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Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering

Yu Zhou
Motoaki Kimura
Guoyi Peng
A. D. Lucey
Lixi Huang Editors

Fluid-Structure-
Sound
Interactions and
Control
Proceedings of the 4th Symposium on
Fluid-Structure-Sound Interactions and
Control
Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering
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Yu Zhou Motoaki Kimura
•

Guoyi Peng A. D. Lucey

•

Lixi Huang
Editors

Fluid-Structure-Sound
Interactions and Control
Proceedings of the 4th Symposium
on Fluid-Structure-Sound Interactions
and Control

123
Editors
Yu Zhou A. D. Lucey
Shenzhen Graduate School Curtin University
Harbin Institute of Technology Perth, WA
Shenzhen Australia
China
Lixi Huang
Motoaki Kimura The University of Hong Kong
Nihon University Hong Kong
Tokyo China
Japan

Guoyi Peng
Nihon University
Tokyo
Japan

ISSN 2195-4356 ISSN 2195-4364 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering
ISBN 978-981-10-7541-4 ISBN 978-981-10-7542-1 (eBook)
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Contents

Part I Turbulence and Unsteady Fluid Dynamics

K41 Versus K62: Recent Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
R. A. Antonia, S. L. Tang, L. Danaila, L. Djenidi and Y. Zhou
Jets and Waves Generated by an Obstacle in Stratified
or Homogeneous Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Hideshi Hanazaki
Closed-Loop Turbulence Control-From Human to Machine Learning
(and Retour) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Bernd R. Noack
Exploring a Universal Wake Number for Finite-Height
Bluff Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
S. Unnikrishnan and D. Sumner
Numerical Investigation of the Post-stall Flow Patterns over a NACA
0021 Hydrofoil with Sinusoidal Leading Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Julien Cisonni and Andrew J. C. King
On the Thresholds of Vortex Identification Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Yiqian Wang and Song Fu
Flow Structures Around a Finite Wall-Mounted Cylinder Having
an Inclined Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Hiroka Rinoshika and Akira Rinoshika
Effects of Reduced Frequency on the Behaviors of Burst Point Around
a Pitching Double Delta Wing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Jian Liu, Haisheng Sun, Zhitao Liu and Zhixiang Xiao
Drag Reduction of an Ahmed Body Using Combined
Steady Blowings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
K. Liu, B. F. Zhang and Y. Zhou

v
vi Contents

Control of the Aerodynamic Forces of a Cantilevered Square Cylinder

with Free-End Suction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
H. F. Wang, S. Peng and S. Q. Li
Jet Control Using the Coaxial Type DBD-PA by Burst Modulation . . . . 75
M. Akimoto, H. Matsumori and M. Kimura
Unsteady Flow Structure Behind A Low-Drag Ahmed Body . . . . . . . . . 81
Yingchao Zhang, Bingfu Zhang and Yu Zhou
Trident Convection in a Cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
M. Kodama, M. Nobuhara, K. Tatsumoto, H. Tanigawa and K. Hirata
Effect of Ventilation on the Velocity Decay of Cavitating Submerged
Water Jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Guoyi Peng, Takayuki Itou, Yasuyuki Oguma and Seiji Shimizu
Turbulent Ramp Flow Control Using Unsteady Blowing Upstream
of the Separation Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
P. Sujar-Garrido, J. C. Hao and Y. Zhou
Friction Drag Reduction Mechanism Under DBD Plasma Control . . . . . 105
X. Q. Cheng, C. W. Wong, Y. Z. Li and Y. Zhou
Interaction Between Water or Air-Water Bubble Flow and Tube
Bundle—Effects of Arrangement of Tube Bundle and
Void Fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Toshihiko Shakouchi, Takeshi Kitamura, Koichi Tsujimoto
and Toshitake Ando
Longitudinal Vortex Wind Turbine: Effect of the Blade Lengths . . . . . . 117
W. Hemsuwan, K. Sakamoto and T. Takahashi
Quantitative Investigation on the Formation of Counter-Rotating
Vortex Pairs from the Inclined Jet in Crossflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
C. Dai, Z. Shu and J. Mi
Measurement of Velocity Field of an Abrasive Fan Jet by PIV . . . . . . . 131
Y. Oguma, G. Peng and S. Shimizu
Effect of Micro-bubbles on a Turbulent Boundary Layer . . . . . . . . . . . 137
H. L. Cao, W. Guo, X. H. Li and Y. Zhou
Numerical Simulations on Film Cooling Effectiveness from
Two Staggered Rows of Coolant Jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Z. Shu, C. Dai and J. Mi
Three-Dimensional Time-Averaged Flow Fields in the Turbulent
Wake of a Surface-Mounted Finite-Height Square Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
R. Chakravarty, N. Moazamigoodarzi, D. J. Bergstrom and D. Sumner
Contents vii

Jet Diffusion Control Using Plasma Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Norimasa Miyagi and Motoaki Kimura
Flow Characteristics of Multiple Round Jets Issuing from In-line
Nozzle Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Hiroshi Teramoto and Takahiro Kiwata
Mixing Control of a Round Jet by a Local Sound Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
N. Nakamura and A. Muramatsu
Measurement of Wall Shear Stress on an Airfoil Surface by Using the
Oil Film Interferometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Y. Yoshioka and Y. Szuki
A New Method for the Formation of Free Jets with Long Laminar
Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
J. Zayko, A. Chicherina, S. Teplovodskii, A. Reshmin and V. Vedeneev

Part II Fluid-Structure Interaction

Fluid-Structure Interactions of Large Amplitude Vibrations . . . . . . . . . 191
Woojin Kim and Haecheon Choi
Fluid-Structure Interaction and Control Around Vibrating and
Morphing Configurations at High Reynolds Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
G. Jodin, N. Simiriotis, A. Aalilija, A. Marouf, Y. Hoarau, G. Harran,
J. F. Rouchon and M. Braza
Multiscale Simulations for Fluid Structure Interaction Problems
with Biomedical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Shu Takagi, Kazuya Shimizu, Satoshi Ii, Kazuyasu Sugiyama
and Kohei Okita
Numerical Investigation of Vortex-Induced Vibration of Circular
Cylinder with Multiple Control Rods at Low Reynolds Number . . . . . . 217
Ming-ming Liu, Ming Zhao, Lin Lu, Bin Teng and Guo-qiang Tang
The Effect of Aspect Ratio on the Normal Force and Bending Moment
Coefficients for a Surface-Mounted Finite Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
A. Beitel and D. Sumner
Numerical Investigation on Performance Improvement by Using a
Runner with Splitter for a Francis Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
J. J. Feng, F. Z. Lin, G. K. Wu, P. C. Guo, G. J. Zhu and X. Q. Luo
Numerical Simulation on the Vortex-Induced Vibrations on Four
Cylinders in a Square Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
T. Pearcey, M. Zhao and Y. Xiang
viii Contents

Vibration Initiation of a Cylinder in the Wake of Another . . . . . . . . . . 241

B. Qin, Y. Liu, Md. Mahbub Alam and Y. Zhou
Power Output of Spring-Mounted Lifting Plates in a Cross Flow . . . . . 247
S. A. Maaskant, R. M. Howell and A. D. Lucey
Effect of Structural Stiffness on the Stability of Pulsatile Poiseuille
Flow Through a Compliant Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
K. Tsigklifis and A. D. Lucey
Numerical Study of Fluid-Structure Interaction
of Microvasculature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
S. H. Liu, T. X. Chi, S. Tian, Z. D. Su, Y. Liu and X. Y. Luo
On the Vortex Dynamics in the Wake of High-Speed Low-Damping
Galloping Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
L. Gan, H. O. Claydon, Q. Y. Wang and S. J. Xu
Active Control of Two-Dimensional Vortex-Induced Vibration of a
Circular Cylinder Using a Pair of Synthetic Jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Chenglei Wang, Fei Duan and Hui Tang
Spectral Correlation Study of Skin Blood Flow Oscillation . . . . . . . . . . 275
T. X. Chi and Y. Liu
Influence of Axial-Flow Turbulence Intensity on Fluid-Structure
Interaction for a Flexible Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
C. W. Wong, Z. Y. Lu, X. Zhang and Y. Zhou
Non-linear Spring-Mounted Flexible Plates in Axial Flow . . . . . . . . . . . 287
R. M. Howell and A. D. Lucey
Turbulence Intensity Effect on Axial-Flow-Induced Cylinder
Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Z. Y. Lu, Y. Zhou and C. W. Wong
Experimental Investigation of Flat Plates with Transverse
Perforations at Zero Incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
P. Oshkai, F. Bossi, M. Rahimpour, O. Barannyk and S. Malavasi
Control of Particle Motion with Ultrasonic Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
K. Ouchi and K. Kofu

