward in wrath.^ With a
fearless leader,
shout they leaped the ditch, and upswarming, they mounted
the rampart, and stood victorious amid captured cannon.
But the effort was great the Sikhs fought with steadiness
;

^ Robert Dick was mortally wounded

Sir close to the trenches
while cheering on his ardent followers.
 314 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. and resolution ; guns

in the interior were turned upon the
exliausted assailants, and the line of trench alone was gained.
Nor was this achievement the work of a moment. The
repulse of the first assailants required that the central divi-
sion should be brought forward, and these supporting regi-
ments also moved ramparts higher and more
in line against
continuous than the barriers which had foiled the first efforts
of their comrades. Thej' too recoiled in confusion before the
fire of the exulting Siklis but at the distance of a furlong
;

they showed both their innate valour and habitual discipline

by rallying and returning to the charge. Their second
assault was aided on the left by the presence, in the trenches
of that flank, of the victorious first division and thus the
;

regiments of the centre likev/ise became, after a fierce

struggle on their own right, possessed of as many of the
enemy's batteries as lay to their immediate front. The un-
looked-for repulse of the second division, and the arduous
contest in which the first was engaged, might have led a
casual witness of the strife to ponder on the multitude of
varying circumstances which determine success in war ;

but the leaders were collected and prompt, and the battalions
on the right, the victors of Allwal, were impelled against the
opposite flank of the Siklis but there, as on all other points
;

attacked, destruction awaited brave men. They fell in

heaps, and the first line was thrown back upon the second,
which, nothing daunted, moved rapidly to the assault. The
two lines mingled their ranks and rushed forward in masses,
just as the second division had retrieved its fame, and as a
body of cavalry had been poured into the camp from the
left to form that line of advance which surpassed the strength
of the exhausted infantry.
Openings were thus everywhere effected in the Sikh en-
trenchments, but single batteries still held out the interior
;

was filled with courageous men, who took advantage of

every obstacle, and fought fiercely for every spot of ground.
The traitor, Tej Singh, indeed, instead of leading fresh men
to sustain the failing strength of the troops on his right, fled
on the first assault, and, either accidentally or by design,
sank a boat in the middle of the bridge of communication.
But the ancient Sham Singh remembered his vow he ;
CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 315

clothed himself in simple white attire, as one devoted to 1845-6.

death, and calling on all aroimd him to fight for the Guru,
who had promised everlasting bliss to the brave, he re-
peatedly rallied his shattered ranks, and at last fell a martyr
on a heap of his slain countrymen. Others might be seen
standing on the ramparts amid showers of balls, waving
defiance with their swords, or telling the gunners where the
fair-haired English pressed thickest together. Along the
stronger half of the battlements, and for the period of half
an hour, the conflict raged sublime in all its terrors. The
parapets were sprinlded with blood from end to end ; the
trenches were filled with the dead and the dying. Amid the
deafening roar of cannon, and the multitudinous fire of
musketry, the shouts of triumph or of scorn were yet heard,
and the flashing of innumerable swords was yet visible or ;

from time to time exploding magazines of powder threw

bursting shells and beams of wood and banks of earth high
above the agitated sea of smoke and flame which enveloped
the host of combatants, and for a moment arrested the
attention amid all the din and tumult of the tremendous
conflict. But gradually each defensible position was cap-
tured, and the enemy was pressed towards the scarcely
fordable river ; yet, although assailed on either side by
squadrons of horse and battalions of foot, no Sikh offered to
submit, and no disciple of Gobind asked for quarter. They
everywhere showed a front to the victors, and stalked
slowly and sullenly away, while many rushed singly forth
to meet assured death by contending with a multitude. "The
victors looked with stolid wonderment upon the indomitable
courage of the vanquished, and forbore to strike where the
helpless and the dying frowned unavailing hatred. But the
necessities of war pressed upon the commanders, and they
had effectually to disperse that army which had so long
scorned their power. The fire of batteries and battalions
precipitated the flight of the Siklis through the waters of
the Sutlej, and the triumph of the English became full and
manifest. The troops, defiled with dust and smoke and
carnage, thus stood mute indeed for a moment, until the
glory of their success rushing upon their minds, they gave
expression to their feelings, and hailed their victorious
 316 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. commanders with reiterated shouts of triumph and con-

gratulation.^
The On the night of the victory some regiments were pushed
passage of
ad-gss the Sutlej opposite Ferozepore no enemy was ;

thesubmis- visible and on the 12th February the fort of Kasur was
;

5j°".?^.*^'^ occupied without opposition. On the following day the

and the '
army encamped under the walls of that ancient town, and
occupation jt ^as ascertained that the Sikhs still held together
to
of Lahore. , /. , ^ . ,
the number oi twenty thousand men in the direction of
Amritsar. But the power of the armed representatives of
the Khalsa was gone the holders of treasure and food, and
;

all the munitions of war, had first passively helped to defeat

them, and then openly joined the enemy and the soldiery ;

readily assented to the requisition of the court that Gulab

^ Of. Lord Gough's dispatch of the 13th Feb. 1846, and Macgregor,
History of the Sikhs, ii. 154, &c. The casualties on the side of the
British were 320 killed, and 2,083 wounded. The loss of the Sikhs,
perhaps, exceeded 5,000, and possibly amounted to 8,000, the lower
estimate of the English dispatches.
The Commander-in-Chief estimated the force of the Sikhs at 30,000
men, and it was frequently said they had 36 regiments in position ;
but it is nevertheless doubtful whether there were so many as 20,000
armed men in the trenches. The numbers of the actual assailants may
be estimated at 15,000 effective soldiers. After the war. Lord Gough
ascertained, through the British authorities at Lahore, that the Sikhs
admitted their strength at Sobraon to have been 42,626 men. Perhaps,
however, this estimate includes all the troops on the right bank of
the river, as well as those in the entrenched position on the opposite
side. If so, the statement seems in every way credible. Similarly,
Lord Gough learnt that 3,125 heirs of soldiers killed claimed arrears
of pay, from which fact and other circumstances which came to his
knowledge, his Lordship thinks the Sikhs may have lost from 12,000
to 15,000 men in this decisive victory.
Sobraon, or correctly Subrahan, the name by which the battle is
known, is taken from that of a small village, or rather two small
villages, in the neighbourhood. The callages in question were in-
habited by the subdivision of a tribe called Subrah, or, in the plural,
Subrahan and hence the name became applied to their place of
;

residence, and has at last become identified with a great and important
victory. This mode of designating villages by means of the plural
form of a patronymic is common in India, and it was once frequent in
our own country, as noticed by Mr. Kemble {Saxons in England, i.
59 n., and Appendix A, p. 478) in 1,329 instances, such as Tooting in
Surrey, Mailing in Kent, &c., from the Totingas, Meallingas, and other
families or clans.
CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 317
'
Singh, their chosen minister, should have full powers to
treat with the English on the already admitted basis of
recognizing a Sikh government in Lahore. On the 15th of
the month the Raja and several other chiefs were received
by the Governor-General at Kasur, and they were told that
Dalip Singh would continue to be regarded as a friendly
sovereign, but that the country between the Beas and Sutlej
would be retained by the conquerors, and that a million and
a half sterling must be paid as some indemnity for the
expenses of the war, in order, it was said, that all might hear
of the punishment which had overtaken aggressors, and
become fully aware that inevitable loss followed vain
hostilities with the unoffending English. After a long dis-
cussion the terms were reluctantly agreed to, the young
Maharaja came and tendered his submission in person, and
on the 20th February the British army arrived at the Sikh
capital. Two days afterwards a portion of the citadel was
garrisoned by English regiments, to mark more plainly to
the Indian world that a vaunting enemy had been effectually
humbled for throughout the breadth of the land the chiefs
;

talked, in the bitterness of their hearts, of the approaching

downfall of the stern unharmonizing foreigners.^
The Governor- General desired not only to chastise the Negotia-

Sikiis for their past aggressions, but to overawe them for the
future, and he had thus chosen the Beas, as offering more
commanding positions with reference to Lahore than the
old boundary of the Sutlej. With the same object in view,
he had originally thought Raja Gulab Singh might advan- ^."^^^

tageously be made independent in the hills of Jammu.^ ^

Such a recognition by the British Government had, indeed,
always been one of the wishes of that ambitious family ;

but it was not, perhaps, remembered that Gulab Singh was

still more desirous of becoming the acknowledged minister

of the dependent Punjab ^ nor was it perhaps thought

;

1 the Governor-General to the Secret Committee, under dates

Cf.
the 19th Feb. and 4th March 1846.
2 Cf. the Governor-General to the Secret Committee, of 3rd and

19th Feb. 1846.

^ This had been the aim of the family for many years ;or, at least,
from the time that Dhian Singh exerted himself to remove Col. Wade,
in the hope that a British representative might be appointed who
 318 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. —
that the overtures of the Raja after the battle of Allwal
had foreboded the total rout of the Sikh army -were all —
made in the hope of assuring to himself a virtual ^iceroyalty
over the whole dominion of Lahore. Gulab Singh had been
appointed Wazir by the chiefs and people when danger
pressed them, and he had been formally treated with as
minister by the English when the Governor- General thought
time was short, and his own resources distant ^ but when
:

Lai Singh. Lai Singh saw that after four pitched battles the English
\'iceroy was content or compelled to leave Lahore a de-
jiendent ally, he rejoiced that his undiminished influence
with the mother of the Maharaja would soon enable him
to supplant the obnoxious chief of Jammu. The base
sycophant thus congratulated himself on the approaching
success of all his treasons, which had simply for their object
his own personal aggrandizement at the expense of Sikh
independence. Gulab Singh felt his inability to support
himself without the countenance of the English but they
;

had offered no assurance of support as minister, and he

suddenly perplexed the Governor-General by asking what
he was to get for all he had done to bring about a speedy
peace, and to render the army an easy prey. It was remem-
bered that at Kasur he had said the way to carry on a war
with the English was to leave the sturdy infantry entrenched
•
and watched, and to sweep the open country with cavalry
would be well disposed towards himself, which he thought Col. Wade
was not. Mr. Clerk was aware of both schemes of the Lahore minister,
althougli the greater prominence was naturally given to the project
of rendering the Jammu chiefs independent, owing to the aversion
with wliich they were regarded after Nau Nihal Singh's death.
Had the English said that they desired to see Gulab Singh remain
minister, and had they been careless whether Lai Singh lived or was
put to death, it is highly probable that a fair and vigorous government
would have been formed, and also that the occupation of Lahore, and
perhaps the second treaty of 1846, need never have taken place.
* Cf. the Governor-Generars letter to the Secret Committee, of
the
3rd and 19th Feb. 1846. In both of these dispatches Lord Hardinge
indicates that he intended to do something for Gulab Singh, but he
does not state that he designed to make him independent of Lahore,
nor does he say that he told the Sikh chiefs the arrangements then
on foot might include the separation of Jammu and the truth would
;

seem to be, that in the first joy of success the scheme of conciliating
the powerful Raja remained in a manner forgotten.
CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 319

to the gates of Delhi and while negotiations were still 1845-6.

;

pending, and the season advancing, it was desired to con-

ciliate one who might render himself formidable in a day, by
joining the remains of the Sikh forces, and by opening his
treasures and arsenals to a warlike population. •

The low state of the Lahore treasury, and the anxiety of The parti-
Lai Singh to get a dreaded rival out of the way, enabled the p^j^b and
Governor- General to appease Gulab Singh in a manner indepen-
sufficiently agreeable to the Raja himself, and which still Q^g^°^
further reduced the importance of the successor of Ranjit Singh.
Singh. The Raja of Jammu did not care to be simply the
master of his native mountains ; but as two-thirds of the
pecuniary indemnity required from Lahore could not be
made good, territory was taken instead of money, and
Kashmir and the hill states from the Beas to the Indus were
cut off from the Punjab Proper, and transferred to Gulab
Singh as a separate sovereign for a million of pounds sterling.
The arrangement was a dexterous one, if reference be only
had to the policy of reducing the power of the Sikhs but ;

the transaction scarcely seems worthy of the British name

and greatness, and the objections become stronger when it
is considered that Gulab Singh had agreed to pay sixty-eight

laldis of rupees (£680,000), as a fine to his paramount, before

tlie war broke out,^ and that the custom of the East as well
as of the W^est requires the feudatory to aid his lord in
foreign war and domestic strife. Gulab Singh ought thus
to have paid the deficient million of money as a Lahore
subject, instead of being put in possession of Lahore pro-
vinces as an independent prince. The succession of the
Raja was displeasing to the Sikhs generally, and his separa-
tion was less in accordance Avith his own aspirations than
the ministry of Ranjit Singh's empire ;but his rise to
sovereign power excited nevertheless the ambition of others,
and Tej Singh, who knew his own wealth, and was fully
persuaded of the potency of gold, offered twenty-five lakhs
of rupees for a princely crown and another dismembered
province. He was chid for his presumptuous misinterpre-

1 Major Broadfoot to Government, 5th May 1845. The author

never heard, and does not believe, that this money was paid by Gulab
Singh.
 320 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS CHAP. IX

1845-6. tation of English principles of action the arrangement

;

with Gulab Singh was the only one of the kind which took
place, and the new ally was formally invested with the title
of Maharaja at Amritsar on the 15th March 1846.^ But a
portion of the territory at first proposed to be made over
to him was reserved by his masters, the payments required
from him were reduced by a fourth, and they were rendered
still more easy of liquidation by considering him to be the

heir to the money which his brother Suchet Singh had buried
in Ferozepore.2
Supple- Lai Singh became minister once more but he and all the
;

mentary
arrange-
traitorous chiefs knew that they could not maintain them-
ments of selves, even against the reduced army, when the English
1846,
placing
should have fairly left the country, and thus the separation
Dalip of Gulab Singh led to a further departure from the original
Singh un-
der British
scheme. It was agreed that a British force should remain at
tutelage the capital until the last day of December 1846, to enable
during his
the chiefs to feel secure while they reorganized the army and
minority.
introduced order and efficiency into the administration.
The end of the year came but the chiefs were still helpless
; ;

they clung to their foreign support, and gladly assented to

an arrangement which leaves the English in immediate
possession of the reduced dominion of Ranjit Singh, until
his reputed son and feeble successor shall attain the age of
•
inanhood.^
1 On this occasion 'Maharaja' Gulab Singh stood up, and, with

—
joined hands, expressed his gratitude to the British viceroy adding,
without however any ironical meaning, that he was indeed his Zur-
'

kharld '
or gold-boughten slave
, !

In the course of this history there has, more than once, been
occasion to allude to the unscrupulous character of Raja Gulab Singh ;
but it must not therefore be supposed that he is a man malevolently
. evil. He will, indeed, deceive an enemy and take his life without
'
hesitation, and in the accumulation of money he will exercise many
oppressions ; but he must be judged with reference to the morality
of his age and race, and to the necessities of his own position. If
these allowances be made, Gulab Singh will be found an able and
moderate man, who does little in an idle or wanton spirit, and who is
not without some traits both of good humour and generosity of
temper.
2 See Appendices XXXIV, XXXV, and XXXVI, for the treaties

with Lahore and Jammu.

3 See Apjjendix XXXVII for the second treaty with Lahore.
 .

CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 321

While the Governor- General and Commander-in-Chief 1845-6.

remained at Lahore at the head of twenty thousand men, rpj^ g-,
portions of the Sikh army came to the capital to be paid up not dis-
and disbanded. The soldiers showed neither the despon- ||*^artened
dency of mutinous rebels nor the effrontery and indifference reverses.
of mercenaries, and their manly deportment added lustre
to that valour which the victors had dearly felt and gene-
rously extolled. The men talked of their defeat as the chance
of war, or they would say that they were mere imitators of
unapproachable masters. But, amid all their humiliation,
they inwardly dwelt upon their future destiny with un-
abated confidence and while gaily calling themselves inapt
;

and youthful scholars, they would sometimes add, with a

significant and sardonic smile, that the Khalsa itself was
' '

yet a child, and that as the commonwealth of Sikhs grew in

stature, Gobind would clothe his disciples with irresistible
might and guide them with unequalled skill. Thus brave
men sought consolation, and the spirit of progress which
collectively animated them yielded with a murmur to the
superior genius of England and civilization, to be chastened
by the rough hand of power, and perhaps to be moulded to
noblest purposes by the informing touch of knowledge and
philosophy.^

The separate sway of the Sikhs and the independence of Conclusion.

the Punjab have come to an end, and England reigns the ^^ oUtfe"
undisputed mistress of the broad and classic land of India. English in
^'^'i'*'
Her political supremacy is more regular and systematic than
the antique rule of the Brahmans and Kshattriyas, and it
is less assailable from without than the imperfect domination

of the Muhammadans ; for in disciplined power and vast-

ness of resources, in unity of action and intelligence of design,
1 In March 1846, or immediately after the war, the author visited

the Sikh temples and establishments at Kiratpur and Anandpur-

Makhowal. At the latter place, the chosen seat of Gobind, reliance
upon the future was likewise strong and the grave priests or ministers
;

said, by way of assurance, that the pure faith of the Khalsa was
intended for all countries and times and added, by way of compli-
;

ment, that the disciples of Nanak would ever be grateful for the aid
which the stranger English had rendered in subverting the empire of
the intolerant and oppressive Muhammadans 1

Y
 322 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. her government surpasses the experience of the East, and

emulates the magnificent prototype of Rome. But the
Hindus made the country wholly their own, and from sea to
sea, from the snowy mountains almost to the fabled bridge
of Rama, the language of the peasant is still that of the
tM'ice-born races ; the speech of the wild foresters and
mountaineers of the centre and south has been perma-
nently tinged by the old predominance of the Ivshattriyas,
and the hopes and fears and daily habits of myriads of men
still vividly represent the genial myths and deep philosophy

of the Brahmans, which more than two thousand years ago

arrested the attention of the Greeks. The Muliammadans
entered the country to destroy, but they remained to colo-
nize, and swarms of the victorious races long continued to
pour themselves over its rich plains, modifying the language
and ideas of the vanquished, and becoming themselves
altered by the contact, until, in the time of Akbar, the
' Islam '
of India was a national system, and until, in the
present day, the Hindu and Muhammadan do not practically
differ more from one another than did the Brahmans and
Kshattrij^as and Veisyas of the time of Manu and Alexander.
They are different races with different religious systems, but
harmonizing together in social life, and mutually under-
standing and respecting and taking a part in each other's
• modes and ways and doings. They are thus silently but
surely removing one another's differences and peculiarities,
so that a new element results from the common destruction,
to become developed into a faith or 4i fact in future ages.
The rise to power of contemned Sudra tribes, in the persons
of Marathas, Gurklias, and Sikhs, has brought about a
further mixture of the rural population and of the lower
orders in towns and cities, and has thus given another blow
to the reverence for antiquity. The religious creed of the
people seems to be even more indeterminate than their
spoken dialects, and neither the religion of the Arabian
prophet, nor the theology of the Vedas and Purans, is to be
found pure except among professed Mullas and educated
Brahmans, or among the rich and great of either persuasion.
Over this seething and fusing mass, the power of England
has been extended and her spirit sits brooding. Her pre-
 —

CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 323

eminence in the modern world may well excite the envy of 1845-6.

the nations but it behoves her to ponder well upon the

;

mighty task which her adventurous children have set her

in the East, and to be certain that her sympathizing labours
in the cause of humanity are guided by intelligence towards
a true and attainable end. She rules supreme as the welcome
composer of political troubles but the thin superficies of
;

her dominion rests tremblingly upon the convulsed ocean

of social change and mental revolution. Her own high
civilization and the circumstances of her intervention
isolate her in all her greatness she can appeal to the
;

reason only of her subjects, and can never lean upon the
enthusiasm of their gratitude or predilections. To pre-
'^

serve her political ascendancy she must be ever prudent and

circumspect and to leave a lasting impress she must do
;

more than erect palaces and temples, the mere material

monuments of dominion. Like Greece and Rome, she may
rear edifices of surpassing beauty, she may bridge gulfs and
pierce mountains with the wand of wealth and science.
Like these ancient peoples, she may even give birth in strange
lands to such kings as Herod the Great and to such historians
as Flavius Josephus but, like imperial Rome, she may live
;

to behold a Vortigern call in a Hengist, and a Syagrius yield

1 Mr. Macaulay's comparison (Histonj of England, 1. 364, &c.)

between the manners of the earlier Georges and Charles II, as bearing
on the kingly office, is peculiarly applicable to the British rule in
India. The English, like their own stranger sovereigns of the last
century, govern in the East according to law, but they cannot give
themselves a place in the hearts of their subjects, while those whom
reason can convince are neither numerous nor influential in political
affairs. Sir H. M. Elliot, in the Introduction (p. xxix) to his important
and interesting volume on the Muhammadan Historians of India,
admits the many defects inherent in a system of foreign administra-
'

tion, in which language, coloui-, religion, customs, and laws preclude

aU natural sympathy between sovereign and subject ; but he at the
'

same time declares the English have, nevertheless, done more in

fifty years for the substantial benefit of the people, at least of Upper
—
India, than the Musalmans did in ten times that period an opinion
that requires to be supported by a more extended comparison of
material works than is given by the learned writer. [The author's
gloomy prognostications have been rudely shaken by the events of
1914-15, and the spontaneous loyalty shown by all classes during the
great European War. Ed,]
Y2
 324 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6. to a Clo vis She may teach another Cymbeline the amenities
.

of civilized life, and she may move another Attains to

bequeath to her another Pergamus. These are tasks of

easy achievement but she must also endeavour to give
;

her poets and her sages an immortality among nations

unborn, to introduce laws which shall still be in force at the
end of sixty generations, and to tinge the faith and the minds
of the people with her sober science and just morality, as
Christianity was affected by the adoptive policy of Rome
and by the plastic philosophy of Greece. Of all these things
England must sow the seeds and lay the foundations before
she can hope to equal or surjDass her great exemplars.^
But England can do nothing until she has rendered her
dominion secure, and hitherto all her thoughts have been
given to the extension of her supremacy. Up to this time
she has been a rising power, the welcome supplanter of
Mughals and IMarathas, and the ally v/hich the remote weak
sought against the neighbouring strong. But her greatness
is at its height ; it has come to her turn to be feared instead

of courted, and the hopes of men are about to be built on

her wished-for destruction. The princes of India can no
longer acquire fame or territory by preying upon one
another. Under the exact sway of their new paramount,
they must divest themselves of ambition and of all the
violent passions of their nature, and they inust try to remain
kings without exercising the most loved of the functions
of rulers. The Indians, indeed, will themselves politely
liken England and her dependent sovereigns to the benignant
moon accompanied by hosts of rejoicing stars in her nightly
progress, rather than tathe fierce sun which rides the heavens
in solitude scarcely visible amidst intolerable brightness ;

but men covet power as well as ease, and crave distinction

as well as wealth ; and thus it is with those who endeavour
to jest with adversity. England has immediately to make
her attendant princes feel, that while resistance is vain,
they are themselves honoured, and hold a substantive
position in the economy of the imperial government, instead
of being merely tolerated as bad rulers or regarded with
contempt and aversion as half-barbarous men. Her rule
' See Appendix XV.
CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 325

has hitherto mainly tended to the benefit of the trading 1845-6.

community men of family name find no place in the society

;

of their masters, and no employment in the service of the

state and while the peasants have been freed from occasional
;

ruinous exaction, and from more rare personal torture, they

are oppressed and impoverished by a well-meant but
cumbrous and inefficient law,i and by an excessive and
partial taxation, which looks almost wholly to the land for
the necessary revenue of a government.- The husbandman
is sullen and indifferent, ^ the gentleman nurses his wrath

in secrecy, kings idly chafe and intrigue, and all are ready
to hope for everything from a change of masters. The
merchant alone sits partly happy in the reflection, that if
he is not honoured with titles and office, the path to wealth
has been made smooth, and its enjoyment rendered
secure.
[' I have removed a footnote here inserted by the author in

elaboration of this statement. The note is quite untrue under

modern conditions and has ceased to have any practical value.
The views of both the author and of Sleeman. whom he quotea
{Rambles and Recollections of an Indian Official, Oxford Edition,
p. 544), are typical of a point of view which has now happily
pa'^sed —
away. Eu.]
"
See Appendix XVI.
^ Lieut.-Col. Sleeman considers {Ramhles and Recollections of an
Indian Official, p.432) that neither have the English gained, nor did
other rulers possess, the goodwill of the peasantry and landholders
of the country.
In considering the position of the English, or of any ruling power,
in India, it should always be borne in mind that no bodies of peasantry,
excepting perhaps the Sikhs and, in a lesser degree, the Rajputs of
the West, and no classes of men, excepting perhaps theMuhammadans
and, in a lesser degree, the Brahmans, take any interest in the govern-
ment of their country, or have collectively any wish to be dominant.
The masses of the population, whether of towns or villages, are ready
to submit to any master, native or foreign ; and the multitudes of
submissive subjects possessed by England contribute nothing to her
strength except as tax-payers, and, during an insurrection or after a
conquest, would at once give the government share of the produce' to
'

the wielder of power for the time being, and would thereby consider
themselves freed from all obligations and liabilities. England must
be just and generous towards these tame myriads ;but the men
whom she has pre-eminently to keep employed, honoured, and over-
awed are the turbulent military classes, who are ever ready to rebel
and ever desirous of acquiring power.
 — —
326 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix
^^^-^- Princes and nobles and yeomen can all be kept in obe-
dience for generations by overwhelming means, and by a
more complete military system than at present obtains.
Numerous forts and citadels/ the occasional assemblage of
armies, and the formation of regiments separately composed
of different tribes and races,- will long serve to ensure
supremacy and to crush the efforts of individuals but ;

^ The fewness of places of strength, and indeed of places of ordinary

security, for magazines of arms and ammunition is a radical defect

in the military system of the English in India. The want of extensive
granaries is also much felt, both as a measure of the most ordinary
prudence in case of insurrection or any military operation, and as
some check upon prices on the common recurrence of droughts in a
country in which capitalists do not yet go *hand in hand with the
government, and are but little amenable to public opinion beyond
their order. Such was, and is, the custom of the native princes, and
no practice exists without a reason. [The first defect was realized
and remedied as one of the lessons of the Mutiny, while the c^uestion
of the check on prices is one of the commonplaces of a modern
administration. Ed.]
2 The English have not succeeded in making their well-ordered army

a separate caste or section of the community, except very partially in

the Madras presidency, where a sepoy's home is his regiment. It is,
moreover, bixt too apparent that the active military spirit of the sepoys,
when on service in India, is not now what it was when the system of
the Company was new and the fortune of the Strangers beguining.
' '

This is partly due to the general pacification of the country, partly

to the practice of largely enlisting tame-spirited men of inferior caste
becaiise they are well behaved, or pliant intriguing Brahmans because
they can WTite and are intelligent ; and partly because the system
of central or rather single management has been carried too far. The
Indian is eminently a partisan, and his predilection for his immediate
superior should be encoiu-aged, the more especially as there can be no
doubt of the loyalty of the English commandant. The clannish, or
feudal, or mercenary, attachments do not in India yield to rational
conviction or political principle, and colonels of battalions should
have very large powers. Regiments separately composed of men of
one or other of the military classes might sometimes give trouble
within themselves, and sometimes come into collision with other
regiments but a high warlike feeling would be engendered
; ;and
unless England chooses to identify herself with some of the inferior
races, and to evoke a new spirit by becoming a religious reformer, she
must keep the empire she has won by working upon the feelings she
finds prevalent in the country. [The suggestion in the text has long
since been dismissed as impracticable by modern military adminis-
trators. Ed.]
CHAP. IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 327

England has carefully to watch the progress of that change 1845-6.

in social relationsand religious feelings of which Sikliism is

the most marked exponent. Among all ranks of men there
is a spirit at work which rejects as vain the ancient forms

and ideas whether of Brahmanism or Muhammadanism,^

* The following remark of the Hindus, regarding some of their

most sacred persons, has now a wider application than smart sayings
commonly possess. They describe Purs-Ram, Vyasa, Rama, and
—
Krishna as Sirree, Siftee, Dana, and Deewana' or Purs-Ram as
'

hasty, heedless ; because, for the fault of one ruler, he proceeded to

slay a whole generation of men ; Vyasa, as wordy, or a flatterer,
because he would make all to resemble gods ; Rama, alone, as wise,
or politic, because all his actions denoted forethought ; and Krishna,
as eminently silly or trivial, because all he did was of that character.
That names still revered are sometimes so treated denotes a readiness
for change. [The most common phenomenon now appai'ent in both
Hindu and Muhammadan worlds is somewhat akin to that which
—
inspired the Reformation in Eurojio a movement on the part of
certain sections of the community in favour of the removal of accre-
tions and the reversion to the more simple, patriarchal, and puritani-
cal regime of an earlier epoch. To such a conception is due such a
movement, in the Hindu world, as that of the Arya Somaj, which has
so many supporters and so wide an influence in India to-day. This
—
movement has for its primary object a return to the Vedas as alone
sufficient for the salvation of man — and to the simple existence of
the earlier days. Space docs not permit of a detailed exammation of
the whole history and progress of the Arya Somaj movement and of
the life and teaching of its founder Swami Dayananda Saraswati.
For a further study of the subject the reader is referred to the
recently published history of the Arya Somaj by L. Lajpat Rai.
Another modern development has been that of the Brahmo Somaj
— a body of Unitarian tendency and teachuag. In the Muhammadan
world the same tendency towards reform may be noticed. In modern
times the most extensive reform movement within the borders of
Islam has been the Senussi movement. But while this has become
a distinct force among the Muhammadans of Africa it has had little
or no effect upon India. Many intelligent Muhammadans in India
have assured mc that they consider the position of their Church in
India to-day very analogous to that of the Church of England on the
eve of the Reformation. The dead hand of mediaeval England has
' '

in their judgement its counterpart in India to-day. Isolation and en-

vironment have both played their jiart in bringing about this state
of affairs. As regards the first of these factors one may take the
analogy a little farther back historically. It may be taken as an
admitted fact that the Church in England anterior to the Norman
Conquest suffered considerably from its isolation, and that one of the
benefits of that conquest was the removal of that barrier. Cut off
 328 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS chap, ix

1845-6, and which cHngs and future happiness to

for present solace
new intercessors and to another manifestation of divine
power and mercy. This labouring spirit has developed
itself most stronglj^ on the confines of the two antagonist
creeds ;but the feeling pervades the Indian world, and the
extension of Sikli arms would speedily lead to the recogni-
tion of Nanak and Gobind as the long-looked -for Comforters.^
The Sikhs have now been struck by the petrific hand of
material power, and the ascendancy of a third race has

from the religious life of the rest of the Continent, except in so far as
the rather uncertain link of pilgrimage maintained the connexion,
the Saxon Church became local, formalized, perhaps indifferent.
And when we turn to Muhammadan India we find a similar state of
things. —
The link of pilgrimage exists made stronger by modern
—
facilities for travel but in the main the isolation exists. This isola-
tion has resulted in the gradual growth of a host of local traditions
—
and local cults. And here the second factor environment comes —
into play. Living in close association with Hinduism, drawing at an
earlier period a number of converts from that religion, the followers
of Islam in India have been profoundly affected. To take a single
instance, caste. The Muhammadan of to-day of Rajput descent
cannot, in many cases, forget his original caste. Despite the demo-
cratic nature of the religion to which he now belongs, his whole life
is largely influenced by the traditions of the creed of his ancestors.
One could give many instances of this from one's own experience.
They are common phenomena of India to-day in the face of modern
development. The intelligent Muhammadan of to-day views the
state of his religion with the feelings of an Englishman just before
the Reformation. He is fully conscious of imperfections, of accretions,
of a departure from the pure tenets of his religion. Islam in modern
India is looking for a Luther, but the desire for internal reform is not
associated with any feeling of hostility towards other creeds. The
idea is rather that it is because of its imperfections that Islam stands
now where it does, and that reform is necessary to enable it to hold
its place successfully amid other organized religions of to-day. A
detailed descrijition of the various reformed sects which do exist
among the Pimjabi Muhammadans to-day may be found in the
Census Report of 1912.— Ed.]
' Widely spread notions, how erroneous soever they be, in one
sense, always deserve attention, as based on some truth or conviction.
Thus the Hindus quote an altered or spurious passage of theBhagavat,
describing the successive rulers of India as follows : (1) the Yavvans
(Greeks), eight kings ; (2) the Tooshkurs (Turks or Muhammadans),
fourteen kings ; (3) the Gurand (the fair, i. e. the English), ten kings ;
and (4) the Mowna (or silent, i. e. the disciples of Nanak the Seer),
eleven kings.
CHAP, IX WAR WITH THE ENGLISH 329

everywhere infused new ideas, and modified the aspirations 1845-6.

of the people. The confusion has thus been increased for

a time ; but the pregnant fermentation of mind must
eventually body itself forth in new shapes ; and a prophet
of name unknown may arise to diffuse a system which shall
consign the Vedas and Koran to the oblivion of the Zenda-
vest and the Sibylline Leaves, and which niay not perhaps
absorb one ray of light from the wisdom and morality of
that faith which adorns the civilization of the Christian
rulers of the country. But England must hope that she is
not to exercise an unfruitful sway ; and she will add fresh
lustre to her renown, and derive an additional claim to the
gratitude of posterity, if she can seize upon the essential
principles of that element which disturbs her multitudes of
Indian subjects, and imbue the mental agitation with new
qualities of beneficent fertility, so as to give to it an impulse
and a direction, which shall surely lead to the prevalence of
a religion of truth and to the adoption of a government of
freedom and progress.
 APPENDIXES
APPENDIX 1

THE JATS AND JATS OF UPPER INDIA

According to the dictionaries Jat means a race, a tribe,
or a particular race so called, while Jat means manner, kind,
and likewise matted hair. But throughout the Punjab Jat
also implies a fleece, a fell of hair
; and in Upper Sind a Jat
now means a rearer of camels or of black cattle, or a shepherd
in opposition to a husbandman. In the Punjab generally
a Jat means still a villager, a rustic par excellence, as one of
the race by far the most nuinerous, and as opposed to one
engaged in trade or handicraft. This was observed by the
author of the Dabistdn nearly two centuries ago {Dabistan,
ii. 252); but since the Jais of Lahore and the Jats of the
Jumna have acquired power, the term is becoming more
restricted, and is occasionally employed to mean simply one
of that particular race.
The Jats inerge on one side into the Rajpiits, and on the
other into the Afghans, the names of the Jat subdivisions
being the same with those of Rajputs in the east, and again
with those of Afghans, and even Baluchis, in the west, and
many obscure tribes being able to show plausibly that at
least they are as likely to be Rajputs or Afghans as to be
Jats. The Jats are indeed enumerated among the arbitrary
or conventional thirty-six royal races of the local bards of
Rajputana (Tod's Rajasthan, i. 106), and they themselves
claim affinity with the Bhotias, and aspire to a lunar origin,
as is done by the Raja of Patiala. As instances of the narrow
and confused state of our knowledge regarding the people
of India, it may be mentioned that the Birks (or Virks), one
of the most distinguished tribes of Jats, is admitted among
the Chaluk Rajputs by Tod (i. 100), and that there are
Kukkcr and Kdkar Jats, Kukker Koktir, and Kdkar Afghans,
besides Gakhars, not included in any of the three races.
Further, the family of Umarkot in Sind is stated by Tod
{Rajasthan, i. 92, 93) to be Pramar (or Powar), while the
Emperor Humayun's chronicler talks of the followers
(i.e. brethren) of that chief as being Jats. {Memoirs of
Hmnayun, p. 45). The editors of the Journal of the Geo-
graphical Society (xiv. 207 n.) derive Jat from the Sanskrit
332 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS
JyesVha, old, ancient, and so make the term equivalent to
aborigines but this etymology perhaps too hastily sets
;

aside the sufficiently established facts of Getae and Yuechi

emigrations, and the circumstance of Taimiir's warfare with
Jettehs in Central Asia.
Some of the most eminent of the Jat subdivisions in the
Punjab are named Sindhu, Chinch, Varaitch, Chattheh,
Sidhu, Kurrlal, Gondul, &c. For some notices of the Jats
of the Indus by early Muhammadan writers (about a. d. 977
and 1100) see Sir H, M. Elliot, Historians of India, pp. 69
and 270.

