Datasheet > apr

2007

moisture in Concrete and

Moisture-sensitive Finishes
and Coatings

1 INTRODUCTION This data sheet addresses these issues and

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Concrete slabs are the most common flooring provides guidance on available test methods to
system used in a range of buildings including determine the moisture content of concrete and the
residential and commercial, both low-rise and interpretation of the information to obtain a realistic
high‑rise. The use of concrete walling in these indication of whether the concrete is dry enough to
buildings whether insitu or precast, has also install various floor and wall finishes.
increased significantly in recent times.
While the option of leaving the surface of
the concrete floor or wall exposed, either as
an off‑form or other type of decorative finish
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is frequently selected, other finishes such as

coverings and coatings are often applied to the
concrete surface. The successful application of
moisture-sensitive finishes (including moisture-
sensitive adhesives) requires an understanding The successful application
of the sources of moisture in concrete, how the
moisture content of the concrete changes over of moisture-sensitive finishes
time (drying), the factors that affect the rate of
drying and how dry the concrete should be prior (including moisture-sensitive
to installation of the finish. For projects requiring
the installation of moisture-sensitive finishes, it adhesives) requires an
is essential that adequate drying time is allowed
within the construction schedule. understanding of the sources
of moisture in concrete.
 20
2 The Nature of Moisture in Concrete
The total amount of moisture contained within the 18
Spruce
concrete, either as water or water vapour, is known
16
as the moisture content and is generally expressed
Plywood
as a percentage of the mass of the concrete. 14
Moisture in concrete is present in the capillary
pores and smaller gel pores within the concrete 12
matrix. Moisture may exist as either water (when 10
the concrete is wet and the pores are saturated) or
Render
as water vapour which provides a level of relative 8

MOISTURE CONTENT, M (%)

humidity within the concrete material. The amount
6
of water vapour and hence relative humidity within
the concrete may vary significantly over time as Mortar
4
water vapour moves in or out of the concrete in
order to establish an equilibrium with the changing 2
ambient conditions. Concrete
0
Unless the relative humidity of the external 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
environment is particularly low, the relative RELATIVE HUMIDITY, RH (%)
humidity in concrete will usually remain quite high
after the majority of water has evaporated, typically Figure 1: Sorption isotherms for concrete and other
about 75%. This equates to a moisture content of building materials (after Straube1)
about 2%. When considering moisture-sensitive
finishes, it is important to realise that because
of the minute nature of the capillaries within the hydration products themselves (gel pores).
concrete in which moisture is held, the concrete For low water-cement ratios, all the water in
can be almost saturated and may still have a the mix may be consumed during hydration,
moisture content of only about 5% Figure 1. This thus avoiding the necessity for the concrete to
has implications on what is normally considered dry prior to the application of finishes.
a ‘dry enough’ concrete surface to which to apply
moisture-sensitive finishes which is discussed in n Wet curing. Wet curing is generally regarded
detail later. as the most efficient method of curing concrete
Also from Figure 1, it can be seen that for to ensure the hydration process continues
any given relative humidity, the moisture content and hence the design strength and other
of concrete is far less than that of timber. This performance requirements of the concrete
indicates that timber framing/materials can be are achieved. Wet curing may extend the time
placed directly in contact with the concrete as the required for drying due to saturation of the
lower moisture content of the concrete will not concrete, rewetting of adjacent elements or
affect the timber (moisture content typically creating wet environments (particularly for
10 to 17%). slab-on-ground work) that provide a source of
moisture long after curing has ceased. Where
Sources of Moisture concrete is required to dry out in the least
The initial source of moisture in concrete is possible time, curing methods that do not
the mixing water that is used at the time of introduce further water should be considered.
manufacture. Once the concrete is placed, there are
numerous other sources of moisture. These include n Exposure to the weather. If the drying period of
wet curing, exposure to the weather, wet subgrades concrete is critical then it should be protected
(in slab-on-ground construction), condensation from re‑wetting. Rainfall on the concrete slab,
(either within the concrete or on the surface) infiltration into joints and wetting of subgrades
and application of mortar tile bedding and other will extend the drying period. For floors, ideally
water‑based adhesives. the concrete should not be placed until the
building has been enclosed.
n Mixing water. Water is added to the concrete
during batching to allow hydration of the cement n Wet subgrades. For slab-on-ground work,
and provide the workability required to place vapour barriers or damp-proofing membranes
and finish the concrete. Some water will be lost complying with the requirements of AS 28702
through bleeding and evaporation, and some will should be provided to separate the concrete
be consumed by the hydration process. A small from possible sources of moisture that may
quantity of water will remain following hydration delay or prevent the adequate drying of the
of the cement either in the minute spaces concrete. If installed correctly and not damaged,
(capillary pores) within the concrete, or within they will generally reduce the transmission of

