Block Shear Failure PDF

University of Alberta
Department of Civil &

Environmental Engineering
Structural Engineering Report No. 278
END TEAR-OUT FAILURES OF

BOLTED TENSION MEMBERS
by
Qing Cai
and
Robert G. Driver
January 2008
End Tear-out Failures of Bolted Tension Members
by
Qing Cai
and
Robert G. Driver
Structural Engineering Report 278
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
January 2008
ABSTRACT
Relatively few tests for bolt tear-out failure in connections of steel tension members have
been conducted, and significantly fewer investigations among them were on sections
other than flat plates. Moreover, many of these tests used one or two bolts rather than
being typical of actual structural connections for tension members. A reliability analysis
of design equations in current standards in North America using test data collected from
the literature indicates that these standards give highly conservative predictions and
inconsistent reliability indices. A better understanding of bolt tear-out failure is required
so that these design equations can be improved.
An experimental study that included a total of 50 full-scale connection tests on
wide-flange shapes was conducted to investigate the strength and behaviour of
connections that fail by bolt tear-out. The principal variables considered in the tests were
bolt gauge, the number of bolt rows, and end distance. Based on the results of these tests
and those from the literature, design recommendations are presented that provide accurate
predictions of capacity as well as a uniform reliability.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research project was funded by the Steel Structures Education Foundation and the
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. Support from Waiward
Steel Fabricators Ltd. in the form of a donation of 32 test specimens designed by
Waiward engineer Logan Callele is gratefully acknowledged.
The authors thank Mr. Richard Helfrich, a technician in the I.F. Morrison Structural
Engineering Laboratory, for his great help in successfully conducting 50 tests in a short
period of time. Mr. Andrew Neilson, a graduate student in the department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, also helped with the experimental work, especially the
ancillary tests.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................1
1.1 General ..............................................................................................................1
1.2 Objectives and Scopes ......................................................................................2
1.3 Units ..................................................................................................................3
1.4 Organization of Chapters ..................................................................................3
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...............................................................................................5

2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................5
2.2 Bolt Tear-Out Failure in Bolted Connections ...................................................5
2.2.1 Udagawa and Yamada (1998) ............................................................5
2.2.2 Kim and Yura (1999) .........................................................................6
2.2.3 Aalberg and Larsen (2001 and 2002) .................................................6
2.2.4 Puthli and Fleischer (2001) ................................................................7
2.2.5 Rex and Easterling (2003) .................................................................8
2.2.6 Udagawa and Yamada (2004) ............................................................8
2.3 Combined Modes and Atypical Failures in Bolted Connections ......................9
2.3.1 Kato (2003b) ......................................................................................9
2.3.2 Epstein and Stamberg (2002) ...........................................................10
2.4 Design Standards and Capacity Equation .......................................................10
2.4.1 CSA-S16-01 Block Shear and Net Section Rupture Equations .......11
2.4.2 AISC 2005 Block Shear and Net Section Rupture Equations .........12
2.4.3 Unified Block Shear Equation .........................................................13
2.4.4 CSA-S16-01 Bolt Shear and Bearing Equations .............................14
2.4.5 AISC 2005 Bolt Shear and Bearing Equations ................................16
2.5 Summary .........................................................................................................17
3. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM ...................................................................................20

3.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................20
3.2 Test Objectives ................................................................................................20
3.3 Description of Test Specimens .......................................................................21
3.3.1 Specimen Designations ....................................................................21
3.3.2. Connection Geometry and Parametric Variables ............................21
3.4 Test Set-Up .....................................................................................................23
3.5 Instrumentation ...............................................................................................24
3.6 Ancillary Tests ................................................................................................25
4. TEST PROCEDURES AND RESULTS ......................................................................43

4.1 Test Procedures ...............................................................................................43
4.2 Test Descriptions and Results .........................................................................44
4.2.1 Specimens A1G1, A2G1, A7G1, and A8G2 ...................................44
4.2.2 Specimens A3R1, A9R1 and A4R2, A10R2 ...................................44
4.2.3 Specimens A5E1, A11E1 and A6E2, A12E2 ..................................45
4.2.4 Specimens B1G1 and B2G2 ............................................................46
4.2.5 Specimens B3R1 and B4R2 .............................................................47
4.2.6 Specimens B5E1 and B6E2 … .........................................................48
4.2.7 Specimens C1E1 to C16E6 ..............................................................48
4.2.8 Specimens C17E1 to C32E6 ............................................................50
4.3 Discussions of Test Results ............................................................................50
4.3.1 Shear Tears versus Tensile Splitting Cracks ....................................50
4.3.2 Series A Tests (A1 to A12) ..............................................................51
4.3.3 Series B Tests (B1 to B6) ................................................................52
4.3.4 Series C Tests (C1 to C32) ..............................................................53
4.3.4.1 Series C Tests with Thicker Webs (C1 to C16) ................53
4.3.4.2 Series C Tests with Thinner Webs (C17 to C32) ..............55
4.4 Summary .........................................................................................................57
5. RELIABILITY ANALYSES ........................................................................................82

5.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................82
5.2 Material Factor ................................................................................................83
5.3 Geometry Factor .............................................................................................84
5.4 Discretization Factor .......................................................................................85
5.5 Professional Factor ..........................................................................................85
5.6 Reliability Indices ...........................................................................................87
5.7 Summary .........................................................................................................87
6. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................93

6.1 Summary .........................................................................................................93
6.2 Conclusions .....................................................................................................94
6.3 Recommendations ...........................................................................................95
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................97
APPENDIX A: Published Test Results ..........................................................................100
APPENDIX B: Test-to-Predicted Ratios of Published Test Results ..............................110
APPENDIX C: Load vs. Deformation Curves for Specimens in Series C .....................116
APPENDIX D: Photos of Series C failed Connections ..................................................129

LIST OF TABLES
Table 3-1: Specimen Designations ...................................................................................27

Table 3-2: Sectional Properties for Series A, B, and C ....................................................28
Table 3-3a: As-Built Web Connection Dimensions for Series A, B, and C .....................30
Table 3-3b: As-Built Flange Connection Dimensions for Series B ..................................32
Table 3-4: Ancillary Test Results .....................................................................................33
Table 4-1a: Series A and B Test Results Summary ..........................................................58
Table 4-1b: Series C Test Results Summary ....................................................................60
Table 4-2: Summary of Test-to-Predicted Ratios of Series A and Series B .....................61
Table 4-3: Summary of Test-to-Predicted Ratios of Series C ..........................................62
Table 5-1: Parameters for Reliability Analyses ................................................................89
Table 5-2: Professional Factors Provided by Design Equations .......................................89
Table 5-3: Reliability Indices Provided by Design Equations ..........................................90
Table A-1: Published Test Results of Bolt Tear-Out Failure .........................................101
Table A-2: Published Test Results of Combined Failures ..............................................108
Table A-3: Published Test Results of Alternate Block Shear Failure in Tees ................109
Table B-1: Test-to-Predicted Ratios of Published Test Results.......................................111
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1: Wide-Flange Connection with Outside Flange Splice Plates Only .................4
Figure 1-2: Wide-Flange Connection with Inside and Outside Flange Splice Plates .........4
Figure 2-1: Definitions of Dimensional Parameters .........................................................18
Figure 2-2: Combined Failures in Wide-Flange Shape ....................................................18
Figure 2-3: Alternate Block Shear (ABS) Path in Tees ....................................................19
Figure 3-1: Nominal Dimensions of Specimens in Series A ............................................35
Figure 3-2: Nominal Dimensions of Specimens in Series B ............................................36
Figure 3-3: Nominal Dimensions of Specimens in Series C ............................................37
Figure 3-4: Test Set-Up for Series A ................................................................................38
Figure 3-5: Test Set-Up for Series B ................................................................................39
Figure 3-6: Instrumentation (LVDTs) of Series A Specimens .........................................40
Figure 3-7: Instrumentation (LVDTs) of Series B Specimens .........................................41
Figure 3 8: Photos of Instrumentation (LVDTs) for Series A, B, and C ..........................42
Figure 4-1: Load vs. Deformation Curve for A1G1 .........................................................64
Figure 4-5: Load vs. Deformation Curve for A3R1 .........................................................66
Figure 4-8: Load vs. Deformation Curve for A10R2 .......................................................67
Figure 4-9: Load vs. Deformation Curve for A5E1 ..........................................................68
Figure 4-10: Load vs. Deformation Curve for A11E1 ......................................................68
Figure 4-11: Load vs. Deformation Curve for A6E2 ........................................................69
Figure 4-12: Load vs. Deformation Curve for A12E2 ......................................................69
Figure 4-13: Load vs. Deformation Curve for B1G1 .......................................................70
Figure 4-14: Load vs. Deformation Curve for B2G2 .......................................................70
Figure 4-15: Load vs. Deformation Curve for B3R1 ........................................................71
Figure 4-16: Load vs. Deformation Curve for B4R2 ........................................................71
Figure 4-17: Load vs. Deformation Curve for B5E1 ........................................................72
Figure 4-18: Load vs. Deformation Curve for B6E2 ........................................................72
Figure 4-19: Typical Specimen Failures in Series C (thicker web) ..................................73
Figure 4-20: Typical Bolt Failures in Series C .................................................................74
Figure 4-21: Typical Specimen Failures in Series C (thinner web) ..................................74
Figure 4-22: Typical Shear Tear and Tensile Splitting Crack in Series A .......................75
Figure 4-23: Typical Shear Tears in Series B ...................................................................75
Figure 4-24: Ductility at a Hole ........................................................................................75
Figure 4-25: Series A failed Connections .........................................................................76
Figure 4-26: Series B failed Connections .........................................................................78
Figure 4-27: Series C Traditional Failure Modes .............................................................81
Figure 4-28: Series C Combination Failure Modes ..........................................................81
Figure 5-1: Test vs. Predicted Capacities (62 Specimens) ................................................91
Figure 5-2: Test vs. Predicted Capacities (127 Specimens) .............................................92
Figure C-1: Load vs. Deformation Curves for C1E1a ....................................................117
Figure C-2: Load vs. Deformation Curves for C2E1b ....................................................117
Figure C-3: Load vs. Deformation Curves for C3E1c ....................................................117
Figure C-10: Load vs. Deformation Curves for C10E4a ................................................120
Figure C-11: Load vs. Deformation Curves for C11E4b ................................................120
Figure C-12: Load vs. Deformation Curves for C12E4c ................................................120
Figure C-16: Load vs. Deformation Curves for C16E6 ..................................................122
Figure C-32: Load vs. Deformation Curves for C32E6 ..................................................128
Figure D-1: E1 Group Failed Connections with Thicker Webs .....................................130
Figure D -2: E2 Group Failed Connections with Thicker Webs ....................................131
Figure D -6: E6 Failed Connection with Thicker Web ...................................................135
Figure D -7: E1 Group Failed Connections with Thinner Webs ....................................136
Figure D -10: E4 Group Failed Connections with Thinner Webs ..................................139
Figure D -11: E5 Group Failed Connections with Thinner Webs ..................................140
Figure D -12: E6 Failed Connection with Thinner Web .................................................141
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Ab = nominal cross-sectional area of bolt (mm2)
Agv = gross shear area (mm2)
An = net area (mm2)
Ane = effective net area (mm2)
Ant = net tension area (mm2)
Anv = net shear area (mm2)
db = bolt diameter (mm)
do = bolt hole diameter (mm)
e1 = end distance (mm)

e2 = edge distance (mm)
Fnv = nominal shear stress capacity (MPa)
Fu = ultimate stress (MPa)
Fy = yield stress (MPa)
g = gauge (transverse spacing between bolt lines) (mm)

Lc = clear end distance
m = number of shear planes

n = number of bolts in a connection
Pr = factored ultimate connection resistance (kN)
p = pitch (longitudinal spacing between bolt rows) (mm)
t = flange or plate thickness (mm)
U = shear lag factor
Vd = coefficient of variation of the discretization factor
VG = coefficient of variation of the geometry factor
VM = coefficient of variation of the material factor
VP = coefficient of variation of the professional factor

VR = coefficient of variation of resistance
Vr = bolt shear strength
w = web thickness (mm)

αR = separation variable for resistance
β = reliability index
ρd = bias coefficient of the discretization factor
ρG = bias coefficient of the geometry factor
ρM = bias coefficient of the material factor
ρP = bias coefficient of the professional factor
ρR = bias coefficient of resistance
Φβ = modification factor for resistance factor
φ = resistance factor
φb = bolt shear resistance factor
φbr = bolt bearing resistance factor

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Bolt tear-out is a connection failure mode that has not been well understood, nor has it
been clearly addressed in current design standards in North America. It can be the
governing failure mode for bolted connections that have a relatively small end distance
and pitch. Generally, for bolt tear-out failure, shear tearing occurs along the two shear
planes at the sides of a bolt, and there is no tension fracture in the block of material that
tears out since these two shear planes are only the diameter of the bolt hole apart.
However, test observations of single bolt connections have indicated that the final
fracture path could be the aforementioned two shear tears or one central splitting crack,
depending on the length of the end distance (Aalberg and Larsen, 2001). An investigation
is needed to clarify the number of shear planes that contribute to the connection strength
in order to propose a valid design method.
In bolted connections, bolt tear-out failures are generally associated with connections that
have a relatively small end distance and pitch, while having a comparatively large edge
distance and gauge to avoid failure in net section rupture or block shear. Bearing is
another failure mode that is considered to constitute failure by the excessive deformation
of material behind the bolt, regardless of whether the connection has reserve strength.
These two failure modes are closely related and there is not a clear line to distinguish
between them. As the end distance increases, the failure mode would gradually be
expected to change from bolt tear-out to bearing (Kim and Yura, 1999). Ultimately, in
either case the bolts tear out if the applied load is maintained to final collapse.
A comprehensive literature review indicates that only a limited number of connection

tests on bolt tear-out failure have been conducted, and the majority of them used flat
plates and only one or two bolts. For plates, the number of bolts that can be used in test
connections is limited because connections having a larger number of bolts are unlikely
to fail in bolt tear-out unless the plates are wide enough to avoid other failure modes,
such as block shear or net section rupture. In spite of the fact that gusset plates are
commonly used in steel structural connections to transfer loads, the members themselves,
which are often rolled shapes, must also be checked for this type of failure. W-Shapes as
1
structural members acting principally in tension are commonly used in large trusses and
in frames as bracing members, and larger groups of bolts are usually required for such
members. Figures 1-1 and 1-2 show typical splice connections of wide flange shapes in a
web diagonal and top chord, respectively, of a pedway truss at the Royal Alexandra
Hospital in Edmonton, Alberta. Due to the insufficiency of test data on shapes available
from the literature, additional full-scale connection tests are required in order to
investigate the mechanism of bolt tear-out failure.
1.2 Objectives and Scopes

The main objectives of this research project are to investigate the strength and behaviour
of connections failing by bolt tear-out, or a combination of modes that includes bolt
tear-out, and the effects of connection variables on the behaviour.
Other objectives are as follows:
• Collect from the literature and analyse test data on bolt tear-out failure for different
types of sections and connection configurations from previous research projects;
• Conduct a number of full-scale tests on wide-flange shapes to examine closely the

strength and behaviour of connections in tension members failing by bolt tear-out or
combination failures that involve bolt tear-out (Objectives of the three individual test
series conducted as part of this research are outlined in Chapter 3.);
• Evaluate the accuracy and suitability of current design equations in North American
design standards for bolt end tear-out failure and, if necessary, propose an alternative
design approach that provides accurate predictions and a consistent level of
reliability; and
• Present design recommendations based on the laboratory test results that unify the net
section rupture, block shear failure, and bolt tear-out failure modes.
2
1.3 Units
The units used in this report follow the SI system except where common shop practice is
to use imperial units, such as in the layout of the bolt holes and the bolt diameters.
1.4 Organization of Chapters

This report contains six chapters. Chapter 2 reviews previously-conducted research
projects on bolt tear-out and bearing failure and, using the test data collected from the
literature, compares the accuracy of several design equations for predicting connection
capacity. Chapter 3 describes the details of the experimental program, including test
specimen geometry, the test set-up, instrumentation, and material properties. Chapter 4
discusses test procedures and test results. Discussions of the test results for each group of
specimens are also presented. A reliability analysis of the test results is presented in
Chapter 5. Finally, conclusions and design recommendations are drawn in Chapter 6.
Appendices A and B present, respectively, the details of test results collected from the
literature and test-to-predicted ratios calculated using the design equations considered.
Load vs. deformation curves and photos of the failed connections for specimens in
series C are presented in Appendices C and D, respectively.
3
Figure 1-1: Wide-Flange Connection with Outside Flange Splice Plates Only
(Photograph courtesy of R. G. Driver)
Figure 1-2: Wide-Flange Connection with Inside and Outside Flange Splice Plates
(Photograph courtesy of R. G. Driver)
4
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter describes recent experimental research projects on bolted connections that
were conducted to investigate the failure modes of either bolt tear-out or bearing. As this
is an extension of previous research at the University of Alberta on block shear failure
(Franchuk et al., 2002; Huns et al., 2002), also included for completeness are tests of
flange-connected Tees that failed in block shear that were not considered in the previous
studies. Ultimately, it is desired to unify the procedures for designing for block shear,
bolt tear-out, and net section rupture due to their analogous behaviours. Figure 2-1 shows
definitions of dimensional parameters used hereafter in this report.
2.2 Bolt Tear-Out Failure in Bolted Connections

2.2.1 Udagawa and Yamada (1998)
In order to investigate the influence of bolt arrangement on the ultimate tensile strength
of connections loaded in tension, a total of 219 gusset plates were tested by Udagawa and
Yamada (1998), and 47 of them failed in the bolt tear-out failure mode. Three grades of
steel were used in the tests, which had nominal tensile strengths of 400 MPa, 590 MPa, or
780 MPa. The nominal thickness of the plates was 12 mm. The detailed information is
listed in Appendix A.
The tests covered a wide variety of bolt layouts. For the 47 specimens that failed in bolt
tear-out, the number of bolts in the direction parallel to the applied load (i.e., number of
bolt lines) was either one or two and the number of bolts perpendicular to the applied
load (i.e., number of bolt rows) ranged from two to four. Other variables were end
distance, edge distance, and gauge, while plate thickness, bolt diameter, and pitch were
taken as fixed parameters.
None of the test specimens met both the minimum end/edge distance and pitch
requirements prescribed by North American design standards. Bolts used in the tests were
16 mm in diameter, which are somewhat smaller than commonly-used structural bolts.
Even with such small bolts, the 40 mm pitch, which is 2.5d b , where d b is the nominal
bolt diameter, still violated the minimum requirement of 2.7 d b by 7.4% and the
5
recommended minimum of 3.0d b by 16.7%. The end distances for the specimens varied
from 15.2 mm to 40.6 mm, and the method of cutting the plates was not determined
conclusively, as the research was reported in Japanese. The minimum end/edge distance
requirements for 16 mm bolts are 28 mm for sheared edges and 22 mm for rolled, sawn,
or gas-cut edges. In addition, CSA-S16-01 also requires that the end distance not be less
than 1.5d b for members having one or two bolts in a bolt line.
Conclusions were drawn by the authors based on the test results, but they cannot be
discussed here since the original paper is written in Japanese.
2.2.2 Kim and Yura (1999)

This experimental study focused on the effects of end distance and bolt spacing (pitch) on
bearing strength for one or two bolts in a single line parallel to the applied load. Two
different types of steel, one with a high Fu / Fy ratio and the other with a low Fu / Fy
ratio, where Fu and Fy are the ultimate and yield strengths, respectively, were used in
the tests. The nominal thickness of the plates was 5 mm and the width of the plates was
selected to be wide enough to avoid rupture on the net section. The variable for the
one-bolt connections was end distance, while for the two-bolt connections both end
distance and pitch were varied. A total of 19 steel plates were tested in lap connections,
and nine of them met both the minimum end/edge distance and pitch requirements
specified in North America design standards. A detailed description of the connections is
listed in Appendix A.
The tests showed that the bolt tear-out strength was more affected by the ultimate stress
rather than the yield stress of the connected material, and deformation was influenced
more by the end distance than by the Fu / Fy ratio when end tear-out failure was ensured.
2.2.3 Aalberg and Larsen (2001; 2002)

Two experimental studies were performed on bolted steel plates to determine bearing
strength, wherein one had 16 single-bolt connections (Aalberg and Larsen, 2001) and the
other had 24 two-bolt connections (Aalberg and Larsen, 2002). The plate thickness was
6
5 mm and the connection geometry of the one- and two-bolt connections of Kim and
Yura (1999) were used. The width of specimens was chosen to ensure connection failure
would be by bolt tear-out, and the variables were end distance and pitch. For the one-bolt
connections, the clear end distance was varied from 0.5d b to 2.0d b in 0.5d b increments,
while for the two-bolt connections, the clear end distance was either 0.5d b or 1.5d b and
the clear pitch was 1.0d b , 2.0d b , or 3.0d b A total of 19 specimens met both the
minimum end/edge distance and pitch requirements specified in North American
standards. Three grades of steel with minimum yield strengths of 355 MPa, 700 MPa, and
1100 MPa were used in the tests. The detailed information is listed in Appendix A.
Observations of the final location of fracture were made from the tests. For small end
distances, shear fracture took place along the two sides of the bolt hole (a bolt diameter
apart), while for larger end distances, a tensile crack started at the free edge of the
specimen within the region in front of the bolt and finally the specimen failed by the
so-called “splitting action of the bolt”.
2.2.4 Puthli and Fleischer (2001)