APPENDIX II

PROPORTIONS OF RACES AND FAITHS POPULATION OF

INDIA
Out of 1,030 villages lying here and there between the
Jumna and Sutlej, and which were under British manage-
ment in 1844, there were found to be forty-one different
tribes of agriculturists, in proportions as follows, after adding
up fractions where any race composed a portion only of the
whole commimity of any one village.

......
Villages.
Jats 443
Rajputs
Gijjars .......
.......
. 194
109

......
.

Saiyids 17
Shaikhs
Pathans ......
...... 8
25

iMughals
Brahmans ....... 5
28
Kshattriyas .

.....
......
Rains (or Arains)
. . . . . 6
47
Kambos
Malls
Rors
.......
.......
19
12
33

Kalals .......
Dogras (Muhammadans claimingjKshattriya origin) 28

..... 5

.....
Gusain religionists
Bairagi religionists
24 miscellaneous tribes occupying equal to
3
2
46
.

Total 1,030

A classification of the tribes of India according to position,

origin, and faith is much wanted, and is indeed necessary
APP. 11 RACES, FAITH, AND POPULATION 333

to a proper comprehension of the history of the country.

The Revenue Survey, as conducted in the upper provinces
of the Ganges, enumerates several castes, or at least the
predominant ones, in each village, and the lists might easily
be rendered more complete, and afterwards made available
by publication for purposes of inquiry and deduction.
The Sikh population of the Punjab and adjoining districts
has usually been estimated at 500,000 souls in all (cf. Burnes,
Travels, i. 289 and Elphinstone, History of India, ii. 275 n.),
;

but the number seems too small by a half or a third. There

are, indeed, no exact data on which to found an opinion ;

but the Sikh armies have never been held to contain fewer
than 70,000 fighting men they have been given as high as
;

250,000, and there is no reason to doubt that between the

Jhelum and Jumna they could muster nearly half the latter
number of soldiers of their own faith, while it is certain that
of an agricultural people no member of some families may
engage in arms, and that one adult at least of other families
will always remain behind to till the ground. The gross
Sikh population may probably be considered to amount to
a miUion and a quarter or a million and a half of souls, men,
women, and children.
The proportion of Hindus to Muhammadans throughout
India generally has been variously estimated. The Emperor
Jahangir {Memoirs, p. 29) held them to be as five to one,
which perhaps more unequal than the present proportion
is
in the valley of the Ganges. Mr. Elphinstone (History of
India, ii. 238 and notes) takes the relative numbers for
the whole country to be eight to one. From p. 169 of
the Statistics of the NW. Provitices, printed in 1848 and
published in 1849 by the Indian Government, it appears
that out of a population of 23,199,668 dwelling between
Ghazlpur and Hardwar, and in the direct or active occupation
of about 72,000 square miles of country, there are 19,452,646
Hindus and 3,747,022 Muhammadans, ' and others not
Hindus —
the others forming, doubtless, a fraction so small
'

that they may be here disregarded.

This gives somewhat more than five Hindus to one
Muhammadan, and so differs but little from the estimate of
the Emperor Jahangir above quoted, and which probably
had reference to the same tract of country. The revenue of
the Upper Provinces amoimts to about £4,700,000, which
gives a taxation of about five shillings a head. Throughout
India the state of industry and the system of revenue is
nearly the same and taking the gross income of the whole
;

country at forty millions sterling (22 British and 18 native

princes), it will result that the population amounts to
two hundred millions in all, or double what it is commonly
believed to be. The calculation, however, is borne out by
 : —

334 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS .^p. u

the analogous condition of affairs in Germany. In Prussia
the taxation is about eleven shillings a head, and the pro-
portion seems to hold good in the other component states
of the empire.
[The Census of 1911 shows the population and proportion
as follows. A total population of 23,807,750, distributed in
the following proportions
Muhammadans roughly one-half.
Hindus ,, three-eighths.
Sikhs „ one-eighth. Ed.]

APPENDIX III

. THE KSHATTRIYAS AND ARORAS OF THE PUNJAB

The Kshattriyas of the Punjab maintain the purity of
their descent, and the legend is that they represent those of
the warrior race who yielded to Paras Ram and were spared
by him. The tribe is numerous in the Upper Punjab and
about Delhi and Hardwar. Kshattriyas are found in towTis
along the Ganges as far as Benares and Patna but in ;

Bengal, in Central India, and in the Deccan they seem to be

strangers, or only to be represented by ruling families
claiming a solar or lunar origin. In the Punjab the religious
capital of the Kshattriyas seems to be the ancient Dlpalpur.
The Kshattriyas divide themselves into three principal
classes :(1) the Charjatis, or the four clans (2) the Bara-
;

jatis, or the twelve clans ; and (3) the Bawanjais, or fifty-

two clans. The Charjatis are, 1st, the Seths 2nd, the
;

Merhotas 3rd, the lOiannas

; and 4th, the Kapurs, who
;

are again divided, the first into two, xmd the others into
three classes. The principal of the Barajati subdivisions are
Chopra, Talwar, Tunnuhn, Seighul, Kakar, Mahta, &c.
Some of the Bawanjais are as follows Bhandari, Mahendro,
:

Sethis, Siiri, Sahni, Anand, Bhasin, Sodhi, Bedi, Tihan,

Bhallah, &c.
The Aroras claim to be the offspring of Kshattriya fathers
and of Vaisya or Sudra mothers, and their legend is that
they were settled in numbers about Uch, when the Kshat-
triyas, being expelled from Delhi, migrated to Tatta and
other places in Sind, and subsequently to Multan. During
their wars the Kshattriyas asked the aid of the Aroras,
but they were refused assistance. The Kshattriyas in con-
sequence induced the Brahmans to debar the Aroras from
the exercise of religious rites, and they thus remained pro-
scribed for tlu-ee hundred years, until Sidh Bhoja and Sidh
App. in THE KSHATTRIYAS AND ARORAS 335

Siama of Dipalpur readmitted them within the pale of

Huiduism. The Hindu bankers of Shikarpur are Aroras,
and the Hindu shopkeepers of Khorasan and Bokhara are
likewise held by the people of the Punjab to be of the same
race. The Aroras divide themselves into two main classes :
(1) Utradi,ov of the north, and (2) Dakhni, or of the south,
and the latter has likewise an important subdivision named
Duhuni.
In the Lower Punjab and in Sind the whole Hindu trading-
population is included by the Muhammadans under the
term Kirar '. In the Upper Punjab the word is used to
'

denote a coward or one base and abject, and about Multan

it is likewise expressive of contempt as well of a Hindu or
a trafficker. In Central India the Kirars form a tribe,
but the term there literally means dalesmen or foresters,
although it has become the name of a class or tribe in the
lapse of centuries. Professor Wilson somewhere, I think,
identifies them with the Chirrhadae of the ancients, and
indeed Kerat is one of the five Prasfhas or regions of the
Hindus, these being Chin Prasth, Yavan Prasth, Indr Prasth,
Dakshan Prasth, and Kerat Prasth, which last is under-
stood by the Indians to apply to the country between Ujjain
and Orissa. (Cf. Wilson, Vishnu Purdn, p. 175 «., for the
Keratas of that book). Further, the Brahmanical Gonds of
the Nerbudda are styled Raj Gonds ', while those who have
'

not adopted Hinduism continue to be called ' Kirria Gonds ',

a term which seems to have a relation to their unaltered
condition.

APPENDIX IV
CASTE IN INDIA
The system of caste, as it has become developed in India,
as obtained in Egypt and in Persia, as it was exemplified
it
in an ancient Gens with its separate religious rites and
' '

hereditary usages, as it partially obtained in Europe during the

Middle Ages, and as it exists even now, is worthy of an essay
distinguished by the ripest scholarship, and by the widest
experience of life and knowledge of the human mind. In
India it has evidently been an institution of gradual progress
up to the pernicious perfection of later days, and in early
times the bounds were less markedly defined, or less carefully
observed, than during the last few hundred years. The
instance of Viswamitra's acquisition of Brahmanhood is
well known, as is Yikramajlt's almost successful desire of
attaining to the same eminence. Vyasa likewise raised a
 — ;

336 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. iv

Sudra to an equality with the priestly class, and his descen-

dants are still looked upon as Brahmans, although inferior
in degree. (Ward, The Hindus, i. 85 and see Manu, In-
;

chap. X, 42-72, «&c., for admissions that merit could

stitutes,
open the ranks of caste.) Even in the present generation
some members of the Jat Sikh family of Sindhianwala,
related to that of Ranjit Singh, made an attempt to be
admitted to a participation in the social rites of Kshattriyas
and it may be assumed as certain that had the conquering
Mughals and Pathans been without a vivid belief and an
organized priesthood, they would have adopted Vedism and
have become enrolled among the Kshattriyas or ruling
races.
Perhaps the reformer Ramanand expressed the original
when he said that Kabir
principle of Indian sacerdotal caste
the weaver had become a Brahman by knowing Brahm or
God. {The Dabistan, ii. 188.)
The Muhammadans of India fancifully divide themselves
into four classes, after the manner of the Hindus, viz.
Saiyids, Shaikhs, Mughals, and Pathans. All are noble,
indeed, but the former two, as representing the tribe of
Muhammad and the direct progeny of All his son-in-law,
are pre-eminent. It is likewise a fact, at least in the north-
west, that a Kshattriya convert from Hinduism, or any
convert from Sikhism, is styled a Shaikh, and that converts
of inferior races are classed as Mughals and Pathans.
Doubtless a Brahman who should become a Muhammadan
would at once be classed among the Saiyids.
Mr. Hodgson (Aborigines of India, p. 144) shows that the
Koch princes of Assam were admitted to be Rajputs on
embracing Hinduism, although they are of the Tamil and
not of the Arya race but even the Jews were not altogether
;

inflexible in former times, and Bossuet notices the conversion

of the Idumaeans and Philistines, and sees their change of
faith foretold by the prophets ( Universal History, Transla-
tion of 1810, pp. 142 and 154).
[Possibly in his reference to Society in mediaeval Europe
the author has not laid sufficient stress upon the rigid nature
of what has been called the horizontal division of Society
'
'

during that period. The caste barrier that separated the

knight from the merchant of his own country was a very
real thing. Ed.]
 '

App. V PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS OF INDIANS 337

APPENDIX V
THE PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS OF THE INDIANS
The six orthodox schools will be found, among them, to
partially represent the three great philosophic systems of the
—
Greeks the ethical, the logical, and the physical ; or to be
severally founded, in more modern language, on revelation
or morality, reason, and sense. Thus the first and second
MImamsa, being based on the Vedas, correspond in a measure
with the school of Pythagoras, which identified itself so
closely with the belief and institutions of the age. The
Nyaya and Vaiseshika systems of Gautama and Kanadia,
which treat primarily of mind or reason, resemble the dia-
lectics of Xenophanes, while the Sankhya doctrines of Kapal
and Patanjali, which labour with the inertness and modifica-
tions of matter, correspond with the physical school of
Thales, as taught by Anaxagoras. Mr. Elphinstone {History
of India, i. 234) has some good observations on the marked
correspondence of the Indian and Greek metaphysics, and
Mr. Ward {Hindus, ii. 113) attempts a specific comparison
with a series of individual reasoners, but too little is yet
known, especially of Brahmanical speculation, to render
such parallels either exact or important.
The triple division of the schools which is adopted by
the Indians themselves may here be given as some help to
a better understanding of the doctrines of the modern
reformers. They separate the systems into Arumbwad,
Purnamwad, and Vivurtwad, or the simple atomic, the
modified material, and the illusory. The Arumbwad
'

includes the first MImamsa, the Nyaya, and the Vaiseshika,

and it teaches the indestructibility of matter, while it leaves
the atoms without any other inherent quality, and attributes
their various shapes and developments to the exercise of
God's will. The Purnamwad includes the Sankhya and
' '

Yoga systems, and teaches that matter has not only a power
of resistance, but a law of aggregation or development, or
that it can only have forms given to it by God in accordance
with its inherent nature. The modern Vaishnavas are
mostly adherents of this doctrine, but they somewhat
modify it, and say that the sensible world is God, so imbued
with matter that he is himself manifest in all things, but
under such varying forms and appearances as may suit his
design. The Vniartwad ', or the second MImamsa, which
'

is orthodox Vedantism, or the system of Shankar Acharj,

teaches that God changes not his shape, but is himself at
once both spirit and matter, although to the sense of man
338 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. v

he is variously manifested by means of Maya ', his power '

—
or essence, his image or reflection^ under the guise of the
heavens and the earth, or as inorganic rocks and as sentient
animals.
Another division of the schools is also made into Astik ', '

and Nastik ', or deist and atheist, so as to include doctrines

'

not Brahmanical. Thus the Astik comprehends all the six

'Dursuns', and some modern reasoners further admit
Muhammadanism and Christianity, considered as specula-
tive systems, into this theistic or partially orthodox pale.
The Nastik comprehends primarily the Buddhist and Jain
systems, with the addition sometimes of the Charvak,
which has never been popularized but Hindu zealots make
;

it secondarily to include not only Muhammadanism and

Christianity, but also the sects of Gorakh, Kablr, and
Nanak, as being irrespective of or repugnant to the Vedas,
while similarly they place the Poorv and Utar MImamsa
above the mere deism of reason, as being the direct revelation
of God.
The Buddhists are subdivided into four schools the —
Sautrantik, the Waibhashik, the Yogachar, and the Madla-
mit. All agree in compounding animal existence of five
essences or qualities (1) independent consciousness, or
:

soul, or self (2) perception of form, or of external objects

;

(3) sensation, pleasure, or pain —

the action of matter on
;

mind (-f) understanding or comprehension, the reaction

;

of mind on matter, or mind pervaded with the qualities of

matter (5) passion, volition, action, or mind, vital and
;

motive. Scholars thus consider the present subjection of

matter to mind as the greatest happiness of which man is
capable, and they declare death to be the utter dissolution
of the individual while the Buddhas of vulgar adoration
;

become simply revered memories or remembrances with the

learned. The first section holds that intelligence, or the joint
perception of the object and subject, is the soul or distin-
guishing characteristic of humanity the second gives the
;

I^reference to simple consciousness the third prefers

;

objective sensation, and the fourth teaches that the fact

or the phenomenon of the assemblage of the component
qualities is the only spirit or, indeed, that there is naught
;

permanent or characteristic i^Jive nonentity, or the void of

non-being. This last evidently merges into the Charvak
school, and it is also called the Shunyabad system, or the
' '

doctrine of vacuity or non-existence, and an attempt was

recently made to popularize it in Upper India, by one
Bakhtawar, and his patron, the Chief of Hattrass (Wilson,
As. Res., xvii. 305) nor is it difficult to perceive that
;

practically it would resolve itself into the principle of self-

reliance, or perhaps the ' know-thyself of the Greek sage. '
App. V PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS OF INDIANS 339

The Jains base human existence on the aggregation of

nine phenomena, or principles, one of which, JIv, vitality,
may by merit become a Jin, or an immortal spirit. The two
great divisions, Swetambar ', the white clothed, and 'Digam-
'

bar ', the naked, seem to have few important metaphysical

differences, except that the latter refuses emancipation to
the JIv, or vital power, in woman, or denies that woman has
a soul capable of immortality.
The six heretical systems of Indian speculation thus
comprise the four Buddhist and two Jain schools or, if the;

Jain be held to be one, the sixth is obtained by including

the Charvak.
The tendencj^ of Indian speculation lies doubtless towards
materialism, and the learned say the mind cannot grasp that
which is without qualities, or which has force without form,
and is irrespective of space. In how much does the philo-
sophy of Humboldt differ from this, when he says he confi-
dently expects what Socrates once desired, that Reason '

shall be the sole interpreter of Nature ? {Kos7nos, Sabine's

'

trans., i. 154.)

APPENDIX VI
ON THE MAYA OF THE INDIANS
The Maya of the Hindus may be considered under a three-
fold aspect, or morally, poetically, and philosophically.
Morally, it means no more than the vanity of Solomon
(Ecclesiastes i and ii), or the nothingness of this world and
;

thus Kabir likens it to delusion or evil, or to moral error

in the abstract. (As. Res., xvi. 161.) The Indian reformers,
indeed, made a use of Maya corresponding with the use
made by the Apostle Saint John of the Logos of Plato, as
Mr. Milman very judiciously observes. (Note in Gibbon,
History, iii. 312.) The one adapted Maya to the Hindu
notions of a sinful world, and the other explained to Greek
and Roman understandings the nature of Christ's relation
to God by representing the divine intelligence to be mani-
fested in the Messiah.
Poetically, Maya is used to denote a film before the eyes
of gods and heroes, which limits their sight or sets bounds to
their senses (Heereen, Asiatic Nations, iii. 203) and simi-
;

larly Pallas dispels a mist from before the eyes of Diomed,

and makes the ethereal forms of divinities apparent to a
mortal. {Iliad, v.) The popidar speech of all countries
contains proof of the persuasion that the imperfect powers
Z2
 '

340 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. vi

of men render them unable to appreciate the world around

them.
Philosophically, the Maya of the Vedant system (which
corresponds to a certain extent with the Prakriti of the
Sankhya school, and with the Cosmic substance of Xeno-
phanes, or more exactly with the Play of the Infinite Being
of Heraclitus), seems identical with the idealism of Berkeley.
The doctrine seems also to have had the same origin as
the Idola system of Bacon
' '
and thus, as an illusion or
;

a false appearance, INIaya is the opposite of Plato's Idea '

or the True. Ordinarily, Maya is simply held to denote the

apparent or sensible in opposition to the real, as when, accord-
ing to the common illustration, a rope is taken for a snake,
while in another point of view it is regarded as the Agent or
Medium of God's manifestation in the universe, either as
merely exhibiting images, or as really and actively mixed up
with the production of worlds. It is curious that in England
and in India the same material argument should have been
used to confute Berkeley's theory of dreams and the
Brahmanical theory of illusion. An elephant was impelled
against Shankar Acharj, who maintained the unreal nature
of his own body and of all around him and Dr. Johnson
;

considered that he demolished the doctrine when, striking

a stone with his foot, he showed that he recoiled from it.
But Shankar Acharj had a readier wit than the supporters of
the bishop, and he retorted upon his adversaries when they
ridiculed his nimble steps to avoid the beast, that all was a
fancy there was no Shankar, no elephant, no flight all was
; —
a delusion. {Dabistdn, ii. 103.)
Maya may also be said to be vised in a fourth or political
sense by the Indians, as in the Sahit or Niti section of the
' Arth
Shastra ', or fourth Upved ', which treats, among
'

other things, of the duties of rulers, it is allowed as one of

the modes of gaining an end. But Maya, in the science in
question, is used to signify rather secrecy, or strategy, or
dexterous diplomacy, than gross deceit for fraud and
;

falsehood are among the prohibited ways. Maya, it is said,

may be employed to delude an enemy or to secure the
obedience of subjects. Socrates admits that, under similar
circumstances, such deceit would be fitting and proper, or
that in his scheme it would come under the category of
justice. (Memorabilia, book iv, chap, ii.)
 ;

APP. VII METAPHYSICS OF INDIAN REFORMERS 341

APPENDIX VII

THE METAPHYSICS OF INDIAN REFORMERS

What has been said in the text about the modern re-
formers relates chiefly to the popular theology. Some of
them, however, likewise philosophized or speculated on the
origin of things, and thus the Utar Mimamsa school is
' '

sometimes subdivided into several branches, known (1) as

the Adweit ', or pure sj'stem of Shankar and (2) as the
'
;

'
Madhavadweit ', the Vusisht-adweit ', and the Shud-
' '

adweit ', or modified systems of Unity of Madhav, Ramanuj,

and Vallabh respectively. Shankar Acharj taught that
God is the original of all things, and is in reality unchange-
able in form wherefore, when oblivious (aghian) of himself,
;

he variously becomes manifest as vitality and matter, he

does so as Maya ', or as Images, or as the mirror reflecting
'

all things, yet remaining itself the same. Life and the Soul
are one in this system, and salvation becomes absorption,
while, as a proof that the same vitality may put on different
shapes, he quotes the instance of the caterpillar, the
chrysalis, and the butterfly. Madhav holds Life to be
distinct from Spirit, and with him the purified soul dwells
with God without being absorbed, but he gives prominence
to '
Maya as coexistent with God, or as the moving and
'

brooding spirit which gives form to matter and thus the

;

followers of Ramanuj extend Madhav's notion, and talk of

God, Maya, and Life, as well as of Atoms. Vallabh and the
Vishnuswamis or the Shudadweits likewise maintain the
distinct nature of Life or of the human Soul, and make
salvation a dwelling with God without liability to reappear-
ance but the doctrine of Maya is almost wholly rejected
;
' '

in favour of a Material Pantheism, as that the light which

illumines a room is the same with the illuminating principle
of the transmitting flame, and hence that what man per-
ceives is actual and not illusory. For some partial notices of
these reasonings see Wilson, As. Res., xvi. 34, 89, and 104
and they may be perused at length in the Commentaries
of the several speculators on the Bhagavadglta ', in the
'

'
Urth Punchuk of Ramanuj, and in the Dusha Slok of
' ' '

Vishnuswami.
 '

342 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. viii

APPENDIX VIII

NANAK'S PHILOSOPHICAL ALLUSIONS POPULAR OR

MORAL RATHER THAN SCIENTIFIC

Professor Wilson {As. Res., xvii. 233, and continuation

of Mill's History of India, vii, 101, 102) would appear to
think slightingly of the doctrines of Nanak, as being mere
metaphysical notions founded on the abstractions of
Sufism and the Vedant pliilosophy but it is difficult for
;

any one to write about the omnipotence of God and the

hopes of man, without laying himself open to a charge of
belonging to one speculative school or another. Milton,
the poet and statesman, indeed, may have had a particular
leaning, when he thought of body working up to spirit
'

{Paradise Lost, v) but is St. Paul, the reformer and enthu-

;

siast, to be contemned, or is he to be misunderstood when

he says, It is sown a natural body, and is raised a spiritual
'

body ? (1 Corinthians xv. 44). Similarly such expressions

'

as 'Doth not the Lord fill heaven and earth?' (Jeremiah

xxiii. 24), God, in whom we live and move and have our
'

being (Acts xvii. 28), and

' Of him, and to him, and
'

through him are all things (Romans xi. 36), might be used
'

to declare the prophet and the apostle to be Pantheists or

Materialists but it nevertheless seems plain that Jeremiah
;

and Paul, and likewise Nanak, had another object in view

than scholastic dogmatism, and that they simply desired
to impress mankind with exalted notions of the greatness
and goodness of God, by a vague employment of general
language which they knew Avould never mislead the
multitude.
Professor Wilson {As. Res., xvii. -233, 237, 238) and
Muhsin Fani {Dahistun, ii. 269, 270, 285, 286) may be
compared together, and the Siar ul Mutakharin (i. 110) may
be compared with both, with reference to the contradictory
views taken of the similarity or difference respectively
between Sikhism and Brahmanism. Each is right, the one
with regard to the imperfect faith or the corrupt practices,
especially of the Sildis in the Gangetic provinces, and the
other with regard to the admitted doctrines of Nanak, as
they will always be explained by any qualified person.
It is to be remembered that the Sikhs regard the mission
of Nanak and Gobind as the consummation of other dis-
pensations, including that of Muhammad and their talk,;

therefore, of Brahma and Vishnu and various heavenly

powers is no more imreasonable than the deference of
Christians to Moses and Abraham and to the archangels
APP.viii NANAK'S PHILOSOPHICAL ALLUSIONS 343

Michael and GabrieL Such alhisions are perhaps, indeed,

'
more excusable in the Sikhs than that singular polytheism
'

of our mediaeval divines, which they grafted on the language

'

rather (indeed) than on the principles of Christianity '.

(Hallam, Middle Ages, iii. 346.)
For an instance of the moral application which Nanak
was wont to give to mythological stories see Ward, Hin-
dus, iii. 465. Nanak, indeed, refers continually to Hindu
notioss, but he was not therefore an idolater ; and it should
further be borne in mind that as St. John could draw illus-
trations from Greek philosophy, so could St. Paid make an
advantageous use of the Greek poets, as was long ago
observed upon in a right spirit by Milton (Speech for the
Liberty of unlicensed Printing). In the early ages of
Christianity, moreover, the sibylline leaves were referred
to as foretelling the mission of Jesus ; but although the
spuriousness of the passages is now admitted, the fathers
are not accused of polytheism, or of holdmg Amalthaea,
the nurse of Jupiter, to be a real type of the Virgin Mary In
!

truth, all religious sj'-stems not possessed of a body of litera-

ture or philosophy proper to themselves seek elsewhere for
support in such matters. Thus the Chevalier Bunsen
{Egypt, i. 194, &c.) observes that the early Christians were
even desirous of reconciling Scripture with Greek history ;
and Ranke {Hisl. of the PojJes, ed. 1843, p. 125) says that the
Church, so late as the sixteenth century, was willing to rest
its dogmas and doctrines on the metaphysics of the Ancients.

APPENDIX IX
THE TERMS RAJ AND JOG, DEG AND TEGH
The warlike resistance of Liar Gobind, or the arming of
the Sikhs by that teacher, is mainly attributed by Malcolm
(Sketch, pp. 34, 35) and Forster (Travels, i. 298, 299) to his
personal feelings of revenge for the death of his father,
although religious animosity against Muhammadans is
allowed to have had some share in bringing about the change.
The circumstance of the Guru's military array does not
appear to have struck Muhsin Fani as strange or unusual,
and his work, the Dabistdn, does not therefore endeavour to
account for it. The Sikhs themselves connect the modifica-
tion of Nanak's system with the double nature of the
mythological Janak of Mithila, whose released soul, indeed,
is held to have animated the body of their first teacher
(Dabistdn, ii. 268), and they have encumbered their ideal
of a ruler with the following personal anecdote The wife of
:
 '

344 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. ix

Arjun was without children, and she began to despair of

ever becoming a mother. She went to Bhai Buddha, the
ancient and only surviving companion of Nanak, to beseech
his blessing but he, disliking the degree of state she
;

assumed and her costly offerings, would not notice her.

She afterwards went barefooted and alone to his presence,
carrying on her head the ordinary food of peasants. The
Bhai smiled benignly upon her, and said she should have
a son, who would be master both of the Deg and Tegh that ;

is, simply of a vessel for food and a sword, but tj^ically

of grace and power, the terms corresponding in significance
with the Raj and Jog of Janak,i the Piri and Miri
' ' ' ' '
'
'

of Indian Muhammadans, and with the idea of the priesthood

and kingship residing in Melchisedec and in the expected
Messiah of the Jews. Thus Har Gobind is commonly said
to have worn two swords, one to denote his spiritual, and
the other his temporal power; or, as he may sometimes
have chosen to express it, one to avenge his father, and the
other to destroy Muhammadanism. (See Malcolm, Sketch,
p. 35.)
The fate of Arjun, and the personal character of his son,
had doubtless some share in leading the Sikhs to take up
arms ; but the whole progress of the change is not yet
apparent, nor perhaps do the means exist of tracing it.
The same remark applies to the early Christian history, and
we are left in ignorance of how that modification of feeling
and principle was brought about, which made those who
were so averse to the ' business of war and government ' in
the time of the [early] Caesars, fill the armies of the empire
in the reign of Diocletian, and at last give a military master
to the western world in the person of Constantine. (Cf.
Gibbon, History, ed. 1838, ii. 325, 375.)

