Ancient India in Historical Outline Jha D.N PDF
Ancient India in Historical Outline Jha D.N PDF
Ancient India in Historical Outline Jha D.N PDF
In Historical Outline
MANOHAR
1998
IN MEMORIAM
DAMODAR DHARMANAND KOSAMBI
(31 July 1907-29 June 1966)
ISBN 81-7304-266-7
Published by
Ajay Kunlar Jain for
Manohar Publishers & Distributors
2/6, Ansari Road, Daryaganj
New Delhi 110002
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Contents
fist of Illustrations 9
List of Mapc 11
Preface to the Second Edition 13
Preface to the First Edition 15
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 17
Beginning of European interest in Indian past; Early Orientalists;
- Christian missionaries; Utilitarians; Administrator-historians;
Orientalism; Indian response to British view of Indian past;
Influence o f social reform movements and nationalism;
Glorification of ancient India; Marxist trend: D.D. Kosambi; Need
for a new periodization; Scope of the book.
CHAPTER 2: FROM PREHISTORY TO THE
HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
Prehistoric beginnings; Neolithic communities; Chalcolithic
farmers; Origin and extent of the Harappan civilization; Urban
planning; Subsistence strategies; Political organization; Script;
Craft, technology and trade; Religious beliefs; Decline of the
Harappan civilization.
CHAPTER 3: THE ARYANS ANDTHEVEDIC LIFE 41
The Aryan theory of race;Vedic literature; Rigvedic Aryans and
polity; Social differentiation;
Later Vedic phase; Aryans move eastwards;
Transition to agricultural economy; crystallization of castes;
Social changes; Incipient territorial monarchy; Sacrificial cult;
Ashrama system.
8 CONTENTS
I
Decline of trade; De-urbanization; Position of women; Changes
in social structure; Rigid varna distinctions; Social tensions; Plate 9: Female terracotta figure. From Tamluk,West Bengal, Sunga
Brahmanical religion and its social role; Buddhism and Jainism; period, c. second-first century BC. Ht: 21 cm. Ashmolean
Philosophical systems;Art and architecture;Sculpture and paint-
ing; Literature; How golden was the 'Golden Age'? Plate 10: y.
Life events of hakyamuni Buddha. ~rnaravati,Andhra
Pradesh, Satavahana period, c. second century. White
Bibliography 175 marblk. Ht: 160 cm. British Mdseum, London.
Index 197 Plate 11: Kanishka. Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, Kushan period, reign
of Kanishka or later c, second century. Reddish sandstone.
Ht: 170 cm. Mathura Museum, Mathura.
Woman with a bird cage. From a railing pillar, Bhutesar,
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
.0vhl +i
' 11-t
L 4
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
fables composed by Narayana in the twelfth century in Bengal. H.T. of virtues were attributed to the former.This in turn gave rise to the
Colebrooke, who had around this time become associated with the AryadDravidian dichotomy amply reflected in historical writings on
collection of revenue in Tirhut and was able to master Sanskrit, early India.
wrote extensively on the Indian concept of time, religious rites and Several early Orientalists like Max Mueller spoke glowingly about
customs and various other aspects of Indian culture on the basis of the unchanging Indian village communities. They thought of India as
intensive study of the original texts. a country of philosophers given to metaphysical speculation with
The most important of the Company's officers who gave a real little concern for their mundane existence. Indian society was depicted
boost to Indian studies was Sir William Jones. H e came to Calcutta as as idyllic, and as being devoid of any tension or social discord.
a judge of the Supreme Court of Bengal in 1783 and founded the Possibly ill at ease with the changes caused by rapid industrialization
Asiatic Society of Bengal in the following year. The Society and its in the West, they found a utopia in India and sought their own
journal, Asiatic Researches, provided a much needed forum for Oriental identity in it. Max Mueller thus took the Sanskritic name Moksha
studies and can be regarded as a landmark in the revelation of the Mula. Some of his ideas were misconstrued by the British to emphasize
traditional thought and culture of India. A polyglot with knowledge (sometimes quite crudely) that Indians were not fit to govern
of Hebrew, Arabic, Persian,Turkish and Sanskrit and a smattering of themselves, given as they were primarily to metaphysical thought. By
Chinese, Jones translated the Shankuntala of Kalidasa (which drew and large his perception of India, recently described as part of some
unqualified admiration from Herder and Goethe and reached an lund of'hdomania', was not acceptable in nineteenth-century England
extremely wide European readership), the Gitagovinda, and legal texts where the intellectual scene was dominated by Christian missionaries
like the A1 Sirajiyyah, and the Manavadharrnashastra. Intensive research led by Charles Grant and the Utilitarians, especially James Mill.
on the Muslim and Hindu laws of inheritance undertaken by Jones Grant and Mill did not share the early Orientalist view of India, and
and his British contemporaries may be seen as an attempt to break their writings give ample evidence of hostility to Indian culture.
the Indian monopoly of legal knowledge and assert British judicial They are therefore said to have created an 'Indophobia'.
power. The efforts of Sir William Jones were followed by the The Christian missionaries had little sympathy for Hinduism, which,
establishment of the Bombay Asiatic Society in 1804 and of the in their view, was 'at best the work of human folly and at worst the
Asiatic Society of Great Britain in 1823. All this gave a stimulus to outcome of a diabolic inspiration'. The people of India, according to
the study of ancient Indian history and culture, and Indological Charles Grant, lived in a 'degenerate' condition because of Hinduism,
studies no longer remained the preoccupation of Company officers the source of dishonesty, perjury, selfishness, social divisions,
in India. Interest in Indian culture was aroused at a number of debasement of women and sexual vice. Though not a missionary
European universities where several scholars worked on Sanskrit and himself, Grant was an important personage in missionary circles, and
related subjects. The best known of the early Orientalists and exercised a lasting and strong influence on nineteenth-century British
Indologists was Max Mueller who never visited India and spent most thought on India. His Anglicist bias made a necessity of conversion
of his time in England. The affinity between Sanskrit and certain of Indians to Christianity. It seems to have received memorable
European languages, once discovered, was stressed. This may partially expression in the famous Minute on Indian Education (1835) authored
explain the growing interest in Indology outside England. It also by Thomas Babington Macaulay who had a high profile Evangelical
gave rise to the idea of a common Indo-European homeland and family background.
heritage.The Aryans in India came to be regarded as the brethren of The Utilitarians seem to have had much in common with the
the Europeans. Some upper class Indiqns like Keshub Chandra Sen hostile missionary attitude to India as is clear from James Mill's three-
took this literally and identified themselves with the British people. A volume History of British India, first published in 1817. It beca e
distinction was drawn between Aryans and non-Aryans, and a variety popular enough to go into its fifth edition by 1858, though H. . Ti
INTRODUCTION 21
20 ANCIENT I N D I A
penal code as 'ferociously severe', conveniently ignoring the fact that
Wilson, the first Professor of Sanskrit at Oxford, was contemptuous
other ancient law codes were no less so.
of Mill's perception of Indian culture and went to the extent of
The corpus of literature generated by the British scholars on early
saying that 'its tendency was evil'. Mill divided Indian history into
India was not univocal and it is possible to identift differences in the
three periods, the Hindu, Muslim and British.The seeds of communal
of individual authors. Nevertheless it remains true that
historiography were thus sown. Unduly critical of the people and
the British wrote on early Indian history with a view to providing
their culture, Mill postulated that contemporary as well as ancient
historical justification for the Raj and its exploitation of Indian
India was barbarous and antirational. Indian civilization, according to
resources.This quite ofien led to gross distortion of historical evidence.
him, showed no concern for political values and India had been Such portrayals are viewed as part of the Orientalist discourse in
ruled by a series of despots. Stagnant since its inception, Indian which Orientalism is interpreted 'as a Western style for dominating,
society was inimical to progress. All this was based on a grossly restructuring, and for having authority over the Orient'. All this,
distorted version of the early Orientalist writings on India. In his however, does not negate the value and importance of the imperialist
book Mill was obviously making a case for changing Indian society historiography.
through British legislation. This he was doing without ever having British views of the early Indian history came to be strongly
visited the country or knowing any of its languages-a fact he tried challenged by Indian scholars influenced by Indian reformist leaders,
hard to justift by making the facile claim to writing a 'judging and also by the growing nationalism and political awakening. Rama-
history'. Mill's History was one of the prescribed texts at the institutions krishna Paramahansa asserted that Hinduism embraced all religions in
like Haileybury College where English officers received their training its fold. His disciple Vivekananda and later Annie Besant, sought to
before coming to India. Hence the historical writings on India by prove the superiority of the Hindu religion. Bankim Chandra preached
British administrators betray the influence of Mill in considerable that a revival of Hinduism was essential for the growth of India as a
measure. nation. Dayanand Saraswati, the founder of the Arya Samaj, gave the
The best known of the British-administrator historians on ancient call 'Back to the Vedas'. Under the impact of such teachings, Indian
India wasVincent A. Smith. He came to India in 1869 as a member scholars strongly defended Hinduism and it was often held that the
of the Indian Civil Service and remained in service until 1900. He Vedas represent its purest form-thus completely ignoring the fact
wrote all his nine books on Indian history after retirement. O f these that Hinduism was at best an umbrella term for the hrious strands of
his Early History of India, published in 1904, was based on a deep Indian religious thought, beliefs and practices prevalent in the Indian
. study of the primary sources available at the time. It was the first subcontinent. The Vedas were regarded as the repository of all
systematic survey of early Indian history and remained perhaps the knowledge and rational thought, and even as anticipahng some modern
most influential textbook for nearly fifty years and is sometimes used scientific discoveries. Inevitably the myth of the Aryan race stirred
by scholars and students even today. Less hostile to India than Mill, the imagination of nationalist leaders as well as historians. Already
Smith nevertheless believed that it had a long tradition of oppressive the early Orientalists had established that Sanskrit and certain European
despots-a tradition which ended only with the advent of the British. languages had connected histories. Indian scholars now regarded the
The implication was that Indians were not fit to rule themselves. In Indo-Aryans as originators of human civilization with India as its
keeping with the main trends of contemporary British historiography, cradle. Inevitably they attempted to push back the antiquity of Indian
Smith gave much attention to great men in history; and Alexander, culture. B.G. Tilak thus assigned the Vedic texts to the third millen-
Ashoka, Chandragupta I1 and Akbar became his heroes. Smith nium BC, while A.C. Das placed some of the Rigvedic hymns in the
exaggerated the ruthlessness of ancient Indian kings. The theory of geological ages. Though the discovery of the Harappan civilization in
governance in the Arthashastra was to him like that of imperial 1923-4 proved the falsity of their assertions, the fantastic antiquity \
Germany with which Britain was then at war. He described Kautilya's
22 ANCIENT I N D I A INTRODUCTION 23
given to the ancient Indian culture generally, and to the Vedas and its publication in 1909. Parallels were drawn between Kautilya's
particularly, remains a favourite pastime of.scholars even today. This social and economic policies and the social legislation of Bismarck.
does not apply to Rajendra La1 Mitra (1822-91), Ramakrishna Gopal Kautilya's views on social and economic management were interpreted
Bhandarkar (1837-1 925) andvishwanath Kashinath Rajwade (1869- as a combination of state-socialism and laissez-faire. The mantriparishad
1926) who generally adopted a rational attitude to the past. Mitra (council of ministers) mentioned in the Arthashastra was compared
published a tract to show irrefutably that in ancient times beef-eating with the Privy Council of Britain, and Kautilyan kingship with its
was not a taboo. Bhandarkar, being a social reformer, supported constitutional monarchy.Ancient Indian tribal oligarchies were equated
widow remarriage and castigated the evils of the caste system and with Athenian democracy.All this was intended to prove that Indians
child marriage on the basis of his study of the ancient Indian texts, had long known the tradition of democratic government for which
and made significant contributions to the reconstruction of the political they were struggling against the British. Thus nationalist historians-
and religious history of early India. V.K. Rajwade's insightful study K.P. Jayaswal being the foremost of them-provided an ideological
in Marathi of the evolution of the institution of marriage is a classic. weapon to the freedom movement. But their approach to the study
He is also remembered for collecting a large number of Sanskrit of early Indian history and culture was no less unhistorical than that
manuscripts and sources of Maratha history, later published in twenty- of the British historians. They culled isolated favourable references
two volumes. fiom original Sanskrit texts, and on their basis generalized about the
Initially inspired by the ideas of social reform, Indian historical entire ancient period. This was an implicit denial of the changing
scholarship gradually became overtly anti-imperialist. With the character of Indian society-an idea which Mill and other British
radicalization of Indian politics after the partition of Bengal in 1905 scholars never tired of repeating and which found its way into Marx's
and the simultaneous growth of militant nationalism, Indian historical unacceptable construct of the Asiatic Mode of Production and Oriental
writings were conditioned and influenced by contemporary political Despotism.
developments which sharpened the edge of the freedom struggle. The glorification of ancient India by nationalist historians meant
Partly in reaction to the imperialist view of India's past and partly as the glorification of what appeared to them as Hindu India. In a sense
a step towards the buildmg up of national self-respect, Indian historians therefore their writings seem to have been linked with the revivalist
made zealous efforts to refurbish the image of India's past. Hindu ideas ofvivekananda, Dayanand and others. In the 1930s and 1940s
culture was looked upon as the precursor of other Asian cultures; this this linkage became quite clear: nationalist historiography gave an
buttressed the theory of pan-Hinduism.The ancient period of Indian impetus to the ideas of Savarkar, the high priest of Hindu revivalism.
history, equated with the Hindu period in James Mill's scheme of He created the concept of 'Hindutva' and 'Hindu Rashtra' and gave
periodization, was regarded as one of prosperity and general the dangerous slogan to 'Hinduize all politics and militarize Hindu-
contentment. Social inequalities were glossed over and Indian society dom'. Under his inspiration the fanatically communal and fascist
was portrayed as a model of social harmony and peace. The age of organization Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) was founded by
the Guptas came in for special praise. It was considered the golden K.D. Hedgewar in 1925 at Nagpur. The pernicious role of the RSS
age of Indian history-an idea which continues to find importance in spreading the virus of communalism in the body politic of India
in most textbooks. can hardly be exaggerated.The assassination of Mahatma Gandhi by
As Indian demand for political rights and representative government RSS-trained Godse on 30 January 1948 and the demolition of the
grew in strength during the twenties, nationalist historians began to Baburi Masjid at Ayodhya on 6 December 1992 are two important
attribute to ancient Hindus the highest achievements in the field of and unforgettable milestones in the unfolding of the backward-looking
political thought and practice. In doing so, they often made extravagant Hindu revivalist and fascist politics of contemporary India.
claims, especially after the discovery of Kautilya's Arthashastra in 1905 At the historiographical level Hindu revivalism meant the
24 A N C I E N T INDIA INTRODUCTION 25
acceptance of Mill's periodization that was based on the wrong premise among historians. Some of them, however, see too much red in all
that ancient Indian kings up to AD 1200 subscribed to the Hindu this especially after the 'crisis' and 'collapse' of Communism and the
religion. That some of the major ruling dynasties like the Indo- consequent 'setback' to Marxism, and tend to strengthen the views of
Greeks, Shakas and Kushanas were not Hindu was ignored. Nor for neo-colonialist historians who argue subtly that early Indian society
that matter were even the Mauryas Hindu. In fact ancient Indians was stagnant, with political authority always too dispersed to be
never described themselves as 'Hindu'. First used by the Arabs and perceived as state.
later by others, the term 'Hindu' stood for the inhabitants of al-Hind The need to identify the major turning points in the Iife of the
(India). Foreign to early Indian literature, this name passed into people which could form the basis for periodizing early Indian history
Indian nomenclature much later. Moreover, if the establishment of was suggested by Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi in A n Introduction
Muslim rule marks the beginning of medievalism, several con- to the Study ofIndian History (1957) and the Culture and Civilization of
temporary West Asian countries as well as Pakistan will have to be Ancient India in Historical Outline (1965),which, despite severe criticism
placed in the medieval age. k. of their author's Marxist predilections, have achieved the status of
In spite of all this, nationalist historians never made any serious classics. In Kosambi's view, the history of society, economy and culture
attempt to evolve a scientific periodization of Indian history and was an integral part of the development of the forces and relations of
continued to adhere to Mill's chronological scheme. They ignored production which can provide a rational basis for periodization.There
the essentially composite character of Indian culture, and consciously seems to have emerged a consensus, at least for the time being, in
supported the cause of Hindu chauvinism and provided grist to the favour of this view. It is therefore possible to argue that medievalism
reactionary Mill, thus paving the way for communal historiography i did not coincide with the advent of Islam but that it was the end of
and ruling out the possibility of a rational basis for periodization. Gupta rule towards the end of the sixth century AD which marks the
In the post-Independence period, alongside the Hindu chauvinist beginning of some significant developments in India. There arose
view of Indian past, there has been going on a debate on periodization. several feudal principalities after the decline of the Guptas. The post-
This has been possible primarily because, unlike their predecessors, Gupta period saw a marked decrease in the volume of trade leading
recent scholars have paid greater attention to the study of social, to the growth of a relatively closed village economy, thus providing a
economic and cultural processes and have tried to recognize the suitable background for the emergence of serfdom and a feudal agrarian
linkage between these factors and political developments. This shift set up. The birth of small principalities with inadequate inter-zonal
h m the traditional political-dynastic history to non-political history communication on account of languishing trade provided the context
is basically linked with a critical reappraisal of the primary sources. for the growth of regional cultural units in what is now Andhra,
For exaqple, the earlier tendency to use such categories as the Assam, Bengal, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa and
'IQddhist India', the 'Epic age' and the 'Sangam age' began to be Rajasthan.This may also have given a fillip to the growth of regional
challenged. For neither the Buddhist texts nor the Ramayana and the languages, and regional idioms in art and architecture. Religious
Mahabharata belong to a specific period; they in fact contain several rituals and practices underwent considerable change. Bhakti (devotion),
**
chronological strata-a fact which is alsoetr$ of the Sangam literature, which reflected the complete dependence of the serfs or tenants on
the earliest corpus of texts in the Tamil langbage. By paying due the landowners in the context of Indian feudal society, became an
attention to the stratification of ancient Indian literary material (though essential ingredient of religion. Most of these developments had their
inhibited by its predominantly religious character) and interpreting it origin in Gupta times, but were to become prominent thereafter.
in conjunction with archaeological and anthropological evidence, it The end of the sixth century and the beginning of the seventh may
has been possible to identify the elements of change and continuity therefore be treated as the watershed between the ancient and medieval
in early Indian society, economy and culture. Researches in this period.
direction have generated a lively debate which has been going on This book presents a survey of the main developments in Indian
26 A N C I E N T INDIA
CHAPTER 2
history until the emergence of feudalism. Dynastic history, not being
our primary concern, is discussed in broadest outline. The rise and From Prehistory to the
fall of empires have been explained with reference to their material
basis. An attempt has been made to avoid the pitfalls of nationalist- Harappan Civilization
chauvinist historiography; and the myths created by it during our .. .
fieedom struggle have been re-examined. In an endeavour to integrate
the results of recent historical research into the present study I have
tried to look for a meaningfid pattern, often re-interpreting the
already known facts. In looking around the ancient Indian landscape
I have given special attention to elements of change and of continuity WHEN
DID MAN begin to live in India? The answer is suggested by a
in society and economy, to social tensions, mechanisms of exploitation, large number of primitive stone tools found in different parts of the
and the social role of religion and superstition. country, fiom Kashmir to Tamilnadu. The antiquity of these tools
and their makers goes back more than two million years ago, to what
is known as the Pleistocene period. We have some information about
the Old Stone (Palaeolithic) Age. The people lived in very small
nomadic communities. They used tools and implements of stone,
roughly dressed by chipping, found throughout the country except
the alluvial plains of the Indus, Ganga andYamuna rivers. Such tools
were used for hunting, cutting and other purposes. People wore
animal skin, bark or leaves as protection fiom weather; and had no
knowledge of cultivation and house building. In course of time came
the ability to control fire and tame animals. In India as elsewhere in
the world, man thus lived for millennia in the hunting and food-
gathering stage, though his tools give evidence of gradual evolution
culminating in what is called the Mesolithic phase, marked by the
important practice of domesticating animals. Palaeolithic and
Mesolithic people practised painting, of which evidence comes fiom
several sites. Bhimbetka, 45 km south of Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh,
the most striking of them, gives ample evidence of rock paintings
extending fiom the Palaeolithic to the Mesolithic periods. Sites like
Bhimbetka, Azamgarh, Pratapgarh and Mirzapur provide unquestion-
able testimony for the Mesolithic art which provides evidence of
hunting, food-gathering, fishing and other human activities like sexual
union, child birth and burial and thus gives a good idea of social,
economic and other activities of the people.The social organization
in the Mesolithic period tended to become more stable than in the
preceding Palaeolithic period and ecological and material conditions
largely shaped the religious beliefs of the people.
28 A N C I E N T INDIA
age did not know the art of writing; nor did they live in cities.These
elements of civilization, however, appeared for the first time in the
I 2
FROM PREHISTORY TO HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
E"
Indus region. T places the citadel was based on a mound, which may have been
$,
The Indus or Harappa culture originated in the north-western deliberately constructed for the purpose. The enclosed citadel area
part of the Indian subcontinent and seems to have covered an area may have been used for religious and governmental purposes. Below
larger than those of the contemporary civilizations of Egypt and the citadel was the town proper, extending no less than a square
Mesopotamia. Discovered in 1921, this culture was spread over parts mile, at both the sites. The main streets, some more than 9 m wide,
of Panjab, Haryana, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and western were laid out on a grid plan.They were quite straight and intersected
parts of Uttar Pradesh, and coexisted with communities which thrived each other at right angles, thus dividing the city into large rectangular
on hunting-gathering or pastoral nomadism. Nearly a thousand blocks. This kind of alignment of streets indicates conscious town
Harappan sites scattered over this vast area have so far been explored planning and was not known in Mesopotamia or Egypt. The streets
or excavated, though a very limited number of them belong to the and buildings were provided with drains made of burnt bricks at
developed phase of the civilization and only half a dozen can be Mohenjodaro and Harappa as well as at several other Indus sites,
described as cities. O f these, Harappa on the bank of the Ravi in the though at Kalibangan mud bricks were used for building purposes.
Montgomery district (western Panjab), was the first to be excavated, The houses were equipped with rubbish-bins and bathrooms, and
whence the name Harappan is derived. Covering a circuit of a little occasionally with a privy on the ground or upper floor.The bathrooms
less than 5 km, the site has yielded a large variety of objects in the were connected by drains with sewers under the main streets. The
course of excavations and is one of the two most important Harappan drains were covered either with bricks or stone slabs. The drainage
cities; the other is Mohenjodaro, in the Larkana district on the river system is one of the most impressive achievements of the Harappans
Indus, the largest Harappan settlement.The third important Harappan and presupposes the existence of some kind of municipal organization.
site is Chanhudaro, about 130 km south of Mohenjodaro in Sindh. Stone buildings are conspicuous by their absence at the Harappan
Lothal in Gujarat situated at the head of the Gulf of Cambay, sites. Baked as well as unbaked bricks were the usual building material,
Kalibangan in the dry bed of the river Ghaggar in northern Rajasthan though we have evidence of the use of mud bricks at several places
and Banawali (Hissar district) in Haryana are the most important sites such as Kalibangan. The houses of varying sizes, often of two or
giving evidence of the flourishing phase of the Harappan civilization
in India. Other sites include the coastal cities of Surkotada in Gujarat
and Sutkagendor near the Makran coast, close to the Pakistan-Iran
border. Rangpur and Rojdi in the Kathiawar peninsula in Gujarat
represented the later phase of Harappan civilization. Despite the fact
that a large number of sites associated with it have been discovered
:'Isince 1946, the culture itself is still best known by the two cities,
" Mohenjodaro and Harappa. Both situated now in Pakistan, the Hindu
revivalists are busy locating the epicentre of this culture in the elusive
Saraswati valley.
The general layout of the two cities seems to have been similar.To
the west of each was a citadel, fortified by crenellated walls. O n this
were erected the public buildings. At Harappa the citadel was a
parallelogram, 420 m in length fiom north to south and 196 m tiom
32 A N C I E N T INDIA FROM PREHISTORY TO HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION 33
more storeys, consisted of rooms constructed round a rectangular maritime trade with West Asia.Town planning in most of these places
courtyard. The large houses were meant for the rich and had much seems to have been marked by a striking uniformity; this can also be
the same plan-a rectangular courtyard surrounded, in some cases, said of structures.
by a maximum of twelve rooms. The parallel rows of two-room On the basis of the general uniformity in town planning, it has
cottages unearthed at Mohenjodaro and Harappa were perhaps used been postulated that the Harappan people had a developed state
by the poorer sections of society and anticipated the 'coolie' lines of organization and that Mohenjodaro was the capital of their extensive
modern Indian towns. From this may be inferred class differences in empire with Harappa and Kalibangan as its 'subsidiary' centres. The
Harappan society. possibility that the priests may have ruled in Harappa is precluded by
In Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan, the citadel area. the fact that no religious structures except the Great Bath hawe been
contained monumental structures which stood on a high mud brick found at any Harappan site; this is in contrast to the cities of Lower
platform. Of the large buildings that have been so far discovered, the Mesopotamia where definite evidence of the priestly political authority
Great Bath in the citadel at Mohenjodaro is the most striking. A is available.The prevalence of a fire cult at Lothal appears probable in
specimen of beautiful brickwork, it is a rectangular tank and measures the later phase, but there is nothing to indicate the use of temples.
11.88 X 7.01 m and 2.43 m deep. At the north and south ends of the Harappan trade contacts with Western Asia may indicate their greater
Great Bath brick steps led to the bottom of the tank, which could be concern for commerce than for conquest. But this can hardly support
emptied by a drain. The Bath, it has been suggested, was meant for the view that a class of merchants ruled at Harappa. In fact, any idea
ritual bathing of the political organization of the Harappans will remain highly
In Mohenjodaro the largest building is a granary, 45.71 m long speculative till their script is deciphered.
and 15.23 m wide, though its identification has been challenged.The The earliest specimen of Harappan script was noticed in 1853 and
'Great Granary' is among the well-known buildings at Harappa and the complete script was recovered by 1923 &om a large number of
consisted of a series of brick platforms on which stood two rows of inscriptions written generally fiom right to left on a wide range of
six granaries. Circular brick platforms to their south were meant for objects. The most common form of writing is on the intaglio seals,
threshing grain. At Kalibangan also have been found brick platforms; made mostly of carved and fired steatite, 'presumably used by the
these may have been used for granaries which constituted an important propertied people to mark and identify their property. More than
feature of Harappan cities. Several Harappan sites share some of their 2000 seals have been found at Harappan settlemeits and there have
features. Chanhudaro lacks the citadel, but like these urban centres, it been more than fifty bold claims to decipherment of the Harappan
has produced evidence of the use of drains and baked brick houses. script. Some scholars try to connect the script with Dravidian or
At Lothal (in Gujarat), 720 km south-east of Mohenjodaro, has been proto-Dravidian languages, others with Sanskrit, and still others with
revealed a great artificial platform with streets and houses of regular the Sumerian language. None of these readings can, however, inspire
plan. In addition to the urban settlement, some archaeologists claim, confidence.
a brick dockyard connected with the Gulf of Cambay by a channel As a result of several decades of digging at various places in India
has also been discovered here. Sutkagen-Dor, 48 km fiom the Arabian and Pakistan, however, now there is an impressive amount of material
Sea on the Makran coast, consisted of a formidable citadel and a relating to the life of Harappans. Our knowledge of their food habits
lower fortified settlement and may have been a sea-port for trading. and subsistence strategies is based on botanical and faunal studies,
The Harappan towns situated along the sea coast include Sotka Koh mot% of plants and animals on painted pottery, figurines, and portrayal?
(near Pasni in Pakistan) and Balakot (72 km north-west of Karachi, on seals. Judging by the environmental diversity, it appears that the
lying at a distance of 13 and 19 km respectively from the Arabian Harappans could not have adopted a uniform subsistence pattern.
Sea).The coastal settlements served as ports and participated in regular The diversity in subsistence activities is often seen as an important
34 A N C I E N T INDIA
FROM PREHISTORY TO HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION 35
adaptive strategy to support urban centres. Together with hunting
and gathering they practised agriculture on a considerable scale and somewhat archaic, produced enough surplus to support the urban
produced, in addition to peas, two types of wheat and barley. A good population.
quantity of barley has been discovered at Banawali in Haryana. They Although they continued to make tools of stone the Harappans
also produced sesamum and mustard which were used for oil. Evidence lived in the Bronze Age. They manufactured bronze by mixing tin
of rice cultivation is not available from places like Mohenjodaro and with copper. Tin was possibly brought from Afghanistan though
Harappa. But at Lochal and Rangpur (near Ahmedabad) people used Hazaribag in Bihar may have been another source of its supply.
rice as early as 1800 BC. Dates and field peas were also grown and Copper was brought fiom the Khetri copper mines of Rajasthan, but
formed items of Harappan diet. A fiagrnent of cotton cloth found at it could have also come fiom Baluchistan. Both metals, however,
Mohenjodaro proves beyond doubt that the Harappans grew cotton. were difficult to obtain. Bronze tools were therefore not prolific at
The Harappan cultural zone fell in a comparatively low rainfall Harappan sites. Their tool types comprised flat axes, chisels, knives,
area, and it is likely that irrigation was necessary for cultivation. But spearheads and arrowheads of copper and bronze.Various techniques
'"
it is doubtful that the Harappans practised canal irrigation. Most of working in copper were known, such as hammering, lapping and
agricultural land in the alluvial plains seems to have been watered by casting. Brick kilns, associated with copper working, have been
flood, though some archaeologists argue for the existence of irrigation discovered at various places. Working in bronze, however, was not
canals of the Harappan period. According to some of them, the very common and bronzesmiths therefore may have been an important
massive tank at Lothal, identified by its excavator with a dockyard, social group. The authors of the Harappan culture possessed the
may have been a reservoir filled by river floodwaters. In any case it is knowledge of gold. Beads, pendants, armlets, brooches, needles and
probable that the Harappans were familiar with several methods to other personal ornaments were often made of gold, though the use
control water for agriculture. Whether or not they used a plough has of silver was perhaps more common.
sonletinles been controversial. No hoe or ploughshare has been found, Besides metal working, the Harappans practised numerous other
but the evidence of a furrowed field m Kalibangan indicates that the arts and crafts. Seal-cutting occupied a place of importance. The
Harappans used a wooden ploughshare. Who drew the plough-men Harappan seals form a class by themselves and seem to have been
or oxen or some other animals-is not known. linked with trading activities. No less important was the bead-maker's
N o less important than agriculture was animal husbandry which craft. At Chanhudaro and Lothal bead-makers' shops have been
played an important role in the Harappan subsistence system. The discovered. Beads of gold, silver, copper, faience, steatite, semi-precious
people were familiar with a range of anima1s.A majority of Harappan stones, shells and pottery have been found in abundance. The long
terracottas represent cattle; the cow was not represented. Besides barrel beads of carnelian rank among the finest technical achievements
sheep and goats, dogs, cats, humped cattle, water buffalo and elephants of the Harappans. Evidence of textile manufacture has come from
were certainly domesticated. Asses and camels were used as beasts Mohenjodaro which has yielded a piece of woven cloth. Spindle
of burden. Finds of bones of a large number of wild animals fiom whorls were used for spinning and cloth of wool and cotton were
various settlements indicate that the people were acquainted with woven. Judging by the surviving massive brick structures at the
deer, rhinoceros and tortoise, though the horse seems to have been Harappan settlements, brick manufacturing and masonry appear to
unknown to them. The animals mentioned above required different have been important crafts. The Harappans also made boats. The
'
kinds of environment for their survival and the familiarity of Harappans potter's craft was fairly well-developed; and the potters were quite a
with them is also an indication of the latter's ability to adapt themselves visible artisanal group. Wheel-turned and mass produced, most
to a variety of living conditions. This explains the diversification of Harappan pottery represents a blending of the ceramic traditions of
the Harappan subsistence economy which, in spite of its being the north-west and those of the cultures to the east of the Indus.
