Human Anatomy EVALS #2

Lecture #4: THE CELL

THE CELL
• Basic morphologic and functional unit of all living
things
• Capable of independent existence (under favorable
environmental conditions)
• Human beings start as a single cell (fertilized
ovum/zygote)

Cells à Tissues à Organs à Organ Systems

• Eukaryotic basic cell structure:

• Cytoplasm
Fig 3. Cell membrane composition
• Cell membrane
• Nucleus + nuclear membrane GLYCOCALYX
• Coating for the cell
CELL MEMBRANE
Envelope delimiting the cell from the surroundings • Thin layer of amorphous electron-dense
•
Protects the cell material on cell surface
•
• Regulates movement of substances in/out of the cell • Glycolipids + glycoproteins
• Attachment for cytoskeleton • Functions
• Receives and sends out stimuli 1. Cell-to-cell recognition
• Provide binding sites and receptors 2. Cell-to-cell adhesion
• Allows cell-to-cell recognition 3. Immunological response
• 8-10 nm thick
• Trilaminar structure
• Trilayer (1 electron-lucent layer of
hydrophobic tails and 2 electron-dense
layers of hydrophilic heads)
• Made up of mainly phospholipid and
protein molecules
• Also contains cholesterol and
polysaccharides (glycolipids and
glycoproteins)

Fig 4. Glycocalyx

UNIT MEMBRANE
Fig 1. Cell membrane structure • Trilaminar entity that comprises the cell membrane
and makes up or envelops all the other membrane-
• Phospholipid molecules containing structures in the cell
• Polar head = globular, composed of glycerol • Variation in thickness is due to protein content
connected to nitrogenous compound by a
phosphate bridge SPECIALIZED JUNCTIONS FORMED BY THE CELL
• 1 saturated, 1 unsaturated fatty acid MEMBRANE
• Fatty acid tails + glycerol head: linked by • For cell adhesion or communication with
covalent bonds each other or with the extracellular matrix.
• Tails at middle zone of CM: bound together • Junctions for cell adhesion (binding)
by very weak intermolecular forces • Occluding
• Zonula Occludens (tight
junction; closing belt)
• Adhesive
• Zonula adherens (adherens
junction; adhering belt; belt
desmosome; band
desmosome)
• Fascia adherens - muscle
tissue
Fig 2. Cell membrane (Phospholipid molecule) • Desmosome (macula
adherens; spot desmosome)
• Highly impermeable structure
• Hemidesmosome
• Permeable to water, gases, non-polar molecules
• Junctions for cellular communication
PROTEIN MOLECULES IN THE CELL MEMBRANE • Gap junctions (nexus;
communicating junctions)
• ½ the mass of the cell membrane
• Chemical synapses
• Perform in transport of substances across the
membrane
• Integral proteins: span the whole thickness
• Peripheral Proteins: at outer or inner surface

CHOLESTEROL MOLECULES IN THE CELL MEMBRANE

• Found in irregular spaces between
phospholipid molecules
• Stiffen and strengthen cell membrane
• Make the cell membrane less permeable
to water-soluble substances
• Membrane buffer
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HUMAN ANATOMY: LECTURE #4 – THE CELL


• Examples:
Hepatocyte = numerous mitochondria
Lymphocyte = few
• Motile: aggregate in areas where energy is needed
• Example: For sperm, it is concentrated at the
middle piece of the tail
• During fertilization, the sperm's mitochondria
is excluded from the zygote because it was
already used for "invasion" towards the egg.
Without energy, there is no baby
• Sperm does not contribute to any
cytoplasmic component to the formation of
the zygote
• Thus, only mothers contribute for the
zygote's mitochondria. (Damn woman, so
much energy.)
• Limited life spans but can replicate as fast as bacteria
can