A series of 25 tests on relatively thick plates (17.5 mm) was carried out on bolted
connections that had two M27 bolts, with corresponding 30 mm bolt holes aligned
perpendicular to the applied load (i.e., two bolt lines and one bolt row). The end distance
was chosen as 36 mm according to the minimum allowable limit of Eurocode 3 (1992),
which is 1.2 times the hole diameter. However, this fixed end distance violates the
minimum end distance requirement of CSA-S16-01 which is 1.5d b by 11.1%.
Variables in the tests were edge distance, bolt spacing (gauge), and plate width. As
expected, relatively small edge distances combined with a small gauge resulted in net
section rupture, while relatively small edge distances with a large gauge or large edge
distances with a small gauge resulted in block shear failure. Only relatively large edge
distances and gauges resulted in bearing failure. Nine out of the 25 specimens failed in
bearing, thus ultimately failed in bolt tear-out. A detailed description of the connections
is listed in Appendix A.
7
Conclusions were made based on the test results. Tests showed that the reduction of
bearing resistance for edge distances or/and gauges less than the minimum requirements
in Eurocode 3 (1992) may not be necessary. Reduced minimum edge distance and gauge
requirements were recommended.
2.2.5 Rex and Easterling (2003)

Rex and Easterling (2003) conducted 46 single bolt bearing tests in order to examine lap
plate connection behaviour. For the 20 tests that ultimately failed in bolt tear-out, test
variables included end distance (varied from 25 mm to 51 mm), plate thickness (6.5 mm
and 9.5 mm), plate width (114 mm and 127 mm), bolt diameter (22 mm and 25 mm), and
edge conditions (sheared or sawn). Material properties also varied ( Fy varied from
299 MPa to 414 MPa, and Fu varied from 439 MPa to 690 MPa).
A model for approximating the load–deformation behaviour associated with plate bearing
was developed in the research project.
2.2.6 Udagawa and Yamada (2004)

In order to investigate the effects of bolt hole arrangement and end distance of bolted
connections on ultimate strength and failure mode, a total of 42 tests were conducted on
channel sections, and five of them failed by bolt tear-out. Each of these five test
specimens had only one bolt line in the web, and the number of bolt rows varied from
two to four. Two different sizes of high strength bolt—M16 and M20—were used. The
bolt pitch in these five specimens was 2.5d b , which slightly violates the minimum
requirement of 2.7d b specified in the North American design standards. Although the
end distances used in the program varied from 2.5d b to 4.5d b , the five specimens that
failed in bolt tear-out all had the smallest value of end distance. A detailed description of
the connections is listed in Appendix A.
Design equations with a series of semi-empirical strength coefficients for different failure
modes were proposed based on the test results. For bolt tear-out failure, the prediction
equation was based on the five one-line bolt tests. The bolt tear-out capacity is calculated
8
from the net shear area and the web tensile strength multiplied by a shear strength
coefficient. The shear strength coefficient was a function of the ratio of connection length
to the bolt diameter, and its proposed value varied from 0.50 to 0.46 for two bolt rows to
four bolt rows.
2.3 Combined Modes and Atypical Failures in Bolted Connections

Typical failure modes for a steel tension member with bolted connections include net
section rupture, gross section yielding, block shear, bolt tear-out, and bearing. However,
there are connection failures that do not necessarily fit into one of the above mentioned
categories.
For a wide-flange shape that is connected through both the web and flanges, failure
involves both of these elements, and the web and flanges do not necessarily fail in the
same mode. For example, the web bolts could tear-out and the flanges could exhibit block
shear failure, as shown in Figure 2-2(a). Alternatively, the web and flanges could all fail
in multi-block shear, as shown in Figure 2-2(b). These and other potential combined
failure modes are demonstrated in more detail in Kato (2003b).
A previously undocumented failure mode observed in Tees connected only by their

flanges was termed “alternate block shear” (ABS) failure by Epstein and Stamberg
(2002). This atypical failure path is similar to traditional block shear of the flanges except
that the shear plane develops in the stem instead of the flanges.
2.3.1 Kato (2003b)

Kato (2003b) reported the results of 15 tests that were conducted by Udagawa (1998) on
high-strength bolted joints of H-to-H shapes. These wide-flange shapes were connected
by both the web and flanges. The number of bolt lines in the web was either three or four,
while the number of bolt rows was one or two. There was only one bolt line in each
flange, and the number of bolt rows was either two or three. Five of the specimens, which
all had only one row of bolts in the web, failed in a combination of bolt tear-out in the
web and block shear in the flanges, while another seven specimens, which had either one
or two bolt rows in the web, failed in multi-block shear in the web and each flange. The
9
remaining three specimens failed by net section rupture. The detailed information is listed
in Appendix A.
Due to the difficulty of obtaining the original Japanese paper by Udagawa, nominal
values of the cross-sectional properties and material properties were preliminarily used to
analyze the test results, but the results were excluded from the final data pool since it
would not give reliable results if assumed values were used to do the reliability analysis.
Kato (2003a) had developed an analysis method to predict the tensile strength and rupture
modes for flat plates in his previous work. Kato (2003b) applied the method to shapes by
transforming shapes into equivalent flat plates. Equations based on this method, with
parameters obtained from the test results, were derived.
2.3.2 Epstein and Stamberg (2002)

A failure mode observed in Tees connected by bolts only through their flanges by Epstein
and Stamberg (2002) was termed the alternate block shear failure path, as depicted in
Figure 2-3. This failure is similar to traditional block shear except that it has only one
shear plane in the Tee stem instead of two shear planes in the flanges adjacent to the lines
of bolts. The tension fracture involved the entire flange and resulted in rupture of a single
block of material. Variables in the test program were load eccentricity with respect to the
centroid, which was influenced by the stem length of the Tees, flange and stem
thicknesses, bolt gauge, and number of bolt rows. As a result of changing the variables,
the mode of failure transitioned from net section rupture to the alternate block shear path.
Fourteen out of 50 specimens failed in ABS, while the others failed in net section rupture.
The detailed information is listed in Appendix A.
Test results indicated that as the eccentricity increased or/and the connection length
decreased, the efficiency of the connection decreased.
2.4 Design Standards and Capacity Equation

There is no design equation in the current design standards in North America given
explicitly for bolt tear-out failure, although the CISC Handbook of Steel Construction
(CISC 2006) provides a design example using the block shear equations for bolt tear-out
10
failure. This approach is clearly based on the assumption that bolt tear-out failure is a
type of block shear failure, but without the tension component. Due to the desire to unify
these two modes along with the net section rupture mode, equations for both block shear
failure and net section rupture are presented below.
2.4.1 CSA-S16-01 Block Shear and Net Section Rupture Equations

The CSA-S16-01 (CSA, 2001) design equations for block shear are based on the
assumption that the available strength is the sum of the strengths along the tension plane
and the shear plane(s). The block shear capacity in tension members is taken as the lesser
of:
Pr = φAnt Fu + 0.60φAgv Fy [2-1]
Pr = φAnt Fu + 0.60φAnv Fu [2-2]

where:
Pr is the factored ultimate connection resistance;
φ is the resistance factor with a value of 0.9;
Ant is the net tension area;
Agv is the gross shear area;
Anv is the net shear area.;
Fy is the material yield strength; and
Fu is the material ultimate strength.
Equation [2-1] applies when the net tension area reaches the ultimate tensile strength and
the gross shear area reaches the yield shear strength. This phenomenon has been observed
and proved by many researchers (e.g., Franchuk et al., 2003). However, Equation [2-2],
representing the development of the ultimate capacities of both the net tension and net
shear areas, is not supported by test observations. On the contrary, experimental evidence
(e.g., Huns et al., 2002) showed that tension fracture occurs before shear fracture and the
ductility of materials in tension is inadequate to allow the shear ultimate stress to be
reached. A load drop accompanied tension fracture and thereafter only the shear planes
11
carried the load. A slight increase in load was then observed as the shear planes continued
to develop, but it never exceeds the peak load at tension fracture. This indicated that the
shear stress has not reached ultimate shear stress at the peak. By the time the shear stress
eventually reaches its ultimate value, the tension plane has already fractured and the peak
load has passed.
Although design equations for bolt tear-out are not explicitly expressed in CSA-S16-01,
the block shear equations can implicitly be used for this purpose. This means that the
failure path consists of a pair of shear planes at the sides of each bolt as long as the end
distance and pitch meet the minimum end/edge distance and pitch requirements. Since
there is no tension plane in this case, Equations [2-1] and [2-2] become (the lesser of):
Pr = 0.60φAgv Fy [2-3]
Pr = 0.60φAnv Fu [2-4]
Currently, CSA-S16-01 provides a design equation for net section rupture as follows:
Pr = 0.85φAne Fu [2-5]
where:
Ane is the effective net area reduced for shear lag.
When fasteners transmit loads to every cross-sectional element efficiently (i.e., without
significant shear lag effects), then Ane = An , where An is net area. Otherwise, a shear lag
factor from 0.6 to 0.9 is applied to An in order to obtain Ane .
2.4.2 AISC 2005 Block Shear and Net Section Rupture Equations
The AISC LRFD Specification (AISC 2005) design equation for block shear failure is, in
effect, identical to CSA-S16-01. It also assumes that the ultimate capacity of the tension
plane can be reached on the net area and takes the concomitant shear plane capacity as
0.6 Fy Agv , not to exceed 0.6 Fu Anv . It can be expressed for tension members as follows:
Pr = φ [ Ant Fu + 0.6 Anv Fu ] ≤ φ [ Ant Fu + 0.6 Agv Fy ] [2-6]
12
and the AISC 2005 design equation for tensile rupture in the net section is as follows:
Pr = φAne Fu [2-7]
where:
φ is the resistance factor and is taken as 0.75 (LRFD) for both block shear and
tensile rupture; and
Ane = AnU [2-8]

where:
U is the shear lag factor.
2.4.3 Unified Block Shear Equation

Based on a large database of experimental results from the literature, Kulak and Grondin
(2001) observed that equations existing at that time were highly inconsistent in predicting
the capacities of connections failing in block shear. To address this deficiency, Driver
et al. (2006) proposed a single unified block shear equation that has been shown to
provide excellent results for a variety of member and connection types failing in block
shear, as well as consistent reliabilities. It represents the observation from tests that
rupture on the net tension area occurs after yielding has taken place on the gross shear
plane, but prior to shear rupture. Based on the test results of 42 gusset plate specimens,
Hardash and Bjorhovde (1985) concluded that the ultimate shear stress on the gross shear
area was appropriate for short connections, while the tendency is to approach the shear
yield stress for long connections. Furthermore, they also concluded that the shear stress
distribution is not uniform; it depends on the particular connection geometry and
material. The authors recommended taking this into account by considering interpolation
between the yield and ultimate shear stress. The effective shear stress in the unified
equation is simply taken as the average of the shear yield and shear ultimate stresses to
reflect this fact. For tension members with symmetrical blocks, it takes the following
form:
13
⎛ Fy + Fu ⎞
Pr = φAnt Fu + φAgv ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ [2-9]
⎝ 2 3 ⎠
where:
Pr is the factored ultimate connection resistance; and
φ is the resistance factor, proposed to be taken as 0.75 for block shear.
The unified block shear equation can be used for bolt tear-out failure by simply dropping
the tension component, since no tension fracture is involved. The unified equation then
becomes:
⎛ Fy + Fu ⎞
Pr = φAgv ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ [2-10]
⎝ 2 3 ⎠
The unified block shear equation can also be used for net section rupture by using the
tension component only. The unified equation is consistent in form with both
CSA-S16-01 (noting that 0.85φ in CSA-S16-01 is approximately equal to the proposed
resistance factor for the unified equation of 0.75) and AISC 2005 (where the resistance
factor is also 0.75):
Pr = φAnt Fu [2-11]
A shear lag factor must be applied if the connection configuration is such that shear lag is
significant.
In conclusion, it is postulated that the unified block shear equation can be adopted for a
truly unified equation that could be used for block shear, net section rupture, and bolt
tear-out failures. Sufficient evidence for the use of the unified equation for block shear
failure and net section rupture already exists and in this research project it is evaluated for
use also with the bolt tear-out failure mode.
2.4.4 CSA-S16-01 Bolt Shear and Bearing Equations

In order to predict the strengths of the connections in this research that involve bolt shear
and bolt bearing failure, the relevant existing design equations are utilized. As such, the
14
design equations in the Canadian standard are introduced in this section, and those in the
American standard in the next section.
In Canadian standard S16-01 (CSA. 2001), the shear strength of a group of bolts, Vr , is
calculated using the following equation:
Vr = 0.60φb mnAb Fu [2-12]

where:
φb is the resistance factor and is taken as 0.80;

m is the number of shear planes;
n is the total number of bolts in the connection; and
Ab is the nominal cross-sectional area of the bolt.
When the bolt threads are intercepted by a shear plane, the combined shear resistance of
the bolts in a joint is taken as 0.70Vr . Therefore, the shear strength of a single bolt in
double-shear, with its threads in the shear planes, can be obtained as follows:
Vr = 2 × 0.42φb Fu Ab [2-13]
In CSA-S16-01, the bearing strength, Br , for bolted connections is given as:
Br = 3φbr td b nFu [2-14]
where:
φbr is the bearing resistance factor and is taken as 0.67; and
t is the thickness of the connected material.
In order to use Equation [2-14], the minimum end/edge distance and pitch requirements
stated in CSA-S16-01 must be met. It may not seem reasonable for the bearing capacity
of end bolts to be insensitive to the end distance, as implied by Equation [2-14].
However, the bolt tear-out strength equations usually govern for connections with small
end distances.
15
2.4.5 AISC 2005 Bolt Shear and Bearing Equations
In the AISC Specification (AISC. 2005), the shear strength of a bolt, Vr , is calculated
using the following equation:
Vr = φb Fnv Ab [2-15]
where:
φb is taken as 0. 75; and

Fnv is the nominal shear stress capacity.
When threads are not excluded from the shear plane, Fnv is taken as 0.40 Fu . Therefore,
the shear strength of a single bolt in double-shear, with its threads in the shear planes, can
be obtained as follows:
Vr = 2 × 0.4φb Fu Ab [2-16]
Comparing Equations [2-13] and [2-16], it can be seen that the two design standards give
very similar predictions of bolt shear capacity.
In AISC 2005, the bearing strengths at bolt holes have different coefficients depending on
whether or not the deformation at the bolt hole at the service load is a design
consideration. For the case where the deformation is not a design consideration, the
bearing strength at a bolt hole can be calculated using the following equation:
Br = 1.5φLc tFu ≤ 3.0φd b tFu [2-17]

where:
φ is taken as 0. 75; and

Lc is the clear end distance.
16
2.5 Summary
A number of laboratory tests have been conducted on plates that failed by bolt tear-out.
Conversely, only a very small number were done on shapes and the available data is
minimal for evaluating design equations for bolt tear-out in typical tension member
connections. Furthermore, most connection configurations tested do not meet the
minimum end distance and bolt spacing requirements specified in North American design
standards. Appendix A lists published test results that include 135 tests on plates
(Table A-1) and five tests on channels (Table A-1) failing by bolt tear-out (often
characterised as bearing failures). Another 12 tests on wide-flange shapes (Table A-2)
involving combined failure modes and 14 tests on Tees (Table A-3) failing along the
alternate block shear path are also listed in Appendix A. In order to understand the
behaviour of bolt tear-out failure better and provide test data for realistic bolt
configurations (rather than one or two bolts connections), more research on shapes for
this failure mode is required.
17
Figure 2-1: Definitions of Dimensional Parameters
(a) Block Shear Plus Bolt Tear-out (b) Multi-block Shear
Figure 2-2: Combined Failures in Wide-Flange Shape
18
Figure 2-3: Alternate Block Shear (ABS) Path in Tees
19
3. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
3.1 Introduction
In order to investigate the strength and behaviour of end tear-out failure in bolted
connections, a number of physical tests were carried out as a part of this research project.
Test specimens were designed to examine the effects of a number of variables, which
were limited to meet the requirements in design standards in North America, on
connection strength. The main purpose of this experimental program is to assess the
ability of the current block shear equations in design standards in North America and the
unified equation to predict the capacity of connections that fail either by bolt tear-out or
by a combination mode that includes bolt tear-out. Additionally, it also expands the pool
of available experimental data.
The experimental program consisted of a total of 50 tests on wide-flange specimens and

was carried out in three separate series. Series A had 12 specimens, which were
connected through the web only and were expected to fail by bolt tear-out, while series B
had six specimens connected by both the web and flanges, which were expected to fail in
a combination of bolt tear-out in the web and block shear in the flanges. Most specimens
in series A are duplicates that allow a check on repeatability. Series C consisted of 32
web-connected wide-flange specimens donated by Waiward Steel Fabricators Ltd. and
designed by Waiward engineer Logan Callele to assess the economics of their design
practice for these types of connections. Specifically, this series investigated the behaviour
of bolt groups with different end distances and material thicknesses in order to clarify
how connections that fail by bolt tear-out in only the end bolts, resulting in a sequential
failure, should be designed. This chapter describes the test objectives, specimens, test
set-up, instrumentation, and ancillary tests.
3.2 Test Objectives

Each of the three test series had separate, but complementary, objectives. The main
objectives of the series A tests are to evaluate the accuracy and suitability of current
block shear equations in North American design standards and the unified equation for
pure bolt tear-out failure and to make a recommendation for incorporation into design
standards. The main objectives of the series B tests are to examine the behaviour of
20
bolted connections that fail in a combination of two distinct modes and to verify the
strength additive criteria for bolt tear-out failure in the web and block shear failure in the
flanges of W-shapes. The main objectives of the series C tests are to clarify how the end
distance affects the behaviour of a bolt group that may involve more than one failure
mode and to provide design guidelines that reflect the sequence of failure at the
individual fasteners.
3.3 Description of Test Specimens

3.3.1 Specimen Designations
A description of specimen designations is listed in Table 3-1. The first upper case letter
of a specimen designation—A, B, or C—denotes the test series, and the second upper
case letter represents the variable being studied: “G” for gauge, “E” for end distance, or
“R” for the number of bolt rows in the web. The lower case letter—a, b, or c—represents
the triplicate specimens in series C.
3.3.2 Connection Geometry and Parametric Variables

In bolted connections, bolt tear-out failure occurs when the available strength of all shear
planes is less than any one of the other strength combinations of shear planes and tension
plane. The strength of the shear planes is determined by the number of bolt lines and
rows, end distance, and pitch for a certain type of connection. Gauge has little effect on
the ultimate capacity of the connection if the bolt tear-out failure mode governs the
connection capacity. However, gauge plays an important role in changing failure modes;
a relatively small gauge may change the failure mode to block shear instead of bolt
tear-out.
Specimens in series A and B were designed to ensure that web bolt tear-out failure would
occur. A few factors were considered in selecting the sections. First, the sections should
be practical; thus, they should be realistic for use in structures as tension members.
Second, a relatively deep section is required to ensure that the gauge distance can be large
enough so that bolt tear-out in the web is the governing failure mode instead of block
shear. Third, very thick webs and flanges could not be used without shifting the limit
state to shear failure of the structural bolts. Three types of wide-flange rolled shape—
21
W 310 × 60 , W 310 × 39 and W 250 × 49 —were used in series A and B, and the nominal
and as-built sectional properties are listed in Table 3-2. As shown in the table, specimens
of different sections in series A and B had different web and flange thicknesses ranging
from 5.8 mm to 7.5 mm and 9.7 mm to 13.1 mm, respectively. In each series, groups of
identical shapes were tested, each with only one variable parameter: either gauge, the
number of bolt rows, or end distance.
The bolts in series A and B had diameters of 19.1 mm (3/4") and 22.2 mm (7/8"),
respectively, and this resulted in different pitches in these two series since both
CSA-S16-01 and AISC 2005 specify that the bolt pitch should not be less than 2.7d b
Pitches as fixed parameters in series A and B were 54 mm (2-1/8") and 60 mm (2-3/8")
correspondingly. Pitches near the minimum permissible value were required to ensure the
desired failure mode. The minimum end distances specified in CSA-S16-01 and
AISC 2005 are 25 mm for 3/4" bolts and 28 mm for 7/8" bolts for gas-cut edges. The end
distance used in the tests was 28.6 mm (1-1/8") for both series, except for the specimens
where end distance was taken as a variable and the increased end distance was 44.5 mm
(1-3/4"). Additionally, CSA-S16-01 also specifies that the end distance should be not less
than 1.5d b for connections that have either one or two bolts in a bolt line. However,
AISC 2005 does not have this requirement. It was decided to use an end distance in
Series B of 28.6 mm, which slightly violates this requirement in CSA-S16-01 by 4.7 mm
(but meet the AISC 2005 end distance requirements) to ensure that bolt tear-out failure in
the web would be the governing mode. All bolt holes were drilled and of standard size,
namely 20.6 mm (13/16") for 3/4" bolts and 23.8 mm (15/16") for 7/8" bolts.
Two different cross sections of rolled wide-flange shape— W 250 × 58 and W 310 × 39 —
were used in test series C. Specimens in series C had a relatively large fixed pitch, as
compared to those in series A and B, of 152 mm (6"). For each of the two wide-flange
shapes, the only variable was the end distance, and the various values are denoted as E1
to E6. E1 to E5 varied from 25.4 mm (1") to 50.8 (2") with 6.4 mm (1/4") increments,
and E6 had an end distance of 69.9 mm (2-3/4"). All specimens in Series C were tested in
triplicate except for the two that had the largest end distance (E6), which were considered
22
control specimens where the failure was expected to occur in the bolts themselves for
thicker web sections and in bearing behind the bolts for thinner web sections.
The nominal dimensions of the specimens in series A, B, and C are demonstrated in

