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LITERATURE REVIEW

Tuna industry in the Philippines

Since the 1970s, the Philippines has been a major producer of tuna. The

Philippines is structured to be a fishing nation. Being in the Pacific Ocean, it has a

wide variety of fishes, crustaceans and mollusks that are being harvested for food.

The Philippine fisheries industry comprises marine fisheries, inland fisheries, and

aquaculture. Marine fisheries can be further divided into municipal fisheries and

commercial fisheries. Based on the Fisheries and Aquaculture Department of the FAO

(2014), it was reported marine fisheries production was 2,203,972 kilograms, roughly

45 percent from municipal and 54 percent from commercial fisheries. Twenty eight

percent of the total catch was species of tuna, namely, Yellow fin, Skipjack and

Frigate.

The Philippines is still one of the top producing countries in the world.

Contributing to the gross domestic product in 2013 at two percent (Food and

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2014). Also, US $681.618 million

worth of tuna was exported out of the country. Canned tuna constitutes the bulk of

products exported.

The Philippines is an archipelagic country and is surrounded with rich seas,

with the Pacific Ocean at the east and the West Philippine Sea (also known as the

South China Sea) at the east and the Celebes Sea at the south. In a region where tuna

is highly abundant, the Philippines is the largest producer of tuna in the region (FAO

2014). With the highly migratory characteristics of tuna and the export-oriented nature

of the local tuna industry, it is inevitable for the Philippines to negotiate with the
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international community to attain sustainable management and utilization of fishery

resources, to optimize trade benefits, and to ensure local food security. In 2003, the

Philippines ranked fourth in the world in production of tuna and tuna-like species

(FAOSTAT, 2005). Which ranks close to Indonesia, accounting 22 per cent in total

catch in the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN). The major tuna

species in the Philippines are the skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), yellowfin tuna

(Thunnus albacores), bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus), Eastern little tuna (Euthynnus

affinis), and frigate tuna (Auxis thazard thazard) (FAO 2014). With the large amount

of tuna produced in the country, canning companies has taken this opportunity to set

up business here. There are over 1.6 million Filipinos involved in this industry and

canned tuna constitutes bulk of tuna products being exported (AllBiz 2013).

According to Alviola et. al (2013), tuna ranks third as the highest consumed

fresh meat in the Philippines, with a consumption of 4.73 kilograms per year or 13

grams per day. Considering this, Filipinos become prone to the risk of mercury

contamination via consumption of tuna.

Mercury Pollution

Mercury Characterization

Naturally occurring elements, heavy metals are of high atomic weight and

extremely toxic to human life in high dosages (Martin 1991). Industrial, medical, and

agricultural applications have led to their wide distribution in the environment (Bradl

2005). Raising the concern on the risks and damage it could sustain to human life.
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Because of the high toxicity degree of heavy metals, in this case, mercury, they rank

among the priority metals that are of public health significance. (Tchounwou et al.

2003).

Mercury is a silvery-white metal that is liquid in room temperature and

classified as metal, organic and inorganic mercury (Hong et al. 2012). Mercury is

frequently found in the form of methyl-mercury and dimethyl-mercury in ecological

systems Combined with an alky group, it is widely found in fish and shellfish in

Japan, where consumption of these products have caused Minamata disease (WHO

1990).

The most toxic among the mercury compounds circulating the in the aquatic

environment is methyl-mercury. It is to be noted that methyl mercury cannot be

introduced in the ecosystem unless, it is first methylated by microorganisms (Fleming

et al. 2006) . Once this has occurred, it can travel up the food chain from small fishes

to larger species, such as tuna, in which humans consume for sustenance. It has been

discussed by the World Health Organization (1990) and US-EPA (1997) that the

methyl-mercury would accumulate also in humans. Accordingly, methyl-mercury can

be ingested through food intake, this can affect human health.

Their toxicity depends on several factors including the dose, route of

exposure, and chemical species, as well as the age, gender, genetics, and nutritional

status of exposed individuals. These metallic elements are considered systemic

toxicants that are known to induce multiple organ damage, even at lower levels of

exposure. They are also classified as human carcinogens (known or probable)

according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA), and the

International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).

Impacts on human health

Mercury is a significant toxic element, which can especially be found in tuna

fish tissues grown in polluted water (Freire et al.2010; Drevnick et al. 2015).

