Understanding Gas Turbine Performance

UNDERSTANDING
GAS TURBINE
PERFORMANCE ©
Jim Noordermeer, P.Eng.
Gryphon International Engineering Services Inc.

St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada
www.gryphoneng.com
GRYPHON INTERNATIONAL ENGINEERING SERVICES INC.
ST. CATHARINES, ONTARIO, CANADA
www.gryphoneng.com
GRYPHON is a Canadian multi-discipline, full-service engineering design firm

specializing in cogeneration, combined-cycle and thermal power plants and related
equipment and systems, including level I, II and III feasibility studies,
conceptual/schematic design, project development assistance, detail-design
engineering, commissioning and startup, testing & project management.
GRYPHON clients include Lake Superior Power, Northland Power, Cornell

University, Florida Power Corporation, PB Power, TransCanada Pipelines /
Energy, Union Gas Power, Kimberly-Clark Forest Products, Great Lakes Power,
3M Canada, Potter Station Power, NRC, AECL, Ontario Hydro / Ontario Power
Generation, EnWave/Toronto District Heating Corporation, ICS-State, R. V.
Anderson, Wascana Energy, Bayer Inc., NOVA Pipelines Ventures, NOVA
Corporation, West Windsor Power, Orenda Aerospace, Henderson Hospital, BFC
Industrial and Nicholls-Radtke Ltd., Gas Energy Development Corporation, ConEd
Development Corporation, KeySpan Energy Development Corporation, Innovative
Steam Technologies, Acres International, ABGS Inc., Bowater Pulp and Paper
Canada, Ormat Industries, Consorcio Skanska Conciviles, Donohue Inc. / QUNO.
UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE S ©

GTPerf_0900
UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE©
ABSTRACT
The performance characteristics of a gas turbine engine or Gas Turbine Generator

package (GTG) depends upon the type and model of engine being examined, the
location at which it will be installed, the ambient conditions under which it will
operate, and the fuel(s) and NOx suppression methods which will be utilized.
This paper is a primer presenting an explanation of typical gas turbine and GTG
package rating methods and why and how they are corrected, so that an accurate
real-life picture of the performance envelope of a unit can be determined for the
examiner's evaluation.
UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE ©

GTPerf_0900 ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 WHAT ARE ISO and NEMA RATINGS ? .............................................. 1
1.1 ISO Ratings .................................................................................................... 1
1.2 NEMA Ratings .............................................................................................. 2
1.3 GTW Ratings ................................................................................................. 2
2.0 SITE CONDITIONS and OTHER DEFINITIONS ................................. 5

2.1 What Site Conditions Should be Considered ................................................ 5
2.1.1 Site Altitude ......................................................................................... 5
2.1.2 Ambient Temperature ......................................................................... 5
2.1.3 Inlet Losses .......................................................................................... 5
2.1.4 Exhaust Losses .................................................................................... 6
2.1.5 Fuel Requirements ............................................................................... 7
2.1.6 NOx Suppression Requirements ......................................................... 7
2.1.7 Relative Humidity ............................................................................... 8
2.2 Other Common Definitions and Expressions ................................................ 8
2.2.1 New and Clean Condition ................................................................... 8
2.2.2 Expected Performance ......................................................................... 9
2.2.3 Guaranteed Performance ..................................................................... 9
2.2.4 Degraded Performance ........................................................................ 9
2.2.5 Gross and Net Power Output ............................................................. 10
2.2.6 Gross and Net Heat Rate ................................................................... 10
2.2.7 Fuel Higher Heating Value and Lower Heating Value ..................... 12
2.2.8 Auxiliary Losses ................................................................................ 12
3.0 GTG PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS from VENDOR

INFORMATION ........................................................................................ 18
3.1 Calculations Using Vendor Curves and Data .............................................. 18
3.1.1 Nominal GTG Baseline Conditions .................................................. 18
3.1.2 Site Conditions .................................................................................. 19
3.1.3 Correction Factors and Calculation ................................................... 19
3.2 Other Methods of Obtaining Performance .................................................. 21
3.2.1 Manufacturer's Cycle Decks ............................................................. 21
3.2.3 Proprietary Software Programs ......................................................... 21

GTPerf_0900 TOC - 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS - continued
4.0 PERFORMANCE COMPARISON DEMONSTRATION ................... 22

4.1 ISO Rating vs. Actual Site Rating at Various Ambients ............................. 22
4.2 Site Ratings at Various ambients with Varying Exhaust Loss .....................23
4.3 Natural Gas vs. No. 2 Fuel Oil vs. Heavy Fuel Oil ..................................... 24
4.4 Dry Unabated vs. Steam Injection vs. Water Injection vs. Dry Low NOx . 25
4.5 New & Clean Expected Performance vs. Degraded Performance .............. 26
4.6 New and Clean Expected Performance vs. Guaranteed Performance ........ 27
4.7 Gross Power vs. Net Power vs. Power after Transformer Loss .................. 28
5.0 SUMMARY ................................................................................................ 29

GTPerf_0900 TOC - 2
1.0 WHAT ARE ISO, NEMA and GTW RATINGS ?

1.1 ISO Ratings
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a worldwide federation
of national standards bodies which prepares and issues standards which are
accepted around the world.
ISO 2314 Gas Turbines - Acceptance Tests is the international standard defining
the basis and procedures for rating and testing Gas Turbines. The ISO standard
contains definitions of the parameters to be measured and defines the appropriate
procedures.
Vendors of gas turbines publish ISO ratings in order to provide comparative
performance at a standardized baseline point.
The Standard Reference conditions contained in ISO 2314 for all Gas Turbine
testing and rating are defined as:
A. For the Intake Air at the compressor flange (alternatively the
compressor intake flare):
a) A total pressure of 101.3 kPaa (14.69 psia)
b) A total temperature of 15 °C (59 °F)
c) A relative humidity of 60%
B. For the Exhaust Gases at the turbine exhaust flange:
a) A static pressure of 101.3 kPaa (14.69 psia)
The above A & B criteria essentially equate to a gas turbine theoretically
installed at sea level – with no inlet air filtration, silencing or ducting; and
with no exhaust plenum, heat recovery device, exhaust silencer or discharge
stack. In actual practice, there are probably no stationary gas turbines which
are installed in this manner, and that operate under these exact conditions.
According to ISO, the Power Output of the gas turbine may be expressed in terms
of output at the turbine coupling or electrical power at the generator terminals.
In addition, ISO states that the gas turbine's Thermal Efficiency or the Specific
Heat Consumption shall be based on the net specific energy of the fuel at constant
pressure. The specific energy used shall be based on a pressure of 101.3 kPaa and a
temperature of 15 °C (59 °F). The Sensible Heat above 15°C (59 °F) shall be taken
into account.

