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Lecture notes Physical Mineral Processes - Alle lectures

Physical Mineral Processes (The University of British Columbia)

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SAMPLING

Objectives:

• Be able to define the meaning of ‘confidence interval’

• Be able to calculate the quantity of sample that is required to represent a bulk
sample (based on Gy’s Method)

Sampling is the process of securing, a representative fraction/ lot for some purpose
such as assaying. Basic rule for correct sampling: Each particle of ore or concentrate
must have an equal probability of being collected and becoming part of the final sample
for analysis.

Sampling for feasibility: field samples, drill core, bulk sampling (trenching and mined
sample)

Sampling for plant/ operation: Blasthole cutting piles. ROM samples, mill feed,
crusher, mill,. Cons & tailings samples

Why do we want to sample a plant?

• Determine material characteristics

Hardness, abrasivity, BWI, angle of repose
• Assess size distributions
• Calibrate crushing/grinding models
• Obtain samples for assay
- Determine Feed, Concentrate Grade
- Mass Balances
- Assess Process Performance (Recovery)
- Estimate Metal Production
- Identify deleterious elements

Selecting a representative sample -precision, accuracy and confidence

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Select Sample Size for Desired Precision, Accuracy, and Confidence – Gy’s
Method

W = C x [d3/σ2]
Sampling Error Variance determined by Pierre Gy, 1982

σ2 = C d3 / W
Where:
σ2 - sampling error variance (S2)
C - Sampling constant which is a function of
material characteristics.
d - Nominal top size (95% passing IN cm!!)
W - Sample mass, g

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m – Mineralogical composition factor

m = (1-a) [(1-a) m + a g]/a (g/cm3)

where a = fractional average mineral content

 m = specific gravity of the mineral
 g = specific gravity of the gangue
For example, a could be the content of bornite in a sample (assuming bornite is the main
copper mineral)

L – liberation factor
L = (dL/d)0.5

dL= Liberation size

d = 95% passing size

Francois-Bongarcon and Gy (2002) proposed the general form of l=(dL/d)b

Where in the case of gold mineralization, the value of b is almost always experimentally
found close to 1.5.

The value of b can vary from 0 to 3

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Coning and Quartering

Jones Riffle Splitter -1/2” Rotary Splitter

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Ore Characterization

Outline

Introduction – Ore Testing

• Grinding Ore Testing - To quantify what type and size of
grinding circuit is best suited to the ore.
• Test work can range from simple tests, based on a small
sample of rock or core, to comprehensive pilot testing
requiring hundreds of tonnes.
• Objective – to become familiar with commonly used ore
tests for grinding.
Common Ore Test
• Bond grinding indices (rod, ball and abrasion)
• Unconfined compressive strength (UCS)
• Impact crushing tests
• Autogenous Media Competency (Tumble Test)
• JK drop weight tests and ta abrasion
• McPherson
• SPI Minnovex (Starkey) – SAGDesign Starkey
• Pilot scale milling
• Circuit Surveys

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Standard Bond Ore Testing

The Bond Indices:

a) Bond Ball Mill Work Index (BMWI)

b) Bond Abrasion Work Index

c) Bond Low-Energy Impact Test (see Impact Crushing Tests)

d) Bond Rod Mill Work Index (RMWI)

Bond Ball Mill Work Index

• BMWI standard test was developed by Fred Bond in the 1920s,

published in 1952 and modified in 1961.

• Test enables basic grinding power requirements to be determined, from

the feed 80% passing size (F80) to the circuit 80% passing size (P 80).
• BMWI test determines the standard Wi of a sample of ore, or the
specific power (kWh/t) required to reduce the P 80 of a sample of
material from ‘infinite’ size to 100µm.
• BMWI is used in designing new equipment and in simulating existing
equipment to improve performance.
Ball Mill Wi test is a measure of the resistance of the material to crushing
and grinding. It is a 'locked cycle' test conducted in closed circuit with a
laboratory screen. Requires 10 kg of drill core or rock, crushed to -3.35mm
(#6 tyler). The Closing screen size is selected so that the product P80 from
the test is as close as possible to the product P80 expected from the circuit
under design.
When would a BMWI Test be required?

• A BMWI is required for the design of a new mineral processing

plant. Tests should be on a sample of ore that are typical of the
proposed feed to the plant.

• A BMWI may also be used in the simulation and subsequent

optimization of existing mill(s) and the associated grinding circuit.
• The Bond Equation can be used to calculate:

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‒ The specific energy requirement for a given grinding duty, and

‒ The feed size and required product size.
‒ It is then possible to determine the size of mill required based on
throughput, and therefore motor power.
Additional Bond BMWI Notes
• As a rule of thumb, for a given closing sieve size, the resulting
product P 80 will be ~ one root 2 series sieve size smaller. For
example, if the required product P 80 is ~ 106 µm then use a 150 µm
closing sieve size.
• Wet sieving is only used if the material is likely to agglomerate or if
the closing sieve size is ≤ 100 µm.
• Wet sieving significantly increases the test time, as the test must be
carried out on dry material. The sample must be oven-dried after
each wet sieving process.
• There may also be issues of material degradation either in water or at
the high drying temperatures, which needs to be considered before
the test is carried out.
Impact Crushing Tests

