Revised edition Aug ,2004(平成 14 年 9 月)

Guideline for Design and Quality Control of Soil

Improvement for Buildings

Deep and Shallow Cement Mixing Methods

National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management

Architecture Research Institute

The Building Center of Japan

Chapter 5 Examination of Vertical Bearing Capacity of

Improved Ground

5.1 Allowable Vertical Bearing Capacity of Improved Ground

(1) It shall be recognized that harmful deformation does not occur in structure by
vertical load transmitted to the base of foundation slab.
(2) Vertical bearing capacity shall be decided by taking into account vertical bearing
capacity of lower unimproved ground, peripheral friction force acting on improved
ground, weight of improved ground and moderate safety factor.

[Explanation]
As for required vertical bearing capacity of improved ground, followings shall be
examined.
1) Improved ground does not incur continuous ground settlement due to normal
vertical load,
2) Improved column does not incur harmful deformation due to normal vertical load,
3) Improved ground does not incur harmful residual settlement due to vertical load
during middle scale earthquake,
4) Improved column does not incur harmful residual deformation due to vertical load
during middle scale earthquake, and
5) Improved ground does not incur failure during big scale earthquake.

Vertical load to the base of foundation slab shall be supported by resistance force of
underground of improved ground and peripheral ground.(refer Fig.5.1.1) Also as shown
in Fig.5.1.2, vertical load acting on the top of improved ground shall be supported by
improved column and unimproved ground within the improved column.
The design method of vertical bearing capacity of improved ground shall be shown in
Section 5.1 and vertical stress in improved column shall be shown in Section 5.2.
 Average contact pressure
Base of foundation slab

Improved column
Improved ground
Vertical stress in improved column
Peripheral ground

Lower ground

Fig.5.1.1 Vertical bearing capacity of improved Fig.5.1.2 Vertical stress in improved

ground column

(1) Design Contact Pressure at the Base of Foundation Slab

It shall be recognized that allowable vertical bearing capacity of composit ground ( qa)
can support safely design contact pressure ( σe ) at the base of foundation slab, i.e.,

Ｐ
σe ＝ ≦ｑa (5.1.1)
Ａ
f

σe : design contact pressure (kN/m2)

P : vertical load acting to the base of foundation slab (kN)
Af : area of footing foundation or area of base of foundation slab (m2)
qa : allowable vertical bearing capacity of improved ground (kN/m2)
When the load acting to the base of foundation slab is inclined and/or eccentric, design
contact pressure shall be calculated by following equation.

α･Ｐ
σe＝ ≦qa (5.1.2)
Ａ
f

α: contact pressure factor decided by the balance condition of force and moment due to
load eccentricity and shape of base of foundation slab.
Magnitude of contact pressure factor differs from shape of base and functioning place
of load to ground. Contact pressure derived from contact pressure factor is to be
compared with allowable stress to vertical load neglecting effect of eccentric load.

(2) Allowable Vertical Bearing Capacity (qa ) of Improved Ground

Allowable bearing capacity of improved ground shall be to effective contact area of
the base of foundation. Long term allowable vertical bearing capacity (qal) of composit
ground, consisting of improved and unimproved ground, is calculated by Eq.(5.1.3),
based on the ultimate vertical bearing capacity(qd) of lower ground and ultimate
peripheral friction force (τｄ )of improved ground.[Fig.5.1.3]
Also vertical bearing capacity (qa2) can be calculated by Eq.(5.1.4), or by summation of
the value of point resistance of improved column and peripheral force of improved
column. Long term allowable vertical bearing capacity of improved ground qa shall be
the smaller one of qa1 and qa2.[Eq.(5.1.5)]

Fig.5.1.3 Mechanism of vertical bearing Fig.5.1.4 Mechanism of vertical bearing

capacity as composit ground capacity in independent case

ｑa1＝1/Ｆs｛ｑd･Ａb＋Σ(τdi･ｈi) Ｌs｝/Ａf (5.1.3)

ｑa2＝1/Ｆs（ｎ･Ｒu）/Ａf (5.1.4)
ｑa＝min（ｑa1，ｑa2） (5.1.5)

qa : allowable vertical bearing capacity of improved ground (kN/m2)

qa1 : allowable vertical bearing capacity derived from mechanism of bearing capacity
of composit ground (Fig.5.1.3) (kN/m2)
qa2 : allowable vertical bearing capacity derived from mechanism of vertical bearing
capacity supposing that improved column supports independently(Fig.5.1.4)
(kN/m2)
qd : ultimate vertical bearing capacity of lower ground (kN/m2)
Ab : base area of improved ground (m2)
τ di : ultimate peripheral friction force functioning to periphery of improved
ground(kN/m2)
h I : thickness of layer (m)
Ls : peripheral length of improved ground(m)
An example of getting peripheral length shall be shown in Fig.5.1.5.
 Peripheral length

Fig.5.1.5 Peripheral length of improved ground

a) Ultimate vertical bearing capacity of lower ground

Ultimate vertical bearing capacity of lower ground shall be calculated by Eq.(5.1.6).