Part III Acoustics and Sound-Flow-Structure Interaction

Acoustic Impedance and the Control of Sound Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Lixi Huang
An Introduction of CARDC 5.5 m  4 m Anechoic Wind Tunnel
and the Aeroacoustic Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Xunnian Wang, Jun Zhang, Peng Chen and Zhengwu Chen
Contents ix

The Simulation of Tip-Leakage Flow and Its Induced Noise . . . . . . . . . 331

Shucheng Zhai, Ziying Xion and Hongxing Sun
Influence of Camber on Wall-Mounted Finite Airfoil Tonal Noise
Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
D. J. Moreau, T. F. Geyer, C. J. Doolan and E. Sarradj
Study of Passive Control of Jet Noise by Blind Holes on Nozzle
Inner Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Z. Shi, J. Lin and H. Lai
Numerical Study of Shock-Associated Noise in Axisymmetric
Supersonic Jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
H. Li, Y. Luo and S. H. Zhang
Effect of Flow Separation on Acoustic Resonance in In-line
Tube Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
Satoshi Hino, Takahisa Mizoguchi, Hiromitsu Hamakawa, Eiichi Nishida
and Eru Kurihara
A Frequency Compensation Method to Smooth Frequency
Fluctuation for Locating Moving Acoustic Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
P. Mo, X. Wang and W. Jiang
Combustion Oscillation Characteristics of Hydrogen-Rich Fuel . . . . . . . 371
Akane Uemichi, Ippei Kanetsuki and Shigehiko Kaneko
Frequency Domain Beamforming for Monopole
and Dipole Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
J. Z. Gao, X. J. Pan, X. N. Wang and W. K. Jiang
Pulsatile Jet Ejected from Lips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Y. Kubota, K. Sugiyama and O. Mochizuki
Prediction of Aeolian Tone Radiated from a Tapered Circular
Cylinder and Vortex Sound in Wake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Y. Watanabe and Y. Suzuki
 Part I
Turbulence and Unsteady Fluid Dynamics
K41 Versus K62: Recent Developments

R. A. Antonia, S. L. Tang, L. Danaila, L. Djenidi and Y. Zhou

Abstract For the past 50 years or so, Kolmogorov’s (1962) correction (K62) to his
1941 hypotheses (K41) has been embraced by an overwhelming majority of tur-
bulence researchers. Our recent work suggests that there are no valid reasons for
abandoning K41. In particular, analytical considerations, based on the NS equa-
tions, which take into account the finite Reynolds number (FRN) effect, together
with the available experimental laboratory data, seem to confirm a tendency towards
the simple and elegant predictions of K41 as the Reynolds number increases. This
is especially true when the focus is on the length scales which lie in the dissipative
range. Incorrectly accounting for the FRN effect and the inclusion of the atmospheric
surface layer (ASL) data, likely to have been affected by the proximity to the sur-
face, appear to be the major factors which have contributed to a nearly unchallenged
acceptance of K62.

1 Introduction

The theory of small scale turbulence has benefited immensely from the contribu-
tions of Taylor [1], who introduced the concept of isotropy and obtained a simplified
expression for the mean energy dissipation rate 𝜀,
̄ and Karman and Kowarth [2] who
derived a transport equation (hereafter referred to as the KH equation) for the two-
point velocity correlation function in isotropic turbulence. Further
significant progress was made in 1941 when Kolmogorov [3] introduced two impor-
tant hypotheses, specifically the first and second similarity hypotheses dealing with

R. A. Antonia ⋅ S. L. Tang (✉) ⋅ Y. Zhou

Institute for Turbulence-Noise-Vibration Interaction and Control, Shenzhen Graduate School,
Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, People’s Republic of China
e-mail: [email protected]
L. Djenidi
School of Engineering, University of Newcastle, NSW 2308, Australia
L. Danaila
CORIA CNRS UMR 6614, Université de Rouen Normandie,
76801 Saint Etienne du Rouvray, France
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 3
Y. Zhou et al. (eds.), Fluid-Structure-Sound Interactions
and Control, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7542-1_1
4 R. A. Antonia et al.

turbulence scales in the dissipative (DR) and inertial (IR) ranges at very large
Reynolds number. In a separate paper, Kolmogorov [4] also derived, starting with
the KH equation rewritten in terms of 𝛿u, a simple expression for (𝛿u)3 ∕𝜀r,
̄ which is
generally interpreted as the energy flux or mean rate of transfer of energy down the
cascade at a scale r within the IR, viz.

(𝛿u)3 4
− = , (1)
𝜀r
̄ 5

where 𝛿u = u(x + r) − u(x) is the increment between velocity fluctuations at two

points in space, separated by a distance r. The overbar denotes time averaging. Equa-
tion (1) has become known as the “4/5 th” law and represents an exact result for
isotropic turbulence at very large Reynolds numbers. Further notable contributions
in the 1940 s included Batchelor’s [6] thorough appraisal of Kolmogorov’s theory
and his papers with Townsend [7, 8] dealing with the transport equation for 𝜀̄ (or
equivalently the mean enstrophy) in isotropic turbulence and the intermittent nature
of the fine-scale structure of turbulence.
Kolmogorov’s phenomenology [3] or K41 led to the exciting prospect that small
scale turbulence could be universal at sufficiently large Reynolds number. Kol-
mogorov postulated that 𝜀̄ and the kinematic viscosity 𝜈 are the governing parameters
in the DR. The main outcome of the first similarity hypothesis is

(𝛿u∗ )n = fun (r∗ ), (2)

where the asterisk denotes normalization by the Kolmogorov velocity and length
scales, uK = (𝜈𝜀)1∕4 and 𝜂 = (𝜈 3 ∕𝜀)1∕4 respectively. The function fun is a universal.
A consequence of (2) when r → 0 is that the normalized velocity derivative moments
should all be constant, i.e. independent of R𝜆 ,

(𝜕u∕𝜕x)n
Sn = n∕2
= const. (3)
2
(𝜕u∕𝜕x)

Note that S3 and S4 are the skewness and flatness factor (or kurtosis) of 𝜕u∕𝜕x. The
second similarity hypothesis argues that in the IR (𝜂 ≪ r ≪ L, where L is the integral
length scale), the local Reynolds number is sufficiently large to allow the effect of
viscosity to be ignored and yields the well-known result

(𝛿u∗ )n = Cun r∗n∕3 (4)

where Cun are universal constants. The main outcomes of K41, Eqs. (2)–(4), were to a
large extent undermined by the third (revised) hypothesis introduced by Kolmogorov
20 years after K41 [5, 9].
The revision was made to take into account the spatio-temporal intermittency
of fluctuations in 𝜀 and assumed a log-normal model for 𝜀r , the subscript denoting
K41 Versus K62: Recent Developments 5

averaging over a volume of linear dimension r, i.e. the probability distribution of

ln 𝜀r is Gaussian. Two consequences of the third hypothesis are
(i) Sn is no longer constant. The magnitude of Sn for n ≥ 3 is now expected to
increase indefinitely with R𝜆

|Sn | ∼ R𝛼(n)
𝜆
(𝛼 > 0), (5)

(ii) Relation (4) now becomes

(𝛿u∗ )n ∼ r∗𝜁un , (6)

where the exponent 𝜁un may depart from n∕3, except when n = 3 (since the exact
result, Eq. (1), needs to be preserved). The log-normal and subsequent probabilis-
tic models indicate that the departure from n∕3 increases as n increases, albeit at a
rate which may differ between models. Predictions from physical models, based on
generally simplistic proposals of how 𝜀 is localized in space, have not always qual-
itatively agreed with (5) (see for example Van Atta and Antonia [10], Sreenivasan
and Antonia [11], Wyngaard [12]).
It is fair to assert that experimental support for both (5) and (6) has been nothing
short of considerable. We do not wish to embark on a detailed discussion here; we
refer the reader to Van Atta and Antonia [10] and the reviews by Sreenivasan and
Antonia [11], Anselmet et al. [13], and Ishihara et al. [14]. Notwithstanding a few dis-
sentions, objections or doubts about K62 (e.g. [15–18]), the experimental evidence
has strongly pointed to K41 having to be abandoned in favour of K62. If we leave
aside the results from the ASL and recall that the most “damning” evidence against
K41, in the context of (6), came from the laboratory investigation of Anselmet et al.
[19], a major criticism that can be levelled at nearly all the laboratory studies is the
failure to properly recognise the influence of the Reynolds number, especially since
R𝜆 has seldom exceeded 1000, on the statistics of velocity derivatives as well as on
the moments of 𝛿u in the IR; the fact that the latter was never satisfactorily estab-
lished should have been cause for concern, if not alarm. The realization that the FRN
effect has to be taken into account came to the fore in 1997 (Qian [20]) and a little
later (Qian [21], Danaila et al. [22], and Lindborg [23]). The essence of the approach
was to revisit the KH equation (or the Karman-Lin equation [24] in the case of Qian
[21] who adopted a spectral approach) which includes the nonstationarity (or 𝜕u∕𝜕t
term) that was ignored by Kolmogorov [4]. The inclusion of the nonstationarity per-
mits an assessment of how the large scale inhomogeneity can affect the small scales
and hence an estimation of how large R𝜆 should be before Eq. (1) is satisfied. Such
an estimation was also carried out by Lundgren [25] and Antonia and Burattini [26].
The latter authors showed that “4/5” is approached more rapidly for forced than for
decaying turbulence; for a substantial IR to exist, the results indicated that R𝜆 may
need to exceed 103 in the former case and 106 in the latter. These results, obtained
via a scale-by-scale energy budget, were confirmed by Tchoufag et al. [27] using the
Eddy-Damped Quasi-Normal Markovian (EDQNM) method. One natural inference
6 R. A. Antonia et al.