Increasing mercury in seafood is due to human impact on the marine environment

(Chen et al. 2012). In addition to the atmospheric emissions, which are caused

principally by stationary fossil fuel sources (primarily coal-fired power plants and

artisanal gold mining), atmospheric deposition represents the main source of

inorganic mercury to open ocean systems (Chen et al. 2012). Mercury can be

converted by bacteria into the organic form, methylmercury (MeHg), which is the

most toxic form of mercury introduced into the food chain (Schartup et al. 2013). The

biomagnification process causes MeHg concentrations in long-life predator fish (like

tuna) to be upward of 100 million times higher than the surrounding seawater (Chen

et al. 2012). Literature data confirms the ability of large pelagic predators to

accumulate substantial levels of toxic metals, especially mercury (Storelli et al. 2010).

In the case of highly migratory species such as tuna, the MeHg content cannot be

attributed to a specific marine region (González-Estecha et al. 2015).

MeHg is highly poisonous and the toxicity varies according to its form, inflow

path, exposure amount, and individual susceptibility. When a pregnant woman is

exposed to MeHg, it may increase the risk of silent birth and the birth of babies with

deformities or severe nervous system diseases, even when the mother does not show

any symptoms of poisoning (Hong et al. 2012; WHO n.d.). MeHg is a well-

documented neurotoxicant, which may in particular cause adverse effects on the

developing brain. Also, some studies suggest that even small increases in
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methylmercury exposures may cause adverse effects on the cardiovascular system,

thereby leading to increased mortality (Choi et al. 2009). Given the importance

of cardiovascular diseases worldwide, these findings, although yet to be confirmed,

suggest that MeHg exposures need close attention and additional follow-up.

Moreover, MeHg compounds are considered possibly carcinogenic to humans (group

2B) according to the IARC (1993) , based on their overall evaluation. Mercury cannot

be eliminated by cooking. Inorganic mercury is also accumulated along with MeHg in

food. In 1990, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated a human daily intake

of inorganic mercury of about 4 μg in the European and North American general

population (WHO 1990). In total, 6.6 μg total mercury is taken up per day. From this,

0.6 μg is from MeHg in fish. In mammals, MeHg from fish products is in part

converted into inorganic mercury and therefore might be partially relevant for the

consumption of meat and poultry products.

Chronic effects of mercury

Methylmercury (MeHg) enters the human body via the gastrointestinal (GI)

tract via. While the GI tract is the primary route of absorption, methylmercury can be

absorbed through the skin and the lungs as well (Rothstein 1980). Once absorbed into

the circulation, it goes into the various parts of our body via the binding with

hemoglobin (Karper 1992). It eventually leads into the brain, where it is demethylated

to form the inroganic elemental mercury. Methylmercury readily crosses the placenta

to the fetus, where deposition within the developing fetal brain can occur. In the brain,

methylmercury causes focal necrosis of neurons and destruction of glial cells and is
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toxic to the cerebral and cerebellar cortex (Kershaw 1980). In the early 1950's and

60's, mercury poisoning was in the spotlight with the poisoning of the inhabitants of

Minamata and Niigata Bay in Japan due to the consumption of fish caught in the area.

This was called the Minamata disease, or the "dancing cat" disease, as cats who have

ingested the fish laced with mercury, seemed to "dance" and wobble. Waste

containing mercuric chloride had been released into the bays and became

concentrated in the fish after conversion to methylmercury by plankton (Harada

1995).

Neurological and behavioral disorders may be observed after inhalation,

ingestion or dermal exposure of different mercury compounds. Symptoms include

tremors, insomnia, memory loss, neuromuscular effects, headaches and cognitive and

motor dysfunction. Mild, subclinical signs of central nervous system toxicity can be

seen in workers exposed to an elemental mercury level in the air of 20 μg/m3 or more

for several years. Kidney effects have been reported, ranging from increased protein

in the urine to kidney failure (WHO n.d.).

Anthropogenic Sources and Other Origins

Mercury pollution of the environment has natural, anthropogenic, and historic

sources (Grandjean et al. 2003). The proportion of anthropogenic mercury nearly

doubled within the last 100 years and with about 70% distinctly out-weighed naturally

released mercury (Grandjean et al. 2003). The mercury problem is mainly a man-

made problem and therefore can be minimized by implementing efficient measures.

Mining and other anthropogenic activities provides enormous social and economic
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benefits to the country, but with this, one must also look at what impairment it can

sustain to the environment and public health (Akabzaa 2001). These activities can

cause widespread contamination of chemicals and toxic metals to the ecosystem if the

company is not responsible enough to dispose them properly. Natural phenomenon is

beyond human intervention, yet one can predict and mediate the effects it can

produce. It may be attributed that some heavy metals are indeed classified as essential

and needed to perform some normal physiological processes, higher dosages can

irreversibly damage the human health and worse, the biota itself.