Most Harappan pottery is plain and may have been meant for local
36 ANCIENT INDIA F R O M PREHISTORY T O HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION 37
Nun~erousarticles of chert, limestone, steatite, etc., were used as lnatter that if a communalist Hindu is told that all his ancestors did
weights based on 16 or its multiples.The provenance of sticks inscribed not practise cremation may well jump down our throat!
with measure marks is a testimony to the fact that the Harappans There seems to be a consensus among scholars that by about the
knew the art of n1easurement.The prevalence of a uniform system of beginning of the second millennium BC the urban phase of the
weights and measures in even the far flung Harappan sites suggests Harappan culture came to an end, though signs of its decay are
that there was a central authority to regulate exchange activities. noticeable even earlier when cities like Harappa, Mohenjodaro and
Some idea of the Harappan religious beliefs and practices may be Kalibangan began to experience decline in urban planning and
formed on the basis of seal and terracotta figurines. Numerous nude structural activity, and tended to become slums. The Great Bath and
female figurines in terracotta are believed to represent a popular the granary at Mohenjodaro fell into disuse. The city, archaeologists
fertility goddess. Some Vedic texts show reverence to a female goddess tell us, shrank to a small settlement of 3 hectares from the original
but it was only after centuries of hibernation that she surfaced as the 85 hectares. Decline is also evident at Harappa, Kalibangan and
supreme goddess during the early medieval period.The male deity of Chanhudaro and at most of the settlements. The disappearance of
the Harappan people was the horned god depicted on the seals, nude systematic urban planning and building activity was accompanied by
but for many bangles, necklaces and a peculiar head-dress consisting almost sudden vanishing of the Harappan script, weights and measures,
of a pair of horns. O n one of these seals he is surrounded by four bronze tools and the red ware pottery with black designs. The
wild animals-an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros and a buffalo; beneath Harappan cities seem to have been finally deserted by 1800 BC;
his seat are two deer. He apparently shared many of the traits of the around this time Meluha (identified with India) ceases to be visible
later Indian Shiva who appears bizarre, eccentric and territjling in his in the Mesopotamian records. The population of Harappan urban
nunlerous portrayals found in the classical Sanskrit poetry. Numerous centres either perished or moved away to other areas. Not surprisingly
syn~bolsof the phallus and female sex organs made of stone found in traits of the post-urban Harappan culture are found at many places in
Harappa indicate the prevalence of phallus w o r s h i p a practice which, Pakistan, in central and western India, in Panjab, Rajasthan, Haryana,
despite its condenlnation in the Rigveda as being prevalent among the Jammu, Kashmir, Delhi and western Uttar Pradesh during 2000-
non-Aryans, became a respectable form of worship in later times; in 1500 BC, which witnessed the spread of non-Harappan Chalcolithic
fact clay phalli continue to be worshipped and then dumped every settlements of early farming communities in different parts of the
morning in some parts of the country even today. In the Indus country. It is likely that some of them were direct descendants of the
cultural zone trees were also worshipped; the pipal tree, depicted on late Harappan culture.
several seals, was the object of special veneration as is the case in our The progressive degeneration and final collapse of the Harappan
own times. The same is true of animals like the humped bull, which civilization has been attributed to several factors. It is generally held
is considered sacred to this day. However, it remains doubtful that that calamitous alterations in the course of the Indus and the Ravi
Harappan divinities were placed in temples as was common in ancient rivers led to the desiccation of the countryside which ceased to
Egypt and Mesopotamia.The Harappan religion may have anticipated produce food for the urban centres.This made the major Harappan
some features of later Indian religion. But to trace contemporary cities weak under the pressure of population which was forced to
Indian religious practices to Harappan times ofien ignores the elements migrate. Excavations reveal that Mohenjodaro itself was flooded
of change that crept into them from time to time. For example, the more than once; traces of several phases of catastrophic flooding have
discovery of many graves in Harappa and other places proves beyond been detected here. Chanhudaro was also twice destroyed by massive
doubt that the Harappans buried their dead, in north-south inundations. The floods perhaps derived fiom violent geomorpho-
orientation, along with different types of goods. This practice is in logical changes in the lower Indus region, leading, in turn, to the
sharp contrast to the subsequent practice of cremation. It is a different I
economic decline of the Harappan settlements. Evidence has been
40 ANCIENT INDIA
Arya Samaj came into being, there has been a sharp reaction to the encountered the city civilization of the Indus valley. The dispersal of
upper caste orientation of the theory of Aryan race. A contemporary the Aryans in India was not a single event. It took place in several
of Dayanand and a leader of the non-brahmana movements in stages, covering several centuries and involving many tribes. These
Maharashtra during the Peshwa rule who founded the Satya Shodhak tribes were often considerably different from each other but, at the
Samaj in 1873,Jyotiba Phule exploited the theory in a radical manner. same time, shared many cultural traits.
He regarded the Aryans as aliens subjugating the indigenous people The chief source of information on the early history of the Aryans
described in the brahmanical texts as Dasas and shudras, the real in India are the Vedas, perhaps the oldest literary remains of the
inheritors of the land. The ideas of Phule gave ideological support to Indo-European language group. The word 'Veda' means knowledge.
non-brahamana movements in other parts of the country and played There are four Vedas: Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva. The Rigveda is a
a progressive role in his times, though in contemporary India these collection of 1028 hymns, mostly prayers to gods, for use at sacrifices.
may have been used, consciously or unconsciously, to justifjr fiequent The Yajurveda contains sacrificial formulae in prose and verse to be
caste conhntations. In European countries, as in India, the Aryan recited by the priest who performed the manual part of the sacrifice.
concept has played a significant role since the nineteenth century The Samaveda is a collection of verses fiom the Rigveda for liturgical
when the Romantic movement in literature and racist ideas derived purposes.The Atharvaveda consists mainly of magical spells and charms.
much inspiration fiom it. The culmination of racism took place Attached to each Veda are various explanatory prose manuals called
under the German Nazi regime which gave a hideous racial Brahmanas, whose concluding portions are called the Aranyakas (forest
implication to the term 'Aryan' and to its official philosophy which books). Secret and dangerous owing to their magical power, the
sanctioned the cruellest genocide in history. Although unfortunately, Aranyakas could be taught only in a forest. The Upanishads are
the concept, central to the pre-World War I1 fascisms, is being revived commentaries appended to the Aranyakas, but of a more esoteric
by a large number of racial hate groups mushrooming in different character.
parts of the world even in our own times, in academic circles the Vedic literature has been traditionally held sacred for it is believed
whole concept of race based on skeletal measurements and colour (of to have a divine source. The Vedas, according to the popular Indian
the hair, skin and eyes) is now regarded as invalid. In view of the perception, are eternal (nityu). The various sages (rishis) who were
research in the biological sciences, it is extremely difficult to think of their authors no more than received them fiom god. Transmitted
any ethnic group as having retained its purity of blood for any length orally fiom generation to generation, the Vedas were not committed
of time. to writing until very late. The Vedic texts may be divided into two
The existence of groups of people speaking closely related broad chronological strata: the early Vedic (c. 1500-1000 BC) when
languages, called Indo-EuropeanAndo-Aryan, cannot however be most of the hymns of the Rigveda were composed; the later Vedic
doubted. Sanskrit, Latin, Greek, Germanic (German, English, (c. 1000-600 BC) to which belong the remaining Vedas and their
Swedish), Slav (Russian, Polish) and Romance (Italian, Spanish, branches. The two periods correspond to two phases of Aryan
French, Rumanian) languages belong to the Aryan family. O n the expansion in India.
basis of similarity between these languages, it has been postulated The geographical horizon of the Rigvedic hymns gives us an idea
that the original Aryans had a common homeland somewhere in the of initial Aryan settlement in the subcontinent. The earliest Aryans
steppes stretching fiom southern Russia to Central Asia. From this lived in eastern Afghanistan, Panjab and the fiinges of western Uttar
region the Aryan-speaking peoples may have migrated to different Pradesh. Though not adequately supported by the archaeological
parts of Europe and Asia. One of their branches migrated to Iran evidence, this is clearly borne out by the Rigveda which refers to the
where they lived for a long time. From the Iranian tableland they western tributaries of the Indus, the Gomati (modern Gomal), the
moved in the south-eastern direction towards India where they Krumu (modern Kurram) and the Kubha (modern Kabul). The
44 A N C I E N T INDIA THE ARYANS AND THE VEDIC LIFE 45
Suvastu (Swat) is the most important river mentioned to the north of chief of the Bharata clan indicates his Aryan antecedents. In the
Kabul. The name implies 'fair dwellings' and may be evidence for R@eda instances of the slaughter of the Dasyus (dasyu-hatya)
Aryan settlements in the Swat valley. But the main focus of the outnumber references to conflicts with the Dasas, thus giving the
Rigvedic culture seems to have been the Panjab and Delhi region. impression that the Rigvedic Aryans were not as hostile to them.
Here the most frequently mentioned rivers are the Sindhu (Indus), Dasyu corresponds to dahyu in the ancient Iranian language. It has
the Saraswati (now lost in the Rajasthan deserts and existing only in therefore been suggested that conflicts between the Rigvedic tribes
the imagination of the credulous as flowing underground up to and the Dasyus were those between the two main branches of the
Prayag or Allahabad and joining invisibly the Ganga and Yamuna Indo-IraniadIndo-Aryan peoples who came to India in successive
there), the Drishadvati (Ghaggar) and the five streams which waves. The Dasas and Dasyus were most likely people who originally
collectively gave their name to the Panjab (five waters): the Shutudri belonged to the Aryan speaking stock and in course of their migration
(Satlej), Vipas (Beas), Parushni (Ravi), Asikni (Chenab), and Vitasta into the subcontinent they acquired cultural traits very different from
(Jhelum). The geographical knowledge of the early Aryans does not those of the Rigvedic people. Not surprisingly, the Rigveda describes
seem to have extended beyond the Yamuna, which is mentioned in them as 'black-skinned', 'malignant', and 'nonsacrificing' and speaking
the Rigveda. a language totally different from that of the Aryans.
The early Aryan settlers were engaged in taking possession of the In a sense the Aryan subjugation of the earlier inhabitants meant a
Land of the Seven Rivers (saptasindhava) represented by the Indus reversal to a comparatively less advanced way of life. For the Harappans
and its principal tributaries.This ofien led to conflict between various were culturally far more advanced than the Aryans who figure in the
Aryan tribes. The most important of the tribal wars to which the Rigveda as destroyers of towns, not their builders. The chief Aryan
Rigveda refers was the Battle of Ten Kings (dasarajna). Sudas, we are god Indra is described as the breaker of forts (purandara) and is said to
told, was the king of the Bharata tribe settled in the western Panjab. have shattered ninety forts for his protCgC Divodasa. We are told that
Vishvamitra was his chief priest, who had led him to victorious he 'rends forts as age consumes a garment'. The Rigveda speaks of
campaigns on the Vipas and the Shutudri. Later Sudas dismissed several ruined cities and associates them with earlier inhabitants of
Vishvamitra and appointedvasishtha, who possessed greater knowledge the area, presumably the Harappans.
of the priestly lore.Vishvamitra, feeling slighted, formed a confederacy As might be expected of a people without cities, the early Aryans
of ten tribes, five of whom were important and are frequently referred did not have an advanced technology even though their use of horses
to in the Rigveda as panchajanah (five tribes). In the battle that followed and chariots, and possibly of some better arms of bronze did give
on the banks of the Purushni, Sudas was victorious. It is likely that them an edge over their opponents.Their knowledge of metals seems
there took place other intertribal wars of this kind. to have been limited. The Rigveda mentions only one metal called
The chief opponents of the Aryans were however the indigenous ayas (copper/bronze). In view of the widespread use of bronze in
inhabitants of non-Aryan origin. Many passages in the Rigveda show Iran around the middle of the second millennium BC the word has
a general feeling of hostility towards the people known as Panis. been taken to mean bronze. Yet bronze objects assignable to the
Described as wealthy, they rehsed to patronize the Vedic priests or period of the Rigwda have not hitherto been found in any significant
perform Vedic rituals, and stole cattle from the Aryans. More hated quantity at sites excavated in the Land of the Seven Rivers. The
than the Panis were the Dasas and Dasyus. The Dasas have been evidence for the use of bronze on any considerable scale being slight,
equated with the tribal people called the Dahaes, mentioned in the there is no archaeological basis for the view that the early Aryan
ancient Iranian literature, and are sometimes considered a branch of bronze-smiths were highly skilled or produced tools and weapons
the early Aryans. Divodasa, a chief of the Bharata clan, is said to have superior to those of the Harappans. Nor did the Rigvedic people
defeated the non-Aryan Sambara. The suffix dasa in the name of the possess any knowledge of iron.
THE ARYANS AND THE VEDIC LIFE 47
46 A N C I E N T INDIA
of much value for agricultural operations. References to ,ploughing,
The Aryans came to India as semi-nomadic people with a mixed
sowing, reaping, threshing and winnowing occur in the later portions
pastoral and agricultural economy, in which cattle-rearing played a
of the Rigveda. The agrarian economy therefore may have become
predominant role. Cattle formed their most valued possession and more stable towards the end of the earlyvedic period. The Rigvedic
the chief form of their wealth; a wealthy person was called gomat. people are known to have cultivated only one variety of grain called
Prayers were made for the increase of cattle. The sqcrificial priest was yava which meant barley. Unlike cattle, land was perhaps not
rewarded for his services with cattle, and the cow was the chief commonly owned by members of a tribe. The Rigveda mentions
medium of exchange. Cattle were often the cause of inter-tribal several words for fields, and the practice of measuring land, but it
wars. For, the word for battle came to be known as gaviskti, literally,
nowhere refers to the sale, transfer, mortgage or gift of land by an
'a search for cows'. Several other terms for battle like goshn, gavyat, individual. Obviously the concept of private property in land had
gavyu and gaveshana were also derived from cattle. The social impact
not struck roots.
of cattle-raising can be seen from the fact that those who lived with
The early Aryans, who were essentially pastoral, did not develop
their cows in the same cowshed came to belong to the same gotra, any political structure which could measure up to a state in either
which word later came to indicate descent from a common ancestor the ancient or the modern sense.The Land of the Seven Rivers, the
and hence an exogamous clan unit. The daughter was known as region of their initial expansion in the subcontinent, was held by
duhitri, milcher of the cow. The cow is described in one or two small tribal principalities; five of them are mentioned as the panchajanah
places as not to be killed (aghnya), but this may imply its econon~ic in the Rigveda. Kingship was the same as tribal chiefship, the term
importance. It was not yet held sacred; nor had it become a poliGcized rajan being used for the tribal chief. Primarily a military leader, the
animal till then. Both oxen and cows were therefore slaughtered for
chief of the tribe fought for cows and not territory. H e ruled over
food. Beef was a delicacy offered to the guest, described as yoghna his people (iana) and not over any specified area of land. H e was
(cow-killer). In addition to cows, goats and sheep were domesticated therefore called their protector (gopa janasya or gopati janasya). The
both for milk and meat. Not surprisingly a good quantity of charred term gopati, basically indicating the protector of the herds of cattle,
bones of cattle and other animals has been found at several came to acquire the extended meaning of the protector of the people
archaeological sites. Bhagwanpura and Dadheri in Haryana where or tribe (iana). The word jana occurs twenty-seven times in the
the post-Harappan cultural horizons coincide with the early Vedic Rigveda, but janapada is not mentioned at all and the term rajya
period are cases in point. Since cattle seem to have been tended by occurs only once. Yet the idea of territorial monarchy emerged
common herdsmen, it has been suggested that they were collectively towards the close of the Rigvedic period when the chief/king (rajan)
owned by members of the tribe. came to be looked upon as an upholder of the rashtra. Entitled to
Cattle-breeding was the chief source of livelihood of the Rigvedic booty fiom successful cattle raids or battles, the king could also
people. But they also practised agriculture. References to agricultural receive gifts in hnd. But his position was not beyond question.Very
activities in the Rigveda are not many; the term krishi (to cultivate)
likely he owed his ofice to the choice of the people, though kingship
occurs rarely in it. The well-known term hala for the plough is not
- -
was perhaps confined to certain families. Available evidence does not
found, but two other terms for plough, langala and sira, are mentioned. indicate the continuance of royal succession in one family for more
Ploughs were drawn by oxen; and ploughshares of wood were used than three generations. This suggests that the principle of hereditary
for cultivation.The early Aryans possessed some knowledge of seasons, succession from father to son was not yet established. The king's
which promoted agriculture; the Rigveda mentions five seasons. Fire authority was substantially limited by tribal assemblies like the sabha
was used for burning forests and making land fit for cultivation. This and the samiti, which discharged judicial and political functions. The
was an easy option available because the people did not have sabha was a council of the elder members of the tribe; perhaps
knowledge of iron. Copper with which they were familiar was not
48 A N C I E N T INDIA THE ARYANS AND THE VEDIC LIFE 49
women also attended it.The samiti was a general tribal assembly and and have love affairs. She could take part in sacrifices with her
less exclusive than the sabha. Another tribal assembly, the vidatha, also husband though some unmarried women like Visvavara and Apala
may have restricted the power of the rajan, though its political role is offered the sacrifice all by themselves. Some women are also said to
not possible to determine precisely. His dependence on the priest, have been authors of Rigvedic hymns. A childless widow could
who was quite influential, perhaps further acted as a constraint on cohabit with her brother-in-law until the birth of a son; the practice
the chief. was known as niyoga. The institution of marriage seems to have been
The Rigvedic people did not possess an elaborate administrative established. But we have also some evidence of incestuous relationships
apparatus which would have required adequate surplus production. during the Rigvedic period.The dialogue betweenyama andYami in
The only. surplus
- that was available was in the form of bali, mentioned the later portion of the Rigveda is indicative of brother-sister union.
in the Rigveda several times in th= sense of tribute to a prince or Attention has also been drawn to other examples of incest in this
offering to a god.Tribute paid to the chief was obligatory but there text-those between father and daughter, and mother and son.These
is no evidence to show that it was regular. A functionary called senani instances may be treated as survivals of a matrilineal society. Clearly
is referred to, but information about a regular standing army is lacking. then the mother-right was not completely submerged by the father-
Since cases of theft, burglary, cheating and cattle lifting were known right in this period, but the overall patriarchal social ambience cannot
in the Rigvedic period, the existence of police officials cannot be ignored.
altogether be ruled out, though we do not know much about them. It is likely that the early Aryans had some consciousness of their
About half a dozen state officials are mentioned in the Rigveda. They distinctive physical appearance.They were generally fair, the indigenous
include the crowned queen known as the mahishi (the powerful one) people dark in complexion.The colour of the skin may have been an
and the charioteer; the latter was quite important because of the important mark of their identity. This provided the context for the
importance of the horse and chariots in the contemporary milieu. use of the term 'varna' (colour). Scholars of racist persuasion have
Certain rudiments of state had begun to appear but the political blown this out of proportion to explain the emergence of the varna
system on the whole was a tribal chiefbinship, devoid of a firm (caste) system. But the more important factor leading to the creation
territorial basis, the halo of a latter-day monarchy, the regular standing of social divisions was the conquest of the Dasas and Dasyus who
army and an elaborate officialdom. were assigned the status of slaves and shudras. Tribal chiefs and priests
Early Aryan social organization was essentially tribal, based on who cornered a larger share of booty, acquired greater power and
kinship. Two terms jana and vish repeatedly occur in the Rigveda. The prestige at the cost of their common kinsmen, thus giving rise to
jana comprised several vish; the former stood for the whole tribe and social inequalities. The gift of slaves to priests was made frequently;
the latter for the clan. It is held that the vish was divided into gramas, most of them being female slaves could, however, be employed only
but evidence for this is inadequate. The basic unit of Aryan tribal for domestic purposes and not for agricultural production or other
society was the patriarchal family called the kula. The eldest male productive activities. But all members of even the priestly class were
member of the family was known as the kulapa (protector of the not fortunate enough to receive lavish gifts. No wonder then that
family). In the hymns desire is expressed for praja, including both the brahmana Vamadeva laments his grim poverty: 'ln the utmost
boys and girls. But the people seem to have been keen on having need cooked I the entrails of a dog; among the gods I found no
brave sons (suvirah) who could fight their wars. In spite of the protection; I beheld my wife in degradation. . . .' Another indigent
patriarchal character of the family, the position bf women was much brahmana humbly implores Agni 'to accept his sacrifice of worm-
better in the Rigvedic period than in subsequent times. Girls normally eaten firewood, as he has no cow, nor even an axe'. We also hear of a
married after puberty, as can be inferred from the frequent mention brahmana who prays for the return of his wife forcibly abducted by
of unmarried ones such as Ghosha who grew up in the home of her the king.
parents. In some cases a woman could freely mix with young men In course of time the tribal society was divided into three groups,
50 ANCIENT INDIA THE ARYANS AND THE VEDIC LIFE 51
warriors (rajanya/kshatriya), priests (brahmana) and the common members of the aboriginal tribes were considered to be outside the
people; the fourth division called the shudras appeared towards the pale of the Aryan life and were reduced to the lowest position in
end of the Rigvedic pe;iod, the term being derived fiom the name society. Social distance between the Aryans and the 'dark skinned,
of one of the subjugated tribes. The fourfold social division into full-lipped, snub-nosed' non-Aryans increased over time. Not
brahmana, kshatriya, vaishya and shudra was given religious sanction. surprisingly they may have felt the need to retain the purity of their
A late passage in the earliestVeda tells us that the brahmana emanated blood, little realizing that much non-Aryan blood was already flowing
from the mouth of the primeval man, the kshatriya fiom his arms, in their veins, just as some non-Aryan gods had wormed their way
the vaishya fiom his thighs and the shudra from his feet. This may into the Vedic pantheon. For example, Rudra, whose arrows brought
be a postfacto rationalization of the occupations and of the position disease, evolved from a Harappan cult; so did Tvashtri (the Vedic
that the various groups came to occupy in the social hierarchy. But Vulcan). A synthesis of Aryan and non-Aryan speaking peoples was
occupational differentiation did not always coincide with social taking place at different levels.
divisions in the Rigvedic period. We come across a family consisting The Rigvedic gods were predominantly male as was natural in a
of a poet son, his father a physician and mother a grinder of corn. patriarchal society. Their favour could be won through sacrifice. A
Unequal distribution of the spoils of war was certainly the basic number of domestic and public sacrifices are mentioned in the Rigveda.
reason for the emergence of the fourfold division of society. But the A passage from this text tells us that creation emanated fiom the first
phenomenon was also linked with the process of assimilation of the cosmic sacrifice. Prajapati (later known as Brahma) is thought of as a
aboriginal non-Aryan people by the various sections ofAryan society. primeval man. He is said to have been sacrificed to himself by the
In a passage of the Rigveda,Vasishtha, who replaced Vishvamitra as gods who were apparently his children; and it was fiom the body of
the chief priest of Sudas and later came to be treated as the founder the divine victim that the universe was produced. This underscores
of a major brahmana gotra, is said to have been born of the seed of the necessity of sacrifice for the maintenance of the world order, but
the Vedic gods Mitra and Varuna; his mother is not mentioned. But the real development of the sacrificial cult took place in the second
in the one and the same account he iasaid to have been 'born of the phase of Aryan expansion in India.
mind of Urvashi', born also of a jar which received the combined Among the gods the most popular was Indra, who shared some of
semen of the two gods; and discovered 'clad in the lightning' in a the characteristics of the Greek god Zeus. Always ready to smite
pushkara (tank). Modern racists may painlessly swallow the garbled dragons and demons, he is credited with the sacking of many cities
version of his birth, which was evidently invented to glass over his and is therefore called Purandara (breaker of forts).A warlord leading
non-Aryan origin so as to facilitate his adoption into the Aryan fold. the Aryan tribes to victory against the demons, Indra is described as
The same is true of Agastya, who is also said to have been born of a rowdy and amoral, and as fond of feasting and drinking Soma, which
jar, involving no biological process. Several seers like Kanva and was the name of a heady drink as well as of theVedic god of plants.
Angiras are described in the Rigveh as black, which points to their The largest number of hyrnns-some two hundred and fifty of them-
non-Aryan antecedents. Like the non-Aryan priesthood, some in the Rigveda is addressed to Indra. His servants were the Gandharvas
conquered chiefs were also assimilated and given high status. Such (heavenly musicians). Their female counterparts were the beautiful,
Dasa chiefi such as Balbhuta and Taruksha are said to have made libidinous and seductive nymphs (apsarasas). One of them, Urvashi,
generous gifts to the priests; they thus earned unstinted praise and admitted to her earthly lover Pururvas that 'fiiendship is not to be
gained in status in the Aryan social order. Even Sudas (literally 'good- found in women' and has been associated with some kind of hetaerism.
giver') seems to have had a Dasa origin. The Rigveda does not throw Next in importance was Agni, literally fire, who dwelt in the domestic
any light on the process of assimilation of the pre-Aryan or non- hearth and acted as intermediary between gods and men; two hundred
Aryan commoners into the Aryan fold. Perhaps most of the ordinary hymns of the Rigveda are devoted to him. Varuna was third in
52 ANCIENT INDIA
a
SCALE %
INDIAN OCEA
500 km.
300 miles
-
I THE ARYANS AND THE VEDIC LIFE 55
54 A N C I E N T INDIA
principal form of movable property. Agriculture, however, tended to also to the seas and sea voyages. All this indicates the rudimentary
become the chief means of livelihood in the period; and the idea of beginning of some kind of commerce in which the vaishyas
private possession of land gradually began to crystallize.The Shatapatha participated. Reference to doney lending first occurs in the Shatapatha
Brahmana devotes an entire section to rites connected with ploughing Brahmana, which describes a usurer as kusidin, though definite evidence
and enumerates various agricultural operations. References to the of the use of money is lacking. The term 'nishka ' occurring in con-
yoking of six, eight, twelve and twenty-four oxen to the plough temporary literature has sometimes been taken to mean a coin, but
indicate deep ploughing. The Athawaveda gives a ritual for leading so far no actual specimens of coins of this period have coqe to light.
river-water into new channels; it also speaks of spells to avoid drought With the increasing importance of agriculture as a means of
and excessive rains. The buffalo seems to have been tamed for livelihood and the diversification of artisanal activity, the later Vedic
agriculture. In addition to barley, the chief crop cultivated during the people gradually relegated to the background their pastoralist and
period was wheat (godhuma), which continues to be the staple food semi-nomadic subsistence strategies. Their life became settled and
in the Panjab and Uttar Pradesh to this day. Rice (vrihr) is mentioned sedentary and they could perhaps produce enough for themselves
for the first time, though very likely it was not an important crop in ; and, to a certain extent, for the support of the priests and the ruling
the upper Gangetic basin at this stage. Beans and sesamum were also class. But they do not seem to have produced adequate surplus for
known; the latter assumed ritual importance in course of time. All the consumptio* of the people engaged in nod-agricultural specialized
this does not mean a total disappearance of pastoralism, which crafts and occupations. They could not therefore contribute to the,
continued to remain a reasonably prominent feature of life. This is growth of towns and, despite textual references to the nagara, faint
suggested not only by the remains of cattle bones bearing cutmarks beginnings of urbanization can be seen only towards the end of the
at Hastinapur, Atranjikhera, etc., but also by the l2er Vedic texts, later Vedic period when Hastinapur (Meerut) and Kaushambi
especially the Shatapatha Brahmana, which refers toYajnavalkya9sspirited (Allahabad) emerged as rudimentary towns.
arguments in favour of eating beef. Nevertheless the growing Settled life led to a further crystallization of the fourfold division
importance of agriculture undoubtedly undermined the earlier pastoral of society. Initially one of the sixteen classes of priests, the brahmanas
economy, which could not adequately feed an increasing population. emerged as the most important class and claimed social and political
Simultaneously with the transition fiom pastoral to agricultural privileges on account of the growing cult of sacrifice and ritual
economy there arose several new arts and crafts. Many of these are performed for their clients and patrons (mostly the rajanyad kshatriyas).
enumerated in the later Vedic literature. Mention may be made of The kshatriyas constituted the warrior class and came to be looked
smeltering, smithery or carpentry, weaving, leather-working, jewellery- on as protectors; the king was chosen from among them.The vaishyas
making, dyeing and pottery-making. It is difficult to say how far devoted themselves to trade, agriculture and various crafts and were
smelters and smiths were connected with iron-working. Probably the tax-paying class. The shudras were supposed to serve the three
they worked mostly in copper, which continued to predominate, higher varnas and formed the bulk of the labouring masses. Most
iron still being rare. Weaving was practised on a wide scale and likely the community exercised some sort of general control over
perhaps remained confined mostly to women. Leather-work, pottery them; in this sense they may be compared with the helots of Sparta.
and carpentry were connected with building activities, of which we Shudras were not owned by members of the upper classes as slaves,
have some evidence in this period. Glass hoards and bangles found in the evidence for whose existence in the greater part of the Vedic
course of excavations provide evidence of working in glass; these period is 1acking.A text speaks of ten thousand women slaves captured
objects may have been used as prestige items by a limited number of from various countries and given by Anga to his brahmana priest; but
people. The later Vedic texts refer not only to various arts and crafts, there is no mention of men slaves. Obviously their number was far
indicating progress in the differentiation of economic functions, but too small to attract any notice.