ｑd＝ｉcαcＮc＋ｉγβγ1ＢbＮγ＋ｉqγ2Ｄf’Ｎq (5.1.6.)
゜
ｉc＝ｉq＝［1－θ/90 ］2 ｉγ＝［1－θ/φ］2 (5.1.7)

qd : ultimate vertical bearing capacity of lower ground (kN/m2)

θ: inclination angle of load (degree)
φ: internal friction angle of lower ground (degree)
α，β: coefficient depending on the figure of improved ground shown in Table 5.1.1
Ｂb : short side length of improved ground (m)
Ｌb : long side length of improved ground (m)
c : cohesion of lower ground (kN/m2)
Ｎc,Ｎγ,Ｎq : bearing capacity factor (Table 5.1.2)
γ1 : density of lower ground （ｋＮ/ｍ3）
submerged density for part under ground water level
γ2 : average density of ground above lower ground
submerged density for part under ground water level
Ｄf : depth from ground surface to improved point
’

Table 5.1.1 Shape factor

Shape of foundation
Circle Shape except circle
Factor
Ｂb
α 1.2 1.0+0.2
Ｌ b

Ｂb
β 0.3 0.5-0.2
Ｌ b
 Fig.5.1.6 Symbol

Table5.1.2 Bearing capacity factor

φ Ｎc Ｎr Ｎq
0゜ 5.1 0 1.0
5゜ 6.5 0.1 1.6
10゜ 8.3 0.4 2.5
15゜ 11.0 1.1 3.9
20゜ 14.8 2.9 6.4
25゜ 20.7 6.8 10.7
28゜ 25.8 11.2 14.7
32゜ 35.5 22.0 23.2
36゜ 50.6 44.4 37.8
40゜以上 75.3 93.7 64.2

The value of cohesion c and internal friction angleφshall be decided by taking into
account the range of stress increase in underground induced by load. Inclined angle of
load in Eq. (5.1.6) shall be deemed zero if thickness of improved soil is thin and
improved soil does not move together with foundation.
Except above mentioned method, ultimate vertical bearing capacity of lower ground
shall be estimated by plate loading test or Swedish sounding test. Equation (5.1.8)
shows allowable vertical bearing capacity of lower ground qe1 by plate loading test. Eq.
(5.1.9) shows the same one qe2 by Swedish sounding test. To use the equation of bearing
capacity, type of building foundation, ground condition and range of stress increase in
under ground shall be considered. In case of plate loading test, consideration shall be
necessary for difference between foundation size and loading plate size. In case of
Swedish sounding test, since Nsw is average from improved bottom to 2 meters deep,
other method shall be used if the range of stress increase in underground is different
from the range.
 ｑe1＝3ｑt /Ｆs＋(1/ 3)Ｎ’γ2Ｄf’ (5.1.8)

ｑe1 : allowable vertical bearing capacity of lower ground by plate loading test
Ｆs : safety factor, 3 for general load, 1.5 for middle scale earthquake
ｑt : smaller value of the two: 1/2 of yielding load by plate loading test, or 1/3 of
ultimate bearing capacity
Ｎ’ : factor decided by ground condition under the foundation (Table (5.1.3))
Ｄf’ : depth from ground surface to improved point
γ2 : average density above lower ground, submerged density in water for the part
under groundwater level

Table 5.1.3 Value of factor Ｎ’

Kind of Sandy ground
Dense sandy Clayey
ground （except dense
ground ground
Factor sand）
Ｎ’ 12 6 3

ｑe2＝(90＋1.8Ｎsw)/Ｆs (5.1.9)

ｑe2 : allowable vertical bearing capacity of lower ground by Swedish sounding test
Ｆs : safety factor, 3 for general load, 1.5 for middle scale earthquake
Ｎsw : average half rotating number each meter by Swedish sounding of the depth from
base of foundation to 2 meters deep (150 if exceeds 150)

b) In case of 2 layers ground

When soil layer of lower ground is not homogeneous, allowable vertical bearing
capacity of lower ground shall be calculated considering the effect. An example of
calculation is shown in Fig.5.1.8.
 Sandy layer

Clayey layer

Table 5.1.7 Example of calculation method of vertical bearing capacity of two layers ground

(3) Ultimate Peripheral Friction Force

Ultimate peripheral friction force of improved ground shall be calculated by
Eq.(5.1.10) and Eq.(5.1,11) by each layer.
Clayey soil τd＝ｃ or, ｑu /2 (5.1.10)
10N
Sandy soil τd＝ （ｋＮ/㎡） (5.1.11)
3
c : cohesion of clayey soil (kN/m2)
q u : unconfined compressive strength of clayey soil (kN/m2)
N : N value of sandy soil

(4) Ultimate Vertical Bearing Capacity of Improved Column

Ultimate vertical bearing capacity of improved column can be obtained by loading
test or by Eq.(5.1.11). [refer Fig.(5.1.4)]
Method of loading test applies vertical loading test of pile. Ultimate bearing capacity
in loading test is load which amount of settlement at the top of column reaches to
10% of column diameter
Ｒu＝Ｒpu＋ψ･Στdi･ｈi (5.1.12)

Ｒu : ultimate vertical bearing capacity of improved column (kN)

Ｒpu : ultimate vertical bearing capacity at the point of improved column (kN)
ψ : peripheral length of improved column (degree)
τdi :ultimate peripheral friction force (kN/m2)
ｈi :thickness of layer (m)
Ultimate vertical bearing capacity at the point of improved column shall be
calculated by Eq.(5.1.13) and Eq.(5.1.14).

