Perforation

Perforation

Review

This topic introduces perforation as a well stimulation technique.

Content
Purpose

The purpose of perforating a well is to create a series of communication tunnels, known

as perforations, between the wellbore and the formation. Since the characteristics and
placement of these perforations will have a significant influence on the productivity of a
well, careful consideration must be given to the design and execution of the perforation
programme and operation. The perforations in a cased and cemented liner are the only
means by which production fluids enter the wellbore and they must therefore provide an
adequate inflow area. The perforations must be deep enough to penetrate any mud
damaged zone around the well bore as well be free of any debris which would impair
productivity.
Figure 1. Perforation Nomenclature.

Damage zone
Phase angle Tubing/Casing

Crushed zone
Cement

Shot
density

Perforation
length

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The following well condition factors should be considered in the perforation programme:
• type of completion;
• cement thickness and casing/formation bond integrity;
• type and level of wellbore fluid;
• specifications (and conditions) of wellbore tubulars and equipment;
• formation permeability, characteristics and type;
• post perforation stimulation and/or completion programs.

The following fluid flow factors should also be taken into account:
• production fluid viscosity;
• skin damage;
• perforation crush zone;
• single or multiphase flow.
Figure 2. Factors Surrounding Perforation.

Damaged formation
Cement Reservior formation

Crushed
zone

Tubing/Casing Perforation Charge debris

Gun Performance

As stated earlier, the purpose of perforating a well is to create a series of communication

tunnels between the wellbore and the formation. The region around the well, into which
we are perforating, is known as the ‘near wellbore region’. The condition of the near
wellbore region is of prime importance since this is the area that all reservoir production
fluid must pass through in order to be successfully produced. Damage to this area will
have significant effect on the productivity of the well. It is vital that perforating jobs
establish good communication across the formation in this region and that the
perforations extend through any drilling damage.
There are four main factors (know as geometric factors) to consider in order to achieve
optimum perforation of a particular reservoir. The factors vary in importance depending
on the reservoir and completion type, and the optimum solution will be the correct trade-
off of these factors for given conditions. The four geometric factors are:
• shot density – important since a higher shot density results in more potential
communication paths between the well and the reservoir formation and therefore
can enhance productivity;
• perforation diameter – important more for gravel pack perforations where ‘big
hole charges’ are used. In normal wells, provided perforation tunnel diameter
exceeds 6mm (0.25”), it is unlikely that flow performance would be negatively
influenced;
• perforation phasing – important because phasing can provide a more direct
communication path between the wellbore and surrounding formation and hence
reduce skin effects;

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• perforation length – important since performance will be adversely affected if the

perforations do not extend beyond any near wellbore damage such as that
caused from drilling.

Well productivity is also greatly affected by the cleanliness of the well, it is therefore of
great importance to ensure that any debris from the gun charges or formation (crushed
zone) is removed effectively.

Underbalanced Perforation

Underbalanced perforation operations, where the wellbore pressure is less than the
formation pressure, generally give rise to better well productivity. This is due to the fact
that the underbalance results in a strong flow out of the formation immediately on
perforating. This strong flow removes crushed materials (crushed zone debris) from the
perforations, ensuring good clean perforation tunnels (ie, good communication paths).
This crushed debris can than be produced out of the well along with the gun related
perforation debris. Since well performance is greatly affected by well cleanliness,
underbalanced perforating can give better productivity and therefore the vast majority of
wells are now perforated in this way.
Figure 3. Underbalanced Perforation.

Underbalance Perforation
Damaged formation
Cement Reservior formation

Tubing/Casing Perforation

Perforation Methods

The most common method of perforating currently used is jet perforating guns equipped
with shaped explosive charges. While early perforation techniques made use of
mechanical perforators and bullet perforations, other perforating methods used now
include abrasive jetting and high pressure fluid jetting.

Perforating Charges

Today’s shaped perforations charges are based on armour piercing technology and
make use of an ultra high pressure jet travelling at huge velocities to penetrate the
casing and formation. The gun charge consists of a casing, primer charge, main
explosive charge and powdered metal, or drawn solid metal liner. On detonation of the
charge, the pressure wave caused by the explosion of the main charge collapses the
liner. The conical geometry of the liner causes the wave to converge into a high speed
jet.

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Figure 4. Detonation Sequence.