56 A N C I E N T INDIA THE ARYANS AND THE VEDIC LIFE 57
With the emergence of the caste system certain social norms for which a fixed place was necessary, is said to have extended over
developed. Marriage between the members of the same gotra was not two years. The territorial aspect of kingship is clear from a text
permitted. This applied especially to brahmanas, who were by now which enumerates ten forms of government prevalent in different
divided into exogamous gotra groups. Members of the higher varnas parts of the country. Unlike the earlier period, kings now ruled over
could marry shudra women. But marriage between men of the territories and not over nomadic groups moving from place to place.
lower orders and women of the upper varrtas was discountenanced. Several kingdoms came to be established. In the Kuru-Panchala
This was due to the gradual strengthening of varna distinctions, which (Delhi-Meerut-Mathura) region the Kurus ruled fiom Hastinapur
began to appear in social life. A special position was claimed for where excavations have revealed settlements belonging to the period
brahmanas and kshatriyas, distinguishing them from vaishyas and 1000-700 ~ c . T h e yfought a fratricidal war with their collaterals, the
shudras-a tendency which became pronounced in later centuries. Pandavas, in 950 BC, at Kurukshetra near Delhi; its magnified version
Although rules restricting interdining between the higher and the formed the theme of the great epic Mahabharata, compiled much
lower orders had not yet evolved, the first signs of the extreme form later around the fourth century m.To the east of the Ganga-Yamuna
of social exclusion manifesting itself as untouchability in the subsequent confluence, there existed the kingdom of Koshala. Rama, the hero
times began to appear in this period; autochthonous people like the of the Ramayana, came to be associated with it. Neither he nor his
Chandalas and Fpaulkasaswere objects of spite and abhorrence. father Dasaratha figures in contemporary literature; it is a different
The family became increasingly patriarchal; the birth of a son was matter that in our own times his overzealous devotees have un- -
more welcome than that of a daughter who was often considered a ashamedly politicized him to damage the social fabric of India. East
source of misery. Princes could take several wives, though polyandry of Koshala was the kingdom of Kashi in the Banaras region. Another
was not unknown. A reference to self-immolation by the widow at kingdom was Videha. Its kings bore the title Janaka, which is
the death of her husband is found, and the origin of the later practice mentioned more than once in the later Vedic texts. South ofvideha
of sati has sometimes been traced to this period. But it i~ certain that on the southern side of the Ganga was the kingdom of Magadha,
sati did not prevail on any considerable scale, for we hear of remarriage then of little importance.
of widows (niyoga). In a contemporary text woman is classed with Territorial monarchy derived strength fiom taxation, which started
dice and wine as one of the three chief evils. A good woman, the in this period. Settled life and relatively stable agriculture led to the
Aitareya Brahmana tells us, is one who does not talk back; and in this production of a moderate surplus, and this could be collected by the
period women ceased to participate in the deliberations of the tribal king in the form of taxes paid in grain and cattle, and most probably
council called the sabha.Yet the early marriage of girls had not yet not regularly. In the Shatapatha Brahmana the king is described as a
become customary, and here and there they attended lectures by devourer of the people (vishamatta), because he lived on what was
gurus and learnt thevedas. GargiVachaknavi is said to have attended a realized from them. This presents a contrast to the earlier period
discussion with the sage Yajnavalkya and even to have embarrassed when he thrived on voluntary tribute and offerings.An official called
him by her searching questions. the bhagadugha, who collected the royal share of the produce, is
The material and social developments of the age were amply mentioned in later Vedic texts.
reflected in the contemporary political system. Kingship underwent The income from taxes enabled the king to appoint officers. We
much change. Its earlier tribal character came to be diluted, with hear of twelve ratnins (jewel-bearers), whose houses the king visited
increasing emphasis on the territorial aspect of the institution. In a at the time of coronation in order to offer oblations to the appropriate
passage of the Atharvaveda the rashtra (territory) is said to have been deity there. Probably they were high functionaries and looked after
held by the king and made firm by the king Varuna, and the gods metal-working, chariot-making, chariot-driving, etc. The list includes
Brihaspati, Indra and Agni. The coronation ceremony called rajasuya, an officer-in-charge of the royal treasure (samgrahitrr) and the chief
58 ANCIENT INDIA THE ARYANS AND THE VEDIC LIFE 59
priest (purohita).These officers were under the direct control of the vajapeya (drink of strength) sacrifice lasted seventeen days to a year,
king and were maintained out of the taxes and tributes collected and was believed not only to restore the strength of a middle-aged
fiom the people. Although there was no standing army, the growth king but also to raise him fiom a simple raja to a samrat, a monarch
of the royal entourage enhanced the power and prestige of the king. who owed allegiance to none and controlled several kings.The rajaruya
The vicissitudes of the Vedic assemblies also contributed to the or royal consecration was another complex sacrifice: the honorarium
enhancement of the king's power.The vidatha disappeared completely; paid to the presiding priest in extreme cases amounted to 240,000
the other two, the sabha and samiti, lost their importance. In the cows. The most famous, significant and complex royal sacrifice was
emergent territorial states with jurisdiction over comparatively larger the ashvarnedha (horse sacrifice), which lasted for three days, although
areas, ordinary people could hardly afford to travel long distances to the preparatory ceremonies extended over a year or even two. Four
attend the meetings of the popular assemblies. Those who may have officiants, four wives of the king with their 400 attendants and a
attended such meetings were either chiefs or wealthy members of large number of spectators took part. A specially consecrated horse
society.This gave an aristocratic character to the sabha and samiti and was set free to roam at will for a year, escorted by a chosen band of
took away much of their effectiveness.They lost some of their activities 400 warriors so that any king trying to capture the animal might be
to the new officials called the ratnins. combated.The horse was brought back to the capital at the end of
What may have added substantially to royal authority was that the year and sacrificed along with 600 bulls.The king's wives walked
kingship ceased to be elective. The coronation rituals of the period round the carcass; the chief queen lay down beside it simulating
are reminiscent of the earlier elective nature of the king's office. But copulation. The ceremony concluded with a sacrifice of 21 sterile '
one text prescribes formulas for extending kingship for one, two and cows and the distribution of fabulous fees to the priests. The horse
three generations, another for ten generations.Thus kingship became sacrifice was supposed to confer victory and sovereignty, and because
hereditary and gained in power. A glamour was created around the of this, was performed sporadically in later times. Apart h m this,
person of the king by involving various gods at the consecration domestic rites consisting of small sacrifices with simple ceremonial
ceremony to endow him with their respective qualities; in the rituals were also performed in the later Vedic period.
he was sometimes also represented as a god. Elaborate sacrificial rites undermined the importance of the
The king derived much ideological support fiom the emerging Rigvedic gods, some of whom faded into the background. The
brahmana class. In a passage of the Atharvaveda he is described as the priests became the chief beneficiaries cf the sacrifices and consequently
protector of brahmanas and the eater of the people. He is required to gained in power. Cattle were slaughtered at sacrifices, often in large
give a pledge to the brahmana priest that he would stand by the law. numbers. Animal bones with cut marks found in course of excavations
Another text states that the king and the shrotriya (learned brahmana) at Atranjikhera and other places are mostly of cattle. Public rituals,
together would uphold dharma; othe; sections of society are not therefore, led to the decimation of the cattle wealth, whose importance
mentioned.This suggests some kind of understanding and cooperation for the developing agricultural economy can hardly be overestimated.
between the priests and warriors; its necessity is stressed by the The first reaction to brahmanical dominance and the extremely
Shatapatha Brahmana. Despite occasional references to conflicts between ritualistic later Vedic religion can be seen in the Upanishads, which
the princes and priests, fiom now on priests began to be subservient reflect a wider spirit t ~ fenquiry prevalent towards the end of the
to rulers so as to strike mephistophelian bargains. Vedic period. Upanishadic thought centres round the idea of soul
With rising royal pretensions and priestly ambitions there took (atman) and not sacrifice (yajna). Creation is said to have grown out
place a great development in the sacrificial cult. Several new lengthy of the primeval desire of the World Soul. In the Upanishads we find
royal sacrifices developed, and instructions for their meticulous the first clear exposition of belief in the passage of the soul fiom life
performance occupy much space in the later Vedic literature. The to life. Souls were thought of as being born to happiness or sorrow
THE ARYANS AND THE VEDIC LIFE 61
60 A N C I E N T INDIA
according to their conduct in the previous life. From this evolved the
theory of karma (action), which preached that the deeds of one life
affected the next.This doctrine sought to provide an explanation of
I Education was imparted orally and learning was by rote; oral
nansmission of knowledge has been, in fact, an integral part of
Indian tradition. A late Rigvedic passage draws a lively comparison
between the pupils repeating lessons after the teacher and frogs
human suffering, and became fundamental to most later Indian
thought. / gathering and croaking in the rainy season.The student was required
'
By the time of the Upanishads asceticism had become fairly j to memorize the scriptures syllable by syllable; and the brahmanas
widespread. Ascetics lived either as solitary hermits or in small groups developed a unique system of mnemonics. But unlike the Harappans,
away from society. Living off its resources, they could not have
created a counter-culture in a real sense, as has been suggested by 1
1
theVedic people do not seem to have used a script.There is no clear
reference to writing in the entire body ofVedic 1iterature.The earliest
surviving specimens of a decipherable script are found in the
some scholars. Nevertheless through self-training the hermit acquired
magical power, formerly ascribed to sacrifices. Asceticism thus inscriptions of Ashoka (third century BC) written in Brahmi, which
challenged the supremacy of the Vedic sacrifice (yajna) and of the presupposes several centuries of development.
brahmanas who chiefly profited from it. The brahmanas by way of
compromise invented a formula by which the life of an individual
was divided into four stages (dramas). First he was to be a brahmacharin,
leading a celibate and austere life as a student at his teacher's house.
Having learnt theVedas or part of them he was married, and became
a householder (grihastha). When well advanced in age, he withdrew
from worldly life to become an ascetic (vanaprastha). Finally in the
ultimate phase of life, having freed his soul from material ties by
meditation and self-torture, he became a wandering ascetic (sanyasin).
In this artificial scheme, asceticism was recommended at the end of a
man's life so that he could discharge his social responsibilities before
taking to it.
The four ashramas were not meant for the shudras. Nor was
education allowed to the members of the lower varnas. Education
began with an investiture ceremony (upanayana, literally 'leading forth
of a boy for study under a teacher'), whereby a boy was initiated as a
full member of society. It was confined to brahmanas, kshatriyas and
vaishyas: the shudras were not entitled to it. InVedic times girls were
also sometimes initiated. Since the rite was thought of as accomplishing
a second birth, members of the three higher varnas were described by
the epithet dvija (twice-born), though later many kshatriyas and
vaishyas ceased to perform the initiation ceremony.
Theoretically education was open to all dvijas, though the Vedas
tended to become an exclusive preserve of the brahmanas.The student
(brahnrackarin) was trained at the home of a brahmana teacher for a
number of years; the Vedas constituted the main subject of study.
I
JAINISM AND BUDDHISM 63
chronology of these Pitakas and of the 551 Buddhist birth stories discovered at Kaushambi (Allahabad) and at Raghuasoi, a place near
called the Jatakas, which form part of the Sutta Pitaka. But major Vaishali in Bihar in post-Vedic times. Besides, an impressive amount
portions of these texts may be placed between 600 and 400 BC,while of iron slag and objects (which include axes, sickles and chisels) have
the Jataka stories by and large may be assigned a later date. The Pali been unearthed at Rajghat (Banaras). The number of agricultural
works were written in the language of Magadha and therefore reflect tools and implements discovered in excavations may not be very
mainly the conditions obtaining in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. large but this may be due to the moist and corrosive nature of the
They are generally reliable for all of northern India if considered in soil in the middle Gangetic plains.The mention of the kuddala (hoe/
conjunction with the grammar of Panini (500-400 BC) and the spade) and kuddalika (one who earns his livelihood with the help of
Grihyasutras and Dharmasutras which generally belong to 600- this tool) in a brahmanical text suggests that the use of the iron
300 BC. Archaeologists have also brought to light a vast bulk of ploughshare was supplemented by that of the hoe. All this indicates
evidence. During the last five decades they have dug up various the diffusion of iron technology. More importantly, the available
places like Ahichchhatra, Hastinapur, Kaushambi, Ujaini, Shravasti, evidence convincingly proves that iron tools and implements were
Vaishali and many more which find mention in the texts. In the used for purposes other than war and certainly for clearing forest and
process they have discovered the remains of houses, buildings and bringing more and more land under the plough with the help of
towns. They have also found a variety of objects including a deluxe iron ploughshares that made deep ploughing possible, with consequent
pottery called the Northern Black Polished Ware. Archaeological proliferation o f territorial sett1ements.The clearance of forest received
material interpreted in conjunction with the literary texts provides a scriptural sanction. According to a lawgiver the king could injure
clue to the understanding of the major social and economic fiuit and flower bearing trees for the extension of agriculture and for
64 ANCIENT INDIA DISTRIBUTION
sacrifice.The main initiative in extending the area of cultivation may OF NORTHERN BLACK POLISHED WARE
have come h r n the community or the emergent state, but individual
efforts in the matter were not unknown. An example of the sale of
forest land cleared by the proprietor or his ancestors is recorded in a
Buddhist text.
v Srinagar ';, NORTH BLACK POLISHED
WARE SITES
The use of effective implements was accompanied by an improved 8 I
knowledge of cultivation and of a variety of crops. Panini, the first
KANDAHARF 'w MODERN TOWNS 0
grammarian of the Sanskrit language who lived in the fifth century NATIONAL BOUNDARY e.a.
/
BC, tells us that fields were ploughed twice or thrice and were
classified according to the crops grown on them. The early Buddhist
texts refer to the best, the middling and the inferior quality of fields;
they also show a knowledge of irrigation, and of the detailed processes
of cultivation including the practice of keeping the land fallow. The
agricultural calendar based on six seasons and 27 constellations was
already known in the later Vedic period; now it became well
established. The practice of transplanting paddy began in the post-
Vedic period; wet rice cultivation led to larger output of food grains.
Various types of paddy were grown; in addition peasants also produced
barley. wheat, millets, cotton and sugarcane. Attention has also been
drawn to the utilization of plants and h i t trees which are not
mentioned in the earlier texts. Among these the mango (amra) occupies
a place of importance; the prettiest prostitute of Vaishali and a
contemporary of the Buddha, was called Ambapali (Sanskrit,Arnrapali).
The new agricultural economy was supplemented by animal
husbandry. Archaeologists have recovered large numbers of bones of
cattle, sheep, goat, horses and pigs fkom many sites and probably
some of them were slaughtered for food. Despite the great strides
that agriculture took in the post-Vedic phase, the whole country
could not have come under the under the plough and there were
many areas where people lived at a primitive level of material culture-
a phenomenon with which we are familiar even today.Yet the general
impression that we get is one of wide dispersal of stable plough
agriculture and an increase in the number of settlements. This
impression is strengthened by the fact that no less than 550 sites with
the deluxe pottery called Northern Black Polished Ware (a distinctive
artefact category) of the period fkom the sixth century up to the first
century BC) have been either explored or excavated in the upper and
middle Ganga plains.
JAINISM A N D BUDDHISM 65
nearly sixty towns are assigned to the period 600-300 BC. Shravasti
was one of the twenFj big cities, and six of them were important
enough to be associated with the passing away of Gautama Buddha.
These were Champa (modern Bhagalpur in Bihar), Rajagriha (nearly
96 km south of Patna), Saketa (in eastern UP), Kaushambi (64 km
from Allahabad),Banaras, and Kushinara (modern Kasia in the Deoria
district of UP).The existence of no less than ten urban centres in the
middle Ganga basin during 600-300 BC is proved by both archaeology
and contemporary literature. Thus a remarkable beginning of town
life in north-eastern India seems to have taken place around the sixth
century BC.
An important factor that helped the growth of towns was the
movement of Alexander's army from mainland Greece to India. It
opened up a number of trade routes and revealed the possibilities of
mercantile relations between north-west India and Western Asia.
Besides, routes to the Deccan and south India offered new markets
for north Indian commodities. The discovery of Northern Black
Polished Ware, whose epicentre was the Gangetic valley, and iron
objects assignable to the pre-Maurya period in the northein Deccan,
suggests some kind of commercial contact. But the main trade routes
were along the Ganga, fhm Rajagriha to Kaushambi, which connect-
ed Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh) with Broach, the chief port for sea trade
with the West; the route from Kaushambi leading across the Panjab
to Taxila was an outlet for India's overland trade with the north-wes{.
Trade was both the cause and effect of increasing urbanization.
The Jatakas, the Buddhist birth stories, make numerous references to
caravans with 500 or 1000 carts going from one place to another.
One such group of 500 carts is mentioned as passing by a street
century BC) nave vccu ::-=--. where Gautama Buddha was meditating. O n his way to Rajagriha
middle Ganga plains. the Buddha is said to have met Belattha, who was going toward
66 A N C I E N T INDIA
regarded the soul as distinct h m the body and laid the foundations Mahavira were first collated and recorded in the third century BC;
of what came to be known as the Samkhya system of philosophy. but their final compilation did not take place till the Jaina council
His immediate following, however, merged into that of Makkhali met atvalabhi in the early sixth century AD.
Gosala, the exponent of the Ajivika sect, who drank, went naked and Jainism is essentially atheistic, the concept of god being irrelevant.
practised orgiastic sexual rites and believed that the soul had to pass But it accepts a group of tirthankaras (prophets) who were deified
through an immutable cycle of predetermined rebirths, irrespective men. Every mortal possesses the potential of becoming as great as
of any action by the particular body to which it was attached in each them. Jainism conceives of the universe as functioning according to
birth. eternal law, continually passing through a series of cosmic waves of
O f all the sects prevalent in northern India around the sixth progress and decline. According to it, the sole purpose of life is the
century BC, only Jainism and Buddhism came to stay in India as purification of the soul. The theory of syadavada is an essential
independent religions. The Jaina ideas were already being circulated ingredient of Jaina philosophy. It states that no absolute and final
in the seventh century BC by Parshva, to whom faur fundamental affirmation or denial is possible, because knowledge is relative. Unlike
principles of Jainism are ascribed. They are: taking no life (ahimsa), the Upanishads, Jainism preaches that the purification of the soul
taking no property from others, possessing no property of one's own cannot be achieved through knowledge but only through a long
and truthfulness. Mahavira added celibacy to this list. course of fasting, rigorous practice of non-violence, truth, non-
Vardhamana Mahavira, who belonged to the Jnatri kshatriya clan, stealing, renunciation and sexual continence.The vow of non-killing
was born in the suburb ofvaishali called Kundagrama. His father (ahimsa) was practised to the point of absurdity. Even an unconscious
Siddhartha was a wealthy noble; his mother Trishala was the sister of killing of an ant while walking was against Jaina morals. The Jainas
a Lichchhavi prince Chetaka ofVaishali.Vardhamana was married to would not drink water without straining it for fear of killing an
his cousin Yashoda, and had by her a daughter who was married to insect.They also wore a muslin mask over the mouth not for hygiene
his nephew Jamali. At the age of thirty, Mahavira left his home and but to save any life floating in the air.They were forbidden not only
wandered twelve years as an ascetic, resting only in the rainy season. the practice of war but also of agriculture, for both involve the
In the thirteenth year by severest penances and constant meditation killing of living beings. Fasting and self-mortification of all kinds
he reached his ultimate state of knowledge (kwalya) under a sala tree occupied an important place in the Jaina monastic life. Castigation of
on the bank of the river Rijupalika near the village Jrimbhikagrama, one's own flesh for long hours in the blazing sun, and rain was an
whose identification is uncertain. H e spent the rest of his life in approved practice. Mahavira himself discarded all clothing though
preaching his religious ideas, and organizing the Jaina order of ascetics Parshva had permitted the use of three garments. Thus in utter
in Magadha and Anga. But in later centuries Jainism found a congenial contrast to Gosala, who stood for individualistic, licentious self-
s ~ i in
l Gujarat and Rajasthan, parts of north India and Karnataka in indulgence, Mahavira believed that rigorous ascetic punishment of
the south, especially the Mysore region. The teachings of the Jina the body would fiee the soul f?om sorrows. But the common feature
of the ideas of both religious teachers was their extremism which
important undercurrent of Indian thought.The Lokayatikas were thought of could never win a mass following.
as preaching unabashed epicureanism and were therefore viewed with scorn O f all the religious preachers of the sixth century BC, Gautama
by the orthodox. From the early centuries of the Christian era Lokayata Buddha is the best known. His religion had a more popular social
philosophy came to be increasingly associated with Charvaka, who is supposed base. Gautama, also known as Siddhartha, was born $ 586 BC in the
to have been a pupil of Brihaspati. In the Mahabharata the brahmana Charvaka kshatriya tribe of the Shakyas headed by his father Suddhodhana;
is described as reproachingYudhishthirafor having killed his kinsmen in the his mother was Mahamaya. As a young prince Gautama received the
war of succession. It is significant that in the crucial passage other brahnlanas
usual kshatriya training in the art of warfare. Like Mahavira, he was
treat him as a demon in disguise and burn him to ashes.
72 A N C I E N T INDIA
I JAINISM A N D BUDDHISM 73
married to a cousin whose name was Yasodhara, and begot a son and Gautama. Second, both religions denied the authority of the
Rahula. But smitten by the sorrows of life he left his home at the age Vedas and opposed animal sacrifice, which brought them into conflict
of twenty-nine, shaved off his hair and became an ascetic. He went with the brahmanical orthodoxy. The technological change owing to
from place to place seeking guidance, without satisfaction. As a last the introduction of iron led to the increasing development of plough
resort, for the sake of salvation, he gave up asceticism and took to cultivation which was mainly dependent on animal husbandry. Viewed
meditation. H e made the final discovery at Gaya under a pipal tree .in this background the doctrine of non-injury to animals appears
on the bank of the Niranjana river (the modern Phalgu). He preached significant. The concept of ahimsa, popularized for the first time,
his sermon at Sarnath near Banaras and won back five disciples who helped agriculture, which could support at least ten times as many
had deserted him when he had abandoned the rigid path of asceticism. people per square mile as a pastoral economy in the same region. But
This sermon was called the Turning of the Wheel of Law (dharma- undue emphasis on non-violence in Jainism stood in the way of its
chakrapravartana) and formed the nucleus of all Buddhist teachings. propagation among the agriculturists whose profession necessarily
For forty-five years Gautama Buddha wandered on foot to propagate involved killing insects and pests. Nor did Mahavira's ideas become
his ideas. But in the west he did not travel beyond Kaushambi; in the acceptable to those artisans and craftsmen whose occupation
east he regularly passed through Rajgir and Gaya and also visited endangered the life of other creatures. The strict Jaina restriction on
Dakhinagiri near Mirzapur on the southern bank of the Ganga. H e owning private property was interpreted as a ban only on the possession
died at eighty, at Kushinara. His death is said to have been caused by of property in land. The followers of Jainism therefore specialized in
a meal of pork (sukaramdddava), which he had taken with his lay the traffic of manufactured goods and confined themselves to financial
disciple Chunda at Pava. transactions. This probably explains why Jainism came to be
The central theme of Buddha's religion is the eight-step path increasingly associated with the spread of urban culture and maritime
(ashtangamarga). The first step is the proper vision leading to the trade. India's western coast facilitated foreign trade, and therefore it is
realization that the world is full of sorrows caused by desire, greed, not without reason that the population in this area is predominantly
etc. T h e second step is right aim, which leaves no room for Jaina even today.
covetousness or indulgence but encourages everybody to love others Compared to Jainism, Buddhism was moderate in its stress on
filly and increase their happiness. Right speech is the third step; it ahimsa. Although Buddhism clearly enjoins abstention from taking
implies the practice of truthfulness promoting mutual friendship. any life, it did not prevent its followers from eating meat if provided
Proper action, the fourth step, includes abstention from killing, stealing, by non-Buddhist butchers. Nevertheless Buddha's emphasis on not
and fornication, and performance of such deeds as would benefit slaying cattle was deliberate. A very early Buddhist work states that
other people. The fifth step is proper livelihood, earned by pure and the cattle should be protected because they 'are our friends just as
honest means. Right effort, the sixth step, means mental exercise to parents and relatives' and 'cultivation depends upon them'.That cattle
avoid evil thoughts. The seventh step is correct awareness, according were indispensable to cultivation was recognized by Buddhism. In
to which the human body is made of unclear substance.The last step the Digha Nikaya the Buddha recalls the legend of the king Mahavijita
is meditation leading to the removal of evils generated by bonds of who was advised by his priest to supply seeds to the peasants, and
flesh and attachment to the mind. Anyone who would follow this cattle and suitable implements to those who wanted to serve the
noble eightfold path would attain final salvation (niwana) irrespective state. Since Buddhism, unlike Jainism, showed a greater awareness of
of his social origin. the contemporary needs of agriculture, it was acceptable to the vlllage
Certain features are common to Jainism and Buddhism. First, the folk.
proponents of both sects had to put in considerable mental and Both Buddhism and Jainism adopted identical attitudes to trade.
physical effort.This is proved by the extremely austere life of Mahavira The earliest brahmanical lawbooks prescribed trade and agriculture -
JAINISM A N D B U D D H I S M 75
74 A N C I E N T INDIA
for the vaishyas, who were ranked third in the social hierarchy. In exhibit such an attitude. Another significant development in urban
times of distress the brahmanas could engage in trade, but they could social life was the growth of prostitution. The birth of towns and the
not deal in liquids, perfumes, cloth, butter or food grains. Apparently break-up of the old tribal family due to the sharpening of caste
those who traded in these commodities were looked down upon by differences may have created a class of alienated women who became
prostitutes to eke out a 1iving.The early Buddhist literature refers to
the earliest lawgivers. The inhabitants of Magadha and Anga were
held in low esteem because they traded in certain commodities. prostitutes living in towns. Vaishali became famous because of
Ambapali, who charged 50 karshapana a night. Prompted by this,
Baudhayana even condemns voyaging by sea as a sinful practice. In
contrast to this, Buddhist literature mentions sea voyages with approval. Bimbisara, the king of Magadha and a contemporary of the Buddha,
The Buddha's attitude towards trade seems to have been favourable; appointed a courtesan for the capital city of Rajagriha, who charged
he and the Samgha received generous gifts from Anathapindika and double the amount taken by Ambapali. But the brahmanical
other rich merchants. In view of the brahmanical attitude it was injunctions condemn prostitution. Baudhayana and Apastamba forbid
natural for the newly rising merchant class to turn to Buddhism for brahmanas to accept food from prostitutes (ganika) or unchaste women.
sanction.That the first persons to become the Buddha's lay followers, In contrast to this is the fact that the Buddha once lived as a guest of
only eight weeks after his obtaining perfect insight, were the two Ambapali. Initially reluctant to admit women to his church he had
caravaneers passing through Bodh Gaya could not have been accidental. thrice turned down the request of his widowed aunt Mahapajapati
Trade and the use of money gave rise to money-lending and Gotami, but he was eventually persuaded by his favourite disciple
usury, but the Dharmashastra writers did not favour these new Ananda to allow women to become its members; the prostitutes
practices. Apastamba, an early lawgiver, lays down that the brahmanas were also granted entry to the Samgha. Notwithstanding the Buddha's
should not accept food fiom a person who charged interest, or &om assertion that nuns could attain spiritual liberation just like a monk,
one living on the labour of a person held as mortgage presumably in the Buddhists never granted an equal status to them in the mendicant
return for interest on the loan. He adds that a brahmana approaching order.
the person who lends money on interest should expiate his sin. Although Buddhism, and to a lesser extent Jainism, took account
Baudhayana prescribes money-lending for vaishyas but condemns the of the changes in material life and reacted against Vedic orthodoxy,
brahmana who practices usury. The early Buddhist canon defines neither sought to abolish the caste system. In the conflict of interests
right livelihood and right action but nowhere condemns usury. In between brahmanas and kshatriyas, to which is often ascribed the
fact numerous references suggest that an intimate relationship existed kshatriya origin of Mahavira and Gautama, Buddhism accords the
between the Buddha and the setthis who perhaps lent money on first place to kshatriyas and the second to brahmanas. The Buddhist
interest. The Buddha even advises the householder to pay off his scriptures argue with consummate skill against brahmanical pretensions
debts and does not allow a debtor to join the order. In other words and specialized rituals. Buddhism and Jainism adopted a much more
Buddhism, in contrast to brahmanism, gave its support, indirect though liberal attitude towards the lower castes. Not only could members of
it may have been, to usury, which was symptomatic of the mercantile
economy of the Gangetic valley.
all the four varnas join the Samgha and become monks, but even
untouchables like the Chandalas and the Pukkusas could achieve
.
We notice a sharp difference between the brahmanical and the nirvana. Matanga, the son of a Chandala, is said to have attained the
Buddhist attitude to certain features of urban life. The brahmana infinite bliss which many kshatriyas and brahmanas could not achieve.
lawgivers do not seem to have approved of eating houses, which Like Buddha, Mahavira is also believed to have admitted women to
obviously must have been a necessary concomitant of urbanization. his order; the first female disciple of Mahavira is said to have been a
Apastamba advised members of the higher castes (mostly brahmanas) captured slave woman. According to an early Jaina text, the number
not to eat food prepared in shops. But the Buddhist texts do not of his women followers were many, though whether or not they \
I
76 ANCIENT INDIA JAlNlSM AND BUDDHISM 77
were capable of attaining salvation remained highly controversial among Indian social 1ife.The Chandalas and Nishadas, originally aboriginals,
the various Jaina sects in subsequent centuries. were untouchables to the Buddhists. At one place the Buddha himself
Neither of the two religions sought to debar members of the equates the food earned by unlawful means with the leavings of a
lower castes from acquiring knowledge. According to them anybody Chandala. This is in tune with the attitude of the early brahmanical
who becomes a teacher deserves respect irrespective of his caste. In a lawgivers, who prescribed bathing as essential for those members of
Buddhist birth story a brahmana loses the charm learnt from a the higher castes who touched a Chandala.The new religions therefore
Chandala because he denies his teacher out of shame. Consistent did not try to abolish the existing social differentiations; they strongly
with this is an example mentioned in a later Jaina work of a king refixed, however, the importance of caste for the attainment of nirvana.
who while learning spells from a Matanga (Chandala), occupied a Buddhism and Jainism tried to improve the position of slaves in
lower seat.These stories prove that members of the lower castes often some ways. Whereas Apastanlba forbids trade in human beings only
joined the Buddhist and the Jaina orders though they may have done for the brahmanas, the new religions prohibit it even for their lay
so owing to their poverty. followers. The DigIra Nikaya advises masters to treat their slaves
Buddhist and Jaina tolerance towards the lower sections of society decently. A Jaina text also states that dasas and dasis, karmakaras and
is further borne out by the scriptures of the two sects. A Buddhist karnrakaris deserve to be well maintained by their employers. Passages
monk or nun, in contrast to a brahmana, could approach families of such as these may have generated at least in the Buddhist and the
all the four varnas for food, or could eat at their houses if invited by Jaina monks and nuns a feeling of generosity and kindness, which
them. Similarly an early canonical work permits the Jaina monk to may have added to their following among the lower orders.
accept food from lower caste families including weavers. But to what
extent the practice of the monks and nuns influenced the lay followers
of Buddhism and Jainism is a matter of speculation.