* Raj men jog kumaio,' to attain immortal purity or virtue, or

'

to dwell in grace while exercising earthly sway. It is an expression

of not infrequent use, and which occurs in the Adi Grantli, in the
'
Sawayas', by certain Bhats. Thus one Bika says, Ram Das (the
fourth Guru) got the Takht ', or throne, of Raj and Jog ', from
' ' ' '

Amar Das. Deg as above stated, means simply a vessel for food,
' '
,

and thence, metaphorically, abundance on earth, and grace on the

part of God. Tlie two terms are clearly synonymous, and thus
Thomson writes of the sun as the
. . . 'great delegated source
Of light, and life, and grace, and joy below.'
The Seasons —Summer.
 — — :

App. X CASTE AMONG THE SIKHS 345

APPENDIX X
CASTE AMONG THE SIKHS
It may nevertheless be justly observed that Gobind
abolished caste rather by implication than by a direct enact-
ment, and it may be justly objected that the Sikhs still
uphold the principal distinctions at least of race. Thus the
Gurus nowhere say that Brahmans and Sudras are to inter-
marry, or that they are daily to partake together of the
same food but that they laid a good foundation for the
;

practical obliteration of all differences will be evident from

the following quotations, always bearing in mind the vast
pre-eminence which they assign to religious unity and truth
over social sameness or political equality :

' Think not of caste :" abase thyself, and attain to salva-
tion.' Nanak, Sarang Rag.
'
God will not ask man of what race he is he will ask ;

him what has he done ? Nanak, Parbhati Ragni.

'

Of the impure among the noblest,

'

Heed not the injunction ;

Of one pure among the most despised,

Nanak will become the footstool.'
Nanak, Malhar Rag.
'
All of the seed of Brahm (God) are Brahmans
They say there are four races.
But all are of the seed of Brahm.'
Amar Das, Bhairav.
'
Kshattriya, Brahman, Sudra, Veisya, whoever remem-
bers the name of God, who worships him always, &c., &c.,
shall attain to salvation.' Ram Das, Bildwal.
'
The four races shall be one,
All shall call on the Gurii.'
Gobind, in the Rahat Nama
(not in the Granth).
Compare Malcolm (Sketch, p. 45 n.) for a saying attri-
buted to Gobind, that the castes would become one when
well mixed, as the four components of the Pan-Supari ', '

or betel, of the Hindus, became of one colour when well

chewed.
The Sikhs of course partake in common of the Prasad
(vulg. Parshad) or consecrated food, which is ordinarily
composed of flour, coarse sugar, and clarified butter.
Several, perhaps all, Hindu sects, however, do the same.
(See Wilson, As. Res., xvi. 83 n., and xvii. 239 n.)
346 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xi

APPENDIX XI
RITES OF INITIATION INTO SIKHISM

Sikhs are not ordinarily initiated until they reach the age
of discrimination and remembrance, or not before they are
seven years of age, or sometimes until they have attained to
manhood. But there is no authoritative rule on the subject,
nor is there any declaratory ceremonial of detail which can
be followed. The essentials are that five Sikhs at least
should be assembled, and it is generally arranged that one
of the number is of some religious repute. Some sugar and
water are stirred together in a vessel of any kind, commonly
with a two-edged dagger, but any iron weapon will answer.
The noviciate stands with liis hands joined in an attitude
of humility or supplication, and he repeats after the elder
or minister the main articles of his faith. Some of the water
is sprinkled on his face and person; he drinks the remainder,
and exclaims, Hail Guru and the ceremony concludes with
!

an injunction that he be true to God and to his duty as a

Sikh. For details of particular modes followed, see Forster
(Travels, i. 307), Malcolm (Sketch, p. 182), and Prinsep's
edition of Murray's Life of Ranjlt Singh (p. 217), where an
Indian compiler is quoted.
The original practice of using the water in which the feet
of a Sikh had been washed was soon abandoned, and the
subsequent custom of touching the water with the toe seems
now almost wholly forgotten. The first rule was perhaps
instituted to denote the humbleness of spirit of the disciples,
or both it and the' second practice may have originated in
that feeling of the Hindus which attaches virtue to water in
which the thumb of a Brahman has been dipped. It seems
in every way probable that Gobind substituted the daggei
for the foot or the toe, thus giving further pre-emmence to
his emblematic iron.
Women are not usually, but they are sometimes, initiated
in form as professors of the Sikh faith. In mingling the
sugar and water for women, a one-edged, and not a two-
edged, dagger is used.
 '

APP. XII WAH GURU AND DEC. TEGH, FATH 347

APPENDIX XII
THE EXCLAMATION WAH GURU AND THE EXPRESSION
DEG, TEGH, FATH

The proper exclamation of community of faith of the

Sikhs as a sect is simply, ' Vv' ah Guru that is, O Guru or
!
'
!

Hail Guru The lengthened exclamations of Wah Guru

!
'
!

ki Fath !and Wah

' '
Guru ka Khalsa
! (Hail Virtue
!
'
!

or power of the Gurii or Hail

! Guru and Victory and
! !

Hail to the state or church of the Guru !) are not authorita-

tive, although the former has become customary, and its
use, as completing the idea embraced in Deg and Tegh
'
' ' '

(see ante. Appendix IX) naturally arose out of the notions

diffused by Gobind, if he did not ordain it as the proper
salutation of believers.
Many of the chapters or books into which the Adi Granth
is divided, begin with the expression ' Eko Unkar, Sat
Guru Prasad ', which may be interpreted to mean, ' The
One God, and the grace of the blessed Guru'. Some of tlie
chapters of tlie Daswen Padshah ka Granth begin with ' Eko
Unkar, Wah Guru ki Fath ', tliat is, ' The One God and the
power of the Guru'.
The Sikh author of the Gur Ratnaivali gives the following
fanciful and trivial origin of the salutation Wah Guru !

^Vasdev, the exclamation of the first age, or Satyug ;

Har Har, the exclamation of the second age ;

Gobind Gobind, the exclamation of the third age ;
Ram Ram, the exclamation of the fourth age, or Kalyug ;
v/hence Wah Guru in the fifth age, or luider the new
dispensation.

APPENDIX XIII

THE SIKH DEVOTION TO STEEL, AND THE TERM

SACHCHA PADSHAH
'

For allusions to this devotion to steel see Malcolm,

Sketch, pp. 48, 117??., 182 «.
The meaning given in the text to the principle inculcated
seems to be the true one. Throughout India the implements
of any calling are in a manner worshipped, or, in Western
moderation of phrase, they are blessed or consecrated. This
is especially noticeable among merchants, who annually
perform religious ceremonies before a heap of gold ; among
348 HISTORY OF THE SIIvHS app. xiii

hereditary clerks or writers, who

similarly idolize their ink-
horn ; and among soldiers leaders, who on the
and military
festival of the Das-hara consecrate their banners and piled-
up weapons. Gobind withdrew his followers from that
undivided attention which their fathers had given to the
plough, the loom, and the pen, and he urged them to regard
the sword as their principal stay in this world. The sentiment
of veneration for that which gives us power, or safety, or
our daily bread, may be traced in all countries. In our own
a sailor impersonates, or almost deifies, his ship, and in India
the custom of hereditary callings has heightened that feeling,
which, expressed in the language of philosophy, becomes the
dogma admitting the soul to be increate indeed, but en-
veloped in the understanding, which again is designed for
our use in human affairs, or until our bliss is perfect. It is
this external or inferior spirit, so to speak, which must
devote its energies to the service and contemplation of steel,
while the increate soul contemplates God. [Compare also the
mediaeval ceremony of ' watching his arms ' regularly under-
gone by the candidate for knighthood. Ec] —
The import of the term Sachcha Padshah, or True King,
seems to be explained in the same way. A
spiritual king,
or Guru, rules the eternal soul, or guides it to salvation,
while a temporal monarch controls our finite faculties only,
or puts restraints upon the play of our passions and the
enjoyment of our senses. The Muhammadans have the
same idea and a corresponding term, viz. Mtilik Hakiki.

APPENDIX XIV
DISTINCTIVE USAGES OF THE SIKHS

These and many other distinctions of Siklis may be seen

in theRehet and Tankha Namas of Gobind, forming part of
Appendix XX of this volume.
Unshorn locks and a blue dress, as the characteristics of
a believer, do not appear as direct injunctions in any extant
writing attributed to Gobind, and they seem chiefly to have
derived their distinction as marks from custom or usage,
while the propriety of wearing a blue dress is now regarded
as less obligatory than formerly. Both usages appear to
have originated in a spirit of opposition to Hinduism, for
many Brahmanical devotees keep their heads carefully
shaved, and all Hindus are shaven when initiated into their
religious duties or responsibilities, or on the death of a near
relative. It is also curious, with regard to colour, that many
religious, or indeed simply respectable Hindus, have still an

'\
APP. XIV DISTINCTIVE USAGES OF THE SIKHS 349

aversion to blue, so much so indeed that a Rajput farmer

will demur about sowing his fields with indigo. The
Muhammadans, again, prefer blue dresses, and perhaps
the dislike of the Hindus arose during the Musalman con-
quest, as Krishna himself, among others, is described as blue
clothed. Thus the Sikh author, Bhai Gurdas Bhalla, says
of Nanak, Again he went to Mecca, blue clothing he had
'

like Krishna'. Similarly, no Sikh will wear clothes of a

'
sulii ' e. dyed with safflower, such having long
colour, i.

been the favourite colour with Hindu devotees, as it is

gradually becoming with Muhammadan ascetics. As a dis-
tinction of race, if not of creed, the unshorn locks of the
Sikhs have a parallel in the long hair of the Frankish
nobles and freemen. The contrasting terms crinosus and ' '

'
tonsoratus arose in mediaeval Europe, and the virtue
'

or privilege due to flowing hair was so great that Childebert

talked of having his brother's children either cropped or
put to death. (Hallam, Middle Ages, notes to Chap. II.)
The Sikhs continue to refrain from tobacco, nor do they
smoke drugs of any kind, although tobacco itself seems to
have been originally included as snuff only among proscribed
things. Tobacco was first introduced into India about 1617.
(M'Culloch, Commercial Dictionary, art. Tobacco '.) It
'

was, I think, idly denounced in form by one of Akbar's

successors, but its use is now universal among Indian
Muhammadans.
Another point of difference which may be noticed is that
the Sikhs wear a kind of breeches, or now many wear a sort
of pantaloons, instead of girding up their loins after the
manner of the Hindus. The adoption of the kachh ', or '

breeches, is of as much importance to a Sikh boy as was the

investiture with the toga virilis to a Roman youth.
' '

The Sikli women are distinguished from Hindus of their

sex by some variety of dress, but chiefly by a higher topknot
of hair.

APPENDIX XV
ON THE USE OF ARABIC AND SANSKRIT FOR THE
PURPOSES OF EDUCATION IN INDIA
Up to the present time England has made no great and
lasting impress on the Indians, except as the introducer of
an improved and effective military system although she;

has also done much to exalt her character as a governing

power, by her generally scrupulous adherence to formal
engagements.
350 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xv

The Indian mind has not yet been suffused or saturated

by the genius of the English, nor can the light of European
knowledge be spread over the country, until both the
Sanskrit and Arabic (Persian) languages are made the
vehicles of instructing the learned. These tongues should
thus be assiduously culti^'ated, although not so much for
what they contain as for what they may be made the means
of conveying. The hierarchies of Gymnosophists and
' '

'
Ulema will the more readily assent to mathematical or
'

logical deductions, if couched in words identified in their eyes

with scientific research and they in time must of necessity
;

make knoAvn the truths learned to the mass of the people.

The present system of endeavouring to diffuse knowledge by
means of the rude and imperfect vernacular tongues can
succeed but slowly, for it seems to be undertaken in a spirit
of opposition to the influential classes ;and it is not likely
to succeed at all until expositions of the sciences, with ample
proofs and illustrations, are rendered complete, instead of
partial and elementary only, or indeed meagre and inaccu-
rate in the extreme, as many of the authorized school-books
are. If there were Sanskrit or Arabic counterparts to these
much-required elaborate treatises, the predilections of the
learned Indians would be overcome with comparative ease.
The fact that the astronomy of Ptolemy and the geo-
metry of Euclid are recognized in their Sanskrit dress as
text-books of science even among the Brahmans, should not
be lost upon the promoters of education in the present age.
The philosophy of facts and the truths of physical science
had to be made known by Copernicus and Galileo, Bacon
and NewtoUj through the medium of the Latin tongue and ;

the first teadiers and upholders of Christianity preferred the

admired and widely spoken Roman and Greek, both to the
antique Hebrew and to the imperfect dialects of Gaul and
Syria, Africa, and Asia Minor. In eitlier case the language
recommended the doctrine, and added to the conviction of
Origen and Irenaeus, Tertullian and Clement of Rome, as
well as to the belief of the scholar of more modern times.
Similarly in India the use of Sanskrit and -Arabic and
Persian would give weight to the most obvious principles
and completeness to the most logical demonstrations.
That in Calcutta the study of the sciences is pursued with
some success through the joint medium of the English
language and local dialects, and that in especial the tact and
perseverance of the professors of the Medical College have
induced Indians of family or caste to dissect the human body,
do not militate against the views expressed above, but rather
serve as exceptions to prove their truth. In Calcutta English-
men are numerotis, and their wealth, intelligence, and politi-
cal position render their influence overwhelming ;but this
 '

APP. XV THE USE OF ARABIC AND SANSKRIT 351

mental predominance decreases so rapidly that it is mifelt

in fair-sizedtowns within fifty miles of the capital, and is but
faintlj" revived in the populous cities of Benares, Delhi,
Puna, and Hyderabad.

APPENDIX XVI
ON THE LAND-TAX IN INDIA

The proportions of the land-tax to the general revenues of

British India are neai'ly as follows :

Bengal, ? ; Bombay, § ; Madras, f ; Agra, |.

Average = f of the whole.
In some European states the proportions are nearly as
below :

England, ^x France, j Sixain, ^^ (perhaps some error)

; ; ;

Belgium, j\ Prussia, ^j Naples, j Austria, }.

; ; ;

In the United States of America the revenue is almost

wholly derived from customs.
- It is now idle to revert to the theory of the ancient lav.s of

the Hindus, or of the more recent institutes of the JNIuham-

madans, although much clearness of view has resulted from
the learned researches or laborious inquiries of Briggs and
Munro, of Sykes and Halhed and Galloway. It is also idle
to dispute whether the Indian farmer pays a rent or a tax '
'
'

in a technical sense, since, practically, it is certain (1)

that
the government (or its assign, the jagirdar or grantee) gets
in nearly all instances almost the whole surplus produce of
the land and (2) that the state, if the owner, does not
;

perform its duty by not furnishing from its capital wells and
other things, which correspond in difficulty of j^ro vision
with barns and drains in England. In India no one thinks
of investing capital or of spending money on the improve-
ment of the land, excepting, directly, a few patriarchal
chiefs through love of their homes and, indirectly, the
;

wealthy speculators in opium, sugar, &c., through the love

of gain. An ordinary village 'head-man', or the still
poorer ryot ', whether paying direct to government or
'

through a revenue farmer, has just so much of the produce

left as will enable him to provide the necessary seed, his
owai inferior food, and the most simple requisites of tillage ;

and as he has thus no means, he cannot incur the expense

or run the risk of introducing improvements.
Hence it behoves England, if in doubt about Oriental
'socage' and 'freehold' tenures, to redistribute her taxation,
352 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xvi

to diminish her assessment on the soil, and to give her

multitudes of subjects, who are practically ' copyholders ',
at least a permanent interest in the land, as she has done so
largely by ' customary leaseholders within her own proper
'

dominion. There should likewise be a limit to which such

estates might be divided, and this could be advantageously
done, by allowing the owner of a petty holding to dispose as
he pleased, not of the land itself, but of what it might bring
when sold. .

For some just observations on the land tenures of India

see Lieut. -Col. Sleeman's Rambles and Recollections of an
Indian Official (Oxford, 1915), pp. 58, 561, 571 while, for a
;

fiscal description of the transition system now in force in the

North-Western Provinces, the present Lieut. -Governor's
Directions for Settlement Officers and his Remarks on the
Revenue System may be profitably consulted (1849).

APPENDIX XVII
THE ADI GRANTH, OR FIRST BOOK; OR, THE BOOK
OF NANAK, THE FIRST GURU, OR TEACHER OF THE
SIKHS
Note. — The first Granth is nowhere narrative or histori-
cal. It throws no light, by direct exposition, upon the
political state of India during the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, although it contains many allusions illustrative
of the condition of society and of the religious feelings of the
times. Its teaching is to the general purport that God is to
be worshipped in spirit and in truth, with little reference to
particular forms, and that salvation is. unattainable without
grace, faith, and good works.
The Adi Granth comprises, first, the writings attributed
to Nanak, and the succeeding teachers of the Sikh faith up
to the ninth Guru, Tegh Bahadur, omitting the sixth,
seventh, and eighth, but with perhaps some additions and
emendations by Gobind ;secondly, the compositions of
certain ' Bhagats ', or saints, mostly sectarian Hindus, and
who are usually given as sixteen in number and, thirdly,
;

the verses of certain ' Bhats ', or rhapsodists, followers of

Nanak and of some of his successors. The numbers, and
even the names of the ' Bhagats ', or saints, are not always
the same in copies of the Granth and thus modern compilers
;

or copyists have assumed to themselves the power of reject-

ing or sanctioning particular writings. To the sixteen
Bhagats are usually added two ' Doms ', or chanters, who
 ;

APP, XVII THE ADI GRANTH 353

recited before Arjun, and who caught some of his spirit

and a Rababi or player upon a stringed instrument, who
'
',

became similarly inspired.

The Granih sometimes includes an appendix, containing
works the authenticity of which is doubtful, or the propriety
of admitting which is disputed on other grounds.
The Granth was originally compiled by Arjun, the fifth
Guru but it subsequently received a few additions at the
;

hands of his successors.

The Granth is written wholly in verse but the forms of ;

versification are numerous. The language used is rather the

Hindi of Upper India generally, than the particular dialect
of the Punjab but some portions, especially of the last
;

section, are composed in Sanskrit. The written character

is nevertheless throughout the Punjabi, one of the several
varieties of alphabets now current in India, and which, from
its use by the Sikh Guriis, is sometimes called Gurmukhi ', '

a term likewise applied to the dialect of the Pimjab. The

language of the writings of Nanak is thought by modern
Sikhs to abound with provincialisms of the country south-
west of Lahore, and the dialect of Arjun is held to be the
most pure.
The Granth usually forms a quarto volume of about
1,232 pages, each page containing 24 lines, and each line
containing about 35 letters. The extra books increase the
pages to 1,240 only.

Contents of the Adi Granth

1st. The Japji
'
or simply the Jap ', called also Guru
', '

Mantr, or the special prayer of initiation of the Gurii. It

occupies about 7 pages, and consists of 40 sloks, called
Pauri, of irregular lengths, some of two, and some of several
lines. It means, literally, the remembrancer or admonisher,
from jap, to remember. It was written by Nanak, and is
believed to have been appointed by him to be repeated each
morning, as every pious Sikh now does. The mode of
composition implies the presence of a questioner and an
answerer, and the Sikhs believe the questioner to have been
the disciple Angad.
2nd. Sudar Rah Ras
'
—
the evening prayer of the Sikhs.
'

It occupies about 3J pages, and it was composed by Nanak,

but has additions by Ram Das and Arjiin, and some, it is
said, by Guru Gobind. The additions attributed to Gobind
are, however, more frequently given when the Rah Ras
forms a separate pamphlet or book. Sudar a particu ar
kind of verse Rah, admonisher Ras, the expression used
; ;

for the play or recitative of Krishna, It i? sometimes.

Aa
 :

354 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS APP. XVII

corruptly called the Rowh Has ', from Roivh, the Punjabi
'

for a road.
3rd. Kirit Sohila
'
—
a prayer repeated before going to
'

rest. It occupies a page and a line or two more. It was

composed bj^ Xanak, but has additions by Ram Das and
Arjiin, and one verse is attributed to Gobind. Kirit, from
Sanskrit Kirti, to praise, to celebrate and Sohila, a marriage
;

song, a song of rejoicing.

4th. The next portion of the Granth is divided into
thirty-one sections, known by their distinguishing forms of
verse, as follows :

1. Sri Rag. 12. Todi. 22. Tukhari.

2. Maj. 13. Bairari. 23. Kedara.
S. Gauri. 14. Tailang. 24. Bhairon.
4. Asa. 15. Sudhi. 25. Basant.
5. Gujri. 16. Bilawal. 26. Sarang.
6. Dev Gandhari. 17. Gaund. 27. Malhar.
7. Bihagra. 18. Ram Kali. 28. Kanhra.
8. Wad Hans. 19. Xat Narayan. 29. Kalian.
9. Sorath (or Sort). 20. Mali Gaura. 30. Parbhati.
10. Dhanasri. 21. Maru. 31. Jai Jaiwanti.
11. Jait Sri.

The whole occupies about 1,154 pages, or by far the

greater portion of the entire Granth. Each subdivision is
the composition of one or more Guriis, or of one or more
Bhagats or holy men, or of a Guru with or without the aid
of a Bhagat.
The contributors among the Gurus were as follows
1. Nanak. 5. Arjun.
2. Angad. 6. Tegh Bahadur (with, per-
3. Amar Das. haps, emendations by
4. Ram Das. Gobind).
The Bhagats or saints, and others who contributed agree-
ably to the ordinary copies of the Granth, are enumerated
below :

1. Kabir (the well-known 8 Jaidev, a Brahman.

reformer). 9. Bhikan.
2. Trilochan, a Brahman. 10. Sain, a barber.
3. Beni. 11. Pipa (a Jogi ?).
4. Rav Das, a C'hamar, or 12. Sadhna, a butcher.
leather dresser. 13. Ramanand Bairagi (a
5. Xamdev, a Chhipa, or well-known reformer).
cloth printer. 14. Parmanand.
6. Dhanna, a Jat. 15. Sur Das (a blind man).
7. Shah Farid, a Miiham- 16. Miran Bai, a Bhagatni,
madan pir, or saint. or holy woman.
APP. XVII THE ADI GRANTH 353

17. Balwand, and 19. Sundar Das, Rababi, or

18. Satta, ' Doms ' or clian- player upon a stringed
ters who recited before instrument. He is not
Arjun. properly one of the
Bhagats.
5th. The 'B/tog'. In Sanskrit this word means to enjoy
anything, but it is commonly used to denote the conclusion
of any sacred writing, both by Hindus and Sikhs. The
Bhog occupies about 66 pages, and besides the writings of
Nanak and Arjun, of Kablr, Shah Farld, and other re-
formers, it contains the compositions of nine Bhats or
rhapsodists who attached themselves to Amar Das, Ram
Das, and Arjun.
The Bhog commences with 4 sloks in Sanskrit by Nanak,
which are followed by 67 Sanskrit sloks in one metre by
Arjun, and then by 24 in another metre by the same Guru.
There are also 23 sloks in Punjabi or Hindi by Arjun, which
contain praises of Amritsar. These are soon followed by
243 sloks by Kabir, and 130 by Shah Farid, and otliers,
containing some sayings of Arjun. Afterwards the writings
of Kail and the other Bhats follow, intermixed with portions
by Arjun, and so on to the end.
The nine Bhats who contributed to the Bhog are named
as follows :

1. Bhikha, a follower of 5. Sail, a follower of Ar-

Amar Das. jun.
2. Kail, a folloAver of Ram 6. Nail.
Das. 7. Mathra.
3. KallSahar. 8. Ball.
4. Jalap, a follower of Ar- 9. Kirit.
jOn.

The names are evidently fanciful, and perhaps fictitious.

In the book called the Guru Bilds eight Bhats only are
enumerated, and all the names except Ball are different
from those in the Granth.

Supplement to the Granth

6th.Bhog Id Bani \ or Epilogue of the Conclusion. It
'

comprises about 7 pages, and contains, first, some pre-

liminary sloks, called Slok Mahal Pahla ', or Hymn of the
'

first Woman or Slave secondly, Nanak's Admonition to

;

Malhar Raja thirdly, the Ratan Mala of Nanak, i.e. the

;
'
'

Rosary of Jewels, or string of (religious) worthies, which

simply shows, however, what should be the true character-
istics or qualities of religious devotees and, fourthly, the
;

'
Hakikat ', or Circumstances of Sivnab, Raja of Ceylon,
A a2
 —
356 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xvii

with reference to a P(5thi or sacred writing known as

'
'

'
Pran Sangli'. This last is said to have been composed by
one Bhai Bhannu in the time of Gobind.
The Ratan Mala is said to have been originally written
in Turki, or to have been abstracted from a Turki original.

APPENDIX XVIII
THE DAS WIN PADSHAH KA GRANT H, OR, BOOK OF THE
TENTH KING, OR SOVEREIGN PONTIFF, THAT IS, OF
GURU GOBIND SINGH
—
Note. Like the Adi Granth, the book of Gobind is
metrical throughout, but the versification frequently varies.
It is written in the Hindu dialect, and in the Punjabi
character, excepting the concluding portion, the language
of which is Persian, while the alphabet continues the Gur-
mukhi. The Hindu of Gobind is almost such as is spoken
in the Gangetic provinces, and has few peculiarities of the
Punjabi dialect.
One chapter of the Book of the Tenth King may be con-
sidered to be narrative and historical, viz. the Vichitr Ndtak,
written by Gobind himself ; but the Persian Hikayats, or
stories, also partake of that character, from the circumstances
attending their composition and the nature of some allusions
made in them. The other portions of this Granth are more
mythological than the first book, and it also partakes more
of. a worldly character throughout, although it contains
many noble allusions to the vmity of the Godhead, and to
the greatness and goodness of the Ruler of the Universe.
Five chapters, or portions only, and the commencement
of a sixth, are attributed to Gobind himself the remainder,
;

i.e. by far the larger portion, is said to have been composed

by four scribes in the service of the Guru partly, perhaps,
;

agreeably to his dictation. The names of Sham and Ram

occur as two of the Avriters, but, in truth, little is known of
the authorship of the portions in question.
The Dasivin Padshah ka Granth forms a quarto volume of
1,066 pages, each page consisting of 23 lines, and each line
of from 38 to 41 letters.

Contents of the Book of the Tenth King

1st. The 'Jclpjr, or simply the Jap\ the supplement
'

or complement of the Japji of Nanak a. prayer to be read

or repeated in the morning, as it continues to be by pious
 .

APP. XVIII THE DASWIN PADSHAH KA GRANTH 357

Sikhs. It comprises 198 distichs, and occupies about

7 pages, the termination of a verse and the end of a hne
not being the same. Tlie Jdpji was composed by Guru
Gobind.
2nd. 'Akal Stut \ or the Praises of the Almighty a hymn —
commonly read in the morning. It occupies 23 pages, and
the initiatory verse alone is the composition of Gobind.
3rd. The Vichitr Natak\ i.e. the Wondrous Tale. This
'

was written by Gobind himself, and it gives, first, the mytho-

logical history of his family or race secondly, an accoimt
;

of his mission of reformation and, thirdly, a description of

;

his warfare with the Himalayan chiefs and the Imperial

forces. It is divided into fourteen sections but the first;

is devoted to the praises of the Almighty, and the last is of

a similar tenor, with an addition to the effect that he would
hereafter relate his visions of the past and his experience of
the present world. The Vichitr Ncitak occupies about 24
pages of the Granth
4th. ' Chandi Charitr ', or the Wonders of Chandi or the
Goddess. There are two portions called Chandi Charitr, of
which this is considered the greater. It relates the destruc-
tion of eight Titans or Deityas by Chandi the Goddess. It
occupies about 20 pages, and it is understood to be the trans-
lation of a Sanskrit legend, executed, some are willing to
by Gobind himself.
lielieve,
The names of the Deityas destroyed are as follows :

1. Madhu Kaitab. 6. Rakat Bij.

2. Mah Ivhasur. 7. Nishumbii.
3. Dhumar Lochan. 8. Shumbh.
4 and 5. Chand and jNIund.

5th. ''Chandi Charitr'' the lesser. The same legends as

the greater Chandi, narrated in a different metre. It
occupies about 14 pages.
6th. Chandi ki Var."" A supplement to the legends of
'

Chandi. It occupies about 6 pages.

7th. Gyan Prabodh ', or the Excellence of Wisdom.
'

Praises of the Almighty, with allusions to ancient kings,

taken mostly from the ]Mahabharat. It occupies about
21 pages.
8th. Chaupayan Chauhis Avaiaran Kian ', or Quatrains
'

relating to the Twenty-four Manifestations (Avatars).

These Chaupays occupy about 348 pages, and they are
' '

considered to be the work of one by name Sham.

The names of the incarnations are as follows :

1. The fish, or Machh. 4. Narayan.

2. The tortoise, or Kachh. 5. Mohani.
3. The lion, or Xar. 0. The boar, or Varah.
358 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xviii

7. The man-lion, or Nur- 16. Man Raja.

singh. 17. Dhanantar (the doctor,
8. The dwarf, or Bawan. or physician).
9. Paras Ram. 18. The sun, or Suraj.
10. Brahma. 19. The moon, or Chandar-
11. Rudr. ma.
12. Jalandhar. 20. Rama.
13. Vishnu. 21. Krishna,
14. No name specified, but 22. Nar (meaning Arjun).
understood to be a mani- 23. Bodh.
Testation of Vishnu. 24. Kalki to appear at
;

15. Arhant Dev (considered the end of the Kalyug,

to be the founder of or when the sins
the sect of Saraugis of of men are at their
the Jain persuasion, or, height,
indeed, the great Jain
prophet himself).
9th. No name entered, but known as Mihdi Mir \ '

A supplement to the Twenty-four Incarnations. Mihdi, it

is said, will appear when the mission of Kalki is fulfilled.
The name and the idea are borrowed from the Shia Muham-
madans. It occupies somewhat less than a page. _
10th. No name entered, but known as the ^Avatars of
Brahma '. An account of seven incarnations of Brahma,
followed by some account of eight Rajas of bygone times.
It occupies about 18 pages.
The names of the incarnations are as follows :

1. Valkmik. 5. Vyasi.
2. Kashap. 6. Khasht Rikhi (or the
3. Shukar. Six Sages).
4. Batchess. 7. Kaul Das.
The kings are enumerated below :

1. Manu. 5. Mandhat.
2. Prithu. G. Dallp.
3. Sagar. 7. Ragh.
4. Ben. 8. Aj.

11th. No name entered, but known as the Avatars of ''

Rudr or Siva '. It comprises 56 pages ; and two incarna-

tions only are mentioned, namely, Dat and Parasnath.
12th. ' ShastrNam MaUi\ ortheName-string of Weapons.
The names of the various weapons are recapitulated, the
weapons are praised, and Gobind terms them collectively
his Guru or guide. The composition nevertheless is not
attributed to Gobind. It occupies about 68 pages.
13th. 'Sri Mukh Vak, Sawaya Battis\ or the Voice of
the Guru (Gobind) himself, in thirty-two verses. These
APP.xvm THE DASWIN PADSHAH KAGRANTH 359

verses were composed by Gobind as declared, and they are

condemnatory of the Vedas, the Purans, and the Kuran.
They occupy about 3^ pages.
14th. Hazdra Shabd \ or the Thousand Verses of the
'

Metre called Shabd. There are, however, but ten verses

only in most Granths, occupying about 2 pages. Hazar is
not understood in its literal sense of a thousand, but as
implying invaluable or excellent. They are laudatory of the
Creator and creation, and deprecate the adoration of saints
and limitary divinities. They were written by Guru Gobind.
15th. '
Istri Charitr ', or Tales of Women. There are
404 stories, illustrative of the character and disposition of
women. A stepmother became enamoured of her stepson,
the heir of a monarchy, who, however, would not gratify
her desires, whereupon she represented to her husband that
his first-born had made attempts upon her honour. The
Raja ordered his son to be put to death but his ministers ;

interfered, and procured a respite. They then enlarged in

a series of stories upon the nature of women, and at length
the Raja became sensible of the guilt of his wife's mind, and
of his own rashness. These stories occupy 446 pages, or
nearly half of the Granth. The name of Sham also occurs
as the writer of one or more of them.
16th. The Hikayats ', or Tales. These comprise twelve
'

stories in 866 sloks of two lines each. They are written in

the Persian language and Gurmukhi character, and they
were composed by Gobind himself as admonitory of Aurang-
zeb, and were sent to the emperor by the hands of Daya
Singh and four other Sikhs. The tales were accompanied
by a letter written in a pointed manner, which, however,
does not form a portion of the Granth.
These tales occupy about 30 pages, and conclude the
Granth of Guru Gobind.