from the previous results is that the approach to “4/5” is expected to depend on the
flow since each flow may have different levels of inhomogeneity at large scales.
The above considerations lead to only one conclusion: previous evidence in sup-
port of K62 needs to be critically reexamined in the context of the FRN effect since
this latter effect appears to have been incorrectly mistaken for the intermittency
effect. Note that intermittency was not explicitly taken into account in the previously
described work since xit is intrinsic to the N-S equations.
One objective of this paper is to first point out likely flaws in the approach used
hitherto for examining consequences of K41 and K62. This is done in Sect. 2. A
second is to highlight recent advances in understanding the behaviour of S3 with
R𝜆 , underpinned by the transport equation for (𝛿u)2 or scale-by-scale energy budget.
The limiting form of this budget has provided valuable insight into the Reynolds
number dependence of S as well as that of (𝛿u)3 in the scaling range. Some analytical
considerations are briefly given in Sect. 3. Results associated the DR and IR are
presented in Sects. 4 and 5 resepctively. Conclusions are given in Sect. 6.

2 Shortcomings in Previous Approaches Used to Test K41

and K62

Fig. 1, taken from Wyngaard and Tennekes (WT) [28], highlights the impact that
the ASL data has had on bolstering the validity of K62 and provides incisive insight
into how subsequent researchers may have been misled into accepting, if not

2
10

1
F
S

1
10
0.5

0.3
2 3 4 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 10

Fig. 1 Dependence of S and F on R𝜆 reproduced from Figs. 5 and 6 of Wyngaard and Tennekes
[28]
K41 Versus K62: Recent Developments 7

wholeheartedly embracing, K62. WT compared virtually a single measurement in

the laboratory (a mixing layer between plane jets, confined in a curved channel) at
a relatively modest value of R𝜆 (<200) with data obtained in the 1968 Air Force
Cambridge Research Laboratory Study of the boundary layer above a flat, homo-
geneous plain in southwest Kansas. The straight lines in Fig. 1 are predictions of S
(≡ S3 ) and F (≡ S4 ) based on particular choices for the characteristic length r (here
r = 𝜆) of the averaging volume and the universal constant 𝜇 (here 𝜇 = 1/2) in the
Kolmogorov-Obukhov expression for the variance 𝜎 2 of ln 𝜀r , viz.

L
𝜎 2 = A + 𝜇 ln (7)
r
in the lognormal model; A depends on the large scale (L is the integral scale). WT
concluded that the dependence of S and F on R𝜆 contradicts K41 or the universal
equilibrium theory, whilst recognizing that the good agreement with the prediction
from the lognormal model may need reappraisal due to the choice made for r, the
neglect of A and the uncertainty in the value of 𝜇 (0.5 was used; the present day
consensus value for 𝜇 is about 0.2). With the benefit of hindsight, the methodology
embodied in Fig. 1 can now be criticized on at least three major levels. Firstly, it
ignores the FRN effect (this will be addressed in Sect. 3) which can affect the lab-
oratory data in a significant way and, to a lesser extent, the ASL data. Secondly,
the FRN effect, through the very nature from which it arises (it mainly reflects the
inhomogeneity associated with the large scale motion; the latter has been shown to
depend on the flow), is expected to affect different flows differently. This expecta-
tion is completely ignored in Fig. 1. The compilation by Van Atta and Antonia [10]
of how S and F vary with R𝜆 and its subsequent reappraisal (Sreenivasan and Anto-
nia, [11]) do indeed show that the laboratory values exhibit “apparent” scatter (our
recent work, [29–32], confirms that, at least for S, there is a systematic dependence
on R𝜆 which can be explained analytically). Clearly, one cannot afford to indiscrim-
inately use data obtained from various flows unless the Reynolds number is large
enough to allow the FRN effect in each of theses flows to be dismissed. The need to
achieve a sufficiently high Reynolds number in any given laboratory flow so that Eq.
(1) is approximately satisfied in the IR should, strictly speaking, be considered as
a minimum requirement before examining the consequences of K41 and K62. This
seems to have been largely overlooked. Thirdly, the inclusion of the ASL data when
testing K41 and K62 needs, at the very least, to be discussed or scrutinized more
objectively than in the past. For example, the Kansas data in Fig. 1 were collected at
three heights (z = 5.66, 11.3 and 22.6m) above the ground; with a few exceptions, the
ASL data used to test the dependence of S and F on R𝜆 have generally been obtained
below a height of 30m. Often, no information for the stability conditions is given.
Under “neutral” conditions, the ASL ought to be comparable (at similar values of
z∕𝛿) with the laboratory boundary layer provided the nature of the surface is also
comparable. It is difficult to estimate with confidence the thickness 𝛿 of the neu-
tral ASL. Wyngaard [12] suggests that, under neutral conditions, 𝛿 may scale with
U𝜏 ∕f (U𝜏 is the friction velocity and f is the Coriolis parameter) and estimates, for
8 R. A. Antonia et al.

mid-latitudes, 𝛿 to be within the range 250–2500 m. This implies that the majority of
the neutral ASL data for S and F were taken in the region z∕𝛿 < 0.1. It is not difficult
to conclude that there is significant uncertainty in the estimation of 𝛿, e.g. a value of 𝛿
smaller than 100 m was found by Metzger et al. [33] based on experiments in Utah’s
western desert under almost “exactly” neutral conditions; the authors stressed how-
ever the difficulties associated in making measurements under those conditions. In
any case, it is not clear if any the published ASL data were obtained under “exactly”
neutral conditions. Certainly, it is difficult to believe that measurements of S and F
in region z∕𝛿 < 0.1 have not been affected by the proximity to the surface. Recent
measurements (Djenidi et al. [34]) in a laboratory boundary layer over smooth and
rough walls indicate that both S and F are approximately constant (with respect to
z∕𝛿) in the region 0.3 < z∕𝛿 < 0.6 (R𝜆 is also approximately constant with respect
to z∕𝛿 in this region). However, the magnitudes of S and F can increase, perhaps by
as much as a factor of 3, as the wall is approached. In the region z∕𝛿 > 0.6, S and F
are affected by the intermittency associated with the turbulent/irrotational interface.
The implication of these observations is that it would be unwise to use data outside
the range 0.3 < z∕𝛿 < 0.6 when testing K41 and K62. Naturally, one should also
check that there are no major departures from local isotropy in this range due to the
probable effects of the mean shear. In the region z∕𝛿 < 0.1, a larger departure from
local isotropy is expected due to the combined effect of an increase in mean shear
and the “blockage” caused by the presence of the surface. Notwithstanding the large
values of R𝜆 that can be achieved in the ASL (the ASL results of Sreenivasan and
Dhrava [35] at z ≈ 35m illustrate the difficulty in unambiguously estimating power-
law exponents for (𝛿u)2 and (𝛿u)4 in the scaling range even when R𝜆 is in the range
10000–20000), it would be preferable to err on the side of caution and exclude all
the previously obtained ASL data when examining the R𝜆 dependence of S and F
and examining the behaviour of (𝛿u)n in the scaling range. We do not rule out the
potential viability of data, collected for example in the region 0.3 < z∕𝛿 < 0.6 in a
near-neutral ASL (this may entail making airborne measurements e.g. Sheih et al.
[36]; flying can circumvent, if not minimize, the effect any possible nonstationarity
and facilitate the convergence of statistics) or data collected away from boundaries
as in the tidal channel experiment of Grant et al. [37].