• These tests can take two forms. The first is the Standard Bond
Crushing Test, which has a requirement of twenty pieces of rock or
core of size +50 – 75 mm (+2” – 3”). Pieces are placed in a twin
pendulum device and impacted to failure to produce an impact
crushing strength, measured in kWh per tonne of ore.
• Twenty specimens are tested to provide a measure of variability of
results, as there is a tendency towards heterogeneity in rocks of
larger sizes. The standard index is used primarily by crusher
manufacturers to assign down rating factors for ore toughness in
crusher selection.
Single Particle Methods (AG and SAG)

a) Bond Impact Test Method: Barratt Approach

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Barratt (1986) proposed a method for predicting SAG power involving

the use of a combination of Bond Work Indices over a range of sizes
from F80 to a defined P80, applying a correction factor to resultant
power, and deducting the ball milling component of the power:

E (SAG) = [10Wic(Sp) + 10Wir(Sr)*Kr + 10Wib(Sb)*Kb] * 1.25 -

10Wib(Ssb)

where: E (SAG) is the specific SAG mill power in kWh/t

Wic,r,b are the Crushing, Rod and Ball mill Work Indices
Sc,r,b are [1/P - 1/F] for the equivalent stage size ranges

It was noticed that the method can be used unless the Wic and Wir
are significantly higher than the Wib, in which case SABC is indicated
and E (SAG) can be discounted by 10% to arrive at a power efficient
SABC design.

Single Particle Methods (AG and SAG)

The Barratt Approach and Siddall Approach methods have been found to
predict the single stage grinding power required in a AG/SAG mill. In both
methods, there is a reliance on either pilot plant data or database
correlations in order to establish T 80 (SAG transfer size), and hence the
SAG mill power in a two-stage grinding circuit.
Ore Characterization test requirements for SAG/AG mills.
• Test particles over the entire size range of SAG mill feed for both
impact and abrasion breakage, to determine energy levels expected in
commercial mills
• Determine media competency;
• Slow examination of steady-state mill load characteristics (critical
sized material);
• Generate a breakage vs. energy level map for simulation
• Must be reproducible (need representative samples);

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• Must determine total grinding power required; and,

• Must use a small sample mass.

Unconfined Compressive
Strength Test-1

• This test determines the strength of a rock sample under compression

by a single vertical force.

• The test requires the use of a specialized compression device which

applies an evenly controlled force to the rock until failure.
Strength Test-2
• One international standard that is used widely is the ASTM2938-86.
• A sample specimen is machined into a cylinder featuring a length
twice that of the specimen’s diameter, ideally 50 mm (2”).
• The test produces two outputs:
‒ The mode of breakage, providing insight into the nature of the
rock.
‒ The actual UCS value, usually quoted in MPa.
• The UCS value is used to guide crusher manufacturers in selecting
the appropriate equipment, and to assist the grinding consultant in
assessing an ore’s competency.
Autogenous Media Competency Test -1

• When a sample is available in the form of lump rock, the standard

Autogenous Tumbling Test can be carried out using 10 rocks in five
size ranges between 102 and 165 mm.
• The rock is normally tumbled for 500 revolutions in a 6 ft x 1 ft
drum and the product sized.
• The product provides data to enable evaluation of the following:
‒ Interpretation of the product distribution against generic
curves.
‒ Production of media in AG and SAG mills.

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‒ The amount of critical size build-up.

‒ The tendency for ore to generate fines (-6 mm material).
‒ Overall amenability to autogenous milling.
Autogenous Media Competency Test -2

The test provides excellent insight into impact breakage and auto
abrasion characteristics of ores, but is currently only performed in a
few laboratories around the world.

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Grinding & Classification

Circuit Design – Mill Power

Introduction
In 1951 Mr. Fred C. Bond of the Allis Chalmers Co. proposed his third theory of
comminution. Mr. Bond developed his work index (Wi), which is used extensively to
determine power input. This session describes methods of determining mill power (used
as the basis of mill sizing) and ore testing.

Ore characterization for comminution is to provide parameters to design circuits that

economically achieve the throughput and grind that is suited to the balance of the
plant’s equipment and capabilities.

Circuit design is a balance between:

 Finding the minimum operating cost to attain the desired final grind
(consumables and power) &

 Efficiently using installed capital.

 The most efficient circuit is the one that allows the greatest rate of return to a
project.

Certain circuit configurations require more ore characterization than others. A

conventional crusher-rod mill-ball mill circuit requires less characterization than an AG
or SAG circuit. AG/SAG circuits power draw is dynamic and greatly affected by
changes in operating conditions.

Mill Power
• Around half the energy used in most mineral processing plant is consumed in
grinding. Usually, it is the single biggest operating cost item, and good energy
utilization is critical to project economics.

• Sizing of grinding mills is mostly carried out by determining the energy required for
the duty and selecting an appropriate unit to deliver that energy.

• Determining the specific energy required can often be done by laboratory testing.
Two forms of testing are common:

‒ The Bond grindability tests

‒ Single particle tests e.g. the Impact test or the Drop Weight Test.