Fig 5. Junctional complexes

CYTOPLASM
• Enclosed in a cell membrane
• Homogenous substance (cytoplasmic matrix)
• With formed elements:
• Organelles
• Permanent structures
Fig 7. Mitochondria
• Perform specific function in the cell
• Membrane bounded RIBOSOMES
• RBCs and lens fiber • 15-30 nm in size
• Inclusions • Ribosomes= singly
• Temporary fixtures • Polyribosomes/polysomes = cluster of ribosomes
• Accumulations of pigment, lipids, etc. connected by mRNA; actively translating the mRNA;
• Fibrillar elements this only happens in prokaryotes
• Form the cytoskeleton or supporting • Ribosomes are either:
framework • Free in the cytoplasm
• Increase in cytoplasmic matrix viscosity • Attached to the surfaces of the ER
= increase in fibrillar elements.
• Cytoplasmic Matrix • 2 subunits:
• Viscid, translucent, and colloidal • Ribosomal subunit = ribonucleoprotein
• 70% water • Dense, globular structure that is
• Inorganic ions and organic molecules (lipids, composed of a strand of rRNA and
proteins, carbs, nucleic acids, etc) are dissolved associated proteins
• Produced in the nucleus
(nucleolus), rRNA
• Large = 50s-prokaryotes; 60s-eukaryotes
• Where tRNA gets amino acids from
cytoplasm for peptide bond
formation (formation of polypeptide
chains)
• Small = 30s-prokaryotes; 40s-eukaryotes
• Attached to mRNA during
translation
Fig 6. Cytoplasmic matrix
• Peptidyl synthetase = enzyme for
peptide bond formation
MITOCHONDRIA
• Cells with numerous ribosomes have intensely
• 0.5-1.0 µm in diameter; 10 µm long
basophilic cytoplasm due to numerous
• Present in all cells EXCEPT RBCs and lens fibers. phosphate groups (acids are basophilic)
• Encloses a space (intercristal space) filled with
• Sites for protein synthesis
amorphous substance (mitochondrial matrix)
• Proteins that are produced in:
• Wall is made up of 2 layers of unit membrane
• Outer membrane/leaflet: delimits mitochondrion from • Free ribosomes= used by the cell
= proteins of cytoplasmic
cytoplasmic matrix
matrix
• Inner leaflet: infolded to form shelf-like tubular
structures (cristae mitochondriales) • Attached ribosomes (RER)= for
• Space between outer and inner leaflets = intracellular use OR secretion, will be
intermembranous space à extends into processed by ER and Golgi Complex
cristae as intracristal spaces
• Generates most of the energy for metabolic pathways
Krebs/TCA (tricarboxylic acid) cycle within ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
•
mitochondrial matrix • Most extensive membranous structure
• Enzymes for Krebs complete degradation of • Consists of interconnecting tubules, vesicles, and
products of fat, carb, protein metabolism to flattened sacs (cisternae)
carbon dioxide and water • Practically present in all cells
• Yields a lot of ATP = energy • Supporting structure for the cytoplasm
• If cells don't have mitochondria (i.e. RBCs), • Present in all cells but seen only in EM and special
GLYCOLYSIS for energy production. preparations (e.g. flourescent dyes)
• Matrix = ions (Mg,Ca), DNA strand, mRNA, tRNA • Membranes
• For protein and enzyme synthesis for • thinner than plasmalemma
mitochondrial use • continuous with nuclear membrane
• mDNA (mitochondrial DNA) = only DNA • cavity continuous with space
outside the nucleus between outer and inner layers of
• Number of mitochondria dependent on cell's function nuclear membrane

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• Dynamic organelle • Not seen in H& E (hematoxylin and eosin) stain but
• capable of remodeling, disassembly can be seen in EM (electron microscope)
and assembly • Membrane bound Chemical-containing pouches
• interacts with other organelles. • With hydrolytic enzymes (hydrolases) from Golgi
• Degrades biomolecules
• Proteases, lipases, carbohydrases,
esterases, nucleases
• Delimited by its membrane
• Reason why it doesn’t digest the cell
• For intracellular digestion of organic substrates
• Involved in heterophagy and autophagy:
Heterophagy
• Digestion of particulate material (bacteria,
dead and senescent [dying] cells) from
environment by phagocytosis
• Phagocytosis
§ By neutrophils and macrophages
(aka phagocytes)
§ Process: binding of particulate à
phagocyte forms cell protrusions
(pseudopodia) at binding area à
pseudopodia elongate until they
Fig 8. Endoplasmic reticulum
reach the distal pole of phagocytic
material à material engulfing à
• Two contiguous regions:
pseudopodia fuse to completely
• RER (rough)
envelope material à
§ Has attached ribosomes and
phagosome/phagocytic vacuole is
polyribosomes
formed à pinching off from the
§ Synthesis and transport of
cytoplasm then traversing of the
proteins
cytoplasm
§ Proteins transferred to Golgi
§ After Phagocytosis:
Complex through transfer vesicles
• Phagosome + primary lysosome thru
§ N-glycosylation of proteins thru Asn
membrane fusion along with hydrolases of
• SER (smooth)
lysosome digests the particulate.
§ Lipid synthesis (phospholipids,
• Secondary lysosome/phagolysosome =
cholesterol, steroids)
primary lysosome + phagosome
§ Membranes have numerous
Digested nutrients
attached enzymes that are
• Nutrients diffuse out of
accessible to substrates in the
phagolysosome for
cytoplasm
recycling
§ Transport of fatty acids and lipids
§ Better developed sER than rER in • Undigested nutrients
hepatocytes (liver cells) § Residual bodies = undigested
• Serves as site of material kept within
phagolysosomal membrane
detoxification
§ May be released through exocytosis
§ Modified SER for striated muscles =
or kept within the cytoplasm
sarcoplasmic reticulum
§ Can coalesce forming
• For release of calcium ions
lipochrome/lipofuschin pigments
for muscle contraction
• Capable of remodeling, disassembly, and assembly
• Interacts with other organelles