Sandy soil Ｒpu＝75･ Ｎ ･Ａp（ｋＮ） (5.1.13)

Clayey soil Ｒpu＝6c･Ａp（ｋＮ） (5.1.14)

Ｒpu : ultimate vertical bearing capacity at the point of improved column (kN)
Ｎ : average N value in the range of plus minus 1d from the point of improved column
(d is minimum width of improved column)
c : cohesion of clayey soil layer （ｋＮ/㎡）
Ap : effective area at the point of improved column (m2)

5.2 Vertical Stress in Improved Column

(1) Load to the base of slab shall be supported by improved column and unimproved
ground among improved column, and their share to support shall be decided by taking
into account ground condition and improvement specification.
(2) Compressive stress of improved column shall be recognized to be less than allowable
compressive stress of improved column.

[Explanation]
(1) Calculation of Vertical Stress in Improved Column by the Load to the Base of
Foundation Slab
As shown in Fig.5.2.1, transmitted load from the base of foundation slab to improved
column shall be shared by improved column and unimproved ground among improved
columns. Vertical stress in the improved column shall be calculated considering stress
concentration factor which is ratio of stress in improved column and design contact
pressure (Eq.5.2.1).
ｑp＝μp･σe (.5.2.1)

ｑp : vertical stress at the top of improvd column （ｋＮ/㎡）

μp : stress concentration factor
σe : design contact pressure acting on the base of foundation slab（ｋＮ/㎡）
 Fig.5.2.1 Relation of foundation slab, improved column and stress concentration

(2) Stress Concentration Factor

As shown in Fig.5.2.1, load acting on the base of foundation slab shall be supported
by reaction force of improved column and unimproved ground among improved
columns. The stress concentration factor μp is calculated by Eq.(5.2.2).
n
μp＝ (5.2.2)
{1 + ( n - 1 )a p ü
ý
þ

μp : stress concentration factor

ap : improved ratio of the base of foundation slab
n : stress assignment ratio n = qp /qs
ｑp : vertical stress at the top of improved column
ｑs : ground reaction at unimproved ground among improved columns
ΣＡp
ａp＝ (5.2.3)
Ａf

ΣＡp : area of improved column at the base of foundation slab

Ａf : area of foundation slab
Sharing ratio of stress shall be calculated by Eq.(5.2.4).
Ｅ p･(λ L＋ｎ 12)
ｎ＝ (5.2.4)
Ｅ 1･(αν 1･λ L＋ｎ p2)
（1－ν １ ）
αν1＝ (5.2.5)
（1＋ν １ )(1－2ν 2）
 Ｈ1 Ｅ1 Ｅp
λL＝ ， ｎ12＝ ， ｎp2＝ (5.2.6)
Ｂp Ｅ2 Ｅ2

Ｈ1 : layer thickness of first layer and is equivalent to improved length（ｍ）

Ｈ2 : layer thickness of second layer and is around equivalent to width of short side of
improved column （ｍ）
Ｂp : width of short side of improved column （ｍ）
Ｅp : Young’s modulus of improved column （ｋN/m2）
Ｅ1,Ｅ2 : Young’s modulus of first and second layer respectively
ν1 : Poisson’s ratio of first layer and second layer
ν2 : Respectively
α ν 1 : increase ratio of Young’s modulus of vertical direction arisen from side
confinement

Improved column
Fisrst layer

Unimproved ground among

improved columns

Second layer
Lower ground

Fig.5.2.2 Relation between improved column and unimproved ground among improved
columns

When the improved column is supported by hard ground, sharing ratio of stress shall
be given by Eq.(5.2.7).
Ｅp ｎ p2
ｎ＝ ＝ (5.2.7)
Ｅ 1･ αν1 ｎ 12 αν 1

When lower ground is hard, ratio of Young’s modulus with peripheral ground is
less than 0.1, and ratio of Young’s modulus of lower ground with improved column is
more than 10, n in Eq.(5.2.7) will be more than 100. Therefore, Eq.(5.2.2) is
approximated to Eq.(5.2.8).
１
μp＝ (5.2.8)
ａ p

(3) Stress Check of Improved Column

It shall be recognized that the vertical stress at the top of improved column
(Eq.(5.2.1)) is less than allowable compressive stress of improved column.(Eq.(5.2.9))
and Eq.(5.2.10)
ｑp≦ｆc (5.2.9)

ｑp : vertical stress at the top of improved column （ｋＮ/㎡）

ｆc : allowable compressive stress of improved body （ｋＮ/㎡）
１
ｆc＝ Ｆ c (5.2.10)
Ｆ sp

Ｆsp : safety factor, equivalent to Fs

Vertical stress arisen in inside of improved column has a tendency to become smaller
due to the peripheral friction force. Therefore, it is enough to examine the vertical
stress at the top of column.
If there is possibility that the negative friction occurrs at side of improved column,
vertical stress lower portion of improved column shall be examined.
In case of getting stress in the improved column, it is necessary to check that stress
at every portion is less than allowable stress at the compressive side of improved
column, in static state and also in middle scale earthquake.
Chapter 6 Examination of Horizontal Bearing Capacity

of Improved Ground

6.1 Horizontal Bearing Capacity in Static State and in Middle Scale

Earthquake

It shall be recognized that improved ground does not arise harmful deformation to
structure by lateral earth pressure and inertial force of structure during middle scale
earthquake.