APPENDIX XIX
SOME PRINCIPLES OF BELIEF AND PRACTICE, AS EXEM-
PLIFIED IN THE OPINIONS OF THE SIKH GURUS OR
TEACHERS
With an Addendum, showing the modes in which the missions of
Nanak and Gobind are represented or regarded by the Sikhs.

1. God — the Godhead

The True Name God without fear, without enmity ;
is ;

the Being without Death, the Giver of Salvation the ;

Guru and Grace.

360 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xix

Remember the primal Truth Truth which was before the

;

world began,
Truth which is, and Truth, O Nanak which will remain.
!

By reflection it cannot be understood, if times innumerable

it be considered.
By meditation it cannot be attained, how much soever the
attention be fixed.
A hundred wisdoms, even a hundred thousand, not one
accompanies the dead.
How can Truth be told, how can falsehood be unravelled ?
O Nanak by following the will of God, as by Him ordained.
!

Nanak, Adi Granih, Japji (commencement of).

One, Self-existent, Himself the Creator.
O Nanak one continueth, another never was and never
!

will be. Nanak, Adi Granih, Gauri Rag.

Thou art in each thing, and in all places.
O God thou art the one Existent Being.
!

Rajvi Das, Adi Granth, Asa Rag.

My mind dwells upon One,

He who gave the Soul and the body.
Arjun, Adi Granth, Sri Rag.

Time is the only God the First and the Last, the Endless
;

Being the Creator, the Destroyer He who can make

; ;

and unmake.
God who created Angels and Demons, who created the East
and the West, the North and the South, how can He
be expressed by words ?
GoBiND, Hazara Shabd.
God is one image (or Being), howcan, He be conceived in
another form ? Gobind, Vichitr Ndtak.

2. Incarnations, Saints, and Prophets ; the Hindu Avatars,

Muhammad, and Sidhs, and Firs

Numerous Muhammads have there been, and multitudes of

Brahmas, Vishnus, and Sivas,
Thousands of PIrs and Prophets, and tens of thousands of
Saints and Holy men :

But the Chief of Lords is the One Lord, the true Name of
God.
O Nanak of God, His qualities, without end, beyond
!

reckoning, who can imderstand ?

Nanak, Ratan Mala (extra to the Granth).
 !

App. XIX PRINCIPLES OF BELIEF, ETC. 361

Many Brahmas wearied themselves with the study of the

Vedas, but found not the vahie of an oil seed.
Holy men and Saints sought about anxiously, but they were
deceived by Maya.
There have been, and there have passed away, ten regent
Avatars and the wondrous Mahadev.
Even they, wearied with the application of ashes, could not
find Thee. ArjOn, Adi Granth, Suhi.

Surs and Sidhs and the Devtas of Siva Shaikhs and Pirs ;

and men of might.

Have come and have gone, and others are likewise passing
by. Arjun, Adi Granth, Sri Rag.

Krishna indeed slew demons he performed wonders,

;

and he declared himself to be Brahm yet he should not

;

be regarded as the Lord. He himself died how can he ;

save those who put faith in him ? How can one sunk in
the ocean sustain another above the waves ? God alone is
all-powerful he can create, and he can destroy.
:

GoBiND, Hazcira Shabd.

God, without friends, without enemies.

Who heeds not praise, nor is moved by curses.
How could He become manifest as Krishna ?
How could He, without parents, without offspring, become
born to a Devki ? '
' Gobind, Hazura Shabd.

Ram and Rahim (names repeated) cannot give salvation.

^

Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, the Sun and the Moon, all are in
the power of Death. Gobtnd, Hazdra Shabd.

3. The Sikh Gurus not to be worshipped

He who speaks of me
as the Lord,
Him will I sink into the pit of Hell
Consider me as the slave of God :
Of that have no doubt in thy mind.
I am but the slave of the Lord,
Come to behold the wonders of Creation.
Gobind, Vichitr Naiak.

4. Images, and the Worship of Saints

Worship not another (than God) bow not to the Dead.
;

Nanak, Adi Granth, Sorth Ragni.

* The Merciful, i.e. the God of the Muhammadans.
 — ;

362 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xix

To worship an image, to make pilgrimages to a shrine, to

remain in a desert and yet to have the mind impure, is all
in vain, and thus thou canst not be accepted. To be saved
thou must worship Truth (God). Nanak, Adi Granth,,
Bhog in which, however, he professes to quote a learned
;

Brahman.
Man, who is a beast of the field, cannot comprehend Him
whose power is of the Past, the Present, and the Future.
God is worshipped, that by worship salvation may be
attained.
Fall at the feet of God ; in senseless stone God is not.
GoBiND, Vichitr Natak.

5. Miracles
To possess the power of a Sidhi (or changer of shapes),
To be as a Ridhi (or giver away of never-ending stores).
And yet to be ignorant of God, I do not desire.
All such things are vain.
Nanak, Adi Granth, Sri Rag.
Dwell thou in flames iminjured,
Remain unharmed amid ice eternal.
Make blocks of stone thy daily food,
Spurn the Earth before thee with thy foot,
Weigh the Heavens in a balance
And then ask of me to perform miracles.
Nanak, to a challenger about miracles ;

Adi Granth, Majh Var.

6. Transmigration
Life is like the wheel circling on its pivot,
O Nanak ! of going and coming there is no end.
Nanak, Adi Granth, Asa. (Numerous
other passages of a like kind might be
quoted from Nanak and his successors.)
He who knows not the One God
Will be born again times innumerable.
Gobind, Mihdi Mir.

7. Faith

Eat and clothe thyself, and thou may'st be happy ;

But without fear and faith there is no salvation.

Nanak, Adi Granth, Sohila Maru Rag.
APP. XIX PRINCIPLES OF BELIEF, ETC. 363

8. Grace
O Nanak ! he, on whom God looks, finds the Lord.
Nanak, Adi Granth, Asa Rag.
O Nanak ! he, on whom God looks, will fix his mind on the
Lord. Amar Das, Adi Granth, Bilawal.

9. Predestination

According to the fate of each, dependent on his actions,

are his coming and going determined.
Nanak, Adi Granth, Asa.

How can Truth be told ? how can falsehood be unravelled ?

O Nanak by following the will of God, as by Him ordained.
!

Nanak, Adi Granth, Japji.

10. The Vedas, the Purdns, and the Koran.

Pothis, Simrats, Vedas, Purans,
Are all as nothing, jf unleavened by God.
Nanak, Adi Granth, Gauri Rag.
Give ear to Shastars and Vedas, and Korans,
And thou may'st reach ' Swarg and Nark '.
(i. e. to the necessity of coming back again.)

Without God, salvation is unattainable.

Nanak, Ratan Mala (an Extra book
of the Adi Granth).

Since he fell at the feet of God, no one has appeared great in

his eyes.
Ram and Rahim, the Purans, and the Koran, have many
votaries, but neither does he regard.
Simrats, Shastars, and Vedas, differ in many things ; not
one does he heed.
O God under Thy favour has
! all been done naught is of
;

myself. Gobind, Ttah Eds.

11. Asceticism

A householder who does no evil,

^

Who is ever intent upon good.

Who continually exerciseth charity,
Such a householder is pure as the Ganges.
Nanak, Adi Granth, Ram Kali Ragni.
' i. e. in English idiom, one of the laity ; one who fuliila the
ordinary duties of life.
 .

364 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xix

Householders and Hermits are equal, whoever calls on the

name of the Lord.
Nanak, Adi Granth, Asa Ragni.
Be Udas
'
' (i. e. disinterested) in thy mind in the midst of
householdership
Amar Das, Adi Granth, Sri Rag.

12. Caste

Think not of race, abase thyself, and attain to salvation.

Nanak, Adi Granth, Sarang Rag.
God will not ask man
of his birth,
He will ask him what has he done.
Nanak, Adi Granth, Parbhati Ragni.

Of the impure among the noblest

Heed not the injunction ;

Of one pure among the most despised

Nanak will become the footstool.
Nanak, Adi Granth, Malhar Rag.
All say that there are four races,
But all are of the seed of Bralim.
The world is but clay.
And of similar clay many pots are made.
Nanak says man will be judged by his actions,
And that without finding God there will be no salvation.
The body of man is composed of the five elements ;
^^^lO can say that one is high and another low ?
Amar Das, Adi Granth, Bhairav.
I will make the four races of one colour,
I will cause them to remember the words, ' Wah Guru '.

GoBiND, in the Rahat Nama, which, however, is

not included in the Granth.

13. Food
O Nanak the right of strangers is the one the Ox, and the
!

other the Swine.

Gurus and PIrs will bear witness to their disciples when they
eat naught which had enjoyed life.
Nanak, Adi Granth, Maj.
An animal slain without cause cannot be proper food.
O Nanak ! from evil doth evil ever come.
Nanak, Adi Granth, Maj.
 —
App. XIX PRINCIPLES OF BELIEF, ETC. 365

14. Brdhmans, Saints, d:c.

That Brahman is a son of Brahm,

^Vhose rules of action are devotion, prayer, and purity ;

Whose principles of faith are humility, and contentment.

Such a Brahman may break prescribed rules, and yet find
salvation. Nanak, Adi Granth, Bhog.

The cotton ^ should be mercy, the thread contentedness,

and the seven knots virtue.
If there is such a Janeu of the heart, wear it ;
' '

It will neither break, nor burn, nor decay, nor become

impure.
O Nanak he who wears such a thread is to be numbered
!

with the holy. Naxak, Adi Granth, Asa.

Devotion is not in the Kinta (or ragged garment), nor in
the Danda (or staff), nor in Bhasm (or ashes), nor in the
shaven head (Mundi), nor in the sounding of horns (Singheh
weieh). Nanak, Adi Granth, Suhi.

In this age few Brahmans are of Brahm (i.e. are pure and
holy). Amar Das, Adi Granth, Bilawal.
The Sanyasi should consider his home the jungle.
His heart should not yearn after material forms :

Gyan (or Truth) should be his Guru.

His Bhabut (or ashes) should be the name of God,
And he should neither be held to be Sat-juni ', nor ' Raj-
'

juni ', nor Tamh-juni (that is, should neither seem

'
'

good for his OAvn profit only, nor good or bad as seemed
expedient at the time, nor bad that he might thereby
gain his ends). Gobind, Hazdra Shabd.

15. Infanticide

With the slayers of daughters

Whoever has intercourse, him do I curse.
And again
Whosoever takes food from the slayers of daughters,
Shall die unabsolved.
Gobind, Rahat Ndma. (Extra to the Granth.)

16. Sati

They are not Satis who perish in the flames.

O Nanak Satis are those who die of a broken
! heart.
* Viz. the cotton of the Brahmanical thread, or janeu.
 —
366 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xix

And again
The loving wife perishes with the body of her husband.
But were her thoughts bent upon God, her sorrows would be
alleviated. Amar Das, Adi Granth, Suhi.

Addendum
Bhai Gurdds Bhalla's mode of representing the Mission of
Ndnak
There were four races and four creeds ^ in the world among
Hindus and Muhammadans ;

Selfishness, jealousy, and pride drew all of them strongly :

The Hindus dwelt on Benares and the Ganges, the Muham-

madans on the Kaba ;

The Muhammadans held by circumcision, the Hindus by

strings and frontal marks.
They each called on Ram and Rahim, one name, and yet
both forgot the road.
Forgetting the Vedas and the Koran, they were inveigled in
the snares of the world.
Truth remained on one side, while Mullas and Brahmans
disputed,
And Salvation was not attained.

God heard the complaint (of virtue or truth), and Nanak was
sent into the world.
He established the custom that the disciple should wash the
feet of his Guru, and drink the water ;

Par Brahm and Puran Brahm, in this Kalyug, he showed

were one.
The four Feet (of the animal sustaining the world) were
made of Faith the four castes were made one
; ;

The high and the low became equal the salutation of the
;

feet (among disciples) he established in the world ^ :

1 The four races of Saiyids, Shaikhs, Mughals, and Pathans are

here termed as of four creeds, and likened to the four castes or races
of the Hindus. It is, indeed, a common saying that such a thing is
'
haram-i-char Mazhab ', or forbidden among the four faiths or sects
of Muhammadans. Originally the expression had reference to the
four orthodox schools of Sunnis, formed by the expounders Abu
Hanifa, Hanbal, Shafei, and Malik, and it still has such an application
among the learned, but the commonalty of India understand it to
apply to the four castes or races into which they have divided them-
selves.
- The Akalis still follow this custom;
 ^
'

.vpp. XIX PRINCIPLES OF BELIEF, ETC. 367

Contrary to the nature of man, the feet were exalted above

the head.
In the Kalyug he gave salvation using the only true Name,
:

he taught men to worship the Lord.

To give salvation in the Kalyug Guru Nanak came.

—
Note. The above and several others from the
extracts,
book of Bhai Gurdas, may
be seen in Malcolm's Sketch of the
Sikhs, p. 152, «&c. rendered, however, in a less literal manner
;

than has here been attempted.

The book contains forty chapters, written in different

kinds of verse, and it is the repository of many stories about
Nanak which the Sikhs delight to repeat. One of these is
as follows :

Nanak again went to Mecca ; blue clothing he wore, like

Krishna ;

A staff in his hand, a book by his side

; the pot, the cup, and
the mat, he also took :

He sat where the Pilgrims completed the final act of their

pilgrimage.
And when he slept at night he lay with his feet towards the
front.
Jiwan struck him with his foot, saying, ' Ho what infidel !

sleeps here.
With his feet towards the Lord, like an evil doer ?
— Seizing him by the leg, he drew him aside ; then Mecca
also tiu-ned, and a miracle was declared.
All were astonished, &c., &c.

Guru Gohind/s mode of representing his Mission. (From the

Vichitr Ndtak, with an extract from the Twenty -four
Incarnations, regarding the last Avatar and the succeed-
ing Mihdi Mir.)

Note. —
^The first four chapters are occupied with a mytho-
logical account of the Sodhi and Bedi subdivisions of the
Kshattriya race, the rulers of the Punjab at Lahore and
Kasiir, and the descendants of Lau and Kusu, the sons of
Ram, who traced his descent through Dasrath, Raghu,
Suraj, and others, to Kalsain, a primaeval monarch. So far
as regards the present object, the contents may be summed
up in the promise or prophecy, that in the Kalyug Nanak
would bestow blessings on the Sodhis, and would, on his
fourth mortal appearance, become one of that tribe.

* Cf. the translations given in Malcolm's Sketch, p. 174, &c.

368 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xix

Chapter V (abstract).—The Brahnians began to follow

the ways of Sudras, and Kshattriya of Vaisas, and, similarly,
the Sudras did as Brahmans, and the Vaisas as Kshattriyas.
In the fullness of time Nanak came and established his own
sect in the world. He died, but he was born again as Angad,
and a third time as Amar Das, and at last he appeared as
Ram Das, as had been declared, and the Guruship became
inherent in the Sodhis. Nanak thus put on other habili-
ments, as one lamp is lighted at another. Apparently there
were four Gurus, but, in truth, in each body there was the
soul of Guru Nanak. When Ram Das departed, his son
Arjixn became Guru, who was followed successively by
Har Gobind, Har Rai, Har Kishan, and Tegh Bahadar, who
gave his life for his faith in Delhi, having been put to death
by the Muhammadans.
Chapter VI(abstract).—In the Bhim Khund, near the
Seven Sring (or Peaks), where the Pandus exercised sove-
reignty (the unembodied soul of) Guru Gobind Singh im-
plored the Almighty, and became absorbed in the Divine
essence (or obtained salvation without the necessity of
again appearing on earth). Likewise the parents of the
Guru prayed to the Lord continually. God looked on them
with favour, and (the soul of) Gobind was called from the
Seven Peaks to become one of mankind.
Then my wish was not to reappear,
For my thoughts were bent upon the feet of the Almighty ;

But God made known to me his desires.

The Lord said, Wlien mankind was created, the Daitayas

'

were sent for the punishment of the wicked, but the Daitayas
being strong, forgot me their God. Then the Devtas were
sent, but they caused themselves to be worshipped by men
as Siva, and Brahma, and Vishnu. The Sidhs were after-
wards born, but they, following different ways, established
many sects. Afterwards Gorakhnath appeared in the world,
and he, making many kings his disciples, established the
sect of Joghis. Ramanand then came into the world, and
he established the sect of Bairagis after his own fashion.
Muhadin (Muhammad) too was born, and became lord of
Arabia. He established a sect, and required his followers
to repeat his name. Thus, they who were sent to guide
mankind, perversely adopted modes of their own, and
misled the world. None taught the right way to the igno-
rant wherefore thou, O Gobind
; hast been called, that
!

thou mayst propagate the worship of the One True God,

and guide those who have lost the road.' Hence I, Gobind,
have come into the world, and have established a sect, and
have laid down its customs ; but whosoever regards me as
 ;

App. XIX GOBIND'S REPRESENTATION 369

the Lord shall be dashed into the pit of hell, for I am but
as other men, a beholder of the wonders of creation.

[Gobind goes on to declare that he regarded the religions

of the Hindus and Muhammadans as naught that Jogis,;

and the readers of Korans and Purans, were but deceivers

that no faith was to be put in the worship of images and
stones. All religions, he says, had become corrupt the ;

Sannyasi and Bairagi equally showed the wrong way, and

the modes of worship of Brahmans and Kshattriyas and
others were idle and vain. ' All shall pass into hell, for
God is not in books and scriptures, but in humility and
truthfulness.'
The subsequent chapters, to the 13th inclusive, relate the
wars in which Gobind was engaged with the Rajas of the
hills and the imperial forces.]

Chapter XIV (abstract). O God — thou who hast always

!

preserved thy worshippers from evil, and hast inflicted

punishment on the wicked who hast regarded me as thy
;

devoted slave and hast served me with thine own hand, now
all that I have beheld, and all thy glories which I have
witnessed, will I faithfully relate. What I beheld in the
former world, by the blessing of God will I make known.
In all my undertakings the goodness of the Lord hath been
showered upon me. Loh (iron) has been my preserver.
Through the goodness of God have I been strong, and all
that I have seen during the various ages will I put in a book ;
everything shall be fully made known.

Extract from the Tiventy-four Avatars

—
Kalki (conclusion of). Kalki at last became strong and
proud, and the Lord was displeased, and created another
Being. Mihdi Mir was created, great and powerful, who
destroyed Kalki, and became master of the world. All is in
the hands of God. In this manner passed away the twenty-
four manifestations.
—
Mihdi Mir. In such manner was Kalki destroyed, but
God manifests himself at all times, and at the end of the
Kalyug, all will be his own.^ When Mihdi Mir had vanquished
the world he became raised up in his mind. He assumed to
himself the crown of greatness and power, and all bowed to
him. He regarded himself as supreme. He taught not of
God, but considered himself to be in all things and to exist
everywhere. Then the Almighty seized the fool. God is One.
He is without a second. He is everywhere, in the water and
under the earth. He who knows not the One God, will be
1 Nij jot, jot suman.
Bb
 370 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xix

born again times innumerable. In the end God took away

the power of Mihdi Mir, and destroyed him utterly.
A creeping worm did the Lord create ;

By the ear of Mihdi it went and stayed :

The worm entered by his ear,

And he was wholly subdued.

APPENDIX XX
THE ADMONITORY LETTERS OF NANAK TO THE FABU-
LOUS MONARCH KARUN; AND THE PRESCRIPTIVE
LETTERS OF GOBIND FOR THE GUIDANCE OF THE
SIKHS
—
Note. ^Two letters to Karun are attributed to Nanak.
The first is styled the Nasihat Nama or Letter of Admo-
' ',

nition and Advice. The second is styled simplj- the Reply '

of Nanak and professes to be spoken. Karun may possibly

',

be a corruption of Harun, the Harun el Rashid of Euro-

' '

pean and Asiatic fame. Both compositions are of course

fabulous as regards Nanak, and appear to be the composi-
tions of the commencement or middle of the last century.
The two letters of Gobind are termed the Rabat Nama ' '

and the Tankha Nama ', or the Letter of Rules and the
'

Letter of Fines respectively and while they are adapted

;

for general guidance, they profess to have been drawn up in

reply to questions put by individuals, or for the satisfaction
of particular inquirers. There is no evidence that they were
compQsed by Gobind himself but they may be held to
;

represent his views and the principles of Sikhism.

1. The Nasihat Nclma of Nanak, or the Letter to Karun, the

Mighty Prince, jiossessing forty Capital Cities replenished
with Treasure. (Extracts from.)
Alone man comes, alone he goes.
When he departs naught will avail him (or bear him
witness).
When the reckoning is taken, what answer will he give ?
If then only he repents, he shall be punished.

Karun paid no devotions he kept not faith

; :

The world exclaimed he ruled not justly.

He was called a Ruler, but he governed not well,
 ;

APP. XX ADMONITORY LETTERS OF NANAK 371

For the pleasures of the world ensnared hhn.

He plundered the earth hell-fire shall torment him.
:

Man should do good, so that he be not ashamed.

Repent —
and oppress not,
Otherwise hell-fire shall seize thee, even in the grave.

Holy men. Prophets, Shahs, and Khans,

The mark of not one remaineth in the world ;

For man is but as the passing shade of the flying bird.

Thou rejoicest in thy Forty Treasures,

See, oh people! Karun utterly confounded.
O Nanak pray unto God, and seek God as thy refuge.
!

2. The Reply of Nanak to Kanm, the Lord of Medina

First, Nanak went to Mecca ;

Medina he afterwards visited.

The lord of Mecca and Medina,
Karun, he made his disciple.
When Nanak was about to depart,
Karun, the fortunate, thus spoke :

Now thou art about to go.

But when wilt thou return ?
Then the Guru thus answered :

When I put on my tenth dress

I shall be called Gobind Singh
Then shall all Singhs wear their hair ;

They shall accept the Pahal of the two-edged dagger

'
' :

Then shall the sect of the Khalsa be established ;

Then shall men exclaim, Victory, O Guru '

!
'

The four races shall become one and the same ;

The five weapons shall be worn by all.

In the Kalyug they shall array themselves in vestments of
blue ;

The name of the Khalsa shall be everywhere.

In the time of Aurangzeb
The wondrous Khalsa shall arise.
Then shall battles be waged,
Endless war shall ensue.
And fighting shall follow year after year.
They shall place the name of Gobind Singh in their hearts;
Many heads shall be rendered up.
And the empire of the Khalsa shall prevail.
B b2
 ;

372 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xx

First, the shall become the land of the Siklis
Punjab ;

Then other countries shall be theirs ;

Hindustan and the North shall be possessed by them

Then the West shall bow to them.
When they enter Khorasan,
Kabul and Kandahar shall lie low.
When Iran ^ has been laid prostrate,
Mecca shall be beheld,
And Medina shall be seized.
Mighty shall be the rejoicing,
And all shall exclaim, Hail, Guru '
!
'

Unbelievers shall everywhere be destroyed ;

The holy Khalsa shall be exalted ;

Beasts, and birds, and creeping things, shall tremble (in the
presence of the Lord).
Men and women shall everywhere call on God.
The earth, the ocean, and the heavens, shall call on God.
By calling on the Guru shall men be blessed.
Every faith shall become of the Khalsa ;
No other religion will remain.
'
Wall Guru shall everywhere be repeated.
'

And Pain and Trouble shall depart.

In the Kalyug shall the Kingdom be established
Which Nanak received from the Lord.
Worthless, I fall before God ;

Nanak, the slave, cannot comprehend the ways of the Lord.

3. The Rahat Nama of Guru Gobind. (Extracts from, and

abstracts of portions.)
'Written for Dariyai Udasi, and repeated to Prahlad Singh at
Apclialnagar (Nader on the Godavery).

The Gurij, being seated at Apchalnagar, spake to Prahlad

Singh, saying, that through the favour of Nanak there was
a sect or ifaith in the world for which rules (rahat) should be
established.

A Sikh who puts a cap (topi) ^ on his head, shall die seven
deaths of dropsy.
Whosoever wears a thread round his neck is on the way to
damnation.
• Persia.
Referring particularly to Hindu ascetias
2 but, perhaps, also to
;

the Muhammadans, who formerly wore skull-caps alone, and now

generally wind their turbans round a covering of the kind. The Sikh
contempt for either kind of topi has been thrown into the shade by
'
'

their repugnance, in common with all other Indians, to the English

cap or hat.
App. XX GOBIND'S LETTER OF RULES 373

[It is forbidden to take off the turban (pag) while eating,

to have intercourse with Minas, Massandis, and Kurimars
(children slayers), and to play at chess with women.
No prayers are to be offered up without using the name of
the Gurii, and he who heeds not the Guru, and serves not
the disciples faithfully, is a Mlechh indeed.
A Sikh who does not acknowledge the Hukamnama
(requisition for benevolences or contributions) of the Guru
shall fall under displeasure.]

First theGuru (Granth or Book) and Khalsa, which I have

placed in the world,
Whosoever denies or betrays either shall be driven forth and
dashed into hell.

[It is forbidden to wear clothing dyed with safflower (i.e.

of a Suhi colour), to wear charms on the head, to break
'
'

the fast without reciting the Jap (the prayer of Nanak), to

neglect reading prayers in the morning, to take the evening
meal without reciting the Rah Ras, to leave Akal Purukli
(the Timeless Being) and worship other Gods, to worship
stones, to make obeisance to any not a Sikh, to forget the
Granth, and to deceive the Khalsa.
All Hukamnamas (calls for tithes or contributions) given
by the posterity of Nanak, of Angad, and of Amar Das.
shall be heeded as his own : whosoever disregards them shall
perish.
The things which he had placed in the world (viz., the
Granth and the Khalsa) are to be worshipped. Strange
Gods are not to be heeded, and the Sikli who forsakes his
faith shall be punished in the world to come.
He who worships graves and dead men (' gor and ' murri ',
'

referring to Muhammadans and Hindus), or he who worships

temples (mosques) or stones (images), is not a Sikh.
The Sikliwho makes obeisance or bows down to the wearer
of a cap (topi) is a resident of hell.]
Consider the Klialsa as the Gurii, as the very embodiment
of the Gurii :

He who wishes to see the Gurii will find him in the Khalsa.
[Trust not Jogi or Turks. Remember the writings of the
Gurii only. Regard not the six Darsans (or systems of
faith or speculation). Without the Guru, all Deities are as
naught. The Image of the Almighty is the visible body
(pragat deh) of the immortal Khalsa (Akal). The Khalsa is
everything, other divinities are as sand, which slips through
the fingers. By the order of God the Panth (or sect) of Sikhs
has been established. All Sikhs must believe the Gurii and
the Granth. They should bow to the Granth alone. All
prayers save the prayers of the Guru are idle and vain.
374 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xx
He who gives the Pahal to another shall reap innumer-
'
'

able blessings. He who instructs in the prayers and scrip-

tures of the Gurus shall attain salvation.' Gobind will
reverence the Sikh who chafes the hands and the feet of the
wearied Sikh traveller. The Sikh who gives food to other
Sikhs, on him will the Guru look with favour.
Delivered on Thursday the 5th day of the dark phase
of the Moon of Magh in the Sambat year 1752 (beginning
of A.D. 1696). He who heeds these injunctions is a Sikh of
Guru Gobind Singh. The orders of the Gurii are as himself.
Depend on God.]

4. The Tanh'ha Ndma, or Letter of Fines or Restrictions on

Sikhs. (Abstract of.)

Written in reply to the question of Bhai Nand Lai, who had asked
Guru Gobind what it was proper for a Sikh to do, and what to
refrain from.

Nand Lai asked, &c. and the Guru replied that such
:

were to be the acts of the Sikhs. A Sikh should set his heart
on God, on charity, and on purity (Nam, Dan, Ishnan).
He who in the morning does not repair to some temple, or
visit some holy man, is greatly to blame. He who does not
allow the poor a place (in his heart) is to blame. Without
the favour of God nothing can be accomplished. He who
bows his head (i.e. humbles himself) after having offered
up prayers is a man of holiness. Charity (Karah Prasad,
i.e. food) should be distributed in singleness of mind to all
comers equally. Prasad should be prepared of equal parts
of flour, sugar, and butter. The preparer should first bathe,
and while cooking it he should repeat Wah Guru con- ' '

tinually. When ready, the food should be put on a round

place.
The Sikh who wears the (written) charms of the Turks, or
who touches iron with his feet, is to be condemned. He
who wears clothing dyed with safflower (of the colour called
Suhi), and he who takes snuff (naswar), is to be condemned.^
He who looks lustfully upon the mother or sister of one of
—
the brethren he who does not bestow his daughter becom-
—
ingly in marriage he who takes to himself the property of
—
a sister or daughter he who wears not iron in some shape
— he who robs or oppresses the poor, and he who makes
obeisance to a Turk, is to be punished.

* This is the only recorded prohibition against tobacco, to refrain

from which in every shape is now a rule. The Afghans of Peshawar
and Kabul continue to take snuff, a practice but little known to the
Indians.
APP. XX GOBIND'S LETTER OF FINES 375

A Sikh should comb his locks, and fold and unfold his
turban twice a day. Twice also should he wash his
mouth.
One tenth of all goods should be given (in charity) in the
name of the Guru.
Sikhs should bathe in cold water they should not break
:

their fast until they have repeated the Jap. In the morning
Jap, in the evening. Rah Ras, and before retiring to rest,
Sohila should always be repeated.
No Sikh should speak false of his neighbour. Promises
should be carefully fulfilled.
No Sikh should eat flesh from the hands of the Turks.
A Sikh should not delight in women, nor give himself up
to them.
The Sikh who calls himself a Sadh (or Holy man) should
act in strict accordance with his professions.
A journey should not be undertaken, nor should business
be set about, nor should food be eaten, without first remem-
bering or calling on God.
A Sikh should enjoy the society of his own wife only. He
should not desire other women.
He who sees a poor man and gives him not something,
shall not behold the presence of God.
He who neglects to pray, or who abuses the holy, or who
gambles, or who listens to those who speak evil of the Gurus,
is no Sikh.
Daily, some portion of what is gained is to be set aside in
the name of the Lord, but all business must be carried on
and truth.
in sincerity
Flame should not be extinguished with the breath, nor
should fire be put out with water, a portion of which has
been drunk.
Before meals the name of the Guru should be repeated.
The society of prostitutes is to be avoided, nor is adultery
to be committed with the wife of another. The Guru is not
to be forsaken, and others followed. No Sikh should expose
his person he should not bathe in a state of nudity, nor
;

when distributing food should he be naked. ^ His head

should always be covered.
He is of the Khalsa,
Who speaks evil to none,
Who combats in the van,
Who gives in charity.
Who slays a Khan,
Who subdues his passions.
Who burns the Karms ' ',-

^ The practices of many Hindu ascetics are mainly aimed at.

2 i. e. who despises the ceremonial forms of the Brahmans.
376 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xx
Who does not yield to superstitions,^
Who is awake day and night,
Who delights in the sayings of the GurGs,
And who never
fears, although often overcome.
Considering created by the Lord,
all as
Give offence to none, otherwise the Lord will Himself be
offended.

He is of the Khalsa,
Who protects the poor.
Who combats evil.
Who remembers God,
Whoachieves greatness, ^
Who intent upon the Lord,
is
Who
is wholly unfettered,
Who
mounts the war horse,
Who
is ever waging battle,
Wlio is continually armed,
Who slays the Turks,
Wlio extends the faith,
And who gives his head with what is upon it.
The name of God shall be proclaimed ;
No one shall speak against Him ;

The rivers and the mountains shall remember Him ;

All who call upon Him shall be saved.