Figures 3-1 to 3-3, respectively, and as-built web and flange connection dimensions are
listed in Tables 3-3a and 3-3b, respectively.
3.4 Test Set-Up

An overall view of the test set-up and a schematic diagram of the test assembly
configuration for series A are shown in Figure 3-4, while for series B they are shown in
Figure 3-5. The test arrangement of series C is identical to that of series A. All specimens
were 1220 mm (48") long. The test set-up was designed to simulate a typical bolted
connection in a tension bracing member or truss member.
Figure 3-4 shows a series A test specimen assembly consisting of the wide-flange shape
test specimen and four clevis plates. Two 25.4 mm (1") thick clevis plates at each end
were connected to the testing machine through a pin connection to transfer the applied
load. The overall lengths of clevis plates are 508 mm (20") and 610 mm (24") at the test
end and the non-test end, respectively. The widths of the clevis plates are 229 mm (9")
for specimens A1 to A4 and A7 to A10, and 191 mm (7-1/2") for specimens A5, A6,
A11, and A12. All the clevis plates remained elastic during the tests.
Figure 3-5 shows a series B test specimen assembly, which consists of the wide-flange
shape test specimen, a wide-flange shape splice complement (the same section as test
specimen), two web splice plates, two outside flange splice plates, four inside flange
splice plates, and four clevis plates.
The dimensions of the web splice plates are 333 mm ×191 mm ×12.7 mm
(13-1/8"×7-1/2"×1/2") for B5 and B6, 333 mm ×229 mm ×12.7 mm (13-1/8"×9"×1/2")
for B1, and 394 mm ×229 mm ×12.7 mm (15-1/2"×9"×1/2") for B2 to B4. The
dimensions of the outside flange splice plates are 394 mm ×203 mm ×19 mm
(15-1/2"×8"×3/4") for B1, B2, B5, and B6, and 394 mm ×165 mm ×19 mm
(15-1/2"×6-1/2"×3/4") for B3 and B4. The dimensions of inside flange splice plates are
23
400 mm ×90 mm ×12.7 mm (15-3/4"×3-1/2"×1/2") for B2 to B5. The dimensions of
clevis plates are 1118 mm ×229 mm ×32 mm (44"×9"×1-1/4") for B1 to B4, and
1118 mm ×191 mm ×32 mm (44"×7-1/2"×1-1/4") for B5 and B6. Both clevis plate
widths enlarged to 254 mm (10") at the pin end to avoid pin connection failure.
The test set-up for series C is similar to that of series A. The clevis plates used in series C
have a thickness of 32 mm (1-1/4"). The lengths of clevis plates are 711 mm (28") at the
test end and 787 mm (31") at the non-test end. The widths of clevis plates are 191 mm
(7-1/2") for specimens C1 to C16, and 229 mm (9") for specimens C17 to C32. All the
clevis plates remained elastic during the tests.
Bolts in series A and B had standard thread lengths that excluded the threads from the
shear planes, and were tightened to the snug-tight condition as stated in CSA-S16-01.
The bolt shanks in series C were fully threaded in order to provide a well-defined upper
bound capacity of the connections (bolt shear failure). In all tests, clevis plates were first
installed and connected to the testing machine, followed by the test specimen and splice
complement for a series B specimen. For series A and C specimens, a specimen was
fastened loosely to the clevis plates at both ends using 3/4" A490 bolts or 3/4" A325
bolts, respectively. For series B specimens, a specimen and its splice complement were
fastened loosely to clevis plates at both ends using 3/4" A490 bolts, and the specimen and
splice complement were then connected together by web and flange splice plates using
7/8" A490 bolts. All bolts were installed in the finger tight condition at this stage.
After the specimen and its attachments were centred and seated in the MTS 6000 testing
machine, all bolts were tightened to a snug-tight condition with an open-ended wrench.
3.5 Instrumentation
The load applied to the test specimens was monitored using the internal load cell of the
testing machine. Measurements of the relative displacement between the specimen and
the splice plate were taken by LVDTs, which were mounted at different locations to
obtain an average reading. For specimens in series A and C, two identical LVDTs were
24
mounted on each side of a specimen; while for specimens in series B, an additional two
identical LVDTs were mounted on the outside of each flange.
As shown in Figure 3-6, LVDT holders in series A were welded at the edges of the clevis
plates at the same level as the end of the specimen, and the references were on the
specimen web at the centreline of the last bolt row. The arrangement for series C was
similar except that the references were on the flanges instead of the web. Figure 3-7
shows that LVDT holders in series B were welded at the edges of the splice plates at the
location of the centreline of the last bolt row (note that the elevation is therefore the same
for the web and the flanges only for specimen B4, which had two rows of bolts in the
web), and the references were at the end of the specimen. At each of the flange reference
points, an L-shaped bracket tack welded to the flange tip was used in order to clear the
splice plate as the connection deformed. Photographs of the positions of the LVDTs in
series A, B and C are shown in Figure 3-8. LVDTs captured connection slip, bolt bearing
distortions, and deformations in the test region.
3.6 Ancillary Tests

The specimens came to the lab in two shipments. Specimens of same cross-section and
shipment are from the same heat of steel. The first shipment included specimens A1 to
A6 and the series C specimens, and the remaining specimens (A7 to A12, and B1 to B6)
came in the second shipment.
Tension coupons were fabricated from both the web and flanges of each section to obtain
the actual material properties. For each section from the same heat, three sheet-type
coupons (ASTM, 2007) were taken from the web and an additional three sheet-type
coupons were taken from the flanges if connection failure also involved the flanges
(series B). The coupons were oriented parallel to the axis of the tension members in all
cases. A 50 mm gauge extensometer was mounted on each coupon to obtain the strain
readings, and stress was calculated using the measured initial area of the coupon. Tension
coupons were tested as per the specifications outlined in ASTM standard A370 (ASTM,
2007). A summary of ancillary test results is provided in Table 3-4.
25
In the series C tests, fully threaded 3/4" A325 bolts were used in the double-shear
condition. It was anticipated that bolt shear failure would occur in some series C tests,
especially for the specimens with the thicker webs. In order to predict bolt shear
capacities using equations from the design standards, six standard tension coupons were
fabricated from bolts of the same lot and tested as per the specifications outlined in
ASTM standard A370 (ASTM, 2007) to obtain the actual ultimate tensile strength. These
six tension coupons gave very similar stress–strain curves, with the average ultimate
tensile strength of 912 MPa. Two supplementary double-shear individual bolt tests were
also conducted to obtain the bolt double-shear strength directly, with an average value of
223 kN.
26
Table 3-1: Specimen Designations
Cross Bolt configuration Cross Bolt configuration

Specimen Specimen
Section Web Flange Section Web Flange
A1G1 W310×60 W2×2 – C8E3b W250×58 W2×3 –
A2G1 W310×60 W2×2 – C9E3c W250×58 W2×3 –
A3R1 W310×39 W2×2 – C10E4a W250×58 W2×3 –
A4R2 W310×39 W2×3 – C11E4b W250×58 W2×3 –
A5E1 W250×49 W2×2 – C12E4c W250×58 W2×3 –
A6E2 W250×49 W2×2 – C13E5a W250×58 W2×3 –
A7G1 W310×60 W2×2 – C14E5b W250×58 W2×3 –
A8G2 W310×60 W2×2 – C15E5c W250×58 W2×3 –
A9R1 W310×39 W2×2 – C16E6 W250×58 W2×3 –
A10R2 W310×39 W2×3 – C17E1a W310×39 W2×3 –
A11E1 W250×49 W2×2 – C18E1b W310×39 W2×3 –
A12E2 W250×49 W2×2 – C19E1c W310×39 W2×3 –
B1G1 W310×60 W2×1 F1×2 C20E2a W310×39 W2×3 –
B2G2 W310×60 W2×1 F1×2 C21E2b W310×39 W2×3 –
B3R1 W310×39 W2×1 F1×2 C22E2c W310×39 W2×3 –
B4R2 W310×39 W2×2 F1×2 C23E3a W310×39 W2×3 –
B5E1 W250×49 W2×1 F1×2 C24E3b W310×39 W2×3 –
B6E2 W250×49 W2×1 F1×2 C25E3c W310×39 W2×3 –
C1E1a W250×58 W2×3 – C26E4a W310×39 W2×3 –
C2E1b W250×58 W2×3 – C27E4b W310×39 W2×3 –
C3E1c W250×58 W2×3 – C28E4c W310×39 W2×3 –
C4E2a W250×58 W2×3 – C29E5a W310×39 W2×3 –
C5E2b W250×58 W2×3 – C30E5b W310×39 W2×3 –
C6E2c W250×58 W2×3 – C31E5c W310×39 W2×3 –
C7E3a W250×58 W2×3 – C32E6 W310×39 W2×3 –
27
Table 3-2: Sectional Properties for Series A, B, and C
Section Depth (mm) Flange Width (mm) Web Thickness (mm) Flange Thickness (mm)
Section Specimen
Nominal Measured Nominal Measured Nominal Measured Nominal Measured
A1G1 303 305.4 203 202.7 7.5 7.48 13.1 13.09
A2G1 303 305.4 203 202.7 7.5 7.52 13.1 13.20
A7G1 303 304.0 203 202.6 7.5 7.43 13.1 13.11
W310X60
A8G2 303 304.5 203 202.7 7.5 7.44 13.1 13.12
B1G1 303 304.7 203 202.5 7.5 7.52 13.1 13.16
B2G2 303 304.5 203 202.6 7.5 7.45 13.1 13.34
A3R1 310 310.0 165 165.1 5.8 6.30 9.7 9.45
A4R2 310 309.7 165 164.5 5.8 6.22 9.7 9.39
A9R1 310 311.6 165 163.0 5.8 6.54 9.7 9.29
W310X39
A10R2 310 311.5 165 163.0 5.8 6.55 9.7 9.21
B3R1 310 311.5 165 162.8 5.8 6.45 9.7 9.20
28
B4R2 310 311.5 165 162.7 5.8 6.63 9.7 9.21

A5E1 247 248.5 202 203.2 7.4 7.55 11.0 10.38
A6E2 247 248.0 202 203.0 7.4 7.51 11.0 10.37
A11E1 247 249.9 202 203.6 7.4 7.30 11.0 10.77
W250X49
A12E2 247 249.5 202 203.5 7.4 7.34 11.0 10.69
B5E1 247 249.6 202 203.3 7.4 7.29 11.0 10.66
B6E2 247 249.5 202 203.3 7.4 7.34 11.0 10.64
C1E1a 252 254.8 203 203.2 8.0 9.09 13.5 12.79
C2E1b 252 254.3 203 203.3 8.0 9.16 13.5 12.64
C3E1c 252 254.3 203 203.2 8.0 9.15 13.5 12.64
W250X58
C4E2a 252 254.1 203 203.6 8.0 9.10 13.5 12.53
C5E2b 252 254.4 203 203.5 8.0 9.20 13.5 12.59
C6E2c 252 254.1 203 203.7 8.0 9.08 13.5 12.44
C7E3a 252 254.0 203 203.3 8.0 9.06 13.5 12.46
Table 3-2: Sectional Properties for Series A, B, and C (Cont’d)
Section Depth (mm) Flange Width (mm) Web Thickness (mm) Flange Thickness (mm)
Section Specimen
Nominal Measured Nominal Measured Nominal Measured Nominal Measured
C8E3b 252 254.0 203 203.3 8.0 9.08 13.5 12.52
C9E3c 252 254.3 203 203.4 8.0 9.14 13.5 12.47
C10E4a 252 254.3 203 203.2 8.0 9.08 13.5 12.38
C11E4b 252 254.9 203 203.5 8.0 9.16 13.5 12.69
W250X58 C12E4c 252 254.6 203 –* 8.0 9.13 13.5 12.65
C13E5a 252 254.5 203 203.3 8.0 9.11 13.5 12.70
C14E5b 252 254.2 203 203.8 8.0 9.13 13.5 12.61
C15E5c 252 254.4 203 203.5 8.0 9.09 13.5 12.63
C16E6 252 254.4 203 203.8 8.0 9.12 13.5 12.57
C17E1a 310 312.0 165 164.7 5.8 5.90 9.7 9.26
C18E1b 310 311.8 165 164.6 5.8 5.86 9.7 9.21
C19E1c 310 311.8 165 164.5 5.8 5.90 9.7 9.28
29
C20E2a 310 311.9 165 164.6 5.8 5.91 9.7 9.20

C21E2b 310 312.0 165 164.6 5.8 5.89 9.7 9.13
C22E2c 310 312.1 165 164.5 5.8 5.90 9.7 9.19
C23E3a 310 311.9 165 164.9 5.8 6.03 9.7 9.13
W310X39 C24E3b 310 312.2 165 165.0 5.8 5.97 9.7 9.20
C25E3c 310 311.6 165 164.6 5.8 5.90 9.7 9.14
C26E4a 310 312.3 165 164.9 5.8 6.04 9.7 9.19
C27E4b 310 312.1 165 164.9 5.8 5.99 9.7 9.15
C28E4c 310 312.1 165 164.7 5.8 5.94 9.7 9.15
C29E5a 310 312.1 165 164.7 5.8 5.87 9.7 9.19
C30E5b 310 312.1 165 164.7 5.8 5.90 9.7 9.09
C31E5c 310 312.1 165 164.6 5.8 5.92 9.7 9.11
C32E6 310 312.0 165 164.6 5.8 5.99 9.7 9.20
* Flange width not measured (note that flange widths are not required for series C strength calculations)
Table 3-3a: As-Built Web Connection Dimensions for Series A, B and C
End- Hole
Gauge Pitch
Distance Dia.
Specimen
gW 1 gW 2 gW 3 e1WL e1WR pWL1 pWL 2 pWR1 pWR 2 d0 *
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
A1G1 140.6 140.5 – 28.07 28.52 54.23 – 54.38 – 20.62
A2G1 139.8 139.9 – 29.14 29.40 54.31 – 53.88 – 20.57
A3R1 178.8 178.8 – 27.99 28.30 53.79 – 53.81 – 20.40
A4R2 178.6 178.6 178.6 28.24 28.37 54.14 54.03 54.30 53.86 20.56
A5E1 140.0 140.1 – 31.44 30.58 54.12 – 54.12 – 20.50
A6E2 140.0 140.0 – 47.82 47.64 54.12 – 54.16 – 20.53
A7G1 139.5 139.9 – 28.45 28.65 54.04 – 53.57 – 20.75
A8G2 177.7 177.8 – 27.15 26.96 54.10 – 54.11 – 20.75
A9R1 178.2 178.2 – 27.57 27.56 53.58 – 53.52 – 20.66
A10R2 178.1 178.2 178.0 27.32 26.82 54.59 53.88 54.47 54.24 20.79
A11E1 140.2 140.1 – 28.24 28.30 54.00 – 57.47 – 20.58
A12E2 139.9 139.9 – 44.05 44.00 54.51 – 57.19 – 20.73
B1G1 139.8 – – 27.95 28.03 – – – – 23.81
B2G2 177.7 – – 27.61 27.84 – – – – 23.85
B3R1 178.4 – – 29.10 28.85 – – – – 23.70
B4R2 178.3 178.3 – 27.35 27.76 60.51 – 60.32 – 23.67
B5E1 139.5 – – 28.59 28.28 – – – – 23.69
B6E2 139.6 – – 44.51 44.23 – – – – 23.61
C1E1a 138.9 139.7 138.5 25.33 25.33 152.6 152.4 152.3 152.3 20.41
C2E1b 139.2 139.3 139.2 25.51 25.45 152.5 152.3 152.4 152.4 20.45
C3E1c 139.0 139.1 139.0 25.47 25.54 152.6 152.5 152.6 152.5 20.58
C4E2a 139.0 139.2 138.9 31.80 31.76 152.5 152.3 152.6 152.7 20.59
C5E2b 138.8 138.7 138.8 32.12 31.93 152.9 152.0 152.8 151.7 20.59
C6E2c 138.8 138.9 138.9 32.02 31.79 152.3 152.1 152.1 152.4 20.44
C7E3a 139.5 139.6 139.4 38.20 38.11 152.5 152.3 152.3 152.4 20.41
C8E3b 138.9 138.9 138.9 38.14 38.15 152.7 152.4 152.6 152.5 20.61
C9E3c 140.2 140.1 139.7 38.22 38.37 152.5 152.3 152.5 152.4 20.69
C10E4a 139.9 139.9 139.9 44.76 44.62 152.1 152.3 152.3 152.1 20.54
C11E4b 138.8 138.9 139.0 44.39 44.37 152.5 152.0 152.5 152.1 20.39
C12E4c 139.1 139.1 139.1 44.57 44.50 152.4 152.3 152.6 152.3 20.59
C13E5a 139.7 139.7 139.7 50.82 50.92 152.4 152.3 152.5 152.4 20.53
C14E5b 138.9 138.8 138.8 50.92 50.83 152.4 152.3 152.4 152.5 20.51
C15E5c 139.1 139.1 139.2 50.99 51.03 152.6 152.5 152.5 152.4 20.61
C16E6 139.5 139.7 139.7 69.94 70.07 152.7 152.3 152.7 152.2 20.60
C17E1a 177.3 177.3 177.4 25.62 25.39 152.3 152.4 152.3 152.6 20.51
C18E1b 177.4 177.4 177.5 25.50 25.58 152.3 152.5 152.7 152.5 20.65
C19E1c 177.8 178.8 178.7 25.55 25.55 152.3 152.2 152.6 151.9 20.57
30
Table 3-3a: As-Built Web Connection Dimensions for Series A, B and C (Cont’d)
End- Hole
Gauge Pitch
Distance Dia.
Specimen
gW 1 gW 2 gW 3 e1WL e1WR pWL1 pWL 2 pWR1 pWR 2 d0 *
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
C20E2a 177.2 177.1 177.2 31.87 31.87 152.3 152.4 152.4 152.3 20.60
C21E2b 177.6 177.6 177.6 31.89 31.92 152.5 152.4 152.8 152.2 20.59
C22E2c 177.6 177.8 177.7 31.93 31.95 152.6 152.4 152.9 152.1 20.62
C23E3a 177.5 177.5 177.5 38.15 38.16 152.5 152.2 152.4 152.2 20.61
C24E3b 177.3 177.2 177.2 37.96 37.88 152.4 152.2 152.1 152.6 20.42
C25E3c 177.2 177.2 177.2 38.05 38.06 152.8 151.7 152.5 152.0 20.41
C26E4a 177.5 177.6 177.5 44.52 44.79 152.3 152.7 152.5 152.3 20.66
C27E4b 177.5 177.4 177.5 44.81 44.83 152.3 152.5 152.2 152.5 20.62
C28E4c 177.3 177.3 177.3 44.57 44.63 152.3 152.6 152.2 152.6 20.53
C29E5a 177.4 177.5 177.6 50.91 50.91 152.0 152.5 152.5 152.6 20.48
C30E5b 177.7 177.7 177.6 50.89 50.84 152.9 152.1 152.7 152.2 20.57
C31E5c 177.6 177.8 177.8 50.90 50.63 152.5 152.1 152.4 152.3 20.52
C32E6 177.3 177.3 177.3 70.17 70.24 152.7 152.5 152.8 152.3 20.60
* Mean diameter for all bolt holes in the connection
31
Table 3-3b: As-Built Flange Connection Dimensions for Series B
Left Flange Right Flange