[Explanation]
It shall be recognized by following (1) and (2) that stress in improved column is less
than allowable compressive stress, allowable tensile stress and allowable shearing
stress by horizontal load which is arisen by lateral earth pressure and inertial force of
structure during middle scale earthquake. Required capacity of improved ground to the
horizontal load in static state and during middle scale earthquake is a stipulation
concerning deformation. According to the experience until now, since harmful
deformation to structure is hardly seen if stress in improved ground is less than
present allowable stress, examination of allowable stress shall be alternative of
examination of deformation.
As for examination method of horizontal bearing capacity of improved ground, there
are other alternatives such as finite element method and calculation deeming caisson
or elastic beam instead of improved column. These methods shall be allowed if these
phenomena are well explained.

(1) Examination of Bending Stress by Reaction Force Method of Linear Elastic Ground
When cement deep mixing method is used for structure foundation, since it is
classified into short pile, examination of bending stress shall be taken into account
improved length. Calculation step is as follows.

(a) Calculation of (b) Calculation of (c) Calculation of (d) Calculation of

load share to horizontal ground transformation bending stress and

improved column force factor of factor of Improved comparison of

original ground column allowable stress

Fig.6.1.1 Examination steps of bending stress by linear elastic ground reaction force
 Examination methods and noticed points are as follows by step. In case of ratio of
improved length by improved width is less than 1, examination of bending stress can
be omitted. In observation of horizontal loading test, crack was not observed in
improved ground with slenderness ratio of 1.75, and in improved wall type ground with
slenderness ratio of 2.00 and 2.25.

Table 6.1.1 Load to the improved column

Uniform load to the foundation base Nonuniform load to the foundation base

Conceptual figure. Calculation formula Conceptual figure. Calculation formula

Without lapping

Column style
Wall style
Lapping style

Block style

Area which an improved column pays

a) Calculation of load share to improved column
Load to improved column is classified by combining of load distribution at foundation
base and improved type(Table 6.1.1). Load to foundation base shall be shared by
improved column and unimproved ground among improved columns, but improved
column shall bear whole load in case of horizontal bearing capacity. Since load share of
horizontal load is not well known, rule was prepared in safety side.
Calculation of load share to the improved column is as follows.
① Vertical load share to improved one column shall be calculated according to the
load distribution to foundation base, and horizontal load shall be proportion to
vertical load in case of column type. Examination shall be done to improved
column which bears the maximum vertical load among columns.
② In case of wall type or block type, whole load shall be function to improved column
as a group.
Arrangements of improved column have many types according to foundation type. In
case of other cases except above table, way of thinking is the same.

b) Calculation of horizontal ground reaction factor of ground

Horizontal ground reaction factor shall be calculated from deformation factor as
follows.
① When pitch of improved column is wide.
When pitch of improved column ｂ is bigger than 3 to width of improved column
(d ≧ 3ｂ), horizontal ground reaction factor shall be estimated by Eq (6.1 .1).

ｋh＝(1/30)･α･Ｅ0･(ｂ1/30)-3/4×102 （6.1.1）

ｋh : horizontal ground reaction factor (kN/m3)

α : factor(=4)
Ｅ0 : Young’s modulus of ground (kN/m2)
ｂ1 : width of column in direction to force acting (cm)
Young’s modulus of ground is as follows.
from unconfined compressive strength Ｅs＝56ｑu (ｋＮ/㎡)
from standard penetration test Ｅs＝7Ｎ×102 (ｋＮ/㎡)
Above Young’s modulus and unconfined compressive strength shall be equal under
premise of ｑu＝Ｎ/8×10（ｋＮ/㎡）
2 . Moreover, relation between qu and Es is set to
be in domain of experimental equation. Young’s modulus is used if it is derived from
unconfined or triaxial compressive test.
kh of Eq.(6.1.1) is to value of 1 cm deformation at the top of column, but khy to
arbitrary deformation(cm) shall be calculated by following equation. In this occasion
repeating calculation is needed but the method is described in (3) in Section 6.1.

ｋhy＝ｋh・ｙ-1/2

② When pitch of improved column is narrow.

When cement deep mixing method is used, since pitch of improved column d by
improved column width b is small in general, column must be considered as well as
pile. If d/b is smaller than 3, horizontal ground reaction force factor ｋ h’ shall be
calculated by next equation by taking into account factor on column group effect.

ｋh’＝μ･ｋh (6.1.2)

ｋh’: horizontal ground reaction force factor taking into account column group effect
(kN/m3)
ｋh : horizontal ground reaction force factor as single column by Eq.(6.1.1) (kN/m3)

μ is factor on column group effect and nextμ1,μ2 orμ12 is used.

When d ＜ 3b ,and d2 ≧ 3b2, Fig.6.1.2(a)

μ1’ =1－ 0.2(3 － R1)

μ" = (kh derived from Eq.(6.1.1) by using b1) / (kh derived from Eq.(6.1.1) by using b1)
1

Bigger value of these two shall be the column group effect μ1.