Nand Lai attend to what is said ;

!

My own rule will I establish.

The four races shall be one,
1 will cause all to repeat the prayer of Wah Guru '. '

The Sikhs of Gobind shall bestride horses, and bear hawks

upon their hands.
The Turks who behold them shall fly,
One shall combat a multitude.
And the Sikh who thus perishes shall be blessed for ever.
At the doorway of a Sikh shall wait elephants caparisoned,
And horsemen with spears, and there shall be music over his
gateway.
When myriads of matches burn together,
Then shall the Khalsa conquer East and West.
The Khalsa shall rule none can resist
; :

The rebellious shall be destroyed, and the obedient shall

have favours heaped upon them.

* Hindi Aan, said to correspond with the meaning of the Arabic

Aar —one whodoes not affect to be in any way protected by saints
or others. The same term is applied to the brotherhood or mutual
dependence of a chief and his followers.
2 Literally, who resides in state.
 APP. XXI SIKH SECTS OR DENOMINATIONS 377

APPENDIX XXI
A LIST OF SOME SIKH SECTS OR DENOMINATIONS
(In which, however, some Names or Titles not properly distinctive^
an Order are also inserted)

1st. JJdasi. —
Founded by Sri Chand, a son of Nanak.
The Udasis were rejected by Aniar Das, as not being
genuine Sikhs.
—
2nd. Bedi. Founded by Lakshmi Das, another son of
Nanak.
3rd. Tehun. —Founded by Guru Angad.
4th. Bhalla. —Founded by Guru Amar Das.
5th. Sodhi. —Founded by Guru Ram Das.

Note. —The Bedis, Tihans, Bhallas, and Sodhis are rather

Sikhs of the subdivisions of Kshattriyas, so called (i.e. of
the tribes of certain Gurus), than distinct sects.

6th. Ramraiya, seceders who adhered to Ram Rai when

Tegh Bahadur became Guru. They have a considerable
establishment in the Lower Himalayas, near Hardwar.
7th. Banda-Panthi, i.e. of the sect of Banda, who suc-
ceeded Gobind as a temporal leader.
8th. Masandi. —
Masand is simply the name of a sub-
division of the Kshattriya race but it is also specially
;

applied to the followers of those who resisted Gobind some ;

say as adherents of Ram

Rai, and others as instigators of
the Guru's son to opposition. The more common story,
however, is that the Masands were the hereditary stewards
of the household of the several Gurus, and that they became
proud and dissipated, but nevertheless arrogated sanctity
to themselves, and personally ill-used many Sikhs for not
deferring to them ;whereupon Gobind, regarding them as
irreclaimable, expelled them all except two or three.
9th. Rangrheta. —Converts of the Sweeper and some other
inferior castes are so called. (See note 4, p. 71, ante.)
10th. Ramdasi, i.e. Rao or Rai Dasi. —
Sikhs of the class
of Chamars, or leather-dressers, and who trace to the Rao
Das, or Rai Das, whose writings are inserted in the Granth.
11th. Mazhabi. — Converts from Muhammadanism are so
called.
12th. Akdli.— Worshippers of Akal (God), the most
eminent of the orders of Purists or Ascetics.
13th. Nihang.— The naked, or pure.
—
14th. Nirmale. The sinless. One who has acquired
this title usually administers the Pahal to others.
378 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xxi

—
15th. Gyani. The wise, or perfect. A term sometimes
apphed to Sikhs who are at once learned and pious.
—
16th. Suthra Shahi. The true, or pure : said to have
been founded by one Sucha, a Brahman. (See ante, note 2,
p. 62.)
—
17th. Suchidari. Likewise the true, or pure the
:

founder not ascertained.

18th. Bhai.— Literally, brother. The ordinary title of
all Sikhs who have acquired a name for holiness ;and it
is scarcely the distinctive title of a sect, or even of an order.

To these may perhaps be added bodies of men who attach

themselves to particular temples, or who claim to have been
founded by particular disciples of eminence, or by followers
who obtained any distinctive title from a Guru. Thus
some claim to represent Ram Das, the companion of Nanak,
who lived till the time of Arjun, and who obtained the title
of Budha ', or Ancient. Also many hereditary musicians
'

call themselves Rahabi Sikhs, from the Rabab, or particular

iiistrument on which they play ;and these affect to regard
Mardana, the companion of Nanak, as their founder. Others
are called Diwdne, or the Simple or Mad, from one assiduous
as a collector of the contributions of the faithful for the
service of the Gurus, and who, while so employed, placed
a peacock's feather in his turban. Another class is called
Masaddi (or, perhaps, Mutasaddi, i.e. the clerk or writer
order), and it is stated to be composed of devotees of the
Muhammadan religion, who have adopted the Jap of ' '

Nanak as their rule of faith. The Musaddis are further

said to have fixed abodes in the countries westward of
the Indus.
 APPENDIX XXII To face page 378.
Nanak. (1)

GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE GURUS.

Svi ciiand Lakshnii Das Angad. (2)
Bedu
(• Udiisis '). (•

Descendants at
').
Note. —The names of the Gurus are in-
Nanak's cluded in rectangles of continuoas lines and ;
Datu Amar Das. (3) the pretenders to apostolical succession to the
'
Dehra ', on ('Tihans ').
the Ravi.
present time are shown in rectangles of waved
Descendants lines.
near Khadur.

Mohree Bhani =p: Ram Das. (4)

(' Bhallas '). {Daughter).
Descendants
near Goindwal. Of the 'SodW
tribe married the
;

daughter of Amar
Das.

(5) Arjun. Pirthi Chand. Mahadev.

(6) i
Har Gobind.

Gurditta. Tegh Bahadur. (9) Surat Singh. Ani Rai. Atal Rai. Meharban.

Dhip Chand. Kurim MuU. Harji. Chatarbhuj.

Descendants Descendants at
Har at Batala. Kothatcala, mar
(T) Rai. Dhlrmal. Gobind Singh. (10)
Sirhind.

1
Gulab Rai. j Man Singh. Har Gopal.
1
1

Ajit Singh. Jughar Singh. Fateh Singh. Zorawar Sing

Rai. Har Kishan. (8) Pahar Chand. Gui'dit.
Nahar Singh. Uda Singh. Khem Singh.

Shama. Jiwan.
Nirjun Das. Bhopa.
Suraj Singh. ^ Jai Singh. Har Suhai.
Dhanpat. Of Kot Har Suhai,
I
south of Ferozfpore.
i

Gulab Singh.
Uttam Singh.
Sadhu Singh.
Alive 1846. Tiluk Singh. Didar Singh. ^ Diwan Singh. ^
Kartar Singh.
0/ Kartarpur,
near Jidlundur.
Alive 1846.

Brij Indar Singh.

Of A nandpxir-Makhoioal.
App. xxiii TREATY WITH LAHORE OF 180G 379

APPENDIX XXIII
THE TREATY WITH LAHORE OF 1806

Treaty of Friendship and Unity between the Honourable East

India Company and the Sardars Ranjit Singh and Fateh
Singh. (1st January 1806.)
Sardar Ranjit Singh and Sardar Fateh Singh have con-
sented to the following articles of agreement, concluded
by Lieutenant- Colonel John Malcolm, under the special
authority of the Right Honourable Lord Lake, himself duly
authorized by the Honourable Sir George Hilaro Barlow,
Bart., Governor- General, and Sardar Fateh Singh, as
principal on the part of himself, and plenipotentiary on
the part of Ranjit Singh :

Article 1. —Sardar Ranjit Singh and Sardar Fateh Singh

Ahluwalia, hereby agree that they will cause Jaswant Rao
Holkar to remove with his army to the distance of thirty
coss from Amritsar immediately, and will never hereafter
hold any further connexion with him, or aid or assist him
with troops, or in any other manner whatever ; and they
further agree that they will not in any way molest such of
Jaswant Rao Holkar' s followers or troops as are desirous of
returning to their homes in the Deccan, but, on the contrary,
will render them every assistance in their power for carrying
such intention into execution.
Article 2. —
The British Government hereby agrees, that
in case a pacification should not be effected between that
Government and Jaswant Rao Holkar, the British army
shall move from its present encampment, on the banks of
the river Biah, as soon as Jaswant Rao Holkar aforesaid
shall have marched his army to the distance of thirty coss
from Amritsar and that, in any treaty which may here-
;

after be concluded between the British Government and

Jaswant Rao Holkar, it shall be stipulated that, immediately
after the conclusion of the said treaty, Holkar shall evacuate
the territories of the Sikhs, and march towards his own, and
that he shall in no way whatever injure or destroy such parts
of the Sikh country as may lie in his route. The British
Government further agrees that, as long as the said Chief-
tains, Ranjit Singh and Fateh Singh, abstain from holding
any friendly connexion with the enemies of that Government,
or from committing any act of hostility on their own parts
against the said Government, the British armies shall never
enter the territories of the said Chieftains, nor will the British
Government form any plans for the seizure or sequestration
of their possessions or property.
Dated 1st January 1806.
380 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xxiv

APPENDIX XXIV
SIR DAVID OCHTERLONY'S PROCLAMATION OF 1809

Precept or ^Ittila Noma', under the Seal

of General St. Leger,
and under theSeal and Signature of Colonel Ochterlony ;
zvritten the 9th of February 1809, corresponding to the
23rd Zi Hijeh, 1223, Hijri.
The British army having encamped near the frontiers of
the Maharaja Ranjit Singh, it has been thought proper to
signify the pleasure of the British Government, by means of
this precept, in order to make all the Chiefs of the Maharaja
acquainted with the sentiments of the British Government,
which have solely for their object and aim to confirm the
friendship with the Maharaja, and to prevent any injury to
his country, the preservation of friendship between the two
States depending on particular conditions which are hereby
detailed.
The Thanas in the fortress of Kharar, Khanpur, and
other places on this side of the river Sutlej, which have been
placed in the hands of the dependants of the Maharaja,
shall be razed, and the same places restored to their ancient
possessors.
The force of cavalry and infantry which may have crossed
to this side of the Sutlej must be recalled to the other side,
to the country of the Maharaja.
The troops stationed at the Ghat of Phillaur must march
thence, and depart to the other side of the river as described,
and in future the troops of the Maharaja shall never advance
into the country of the Chiefs situated on this side of the
river, who have called in for their security and protection
Thanas of the British Government ; .but if in the manner
that the British have placed Thanas of moderate number on
this side of the Sutlej, if in like manner a small force by way
of Thana be stationed at the Ghat of Phillaur, it will not
be objected to.
If the Maharaja persevere in the fulfilment of the above
stipulations, which he so repeatedly professed to do in
presence of Mr. Metcalfe, such fulfilment will confirm the
mutual friendship. In case of non-compliance with these
stipulations, then shall it be plain that the Maharaja has no
regard for the friendship of the British, but, on the contrary,
resolves on enmity. In such case the victorious British
army shall commence every mode of defence.
The communication of this precept is solely with the view
of publishing the sentiments of the British, and to know
those of the Maharaja. The British are confident that the
APP. XXIV BRITISH PROCLAMATION OF 1809 381

Maharaja will consider the contents of this precept as

abounding to his real advantage, and as affording a con-
spicuous proof of their friendship that with their capacity
;

for war, they are also intent on peace.

Note. —The recorded translation of this document has been pre-

served, although somewhat defective in style.

APPENDIX XXV
THE TREATY WITH LAHORE OF 1809

Treaty between the British Government and the Rdjd of Lahore.

(Dated 25th April 1809.)
Whereas certain differences which had arisen between
the British Government and the Raja of Lahore have been
happily and amicably adjusted and both parties being
;

anxious to maintain relations of perfect amity and concord,

the following articles of treaty, which shall be binding on
the heirs and successors of the two parties, have been con-
cluded by the Raja Ranjit Singh in person, and by the
agency of C. T. Metcalfe, Esquire, on the part of the British
Government.
Article 1 .
—
Perpetual friendship shall subsist between the
British Government and the State of Lahore the latter :

shall be considered, with respect to the former, to be on the

footing of the most favoured powers, and the British Govern-
ment will have no concern with the territories and subjects
of the Raja to the northward of the river Sutlej.
—
Article 2. The Raja will never maintain in the territory
which he occupies on the left bank of the river Sutlej more
troops than are necessary for the internal duties of that
territory, nor commit or suffer any encroachments on the
possessions or rights of the Chiefs in its vicinity.
Article 3. —
In the event of a violation of any of the pre-
ceding articles, or of a departure from the rules of friend-
ship, this treaty shall be considered null and void.
Article 4. —
^This treaty, consisting of four articles, having
been settled and concluded at Amritsar, on the 25th day of
April 1809, Mr. C. T. Metcalfe has delivered to the Raja of
Lahore a copy of the same in English and Persian, under
his seal and signature ; and the Raja has delivered another
copy of the same under his seal and signature, and Mr. C. T.
Metcalfe engages to procure within the space of two months
a copy of the same, duly ratified by the Right Honourable
 382 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xxv
the Governor-General in Council, on the receipt of which by
the Raja, the present treaty shall be deemed complete and
binding on both parties, and the copy of it now delivered to
the Raja shall be returned.

APPENDIX XXVI
PROCLAMATION OF PROTECTION TO CIS-SUTLEJ STATES
AGAINST LAHORE. (Dated 1809)
Translation of an ''Ittila Ndma ', addressed to the Chiefs of
the Country of MaJxica and Sirhind, on this Side of the
River Sutlej. (3rd May 1809.)
It is clearer than the sun, and better proved than the
existence of yesterday, that the marching of a detachment
of British troops to this side of the river Sutlej was entirely
at the application and earnest entreaty of the several Chiefs,
and originated solely from friendly considerations in the
British Gk)vernment, to preserve them in their possessions
and independence. A treaty having been concluded, on the
25th of April 1809, between Mr. Metcalfe on the part of the
British Government, and Maharaja Ranjit Singh, agreeably
to the orders of the Right Honourable the Governor- General
in Council, I have the pleasure of publishing, for the satis-
faction of the Chiefs of the country of Malwa and Sirhind,
the pleasure and resolutions of the British Government, as
.contained in the seven following articles :

Article 1. —The
countiy of the Chiefs of Malwa and
Sirhind having entered under the British protection, they
shall in future be secured from the authority and influence
of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, conformably to the terms of the
treaty.
Article 2. — All the country of the Chiefs thus taken under
protection shall be exempted from all pecuniary tribute to
the British Government.
Article 3.
— ^The Chiefs shall remain in the full exercise of
the same rights and authority in their own possessions which
they enjoyed before they were received under the British
protection.
Article 45.— Should a British force, on purposes of general
welfare, be required to march through the country of the
said Chiefs, it is necessary and incumbent that every Chief
shall, within his own possessions, assist and furnish, to the
full of his power, such force with supplies of grain and other
necessaries which may be demanded.
App. XXVI PROCLAMATION OF PROTECTION 383

Article 5. —
Should an enemy approach from any quarter,
for the purpose of conquering this country, friendship and
mutual interest require that the Chiefs join the British army
with all their force, and, exerting themselves in expelling
the enemy, act imder discipline and proper obedience.
—
Article 6. All European articles brought by merchants
from the eastern districts, for the use of the army, shall be
allowed to pass, by the Thanedars and Sardars of the several
Chiefs, without molestation or the demand of duty.
Article 7. —
All horses purchased for the use of cavalry
regiments, whether in the district of Sirhind or elsewhere,
the bringers of which being provided with sealed ' Rahdaris '

from the Resident at Delhi, or officer commanding at Sirhind,

shall be allowed to pass through the country of the said
Chiefs without molestation or the demand of duty.

APPENDIX XXVII
PROCLAMATION OF PROTECTION TO CIS-SUTLEJ STATES
AGAINST ONE ANOTHER. (Dated 1811)
For the Information and Assurance of the Protected Chiefs of
the Plains between the Sutlej and Jumna. (22nd August,
1811.)
On the 3rd of May 1809 an 'Ittila Nama' comprised of
seven articles, was issued by the orders of the British
Government, purporting that the country of the Sardars
of Sirhind and Malwa having come under their protection.
Raja Ranjit Singh, agreeably to treaty, had no concern
with the possessions of the above Sardars That the
;

British Government had no intention of claiming Peshkashs

or Nazarana, and that they should continue in the full
control and enjoyment of their respective possessions :

The publication of the above Ittila Nama was intended

' '

to afford every confidence to the Sardars, that the protection

of the country was the sole object, that they had no inten-
tion of control, and that those having possessions should
remain in full and complete enjoyment thereof.
Whereas several Zamindars and other subjects of the
Chiefs of this country have preferred complaints to the
officers of the British Government, who, having in view
the tenor of the above Ittila Nama
'
have not attended,
',

and will not in future pay attention to them for instance,

;

on the 15th of June 1811, Dilawar All Khan of Samana

complained to the Resident of Delhi against the officers of
Raja Sahib Singh for jewels and other property said to have
384 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xxvii

been seized by them, who, in reply, observed that the

'
Kasba of Samana being in the Amaldari of Raja Sahib
Singh, his complaint should be made to him and also,
'
;

on the 12th of July 1811, Dasaundha Singh and Gurmukh

Singh complained to Colonel Ochterlony, Agent to the
Governor- General, against Sardar Charat Singh, for their
shares of property, &e. ; and, in reply, it was written on
the back of their arzi, that since, during the period of three
'

years, no claim was preferred against Charat Singh by any

of his brothers, nor even the name of any co-partner men-
tioned ; and since it was advertised in the Ittila Nama '
'

delivered to the Sardars, that every Chief should remain in

the quiet and full enjoyment of his domains, the petition
—
could not be attended to,' the insertion of these answers
to complaints is intended as examples, and also that it may
be impressed on the minds of every Zamindar and other
subject, that the attainment of justice is to be expected
from their respective Chiefs only, that they may not, in the
smallest degree, swerve from the observation of subordina-
tion,—It is, therefore, highly incumbent upon the Rajas
and other Sardars of this side of the river Sutlej, that they
explain this to their respective subjects, and court their
confidence, that it may be clear to them, that complaints
to the officers of the British Government will be of no avail,
and that they consider their respective Sardars as the source
of justice, and that, of their free will and accord, they observe
uniform obedience.
And whereas, according to the first proclamation, it is
not the intention of the British Government to interfere in
the possessions of the Sardars of this country, it is neverthe-
less, for the purpose of meliorating the condition of the com-
munity, particularly necessary to give general information,
that several Sardars have, since the last incursion of Raja
Ranjit Singh, wrested the estates of others, and deprived
them of their lawful possessions, and "that in the restoration,
they have used delays until detachments of the British army
have been sent to effect restitution, as in the case of the
Rani of Tirah, the Siklis of Chulian, the Talukas of Karauli
and Chehloundy, and the village of Chiba and the reason
;

of such delays and evasions can only be attributed to the

temporary enjoyment of the revenues, and subjecting the
—
owners to irremediable losses, It is, therefore, by order of
the British Government, hereby proclaimed that if any one
of the Sardars or others has forcibly taken possession of the
estates of others, or otherwise injured the lawful owners,
it is necessary that, before the occurrence of any complaint,
tlie proprietor should be satisfied, and by no means to defer
—
the restoration of the property, in which, however, should
delays be made, and the interference of the British authority
 App. XXVII PROCLAINIATION OF PROTECTION 385

become requisite, the revenues of the estate from the date

of ejection of the lawful proprietor, together with whatever
other losses the inhabitants of that place may sustain froin
the march of troops, shall without scruple be demanded
from the offending party and for disobedience of the
;

present orders, a penalty, according to the circumstances of

the case and of the offender, shall be levied, agreeably to
the decision of the British Government.

APPENDIX XXVIII
INDUS NAVIGATION TREATY OF 1832

Articles of a Convention established betzveen the Honourable

the East India Company, and his Highness the Maharaja
Ranjit Singh, the Ruler of the Punjab, for the opening of
the Navigation of the Rivers Indus and Sutlej. (Originally
drafted 26th December 1832.)
By the grace of God, the relations of firm alliance and
indissoluble ties of friendship existing between the Honour-
able the East India Company and his Highness the Maharaja
Ranjit Singh, founded on the auspicious treaty formerly
concluded by Sir T. C. Metcalfe, Bart., and since confirmed
in the written pledge of sincere amity presented by the
Right Honourable Lord W. G. Bentinck, G.C.B. and G.C.H.,
Governor-General of British India, at the meeting at Rupar,
are, like the sun, clear and manifest to the whole world, and
will continue unimpaired, and iticrcasing in strength from
generation to generation : —
By virtue of these firmly
established bonds of friendship, since the opening of the
navigation of the rivers Indus proper (i. e. Indus below
the confluence of the Panjnad) and Sutlej (a measure
deemed expedient by both States, with a view to promote
—
the general interests of commerce), has lately been effected
through the agency of Captain C. M. Wade, Political Agent
at Ludhiana, deputed by the Right Honourable the Gover-
nor-General for that purpose. The following Articles,
explanatory of the conditions by which the said navigation
is to be regulated, as concerns the nomination of olficers,
the mode of collecting the duties, and the protection of the
trade by that route, have been framed, in order that the
officers of the two States employed in their execution may
act accordingly :

Article 1. —The provisions of the existing treaty relative

to the rightbank of the river Sutlej and all its stipulations,
together with the contents of the friendly pledge already
CO
386 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xxviii

mentioned, shall remain binding, and a strict regard to

preserve the relations of friendship between the two States
shall be the ruling principle of action. In accordance with
that treaty, the Honourable Company has not, nor will have
any concern with the right bank of the river Sutlej.
—
Article 2. The tariff which is to be established for the
line of navigation in question is intended to apply exclusively
to the passage of merchandise by that route, and not to
interfere with the transit duties levied on goods proceeding
from one bank of the river to the other, nor with the places
fixed for their collection :they are to remain as heretofore.
—
Article 3. Merchants frequenting the same route, while
within the limits of the Maharaja's government, are required
to show a due regard to his authority, as is done by merchants
generally, and not to commit any acts offensive to the civil
and religious institutions of the Sikhs.
—
Article 4. Any one purposing to go the said route will
intimate his intention to the agent of either State, and apply
for a passport, agreeably to a form to be laid down : having
obtained which, he may proceed on his journey. The mer-
chants coming from Amritsar, and other parts on the right
bank of the river Sutlej, are to intimate their intentions to
the agent of the Maharaja, at Harike, or other appointed
places, and obtain a passport through him ; and merchants
coming from Hindustan, or other parts on the left bank of
the river Sutlej, will intimate their intentions to the Honour-
able Company's agent, and obtain a passport through him.
As foreigners, and Hindustanis, and Sardars of the protected
Sikh States and elsewhere, are not in the habit of crossing
the Sutlej without a passport from the Maharaja's officfers,
it is expected that such persons will hereafter also conform
to the same rule, and not cross without the usual passports.
—
Article 5. A tariff shall be established exhibiting the
rate of duties leviable on each description of merchandise,
which, after having been approved by both Governments,'
is to be the standard by which the superintendents and
collectors of customs are to be guided.
—
Article 6. Merchants are invited to adopt the new route
with perfect confidence : no one shall be suffered to molest
them or unnecessarily impede their progress, care being
taken that they are only detained for the collection of the
duties, in the manner stipulated, at the established stations.
—
Article 7. The officers who are to be entrusted with the
collection of the duties and examination of the goods on the
right bank of the river shall be stationed at Mithankot and
Harike ; at no other places but these two shall boats in
transit on the river be liable to examination or stoppage.
When the persons in charge of boats stop of their own accord
to take in or give out cargo, the goods will be liable to the
App. xxviii INDUS NAVIGATION TREATY 387

local transit duty of the Maharaja's government, previously

to their being landed, as provided in Article 2. The superin-
tendent stationed at Mithankot, having examined the cargo,
will levy the established duty, and grant a passport, with
a written account of the cargo and freight. On the arrival
of the boat at Karike, the superintendent of that station
will compare the passport with the cargo ; and whatever
goods are found in excess will be liable to the payment of
the established duty, while the rest, having already paid
duty at Mithankot, will pass on free. The same rule shall
be observed in respect to merchandise conveyed from
Harike by the way of the rivers towards Sind, that what-
ever may be fixed as the share of duties on the right bank
of the river Sutlej, in right of the Maharaja's own dominions
and of those in allegiance to him, the Maharaja's officers will
collect it at the places appointed. With regard to the security
and safety of merchants who may adopt this route, the
Maharaja's officers shall afford them every protection in
their power ; and merchants, on halting for the night on
either bank of the Sutlej, are required, with reference to
the treaty of friendship which exists between the two States,
to give notice, and to show their passport to the Thanedar,
or officers in authority at the place, and request protection
for themselves if, notwithstanding this precaution, loss
:

should at any time occur, a strict inquiry will be made, and

reclamation sought from those who are blameable. The
articles of the present treaty for opening the navigation
of the rivers above mentioned, having, agreeably to sub-
sisting relations, been approved by the Right Honourable
the Governor-General, shall be carried into execution
accordingly.
Dated at Lahore the 26th of December 1832.
[Seal and signature at the top.]

APPENDIX XXIX
SUPPLEMENTARY INDUS NAVIGATION TREATY OF 1834

Draft of a Supplementary Treaty between the British Govern-

ment and Maharaja Ranjit Singh for establishing a Toll
on the Indus. (29th November 1834.)
In conformity with the subsisting relations of friendship,
as established and confirmed by former treaties, between
the Honourable the East India Company and his Highness
Maharaja Ranjit Singh and whereas in the 5th article of
;

the treaty concluded at Lahore on the 26th day of December

CO 2
388 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xxix

1832, it was stipulated that a moderate scale of duties

should be fixed by the two Governments in concert, to be
levied on all merchandise on transit up and down the rivers
Indus and Sutlej the said Governments, being now of
;

opinion that, owing to the inexperience of the people of

these countries in such matters, the mode of levying duties
then proposed (viz. on the value and quantity of goods)
could not fail to give rise to mutual misunderstandings and
reclamations, have, with a view to prevent these results,
determined to substitute a toll, which shall be levied on all
boats, with whatever merchandise laden. The following
articles have therefote been adopted as supplementary to
the former treaty and, in conformity with them, each
;

Government engages that the toll shall be levied, and its

amount neither be increased nor diminished except by
mutual consent.
—
Article 1. ^A toll of 570 Rs. shall be levied on all boats
laden with merchandise in transit on the rivers Indus and
Sutlej between the sea and Riipar, without reference to
their size, or to the weight or value of their cargo
; the above
toll to be divided among the different States in proportion
to the extent of territory which they possess on the banks
of these rivei's.
Article 2. —
The portion of the above toll appertaining to
the Lahore Chief in right of his territory on both banks of
these rivers, as determined in the subjoined scale, shall be
levied opposite to IMithankot on boats coming from the sea
towards Rupar, and in the vicinity of Harike-Pattan on
boats going from Rupar towards the sea, and at no other
jjlace : —
in right of territory on the In right of territory on the
right bank of the rivers left bank of the rivers
Indus and Sutlej, 155 Rs. Indus and Sutlej, the Ma-
4 ans. haraja's share, of 67 Rs.
15 ans. 9 pie.
Article 3. —
In order to facilitate the realization of the
tolldue to the different States, as well as for the speedy and
satisfactory adjustment of any disputes which may arise
connected with the safetj' of the navigation and the welfare
of the trade by the new route, a British officer will reside
opposite to IMithankot, and a native agent on the part of
the British Government ojiposite to Harike-Pattan. These
oncers will be subject to the orders of the British agent at
Ludhiana ; and the agents who may be appointed to reside
at those places on the part of the other States concerned
in the navigation, viz. Bahawalpur and Sind, together with
those of Lahore, will co-operate with them in the execution
of their duties.
APP. XXIX SUPPLEMENTARY TREATY 389

Article 4. —In order to guard against imposition on the

part of merchants in making false complaints of being
plundered of jjroperty which formed no part of their cargoes,
they are required, when taking out their passports, to pro-
duce an invoice of their cargo, which being duly authenti-
cated, a copy of it Avill be annexed to their passports and
;

wherever their boats may be brought to for the night, they

are required to give immediate notice to the Thanedars or
olficers of the place, and to request protection for themselves,
at the same time shoAving the passports they may have,
received at Mithankot or Harike, as the case may be.
Article 5. —Such parts of the 5th, 7th, 9th, and 10th
articles of the treaty of the 26th of December 1832 as have
reference to the fixing a duty on the value and quantity of
merchandise, and to the mode of its collection, are hereby
rescinded, and the foregoing articles substituted in their
place, agreeably to which and the conditions of the preamble
the toll will be levied.

—
N.B. A distribution of the shares due to the British
protected States and the feudatories of the Maharaja on the
left bank of the Sutlej will be determined hereafter.

APPENDIX XXX
THE TRIPARTITE TREATY WITH RANJlT SINC4H AND
SHAH SHUJA OF 1838
Treaty of Alliance and Friendship between Maharaja Ranjtt
Singh and Shah Shujd-iid-Mulk, with the approbation of
and in concert ivith the British Government.
(Done at Lahore, 26th June 1838, signed at
Simla, 25th June 1838.)
Whereas a treaty was formerly concluded between
Maharaja Ranjit Singh and Shah Shuja-ul-Mulk, consisting
of fourteen articles, exclusive of the preamble and the con-
clusion And whereas the execution of the provisions of
:

the said treaty was suspended for certain reasons And

:

whereas at this time, Mr. W. H. Macnaghten having been

deputed by the Right Honourable George, Lord Auckland,
G.C.B., Governor-General of India, to the presence of
Maharaja Ranjit Singh, and vested with full powers to
form a treaty, in a manner consistent with the friendly
engagements subsisting between the two States, the treaty
aforesaid is revived, and concluded with certain modifica-
tions, and four new articles have been added thereto, with
390 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xxx
the approbation of and in concert with the British Govern-
ment, the provisions whereof, ascertained in the following
eighteen articles, will be duly and faithfully observed :

Article 1. — Shah Shuja-ul-Mulk disclaims all title on the

part of himself, his heirs and successors, and all the Saddozies,
to all the territories lying on either bank of the river Indus,
that may be possessed by the Maharaja, viz. Kashmir,
including its limits, E., W., N., S., together with the fort of
Attock, Chach-Hazara, Khabal, Amb, with its dependencies,
on the left bank of the aforesaid river, and on the right bank
Peshawar, with the Usufzais territorj^ the Khataks, Hasht-
nagar, Michni, Kohat, Hanggu, and all places dependent on
Peshawar, as far as the Khaibar pass, Bannu, the Vaziri's
territory, Daur-Tank, Garang, Kalabagh, and Khushalgarh,
with their dependent districts, Dera Ismail Khan, and
its dependency, Kot Mithan, Umar Kot, and their dependent
territory Sanghar, Harrand-Dajal, Hajipur, Rajanpur, and
;

the three Kaches, as well as Mankehra, with its district, and

the province of Multan, situated on the left bank. These
countries and places are considered to be the property, and
to form the estate, of the Maharaja :the Shah neither has
nor will have any concern with tliem they belong to the
;

Maharaja and his posterity from generation to generation.