End- Edge-Distance End- Edge-Distance
Gauge Pitch Gauge Pitch
Specimen Distance Distance
g FL1 g FL 2 e1FL p FL1 p FL 2 e2 FL1 e2 FL 2 g FR1 g FR 2 e1FR p FR1 p FR 2 e2 FR1 e2 FR 2
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
B1G1 127.1 126.9 27.83 59.81 60.20 34.51 40.38 126.6 126.7 26.61 59.98 59.96 35.20 39.98
B2G2 126.6 126.8 27.64 59.69 59.90 34.57 40.39 127.0 126.8 26.82 59.98 60.19 35.61 39.81
B3R1 101.3 101.3 28.87 60.01 59.94 30.66 30.70 101.4 101.1 27.43 60.14 59.76 30.54 30.31
B4R2 101.3 101.3 27.99 60.34 60.26 31.18 30.01 101.7 101.0 27.16 60.02 60.25 29.80 30.60
B5E1 126.4 126.6 28.68 59.63 59.95 38.89 36.75 126.7 126.7 27.60 60.36 60.10 36.58 39.71
B6E2 126.8 126.7 44.33 60.22 60.05 38.66 36.80 126.8 126.7 43.50 60.21 60.44 39.95 36.21
32
Table 3-4: Ancillary Test Results
Elastic Static Static Static Mean Static Rupture Reduction

Coupon Mark Modulus Yield 1 Yield 2 Yield 3 Static Yield Ultimate Strain of Area
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (%) (%)
Ma1 204 400 447 440 – 444 521 31.3 55.9
Ma2 202 000 434 433 427 431 515 29.7 55.6
A1/A2
Ma3 199 200 445 442 441 443 522 29.6 53.8
Web
Mean 201 900 – – – 439 519 30.2 55.1
Ma16 193 600 420 421 417 419 501 30.3 57.5
Ma17 191 300 403 402 404 403 485 32.6 60.6
A7/A8/B1/B2
Ma18 203 500 411 412 410 411 497 30.5 59.9
W310X60 Web
Mean 196 100 – – – 411 494 31.1 59.2
Ma19 207 700 352 351 353 352 470 38.8 64.5
Ma20* – – – – – 470 – 63.3
B1/B2
Ma21 195 800 350 352 352 351 469 37.5 65.5
Flange
Mean 201 800 – – – 352 470 38.2 64.4
33
B1/B2
198 900 – – – 382 482 34.7 62.1
Web & Flange Mean
Ma7 212 700 348 355 349 351 488 31.8 57.4
Ma8 202 900 338 341 344 341 487 29.3 55.1
A5/A6
Ma9** – 340 334 339 338 488 26.7 53.1
Web
Mean 207 800 – – – 343 487 29.3 55.2
Ma28 200 000 373 376 374 374 498 34.2 58.9
Ma29 205 600 380 381 380 380 499 28.7 58.6
A11/A12/B5/B6
Ma30 198 200 376 373 373 374 503 31.0 61.8
W250X49 Web
Mean 201 300 – – – 376 500 31.3 59.8
Ma31 207 000 346 344 – 345 490 34.8 62.2
Ma32 217 400 345 348 345 346 494 38.0 61.8
B5/B6
Ma33 209 500 344 345 344 345 493 36.3 63.0
Flange
Mean 211 300 – – – 345 492 36.4 62.3
B5/B6
Web & Flange Mean
206 300 – – – 361 496 33.9 61.1
Table 3-4: Ancillary Test Results (Cont’d)
Elastic Static Static Static Mean Static Rupture Reduction

Coupon Mark Modulus Yield 1 Yield 2 Yield 3 Static Yield Ultimate Strain of Area
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (%) (%)
Ma4 203 900 378 381 376 378 475 34.7 62.5
Ma5 205 400 384 379 – 381 472 30.1 55.8
A3/A4
Ma6 211 100 380 375 – 378 471 31.6 58.0
Web
Mean 206 800 – – – 379 472 32.13 58.8
Ma22 207 700 377 377 376 377 486 – 62.5
Ma23 201 000 352 354 349 352 469 37.1 63.2
A9/A10/B3/B4
Ma24 204 900 377 378 378 378 480 36.2 63.2
Web
Mean 204 500 – – – 369 478 36.7 63.0
Ma13 209 000 372 375 376 374 465 36.0 62.0
W310X39
Ma14** – 369 369 369 369 460 31.2 63.1
C17-C32
Ma15 205 100 373 374 373 373 456 33.4 59.0
Web
Mean 207 100 – – – 372 457 35.5 61.4
34
Ma25 201 700 344 345 343 344 467 38.5 67.7
Ma26 204 200 344 344 343 343 474 37.9 66.1
B3/B4
Ma27 207 400 338 330 – 334 469 38.5 66.2
Flange
Mean 204 400 – – – 340 470 38.3 66.7
B3/B4
204 500 – – – 355 474 36.9 64.9
Web & Flange Mean
Ma10 201 300 397 400 394 397 511 32.3 62.1
Ma11 206 800 401 393 400 398 512 31.9 59.7
W250X58 C1-C16
Ma12 205 200 395 396 395 395 511 33.8 61.7
Web
Mean 204 400 – – – 397 511 32.7 61.2
* Coupon Ma20 was found to be bent slightly prior to testing
** Accurate measurements were not obtained in the elastic region for coupons Ma9 and Ma14
Figure 3-1: Nominal Dimensions of Specimens in Series A
35
36
Figure 3-2: Nominal Dimensions of Specimens in Series B

End Distance (e1) End Distance (e1)
Specimen Specimen
(in.) (mm) (in.) (mm)
C1E1a 1 25.4 C17E1a 1 25.4
C2E1b 1 25.4 C18E1b 1 25.4
C3E1c 1 25.4 C19E1c 1 25.4
C4E2a 1-1/4 31.8 C20E2a 1-1/4 31.8
C5E2b 1-1/4 31.8 C21E2b 1-1/4 31.8
C6E2c 1-1/4 31.8 C22E2c 1-1/4 31.8
C7E3a 1-1/2 38.1 C23E3a 1-1/2 38.1
C8E3b 1-1/2 38.1 C24E3b 1-1/2 38.1
C9E3c 1-1/2 38.1 C25E3c 1-1/2 38.1
C10E4a 1-3/4 44.5 C26E4a 1-3/4 44.5
C11E4b 1-3/4 44.5 C27E4b 1-3/4 44.5
C12E4c 1-3/4 44.5 C28E4c 1-3/4 44.5
C13E5a 2 50.8 C29E5a 2 50.8
C14E5b 2 50.8 C30E5b 2 50.8
C15E5c 2 50.8 C31E5c 2 50.8
C16E6 2-3/4 69.9 C32E6 1-3/4 69.9
Figure 3-3: Nominal Dimensions of Specimens in Series C
37
(a) (b)
Figure 3-4: Test Set-Up for Series A (Series C similar)
38
(a) (b)
Figure 3-5: Test Set-Up for Series B
39
Figure 3-6: Instrumentation (LVDTs) for Series A Specimens
(Series C ― see inset)
40
Figure 3-7: Instrumentation (LVDTs) for Series B Specimens
(web LVDTs used on B1 only)
41
42
(a) Series A (b) Series B (c) Series C
Figure 3-8: Photos of Instrumentation (LVDTs) for (a) Series A; (b) Series B; and (c) Series C
4. Test Procedures and Results
4.1 Test Procedures
Fifty full-scale bolted connections were tested in tension in a 4000 kN (tension) capacity
universal testing machine (MTS 6000). The load was applied quasi-statically under stroke
control at 0.76 mm/min. Electronic readings of load and displacement were taken at
regular intervals.
One of three typical unloading points was chosen at the terminus of each test in this
experimental program: “right after the peak load”, “drop of 5% of the peak load”, and
“all the way to failure”. Unloading point “drop of 5% of the peak load” was chosen to
ensure that the ultimate strength of the connection had been captured, whereas “right after
the peak load” was selected in order to observe the load carrying mechanism at the peak
load. Unloading points “right after the peak load” and “drop of 5% of the peak load”
were typically used in the series A tests.
“Right after the peak load” usually means about a 5 kN to 10 kN load drop in the series A
tests and also in the series B and C tests if it was possible. However, in the series B and C
tests, the load did not always drop gradually since the failures involved shear rupture,
tension rupture, and bolt failure. This sometimes resulted in a sudden load drop which
could be several tens to several hundreds of kilonewtons after the peak load. All series B
tests were unloaded “right after the peak load”, except B3 which was loaded “all the way
to failure” to examine the typical final failure paths.
“All the way to failure” in the series C tests means that a specimen was loaded until its
residual strength was about 300 kN after several “breaking” sounds being heard.
Unfortunately, these sounds could not be identified individually since they could be shear
rupture, tension rupture, or bolt shear failure and the presence of the clevis plates made it
impossible to reveal the specific sequence of failure. Specimens in series C were either
tested “all the way to failure” or unloaded “right after the peak load”.
43
4.2 Test Descriptions and Results
A summary of the test results is listed in Tables 4-1a and 4-1b, and a description of each
test is presented in the following sections.
4.2.1 Specimens A1G1, A2G1, A7G1, and A8G2

These four specimens had the same cross section— W 310 × 60 —and the only variable
was the bolt gauge, which was 140 mm (5-1/2") for A1G1, A2G1, and A7G1 and
178 mm (7") for A8G2 (Figure 3-1). Load vs. deformation curves for these four
specimens are shown in Figures 4-1, 4-2, 4-3, and 4-4.
This was the only group that had triplicate specimens, and specimen A8G2 was the only
one in series A that did not have a duplicate. The triplicate specimen ultimate loads
(Table 4-1a) were similar, with the specimens having the higher material strength (A1G1
and A2G1) giving higher capacities (Test-to-predicted ratios vary by 3% for all methods,
as shown in Table 4-2. Refer to Section 4.3.2). However, the maximum connection
deformation for A2G1 was much smaller than those of A1G1 or A7G1 because specimen
A2G1 was unloaded right after the peak load with only a 5 kN drop, while specimens
A1G1 and A7G1 were unloaded after a drop of 5% of the peak load. The initial portions
of the A7G1 and A8G2 curves, which exhibit a relatively flat region (Figures 4-3 and
4-4), show that the specimens had not been properly seated with the bolts in bearing
before the test started. The connection deformation of A8G2 was similar to that of A2G1,
both of which were unloaded right after the peak, if the initial part of the A8G2 curve that
represents the slip of the connection is disregarded.
4.2.2 Specimens A3R1, A9R1 and A4R2, A10R2

The specimens in this group had the same cross section— W 310 × 39 —and the only
variable was the number of bolt rows, and thus A3R1 and A9R1 had two rows of bolts
and A4R2 and A10R2 had three rows of bolts (Figure 3-1). Load vs. deformation curves
for these four specimens are shown in Figures 4-5, 4-6, 4-7, and 4-8.
Specimens A3R1 and A4R2 were each unloaded after a 5 kN drop beyond the peak load,
while specimens A9R1 and A10R2 were unloaded after a drop of 5% of the peak load.
44
During the A4R2 test, it was found that the core of one LVDT had been stuck for the first
part of the test, and it was properly reset and worked normally thereafter (see Figure 4-7).
A comparison of connection deformations revealed that for each set of two connections
that were unloaded at the same unloading point, but having a different number of bolt
rows in the web (A3R1 and A4R2; A9R1 and A10R2), the difference in connection
deformation is almost indistinguishable due to their relatively thin webs.
The capacities of specimens A3R1 and A9R1 were nearly identical (with only 1.3 kN
difference), as expected due to the similar material properties. The capacities of
specimens A4R2 and A10R2 should also be close since these two specimens are
nominally identical. However, specimen A10R2 had a relatively low peak load which is
believed caused by premature failure. At the peak loads, well defined yield lines could be
clearly observed in specimen A4R2 but only a few yield lines were present in A10R2.
This led to the conclusion that specimen A10R2 failed prematurely, although the specific
defect that accelerated the failure was not identified. Despite the apparent premature
failure, this test result is included in all subsequent assessments of the design equations
discussed in Chapter 2.
4.2.3 Specimens A5E1, A11E1 and A6E2, A12E2

These four specimens had the same cross section— W 250 × 49 —and the only variable
was the end distance, which was 28.6 mm (1-1/8") for A5E1 and A11E1 and 44.5 mm
(1-3/4") for A6E2 and A12E2 (Figure 3-1). Load vs. deformation curves for these four
specimens are shown in Figures 4-9, 4-10, 4-11, and 4-12.
Specimens A5E1 and A6E2 were unloaded after a drop of 5 kN beyond the peak load,
while specimens A11E1 and A12E2 were unloaded after a drop of 5% of the peak load.
Like the specimens in the previous group, a similar conclusion can be made about
connection deformations; thus, connection deformations are essentially the same for
specimens with different end distances if they were unloaded at the same unloading point.
Figure 4-11 shows that specimen A6E2 had a sudden load drop after reaching the peak. It
was observed that the load dropped from 776 kN to 737 kN, accompanied by a breaking
45
sound. The specimen was unloaded at this point. Hairline cracks were observed at the
tack weld toe of the LVDT reference tab on the specimen, and one LVDT failed because
of the fracture. The web had not deformed much (and seemed as though it had reserve
capacity) because of the relatively large end distance, and the slope of the load vs.
deformation curve had remained positive prior to the sudden load drop. Therefore, it was
decided to reload the specimen, but the specimen did not reach the previous peak before
the load started to drop again and the fractures propagated. As such, only the first load
excursion is presented in Figure 4-11 and the capacity and the deformation at the peak
load are considered to be lower bound values due to the influence of the tack weld.
Nevertheless, because of the similar capacity of nominally identical specimen A12E2, the
peak load for specimen A6E2 is believed to be close to the true connection capacity.
After this test, it was decided that tack welding should be further away from any possible
failure path, especially the critical net section, to avoid any reduction of connection
capacity.
The capacities of specimens A5E1 and A11E1 were almost identical, with only 1%
difference, and the capacities of specimens A6E2 and A12E2 were also close, with about
2% difference. The difference in capacity between E2 specimens and E1 specimens was
the contribution of the increment of end distance.
4.2.4 Specimens B1G1 and B2G2

Specimens B1G1 and B2G2 had the same cross section— W 310 × 60 —and these two
specimens were identical except for the web bolt gauge which was 140 mm (5-1/2") for
B1G1 and 178 mm (7") for B2G2 (Figure 3-2). Load vs. deformation curves are shown in
Figures 4-13 and 4-14.
The B1G1 test was set up and tested as shown in Figure 3-5, but without the four inside
flange splice plates. At a load of about 1970 kN, the load started to drop, and at about
1950 kN, the four flange bolts in the first row failed suddenly. The failure was brittle
because these bolts were loaded in a combination of single shear and tension. After this
test, four 12.7 mm (1/2") thick steel strips were added inside the flanges, as shown in
Figure 3-5, to put these flange bolts in double shear and eliminate eccentric loading, since
46
bolt failure was not an intended limit state for the series B tests. In any case, the slope of
the load vs. deformation curve (Figure 4-13) at the peak indicates that the capacity of the
connection had been reached.
Eight LVDTs, including four on the web and four on the flanges (see Figure 3-7), were
installed on specimen B1G1. It can be seen in Figure 4-13 that deformations of the
flanges are less than those of the web. The location of the flange LVDT reference point is
at the tip of a flange, and the location of the web LVDT reference point is near the
junction of the web and the flange (as shown in Figure 3-7). This causes the movement of
the reference point on the flange to be less than that of the reference point on the web as
the specimen moves as a unit during loading (see the photographs of the deformed
series B specimens in Figure 4-26, discussed in Section 4.3.3). Also, the flanges are
thicker than the web and therefore less susceptible to bearing deformations. Due to the
difficulty of installing web LVDTs for specimens that have a relatively large bolt gauge
in the web, only the four flange LVDTs were mounted for the rest of the series B tests.
A comparison of the ultimate capacities of specimens B1G1 and B2G2 shows that the
capacities are within 3% of one another. This is expected because the nominal failure
paths and the material properties are identical.
4.2.5 Specimens B3R1 and B4R2

Specimens B3R1 and B4R2 had the same cross section— W 310 × 39 —and these two
specimens were identical except for the number of bolt rows in the web: B3R1 had one
row of bolts and B4R2 had two rows of bolts (Figure 3-2). Load vs. deformation curves
are shown in Figures 4-15 and 4-16. Unlike the load vs. deformation curves of series A
that showed web deformations, the flange deformations at the four corners of a section in
series B were relatively different, especially for specimens that had not been well seated
before the tests.
B3R1 was the only specimen in series B that was loaded until complete failure (i.e., until
after the tension faces had ruptured in the flanges and blocks of material had sheared out
from the flanges) to verify the final failure paths. These failure paths clearly showed that
47
the web bolts had torn out and the flanges had failed in block shear as designed.
Specimen B4R2 was the only specimen in series B that had the same connection length in
the web and flanges. This specimen was unloaded right after the peak, and after the test it
was observed that necking and tension fracture had begun in the tension planes of the
blocks in the flanges, while shear fracture of these blocks had not yet appeared due to
insufficient deformation at the peak load to allow it to take place.
The capacity of specimen B4R2 was higher than B3R1 by about 340 kN as a result of the
extra bolt row in the web.
4.2.6 Specimens B5E1 and B6E2

Specimens B5E1 and B6E2 had the same cross section— W 250 × 49 —and these two
specimens were identical except for the end distance: B5E1 and B6E2 had end distances
of 28.6 mm (1-1/8") and 44.5 mm (1-3/4"), respectively (Figure 3-2). Load vs.
deformation curves are shown in Figures 4-17 and 4-18.
The deformation for B6E2 was less than that for B5E1 if both initial flat parts of the
curves, which are the evidence of connection slip, are ignored.
The capacity of specimen B6E2 was higher than B5E1 by about 327 kN (20%) due to the
16 mm (5/8") of extra end distance in both the web and flanges.
4.2.7 Specimens C1E1 to C16E6

Specimens C1E1 to C16E6 had the same cross section— W 250 × 58 —and the only
variable in this group was the end distance. There were six different end distances,
denoted as E1 to E6, and there were three identical specimens for end distance E1 to E5,
symbolized by “a”, “b” and “c”. The results of the series C tests are listed in Table 4-1b.
Load vs. deformation curves are shown in Appendix C (Figures C-1 to C-16), and
Appendix D (Figures D-1 to D-6) shows photographs of the series C failed connections.
The nominal value of gauge was 140 mm (5-1/2") and the nominal value of web
thickness is 8 mm for specimens C1E1 to C16E6. From Equation [2-17], it can be
concluded that in order for a bolt to develop its full bearing capacity, the clear distance,
48
Lc , in the direction of the applied force between the edge of a hole and the edge of the
adjacent hole or the edge of the material must be not less than 2d b . For an individual
bolt, the load applied to the bolt in the form of bearing must not exceed the bolt shear
capacity; otherwise the bolt itself would fail. For the case of fully threaded 3/4" A325
bolts, a maximum material thickness of 7.7 mm is required in order that 2d b clear end
distance allows a bolt to develop its full bearing capacity before shear failure occurs. The
failures of the tests in this group generally involved both bolt failure and failure in the
specimens themselves.
Figure 4-19 (a) shows that when the specimen was loaded all the way to failure, the
elongation of the end bolt holes is much greater than the inner bolt holes because of bolt
shear failure of the four inner bolts and the large shear deformations in the web adjacent
to the end bolts (with shear tears being exhibited at the end of the test). Figure 4-19 (b)
shows that when the specimen was unloaded right after the peak, the elongation of the
end bolt holes is slightly greater than the inner bolt holes. Since the clevis plates
remained elastic, the relative hole distortions during the test were determined solely by
the web and bolt deformations.
For the specimens that were loaded to complete failure, at least four bolts failed
(Figure 4-20a). None of the specimens exhibited typical block shear or pure bolt tear-out
failure modes—although some of the end row bolts with small end distances did tear
out—and the damage that can be observed at the interior bolts is best characterised as
bearing damage (Figures D-1 to D-6). The three specimens wherein none of the bolts
failed (C2E1, C11E4, and C14E5) were unloaded right after the peak load, while another
two specimens (C6E2 and C8E3) that were also unloaded right after the peak load had
either one or two bolts fail. Once a bolt started to fail, the load began to drop and
although other subsequent local peaks may have occurred, they never exceeded the
original peak in value. This indicates that every bolt carried a portion of the peak load but
the peak load was not necessarily distributed equally among the six bolts.
49
4.2.8 Specimens C17E1 to C32E6
The connection configurations of specimens C17E1 to C32E6 were identical to those in
the previous series C group (C1E1 to C16E6), except for the cross-section, which was
W 310 × 39 , and the nominal value of bolt gauge, which was 178 mm (7"). The load vs.
deformation curves are shown in Appendix C (Figures C-17 to C-32), and photographs of
the series C failed connections are shown in Appendix D (Figures D-7 to D-12).
The main difference between specimens C1 to C16 and specimens C17 to C32 was the
web thickness; the nominal web thickness for specimens C17E1 to C32E6 was 5.8 mm.
The thinner web caused failure in this group to be influenced more by the specimens than
by bolt failure, as compared to specimens C1E1 to C16E6 with the thicker web. For the
specimens that were unloaded right after the peak, no bolts failed (Figure 4-20b). A
typical final failure path for a specimen in this group was bolt tear-out at the end of the
connection and a tearing mode resembling block shear failure of the area enclosed by the
four inner bolts (Figure 4-21a). Another failure path in this group was bolt tear-out failure
(with large bearing deformations at the interior bolts), especially when the two bolts near
the tension plane failed before tension rupture across the gauge distance took place
(Figure 4-21b).
4.3 Discussions of Test Results