μ1＝max（μ1’, μ1" ）

R1 : pitch of improved columnｄ1 /width of improved column ｂ1（＜3）

When ｄ1≧3ｂ1 , ｄ2＜3ｂ2 Fig.6.1.2(b)

μ2＝1－0.3(3－Ｒ2)
R2 : Pitch of improved column ｄ2 /width of improved column ｂ2(＜3)

Whenｄ1＜3ｂ1,ｄ2＜3ｂ2 , Fig. 6.1.1(c)

μ12＝μ1・μ2
 Fig.6.1.2 Reference figure of horizontal ground reaction force factor

c) Calculation of Young’s modulus of improved column

Young’s modulus of improved column Ｅ p may be obtained from design standard
strength Ｆc .
Ｅp＝180Ｆc (ｋＮ/㎡)
When relation of (Young’s modulus/unconfined compressive strength) is obtained
through compressive test to the object improved column, the value shall be estimated
to be Young’s modulus. If deformation is controlled by average Young’s modulus,
calculated deformation derived from Young’s modulus based on design standard
strength shall be bigger than actual. But from the reasons that accuracy of equation to
calculate deformation and deformation in improved column itself is small, above
calculation method is practically available. It is necessary at any rate to examine
accumulative data from now on deformation of improved ground.

d) Comparison of bending stress and allowable stress

Bending stress shall be calculated from load share of improved column in a),
horizontal ground reaction force factor in b) and Young’s modulus of improved column
in c). It shall be recognized that bending stress shall be smaller than allowable stress.
① Calculation of bending moment
Bending moment is necessary to calculate bending stress and it is shown in Eq.(6.1.3).

Ｍd＝max(Ｍmax，Ｍ0)
Ｍmax＝(Ｑp/2β)･ＲMmax
Ｍ0＝(Ｑp/2β)･ＲM0 (6.1.3)
Ｑp : horizontal force to object improved column （ｋＮ）
Ｍd : bigger one of Ｍmax and Ｍ0 (kN･m)
Ｍmax,Ｍ0 : maximum bending moment in ground, and at top of the column （ｋＮ･ｍ）
ＲMmax,ＲMo : Factors of mximum bending moment in ground, and at the top of column
respectively RMmax and RM0 are shown in Table 6.1.2.

β： 4 ｋ h･ b 1/( 4Ｅ p･Ｉ p ） （ｍ-1）

kh : horizontal ground reaction factor （ｋＮ/ｍ3）

ｂ1 : width of improved column to horizontal force（ｍ）
Ｅp : Young’s modulus of improved column （ｋＮ/㎡）
Ｉp : section secondary moment of improved column （ｍ4）
when non-lapping: （π/64）･Ｂ4 (B: diameter of improved column)
when lapping: refer (4)
Factors relating to Ｍmax and Ｍ0 depend on Table.6.1.2. Fixed ratio at column top
αr is 0.25 when there is rigid foundation slab on improved column. This is a factor that
rotation of top portion of foundation column is fixed in some extent by foundation
footing. This factor is used even if the gravel with the thickness of 10 to 20cm is spread
between foundation slab and improved column. When factor is derived from
appropriate test, the value can be used.
As for foundation beam just above improved column, safety of foundation beam shall
be recognized by taking into account moment yielding at the top of improved column.
② Comparison of edge stress and allowable stress by bending moment
Edge stress shall be derived from following procedure and compared with allowable
stress. Examination of edge stress is derived from Eq.(6.1.4) when non-lapping
arrangement(①, ②, ⑤ in Table 6.1.1), and uniform load to foundation base in spite of
lapping arrangement(③, ④).
Table 6.1.2 Factor for column calculation by linear elastic ground reaction force method
Fix degree αｒ＝０．２５（half fixed） Fix degree αｒ＝０．０（free）
Ｚ ＲMmax ＲMo Ｒ1m Ｒyo ＲMmax ＲMo Ｒ1m Ｒyo

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１.４ ０.３０７ ０.２９２ ０.６８５ ２.０２４ ０.５１０ ０.０ ０.５７４ ２.３４１
１.５ ０.３４４ ０.２８０ ０.７１７ １.９５２ ０.５３８ ０.０ ０.６１０ ２.２３９
１.６ ０.３７７ ０.２７０ ０.７４８ １.８９３ ０.５６３ ０.０ ０.６４３ ２.１５９
１.７ ０.４０７ ０.２６２ ０.７７８ １.８４５ ０.５８５ ０.０ ０.６７３ ２.０９８
１.８ ０.４３２ ０.２５６ ０.８０７ １.８０８ ０.６０４ ０.０ ０.７０１ ２.０５１
１.９ ０.４５３ ０.２５２ ０.８３４ １.７７９ ０.６２０ ０.０ ０.７２６ ２.０１８
２.０ ０.４７１ ０.２４９ ０.８５８ １.７５９ ０.６３２ ０.０ ０.７４７ １.９９４
２.１ ０.４８４ ０.２４７ ０.８８０ １.７４４ ０.６４２ ０.０ ０.７６５ １.９７９
２.２ ０.４９４ ０.２４６ ０.８９８ １.７３５ ０.６４９ ０.０ ０.７７９ １.９７０
２.３ ０.５０１ ０.２４６ ０.９１３ １.７３０ ０.６５３ ０.０ ０.７８９ １.９６６
２.４ ０.５０５ ０.２４６ ０.９２５ １.７２８ ０.６５６ ０.０ ０.７９６ １.９６５
２.５ ０.５０８ ０.２４６ ０.９３３ １.７２８ ０.６５７ ０.０ ０.８０１ １.９６７
２.６ ０.５０９ ０.２４７ ０.９３９ １.７２９ ０.６５７ ０.０ ０.８０３ １.９７１
２.７ ０.５０９ ０.２４７ ０.９４２ １.７３２ ０.６５６ ０.０ ０.８０３ １.９７５
２.８ ０.５０７ ０.２４８ ０.９４４ １.７３４ ０.６５５ ０.０ ０.８０２ １.９７９
２.９ ０.５０６ ０.２４８ ０.９４３ １.７３７ ０.６５３ ０.０ ０.８００ １.９８４
３.０ ０.５０４ ０.２４９ ０.９４３ １.７４０ ０.６５２ ０.０ ０.７９８ １.９８８
３.２ ０.５０１ ０.２４９ ０.９３９ １.７４５ ０.６４９ ０.０ ０.７９３ １.９９４
３.４ ０.４９８ ０.２５０ ０.９４４ １.７４８ ０.６４７ ０.０ ０.７９０ １.９９８
３.６ ０.４９６ ０.２５０ ０.９３２ １.７５０ ０.６４５ ０.０ ０.７８７ ２.００１
３.８ ０.４９５ ０.２５０ ０.９３０ １.７５１ ０.６４５ ０.０ ０.７８６ ２.００１
４.０ ０.４９５ ０.２５０ ０.９２８ １.７５１ ０.６４４ ０.０ ０.７８５ ２.００２
４.２ ０.４９５ ０.２５０ ０.９２８ １.７５１ ０.６４４ ０.０ ０.７８５ ２.００１
４.４ ０.４９５ ０.２５０ ０.９２７ １.７５１ ０.６４４ ０.０ ０.７８５ ２.００１
４.６ ０.４９５ ０.２５０ ０.９２７ １.７５０ ０.６４５ ０.０ ０.７８５ ２.０００
４.８ ０.４９５ ０.２５０ ０.９２８ １.７５０ ０.６４５ ０.０ ０.７８５ ２.０００
５.０ ０.４９５ ０.２５０ ０.９２８ １.７５０ ０.６４５ ０.０ ０.７８５ ２.０００
 σmax＝ｑ/ap＋Ｍd/（2Ip/b2）
＝Ｗp/Ａp＋Ｍd/（2Ip/b2）≦allowable compressive stressｆc
σmin＝ｑ/ap－Ｍd/（2Ip/b2） (6.1.4)
＝Ｗp/Ａp－Ｍd/（2Ip/b2）≧allowable tensile stressｆt