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1.2 NEMA Ratings
Early on during the introduction of Industrial Gas Turbines into common use, the
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) in the United States
introduced a Standard based generally on the use of the Gas Turbine as a prime
mover driving electrical generators, thus within their sphere of interest. The
common Standard used as a basis for the rating of Gas Turbines in the 1960’s was
NEMA Standard SM 30-1959. Since NEMA was an American organization, the
standard was not metric and had the following basis:
A. Inlet air temperature 80 °F
B. Inlet pressure 14.17 psia
C. Exhaust pressure 14.17 psia
The NEMA inlet and exhaust conditions were measured at the compressor inlet
flange and the turbine exhaust flange, respectively. Fuel consumption and
efficiency were based on the higher heating value (HHV) of the fuel.
The above rating conditions essentially equated to a theoretical gas turbine
installed at 1,000 feet AMSL, with no inlet air filtration, silencing or ducting, and
with no exhaust plenum, heat recovery device, exhaust silencer or discharge stack.
With the growing use of the Gas Turbine in the natural gas transportation business
in the late 1960’s, and its increasing use outside North America, it became obvious
to the industry that a more universal standard was required and it needed to be one
which was metric. In April of 1971, all of the NEMA Standards then in use relative
to the Industrial Gas Turbine were canceled and this rating system is now only of
historical interest.
1.3 Gas Turbine World Ratings

The most readily-available and complete listing of industrial gas turbine ratings are
published annually in the Gas Turbine World (GTW) Handbook.
Gas turbine manufacturers and packagers are invited to provide current data for all
their machine configurations, in a form common to all. The GTW asks that the data
be provided for natural gas fuel operation at 15 °C and sea level ISO conditions,
with suitable account for gear losses and generator efficiencies, but no account for
inlet and exhaust losses, nor for auxiliary power requirements, nor for NOx
abatement via steam or water injection.
For an example, refer to the attached typical listing of Electric Power Gas
Turbines from the 1998-99 GTW Handbook. This particular example (page 54)
shows both aero-derivative and heavy-duty industrial gas turbine generators.
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The various columns provide the following information:
a) The manufacturer’s model number and/or series designation.
b) The first year the unit was available for purchase.
c) The ISO Base Load rating, the rating at which it can be operated for at least
6000 hours a year without causing a reduction in the interval between
overhauls.
d) The gas turbine Heat Rate in btu/kw.hr at the Base Load rating, stated in
terms of the lower heating value (LHV) of the fuel
e) The ISO Peak Load rating, the output power rating at which it can be
operated for up to 2000 hours a year. When considering operation at this
rating, consult the OEM carefully to determine what effect this operation
would have on the overhaul interval. It is quite possible that a considerable
reduction in the period between overhauls would occur.
f) The gas turbine Heat Rate in btu/kw.hr at the peak load rating, again stated
in terms of the lower heating value (LHV) of the fuel
g) The nominal Pressure Ratio across the compressor section of the gas
turbine. In general, the higher the pressure ratio, the higher the thermal
efficiency of the engine.
h) The Mass Flow through the engine at the base load rating. The higher the
mass flow, the greater the amount of energy available to be extracted from
the exhaust gas by a Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) to generate
steam.
i) The Turbine Speed data indicates the speed of the turbine's power output
shaft and helps you to deduce more about the package design.
In general, most aero-derivative machines will require speed-reduction
gearboxes, since they operate at speeds higher than 2-pole or 4-pole
generator synchronous speeds (3600 and 1800 rpm respectively for 60 Hz
duty, 3000 and 1500 rpm respectively for 50 Hz duty). There are exceptions,
including larger aero-derivative machines where the nominal speed of the
LP section of the original turbo-fan engine was close enough to 3600 rpm to
be used as-is with "minor" modifications, or where the design speed of the
power turbine fitted to an industrialized jet engine is deliberately selected to
be 3600 rpm.
The smaller heavy-duty industrial gas turbines also generally operate above
synchronous speeds, and require speed reduction gearboxes. In the larger
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classes of heavy duty machines, there are both high speed gear-drive
machines and synchronous speed direct-drive machines. In the largest frame
sizes, most manufacturers deliberately design 3600 rpm single-shaft
machines suitable only for direct-drive 60 Hz duty (e.g. GE Frame 7 and
Westinghouse W501). Then they may produce a "scaled-up" 3000 rpm
direct-drive variation solely for 50 Hz duty (e.g. GE Frame 9 and
Westinghouse W701). Or vice versa for European manufacturers.
j) The Turbine Inlet Temperature at the base load rating is the average
combustor exit temperature into the first stage of the turbine section. The
various manufacturers report this number differently, sometimes at the inlet
to the 1st stage stationary blade, sometimes at the inlet to the 1st stage
rotating blade, or sometimes it is not reported at all (ABB). In general, the
higher this temperature, the more efficient the machine, and the more NOx
will be produced (in unabated form).
k) The Exhaust Temperature together with the mass flow, can be used to
calculate the exhaust heat energy available for production of steam from the
exhaust gas by an HRSG. The higher this temperature, the higher the steam
temperature which can be achieved, without additional supplementary firing.
l) Watch the Approximate Weight information given. Some weights will be
for the gas turbine engine alone, and some will be for a complete package
installation.
m) The information in the Approximate L x W x H column similarly must be
considered carefully as to whether it is for a complete package or only the
gas turbine.
n) The Comments column typically lists information about model variants or,
for packagers, the manufacturer of the gas turbine. Some manufacturers will
provide additional information on steam injected or liquid fuel variations.