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Power Method Considerations: Testing

• Bond grindability (ball and rod mills)

The Bond Grinding Indices are for predicting rod and ball mill power
requirements. They can also be used by operators to assess the power efficiency
of an existing circuit, as explained below. However, the Bond BWI is not a good
predictor of AG/SAG mills unless adapted using empirical factors.

 Single particle (AG and SAG mills)

In order to assess AG/SAG behavior, single particle tests have been devised
which look at the energy required to break the particle under impact conditions,
and the relationship between the energy applied and the size distribution of the
“daughter” products.

Ball Mill Circuit Modeling – Equation

 1 1 
W  10 Wi   
 P80 F80 

PRIMARY
CRUSHER FEED PRODUCT

CYCLONE
SCREEN

ROD BALL
MILL MILL

SECONDARY TERTIARY
CRUSHING CRUSHING

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Bond Efficiency Factor

EF1 (Dry Grinding)

With most materials, for the same range of work, dry grinding requires 1.3 times as
much power as wet grinding. In some special cases, this correction factor can be as low
as 1.1 or great as 2.0

2. EF2 (Open Circuit Grinding)

For ball milling, EF2 is a function of the degree of control required on the circuit
product. Open circuit inefficiency factors are as follows:

3. EF3 (Diameter Efficiency Factor)

Using a base diameter of 2.44 m (8’) inside liners the correction for other diameters (in
meters) is given by: 0.2
 2.44 
EF 3   
 D 

The minimum value applied for EF3 is 0.914 for practical design purposes.

4. EF4 (Oversized Feed Factor)

Rr = Reduction Ratio, F80/P 80

Wi = Rod Mill or Ball Mill Work Index in kWh/st
Fo = Optimum feed size = Zf * (13/RWi)0.5
Zf = A constant, where: rod milling = 16,000

ball milling = 4,000

RWi = Rod Mill Work Index in kWh/st

• The influence of Rr should be assessed with caution in the first stage of a two-
stage circuit.

• Do not use EF4 for rod mill prepared feed to a ball mill and do not apply if EF4
< 1.0

• In two-stage ball milling, use EF4 = 1.2

 F  Fo 
Rr  (Wi  7)   
EF 4   o 
F
Rr

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5. EF5 (Fineness of Grind)

EF 5 
P80  10.3
1.145  P80

Apply this factor only when P 80 < 75μm (200 mesh).

EF6 (High/Low Ratio of Reduction - Rod Milling)

Do not use EF6 if (Rr-Ro) is between -2 and +2:

EF 6  1 
Rr  Ro 2
150

Where:
5L
Ro  8 
D
D = inside liner diameter of rod mill (meters)
L = length of rods (meters) = Rod Mill Inside L – 0.15

Rr = Reduction ratio

EF7 (Low Ratio of Reduction Ball Milling Factor)

If the Rr ,or reduction ratio, of the ball feed to product drops below 6, use the EF7
correction factor. The lower the Rr the more power required.

EF 7 
2  ( Rr  1.35)  0.26
2  ( Rr  1.35)
Note: Do not apply an EF7 factor greater than 2.0 without conducting continuous test
work.

EF8 (Rod Mill Feed)

• When calculating rod mill power for rod milling only, an EF8 value of 1.4 is
used when the feed is prepared by open circuit crushing and 1.2 in closed circuit.

• For Rod/Ball circuits 1.2 is used for the rod milling stage only, if the feed is
prepared in open circuit.

• Do not use with Rod/Ball circuits with closed crushing circuits.

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EF9 (Rubber Liners Factor)

• With respect to wear resistance, rubber liners are best suited for ball diameters
up to 80 mm.

• Steel liners are best suited to primary ball milling applications requiring larger
than 80 mm balls and rod mills, and ball mills larger than 16.5 ft in diameter.

• EF9 is applied to mills with rubber lifters, as they tend to be somewhat bulkier
than the equivalent steel configuration, reducing the available grinding space.

• Rubber liners also absorb a portion of the impact energy of the steel media,
reducing efficiency.

• An EF9 of about 1.07 is typically assigned for rubber lined mills.

Bond Method Limitations

• The method is designed to predict power in a wet grinding circuit at a 250%

circulating load. Moving away from this condition reduces the accuracy of the
test.

• It does not predict the behavior of large rocks in grinding circuit where the mode
of breakage is impact dominated versus attrition and abrasion in ball mills
(SAG/AG Mills).

• The Bond Work Index is based on the energy per unit mass required to reduce a
particle from “infinite” size to 80% passing 100 μm. If the P 80 is less than 100
μm, serious discrepancies can occur. The closing screen in the Bond test must
reflect the size to which the particle is to be ground.

• If P 80 ≤ 75 μm, do not apply Bond predicators of power.

Bond Method Limitations – 2

• The shape of the size distribution generated by a two-stage grinding operation

may differ significantly from the shape obtained by crushing.

• The F80 may be the same, but the amount of fines at say F30 or F20 may be
markedly different.

• A size distribution correction may be necessary to better predict 2nd stage power
requirements for:

‒ SAG/Ball milling and 2-stage ball milling

‒ Other ‘unnatural’ or scalped feed distributions.