Explosive charge

Primer Exploding
charge
Liner begins to
vaporise liner

Casing

Ultra high
pressure
shock wave Fully formed
forms liner jet penetrates
into a jet the formation
at ultra high
speed

The result is the energy is focused on the target at extremely high pressure (can be
millions of psi). This causes formation material to literally flow away from the point of
impact until the gas jet is spent. It is in this way that a perforation is ‘punched’ through
the casing and formation rather than burning through the casing or formation.
Penetration hole size and depth can be affected by charge geometry and amount of
explosive. The need for perforating gravel pack completions has led to the development
of ‘big hole’ charges. These have a solid copper liner, which results in a bigger diameter
hole being achieved. One drawback of this type of charge is that a slow moving ‘slug’ is
formed from the liner and this travels behind the high pressure jet, this slug has the
potential to block the newly created perforation tunnel. When using large charges, less
charges per foot can be run, ie, a lower shot density.

Safety

As previously mentioned, perforation charges are based on armour-piercing technology.

Operational safety procedures recommended for each gun type/design must be
consulted and adhered to at all times during any operation involving perforation gun
systems. Even the smallest guns contain a large explosive, and therefore potentially
deadly, force.

Perforating Gun Features

There are two main principal types of guns of used at present, these are:

Hollow Carrier or Steel Guns

These are most widely used for general casing perforations since they are the most
rugged and the charge debris is predominantly removed from the well. A wide selection
of charge sizes and types are available and they virtually eliminate casing or cement
damage. They also generally have higher pressure and temperature ratings than other
types. In terms of through tubing operations, it is important to note that some hollow
carrier guns have minimum pressure limitations with regards to avoiding over-swelling
and therefore the possibility of sticking during gun recovery. Hollow carriers guns can
distort upon firing, this will prevent recovery of the gun through limited clearances; the
guns are normally configured to minimize this distortion effect as much as possible and
thereby aid recovery.

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Exposed Guns

These guns are generally used where there is limited access due to wellbore
restrictions; they are also used in less demanding well conditions than steel retrievable
guns. They are run on wireline and are pressed against casing magnetically or by using
a bowspring, and consist of metal strip bar to which has the sealed shape charges are
attached.
Exposed guns allow for increased charge weights and shot density options with
certain models being capable of delivering deeper penetrations than equivalent sized
steel retrievable guns.
Two designs of exposed guns include:
• fully expendable guns - expendable guns are an assembly that disintegrates into
small pieces, which then fall to the bottom the well. The remainder of the
assembly is greatly reduced in dimension making it easier to retrieve;
• semi expendable guns - these have similar application to fully expendable guns
and like fully expendable guns, can be used in wellbores with access limitations
such as in through tubing operations.

Perforation Techniques

The increase in development of high angle or horizontal wells has a large impact on
perforation techniques. Specifically, a great deal of consideration has to given at an
early stage as to how to perforate across, for example, a much longer interval.
Consideration to what techniques are required beyond those normally used in
vertical/low angle wells is critical.
Perforation techniques can be classified into 2 major types:
• through tubing/casing (this includes wireline, coiled tubing etc.);
• tubing/drill pipe conveyed perforating.

While each of these two methods have the same purpose (of establishing good flow
communication between a given wellbore and reservoir), it is important to consider the
suitability of each method carefully for a particular well design.

Through Tubing / Casing Perforating

Wireline conveyed guns are very economic for perforating short intervals but will require
multiple runs if a long perforated interval is required since the maximum interval than
can be perforated each run is effectively determined by the lubricator length. These
types of guns can also be pulled out of the hole immediately after perforating. Their size
and type is limited by any restrictions in the well/completion and they are only suitable
for use in low angle wells. Wireline conveyed guns also limit the level of underbalance
that can be used since there is a danger of blowing the guns (and wire!) up-hole. This
technique is commonly used for re-perforating existing wells.
Coil tubing conveyed guns allow perforation of high angle wells, (unlike wireline
conveyed), and in addition this can be done underbalanced since there is not the risk of
blowing them out of the well. Re-perforating is also an option with coiled tubing
conveyed guns (subject to completion restrictions) but, as with wireline, the perforation
interval length is limited by rig-up restrictions with long intervals requiring multiple runs.

Tubing / Drillpipe Conveyed Perforating

Tubing conveyed guns generally use up more rig time to run than through tubing
conveyed guns, however tubing conveyed guns can perforate a long interval without the
need for the multiple rig-ups required by through tubing perforation. This ability to
perforate long intervals in one run, and also the fact that tubing conveyed guns can be