3 Analytical Considerations

For homogeneous isotropic turbulence at very large Reynolds number, the transport
equation for (𝛿u)2 is given by

𝜕 4
−(𝛿u)3 + 6𝜈 (𝛿u)2 = 𝜀r. (8)
𝜕r 5
K41 Versus K62: Recent Developments 9

If we divide all terms in Eq. (8) by 𝜀r, the above relation states, in essence, that
the energy flux −(𝛿u)3 ∕𝜀r in the IR, where the viscous term is negligible, remains
constant (see Eq. (1)). In small to moderate Reynolds number, this equation is usually
not satisfied except at small r since Eq. (8) does not contain any large-scale term. For
example, [22] showed that Eq. (8) is satisfied only for r∕𝜂 ≤ 5 for grid turbulence
at R𝜆 = 66, suggesting that the large-scale term contributes to Eq. (8) for r∕𝜂 > 5.
After including such as term, Iu (r) say, Eq. (8) becomes

𝜕 4
−(𝛿u)3 + 6𝜈 (𝛿u)2 = 𝜀r − Iu (9)
𝜕r 5
where Iu differs from flow to flow, e.g. in decaying HIT [22, 38], along the axis in
the far field of an axisymmetric jet flow [39], and along the centreline of a fully
developed channel flow [40]. This equation is of fundamental importance since it is
an equilibrium relation between second- and third-order moments. Further, Eq. (9)
provides a viable platform for quantifying the FRN effect on (𝛿u)3 since it provides
insight into the budget of energy at each scale. As r → 0, Eq. (9) becomes the trans-
port equation for the mean enstrophy or 𝜀, which can be written in the generic form
[29–32]
G C
S+2 = , (10)
R𝜆 R𝜆
( )
(𝜕 2 u∕𝜕x2 )2
where G = u2 2 is the enstrophy destruction coefficient and C is a constant
(𝜕u∕𝜕x)2
which depends on the flow and may vary across regions of the same flow. Equation
(10) represents, in essence, a constraint on how S varies with R𝜆 in different flows.
Since the ratio G∕R𝜆 approaches a constant relatively rapidly with increasing R𝜆
[29–32] and the terms on the right side of (10) must eventually vanish, Eq. (10)
implies that the magnitude of S should become constant at sufficiently large R𝜆 . This
expectation has been confirmed [29–32] and will be discussed briefly in the next
section.

4 Results for the Dissipative Range

There has been strong support for K41 in the DR for the second-order statistics. For
example, Kolmogorov-normalized one-dimensional velocity spectra 𝜙∗u (k1∗ ) collapse
very well in the high wavenumber region [41]. In contrast to the stipulations of K41
and K62, viz. R𝜆 must be very large and local isotropy should hold, this collapse
does not require R𝜆 to be large [41], not does it require local isotropy to be satisfied
rigorously; it does however break down [42] when R𝜆 is sufficiently small, typically
when it falls below about 40. Pearson et al. [43] showed that (𝛿u∗ )2 also collapses
reasonably well in the DR over a large range of R𝜆 (40 < R𝜆 < 4250). In flows con-
10 R. A. Antonia et al.

0.5

0.2 1 2 3
10 10 10

Fig. 2 Dependence of S on R𝜆 in different flows. The 4 solid curves (black, red, blue and pink),
inferred from Eq. (10) by assuming that 2G∕R𝜆 = constant (≈ 0.53 for R𝜆 ≥ 70 in all flows except
the far-wake where R𝜆 ≥ 100), correspond to the flow the axis in the far-field of a round jet, decaying
grid turbulence, the centerline of a fully developed channel flow and the axis in the far-wake of a
circular cylinder; corresponding measurements in each flow are shown as symbols with the same
color without identifying the sources [29–32]. The green dashed curve is the prediction by Qian
[16]; the solid green symbol was obtained in the ONERA wind tunnel [45]. The horizontal dashed
line indicates the value of 0.53

sidered in Sect. 3, simple analytical expressions for C can be obtained [29–31] in

different flows or for specific
( )regions of a given flow. For example, in decaying grid
90
turbulence, C = 7(1+2R) n+1n
with R = v2 ∕u2 , whilst along the axis in the far-field
90
of a round jet, C = 7(2+R) . Since C differs from flow to flow, it is clear that C∕R𝜆
will approach zero along different paths. Since 2G∕R𝜆 becomes constant (≈0.53)
at R𝜆 = 70–100 [29–31], we have already shown in several papers [29–32] that S
depends on both the type of flow and R𝜆 at small to moderate R𝜆 (Fig. 2); it will
reach a universal constant when R𝜆 is sufficiently large (in general, R𝜆 only needs to
exceed about 300, allowing for the uncertainty in measuring S). Antonia et al. [32]
also examined the variation of Sn with R𝜆 (Eq. (3)), up to n = 6, on the axis of a plane
jet, and found that Sn for n = 3–6 is constant (by definition, S2 = 1) over a range of
R𝜆 (500 < R𝜆 < 1100), suggesting that the FRN effect is not observed in this range.
Antonia et al. [32] further examined (𝛿u∗ )n (n = 2–6) for the plane jet data at R𝜆 =
550, 696, 826, 914, and 1067 respectively and found that there is relatively good col-
lapse for all the structure functions at small r∗ (DR). All these results associated with
the DR favour K41 over K62 and hence imply an absence of intermittency-related
corrections over this range of R𝜆 .
K41 Versus K62: Recent Developments 11

5 Results for the Scaling Range

A completely developed IR exists when R𝜆 is very large. When R𝜆 is not sufficiently

large, the scaling range cannot be identified with IR. Antonia and Burattini [26]
showed that only when Iu (r) becomes negligible over a sufficiently large range of
r can the scaling range be correctly identified with the IR. In reality, (𝛿u)3 ∕(𝜀r)
approaches a plateau with a value 4/5 as R𝜆 increases, while this approach is more
rapid for forced than for decaying turbulence [26]. Similar results have been obtained
by Refs. [20, 23, 27] using different types of closures applied to either Eq. (9) or the
Karman-Lin spectral equation [24]. When assessing the scaling range exponents of
𝜙u (k1 ), the pressure spectrum Ep (k1 ), or higher-order structure functions, particular
attention needs to be paid to the FRN effect. For example, Fig. 6.29 of [44], which is
a compilation of different values of the power-law exponent for 𝜙u (k1 ) measured in
grid turbulence, shows that the −5∕3 power-law scaling (K41) is approached slowly
as R𝜆 increases. [46] measured pressure spectra (Ep (k1 )) on the centreline of a round
jet over a large range of R𝜆 (= 200 ∼ 1250). They showed that the −7∕3 power-law
scaling (K41) for Ep (k1 ) is approached as R𝜆 increases and is confirmed for R𝜆 ≥ 600.
Using EDQNM in decaying HIT, Meldi and Sagaut [47] further confirmed the FRN
effect on the pressure spectrum and revealed that R𝜆 ∼ 10000 is needed before the
pressure spectrum exhibits a IR with an extent of one decade. Recently, the FRN
effect on the scaling range exponents of structure functions, up to order 8, has been
assessed critically either via experiments (axes of plane and circular jets, wake cen-
treline) or DNS [32, 48]. In all cases, the magnitude of the exponent increases as
R𝜆 increases and the rate of increase depends on n. For a fixed R𝜆 , the exponent can
vary from flow to flow and for a given flow, the larger R𝜆 is, the closer the exponent
is to the K41 value. As an example, Fig. 3 shows the scaling exponents on the axis
of the plane jet at R𝜆 =550 and 1067 respectively [48]. The latter authors concluded

Fig. 3 Scaling exponents 3

𝛼n , defined from the
power-law (𝛿u)n ∼ r𝛼n in the
2.5
SR, on the axis of the plane
jet at R𝜆 =550 (△) and 1067
(▽) respectively [48]. Solid 2
line is the K41 prediction,
i.e. 𝛼n = n∕3, Eq. (4)
1.5

0.5
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
12 R. A. Antonia et al.

that the FRN effect, which depends on the flow, needs to be properly accounted for
before determining whether corrections to K41 are required.