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2.0 SITE CONDITIONS and OTHER DEFINITIONS
2.1 What Site Conditions should be Considered
In principle, when obtaining performance data from a gas turbine manufacturer or
GTG packager, or when calculating performance yourself from vendor curves, the
following factors must be considered:
2.1.1 Site Altitude
The ISO/GTW ratings are given at sea level, but at higher altitudes, gas turbines
will swallow less air and deliver less power. The gas turbine heat rate will remain
the same, although fuel consumption will decrease proportional to the power
decrease. The exhaust gas temperature will generally remain the same with
changes in altitude.
The typical affect of altitude is about a 4% loss of power per 1000 feet of
elevation.
2.1.2 Ambient Temperature

Gas turbines perform very differently at ambient temperatures other than the 15 °C
(59 °F) used by ISO and GTW. In general, the temperature affects are as follows:
Parameter < 15 °C (59 °F) > 15 °C (59 °F)
Power Output Increases Decreases
Heat Rate Decreases Increases
Thermal Efficiency Increases Decreases
Exhaust Flow Increases Decreases
Exhaust Temperature Decreases Increases
Some specific aero-derivative engines do not follow these rules of thumb at the
lower ambient temperatures.
2.1.3 Inlet Losses

The air entering a gas turbine must be extremely clean, and to remove air-borne
contaminants, inlet filtration is always fitted. The type of filtration system required
depends upon the type of environment (marine, industrial, desert, etc.) that the unit
is being installed in, and can include dust louvers, single-stage or multi-stage filter
pads, pulse-clean filters and/or oil bath filters.
In addition, further treatment of the inlet air is sometimes required or desired,

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including heating coils for winter operation, chilling coils for summer operation,
evaporative cooling to lower the wet bulb temperature in dry environments, and/or
supercharging to overcome the affects of high altitudes.
In addition, the high level of intake noise produced by a gas turbine needs to be
treated by inlet silencers, with the size of the silencing system generally depending
upon the noise permit requirements.
All these devices add pressure drop between the prevailing barometric pressure and
the actual inlet of the gas turbine's first compressor stage, decreasing mass flow
and power output, and increasing the heat rate and exhaust temperature from the
idealized ISO/GTW rating.
Typical inlet losses for GTG packages are:
a) 2.5~5.0 inches W.C. for standard pad or pulse-clean filtration systems,
silencers and ducting
b) 1.0~1.5 inch W.C. incremental loss for dust louver systems
c) 1.0~2.5 inch W.C. incremental loss for chilling/heating coils or evaporative
cooling systems
d) 0.5~2.0 inch W.C. incremental loss for additional inlet silencing
e) +5.0 to +12.0 inch W.C. gain for supercharging, although this is rarely used
since it requires a lot of power to operate the fan, and dramatically raises the
inlet air temperature, requiring chilling and/or evaporative cooling both
before and after the supercharging fan.
2.1.4 Exhaust Losses

The ISO/GTW ratings are based upon the turbine's exhaust gases discharging
directly to atmosphere (please plug your ears and don't stand in the way).
Of course, in practice the exhaust gases need to be silenced and need to discharged
safely into either a vertical discharge stack (for simple-cycle duty) or into a heat
recovery steam generator (for cogeneration or combined-cycle duty). In addition,
pollution control equipment may also be fitted in the exhaust stream.
Exhaust losses restrict the ability of a gas turbine to swallow air, and thus reduce
power, and increase heat rate and fuel flow. Typical exhaust losses which might be
applied are:
a) 2.5~5.0 inch W.C. for simple cycle discharge stacks, depending upon the
silencing requirements
b) 8.0~12.0 inch W.C. for unfired heat recovery steam generators

GTPerf_0900 Page 6
c) 10.0~16.0 inch W.C. for fired heat recovery steam generators
d) 2.0~7.5 inch W.C. incremental loss for SCR's and CO pollution control
systems.
2.1.5 Fuel Requirements

The choice of fuels for your application are generally dictated by the type, the
security and the cost of fuels available locally for your facility.
When clean-burning natural gas is available in adequate quantities and
inexpensively, it is the logical choice for a gas turbine. However, costly and
power-consuming gas compressors may be required to raise the gas pressure to
adequate levels.
In general gas turbines operating on natural gas fuels have better power output and
better heat rates than those operating on liquid fuels, and usually less maintenance
costs.
Distillate fuel or No. 2 fuel oil or their variations are frequently less-expensive
than natural gas, but do not burn as cleanly and may decrease the time between
overhauls of the gas turbine. These liquid fuels are frequently used when a local
gas supply does not exist, or if the local gas supply is intermittent, or if the gas
supply contract is cheaper for interruptible service, or for startup/shutdown
purposes for heavy fuel oil-fired plants. On-site liquid fuel storage, filtration and
pumping/unloading equipment will usually be required.
If an emergency power plant is being considered, which is required to operate in
the event of a main power supply failure, the power plant would be designed to
operate solely on a liquid fuel, since the fuel can be readily stored at site ensuring
it's availability when required. The most popular fuel for these emergency power
plants would be Distillate or No. 2 fuel.
Heavy fuel oils or residual oils are generally inexpensive, and when available
locally can be used in heavy duty industrial gas turbines. In addition to the fuel
storage and pumping equipment, a considerable investment in fuel treatment
systems (chemical injection and washing), heating and waste treatment systems
will also be required. Due to the high ash content of these fuels, the turbine firing
temperature is usually lowered (i.e. the normal rated power and efficiency is much
lower than a gas-fired or No. 2 fired machine) and water washing of the turbine
section is required very frequently (sometimes on-line once a day plus more
vigorous off-line washing once per weekend) in order to maintain a tolerable level
of performance.