GOLGI COMPLEX / APPARATUS / BODY

• Semicircularly stacked layers of membrane-bound,
flattened tubes (cisternae)
• Vesicles = rounded dilatations of cisternae
filled with fluid
• Present in practically all cells
• In basophilic cytoplasm, it is marked by a pale region
adjacent to the nucleus (negative Golgi image)
• Cis face (facing the nucleus; convex; forming face)
Trans face (concave; maturing face)
• Processes, concentrates, sorts, and packages
proteins from rER, involved in protein synthesis
• Uses secretory vesicles to release the proteins to
the cytoplasm
• Secreted proteins may be used intracellularly.
Fig 10. Phagocytosis
• Lysosomal development
• Integral membrane proteins Autophagy
• O-glycosylation of proteins thru Ser and Thr § Digestion of unneeded/senescent
cell organelles
• Lysosomes numerous in
exocrine gland cells and
neurons (high turnover of
organelles)
§ Wrapping target structure with a
unit membrane
§ Attack of primary lysosome
(nutrients diffuse out, materials
recycled)
Fig 9. Golgi complex § Structural renewal of the cell
(continuous process)
LYSOSOMES • Hydrolases may also be found extracellularly as in
• 0.05-0.08 µm in diameter, usually spherical or ovoid osteoclasts (bone resorption à affected by calcitonin
presence)
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PEROXISOMES (AKA MICROBODIES) INCLUSIONS
• 0.5-1.2 µm, Membrane bound • Temporary and inert structures
• In all cells but numerous in metabolically active cells • May or may not be membrane-bound
(i.e. hepatocytes) • Some useful, some harmful
• Unlike lysosomes, contain oxidases and catalases • Not all cells have inclusions and no cell has all types
(both from the cytoplasmic matrix; free ribosomes) of inclusions
• Function: enzymes (more than 40 identified) • Fat droplets (lipid droplets)
• Oxidase § Adipocytes: store lipid
• Oxidation; detoxification and catabolism § Not enclosed by membrane (direct
(NOTE: cat à cutting (rawr) àbreaking) of contact with cytoplasmic matrix)
substances (i.e. phospholipids, fatty acids, § Single huge blob can occupy more
ethanol, and formaldehyde) than 90% of the cell.
• For long chain fatty acids § Can be fixed by gulatraldehyde
§ Produces hydrogen peroxide and osmic acid à appear as gray-
• Useful for phagocytes by or black-staining glovules
destroying invading • Glycogen (glycogen granules)
microorganisms § Storage form of carbs
• Cytotoxic (toxic to the cell) § Abundant in liver and muscle cells
• Catalase § May be seen through Periodic-Acid
• To prevent cytotoxic level of oxidase: Schiff method à purple-coloured
Hydrogen peroxide à oxygen + water § No membrane
§ Two sizes:
CENTROSOME (MTOC) • Large (alpha) particles:
• Microtubule Organizing Center (MTOC) 90nm
• Usually near the nucleus, surrounded by Golgi • Small (beta) particles:
• Present in all cells 20-30 nm
• Centrioles = minute, short, cylindrical bodies • Zymogen Granules
surrounded by granular structures (centriolar § Characteristic of secretory
satellites) epithelial cells
• composed of electron-dense wall that § Aka “secretory granules”
surrounds an electron-lucent (hollow) space (membrane-bound proteins from
§ Centriolar wall formed by groups of Golgi complex to be released to
microtubules extracellular space through
§ 1 group= 3 microtubules (triplet) exocytosis)
§ Innermost: circular • Pigment Granules
§ Outer 2: C-shaped § Melanin – skin pigment; formed by
• Source of cilia, flagellum, and mitotic melanocyetes;
spindles (mitosis) • Also in nerve cells of
• Replication: substantia nigra, locus
Prior to mitosis, buds (procentrioles) grow coeruleus in the brain,
at lateral surface and pigment epithelium
of the retina
Buds (now daughter centrioles) elongate § Hemosiderin
perpendicular to their mother centrioles • Iron-containing pigment
before they separate (NOTE: hemo à
hemoglobin à iron)
Daughter and mother centrioles form • Brown pigment
diplosome responsible of RBCs color
• Form of granules in cells
At start of mitosis, daughter and mother such as those in spleen
centrioles move to one pole of cell that phagocytose
senescent RBCs
Migration of one centrosome (two centrioles) • Distinguished by iron stain:
to opposite poles during mitosis (prophase) Prussian blue
§ Lipochrome pigments
Spindles separate sister chromatids • AKA lipochrome granules,
(telophase) lipofuschin pigments,
lipofuschin granules)
Daughter cells get 1 centrosome each • Coalesced residual bodies
• Yellowish brown at long-
• Two centrioles = diplosome (lie lived cells (muscle cells in
perpendicular to each other) myocardium, and sertoli
• Where microtubules are assembled/formed cells of testes [spermatid
• Fibrillary structure development])
• Part of cytoskeleton • Crystals
• Components of centriolar wall and the core § At interstitial cells of Leydig (for
(axoneme) testosterone production) and
• Basal body = fully formed cilium or flagellum still Sertoli cells of testes
attached to its parent centriole • Dust Particles
§ Numerous in cytoplasm of
phagocytes of lungs (pulmonary
alveolar macrophages; dust
cells)
§ Common among smokers and city
dwellers
§ Brown to black structures
§ Composed of dust and particulate
matter