6 Conclusions

We, once again, recall that both K41 and K62 are asymptotic R𝜆 → ∞ phenomenolo-
gies. As such, we may never be able to decide if K62 provides a realistic alternative
to K41 when R𝜆 → ∞. What is of paramount importance however is to critically
appraise the manner with which K41 and K62 have been tested. In Sect. 2, we put for-
ward plausible arguments for excluding ASL data obtained in the region z∕𝛿 < 0.1
when testing K41 and K62. Laboratory boundary layer data obtained in a similar
region are not suitable for this purpose, given the likely effect of the strong shear
and the departure from LI, and have not, to our knowledge, been used. If we set
aside the ASL data, the laboratory data for S and F are consistent with K41, at least
when R𝜆 approaches 103 , i.e. S and F approach constant values. Our recent analyt-
ical work [29–32] has allowed a reliable estimation of the way S is affected by the
FRN effect in a variety of flows. This has confirmed that S does indeed approach
a constant along different paths in different flows, thus debunking the practice of
indiscriminately lumping together values of S obtained in various flows before test-
ing the dependence of S on R𝜆 . The analytical approach adopted is based on the
scale-by-scale energy budget, derived from the N-S equations, which allows impor-
tant physical constraints to be satisfied, namely the energy and enstrophy budgets
at large and small r respectively, in each flow. The challenge ahead of us is to now
extend this approach to examine how F varies in each flow; we believe this should be
feasible, see for example [49], with the help of DNS. The laboratory data for F [32,
50] indicate that, like S, F also becomes constant at sufficiently large R𝜆 (this value
is not much larger than 10) thus further supporting K41; of course, confirmation of
this observation, underpinned by the N-S equations, is essential. Further, we have
observed, using only laboratory data, that the scaling range exponents tends towards
the K41 value of n∕3, at least for 2, 3, 4, as R𝜆 increases. The scaling exponent 𝛼n
approaches n∕3 (the K41 value), more slowly as n increases. Naturally, it is highly
desirable that we continue to scrutinize this trend by trying to further increase R𝜆 ,
preferably within the controlled environment of the laboratory.

Acknowledgements SL Tang wishes to acknowledge support given to him from NSFC through
grant 11702074.
K41 Versus K62: Recent Developments 13

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Jets and Waves Generated by an Obstacle
in Stratified or Homogeneous Fluids

Hideshi Hanazaki

Abstract Jets and waves, whose origin is in gravity force, are often observed in flu-
ids. When the fluid has a vertical density stratification, both can be generated due to
the buoyancy force. The jet appears when an obstacle descends vertically in a strat-
ified fluid. The generation is supported by the molecular diffusion of the stratifying
scalar such as salt. If there is no scalar/density diffusion, the density must be con-
served along the fluid motion, and the originally horizontal isopycnal surfaces are
simply deformed as they are dragged down by the obstacle, so that the dragged fluid
will move downward indefinitely and will never go back to its original height. If the
diffusion exists, the fluid can change its original density, and move away from the
isopycnal surface to which the fluid originally belonged. In this study, we demon-
strate the generation process of the jet, along with its interaction with the internal
gravity waves. As another example of waves in fluids, water waves with capillary
effects in a homogeneous fluid are numerically simulated, showing the excitation of
short capillary waves by a long solitary wave. The phenomenon has been predicted
by a weakly nonlinear theory, but has not yet been observed.

Keywords Stratified fluid ⋅ Jet ⋅ Internal gravity wave ⋅ Capillary gravity wave

1 Jets and Waves in a Stratified Fluid

There have been uncountably many studies on stratified flows, but most of them
are on horizontal flows, since many of the applications of stratified flows are in the
large-scale atmospheric or oceanic flows in which the horizontal velocity is usually
much larger than the vertical velocity. However, importance of the vertical flow gen-
erated by a vertical movement of an obstacle in stratified fluid has been recently
recognized, particularly in smaller-scale flows. For example, accurate control of the

H. Hanazaki (✉)
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Science, Kyoto University,
4 Kyoto daigaku-katsura, Nishikyo-ku, Kyoto 615-8540, Japan
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 15

Y. Zhou et al. (eds.), Fluid-Structure-Sound Interactions
and Control, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7542-1_2
16 H. Hanazaki

vertical movement of floats used for the abyssal observation is necessary to develop a
reliable float, and the prediction of the vertical movement of zoo-planktons is essen-
tial to estimate the carbon circulation in the ocean, which is important in the climate
model to predict the global warming of the earth.
In this study, we consider a sphere moving vertically at constant speed in a linearly
stratified fluid. Both the experiments and numerical simulations are performed, and
various jet/wake patterns are observed and the essential mechanisms of the flow,
including the mechanism of the jet formation, are investigated.

1.1 Water-Tank Experiments

A schematic figure of the experimental facilities is presented in Fig. 1 [1]. An acrylic

sphere of radius a (0.3 cm ≤ a ≤ 2.5 cm) is sustained by eight thin wires (diameter
= 0.1 mm) and it moves downward at constant speed W. The flow is visualised by
shadowgraph method, dye visualisation, particle image velocimetry (PIV) and laser
induced fluorescence (LIF). For PIV, a double pulse laser (15 Hz, 532 nm) is used
[4], and for LIF, a continuous wave (CW) laser (488 nm) is used. In PIV and LIF,
velocity and dye concentration (salinity) in the vertical plane across the sphere centre

Fig. 1 Schematic figure of

the test tank. Reproduced
from [1] https://doi.org/10.
1017/S0022112009990498
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 XII.
In Peril of Indians.

The return journey was for the most part uneventful, but with
empty wagons we could travel more rapidly.
On our reaching the crossing of the Arkansas we found there a
company of dragoons, and the officers informed us that they had
been fighting and chasing the Cheyennes all summer, having just
halted there in following one band of these Indians to the Arkansas
river. They had been forced to abandon their provision wagons some
days before we saw them, and were almost entirely out of food. The
artillery had also been left behind two or three days’ march down the
Arkansas river. These troops, a part of Colonel Sumner’s regiment,
had had several brushes with the Cheyennes, and captured a lot of
horses from the Indians. The soldiers, their horses and equipments,
gave every evidence of having undergone a severe campaign, and
they came around our camp begging for something to eat, tobacco
and whisky, much as the Indians were in the habit of doing. But our
ability to relieve their wants was very limited, having with us only
supplies enough for our own party back to the settlements.
The officers said that it would be hazardous for us to proceed
further, advising our captain to remain until the trains in our rear
could get up, until they had accumulated to at least one hundred
wagons and men, when we would be strong enough to resist any
attack that we were likely to be subjected to.
Acting on this advice, we remained in camp several days, until
five or six trains had arrived and camped in our immediate vicinity.
The journey was then resumed, our train taking the lead, all our
weapons of defense being put in as good order as possible. After the
trains were under way the wagonmasters of those behind us, to the
number of ten or a dozen, mounted on horses and mules, would ride
ahead to join Captain Chiles, Reece and myself, thus forming a lively
and agreeable company of companionable men.
As we were thus riding along down the level bottom of the
Arkansas, some distance in advance of the trains away to our right a
mile or more, out near the bank of the river, where we could see
some scattering cottonwood trees, we observed a smoke rising from
a camp fire. Some one of the party suggested that it was the smoke
of the camp of the artillery company, of which we had been told, so
we rode forward, giving little more attention to the smoke of the
camp fire that went curling upward among the cottonwood. When we
had reached a point about opposite the smoke there suddenly
appeared in our view a company of some fifty horsemen, riding pell-
mell in a fast gallop towards us. They were yet too far off to be
distinctly seen or for us to tell what manner of men they were. In
another moment, Captain Chiles exclaimed:
“Men, they are Indians! Soldiers don’t ride in that disorderly
manner. Form a line and get out your guns. We are in for it!”
Instantly all hands obeyed his command, forming a line, facing
the enemy, each of us drawing a pistol. The lead wagons of our train
were just barely visible, probably two miles from us. When the
approaching horsemen saw that we had formed a line of battle, they
instantly drew rein, slackening their speed to a walk, but kept
steadily drawing nearer us.
 “MEN, THEY ARE INDIANS!”