σmax,σmin : edge stress at compressive side and tensile side respectively(kN/m2)

ｑ : average stress at foundation base(kN/m2)
Ｗp : vertical load to object improved column(kN)
ｆc,ｆt : allowable compressive stress, and allowable tensile stress, shown in Table 6.1.3
(kN/m2)
ｂ2 : improved width to horizontal force(m)
Ａp : cross sectional area of improved column(m2)
ap : improved ratio
(in case of ⑤ in Table 6.1.1, maximum stress to foundation base ｑmax is used instead
of ｑ ) .
When load of foundation base is non-uniform in lapped arrangement(⑥, ⑦, ⑧ in
Table6.1.1), edge stress shall be calculated at each position as shown in Fig. 6.1.3 and
Fig. 6.1.4 taking into account both maximum bending moment in ground and bending
moment at the top of column. The equation is (6.1.5).

σmax≦ allowable compressive stress ｆc

（6.1.5)
σmin≧ allowable tensional stress ｆt

Stress shall be examined at the edge because stress at the edge is maximum or
minimum when load to foundation base is trapezoid as in Fig. 6.1.4.
Allowable compressive stress and allowable tensile stress are defined to design
standard strength Ｆ c as shown in Table 6.1.3. Ｆ c is value under condition that
compressive stress functions uniformly to whole cross section, but is compared with the
edge stress here. The value shown in Table 6.1.3 will be safety side.
 Vertical stress

Bending stress

Vertical bending stress

Position of max moment At the top of Position of max moment At the top of

in the ground improved column in the ground improved column

Fig.6.1.3 thinking way of stress in lapped arrangement

Fig.6.1.3 Stress in lapped arrangement for Fig.6.1.4for step in
Stress load distribution
lapped at
arrangement
foundation
step load distribution at foundation for trapezoid distribution at foundation

Also, upper value limit of allowable tensile stress is fixed with reason that value of
(tensile strength/unconfined strength) will be smaller proportion to bigger of
unconfined compressive strength. Another reason is that it should not expect much
tensile strength of improved soil. Relation between tensile strength and unconfined
compressive strength is shown in Fig. 6.1.5 and Table 6.1.3. Fixing of Table 6.1.3 seems
to be proper from the figure.
Improved lapping columns resist to external force as one block, but the block must be
checked to bear shearing force described in (2) later. ③ in Table 6.1.1 will be simplified
to ⑦ in the same table with reason that horizontal surface can bear horizontal force.
Also it is possible to calculate independently to horizontal and vertical force.

Table 6.1.3 Allowable compressive stress and allowable tensile stress

Static state Middle scale earthquake
Allowable compressive (1/3)Ｆc (2/3)Ｆc
stress ｆc
0 Smaller absolute value of
Allowable tensile stress (tensile stress must not (-0.2)ｆc or
ｆt occur) (-2/3)ｑutmax

Ｆc：design standard strength，ｑutmax＝300kN/㎡

 Tensile strangth ｓt(ＭＮ/㎡)

Setting line of tensile

strength/compressive stregth

Unconfined compressive strength :ｑｕ(ＭＮ/㎡)

Fig.6.1.5 Relation tensile strength and unconfined compressive strength used in fixing
of allowable tensile stress

Occurrence depth of the maximum bending moment in the ground shall be

calculated by Eq.(6.1.6) as a reference.
１
lm＝ ･ Ｒ lm (6.1.6)
β
Ｒ 1m : factor on occurrence depth of the maximum bending moment in ground
[Table(6.1.2)].