Article 2. —The people of the country on the other side of
Khaibar will not be suffered to commit robberies, or aggres-
sions, or any disturbances on this side. If any defaulter
of either State, who has embezzled the revenue, take refuge
in the territory of the other, each party engages to surrender
him, and no person shall obstruct the passage of the stream
which issues out of the Khaibar defile, and supplies the fort
of Fatehgarh with water according to ancient usage.
Article 3. — As, agreeably to the treaty established
between the British Government and the Maharaja, no
one can cross froin the left to the right bank of the Sutlej
without a passport from the Maharaja, the same rule shall
be observed regarding the passage of the Indus, whose
Avaters join the Sutlej, and no one shall be allowed to cross
the Indus without the Maharaja's permission.
Article 4. — Regarding Shikarpur and the territory of
Sind, on the right bank of the Indus, the Shah will agree
to abide by whatever may be settled as right and proper,
in conformity with the happy relations of friendship sub-
sisting between the British Government and the Maharaja

Article 5.
—
through Captain Wade.
"N\Tien the Shah shall have established his
authority in Kabul and Kandahar, he will annually send the
Maharaja the following articles, viz. 55 high-bred horses
of approved colour, and pleasant paces 11 Persian scime-
;

tars ; 7 Persian poniards ; 25 good mules fruits of various

;
xvp. XXX TRIPARTITE TREATY 391

kinds, both dry and fresh and Sardas or Musk melons, of

;

a sweet and dehcate flavour (to be sent throughout the year

by the way of the Kabul river to Peshawar) grapes, ;

pomegranates, apples, quinces, almonds, raisins, pistahs or

ch«; stnuts, an abundant supply of each as well as pieces of
;

satin of every colour chogas of fur

; kimkhabs wrought
;

with gold and silver and Persian carpets, altogether to

—
;

the number of 101 pieces, all these articles the Shah will
continue to send every year to the Maharaja.
Article 6. —
Each party shall address the other on terms
of equality.
Article 7. —
Merchants of Afghanistan who may be desir-
ous of trading to Lahore, Amritsar. or any other parts of the
Maharaja's possessions, shall not be stopped or molested on
their way on the contrary, strict orders shall be issued
;

to facilitate their intercourse, and the Maharaja engages to

observe the same line of conduct on his part, in respect to
traders who may wish to proceed to Afghanistan.
Article 8. —
The Maharaja will yearly send to the Shah the
following articles in the w^ay of friendship 55 pieces of
:

shawls ; 25 pieces of muslin 11 dupattas

; 5 pieces of ;

kamkhab ; 5 scarfs 5 turbans

; 55 loads of Bara rice
;

(peculiar to Peshawar).
Article 9. —
Any of the Maharaja's officers, who may be
deputed to Afghanistan to purchase horses, or on any other
business, as well as those who may be sent by the Shah into
the Punjab, for the purpose of purchasing piece goods, or
shawls, &c., to the amount of 11,000 rupees, will be treated
by both sides with due attention, and every facility will be
afforded to them in tlie execution of their commission.
Article 10. —
Whenever the armies of the two States may
happen to be assembled at the same place, on no account
shall the slaughter of kine be permitted to take place.
Article 11. —
In the event of the Shah taking an auxiliary
force from the Maharaja, whatever booty may be acquired
from the Barakzais in jewels, horses, arms, great and small,
shall be equally divided between the two contracting parties.
If the Shah should succeed in obtaining possession of their
property, without the assistance of the Maharaja's troops,
the Shah agrees to send a portion of it by his own agent to
the Maharaja in the way of friendship.
Article 12. —
An exchange of missions charged with letters
and presents shall constantly take place between the two
parties.
Article 13. —
Should the Maharaja require the aid of any
of the Shah's troops in furtherance of the objects contem-
plated by this treaty, the Shah engages to send a force
commanded by one of his principal officers in like manner
:

the Maharaja will furnish the Shah, when required, with

 392 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xxx
an auxiliary force, composed of Muhammadans, and com-
manded by one of the principal officers, as far as Kabul, in
furtherance of the objects contemplated by this treaty.
\Vlien the Maharaja may go to Peshawar, the Shah will
depute a Shahzada to visit him, on which occasions the
Maharaja will receive and dismiss him with the honour and
consideration due to his rank and dignity.
Article 14. —
The friends and enemies of each of the three
high pow ers, that is to say, the British and Sikh Governments,
and Shah Shuja-ul-Mulk, shall be the friends and enemies of all.
Article 15. —Shah Shuja-ul-Mulk engages, after the
attainment of his object, to pay without fail to the Maha-
raja the sum of two lacs of rupees, of the Nanakshahi or
Kaldar currency, calculating from the date on which the
Sikh troops may be dispatched for the purpose of reinstating
his Majesty in Kabul, in consideration of the Maharaja
stationing a force of not less than 5,000 men, cavalry and
infantry, of the Muhammadan persuasion, within the limits
of the Peshawar territory, for the support of the Shah, and
to be sent to the aid of his Majesty, whenever the British
Government, in concert and counsel with the Maharaja,
shall deem their aid necessary ; and when any matter of
great importance may arise to the westward, such measures
will be adopted with regard to it as may seem expedient and
projjcr at the time to the British and Sikh Governments. In
the event of the Maharaja's requiring the aid of any of the
Shah's troops, a deduction shall be made from the subsidy
proportioned to the period for which such aid maybe afforded,
and the British Government holds itself responsible for the
punctual payment of the above sum annually to the Maharaja,
so long as the provisions of this treaty are duly observed.
Article IG. —
Shah Shujri-ul-Mulk agrees to relinquish for
himself, his heirs, and successors, all claims of supremacy
and arrears of tribute over the country now held by the
Amirs of Sind (which will continue to belong to the Amirs
and their successors in perpetuity), on condition of the
payment to him by the Amirs of such a smn as may be
determined under tlie mediation of the British Government ;
1,500,000 of rupees of such payment being made over by him
to Maharaja Ranjlt Singh. On these payments being com-
pleted, article 4th of the treaty of the 12th March 1833 i will
be considered cancelled, and the customary interchange of
letters and suitable presents between the Maharaja and the
Amirs of Sind shall be maintained as heretofore.
—
Article 17.^ When Shiih Shuja-ul-Mulk shall have suc-
ceeded in establishing his authority in Afghanistan, he shall
not attack or molest his nephew, the ruler of Herat, in the
possession of the territories now subject to his Government.
' Eetwccn Sliah Shuja and Ranjlt Singl).
 —
App. XXX TRIPARTITE TREATY 393

—
Article 18. ^Shah Shuja-ul-lNIiilk binds himself, his heirs,
and successors, to refrain from enteriiog into negotiations
with any foreign State without the knowledge and consent
of the British and Sikh Governments, and to oppose any
power having the design to invade the British and Sikli
territories by force of arms, to the utmost of his ability.
The three powers, parties to this treaty, namely, the
British Government, Maharaja Ranjit Singh, and Shah
Shuja-ul-Mulk, cordially agree to the foregoing articles.
There shall be no deviations from them, and in that case
the present treaty shall be considered binding for ever, and
this treaty shall come into operation from and after the
date on which the seals and signatures of the three con-
tracting parties shall have been affixed thereto.
Done at Lahore, this 26th day of June, in the year of our
Lord 1838, corresponding with the 15th of the month of
Asarh 1895, era of Bikarmajit.
Ratified by the Right Honourable the Governor-General
at Simla, on the 23rd day of July, a. d. 1838.
(Signed) Auckland.
Ranjit Singh.
SlIUJA-UL-MULK.

APPENDIX XXXI
INDUS AND SUTLEJ TOLL AGREEMENT OF 1839

Agreement entered into ivith the Government of Lahore, regard-

ing the Duties to be levied on the Transit of Merchandise
by the Rivers Sutlej and Indus, in modification of the
Supjylementary Articles of the Treaty of 1832. (Dated
19th May 1839.)
Objections having been urged against the levy of the
same duty on a boat of a small as on one of a large size, and
the merchants having solicited that the duties might be
levied on the maundage, or measurement, of the boats, or
on the value of the goods, it is therefore agreed, that here-
after the whole duty shall be paid at one place, and either
at Ludhiana. or Ferozepore, or at Mithankot and that the ;

duty be levied on the merchandise, and not on the boats, as

follows :

Pashmina . . per maund 10 rupees.

Opium . . . . .. 7i rupees.
Indigo
Dried fruits
.

... . . .,

.
2| rupees.
1 ' rupee.
Superior silks,
cloth, &c. ...
muslins, broad-

Inferior silks, cottons, chintzes

6
4
annas.
annas.
394 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xxxi

On Exports from the Punjab

Sugar, ghi, oil," drugs, ginger, saffron.

Madder
Grain
....
and cotton

....
. . . per maiind
„
„
4 annas.
8 annas.
2 annas.

On Imports from Bombay

All imports whatever .per maund 4
. annas.

APPENDIX XXXII
INDUS AND SUTLEJ TOLL AGREEMENT OF 1840

Treaty between the Lahore and Bntish Governments, regarding

the levy of Transit Duties on Boats navigating the Sutlej
and Indus. (Dated 27th June 1840.)
Formerly a treaty was executed by the Right Honour-
able Lord W. Cavendish Bentinck, the Governor- General of
India, on the 14th of Pus Sanibat 1889 (corresponding with
A. D. 1832), through Colonel, then Captain, Wade, concerning
the navigation of the Sutlej and the Sind rivers in the
Khalsa territory, in concurrence with the wishes of both
the friendly and allied Governments. Another treaty on the
subject was subsequently executed, through the same officer,
in Sambat 1891 (corresponding with a. d. 1834), fixing a
duty on every mercantile boat, independent of the quantity
of its freight and the nature of its merchandise. third A
treaty was executed on this subject, in accordance with the
wishes of both Governments, on the arrival of Mr. Clerk,
Agent to the Governor-General at the Durbar, in May 1839,
adjusting the rate of duties on merchandise according to
quantity and kind ; and it was also specified that no further
reduction of those rates should be proposed between the
two Governments. On the visit of that gentleman to the
Khalsa Durbar at Amritsar, in Jith Sambat 1897 (corre-
sponding with May 1840), the difficulties and inconveniences
which seemed to result to trade under the system proposed
last year, in consequence of the obstruction to boats for the
purpose of search, and the ignorance of traders, and the
difficulty of adjusting duties according to the different kinds
of articles freighted in these boats, were all stated and that ;

gentleman proposed to revise that system, by fixing a scale

of duties proportionate to the measurement of boats, and
not on the kind of commodities, if this arrangement should
be approved of by both Governments. Having reported to
APP. xxxn INDUS AND SUTLEJ TOLLS 395

his Government the circumstance of the case, he now drew

up a schedule of the rate of duties on the mercantile boats
navigating the rivers Sind and Sutlej, and forwarded it for
the consideration of this friendly Durbar the Khalsa ;

Government, therefore, with a due regard to the established

alliance, having added a few sentences in accordance with
the late treaties, and agreeably to what is already well under-
stood, has signed and sealed the schedule and it shall ;

never be liable to any contradiction, difference, change, or

alteration without the concurrence and consent of both
Governments, in consideration of mutual advantages, upon
condition it does not interfere with the established custom
duties at Amritsar, Lahore, and other inland places, or the
other rivers in the Klialsa territory.
—Grain, wood, limestone, be from duty.
Article 1. will free
—With exception of the above, every commodity
Article 2.
to pay duty according to the measurement of the boat.
Article —Duty on a boat not exceeding 50 maunds of
3.
freight proceeding from the foot of the Hills, Rupar, or
Ludhiana to Mithankot or Rojhan, or from Rojhan or
Mithankot to the foot of the Hills, Rui^ar, or Ludhiana, will
be 50 rupees ; viz.
From the foot of the Hills to Ferozepore, or back 20 rupees.
From Ferozepore to Bahawalpur, or back . 15 ,,

From Bahawalpur to Mithankot or Rojhan,

or back . . . . . . 15 ,,

The whole trip, up or down 50 rupees.

Duty on a boat above 250 maunds, but not exceeding
500 maunds from the foot of the Hills, Rupar, or Ludhiana
:

to Mithankot or Rojhan, or from Rojhan or Mithankot to

the foot of the Hills, Rupar, or Ludhiana, will be 100 rupees,
viz.
From the foot of the Hills to Ferozepore or back 40 rupees.
From Ferozepore to Bahawalpur or back . 30 ,,

From Bahawalpur to Mithankot or Rojhan, or

back 30 „
The whole trip, up or down 100 ,,

Duty on all boats above 500 maunds will be 150 rupees,

viz.
From
.......
the foot of the Hills to Ferozepore, or
back
From Ferozepore to Bahawalpur, or back
From Bahawalpur to Mithankot or Rojhan,
.
60 rupees.
45 ,,

or back . . , . . . 45 ,,

The whole trip, up or down 150 rupees.

396 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xxxii

Article 4.— Boats to be classed 1, 2, or 3, and the same to

be Avritten on the boat, and every boat to be registered.
Article 5.— These duties on merchandise frequenting the
Sutlej and Sind are not to interfere with the duties on the
banks of other rivers, or with the established inland custom-
houses throughout the Khalsa territory, which will remain
on their usual footing.
Dated 13th Asar Sambat 1897, corresponding with
27th June 1840.

APPENDIX XXXIII
DECLARATION OF WAR OF 1845

Proclamation by the Governor-General of India.

Camp, Lashkari Khan ki Sarai,
December 13th, 1845.
The British Government has ever been on terms of friend-
ship with that of the Punjab.
In the year 1809, a treaty of amity and concord was
concluded between the British Government and the late
Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the conditions of Avhich have always
been faithfully observed by the British Government, and
were scrupulously fulfilled by the late Maharaja.
The same friendly relations have been maintained with
the successors of Maharaja Ranjit Singh by the British
Government up to the present time.
Since the death of the late Maharaja Sher Singh, the
disorganized state of the Lahore Government has made it
incumbent on the Governor-General in Council to adopt
precautionary measures for the protection of the British
frontier: the nature of these measures, and the cause of
their adoption, were, at the time, "fully explained to the
Lahore Durbar.
Notwithstanding the disorganized state of the Lahore
Government during the last two years, and many most
unfriendly proceedings on the part of the Durbar, the
Governor-General in Council has continued to evince his
desire to maintain the relations of amity and concord which
had so long existed between the two States, for the mutual
interests and happiness of both. He has shown, on every
occasion, the utmost forbearance, froni consideration to the
helpless state of the infant Maharaja Dallp Singh, whom
the British Government had recognized as the successor to
the late Maharaja Sher Singh.
The Governor-General in Coimcil sincerely desired to see
a strong Sikh Government re-established in the Punjab, able
APP. XXXIII DECLARATION OF WAR 397

to control its army, and to protect its subjects he had not,

;

up to the present moment, abandoned the hope of seeing

that important object effected by the patriotic efforts of
the Chiefs and people of that country.
The Sikh army recently marched froin Lahore towards
the British frontier, as it was alleged, by the orders of the
Durbar, for the purpose of invading the British territory.
The Governor- General's agent, by direction of the Gover-
nor-General, demanded an explanation of this movement,
and no reply being returned within a reasonable time, the
demand was repeated. The Governor-General, unwilling to
believe in the hostile intentions of the Sikh Government, to
which no provocation had been given, refrained from takmg
any measures which might have a tendency to embarrass
the Government of the Maharaja, or to induce collision
between the two States.
Wlien no reply was given to the repeated demand for ex-
planation, while active military preparations were continued
at Lahore, the Governor-General considered it necessary to
order the advance of troops towards the frontier, to reinforce
the frontier posts.
The Sikli army has now, without a shadow of provocation,
invaded the British territories.
The Governor-General must therefore take measures for
effectually protecting the British provinces, for vindicating
the authority of the British Government, and for punishing
the violators of treaties and the disturbers of the public
peace.
The Governor- General hereby declares the possessions of
Maharaja Dalip Singh, on the left or British bank of the
Sutlej, confiscated and annexed to the British territories.
The Governor-General will respect the existing rights of
all Jaglrdars, Zamlndars, and tenants in the said posses-
sions, who, by the course they now pursue, evince their
fidelity to the British Government.
The Governor-General hereby calls upon all the Chiefs
and Sardars in the protected territories to co-operate cordially
with the British Govermnent for the punishment of the
common enemy, and for the maintenance of order in these
States. Those of the Chiefs who show alacrity and fidelity
in the discharge of this duty, which they owe to the pro-
tecting power, will find their interests promoted thereby ;
and those who take a contrary course will be treated as
enemies to the British Government, and will be punished
accordingly.
The inhabitants of all the territories on the left bank o
the Sutlej are hereby directed to abide peaceably in their
respective villages, where they will receive efficient pro-
tection by the British Government. All parties of men
398 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xxxiii

found in armed bands, who can give no satisfactory account

of their proceedings, will be treated as disturbers of the
public peace.
All subjects of the British Government, and those who
possess estates on both sides the river Sutlej, who, by their
faithful adherence to the British Government, may be liable
to sustain loss, shall be indemnified and secured in all their
just rights and privileges.
On
the other hand, all subjects of the British Government
who shall continue in the service of the Lahore State, and
who disobey the proclamation by not immediately returning
to their allegiance, will be liable to have their property on
this side the Sutlej confiscated, and themselves declared to
be aliens and enemies of the British Government.

APPENDIX XXXIV
FIRST TREATY WITH LAHORE OF 1846

Treaty behveen the British Government and the State of

Lahore, concluded at Lahore, on March 9th, 1846.
'
Whereas the treaty of amity and concord, which was
concluded between the British Government and the late
Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the ruler of Lahore, in 1809, was
broken by the unprovoked aggression on the British provinces
of the Sikh army, in December last And whereas, on that
:

occasion, by the proclamation dated the 13th of December,

the territories then in the occupation of the Maharaja of
Lahore, on the left or British bank of the river Sutlej, were
confiscated and annexed to the British provinces ; and,
since that time, hostile operations have been prosecuted by
the two Governments, the one against the other, which have
resulted in the occupation of Lahore by the British troops :
And whereas it has been determined that, upon certain
conditions, peace shall be re-established between the two
Governments, the following treaty of peace between the
Honourable English East India Company, and Maharaja
Dallp Singh Bahadur, and his children, heirs, and successors,
has been concluded, on the part of the Honourable Company,
by Frederick Currie, Esq., and Brevet-Major Henry Mont-
gomery Lawrence, by virtue of full powers to that effect
vested in them by the Right Honourable Sir Henry Hardinge.
G.C.B., one of Her Britannic Majesty's most Honourable
Privy Council, Governor- General, appointed by the Honour-
able Company to direct and control all their affairs in the
East Indies and, on the part of his Highness the Maharaja
;
APP. XXXIV FIRST TREATY OF 1846 399

Dallp Singh, by Bhai Ram Singh, Raja Lai Singh, Sardar

Tej Singh, Sardar Chattar Singh Atariwala, Sardar Ranjor
Singh Majithia, Diwan Dina Nath, and Fakir Nur-ud-dln,
vested with full powers .and authority on the part of his
Highness.
Article 1. —
There shall be perpetual peace and friendship
between the British Government, on the one part, and
Maharaja Dallp Singh, his heirs and successors, on the
other.
—
Article 2. ^The Maharaja of Lahore renounces for him-
self, his heirs and successors, all claim to, or connexion
with, the territories lying to the south of the river Sutlej,
and engages never to have any concern with those territories,
or the inhabitants thereof.
Article 3. — The Maharaja cedes to the Honourable Com-
pany, in perpetual sovereignty, all his forts, territories, and
rights, in the Doab, or country, hill and plain, situate be-
tween the rivers Beas and Sutlej.
Article 4. — The British Government having demanded
from the Lahore State, as indemnification for the expenses
of the war, in addition to the cession of territory described
in Article 3, payment of one and a half crores of rupees ;

and the Lahore Government being unable to pay the whole

of this sum at this time, or to give security satisfactory to
the British Government for its eventual payment ; the
Maharaja cedes to the Honourable Company, in perpetual
sovereignty^ as equivalent for one crore of rupees, all his
forts, territories, rights, and interests, in the hill countries
which are situate between the rivers Beas and Indus, in-
cluding the provinces of Kashmir and Hazara.
Article 5.
—^The Maharaja will pay to the British Govern-
ment the sum of fifty lacs of rupees, on or before the ratifica-
tion of this treaty.
—
Article 6. The Maharaja engages to disband the mutinous
troops of the Lahore army, taking from them their arms ;

and his Highness agTees to reorganize the regular, or Ain,

regiments of infantry, upon the system, and according to
the regulations as to pay and allowances, observed in the
time of the late Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The Maharaja
further engages to pay up all arrears to the soldiers that are
discharged under the provisions of this article.
Article 7. — The regular army of the Lahore State shall
henceforth be limited to 25 battalions of infantry, consisting
of 800 bayonets each, with 12,000 cavalry : this number at
no time to be exceeded without the concurrence of the British
Gk)vernment. Should it be necessary at any time, for any
special cause, that this force should be increased, the cause
shall be fully explained to the British Government ; and,
when the special necessity shall have passed, the regular
400 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xxxiv

troops shall be again reduced to the standard specified in

Article 8.
—
the former clause of this article.
^The Maharaja will surrender to the British
Government all the guns, thirty-six in number, which have
been pointed against the British troops, and which, having
been placed on the right bank of the river Sutlej, were not
captured at the battle of Sobraon.
Article 9.— The control of the rivers Beas and Sutlej,
with the continuations of the latter river, commonly called
the Ghara and Panjnad, to the confluence of the Indus at
Mithankot, and the control of the Indus from Mithankot
to the borders of Baluchistan, shall, in respect to tolls and
ferries, rest with the British Government, The provisions
of this article shall not interfere with the passage of boats
belonging to the Lahore Government on the said rivers, for
the purposes of traffic, or the conveyance of passengers up
and doM'n their course. Regarding the ferries between the
two countries respectively, at the several ghats of the said
rivers, it is agreed that the British Government, after
defraying all the expenses of management and establish-
ments, shall account to the Lahore Government for one-half
of the net profits of the ferry collections. The provisions of
this article have no reference to the ferries on that part of the
river Sutlej which forms the boundary of Bahawalpur and
Lahore respectively.
Article 10.— If the British Government should, at any
time, desire to pass troops through the territories of his
Highness the Maharaja for the protection of the British
territories, or those of their allies, the British troops shall-,
on such special occasions, due notice being given, be allowed
to pass through the Lahore territories. In such case, the
officers of the Lahore State will afford facilities in providing
supplies and boats for the passage of rivers ; and the British
Government will pay the full price of all such provisions
and boats, and will make fair compensation for all private
property that may be endamaged. The British Government
will moreover observe all due consideration to the religious
feelings of the inhabitants of those tracts through which the
army may pass.
Article 11. — The Maharaja engages never to take, or
retain, in his service, any British subject, nor the subject of
any Eurojican or American State, without the consent of
the British Government.
—
Article 12. In consideration of the services rendered by
Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu to the Lahore State, towards
procuring the restoration of the relations of amity between
the Lahore and British Governments, the Maharaja hereby
agrees to recognize the independent sovereigntj^ of Raja
Gulab Singh, in such territories and districts in the hills as
APP. XXXIV FIRST TREATY OF 1846 401

may be made over to the said Raja Gulab Singh by separate

agreement between himself and the British Government,
with the dependencies thereof, which may have been in
the Raja's possession since the time of the late Maharaja
Karak Singh and the British Government, in consideration
:

of the good conduct of Raja Gulab Singh, also agrees to

recognize his independence in such territories, and to admit
him to the privileges of a separate treaty with the British
Government.
Article 13. —In the event of any dispute or difference
arising between the Lahore State and Raja Gulab Singh,
the same shall be referred to the arbitration of the British
Government ;and by its decision the Maharaja engages
to abide.
Article 14. —The limits of the Lahore territories shall not
be, at any time, changed, without the concurrence of the
British Government.
Article 15. —The British Government will not exercise any
interference in the internal administration of the Lahore
State ; but in all cases or questions which may be referred
to the British Government, the Governor-General will give
the aid of his advice and good offices for the furtherance
of the interests of the Lahore Government.
Article 16. — The subjects of either State shall, on visiting
the territories of the other, be on the footing of the subjects
of the most favoured nation.
This treaty, consisting of sixteen articles, has been this
day settled by Frederick Currie, Esq., and Brevet-Major
Henry Montgomery Lawrence, acting under the directions
of the Right Honourable Sir Henry Hardinge, G.C.B.,
Governor- General, on the part of the British Government ;
and by Bhai Ram Singh, Raja Lai Singh, Sardar Tej Singh,
Sardar Chattar Singh Atariwala, Sardar Ranjor Singh
Majithia, Dlwan Dlna Nath, and Fakir Nur-ud-din, on the
part of the Maharaja Dallp Singh ; and the said treaty has
been this day ratified by the seal of the Right Honourable
Sir Henry Hardinge, G.C.B., Governor- General, and by
that of his Highness Maharaja Dalip Singh.
Done at Lahore, this 9th day of March, in the year of
our Lord 1846, corresponding with the 10th day of Rabi-ul-
awal 1262, Hijri, and ratified on the same day.

Dd
402 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xxxv

APPENDIX XXXV
SUPPLEMENTARY ARTICLES TO FIRST TREATY WITH
LAHORE OF 1846
Articles of Agreement concluded between the British Government
and the Lahore Durbar, on the 11th of March 1846.
Whereas the Lahore Government has solicited the
Governor-General to leave a British force at Lahore, for
the protection of the Maharaja's person and of the capital,
till the reorganization of the Lahore army, according to
the provisions of Article 6 of the treaty of Lahore, dated
the 9th instant And whereas the Governor-General has,
:

on certain conditions, consented to the measure : And

whereas it is expedient that certain matters concerning the
territories ceded by Articles 3 and 4 of the aforesaid treaty
should be specifically determined ; the following eight
articles of agreement have this day been concluded between
the afore-mentioned contracting parties.
Article 1 .
—
The British Government shall leave at Lahore,
till the close of the current year, a. d. 1846, such force as
shall seem to the Governor- General adequate for the purpose
of protecting the person of the Maharaja, and the inhabi-
tants of the city of Lahore, during the reorganization of the
Sikh army, in accordance with the provisions of Article 6
of the treaty of Lahore that force to be withdrawn at any
;

convenient time before the expiration of the year, if the

object to be fulfilled shall, in the opinion of the Durbar,
have been obtained but the force shall not be detained at
;

Lahore beyond the expiration of the current year.

Article 2. —
The Lahore Government agrees that the force
left at Lahore, for the purpose specified in the foregoing
article, shall be placed in full possession of the fort and the
city of Lahore, and that the Lahore troops shall be removed
from within the city. The Lahore Government engages to
furnish convenient quarters for the officers and men of the
said force, and to pay to the British Government all the
extra expenses, in regard to the said force, which may be
incurred by the British Government, in consequence of their
troops being employed away from their own cantonments,
and in a foreign territory.
Article 3. —
The Lahore Government engages to apply
itself immediately and earnestly to the reorganization of its
army, according to the prescribed conditions, and to com-
municate fully with the British authorities left at Lahore,
as to the progress of such reorganization, and as to the
location of the troops.
APP. XXXV SUPPLEMENTARY ARTICLES 403

Article 4. —
If the Lahore Government fails in the perfor-
mance of the conditions of the foregoing article, the British
Government shall be at liberty to withdraw the force from
Lahore, at any time before the expiration of the period
specified in Article 1.
—
Article 5.- ^The British Government agrees to respect the
bona fide rights oft hose Jagirdars within the territories
ceded by Articles 3 and 4 of the treaty of Lahore, dated
9th instant, who were attached to the families of the late
Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Kliarak Singh, and Sher Singh ;

and the British Government will maintain those Jagirdars

in their bona fide possessions, during their lives.
—
Article 6. -The Lahore Government shall receive the
assistance of the British local authorities in recovering the
arrears of revenue justly due to the Lahore Government
from their Kardars and managers in the territories ceded
by the provisions of Articles 3 and 4 of the treaty of Lahore,
to the close of the Kharif harvest of the current year, viz
1902, of the Sambat Bikarmajit.
Article 7. —
The Lahore Government shall be at liberty
to remove from the forts in the territories specified in the
foregoing article, all treasure and state property, with the.
exception of guns. Should, however, the British Govern-
ment desire to retain any part of the said property, they
shall be at liberty to do so, paying for the same at a fair
valuation and the British officers shall give their assistance
;

to the Lahore Government, in disposing on the spot of such

part of the aforesaid property as the Lahore Government
may not wish to remove, and the British officers may not
desire to retain.
Article 8. —
Commissioners shall be immediately appointed
by the two Governments, to settle and lay down the boun-
darj^ between the two States, as defined by Article 4 of the
treaty of Lahore, dated 9th March 1846.

APPENDIX XXXVI
TREATY WITH GULAB SINGH OF 1846

Treaty between the British Govermncnt and Maharaja Gulah

Singh, concluded at Amritsar, on 16th March 1846.

Treaty between the British Government on the one part,

and Maharaja Gulab Singh of Jammu on the other, con-
cluded, on the part of the British Government, by Frederick
Currie, Esq., and Brevet-Major Henry Montgomery Law-
rence, acting under the orders of the Right Honourable
Sir Henry Hardinge, G.C.B., one of Her Britannic Majesty's
Dd 2
404 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xxxvi

most Honourable Privy Council, Governor- General, appoin-

ted by the Honourable Company to direct and control all
their affairs in the East Indies, and by Maharaja Gulab
Singh in person.
Article 1.—The British Government transfers and makes
over, for ever, in independent possession, to Maharaja
Gulab Singh, and the heirs male of his body, all the hUly or
mountainous country, with its dependencies, situated to
the eastward of the river Indus, and westward of the river
Ravi, including Chamba and excluding Lahul, being part of
the territory ceded to the British Government by the Lahore
State, according to the provisions of Article 4 of the treaty
of Lahore, dated 9th March 1846.
—
Article 2. The eastern boiuidary of the tract transferred
by the foregoing article to Maharaja Gulab Singh shall be
laid down by commissioners appointed by the British
Government and Maharaja Gulab Singh respectively, for
that purpose, and shall be defined in a separate engagement,
after survey.
—
Article 3.^ In consideration of tlie transfer made to him
and his heirs by the provisions of the foregoing articles,
Maharaja Gulab Singh will pay to the British Government
the sum of seventy-five lacs of rupees (Nanakshahi), fifty
lacs to be paid on ratification of this treaty, and twenty-fiver
lacs on or before the 1st of October of the current year,
A. D. 1846.
—
Article 4. The limits of the territories of Maharaja Gulab
Singh shall not be at any time changed without the con-
currence of the British Government.
—
Article 5. Maharaja Gulab Singh will refer to the arbi-
tration of the British Government any disputes or questions
that may arise between himself and the Government of
Lahore, or any other neighbouring State, and will abide by
the decision of the British Government.
—
Article 6. Maharaja Gulab Singh engages for himself and
heirs, to join, with the whole of his military force, the British
troops, when employed within the hills, or in the territories
adjoining his possessions.
—
Article 7. Maharaja Gulab Singh engages never to take,
or retain, in his service any British subject, nor the subject
of any European or American State, without the consent of
the British Government.
—
Article 8. Maharaja Gulab Singh engages to respect, in
regard to the territory transferred to him, the provisions of
Articles 5, 6, and 7, of the separate engagement between
the British Government and the Lahore Durbar, dated
11th March 1846.
Article 9.— The British Government will give its aid to
Maharaja Gulab Singh, in protecting his territories from
external enemies.
APP. xxx\'i TREATY ^'VITH GULAB SINGH 405

Article 10.— Maharaja Giilab Singh acknowledges the

supremacy of the British Government, and will, in token of
such supremacy, present annually to the British Government
one horse, twelve perfect shawl goats of approved breed (six
male and six female), and three pairs of Kashmir shawls.
This treaty, consisting of ten articles, has been this day
settled by Frederick Currie, Esq., and Brevet-Major Henry
Montgomery Lawrence, acting unde? the directions of the
Right Honourable Sir Henry Hardinge, G.C.B., Governor-
General, on the part of the British Government, and by
Maharaja Gulab Singh in person and the said treaty has
;

been this day ratified by the seal of the Right Honourable

SirHenry Hardinge, G.C.B., Governor- General.
Done at Amritsar, day of March, in the year of
this 16th
our Lord 1846, corresponding with the 17th day of Rabl-ul-
awwal, 1262, Hijri.