'The fact that neither slaves nor debtors were admitted to the
Buddhist and Jaina church suggests that neither of the two religions
sought to challenge existing social relations. In fact both seem to
have accepted the caste system. In a Buddhist birth story it is claimed
that the Buddhas are born only in the two higher castes and never as
vaishya or shudra. Similarly an early text states that the Jaina teachers
are not born in low, mean, degraded, poor, indigent or brahmana
families. According to some Jaina legends, Mahavira was originally
conceived in the womb of a brahmana woman but his embryo was
later transferred to that of the noble kshatriya Trishala who gave birth
to him. This reveals the intense Jaina hostility towards brahmanas.
The remaining categories of people among whom the Jaina teachers
are not to be born evidently belong to the lower social orders.
In spite of the protestant character of Buddhism and Jainism neither
waged any powerful struggle against caste system and untouchability.
O n the contrary, Buddhism, like brahmanical religion, seems to have
recognized the phenomenon of untouchability, which originated in
the post-Vedic period and remains to this day an appalling feature o f
FIRST T E R R I T O R I A L STATES 79
1ater.The important ones among them were the city ofAlexandria in The rapid development and consolidation of the pre-Maurya states
the Kabul region, Boukephala, possibly on the eastern bank of the owed a great deal to the land taxes, which became a substantial and
Jhelum, and Alexandria in Sindh. The march of the army from permanent source of income for the exchequer. Bali, originally a
mainland Greece to India opened up land routes, which promoted voluntary tribute, became obligatory. New taxes such as bhaga and
trade in subsequent centuries. But the immediate effect ofAlexander's kara, both unheard of in the earlier period, seem to have become a
whirlwind expedition was the destruction of several tribes. Smaller source of state income.The fertility of soil in the Gangetic valley and
kingdoms merged into the bigger ones. The process of political the rise of a new class of rich peasant proprietors who were in a
unification was unleashed. A few years later Chandragupta Maurya position to pay taxes contributed to the growth of revenues. Peasants
took advantage of the void created by Alexander's departure and were taxed even in earlier times, but now we find new tax-paying
amalgamated all the tribal states of north-western India under classes of artisans and traders. According to the lawbooks the artisans
Magadhan suzerainty. had to work one day a month for the king, and the traders had to
Why of all the janapadas Magadha alone came into prominence pay taxes on sales to a toll officer known as the ~ h a d k i k a or
and became the seat of a powerful monarchy and the nucleus of an shulkadhyaksha.
extensive empire is an interesting question. It would be superficial The state treasury was further replenished by some oppressive
and puerile to ascribe the rise and expansion of Magadha solely to taxation measures. At least two types of officers, tundiyas and nkasiyas,
the abilities and ambitions of such individual rulers as Bimbisara, are described in the Jataka stories as collecting taxes from the people,
Ajatashatru and Mahapadma Nanda. Even though both Ajatashatru either by beating and binding them or by dispossessing them of their
and Mahapadma were succeeded by incompetent rulers, Magadha earnings. Although the details of the tax-collecting machinery are
continued to grow in strength and extent.There were certain deeper not known, we have references to the Nanda kings enriching
causes of the success of Magadha. Its favourable geographical position themselves by raising taxes from the people.The Ceylonese chronicle
enabled it to control the whole lower Gangetic plain, and its rich of the fifth century AD refers to one Ugrasena of Magadha who
alluvial soil provided a strong agricultural base. The thick forests accumulated wealth to the tune of 80 kotis through indiscreet fund-
beyond Gaya in south Bihar supplied timber for buildings and elephants raising measures.The Buddhist birth stories mention no less than half
for the army. What is probably most important is that Magadha a dozen revenue officers, as against only one tax collector known as
controlled the supply of the richest deposits of copper and iron ores the bhagadugha (milcher of the cow) in the later Vedic period.
available to the south-east in the hills beyond Gaya. This rendered Connected with the growth of the taxation system was the
possible the manufacture of better weapons and implements which development of the state machinery.The post-Vedic period witnessed
were systematically used to clear the land and bring it under the the earliest appearance of the royal advisers or ministers.Vassakara of
plough. Magadha could thus also improve its military technology, as Magadha and Dirghacharayana of Koshala are known to have been
is proved by the use of superior weapons of war against Vaishali. effective ministers with great political influence. In the countryside
Rajagriha, which remained the capital of Magadha up to the time local administration was entrusted to village headman, whose ofice
of Ajatashatru, was surrounded by an easily defended perimeter of grew out of the leadership of the tribal militia, for the gramani means
hills fortified with cyclopean walls of 40 km in length. It had an the head ofgrama or tribe. In the age of the Buddha, when tribal life
excellent supply of water from hot and cold streams and could resist was at a discount, the gramani
- became the administrative head of the
enemy attack indefinitely. Initially, Magadha was not suitably placed village and came to be known by several names, e.g. gramyadhyaksha,
on the trade route. But the shift of the capital to Pataliputra gave it gramani or gramika. Reference to 80,000 gramikas in the time of
control over the river traffic. All these factors account for the expansion Bimbisara is found in Buddhist literature, though the figure obviously
and stability of Magadha, which gradually swallowed the other is an inflated one. At any rate it is clear that the administrative
contemporary states. machinery was becoming complex and the power of the state strong.
88 A N C I E N T INDIA FIRST T E R R I T O R I A L STATES 89
The real and most effective prop of the state organization was the These developments were mostly confined to the monarchical
standing army, which may be traced back to the earlier period and states, which were concentrated in the fertile Gangetic plain. These
whose growth was promoted by socio-economic developments in states were different from the so-called republics kana), which
the age of the Buddha. With the decline of tribal life and the flourished in the modern Panjab, where they may have been survivals
corresponding division of society into caste-classes the tribal militia of the early Vedic tribes, and in the periphery of the Gangetic
was naturally replaced by the standing army, whose importance wiis kingdoms or the less fertile Himalayan foothills. The origin of the
duly recognized in this period. The senanayaka occupied an exalted territorial republics in the sub-Himalayan region has been traced to
place in the list of high functionaries.The Nanda ruler of Magadha is the reaction against the pattern of life that evolved in the laterVedic
reported to have kept 20,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 2000 four- period. The movement against Vedic institutions was aimed at the
horsed chariots and 3000 to 6000 elephants at the time ofAlexander's abolition of the growing class and sex distinctions and directed against
invasion. Although the large army of the Nandas may have been the acceptance of religious practices which took a heavy toll of
financed by the enormous wealth for which they are traditionally cattle-stock. It was also directed against the hereditary kingship
famous, this cannot legitimately be said of all the other states bolstered by the brahmanas, who arrogated to themselves all the
(mahajanapadas) of the time. The development of the standing army rights and privileges to the exclusion of all the other sections of
was facilitated in most of the mahajanapadas only by a fiscal system society.
which came to be somewhat firmly established in post-Vedic times. The new movement against Vedic orthodoxy derived inspiration
A legal and judicial system, an important weapon of coercion in fiom traditions about the remote past when there were no varna
the hands of any ruling class, originated in this period. In a society distinctions, no domination by the upper classes on the lower ones
divided into castes, the old egalitarian tribal law was found obsolete. and no coercive oppression of the people by hereditary kings. This
Therefore the brahmanical thinkers defined the duty of each caste, perhaps explains the legends according to which republics replaced
and imposed social, economic and political disabilities on the shudras; monarchies. The traditional story of the origin of the Shakyas, to
they also laid down injunctions undermining the position of women. which tribe the Buddha belonged, tells us that they had descended
All this is amply reflected in the civil and criminal laws formulated fiom the royal house of Koshala. We are told that four brothers and
by the early brahmanical lawbooks. The gradual substitution of the their four sisters were expelled by their royal father; so they went to
new laws based on the varna system for the tribal law also partially the Himalayan foothills and resolved to preserve the purity of their
explains the absence of the sabha and samiti, the Vedic popular race by marrying among themselves. The account clearly indicates
assemblies, which were tribal in character. that the founders of republics broke away fiom the parent stock and
The sabha and samiti had begun to lose their importance towards moved to new areas. This may have been the case with Videha and
the end of theVedic period; now they seem to have been replaced by Vaishali, which are referred to as monarchies transformed into
caste associations, which, however, restricted their activities to the republics.
social sphere.The tribal assemblies could not fit into the organizational The tendency to break away fiom monarchies can be attributed to
fiamework of the large territorial states of the sixth century BC; nor the socio-political conditions of the period. In the early period
could they be resilient enough to accommodate the non-Aryan members of ruling elites obtained a portion of the booty of war and
aboriginals who lived in the new kingdoms. Thus, whereas the samifi tributes collected fiom the vanquished. But in subsequent times,
of the Panchalas is mentioned in laterVedic texts, no reference to the when the victorious tribal chiefs came to occupy prominent and
popular assemblies of their successors is available. O n the other hand hereditary royal positions in the territorial states, they claimed all
the brahmanical lawbooks of the period provide for a new body, the revenues for themselves. The leading members of the tribe resented
parishad, consisting exclusively of brahmanas. the situation, and demanded the right to collect taxes from the
90 ANCIENT INDIA FIRST TERRITORIAL STATES 91
peasants and the right to bear arms and maintain their own army. the occasion of the Buddha's visit to the city of Pava the Mallas
The reaction gave birth to a political framework that has been glorified issued a decree that a general welcome should be given to him, and
by modern historians as being republican and democratic. enforced it by the penalty of a heavy fine for default.This anticipates
The central feature of the'republican' government was its seemingly the authoritarianism and centralized monarchical governance associated
corporate character.The representatives of the tribes and the heads of with the Maurya kings who ruled over large parts of the country in
families may have sat in the public assembly (santhagara) of the capital. the subsequent period. If credence is given to a Jataka story, there
The tribal assembly was presided over by one of the representatives was a ban among the Shakyas on the marriage of a girl even with a
called the raja or senapati. In a later Buddhist story Simha, in spite of king of supposedly low status; nor was it permitted for people of I
being the youngest son of senapati Khanda, was allowed to succeed unequal birth to dine together. Similarly the gana oNaishali is said to
his father to ofice. When Simha wanted to step aside in favour of his have formulated a rule which related to the marriage of girls in
eldest brother, the members of the assembly plainly told him that the different wards of the city. The laws enacted by the 'republican' states
ofice did not belong to his family but to the assembly of the tribe. to control the private and family life of individual members of society
This indicates that the ofice of the chief executive of the tribal state are no better than those evolved by the brahmana authors of the
was not hereditary, and he was more a chief than a king.All important Dharmasutras. The republics could not do away with the essential
issues were placed before the assembly, and no decision was taken in organizational and ideological features of the monarchies. The
the absence of unanimity anlong members. This has given rise to the governments of the Lichchhavis, Shakyas and Mallas possessed all the
much trumpeted notion of some historians that non-monarchical paraphernalia of a monarchical state apparatus. They could not rise
states of the post-Vedic period were truly democratic in character. above the level of 'distorted republics', and succumbed to Magadha,
In point of fact the assemblies were dominated by oligarchs. The which established its political hegemony afier a long and bitter struggle
absence of monarchy did not really mean the prevalence of democracy with contemporary states.
in the true sense of the term. Members of the assembly belonged
mostly to the kshatriya caste, and at least in the case of the Lichchhavis
it is known that most non-kshatriyas, slaves and wage labourers had
no place there.This proves that the republican system was in essence
oligarchical. The elder members of the aristocratic families (rajakulas)
formed the core of the assembly; in one case the rajakulas are credited
with the right of declaring war. Members of the republican assembly
bore the title raja or king. The head of the state was a senapati, the
term denoting commander of the army in the monarchical system.
Even the officers of the republics bore the same titles as their
counterparts in the contemporary ..lonarchies. Such common terms
as mahamatta (mahamatya) and amachchha (amatya) were used to describe
officers both in the republics and the kingdoms. This proves that
post-Vedic republics were greatly influenced by the monarchies of
the time.
The strict control which non-monarchical governments exercised
over their domains through executive edicts and legislation expose
their undemocratic character. A Buddhist narrative tells us that on
THE FIRST E M P I R E 93
CHAPTER 6
or Vishnugupta, was his mentor and guide. The origin and early life
of Chandragupta remain obscure, though according to the prevalent
The First Empire view he belonged to the Moriya tribe and his caste was low. The
older theory of his base birth is no longer acceptable to most historians.
Both Indian and classical Greek sources state that he overthrew the
last Nanda ruler and occupied his capital Pataliputra, modern Patna.
The Greek accounts add that he moved to north-west India and
subdued the Greek garrisons left behind by Alexander.
A F T E R THE OVERTHILOWof the Nanda dynasty at Magadha the Mauryas
Soon, however, Seleukos Nikator gained control of most Asiatic
came to prominence. The history of their rule is rendered com- provinces of the Macedonian empire, and in 305 BC he seems to
paratively reliable on account of evidence obtained fiom a variety of have met Chandragupta in battle. They signed a treaty and entered
sources. The Buddhist and Jaina traditions, the early Dharmashastra
into a marriage alliance. Who iilarried whose daughter is not quite
texts and the material retrieved from archaeological excavations
clear but it seems that Chandragupta probably made a gift of 500 ele-
continue to remain important bases of historical reconstruction. In
phants to the Greek general and obtained territory across the Indus.
addition, several new sources of information are available for the
Seleukos' ambassador Megasthenes lived for many years at the Maurya
history of the Mauryas.The Arthashastra of Kautilya, for example, has
court at Pataliputra and travelled extensively in the country.According
considerable bearing on the developments during their rule. Its date
to Jaina sources, Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of
has been a matter of debate; a computer analysis of the text discerns
his life and stepped down from the throne in favour of his son.
no less than three different styles in it and suggests that its composition
Accompanied by Bhadrabahu, a Jaina saint, and several other monks,
may have stretched over several centuries. Nevertheless there is a
he is said to have gone to Sravana Belgola near Mysore, where he
general consensus among scholars that certain portions of the work
deliberately starved himself to death in the approved Jaina fashion.
(Books 11, I11 and IV) have a genuine Maurya touch about them and
In 297 BC Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara,
may be taken as its original kernel.The Greek account called Indika
known to the Greeks as Amitrochates (Sanskrit, Amitraghata = the
written by Megasthenes is another authentic source.Though available
destroyer of foes). He is said to have had contacts with Antiochus I,
only in fragments, it shows correspondence with the Kautilyan text
the Seleucid king of Syria. A n u n of wide tastes and interests, he
at many places. The most authentic Maurya records however remain
requested Antiochus to send him some sweet wine, dried figs and a
the first decipherable inscriptions issued by Ashoka. Found at 45
Sophist; the last being not meant for export, however, could not be
places on the highways in the Indian subcontinent and Afghanistan,
sent. According to the Tibetan Buddhist monk Taranatha, who visited
in 181 versions, they were composed in Prakrit language and written
India in the sixteenth century, Bindusara conquered 'the land bet-
in Brahmi script in greater part of the Maurya empire, though in its
ween the two seas'. This has been taken to mean that he annexed to
north-western part they appear in Aramaic and Kharoshthi scripts. In
the Magadhan kingdom the peninsular region of India. Early Tamil
Afghanistan, however, they are written in both Aramaic and Greek 1
literature, it has been pointed out, also mentions the Maurya invasion
scripts and languages. The Puranas, belonging as they do to a much
of the far south. But this does not adequately justitjl the assumption
later period, have much less claim to authenticity in the absence of
that Bindusara annexed the southernmost part of India to the Maurya
corroborative historical material.
empire. Nevertheless it is probable that his kingdom extended in the
Chandragupta, the founder of the Maurya dynasty, succeeded to
south up to Mysore region. Kalinga (modern Orissa), on the eastern
the Nanda throne in about 321 BC at the age of twenty-five. Indian
coast, however, remained hostile and was conquered in the succeeding
tradition has it that the brahmana Kautilya, also known as Chanakya
reign by Bindusara's son Ashoka.
THE FIRST EMPIRE 95
94 A N C I E N T INDIA
may imply that a major portion of the south Indian peninsula came
Nearly a hundred years ago Askoka was merely a shadowy Maurya
under Maurya influence during the time of Bindusara; Kalinga was
king mentioned in the Puranas. In 1837James Prinsep deciphered an
subjugated by Ashoka. Reference to such southern peoples as the
inscription in Brahmi script referring to a king called Devanama
Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras is found in the epigraphs
Piyadassi (beloved of the gods). Later many more similar inscriptions
of Ashoka, but his relationship with them was probably friendly.
were discovered. Initially these records could not be attributed to
Judging h m the provenance of the Ashokan edicts, Maurya influence
Ashoka. But in 1915 was discovered another inscription which speaks did not extend beyond Mysore in the south and Kandahar in the
of Ashoka Piyadassi. This, corroborated by the Ceylonese chronicle west. According to tradition Kashmir was a part of the Maurya
Mahavamsa, established that Ashoka, the Maurya monarch, was the empire .and Ashoka built the city of Shrinagara. The Maurya state
Devanamapiya Piyadassi of the inscriptions.
thus seems to have exercised its influence over a vast territory. It is
According to Buddhist sources Ashoka usurped the throne after
likely that under its impact the process of state formation in remote
killing all rival claimants and began his reign as a tyrant, though this
areas of the country, especially the Deccan and the far south, was
remains unsubstantiated by his inscriptions.The most important event
accelerated.
of Ashoka's reign seems to have been his conversion to Buddhism
The Mauryas maintained friendly relations with several con-
afier his victorious war with Kalinga in 260 BC. The horror of the
temporary powers. Bindusara's request to Antiochus has already been
war as described in the Emperor's own words is possibly an over-
referred to. Ashoka is said to have given his daughter in marriage to
statement: 'a hundred and fifty thousand people were deported, a a Nepalese nobleman and appears to have had very close connections
hundred thousand were killed and many more died . . .'. Some with Nepal. The Tibetan sources also refer to his visit to Khotan in
scholars would have us believe that Ashoka, moved by the untold Central Asia, but the evidence is suspect. It is likely, however, that
miseries caused by the war, dramatically embraced Buddhism. But Ashoka sent his missions to the region, though evidence for Sino-
according to one of his inscriptions, it was only after a period of two Indian contact in the Mauryan period is wanting. In one of his edicts
and half years that he became an enthusiastic supporter of the religion Ashoka mentions Antiochus Theos of Syria (260-246 BC),the grandson
of the Buddha. Under its influence he eventually foreswore conquest
of Seleukos Nikator, Ptolemy 111 Philadelphus of Egypt (285-
by war and replaced it with conquest by piety (dhammaghosha).The
247 BC),Antigonus Gonatus of Macedonia (279-239 BC), Magas of
Buddhist church was reorganized during his reign, with the meeting
Cyrene, and Alexander of Epirus-all kings of the contemporary
of the third Buddhist council at Pataliputra in 250 BC under the Hellenic world-with whom he exchanged missions. The Ceylonese
chairmanship of Mogalliputta Tissa.This was followed by the despatch tradition furnishes ample indication of the extremely cordial
of missionaries to south India, Ceylon, Burma and other countries to relationship existing between the Mauryas and Ceylon. Ashoka is
propagate Buddhism. Ashoka's own records do not suggest his said to have sent his son Mahendra to Ceylon as a Buddhist missionary
association with the Buddhist council convened during his rule. His though the visit of his daughter there to preach Buddhism is
edicts, however, prove his relationship with the Buddhist church as questionable. Tissa, the contemporary king of the island, derived
well as his own firm belief in Buddhism. But there is little basis for much inspiration h m Ashoka. Friendly political relationship with
the view that Ashoka ever donned the robes of a Buddhist. monk. foreign rulers promoted commerce and communications with the
The first three Mauryas were responsible for the unification of a outside world as well as exchange of ideas.
large part of the country under their political hegemony. Nearly all The Mauryas achieved political supremacy over the whole of
of north India had been already brought under Magadhan control India (except the extreme south) with the help of a huge army. N o
by Chandragupta; the evidence from epigraphy and the Ceylonese other ruling house in ancient India maintained a larger army.
chronicles indicate that Bengal had also become part of the Magadhan According to Plutarch and Justin, Chandragupta Maurya overran the
empire in the early Maurya period. Indirect evidence cited earlier
96 A N C I E N T INDIA
whole of India with 600,000 men, which is thrice the number of the
infantry of the Nandas. Megasthenes puts the total number of the
Maurya army at 400,000. There may be a degree of exaggeration in
these figures; but even so it is not possible to deny the tremendous
increase in the military strength and coercive power of the state
which seem to have enhanced the prestige and glamour of the Maurya
lung.
In the Kautilyan scheme royal order supersedes all other sources of
authority including dharma, which could be interpreted by the king
in the changing contexts of time. Indisputable proof of the all-
embracing power of the king is fbrnished by the Ashokan edicts,
which sought to regulate even the social and religious life of the
people. The state tried to control all spheres of life through its vast
bureaucracy. Kautilya mentions 18 tirthas, who are probably called
mahamatras or high functionaries. He also provides for 27 super-
intendents concerned mostly with economic functions; some of them
also performed military duties. Further, he refers to the duties of the
gopa, sthanika, dharmastha, nagaraka, etc. How far the Arthashastra
provisions were actually put into practice is difficult to ascertain. But
there is little doubt that the administrative requirements prompted
the Mauryas to increase the number of officers in their employ. All
this, together with the growing importance of the warrior class fiom
pre-Maurya times, may have led to the exaltation of royal power.
The governance of the vast territory with the help of an expanding
bureaucracy and a huge standing army involved heavy expenditure.
New and permanent sources o f income to the imperial exchequer,
therefore, had to be found. This seems to have been the guiding
principle of the Maurya state in undertaking and regulating numerous
economic activities which brought it profit. It founded new settlements
and sought to rehabilitate the decaying ones by moving people out
of overpopulated regions. The shudras for the first time were aided
by the state to settle as farmers in these settlements.They were either
enticed away from other places or deported from areas where
population density was high. Deportation of 150,000 people after
the Kalinga war was apparently in keeping with the Maurya policy of
founding new settlements. In order to bring virgin soil under the
plough, the shudra settlers were granted fiscal exemptions or
concessions by way of the supply of cattle, seeds and money in the
hope of future repayment.
T H E FIRST E M P I R E 97
In the newly settled areas, which formed the crown land or crown
village (sitp), land was granted to retired village officials and priests;
but it could not be sold, mortgaged or inherited. Even ordinary
peasants could not reassign their land to non-taxpayers. Failure on
the part of the farmers to cultivate the land might lead to its transfer
to someone else. Restrictions on the populations of crown villages
were doubtless severe, and escape from them was difticult. O n e could
not become an ascetic without passing the age of procreation.Taking
to asceticism without providing for one's wife and other dependants
was a punishable offence; so was converting a woman to asceticism.
Ascetics were not permitted entry into the newly-settled crown
villages. Associations or groups could not be formed by members of
the lower orders. Public entertainment was prohibited; for actors,
dancers, singers, musicians, reconteurs and bards would presumably
disturb agricultural operations in the newly colonized areas. The
Kautilyan logic is very clear: 'From the helplessness of villagers there
comes concentration of the men upon their fields, hence increase of
taxes, labour supply, wealth and grain.'
'
Kautilya seems to have deliberately fostered the rusticity of villagers
to augment agricultural output so as to achieve the maximum levels
of surplus expropriation. The exploiting character of the Maurya
state is clearly demonstrated by Kautilya's own words: 'As for settling
a land with the four castes, the one where the lowest castes pre-
dominate is the better because it will permit all sorts of exploitation.'
In the areas recently brought under the plough a sizeable portion
may have constituted the king's domain (sita). In the early Pa3
literature, assignable to the pre-Maurya period, there are only a few
references to big farms. But the Mauryas seem to have owned
numerous such farms which were worked under the supervision of
' 1 the superintendent of agriculture (sitadhyaksha) with the help of
1 numerous slaves and hired labourers. The state farm, where the
s~peri:~tendentmade use of an advanced knowledge of agriculture,
was a source of royal income no less than the land cultivated by tax-
paying private individuals.
Large-scale clearing of land by the state as well as the cultivation
of the crown land under the direct supervision of its officers led to
an unprecedented expansion of settled agriculture, especially in the
Gangetic valley. But agricultural progress must have owed a great
deal also to the provision of irrigation facilities by the government.
98 A N C I E N T INDIA THE FIRST EMPIRE 99
The Arthashastra refers to the distribution and measurement of water panyadhyaksha in the Arthashastra), whose existence is also indicated
for irrigation; it also mentions a water tax collected regularly by the by Megasthenes, not only fixed prices of commodities but also
state wherever it provided assistance in irrigating fields. Pushyagupta, intervened whenever there was a glut of any commodity. The o&ce
one o i the governors of Chandragupta, is said to have built a dam of the samsthadhyaksha (superintendent of markets) was designed to
across a river near Girnar in Saurashtra. be a safeguard against fraudulent trade practices. The superintendent
The expansion of village settlements under the aegis of the state of weights. and measures (pautavadhyaksha) was entrusted with the
was necessarily accompanied by the growth of trade, fostered in its enforcement of standard weights and measures. All state boats were
turn by the development of the internal communication system. The placed under the charge of a superintendent of ships (navadhyaksha),
clearing of land and founding of new agrarian settlements in what who regulated river trafic and collected ferry charges. The super-
were previously forest regions facilitated movement from one place intendent of tolls (shulkadhyaksha) collected h m the traders customs
to another. There is evidence of considerable improvement in dues ranging h m 1/5 to 1/25 of the value. Superintendents were
communications brought about by the Mauryas. Pataliputra was also appointed to look afier thc weaving industry, breweries and state
connected with Nepal via Vaishali. From there a road passed through liquor shops. O n the one hand royal officers controlled and regulated
Champaran to Kapilavastu, Kalsi (Dehradun district), and Hazra; it private trade, on the other the Maurya state itself engaged in trade
went up to Peshawar. Megasthenes refers to a road connecting north- and commodity production. State goods (rajapanya) were normally to
western India with Pataliputra which was linked with Sasaram, be sold by state servants, but the assistance of private traders was also
Mirzapur and central India. A route connected the Mauryan capital sought.
with Kalinga which in its turn was connected with Andhra and The government derived income not only from its own economic
Karnataka. Besides, the rivers of north India provided easy internal undertakings but also from a large number of taxes mentioned in the
transport; the huge Ashokan monolithic pillars, quarried, chiselled Arthashastra. The land tax (bhaga), the chief item of revenue, seems to
and made cylindrical at Chunar on the river bank, were probably have been levied at the rate of one-sixth, though the Greek accounts
transported to distant destinations by river. The development of suggest the rate of one-fourth. In addition to the principal land tax,
communications within the country helped inland trade just as, water cess was levied. Sharecropping also brought substantial income
peaceful relations with the Greeks under Bindusara and Ashoka gave to the state. The peasants had ofien to pay the pindakara, which was
a fillip to foreign trade with the west. assessed on groups of villages. The nature of such taxes as bali and
The use of currency in the form of punch-marked coins had kara remains uncertain; the latter was probably a part of the produce
begun in the preceding period; now its use became a fairly common from the fruit and flower gardens.Vil1agers were required to supply
feature. Punch-marked coins (mostly silver) of the Maurya period provisions to the royal army (senabhakta) passing through their areas, a
have been discovered in large numbers in different parts of the practice which anticipated later feudal tyranny.
subcontinent with a heavy concentration in north India especially in Hiranya, unlike the above dues, was not paid in kind but in cash.
eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar which formed the nucleus of the Customs and ferry charges were other important sources of income
empire, though their profusion and chronology have been questioned to the state exchequer. Guilds of artisans living in the capital (durga)
without much justification. Money was used not only for trade; the were made to pay taxes; those in the countryside were presumably
government paid its officers in cash.The scale of state salaries in the granted exemption. It would seem that the state made a deliberate
Arthashastra, ranging h m 48,000 panas to 60 panas a year, is significant. attempt to expropriate as much surplus produce from the people as
If credence is given to the Arthshastra evidence, the Maurya state possible.
exercised a rigid control through a number of superintendents over But even the numerous taxes mentioned by Kautilya seem to have
all trade and industry. The superintendent of commerce (known as fallen short of the needs of the state; for he recommends several fiscal
THE FIRST EMPIRE
100 A N C I E N T INDIA
the metal weaponry and the supply of tools and implements needed
measures in emergency. One of these was the levy of pranaya, literally
for agriculture and industry. This strengthened the power of the
a gifi of affection, which in practice may have brought misery to the
Maurya government, particularly in view of the almost complete
people. The cultivators could be forced to raise two crops. Although
disarming of the rural population.The Kautilyan injunctions regarding
a brahamana, Kautilya asks the king to confiscate temple treasures,
the appointment of a large - number of officers, the state control of
put up sudden miracles and set up new images to collect money
industry and trade, the government monopoly of mines and metals
from the credulous. Patanjali, writing in the second century BC,
and the realization of various forms of revenue from the people give
mentions the Maurya practice of establishing cults for the sake of
the unmistakable impression that the Mauryan state was highly
money. All these ordinary and emergency taxes, collected in cash and
centralized.This has however been questioned by several historians in
kind and deposited in the royal storehouse, formed the economic
recent years. Admittedly the prescriptive nature of the Arthashastra
backbone of the Maurya empire.
and the uncertain chronology of its various sections make it dificult
An important aspect of the Maurya economy which increased
to determine the actual extent of control exercised by the Mauryas.
royal power and assisted it in the maintenance of the vast empire was
But the relevant portions of this text read with the edicts ofAshoka
the state monopoly of mining and metallurgy.The Arthashastra clearly
and the Greek account clearly indicate that centralization of power
provides for the superintendent of mines (akaradhyaksha), his chief
in the hands of the emperor was the hallmark of the Maurya imperial
function being to prospect for new mines and reopen old and disused
administration.This is not to suggest that the Maurya kings were able
ones. The superintendent of salt, according to Kautilya, looked afier
to make their authority felt equally effectively throughout the country.
the salt mines. Literary references indicate the mining of several
The orders issued from the Maurya court at Pataliputra were possibly
metals, notably copper and gold. It is likely that the copper and gold
more difficult to implement in remote areas than those issued by
mines in Dhalbhum in Chotanagpur were worked for the first time
the British Viceroys or the present day government of India. But
in the Maurya period. This may have been also the case with the
overemphasis on the alleged decentralized nature of the Maurya
gold mines in Mysore. Judging from a large number of silver punch-
administration is perhaps rooted in the neo-colonialist ideas invading
marked coins assignable to the time of the Mauryas, it may be
Indian historiography in recent years.
suggested that silver mines were also worked. Frequent mention of
The Mauryas created a well-organized state machinery characterized
various forms of iron in the Arthashastra provides clear indication of
by a stable fiscal system and a reasonably large bureaucracy which
the working of the metal. As in the preceding period, iron technology
functioned in the heartland of their empire. Through their territorial
may have been a major catalytic agent in the expansion of agriculture
expansion they were also able to facilitate trading and missionary
as can be inferred from the proliferation of settlements in the Maurya
activities. It is probable that the interaction between adminstrators
period. The intensive use of iron also provided the infrastructure for
and Buddhist and Jaina monks on the one hand and the people of
large-scale manufacture of punch-marked coins and the deluxe pottery
distant parts of the country on the other led to the spread of the
called Northern Black Polished Ware, the introduction of ring wells
material culture of the Gangetic valley into the peripheral areas of
and, most importantly, for the efilorescence of the pre-Mauryan
the e m p i r e a phenomenon amply attested by archaeological evidence.
towns as well as for rise of the new ones. This view, however, may
In spite of this the people in the Maurya empire were living at
not be acceptable to scholars who benefit fiom an advanced technology
different levels of culture. Its inhabitants ranged from hunter-gatherers
only to deliberately ignore its significance.
in backward areas, to the iron using population of Pataliputra, one of
The state enjoyed a monopoly of mines, though a great deal of
the greatest, if not the greatest city in the world at the time. The
metal must have been sold to traders, artisans' guilds, goldsmiths and
Arthashastra of Kautilya and the inscriptions of Ashoka refer to
individual manufacturers. The monopoly rights of the state over
numerous tribes. They had to be won in favour of settled agrarian
mineral resources gave it exclusive control over the manufacture of
I THE FIRST EMPIRE 103
102 A N C I E N T INDIA
life and converted into members of a class society based on private /r shudrasThey seem to have been the worst paid members of society.