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run at the same time as (as part of) a completion can make them the more economical
choice for some wells. Running tubing conveyed guns as part of a completion requires
that consideration must be given to the length of time guns may have to spend
downhole prior the being fired – in particular well conditions such as temperature should
be considered. Various grades of explosive are available to cope with these
time/temperature considerations.
It is also essential that the guns (and completion) can be run to depth otherwise the
whole completion will almost certainly need to be recovered; similarly it is also very
important to assure accurate space out of the completion is achieved.
As well as their ability to perforate long intervals underbalanced in a single run, tubing
conveyed guns allow for the running of large well phased guns or large guns with high
shot densities suitable for perforating cased hole gravel packs. After firing, tubing
conveyed guns (run as part of the completion) can be left in place or, if access to the
well across the perforation interval is required, dropped into a pre-drilled rat hole. If guns
are to be left in-situ it is important to ensure that there is sufficient clearance in the well
or that a flow-through type of gun is used. If guns are to be dropped into a rat hole then
the well deviation will generally have to be less than 70 degrees to avoid jamming.
If the guns are to be retrieved after firing (prior to the final completion being run) then
the well will require to be killed, if underbalanced, and the conveyance tubing removed.
In killing a well to remove tubing conveyed guns, a great deal of care must be taken not
to damage the newly perforated formation by allowing completion fluid leak-off.

Choice of Techniques

In any given well it may be the case where no single technique is fully effective for one
reason or another. In many cases a combination of the above techniques are used to
provide the optimum solution. It could for example be economically beneficial to
perforate some interval in a well with wireline or coil tubing where full access is required
post-perforation but also perforate other parts of the interval with tubing conveyed tubing
(eg, allowing simultaneous perforation of a long interval without the need for multiple
runs).

Debris

There is approximately 100-150 g of debris produced per perforation charge. This is

typically a mixture of (metallic) gun casing material, charge, charge liner and also
crushed formation material. The metallic debris from the gun casing and charge liners
etc is in the form of small flakes about 1-1.5 cm across, or in the case of controlled
debris charges, a fine powder. Significant amounts of debris can be produced as a result
of a perforation job, particularly for a long perforation interval (ie, over a tonne), and
careful consideration must be given to clean-up methods and procedures.
Controlled debris charges do not reduce the volume of debris, but simply reduce the
size of the individual debris particles. Reducing the size of such debris particles makes
them easier to remove from the well than the larger ‘flake’ debris, particularly if the well
is high angle or has a pump in it. Some care must be taken when using controlled debris
charges as the powdered debris can react badly with some brines, appropriate inhibitor
should be used in order to avoid ‘cementing’ up the well.

Crushed Zone

Crushed zone material is created during perforation operations by the pressure wave
from the detonation deforming the formation rock around each penetration tunnel. This
deformation badly affects the permeability of the formation for a distance of
approximately 1.5cm (1/2 inch) around the perforation. If sufficient underbalance is used
during perforation, then it is not only possible to flow the charge debris out of the well,
but also this crushed zone material. This will enhance wellflow performance.

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Perforation Operations

Depth control and Perforation Order are two important considerations when carrying out
perforation operations. Good depth control is vital to ensure that the correct formation
zone is being perforated (a detailed perforation programme can be useless if you end up
perforating the wrong zone). Various depth control methods available are:
• Open hole gamma ray (GR) tied into cased hole. GR and Casing Collar Locator
tied into the CCL run on wireline or stiff wire with the perforating guns. Pip tags
may be added to the liner. There have been a number of problems with CCLs,
particularly when the perforation debris is not back produced after each interval
and more than one interval is perforated. If possible, consider running a GR and
CCL with the guns to avoid the perforation debris confusing the CCL;
• The use of tubing end locators. These mechanical devices use a lever that
catches the wireline entry guide on re-entry into the tubing. An overpull is needed
to confirm the position and the lever flips inward. Depth control is then
determined from this point. The depth of the wireline entry guide is usually
determined by cased hole logs;
• Memory logs run with coiled tubing. It is possible to run a memory log on coil (GR
and CCL). The perforation run(s) can then use the depths indicated from the
previous memory logs. This technique assumes that all runs are under the same
conditions, and although buoyancy/drag force changes can be somewhat
accounted for, depth control is unlikely to be more than ±2 ft;
• Depth Correlation Subs (DCS). These are profiles that can be introduced into a
liner through special subs. They are located either with coiled tubing pump out or
roller centralisers. An overpull will confirm the location. These offer accurate
depth control in high angle wells.

If there is a need for multiple runs to perforate the required intervals, and this is being
carried out underbalanced, then the order of perforation becomes important. In order to
maintain sufficient underbalance on successive runs, the poorest quality rock should be
perforated first. This poorest rock will require the largest underbalance which may be
impossible to achieve if this were not the first interval perforated. The poorest rock will
also have the poorest flow performance and therefore it should still be possible to
achieve large underbalance conditions for subsequent perforation. A major
consideration to be taken into account however is that the poorest quality rock may be
above better quality areas in the well. The result of this is that during the perforation run
on poor quality rock in such a location, any problems that occur such as the guns
becoming stuck may prevent access for further perforation operations on the better
intervals below.

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