Page  of 12 > moisture in Concrete

 water vapour to a level where it will not cause be allowed, alternate means of cleaning such
any problems for moisture-sensitive floor as abrasive blasting should be considered.
finishes or associated adhesives. Brush blasting produces a surface which has a
Work by Suprenant and Malish3 indicates light sandpaper-like texture and one which is
that even a 15-mm hole or puncture in the suitable for most surface finishes.
membrane may be sufficient to increase
the vapour transmission to the point where n Spills, moist environments and cleaning
localised failure of moisture-sensitive floor during construction and after installation
finishes or coatings could occur. Use of a damp- of the surface finish. During construction,
proofing membrane (high impact resistance) activities involving the use of water should be
and granular layer under the membrane are located away from concrete elements that are
recommended to minimise the risk of damage if in the process of drying. When the concrete
moisture-sensitive finishes are planned. Where (with its applied finish) is in service; the effect
hydrostatic groundwater pressure is possible, of activities involving the use of water on the
the provision of sub-soil drainage should also be performance of the finish will depend on the
considered to reduce the risk of water reaching specific application and products used.
the underside of the membrane (and slab).
For concrete walls near ground level, wet 3 Moisture Movement over Time (Drying)
subgrades should be isolated from the structure Following curing, all the pores within the concrete
using suitable slab-edge details and damp-proof may initially be filled with water. As the concrete
courses. For further information refer to Slab dries, the water evaporates into water vapour
Edge Dampness and Moisture Ingress4. and is driven by the difference in vapour pressure
(high internal relative humidity compared to that
n Condensation. The presence of warm moist air externally) to gradually move towards the surface in
against a colder wall or floor surface may result order to establish an equilibrium moisture content
in the condensation of moisture which can be with the external environment. The rate at which
drawn into the building material. Moisture may moisture is lost from the surface of the concrete is
also condense within the concrete material: known as the moisture-vapour emission rate. This
known as interstitial condensation. More rate is unaffected by the slab or wall thickness
information on condensation and concrete can as it reflects only conditions at the surface of
be found in Condensation – Design Strategies5. the concrete. However, the thicker the concrete
element, the longer it will take for an equilibrium
n Moisture from tile bedding/adhesives/coatings. moisture content to be reached between the
As these products are generally water based, concrete and the external environment.
some moisture will be drawn into the concrete Hedenblad6 found that the drying time doubled
following application. The major concern may when the slab thickness was increased from 100 to
not be drying of this moisture, but the effect on 150 mm, and tripled when increased from 100 to
pH levels by dissolving alkalis near the surface, 200 mm. He also found that drying times increased
which in turn may affect adhesives or applied with the age of the concrete. The implications are
coatings. Also, the moisture in adhesives may that if re-wetting or water damage occurs at a later
be sufficient to cause the warping of timber age, the original drying times can not be used as a
flooring, a problem which is often incorrectly basis for estimating the additional time required for
attributed to the moisture in the concrete the concrete to re-dry. Based on this work, if repairs
slab. To limit the quantity of water added such as grinding to correct flatness tolerances,
where moisture-sensitive finishes are used, a patching of surface defects or any other procedures
minimum 75% solids and 25% water content is that necessitate the use of water are required,
generally recommended in adhesives. Typically, these should ideally be completed immediately
the higher the solids content, the more moisture after curing so that the water added does not affect
resistant an adhesive will be. Also, as the the drying time. If grinding is required at a later
moisture resistance of different adhesives may stage, the use of dry grinding processes should be
vary, it is recommended that the adhesive type considered.
not be changed during the course of the work. One of the principle factors affecting the drying
of concrete, and the only parameter found to
n Cleaning the surface prior to application correlate to the drying time, is the water-cement
of finishes. Often an acid, detergent or high- ratio of the concrete: the lower the initial water-
pressure water wash is used to clean the cement ratio the shorter the drying time required
surface of the concrete prior to the application Figure 2. Thus, if shorter concrete drying times are
of subsequent surface treatments. Such necessary then reducing the water-cement ratio is
processes add considerable water to the recommended. The use of admixtures can assist in
concrete and unless sufficient drying time can reducing the water-cement ratio and maintaining
the workability required.

Page  of 12 > moisture in Concrete

 450
finishes, the moisture present at greater depths
w/c = 1.00 will re-distribute following covering of the surface.
400
Depending on the drying time allowed, this may
0.90
350 result in unacceptable moisture levels beneath the
0.80 finish and hence future problems.
300 The moisture distribution from the drying of
0.70
floor slabs is indicated in Figures 3 and 4. The
250
initial relative humidity immediately after curing is
0.60 100% as all pores are saturated. As drying occurs
200
either from one side Figure 3 or both sides Figure 4
DRYING RATE (g/m2/24 h)

150 of the concrete, a drying profile will be established

0.50 which is dependant on the relative humidity and
100 temperature of the external environment, concrete
0.40
properties and time. Once a floor covering or other
50 impermeable membrane is applied to the top
surface of the slab the moisture within the slab
0
0 3 7 14 28 60 90 180 365
re-distributes to a ‘covered’ equilibrium. Note that
TIME (Days) similar moisture profiles will occur in walls, and
the drying effect from edges is limited to about the
Figure 2: Effect of water-cement ratio on drying thickness of the concrete.
time (after Brewer8). 100-mm-thick slab, cured
for 7 days, drying from one side in a 23°C and 50%
relative humidity environment. Time measured from
0.0
commencement of drying. Units used are consistent
with ASTM F1869–049. 0.1
SLAB DEPTH TO THICKNESS RATIO