4.3.1 Shear Tears versus Tensile Splitting Cracks
Two kinds of fractures were observed in the bolt tear-out failures of the series A tests:
shear tears on one or both shear planes adjacent to the hole, as shown in Figure 4-22 (a),
or a single tensile splitting crack initiating at the free edge near the hole centreline, as
shown in Figure 4-22 (b). Tensile splitting cracks were a result of the development of
transverse tensile stress as the material behind the bolt shank deformed into an arch
shape. Necking can be clearly observed before the splitting cracks finally developed.
In the series A tests, most specimens exhibited either shear tears or splitting cracks after
they were unloaded, although it is believed that splitting cracks did not occur until the
peak load had been reached. Even if shear tearing had not occurred, there was typically
considerable shear deformation on the two shear planes. In the series B tests, no splitting
50
cracks were observed in any of the specimens, although shear tears, as shown in
Figure 4-23, may or may not have occurred. It was observed that the type of fracture that
may appear at failure seemed to be influenced by the confinement of the fracture
location. In the series A tests, the web received less confinement from the flanges since
the specimens were only loaded through the web and the flanges had a tendency to bend
outward. On the other hand, in the series B tests, the web got more confinement from the
flanges since the specimens were also loaded through the flanges, which tended to keep
straight because of the relatively large applied load and the presence of the flange splice
plates.
From the test results, it is evident that two shear planes adjacent to each bolt participate in
resisting the peak load in bolt tear-out failure despite the subsequent occurrence of tensile
splitting in some specimens. In addition, the great ductility of the material behind an end
bolt hole, even with a small end distance (as shown in Figure 4-24), is sufficient to allow
the shear stress in the two shear planes to be developed well beyond the yield stress but
not necessarily up to the ultimate stress. Further evidence of this assertion is presented
subsequently in the discussion of test-to-predicted capacity ratios.
4.3.2 Series A Tests (A1 to A12)

These 12 specimens were web-connected only, and the observed failure mode was bolt
tear-out failure in the web. Photographs of the series A failed connections are shown in
Figure 4-25. The three variables designed to investigate bolt tear-out failure were gauge,
number of bolt rows, and end distance.
Specimens A1G1, A2G1, A7G1 and A8G2 are identical except for the bolt gauge. As
discussed before, it can be concluded that gauge had no effect on the connection capacity
since all these specimens failed in the bolt end tear-out failure mode and their failure
paths were identical.
Specimens A3R1, A9R1 and A4R2, A10R2 are identical except for the number of bolt
rows. One more bolt row, which gave a 54 mm (2-1/8") or 65% longer connection,
resulted in a 33% higher connection strength.
51
Specimens A5E1, A11E1 and A6E2, A12E2 are identical except for the end distance.
Increasing the end distance by 15.9 mm (5/8"), or 19% of the connection length, resulted
in an increase in the connection strength of 13%.
Predicted capacities for each test in series A considering measured material and
geometric properties (and no resistance factor), with the assumption that two shear planes
at each bolt carried the peak load, were calculated using the CSA-S16-01/AISC 2005
block shear equations (Equations [2-3] and [2-4]) and the unified equation
(Equation [2-10]). Predicted capacities and the resulting test-to-predicted ratios are
shown in Table 4-2. The mean test-to-predicted ratio for CSA-S16-01/AISC 2005 is 1.46,
while for the unified equation it is 1.08. The coefficient of variation (COV) for
CSA-S16-01/AISC 2005 is 0.10, while for unified equation it is 0.09. A mean test-to-
predicted ratio much closer to 1.0, combined with a slightly lower coefficient of
variation, indicates that the unified equation better represents the behaviour of these
connections than does the set of equations used currently in the North American design
standards.
4.3.3 Series B Tests (B1 to B6)

These six specimens were connected by both the web and flanges, and the observed
failure mode was bolt tear-out in the web combined with block shear in flanges.
Photographs of the series B failed connections are shown in Figure 4-26. The three main
variables designed to investigate combined failures were web bolt gauge, number of bolt
rows in the web, and end distance.
It can be concluded that gauge has no effect on the connection capacity if the bolt tear-out
failure mode can be ensured. The connection deformations at the peak loads for B1G1
and B2G2, B3R1 and B4R2, B5E1 and B6E2 are similar since their flange bolt
configurations were the same for each variable and the peak was reached when necking
started to occur in the tension plane of the flange blocks.
An additional bolt row in the web, which means 60.3 mm (2-3/8") more connection
length in the web (and the same connection length in the web and flanges), resulted in an
52
increase in connection strength of 27%. An increase in the end distance of 15.9 mm
(5/8") in both the web and flanges resulted in an increase in connection strength of 20%.
Predicted capacities for each test in series B considering measured material and
geometric properties (and no resistance factor), with the assumption that the strength of
the web and that of the flanges at the peak load are directly additive, were calculated
using the CSA-S16-01/AISC 2005 block shear equations (Equations [2-1] to [2-4]) and
the unified equation (Equations [2-9] and [2-10]). Predicted capacities and the
test-to-predicted ratios are shown in Table 4-2. The mean test-to-predicted ratio for
CSA-S16-01/AISC 2005 is 1.24, while the unified equation gives a test-to-predicted ratio
of 1.00. The coefficient of variation (COV) for CSA-S16-01/AISC 2005 is 0.03; while
for the unified equation it is 0.02. These results indicate that the unified equation gives a
much better representation of the actual connection behaviour. All predictions in series B
by the unified equation are within 3% of the test capacity.
4.3.4 Series C Tests (C1 to C32)

4.3.4.1 Series C Tests with Thicker Webs (C1 to C16)
These 16 tests were conducted on specimens with thicker webs, resulting in connection
failures that involved bolt shear failure. The four inner bolts, which were away from the
edge of a specimen, tended to fail before the two end bolts because the end distance was
significantly less than the bolt pitch and the material near the edge tends to be more
flexible. This phenomenon indicates that these inner bolts carried more load at the peak
compared to the bolts near the free end. In fact, it could be further concluded that when
the inner bolts developed their full shear strength, the end bolts may only have been able
to develop their bolt shear capacities partially, depending on their clear end distances.
The upper bound of the connection capacity of specimens C1 to C16 is the strength of six
bolts failing in double shear.
Dealing with the predicted capacities of such connections, the six “traditional” failure
modes shown in Figure 4-27 are considered first. This group is based on the presumption
that the ductility of the connection is great enough to develop the full capacity at each
individual bolt or that it would fail in a global connection failure mode. Moreover, these
53
cases assume that if the connection fails at each individual bolt, the failure modes are the
same at all six locations. The traditional failure modes considered here are gross section
yielding, net section rupture, block shear, 6-bolt tear-out, 6-bolt bearing, or 6-bolt shear.
Besides the traditional modes described above, it is common for connections to fail
differently at the end bolts as compared to the inner bolts. Therefore, five potential
combination failure modes, shown in Figure 4-28, were introduced to consider that the
four inner bolts (IB) and the two end bolts (EB) may fail differently due to the large pitch
and relatively small end distance. Combinations 1 through 3 (shown in Figure 4-28a)
imply that, like for the traditional modes, the connection is sufficiently ductile to develop
the full capacity at each of the six bolts.
Another two types of failure—both of which are included in each of Combinations 4 and
5 (shown in Figure 4-28b)—are considered that are based on the assumption that the
connection does not have sufficient ductility for the four inner bolts to develop their full
capacity by the time the end bolts tear out (or fail in bearing). As a result, the connection
capacity would be either six times the end bolt capacity (just prior to failure of the shaded
region in Figure 4-28b, assuming the load is shared among the six bolts equally) or the
capacity of the inner four-bolt region acting alone (subsequent to failure of the end bolts,
assuming the remaining four inner bolts share the load equally until they fail as a group),
whichever is greater. (Note that the representations shown as Combinations 4 and 5 in
Figure 4-28 are symbolic since they do not indicate all the ways the inner four bolts can
fail, such as bolt shear or bolt bearing. Nevertheless, all such possibilities were
considered in the assessment of these “non-ductile” combinations.) Combinations 4 and 5
do not provide consistent predictions of the test capacities for specimens C1 to C16; the
test-to-predicted ratios vary from 0.91 to 1.37. For the nine specimens where these
combinations would govern the connection capacity, the mean test-to-predicted ratio is
1.22. Moreover, neither of the modes represented by these combinations is consistent
with the connection behaviour observed in the tests. For all these reasons, it is believed
that the non-ductile behaviour represented by Combinations 4 and 5 is not realistic. This
implies that the connections had sufficient ductility to develop the full capacity at each
54
individual bolt or develop a global connection failure mode—the six traditional modes or
Combinations 1 through 3.
The governing predicted capacity for the series C specimens with the thicker web is the
sum of four fully developed inner bolt shear capacities and the strength of either the end
material or two additional bolts failing in shear. The strength of the end material is the
lesser of the bolt tear-out strength (using the unified equation) and the bearing capacity at
the two end bolts. Predicted capacities, using measured material and geometric properties
(and no resistance factor), and test-to-predicted ratios for specimens with thicker webs in
series C are shown in Table 4-3, along with the governing failure modes. Good results are
achieved, regardless of the design standard used for the bolt shear and bearing
calculations. CSA-S16-01 gives a mean test-to-predicted ratio of 0.97 combined with a
coefficient of variation of 0.04, while AISC 2005 gives a mean test-to-predicted ratio of
1.02, also with a coefficient of variation of 0.04. The lack of a reduced bearing capacity
for small end distances in S16-01 (see Eq. [4-5]) does not seem detrimental since the
unified equation serves a similar purpose at these locations. In fact, for the six specimens
where the bearing equation in AISC 2005 governs for the end bolts (i.e., specimens C1 to
C6), the mean test-to-predicted ratio is 1.05. Eliminating the bearing equation check at
the end bolts changes the governing mode at this location to bolt tear-out in all six cases
(Combination 2) and results in an improved mean test-to-predicted ratio of 1.00 (with the
same coefficient of variation—0.03) using the unified equation. It should be noted that
the bolt shear stress in CSA-S16-01 is taken as 60% of bolt ultimate tensile stress
( 0.60 Fu ), and this resulted in the mean test-to-predicted ratio is 0.97. However, if the
von Mises criterion is used (e.g., shear stress is taken as Fu / 3 instead of 0.60 Fu ), it
gives a mean test-to-predicted ratio of 1.02, which is identical to AISC 2005. The
coefficient of variation remains the same (0.04) in all cases.
4.3.4.2 Series C Tests with Thinner Webs (C17 to C32)

These 16 tests were conducted on specimens with thinner webs, resulting in failure that
was more involved in the specimens than in the bolts. As shown in Figures D-7 to D-12,
for specimens that were unloaded right after the peak load, no end ruptures occurred,
55
which indicates that the end material in front of the first row of bolts contributes to the
connection capacity. Bearing damage adjacent to the four inner bolt holes is also clearly
evident in these photographs.
After the peak load, the failure of the connection is believed to be a series of sequential
failures, which means that the material in front of each bolt (a portion of the shear plane)
or the material between the two bolts in the last row (the tension plane) were not able to
reach their individual peaks simultaneously. This is evident by the fact that the tested
connection strength is far less than the sum of the individual component strengths along
the failure path displayed after unloading for the specimens loaded well beyond the peak.
As for specimens C1 to C16, Combinations 4 and 5 do not provide consistent predictions

of the test capacities for specimens C17 to C32; in this case, the test-to-predicted ratios
vary from 1.20 to 1.65 and all 16 specimens would be governed by these combinations.
Moreover, neither of the modes represented by these combinations is consistent with the
connection behaviour observed in the tests. Again, it is believed that the non-ductile
behaviour represented by Combinations 4 and 5 is not realistic and that the connections
had sufficient ductility to develop the full capacity at each individual bolt or develop a
global connection failure mode—the six traditional modes or Combinations 1 through 3.
The governing predicted capacity for the series C specimens with the thinner web is the
sum of the bearing capacity at the four inner bolts and the strength of the end material
taken as the lesser of the bolt tear-out strength (using the unified equation) and the
bearing capacity at the two end bolts. Predicted capacities, using measured material and
geometric properties (and no resistance factor), and test-to-predicted ratios for specimens
with thinner webs in series C are shown in Table 4-3, along with the governing failure
modes. The mean test-to-predicted ratios using CSA-S16-01 and AISC 2005 for the
bearing equations are 1.22 and 1.23, respectively, and the associated coefficients of
variation are 0.05 and 0.06, respectively.
The main conclusion that can be drawn from the test-to-predicted ratios is that the
AISC 2005 and CSA-S16-01 bearing equations seem very conservative. Control
56
specimen C32, which failed purely in bearing, had a test-to-predicted ratio of 1.32, which
implies that the bearing equations underestimate the actual bearing capacity by 32% if
deformation is not a design consideration. If this is the case, these bearing equations
could be improved by changing 1.5 Lc tFu to 2.0 Lc tFu , and 3.0d b tFu to 4.0d b tFu . This
would increase the bearing capacity by 33% and give a mean test-to-predicted ratio of
0.98, with a coefficient of variation of 0.04 for both CSA-S16-01 and AISC 2005. The
test-to-predicted ratio much closer to 1.0, combined with a lower coefficient of variation,
implies that the revised equations give better representations of the actual bearing
behaviour. For the six specimens where the reduced bearing equation in AISC 2005
governs for the end bolts (i.e., specimens C17 to C22), the mean test-to-predicted ratio is
1.29, with a coefficient of variation of 0.05. Eliminating the bearing equation check at the
end bolts changes the governing mode at this location to bolt tear-out in all six cases
(Combination 3) and, combined with the modified bearing equations proposed above for
the inner bolts, results in a greatly improved mean test-to-predicted ratio of 1.00, with a
coefficient of variation of 0.03, using the unified equation for bolt tear-out. However,
more research on bearing strength is required to verify the proposed increased capacities.
Nevertheless, using the unified equation for bolt end tear-out in combination with
existing bearing equations does provide conservative predictions of connection capacity.
4.4 Summary
A total of 50 tests were conducted on wide-flange shapes, including 12 series A
specimens connected by their webs only, six series B specimens connected by both the
web and flanges, and 32 series C specimens connected by their webs only. Specimens in
series A failed by bolt tear-out failure, while specimens in series B failed in a
combination of bolt tear-out in the web and flange block shear failure. Specimens with
thicker webs in series C failed in a combination of shear failure of the four inner bolts
and either tear-out, bolt bearing, or bolt shear of the two end bolts, depending on the end
distance. Specimens with thinner webs in series C failed in a combination of bearing at
the four inner bolts and tear-out or bearing failure at the two end bolts.
Based on results from series A, regardless of whether a tensile crack appeared at the free
edge by the time the specimen was unloaded, the unified equation taken on two shear
57
planes adjacent to the bolt provides a good estimate of capacity for the bolt tear-out
mode. For specimens with combined failure modes like the ones that developed in the
specimens of series B, the connection has sufficient ductility for the strength to be taken
as the sum of the individual strengths of the web and flanges.
Specimens in the series C tests exhibited sequential failure rather than simultaneous
failure of the individual components. Based on the test results and test observations, it
can be concluded that the connections had adequate ductility to allow each individual bolt
location to achieve its full capacity. For specimens C1 to C16, the bolts did not share the
load equally at failure due the difference in local stiffness resulting from a fairly large
pitch of 152.4 mm (6") and relatively small end distances that varied from 25.4 mm (1")
to 70 mm (2-3/4"). The overall ductility of the connection permitted the four inner bolts
to develop their full shear capacity, while the capacity of the material at the end bolts was
maintained. For specimens C17 to C32, the failure was more involved with the
specimens, although there were several tests that involved bolt failure as well. The exact
sequence of failure remains unidentified, although the final failure paths showed elements
of block shear failure, bearing failure, and bolt tear-out failure. The tests indicated that
the bearing equations in CSA-S16-01 and AISC 2005 where deformations are not a
design consideration are highly conservative. Another conclusion from the series C tests
is that non-ductile failure modes where the connection capacity is taken as the greater of
the capacity of an end bolt times the number of bolts and the capacity of the bolts that
remain connected after the end bolts tear out was found not to represent the connection
behaviour and these modes need not be checked in design.
The test results show that the unified equation is more suitable for bolt tear-out failure
than any of the block shear design equations in current North American design standards.
It not only provides test-to-predicted ratio much closer to 1.0, but also gives a lower
coefficient of variation for both the series A and series B tests.
58
Table 4-1a: Series A and B Test Results Summary
Ultimate Deformation at Deformation at

Specimen Strength Peak Load Unloading Point Unloading Point
(kN) (mm) (mm)
A1G1 690.7 8.4 14.4 drop of 5% of the peak load
A2G1 723.8 9.1 9.3 right after the peak load
A3R1 634.1 10.1 10.9 right after the peak load
A4R2 912.7 10.9 11.4 right after the peak load
A5E1 697.7 8.6 8.8 right after the peak load
A6E2 775.8* 5.9* 6.3 after a sudden load drop
A7G1 665.1 13.3 15.1 drop of 5% of the peak load
A8G2 622.1 11.6 12.0 right after the peak load
A9R1 632.8 13.6 15.7 drop of 5% of the peak load
A10R2 766.1 12.8 14.0 drop of 5% of the peak load
A11E1 691.2 12.7 14.0 drop of 5% of the peak load
A12E2 792.6 13.0 15.3 drop of 5% of the peak load
B1G1 1968.3 6.4** 7.2** after a sudden load drop
B2G2 1912.9 6.1** 6.2** right after the peak load
B3R1 1268.4 4.3** 6.5** all the way to failure
B4R2 1607.9 4.4** 4.4** right after the peak load
B5E1 1662.5 6.4** 6.5** right after the peak load
B6E2 1989.2 6.0** 6.0** right after the peak load
* Lower bound values
** Measured at flanges
59
Table 4-1b: Series C Test Results Summary
Ultimate Deformation Bolts Failure

Specimen Strength at the Peak Unloading Point at
(kN) (mm) Unloading Point
C1E1a 1082.1 4.8 all the way to failure four bolts failed
C2E1b 1111.8 5.1 right after the peak load no bolt failed
C3E1c 1112.8 5.3 all the way to failure four bolts failed
C5E2b 1190.4 6.5 all the way to failure four bolts failed
C6E2c 1152.3 5.3 right after the peak load one bolt failed
C8E3b 1155.4 5.3 right after the peak load two bolts failed
C10E4a 1215.0 5.2 all the way to failure five bolts failed
C13E5a 1293.1 5.2 all the way to failure five bolts failed
C14E5b 1187.8 5.8 right after the peak load one bolt failed
C15E5c 1279.8 5.4 all the way to failure five bolts failed
C16E6 1323.3 4.8 all the way to failure all bolts failed
C17E1a 967.4 13.5 right after the peak load no bolt failed
C18E1b 984.6 13.4 all the way to failure two bolts failed
C19E1c 1013.6 15.8 all the way to failure no bolt failed
C20E2a 1014.9 15.5 all the way to failure three bolts failed
C23E3a 1033.2 15.6 all the way to failure no bolt failed
C26E4a 1023.9 16.7 all the way to failure no bolt failed
C29E5a 1043.8 15.5 all the way to failure three bolts failed
C31E5c 1043.8 16.5 all the way to failure two bolts failed
C32E6 1243.3 20.2 all the way to failure no bolt failed
60
Table 4-2: Summary of Test-to-Predicted Ratios of Series A and Series B
Capacity Test-to-Predicted Ratio

Test CSA AISC Unified
Specimen CSA AISC Unified
Capacity S16-01 2005 Equation
S16-01 2005 Equation
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
A1G1 690.7 481.2 481.2 601.4 1.44 1.44 1.01
A2G1 723.8 492.9 492.9 616.1 1.47 1.47 1.04
A7G1 665.1 451.1 451.1 563.9 1.47 1.47 1.04
A8G2 622.1 441.2 441.2 551.5 1.41 1.41 0.99
A3R1 634.1 366.5 366.5 458.1 1.73 1.73 1.25
A4R2 912.7 599.3 599.3 749.1 1.52 1.52 1.09
A9R1 632.8 376.2 376.2 470.3 1.68 1.68 1.22
A10R2 766.1 628.9 628.9 786.1 1.22 1.22 0.88
A5E1 697.7 479.7 479.7 599.6 1.45 1.45 1.13
A6E2 775.8 623.9 623.9 733.2 1.24 1.24 1.06
A11E1 691.2 448.1 448.1 560.2 1.54 1.54 1.14
A12E2 792.6 592.2 592.2 729.8 1.34 1.34 1.09
Mean 1.46 1.46 1.08
– – – –
COV 0.10 0.10 0.09
B1G1 1968.3 1541.5 1541.5 1943.0 1.28 1.28 1.01
B2G2 1912.9 1557.3 1557.3 1964.0 1.23 1.23 0.97
B3R1 1268.5 996.3 996.3 1265.2 1.27 1.27 1.00
B4R2 1607.9 1263.7 1263.7 1648.3 1.27 1.27 0.98
B5E1 1662.5 1355.6 1355.6 1666.0 1.23 1.23 1.00
B6E2 1989.2 1696.4 1696.4 1946.4 1.17 1.17 1.02
Mean 1.24 1.24 1.00
– – – –
COV 0.03 0.03 0.02
61
Table 4-3: Summary of Test-to-Predicted Ratios of Series C
CSA-S16-01/Unified Equation AISC 2005/Unified Equation Test-to-Predicted Ratio