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2.1.6 NOx Suppression Requirements
ISO ratings, and the majority of GTW ratings are expressed for "unabated" gas
turbines, i.e. using conventional diffusion combustion systems without any NOx
abatement measures taken.
However, "unabated" machines are rarely acceptable, since they produce NOx in
the order of 125 to 300 ppmvd on natural gas, and higher for liquid fuel machines,
depending primarily upon the firing temperature.
NOx can be suppressed in a gas turbine with the addition of steam injection or
water injection equipment. The gas turbine manufacturers have also developed
complex dry low NOx (DLN) lean-burn combustion systems, for both gas fuels
and the lighter liquid fuels.
The method of NOx suppression method required will be a function of the
environmental permit stipulations, the availability of steam or water for injection,
the required system reliability, etc.
Compared to unabated machines, steam injected machines have higher power
outputs and lower heat rates. Water injected machines have higher power outputs
and higher heat rates. DLN machines usually have lower power outputs and higher
heat rates.
2.1.7 Relative Humidity

The site relative humidity will usually be different than the 60% used by ISO and
GTW, and most frequently used by the vendors.
As the relative humidity increases, there will be minor improvements in power
output and heat rate.
2.2 Other Common Definitions and Expressions

Many expressions and definitions are commonly used when discussing the
performance of Gas Turbines. The meaning of each should be clearly understood,
before the user applies the data in their evaluation or comparison of units. These
expressions include:
2.2.1 New and Clean Condition
When a gas turbine or GTG package is "new and clean", no physical degradation
of mechanical components has yet occurred, nor fouling of the compressor blading
due to air-borne dust, nor fouling or degradation of the combustion system and/or
turbine blading due to combustion byproducts, nor fouling of the inlet filters, nor
GTPerf_0900 Page 8
change in exhaust backpressure due to exhaust system/HRSG fouling.
A gas turbine in the "new and clean" condition will produce the maximum power,
at the best efficiency.
Manufacturers and vendors will usually contractually define a gas turbine as "new
and clean" for only the first 100~250 hours of operation, usually long enough to
complete the initial site commissioning and to perform the on-site performance
test.
After initial installation and testing, the closest that an installation with
considerable operating hours will come back to "new and clean" is immediately
after a complete major overhaul and cleaning.
2.2.2 Expected Performance

When a vendor states that they are supplying "expected" performance for a gas
turbine or GTG package, they generally mean the data represents the average or
mean of the many production line models they have produced. Depending upon the
stackup of tolerances during manufacturing, the purchaser may actually get an
engine which performs better or worse than the "expected" performance.
2.2.3 Guaranteed Performance

When a contract for a GTG package is executed, the Vendor will guarantee the
performance of the "new and clean" package at a specific set of "Guarantee
Reference Conditions", including barometric pressure (representing the site
altitude), ambient temperature and humidity, inlet loss and exhaust loss, fuel
temperature and composition.
During the on-site performance test, the actual operating conditions may be
significantly different than the "reference" conditions, and test results will be
corrected back to "reference" by using pre-agreed test correction curves and/or
computer models.
Since the Purchaser's contract will include liquidated damages for any lack of
performance, the Vendor's stated "Guarantee Performance" will always be lower
than the "Expected Performance", in order to protect himself. The typical power
output difference between a Vendor's expected and guaranteed performance, at a
specific ambient temperature, may be 2% to 4% lower.
2.2.4 Degraded Performance

When a proponent conducts a detailed economic evaluation of a power plant, for a
20-year project life, he must ensure that the economic performance (power sales
GTPerf_0900 Page 9
revenue and fuel costs) reflect the actual long-term performance characteristics of a
gas turbine generator.
Thus the performance model that the project developer uses for his evaluation
should include the reduction in performance which results from the long-term
operation of the unit.
Fouling of the compressor, erosion of the compressor or turbine blades reducing
their aerodynamic effectiveness, changes in the combustion system resulting in less
efficient or less uniform combustion, all of these combine to lower the
performance of the equipment.
Some of this lost performance can be regained relatively easily by cleaning of the
compressor to reduce the effects of the fouling. The others unfortunately are more
serious and costly and these performance losses can only be recovered by either a
partial or complete engine overhaul, the extent depending on the design of the
equipment.
Each manufacturer should be contacted to supply their individual degradation
definitions and values, however, in general, the average long-term degraded
performance of aero-derivative gas turbines may show a 2.5~5.0% power shortfall
and 1.0~3.0% heat rate increase. Heavy duty industrial engines may experience
2.0~4.0% power shortfalls and 0.5~3.0% heat rate increases.
2.2.5 Gross and Net Power Output

The meaning of the power output of a gas turbine or GTG package is fairly
obvious, however you must understand what actually pays the bills.
The Gross Power Output of a engine or package is usually the amount of power
delivered at the output shaft of a mechanical drive engine, or at the generator
terminals of a GTG package.
The Net Power Output is the effective amount of power at the connection point to
the customer, after accounting for all drivetrain losses, auxiliary losses, etc., and is
the one that pays the bills.
2.2.6 Gross and Net Heat Rate

The heat rate of a gas turbine engine or GTG package is merely an expression of
the specific fuel consumption or thermal efficiency, considering the fuel supplied
to the engine; and the power output delivered by the engine.
For example, a 40 MW GTG package that requires 400 x 106 btu/hr of fuel to
operate might have a heat rate of:
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400,000,000 btu/hr
Heat Rate =
40,000 kW
= 10,000 btu/kw.hr
The efficiency of this same package at these operating conditions can be found by
use of the conversion factor 1 kW = 3,413 btu/hr, for example:
3,413 btu/kw.hr
Efficiency =
10,000 btu/kw.hr
= 34.1 %
In the above general example, we have actually left out two (2) very important
factors which must always be included when discussing heat rate, efficiency and
fuel consumption:
a) was the power output expressed on net or gross basis?
b) was the fuel consumption expressed in lower heating value (LHV)
terms or in higher heating value (HHV) terms?
If we assume that the above GTG package had a Gross Power output of 40 MW
and an Auxiliary Loss of 250 kW, the net power output would be:
Net Power Output = Gross Power Output - Auxiliary Losses
= 40,000 - 250 kW
= 39,750 kW.
Similarly, if the previously stated 400 x 106 btu/hr fuel input was the LHV fuel
consumption, the corresponding fuel input in HHV terms (assuming natural gas)
would be:
HHV Fuel Consumption = 400 x 106 btu/hrLHV x 1.11
= 444 x 106 btu/hrHHV
The corresponding gross and net power outputs, heat rates and efficiencies for
this GTG package, at this operating condition, expressed in both LHV and HHV
terms, is summarized as follows:
Gross Power Output = 40,000 kW
Net Power Output = 39,750 kW
6
LHV Fuel Consumption = 400 x 10 btu/hrLHV
6
HHV Fuel Consumption = 444 x 10 btu/hrHHV (natural gas)
Gross Heat Rate - HHV = 11,100 btu/kw.hrHHV
Gross Heat Rate - LHV = 10,000 btu/kw.hrLHV
Net Heat Rate - HHV = 11,170 btu/kw.hrHHV
Net Heat Rate - LHV = 10,063 btu/kw.hrLHV
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Gross HHV Efficiency = 30.8 %
Gross LHV Efficiency = 34.1 %
Net HHV Efficiency = 30.6 %
Net LHV Efficiency = 33.9 %
This array of varying information (all for the same gas turbine at the same
operating point) can be confusing, and you must know what to request, and/or must
understand what information you get, in order to use it properly. All references to
fuel consumption, heat rate and efficiency should include an annotation defining
either LHV or HHV.
2.2.7 Fuel Higher Heating Value and Lower Heating Value