According to him the slaves (dasas) and hired labourers (karmakaras)
property. Kautilya devotes an entire chapter to the methods of
systematically breaking up free tribes. In the initial phase dissension under the employ of the state were to be given 'particles of rice' and
was to be sown within the tribe through the use of spies, poison, bad liquor. He recommends the recruitment of vaishyas and shudras
brahmanas, soothsayers, liquor, women, actors and cash bribes. But in the army; but their actual enrolment as soldiers is extremely
at a later stage the king was to make armed intervention, breakup the doubtful.
tribe, and deport its members to distant lands in units of five to ten Whether or not slavery existed in Maurya India has been a matter
families, presumably to settle in the newly colonized areas. It would of controversy. Megasthenes tells us that there were no slaves in
India. But the Arthashastra contains detailed laws about slavery and
be, however, wrong to suppose that tribes broke up only through
manumission. Slaves were mostly shudras and supplied the bulk of
external violence. Their disintegration may well have been caused
labour power. In special circumstances members of higher varnas
by the expansion of settled life in certain areas under the auspices of
the state. could also be mortgaged; Kautilya refers to them as altitakas. He also
In those areas where settled agricultural life came to be established, lays down rules to regulate the treatment of slaves. His laws relating
social organization was based on varna. The traditional varnas became to ahitakas are liberal. His anxiety to protect the position of the ex-
endogamous; their rigidity may have generated tensions. Megasthenes Arya slaves as distinguished from the non-Arya or shudra slaves is
refers to seven castes-philosophers, farmers, soldiers, herdsmen, understandable; Kautilya was a brahmana.
artisans, magistrates and councillors. Evidently he confhsed caste with The social order however did not function as smoothly as envisaged
by the brahmanical lawgivers. Like the brahmanas and kshatriyas, the
occupation. Kautilya enumerates the duties of four castes; in this he
vaishyas were also dvijas, albeit socially inferior to them. Through
draws heavily on the earlier brahmanical lawgivers. The brahmanas
their participation in trade and commerce the vaishyas acquired wealth;
enjoyed the highest position in society and several concessions and
through their trade guilds they often controlled urban institutions.
privileges were recommended for them.This was in contrast to their
Yet they were denied the social prestige to which they felt entitled.
portrayal in the Buddhist literature as socially inferior to kshatriyas.
Their support for such heterodox sects as Buddhism and Jainism niay
The first three castes-brahmana, kshatriya and vaishya-were dvija
have been an expression of their resentment against the two higher
(twice-born); theoretically they were more advantaged than the shudras
castes. The shudras were no less hostile to the upper classes. They
and untouchables. Kautilya refers to no less than fifteen mixed castes
were grossly dissatisfied with their living conditions and indulged in
by the general name antyavasayin (literally living at the end).They are
criminal activities. Several categories of offenders and suspects, listed
supposed to have originated in miscegenation and lived beyond the
by Kautilya, belonged to the shudra order. H e ordains that when a
pale of the brahmanical social order. Members of such mixed castes
shudra calls himself a brahmana, steals the property of gods, or is
as the Chandala and Svapaka were untouchables; they were required
hostile to th6 king, either his eyes shall be destroyed by the application
to live outside the main settlement, near the cremation ground. But
of a poisonous ointment, or he shall have to pay a fine of 800 panas.
for the first time during the Maurya period a section of shudras,
This implies that some shudras bore hostility to the priestly and
hitherto agricultural labourers, were provided with land in the newly
ruling classes.
colonized areas; they were also employed as sharecroppers on crown
Our sources indicate the existence of several religious sects which \
lands. Forced labour (vishtq was imposed on them on a much larger
may have led to tensions and conflicts. In spite of the growing
scale than in the earlier period; a class of government servants known
influence of Buddhism and Jainism, the Vedas did not completely
as vishtivandhakas (mentioned fbr the first time by Kautilya) worked
lose their hold on the people. Kautilya extolled the Vedic way of life.
as its procurer.
H e prescribed Vedic sacraments (samskaras) such as chaulakarma,
Kautilya fixes the wages of artisans, who were probably mostly
104 A N C I E N T INDIA THE FIRST EMPIRE 105
upanayana, godana, for the prince who was expected to perform Vedic vast empire of the Mauryas. But the followers of such sects as
sacrifices.There are indications in the Arthashastra that several deities Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivikism were held in contempt by the
were worshipped in temples; this would imply the existence of brahmanas, whose position they must have undermined. Kautilya
religious ideas quite different from those found in the Vedas. Among described them as vrishala and pashanda. The pashandas, according to
the gods mentioned in the text, Shiva and Samkarshana were later to him, were to live at the edges of human habitation or near the
become central deities in the brahmanical pantheon; they were referred cremation grounds. He prescribed a heavy fine for inviting Buddhist
i
to by Megasthenes as Dionysus.The Greek ambassador also speaks of and Ajivika monks to dinners in honour of deities or dead ancestors.
Herakles being worshipped in Mathura region; this god may have The ideological conflict between theVedic brahrnanas and the followers
been the many-faceted Krishna of later legends. Shri of the Arthashastra, of the newly born protestant creeds may have been a potential source
identified with Shri-Lakshmi (the wife oNishnu), may have originally of social and religious tension, though actual instances of this are
been a non-Aryan fertility goddess who found her way into the unrecorded.
brahmanical religion. According to Kautilya, the worship of these It was against this background that Ashoka expounded his policy
deities consisted of prostration before the image, and gifts (upahara), of dhamma to eliminate social tension and sectarian conflicts, and to
especially of flowers and incense (pushpachurnopahara); this anticipated promote a harmonious relationship between the diverse elements of
the theistic sects which later became popular in various parts of the the vast empire. Dhamma is the Prakrit equivalent of the Sanskrit
country. Evidence of the popular belief in malevolent spirits, magical word dharma, translated as religion in modern times. But the term
practices and superstitions of all kinds also find mention in the used in the Ashokan edicts has a much wider connotation. It indicates
Artkashastra; and perhaps formed part of the popular culture. more than mere piety resulting from good deeds inspired by any
By the fourth century BC Buddhism had emerged as a distinct formal religious faith. Ashoka's insistence on abstinence from killing,
religion with potential for expansion. Although it had been mainly considerate relationships between parents and children, elders and
confined to the regions of Magadha and Koshala before the time of young people, friends, masters and servants, various religious sects
Ashoka, small communities of brethren had spread as far as Mathura and his excessive concern with the general welfare of the subjects
and Ujaini. The Buddhist church was gradually losing its unity on suggest that his dharma was an ethical code aimed at buildmg up an
account of expansion. The third Buddhist council convened at attitude of social responsibility among the people. His policy of
Pataliputra marked the final attempt of the sectarian Buddhists to dhamma sought to make a strong case for the recognition of the
reorganize the church and to exclude dissidents and innovators; it dignity of man; it was a plea for the inculcation of virtuous behaviour
also decided to send missionaries to various parts of the subcontinent. transcending all social, religious and culturaI barriers. The concept of
Jainism could not make as much progress, however. Ashokan in- dhamma was very likely conditioned by the vastness of the empire,
scriptions refer to Jainas as nirgranthas (those who have broken worldly whose unity would be preserved by overcoming tensions generated
ties); the Arthashastra does not mention them at all. Nirgranthas lived by the existence of divergent social, religious and cultural elements.
in Magadha in the fourth century BC;later tradition speaks of their Ashoka therefore laid emphasis on toleration, which was one of the
presence in Pundravardhana (north Bengal) in the time of Ashoka. basic principles of dhamma. By pleading for 'consideration towards
Perhaps more important than the Jaina was the Ajivika movement, slaves and servants, obedience to mother and father, generosity towards
founded by Makkhali Gosala, a contemporary of the Buddha. The friends, acquaintances and relatives and towards priests and monks',
Ajivikas seem to have remained important throughout the Maurya Ashoka sought to promote harmony in the family and the community.
period; Ashoka as well as his grandson Dasharatha dedicated some Religious eclecticism occupies an important place in his rescripts.
caves to them in the Nagarjuni hills in Bihar. He claims to have honoured all seco as well as both ascetics and
It appears that diverse religious ideas and practices existed in the laymen with gifts and various fcims of recognition. In the thirteenth
106 ANCIENT INDIA THE FIRST EMPIRE 107
year of his reign he donated two caves in the Barabar hills to the
source of livelihood. In spite of his renunciation of war and a check
Ajivikas. In the eyes of the emperor, however, far more important
on the killing of animals for ritual purposes, Ashoka did not wholly
than gifts and honours to different religious sects was their essential
abjure violence. In dealing with the troublesome forest tribes he
advancement.This, according to him, could be achieved if one desisted
clearly recognized the possibility of the use of violence.
from extolling one's own sect and disparaging that of another. By not
The policy of dhamma included several measures relating to social
permitting fiee expression of differences of opinion one may very
welfare. After the tenth year of his reign when he visited Bodh Gaya,
often aggravate concealed tensions. But Ashoka's insistence on their
Ashoka inaugurated the system of royal tours (dhammayatra). Perhaps
suppression may be understood in the context of the need for unity
through these tours he came into contact with the masses, explained
in the empire.
his policies to them and also took interest in their general well-being.
Contrary to this emphasis on toleration, Ashoka banned festive
The edict at Brahmagiri was issued by the emperor on tour, which
meetings or gatherings perhaps due to his fear of conflicts arising out
indicates that he journeyed to the southernmost parts of his realm.
of differences of opinion; only those sponsored by the state seem to
Royal excursions in the outlying areas of the empire also acted as a
have been permissible. The measure was in conformity with the
check on local officials. In addition, every high administrative official
strictly centralized administration of the of the Maurya empire. Popular
throughout the empire was ordered to undertake a tour every five
meetings could be utilized to criticise and attack the king's new ideas.
years.
Their suppression therefore seems to have been intended to stifle
To implement his policy of dhamma Ashoka created a new class of
popular opposition.
officers known as dhammamahamattas (Sanskrit, dharmamahamatras),
In spite of his religious eclecticism Ashoka denounced all 'useless
who were given control over officials and special funds. They were
ceremonies and sacrifices' held under the influence of superstition.
active not only in and around Pataliputra but also in remote tiontier
He was particularly critical of such ceremonies as were performed
areas and among the neighbouring peoples. They looked into the
during illness, at the birth or marriage of a child, or when setting out
complaints of law abiding groups and sects, ensured fair treatment to
on a journey. Women are specially censured for observing religious
them and attended to the welfare of prisoners. Some of them were
and nonsensical rites. Ashoka's attack on ritual and sacrifice was
specially appointed to take care of Buddhists, brahmanas, Ajivikas or
probably intended to undermine the influence of the priest who
Nirgranthas. These officers were directly responsible for the imple-
presided over them and derived advantage h m popular superstition.
mentation of the policy of dhamma.They were permitted entry into
Ashoka's dhamma also emphasized non-violence. Overwhelmed by
the houses of all sections of society including those of the royal
the horror of the Kalinga war he is said to have renounced all further
family. Perhaps the power of the dhammamahamattac to interfere in
bloodshed, though it seems likely that his remorse over the war grew
the lives of the people increased over the years. Ashoka also tried to
over the years and not immediately after. In one of his edicts he
propagate his religious ideology through his edicts inscribed on rocks
prohibits animal slaughter. If this order applied only to the state
or monolithic pillars.
sanctuaries of certain animals, as has been suggested, Ashoka's measure
Ashoka's religion greatly influenced art; according to the Buddhist
would seem to be merely a continuation of the policy of Kautilya
tradition he constructed 84,000 stupas, but this figure need not be
according to whom killing of animals listed as inviolable was a
taken literally. The best specimens of contemporary art are the tall
punishable offence. It is more likely that Ashoka sought to prevent
monolithic highly polished columns, standing free in space, often
only the ritual sacrifice of animals and did not contemplate a general
crowned with animal figures.At least fourteen such pillars are known;
prohibition of animal slaughter; for he states that two peacocks and a
a few of them may date from before the time of Ashoka. All Maurya
deer were killed daily in the royal kitchen. This measure obviously
columns are chiselled out of grey Chunar sandstone and possess a
hit the interests of the brahmanas, for whom animal sacrifice was a
lustrous polish perhaps because of the application of silicious varnish
108 ANCIENT INDIA T H E FIRST EMPIRE 109
Ashoka has been blamed for bringing about the disintegration of 4 CHAPTER 7
the empire. His pro-Buddhist policy is said to have antagonized
brahmanas..But his general administrative policy was neither specifically
pro-Buddhist nor pronouncedly anti-brahmana. Ashoka's supposed
i
I
Invasions, Trade and Culture
obsession with non-violence is said to have led to the weakening of C. 200 BC-AD 300
the Maurya army. This however is hardly warranted by his rescripts.
The &cline of the Maurya empire may largely be ascribed to the
economic consequences of Ashoka's policy. After the conquest of
Kalinga the emperor fought no wars; the army was used only for
parades and public spectacles. The huge army became superfluous 8
and much too costly to maintain.The pre-Ashokan bureaucracy itself 1 THE RECONSTRUCTION of the history of the subcontinent after Maurya
was very large; Ashoka added substantially to its size by appointing rule is based on a variety of sources. The dynastic genealogies found
many new officers, who, unlike those mentioned in the Arthashastra, in the early Puranas, whose compilation may have begun during the
had nothing to do with the organization of production. His charitable early centuries of the Christian era, throw light on the political
public works, doubtless indicative of his paternal affection for the history of the times; their value is enhanced when corroborated by
people, only strained the state exchequer. His extravagant charity to inscriptions. Although the Dharmashastra works con~posedduring
the Buddhist church proved ruinous for the state as well as for him. the post-Maurya period are normative, they provide the basic material
According to a legend, it drove him to penury towards his last days for understanding the changing social structure. The foremost of
when he was lefl with half a mango.The emperor's lavish philanthropy i these treatises is the lawbook of Manu (ManusmritQ.The epigraphic
was also alluded to by Fa-hsien several centuries later. records in Kharoshthi found in large numbers in Gandhara and Central
While the state treasury was drained of its wealth, the mounting Asia refer to different facets of India's regular contacts with these
expenditure of administration had to be met by the limited revenues regions. Pieces of information may also be culled from such texts as
derived from the established agrarian economy of the Gangetic valley; the Cargi Sanlhita and the Mahabhashya of Patanjali. The Buddhist
the peninsular region was not yet fully colonized and could not Jatakas, Divyavadana, Mahavastu and the Milindpanho (Sanskrit,
therefore yield much revenue to the state. Even in the Magadhan Milindaprashna) are equally useful. Sometimes even such late works as
heartland largescale land clearance must have led to thinning out of the Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa and the Hanhachada of Banabhatta
forests. Deforestation meant increasing floods damaging the crops, provide some information bearing on the period after the overthrow
and hence a complete loss of revenue as well as a drain of the state of the Mauryas. Coins bearing the names of rulers appeared in the
finances for relief measures. Much of all this may sound conjectural. first century BC and are of immense value for political history, and
But the decreasing silver content of the punch-marked coins attributed more importantly, for appreciating social and economic developments.
to the later Maurya rulers indicates debasement of currency- meas- Roman coins discovered in the subcontinent enable us to understand
ure necessary to meet the needs of a depleted treasury. Thus the the pattern of trade between India and the Western world* theme
ultimate political disintegration of the Maurya empire may be said to which cannot be studied without the classical Graeco-Roman
have been caused in a large measure by the gradual weakening of the accounts.The most well known of these accounts is the Periplus ofthe
imperial finances, notwithstanding the obdurate denial of any pressure Erythraean Sea written by an anonymous Greek seafarer. The early
on Maurya economy by some historians. Tamil literature, known as the Shangam, throws light on the process
of social and political transformation in the far south. In addition to
these sources, the vast body of material recovered from explorations
112 A N C I E N T INDIA
and excavations of nearly 150 sites during the last half century and
the impressive testimony of art and architecture both within the
country and outside, are of great help in reconstructing the social
and cultural history of the period.
Though marked by the absence of a large empire comparable to
that of the Mauryas, the five centuries following their rule were
historically important and witnessed significant developments. Contacts
with Central. and West Asia as well as with China and, to a certain
extent, with South-East Asia, promoted an active interaction between
India and outside world leading to the assimilation of elements which
added new dimensions to Indian culture and enriched it in many
ways. During this phase there emerged several political entities in
different parts of the country; some of them, especially the Deccan
and the southern tip of the Indian peninsula, were exposed to the
process of state formation perhaps for the first time.
In north India the immediate successors of the Mauryas were the
Shungas, a brahmana family of obscure origin.Very likely they came
from the region of Ujain, where they had served the Mauryas.
Pushyamitra, a general of the last Maurya king Brihadratha, succeeded
in gaining power by slaying his master. The centre of his kingdom
was Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh. He is described as an enthusiastic
supporter of the orthodox brahmanical faith, and is said to have
performed two aslzvamedlza sacrifices. Buddhist literature portrays him
as a persecutor of Buddhists and destroyer of their monasteries and
places of worship. The 84,000 stupas built by Ashoka, we are told,
were destroyed by Pushyamitra. This however is contradicted by the
Buddhist remains at Bharhut, assignable to the time of the Shungas.
The stories of his persecution of Buddhists obviously betray sectarian
bias.
The Shungas fought a number of wars. They campaigned against
the kingdom of Vidarbha (Berar) in the northern Deccan. In the
north-west they fought the Greeks. In the south-east they may have
led expeditions against the king of Kalinga, but this has been
questioned by some scholars. The Shunga dominions comprised the
entire Gangetic valley and extended to the river Narmada.The cities
of Pataliputra, Ayodhya and Vidisha were included in the Shunga
kingdom; according to a Buddist work Jallundur and Sakala (Sialkot)
were also incorporated in it. Within a hundred years however the
INVASIONS, T R A D E A N D C U L T U R E 113
the Greeks. In the early second century BC Demetrius, son of the Greeks did. They do not seem to have met effective resistance.
Euthedemus, pressed further into India. He and his successors led Tradition has it that a king of Ujain drove them out for a while,
several campaigns into India; one such, perhaps under king Menander, called himself Vikramaditya and established the Vikrama era to
is said to have reached Pataliputra. Menander ruled from 155 to commemorate his victory over them in 57 BC. How far this is
130 BC and gave some kind of stability to the Indo-Greek power in reliable is difficult to say, for we have no less than fourteen
India. His coins have been found as far apart as Kabul in Afghanistan Vikramadityas in Indian history up to the twelfth century. In all
and Mathura near Delhi. His kingdom is said to have comprised the probability the Shakas extended their power as far into the country
Swat valley, and the Hazara district and the Panjab as far as the river as Mathura.The first Shaka king was Maues or Moga (c. 80 BC) who
Ravi. Menander was the best known among the Indo-Greek kings. is known fiom inscriptions and a series of coins.There is evidence to
He attained fame as Milinda in the Buddhist text, Milindapanho suggest the establishment of the relics of the Buddha in a stupa at
(Milind~~rashna, literally, the Questions of King Milinda), which records Taxila during his period. The most important Shaka ruler in India
discussions with the philosopher Nagasena that resulted in his was Rudradaman who exercised control over Sindh, Kutch, Gujarat,
conversion to Buddhism. His death was followed by a brief period of Rajasthan, Konkan, the Narmada valley, Malwa, Kathiawar and the
regency after which Strato became the king. Soon thereafter the western Deccan. He is famous for repairing the Sudarshana lake
Greek ascendancy in the north-west waned. The Greeks, no doubt, which was in use for irrigation in the semi-arid zone of Kathiawad
failed to establish their authority for long, but the significance of &om the time of the Mauryas. Rudradaman was the first king to
their rule cannot be minimized.They were the first to issue coins in issue a long inscription in chaste Sanskrit. The first ruler to elevate
large numbers which, unlike the punch-marked coins, could be Sanskrit to the status of a court language was thus a king whose
attributed to kings with certainty. They were also the first rulers to origins can be traced to a region outside India.
mint gold coins, which increased subsequently during the time of Towards the close of the first century BC a line of kings with
the Kushana rulers. The short spell of their dominion in north- Iranian names, usually known as Pahlavas or Indo-Parthians, gained
western parts of the country is thus important in the monetary control of north-western India. The best known of this group of
history of India. But its significance also lay in the fact that the kings is Gondopharnes who probably ruled in the first century m.To
Greeks introduced features of Hellenistic art in the north-western his court came St. Thomas, through whom India first came into
part of the subcontinent; this culminated in the development of what contact with Christianity. The Christian missionary, according to
is known as the Gandhara school of art. later Christian sources, moved to Kerala and finally achieved
The Indo-Greek power in north-western India did not long survive. martyrdom at Mylapur near Madras where he is said to have been
Climatic and political causes led to new movements of central Asian assassinated. His proselytizing mission is not well documented, but
nomadic tribes, known as the Scythians.The pressure of the Chinese the Christian association of Gondopharnes is highly probable. It has
empire consolidated under Shi Huang Ti, who built the Great Wall, been suggested that he was the same as Kaspar, one of the three kings
as well as the drying up of their pastures drove nomads including the of the East, who play an important role in Christian tradition.We do
Yueh-Chi westward. Pressed fiom the north and east, the Scythians not have much information about his immediate successor and nephew
attacked Bactria and occupied it. Close on their heels were theYueh- Abdagases. But the Parthians, like the Shakas who had preceded
Chi.Therefore the Scythians, known as Shakas in Patanjali's Mahabhasya them, were assimilated into Indian society.
and in other early Indian sources, moved from Bactria and invaded The Indo-Parthian power however broke up with the advance of
Iran and then the Greek kingdoms in India. By the middle of the the Yueh-Chi people. From a Chinese source we learn that in the
first century BC only a few Greek chiefs ruled in India, and several first century the Yueh-Chi chief Kujula Kadphises united the five
branches of the Shakas controlled a much larger part of India than tribes of the Yueh-Chi, crossed the Hindukush mountains and
116 A N C I E N T INDIA
INVASIONS, T R A D E A N D CULTURE 117
established himself in Kabul and Kashmir; he is credited with the
defeat of the last of the Greek kings in Kabul. Kujula died at the age Buddhist emblems appear on his coins, but they are few and are
of eighty. His son Vima Kadphises succeeded him.Vima issued gold outnumbered far by other types of coins bearing the images of non-
coins, which influenced subsequent Kushana monetary policy; for Buddhist and non-Indian deities. This is indicative of a policy of
after him the Kushanas minted basically in gold and copper. religious syncretism which was necessary to promote the existing
After a brief interregnum the house of Kadphises was succeeded variety of cultures and religious traditions in Kanishka's far-flung
by that of Kanishka, whose relationship with the two preceding empire and to encourage a peacefbl interaction among them. Kanishka
kings is uncertain. The provenance of the gold coins of the Kushanas is traditionally believed to have died fighting in Central Asia. The
and of their inscriptions indicates that they had established their sway 1 Chinese annals speak of a Kushana king who had asked for a Han
not only over the north-western India and Sindh but also over the I princess in marriage and was defeated by the general Pan Chao
greater part of the Gangetic valley. Kanishka was the most famous towards the end of the first century AD. That king may have been
ruler of the Kushana dynasty. Under him the Kushanas reached the Kanishka. His successors ruled for a hundred years, but the Kushana
height of their power and became a mighty force in the contemporary power declined under them. About the middle of the third century
world. In India his suzerainty extended as far south as Sanchi and as AD a king of the Sassanian dynasty of Persia defeatedvasudeva, one of
far east as Banaras. In Central Asia his dominions were extensive. Kanishka's descendants, and reduced the Kushanas to a subordinate
Purushapur (Peshawar) was his capital, Mathura being the second position.
most important city of the empire. The date of his accession is a Meanwhile new kingdoms had come into being in the region to
matter of inconclusive debate but AD 78 seems to be the most probable the south-east of the Chotanagpur plateau and in the Deccan. One
of the dates suggested so far.This year marks the beginning of an era of them was Kalinga. First conquered by the Nandas and then re-
that came to be known as the Shaka era; the recent suggestion that it conquered by Ashoka, it contained a Maurya provincial headquarter
began in AD 120 or 144 is far fiom convincing. at Tosali, and its people lived in a prestate phase. The interaction
Kanishka is often remembered for his association with Buddhism. between the autochthonous elements and the Maurya power, however,
Himself a Buddhist convert, he convened the fourth Buddhist council accelerated the process of state formation in the region and Kalinga
in Kashmir to discuss matters relating to theology and doctrine. H e emerged as an independent state towards the end of the second
encouraged missionary activities; Buddhist missions were sent to century BC under a local ruling house of the Mahameghavahanas.
Central Asia and China. Kanishka is said to have constructed at Under Kharavela, the third ruler of this line, in the middle of the
Peshawar a multistoreyed tower enshrining a relic of the Buddha. first century BC it achieved political prominence and remained a
The Chinese traveller Hsuan Tsang, who came to India in the seventh source of trouble to the Magadhan rulers for some time. A long
century, gives a detailed account of the stupa. Even at the time of Al- inscription of Kharavela from Hathigumpha, engraved on the
Biruni (eleventh century) it was a vivid memory. Excavations at Udayagiri hills near Bhuvaneswar, enables us to reconstruct his
Peshawar have provided a plan of the stupa, the location of the vihara, biography despite its being in a bad state of preservation. He was a
a few examples of figurative sculpture in stone and stucco, and the Jaina by faith, though given to military conquests. H e claims to have
celebrated Kanishka reliquary. defeated the king of the western Deccan, occupied Rajagriha in the
Several Buddhist theologians are associated with Kanishka- north and conquered Magadha. The record also tells us that he
Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra, Parshva, Sangharaksha, Dharmatrata and attacked the Greeks in the north-west, and overran the Pandyan
Matricheta. But Kanishka's patronage of Buddhism seems to have kingdom in the south. Kharavela enlarged an irrigation canal originally
been essentially political. Legends apart, there is very little evidence dug by a Nanda king and spent large sums of money on the welfare
to suggest that his conversion to Buddhism was a profound experience. of his subjects. Afier him Kalinga lapsed into a political oblivion for
several centuries. Though Pliny (died AD 79) refers to the Kalingas
118 A N C I E N T INDIA INVASIONS, T R A D E A N D C U L T U R E 119
practice of erecting mortuary temples to house statues of dead kings hard and engaged in cultivation.The investment of physical labour in
(devakula).The cult of the dead king however did not find congenial a piece of unclaimed land made the individual its owner. According
soil in India. The indigenous writings of the period fiequently refer to Manu, the most important lawgiver of the period whose injunctions
to the divine origin of kingship. But the deification of the king did have influenced Indian society for centuries and have created a ferment
not substantially add to his authority and administrative hold over the in our own times, a field belonged to him who first cleared the
country. timber and a deer to him who first wounded it. The principle was
O n their part the Satavahanas started the practice of donating land very likely enunciated to encourage cultivation of virgin land by
with fiscal and administrative immunities to brahmanas and Buddhist private individuals.
monks, which eventually weakened their central authority. Reference From the economic point of view, the most striking development
to gifts of land to priests is found in earlier literature, but the earliest of the period was the thriving trade between India and the Western
inscriptional evidence for a land grant in India belongs to the first world. The initial basis for the growth of trade was provided by
century BC, when the Satavahanas bestowed villages (grama) on priests the Mauryas, who are said to have greatly improved internal com-
for officiating atVedic sacrifices. Initially such grants were accompanied munications. To them is attributed the construction of the Royal
by exemption from the payment of taxes. But gradually the Satavahanas Highway from Pataliputra to Taxila. Pataliputra was connected by
seem to have also surrendered administrative rights to the donees. In road to Tamralipti (Tamluk) in the Gangetic delta, the chief port for
a record of the second century AD the Satavahana ruler Gautamiputra ships sailing to Burma and Ceylon. Land routes to south India however
Shatakarni is said to have instructed royal officials not to interfere developed after the Mauryas. These were mainly along the river
with the administration of a donated field or village. In such a valleys, the coasts and often through mountain passes. Different parts
situation the beneficiaries were free to manage the administrative of the country were now connected by trade routes, some leading to
affairs in the donated areas. The gift villages thus tended to become Western and Central Asia. Taxila was connected by a highway with
semi-independent administrative pockets, which enfeebled royal control Kabul, from where roads went in different directions. The northern
over the countryside. route passed through Bactria (north Afghanistan),_the Oxus region,
Land grants were ostensibly made on religious grounds. But the the Caspian sea and the Caucasus to the Black Sea. The southern
underlying idea of donating land was to extend the area of cultiva- route was from Kandahar and Herat to Ecbatana (later Hamadan
tion through private efforts. A large number of new settlements, in Persia); from there traders travelled overland to the eastern
therefore, came into being in the agriculturally rich and fertile areas Mediterranean coast. A highway also ran from Kandahar to Persepolis
of the Satavahana territory, their major concentration being around and Susa in Persia. Ships travelling fiom the western ports followed
Nasik, Junar, Karle and in the upper Krishna valley4aroundKolhapur. the coastal route to Aden or Socotra; from there the voyage could be
These settlements provided a much needed resource base for the undertaken to the Red Sea. From somewhere near modern Suez
ports on the western coast which handled the bulk of India's trade goods could be sent overland to Alexandria, which was an important
with the Mediterranean during the early centuries of the Christian trading centre of the Mediterranean world. According to a persistent
era. view, a landmark in the development of communications was the
The Satavahanas did not possess the vast bureaucracy of the 'discovery' of the monsoon winds by the Greek sailor Hippalus
Mauryas.They could np!, therefore regulate various economic activities, around AD 46-7 which made the mid-ocean navigation of the Arabian
as the Mauryas had done. The clearing of forests and founding of Sea possible, reducing the distance between Indian and West Asian
new settlements under the aegis of the state was not possible, and ports. But recent scholarship has treated this with increasing scepticism
agricultural expansion depended on individual eff0rts.A contemporary and one scholar has gone to the extent of dismissing the 'discovery'
Buddhist work refers to individual farmers in large numbers working
theory as a 'Roman ethnocentric nonsense'. The Greeks, in fact,
INVASIONS. T R A D E AND C U L T U R E 125
Roman women not only wore Indian pearls on their fingers and ears
but also put them on their shoes. No less was the Roman demand
for Indian muslin. Woman decked in seven folds of Indian muslin
paraded the streets of Rome. We are told they became a menace to
the city's morals. Silk, which was brought &om China, was also
supplied by Indian merchants to the Roman empire. It was considered
so important that the Roman emperor Aurelian declared it to be
worth its weight in gold. The frenetic pursuit of luxury in the
Roman world aroused the indignation of a section of the ruling class
and was a theme of animated debate in the Roman senate. Pliny not
only condemned 'the insatiable women's craving for luxuries' but
also lamented that this led to a drain of 100 million sesterces of gold
from Rome each year, half of it to India alone. Despite an element
of exaggeration in Pliny's account, there is little doubt that the Romans
sent to India a large quantity of gold and silver coins. N o less than
one hundred and twenty-nine finds of Roman coins have been
reported so far in India, most of them fiom the peninsula.