Test
Predicted Predicted Predicted Predicted
Specimen Capacity CSA-S16-01/ AISC 2005/
Capacity* Failure Capacity* Failure
(kN) Unified Equation Unified Equation
(kN) Mode (kN) Mode
C1E1a 1082.1 1114.7 Combination 2 1042.5 Combination 1 0.97 1.04
C2E1b 1111.8 1118.0 Combination 2 1046.0 Combination 1 0.99 1.06
C3E1c 1112.8 1118.2 Combination 2 1045.3 Combination 1 1.00 1.06
C10E4a 1215.0 1298.9 Combination 2 1247.7 6-Bolt Shear 0.94 0.97
C11E4b 1249.1 1299.8 Combination 2 1247.7 6-Bolt Shear 0.96 1.00
62
C12E4c 1182.8 1299.9 Combination 2 1247.7 6-Bolt Shear 0.91 0.95

C13E5a 1293.1 1310.1 6-Bolt Shear 1247.7 6-Bolt Shear 0.99 1.04
C14E5b 1187.8 1310.1 6-Bolt Shear 1247.7 6-Bolt Shear 0.91 0.95
C15E5c 1279.8 1310.1 6-Bolt Shear 1247.7 6-Bolt Shear 0.98 1.03
C16E6 1323.3 1310.1 6-Bolt Shear 1247.7 6-Bolt Shear 1.01 1.06
Mean 0.97 1.02
– – –
COV 0.04 0.04
* AISC 2005 and CSA-S16-01 are used for the bearing and bolt shear equations and the unified equation is used for bolt
tear-out failure.
Table 4-3: Summary of Test-to-Predicted Ratios of Series C (Cont’d)
CSA-S16-01/Unified Equation AISC 2005/Unified Equation Test-to-Predicted Ratio

Test
Predicted Predicted Predicted Predicted
Specimen Capacity CSA-S16-01/ AISC 2005/
Capacity* Failure Capacity* Failure
(kN) Unified Equation Unified Equation
(kN) Mode (kN) Mode
C17E1a 967.4 760.8 Combination 3 740.1 6-Bearing 1.27 1.31
C18E1b 984.6 755.0 Combination 3 734.0 6-Bearing 1.30 1.34
C19E1c 1013.6 760.7 Combination 3 739.9 6-Bearing 1.33 1.37
C20E2a 1014.9 798.0 Combination 3 792.5 6-Bearing 1.27 1.28
C21E2b 961.6 795.2 Combination 3 789.8 6-Bearing 1.21 1.22
C22E2c 976.2 796.7 Combination 3 791.3 6-Bearing 1.23 1.23
63

C32E6 1243.3 938.7 6-Bearing 938.7 6-Bearing 1.32 1.32
Mean 1.22 1.23
– – – – –
COV 0.05 0.06
* AISC 2005 and CSA-S16-01 are used for the bearing and bolt shear equations and the unified equation is used for bolt
tear-out failure.
1000
900
800
Load (kN) 700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Deformation (mm)
Figure 4-1: Load vs. Deformation Curve for A1G1
1000
900
800
700
Load (kN)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Deformation (mm)
64
1000
900
800
700
Load (kN)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Deformation (mm)
1000
900
800
700
Load (kN)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Deformation (mm)
65
1000
900
800
700
Load (kN)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Deformation (mm)
Figure 4-5: Load vs. Deformation Curve for A3R1
1000
900
800
700
Load (kN)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Deformation (mm)
66
1000
LVDT stuck
900
800
700
Load (kN)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Deformation (mm)
1000
900
800
700
Load (kN)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Deformation (mm)
67
1000
900
800
700
Load (kN)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Deformation (mm)
Figure 4-9: Load vs. Deformation Curve for A5E1
1000
900
800
700
Load (kN)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Deformation (mm)
68
1000
Premature failure at tack weld toe
900
800
700
Load (kN)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Deformation (mm)
1000
900
800
700
Load (kN)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Deformation (mm)
69
2000
1800
1600
1400
Load (kN)
1200
Flange Web
1000
LVDTs LVDTs
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Deformation (mm)
Figure 4-13: Load vs. Deformation Curve for B1G1
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
Load (kN)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Deformation (mm)
Figure 4-14: Load vs. Deformation Curve for B2G2
70
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
Load (kN)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Deformation (mm)
Figure 4-15: Load vs. Deformation Curve for B3R1
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
Load (kN)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Deformation (mm)
Figure 4-16: Load vs. Deformation Curve for B4R2
71
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
Load (kN)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Deformation (mm)
Figure 4-17: Load vs. Deformation Curve for B5E1
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
Load (kN)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Deformation (mm)
Figure 4-18: Load vs. Deformation Curve for B6E2
72
End Tears
73
(a) Specimen Loaded All the Way to Failure (b) Specimen Unloaded Right After the Peak
Figure 4-19: Typical Specimen Failures in Series C (thicker web)

(a) Bolts in Thicker Web Specimens (b) Bolts in Thinner Web Specimens
Figure 4-20: Typical Bolt Failures in Series C
(a) With Tension Plane Rupture (b) Without Tension Plane Rupture
Figure 4-21: Typical Specimen Failures in Series C (thinner web)
74
Shear Tear Splitting Crack
(a) Shear Tear (b) Tensile Splitting Crack
Figure 4-22: Typical Shear Tear and Tensile Splitting Crack in Series A
Shear Tear
Figure 4-23: Typical Shear Tears in Series B Figure 4-24: Ductility at a Hole
(Specimen B5, unloaded at the peak)
75
Figure 4-25: Series A Failed Connections
76
Figure 4-25: Series A Failed Connections (Cont’d)
77
78
Figure 4-26: Series B Failed Connections

79
Figure 4-26: Series B Failed Connections (Cont’d)

80
Figure 4-26: Series B Failed Connections (Cont’d)

Figure 4-27: Series C Traditional Failure Modes
81
(a) Ductile Behaviour (b) Non-Ductile Behaviour
Figure 4-28: Series C Combination Failure Modes

5. RELIABILITY ANALYSES
5.1 Introduction
This chapter assesses the ability of the North American design standards (using the block
shear equations) and the unified equation to predict the failure of tension members failing
predominantly by bolt end tear-out through reliability analyses. A total of 184 specimens
from this research project and the literature have been considered.
In general, an appropriate reliability index, β , which represents the probability of failure

of a member or connection, can be achieved by selecting a suitable resistance factor, φ ,
for design. These two parameters are related by the bias coefficient for the resistance, ρ R ,
and the coefficient of variation of resistance, V R , which can be determined by the relevant
material parameters, geometric parameters, professional parameters (in the form of
test-to-predicted ratios), and discretization parameters. The basic equation for calculating
the resistance factor, as proposed by Ravindra and Galambos (1978), is:
φ = ρ R exp(− βα RVR ) [5-1]
where:
ρ R = ρ M ρG ρ P ρd [5-2]
V R = VM2 + VG2 + V P2 + Vd2 [5-3]
where:
α R is a separation variable;
ρ M is the bias coefficient of the material factor;
ρ G is the bias coefficient of the geometry factor;
ρ P is the bias coefficient of the professional factor;
ρ d is the bias coefficient of the discretization factor;
VM is the coefficient of variation of material factor;
VG is the coefficient of variation of geometry factor;
V P is the coefficient of variation of the professional factor; and
82
Vd is the coefficient of variation of the discretization factor.
Ravindra and Galambos (1978) also proposed that the separation variable, α R , be taken as
0.55.
For connections, the traditional target reliability index is from 4.0 to 4.5, so since
Equation [5-1] was calibrated for a reliability index of 3.0 a modification factor, Φ β ,
must be applied to the equation. Based on work by Fisher et al. (1978), Franchuk et. al.
(2002) proposed the following equation for the modification factor that is suitable for
mean (as opposed to nominal) live-to-dead load ratios ranging from 0.5 to 2.0, and
reliability indices from 2.0 to 5.0:
Φ β = 0.0062 β 2 − 0.131β + 1.338

[5-4]
The resistance factor equation therefore becomes:
φ = (0.0062β 2 − 0.131β + 1.338) ρ R exp(− βα RVR ) [5-5]
5.2 Material Factor

Material property factors reflect the fact that the actual material strength is different from
the nominal material strength used in design. Material factors used in this project were
obtained from Schmidt and Bartlett (2002a). Since these authors presented values for
plates and wide-flange shapes only, the values for wide-flange webs have been used for
channels connected through the webs. All other specimens considered in this analysis are
either plates, wide-flange shapes, or Tees cut from wide-flange shapes.
For bolt tear-out failure, both the yield and ultimate strength of the material are relevant
to the connection strength, but it is conservative to use the values for the static yield
stress since the mean bias coefficient is lower and the coefficient of variation higher than
those for the ultimate strength. For plate thicknesses ranging from 10 mm to 20 mm the
values are 1.07 and 0.054 for the bias coefficient and coefficient of variation,
respectively. For wide-flange shapes, reliability parameters should consider the web
83
and/or flange according to their respective involvements in the mode of failure. The
values of the bias coefficient and coefficient of variation for the flange static yield
strength were given as 1.03 and 0.063, respectively, and these values were used for the
cases where failure involves both the web and flange since the strength of the flange is
typically slightly lower than the web. For cases where failure involves the web only,
Schmidt and Bartlett (2002a) recommend that the web bias coefficient be taken as 1.02
times that of the flange, with the coefficient of variation remaining the same, to reflect
that the higher web yield strength. The difference of the yield strength between the web
and flanges is reduced from 5%—the value typically used—to 2% due to the modern
rolling method of steel production; specifically W-shapes are rolled from
dog-bone-shaped casts instead of rectangular blooms (Schmidt and Bartlett, 2002a). The
values of the bias coefficient and coefficient of variation for the web static yield strength
were obtained after applying the correction as 1.05 and 0.063, respectively.
5.3 Geometry Factor

Geometry factors represent the fact that the actual plate thickness and bolt hole layout
usually differ from the nominal values. Franchuk et. al. (2002) found that the effect of the
perimeter of the block at final failure was negligible compared to that of the material
thickness. Therefore, the selection of geometry factors could be based on the thickness
only for simplicity with reasonable accuracy.
For plates, the values for bias coefficient and coefficient of variation, which are based on
web and flange thicknesses of WWF shapes, were reported by Schmidt and Bartlett
(2002a) as 1.04 and 0.025, respectively. Since Schmidt and Bartlett (2002a) did not give
thickness data for wide-flange shapes, geometric properties used for rolled shapes are
based on the values given by Kennedy and Gad Aly (1980), who give the value of the
bias coefficient and coefficient of variation for the flange thickness as 0.979 and 0.0417,
and for web thickness as 1.017 and 0.0384, respectively. It is conservative to use the
values for flange thickness instead of the web thickness for failure involving both the web
and flanges because the flange has a lower bias coefficient and a higher coefficient of
variation.
84
5.4 Discretization Factor
Discretization factors reflect the fact that certain design parameters can only be selected
in discrete increments. For members, only discrete cross-section sizes are available for
continuous ranges of demand. This generally results in a slightly larger section being
selected than is actually needed. For bolted connections, the discretization arises due to
the need to select an integer number of bolts and the use of standardized shop practices
such as standard bolt pitches, etc. No specific data were found related to the discretization
factor for bolted connections, but as a point of reference Schmidt and Bartlett (2002b)
recommend a bias coefficient for wide-flange tension members of 1.04, with a coefficient
of variation of 0.033. It is believed that the bias coefficient for the connections of tension
members would be considerably greater than that for the members themselves, although
the coefficient of variation could also be greater. As a conservative approach, the values
for members are used in this reliability study, although if appropriate connection data
become available the reliability indices could be re-evaluated and would be expected to
increase slightly.
Table 5-1 lists all the values of the material, geometry, and discretization parameters used
in the reliability analyses.
5.5 Professional Factor

The professional factor represents the accuracy of an equation in predicting the capacity
of a connection, and it is the equivalent of the test-to-predicted ratio. Measured geometric
and material properties (and no resistance factor) are used to calculate the predicted
capacity, as was done in Chapter 4, and the actual capacity of a connection can be
obtained through a laboratory test. The test-to-predicted ratios for bolt tear-out failure of
the tests in this research project, namely for series A and series B, are listed in Table 4-2,
and a summary of test-to-predicted ratios for previously published test results is listed in
Appendix B.
In calculating the predicted capacity using the CSA-S16-01 and AISC 2005 design
equations and the unified equation, the governing connection capacity was obtained by
considering all possible failure modes such as gross section yielding, net section rupture,
85
block shear, bolt tear-out and bolt shear, and the governing failure mode should match the
observed failure mode in the test. As strength equations are being evaluated, bearing
failure was not included in the capacity calculations as they can be unrealistically
conservative and the failure modes observed were consistently dominated by bolt
tear-out.
For plates, most specimens in the database violated the minimum pitch and/or end
distance requirements specified in the design standards in North America, although over
a hundred tests had been conducted where the observed failure mode was bolt tear-out.
As this research project is not intended to investigate the behaviour of high strength
steels, the yield strengths of materials considered in the reliability analyses are limited to
550 MPa. Moreover, bolt tear-out failures in plates with more than three bolts in a single
line were found to fail at lower loads than predicted; since in typical connections these
long tear-out-out paths would be unlikely to form before another failure mode occurred,
these were excluded from the reliability study. Only 30 out of 135 specimens that failed
by bolt tear-out meet all the minimum end/edge distance and pitch requirements, have a
yield strength that is not greater than 550 MPa, and had no more than three bolt rows. For
rolled shapes, most specimens meet the minimum end/edge distance and pitch
requirements, and only the five channels among 37 specimens slightly violated the
minimum pitch requirement by 0.2d b . As a result, 62 specimens, which include 30
plates, 14 Tees, 12 series A W-shapes, and six series B W-shapes, meet all the limitations
of the reliability study. The professional factors are listed in Table 5-2.
The data pool could be enlarged by including the plates that have no more than three bolt
rows and their yield strength is not greater than 550 MPa, regardless of whether or not the
specimens meet the minimum end/edge distance and pitch requirements, in order to
assess the consequence of misplaced holes. This results in a total of 127 specimens,
which include 91 plates, 14 Tees, four channels, 12 series A W-shapes, and six series B
W-shapes. These professional factors are also listed in Table 5-2. It should be
emphasized that the majority of the connections in the groups marked by an asterisk in
the table would not be permitted by North American standards.
86
Figures 5-1a and 5-1b show test vs. predicted capacity plots of the 62 test results that
meet all the minimum end/edge distance and pitch requirements using
CSA-S16-01/AISC 2005 and the unified equation, while Figures 5-2a and 5-2b show test
vs. predicted capacity plots of the 127 test results that include those that violate the
minimum end/edge distance and pitch requirements. These figures show that
CSA-S16-01 and AISC 2005 generally give highly conservative predictions of capacity
for the bolt tear-out mode of failure, while the unified equation gives accurate predictions
over the entire database. Also, the coefficients of variation of the test-to-predicted ratios
given by the unified equation are less than the values given by CSA-S16-01/AISC 2005
in both cases. For the 62 tests, the coefficient of variation of the unified equation is 0.10,
while it is 0.14 for CSA-S16-01/AISC 2005. For the 127 tests, the coefficient of variation
of the unified equation is 0.10, while it is 0.16 for CSA-S16-01/AISC 2005. This means
that the unified equation describes the bolt tear-out behaviour better than the block shear
equations of CSA-S16-01/AISC 2005.
5.6 Reliability Indices

Table 5-3 shows reliability indices provided by the design equations based on the test
data from the literature and this research project. The desirable reliability index for
connections is a value from 4.0 to 4.5. The resistance factor specified in CSA-S16-01 for
block shear failure is 0.9, resulting in reliability indices that vary from 3.2 to 5.3. In
AISC 2005, the resistance factor is 0.75 for block shear failure, resulting in reliability
indices from 4.3 to 6.6. The unified equation, with a resistance factor of 0.75, provides a
desired level of safety, with reliability indices ranging from 4.2 to 4.7. The greatly
improved consistency over the various connection types indicates that the unified
equation provides a better representation of the bolt tear-out failure behaviour than the
current block shear equations in the North American standards.
5.7 Summary
Using the test results from this research project in addition to test data from the literature,
it has been shown that the current design standards do not predict connection capacities
for bolt tear-out failure accurately and provide inconsistent levels of safety. On the other
hand, the unified equation, which can predict connection capacities of block shear, bolt
87
tear-out, and net section rupture, shows a significant improvement in accuracy of
predicting capacities for bolt tear-out failure, and also results in adequate and more
consistent levels of safety.
88
Table 5-1: Parameters for Reliability Analyses
Reliability Wide-Flange Shape

Plates
Parameter (For Web Failure) (For Web and Flange Failure)
ρM 1.07 1.05 1.03
VM 0.054 0.063 0.063
ρG 1.04 1.017 0.979
VG 0.025 0.0384 0.0417
ρd 1.04 1.04 1.04
Vd 0.033 0.033 0.033
Table 5-2: Professional Factors Provided by Design Equations
S16-01 AISC 2005 Unified Equation

Number
Section
of Tests ρP VP ρP VP ρP VP
Plates 30 1.21 0.11 1.21 0.11 0.97 0.11
Plates 91* 1.33 0.16 1.33 0.16 0.94 0.09
Channels 4* 1.20 0.03 1.20 0.03 0.95 0.03

W-Shapes
(Web Failure)
12 1.46 0.10 1.46 0.10 1.08 0.09
W-Shapes
(Web and Flange 6 1.24 0.03 1.24 0.03 1.00 0.02
Failure)
Tees
(Web and Flange 14 1.08 0.09 1.08 0.09 1.05 0.09
Failure)
* Specimens that have no more than three bolt rows and yield strengths no greater than
550 MPa, regardless of whether or not they meet the minimum end/edge distance and
pitch requirements.
89
Table 5-3: Reliability Indices Provided by Design Equations
S16-01 AISC 2005 Unified Equation

Section
Number (φ = 0.9) (φ = 0.75) (φ = 0.75)
of Tests
ρR VR β ρR VR β ρR VR β
Plates 30 1.39 0.13 4.4 1.39 0.13 5.5 1.13 0.13 4.3
Plates 91* 1.54 0.18 4.3 1.54 0.18 5.3 1.09 0.12 4.2
Channels 4* 1.33 0.09 4.9 1.33 0.09 6.3 1.02 0.08 4.5
W-Shapes
12 1.62 0.13 5.3 1.62 0.13 6.6 1.20 0.12 4.7
(Web Failure)
W-Shapes
(Web and 6 1.30 0.09 4.6 1.30 0.09 6.0 1.05 0.08 4.4
Flange Failure)
Tees
(Web and 14 1.14 0.12 3.2 1.14 0.12 4.3 1.10 0.12 4.2
Flange Failure)
* Specimens that have no more than three bolt rows and yield strengths no greater than
550 MPa, regardless of whether or not they meet the minimum end/edge distance and
pitch requirements.
90
2500 2500
2000 2000
Test Capacity (kN)
Test Capacity (kN)

1500 1500
1000 1000
500 500
91
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Predicted Capacity (kN) Predicted Capacity (kN)
(a) CSA-S16-01/AISC 2005 (b) Unified Equation
Figure 5-1: Test vs. Predicted Capacities

(62 specimens that meet the minimum end distance and pitch requirements and Fy ≤ 550 MPa)
2500 2500
2000 2000
Test Capacity (kN)
Test Capacity (kN)

1500 1500
1000 1000
500 500
92
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Predicted Capacity (kN) Predicted Capacity (kN)
(a) CSA-S16-01/AISC 2005 (b) Unified Equation
Figure 5-2: Test vs. Predicted Capacities