(2) Examination of Shearing Stress

a) Examination method
Shearing stress of improved column shall be checked by Eq.(6.1.7) considering
shape of improved column.
τmax＝κ・τ ＝κ･（Ｑp /Ａp）≦ｆτ (6.1.7)

τmax : maximum shearing stress in section considering shape of column

τ : average shearing stress
ｆτ : allowable shearing stress(6.1.8)
Ｑp : horizontal force to block of improved column(refer Table 6.1.1)
Ａp : area of improved column(neglect improved column outside of foundation base)
κ : shape factor(refer following b))
Allowable bearing stress shall be derived from Eq.(6.1.8).

when static stateｆτ＝1/3･Ｆτ＝1/3･min｛0.3Ｆc+(Ｑp/Ａp)tanφ,0.5Ｆc｝

when middle scale earthquakeｆ τ ＝2/3･ Ｆ τ ＝2/3･min｛0.3Ｆ c+(Ｑ p/Ａ p)tan φ,0.5 Ｆ c ｝
(6.1.8)

Ｆτ : design shearing stress （ｋＮ/㎡）

smaller value : Ｆτ1＝0.3Ｆc 十σn･tanφ or Ｆτ2＝0.5Ｆc

Ｆc : design standard strength （ｋＮ/㎡）

σn : normal stress to shearing section（ｋＮ/㎡）
supposed that normal stress corresponding to horizontal average shearing force
acts to vertical shearing section σn＝（Ｑp/Ａp）
Ｑp : horizontal force to block of improved column(refer Table 6.1.1.) （ｋＮ）
Ａp : area of block of improved column(same above) （㎡）
φ : angle of internal friction(30°)

b) Determination of shape factor

① ｗhen column is non-lapping arrangement(refer Table 6.1.1 ①, ②, ⑤)
In case of non-lapping arrangement, since examination is carried out for one
improved column, supposed that shape is circular, shape factor is κ＝4/3 .
② when column is lapping arrangement and when it is improved as wall type or
block type(refer Table 6.1.1 ④, ⑦, ⑧)
Shearing stress of section X—X’ in general section is
Sx
τｘ－ｘ’＝Ｑ ･
ｂx･Ｉ
Average shearing stress is τ ＝Ｑ/Ａ . Therefore ,shape factor κ is expressed as
(6.1.9)
æ Ｓx ö æ Ｓx ö
κ＝(τｘ-ｘ’)max/τ ＝ çＱ ･ ÷ max／（Ｑ/Ａ）＝ ç ÷ max・Ａ (6.1.9)
è ｂx･Ｉ ø èｂx･Ｉ ø

τｘ－ｘ’： shearing stress in section X—X’ （ｋＮ/㎡）

Ｑ : horizontal force （ｋＮ）
Ａ : area （㎡）
 ｂx : width in section X—X’(refer Fig.6.1.6) （ｍ）
b : width of column, t：width of lapping
ｂL＝ｂ･sinθ，θ＝cos-1(1－t/b)
Ｓx : sectional primary moment section outside of section X—X’ to neutral axis（ｍ3）
Ｉ : sectional secondary moment of whole section （ｍ4）

Since Sx is maximum in neutral axis in general, τ is maximum in this position. In

case of lapping arrangement width in lapped portion ｘ is minimum, and it is
necessary to decide the shape factor considering above fact.

Neutral axis

Fig. 6.1.6 Concept of shape factor

Calculation result of shape factor is shown in Fig.6.1.7 when lapping width ratio
(lapping width t /improved column diameter b) and number of improved column are
variable. When column number is even, lapping position and neutral axis position
coincide, hence shearing stress will be the maximum at this position. When column
number is odd, above both do not coincide and shape factor in lapping portion will be
large. The smaller of even column number and the more of odd column number, shape
factor will be larger.
 Number of
Shape facter

column 2
ditto 3
ditto 4
ditto 5
ditto 6
ditto 7
Shape factor

Lapped width/Column diameter

Fig.6.1.7 Relation between lapped width ratio and shape factor

Table 6.1.4 Shape factor of lapped column (for two columns)

（ lapped width ） / （ improved column 5 10 15 20 25
diameter）
（％）
Shape factor κ 4.1 3.0 2.5 2.2 2.1

The shape factor is shown in Table 6.1.4 for the case of two columns. This is upper
value, and it will be safety side. Lapping width is in general 10 to 20% of column
diameter from work execution and quality of lapping portion point of view.
Fig 6.1.7 will be used in order to obtain accurate shape factor to column number.
In this case, shape factor is case of parallel lapping to horizontal force. At the same
time, shape factor in case of right angle lapping to the horizontal force is smaller
than non-lapping case because only few defects occur at the lapping portion. At any
rate Fig. 6.1.7 is in safety side.
③ When lapping arrangement is improved in grid state
In case of Table 6.1.1③ , shape factor may be derived from Eq.(6.11.9). Also
Eq.(6.1.10) may be used as approximate value for this purpose.(refer Fig.6.1.8)

κ＝κ1 /λ (6.1.10)

λ : ( lapping length) /(column width )

in Fig. 6.1.8 λ＝ｂL /(t/2)
κ1 : shape factor of grid state shown in Fig.6.1.8 of I type section
Shape factor of grid section shown in Fib.6.1.8 (a) shall be replaced to equivalent I
type section shown in (b). τmax will be derived by following equation.