CYTOSKELETON
• Fibrillary (fiber) elements for structural framework
• Seen only through electron microscopy
• 3 types:
Fig 11. Diplosome of a centrosome • Microfilaments

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HUMAN ANATOMY: LECTURE #4 – THE CELL


§ 5-7 nm diameter • Filled with a homogenous substance (nuclear matrix)
§ Composed of F-actin (filament form • Data bank of cell
of actin) = 2 strands of G-actin • Genes in its chromosomes contain
coiled around each other forming a information needed for synthesis of all
filament proteins and nucleic acids
§ G-actin (globular actin; soluble
form)
§ Can be assembled and
disassembled easily
§ Abundant in cell peripherals
§ Involved in cell membrane activities
(exocytosis and endocytosis)
§ Associated with movement of
organelles
§ Contraction of myoepithelial cells
and muscle cells
• Intermediate filaments
§ 10-12 nm diameter
§ Solid in cross-section
§ Not easily assembled and
disassembled
§ 5 major types:
Keratin - In epithelial cells;
numerous in keratinocytes; main
Fig 13. Nucleus
cell type in epidermis; primarily for
protection of epithelial cells
• Nuclear envelope/membrane
Desmin (skeletin) - characteristic of
muscle cells; often at smooth • 2 unit membranes (7-8 nm thick each)
muscles; forms bundles in smooth • Has perinuclear space (10-30 nm) between
muscles; seen around myofibrils (Z- outer and inner parts
lines/discs); maintenance of muscle • Perinuclear space / perinuclear cisterna /
cell structure intermembranous space: continuous with
Vimentin - differentiated from cavity of rER
mesenchyme (such as muscle cells • Outer nuclear membrane: continuous with
and fibroblasts); cell shape and membranes of rER
integrity of cytoplasm; support of • Fibrous lamina / nuclear lamina = fibrillar
cytoplasmic organelles protein later associated to the inner nuclear
Neurofilaments – characteristic of membrane
nerve cells; at cell body and neuron § 30-100 nm
processes (extensions); internal § Fine protein filaments
support of nerve cells § Where clumps of chromatin attach
Glial filaments (glial fibrillary acidic • Has nuclear pores – stabilized by fibrous
protein; GFA) - integral support of lamina
neuroglial cells § Each pore ringed by nuclear pore
• Microtubules complex (electron dense proteins)
§ ~25 nm diameter § Pore diaphragm = thin film of
§ Wall of microtubule = 13 tubulin proteins from nuclear pore complex
molecules around a lumen that covers the nuclear pore
• Tubulin = family of small § For exchange of substance
globular proteins between cytoplasm and nucleus
• Polymers of alpha-tubulin • Chromatin (chromatin material / threads)
and beta-tubulin • Chromosomes at interface
• 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 somatic
[soma:body], 1 sex chromosome)
• Ploidy; 46-diploid, 23-haploid
• Chromosome = DNA + nucleoproteins
(either histone and nonhistone)
• Two distinct dispersal patterns formed:
§ extended areas – “euchromatin”,
expressed genes; in the process of
producing mRNAs and tRNAs
§ condensed areas – condensed
because of histones;
“heterochromatin”, not expressed