In return for her exports India imported from the Roman empire
such commodities as topaz, thin cloth, linen, antimony, glassware,
copper, tin, lead, wine, realgar, orpiment and wheat. The Pcriplus
also tells us of the import of dainty damsels for concubinage in
Indian royal establishments. The Roman world exported to India
wine amphorae and red glazed Arretine ware, which have been found
at Arikamedu (near Pondicherry) and several other places. An
important pottery type called the Red Polished Ware found in western
India also is believed to have Mediterranean origin. But it is likely
that much of the ceramic types found in India were local imitations.
The import of bronze objects from the West is attested by the evidence
from Ter and Kolhapur (Maharashtra). Similarly archaeology testifies
to the import of Roman glass.The Romans also sent to India a large
number of gold and silver coins which, as stated earlier, may have
been the cause of Pliny's indignation. India was certainly a gainer in
its trade with the West. But compared to the Roman or eastern
Mediterranean objects found in India, the tangible archaeological
evidence of Indian commodities in the West is lacking. Ivory objects
of Indian origin have been found in Afghanistan and further west. In
Rome itself, however, nothing more than an ivory statuette from
\ Pompeii has been found.
INVASIONS, TRADE A N D CULTURE 127
126 ANCIENT INDIA
The list of commodities exchanged between India and the sity during the time of the Kushanas. In the middle Gangetic basin
Mediterranean world is interesting. But not all Indian export items Kaushambi, Varanasi and Pataliputra occupied a pride of place. In
were available in suEcient quantity within the country to meet the Bengal Tarnralipti (Tarnluk) and Chandraketugarh remained important
Roman demand, the most important being spices. This scarcity pori-towns until about the third century. In Rajasthan, Viratnagar
inevitably encouraged trade between India on the one hand and
Ceylon and South-East Asia on the other. Ivory, tortoise-shell and
other merchandise, Strabo (63 BC-AD 21) tells us, were brought in
abundance to the Indian markets from Ceylon. Sandalwood was
obtained from eastern Indonesia, cinnamon and cassia fiom mainland
South-East Asia and camphor fiom the Malay peninsula, Sumatra and
Borneo.All this implies that the commerce bk&een India and South- 1
East Asia supported trading activities in the western Indian Ocean.
Connected with the phenomenon of trade was the growth of
money economy in the early centuries before and after the Christian
era.The imported coins were mostly used as bullion; they may have
circulated only in large transactions, if at all. But evidence to prove
the development of indigenous currency is not wanting. In the north
the Indo-Greeks issued few gold coins; but the Kushanas minted
gold in considerable numbers. For day-to-day transactions gold and
silver coins could not serve as a medium of exchange; the Satavahanas,
however, issued coins in metals of low value, lead or potin. This
indicates that money became prevalent in the Deccan and the coastal
area. In north and north-western India the Kushanas minted copper
coins in large numbers, which may have circulated in ordinary
transactions. Copper coins were also issued by the Naga rulers and
several other indigenous dynasties. No other period of ancient Indian
history is known for so many varieties of coins as this period. This
indicates that money economy had penetrated deep into the econonic
life of the common people.
Trade and coinage were inextricably linked with the process of
centre; its peak of prosperity is very well documented for the period
200 BC-AD 200. In Jammu and Kashmir twenty-three sites with
urban features have been explored; they all belong to the Kushana
Plate 5: Obverse and reverse o f (a) coin o f
Kshaharata Bhumaka from Mathura; (b) coin o f
Kaniska, son of Huvishka, found at Sonkh,
period. Numerous settlements were founded in the Panjab during Mathura; and (c) gold coin o f Huvishka.
this phase. In western Uttar Pradesh Mathura was the most thriving
128 ANCIENT INDIA
INVASIONS, TRADE AND CULTURE 129
(modern Bairat in Jaipur district) and Madhyamika (modern Nagari
in Chittorgarh district) flourished in the early centuries of the Christian less than two dozen guilds of artisans existed in this period.The guild
era. Tripuri and Eran in Madhya Pradesh, and Maheshwar-Navdatoli system seems to have become the general pattern of production,
in Gujarat were centres of artisanal and trading activity during this facilitating high output. Inscriptions attest the existence of many of
period. Many sites excavated in Andhra Pradesh bear evidence of them in the Mathura region, and the western Deccan, where
urban occupation during the Satavahana period; most of them Govardhana was an important centre of guilds of artisans. The guilds
participated in India's trade with the outside world. The important sometimes acted as trustees and bankers. A Satavahana record of the
among them were Dhulikatta (Karimnagar district), Yeleshwaram second century states that money (in silver pana) was deposited by lay
(Nalgonda district), Kondapur (Medak district),Dharanikota,Arnaravati devotees of Buddhism with potters, oil-millers and weavers for the
and Nagarjunakonda (all in Guntur district). In Tamilnadu most urban purpose of providing robes and other necessities for monks. A
sites are located in the plains, particularly in the coastal belt. Among contemporary record fiom Mathura refers to a chief who deposited
them Arikamedu seems to have had the strongest Roman connection, money with the guild of flour-millers for the maintenance of a
though Kaveripattinam and Uraiyur, both situated in the Kaveri hundred brahmanas out of the interest on it. The guilds evidently
delta, were also important participants in contemporary commercial utilized the capital deposited with them to augment production and
activities. paid interest on it out of the proceeds from the sale of their com-
Increased commercial activity and the consequent growth of money modities.The possibility of increasing output may have prompted the
economy led to a proliferation of arts and crafts. According to the guilds to hire additional labour, both fiee labour and slaves. This
Mahavastu, a Buddhist work of about the second century, more than naturally gave a measure of freedom to artisans and crafismen.
36 kinds of workers lived in the town of ~ a j g i rThe . Milindapanho Presumably because of their wealth, the guilds emerged as an
provides a list of 75 occupations, of which nearly 60 were connected important factor in post-Maurya society. In several cities they seem
with various kinds of crafts. The growth in arts and crafts led to to have issued coins, which was ordinarily done by sovereign powers.
increasing specialization and consequently to the achievement of At least five pre-Indo-Greek coins issued by guilds have come to
greater technical skill in certain spheres of production. Thus we are light in the Taxila excavations; they indicate that on the eve of the
told that out of the 75 occupations listed in the Milindapanho 8 were Greek occupation ofTaxila the administration of the city was carried
connected with the working of such mineral products as gold, silver, on by a c6rporation of merchants, The practice of issuing coins by
lead, tin, copper, brass, iron and precious stones or jewels. Iron merchant groups seems to have prevailed also in such other towns as
working seems to have made considerable progress, for the Periplus Kaushambi, Tripuri (modern Tewar on the Narmada), Mahishmati
refers to Indian iron and steel as imports into the Egyptian ports.The (modern Mandhata),Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh), Eran (now a village
period witnessed a progress in the techniques of textile manufacture. in the pagar district of Madhya Pradesh), Madhyamika (identified
The Milindapanho states that Gotami, the aunt of the Buddh, adopted with modern Nagari near Chitor in Rajasthan),Varanasi, etc. Even
five processes of making cloth. Patanjali testifies to the special celebrity when the Satavahanas and Kushanas established their kingdom in the
attained by Mathura in the manufacture of textiles, especially sataka, first two centuries of the Christian era, the rulers could not ignore
a kind of cloth. The influx of Chinese silk into India stimulated the the merchant guilds (nigama scbha) in the towns of the Deccan,
domestic silk industry. Thus considerable technological advance in though clear proof of their actual participation in administration is
different sectors of production may be postulated for the post-Maurya lacking.
period. Membership of a guild provided status and security to an artisan.
Increase in trade demanded an efficient organization of production The guilds fixed rules of work, quality and the price of the finished
and distribution. Individual artisans congregated together and formed products.The behaviout of the guild members was controlled through
guilds; merchants also organized themselves into corporations. NO a guild court. The customary usage of the guild had the force of law
for its members. A married woman willing to join the Buddhist
130 A N C I E N T INDIA INVASIONS, TRADE A N D CULTURE 131
order had to seek the permission of not only her husband but also social institutions. They laid down inheritance rules which deprived
the guild to which she belonged. Guild laws were protected by the women of their right to property and lowered the age of marriage,
state, as can be inferred from the law-code of Manu. Guilds had their which took away their fieedom to choose their husbands. As an
own insignia, banners and seals, which gave them publicity. The most unmarried girl a woman had to depend on her father, as a wife on
effective method of self-advertisement of the professional guilds was her husband and as a widow on her son. She was, according to Manu,
to make liberal religious donations. Smiths, perfumers, weavers, gold- a seductress.
smiths and even leather-workers are said to have donated caves, The stringent legal injunctions laid down by Manu may be viewed
pillars, tablets, cisterns and other items to Buddhist establishments. as an effort to protect a traditional varna order now in close contact
Artisans and craftsmen were largely drawn in this period from the with alien peoples, often known in Indian sources as Yavanas and
shudras, who gained in wealth and status on account of the progress whose settlements in the north-western India existed even in earlier
of crafts and commerce. With the disappearance of the Maurya state, times. The vast body of Kharoshthi inscriptions of the early Christian
which regulated all economic activities, the guilds became powerful centuries found in this region do not mention the termyavana, but
and perhaps secured a certain measure of independence for artisans. many names occurring in them are surely of Greek origin. Similarly
The economic distinctions between the vaishyas and the shudras thus numerous Kushana finds, such as coins, terracottas and sculptures,
tended to be blurred. But most of the artisans were confined to the indicate that they came in considerable numbers. In western India,
urban centres like Taxila and Mathura in the north and the coastal the high visibility of the alien Yavanas, in the donative records at
towns and their hinterlands in the Deccan and the south. It is therefore Karle makes their presence in its vicinity unquestionable. In south
difficult to postulate any major change in the living conditions of the India also, most of the urban centres, which prospered on foreign
class of the shudras. Generally they continued to be employed as trade, had by now considerable numbers ofyavanas. The Shangam
hired labour and slaves. The lawgiver Manu laid down a number of poems make repeated references to them. In the city of Kaveripattanam
laws which adversely affected their economic position; in his view (situated at the mouth of the river Kaveri), we are told, the onlooker's
the shudras were meant for serving the upper varnas. In cases of attention was caught by their abodes. The presence in India of
assault and similar crimes the punishments prescribed for them were foreigners who achieved poFtical and economic importance posed a
very harsh. According to Manu, the very limb with which a man of threat to the caste system. Brahmana orthodoxy could not dub them
a low caste hurt a member of the highest caste was to be cut off. If, as outcastes; on the contrary it had to come to terms with them, as is
for example, a shudra insulted a twice-born with gross invective, he evident in the Mahabharata.At one place in this text they are described
would have his tongue cut out. Legally, a member of a higher varna as the sons of Yayati and at another they are said to have sprung
could marry a woman of a lower order. But Patanjali tells us that the fiom the body ofVasisht~a9scow together with the Pahlavas. In one
dasi (maid servant) and vrislznli (shudra woman) were meant for the passage theyavanas are degraded as shudras and in another Indra says
pleasures of men of the upper classes. Most shudras seethed in that they can be admitted into the brahmanical social order if they
discontent. It is not unlikely that they often turned against brahmanas follow the brahmanical dharma. Mutually contradictory though these
and other higher castes and caused tension in society. This can be statements may appear, they are all indicative of efforts to assimilate
inferred fi-om several early Puranic passages of the late third and early them into Indian society. Shrewdly enough, the lawgiver Manu
fourth century which indicate that society was passing through a conferred the status of 'fallen kshatriyas' (vratya kshatriya) on them.
crisis known as the Kaliyuga and that the institutions of family, The absorption of foreigners into Indian society was made easier
private property and the varna system were under attack. Therefore through the adoption of Buddhism, which did not raise difficulties
the law givers not only provided a number of safeguards against about caste. This explains why a number offoreign rulers patronized
shudra hostility but also for protection of the brahmanical patriarchal the religion of the Buddha. The Indo-Greek Agathocles displayed
D
INVASIONS, T R A D E A N D CULTURE 133
132 ANCIENT INDIA
Buddhist symbols on his coins, and so did Menander. Several gifts by cave monasteries were situated along trade routes running through
,
individuals of Greek origin are known to have been made. One Irila the well-marked mountain passes of the western Ghats. Evidently
built two cisterns for monks at Junar; Chitta constructed a meeting located at .important stages on the journey, these abbeys served as
hall for the Samgha at the same place. Indragnidata excavated a cave resting places, supply houses and banking houses for caravans.
at Nasik, and Dhenukakata built a temple at Karle. The Kushanas, As a result of lavish donations the Buddhist monasteries tended to
, Kanishka especially, also made munificent donations to Buddhist become repositories of wealth. Some of the cells in the main body of
establishments. In their time a number of missions were sent abroad, the vihara at Karle and several other places in the Deccan have 'inner
and Buddhism came into contact with the foreign peoples. In the compartments without light or ventilation; these may have been used
process of proselytizing Buddhism received new ideas. This however for safe-keeping of precious goods. Most of the outer cells had strong
wooden doors which could be barred from within and locked from
was not true of the brahmanical religion; the only important evidence
without. All this indicates the presence of substantial wealth in the
of its following among non-Indians is perhaps the pillar inscription
monasteries. Some of the recorded gifts to Buddhist monasteries
(c. 120-100 BC) of the Graeco-Bactrian king Antialkidas' ambassador
Heliodorus at Vidisha. were made by monks and nuns. At Sanchi, for example, out of more
Indigenous support for Buddhism came mainly from the mercantile than six hundred recorded donations two hundred were made by
community, which was by all accounts prosperous. Many stupas and them.That they had the money for donations shows that they flouted
monasteries of this period owed their existence to the charity of the earlier Buddhist canon, which required a new entrant into the
merchants.Through trade Buddhism travelled to Western and Central order to give away all his possessions and then renounce worldly
life. The reinterpretation of the doctrine of the Buddha was thus
Asia, China and South-East Asia. Within the country, most Buddhist
rendered inevitable when the renouncer became a parasite of the
renounced.
Differences over what really constituted the teachings of the Buddha
had begun soon after his death. Attcmpts had been made to maintain
the unity of the order through a series of councils, though without
much success. By the time of Kanishka as many as eighteen Buddhist
sects are said to have come into being. According to tradition, during
the time of Kanishka the fourth Buddhist council was held in KashMr,
where the first great schism of Buddhism was recognized. The more
orthodox adherents of the religion b i m e d that theirs was the original
teaching of the Buddha; they were called the Hinayana sect or the
followers of the LesserVehicle. In course of time Hinayana Buddhism
became popular in Ceylon, Burma and the countries of South-East
Asia.The Mahayanists (the followers of the Mahayana or the Greater
Vehicle) dominated in India, Central Asia, Tibet, China and Japan.
One of the outstanding early exponents of Mahayanism was Nagarjuna,
a convert from a northern Deccan brahmana family.
The hallmark of the Mahayana was the Bodhisattva doctrine, which
Plate 6: Anathapindika's gift of Jetavana to Buddha showing was a logical development of the earlier Buddhist ideas. According to
the water vessel essential for pouring water to make the gift. the older doctrine the Bodhisattva lived in wisdom and love and
Bharhut, Central India, Sunga period, second century BC.
Indian Museum. Calcutta.
wrought many deeds of kindness and mercy, and ultimately became
134 A N C I E N T INDIA INVASIONS, T R A D E A N D CULTURE 135
the Buddha. Ordinary believers were therefore encouraged to emulate religion suffered a split towards the end of the first century A D . T ~ ~
him and attain nirvana. But in the Mahayanist thought the Bodhisattva orthodox Jainas came to be known as the Digambaras (sky clad) and
was one who worked selflessly for the good of all mankind and bided the liberal ones as Shvetambaras (white-clad). From Magadha Jainas
his time until all living beings could achieve the goal. The older moved westwards to Mathura and then to Ujjain and finally settled in
Buddhism had regarded individual salvation as the goal; the new Saurashtra. They also migrated to Kalinga, where under Kharavela
doctrine had as its objective the salvation of all beings. they enjoyed royal patronage for a while. Like Buddhism, Jainism
The Bodhisattva was conceived as a previous incarnation of the also developed image worship. The Hathigumpha inscription refers
Buddha; this led to the belief that one could accumulate spiritual to the removal of a Jina image from Kalinga to Pataliputra as early as
merit through successive births. Logically enough the Mahayana the time of the Magadhan king Nanda and to its recovery by Kharavela
emphasized that merit was transferable from one person to another; (in the first century BC). Several well-carved Jaina images and votive
numerous Buddhist dedicatory records indicate that this could be tablets with Jina figures have been discovered at Mathura, but on the
done through a pious act in the name of a person to whom merit whole Jainism remained conservative.
was to be transferred. The growing popularity of Buddhism and other heterodox sects
The Bodhisattva of the Mahayana was not only a spirit of went against Vedic sacrifice and animal slaughter. The heretical attack
con~passionbut also of suffering, who redeemed humanity through on Vedic institutions and sacrifices seriously undermined the prestige
his own suffering. A belief current in West Asia at that time was and authority of the brahmanas, who therefore appropriated popular
evidently borrowed by the Mahayana Buddhism: from the idea of the cults with significant followings. In the process brahmanical religion
'suffering saviour' was derived the concept of Maitreya Buddha, who underwent important changes: most h f the Vedic gods passed into
would appear in future to redeem mankind. The Mahayana created oblivion and their place was taken by a trinity of gods, with Brahma
in course of time a pantheon of noble and beneficient Bodhisattvas, as the creator,Vishnu as the preserver and Shiva as the destroyer of
who claimed the faith and allegiance of the devotees. The Buddha the evil-ridden world. In course of time Vishnu and Shiva emerged
himself came to be increasingly looked upon as the earthly as the most important gods of the brahmanical pantheon. Their
manifestation of a mighty spiritual being. He was elevated h m a devotees later constituted two separate sects.
religious teacher to a saviour god. The worship of the image of the Vishnu was thought of as the suprerue god. After Brahma created
Buddha with elaborate rituals, formulae and charms soon took the the universe Vishnu, who had been sleeping in the primeval ocean
place of the earlier simple faith in him-a development which the on the thousand-headed snake Shesha, awoke to reign from the
founder of the religion would have loathed. The earlier practice of highest heaven Vaikuntha. From there he observes the world; when
worshipping the symbols of the Buddha continued, but his image evil is rampant he appears in various incarnations (avataras) to save
became increasingly common fkom around the turn of the Christian mankind. Perhaps this idea was borrowed from the Bodhisattva -
era. One of the earliest specimens of the Buddha image, conjecturally doctrine of Buddhism. It may have evolved with the identification of
dated to the first century BC, comes from Mathura.The Buddha was Vishnu with Krishna, who is mentioned in the Rigveda as a demon
transformed into a personal god, to whom his followers could pray and an enemy of Indra. By the early centuries of the Christian era
for succour in distress. As a result the doctrine of bhakti (loving Krishna was the incarnation ofVishnu and the fountain-head of all
devotion) evolved as a characteristic feature of the Mahayana religious philosophy, goading Arjuna to fight against his Kuru cousins
Buddhism. Thus the Buddhism that evolved after the meeting of the on the battlefield and pulling strings ofitage most of the time in the
fourth Buddhist council was strikingly different fiom the original Mahabharata.
conception of its founder. Shiva, mentioned by Megasthenes as Dionysus, evolved fiom the
Like Buddhism, Jainism also did not remain unchanged. The Rigvedic god Rudra and the Tamil god Myrugan, though his Tamil
136 ANCIENT INDIA INVASIONS, TRADE A N D CULTURE 137
antecedents are sometimes doubted. A number of non-Aryan fertility b m unflinching faith; not surprisingly Krishna, despite his rather
cults, such as those of the phallic emblem (lingam) and the bull qestionable personal track record, was accepted as the incarnation
(nandl), merged with the worship of of Shiva. The earliest evidence of the supreme Vishnu. The concept of bhakti was first expounded
of the phallic cult goes back to the Harappan period. It was in- clearly ostensibly by Krishna himself in the Bhagavadgita.
corporated into Brahmanism around the beginning of the Christian In spite of a gradual shift in emphasis from ritual to devotion as
era, and Shiva has since been worshipped chiefly in the form of a the means of attaining nearness to god,Vedic sacrifice was not entirely
linga. Yet Shiva is worshipped in human form as well. One of the rejected. The people, however, were gradually losing touch with the
earliest representations of him in human form comes from the village Vedic tradition. The religious importance previously enjoyed by the
Gudimallam (in Andhra Pradesh), where a l . 5 m high and extremely Vedic texts now came to be attached to the Ramayana and Mahabharata
realistic emblem bears upon it a malformed dwarf on whose shoulders and the Puranas. The Epics were bardic in origin and secular in
stands the two-armed god, holding a ram in his right hand, and a character. They had therefore to be revised by the brahmanas so as
water vessel and battle axe in the left one, with his sex mark to give them a religious character. The process took several centuries
prominently shown below the diaphanous loin cloth. and resulted in substantial interpolations in their original kernel. The
Simultaneously with the emergence of these gods, Brahmanism most important interpolation was the Gita, which has been dated
was assimilating a variety of popular cults. Animals, trees, mountains around the second century BC. It contains 700 tightly woven stanzas,
and rivers came to acquire divine associations. The cow became an which provide the first clear exposition of the basic tenets of the
object of worship; the seeds of modern communal Indian politics Vaishnava faith. No wonder the Gita later became the basic text of
were thus sown. After the cow, the snake was the most revered the Vaishnavas. In our own times it is talked about,more often than
animal; originally it was the centre of primitive fertility rites. The read, its glaring contradictions and poetic excexence being con-
Vaikuntha mountain became sacred to Vishnu, as Kailasha to Shiva. veniently ignored by those who tirelessly swear by it.
Vaikuntha, thought to be situated in the highest heavens has not
been identified; Kailasha is generally recognized as a peak in the
central Himalaya. Tree cults were also absorbed into the brahmanical
faith. The pipal or ashvattha and the vata (banyan) were especially
sacred trees. The tulasi or a holy basil plant was sacred to Vishnu. It is
still grown in the courtyards of traditional Hindu homes; Krishna, an
incarnation of Vishnu, is still married every year at a fixed date to
the goddess Vrinda who is represented by this plant. The waters of
the Ganga were held sacred; in the myths the river is said to haye
sprung fiom the foot of Vishnu and fallen to earth through the
matted locks of Shiva. Most of the above-mentioned cults had roots
in primitive popular beliefs and practices and have survived to our
own day.
The .brahmanical religion, which evolved through a process of
syncretism with popular cults, was based on the doctrine of bhakti.
Borrowed from Buddhism, it preached that a completely personal
relationship between the god and his devotee was possible through Plate 7: Stupa I (Great Stupa). Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, c. third century BC
devotion and not just by performing sacrifice. Devotion was to arise through first century m.
138 A N C I E N T INDIA INVASIONS, T R A D E A N D CULTURE 139
The brahmanical religion was still in its formative stage. Art and their surrounding gateways with railings, consist of the cave
therefore centred round Buddhism. Much wealth was spent on it by temples whose beginnings may be ascribed to the reign of Ashoka.
rich merchants, guilds and kings. The artistic remains of the period Dug in hill-sides, caves were used as shrines, temples or dwellings by
consist chiefly of Buddhist stupas and cave temples. The stupa began the monks. In the western Deccan, under the Satavahanas and their
as a pre-Buddhist burial mound; by the time of Ashoka the cult of successors, the largest and the most famous of artificial caves were
the stupa had been taken up by Buddhism. It was a hemishpherical excavated, the oldest in the area being at Bhaja near Poona. Roughly
dome built over the relics of the Buddha or a sanctified monk or a contemporaneous with the Bhaja caves may be a part of the group
sacred text.The relic was placed in a central chamber at the base of of early Buddhist caves at Pitalkhora. The structure at Karle, dating
the stupa, which was surrounded by a path and enclosed by railings. probably to the early second century AD,is the finest example of the
O f surviving stupa railings the earliest comes from Bharhut and dates more elaborate and ornate cave architecture. The Karle cave has a
to the second century BC. At about the same time the older Sanchi rectangular entrance leading into a chaitya hall (meeting hall of Buddhist
stupa was renovated and enlarged to twice its original size.The stupa monks and lay worshippers), which also is rectangular. This is cut
of Amaravati, larger and more ornate than the one at Sanchi, seems about 37 m deep into the solid rock, with an apse at one end
to have been completed by about the second century AD. containing a miniature stupa; its width is 14 m. Its ceiling rises 13 m
The chief architectural remains of the period, other than stupas above the floor and has rock-cut ribs. which were an imitation of the
barrel-vaulting of a wooden building. The rock-cut sanctuaries grew specimens which are archaic and uncertain in their treatment of the
in size and splendour over time, as can be seen at Ajanta and Ellora theme. The northern and mid-Indian plastic tradition was carried to
(both near Aurangabad in Maharashtra), where some of the caves Anlaravati and the Deccan caves, where considerable mastery of
belong to this period. The only surviving examples of wall paintings sculpture was achieved by about the second century A D . T devotees
~~
from this period are found at Ajanta in a rock-cut chaitya hall, which of Jainism patronized a school of sculpture at ~ a t h u r a here
; at an
goes back to the second or the first century Bc.The Jainas also had early period the artists working for centuries in the white-spotted
their cave temples, notable among them being those at Udayagiri/ red sandstone of the locality, produced votive plaques depicting the
Khandagiri hills near Bhuvaneswar in Orissa. They were, however, cross-legged naked figure of a Tirthankara in meditation.The Mathura
not as elaborate as those of the Buddhists. school, as it came to be known, is said to have begun at the end of
Sculpture functioned mainly as ornamentation of the gateways the first century BC. Later it received the patronage of the Kushana
and rails of the great Buddhist sites at Bharhut, Gaya and Sanchi. kings, some of whose portrait statues have also been discovered near
Sculptural remains at these places represent different stages in the Mathura, the most we11 know~lbeing a statue of Kanishka of which
evolution of the art; those at Sanchi, perhaps latest in the series, only the headless trunk has survived. Mathura produced the first
show the highest degree of excellence in contrast to the Bharhut image of the Buddha, his presence in the earlier stupas being indicated
Plate 10: Life events of Shakyamuni Buddha. Plate 1 1 : Kanishka. Mathura, Uttar Pradesh,
Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh, Satavahana Kushan period, reign o f Kanishka or later
period, c. second century. White marble. c. second century. Reddish sandstone.
Ht: 160 cm. British Museum, London. Ht: 170 cm. Mathura Museum, Mathura.
I N V A S I O N S , T R A D E A N D CULTURE
by symbols; it had not yet become the home town of the many-
faceted Krishna whose earliest artistic portrayal (belonging to around
the fifth century) is found at a place called Arra near Varanasi. In
technique and artistic execution the Mathura craftsmen owed a great
deal to the earlier Indian tradition. But they also borrowed more
Plate 12: Woman with a bird cage. From a than one Graeco-Roman motif from Gandhara in the north-west,
railing pillar, Bhutesar, Mathura, Kushana
period, second century AD. Red sandstone.
where a distinct and prolific school of art flourished from about the
Ht: 129 cm. Indian Museum, Calcutta. middle of the first century BC to the fifth century AD. The Mathura
INVASIONS, TRADE AND C U L T U R E 145
500 km.