ｄ ＋Ｂ ( Ｄ －ｄ ) /ｔ
2 2 2
３Ｑ
τmax＝ ･ 3 3
2 Ｂ・Ｄ －( Ｂ－ｔ )ｄ

Average shearing strength is calculated by τ＝Ｑ/{Ｂ･Ｄ－ｄ(Ｂ－ｔ)}

(Horizonal force)
(Horizonal force)

(a)grid type section (b)I type section

Fig.6.1.8 Reference figures of shape factor in grid type

Therefore, shape factorκ1 in grid or I type section will be Eq.(6.1.11).

3{Ｂ･Ｄ－ｄ (Ｂ－ｔ )}{ｄ ＋Ｂ (Ｄ －ｄ )/ｔ }

2 2 2
τmax
κ1＝ ＝ (6.1.11)
2{Ｂ･Ｄ －(Ｂ－ｔ ｄ ) }
3 3
τ

Equation (6.1.10) is the shape factor of grid or I type section based on Eq.(6.1.9)
taking into section defect in lapping portion.
④ When wall type arranged right angle to horizontal force
This is a case shown in Fig.6.1.13 (a), improved column is arranged right angle to
horizontal force. Shape factorκ in this case is 4/3 applied correspondingly.
 c) Examination of shearing stress shall be carried out by using finite element
method considering section defects in lapping portion except above method. When
detailed examination is carried out taking into account the effect of peripheral ground,
shearing stress will be calculated smaller than above mention method.

(3) Transformation at the Top of Column (Pile)

Displacement at the top of column (pile) shall be shown in Eq.(6.1.12).
Ｑp
ｙ0＝ 3
Ｒ y0 (6.1.12)
4Ｅ p･Ｉ p･β

ｙo : Displacement at the top of column (pile) （ｍ）

Ｑp : horizontal load to the object column （ｋＮ）

β : 4 ｋ h･ ｂ /(4Ｅ p･ Ｉ p ) （ｍ-1）
1

ｋh : horizontal ground reaction force factor (kN/m3)

ｂ1 : width of improved body in right angle direction to horizontal force (m)
Ｅp : Young’s modulus of improved column
Ｉp : sectional secondary moment of improved column
when non-lapping arrangement （π/64）･Ｂ4 (B is diameter)
when lapping, refer (4)
Ｒy0 : factor on transformation at the top of column (pile) (Table 6,1,2)

(4) Sectional Constant in Case of Lapping Arrangement

Sectional primary and secondary moments of x’—x’ axis after displacement x0 from
x—x axis shall be obtained by following procedures.(refer Fig.6.1.9).

Fig.6.1.9 Cross sectional factor in case of axis movement

 ò
Sectional primary moment S’= （ ｘ－ｘ 0 ）ｄＡ ò
= ｘｄＡ－ｘ 0
òｄＡ =Ｓ－ｘ0･Ａ

Sectional secondary moment I’= （ ｘ－ｘ ò ò ò xｄＡ òｄＡ

2 2 2
0 ） ｄＡ = ｘ ｄＡ－ 2ｘ 0 ＋ｘ 0

2
=Ｉ－2ｘ0･Ｓ＋ x 0 ･Ａ

In case of lapping, sectional constant of lapping arrangement consisting of plural

columns can be obtained from sectional primary moment S, sectional secondary
moment I and area A in parallel and right angle direction to x—x axis. Fig.6.1.10
shows an example consisting of three columns
Table 6.1.5 shows calculation equation of sectional constant, and Table 6.1.6 shows
value of sectional constant in case of column diameter 100 and 60cm. Sectional moment

(a) Lapped in one direction (b) Lapped in two direction

Fig.6.1.10 Shape factor in case of lapping arrangement

Table 6.1.5 Calculation equation of cross sectional factor

No Form Formul

Sectional moment and sectional factor for examination of vertical bearing stress and
and sectional factor for examination of vertical bearing stress and bending stress can
be examined by modified rectangle from round improved column. In this case, area
must be the same. The concept of modified rectangle is shown in Fig.6.1.11.

Improved column(area
Modified rectangle

Table 6.1.6 Cross sectional constant of basic figire

(a)Improved column diameter of 100cm

Lapped width

(b)Improved column diameter of 60cm

Lapped width
(5) Design of Grid and Wall Types (mainly for continuous foundation)
In case of Table 6.1.1 ⑥, when L/b (shown in Fig.6.1.12) becomes large, since there
is difference in horizontal resistance to improved column between parallel and right
angle to function force, it is difficult to judge that improved column ABCD behaves as
a body. The following way of thinking will be the safe side.

Horizontal force

Fig.6.1.11 Reference figure of grid state

(a) Case1 (b) Case2

Fig.6.1.12 Design concept in grid state

① Case of Fig.6.1.12 (a) case 1

Stress shall be checked to the shared load by setting the domain of improved column
according to column arrangement for right angle improved column to force (dark
portion in the Fig.). Improved column in parallel to force shall bear all the horizontal
force corresponding to column load above improved column. Vertical load shall be load
distribution on foundation footing base.
② Case of Fig.61.12 (b) case 2
Horizontal force shall be born by improved column in parallel direction. Vertical load
shall be load distribution on foundation footing base, and it shall be born by parallel
and right angle improved column to force. The state as Fig.6.1.12 is arisen when
improvement is carried out under continuous foundation.