HUMAN GENOME
• Total amount of DNA present in a human cell
Fig 12. Microtubule composition • Chromosomal genome + mitochondrial genome
• Database of instructions for protein and nucleic acid
§ Assembled in the centrosome synthesis
§ Movement of organelles • Gene = segment of DNA with unique sequence for
§ Internal support of the cell production of a particular protein
§ Forms wall of centrioles, axoneme • Some sequences are for structural purposes/
(core of cilia), tail of sperm cell regulation of gene expression/ no purpose
§ Surrounded by microtubule- • Only about 5% of DNA encode for genes
associated proteins (MAPs)
§ Can be assembled and NUCLEAR MATRIX
disassembled easily as needed • Composed of water, proteins, metabolites, and ions
• Interphase nucleus: contains nuclear scaffold /
NUCLEUS
nuclear skeleton (filamentous protein network)
• Separated from cytoplasm by a nuclear envelope
• Anchored on fibrous lamina
• 3-10 µm in diameter
• Has links to intermediate filaments of
• Often occupies central region
cytoskeleton
• Largest organelle in the cell
• Functioning for transcription and regulation
• Not present in RBCs and lens fiber (enucleate) of gene expression
• Vital structure (removal à death)
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HUMAN ANATOMY: LECTURE #4 – THE CELL


NUCLEOLUS § Production of many polypeptide
• Inside the nucleus chains simultaneously
• Present at interphase ONLY (disappears during • Free ribosomes vs. attached ribosomes
prophase and reappears during late telophase) proteins synthesis
• Can be numerous if cell is active in protein synthesis § Free: released to cytoplasm for use
• For synthesis of ribosomal subunits within the cell
• Three areas: § Attached: transfer vesicles are
• Nucleolar organizing region used by rER to release it towards
§ Circular pale area surrounded by the Golgi for further processing and
pars fibrosa packaging of the protein then
§ Where chromosomes with nucleolar released from the golgi through
organizers (gene sequence for secretory vesicles
rRNA) gather • Exocytosis - vesicles are made to fuse with
• Pars fibrosa the membrane to allow the contents of
§ Electron-dense filaments secretory vesicles (protein produced) to be
§ Surrounds NOC released outside of the cell
§ Formed by the rRNA molecules
produced in the NOC MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS ACROSS THE CELL
• Pars granulosa MEMBRANE
§ rRNA is linked to imported proteins • Semi-permeable barrier
(from the cytoplasm) = • Diffusion, facilitated diffusion (ion channels and
ribonucleoprotein or ribosomal carrier transport), active transport
subunit • Endocytosis and exocytosis
§ Formed by ribosomal subunits • Endocytosis
§ Grainy area in nucleolus • Outside à inside of cell
• Phagocytosis: solid material
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS • Pinocytosis: liquid material
• Nonessential amino acids: produced by the body § No receptors or pseudopodia
• Essential amino acids: not produced by the body needed
• Proteins from ingested food are too big § Micropinocytosis: small amount of
• Break down of proteins à amino acid molecules fluid intake
• Broken down AA molecules are used for protein § Macropinocytosis: large amounts
synthesis of fluid intake
• Site of code/DNA seq. for protein synthesis: nucleus § Vesicles are attacked by
• Site of protein synthesis: cytoplasm lysosomes through the vesicular
• Transcription: DNA sequence à mRNA membrane’s destruction and
hydrolases released inside the cell
• Pre-mRNA: undergoes post-transcriptional
§ Transcytosis: pinocytic vesicle
modification first before it turns into a mature mRNA
transported across the cell and
• Codon: three-letter code for an amino acid
content is released at the opposite
• Each codon à 1 amino acid surface (bulk transfer)
• 1 amino acid à 1 or more codons
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) is involved because it is where
a specific amino acid is attached
• Each tRNA has an anticodon that is
complementary to the codon of its attached
amino acid
• Example: If Alanine (GCU) is attached to the
tRNA, anticodon is CGA