(127 specimens that have no more than three bolt rows and Fy ≤ 550 MPa)
6. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Summary
Bolt tear-out failure has not been clearly addressed in current design standards in North
America, although the shear terms of block shear equations could be used. A unified
block shear equation was proposed from a reliability-based study by Driver et al. (2006)
using a large database of block shear tests from the literature collected by Kulak and
Grondin (2001). As compared to other block shear equations from the literature and those
in design standards CSA-S16-01 and AISC 2005, the unified equation has been proven to
provide better predictions and more consistent levels of safety for block shear failure in a
variety of connection types. Due to the similarities of net section rupture, block shear
failure, and bolt tear-out failure, the application of the unified block shear equation can be
extended to become a truly unified equation for these three closely related failure modes.
A total of 50 full-scale tests have been completed on wide-flange shapes, and 18 of them
were designed specifically to investigate bolt tear-out failure. Twelve specimens
connected by the web only and six by both the web and flanges were tested in tension.
The main variables in the experiments were web bolt gauge, the number of bolt rows in
the web, and end distance. The remaining 32 specimens were conducted to investigate the
effect of end distance and material thickness on the overall behaviour larger bolt groups.
Along with the tests previously conducted by other researchers, a total of 127 test results
of specimens failing by bolt tear-out were analyzed. Reliability analyses of the equations
in current design standards in North America and the unified equation were conducted in
order to evaluate their accuracy and the safety level provided. It was found that use of the
block shear equations in CSA-S16-01/AISC 2005 for bolt tear-out provides highly
conservative capacity predictions, while the unified equation gives accurate strength
predictions and less scatter in the test-to-predicted ratios. With the resistance factor of
0.9, CSA-S16-01 provides reasonable reliability indices, although they are quite high in
some cases. For Tees failing in the so-called alternate block shear mode, the low
reliability index implies a probability of failure higher than what is typically considered
93
acceptable for connections, while the unified equation—with a resistance factor of 0.75—
provides an adequate level of safety. With the resistance factor of 0.75, AISC 2005
generally provides high and inconsistent reliability indices. The unified equation achieves
desired levels of reliability indices for bolt tear-out failure with a resistance factor of
0.75.
6.2 Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from the test results of this research project
along with the test results from the literature:
1. In spite of the occurrence of tensile splitting cracks at the end bolts of some
specimens that failed by bolt tear-out, the laboratory tests and strength calculations
proved that two shear planes adjacent to each bolt line carry the load until the peak is
reached.
2. For the bolt tear-out failure mode, the average stress on the shear planes at failure
exceeds the shear yield stress but may not reach the ultimate shear stress.
3. The unified equation gives good predictions for bolt tear-out failure for typical
connection lengths up to three bolt rows, while CSA-S16-01 and AISC 2005 give
very conservative results. Connection lengths longer than this are unlikely to fail in
this mode.
4. All series B specimens except specimen B4R2 had a shorter connection length in the
web than the flanges by one bolt row. The resulting failure mode in all cases was
shear fracture in the web and tension fracture in the flanges, which occurred well
before shear fracture in the flanges since the material ductility in tension is inadequate
for those shear tears to take place. The unified equation gives excellent predictions of
the capacities of these members simply by the summation of the block shear
capacities of the four flanges and the bolt tear-out capacities of the web.
94
5. For connections with large pitch and relatively small end distance, inner bolts and end
bolts may fail in different modes, but the ductility of the connection is sufficient for
each of the bolt locations to develop their individual capacities.
6.3 Recommendations
Although many connection parameters have been investigated in this research project,
more physical tests are recommended to broaden the database for the bolt tear-out failure
mode. Connection configurations similar to the series B tests, but with very different
connection lengths in the web and flanges and with large pitch, are recommended to be
investigated to verify the criteria of additive capacities for combined failure modes, since
the sequential failure may be an important factor that would affect the strength of
connections. Connection tests with slotted holes are also recommended in order to
determine whether they need to be treated differently from standard holes for bolt
tear-out failure.
Based on the comparisons of predicted capacities and safety levels of design equations in
North America and the unified equation using test results of this research project and the
literature, the following unified equation, which is identical to the unified block shear
equation, is recommended for the three closely related failure modes of net section
rupture, block shear, and bolt tear-out.
⎛ Fy + Fu ⎞
Pr = φAnt Fu + φAgv ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ [6-1]
⎝ 2 3 ⎠
where the resistance factor φ is recommended to be taken as 0.75.
For net section rupture, the unified equation can be simplified by using the tension
component only. It becomes:
Pr = φAnt Fu [6-2]
For bolt tear-out failure, the unified equation can be simplified by using the shear
component only. It becomes:
95
⎛ Fy + Fu ⎞
Pr = φAgv ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ [6-3]
⎝ 2 3 ⎠
It has been proven that the unified equation gives much more accurate test-to-predicted
ratios and more consistent reliability indices compared to the design equations in North
American standards for bolt tear-out failure.
96
REFERENCES
Aalberg, A and Larsen, P.K. (2001). “Bearing Strength of Bolted Connections in High
Strength Steel,” Proceedings, 9th Nordic Steel Construction Conference, Helsinki,
Finland. pp. 859-866
Aalberg, A and Larsen, P.K. (2002). “The Effect of Steel Strength and Ductility on
Bearing Failure of Bolted Connections,” Proceedings, 3rd European Conference
Steel Structures, Coimbra, Portugal. pp. 869-878
AISC (2005). “Specification for Structural Steel Buildings,” American Institute of Steel
Construction, Chicago, IL, USA.
CSA. (2001). “Limit States Design of Steel Structures,” CSA-S16-01, Canadian

Standards Association, Toronto, ON, Canada.
ASTM (2007). “A370-97 Standard Test Methods and Definitions for Mechanical Testing
of Steel Products,” American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA,
USA.
Driver, R.G., Grondin, G.Y., and Kulak, G.L. (2006). “Unified Block Shear Equation for
Achieving Consistent Reliability,” Journal of Constructional Steel Research,
Vol. 62, pp. 210-222.
Epstein, H.I., and Stamberg, H. (2002). “Block Shear and Net Section Capacities of
Structural Tees in Tension: Test Results and Code Implications,” Engineering
Journal, American Institute of Steel Construction, Vol. 39, Fourth quarter,
pp. 228-239.
ESC (1992). “ENV 1993-1-1 Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures,” European

Committee for Standardization, Brussels, Belgium.
97
Fisher, J.W., Galambos, T.V., Kulak, G.L., and Ravindra, M.K. (1978). “Load and
Resistance Factor Design Criteria for Connectors,” Journal of the Structural
Division, ASCE, Vol. 104, No. ST9, pp. 1427-1441.
Franchuk, C.R., Driver, R.G., and Grondin, G.Y. (2002). “Block Shear Behaviour of
Coped Steel Beams,” Structural Engineering Report No. 244, Department of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada.
Franchuk, C.R., Driver, R.G., and Grondin, G.Y. (2003). “Experimental Investigation of
Block Shear Failure in Coped Steel Beams,” Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering,
Vol. 30, pp. 871-881.
Hardash, S.G. and Bjorhovde, R. (1985). “New Design Criteria for Gusset Plates in
Tension,” Engineering Journal, AISC, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 77-94
Huns, B.B.S., Grondin, G.Y., and Driver, R.G. (2002). “Block Shear Behaviour of Bolted
Gusset Plates,” Structural Engineering Report No. 248, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada.
Kato, B. (2003a). “Unified Strength Evaluation of Bolted Joints,” International Journal of

Steel Structures, Vol. 3, pp. 137-144.
Kato, B. (2003b). “Unified Strength Evaluation of Bolted Joints of Shapes,” International

Journal of Steel Structures, Vol. 3, pp. 145-154.
Kennedy, D.J.L. and Gad Aly, M. (1980). “Limit States Design of Steel Structures—
Performance Factors,” Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 7 pp. 45-77
Kim, H.J. and Yura, J.A. (1999). “The Effect of Ultimate-to-Yield Ratio on the Bearing
Strength of Bolted Connections,” Journal of Constructional Steel Research, Vol. 49,
pp. 255-269.
98
Kulak, G.L. and Grondin, G.Y. (2001). “Block Shear Failure in Steel Members—A
Review of Design Practice,” Engineering Journal, American Institute of Steel
Construction, Vol. 38, Fourth quarter, pp. 199-203.
Puthli, R. and Fleischer, O. (2001). “Investigations on Bolted Connections for High

Strength Steel Members,” Journal of Constructional Steel Research, Vol. 57,
pp. 313-326.
Ravindra, M.K. and Galambos, T.V. (1978). “Load and Resistance Factor Design for
Steel,” Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 104, No. ST9,
pp. 1337-1353.
Rex, C.O. and Easterling, W.S. (2003). “Behavior and Modeling of a Bolt Bearing on a
Single Plate.” Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 792-800.
Schmidt, B.J. and Bartlett, F.M. (2002a). “Review of Resistance Factor for Steel: Data
Collection,” Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 29, pp. 98-108.
Schmidt, B.J. and Bartlett, F.M. (2002b). “Review of Resistance Factor for Steel: Resistance
Distributions and Resistance Factor Calibration,” Canadian Journal of Civil
Engineering, Vol. 29, pp. 109-118.
Udagawa, K. and Yamada, T. (1998). “Failure Modes and Ultimate Tensile Strength of Steel
Plates Jointed with High Strength Bolts,” Journal of Structural and Construction
Engineering, Architectural Institute of Japan, No. 505, pp. 115-122. (in Japanese)
Udagawa, K. and Yamada, T. (2004). “Ultimate Strength and Failure Modes of Tension
Channels Jointed with High-Strength Bolts,” Proceedings, 13th World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
99
APPENDIX A
Published Test Results
100
Table A-1: Published Test Results of Bolt Tear-Out Failure
Bolt Plate End Bolt Number Number Yield Ultimate Test

Specimen Diameter Thickness Distance Pitch of of Stress Stress Capacity
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) Bolt Lines Bolt Rows (MPa) (MPa) (kN)
Udagawa and Yamada (1998)
121.4 16 12 15.7 40 1 2 277.6 443.4 288.4
122.4 16 12 23.4 40 1 2 277.6 443.4 337.5
123.4 16 12 31.2 40 1 2 277.6 443.4 375.7
124.4 16 12 39.7 40 1 2 277.6 443.4 413.0
131.4 16 12 16.0 40 1 3 277.6 443.4 421.8
132.4 16 12 20.0 40 1 3 279.6 444.4 438.5
133.4 16 12 24.0 40 1 3 265.9 452.2 468.9
134.4 16 12 31.7 40 1 3 277.6 443.4 517.0
135.4 16 12 40.5 40 1 3 265.9 452.2 547.4
101
141.4 16 12 16.2 40 1 4 277.6 443.4 557.2

142.4 16 12 23.4 40 1 4 277.6 443.4 600.4
143.4 16 12 31.4 40 1 4 277.6 443.4 657.3
144.4 16 12 39.0 40 1 4 277.6 443.4 724.0
23D.4 16 12 24.0 40 2 3 279.6 444.4 955.5
23N.4 16 12 24.0 40 2 3 279.6 444.4 972.2
121.6 16 12 15.7 40 1 2 476.8 601.4 391.4
122.6 16 12 25.0 40 1 2 472.8 604.3 483.6
123.6 16 12 32.0 40 1 2 493.4 615.1 522.9
124.6 16 12 40.6 40 1 2 477.8 600.4 584.7
131.6 16 12 16.0 40 1 3 474.8 618.0 600.4
132.6 16 12 20.3 40 1 3 447.3 589.6 602.3
133.6 16 12 24.0 40 1 3 459.1 616.1 652.4
134.6 16 12 32.3 40 1 3 480.7 607.2 730.8
135.6 16 12 39.5 40 1 3 459.1 616.1 765.2
Table A-1: Published Test Results of Bolt Tear-Out Failure (Cont’d)

Udagawa and Yamada (1998) Cont’d
141.6 16 12 17.0 40 1 4 480.7 603.3 799.5
142.6 16 12 24.0 40 1 4 478.7 601.4 875.1
143.6 16 12 32.6 40 1 4 491.5 615.1 951.6
144.6 16 12 39.7 40 1 4 478.7 602.3 1012.4
23D.6 16 12 24.0 40 2 3 447.3 589.6 1312.6
23N.6 16 12 24.0 40 2 3 447.3 589.6 1306.7
23P.6 16 12 35.2 40 2 3 447.3 589.6 1435.2
121.8 16 12 15.2 40 1 2 622.0 741.6 449.3
122.8 16 12 23.5 40 1 2 622.0 741.6 531.7
102
123.8 16 12 31.5 40 1 2 674.0 775.0 618.0

124.8 16 12 39.7 40 1 2 674.0 775.0 680.8
131.8 16 12 16.0 40 1 3 654.3 800.5 756.4
132.8 16 12 20.3 40 1 3 649.4 801.5 793.6
133.8 16 12 24.5 40 1 3 648.4 799.5 822.1
134.8 16 12 31.2 40 1 3 674.0 775.0 868.2
135.8 16 12 39.5 40 1 3 648.4 799.5 947.6
141.8 16 12 15.4 40 1 4 619.0 748.5 898.6
142.8 16 12 23.2 40 1 4 619.0 748.5 984.9
143.8 16 12 31.8 40 1 4 619.0 748.5 1049.7
144.8 16 12 39.7 40 1 4 627.8 747.5 1124.2
23D.8 16 12 24.0 40 2 3 649.4 801.5 1740.3
23N.8 16 12 19.2 40 2 3 649.4 801.5 1594.1
23P.8 16 12 40.0 40 2 3 649.4 801.5 1962.0
Table A-1 A: Published Test Results of Bolt Tear-Out Failure (Cont’d)

Kim and Yura (1999)
AO050,R 19 4.7 19.6 – 1 1 267 430 38
AO100* 19 4.7 29.3 – 1 1 267 430 62
AO150* 19 4.7 39.0 – 1 1 267 430 81
AT0510,R 19 4.7 19.8 40.4 1 2 267 430 102
AT0520,R 19 4.6 19.5 54.6 1 2 267 430 120
AT0530,R 19 4.6 19.6 76.9 1 2 267 430 122
AT1510,R 19 4.7 38.3 39.8 1 2 267 430 146
AT1520,R* 19 4.6 38.3 54.8 1 2 267 430 172
AT1530,R* 19 4.7 40.2 76.9 1 2 267 430 177
103
BO050,R 19 4.8 19.6 – 1 1 483 545 49

BO100,R* 19 4.8 29.3 – 1 1 483 545 80
BO150,R* 19 4.8 39.1 – 1 1 483 545 108
BO200,R* 19 4.8 48.9 – 1 1 483 545 133
BT0510,R 19 4.8 19.3 40.1 1 2 483 545 146
BT0520,R 19 4.8 19.6 54.2 1 2 483 545 171
BT0530,R 19 4.8 18.3 76.6 1 2 483 545 191
BT1510,R 19 4.8 38.3 40.0 1 2 483 545 199
BT1520* 19 4.8 38.3 54.2 1 2 483 545 226
BT1530,R* 19 4.8 40.2 76.9 1 2 483 545 254
Aalberg and Larsen (2001)
S355--1a 20 5.0 20.2 – 1 1 388 539 53.8
S355--1b 20 5.0 20.3 – 1 1 388 539 53.8
S355--2a* 20 5.0 29.9 – 1 1 388 539 83.6
S355--2b* 20 5.0 29.8 – 1 1 388 539 83.7

Aalberg and Larsen (2001) Cont’d
S355--3a* 20 4.9 39.2 – 1 1 388 539 112.6
S355--3b* 20 4.9 39.3 – 1 1 388 539 112.8
S355--4a* 20 4.9 48.8 – 1 1 388 539 136.5
S355--4b* 20 4.9 48.7 – 1 1 388 539 138.4
W700--1 20 4.8 20.6 – 1 1 830 871 78.8
W700--2** 20 4.8 30.1 – 1 1 830 871 122.3
W700--3** 20 4.8 39.9 – 1 1 830 871 156.3
W700--4** 20 4.8 48.5 – 1 1 830 871 188.3
W1100--1 20 5.2 20.8 – 1 1 1340 1440 137.8
104
W1100--2 20 5.2 29.4 – 1 1 1340 1440 210.5

W1100--3** 20 5.2 39.4 – 1 1 1340 1440 279.0
W1100--4** 20 5.2 48.7 – 1 1 1340 1440 337.4
S355--5a 20 5.0 20.4 40.4 1 2 388 539 145
S355--5b 20 5.0 20.5 40.5 1 2 388 539 150
S355--6a 20 5.0 20.0 59.1 1 2 388 539 181
S355--6b 20 5.0 20.2 58.9 1 2 388 539 181
S355--7a 20 5.0 20.6 77.7 1 2 388 539 217
S355--7b 20 5.0 20.5 77.7 1 2 388 539 214
S355--8a 20 5.0 39.3 40.0 1 2 388 539 198
S355--8b 20 5.0 39.3 40.1 1 2 388 539 201
S355--9a* 20 5.0 39.2 59.0 1 2 388 539 231
S355--9b* 20 5.0 39.2 59.1 1 2 388 539 235
S355--10a* 20 5.0 39.7 77.5 1 2 388 539 259
S355--10b* 20 5.0 39.6 77.7 1 2 388 539 246

Aalberg and Larsen (2002) Cont’d
W700-5 20 4.9 21.2 39.7 1 2 830 871 220
W700-6 20 4.9 20.7 58.9 1 2 830 871 272
W700-7 20 5.0 20.0 78.7 1 2 830 871 304
W700-8 20 4.9 39.0 39.6 1 2 830 871 281
W700-9** 20 5.0 39.2 59.2 1 2 830 871 331
W700-10** 20 5.0 39.6 78.1 1 2 830 871 375
W1100-5 20 5.2 21.2 39.5 1 2 1340 1440 353
W1100-6 20 5.2 21.5 58.1 1 2 1340 1440 444
W1100-7 20 5.2 20.4 77.6 1 2 1340 1440 498
105
W1100-8 20 5.2 39.7 39.7 1 2 1340 1440 478

W1100-9** 20 5.2 39.7 58.9 1 2 1340 1440 567
W1100-10** 20 5.2 39.7 77.8 1 2 1340 1440 613
Puthli and Fleischer (2001)
144×400 27 17.5 36 – 2 1 524 645 817
153×400 27 17.5 36 – 2 1 524 645 774
162×400 27 17.5 36 – 2 1 524 645 785
153×400 27 17.5 36 – 2 1 524 645 755
162×400 27 17.5 36 – 2 1 524 645 772
171×450 27 17.5 36 – 2 1 524 645 771
162×550 27 17.5 36 – 2 1 524 645 811
171×550 27 17.5 36 – 2 1 524 645 801
180×550 27 17.5 36 – 2 1 524 645 813

Rex and Easterling (2003)
1 25 6.5 25 – 1 1 414 690 108.1
2 25 6.5 25 – 1 1 414 690 99.2
3 25 6.5 38 – 1 1 414 690 152.1
4 25 6.5 38 – 1 1 414 690 150.3
5 25 6.5 51 – 1 1 414 690 192.2
11 25 6.5 25 – 1 1 407 665 105.9
12 25 6.5 25 – 1 1 407 665 98.3
29 25 9.5 38 – 1 1 301 439 144.6
30 25 9.5 38 – 1 1 301 439 136.6
37 25 9.5 44 – 1 1 299 441 157.5
106
39 25 6.5 38 – 1 1 307 452 113.4

40 25 6.5 38 – 1 1 307 452 115.2
41 25 6.5 38 – 1 1 307 452 114.3
42 25 6.5 25 – 1 1 307 452 72.5
43 25 6.5 25 – 1 1 307 452 72.5
44 22 6.5 25 – 1 1 307 452 71.6
45 22 6.5 25 – 1 1 307 452 71.2
46 22 6.5 33 – 1 1 307 452 100.1
47 22 6.5 33 – 1 1 307 452 100.5
48 25 6.5 25 – 1 1 307 452 77.0

A121 16 5.0 40.2 40.2 1 2 332.6 479.7 353.2
A123 20 5.0 50.2 50.0 1 2 338.5 482.7 475.9
A131 16 5.0 40.5 40.0 1 3 332.6 479.7 530.3
A133 20 5.0 50.2 50.0 1 3 338.5 482.7 668.9
A141 16 5.0 40.2 40.0 1 4 332.6 479.7 664.9
* Specimens that meet all the minimum end/edge distance and pitch requirements specified in CSA-S16-01 and AISC 2005 and have nominal
yield strength not greater than 550 MPa;
** Specimens that meet all the minimum end/edge distance and pitch requirements specified in CSA- S16-01 and AISC 2005.
Italicized specimens have either more than three bolt rows or a nominal yield strength greater than 550 MPa and were excluded from the
107
reliability analyses.
Table A-2: Published Test Results of Combined Failures
Bolt Number of Web Thickness End Distance Bolt Yield Ultimate Test
Specimen Diameter Bolt Rows Bolt (mm) (mm) Pitch Stress Stress Capacity
(mm) Web Flange Lines Web Flange Web Flange (mm) (MPa) (MPa) (kN)
Kato (2003)
21 16 1 2 3 7.0 10.0 24.0 23.7 40 277.6 443.4 1248
24 16 2 2 3 7.0 10.0 24.2 23.8 40 277.6 443.4 1526
29 16 1 2 4 7.0 10.0 24.2 23.8 40 277.6 443.4 1297
42 16 1 2 3 7.0 10.0 32.0 32.3 40 277.6 443.4 1399
45 16 2 2 3 7.0 10.0 31.8 31.8 40 277.6 443.4 1613
4A 16 1 2 4 7.0 10.0 32.2 31.8 40 277.6 443.4 1369
6B 16 1 2 4 7.0 10.0 40.0 39.8 40 277.6 443.4 1462
6E 16 2 2 4 7.0 10.0 40.0 40.0 40 277.6 443.4 1515
93 16 1 3 3 7.0 10.0 40.0 24.0 40 277.6 443.4 1651
108
B3 16 1 3 3 7.0 10.0 40.2 31.8 40 277.6 443.4 1675