In a few minutes our anxiety was relieved when these horsemen

came near enough for us to see that they were white men, not
Indians, and, after all, they proved to be the company of artillery,
mounted on some Indian horses that had lately been captured from
the Cheyennes. Under the circumstances it was not at all strange
that we had mistaken them for hostile Indians.
The next morning after this the wagonmasters of these several
trains came forward as usual, and we set out to travel in advance of
the trains, hoping to find buffalo as we had again reached their
accustomed range.
I had the only real good buffalo horse in the company, but his
speed and strength we found considerably lessened and impaired by
the long journey. In discussing the prospects of finding buffalo, and
of killing one for a supply of fresh meat, which we were all very eager
again to get, Hines, an assistant wagonmaster of one of the trains,
suggested to me that I should use his pair of heavy Colt’s army
revolvers, which, he said, carried a heavier ball and were more
effective in killing buffalo than mine. Although I was somewhat
doubtful, I exchanged with him. We had ridden forward but a few
miles when we descried a herd of some twenty buffalo, in the
distance. The understanding being that I was to lead off in this
chase, I put spurs to my horse, the others following. There were
several young cows in the band, one of which I selected, and
pressed my horse forwards. In a few moments we were going at a
furious rate of speed, and my prospect of success was good, but just
as I was leaning forward, with pistol in my right hand, in the act of
shooting the cow, the stirrup leather of my saddle suddenly broke,
almost precipitating me headlong to the ground, but I escaped falling
by catching around the horse’s neck with my left arm; the heavy
pistol fell to the ground. While I was preparing to mend the stirrup
leather, having dismounted for that purpose, the other men of the
party rode up, the buffalo, meanwhile, having run entirely out of
sight.
When I had gotten the stirrup repaired, Captain Chiles, noticing
that I was a good deal shaken up and unnerved by the occurrence,
said that I would better let him have my horse and pistols, which I
readily gave up to him, knowing that there was no man on the plains
who excelled him in a buffalo chase or one more sure to provide
fresh meat. So he mounted my horse, and I got upon his mule, and
we all started off in the direction the buffalo had gone. We had by
that time reached a section of rolling country on the “cut-off” across
the bend of the Arkansas, lying in great ridges, with valleys
intervening. As we got to the top of one of these ridges Captain
Chiles, who was in front, exclaimed: “Look yonder at that band of
elk!”
There they were, perhaps two hundred of them, grazing in a
valley a mile distant. I immediately claimed my horse, for I did not
want to miss the opportunity of killing an elk, but the captain merely
laughed at me and started down toward the elk in a gallop. The elk,
seeing him, were soon all in motion, running in a great mass, stirring
up a cloud of dust, soon passing from our view around the point of
the ridge on the farther side of the valley, Captain Chiles following
them closely, the horse at full speed. After they had gotten out of
sight of us we heard the report of his pistol, two or three times, and
our entire party followed in his wake until we had reached the point,
where we thought the firing had occurred. Finding neither Chiles nor
any dead or wounded elk the men all, except Reece and I, refused to
go further, and turned about towards the road. Reece, who was
riding his big gray horse, and I, on the mule, continued riding in the
direction we supposed Chiles had gone, until we had ridden perhaps
four miles, when I began to feel a little uneasy, expressing a
disinclination to go further, as I was riding a worn-out, leg-weary
mule, with nothing but a belt pistol in the way of arms, and being in
the neighborhood of hostile Indians. Reece said to me: “You remain
here while I ride to the top of that high mound yonder,” pointing to a
hill a mile farther on. “When I get there,” he said, “if then I can neither
hear nor see anything of Chiles or the elk I will return here for you.”
Reece rode away. I remained alone for an hour or more—the
danger of the situation made it appear much longer than it really
was, no doubt—and finally I saw Reece and Chiles coming, greatly
to my relief. They were in good spirits, and as they rode up Chiles
said they had killed the biggest elk that ever ran on the plains, giving
me an account of his capture in detail as we rode back.
 XIII.
Captain Chiles’ Chase.

When Reece had got to the top of the mound he saw Captain
Chiles, sitting on a horse, holding by a rope a huge bull elk. The elk
stood in the bottom of a deep, narrow ditch, ten feet deep, with
banks almost perpendicular, so steep that he was unable to get up
them or out of the ditch to assail his captor. Captain Chiles, when he
first caught up with the band of elk, had made an effort to kill one
with the pistols, but for some reason he could only get the pistols to
fire two of the charges, and with these two he only wounded a cow
slightly, not enough to stop her from running. He kept after the band,
all the while trying to get the revolver to fire, trying every chamber,
but with no success. After he had kept up the chase for two or three
miles the large bull elk, being very fat, got too tired to keep up with
the band, but trotted along behind, in fact, so far exhausted that
Chiles could keep up with him with his horse in a trot. The captain
despaired of being able to stop one with the pistols, and, finding a
small lariat I had brought from the Kiowas as we went out, on my
saddle, used for picketing my horse, resolved to try the plan of
lassoing the big fellow.
Being an expert in rope throwing, he had little difficulty in
preparing the noose or getting a fastening around the top prong of
one branch of the elk’s great antlers. As soon as the elk found he
was restrained by the rope he turned about and charged on Captain
Chiles with all the power and fury he could command, and twice or
thrice the captain was forced to cut loose from him in order to
escape his assaults. The rope was long enough to drag on the
ground some distance behind him, so that the captain could recover
hold of it without dismounting, reaching down and picking it up as the
bull trotted away from him. He kept on after him for some distance,
occasionally jerking him back, and worrying him until he could hardly
walk. Coming to the lower end of the ditch, washed out to a depth of
ten feet, at a point a few yards above, he managed to guide the
animal, bewildered as he was by the heat, together with the violent
and prolonged exercise, into it, leading or driving him along up the
ditch until he got him in between the high banks of it to a place
where the animal could not get at him however anxious he was to do
so.
When Reece arrived, as above related, he found Chiles sitting
there on the horse holding the end of the rope, but having nothing
with which to kill the animal, not even a pocket pistol. Reece had
with him a belt revolver, and, under the directions of Chiles, he
carefully crawled to the edge of the ditch to within a few feet of the
elk’s head and killed him with a couple of shots in the forehead.
The bull had not been wounded by Chiles, and no one but a
veritable daredevil as he was would have undertaken the job of
lassoing an elk under such circumstances as he did. But Chiles was
a stranger to fear.
Chiles, Reece and I got to the camp about 2 o’clock, near six
miles from where the elk was killed. After dinner we went out with
pack mules and the necessary hatchets and butcher knives, and two
of the drivers, to butcher the elk. The animal was a splendid
specimen of his kind, supporting a magnificent pair of antlers, fully
hardened and developed, and was fatter than any other animal of
the deer kind I have seen, before or since. We butchered and
brought to camp on the pack mules every part of his carcass,
including the antlers. The latter were brought home to Jackson
county. We feasted on the flesh of the fat elk for several days, and
my recollection is that I never tasted better meat.
The remaining part of the journey was uneventful, the entire
party remaining with the train until we were within eighty miles of the
state line of Missouri. Then, in company with Captain Chiles, I
started, before daylight, to make a forced march to Westport. We
rode forty miles before we halted for breakfast, obtaining it at a
settler’s cabin in the vicinity of Black Jack, arriving in Westport late in
the evening, in the latter part of September, feeling very willing to
rest once more in a comfortable house and bed.
I saw my friend Reece about a year after he had returned to his
home in Missouri still making a fight for life, but during the second
year he struck his flag and made a final surrender.
At Westport the drivers were paid off and disbanded, but I was
not present to witness the separation of the company that had
formed a companionship, offensive and defensive, during this long
and tiresome journey across the plains. Doubtless nearly all of them,
in the vernacular of the Western mountains, have “crossed over the
range.”
 Lewis & Clark’s Route
Retraveled.

The Upper Missouri in 1858.