These two Heating Value terms generally lead to the most confusion and
subsequent errors when discussing and calculating the performance of gas turbines,
and when evaluating the subsequent economic return.
Most gas turbine performance data sheets state efficiency and/or heat rate, and
hence fuel consumption, in terms of the Lower Heating Value (LHV) of the fuel,
whether for gaseous fuel or liquid fuel.
However, fuel suppliers (in particular those in the natural gas business) work in,
state their pricing, and write their contracts in terms of a fuel's Higher Heating
Value (HHV).
In simple terms, a fuel's HHV energy content is measured on the basis of the
chemical energy in the fuel, and is the total heat given up during the combustion of
the fuel, and includes the formation of water vapour from the combustion of fuel-
bound hydrogen. By comparison, a fuel's LHV energy content quantifies the usable
energy available from this combustion process.
Gas Turbine cycle calculations are generally done in terms of LHV thus, when
discussing fuel supply with gas suppliers and transporters, or sizing fuel
compression / metering / regulation systems, or sizing liquid fuel storage tank /
heating / unloading / forwarding systems, one needs to take into account the
difference between the LHV data obtained in your gas turbine calculations, and the
HHV terms discussed in the remainder of the fuel business.
To convert from an LHV basis to an HHV basis, a multiplication factor in the
order of 1.06 to 1.065 is used for liquid fuels and 1.11 for natural gas.

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2.2.8 Auxiliary Losses
These auxiliary losses can include drivetrain losses, plus the power required to
support the mechanical and controls operation of the gas turbine package, the
power required to operate a generator, plus transformer losses, as applicable.
The majority of the auxiliary losses are the result of electric motors driving pumps
and fans. Manufacturers and packagers are generally able to provide the actual
running auxiliary losses in kW, even though the sum total of all motor ratings in
the package may seem to be much higher. This is because most motors will be
selected to a higher frame size, thus not drawing full power, and many applications
may be 2 x 100%, where only one of two motors actually operates.
With reference to the attached sketch SK01 - Typical Power Plant Single Line
Diagram with Auxiliary Losses, some typical auxiliary losses include:
a) Lubricating Oil Pumps - Every gas turbine generator package has at least
one lubricating oil system supplying pressurized oil to the gas turbine
bearings and possibly control systems. In some cases, this oil system will
also supply oil to the driven gearbox, generator and/or compressor, and in
some cases, a separate oil system will do this additional duty.
If the oil system pumps are shaft-driven off the gas turbine, the gearbox
and/or the generator shaft, then the manufacturer will usually automatically
deduct the power consumption used to drive them from the generator power
available.
If instead the oil pumps are continuously driven by electric motors, then the
motor power is a parasitic loss, which will have to be deducted from the
gross power output of the generator.
If the electric-motor driven pump is used only during start-up or shutdown
or in the case of an emergency, it is not a continuous load and need not be
included in the continuous parasitic losses.
b) Ventilation Fans - A gas turbine generator enclosure typically has a forced

air cooling and ventilation system with fans moving the required mass of air.
Typically, ventilation systems are 2 x 100% duty, with a normal system and
a back-up system.
When the electrical generator is also air cooled, it too will require ventilation
air and this requirement will have no effect on the parasitic load UNLESS
there is a separate requirement for motor driven fans to augment the air flow
provided by the fans on generator rotor.

GTPerf_0900 Page 13
c) Fuel Gas Compression Systems - When a natural gas fueled gas turbine is
supplied with fuel at a pressure below that required for the manufacturer's
fuel gas control system, then on-site compression will be required. Such gas
compression equipment includes not only rotary or reciprocating
compressors, but also cooling fans and/or inter-cooler and after-cooler water
pumping systems. All this equipment is generally electric motor driven, and
the power required must be obtained via an auxiliary transformer from
within the powerplant itself. Thus, this will be an additional parasitic loss to
the power plant.
As a general rule, when required, fuel gas compression will be the largest
parasitic loss for any installation. Several hundred horsepower is not an
uncommon requirement for larger gas turbines. For illustration, on sketch
SK01, the gas compressor load is 526 kW. This auxiliary load will change
with the output power and the gas supply pressure, and will be maximum at
the low ambient temperatures.
If the gas transmission / supply system provides the natural gas at the
required or at a higher pressure, then no on-site gas compression is required.
d) Fuel Oil Pumps and Fuel Oil Systems - Gas turbines which include fuel oil
systems may have the system main high-pressure pumps either shaft-driven
or more frequently, electric motor-driven.
Again, if the main fuel oil pump is driven from the gas turbine or a gearbox,
the manufacturer will generally account for the parasitic loss when he
calculates his generator performance, and it will have no further effect on the
parasitic losses of the installation.
If the main fuel oil pump is electric motor driven via an auxiliary
transformer, the parasitic loss needs to be deducted from the gross power
output of the generator.
A fuel oil system will also generally include forwarding pumps to move fuel
from the main storage tanks to a daytank, and a boost pump moving the fuel
from the daytank to the inlet of the main high-pressure pump, plus
frequently, tanker off-loading pumps. The power consumption for these
devices should be included when calculating net power output.
Some fuel oil systems may require heating due to elevated pour points or
high levels of paraffin. Most heavy fuel oil systems will require heating and
large fuel treatment systems to make the fuel suitable for combustion. The