0.2
0.3
Suprenant and Malisch found no benefit in 0.4
reducing the water-cement ratio below 0.4, as no 0.5
further reduction in the drying time was obtained. A 0.6
Initial relative humidity
water-cement ratio of 0.5 will generally allow drying 0.7
Drying RH profile
within three months, and slabs with water-cement 0.8
Covered equilibrium RH profile
ratios greater than 0.6 will ‘take an exceeding long 0.9
time to dry and cause adhesives or floor coverings, 1.0
or both, to fail due to high moisture permeability’ 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
RELATIVE HUMIDITY, RH (%)
according to ASTM F7107. Note that the use of
an approved vapour barrier or damp-proofing
membrane for slab-on-ground work should reduce Figure 3: One-sided drying profiles in a slab-on-
the vapour transmission from the subgrade into the ground showing the initial drying and covered
concrete sufficiently for the moisture permeability equilibrium relative humidity profiles (from
of the concrete not to be of concern. Hedenblad6).
Because of the importance of the water-cement
ratio on drying times and moisture permeability of
the concrete, a lower water-cement ratio (higher 0.0
concrete strength) may be specified if shorter 0.1
SLAB DEPTH TO THICKNESS RATIO

drying times are required and the surface finish is 0.2

sensitive to moisture. Note that the lower the water- 0.3
Initial relative humidity
cement ratio specified the higher the strength of 0.4
Drying RH profile
the concrete. 0.5
Covered equilibrium RH profile
The drying environment will also affect the time 0.6
required for the concrete to dry. As a lower relative 0.7
humidity or higher temperature environment will 0.8
allow faster drying, an air-conditioned space or 0.9
one which is heated should reduce the drying time. 1.0
Caution must be exercised if the surface is dried 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
rapidly by the use of equipment such as heaters RELATIVE HUMIDITY, RH (%)
and blowers due to the increased risk of shrinkage
cracking at an early concrete age. Also, while the Figure 4: Two-sided drying profiles in an elevated
surface or upper layer of concrete may indicate slab showing the initial drying and covered
moisture levels acceptable for the installation of equilibrium relative humidity profiles (Hedenblad6).

Page  of 12 > moisture in Concrete

 The majority of moisture-related problems occur For walling applications, as the coatings are
as a result of the drying profile that develops. Firstly generally placed on the external face and internal
note from Figure 1 that a 90% relative humidity in environments are dry, permeability and capillary
the concrete equates to a moisture content of only discontinuity are less of an issue.
about 3%. Moisture meters can record relatively The drying profile which develops within the
low moisture contents within the surface layer of concrete can also cause curling of the slab or wall
concrete, but pores below may still be saturated. If panel. More information can be found in Curling
the surface is covered, the longer-term ‘covered’ of Concrete Slabs11. If slab joints are sealed with
equilibrium moisture content may be unacceptable, the slab in a curled condition, the installation of a
especially if re-wetting has occurred. Measuring floor covering that acts as a barrier to moisture
moisture content at the surface will generally not movement may allow the moisture to redistribute
give an accurate indication of the final moisture evenly within the slab. This will reduce (or even
content, and whether the concrete is dry enough for largely eliminate) the slab curling caused by the
the application of a floor finish or coating. moisture profile. This in turn may result in some
Extended curing times not only delay the of the joint sealant being forced out of the joint
commencement of drying, but also produce a less and causing a raised line in direct-fixed type
permeable concrete by allowing more hydration floor covering materials such as sheet vinyl. Joint
products to form. These products reduce the size sealants if required should be recessed below the
of capillary pores, and with sufficient curing will floor surface to allow for such movement.
lead to capillary discontinuity Table 1. While this
will reduce the rate of drying, it may also reduce 4 How dry is dry enough?
the vapour emission rate to less than that required The important issue with moisture in concrete
for the application of moisture-sensitive finishes. is not how much water remains in the concrete,
Reducing the moisture permeability is particularly but whether it is moving towards or away from
important where moisture-sensitive finishes have the surface. There are a number of methods for
been applied to slab-on-ground work where there estimating the drying time required or determining
is no vapour or damp-proofing membrane to control when the concrete is dry enough for the application
the vapour transmission into the concrete from of moisture-sensitive finishes or coatings. These
moisture below the slab. range from rule-of-thumb to quantitative tests:
The application of liquid membrane-forming
curing compounds can be beneficial in providing n Rule-of-thumb. This approach simply allows
extended curing times and hence reduced a drying time of one month for every 25 mm of
permeability as they may take several weeks to concrete thickness from completion of curing
degrade and wear off the surface. However, they or since the last re-wetting. Thus, for a 100-
are generally not recommended where shorter mm-thick slab-on-ground drying from one side
drying times are required for the same reason, only, four months would be required. The same
ie the delayed commencement of drying. In these thickness in a suspended slab or wall drying
situations, curing by covering with plastic sheeting from both sides would require only two months.
should be considered. This rule-of-thumb appears to be roughly
Increasing the concrete strength and using consistent with the drying times indicated
waterproofing additives to either create capillary by Figure 2. However, while it may give a
discontinuity within the concrete or reduce the size/ reasonable approximation for concrete elements
partially block capillaries are also effective methods up to 100 mm in thickness, research has found
of reducing the permeability and possibly allow the that the drying rate is not linear and varies
early application of some finishes and coatings. according to the slab thickness. For thicker
elements, and particularly if re-wetting occurs
Table 1 Curing time required for capillary (moisture dries at a lower rate in older concrete)
discontinuity of cement paste (Powers et al10) the rule-of-thumb is an inadequate method to
estimate the drying period.
Water-cement ratio Curing time required for
by weight capillary discontinuity
n Water-cement ratio. For water-cement ratios
0.40 3 days up to 0.5, research work indicates that a period
0.45 7 days of about three months should provide sufficient
0.50 14 days drying time for a 100-mm-thick concrete slab
0.60 6 months drying from one side. Six months is suggested
0.7 1 year for a 150-mm-thick slab and 12 months for a
Over 0.7 Impossible 200-mm-thick slab. If the slab is able to dry
from both sides, these periods can be halved.