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‒ These conditions require additional grinding energy based upon the

variation from a more standard feed distribution.

Mill Speed – Critical Speed

• Grinding mill is usually shown as a percentage of critical speed, N c.

42.31 76.63
N c (rpm)  Nc 
D D
(D in meters) (D in feet)

• Normal mill speeds range from 60 to 90% of N c, dictated by operational and

economic considerations.

• Power drawn is proportional to mill speed, suggesting that mills should be run as
fast as possible.

• However, the useful work done by the grinding charge is related to the mode of
breakage induced, which is in turn influenced by the liner design and charge
level.

• Higher speeds lead to higher rod, ball and liner wear.

Speed guidelines

• Studies such as on the previous slide have produced the following general
guidelines:

• AG Mills - An impact mode of breakage is usually sought, and with no steel

media in the mill it is possible to run at speeds in the range 80-90% Nc.

• SAG Mills - Typical operating speeds are around 75% N c. Liner damage will
occur if the balls are allowed to impact them directly, and SAG mills usually
have variable speed drives.

Liner Profile and Speed Effects

• Fine Grinding:
For fine grinding, it is desirable to have the charge cascading rather than
cataracting. This is achieved by selecting a lower mill speed and/or using a wave
liner profile.

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• Impact Breakage
For breakage of larger feed particles, the grinding balls should strike the charge
close to the toe. Higher lifter bars and mill speeds will assist.

Classification and Circulation Load

• Efficient classification is key to any closed grinding circuit.

• Typical equipment include screens, classifiers or hydrocyclones.

• Typical SAG Circulating Load Ratio (CLR): 50-150%

• Typical CLR for Ball Mills 250-350%.

• Ensure that the classifier is performing well by analyzing its behavior on a

regular basis.

• CLR is best measured by mass flow to the cyclones.

• There is also a standard method which uses the size distributions of the streams
to derive a mass balance.

• Use these techniques to check that the mill is grinding the optimum tonnage by
maintaining the target CLR.

Summary

• A key aspect for sizing and selecting grinding mills is to determine the power
required.

• Bond's equation works well for ball mills, but must be modified with efficiency
factors.

• Mill Power is also influenced by mill speed and liner profiles.

• Efficient classification is critical to an effective circuit.

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Sizing Grinding Mills

Introduction

The objective is to describe methods of sizing ball and rod mills once the grinding
power requirements for these have been determined. The approach to sizing SAG mills
is fundamentally similar to ball mills with modification for the effect of grates on the
charge, aspect ratio and pebble crushing.

 Mill Sizing

o Factors influencing mill power

o Tumbling Mill Power Calculation and Sizing
o Calculating Grinding Media Size and Consumption

• General Mill Design Considerations

 Drive Selection
 Motor Selection
 Mill Discharge and Feed System Selection

Factors that influence Mill sizing: Mill speed. Mill diameter & length, mill discharge
opening size, type of discharge mill head, amount/ size of grinding media, feed size,
feed SG, ore hardness, feed rate, water addition (viscosity).

1. Mill Speed

P s = KTω
Where:
• P s = Power transmitted through shaft from motor
• K = Constant
• T = Torque
• ω = RPM

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2. Mill Dimensions

3. Discharge Opening Size

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4. Discharge Head Type

Grate discharge draw more power than overflow due to the distance from centroid to
mill center

5. Amount/ Size Grinding Media

Critical Speed is the speed at which a ball or rod will be centrifuged in the mill

76.63
Wc   Dd 

Mill Power Factors

Feed Size and Rate

From Bond Equation
P = KT[k – 1F80]
K, k are constant and T is feed rate
As feed rate increases, P will increase and then level off
Feed Specific Gravity
The higher the specific gravity, the higher the power draw
 SG =  Power Draw

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6. Feed Rate

7. Water addition rate, pulp viscosity

Overflow Discharge: - Rod Mills : 80% solids

- Ball Mills : 76% solids
 Water Addition Rate   Viscosity,  Flow and  Power Draw
 Water Addition Rate   Flushing Fines,  Power Draw and  Wear
Ore containing clays can be excessively viscous. The viscosity can be reduced
by adding:
1. Water
2. Polyacrylic acids
3. Calgon (phosphate dispersant)

Mill Grinding Power and Sizing Calculation: Work Input

• The mill work input to grind a tonne of feed of 80 % passing size (F80) to a
product passing size of 80 % (P 80) is calculated by the Bond equation:

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• W = 10 Wi [1/P80 - 1/F80]
where:
W = work input in kWh/t
Wi = Bond Work Index in kWh/t

• Efficiency factors EF are applied to W to derive the corrected power

requirement WCOR

• WCOR is multiplied by the new mill fresh feed tonnage T to give the mill power
requirement P = T * WCOR

• This is the power that must be applied at the mill drive in order to grind the feed
tonnage T from one size distribution F80 to a finer product size distribution P 80.

Mill Grinding Power and Sizing Calculation:

Matching Mill Size to Power Requirement 1

• Once the mill power is determined the mill size to draw the required power must
be calculated.