APPENDIX XXXVII
SECOND TREATY WITH LAHORE OF 1846

Foreign Department, Camp, BhjTOwal Ghat, on the

left Bank of the Beas, the 22nd December 1846.

The late Governor of Kashmir, on the part of the Lahore

State, Shaikh Imam-ud-din, having resisted by force of arms
the occupation of the province of Kashmir by Maharaja
Gulab Singh, the Lahore Government was called upon to
coerce their subject, and to make over the province to the
representative of the British Government, in fulfilment of
the conditions of the treaty of Lahore, dated 9th March
1846.
A British force was employed to support and aid, if neces-
sary, the combined forces of the Lahore State and Maharaja
Gulab Singh in the above operations.
Shaikh Imam-ud-dIn intimated to the British Government
that he was acting under orders received from the Lahore
Durbar in the course he was pursuing and stated that the
;

insurrection had been instigated by written instructions

received by him from the Wazir Raja Lai Singh.
Shaikh Imam-ud-dIn surrendered to the British agent on
a guarantee from that officer, that if the Shaikh could, as he
asserted, prove that his acts were in accordance with his
instructions, and that the opposition was instigated by the
Lahore minister, the Durbar should not be permitted to
inflict upon him, either in his person or his propevty, any
penalty on account of his conduct on this occasion. The
406 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xxxvii

British agent pledged his Government to a full and impartial

investigation of the matter.
A public inquiry was instituted into the facts adduced by
Shaikh Imam-ud-din, and it was fully established that Raja
Lai Singh did secretly instigate the Shaikh to oppose the
occupation by Maharaja Gulab Singh of the province of
Kashmir.
The Governor- General immediately demanded that the
Ministers and Chiefs of the Lahore State should depose and
exile to the British provinces the WazTr Raja Lai Singh.
His Lordship consented to accept the deposition of Raja-
Lai Singh as an atonement for the attempt to infringe the
treaty by the secret intrigues and machinations of the Wazir.
It was not proved that the other members of the Durbar had
cognizance of the Wazir's proceedings and the conduct of
;

the Sardars, and of the Sikh army in the late operations

for quelling the Kashmir insurrection, and removing the
obstacles to the fulfilment of the treaty, proved that the
criminality of the Wazir was not participated in by the Sikli
nation.
The Ministers and Chiefs unanimously decreed, and
carried into immediate effect, the deposition of the Wazir.
After a few days' deliberations, relative to the means of
forming a government at Lahore, the remaining members
of the Durbar, in concert with all the Sardars and Chiefs of
the State, solicited the interference and aid of the British
Government for the maintenance of an administration, and
the protection of the Maharaja Dallp Singh during the
minority of his Highness.
This solicitation by the Durbar and Chiefs has led to the
temporary modification of the relations between the British
Government and that of Lahore, established by the treaty of
the 9th March of the present year.
The terms and conditions of this, modification are set
forth in the following articles of agreement.

Articles of Agreement concluded between the British Government

and the Lahore Durbar on 16th December 1846.
Wliereas the Lahore Durbar and the principal Chiefs and
Sardars of the State have, in express terms, communicated
to the British Government their anxious desire that the
Governor-General should give his aid and his assistance to
maintain the administration of the Lahore State during the
minority of Maharaja Dalip Singh, and have declared this
measure to be indispensable for the maintenance of the
government And whereas the Governor-General has, under
:

certain conditions, consented to give the aid and assistance

solicited, the following articles of agreement, in modification
App. XXXVII SECOND TREATY OF 1846 407

of the articles of agreement executed at Lahore on the 11th

March last, have been concluded, on the part of the British
Government, by Frederick Currie, Esq., Secretary to the
Government of India, and Lieutenant- Colonel Henry Mont-
gomery Lawrence, C.B., Agent to the Governor-General,
North-West Frontier, by virtue of full powers to that effect
vested in them by the Right Honourable Viscount Hardinge,
G.C.B., Governor-General, and on the part of his Highness
Maharaja Dallp Singh, by Sardar Tej Singh. Sardar Sher
Singh, Dlwan Dlna Nath, Fakir Nur-ud-dm, Rai Kishan
Chand, Sardar Ranjor Singh Majithia, Sardar Atar Singh
Kaliwala, Bhai Nidhan Singh, Sardar Ivhan Singh Majithia,
Sardar Shamsher Singh, Sardar Lai Singh IMuraria, Sardar
Kehar Singh Sindhianwala, Sardar Arjun Singh Rangran-
glia, acting with the unanimous consent and concurrence of
the Chiefs and Sardars of the State assembled at Lahore.
Article 1. —All and every part of the treaty of peace
between the British Government and the State of Lahore,
bearing date the 9th day of March 1846, except in so far as
it may be temporarily modified in respect to clause 15 of the
said treaty by this engagement, shall remain binding upon
the two Governments.
—
Article 2. A British officer, with an efficient establishment
of assistants, shall be appointed by the Governor-General to
remain at Lahore, which officer shall have fidl authority
to direct and control all matters in every department of the
State.
Article 3. —
Every attention shall be paid, in conducting
the administration, to the feelings of the people, to preserv-
ing the national institutions and customs, and to maintain
the just rights of all classes.
Article 4. —
Changes in the mode and details of admini-
stration shall not be made, except when foimd necessary
for effecting the objects set forth in the foregoing clause,
and for securing the just dues of the Lahore Government.
These details shall be conducted by native officers as at
present, who shall be appointed and superintended by
a Council of Regency, composed of leading Chiefs and
Sardars, acting under the control and guidance of the
British Resident.
Article 5.— The following persons shall in the first instance
constitute the Council of Regency, viz., Sardar Tej Singh,
Sardar Sher Singh Atariwala, Dlwan Dina Nath, Fakir
Nur-ud-din, Sardar Ranjor Singh ]Majithia, Bhai Nidhan
Singh, Sardar Attar Singh Kaliv.ala, Sardar Shamsher Singh
Sindhianwala and no change shall be made in the persons
;

thus nominated, without the consent of the British Resident,

acting under the orders of the Governor-General.
Article 6. —
^The administration of the country shall be
408 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xxx\-n

conducted by this Council of Regency in such manner as

may be determined on by themselves in consultation with
the British Resident, who shall have full authority to direct
and control the duties of every department.
—
Article 7. A British force, of such strength and numbers,
and in such positions, as the Governor- General inay think
fit, shall remain at Lahore for the protection of the Maharaja,
and the preservation of the peace of the country.
Article 8. —
The Govern or- General shall be at liberty to
occupy with British soldiers any fort or military post in the
Lahore territories, the occupation of which may be deemed
necessary by the British Government for the security of the
capital, or for maintaining the peace of the country.
Article 9. —
The Laliore State shall pay to the British
Government twenty-two lacs of new Nanakshahi rupees of
full tale and weight per annum, for the maintenance of this
force, and to meet the expenses incurred by the British
Government such sum to be paid by tAvo instalments, or
;

13 lacs and 20.000 in May or June, and 8 lacs and 80,000 in

November or December of each year.
Article 10. —
Inasmuch as it is fitting that her Highness the
Maharani, the mother of Maharaja Dallp Singh, should have
a proper provision made for the maintenance of herself and
dependents, the sum of 1 lac and 50,000 rupees shall be set
apart annually for that purpose, and shall be at her High*
ness's disposal.
Article 11. —The provisions of this engagement shall have
effect during the minority of his Highness Maharaja Dallp
Singh, and shall cease and terminate on his Highness attain-
ing the full age of 16 years, or on the 4th September of the
year 1854 ; but it shall be competent to the Governor-
General to cause the arrangement to cease, at any period
prior to the coming of age of his Highness, at which the
Governor- General and the Lahore Durbar may be satisfied
that the interposition of the British Gktvernment is no
longer necessary for maintaining the government of his
Highness the Maharaja.
This agreement, consisting of eleven articles, was settled
and executed at Lahore, by the officers and Chiefs and
Sardars above named, on the 16th day of December 1846.
APP. XXXVIII REVENUES OF THE PUNJAB 409

APPENDIX XXXVIII
REVENUES OF THE PUNJAB, AS ESTIMATED IN 1844

TRIBUTARY STATES
Rupees. Rupees.
Bilaspur.
Singh ......
Tribute, 10,000. Under Lahna
70,000
Suket.
Singh ......
Tribute, 25,000. Under Lahna

Chamba. Not known. Under Gulab Singh

70,000
2,00,000
Rajauri. Not known. Under Gulab Singh 1,00,000

Iskavdu.
......
Ladakh. Tribute, 42,000. Under Gulab
Singh
Tribute, 7,000. Under Gulab
1,00,000

Singh 2.5,000
5,f35,000
Note. —All of these States, excepting
Bilaspur, may be regarded rather as farms
held by the Chiefs than as tributary princi-
palities and, ordinarily, all the resources
;

of the Chiefs being at the disposal of the

government representative, the probable
revenues have therefore been entered in
full, instead of the mere pecuniary payment.

LAND REVENUE
Farms.
Mandi. Farm with the Raja of Mandl, who
was allowed one
his expenses .....
lac out of the four for
4,00,000

.....
Kullu. The members of the family had
pensions.
Jaswan. The family had a Jagii-
1,20,000
1,25,000

....
Kangra. The family had a Jagir, not in-
cluded in the farm
Kutlahar. The family had a Jaglr .
6,00,000
25,000
Siba. The family may almost be regarded

served with horse

Nurpur. The family had a Jagir
....
as Jagirdars for the whole estate they :

20,000
3,00,000
Harlpur. The family had a Jagir 1,00,000
Datarpur. The family had a Jagir . 50,000
Katlah. The family had a Jagir 20,000

Note. —The above were all under Lahna

Singh Majithia.
410 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS .\pp. xxxviii

Land Revenue —Farms [continued) Rupees. Rupees.

Bisohli. Family at large

Raja Hira Singh ....
was held by

Kashmir. Shaikh Ghulam Muhi-ud-din

:

:
75,000

Contract . . 21,00,000
Troops . . 5,00,000
Assignments . 4,00,000
30,00,000
Muzaffarabad, &c. (Under Kashmir.) The
Muzaffarabad Chief a Jagirdar . 1,00,000
/Raja Gulab Singh. The \
X;hach-Hazara Gandghar and Tarnauli
and Pakhli-i Chiefs have Jagirs but ; • 1,50,000
Dhamtaur. they are almost indepen-
V dent freebooters

Rawalpindi. Diwan Hakim Rai 1,00,000

Hasan Abdal, f Dlwan Mul Raj he"| :

Khatir, and latelj^heldChateh-Hazara|- 1,00,000

Ghipi. ( also j

Dhanni, Katas, t,;^-;; r<„i.-;i v;,,„i,

)
1,00,000
and ChakwaLr^^J^^^"^'^'^^"^^*- "

zais have Jagirs ....

Peshawar. Sardar Tej Singh. The Barak-

Tank-Bannu. Diwan Daulat Rai. The

10,00,000

Chief fled his brother a Jagir 2,50,000

.....
; .

Dera Ismail Khan. Diwan Daiilat Rai.

Chief a Jagir 4,50,000
Multan, Dera Ghazi
Khan, Mankera. j\
^ g^^^^ ^^^^
Contract 36,00,000
. .

Troops .7,00,000
.

Assignments, &c. 2,00,000

45,00,000
Raronagar, &c. Diwan Sawan Mai . 3,00,000
Mitta Tuwana. The late Dhian Singh 1,00,000
Bhera Khushab. Raja Gulab Siagh. 1,00,000
Find Dadan Khan. Raja Gulab Singh 50,000
Gujrat. Raja Gulab Singh 3,00,000
Wazrrabad, &c. The late Suchet Singh 9,00,000
Sialkot. Raja Gulab Singh 50,000
Jullundur Doab. Shaikh Imam-ud-din 22,00,000

Cis-Sutlej farms .....

Shekhupura, &c. Shaikh Imam-ud-din

Jliscellaneous farms in the Punjab .

2,50,000
6,50,000
15,00,000
1,79,85,000
.\pp. XXXVIII REVENUES OF THE PUNJAB 411

Land Revenite {continued) Rwpees. I

Rupees.

Religious Grants. -

5,00,000
Held by Sodhis
' '
.
4,00,000
Held by Bedis
'
' .

Miscellaneous; viz. Akalis, Fakii'S, Brali-

sar, &c. &c. .....

mans, and the lands attached to Amrit- 11,00,000
20,00,000

Hill Jagvrs of the Jammu Rajas.

Jesrota, &c. Hira Singh. The Chief a Jagii- 1,25,000
Pader, and other dis- ^.^j-^ 1,00,000
gj^ ° j^ | _
tncts 01 Chaniba. \

Bhadarwa. Gulab Singh (in Jagii- with

uncle of Chamba Raja) 50,000

a Jagir ......
Mankot. The late Suchet Singh. Family
50,000

a Jagir ......
Bhaddu. The late Suchet Singh. Family
50,000

a Jagir ......
Bandralta. The late Suchet Singh. Family

Chanini (Ram- \ Gulab Singh. Family a

1,25,000

30,000
nagar). \ Jagii- . . . .

Jammu and
Riasi.
)

refugees ....
Gulab Singh. Family mostly
4,00,000

.....
\

Samba. The
late Suchet Singh. Family
extinct or fled 40,000
Kishtwar. Gulab Singh. Family refugees 1,50,000
Akhnur, including \
Chakkana, with Gulab Singh. Family a
(

Kesri Singh's Jagir 50,000

[

family. J
Bhimbar. The late Dhian Singh. Some

refugees
The Chibh-Bhau
......
members of family Jagirs

tribes. The late

; others

Dhian
1,50,000

1,00,000
Singh. Family Jagii's
Kotli. The late Dhian Singh. Family Jagirs 30,000
Sunach. The late Dhian Singh. Family
perhaps refugees
Dangli, Khanpur, &c. Gulab Singh. Some
.... 70,000

members of family Jagirs ; others

prisoners ; others refugees 1,00,000
16,20,000

Jagirs.

Various Jagirs held by the Jammu Rajas

(in the plains)
The Kangra Rajas (Eanbir Chand, &c.)
..... .
5,00,000
1,00,000
 — .

412 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xxxvin

Land Revenue —Jagirs {continued). Rupees. Rupees.

Sardar Lahna Singh Majithia . 3,50,000

Sardar Nihal Singh Ahluwalia 9,00,000

.....
.

Sardar Kishan Singh (son of Jamadar Khu-

shal Singh 1,20,000
Sardar Tej Singh 60,000

.....
Sardars Sham Singh and Chattar Singh
Atariwala
Sardar Shamsher Singh Sindhianwala
1,20,000
15,000

Singh ......
Sardar Arjun Singh, and other sons of Hari

.... 15,000
Kanwar Peshaura Singh
Kanwar Tara Singh .... 5,000
20,000

Sardar Mangal Singh

Sardar Fateh Singh Man
....
Sardar Jawahar Singh (uncle of DalliJ Singh)

....
50,000
50,000
50,000
Sardar Attar Singh Kalanwala 50,000
Sardar Hukam Singh Mulwai
Sardar Bela Singh Mokal
Sardars Sultan Muhammad, Saiyid Mu-
.... . 50,000
50,000

hammad, and Pir Muhammad Khans 1,50,000

Sardar Jamal-ud-din Khan 1,10,000
Shaikh Ghulam Muhi-ud-din 30,000

.....
.

Fakir Aziz-ud-din and his brothers 1,00,000

.....
.

Dlwan Sawan Mai 20,000

Miscellaneous 50,00,000
79,15,000

CUSTOMS, &c.

Salt Mines. Raja Gulab Singh. 8,00,000

Singh ......
Town Duties. Amritsar. The late Dhian
5,50,000
Town Duties.
Singh
Miscellaneous
......
Lahore.

Town Duties
The late Dhian.
1,50,000
1,00,000
'
Abkari(Excise), &c. &c. Lahore
' . 50,000

'
Mohurana (Stamps)
' ....
Transit Duties. Ludhiana to Peshawar 5,00,000
2,50,000
24,00,000

Total 3,24,76,000

—
Note. As noted in the Preface, the whole of the papers of the
administration of Ranjit Singh now under examination and sub-
sequent investigation may considerably modify some of these
figures. Ed.
 .

APP. XXXVIII REVENUES OF THE PUNJAB 413

RECAPITULATION
Rupees.
Land Revenue :

Tributary States 5,65,000

Farms 1,79,85,000
Eleemosynary .
20,00,000
Jagirs 95,25,000
Customs, &c. 24,00,000

Total .
3,24,75,000

APPENDIX XXXIX
THE ARMY OF LAHORE, AS RECORDED IN 1844

Heavy Guns.
The Regular Army.
e «h Garri-
Commandants of Corps. Description or Race of Men. ^« Field. son.

sardar Tej Singh . Sikhs .... 1 10

^en. Pertab Singh Patti-
wala
jen.
.

Jawala Singh
. .

.
• Sikhs
Inf. Sikhs
....; Art. Sikhs and
Muhammadans 4
Shaikh Imam-ud-din Muhammadans 4
Sardar Lahna Singh Maji- Inf. Sikhs ; Guns, chiefly
thia • Sikhs . . 10

....
. . .

jen. Bishan Singh . Muhammadans ; a few

Sikhs 3
3en. Gulab Singh Puhu- 3 Muhammadans Guns, ;

vindhia Sikhs & Muhammadans 14

thia ....
3en. Mahtab Singh Maji-

Sen. Giordut Singh Maji-

Inf. Sikhs Cav. mixed
Art. Sikhs and Muham.
;

j'Inf. chiefly Sikhs; Guns,

;

. 1 12

J
Sikhs & Muhammadans
thia . . . •

Formerly under General

Col. John Holmes .
I

( Court . . 10
Gen. Dhaukal Singh Hindustanis a few Sikhs;

Col. Cortlandt (discharged) Inf. Sikhs & Hind. Guns, ;

Sikhs & Muhammadans 10

Shaikh Ghulam Muhi-ud- Inf. Sikhs ? Guns, Sikhs
din . . . • and Muhammadans 6

Carried forward 32 83 11

* Shaikh Imam-ud-din subsequently raised a fourth regiment.

 414 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS APP. XXXIX

The Army of Lahore (continued)

Heavy Guns
The Regular Army. t!%
sr
8.S
<30> Garri
Commandants of Corps. Description or Race of Men. ^ Field son.

Brought forward 32 2 83 11 2
Dlwan Adjudhia Parshad ;
Inf. Sikhs Art. Sikhs and
;

Guns under Hahi Bakhsh, Muhammadans (Gen.

General Ventura) 4 2 12 22
Gen. Gulab Singh Calcutta-
wala (deceased)
Diwan Jodha Ram
.

.
Sikhs
Siklis,
....
Muham., Hill men
4 1 16

(Gen. Avitabile) . 4 1 12 3
Gen. Kanh Singli Man Sikhs & Muhammadans 4 10

walia ....
Sardar Nihal Singh Ahlu-

Diwan Sawan Mai .

Inf. Sikhs & Muham.
chiefly
Muham. and some
Art.
Muhammadans
Sikhs
;

.
1
3
4
6
11
40
Raja Hira Singh Hill men, some Muham., &c. 2 1 3 5
Raja Gulab Singh . ,, „ „ 3 15 40
Raja Suchet Singh (dec.) . ,, „ „ 2 1 4 10
Capt. Kuldip Singh Gurkhas 1
Commandant Bhag Singh Sikhs and ]\Iuhammadans . 6
Commandant Shev Parshad )> •> !> 8
Missar Lai Singh ,, ,, ,, 10
Sardar Kishan Singh Muham. and Hindustanis . 2
Gen. Kishan Singh Sikhs and Muhammadans . 22

wala ....
Sardar Sham Singh Atari-

'Mian Pirthl Singh .

,,

Chiefly Muhammadans
,, ,, 10
56
Gen. Mahwa Singh . Sikhs and Muhammadans . 10 10
Col.Amir Chand Chiefly Muhammadans 10
Commandant Mazhar Ali . Muham. and Hindustanis . 10

hore) ....
Jawahir Mai Mistri (La-

Commandant Sukhu Singh

Muhammadans
Sikhs
Sikhs, and
.
a few
.
;

some Hindu-
. . 20 12

(Amritsar) .
stanis . . .
"
. 10
Miscellan. Garrison Guns . 50

Total . 60 8 228 156 171

Abstract of the loJtole Army.

Ramghols, Akalis .....

Sixty Regiments Infantry, at 700

Irreg. Levies, Garrison Companies, &c.

. .

.
42,000
5,000
45,000
92,000 Infantry.
Eight Regiments Cavalry, at 600 4,800

.....
. .

'
Ghuroharhas (Horse)
' . . . 12,000
Jagirdari Horse 15,000
31,800 Cavalry.
Field Artillery 384 Guns.
 —
APP. XXXIX THE ARMY OF LAHORE 415

[By the courtesy of the Government of the Punjab I am

enabled to add to this appendix the statement recently
compiled by L. Sita Ram Kohiy, M.A., who has been con-
ducting some researches into the MS. records lying in the
Punjab Secretariat. There are many hundreds of these
records to be examined, and further investigation will
still
no doubt yield important results. In the meantime it may
be of interest to the reader to compare the actual figures
for 1844, as obtained from these records, with those given
by the author. Ed,]

Yeak commencing with ELiTiK 1900 and ending with Hsuj 1901 b.s. (a. d. 1844)

Inf. Cav. Total

Commandant. Artillery. Expenditure.
batts. regis. strength.

Rs. A. P.
Special Brigade: Gen. Ventura . Belonging to 4,415 83,609 8
Illahi Baksh
Diwan Jodha Ram 10 guns, 294 4,374 58,952 12
men
Gen. Gulab Singh, acting for
Gen. Court. 392 3,882 54,751 4
Gen. Dhaukal Singh 1,763 23,159 15
Gen. Jawala Singh 1,811 22,285 12
Gen. S. Tej Singh .
2 field guns, 3,602 45,171 13 6
293 men,
light artillery
Gen. Kanh Singh Man .
264 4,154 61,248
Gen. Mahtab Singh Majithia 366 3,879 59,582 1
Gen. Pertab Singh of Punach 250 2,690 32,743 1
Gen. Gurdit Singh Majithia 194 2.872 35,679 7
Gen. Courtlandt 1,698 14,163 14 6
Gen. Gulab Singh Puhuvindhia 360 3,467 43,273 6
Gen. Bishan Singh 1,581 19,191 8
Gen. Kishan Singh 467 1,381 20,782 1
Raja Hira Singh under Col
Jagat Singh 1,030 29,572 8
Rai Kesari Singh of Naulakha
Cautt, formerly nr. Railway
Station, Lahore .
90 444 20,894
Sardar Lahna Singh Majithia . 340 1,258 11,865 14
Missa Lai Singh f .
Different Companies 303 3,477 6
Miscellaneous Companies and 17 Companies 1,577 18,410 11
soldiers

Total No. of Battalions 45. : Round No. 40,000 men.

„ „ „ Regiments: 11. Approx. No. 6,000 men.
„ „ Artillery 104: + 126 = 230.

A numbermortars and Camel Swivels are not included in

of
these computations.

* Plus 8th Company of Ramghoal Battalion.

t It seems that Lai Singh had to pay these soldiers

quartered on his farms.
Ee farmed out certain districts.
 416 HISTORY OF THE SIKHS app. xxxix

Yeab commencing with Katik 1900 and ending with Hstjj 1901 b.s. (a.d. If

Artillery Corps

Cominandant. Guns. Strength.

Expendi- Jagir
ture. assignmen

Rs. Rs. A. Rs.

Per Yea
Lai Jawahir Mai in charge
of Mistrl Khana. 620
1. M. Muzihr Ali Beg. 390 13
2. B. Ishwar Singh, Col. 210 10
3. Meva Singh, Gen. 100 12
—35 1,014 10,284 10 5,400
Sultan Muhd., Gen. Com-
manding heavy guns.
1. Bakhtawarkhan. 165 13* 9,000
2. Muhammad Baksh, Col. 205 12 1,980
3. 1,140
—25* 622 6,673
IllahiBaksh Khan, Gen. .

l.M.Illahi Baksh. 510 18* 4,120

2. Sikandar Khan, son of
Illahi Baksh.
3. Fateh Khan and 125 )
12
Lahora Singh. 120 S

—30* 1,026 10,842 4

Amir Chand, Col.
Amir Chand, Col. 15
—15 400 3,436 3,040
Fateh Singh and Mubarak
Khan.
Fateh Singh. 310)
21
Mubarak Khan. 210 i

—21* 620 6,237 8 2,580

(made up
Total numl)er of gun s 126 smaller i
signment:

Rs. A. P.
Infantry. Monthly expenditure . 4,43,892 14 6
Cavalry. ,, ,, 1,62,811 5
Artillery. ,, „ . . . 67,030 10
Grand Total :

(a)

(6)
officers .....
Annual land assignment to the military

Cash disbursement ..... . . 2,02,439 4

83,69,109 10

85,71,448 14

Total number of men, 51,050 15,22,627 9 9

Total number of guns, 230, not including
mortars and swivels.
Total for the Year .....
* Plus one mortar.
1,00,94,076 7 9
 ;-S'^

•-5=^

Mo
.s s

rt
H C3

CO

M
-91

^^C)
^1
Q o
K

m
a
H cC^

«
c
w, Ci
c
M
c
rt
«

Ih
 a

-g -

W
CZ2T3

IS
^ TO
-d
tlD . SCO
C t-
w rr
^g -< V.
ri
''^

C GC

ici . • -1 '^ 43 t-
3"^
o
-fi — P3

>-"
fi -oO
1-^
l-H ;4
X g
"< >
Pm
^ H O
Q 1 ^ P3
S x;
<3 H

<3
eg
M
T5

c"^

w
o
^ fc-

< o
P3
m ~~ it^

Q S
hJ PS
O
g
 ;

INDEX
Abdul Aziz, 186. Amar Singh Thappa (Gurkha),
Abdus Samad Khan, 87. 134, 147.
Adam Hafiz, 64. Amherst, Lord, 183.
Adi-Granth, 40 ?i., 41 n., 42 7i., Amir Khan, 81 n., 132.
43 n., 44 n., 45 n. Amritsar, 3, 7 ; pool of immor-
Adina Beg Khan, 94, 96; de- tality, 50 centre of Sikhism,
;

feats the Sikhs, 97 ; viceroy 51 Har Gobind wins battle

;

of the Punjab, 97 ; supports near, 58 ; tomb of Atal Rai,

Sikhs, 98 ; calls in the 61m.; Sikhs again frequent, 93
Marathas, 99 ; death, 99. fort near, 95 ; destroyed, 98 ;
Afghans, 6, 8 ; as husbandmen, 102 ; restored, 101, 104
14; invade India, 31, 119; taken by Ranjit Singh, 131 ;
substantive power, 91 of Tak ; treaty between British and
and Bannu, 200 and the; Ranjit Singh, 140.
English, 206, 227. Anandpur-Makhowal, 77 Go- ;

Afrldis, 6. bind besieged in, 78 English;

Agnikula, 20 n, interfere with affairs of, 280.

Agra taken by Marathas, 121. Angad (Angi-Khud), 47, 49, 52 n.
Agriculture in Tibet, 2 n. Anrudh Chand, 185.
Ahluwalia, 15, 107, 167. Appa Khande Rao, 122.
Ahmad Shah, 186 spread of ; Appa Sahib, 164.
his teaching, 187 checked at
; , Afjun, 50 n., 51, 80, 90; ar-
Akora, 188 ;victories, 189 ; ranges the Granth, 52.
defeat and death, 190. Army, Sikh, trained by Ranjit
Ahmad Shah Abdali, 94, 95; Singh, 173 constitution of a
;

defeats Mir Mannu, 96 ; fourth regiment, 174 relations to

;

invasion, 97 ; fifth, 99 ; de- the State, 239, 257 ; effective-

feats the Sikhs, 101 ; seventh ness of, 254, 288 in 1844, 413.
;

invasion, 103 ; final descent, Aroraa, 6, 8, 9, 10, 334 ; traders,

112. 15.
Ajit Singh, 79. Aryavarta, 19.
Ajit Singh Sindhianwala, 229, Asaf-ud-Daula, 119.
235, 255. Asoka, 21.
Akalis, 110. Atal Rai, 61 w.
Akamnath, 37 n. Atar Singh Sindhianwala, 232,
Akbar, 32, 49, 50, 75, 76. 257 ; attempt on the throne,
Akbar Khan, 249, 251. 259.
Akora, 188. Attock, 4, 6 ; seized by the
Alam, Shah, 100, 121, 127. Marathas, 99 ; Sikhs masters
Alha Singh, 102, 103, 107. as far as, 116; occupied by
All Masjid, 248. Ranjit Singh, 152.
Allard, General, 169, 173, 189, Auckland, Lord, 252 7i.
213. Aurangzeb, 32, 61, 62, 91 ; and
Almora, 242. Tegh Bahadur, 64; Gobind
Amar Das, 49, 90 ; defines Sikhs, and, 67 ; the throne,
seizes
50. 75 ; and Gobind Singh, 78, 80.
Amar Singh, 25 n., 113, 116, 117. Avatars, 357, 367.
Ee 2
420 INDEX
Avitabile, General, 170, 174, 235, Bhilsa, 21 n., 25 n.
239, 245. Bhimbar, 9.
Awans, 6. Bhim Chand, 78.
Ayub, Shah, 157, 1G2. Bhopal, 18 ?i., 467J-.
Aziz-ud-din, 179, 273, Bhutis (Bhatis), 6, 7, 8, 16.
Bikari lOian, 98 7i.
Bir Singh, 63 n.
Babar, 15, 40 «., 75, 92. Bir Singh, Raja of Nurpur, 155,
Babus, 10. 165, 166 n.
Baghel Singh Krora Singhia, 114, Bokhara, 2 n.
116, 117, 121, 123. Bolu Mai, 15 M.
'
Bahadur', 66 n. Bourquin, 124.
Bahadur Shah, 78, 81 ; emperor, Brahmanism, 9, 11, 17, 44?;.;
86, 87. growth and extent of, 20,
Bahawal Khan, 194, 198. 20 n. ; Nanak adopts the
Bahawalpur, 2 ?^., 7 n. philosophy, 43.
Bahlopur, 79. Brahmans, 4, 8, 8 n., 9, 11.
Bairagis, 37 n. Broadfoot, Major, 238, 279,
Bakala, 63. 289 ?(.

Bala Sindhu, 49. Buddhism, 9, 11 ; growth of, 20,

Balti, chiefs of, 24 L 20 n. schools of, 338.
;

Baluchis, 6, 7 «., 14 ; migrations, Buddhist, 5, 9, 17.

17 ; and Ranjit Singh, 191. Budh Singh, 151 n.
Bambas, 5, 9. Buhows, 6, 16.
Banda, successor of Gobind, 86, Bundela, 8.
89 n. ; war with the emperor, Bundelkhand, 7.
87, 88 ; death, 88 Burnes, 192, 193, 203.
Banias, 8. Burnouf, M., quoted, 21 n.
Bannu, 200.
6,
BarakzaTs, 148, 157, 161, 189;
and the English, 206.
Barlow, Sir G., 137 n. Calendar, 32.
Bayazid Khan, 87, 88 n. Caste, 335, 345.
Beas, 317. Chaitan, 37.
Benares, 34. Chamkaur, 77 ; Gobind besieged
Bengal, 2 n., 19 ; conquered by at, 79.
Muhammadans, 31. Chand Kaur, 232 ; murdered,
Bentinck, Lord William, 191, 254.
193, 216. Chandosi, 117.
Bhag Singh, 123, 127, 128, 129. Chandu Lai, 15 n.
130, 133. Chandu Shah, 53, 55.
Bhai Bhagtu, 62 n. Changars, 8.
Bhai BIr Singh, 257, 260. Charrat Singh, grandfather of
Bhai Gurmukh Singh, 255, 257. Ranjit Singh, 100, 114, 118.
Bhai Lai Singh, 127. Cliarvak, 26, 26 n.
Bhai Taru Singh, 93. Chattar Singh Atariwala, 265,
Bhanga Singh, 127. Chenab, 6, 17, 95.
Bhangls, 107, 113; power at its Chet Singh, 225.
height, 114; reduced by Chibs, 6, 16.
Ranjit Singh, 131. Chinese, 20 n., 243.
Bahratpur, 181. Chohans, 20 n.
Bhartpur, 14. Christianity, 12 ; beginnings of,
Bhatinda, 7, 10, 58, 79. compared with Sikhism, 85.
Bhawalpur, 2 n., 113, 159, 194. Churrus, 2 n.
 ; ;;

INDEX 421

Cis-Sutlej States, 128, 137, 280, Eminabad, 93.