Though heavy metals are naturally occurring and abundant throughout the

earth’s crust, most of the contamination in our ecosystem and human exposure is

through anthropogenic activities, such as mining, and agriculture, specifically the use

of toxic pesticides and herbicides (He et al. 2005). In recent years, there has been an

increasing ecological and global public health concern associated with environmental

contamination by these metals. Also, human exposure has risen dramatically as a

result of an exponential increase of their use in several industrial, agricultural,

domestic and technological applications. According to Shallari et al. (1998),

contamination and pollution of heavy metals can also occur via metal corrosion,

atmospheric deposition and soil erosion. In addition, Nriagu (1989) discussed that

natural phenomena such as volcanic eruptions have been reported to dramatically

contribute to heavy metal contamination and pollution in an ecosystem.

Allowable Mercury limits in Tuna Products

Being toxic to human health, mercury poses a threat to the development of a

child in the uterus and early in development. Existing in various forms, it can be
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found in nature in elemental form, organic (e.g. methyl-mercury and ethyl-mercury)

and in inorganic form, which all have varying degrees of effects in the human body,

namely the nervous, digestive and especially the immune system (WHO 2017). Total

mercury concentration in seafood other than fish and shellfish has been reported to be

low and safe for human consumption. However, in fishes and shellfish, they contain

much higher concentrations. It was also observed by (Grandjean et al. 2003) that the

higher you are in the food chain, the larger and longer the organism lived, the higher

the concentration of methyl-mercury. This has been observed in sharks and sawfish

which are top predators in the aquatic food chain.

At the international level, the JECFA (Joint FAO/ WHO Expert Comittee on

Food Additives) expresses risk as the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI),

which has been 1.6 μg MeHg/kg body weight since 2003. At the end of 2012, the

European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) updated advice on risks for public health. At

the request of the European Commission, EFSA’s Scientific Panel on Contaminants in

the Food Chain (CONTAM Panel) has reported that, for MeHg, new studies indicate

that beneficial effects related to long chain omega 3 fatty acids present in fish may

have previously led to an underestimation of the potential adverse effects of MeHg in

fish. The Panel has therefore proposed a TWI for MeHg of 1.3 µg/kg/bw, which is

lower than JECFA’s 1.6 µg/ kg/bw (EFSA 2012). However, this newly proposed TWI

is still higher than the TWI in the United States (US). The US Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) and the National Academy of Sciences established a

reference dose of 0.7 µg MeHg/kg/bw in 2000, which led to the US EPA’s value of

0.5 mg/kg as an acceptable standard of Hg in fish for human consumption (this

corresponds to the MeHg limit of 5.8 µg/L in blood) (EPA 2001). However, the US
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Food and Drug Administration (FDA)’s action level for Hg in tuna is 1 mg/kg (U.S

FDA 2011). The European Union (EU) has established an Hg limit of 0.5 mg/kg for

fresh fish, except for certain fish such as tuna, which has a limit of 1 mg/kg (EC

2006).

All fish contain trace amounts of methyl-mercury, in some there is more than

others. In areas where there is industrial mercury pollution, where there is an existing

presence of factories or mining industries, the levels of mercury in fish can be highly

elevated. The allowable limits for mercury consumption in fish is between 0.01 ppm

to 0.5 ppm, more than that, it is toxic(U.S. FDA 1995). It’s only in a few species, of

fish that methyl mercury levels reach more than the limit (e.g. sharks and tunas). This

most frequently occurs in some large predator fish, such as shark and swordfish.

Certain species of very large tuna, typically sold as fresh steaks or sushi, can have

levels over 1 ppm. (Canned tuna, composed of smaller species of tuna such as

skipjack and albacore, has much lower levels of methyl mercury, averaging only

about 0.17 ppm.) The average concentration of methyl mercury for commercially

important species (mostly marine in origin) is less than 0.3 ppm(U.S. FDA 1995).

A study conducted by Maqbool et al. (2016) has concluded that the mercury

content of the canned tuna fish commercially available in the Philippines is above the

permissible FAO/WHO levels for mercury and is thus likely to constitute significant

health hazard, especially to the vulnerable segments of the population- fetus, infants,

young children and women of child bearing age.