BB 16 1 3 4 7.0 10.0 40.2 32.0 40 277.6 443.4 1670
C3 16 1 3 3 7.0 10.0 40.0 40.0 40 277.6 443.4 1693
Italicized specimens were excluded from the reliability analyses. (Nominal values of sectional and material properties are shown because
measured values were not obtained.)
Table A-3: Published Test Results of Alternate Block Shear Failure in Tees
Bolt Section Flange Web End Bolt Number Yield Ultimate Test
Specimen Diameter Depth Thickness Thickness Distance Pitch of Stress Stress Capacity
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) Bolt Rows (MPa) (MPa) (kN)
Epstein and Stamberg (2002)
E1 19.1 226.9 5.3 4.8 38.1 76.2 2 402 534 388.3
E1/C1 19.1 201.5 5.3 4.8 38.1 76.2 2 402 534 378.5
E1/C2 19.1 176.1 5.3 4.8 38.1 76.2 2 402 534 363.4
E1/C3 19.1 150.7 5.3 4.8 38.1 76.2 2 402 534 386.1
E2 19.1 226.9 5.3 4.8 38.1 114.3 2 402 534 431.5
E5/C8 19.1 152.3 6.7 5.6 38.1 76.2 2 399 477 398.1
E5/C8 19.1 152.3 6.7 5.6 38.1 76.2 2 399 477 415.0
E5/C8 19.1 152.3 6.7 5.6 38.1 76.2 2 399 477 416.4
E5 19.1 126.9 6.7 5.6 38.1 76.2 2 399 477 408.8
E5 19.1 126.9 6.7 5.6 38.1 76.2 2 399 477 407.9
109
E5 19.1 126.9 6.7 5.6 38.1 76.2 2 399 477 405.2

E5 19.1 101.5 6.7 5.6 38.1 76.2 2 399 477 389.7
C8 19.1 152.3 6.7 5.6 38.1 76.2 3 399 477 489.7
E6 19.1 154.4 8.9 6.0 38.1 76.2 2 343 457 601.0
APPENDIX B
Test-to-Predicted Ratios of Published Test Results
110
Table B-1: Test-to-Predicted Ratios of Published Test Results

Specimen Test CSA AISC Unified
CSA AISC Unified
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
121.4 288.4 183.1 183.1 278.1 1.57 1.57 1.04
122.4 337.5 232.2 232.2 316.5 1.45 1.45 1.07
123.4 375.7 282.2 282.2 355.7 1.33 1.33 1.06
124.4 413.0 318.5 318.5 398.0 1.30 1.30 1.04
131.4 421.8 325.6 325.6 479.6 1.30 1.30 0.88
132.4 438.5 352.0 352.0 501.6 1.25 1.25 0.87
133.4 468.9 384.2 384.2 517.4 1.22 1.22 0.91
134.4 517.0 425.8 425.8 557.9 1.21 1.21 0.93
135.4 547.4 461.2 461.2 599.4 1.19 1.19 0.91
141.4 557.2 467.1 467.1 680.2 1.19 1.19 0.82
142.4 600.4 513.1 513.1 716.2 1.17 1.17 0.84
143.4 657.3 564.2 564.2 756.1 1.16 1.16 0.87
144.4 724.0 613.2 613.2 794.5 1.18 1.18 0.91
23D.4 955.5 755.1 755.1 1043.3 1.27 1.27 0.92
23N.4 972.2 755.1 755.1 1043.3 1.29 1.29 0.93
121.6 391.4 248.4 248.4 415.9 1.58 1.58 0.94
122.6 483.6 330.3 330.3 484.8 1.46 1.46 1.00
123.6 522.9 398.6 398.6 553.0 1.31 1.31 0.95
124.6 584.7 463.7 463.7 602.3 1.26 1.26 0.97
131.6 600.4 453.9 453.9 726.9 1.32 1.32 0.83
132.6 602.3 469.7 469.7 720.7 1.28 1.28 0.84
133.6 652.4 523.4 523.4 774.7 1.25 1.25 0.84
134.6 730.8 588.7 588.7 846.6 1.24 1.24 0.86
135.6 765.2 661.1 661.1 890.3 1.16 1.16 0.86
141.6 799.5 642.5 642.5 1028.6 1.24 1.24 0.78
142.6 875.1 701.4 701.4 1077.6 1.25 1.25 0.81
143.6 951.6 794.0 794.0 1170.2 1.20 1.20 0.81
144.6 1012.4 838.6 838.6 1196.0 1.21 1.21 0.85
23D.6 1312.6 1001.8 1001.8 1494.3 1.31 1.31 0.89
23N.6 1306.7 1001.8 1001.8 1494.3 1.30 1.30 0.90
23P.6 1435.2 1192.0 1192.0 1655.2 1.20 1.20 1.00
121.8 449.3 301.2 301.2 521.5 1.49 1.49 0.86
122.8 531.7 390.0 390.0 600.1 1.36 1.36 0.89
123.8 618.0 496.8 496.8 718.0 1.24 1.24 0.86
124.8 680.8 587.9 587.9 799.9 1.16 1.16 0.85
131.8 756.4 587.9 587.9 967.6 1.29 1.29 0.78
132.8 793.6 638.5 638.5 1008.4 1.24 1.24 0.79
133.8 822.1 684.8 684.8 1048.1 1.20 1.20 0.78
134.8 868.2 738.8 738.8 1116.3 1.18 1.18 0.78
135.8 947.6 857.9 857.9 1199.0 1.10 1.10 0.79
141.8 898.6 779.9 779.9 1282.5 1.15 1.15 0.70
142.8 984.9 864.4 864.4 1356.7 1.14 1.14 0.73
143.8 1049.7 957.6 957.6 1438.6 1.10 1.10 0.73
111
Table B-1: Test-to-Predicted Ratios of Published Test Results (Cont’d)

CSA AISC Unified
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
Udagawa and Yamada (1998) Cont’d
144.8 1124.2 1040.7 1040.7 1521.6 1.08 1.08 0.74
23D.8 1740.3 1361.9 1361.9 2090.8 1.28 1.28 0.86
23N.8 1594.1 1251.1 1251.1 1994.3 1.27 1.27 0.81
23P.8 1962.0 1731.2 1716.8 2412.5 1.13 1.13 0.99
Kim and Yura (1999)
AO050,R 38 19.4 19.4 36.7 1.96 1.96 1.04
AO100* 62 42.9 42.9 55.1 1.45 1.45 1.13
AO150* 81 58.1 58.1 73.0 1.39 1.39 1.11
AT0510,R 102 61.7 61.7 112.6 1.65 1.65 0.91
AT0520,R 120 94.4 94.4 137.8 1.27 1.27 0.87
AT0530,R 122 142.8 142.8 179.4 0.85 0.85 0.68
AT1510,R 146 104.6 104.6 146.1 1.40 1.40 1.00
AT1520,R* 172 137.8 137.8 173.1 1.25 1.25 0.99
AT1530,R* 177 174.5 174.5 219.1 1.01 1.01 0.81
BO050,R 49 25.2 25.2 55.3 1.95 1.95 0.89
BO100,R* 80 55.9 55.9 83.5 1.43 1.43 0.96
BO150,R* 108 86.3 86.3 110.9 1.25 1.25 0.97
BO200,R* 133 116.2 116.2 137.9 1.14 1.14 0.96
BT0510,R 146 77.4 77.4 167.5 1.89 1.89 0.87
BT0520,R 171 122.9 122.9 209.4 1.39 1.39 0.82
BT0530,R 191 187.6 187.6 267.5 1.02 1.02 0.71
BT1510,R 199 136.9 136.9 222.1 1.45 1.45 0.90
BT1520* 226 181.3 181.3 262.4 1.25 1.25 0.86
BT1530,R* 254 256.6 256.6 330.1 0.99 0.99 0.77
S355--1a 53.8 31.1 31.1 53.5 1.73 1.73 1.01
S355--1b 53.8 31.3 31.3 53.7 1.72 1.72 1.00
S355--2a* 83.6 62.2 62.2 79.1 1.35 1.35 1.06
S355--2b* 83.7 61.8 61.8 78.9 1.35 1.35 1.06
S355--3a* 112.6 89.9 89.9 103.3 1.25 1.25 1.09
S355--3b* 112.8 90.1 90.1 103.6 1.25 1.25 1.09
S355--4a* 136.5 112.1 112.1 128.9 1.22 1.22 1.06
S355--4b* 138.4 111.9 111.9 128.6 1.24 1.24 1.08
W700—1 78.8 51.2 51.2 97.9 1.54 1.54 0.81
W700—2** 122.3 98.9 98.9 143.0 1.24 1.24 0.86
W700--3** 156.3 145.5 145.5 189.6 1.07 1.07 0.82
W700--4** 188.3 192.1 192.1 230.5 0.98 0.98 0.82
W1100--1 137.8 92.4 92.4 173.9 1.49 1.49 0.79
W1100--2 210.5 169.8 169.8 245.8 1.24 1.24 0.86
W1100--3** 279.0 261.1 261.1 330.7 1.07 1.07 0.84
W1100--4** 337.4 344.8 344.8 408.0 0.98 0.98 0.83
112

CSA AISC Unified
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
S355--5a 145 94.3 94.3 161.2 1.54 1.54 0.90
S355--5b 150 95.0 95.0 161.7 1.58 1.58 0.93
S355--6a 181 153.0 153.0 209.7 1.18 1.18 0.86
S355--6b 181 152.8 152.8 209.7 1.18 1.18 0.86
S355--7a 217 214.1 214.1 260.6 1.01 1.01 0.83
S355--7b 214 214.0 214.0 260.3 1.00 1.00 0.82
S355--8a 198 153.0 153.0 209.8 1.29 1.29 0.94
S355--8b 201 153.8 153.8 210.4 1.31 1.31 0.96
S355--9a* 231 214.0 214.0 260.5 1.08 1.08 0.89
S355--9b* 235 214.2 214.2 260.5 1.10 1.10 0.90
S355--10a* 259 270.2 270.2 310.6 0.96 0.96 0.83
S355--10b* 246 271.1 271.1 311.7 0.91 0.91 0.79
W700-5 220 151.8 151.8 294.2 1.45 1.45 0.75
W700-6 272 248.1 248.1 385.3 1.10 1.10 0.71
W700-7 304 348.4 348.4 480.7 0.87 0.87 0.63
W700-8 281 242.5 242.5 379.7 1.16 1.16 0.74
W700-9** 331 346.0 346.0 478.1 0.96 0.96 0.69
W700-10** 375 447.5 447.5 575.4 0.84 0.84 0.65
W1100-5 353 256.5 256.5 507.1 1.38 1.38 0.70
W1100-6 444 430.6 430.6 661.5 1.03 1.03 0.67
W1100-7 498 593.8 593.8 812.0 0.84 0.84 0.61
W1100-8 478 430.3 430.3 662.5 1.11 1.11 0.72
W1100-9** 567 602.4 602.4 821.3 0.94 0.94 0.69
W1100-10** 613 767.9 767.9 974.9 0.80 0.80 0.63
Puthli and Fleischer (2001)
144×400 817 568.9 568.9 850.4 1.44 1.44 0.96
153×400 774 568.9 568.9 850.4 1.36 1.36 0.91
162×400 785 568.9 568.9 850.4 1.38 1.38 0.92
153×400 755 568.9 568.9 850.4 1.33 1.33 0.89
162×400 772 568.9 568.9 850.4 1.36 1.36 0.91
171×450 771 568.9 568.9 850.4 1.36 1.36 0.91
162×550 811 568.9 568.9 850.4 1.43 1.43 0.95
171×550 801 568.9 568.9 850.4 1.41 1.41 0.94
180×550 813 568.9 568.9 850.4 1.43 1.43 0.96
Rex and Easterling (2003)
1 108.1 67.28 67.28 103.58 1.61 1.61 1.04
2 99.2 67.28 67.28 103.58 1.47 1.47 0.96
3 152.1 122.71 122.71 157.44 1.24 1.24 0.97
4 150.3 122.71 122.71 157.44 1.22 1.22 0.95
5 192.2 164.69 164.69 211.30 1.17 1.17 0.91
11 105.9 64.84 64.84 100.57 1.63 1.63 1.05
12 98.3 64.84 64.84 100.57 1.52 1.52 0.98
113

CSA AISC Unified
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
Rex and Easterling (2003) Cont’d
29 144.6 127.62 127.62 154.23 1.13 1.13 0.94
30 136.6 127.62 127.62 154.23 1.07 1.07 0.89
37 157.5 149.98 149.98 178.59 1.05 1.05 0.88
39 113.4 89.90 89.90 108.24 1.26 1.26 1.05
40 115.2 89.90 89.90 108.24 1.28 1.28 1.06
41 114.3 89.90 89.90 108.24 1.27 1.27 1.06
42 72.5 44.07 44.07 71.21 1.65 1.65 1.02
43 72.5 44.07 44.07 71.21 1.65 1.65 1.02
44 71.6 49.36 49.36 71.21 1.45 1.45 1.01
45 71.2 49.36 49.36 71.21 1.44 1.44 1.00
46 100.1 77.56 77.56 94.00 1.29 1.29 1.06
47 100.5 77.56 77.56 94.00 1.30 1.30 1.07
48 77.0 44.07 44.07 71.21 1.75 1.75 1.08
A121 353.2 306.9 306.9 376.7 1.15 1.15 0.94
A123 475.9 389.2 389.2 475.0 1.22 1.22 1.00
A131 530.3 434.5 434.5 565.0 1.22 1.22 0.94
A133 668.9 551.4 551.4 712.0 1.21 1.21 0.94
A141 664.9 559.3 559.3 751.1 1.19 1.19 0.89
Kato (2003)
21 1248 932.4 932.4 1114.4 1.34 1.34 1.12
24 1526 1161.6 1161.6 1349.7 1.31 1.31 1.13
29 1297 988.8 988.8 1177.2 1.31 1.31 1.10
42 1399 1079.8 1079.8 1255.9 1.30 1.30 1.11
45 1613 1275.0 1275.0 1438.4 1.27 1.27 1.12
4A 1369 1129.0 1129.0 1267.2 1.21 1.21 1.08
6B 1462 1204.1 1204.1 1360.0 1.21 1.21 1.07
6E 1515 1295.1 1295.1 1474.7 1.17 1.17 1.03
93 1651 1343.5 1343.5 1586.2 1.23 1.23 1.04
B3 1675 1400.4 1400.4 1656.5 1.20 1.20 1.01
BB 1670 1406.6 1406.6 1577.1 1.19 1.19 1.06
C3 1693 1453.6 1453.6 1723.0 1.16 1.16 0.98
Epstein and Stamberg (2002)
E1 388.3 343.3 343.3 359.3 1.13 1.13 1.08
E1/C1 378.5 343.3 343.3 359.3 1.10 1.10 1.05
E1/C2 363.4 343.3 343.3 359.3 1.06 1.06 1.01
E1/C3 386.1 343.3 343.3 359.3 1.12 1.12 1.07
E2 431.5 387.6 387.6 409.0 1.11 1.11 1.05
E5/C8 398.1 391.4 391.4 400.2 1.02 1.02 0.99
E5/C8 415.0 391.4 391.4 400.2 1.06 1.06 1.04
E5/C8 416.4 391.4 391.4 400.2 1.06 1.06 1.04
114

CSA AISC Unified
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)
Epstein and Stamberg (2002) Cont’d
E5 408.8 391.4 391.4 394.6 1.04 1.04 1.04
E5 407.9 391.4 391.4 394.6 1.04 1.04 1.03
E5 405.2 391.4 391.4 394.6 1.04 1.04 1.03
E5 389.7 343.8 343.8 343.8 1.13 1.13 1.13
C8 489.7 493.2 493.2 504.8 0.99 0.99 0.97
E6 601.0 430.1 430.1 447.1 1.40 1.40 1.34
* Specimens that meet all the minimum end/edge distance and pitch requirements specified
in CSA-S16-01 and AISC 2005 and have nominal yield strength not greater than 550 MPa;
** Specimens that meet all the minimum end/edge distance and pitch requirements specified
in CSA-S16-01 and AISC 2005.
Italicized specimens have either more than three bolt rows or a nominal yield strength greater
than 550 MPa and were excluded from the reliability analyses. (For Kato (2003), nominal
values of sectional and material properties were used because measured values were not
obtained.)
115
APPENDIX C
Load vs. Deformation Curves for Specimens in Series C
116
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Deformation (mm)
Figure C-1: Load vs. Deformation Curves for C1E1a
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Deformation (mm)
Figure C-2: Load vs. Deformation Curves for C2E1b
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Deformation (mm)
Figure C-3: Load vs. Deformation Curves for C3E1c
117
1400
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Deformation (mm)
1400
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Deformation (mm)
1400
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Deformation (mm)
118
1400
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Deformation (mm)
1400
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Deformation (mm)
1400
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Deformation (mm)
119
1400
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Deformation (mm)
1400
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Deformation (mm)
1400
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Deformation (mm)
120
1400
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Deformation (mm)
1400
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Deformation (mm)
1400
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Deformation (mm)
121
1400
1200
1000
Load (kN) 800
600
400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Deformation (mm)
Figure C-16: Load vs. Deformation Curves for C16E6
122
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deformation (mm)
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deformation (mm)
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deformation (mm)
123
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deformation (mm)
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deformation (mm)
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deformation (mm)
124
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deformation (mm)
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deformation (mm)
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deformation (mm)
125
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deformation (mm)
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deformation (mm)
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deformation (mm)
126
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deformation (mm)
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deformation (mm)
1200
1000
Load (kN)
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deformation (mm)
127
1400
1200
1000
Load (kN) 800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deformation (mm)
Figure C-32: Load vs. Deformation Curves for C32E6
128
APPENDIX D
Photos of Series C Failed Connections
129
130
Figure D-1: E1 Group Failed Connections with Thicker Webs

131
Figure D -2: E2 Group Failed Connections with Thicker Webs

132

133

134

135
Figure D -6: E6 Failed Connection with Thicker Web

136
Figure D -7: E1 Group Failed Connections with Thinner Webs

137

138

139

140

141
Figure D -12: E6 Failed Connection with Thinner Web

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University of Alberta

Department of Civil &

Structural Engineering Report No. 278

END TEAR-OUT FAILURES OF

Structural Engineering Report 278

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

inconsistent reliability indices. A better understanding of bolt tear-out failure is required

so that these design equations can be improved.

An experimental study that included a total of 50 full-scale connection tests on

wide-flange shapes was conducted to investigate the strength and behaviour of

predictions of capacity as well as a uniform reliability.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...............................................................................................5

3. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM ...................................................................................20

4. TEST PROCEDURES AND RESULTS ......................................................................43

5. RELIABILITY ANALYSES ........................................................................................82

6. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................93

APPENDIX A: Published Test Results ..........................................................................100

APPENDIX B: Test-to-Predicted Ratios of Published Test Results ..............................110

APPENDIX C: Load vs. Deformation Curves for Specimens in Series C .....................116

APPENDIX D: Photos of Series C failed Connections ..................................................129

Table 3-1: Specimen Designations ...................................................................................27

Ab = nominal cross-sectional area of bolt (mm2)

Agv = gross shear area (mm2)

An = net area (mm2)

Ane = effective net area (mm2)

Ant = net tension area (mm2)

Anv = net shear area (mm2)

db = bolt diameter (mm)

do = bolt hole diameter (mm)

e1 = end distance (mm)

Fu = ultimate stress (MPa)

Fy = yield stress (MPa)

g = gauge (transverse spacing between bolt lines) (mm)

m = number of shear planes

VG = coefficient of variation of the geometry factor

VM = coefficient of variation of the material factor

VP = coefficient of variation of the professional factor

Vr = bolt shear strength

w = web thickness (mm)

ρd = bias coefficient of the discretization factor

ρG = bias coefficient of the geometry factor

ρM = bias coefficient of the material factor

ρP = bias coefficient of the professional factor

ρR = bias coefficient of resistance

Φβ = modification factor for resistance factor

φbr = bolt bearing resistance factor

A comprehensive literature review indicates that only a limited number of connection

1.2 Objectives and Scopes

Other objectives are as follows:

• Conduct a number of full-scale tests on wide-flange shapes to examine closely the

1.4 Organization of Chapters

2.2 Bolt Tear-Out Failure in Bolted Connections

2.2.2 Kim and Yura (1999)

2.2.3 Aalberg and Larsen (2001; 2002)

2.2.4 Puthli and Fleischer (2001)

2.2.5 Rex and Easterling (2003)

2.2.6 Udagawa and Yamada (2004)

2.3 Combined Modes and Atypical Failures in Bolted Connections

A previously undocumented failure mode observed in Tees connected only by their