382, 383. English, masters of Bengal, 100 ;

Clerk, Mr., 226, 249. and Upper India, 119; at
Coinage (8ikh) struck, 98, 104. Delhi, 125 ; referred to in the
Combermere, Lord, 183. Granth, 125 n. agreement
;

Cornwallis, Lord, 137. with Ranjit Singh, 129 and ;

Court, General, 170, 174, 235. the Cis-Sutlej states, 136 ;

Customs duties, 228, 240. fear of French, Turkish, and

Persian invasion, 137 ; mis-
sions to various courts, 137 ;
Dahia, 7 n.
troops moved to Sutlej, 138 ;
Dal, or army
of the Khalsa, 95.
treaty with Ranjit Singh, 140,
Dalip Singh, 233, 255; Ma-
145, 147, 149, 159, 160, 237 ;
haraja, 256.
and the southern Sikhs, 140,
Dallehwalas, 107. 142 ; war with the Gurkhas,
DaraShikoh, 61, 117.
148, 155; and ex-Shah Za-
Dardus, 5, 6, 9.
man, 151 n. ;and Shah Shuja,
Daudputras, 17, 113.
154 Indian army, 172 n. ;
;
De Boigne, 121, 172. spread of their power, 180
Dehsu Singh, 116. and the Tibetans, 183 n. ;

Delhi, 1, 2 n., 9, 17, 19 Tegh ;

anxiety about Ranjit Singh,
Bahadur killed at, 65 plun- ;
191 ;open the Indus to com-
dered by Ahmad Shah, 97 ;
merce, 195 ; and Afghanistan,
occupied by the Marathas, 99 ;
206 ; mediation between Sikhs
battle of, 127 invested, 128.
;
and Afghans, 212, 217 ; com-
Dera Ghazi Khan, 114, 159, 163.
mercial designs, 217 ; Afghan
Dera Ismail Khan, 159. war, 218 army left in
;

Desa Singh Majlthia, 158, 173,

Afghanistan, 227 and Sikh ;

179. at war
disturbances, 237 ;
Dharmkot, 301. with China, 243 retreat ;

Dhian Singh, 178, 185, 212, 223,

from Kabul, 246 ; and war
225, 231 w. ; unwilling to meet war
with the Sikhs, 274 ;

English, 253 ; conspiracy and

breaks out, 286, 390; peace,
murder, 256.
398 ; position in India, 321.
Dhirmalis, 74.
Eunus, son of Shah Zaman, 151.
Dipalpur, 7, 9.
Dissenting Sikh sects, 74.
Diwan Chand, 158, 179 n. Fane, Sir Henry, 214.
Dogras, 7, 8, 16 ; migration, 17. Farrukhslyar, 87.
Dost Muhammad Khan, 153,
Fatehabad, 123.
157, 162 230;
M., masters alliance and
Fateh Khan, 148 ;
Kabul, 198, 206; defeats
war with Ranjit Singh, 152
. Shah Shuja, 199; and the put to death, 157.
English, 207 ; Ghazi and
'

Fateh Khan Tiwana, 258, 265,

'

amir ', 208 ; war with Ranjit

'

270.
Singh, 209 ; release of, 251 ;
Fateh Singh Ahluwalia, 129,
and Peshawara Singh, 270. 185, 302 ; friendship with
Dungars, 5,
Ranjit Singh, 131, 179, 181,
Durranis, 94; invasions, 94, 119;
379.
empire weakened, 132.
Feizulapurias, 107.
Ferozepore, 17, 51 ?i. ; Ranjit
Education, in India, 349. Singh's claim to, 184, 276
EUenborough, Lord, 250 meet- ; English in, 276 ; Sikhs ad-
ing with Sher Singh, 252. vance on, 286.
 ;

422 INDEX
Ferozeshah (P'heerooshuhur, order in Kashmir, 245 ; vetoed
see 294 m.), 294. by the English, 246 called ;

Foulkes killed, 235. on for help, 249 position in

;

French, English fears of, 137-9, the State, 257 designs against,
;

180, 213. 267 ; and the English, 284,

304, 308, 317; character,
320 n. ; treaty with the
Gaddis, 7. English, 403.
Gajpat Singh, 117. Gurbakhsh Singh, 118, 174.
Gakhars, (i, 15, 113. Gut Das, 54.
Garhwal, 117, 118. Gurdaspur, 87 ; siege of, 88.
Getae, 20. Gurdit, 60.
Ghamand Chand, 115, 118. Gurkhas, 131, 171 ; advance
Ghanais, 107. from Nepal, 134 ; siege of
Ghanda Singh, 115. Kangra, 134, 146 and the ;

Ghazis, 187, 190. English, 147, 148, 181.

Ghazi-ud-din, 97 calls in the
; Gurumatta, 101, 105, 105 m.,
Marathas, 99 ; murders the 132.
emperor, 99. Gurus, 49 ; kingly power, 66 ;

Ghazni, 10 n., 113, 113 w. table of, 378.

Ghaznivides, 31. Gusains, 38.
Ghorls, 31. Gwalior, 7 ??., 57, 191.
Ghulam Kadir, 121.
Ghulam Muhammad, 119.
Ghulam Muhi-ud-din, 245. Hablb-ullah, 206.
Ghulu Ghara, 101. Haidar, Prince, 164.
Gilgit, 5, 9, 261. Hansi, 7, 122.
Gobind, Guru, founder of Sikh- Hardinge, Lord, 290, 296.
ism, 1, 9, 13, 38, 90, 133, Har Gobind, 48 n., 55, 90.
148 n. idea of Time, 42 n. ;
;
Hariana, 58, 116.
brought up in obscurity, 67 ;
Hari Chand, 77, 148 n.
his teaching, 68, 82 war with ;
Hari Singh Bhangi, 113, 114.
Aurangzeb, 78 joins the im-
;
Hari Singh Nalwa, 15 «., 179,
perial army, 81 ; death, 82 ;
181, 189, 192, 199, 211.
and Banda, 89 n. ; founder of Har Kishan, 62.
the Akalis, 110; and Ranjit Har Rai, 59.
Singh, 167 ; and war, 343 ; Herat, 157, 197.
and caste, 345 ; and iron and Himalayas, 2 n,, 3, 7 ; religion in
steel, 346-7 ; the Granth, 356 ; the, 9, 10 ; and the Mughals,
extracts from, 359, 372. 76.
Godavari, 81 m. Hindur, 77.
Goindwal, 49, 63. Hindus, 9; religion, 11, 21 w.
Gonds, 18 n. Nanak and, 46 n. ; proportion
Gorakhnath, 35, 36 n., 69, 338. of,in India, 333.
Gough, Lord, 290, 296, 298 n. Hindustan, 31, 275.
Granth, 52, 80, 352. Hinghan Khan, 101, 102.
Guga [Goga], 10 n. HIra Singh, 185, 232, 256, 266.
Gujar Singh, 118. Hissar, 7.
Gujar Singh Majithia, 200. Holkar, defeated, 100 ; de-
Gujars, 6, 8 ; on the land, 14. fection, 103 ; endangers Sind-
Gujrat, 7, 19 ; taken by Mu- hia's influence, 122 ; invades
hammadans, 31. Upper India, 127, 132 retreat ;

Gulab Singh, 178, 201, 241 ; before Lord Lake, 128, 133;
defeats Chinese, 245 restores comes to terms, 129 ; men-
 ;

INDEX 423

tioned in English treaty with Jassa Singh, the Carpenter, 97 ;

Lahore, 379. leads the Sikhs, 98, 107 ;

Hyderabad, 15 v., 202. defeated, 115, 117; his son,

135.
Jassa Singh Kalal (Ahluwalia),
Ibak Turks, 31. 95, 115.
India, peoples of, 331 ; creeds Jats, 331.
of, 332, 337 ; caste in, 335, Jats, 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 331 ; religion,
345 ;education in, 349 9, 18 ; yeomen, 14 ; origin,
land-tax in, 351. 20 n. ; Gobind intends to
Indian races, distinction between form a kingdom of, 76 ; rise
fighting qualities of, 170. of, 91defeated, 103.
;

Indian troops, 172 w. Jawahir Singh, 257, 266 ; Wazir,

Indus, 2 w., 3, 9 ; navigation of, 268 ; execution, 272 ; intem-
193, 204, 228 ; navigation perance, 285 71.
treaty, 385, 393. Jawala Singh, 255 n.
Initiation, 74, 117, 34fi, 353. Jhanda Singh, 114.
Irrigation, 113 w. Jhelum, 6, 7, 9.
Iskardo, 5, 9, 17, 241. Jind, 123.
Islam, spread of, 5, 11, 17, 20, Jindiala, 101.
31 ; extent of, in the Punjab, Jodh Singh Kalsia, 138, 142.
9, 14 ; entrance into India, 31. Jodh Singh Ramgarhia, 135, 156,
•Jodhpur, 165.
Jogis, 35.
Jabbar Khan, 157, 158, 207, 208, Johiyas, 7, 7 n., 113 n. ; migra-
211. tion, 17.
Jagadhri, 114. Jullundur Doab, 15 n., 61 n., 94.
Jahan Dad Khan, 150, 158. Juns, 6, 16.
Jahandar Shah, 87.
Jahangir, 53, 57, 75.
Jahan Khan, 97. Kabir, 36, 37 n., 336, 338, 339.
Jahan, Shah, 32 m., 75. Kabul, 2 w., 3 ; taken by the
Jai Singh, 63 n. English, 222 insurrection in,
;

Jai Singh, of the Kanhaya 246 recapture, 250.

;

Misal, 114, 115, 118, 175; Kabuli Mai, 102, 103.

grand-daughter married to Kafirs, 17.
Ranjit Singh, 118. Kahliir, Raja of, 158.
Jai Singh Atariwala, 157, 159, Kaithal, family, 62 «.
161. Kalabagh, 6, 115.
Jains, 18 n., 21 ??., 25. 25 n., Kalhoras, 195, 202.
46 n., 339. Kamran, 157, 210.
Jaipur, 7 n., 63. Kanauj, 31.
Jalalabad, surrender of, 246 n. ;
Kandahar, 188.
question of, 250. Kanets, 7.
Jalla, 264, 266. Kangra, 115; obtained by
Jammu, 7, 87, 118; tributary Sansar Chand, 118; besieged
to the Sikhs, 114; Ranjit by the Gurkhas, 134.
Singh confers it on his favour- Kanhayas, 107, 114, 131.
ites, 178, 185 ; Rajas reduce Kan jar, 9.
Ladakh, 201 independent,
; Karauli, 7 n.
223; and Nan Nihal Singh, Karnal retaken, 116.
229. Kartarpur, 42 n., 61 n,
Jamrud, battle of, 211. Karon, 43 n., 370.
Janjuas, 6. Kasaull, 61 n,, 301 n.
424 INDEX
Kash [Katch] tribes, 5. religion, 20 ; four tribes, 20 n.;
Kashkar, 5. Nanak born of, 39 Mohkam ;

Kashmir, 2 n., 3, 4 n., 5, 9, 57, Chand born of, 135.

76, 87 ; annexed by Ahmad Kiikas, 5, 9.
Shah, 96; Shah Shuja, a Kurruls, 6.
prisoner in, 150 ; Ranjit Singh
and, 154, 158 ; the English in,
263 ; transferred to Gulab
Singh, 319.
Labh Singh, 260, 266.
Ladakh, 1, 5, \Qn., 167; reduced
Kashmira Singh, 258.
Kashmiri, 8 ; mechanics, 15.
by the Jammu Rajas, 201,
Kasiir, 7 n., 8, 102, 114, 135.
242 ; by Chinese, 244.
Kathis, 6, 16.
Ladwa, Raja of, 300.
Katotch, 113, 115, 163.
Lahna (see Angad), 41 n., 47.
Kaura Mai, 94, 96 follower of Lahna Singh Majithia, 253, 266.
;

Nanak, 95 n. killed, 96.

Lahna Singh Sindhianwala, 256.
;
Lahore, 1, 19, 22 «., 57, 58;
Kelmaks, 20 n.
Khaibar Pass, Nanak, birth and death near,
247. 1,
39, 42 n.; wars near, 87, 93
Khairabad, 157, 160. ;

Sikhs executed at, 93 an- ;

Khairpur, 164, 187.
Khalils, 6.
nexed by Ahmad Shah, 96 ;
lost and recovered by him,
Khalsa, 13, 70 derivation,
;
97 Sikhs in 98 ; Shah Zaman
70 n. ; Gobind founds, 72, 82, ;

enters, 119 Mr. Moorcroft at,

90 n. army of the, 95 coin-
; ;
;

166; treaties of, 379, 381, 398.

age, 98 ; meetings of, 104 ;
Lake, Lord, 62 n., 127, 128,
Ranjit Singh and, 168 ; army
129.
becomes the, 239.
Kharak Singh, 146, 192; attacks
Lakwa Dada, Maratha chief, 123.
Lai Singh, 266, 273, 285, 291,
Multan, 156 ; invasion of
296, 304, 320; deposition,
Kashmir, 158 ; friendly to
405.
Katotch, 163; married, 176;
Lai Singh, of Kaithal, 128, 129,
apprehensive of Jammu Rajas,
130.
201 threat to Sindh, 205 ;
;

proclaimed Maharaja, 224.

Land-Tax, 351.
Langahs, 7, 113 «.
Khattaks, 6.
Khattars, 6.
Language, 349.
Lassa, 201.
Khiljis, 31.
Leh, 9,- 17, 201, 242, 244.
Khorasan, 3 «., 277, 284 «.
Kiushab, 7. Lhasa, 244 Wazir seized, 244.
;

Khushal Singh, 178.

Lingam, 26 n., 35 n.
Littler, Sir John, 291, 294, 295.
KhusrQ, 53.
Lodis, 31.
Khwaja Obed, 100.
Kiratpur, 59, 01, 64.
'
Loh ', virtues of iron, 80.
Ludhiana, 2 n. ; defeat of the
Kishtwar, 9.
Sikhs near, 101 ; Thomas at,
Kohat, 6.
123 ; seized by Ranjit Singh,
Koh-i-nur, 152, 153.
Kohlis, 7. 133; station for British troops,
140, 276.
Kot Kapiira, incident at, 280.
Krishna, 7 n. ; the infant
Krishna, 38.
Krora Singhias, 107. Macnaghten, Sir William, 219,
Kshattriya race, 1, 4, 7, 8, 9, 246.
10, 25, 334; merchants, 15; Madhagi Sindhia, 120.
generals and governors, 15 n. ; Madhav, 28, 38 ».
 ;

INDEX 425

Mahan Singh, 118; victories Mit'h Singh Behrania, 155, 179 n.

and death, 118. Mobarik Khan, 114.
Maheshwar, 35 n. Mohkam Chand, 15 «., 135, 136,
Mahmud, Shah, 119, 191; meets 150, 152, 153, 154, 155 w.,
Ranjit Singh, 151 ; in Herat, 179 n., 281 n.
162. Mohmands, 6.
Makhan Sah, 63 n., 66 7i. Monson, Colonel, retreat of, 1 27.
Makhowal, 64, 64 m., 77 n., 97. Moorcroft, Mr., 166.
Maler Kotla (Shah), 123. Moran, 262.
Mails, 14. Mudki, battle of, 293,
Mahva, 8, 9, 10 ; history of Mughal Empire, 74, 91.
Malwa Sikhs, 142. Mughals, 31, 275.
Manjha, 8, 9. Muhammad Akbar, 161.
Mankera, 115, 159. Muhammad Azim Khan, 150,
Mansarawar, Lake, 20 n. 155, 157, 159 ; defeat of, 161 ;

Manu, 20, 32, 46, 56. death, 162.

Marathas, 32 w., 76, 86, 91, 170 ;
Muhammad Khan, Sultan, 189,
overrun India, 99 defeated,; 206, 210, 230, 245.
100; at Panipat, 100; and Muhammadans, 4, 11 ; Shiah
Durrani invasion, 119 power ;
and Sunni, 9 ; invade India,
restored, 120; destroyed, 127, 31 ; influence on Europe, S3n.
205. proportion of, in India, 333.
Mardana, 41 n. Muhsin Fani, 27 w., 37 w., 40 m.,
Markand, 36 n. 42 m., 4:8 71., 52, 53 n., 54 ?i.,
Marwar, 17. 55 M., 57 M., 59, 59 n., 342 ;
Marwari, 18 m. end of his work, 61 w.
Masandis, 74. Mujja Singh, 114.
Matabar Singh, 243 n. Mukhlis Khan, 58.
Mathura, 98. Muktsar, 80, 301.
Maulai Ismail, 186 v. Mulraj, 269.
Maya, 30, 30, 339. Multan, 2, 3, 6, 7, 9, 113; ex-
Mazaris, 203. ports of, 2 M. ; Nanak at, 41 n.
Mazhabis, 72 w. independence of Delhi, 96
Mecca, 37 n., 41 n. annexed by Ahmad Shah, 96
Mehtab Kaur, 174. by the Marathas, 99 at ;

Mehtums, 17. tacked, 114; captured, 114

Meru, 21 n. and Ranjit Singh, 135, 149
Metcalfe, Mr., mission to Ranjit 156 ; and Shah Shuja, 150
Singh, 137, 146. governor of, assassinated, 269
Mian Singh, 241. Murray, Capt., 183.
Mina, 55 7i. Muzaffar Khan, 149, 156, 157 w
Minto, Lord, 137 n.
Mir Abdul Hassan, 153.
Mir Mannu (Muin-ul-mulk), 94 ;
Nabha, 262.
defeats the Sikhs, 95 inde- ; Nader (Apshalanagar), Gobind
pendent of Delhi, 96 de- ; killed at, 83 religious estab-
;

feated by Afghans, 96 death, ; lishment at, 83 n.

97. Nadir, 91, 92, 94, 95.
Mir Rustam Khan, 187. Nadir Shah, 94, 113 n.
Mirpur, 195. Nagpur, 164.
Mirza Shafi Beg, 117. Nahan, Chief of, 77.
Misal, 106, 133, 143, 107. Naina, Gobind at, 09.
Missar Beli Ram, 257. Najib-ud-daula, 98, 99, 103,
Mithankot, 195, 203. 114; his son, 116.
426 INDEX
Nakkais, 107. Pandits, 8 n., 10.
Nana Famavis, 170. Panlpat, 1, 7, 87.
Nanak, Guru, founder of Sikh- Panjtar, 188.
ism, 1, 9, 13, 38, 89, 133, 338 ;
Paras Ram, 35 n.
life of, 39, 39descendants,
n. ; Patanjal, 36 n.
42 11. ; his teaching, 42, 84 ; Pathans, 8, 76, 114, 170, 171.
Gobind and, 67 ; inspires Patiala, 102, 113, 121, 129;
later Gurus, 73 ; in relation to Raja of, and his wife, 128,
Ranjit Singh, 167 ; philoso- 135 ; brotherhood with Ranjit
phical allusions, 342 ; book of, Singh, 138, 167.
352, 359 letters
; of, 370. Patna, 63.
Nanakputras, 42. Paunta, 77.
Nanu Mai, 121. Perron, General, 121, 172 n. ;

Napier, Sir Charles, 283 n., 284. Thomas moves against, 124 ;

Nasir Khan, 94 n. agreement with Ranjit Singh,

Nau Nihal Singh, 176, 199; 124 ; escapes to British terri-
threat to Sindh, 205 mar- ; tories, 125.
riage, 214 ; succeeds Ranjit Pertab Singh, 254, 256.
Singh, 224 and the Rajas of
; Peshawar, 1, 4, 9, 17 ; entered
Jammu, 229 death, 231.; by Ranjit Singh, 158, 199; at-
Nawaz Khan, Shah, 93, 96. tacked by Ahmad Shah, 188 ;
Nepal, intrigues of, 242 war ; English proposal to bestow it
with, 148, 155. on Shah Shuja, 278.
Nesselrode, Prince, 106. Peshawara Singh, 258, 265, 270.
Nihangs, 107. Peshwa, 99.
Nimbharak, 28 n. P'heerooshuhur, 236, 294.
Nishanias, 107. Phillaur, post opposite Ludhiana,
Nizam-ud-din Khan, 120, 131, 146.
135. Philosophies of India, 337.
Noshahra, 161. Phula Singh, 160 n., 161, 162 n.
Nurpur, Raja of, 155, 165. Phiilkias, 107, 116, 167.
Pirthi Chand, 51 n., 55.
Pollock, General, 249.
Pottinger, 193.
Ochterlony, Sir David, 128, Powars (Prumars), 20 n.
130 w., 281 ; advance towards Punjab, races of, 1, 334 ; in-
J^udhiana, 138 ; proclamation, vaded by Muhammadans, 31 ;

140, 143, 380; doubt of custoins duties, 3 ; religions

Ranjit Singh, 146 guest of ;
of, 332 revenues
; of, 409.
Ranjit Singh, 146 Gurkhas ;
Punjgurhias, 107.
propose alliance to, 147 ;
Puraniks, 42 n.
Ranjit Singh's proposals to, Purihars, 20 n.
147, 149; opinion of Sikh
soldiers, 171.
Omichand, 126.

Races of the Punjab, 4, 334.

Raghuba, 99.
Pahul, 71, 72. Rai Singh Bhangi, 114, 121.
Painda Khan, 58. Rajputana, 2 n., 18 «., 86, 180.
Pakhli, 9. Rajputs, 5, 7, 14, 170, 171, 332 ;

Pakpattan, 7, 17, 113 v?., 114. of Rahon, 8 ; as peasants, 14;

Pamer, 5. chief of Katotch, 1 13.
Panch (Panchayat), 239, 260. Rajwara, 10 n.
 ; ;

INDEX 427

Rakhl, 105 11. Rohillas, 91 n., 99 n.

Rama, 105. Rohtas, 113; taken by Shah
Ramanand, 34, 69 ; Kablr his Zaman, 119.
disciple, 36. Rojhan, 203, 206.
Ramanuj, 28, 28 n., 34 ; his Rupar, meeting of Ranjit Singh
sect,34 n. and Lord Wm. Bentinck, 192.
Ram Das, 50. Rurs, 8.
Ramgarhias, 107. Russia, 166, 191, 212, 217.
Ram Rai, 62, 67, 74.
Ram Rauni, 95, 107.
Ram Saran, 148 n. Sabathu, 276.
Ram Singh, 63 n. Sacae, 20,20w.
Rangghar, 72 n, Sada Kaur, 160, 175.
Ranjit Dev, 114. Sadli, the perfect man,' 36.
'

Ranjit Singh, 15 n. ; his grand- Sadhu Singh, 156.

father, 113; born, 118; keeps Safdar Jang, 95.
aloof from Shah Zaman, Saharanpur, 86, 117.
120 gains Lahore, 120, 131
; ;
Sahib Singh, 123, 129, 134.
agreement with Perron, 124 ; Sahiwal, 149.
and the British, 129, 133 ; rise Sahsar Bahu, 35 n.
of his power, 130 ; lives of, Saivism, 21 w., 26 n., 35 n., 38 n.,
131 w. ; seizes provinces, 132 ; 42 w.
idea of Sikh unity, 133 ; seizes Saktism, 21 n.
Ludhiana, 133 ; and Patiala, Sakya, 11, 35.
135 ; and Sirhind, 136, 137 ; Samru, Begum, 122.
third raid across the Sutlej, Sankhya system, 42 n. , 337.
138 ; treaty with British, 140, Sansar Chand, 118; and Lord
145, 147, 160, 165, 379, 381 ; Lake, 129 and Ranjit Singh,
;

obtains Kangra, 146 ; and the 131, 156; and the Gurkhas,
deposed Shah Shuja, 149 134, 146; called on by the
attacks Multan, 149 ; and English, 148 crosses the
;

Fateh Khan, 152 ; attack on Sutlej, 158 ; death, 162 ; and

Kashmir, 155, 158 ; and Appa Appa Sahib, 165 ; his family,
Sahib, 165 ; and the Raja of 185.
NQrpur, 165 ; and Moorcroft, Sarmor, 61.
166 ; forms regular infantry, SarQp Chand, 86 7i.

172; his marriage and mother- SawanMal, 15 n., 179,269.

in-law, 174, 175; his character, Sedasheo Rao, 100.
176 ; favourites, 178 fame ; Seharunpur, 103.
of, 190 ; British opinion of, Shah, the word, 53 n.
191 ; and Shikarpur, 195 ; Shah pur, 251 n.
war with Dost Muhammad, Sham Singh, 311.
209 attempts to please the
; Shankar Acharj, 25, 25 n., 26,
English, 215 Afghan war,
; 28 n., 32 ; his sect, 34 «., 337.
220 ilhiess and death, 221 ;
; Sher Shah, 113.
summary, 222 ; adopted sons, Sher Singh, 175, 189, 190;
258 ; family, 417. claims throne, 224, 232
Ranjor Singh, 300, 302. Maharaja, 235 ; assists Eng-
Ravi, 17, 93. lish, 248, 284 ; proposed meet-
Rawalpindi, 113. ing with Lord Ellenborough,
Reinhard, 122 n. 252 ; murder, 256,
Religion, 9 history
; of, in India, Shikarpur, 162, 163, 164, 181,
19. 194, 203.
Rohilkhand,91, 117, 119. Shujabad, 115.
 ;;

428 INDEX
Shuja, Shah, 132, 137, 148 ; and English treaty of navigation,
Ranjit Singh, 149, 153 ; cam- 202 mediation between, and
;

paigns, 150 ; imprisonment, Ranjit Singh, 204.

150 attempt to regain his
; Sindliia, 121 General Perron
;

crown, 163, 196, 207 English ; his deputy, 122; power shaken,
propose to restore, 219 treaty ; 124.
with, 389. Sindhianwala family, 232, 255,
Shuja-ud-daula, 100. 257, 284, 336.
Sials, 6. Singh, use of the name, 73 n,
Sikhism, founded, 1 description ; Stnghpurias, 107.
of, 13, 46 ; spread of, 49, 67 ;
Sirdar, 106.
modification, 56 creed and ; Sirhind, 86, 94 destroyed, 103
; ;

ritual, 73,perse-
352, 359; Delhi court attempt to recover
cuted, 89 ; summary, 89, 90 ; province of, 116 British and ;

establishment, 104 ; position the chiefs of, 130, 136, 137,

under Ranjit Singh, 167, 222 ; 276 fear of Ranjit Singh,
;

the Granth, 352. 136 English supremacy in,

;

Sikhs, country of, 1, 7, 10 140.

'
disciples,' founded, 1, 46 ;
Sirsa, 116.
religion, 9, 13, 46
invasion ; Siva, 27 ; adopted by Gorakh, 35.
by Muhammadans, 31 ; be- Sivajl, 76.
ginnings, 49 ; divided from Smith, Sir Harry, 301.
Udasis, 50 ; payments to the Sobraon, Battle of, 309.
Gurus, 52 ; under Har Gobind, Sohan Singh, 266.
56 ; form a separate body, 59 ;
Sokpos, 20 n.
martial character, 65 ; Gobind Solunkees, 20 n.
their Guru, 67 ; creed and Somnath, gates of, 196.
interest, 73 ; to be warriors, Sri Chand, Nanak's son, 42 n., 48,
74 ; effect of Gobind' s teach- 50.
ing on, 84 ; persecuted, 87, Suchet Singh, 178, 257 attempt ;

89, 92 ; rise and defeat, 96, on the throne, 259 ; treasure.

97 ; occupy Lahore, 98 262.
- coinage struck, 98 ; defeated Sukerchukias, 107, 113.
by Ahmad Shah, 101 ; con- Sunam, 7, 10.
quest of Sirhind, 102 ; con- Supain, 155.
federacies, 107 ; strength, 109; Suraj Mai, 103.
attract Hastings' notice, 126 ; Sweepers, 66 n., 71 n., 72 «., 79 n.
propose alliance with English,
126 ; chieftains and the Eng-
128, 130, 236; national
lish, Taimur, son of Ahmad Shah, 97,
council, 133 ; expansion under 98, 115.
Ranjit Singh, 159, 160; position Tak, 200.
under him, 167 ; as soldiers, Taksal (Tangsal), 01 v.
170 ; Order of the Star, 214 ; Talpur, 195.
position under Ranjit Singh, Talwandi, 39 n.
222 ; aid English, 247, 274 ; Tank, 6.
war breaks out, 286, 396 Tara Singh, 123, 136.
proportion of, 334 ; distinctive Tara Singh (son of Ranjit Singh),
usages, 348 ; sects, 377. 176.
Sikh War, 286. Taxation of feudatories, 173 ».
Simla, 301 n. Tegh Bahadur, 63; death, 65,
Sind, 113; Ranjit Singh, 162 80 ; character, 65.
Amirs of, and the Indus, 193 Teheran, English mission at,
Shah Shuja's attempt on, 199 119.
 INDEX 429

Tej Singh, 273, 285, 291, 296, Wade, Capt., 183, 191; re-
304. moved, 225.
Tclingana. 37. War, Sikhs and, 74.
Thomaa, George, 122, 133, 172 ?i.; Wattus, 7.
surrender and death, 124. Wazirabad, 149.
Tibet, 2 n. Wazlris, G.
Tibet, Little, 5, 242. Wazir Khan, 86 n.
Tibetans, 9 ; religion of, 11; Wellesley, Lord, 130. 137 n.
cultivators, 15 ; and Kelmaks, Whadni, 160, 175.
20 n. ; and the English, 183 n. Wiswas Rao, 100.
Tughlak Shah, 32 n.
Tughlaks, 31.
Turkhana, 5.
Yadu race, 4, 7 n.
Yarkand, 2, 20 n.
Turkomans, 5, 6, 20, 31.
Yar Muhammad Khan, 158, 160,
188 ; 161 ; submits
flight of,
to Ranjit Singh, 162, 181 ;
Uch, 7.
defeat and death, 189.
Udasis, 42 n., 48, 48 >;., G2 n.
Yog, 35.
divided from Sikhs, 50.
Yiisufzais, 5, 6.
Usufzais, 188.

Zabita Khan, 116, 117; suc-

Vaishnavism, 18 ?t., 21 ?(., 35 n., ceeded by his son, Ghulam
37 n., 38 11. Kadir, 121.
Vallabh, 28 «.., 37, 45. Zain Khan, 101, 102.
Vedas, 22, 22 n. Zakariya Khan, 02 n., 93.
Ventura, General, 169, 173, 189, Zaman, Shah, 119, 137 invests ;

194, 229. Ranjit Singh with Lahore,

Vikramajit, 20 n. 120 deposed, 132
; comes to ;

Vishnu, 27 ; Kabir's leaning Lahore, 151 to Ludliiana,

;

towards, 36. 154, 164 goes to Kabul, 238.

;

Vishnu Swami, 28 n. Zorawar Singh, 201, 242; de-

Vyasa, 24, 24 n., 35, 44. feat and death, 243.
 K o s h

GtorgaPtoUp £ Sarv.Ltd^. Th^ LanAjon, Gmo^raphjUML JrutUnX*

University of Toronto

library

DO NOT
REMOVE
THE
CARD
FROM
THIS
POCKET

Acme Library Card Pocket

Under Pat. "Ref. Index File"

Made by LIBRARY BUREAU

-•m

••: .-<*