--
(I,
- '
T H E M Y T H OF T H E G O L D E N AGE 153
accompanying the land grants included the royal right over salt and the secret parts of his body. Those engaged in agricultural activities
mines, which were royal monopolies in the Maurya period and are described by Narada as doing pure work and are not included in
evidently signs of sovereignty. Now villages were granted in perpetuity the category of slaves. The institution of slavery tended to become
to the beneficiaries, often with administrative rights. In gift villages weak, though this dld not mean any relief in the sufferings of the
the inhabitants, cultivators and artisans included, were often asked by peasantry.
their rulers not only to pay the customary taxes to the donees but The recipients of donations of land and village enjoyed the right
also to obey their commands; this is proved by many records from of subinfeudation. This eroded the rights of the peasantry. They were
central India. The recipients of land grants in north India were often authorized to enjoy the land, to get it enjoyed, to cultivate it or
empowered to punish thieves and other criminals; in central and get it cultivated.The donated land could thus be assigned to tenants
western India from the fifih century onwards they were also given on certain terms.This implied the donees' right to evict tenants fiom
the right to try civil cases. The transfer of magisterial and police their 1and.The practice of subinfeudation therefore reduced permanent
powers together with fiscal rights to the donees not only weakened tenants to the position of tenants-at-will.
the royal authority but also led to the oppression of peasants and The imposition of forced labour (vishti) and several new levies and
inhabitants of the gift villages who were asked to obey their new taxes from the Gupta period onwards hrther undermined the position
masters and carry out their orders. of peasants. In the Maurya period slaves and hired labourers were
The land grants paved the way for the growth of feudal society. subjected to forced labour; this was supervised by an officer and paid
Several inscriptions indicate the emergence of serfdom, which meant for. But from the Gupta period onwards it was extended to all classes
that the peasants were attached to their land even when it was given of subjects, and came to include all kinds of work. The Kamasutra of
away. Perhaps this began in south India in the earlier period because Vatsyayana informs us that peasant women were forced to perform
a third-century Pallava inscription informs us that four sharecroppers unpaid work of various kinds, such as fding the granaries of village
remained attached to the plot which was given to brahmanas. headman, moving things in and out of the house, cleaning the house,
According to Fa-hsien, monasteries built for monks were hrnished working in the fields, purchasing of cotton, wood, flax, hemp and
with houses, gardens and fields, and with husbandmen and cattle to thread and the purchase, sale and exchange of various articles. It is
cultivate them. This is not corroborated by epigraphic evidence from known from contemporary inscriptions, especially those of the
north India. But in Gujarat, central India and Orissa inscriptions Vakatakas, that villagers were forced to contribute money and
fi-om the sixth century indicate that the peasants were often required provisions to royal troops and officials when they halted at or passed
to remain on their land even when it was granted to others. In fact through the village. They were required to supply flowers and milk
the practice of transferring peasants along with land came into wide to them. Cattle were also hrnished for transport. Apart from these
vogue in the second half of the first millennium AD, which restricted contributions, several new taxes came to be collected from the villagers.
the mobility of independent peasants and reduced them to the position All this must have increased the burden of taxation on the peasantry.
of serfs or semiserfs. Forced labour, taxes and other dues became all the more oppressive
The development of serfdom seems to have coincided with a when the donees were given the right to. collect them; for, unlike
gradual weakening of the institution of slavery; for the land charters the Maurya royal officers who collected dues fi-om the peasants on
of the Gupta period do not speak of slaves being engaged in economic behalf of the state, the recipients of land grants now developed
production. Although the lawgiver Narada mentions fifteen kinds of hereditary vested interests in the exploitation of the resources of the
slaves, they were mostly domestic servants employed in such work as vlllage. The practice of making land grants thus gave rise to feudal
sweeping the gateway, the privy, the road, removing the leavings of agrarian relations and forms of exploitation which generated much
food, ordure, wine, and rubbing the master's limbs or shampooing social tension leading to peasant protest of which considerable evidence
156 ANCIENT INDIA
of gold coins in ancient India, some of them excellent specimens of . Plate 15: Coins of Samudragupta: Chandragupta I-Kumaradevi
craftsmanship. But these could be used only in heavy economic type (1-3), Standard type (4-6).
transactions like the sale and purchase of land of which evidence is
THE MYTH OF THE GOLDEN AGE 159
158 ANCIENT INDIA
piety was in tune with the social outlook of the times, when the (which preached that the male could be activated only through union
feudatories considered themselves as meditating at the feet of their with a female) and to some sort of a demographic explosion in the
masters. This explains the new accent on the doctrine of bhakti in world of divinity resulted fiom interaction beiween brahmanical and
Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Mahayana Buddhism. tribal ideas-, facilitated by the ever increasing number of brahmana
The messianic aspect of Vaishnavism, and to a lesser extent settlements in the backward areas-an interaction which provided a
Shaivism, also became socially more meaningful in the context of the congenial soil for the growth and development of the Tantric religion
emerging feudal social structure of the time. It consisted in the in the second half of the first millennium.
theory of incarnation, first mentioned in the Gita and developed O f all the brahmanical sectsvaishnavism became the most popular
under the influence of the Buddhist doctrine of Bodhisattvas.. under the patronage of the Gupta rulers. It spread in different parts
According to some texts Vishnu goes through as many as thirty-nine of the country and even travelled across the seas to South-East Asia.
avataras, though in the most usual classification the number is fixed as The union of Shri-Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, with Vishnu
ten.They are: Matsya (fish),Kurma (tortoise),Varaha (Boar), Narasimha added to the prestige of the new religion; its spread among the lower
(man-lion), Vaman (dwarf), Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha orders was facilitated by her earlier popularity with the vaishyas and
and Kalki. A different list, however, is found in the k y u Purana, a shudras. The Vishnu cult fulfilled the needs of all sections of society.
work of the Gupta period. It mentions Narayana, Narasimha,Vamana, The kings could pose as incarnations of the god; a Puranic text
Ilattatreya, Mandhata, Jamdagnya, Rama,Vedavyasa, Krishna and Kalki; written probably in the time of Chandragupta I1 describes a'king as
the first three are described as divine incarnations and the rest as endowed with the energy of Vishnu. This led to the exaltation of
hun1an.Vishnu is said to have come in each of the above incarnations kingship. The rich could earn religious merit by setting up images
as a saviour. He is also supposed to appear at the end of Kali age on and building temples for them. The poor could hope to improve
horseback to upmot the mlechchhas and restore dharma. Thus the their condition in the next birth while in this birth they could derive
theory of incarnations (avataravada) fostered a hopeful belief in solace fiom the appearance of the god in the form of an avatara.The
the coming of a redeemer who would deliver his devotees from the adoption of various deities, beliefs and superstitions by Vaishnavism
miseries of the world. This must have appealed pdrticularly to the indicates that it assimilated different popular cults and substituted
lower social orders. The doctrine was also adopted by Shaivism. faith for logic. It therefore acted as an effective instrument for
Twenty-eight avataras of Shiva are listed in a contemporary work. reconciling the masses to their lot and maintaining the social division
But these were more or less imitations ofVishnu incarnations. based on varna.
I11 the Gupta period female divinities, mostly of tribal origin and The existence of Shaivism and its various subsects in the Gupta
background, attained a position of importance which they had never period is amply borne out by the sources. Shiva is extolled as the
enjoyed before. Mother goddesses were worshipped at all times in highest god in some of the Puranas. Like Vaishnavism, Shaivism also
India, but now they emerged from their obscurity and came to be received royal support. At least two Shiva temples of the period have
clearly associated with important brahmanical gods. Shri or Shri- survived, one at Nachna Kuttara (Baghelkhand region) and the other
Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and plenty, became popular among at Nagod (Madhya Pradesh). A sculpture from Mathura shows a
the vaishyas and shudras, and was recognized as the wife ofvishnu; devotee offering his head to Shiva. Perhaps some extreme subsects of
the earliest epigraph referring to this union belongs to the time of the cult preached such practices as human sacrifice.We are told that
Skandagupta. Parvati became the spouse of Shiva; perhaps the first Hsuan Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who came to India in
artistic presentation of her marriage is assigned to the time of the seventh century, was about to be immolated before an image of
Kunlaragupta I. Assimilation of a large number of female deities into Durga, the consort of Shiva, when a sudden miraculous storm made
the bmhamanical pantheon leading to the growth of the Shakti cult his escape possible. The extreme character of Shaivism explains why
I n k M Y 1H UF T H E GOLDEN AGE 165
164 ANCIENT l N D I A
it was less popular than Vaishnavism. Whatever success the religion. The Gupta period may be said to be a landmark in the development
obtained was largely owing to the doctrines it shared with theVaishnava of philosophical ideas.The continuing philosophical debate now veered
system. round the six schools of thought (shaddarshana), which became the
Buddhism had already split into two major sects, Hinayana and chief feature of Indian philosophy. The six systems were: nyaya
Mahayana, each with a number of subsects. Ceylon, Burma, Cambodia (analysis), vaisheshika (individual characteristics),sankhya (enumeration),
and China had by now developed into centres of Hinayana. Fa-hsien yoga (application), mimansa (inquiry), Vedanta (end of the Vedas). Nyaya
noticed the existence of the Hinayana following in Lob-nor, Darada, was a school of logic and epistemology deriving mainly fiom the
Udyana, Gandhara, Bannu, Kanauj and Kashmir. But the Mahayanist sutras or aphorisms of Akshapada Gautama, who may have lived in
branch had also come to stay. Naga rjuna, Aryadeva, Asanga,Vasubandhu the early centuries of the Christian era. Pakshilasvamin Vatsyayana, its
and Dignaga, all exponents of the Mahayana sect, flourished in the main expositor, may be referred to the fourth century AD. Vaisheshika
Gupta period. Through its emphasis on bhakti and image worship was complementary to and older than nyaya. It was a type of atomic
and its enlarged pantheon which included male and female deities, philosophy interested mainly in physics rather than theology. The
Mahayanism came closer to the brahmanical religion; under its legendary founder of the system was Uluka Kanada; the greatest of
influence Buddhism seems to have lost much of its original heretical his commentators Prashastapada perhaps lived in the sixth century.
fervour. Fa-hsien met Mahayana monks in Afghanistan, Bhida (Panjab), Sankhya teaches twenty-five basic principles; its central thought is the
Mathura and Pataliputra; in Khotan, we are told, all monks were polarity of purusha (soul, person) and prakriti (matter). The earliest
Mahayanists. From the fifth-sixth centuries onwards Mahayanism surviving text of the school is the Sankhyakarika of Ishvarakrishna,
increasingly came under the influence ofTantric religion, leading in perhaps of the fourth century. Yoga dealt with the control of the body
later centuries to the birth of Vajrayana (Thunderbolt Vehicle) physically, and its basic text goes back to the Yoga Sutra of Patanjali of
Buddhism with its emphasis on various magical rites.With the decline the second century BC. But the redaction of the sutras in their present
of trade, much of the support that earlier came fiom the mercantile form is attributed to Vyasa who lived seven centuries later. Mimansa
class ceased in the subsequent period.The later Buddhist monasteries sought to explain and revive the Vedas. Although the earliest work of
depended for their maintenance on the grants of land and villages by the school is said to be the Sutras of Jaimini (perhaps sixth century
BC), the greatest of early mimansa scholars was Shabarasvamin who
kings, and Nalanda enjoyed the revenue of 200 villages.
Jainism largely remained conservative but by the Gupta period flourished in the sixth century AD. Kdanta (also called Uttaramimansa),
seems to have developed icons. Two Jaina councils wtre summoned claiming to have originated fi-om the Vedas, forcefully rejected the
simultaneously at Mathura andvalabhi in AD 313.The Jaina canonical theories of the nonbrahmanical schools. Badarayana is said to have
texts were standardized and were later committed to writing at another formulated its main tenets in the early Christian centuries. But
council held in AD 453 at Valabhi. The extent of Jaina influence Gaudapada, an important thinker of this school, lived around the
perhaps diminished; Mathura and Valabhi seem to have been middle of the sixth century AD, though the most forceful exposition
strongholds of Shvetambar Jainism. Pundravardhana in north Bengal of its doctrines came from Shankaracharya in the eighth-ninth
was a centre of the Digambar sect. In certain areas of the Deccan and centuries, when Vedanta became an undying theme of Indian
-
south India Jainism received support fiom the local ruling houses, philosophy. Unlike the various theistic sects, however, the abstract
though much of this patronage stopped in the later period. Christianity, philosophical debate centred on the six systems and had no social
which first appeared on Indian soil in pre-Gupta times, remained base in the Gupta period.
mainly restricted to Malabar, where a Syrian Church seems to have Religion was intimately connected with developments in
existed. Kalyana near Bombay is said to have received a bishop from architecture and the plastic arts.The doctrine of bhakti and the growing
Persia. importance of image worship led to the construction of the free
166 ANCIENT INDIA 1 THE MYTH OF THE GOLDEN AGE 167
standing temple with a sanctuary (garbhagriha), in which the central Gupta sculpture marks the culmination of earlier developments in
cult image was placed. Several temples with central shrines have plastic arts. The unusual, larger-than-life size horse sculpture from
survived fiom the Gupta period. Mention may be made of the Khairigarh in Uttar Pradesh, often believed to represent a sacrificial
temples at Sanchi, Ladh Khan, Deogarh (near Jhansi), Bhitaragaon, horse used by Samudragupta for one his ashwamedha rituals, has a
Tigawa and Bhumara. Built either in stone or brick, they were very perceptible affinity with the Kushana plastic tradition.The brahmanical
small and had roofs with spouts to drain off water. The earliest of the gods sculpted during the period were mainly incarnations of Vishnu
surviving Gupta temples is the one standing to the left of the chaitya- and the lesser Vaishnavite deities. The Shiva cult, still basically con-
hall at Sanchi (designated as Temple no. 17). It consists of an enclosed cerned with phallic worship, perhaps limited the scope of sculptural
cella with a columned portico in fiont; this plan formed the nucleus imagination, though several images of Shaivite deities (Durga, Skanda,
of all the later Indian temples. The most ornate and beautifully etc.) have been found. A substantial number of these sculptures come
composed example of Gupta temple building, however, is the fiom important centres like Vidisha, Eran and Udayagiri in Madhya
fiagrnentary temple of Vishnu at Deogarh. It occupies the centre of Pradesh. O f these Udayagiri occupies a place of importance. Twenty
a square plinth, each of whose four corners had a subsidiary shrine, rock-cut chambers were excavated here during the Gupta period and
housing a lesser deity. It may be one the earliest specimens of the quite a few of the images found here, unlike most of the specimens
five-shrine (panchayatana) variety of temples which became common of Gupta art, can be positively assigned to certain Gupta kings. The
in subsequent times and reflected the feudal hierarchization of the crowning achievement of Gupta sculpture is the numerous seated
ever expanding Indian pantheon. But the development of fiee standing and standing images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas at Sarnath.
temples did not altogether displace the cave temples. Some of the where, under the influence of the Mathura tradition, a distinct school
caves at Ajanta may be assigned to the period of the Guptas, though of art flourished. A good specimen of Sarnath sculpture is the image
perhaps the highest achievement of the early Indian cave architecture, of the Buddha seating in dharmachakrapravarttana attitude. This is a
the Kailashanatha temple at Ellora, belongs to the eighth century. fine expression in stone of the meditative and compassionate Buddha
giving his first sermon.The impact of the Sarnath idiom was also felt
in eastern and western India and in the Deccan. Its influence, however,
decreased as it travelled south where local tendencies dominated.
Painting was a developed art. Literary refi3rences prove that apart
from professional artists, men and women of the upper classes could
ably handle a brush. Remains of Gupta paintings may be seen in the
caves at Bagh (cave IV, c. AD 500), Ajanta (caves XVI, XVII, XIX and
I, 11) and Badami (cave 111) besides faint traces at several other places.
The Ajanta murals supplied the norm for all contemporary painting.
The Ajanta artists displayed consummate skill in delineating human
and animal figures.The representation of the Bodhisattva announcing
his renunciation (cave I) and that of Indra and his entourage flying to
greet the Buddha in Tushita heaven (cave XVII) are only a few of the
masterpieces. Decorations on ceilings, pedestals of columns and door-
and window-fiames speak of the artists' extraordinary powers of
conception and technique. Although the themes at Ajanta are religious,
one can see in the painting a dramatic panorama of the life of
I Plate 16: Gupta temple, Sanchi. princes, nobles, warriors and sages. The general impression we gain is
168 ANCIENT INDIA
son Skanda. The Ritusamhara describes the six seasons in relation to Suta Lomaharshana or his son Ugrashrava appears as the narrator.
shringara.The poems of Kalidasa remain unequalled in their metrical But by now they fell into the hands of the brahmana compilers who
and verbal perfection. His most famous work, the play Abhijnana- often wrote new gods into them and made substantial interpolations.
shakuntalam, has for its theme the union of king Dushyanta with The Mahabharata, traditionally attributed to Vyasa, was also redacted;
Shakuntala; it remains the supreme achievement of early Indian it was inflated from the original 24000 verses to 1,000,000 verses.
literature and stagecraft. There is much in common between this epic and the lawbooks.
Several other dramatists are said to have flourished during the Some of the injunctions of Manu, for instance, occur in identical
supremacy of the Guptas. Shudraka, often supposed to be of royal form in the Shantiparva of the Mahabharata which, contrary to the
lineage, wrote the Mrickcklzakatika. Its plot centres round the love of generally held view, may imply that this legal text belongs to the
the poor brahmana Charudatta for the wealthy, beautiful, accomplished Gupta period. Several other lawbooks like those of Vishnu,Yajnavalkya,
and cultured courtesanVasantasena.Vishakhadattais the author of the Narada, Brihaspati and Katyayana may also have been composed
Mudrarakshasa, which deals with schemes of the shrewd Chanakya. during Gupta times.The brahmanical world view found in the epic,
The Devichandraguptam, another drama written by him, has survived the Puranas and the Dharmashastra texts is reflected in the various
only in fragments. versions of the Panchatantra fables which were elaborated in prose
The best poets and playwrights often found their richest pasture interspersed with gnomic verses.
in the passionate physical love of men for women; literary descriptions Some important astronomical works were written. Aryabhata, the
of feminine beauty often tally with the voluptuous female figures author of the Aryabhatiyam, flourished in the fifth century. Contrary
represented in Ajanta murals. Erotica, in fact, became prominent in to the existing notions, he suggested that the earth revolves arounp
the literary milieu from the Gupta period onwards and the Kamasutra the sun and rotates on its axis; but this did not affect later Indian
of Vatsyayana, the first systematic enunciation of the art of love, astronomical practice. Through his efforts astronomy branched off as
remained a model for later writers on the subject. So strong became a separate discipline from mathematics. H e was the first to use the
the erotic tradition in literature during post-Gupta times that even decimal place-value system; but its invention is not attributed to him.
while writing on renunciation (vairagya) Bhartrihari displays lustful Varahmihira, who lived towards the end of the sixth century, wrote
longing for the ripe breasts, thighs and devastating glances of a beautiful several treatises on astronomy and horoscopy. His Panchasiddhantika
woman. All this was in keeping with feudal and courtly tastes. The deals with five astronomical systems (siddhanta); two of these assume a
life of the royal court, therefore, is amply reflected in Sanskrit plays close knowledge of Greek astronomy. The Laghu and Brihaj-jataka,
and poems, the only possible exception was the Mrichchhakatika. both written by him, are works on horoscopy which became popular
Sanskrit literature, like art, was mainly enjoyed by the court, upper fiom the Gupta period onwards. The Sanskrit language was also
classes and the aristocracy. The uneducated masses could hardly have enriched by the development of grammar and lexicography The
understood, much less appreciated, the ornate court literature. Not Amarakosha (also called the Namalinganushasana) compiled by
surprisingly therefore the leading male characters of high social status Amarasimha, has remained an indispensable lexicon till our own
in the contemporary plays speak polished Sanskrit, and those of low times.
status, women and the brahmana buffoon (vidushaka) speak Prakrit. The ornate and verbose Sanskrit continued to be the language of
The Gupta period also saw an increase in the production of the ruling class throughout the country. But from the sixth-seventh
religious literature. This is clear from the fact that some of the most centuries onwards regional languages began to develop as a result of
important of the eighteen Puranas (the Markandeya, Brahmanda, Vishnu, the interaction between the various forms of Sanskrit and the non-
Bhagavata and Matsya) were finally redacted during this period. The Sanskritic and tribal dialects prevalent in the areas where brahmanas
Puranas were originally composed by bards; in almost all of them the settled to enjoy the benefits of the land granted to them. The post-
172 A N C I E N T INDIA THE MYTH OF THE GOLDEN AGE 173
Gupta centuries thus saw the growth of proto-Hindi, proto-Bengali, contemporary reference to them is found in the Puranas, which
proto-Assamese, proto-Rajasthani, proto-Gujarati and proto-Marathi. contemptuously group them with petty kings described as 'barbarous
This was accompanied by the emergence of regional scripts. All this (mlechchhapraya), impious, dishonest (or liars), niggardly and highly
was in keeping with the gradual formation of regional cultural units irascible'. Praise is showered on the Guptas only in their own
(like Andhra, Assam, Dengal, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, inscriptions, Samudragupta's eulogy being the longest. Soon after
Orissa, Rajasthan or Tamilnadu). their fall they joined the legion of the forgotten, and their memory
The period of the imperial Guptas is described in most standard was not revived until the nineteenth century when their records,
books on Indian history as one of Hindu renaissance. This is far from were deciphered. The documents were seized upon by nationalist
true. The highest achievements of Gupta sculpture are the Buddhist Indian scholars, who used them justifiably as counter-argument to
images from Sarnath; the best contemporary paintings from Ajanta the persistent British imperialist propaganda that India had no history
have Buddhist themes. Progress in astronomical knowledge as repre- except for a series of conquests by a succession of invaders. It has
sented in the writings of Aryabhata and Varahamihira owed only in been rightly remarked that 'far from the Guptas reviving nationalism,
part to indigenous tradition. One of the five astronomical systems it was nationalism that revived the Guptas'.
dealt with byvarahamihira was the Romakasiddhanta, which evidently Some Indian historians have been so enamoured of the Guptas as
referred to the Roman system; another, the Paulishasiddhanta, is to tirelessly speak of their rule as representing a golden age in Indian
explained as a recollection of the name of the classical astronomer history. In an emotionally surcharged multi-volume work we are told
Paul of Alexandria. The main component of the so-called Hindu in a vein of romantic lamentation: 'life was never happier'.Yet it was
renaissance therefore is the writings of Kalidasa, the composition of during that time that in certain parts of the country serfdom appeared,
some of the Puranas, and the coins and inscriptions which indicate leading eventually to the economic bondage of the peasantry.Women '
that the Gupta kings patronized the two brahmanical sects,Vaishnavism became an item of property and came to live in the perpetual tutelage
and Shaivism. But the work of Kalidasa is not indicative of an of men, notwithstanding their idealization in art and literature. Caste
intellectual rebirth or revival of literary activity; it merely implies a distinctions and caste rigidity became sharper than ever before; law
development of the literary forms and styles which were evolving in and justice showed a definite bias in favour of the higher castes. Fa-
an earlier period. The Puranas had existed much before the time of hsien, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim-scholar who came to India
the Guptas in the form of bardic literature; in the Gupta age some of during the reign of Chandragupta 11, tells us that the people were
them were finally compiled and given their present form. Nor does generally happy. True, the upper classes were happy and prosperous,
the growing popularity ofVaishnavism and Shaivism mean any religious and lived in comfort and ease, as can be judged from contemporary
resurgence. The basic tenets of the two religions go back to earlier art and literature, but this could hardly have been true of the lower
times; now in the context of emerging feudal conditions they could orders. The Chinese pilgrim himself speaks of the plight of the
attract a greater following. The use of the term 'Hindu' is equally Chandalas. The untouchable class as a whole came to be degraded
erroneous. It was first used by Arabs in the post-Gupta period to hrther in the social scale. Social tensions continued. But religion was
-
describe the inhabitants of Hindu (India). Ancient Indians never used as an instrument for maintaining the varna-divided society. For
thought of themselves as Hindus. The much publicized Hindu the upper classes all periods in history have been golden; for the
renaissance was, in reality, not a renaissance, much less a Hindu one. masses none. The truly golden age of the people does not lie in the
The Gupta rulers, with the exception of the 'ignoble' Ramagupta, past, but in the future.
are also credited with a revival of nationalism, presumably because
they fought against the Shakas and Hunas. N o extant court drama or
Sanskrit poetical work directly refers to any Gupta ruler. The only
Bibliography
General
account of the politicaVdynastic history up to the Gupta period. K.A. Charles Drekmeier, Kingship and Community in Early India, London,
Nilakanta Sastri's A History of South India (Oxford, 1955,2nd edn, 1958) 1968.
is an equally important work dealing with the political history of the Louis Dumont, Homo Hierarchicus, London, 1970.
peninsular India, though it also contains sections on cultural developments. Bhupendra Nath Dutt, Studies in Ancient Indian Social Polity, Calcutta,
The first three volumes of R.C. Majumdar et al, eds, The History and 1944.
Culture of the Indian People (Bombay, 1951@ are as informative as they N.K. Dutt, Origin and Growth of Caste in India, I, London, 1931.
are revivalist and Hindu chauvinist in approach. J.N. Farquhar, Outline of the Religious Literature of lndia, Oxford, 1920.
In addltion to these general works, there are many studies whch deal U.N. Ghoshal, The Agrarian System in Ancient India, Calcutta, 1930.
with different aspects of early Indlan hstory and culture. A.L.Basham's Susan L. Huntington, The Art ofAncient India, New York, 1985.
'The Wonder 'That Was India (London, 1954, 3rd revd edn, 1967) deals J.H. Hutton, Caste in India, Bombay, 1963.
with almost every aspect of early Indian culture and his The Origins and PC. Jain, Labour in Ancient India, New Delhi, 1971.
Development of Classical Hinduism, New Delhi, 1990, is a concise account Suvira Jaiswal, Caste: Origin, Function and Dimensions of Change, Delhi,
of the various facets of Hinduism. A Cultural History 4 India edited by 1998
Basham and published from Oxford in 1975 is an anthology of articles K.M. Panikkar, Geographical Factors in Indian History, Bombay, 1959.
contributed by specialists in the different branches of Indology and may Aloka Parasher, Mecchas in Early India: A Study in Attitudes towards Outsiders
be used with profit. Apart from these, an impressive bulk of literature has upto AD 600, Delhi, 1991.
grown on specific themes of early history. References to the relevant Louis Renou, Religions in Ancient India, London, 1953.
ones have been made in the chapter-wise bibliographies, and only few Benjamin Rowland, The Art and Architecture 4 lndia, London, 1953.
of them are listed below: J. Schwartzberg, ed, Historical Atlas of South Asia, Chicago, 1978.
E. Senart, Caste in India, London, 1930
A.S. Altekar, State and Government in Ancient India, Delhi, 1955. R.S. Sharma, Shudras in Ancient India, A Social History of the Lower Order
N.C. Bandyopadhyaya, Economic L I Iand Progress in Ancient India, Calcutta, down to c. AD 600, 2nd edn, Delhi, 1980.
1945. Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India, Delhi, 3rd
N.N. Bhattacharyya, Indian Religious Historiography, Delhi, 1996. edn, 1991
4
A.N. Bose, Social and Rural Economy Northern India (600 BC- AD 200), R.L. Singh, India: A Regional Geography,Varanasi, 1971.
2 vols, Calcutta, 1942-5. C. Sivaramamurti, The Art of India, New York, 1977.
D.P. Chattopadhyaya, Lokayata: A Study in Ancient Indian Materialism, B. Subbarao, The Personality of lndia, Baroda, 1958.
Delhi, 1959. A.K. Warder, Outline of Indian Philosophy, Delhi, 1971.
, Indian Philosophy: A Popular Introduction, Delhi, 1964. ,A n Introduction to Indian Historiography, Bombay, 1972.
, Indian Atheism, Delhi, 1969. M. Winternitz, History oJIndian Literature, 3 vols, New Delhi, 1963-7.
, What is Living and What is Dead in Indian Philosophy, Delhi,
1976. Chapter 1: Introduction
, Science and Society in Ancient India, Calcutta, 1977.
K.P. Chattopadhyaya, The Ancient Indian Culture, Contacts and Migrations, S.N. Mukherjee, Sir William Jones: A study in Eighteenth-Century British
Calcutta, 1970. Attitudes to India, London, ,1968, and 0.P Kejariwal, The Asiatic Society of
A.K. Coomaraswami, History of Indian and Indonesian Art, London, 1927. Bengal and the Discovery of India's Past, New Delhi, 1988, analyse early
S.A. Dange, Indiafrom Pri&:tive Communism to Slavery, Bombay, 1949. historical writings on ancient 1ndia.A similar exercise has been undertaken
Santosh Kumar Das, The d&onomic History ofAncient India, Calcutta, 1944. recently by Kate Teltscher, India Inscribed: European and British Writing on
J.D.M. Derrett, Religion, Law and State in Ancient India, London, 1968. India 1600- 1800, Delhi, 1995.