• Power draw theory is based upon a charge load in equilibrium, and relates to its
center of gravity.

The centroid of the charge is maintained in dynamic equilibrium at an angle of repose A

to the vertical by a mechanical lever arm force balance between the mill drive and
charge weight.

Mill Grinding Power and Sizing Calculation: Matching Mill Size to Power
Requirement 2

• The figure below shows a section of a mill charge load in equilibrium in

relation to its center of gravity.

• W = weight of charge

• D = Diameter
C = distance of center of gravity of charge from
center of mill in feet

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• A = dynamic angle of repose of the charge

N = mill speed in rpm

Matching Mill Size to Power Requirement:

DuPont Power Model

An early theoretical power model of DuPont (1900’s) shows the effect of charge weight,
mill diameter and mill speed on the power draw per unit of mill length (P/L) :

1. Charge Weight: P/L ∝ Mass W ∝ D2

2. Mill Diameter: P/L ∝ Lever Arm Length C (Centroid to Mill Center) ∝ D
3. Speed: P/L ∝ Speed ∝ 1/ D  2

Therefore P/L ∝ D2 * D * 1/ D = D 2.5

or P ∝ D2.5 * L

Matching Mill Size to Power Requirement:

DuPont Power Model 2

P ∝ D2.5 *L

This illustrates that:

- mill power is more sensitive to diameter than length
- the relationship between length and power is linear
- diameter affects power draw exponentially
- incremental changes in diameter provide step changes in power draw

Therefore the selection of larger diameter (and fewer) mills can significantly reduce the
number of mills required in an application.

Matching Mill Size to Power Requirement:

DuPont Power Model 3

• Capital cost climbs steeply with diameter due to:

‒ manufacturing methods

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‒ greater load on mill structure

‒ more expensive drive systems

‒ Therefore the number of mills required becomes a trade-off between

capacity and capital. In general, the larger the mill selected the lower the
overall installed capital.

There are practical limitations. Currently the largest mills are about:

Rod Mill – 15 ft diameter by 24 ft long ( 2,625 hp)

Ball Mill – 26 ft diameter by 38 ft long (20,770 hp)
SAG Mill – 42 ft diameter by 26 ft long (22,000 hp)

Summary

• Tumbling mills are sized to deliver the power required to achieve the desired
grind size.

• Several factors influence power draw, including mill speed, dimensions, type,
feed size, type and rate.

• Power draw theory is based upon a charge load in equilibrium, and relates to its
center of gravity

• Mill power is more sensitive to diameter than length

• Mill size can be estimated by the simplified Nordberg Power Model.

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Mill Sizing Example

Nordberg Mill Sizing Example

- Calculation – 1

Exercise: Size a single stage ball mill (overflow) in closed circuit with a cyclone with
the following parameters:

Feed Rate = 500 tonne/h

F80 = 9,400 micrometers
P80 = 175 micrometers
RWI = 13.2 kWh/st
BBWI = 11.7 kWh/st
CL = 250% Circulating Load
Cdensity = 340 lb per cubic ft
SG = 2.7
Ai = 0.25

PRIMARY
CRUSHER FEED PRODUCT

CYCLONE
SCREEN

ROD BALL
MILL MILL

SECONDARY TERTIARY
CRUSHING CRUSHING

Nordberg Mill Sizing Example

- Calculation – 2

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• The feed to a standard Bond ball mill grindability test is minus 6 mesh (3360μm)

• However the coarser fraction of a minus ½” single-stage ball mill feed is not
included in the feed to the grindability test mill

• If RWI is different than BWI, then particularly if the former is higher, a two
step calculation should be used to determine the grinding power input, using
2100 μm to divide the calculations.

Nordberg Mill Sizing Example

- Calculation - 3

Calculate Uncorrected Grinding Power Input

Step 1:
W = 10 * (13.2 - 13.2) = 1.52 kWh/st
2,100 9,400
Step 2:
W = 10 *(11.7 - 11.7) = 6.29 kWh/st
175 2,100

Calculate Uncorrected Grinding Power Input

Step 3:
Total = 1.52 + 6.29 = 7.81 kWh/st
= 7.81 * 1.102* 1.341* 500
= 5766 HP, uncorrected

Where:

Power (HP) = Power (kW) x 1.34

1 tonne = 1.102 short ton

Nordberg Mill Sizing Example

- Calculation – 4

• Step 4: Apply Efficiency Factors

HP corrected = HP uncorrected*Relevant EF1 to EF8 factors

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• EF1: Dry grinding. Does not apply.

EF2: Open circuit grinding. Does not apply.

EF3: Diameter Efficiency = (2.44/D)0.2 .

Mill will be larger than 3.81 m (12.5’) in diameter so use 0.914.

EF4: Oversize Feed =

Rr = Reduction Ratio = F80/P 80 = 9400/175 = 53.7

Fo = Optimum feed size = Zf*(13/RWI)0.5

Zf = 4000 (ball milling)

Fo = 4000 * (13/13.2)0.5 = 3970

EF4 = 53.7 + (11.7-7) * [9400-3970)/3970] = 1.12

53.7

EF5: Fineness of Grind – P 80 > 75μm, Does not apply.