Page  of 12 > moisture in Concrete

 n Swedish Concrete Association method. Powers n Moisture content and/or relative humidity. In
et al10 give details of a method where a standard Australia, AS/NZS 245513 states that textile floor
drying time, again based on the water-cement coverings shall not be laid until the moisture
ratio, is modified for slab thickness, drying content is not more than 5.5% or the relative
from one or two sides, ambient temperature humidity level is not more than 70%. Further,
and humidity, and curing conditions. For a 100- that an inspection and assessment is made prior
mm-thick slab with 4 weeks of curing, drying to to the laying of such floor coverings and if any
85% relative humidity from one side, in ambient conditions exist that will affect the performance
conditions of 18°C and 60% relative humidity, of the floor covering, and thus prevent its
the process results in a drying time of 116 days. application, these are to be identified and
If the slab dries from both sides, the drying installation delayed until rectified.
time is reduced to 50 days. If the thickness is The difficulty with the moisture-content
increased to 150 mm the drying time increases approach is that it generally considers only the
to 232 days, while a thickness of 200 mm results surface condition as this is where the moisture
in 319 days drying time. These results are all content is usually measured. Also, as previously
consistent with the rule-of-thumb and water- mentioned, the concrete could be almost fully
cement ratio methods above. saturated and still have a moisture content less
than 5.5%. Thus, while the moisture content
Note that all of the above methods give only may indicate satisfactory conditions, relatively
estimates of the drying time. high vapour emission rates may exist
(>25 g/m2/24 h) making the installation of
n Vapour emission rate. Rather than trying to moisture-sensitive finishes and coatings
estimate the drying time required by the above inappropriate. Note that there have been many
three methods, an industry guideline following instances where moisture meters have indicated
many years of investigation has been adopted in that the moisture content at the surface is less
the US. It recommends that moisture-sensitive than 5% but problems have been encountered
floor coverings not be laid until the vapour once the floor covering has been installed and
emission rate is in the range of 15 to 25 g/m2/24 h when moisture levels within the slab have
(3 to 5 lbs/1000 ft2/24 h) depending on the type established an equilibrium moisture content
of flooring material Table 2. This is measured Figure 3.
using an anhydrous calcium chloride test (see
Section 5). Unlike the measurement of surface If the manufacturer’s recommendations are
moisture, the vapour emission rate is an more stringent than the 5.5% allowed in the
indication of the remaining moisture within the Standard, the impact on the drying time and
concrete. whether it is achievable should be considered.
In terms of the relative humidity, the concrete
is deemed dry enough when the relative humidity
Table 2 Moisture vapour emission rate (MVER) is less than or equal to 70%. According to Smith14
required by various floor coverings (Resilient Floor ‘experimental evidence has shown that when the
Covering Institute12) moisture has evaporated from the coarse pores
of the concrete, the relative humidity falls to 80%.
MVER Materials It is reasonable, therefore, to require a relative
humidity of 75% or lower before the floor can be
5 lb/1000 ft2/24 h Vinyl composition tile considered acceptable for installation of the flooring
(25 g/m2/24 h) Felt-backed resilient system.’ The relative humidity limit of 70% required
sheet flooring by AS/NZS 2455 roughly equates to the US practice
Porous-backed carpet of ensuring that the moisture vapour emission rate
Linoleum is less than 15 g/m2/24 h, which has been found
by experience to indicate that the concrete is dry
3 lb/1000 ft2/24 h Solid vinyl sheet flooring enough.
(15 g/m2/24 h) Vinyl-backed carpet It should be noted that AS/NZS 2455 states that
Nonporous-backed carpet underfloor heating units can be used to dry the
Cork concrete floor and should be operated for at least
Direct glue-down wood 7 days to assist in lowering the moisture content.
flooring However, the concrete may not be dry enough after
a relatively short period; particularly for normal
concrete work where typically the water-cement
ratio could be higher than 0.5.