GTPerf_0900 Page 14
parasitic losses for the heaters and pumps in these systems should be
included when calculating net power output.
e) Lube Oil Cooling Systems - Oil coolers are used to reject the heat collected
by the lubricating oil system(s). These coolers can be either water-cooled via
shell and tube heat exchangers, or air-cooled via electric motor driven fans
driving a stream of air across finned coils, hence the general term "fin-fan
cooler", or a combination of both.
Shell and tube systems generally require a water/glycol pumping system and
a heat sink (which can be either a fin-fan cooler or perhaps a condensate
system in a plant with a steam system).
In either case, the parasitic losses for the fans and/or pumps need to be
deducted from the gross power output of the generator when calculating the
net power output.
f) Generators - The efficiency of an electrical generator, as provided by the

manufacturer, takes into account losses from a number of sources including:
• Electrical resistance losses in the windings
• Windage losses resulting from the friction between the rotating rotor
and the air in the airgap between the rotor and stator, windage through
the ends of the rotor coils which protrude from the main cylindrical
section of the rotor, and the friction between the cooling air and the
walls of the cooling air passages in the body of the rotor
• Friction losses in the bearing system
• The power required to drive the cooling air fans, located at the two
ends of the rotor, which force the cooling air through the machine
• Losses in the generator excitation system (for permanent magnet
generator (PMG) systems) which are a combination of electrical
resistance losses, bearing friction, windage and cooling fan losses
similar to those in the main machine but of much smaller magnitude.
Generator efficiency curves take all of these factors into account. There will
be additional affects due to changes in load, and with the power factor at
which the machine is operated.
g) Static Excitation System Losses - When static excitation systems are

specified for generators due to utility system requirements, the power for the
exciter is obtained from the generator output system via a step-down
transformer, typically 13.8kV - 300V. The excitation system can draw up to
GTPerf_0900 Page 15
0.2~0.3% of the generator gross output, depending upon the generator
operating point.
For illustration, on sketch SK01, the static excitation transformer draws 117
kW, or 0.23% of the 50,395 kW of gross power produced by the generator.
h) Transformer Losses - Every transformer has losses associated with

magnetic and current induced resistance losses, and cooling system losses,
usually associated with some sort of cooling system which will include
temperature-controlled electric motor-driven forced-air fans. The
transformer manufacturer will provide efficiency data on the specific piece
of equipment but typical input-to-output efficiency values are in the order of
98.0 ~ 99.7%, depending upon the transformer's size and design, and the
operating and ambient conditions. These transformer losses will apply to
both the plant step-up and plant step-down transformers.
For illustration, sketch SK01 shows that the main step-up transformer T1
loses about 148 kW of the 49,106 kW input power (a loss of approximately
0.3%), while the auxiliary transformer AT-1 and AT-2 losses are about
11/537 = 2% and 7/635 = 1% respectively.
The efficiencies of these transformers are part of the parasitic losses of a
total powerplant system.
i) Controls - The parasitic loss for the controls will be one of the smaller
powerplant parasitic loads, and should be based on the normal continuous
steady state operating load from the control power supply system. In the case
of co-generation or combined cycle projects where the control systems for
the steam side may be integrated with that for the gas turbine, it will be
rather difficult to split the parasitic load for attribution to the gas turbine and
the steam system.
j) Miscellaneous Auxiliaries - Other devices which can cause parasitic losses

are the battery chargers for the DC power supply system for the emergency
lube pumps, air compressors, lighting, HVAC - heating, ventilation and air
conditioning, and in the case of co-generation or combined-cycle plants,
feedwater and condensate pumping systems, water treatment systems,
condenser cooling water and/or cooling tower systems.

GTPerf_0900 Page 16
For a final illustration, sketch SK01 shows that for a generator gross power output
of 50,395 kW, the auxiliary losses directly attributable to the GTG are:
a) 117 kW - for the static excitation system, and,
b) 120 kW - for the GTG services (via motor control centre MCC-3).
237 kW
The resultant 50,395 - 237 = 50,158 kW will be the value that the GTG packager
will typically show as the "Net Power Output" of his package.
The other auxiliary losses associated with the operation of this powerplant include:
a) 526 kW - for the gas turbine's fuel gas compressors.
b) 313 kW - for building services (via MCC-1).
c) 195 kW - for essential services (via MCC-2).
d) 18 kW - in auxiliary transformer losses.
e) 148 kW - in main step-up transformer losses.
1,200 kW
The resultant 50,158 - 1,200 = 48,958 kW will be "Net Plant Power Output", and
is about 97.1 % of the GTG package's initial gross power output of 50,395 kW.

GTPerf_0900 Page 17
3.0 GTG PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS from
VENDOR INFORMATION
3.1 Calculations Using Vendor Curves and Data
We will run through an example performance calculation using a Vendor's typical
corrections curves, based upon a hypothetical 75 MW heavy-duty industrial gas
turbine generator.
These correction curves can be obtained from the manufacturers or are available in
their standard product binders which also include the descriptions of their complete
product and scope of supply.
3.1.1 Nominal GTG Baseline Conditions

For the purposes of assisting a proponent in calculating performance at his site
conditions, the vendor will normally start by stating the "baseline" condition for
their GTG package, in a manner similar to the following:
Load: Base Load
Generator Type: TEWAC generator
Fuel: Natural gas
NOx Suppression: Without steam or water injection
Elevation: Sea level
Temperature: 59 deg F
Relative Humidity: 60 %
Standard Inlet Loss: 4.5 inch H2O
Standard Exhaust Loss: 5.0 inch H2O
Net Power 74,750 kW
Heat Rate* 10,300 btu/kw.hr
Exhaust Flow 2,054,000 lb/hr
Exhaust Temperature 987 deg F
Fuel Flow* 36,733 lb/hr
* based upon a natural gas heating value of 20,960 btu/lbLHV
You will note that this "baseline" condition is very similar to the ISO and GTW
ratings, with some additional standardization on inlet filtration system losses and
exhaust losses, based upon the Vendor's standard package design. The vendor will
also have a set of "baseline" conditions for Peak Load and Part Load operation,
Distillate Fuel operation and for other types of generators (open air cooled,
hydrogen cooled, etc.).