Fig 15. Endocytosis and transcytosis

• Exocytosis
• Inside à outside of cell
Fig 14. Protein synthesis • Mostly for transport of secretory products
(secretions) in the form of secretory vesicles
• Translation: mRNA used as template for polypeptides of the Golgi complex
• Ribosome binds to mRNA • Fusion of vesicular membrane with cell
• Ribosome finds codon membrane à contents released the exterior
• tRNA looks for correct anticodon of the cell
• tRNA with correct anticodon and has the • Generates extra cell membrane but this extra
specific amino acid it codes for is present part is pinched off later by invagination of the
^this enters the ribosome and pairs up with cell membrane forming a small vesicle which
the codon present in the mRNA is then brought back to the Golgi complex
• AA attached to the tRNA are joined by • Either regulated secretion or constitutive
peptide bonds secretion
• Ribosome slides along the mRNA for the § Regulated secretion: specific
next codon and does the same until stop signal needed for release à stored
codon is detected (UAA/UAG/UGA) in apical portion à accumulate and
• 1 mRNA can be translated by more than one get dehydrated à dehydrated
ribosome = polyribosomes/polysomes secretory granules appear as
secretory granules/zymogen
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HUMAN ANATOMY: LECTURE # -- TOPIC TITLE


§ granules; in pancreatic 8. Intermediate filaments that are present only in
acinar cells and major epithelial cells?
salivary glands A. Desmin
§ Constitutive secretion: B. Keratin
released from the cells as C. Vimentin
soon as they are formed D. Neurofilament
à no visible secretory
granules in cytoplasm; in 9. TRUE of the nuclear envelope:
fibroblasts and A. The inner nuclear membrane has
chondroblasts attached ribosomes.
B. It is perforated by nuclear pores that
serve as channels for the exchange of
substances between the cytoplasm and
the nucleus.
C. The fibrous lamina is attached to the
outer surface of the outer nuclear
membrane.
D. All of the above

10. tRNA and mRNA are transcribed and produced in

the:
A. Nucleus
B. Heterochromatin
C. Euchromatin
D. All of the above
Fig 16. Exocytosis
11. The segment of the DNA molecule within a
SAMPLE QUESTIONS (FROM PAST EVALS) chromosome that contains the DNA sequence for
1. In the EM, the electron lucent later in the trilaminar the production of a ribosomal RNA:
cell membrane consists of: A. Genome
A. fatty acids B. Gene
B. glycerol molecules C. Nucleolar organizer
C. integral proteins molecules D. Heterochromatin
D. all of the above 

12. Cytoplasmic organelle/s that are involved in the
2. Components of the glycocalyx on the outer surface production of proteins that are contained in
of the cell membrane in many cells: secretory granules and lysosomes:
A. trans-membrane proteins A. Ribosomes
B. cholesterol molecules B. rER
C. fatty acids C. Golgi complex
D. glycolipids 
 D. All of the above

3. Which of the following cellular structures is 13. The contents of secretory vesicles are released to
membrane bound? the intercellular space by:
A. mitochondrion A. Phagocytosis
B. centrosome B. Pinocytosis
C. nucleolus
 C. Exocytosis
D. all of the above 
 D. Transcytosis

4. TRUE of mitochondria: 14. The process that involves passage of substances

A. Their matrix contains many of the across a cell:
enzymes involved in Kreb’s cycle. A. Transcytosis
B. In an individual, the mitochondria in all B. Exocytosis
the cells can be traced to the C. Endocytosis
mitochondria of the male gamete. D. Constitutive secretion
C. They are not enveloped by a unit
membrane.
D. All of the above ANSWERS
1. A
5. Membrane bound spherical bodies in the 2. D
cytoplasm of cells that are involved in
3. A
heterophagy and autophagy:
4. A
A. Ribosomes
5. B
B. Lysosomes
6. D
C. Peroxisomes 7. D
D. Both B&C 8. B
9. B
6. TRUE of microtubules: 10. C
A. They are produced in the centrosome.
11. C
B. They comprise the wall of centrioles.
12. D
C. They make up the mitotic spindles that
13. C
appear during mitosis. 14. A
D. All of the above

7. Which of the following cytoplasmic inclusions are REFERENCES:

enveloped by unit membranes?
• PPT
A. Fat droplets th
B. Zymogen granules • Book (Textbook of Histology 5 ed.
C. Lipofuschin pigments by Eduardo G. Gonzales)
D. Both B&C • Past E (Batch 2019)

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