EF6: High/Low Rr - Rod Milling, Does not apply.

EF7: Low Rr Ball Milling Factor, Does not apply.

EF8: Rod milling factor, Does not apply.

EF9: Rubber Liners Factor, Does not apply.

HP,corrected = 5,766 * 0.914 * 1.12 = 5903 HP

Step 5: Select # of Mills

Assume use 1 mill: 5,903/1 = 5,903 HP Mill

Step 6: Size Mill Shell

HP = A * B * C * L

We don’t know D so substitute factor A with D^2.5/5.6442

Charge density is 340 lb/cubic ft so multiply B by ratio of 340/315

5,903 = D2.5/5.6442 * B * (340/315) * C * L

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• Step 7: Determine factor B:

Most overflow discharge ball mills operate with a charge volume that occupies
35% to 45% of the mill volume.

> 20 ft use 35%

< 20 ft > 16.5 ft use 40%
< 16.5 ft use 45%
• An average value would be 40%. From tables,
Wet Overflow Ball Mills @ 40% Loading B = 5.02

The B Factor must be adjusted to the steel density of the balls (340/315).

5,903 = D2.5/5.6442 * 5.02 * (340/315) * C * L

• Step 8: Determine factor C:

• Critical Speed
The percent of critical speed (peripheral speed at which charge centrifuges) is one of the
major factors in determining the power that a grinding mill draws.

To relate critical speed and peripheral speed as mill diameter increases, the average
recommended speed as % of critical speed is shown in the table on the following slide.

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Step 8: -cont-
Through an iterative process, you can find the mill diameter will be >15 ft, therefore use
a speed of 68% of critical.

From Nordberg tables Factor C will be = 0.1583

AND by substitution

5,903 = D2.5/5.6442 * 5.02 * (340/315) * 0.1583 * L

Step 9: Estimate Mill L/D Ratio.

Recommended rod mill length to diameter inside liners is 1.4 to 1.6.

Being free from the limits imposed on rod mills, ball mills have more variation in length
to diameter ratios, ranging from 1:1 to 2:1. The ratio used varies with

- the circuit type (type of grinding)

- size of the feed
- the ratio of reduction and specified fineness of grind
In general, as desired fineness of grind  L/D 

Based on the preceding table, wet milling and a F80 of 9,400 mm and P 80 of 175 microns
(not fine regrind) a L/D ratio of 1.25 is selected.

By substitution into equation:

5,903 = D2.5/5.6442 * 5.02 * (340/315) * 0.1583 * 1.25D

Step 10:
Calculate Mill Diameter (Inside liners):

Power Equation

Rearranging:

31,075 = D3.5
D = 19.2 feet (inside liners)

L = 1.25 * 19.2
L = 24.0 feet

Step 11:

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Select Mill Shell Size:

Add new shell steel liner thickness (0.6 ft) to calculated diameter
= 0.6ft + 19.2 ft = 19.8 ft (Closest standard is 20.0 ft)

Select a 20.0 ft inside shell diameter by 24.0 ft long overflow ball mill @ 40% ball
charge and running at 5,903 hp.

Step 12:
Calculate Maximum Ball Size for Mill Charge:

The equations for selecting the largest diameter (in inches) rod (R) or ball (B) in the
initial mill charge, or make-up charge, for a mill of diameter D is:

R = (F800.75 /160) * [(SG * RWI) / (100 * Cs * D 0.5)]0.5

B = (F80 /K)0.5 * [( SG * BWI)/ (100 * Cs * D 0.5)]0.34
Step 12: (cont.)
F80 = 9.4 mm, convert to microns
K = 350
SG = 2.7
Cs = 68%
BWI = 11.7
D = 19.8 ft
by substitution:

B = (9400/350)0.5*[( 2.7* 11.7)/(100*0.68*19.80.5)]0.34

B = 2.4 in. Closest standard is 2.5 in.

Step 13: (cont.)

Importance of Mill Liners

- Shell Liner Protect the Mill Shell

- Lifters attached to Liners which help distribute load for grinding
- Lifter wear leads to loss of power

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- SAG/AG Mills have white metal liners

- Ball Mill > 18 ft have white metal liners
- Ball Mill< 18 ft can have rubber liners (but note EF8)

Substitute Ai = 0.25 into ball mill equations

Balls = 0.1590 * (0.25– 0.015)0.34 = 0.0972 kg/kw-hr

Liners = 0.0118 * (0.25– 0.015)0.3 = 0.0072 kg/kw-hr

Liner consumption typically ~10% of media consumption.

Multiply by the power draw (kw) and divide by feed rate of 500 t/h to give consumption
in kg/t.

Balls = 0.0972 * (5903 *0.75) / 500 = 0.86 kg/t

Liners = 0.0072 * (5903 *0.75) / 500 = 0.064 kg/t

Mill Discharge and Feed Type Selection

Overflow Discharge:
• Suitable for almost all applications
• Simple and trouble-free.
• The discharge trunnion can be furnished with a trommel screen.

Grate Discharge:
• 15-20% higher capacity per unit volume
• Coarser product with high circulating load producing little extreme fines.
• Can have a trommel screen as well.