GTPerf_0900 Page 18
The Net Power already includes a deduction of 250 kW for the Vendor's auxiliary
power losses, and thus the Heat Rate can be understood to be a "Net" heat rate.
Although it doesn't specifically say so, the heat rate is probably based upon the
LHV of the fuel, because of the Vendor's note at the bottom of the tabulation.
3.1.2 Site Conditions

If we now wish to determine what this GTG's performance will be at the following
site conditions and ambient temperature:
Site Elevation: 1,000 feet AMSL
Ambient Temperature: 35 deg F
Relative Humidity 60 %
Load: 100% (Base) Load
NOx Suppression: Steam Injection to 42 ppmvd NOx
Inlet System: Assume the vendor's standard inlet system
Exhaust System: Unfired HRSG, with an estimated exhaust loss of:
10.0 inch H2O (i.e. an excess of 5.0 inch H2O)
3.1.3 Correction Factors and Calculation

By reference to the attached typical correction curves, we find the following
correction factors (for power and heat rate):
Power Heat Rate Figure
74,750 10,300
Baseline Value
kW btu/kw.hrLHV
Elevation P1 0.965 HR1 1.00 Figure 1
Ambient Temp P2 1.09 HR2 0.985 Figure 2
Inlet Losses P3 1.00 HR3 1.00 Figure 3
Exhaust Losses P4 0.993 HR4 1.0075 Figure 4
Stm/Fuel Ratio - 1:1 - 1:1 NOx Curve
Stm Injection P5 1.081 HR5 0.972 Figure 8
Corrected Value 84,400 kW 9,935 btu/kw.hrLHV Calc'd per below

GTPerf_0900 Page 19
The above two calculations were performed as follows:
Net Power = Baseline Power x P1 x P2 x P3 x P4 x P5
= 74,750 x 0.965 x 1.09 x 1.00 x 0.993 x 1.081
= 84,400 kW
Net Heat Rate = Baseline Heat Rate x HR1 x HR2 x HR3 x HR 4 x HR5
= 10,300 x 1.00 x 0.985 x 1.00 x 1.0075 x 0.972
= 9,935 btu/kw.hrLHV
As a note, the changes in exhaust flow and exhaust temperature can be calculated
in a similar manner.
By further calculation, we can see that the Net LHV Efficiency of the GTG unit at
this operating condition is:
Net LHV Efficiency = 3,413 / 9,935
= 34.3 %
and that the required fuel flow will be as follows:
Fuel Flow = 84,400 x 9,935 kW x btu/kw.hrLHV
20,960 btu/lbLHV
= 40,005 lb/hr
or, in Gas Compressor terms (mmscfd - million standard cubic feet per day):
Compressor Capacity = 40,005 x 20,960 x 24 lb/hr x btu/lbLHV x hr/day
Required 905 x 1,000,000 btu/scfLHV
= 22.2 mmscfd

GTPerf_0900 Page 20
3.2 Other Methods of Obtaining Performance
3.2.1 Manufacturer's Cycle Decks
All the major gas turbine manufacturers have computer programs (cycle-decks)
that they can use to quickly provide proponents with performance information for a
variety of operating and site conditions. Two examples from GE and S&S are
enclosed.
In the case of frequent users (e.g. engineering design firms and major developers),
some manufacturers (e.g. General Electric, Stewart & Stevenson, Westinghouse)
will make available either a dial-up connection to their cycle deck, or will load
licensed cycle decks onto the user's server. The results from these are similar to the
salesmen's cycle decks.
3.2.2 Proprietary Software Programs

In addition, there are several proprietary software vendors who have prepared
proprietary performance programs such as GT PRO, GT MASTER, et. al. by
ThermoFlow Inc.; SOAPP-CT by SEPRIL; the Gate Cycle™ by ENTER Software
Inc.; and GrypHeat™ by Gryphon International Engineering Services Inc. These
programs allow the proponent to model the performance of gas turbines and
virtually any other component within a power plant, including HRSGs, STGs,
boilers, condensers and cooling towers, heat exchangers and piping systems.

GTPerf_0900 Page 21
4.0 PERFORMANCE COMPARISON DEMONSTRATION
To demonstrate the importance of obtaining the correct gas turbine performance
information, and understanding what it actually means, we provide a series of
graphical examples of the differences in power output for various operating
conditions.
The examples only show power output considerations for an aero-derivative
General Electric LM6000 engine (as packaged by Stewart and Stevenson Energy
Products) and a heavy duty industrial General Electric Power Systems Frame 6B
engine. Heat rate, exhaust flow and temperature also need to be considered.
4.1 ISO Rating vs. Actual Site Rating at Various Ambients
50
Example 1A - LM6000
Pure ISO rating on natural gas
vs.
45
Sea Level
Output - MW
ISO
Natural gas – Unabated combustion

40 Simple cycle – 4 in. H2O exhaust loss
Temperature units are in deg F
35
40 50 60 70 80
45
Example 1B – Frame 6B
Pure ISO rating on natural gas
vs.
Output - MW
Sea Level 40 ISO

Simple cycle – 4 in. H2O exhaust loss
Temperature units are in deg F
35
40 50 60 70 80

GTPerf_0900 Page 22
4.2 Site Ratings at Various ambients with Varying Exhaust Loss
48
Example 2A – LM6000
Site ratings at various ambients with
4in varying exhaust loss
46
Output - MW
10in
Simple Cycle - 4 in. H2O exhaust loss
14in
Unfired HRSG - 10 in. H2O exh. loss
44 Fired HRSG - 14 in. H2O exhaust loss
500 ft AMSL
42 Temperature units are in deg F
30 35 40 45 50
43
Site ratings at various ambients with 4in
varying exhaust loss 42
10in
Output - MW
Simple Cycle - 4 in. H2O exhaust loss

41
Unfired HRSG - 10 in. H2O exh. loss
Fired HRSG - 14 in. H2O exhaust loss 14in
40
500 ft AMSL
Temperature units in deg F 39
30 35 40 45 50

GTPerf_0900 Page 23
4.3 Natural Gas vs. No. 2 Fuel Oil vs. Heavy Fuel Oil
50
48
Unabated combustion systems
Gas
Natural Gas
Output - MW
46
vs.
No.2
44
No. 2 Fuel Oil (Distillate)
500 ft AMSL
42
Temperature units in deg F
Simple cycle – 4 inch H2O exhaust loss
40
20 30 40 50 60
Example 3B – Frame 6B 42
Unabated combustion systems
Gas
Natural Gas
vs. 41
No.2
No. 2 Fuel Oil (Distillate)
Output - MW
vs. 40
Heavy Fuel Oil
Heavy
500 ft AMSL 39
38
40 45 50 55 60