Page  of 12 > moisture in Concrete

 5 Measuring Moisture and Acceptance 210 mm x 210 mm) area of concrete for 60 to
Criteria 72 hours. Beneath the cover is a 16-g quantity of
A range of methods are available to determine anhydrous calcium chloride which absorbs any
whether the moisture in concrete is at an moisture given off by the concrete in the form
acceptable level for the application of various of vapour. The test kit is weighed before and
finishes. The limitations of each test method after the test period, and the moisture vapour
should be understood if a realistic evaluation of the emission rate is calculated from the increased
moisture content is to be obtained. weight of the calcium chloride, the test time and
AS/NZS 2455 contains information on two surface area under the plastic cover that was
quantitative test methods for measuring the sealed to the floor.
dryness of concrete: hygrometer and electrical The concrete is deemed dry enough when
resistance tests. the vapour emission rate is in the range of
15 to 25 g/m2/24 h depending on the type of
n Hygrometer test. In this test the instrument is flooring material Table 2.
sealed to the concrete surface for 16 hours, the
relative humidity of the air between the concrete n Gravimetric moisture content test. This
and instrument is then measured. Alternatively, typically involves taking a full-depth core from
a hole can be drilled into the concrete, left to the slab using a dry-cut process, drying the
stand for 72 hours to allow the air in the hole sample in an oven until a constant weight is
to achieve equilibrium and a probe then placed reached and determining the moisture content
into the hole to measure the relative humidity. from the mass of the core and difference
The concrete is deemed dry enough when the between initial and final weights. The use of an
relative humidity is not more than 70%. The appropriate moisture content limit is considered
hygrometer test is the most widely used method satisfactory with this test as the moisture
in Europe for determining whether the concrete content measured represents the full thickness
is dry enough. of the concrete and not just the surface layer.

n Electrical resistance test. Of the two types of Qualitative test methods include those that
moisture meters available (electrical resistance rely on covering the surface of the concrete with
and impedance), the commonly used ones are of an impermeable material such as a rubber mat,
the electrical resistance type. The test involves glass or plastic sheet, or by the application of a
measuring the electrical conductivity of the test area of the covering material itself. Thus they
concrete between two sensing pins, probes or tend to simulate the conditions experienced once
electrodes in contact with the concrete. The the surface becomes covered. These types of tests
electrical resistance between them indicates indicate whether moisture is moving through the
the moisture content. Instruments should be slab, and if there is evidence of moisture, that
calibrated for accuracy in the range of 4% to 9% the concrete is typically not ready for moisture-
moisture and be able to measure changes to the sensitive finishes, coatings or paint. All have similar
nearest 0.5%. As mentioned previously, caution limitations in not being able to measure moisture
must be exercised as this test method usually beyond the surface layer because of the relatively
indicates only the condition of the surface layer. short time that they are fixed to the concrete, and
If holes are drilled into the concrete, the because of the formation of moisture under the
electrical resistance test may be used to membrane from condensation rather than moisture
measure moisture content within the slab at from within the concrete. While not covered long
greater depths. Some of the factors which may enough to allow complete redistribution of the
influence the result include the resistance moisture within the concrete, experience has
of the aggregates, chlorides in the concrete, proven that they often give a better indication than
reinforcement and condensation on the surface. spot testing a drier surface layer using a moisture
The concrete is deemed dry enough when meter. Qualitative test methods include:
the moisture content is not more than 5.5%.
n Rubber mat test. A 500 mm x 500 mm square
Other quantitative test methods include: is placed on the slab away from windows and
n Calcium chloride test. This test is used to doors and left for 24 hours to check for signs
measure the vapour emission rate from of moisture on the underside of the mat or
the surface of the concrete and is the most darkening of the concrete, which would indicate
common test method used in the US. While the presence of excess moisture. Any effects
not generally available in Australia, the test under the edges of the matt should be ignored
procedure is covered in ASTM F1869–04. The unless the edges are sealed.
test involves placing a cover over a 70-in2 (about