BY
W. B. NAPTON.
 CHAPTER I.
In 1858, under existing treaties with the western Indian tribes,
the national Government sent out to them annually large
consignments of merchandise. The superintendent of Indian affairs,
whose office was in St. Louis, chartered a steamboat to transport
these annuities to all the tribes in the country drained by the Missouri
—beginning with the Omahas and Winnebagoes in Nebraska and
ending with the Blackfoot, at the base of the Rocky Mountains,
around the sources of the Missouri. Nearly one-half of the cargo of
this boat, however, consisted of the trading merchandise of Frost,
Todd & Company, a fur-trading concern, whose headquarters were
at St. Louis, and whose trading posts were established along the
Missouri from Yankton to Fort Benton. The whole of the territory of
the United States then north of Nebraska was without any legal
name or designation; at least there were no such territories as
Dakota or Montana shown on the maps. At that time, and for many
years before, a steamboat load of merchandise was sent up as far
as Fort Benton by the American Fur Company, having its
headquarters also in St. Louis, and controlled mainly by the
Chouteaus, to replenish the stocks of their trading posts along the
river. The trade of these companies was exclusively with the Indians,
the exchange being for buffalo robes, furs of the beaver, otter, mink,
etc., used for making clothes, gloves, etc.
Colonel Redfield, of New York, was the agent for the Indian
tribes along the river from the Omahas in Nebraska to Fort Union at
the mouth of the Yellowstone. Colonel Vaughn, of St. Joseph, Mo.,
was agent for the Blackfoot tribe, and that year had special orders to
take up to his agency, on Sun River, forty miles above Fort Benton
(now Montana), farming implements, horses and oxen, and to make
an effort to teach the tribe the peaceful art of agriculture. These
Blackfoot Indians, however, regarded agriculture a good deal as it is
defined by our humorous friend, Josh Billings, who defined it as “an
honest way of making a d—md poor living.” The Indians fully
sanctioned and concurred in this definition. I had received at the
hands of Colonel Vaughn the appointment of attaché to his agency,
pretty nearly a sinecure, but affording transportation from St. Louis to
Fort Benton and back, if I choose to come back.
The boat was a medium-sized Missouri River packet, nearly
new, with side wheels and powerful engines. Steamboating on the
Missouri had then reached the highest stage of prosperity. A line of
splendidly furnished and equipped passenger boats ran from St.
Louis to St. Joseph, providing almost every comfort and luxury a
traveler could ask. The table was elegant and the cuisine excellent,
the cabin and state-rooms sumptuously furnished, and last but not
least, there was always a bar where any kind of liquor could be
found by those who preferred it to Missouri River water. There were
good facilities for card-playing either with or without money, and no
restraint in either case. There was usually a piano in the cabin, and
frequently a fair band of musicians among the waiters and cabin-
boys. These great passenger-boats ran all night, up and down the
most treacherous and changeable of all the navigable streams. To
be a first-class pilot on the Missouri River was equivalent to earning
the highest wages paid in the West at that time. The chief pilot of our
boat, R. B—, was of that class. Just before he took service on this
boat he had forfeited a contract for the season at $1,000 a month
with the “Morning Star,” a large passenger-packet, running from St.
Louis to St. Joseph, from the fact that he was on one of his
periodical sprees when she was ready to embark from St. Louis.
After the boat got under way, I spent a great deal of time in the
pilot-house with R. B—, who I found a man of fair education and
considerable culture, a devotee of Shakespeare, quoting or reciting
page after page of his “Tragedies” without interruption of his duties at
the helm of the boat, a position requiring great courage and steady
nerves. R. B— knew every twist and turn of the channel of the
Missouri from St. Louis to St. Joseph, knew every bar where the river
was either cutting out its bed or filling it up, knew precisely the
location of every snag protruding above water, and of many that
were invisible except at a low stage of water—in short, knew at all
times, night or day, exactly the position of the boat and its bearings.
The passengers formed a motley congregation. The two Indian
agents, their clerks and attachés, the agents, trappers and
voyageurs of the fur companies, mostly Canadian Frenchmen
intermixed with Indians; a few, however, were native Americans, a
young English sportsman, Lace, and his traveling companion from
Liverpool, going up to the mountains to kill big game. A young
gentleman, Mr. Holbrook from New England, who had just graduated
at Harvard and was traveling for health, Carl Wimar, an artist of St.
Louis whose object was to get pictures of the Indians, and a young
man of great genius and promise in his profession, a captain, two
pilots, two engineers, two cooks, cabin-boys, etc., twenty regular
deck hands and, in addition to these, about seventy-five stout
laboring men to cut wood to supply fuel for the boat’s furnaces after
we had gotten up above the settlements.
We commenced cutting wood soon after passing Omaha,
although we found occasional piles of wood already cut on the river
bank above Sioux City, Iowa.
There were no female passengers and the boat had been
stripped of carpets, mirrors, etc.
Colonel Redfield was a staid, straight-laced gentleman from the
East, while Colonel Vaughn was a jolly frolicsome fellow of sixty-five
years, who had been thoroughly enjoying western life among the
Indians on the upper Missouri for many years, and no matter how
late at night the bar was patronized, the following morning, when one
would enquire as to the state of his health, he would answer with
inimitable gusto, “Erect on my pasterns, bold and vigorous.”
The fur company men were nearly all Canadian Frenchmen,
some of them having a greater or less degree of Indian blood in their
veins. These people had come down from their trading posts,
starting just as soon as the ice broke up in the river, on keel or flat-
boats, bringing along some furs and peltries, and had reached St.
Louis in time to spend a week or two there. Having settled with the
fur companies at headquarters in the city, the remainder of their
limited contact with civilization would be spent in seeing the sights of
the city.
These fur traders, trappers and voyageurs formed a class now
extinct in the United States, a remnant of them yet remaining
perhaps in British America. The boat made no landings except for
fuel, until we reached the reservations of the Omahas and
Winnebagoes in Nebraska.
Not long after embarking from St. Louis, a game of poker was
arranged and started among these trappers and played on a good-
sized round table made especially for this purpose, such a one as
every passenger-boat on the Missouri River was then provided with.
The game was kept going a great part of the time, until we reached
Fort Union at the mouth of the Yellowstone, the players having then
been thinned out by departure from the boat at the different forts as
we passed up. These men were all friends or acquaintances of long
standing, and while they played with money, no one seemed to care
particularly about his losses or winnings, in other words, there were
no real gamblers in the party, the stakes being only such as they
could loose without repining, or which is still more difficult, such as
they could gain without undue exultation. The conversation between
them was really more interesting than the game. They could all
speak English and French and a half-dozen Indian tongues, making
their conversation and dialect in the poker game singularly
interesting.
Pappineau was one of the poker players, and his station was
Fort Berthold. He was a good-natured, vivacious, volatile Canadian
Frenchman, a general favorite, but not possessing the required level-
headedness to play a good game of poker. His finances were
running low even before he left St. Louis, and in consequence of
this, he found it necessary every few days to withdraw from the
game. His presence and talk were highly appreciated by the other
players, and on these occasions it was quite in keeping with the
existing state of good fellowship among them to notice someone
“stake” Pappineau with five or ten dollars, without any embarrassing
stipulations for its return, in order that he might resume his place in
the game. On reaching Fort Berthold Pappineau took pride in
bringing his squaw on board the boat, presenting her to those among
us who were strangers, and he had no reason to be ashamed of her,
as she was one of the best-looking and neatest Indian women we
saw on this journey.
Carl F. Wimar, the gifted St. Louis painter, was making his first
trip up the Missouri to get a look at the Indians. He was a tall, slim,
lithe man of thirty, a swarthy complexion resembling a Spaniard
rather than a German, quick, active and indefatigable in the
prosecution of his work. When we got to the Indians he was always
on the alert for the striking figures among them. On reaching the
Indians the agent would invite them to a council, held in the cabin of
the boat. On these occasions Wimar would make pencil sketches of
the assembled Indians, and he did this work with great rapidity and
dexterity. He was also equipped with a camera and ambrotype
materials, and could sometimes induce the Indians to let him get
pictures of this sort, but usually they were averse to being looked at
through the camera. On one occasion above Fort Pierre while the
boat was tied up swinging around against a bluff bank about the
same height with the guards of the boat, a great big Indian came
creeping up through the willows, squatting down on the bank within a
few yards of the boat. He was most ornately and elaborately
dressed, completely covered from head to foot with garments of
dressed skins, profusely ornamented with garniture of beads, fringe,
etc., and, as we afterwards ascertained, was a famous “medicine
man.” On his head an immense bonnet ornamented with feathers,
beads, etc., with a leather strap forming a sort of tail to the bonnet,
strung with circular plates of silver, reaching down behind almost to
the ground when standing erect. Wimar began preparations for
taking his ambrotype, thinking he might get it unobserved, but as
soon as he began looking through the camera at him the Indian
jumped up, evincing immediately his opposition to the process, at
once drawing an arrow from his quiver, and by his hostile
demonstrations and talk made Wimar understand that he would not
submit. Then Wimar undertook to show him that he meant no harm
whatever, exhibiting some pictures he had taken of other Indians, but
he seemed unable to understand him and soon disappeared from
view through the willow bushes lining the river bank.
 Carl Frederick Wimar was born in Germany, but brought to this
country by his parents in infancy, and, at an early age, disclosed his
artistic temperament and talent. Returning to Germany, he studied