• Overflow: Common for wet mill rod milling. Diameter of discharge trunnion is
larger than feed to promote flow.
• End Peripheral Discharge: Used when a coarse product is required.
• Center Peripheral Discharge: Suitable for dry grinding at extremely high capacities
and coarse grinding, wet or dry. Also applicable for viscous material and moisture
content 3-15% by mass.

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• Spout feeders normally feed rod mills

• Spout feeders require at least 5 ft head between mill center line and feed hopper for
proper flow
• Spout feeders are normally fed from ball mill cyclone underflow box, requiring
higher pumping heads relative to a scoop or drum feeder.
• There is a trade-off with scoop/drum drive power and higher maintenance, such that
in modern large mills the scoop/drum feeder is rarely used.
• Based on the exercise:
Select an overflow ball mill with a spout feeder.

Summary
Mill sizing led to the selection of:
• A 20.0 ft inside shell diameter by 24.0 ft long overflow ball mill @ 40% ball
charge and running at 5,903 hp.
• Ball size: 2.5 in.
• Ball wear estimate: 0.86 kg/t
• Liner wear estimate: 0.064 kg/t
• Feeder/Discharge Arrangement:
‒ Overflow mill with a spout feeder

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Mineralogy & Process Development

All mining projects pass through a series of stages over the project life that includes:
exploration, discovery, development, production, reclamation/ abandonment.

Steps of mineral development project can be summarized into a few step starting from
geological exploration, mineralogical studies, lab & pilot tests, engineering studies
(mine planning and design).

Transforming an ore into rocks will involve the existence of raw material, technology,
market, economic aspects, and also environmental & social issues.

Rocks, tailing, industrial minerals, recycled materials, and garbage are raw material.
Technology used in one mineral deposit can be adapted or modified to be used in other
similar deposits, but generally not copied.

Definitions:

• Ores: rocks usually with metallic minerals with valuable grades

• Ore-minerals: with exception of Fe and Mn, occur in ore deposits in small

quantities, usually <20%; e.g. metal grades of some ore deposits: 0.4% Cu, 12%
Zn, 7% Pb, 4% Ni, 3 ppm Au, 50 ppm Ag.)

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• Gangue: minerals with no economic valuable

• Industrial minerals: depend on properties related to the chemical and

mineralogical composition and rated by size (quarries mining sand, gravel and
other aggregates) or by mineral purity (limestone, dolomite, diatomite, gypsum,
talc, etc.). Used for industrial applications (construction, pharmaceuticals,
chemicals, paints, etc.),

Process Development

Process development is a blend of science, technology, and economics. The objective is

to develop a process which, when combined with all other aspects of the project, will
optimize the overall economics of the project

The flow sheet is critical to establish: design criteria, mass balance, water balance,
energy balance, tailing disposal, plant lay-out, equipment sizing, and costs!

Sample of Process Flow Sheet.

Flowsheet Development goals

• Create a procedure (process) to concentrate minerals with high recovery

(hopefully >90%)
• Create a process to obtain concentrates with a high grade (saleable)

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• Create an economically feasible process

• Create a safe & environmentally sound process

Flowsheet Development Objectives

• Determine processing parameters

• Determine mass/water/energy balance of each unit operation

• Evaluate processing alternatives

• Establish the list of main pieces of equipment required

• Create the foundation for the conceptual engineering (feasibility study)

Key Information for Process flowsheet definition: grades, ore minerals, gangue
minerals. Mineralogical factors, physical properties, chemical properties, liberation,
process recovery.

Definition of Grade

YM = Weight of M in the material = g/tonne (ppm) or %

Weigth of Material

• ppm = parts per million = 1 gram in 1 million grams = 0.0001%

• ppm = g/tonne = mg/kg,
• in solution, ppm = mg/L
• ppb = parts per billion = mg/tonne
• in solution, ppb = µg/L

Grade Does Not Define Mineralogy!

• Very often people make decisions just based on the ore grades…this is wrong
• An ore can have a very high grade but the MINERALS are not concentrable
• Example: Vale Salobo Weathered Copper Ore: Cu adsorbed on FeOOH
• The ore has 2% Cu but cannot be concentrated
We mine ore but we concentrate ore minerals. From ore minerals we extract metals.

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Sometimes it is not possible to concentrate ore mineral. There is no specific ore mineral
to be concentrated, ore mineral is friable then the option is to leach the ore with a
specific reagent usually using “heap leaching”

Grade- recovery relationship

Trade- Off Between grade and Recovery

Grade and recovery are interdependent for a given feed composition. Because liberation
is usually incomplete, even in a well-run separation unit, there is a trade-off between
grade and recovery. If the grade of a product increases, recovery drops. If the grade
decreases, recovery rises.