Page  of 12 > moisture in Concrete

 n Glass sheet test. A 400 mm x 400 mm square 6.2 Moisture-sensitive Finishes
is taped (masking tape) onto the slab in the The types of moisture-sensitive finishes that may
centre of the room and left for 24 hours. Rather lead to moisture related problems if sufficient
than removing the glass (possibly resulting in drying time has not been allowed include timber,
rapid drying of moisture), the concrete beneath vinyl, carpet on a rubber underlay, epoxy-based
is inspected for signs of moisture (darkening) terrazzo tiles and surface coatings.
through the glass. Where suitable vapour barriers or damp‑proofing
membranes have not been provided under slabs-
n Plastic sheet test. A 460 mm x 460 mm square on-ground and a continuous source of moisture is
0.1-mm-thick plastic sheet is placed on the expected, moisture-sensitive finishes should not be
concrete and sealed around the edges by taping installed.
them down to the concrete. After 16 hours the
sheet is removed and the area inspected for Timber flooring
evidence of moisture. Variations of this test Timber flooring may be affected either by moisture
include the use of a 1 m x 1 m piece of plastic causing swelling and warping of the timber or, if
sealed around the edges for 24 hours15. adhesive-fixed to the concrete (typically parquetry),
a breakdown in the bond due to high initial moisture
n Test panel. For large projects, a small sample contents affecting the water-based adhesive. Note
of the flooring material or coating can be that some adhesives may contain sufficient water
glued/applied to the concrete and assessed for to cause moisture-related problems themselves:
satisfactory performance over a suitable period either swelling of the timber or wetting of the
of time. This has the advantage of testing the concrete surface which may dissolve alkalis and
combination of flooring and adhesive. affect the bond strength of adhesives sensitive to
alkaline conditions. Also, timber materials should
Test locations should be distributed evenly in be removed from plastic packaging and placed in
areas where high moisture is suspected, avoiding the environment in which they are to be installed for
those areas subjected to sunlight and other direct a sufficient time to allow an equilibrium moisture
heat sources. As the moisture content of each batch content to be reached prior to laying. Otherwise
of concrete may vary, the frequency of testing is swelling of the timber due to an increase in the
often related to the area that can be placed from moisture content (from the atmosphere rather than
a single load of concrete. For example, since 5 m3 the concrete) may cause problems.
will cover 50 m2 at 100 mm thick, the test frequency
could be one test per 50 m2. Vinyl sheet flooring
The timing of tests should be related to the Vinyl sheet flooring with glued seams provides
estimated drying time required. For a water-cement no opportunity for any moisture to dry from the
ratio up to 0.5 about three months drying time will surface of the concrete. Vinyl tiles allow some
be required for a 100-mm-thick slab drying from moisture movement at joints over time but high
one side only. For this situation, if typical concrete initial moisture contents in both cases may cause
mixes are used, testing within two months of the problems with some adhesives. AS/NZS 2455
commencement of drying may be premature as nominates that ‘where the relative humidity of the
results will typically indicate higher than accepted atmosphere in the building is 75% or more, only
moisture vapour emission rates. Note that whatever adhesives suitable for such conditions shall be
test method is used, the results indicate only what used.’ Considering the variability of the relative
is occurring at the time of measurement. humidity levels within concrete, this requirement
Acceptance criteria are related to the test could be applicable to the majority of coverings
method used and may depend on the requirements placed on concrete floors.
of various Building Codes, Standards and product Suitable adhesives are generally those having
manufacturers. at least 75% solids content. Increasing the water
content of adhesives typically reduces their strength
6 Finishes and increases the quantity of water available to
6.1 Non-moisture-sensitive Finishes wet the concrete surface or floor covering material.
Non-moisture-sensitive finishes such as polished Adhesives used in ‘wet’ environments for prolonged
or decorative concrete, cement-based terrazzo periods may also re-emulsify, causing failure of the
and ceramic/stone tiles may be laid while the bond.
concrete is still drying provided that an appropriate
cementitious bedding or adhesive is used. Note Carpet
that as some shrinkage of the concrete may still be Carpet will allow moisture to pass through and the
occurring, the bedding material or adhesive should drying process to continue, with the surface layer
allow for some movement. generally being sufficiently dry after a short period
to have no adverse affects on the carpet material.