under the great painter Luetze, the painter of the celebrated picture
at Washington, of Washington crossing the Delaware, copies of
which are familiar to the public. Wimar afterwards painted the fresco
pictures in the dome of the rotunda of the St. Louis Court House. I
saw him paint a portrait of Captain Atkinson, a son of General
Atkinson, as we were ascending the river, in the cabin of the boat,
which I thought denoted marked artistic skill as well as being a
faithful likeness of the man. Poor Wimar died with consumption five
years later at the age of thirty-four, ending all hopes of his attaining
the highest eminence of fame as an artist, that I believe he must
surely have reached had he lived to mature age. He was naturally an
amiable gentleman as well as a great artist.
Along the Missouri above Omaha, the country is mostly prairie,
with extensive bottoms on one side or the other, beyond the bottoms
rising gradually as it recedes to the general altitude of perhaps a
hundred and fifty feet back a mile or two from the river, the absence
of timber and gently undulating topography affording a good
panoramic view from the deck of the boat as she battled upwards
against the strong current.
Just below Sioux City, a small town at that time, our pilot pointed
out Floyd’s Bluff, an oval-shaped hill lying at right angles to the river,
its base washed by it, and into which the river seemed to be cutting
and undermining. On the summit of this bluff we could see a post
and a pile of loose stones, as we supposed placed there to mark the
grave of Sergeant Floyd, the first American soldier to lose his life in
our then newly-acquired Louisiana Purchase. Sergeant Floyd was
one of the soldiers accompanying Lewis and Clark’s exploring
expedition, who died and was buried on this bluff as they passed up
in 1804, and here in this solitary grave he had rested more than half
a century. Even then, in 1858, there was no house or settlement in
sight, and I remember to this day the melancholy impression in my
youthful mind, from his dying and being buried in the wilderness so
far from friends and relatives. A late Congress did justice to his
memory, performing a graceful and becoming act in authorizing the
erection by the Secretary of War of a monument at the grave of
Sergeant Floyd, appropriating $5,000 for the purpose.
When the Indians were reached, the boat being landed, the
chiefs would assemble in the main cabin and a council be held with
their agent. The agent would first address them, his speech being
conveyed through an interpreter connected with the agency.
Following we would have many speeches from the Indians, many of
whom were great speakers, if not orators, forcible and fluent,
speaking without embarrassment. While these discussions were in
progress, the artist Wimar would avail himself of the opportunity to
make pencil sketches of the most prominent among them.
 CHAPTER II.
Fort Randall was the extreme frontier post occupied by troops.
The fort was located on a beautiful site on the left bank. The boat
landing and remaining here awaited the preparations of an officer,
Captain Wessells, and a squad of soldiers to accompany the Indian
agents as a guard.
The officers’ quarters and barracks occupied two sides of a
quadrangle of about ten acres, forming a level parade ground of
prairie sod, in the center of which stood a flag-staff and bandstand.
In the afternoon a fine regimental band regaled us with delightful
music that seemed to be enjoyed even by the Indians loafing around
the fort. The officers were exceeding courteous, showing us
everything of interest to be seen about the post, and when Captain
Wessells and his squad of men, twenty soldiers, were ready to come
on board on our departure, we were heartily and boisterously
cheered by a multitude of officers and soldiers assembled on the
river bank. A lieutenant who had perhaps imbibed too freely at the
bar shouted at the top of his voice, throwing his hat into the river as
the boat floated away.
Our next prominent landing was Fort Pierre, the main trading
post of the great Sioux nation. Here we found them assembled in
force, the entire tribe being present except one band, that of “Big
Head,” awaiting the arrival of Colonel Redfield, their agent. The river
bottom above the fort was dotted with their lodges as far as we could
see from the hurricane deck of the boat. The cabin would not
accommodate even the chiefs of this vast assemblage, so the
council was held in the open plain a short distance from the landing.
The chiefs were splendid-looking fellows when they got together,
hardly one among them less than six feet high. The Sioux then
mustered a larger number of stalwart, fine-looking, bronze-colored
men than could be assembled elsewhere on the continent. They
were then subdivided into eight bands, all present on that occasion
except the band of “Big Head,” the most unfriendly and hostile of the
Sioux. The previous year when Colonel Vaughn was their agent, Big
Head got mad at him, and while he was speaking, jerked the
spectacles off his nose, declaring that he allowed no man “to look at
him with two pair of eyes.”
The council with the Sioux continued the greater part of the day
with a great flow of Indian eloquence. A large quantity of goods was
brought from the boats and piled in heaps—enough, it seemed, to
stock a large wholesale house, but, in accepting the goods, the
Indians did not seem to show any pleasure, much less gratitude; on
the contrary, they looked about with their usual indifference as if they
felt they were being put under obligations not easily discharged. But
in truth little of their talk was understood by me, and less of their
actions.
The fur trade at Fort Pierre was more extensive than at any other
point on the river, and both the trading companies had many
employees residing there, and kept large stocks of goods. Here I
made the acquaintance of two young gentlemen, natives of St.
Louis, members of the forty or four hundred porcelain of that town,
now, however, on duty at the fort directing the Indian trade, and each
supporting two squaws, the mothers of several children. They
seemed in fine health and spirits, and enjoying life in spite of
isolation from refined society.
As the boat was leaving Fort Pierre, we gained a passenger that
would be a conspicuous person in any crowd from his unusual good
looks. Soon after coming on board he joined in the poker game,
being well known to all the upper river men. A man of twenty-five
years, tall, well built and remarkably handsome, a quarter-blood
Sioux, his mother being a half-blood, his father a Frenchman long a
resident of the Indian country, and who had given this son all the
advantages of a good education at some eastern college. He was
affable, agreeable and gentlemanly in his conduct, and I shall never
forget the man although I do not recall his name. He remained with
us only a few days, stopping off at a trading post some distance
above Fort Pierre.
At Fort Pierre we had another addition to our passengers in the
person of Colonel Vaughn’s Indian wife and children. The colonel,
being a widower when appointed by President Pierce agent for the
Sioux, married (according to the custom of the Indians) a member of
that tribe, and in the early spring she had accompanied the colonel
from the Blackfoot Agency, down the river on a keel-boat, to Fort
Pierre, where she had remained with some relatives awaiting the
colonel’s return. Being thus identified, Colonel Vaughn’s influence
and popularity with the Indians was greatly increased, and in fact so
thoroughly established that he remained at the agency on Sun River,
Montana, surrounded by Indians, without a guard and with perfect
safety.
A day or two after leaving Fort Pierre the boat was signalled by
Big Head and his band who came approaching the river from the
northeast, across a vast bottom prairie, and who were conspicuous
on account of their absence at the council at Fort Pierre, and this fact
was construed by the agent and others connected with the Indians
as an indication of his continued unfriendliness or possible open
hostility. The boat was steaming along against a strong current, but
near the shore, when this band was seen approaching, giving
signals for the boat to land, which the agent immediately ordered.
While the landing was being made, the band, several hundred in
number, had approached within two hundred yards of the river bank,
when they formed an irregular line and halting, fired towards us a
number of guns, the bullets from which went whistling through the air
above us. For a while it was thought they had attacked us, but in a
few moments it was discovered that this demonstration of fire arms
was intended as a salute for the agent. The boat having landed, Big
Head and his sub-chiefs and warriors came on board, assembled in
the cabin, where a council was duly organized. Big Head made a
great speech, in which he gave some excuse for not attending the
general council at Fort Pierre, claiming to be altogether peaceful and
friendly, and anxious to accept the annuities from the great father at
Washington. Big Head was a heavy built ugly Indian unlike most of
his tribe, who were generally tall, well proportioned, fine-looking
fellows.
Singularly enough, no buffalo were seen by us while ascending
the river in 1858. Several years later, in 1865, going up the river to
the mines in Montana, we saw great herds of them along the river for
more than a thousand miles, and killed as many as were needful to
supply the boats with meat. They were frequently found crossing the
river in such numbers as to prevent navigation of the boat.
Occasionally we would approach them massed under a bluff-bank,
after swimming the river, too steep to allow exit from the water, and
here they would stand or swim around in the water (accumulated
here from the opposite side of the river) exhausted and apparently
bewildered.
Under these circumstances, if we were in need of meat, the
captain would land the boat below them, the yawl-boat would be
lowered, manned with oarsmen, and a man provided with a rope and
butcher-knife, and rowed up to the heads of the animals as they
swam around. The rope would be tied around the horns, the buffalo
killed with the butcher-knife, the carcass floated down to the boat,
when the hoisting tackle would be attached to it and lifted aboard,
where it was handily skinned and quartered.
After we passed above that part of the river with which the pilots
were thoroughly acquainted, it was necessary to tie up at night, and
much time was consumed in cutting wood. The boat was also
delayed some time at Cedar Island, an island covered with a dense
grove of cedar, growing so thick that the trees were void of branches
or knots, forming excellent smooth poles that were used for various
purposes at the trading posts, and a great quantity of these poles
were cut and brought on board. This was the only island in the river
on which the growth was entirely cedar, and on this island the
Indians procured their lodge-poles.
On this part of the river one could sit on the deck of the boat and
enjoy the vast expanse of country, gradually sloping from the river to
the hills, miles in extent, generally monotonous to be sure, but
sublime in its vastness and simplicity. Here and there herds of deer