GTPerf_0900 Page 24
4.4 Dry Unabated vs. Steam Injection vs. Water Injection vs. Dry Low NOx
50 Example 4A – LM6000
Dry Unabated
48 vs.
Steam
Unabated
Steam Injection
Water
vs.
Output - MW
46
Water Injection
DLN
44
vs.
DLN
42
500 ft AMSL
40 Simple cycle – 4 inch H2O exhaust loss
30 35 40 45 50
Dry Unabated
vs.
Steam
Steam Injection
43
vs.
Output - MW
Water
Water Injection Unabated
vs.
DLN 41
DLN
500 ft AMSL
Simple cycle – 4 inch H2O exhaust loss 39
30 35 40 45 50

GTPerf_0900 Page 25
4.5 New & Clean Expected Performance vs. Degraded Performance
55
Clean New and Clean - Expected

45
vs.
Output - MW
Degraged
Degraded
500 ft AMSL
35
25
0 20 40 60 80 100
New and Clean - Expected
vs.
Degraded at various ambients 45
Output - MW
500 ft AMSL Clean

Temperature units in deg F 40
Natural gas – Unabated combustion Degraged
35
30
0 20 40 60 80 100

GTPerf_0900 Page 26
4.6 New and Clean Expected Performance vs. Guaranteed Performance
50
48
vs.
Guaranteed
Output - MW
46
500 ft AMSL
44 Temperature units in deg F
Clean Simple cycle – 4 inch H2O exhaust loss
42
Guaranteed
40
45 50 55 60 65
45
vs. 43
Guaranteed
Output - MW
41
500 ft AMSL
Clean
39
Natural gas – Unabated combustion Guaranteed
37
35
45 50 55 60 65

GTPerf_0900 Page 27
4.7 Gross Power vs. Net Power vs. Power after Transformer Loss
50 Example 7A – LM6000
Gross Power Output
48 vs.
Net Power Output
Gross
vs.
Output - MW
46
Net Power Output after Transformer Loss
44
(Utility)
Utility
500 ft AMSL
42 Natural gas – Unabated combustion
40 Simple cycle – 4 inch H2O exhaust loss
30 35 40 45 50
45
Gross Power Output
vs. 43
Net Power Output Gross

Output - MW
vs. 41
Net
Power Output after Transformer Loss Utility
(Utility) 39
500 ft AMSL 37
35
30 35 40 45 50

GTPerf_0900 Page 28
5.0 SUMMARY
In this paper, we have tried to outline the major items which you must remember
as you assess the performance of a Gas Turbine or GTG package.
Probably the most important is that you need to question the information presented
to you, and you must be certain to understand the basis used in the presentation.
Without that knowledge, you cannot make an intelligent evaluation of the
equipment proposed.
Always remember that the performance of a Gas Turbine or GTG package will
change from the initial nominal values, due to the following factors:
• Site elevation.
• Ambient temperature.
• Relative humidity.
• Inlet and exhaust conditions.
• The type of driven equipment.
• The associated auxiliaries losses (some belonging to the Gas Turbine or
GTG package, and some from the exterior supporting equipment).
• The type fuel used.
• The type of NOx suppression method used.
• New & Clean, Expected, Degraded, Guaranteed.
Don't be afraid to ask questions. Questioning information given at the proposal
stage and during the initial assessment process is the smart thing to do. If you are
not comfortable with the data given, keep asking questions until you are.
Remember that it is your money, or your client's money, which the manufacturer is
trying to access. It is far easier and less costly to change the configuration or
equipment selection before construction than afterwards, and your customer will be
happier.

GTPerf_0900 Page 29

Understanding Gas Turbine Performance

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What factors affect gas turbine performance?

What factors affect gas turbine performance?

What are ISO and NEMA ratings and what do they represent?

What are ISO and NEMA ratings and what do they represent?

UNDERSTANDING

Jim Noordermeer, P.Eng.

Gryphon International Engineering Services Inc.

GRYPHON is a Canadian multi-discipline, full-service engineering design firm

GRYPHON clients include Lake Superior Power, Northland Power, Cornell

UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE S ©

The performance characteristics of a gas turbine engine or Gas Turbine Generator

UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE ©

2.0 SITE CONDITIONS and OTHER DEFINITIONS ................................. 5

3.0 GTG PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS from VENDOR

UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE ©

TABLE OF CONTENTS - continued

4.0 PERFORMANCE COMPARISON DEMONSTRATION ................... 22

5.0 SUMMARY ................................................................................................ 29

UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE ©

1.0 WHAT ARE ISO, NEMA and GTW RATINGS ?

UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE ©

1.3 Gas Turbine World Ratings

UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE ©

2.1.2 Ambient Temperature

2.1.3 Inlet Losses

UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE ©

2.1.4 Exhaust Losses

UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE ©

2.1.5 Fuel Requirements

UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE ©

2.1.7 Relative Humidity

2.2 Other Common Definitions and Expressions

2.2.2 Expected Performance

2.2.3 Guaranteed Performance

2.2.4 Degraded Performance

2.2.5 Gross and Net Power Output

2.2.6 Gross and Net Heat Rate

2.2.7 Fuel Higher Heating Value and Lower Heating Value

UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE ©

b) Ventilation Fans - A gas turbine generator enclosure typically has a forced

UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE ©

UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE ©

f) Generators - The efficiency of an electrical generator, as provided by the

g) Static Excitation System Losses - When static excitation systems are

h) Transformer Losses - Every transformer has losses associated with

j) Miscellaneous Auxiliaries - Other devices which can cause parasitic losses

UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE ©

UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE ©

3.1.1 Nominal GTG Baseline Conditions

UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE ©

3.1.2 Site Conditions

3.1.3 Correction Factors and Calculation

UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE ©

UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE ©

3.2.2 Proprietary Software Programs

UNDERSTANDING GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE ©

4.1 ISO Rating vs. Actual Site Rating at Various Ambients

Natural gas – Unabated combustion

Sea Level 40 ISO

Natural gas – Unabated combustion