Page  of 12 > moisture in Concrete

 also be present. Some coatings may cure in the
presence of moisture but develop inadequate
bond strength.
n Exerting a force on the uncured coating that
reduces the contact between the coating
and concrete that is required to establish a
strong bond. If the bond has been affected,
the underside of the coating will be hard and
the blisters much larger, possibly filled with
water. The coating may be removed easily from
the surface even where there are no blisters,
and the concrete may appear damp where the
Figure 5: Coating used to protect surface, delineate coating is removed if the original moisture
areas and facilitate maintenance conditions have remained unchanged.
n Osmotic blistering. The principle behind osmotic
blistering is that moisture will flow from areas
However, some backing materials and underlays where the water contains low levels of dissolved
(rubber) can provide barriers to the movement of salts to areas having higher concentrations in
moisture. As the joints in the underlay material are an attempt to reach an equilibrium. Important
not sealed, moisture will gradually dissipate but requirements for the process to occur are
the process will be considerably extended, possibly a semi-permeable membrane which will
by years. The effect of this on the carpet and allow water movement only (ie no salts), an
consequent dampness issues and odours should be impermeable coating on the surface which
considered. acts as the confining wall of the ‘osmotic cell’,
a concentration of water-soluble material and
Coatings Coatings may be applied to concrete water Figure 6.
surfaces for a variety of reasons including providing The osmotic pressure that develops under
colour and/or texture, gloss appearance (polished the impermeable coating will exert an upward
concrete floors), ease of maintenance (cleaning and force on the coating that can easily exceed the
disinfecting), protection (aggressive chemicals) and bond strength. This results in the formation
improving properties such as resistance to impact of a blister as the coating lifts to relieve the
and abrasion Figure 5. pressure. The water may also cause a loss of
Most coatings if applied to a well-prepared and bond strength and softening of the coating.
dry concrete surface and allowed to cure adequately Experience has shown that the moisture
will develop sufficient bond strength to be able vapour emission rate should be less than
to resist water pressure from both hydrostatic 15 g/m2/24 h (see Section 4) to allow a good
and capillary sources of moisture. Typical bond bond to be achieved and the moisture content
strengths of coatings are usually greater than to be low enough for osmotic blistering
1.5 MPa; considerably more than that from, say, a not to occur. This can be determined either
10-m hydrostatic pressure (0.1 MPa) which would qualitatively by covering the surface with an
be unlikely for a slab-on-ground, or maximum impermeable membrane, or quantitatively
capillary pressure of about 0.2 MPa. (recommended), by using the calcium chloride
Moisture-related failures (typically blistering or hygrometer test.
of the surface) tend to be caused by either an
inadequate bond forming when the coating is first
Impervious top coat Salts in solution
applied or osmotic blistering. Problems may not be
evident immediately, but may occur some months
after application. The timing may relate to the
difference between achieving a good bond initially
and achieving only sufficient adhesion to hold an
undisturbed coating in place.
Moisture in the concrete can affect coatings in a Damp concrete surface layer Primer with defects,
number of ways: or primer (if it contains a such as pinholes,
significant concentration of may act as
n Preventing the coating from curing properly. If
soluble organic matter) may semi-permeable
incomplete chemical curing or severely retarded act as semi-permeable membrane membrane
curing of the coating occurs, coatings will
typically be easily removed from the substrate Figure 6: The osmotic blistering process
and the surface of the coating in contact with (after Ignoul et al16)
the concrete will be soft and/or slightly sticky.
Numerous small closely spaced blisters may

Page  of 12 > moisture in Concrete

 Table 3 Recommended minimum drying times for concrete before painting (AS/NZS 231117)

Surface Paint type Drying times (weeks)

Precast and cast in situ concrete Latex 8

Filled concrete blocks Alkali-resistant solvent-borne 12*
Oleoresinous and alkyd 16*

Concrete blocks (unfilled) Latex 4

Cement render and stucco Alkali-resistant solvent-borne 6
Concrete bricks and mortar Oleoresinous and alkyd 12*

* The minimum drying period will depend on the thickness of the concrete and should be increased by
four weeks for each 25 mm of thickness above 100 mm. Where two sides of the surface are exposed and
well ventilated, then the drying time should be increased by two weeks for each 25 mm of thickness above
100 mm. Where concrete has been wet cured or left exposed during rainy periods, this additional time
should be added to the recommended curing time.

The perception that concrete can be painted Reducing the risks when applying moisture-
or coatings applied once the surface appears dry sensitive finishes and coatings
is not valid. The underlying concrete can still be Steps to reduce the risk of finish/coating failure
wet and once a coating is applied, the moisture (particularly for floors) include:
will rapidly reach a new equilibrium beneath the n Use concrete with low water-cement ratio and
coating. Particularly for impermeable coatings, this bleed characteristics.
could result in the curing of the coating and/or bond n Allow adequate time for the concrete to dry.
strength of the adhesive being affected or osmotic n Ensure the moisture vapour emission rate or
blistering occurring. AS/NZS 231117 gives some relative humidity levels are acceptable.
guidance on the drying times required for various n Ensure an adequate vapour/damp-proofing
paint types Table 3. Note that drying times are membrane is provided beneath slab-on-ground
essentially based on a rule-of-thumb approach and work and a sand bedding is provided to protect
caution should be exercised concerning the notes to the membrane from puncture or other damage
the table. during construction.
The coatings that are susceptible to blistering n Use breathable coatings if possible.
are those that are quite impermeable to water. n Avoid equipment such as air conditioners,
Coatings that allow the transmission of water heaters and fans that rapidly dry the surface to
vapour (breathable coatings), reduce the buildup enable quicker laying of finishes or application
of pressure behind the coating and hence are less of coatings. These may result in a misleading
susceptible to problems. Unlike those on floor slabs, moisture vapour emission rate and falsely
coatings used on walls are less likely to fail by indicate the surface is dry enough to apply the
blistering as the concrete dries quicker (from two finish or coating.
sides rather than one side for a slab-on-ground), n Avoid applying finishes or coatings with the
has fewer sources of moisture that either prolong sun on the concrete if possible. This warms the
drying or saturate the concrete behind the coating, concrete and may increase the water vapour
no upper concrete zone subject to bleeding and pressure in the capillaries within the concrete.
drying during placement is present (ie forming a n Use fast-setting primers. Some products will
semi-permeable membrane). establish a good bond before moisture within
the concrete redistributes sufficiently to affect
the bond.
n Apply coatings at higher temperatures
to promote quicker setting. AS/NZS 2311
recommends that paints should be applied
when the temperature is between 10 and 35°C.
n Ensure products are adequately proportioned
and mixed. This will ensure proper setting and
hardening, as different concentrations of soluble
material in the concrete and coating layer may
also cause diffusion of water and osmotic
blistering problems.