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Summary

• Mining projects should be developed through a series of logical stages, with

each stage increasing the certainty of the project

• A geological anomaly does not become an ore body until a process has been
developed that can economically recover the valuable minerals

• Mineral deposit mineralogy is key to process development

• We are typically in the business of recovering minerals, not metals

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Physical Mineral Processes

Class Objectives:

 By the end of this lesson you will:

 Know the 331 Course Outline
 Be familiar with the laboratory component (including laboratory #1)
 Understand the relevance of mineral processing to the mining industry and the
role of mineral processors

Course Objectives:

• Design a mineral processing flowsheet

• Size and select process equipment
• Characterize an ore type (with regards to process equipment selection and
sizing)
• Define the purpose of main mineral processing equipment
• Design and carry out metallurgical test work for the purpose of process design
and evaluation
• Demonstrate the use of equipment in mineral processing

Overall Objective: To produce high quality engineers who are in great demand within
the mining industry.

Definitions

Mineral Processing

The technology of economically converting mineral bearing raw material into individual
mineral constituents; the minerals remaining essentially unaltered in physical and
chemical form throughout. The temperature of the system normally is less than the
boiling point of water. Mineral processing is also known as mineral beneficiation,
milling or concentration.

Unit Operation

An individual process with a specific function, which is a component or forms part of a

complex process.

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Mineral Processing

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Role of Mineral Processing Engineer:

• Metallurgical Testing & Modeling

• Scoping Level (eg. PEA), Pre-Feasibility & Feasibility Studies

• Mineral Process Plant Design

• Equipment Sizing

• Operations/Production Engineer

• Equipment manufacturers (vendors)

Pre-Feasibility & Feasibility Studies

Feasibility Studies are conducted to determine the economic and environmental

viability of a project and includes the following sections:

1. Geology and Geological Reserves

2. Mineral Reserves, Mining Plan and Mining Methods

What is the difference between geological and mineable reserves?

1. Mineral Processing Plant Design

2. Environmental Review

3. Capital and Operating Costs

4. Net Cash Flow

5. Marketing Study

Operations/Production Engineer

• Ensuring safe and efficient operation of the mill

• Ensuring production targets are achieved

• Ensuring accurate sampling and mill accounting

• Testing new reagents and flow sheet alterations

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Particle Size Distribution

Particle size distribution is used for:

‒ Determining the performance of crushing/grinding equipment;

‒ Material handling requirements;
‒ Suitability of beneficiation devices (flotation, gravity concentration);
‒ Efficiency of classification equipment (screens and hydrocyclones);

Also referenced in mining, including:

- measuring the performance of blast designs
- cave fragmentation

Sieving Procedure
• Rotap with stack of sieves with largest sieve
at the top.
• Mesh size is the number of openings per
square inch (i.e. larger mesh number corresponds
to smaller size).
• Tyler Sieves, US Mesh Number, Canadian
Mesh Number
• Convention is 2 series (successive meshes
vary by 2)

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Sieve Analysis Report

Log-linear plot of Cum% passing vs size

100
Cumulative % passing

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
20 100 500
Particle size [microns]

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Mathematical Models of Size Distributions

• Determining PSD is laborious and repetitive

• Typical particle size distributions belong to families of curves, with normal, or log-
normal distributions
• You can represent data with mathematical functions, using a small number of parameters.
• The coefficients of the mathematical equation can be used to monitor operations or can
be used in models for process simulation.
• The two mathematical functions used most commonly in mineral processing are the
Gaudin-Schuhmann and the Rosin-Rammler equations.

Gaudin-Schuhmann Function

where, Wp = Cumulative percent passing

X = size in microns
K = size modulus (size at Wp = 100)
(measure of top size)
m = distribution modulus (slope of log-
log plot of Wp vs X)
The coefficients can be determined graphically or from linear regression. The function is most
appropriate for coarse, crushed material, which has been screened at some top size.

Rossin- Ramler Function

Wr = cumulative weight percent retained on X

X = size in microns
a = size at which (100/exp) = 36.8% of particles are retained
b = constant

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(slope of plot of ln ln(100/Wr) vs ln x)

Special graph paper available to plot cum. % retained values directly on the Y-axis. A line at cum.%
retained = 36.8 is included for estimation of a
The function was originally developed for coal, but has been found to fit many mineral size
distributions very well, especially finely ground material (e.g. ball mill product)

Method of Particle Size Analysis:

a. Sieving (wet/dry)
b. Cyclosizer
c. Coulter Counter (Elzone PSA)
d. Laser beam diffraction methods (Malvern)
e. Sedimentation Methods - Andreassen Pipette
f. Image based methods (WIPFRAG, SPLIT)
The resultant particle size depends on method used
• particle size that passes through a sieve
• equivalent spherical diameter of a settling particle

Stoke’s Law
Stokes’ Law predicts larger particles settle faster than smaller ones and this principle can be
exploited to separate particles by size

v = d2g(ρs - ρf )
18η
where:
v = free falling velocity (cm/sec)
d = particle Stokes’ diameter (cm)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
ρs = solid density (g/cm3)
ρf = fluid density (g/cm3)
η = fluid viscosity (cp)

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Online Particle Size Analyzers

Summary
• Many online particle size analyzers require regular calibration (sieving used to generate
calibration data)
• Optical methods do not provide reliable estimates of fines
• Fine screening may need to be done wet or using wet pre-screening (eg. removing -38
micron fines)
• Sieves generally cannot be used reliably below 38 microns
• Samples need to be completely dry (oven) prior to sieving

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