Page 10 of 12 > moisture in Concrete

 n Ensure adequate surface preparation. All References
laitance, efflorescence, chemical and organic 1 Straube, J, Moisture Properties of Plaster
contaminants and dirt should be removed from and Stucco for Strawbale Buildings, Canada
the surface to achieve good bond strength. Mortgage and Housing Corporation, Research
n Ensure any curing compounds, release agents Report, 00–132, 2000.
and form oils, etc have been removed or do not 2 AS 2870, Residential slabs and footings –
otherwise affect the bond. If these products are Construction, Standards Australia, 1996.
present, a suitable primer should be used. 3 Suprenant, B A and Malisch, W R, ‘Are your
n Do not wash concrete prior to applying a slabs dry enough for floor coverings?’ Concrete
coating unless sufficient time can be allowed Construction, August 1998, pp 671–677.
for the surface to dry. Abrasive blasting or 4 Slab Edge Dampness and Moisture Ingress,
other dry processes to prepare the surface Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia Data
are recommended. Water can quickly dissolve Sheet, January 2005.
salts and create a highly alkaline environment 5 Condensation – Design Strategies, Cement and
at the concrete surface. For paints containing Concrete Association of Australia, July 2000.
drying oils this may be harmful due to their 6 Hedenbald, G, Drying of Construction Water
susceptibility to saponification. in Concrete, Swedish Council for Building
n Apply a semi-permeable layer to the Research, Stockholm, Sweden, 1997.
concrete surface to reduce the rate of vapour 7 Standard Practice for Preparing Concrete Floors
transmission. These are typically latex-modified to Receive Resilient Flooring, ASTM F 710, 2005.
cementitious products/coatings as the setting 8 Brewer, H W, Moisture Migration – Concrete
and bond are unaffected by the presence of Slab-on-Ground Construction, Bulletin D89,
moisture. Portland Cement Association, May 1965.
n Use a higher strength concrete that is 9 Standard Test Method for Measuring Moisture
adequately placed, compacted and cured. Vapour Emission Rate of Concrete Subfloor
Generally strengths greater than 40 MPa will Using Anhydrous Calcium Chloride,
be sufficiently impermeable (due to capillary ASTM F1869–04.
discontinuity) to reduce the vapour transmission 10 Powers, T C Copeland, L E and Mann, H M,
rate through the concrete, and hence vapour Capillary Continuity or Discontinuity in Cement
emission rate from the surface to an acceptable Pastes, RX110, Portland Cement Association,
level. Also, concrete with low permeability Skokie, Illinois, 1959, pp 38–48.
provides no catalyst for future osmotic blistering, 11 Curling of Concrete Slabs, Cement Concrete &
which is therefore unlikely to occur. Aggregates Australia Data Sheet, January 2006.
n Avoid semi-permeable primers and those with 12 Addressing Moisture Related Problems Relevant
non-chemically bonded compounds such as to Resilient Floor Coverings Installed over
solvents. If using semi-permeable primers, Concrete, Resilient Floor Covering Institute,
ensure that the surface coating (eg epoxy Rockville, Maryland 1995.
material) will make the primer layer 13 AS/NZS 2455.1, Textile floor coverings –
impermeable. Installation practice Part 1: General, Standards
n Patch holes and make other repairs early Australia 1995.
to allow the material used and surrounding 14 Smith, L, 'An Introduction to Coating Concrete
concrete to dry adequately. Floors', Journal of Protective Coatings &
n Allow timber coverings sufficient time to Linings, December 2001, Technology Pub. Co.,
achieve an equilibrium moisture content prior to Pittsburg, PA, pp 40–43.
installation. 15 Laying Timber Strip Flooring over Concrete
n Use adhesives with a minimum 75% solids Floor Slabs, Bulletin Number 374, BRANZ,
content. September 1998.
16 Ignoul S, Van Rickstal F, Van Gemert D,
Blistering of epoxy industrial floor on concrete
substrate: phenomena and case study,
Proceedings XIth International Congress on
Polymers in Concrete – ICPIC 2004, Berlin,
June 2–4, 2004.
17 AS/NZS 2311, Guide to the painting of buildings,
Standards Australia 2000.

Further Information
Kanare, Howard M, Concrete Floors and Moisture,
Portland Cement Association, Engineering Bulletin
119, 2005.

Page 11 of 12 > moisture in Concrete

apr Further information on good concreting
practices can be downloaded from the Cement
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Page 12 of 12 > moisture in Concrete