178 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY 179
For a discussion of the imperialist and nationalist attitudes to Indian popular readings, though Stuart Piggot (Prehistoric India to 1000 BC,
past see R.S. Sharma, Aspects 4Ancient Indian Political Ideas and Institutions, London, 1950) and D.H. Gordon (Prehistoric Background of Indian Culture,
Delhi, 1959, Chap. 1; idem, 'Historiography of the Ancient Indian Bombay, 1958) take into account much non-Harappan material. In recent
Social Order', in C.H. Philips, ed, Historians 41ndia, Pakistan and Ceylon, years studies of both urban and rural settlements in India and Pakistan
London, 1961. This volume also contains articles by C.H. Philips and have enabled scholars to present a balanced view of Harappan and other
A.L. Basham who have evaluated the works of James Mill, Mountstuart chalcolithic cultures of the subcontinent. During the last twenty-five
Elphinstone andVincent A. Smith. Romila Thapar, The Past and Prejudice, years or so many important studies dealing with Indian prehistory and
New Delhi, 1975, identifies major trends in the historical writings on protohistory have appeared and have considerably modified our earlier
ancient India. S.P. Sen, ed, Historians and Historiography in Modern India, understanding. D.P. Agrawal has sought to integrate data from Harappan
Calcutta, 1973, contains articles on several Indian historians who wrote and non-Harappan chalcolithic sites taking into account the ecological
during the colonial period. D.D. Kosambi's historical writings were first and technological factors in his copper Bronze Age in India, Delhi, 1971
evaluated by D.N. Jha ('A Marxist View of Ancient Indian History', in and has provided an overview of the archaeological material from a large
Mohit Sen, ed, Das &pita1 Centenary Volume, Delhi, 1967, and 'D.D. number of pre-Harappan and Harappan sites in The Archaeology 4 1 n d i a ,
Kosambi', in S.P. Sen, op. cit.). For subsequent assessments see: Dale London, 1982. H.D. Sankalia, The Prehistory and Protohistory 4 India and
Rie.pe ('D.D. Kosambi: Father of Indian Scientific History', in R.S. Pakistan (2nd edn, Poona, 1974) may be used as a compendium of
Sharma, ed, Indian Society: Historical Probings, Delhi, 1974);Romila Thapar, information available from different prehistoric and protohistoric sites of
Interpreting Early India, Delhi, 1992. For a discussion of Marxist influence the country. The writings of G.L. Possehl (Ancient Cities of the Indus,
on the historiography of early India see Brendan O'Leary, The Asiatic Delhi, 1979 and the Harappan Civilization, Delhi, 1982 edited by him)
Mode 4 Production: Oriental Despotism, Historical Materialism and Indian are useful for a broader understanding of the Harappan culture and those
History, Basil Blackwell, 1989. Kate Curie (Beyond Orientalisrn: A n of Shereen Ratnagar (Encounters: The Westerly Trade of the Harappan
Exploration of Some Recent Themes in Indian History and Society, Calcutta, Civilization, Delhi, 1981; Enquiries into the Political Organization of the
1996) has also discussed some of the issues raised by O'Leary and her Harappan Society, Pune, 1991) throw light on Harappan trade and political
reference point is Edward Said's Orientalism, London, 1978, and Culture organization. E R . and B. Allchin, Origins o f a Civilization: The Prehistory
and Imperialism, London, 1993. and Early Archaeology of South Asia, New Delhi, 1997, makes a refreshing
reading without providing any new insights and J.M. Kenoyer, 'The
Indus Valley Tramtion of Pakistan and Western India', Journal of World
Chapter 2: From Prehistory to the Harappari Civilization
Prehistory,V, no. 4 (1991), presents a summary of major developments in
The urban features of the Harappan civilization has been the focus of Harappan archaeology and discusses the environmental setting and major
scholarly writings since its discovery in the 1920s as is evident from the aspects of the Harappan civilization.
works of E.J.H. Mackay ('Excavations at Mohenjodaro', Annual Report of
the Archaeological Survey of India, 1928-9; Further Excavations at Mohenjodaro,
Chapter 3: The Aryans and the Vedic L$e
Govt. of India, 1938; Chanhu-Daro Excavations, 1935-6, New Haven,
1943), John Marshall (Mohenjodaro and the lndus Civilization, London, Evidence on the history of Aryans in India is available in the various
1931) and M.S.Vats (Excavations at Harappa, Govt. of India Press, 1940). categories of the Vedic literature.The most relevant Vedic texts are: The
Even subsequently when Indian archaeology made good progress largely Hymns ofthe Rig- Veda, trans. R.T.H. Grifiths (Varanasi, 1896-7), Aitareya
due to the- efforts of Mortimer Wheeler, the emphasis on Harappan Brahamana, trans. A.B. Keith (Hanard Oriental Series, xxv, Cambridge,
urbanism continued as is evident from his own works (The lndus Mass. l92O), Shatapatha Brahmana, trans. J. Eggeling (Oxford, 1882-
Civilisation, Cambridge, 1953; Early India and Pakistan, London, 1958; 1900), Taittiriya Brahmana, ed. R.L. Mitra (Calcutta, 1855-70), Thirteen
Civilisatiotu 4 the ltldus Elley and Beyond, London, 1966) which remain Principal Upanishads, trans. E Max Muller (Oxford, 1921), The Grihyasutras,
BIBLIOGRAPHY 181
180 BIBLIOGRAPHY
provide a useful background to the debate centring round the Aryan
trans. H. Oldenberg (Indian rpt, Delhi, 1967), and the Dharmasutras, race theory.
trans. G. Buhler, Sacred Books 4 the East, ii and xiv (Indian rpt, Delhi, Aspects of the Aryan life are described in the relevant sections of the
1965). J. Gonda (The Vedic Literature, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, Cambridge History of India, I (1922). But a more recent and percipient
1975), gives a good idea of the contents of the corpus ofVedic literature;
andVibha Tripathi (The Painted Grey Ware:Att Iron Age Culture 4 Northern
-
-
analysis of material life, social differentiation and emergence of state on
the basis of the Vedic texts, archaeological evidence and field work is
India, Delhi, 1975) provides a competent analysis of the archaeological available in R.S. Sharma, Material Culture and Social Formation in Ancient
evidence bearing on the later Vedic period. India, Delhi, 1985; idem, The State and Varna Formation in the Mid-Ganga
The archaeological material bearing the Indo-Aryan homeland and Plains: A n Ethnoarchaeological View, Delhi, 1996; idem, Aspects of Political
the spread of the Aryan tribes was discussed by V Gordon Childe in The Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India, 3rd revd edn, Delhi, 1991; idem,
Aryans: A Study of Indo-European Origins (London, 1926) and New Light Origin of the State in India, University of Bombay, 1989. Romda Thapar
on the Most Ancient East (London, 1952). In recent years, however, much (From Lirzeage to State: Social Formations in the MidTfirst Millennium BC,
literature has grown on the Aryan problem. Some of the important Delhi, 1984) studies the origins of state from an anthropological point of
relevant writings are: G.M. Bongard-Levin, The Origin of Aryans: From view. For a different point of view see J.C. Heesterman, The Ancient
Scythis to India, New Delhi, 1980; Colin Renfiew, Archaelogy and Language: Indian Royal Consecration Ceremony, The Hague, 1957, and Jan Gonda,
The Puzzle 4 Indo-European Origins, London, 1987;J. Harmatta, 'Proto- Ancient Indian Kingship from Religious points of View, Leiden, 1969. D.D.
Iranians and Proto-Indians in Central Asia in the 2nd millennium BC', in Kosambi's articles ('Brahmin Clans', Journal 4 the Bombay Branch 4 the
B.A. Litvinsky, M.S. Asimov, et al, eds, Ethnic Problems in the History of Royal Asiatic Society, New Series, xxiii; 'On the Origin of the Brahmin
Central Asia in the Early Period, Moscow, 1981; idem, 'The Emergence of Gotras', ibid., xxvi) are essential readings for a rational understanding
the Indo-Iranians: The Indo-Iranian Languages', in A.H. Dani and V M. of the emergence of the brahmana groups in the Vedic period and
Masson, eds, History 4 Civilizations of Central Asia, UNESCO, 1992; J.P R.S. Sharma discusses the origin of shudras in Shudras in Ancient India,
Mallory, In Search 4 the Indo-Europeans: Languange, Archaeology and Myth, 2nd revd edn, Delhi, 1980. His Perspectives in Social and Economic History
London, 1989. G. Erdosy, ed, The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: of Early India, 2nd revd edn, Delhi, 1995, is an insightful study of some
Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity (Berlin, 1995; 1st Indian edn, of the social institutions fiom the Vedic period onwards. S.D. Singh,
Delhi, 1997) brings together papers making a case for interdisciplinary Polyandry in Ancient India, Delhi, 1978, investigates the meaning of
approach to the Aryan problem, though a few of them seem to throw marriage, the importance of incest taboos and presents a theoretical
red herrings across the path of historical analysis. For convincing arguments analysis of polyandry. On Vedic religion see: A.A. Macdonell, Vedic
. in favour of the coming of the Aryans from outside India see: R.S. Mythology, Strassbourg, 1897; A.B. Keith, Religion and Philosophy 4 the
Sharma, Looking for the Aryans, Madras, 1995. For a discussion of the Vedas and Upanishads, Cambridge, Mass, 1925; PS. Deshmukh, The Origin
development of che idea of Aryan race see: L. Poliakov, The Aryan Myth: and Development ofReligion in Vedic Literature, Oxford, 1933; Louis Renou,
A history 4 racist and nationalist ideas in Europe, trans. Edmund Howard, Vedic India, Calcutta, 1957; Jan Gonda, The Ritual Sutras: A History 4
London, 1974. The use of the concept of Aryan race in the Indian Indian Literature, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1977. D.D. Kosambi,
context has been dealt with by Joan Leopold ('The Aryan Theory of 'Urvasi and Puruvas' in Myth and Reality, Bombay, 1962, is an excellent
Race', Indian Economic and Social History Review, vii, 1970; idem, 'British example of a rational analysis ofVedic myths. For a recent attempt to
Applications of the AryanTheory of Race to India', The English Historical relate the composition ofVedic texts with changing socio-political context
Reviau, h x i x , 1974), Thomas R . Trautmann (Aryans and British India, see: Michael Witzel, 'The Development of the Vedic Canon and its
New Delhi, 1997) and Rornila Thapar 'The Theory of Aryan Race Schools: The Social and Political Milieu', in Michael Witzel, ed, Inside
and India: History and Politics', Zansuctions 4 the International Conference the Texts Beyond the Texts: New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas,
of Eastern Studies, Tokyo, xl, 1995). Peter Robb, ed., The Concept 4 Cambridge, 1997.
Race in South Asia, New Delhi, 1995, is an anthology of articles which
BIBLIOGRAPHY 183
S.K. Mitra, Calcutta, 1972; idem, The Agrarian System in Ancient Itrdio, viii; those of their successor dynasties may also be found in its relevant
Calcutta, 1930; N.N. Kher, ,4grarian and Fiscal Economy in the Mauryan volumes. Numismatic evidence is available in E.J. Rapson, Catalogue 4
and post-Mauryan Age, Delhi, 1973. D.N. Jha, Revenue system in post- Coins in the British Museum, Andhras and Western fiatrapas (London,
Maurya and Gupta Times (Calcutta, 1967), contains much relevant 1913) and M. Rama Rao, Satavahana Coins in the Andhra Pradesh
information on the taxation system, though it focuses on the subsequent Government Museum (Hyderabad, 1961).Among the more recent works
period. On Maurya art, Niharranjan Ray, Maurya and Post-Maurya Art on Satavahana coins are: A.M. Shastri, ed, Coinage ofthe Satavahanas and
(Calcutta, 1976) remains the most lucid and authentic treatment of I Coins Jrom Excavations (Nagpur, 1972) and I.K. Sarma, Coinage 4 the
contemporary art; for a more recent analysis, however, see the relevant Satavahana Empire (Delhi, 1980). For an analysis of developments in the
sections of Susan L. Huntington. The Art of Ancient India, New York, far south both epigraphic and literary evidence is available. For the early
1985. Brahrni inscriptions found in Tamilnadu see: I. Mahadevan, 'Corpus of
Tamil Brahmi Inscriptions', in R . Nagaswamy, ed, Seminar on Inscriptions
(Madras, 1966).The English translation of some Shangam texts is available
Chapter 7: Irtvasions, Eude and Culture c. 2 0 0 oc-AD 3 0 0 in J.V. Chelliah, Ten Tamil Idylls (Calcutta, 1947). K. Kailasapathy (Tamil
The history of the period c. 200 uc-AD 300 covers a wide range of Heroic Poetry, London, 1968) has analysed the Shangam poetry and T.
developments. Due to the constraints of space it is difficult to suggest a Takahashi (Tamil Love Poetry and Poetics, Leiden, 1995) discusses, among
reading list which would take into account all of them. However, some other things, its chronology. Also see Karnil V. Zvelebil, Tamil ;Literature,
of the important primary sources and modern works having good Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1974; George L. Hart, The Poems 4
bibliographies may be mentioned. Ancient Tamils: Their Milieu and their Sanskrit Counterparts, Berkley, 1975.
The political history of the Shungas is largely based on the Puranic A number of excavation reports and related publications are available.
material collated by EE. Pargiter in his Dynasties ofthe Kali Age (London, In addition to those mentioned in the previous chapter, a few of them
1913), and on the Malavikagtlimitra of Kalidasa translated into Hindi by may be Aisted here: John Marshall, Taxila, 3 vols, Cambridge, 1951, rpt,
S.R. Chatunredi in Kalidasa-Granthavali (Bombay, 1950).Evidence relating Varanasi, 1975; Herbert Hartel, 'Some Results of the Excavations at
to the Indo-Greeks is furnished by coins published in a number of Sonkh', German Scholars on India, ii, Delhi, 1976; B.N. Chapekar, Report
catalogues such as A. Cunningham, Coins 4Alexander's Successors in the on the Excavations at Ter, Poona, 1969; S.B. Deo, Mahurjhahan' Excavation
East (London, 1873); R.B. Whitehead, Catalogue 4 Coins in the Purrjab (1970-72), Nagpur, 1973; idem and M.K. Dhavalikar, Paunar Excavation,
Museum, Lahore, I (London, 1914);V. Smith, Catalogue 4 Coins in the Nagpur, 1968; idem and R.S. Gupte, Excavation at Bhokardan, Nagpur,
Indian Museum Calcutta, pt I (Oxford, 1906);J. Allan, Catalogue 4 Coins 1974; M.G. Diksit, Excavation at Kaundinyapur, Bombay, ,1968; H.D.
in the British Museum, Ancient India (London, 1936); P. Gardner, Catalogue Sankalia and S.B. Deo, Report on the Excavations at Nasik and Jotwe,
4 Coins in the British Museum, Greek and SEythic Kittgs (London, 1886). Poona, 1955; idem, From History to Prehistory at Nevasa, Poona, 1960;
Relevant epigraphic material is found in Sten Konow, Corpus Itrscriptiotrum idem, Excavations at Maheshwar and Navdatoli, Poona-Baroda, 1958;
Indicarum, ii (Oxford, 1929). The Milindapanho (Sanskrit, Milindaprashtra) H. Sarkar and S.P. Nainar, Amaravati, New Delhi, 1972; idem and B.N.
which is believed to be a record of dialogue between the Indo-Greek Misra, Nagarjunakonda, New Delhi, 1972; H.D. Sankalia and M.G. Diksit,
king Menander and the Buddhist Nagasena, is available in English as the Excavations at Brahmapuri (Kolhapur) 1945-46, Poona, 1952; idem,
Questions 4 King Milinda (Oxford, 1890-4). Other Buddhist sources for Excavation at Devnimori, Baroda, 1966; T.V. Mahalingam, Report on the
the early Christian centuries include the Divyavadana (eds, E.B. Cowell Excavations in the Lower Kavery Wlley, Madras, 1970; S.H. Ritti, ed, A
and EA. Neil, Cambridge, 1886); Lalitavistara (ed, S. Lefmann, 2 vols, Decade ofArchaeologica1 Studies in South India, Dhanvar, 1978; K.V. Raman,
Halle, 1902-8) and Mahavastu (ed, E. Senart, 3 vols, Paris, 1882-97) and ed, Excavations at Uraiyur (Tiruchirapalli) 1965-69, Madras, 1988; R.E.M.
the Jatakas. Wheeler, 'Brahmagiri and Chandravalli 1947: Megalithic and Other
For important Satavahana inscriptions see Epigraphia Indica, vii and Cultures in Mysore State', Ancient India, no. 4 (1947-8); idem,'Arikamedu:
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY 189
An Indo-Roman Trading Station on the East Coast of India', Ancient
India, no. 2 (1946); G. Yazdan, 'The Megaliths: Their Culture, Ecology, source material. R.S. Sharma deals with some of the features of the
Economy and Technology', in S.B. Deo and K. Paddayya, eds, Recent Satavahana polity (Aspects 4Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India)
Advances in Indian Archaeology, Poona, 1988. Several monographs based but does throw light on the problem of state formation in the far south.
largely on archaeological reports are important. E.g. R . Subrahmaniam, Material on trade and trade-routes can be gathered from such primary
Salihundam, Hyderabad, 1964; M.K. Dhavalikar, Sanchi: A Cultural Study, sources as the Jatakas, Pliny's Natural History and Ptolemy's Geography.
Poona, 1965; K. Krishnamurthy, Nagarjunakonda: A Cultural Study, But the Periplus of the Erythaean Sea, trans. W.H. Schoff (London, 1912)
Delhi, 1977; A.H. Dani, The Historic City of Taxila, UNESCO, 1986; is an indispensable original text for the study of India's trade contacts
D.M. Srinivasan, ed, Mathura: The cultural Heritage, Delhi, 1989; with the Western world during the early centuries of the Christian era.
C. Margabandhu, Archaeology of the Satavahana-Kihatrapa Times, New The work has also been edited by L. Casson under the title Periplus
Delhi, 1985. Mark Erythaei:Zxt with Introduction, Eanslation and Commentary (Princeton,
For authentic reconstruction of the political history of the period see: 1989). Equally important source for reconstructing the history of trade
H.C. Raychaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India; K.A. Nilakanta consists of the Roman coins found in the Indian subcontinent which
Sastri, ed, Comprehensive History 4 India, ii, Bombay, 1957, rpt, Delhi, have been discussed in a large number of articles. But the following are
1987. For the history of Indo-Greeks see A.K. Narain, The Indo-Creeks, the standard works on the subject: PL. Gupta, Punch-marked Coins in the
London, 1957. Besides, J.E.Van Lohuizen de Leeuw, The Scythian Period Andhra Pradesh Gowernment Museum, Hyderabad, 1960; PJ. Turner, Roman
(Leiden, 1949) discusses the sources relating to the Scythian period. Coins front India, London, 1989. The significance of these coins have
Several works of uneven merit deal specifically with the Kushanas: B.N. been discussed by several scholars including B.D. Chattopadhyaya (Coins
Puri, India under the Kushanas, Bombay, 1965; Rosenfield, Dynastic Arts and Currency-,Systems in South India, Delhi, 1977). H.G. Rawlinson,
ofthe Kushanas, Berkley, 1967, B. Chattopadhyay The Age ofthe Kushanas, Intercourse between India and the Western World (Cambridge, 1916); E.H.
Calcutta, 1967; idem, Kushana State and Indian Society, Calcutta, 1975; Warmington, Commerce between the Roman Empire and India (Cambridge,
B.N. Mukhe rjee, The Kushanas and the Deccan, Calcutta, 1968; idem, The 1928) and R.E.M. Wheeler, Rome Beyond Imperial Frontiers (Pelican,
. Economic Factors in Kushana History, Calcutta, 1970; idem, The Disintegration 1951) are the pioneer works on the subject. AU these scholarly studies
of the Kushana Empire,Varanasi, 1976. Discussion of the sources relating have sought to provide historical justification for the British exploitation
to the Scythians is found in R . Ghirshman, Begram (Cairo, 1946) and are of Indian resources in modern times. In recent years a renewed interest
relevant to the study of Kushanas. PT.S. Aiyangar, History of the Tamils to in the Indian Ocean trade, especially India's commercial and cultural
600 AD, Madras, 1929; K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, contact with the West in ancient times, has been in evidence and now
Oxford, 1958; and G. Yazdani, ed, The Early History ofthe Deccan, Oxford, several publications are available, some of which are: G. Pollet, ed, India
1960, are relevant for the study of political developments in southern and the Ancient World: History, Eade and Culture before AD 650 (Prof. PH.L.
India. For a limited discussion of the process of state formation in south Eggermont Volume), Leuven, 1987;Vimala Begley and Richard Daniel
India see: Clarence Maloney, 'Archaeology in South India: Accomplish- De Puma, eds, Rome and India: The Ancient Sea Trade, Delhi, 1992;
ments and Prospects', in Burton Stein, ed, Essays on South India, New Marie-Francoise Boussac and Jean-Francois Salles, eds, Athens, Aden,
Delhi, 1976; Rajan Gurukkal, 'Forms of Production and Forces of Arikamedu, Delhi, 1995; Himanshu Prabha Ray and Jean-Francois Salles,
Change in Ancient Tamil Country', studies in History (New Series), eds, Tradition and Archaeology: Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean,
v, no. 2 (1989). For an itemization of varied pieces of information culled Delhi, 1996; ED. Romanis and A. Tchernia, eds, Crossings: Early
from the Shangam literature see: N. Subramanian, Sangam Polity, Mediterranean Contacts with India, Delhi, 1997. Himanshu Prabha Ray
Madras, 1966. Information on political ideas and institutions is available focuses on the Satavahana trade in Monastery and Guild (Delhi, 1986) and
in a number of works of which T.V. Mahalingam's South Indian Polity devotes attention to India's trade relations with the Western world as
(Madras, 1955) may be useful, though it lacks critical analysis of the well as with South-East Asia in The Winds of Change (Delhi, 1494),
though she lays undue emphasis on the role of Buddhism. L. Boulnois,
BIBLIOGRAPHY 191
190 BIBLIOGRAPHY
discusses the position of shudras during the period; idem, 'The Kali Age:
The Silk Road, London, 1966, gives an interesting account of China;
A Period .of Social Crisis', in D.N. Jha, ed, Feudal Social Formation w i
silk trade in which Indians participated. Kanieshwar Prasad (Cities, CraJs
Early India, Delhi, 1987. Several source-wise studies of social life and
and Commerce under the Kushanas, Delhi, 1984); Xinru Liu (Ancient India
other aspects of history are available. For example see, B.N. Puri, India as
artd Attcictrt China, Delhi, 1988) study trade between India on the one
Known to Patanjali, Bombay, 1957; M.M. Dass, Women in Manu and His
hand and China and Central Asia on the other. For a treatment of India's
Seven Commentators,Varanasi, 1963. R.N. Sharma in his Brahmins Through
contact with Central Asia and China also see: P.C. Bagchi, India and
the Ages (Delhi. 1977) has devoted a section to the post-Maurya period
China (Calcutta, 1944) and N.P. Chakravarti, India and Central Asia
and has culled references to different aspects of social and political life
(Calcutta, 1927). Moti Chandra, Sarthavaha (Hindi), Patna, 1953 (English
from the lawbook of Manu in Ancient India as Known to Manu, Delhi,
trans. Trclde and Trade Routes in Ancient India, New Delhi, 1977) and
1980.These works lack historical perspective but are useful compendiums
relevant portions of G.L. Adhya, Early Indian Economics, Bombay, 1966
of information on society and polity. For the history of political, ideas
continue to provide a corrective to the Western imperialist perception of
and institutions see: N.C. Bandyopadhyaya, Development of Hindu Polity
India's trade with the outside world. Information on guilds has been
and Political Theories, Calcutta, 1927; U.N. Ghoshal, A History of Indian
systemized by R.C. Majunidar (Corporate Lifein Ancient India, Calcutta,
Political Ideas, Bombay, 1959; D.N. Jha, Revenue system of Post-Maurya and
1918), though his work is now out 6f date. Primary data on arts, crafts
Gupta Times, Calcutta, 1967; B.P. Roy, Political Ideas and Institutions in
and urbanization in the early centuries before and after Christ can be
the Mahabharata, Calcutta, 1975; A.K. Narain, 'The Kushan State: A
obtained froni the excavation reports and writings on trade, though
Preliminary Study', in Henri J.M. Classen and Peter Skalnik, eds, The
mention of some urban studies may be made here: H . Sarkar,'Emergence
Study of the State, Mouton, 1981; Sudarshan Senviratne, 'Kalinga and
of Urban Centres in Early Historical Andhradesa', in B.M. Pande and
Andhra: The Process of Secondary State Formation in Early India',
l3.11.Chattopadhyaya, eds, Archaeology and History: Essays in Memory 4
Indian Historical Review, vii, nos. 1-2. For a critical analysis of the post-
A. Ghosh, ii, Delhi, 1987; R . Chanipakalakshmi, Trade, Ideology and
Maurya polity R.S. Sharma's Aspects 4 Political Ideas and Institutions is
Ur6arriratiott, Delhi, 1996; V. Thakur, Urbanisatiort in Ancient India,
indispensable. Also see: J.W Spellman, Political Theory ofAncient India: A
Ilelhi, 1981. R.S. Sharma's seminal work Urban Decay in India c. 300-
study of Kingshipfrom the Earliest Times to Circa AD 300, London, 1964.
c. 1000 (Delhi, 1987) has, however, argued convincingly on the basis of
There is a vast bulk of literature on religious developments and the
archaeological material that urban centres in most parts of the country
following works may be consulted: A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism (New
began to decline froni the third/fourth century AD which has generated
Delhi, 1970); T.W. Rhys Davids, Buddhism, Its History and Literature
a fierce debate among scholars.
(London, 1923); Edward Conze, Buddhism: Its Essence and Development
Studies of social structure and political ideas have largely been based
(Oxford, 1951, rpt, New York, 1959); Jagnanderlal Jaini, Outlines 4
on literary texts some of which have already been mentioned. Important
Jainism (Cambridge, 1940); N.R. Guseva, Jainism (Bombay, 1971); N.N.
brahmanical sources include the Dharmashastra texts like the Manusmriti
Bhattacharyya, Jain Philosophy: Historical Outline (New Delhi, 1976); Jan
(trans. G. Buhler, Sacred Books of the East, Oxford, 1886) and the
Gonda, Aspects $Early Vishnuism (2nd edn, Delhi, 1969); idem, Vishnuism
Vishnusmriti (trans. J. Jolly, Sacred Books of the East, vii, Oxford, 1880).
and Shaivism: A Comparison (London, 1970). Unlike most scholars D.D.
descriptions of the Yugadharma in the early Puranas (especially the
Kosambi ('The Historical Krishna', The Times of India, Annual Number,
Vayupurarta, ed., Mansukhram Mor, Calcutta, 1959; Vishnupurana, Gita
1965); S. Jaiswal, Origin and Development of Vaishnavism (2nd revd edn,
Press edn, vs 2009, Brahmandapurana, ed, Sriram Sharma Acharya,
Delhi, 1981) have ana!ysed the material basis ofvaishnavism. O f interest
Mathura,l967), the Sharrtiparva of the Mahabharata (Gita Press edn,
may also be D.D. Kosambi, 'Social and Economic Aspects of the Bhagvad-
1970-3) and the Mahabhashya of Patanjali (ed, E Kielhorn, 3 vols, 1892-
Gita', in Myth and Reality, Bombay, 1962. For the history of contemporary
1909). For social history of the post-Maurya centuries see: Sibesh Chandra
art and architecture see relevant portions of: Percy Brown, Indian
Bhattacharya, Some Aspects oflruiian Societyfrom c. 2nd Century sc to c. 4th
Architecture, Bombay, 1959; Benjamin Rowland, The Art and Architecture of
Century AD, Calcutta, 1978; R.S. Sharma in his Shudras in Ancient India
192 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY 193
India, Harmondsworth, 3rd revd edn, 1967;J.N. Banerjea, Religion in Art Of the many works on the Gupta period S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar,
and Archeology, Lucknow, 1968;Vidya Dahejia, Early Buddhist ROC& Temples, Studies in Gupta History, Madras, 1928 and R.D. Baneji, The Age 4 the
London, 1972; Susan L. Huntington, The Art ofAncient India, NewYork, Imperial Guptas,Varanasi, 1933 are the earlier ones. R.C. Majumdar and
1985. Niharranjan Ray's Maurya and Post-Maurya Art (Calcutta, 1976), A.S. Altekar, eds, The Vakataka-Gupta Age (Lahore, 1946, rpt, Delhi,
however, remains indispensable. 1960) and R.C. Majumdar, ed, The Classical Age, vol 111 of the History
and Culture ofthe Indian People (Bombay, 1954) are quite popular. Among
the more recent studies mention may be made of B.G. Gokhale, Samudra
Chapter 8: The Myth of the Golden Age Gupta: Li and Times, Bombay, 1962; S.R. Goyal, History of the Imperial
The inscriptional material of the Gupta period is found in J.E Fleet, Guptas, Allahabad, 1967; S.K. Maity, Gupta Civilization, Calcutta, 1974;
ed, Cot+ Inscriptionum Indicarum, iii (Calcutta, 1888, revd version by idem, The Imperial Guptas and their Times, Delhi, 1975. But by far the
D.R. Bhandarkar, eds, B. Chhabra and G.S. Gai, New Delhi,l981;V.V. most comprehensive work on the Guptas is PL. Gupta, The Imperial
Mirashi, ed, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, v, Inscriptions 4 the Vakatakas, Guptas, 2 vols, Varanasi, 1974-9.
Ootacamund, 1963; K.V. Ramesh and S.P. Tewari, eds, A Copper-plate S.K. Maity, Economic Lije in Northern India in the Gupta Period, 2nd
Hoard of the Gupta Period from Bagh, .Madhya Pradesh, 1990; G.S. Gai, ed, edn, Calcutta, 1970, is the first serious attempt to organize the economic
The Inscriptions of the Kadambas, Delhi, 1996. For numismatic evidence data relating to the Gupta period. Before Independence a number of
see: John Allan, Catalogue 4 the Coins ofthe Gupta Dynasty in the British scholars wrote on agrarian system, especially the question of land-
Museum (London, 1914) and A.S. Altekar, Catalogue of the Gupta Gold ownership, but their writings are inhibited by their nationalist zeal. U.N.
Coins in the Bayana Hoard (Bombay, 1954); idem, Corpus of Indian Coins, Ghoshal's works (Contribution to the History of Hindu Revenue System,
iv, The Coinage ofthe Gupta Empire (Vzranasi, 1957).The travel account of Calcutta, 1929, revd edn, Calcutta, 1972; Agrarian System in Ancient
the Chinese pilgrim Fa-hsien is available in English trans. by H.A. Giles, India, Calcutta, 1930, rpt, Calcutta, 1973) are comparatively balanced,
The Travels of Fa-hsien (Cambridge, 1923). Literary sources include though not completely free from the nationalist bias. For a different
Vishakhadatta's Devichandraguptam,the works of Kalidasa (trans. into Hindi treatment of the history of land system and taxation during the Gupta
by S.R. Chaturvedi in Kalidasa-Granthavali, Bombay, 1950), Kamasutra period see: D.N. Jha, Revenue System in Post-Maurya and Gupta Times,
of Vatsyayana (English trans. K.R. Iyengar, Lahore, 1921) and the Calcutta, 1977. For the first most critical analysis of sources bearing on
Vishnupurana (trans. H.H. Wilson, London, 1864-70).The English trans. the agrarian life and the evolution of feudal land tenure from the Gupta
of the contemporary legal texts are available in G. Buhler, Sacred Laws of period onwards see: R.S. Sharma, 'The Origins of Feudalism in India',
the Aryas (Oxford, 1879-82) and J. Jolly, The Minor Law Books (Oxford, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, I , pt 3 (1958);
1869). The first Sanskrit lexicon, Namalinganushasana (Amarakosha), Indian Feudalism c. AD 300-1200,Calcutta, 1965, 2nd edn, Delhi, 1980.
attributed to Amarasimha, was edited by H.D. Sharma and N.G. Sardesai Unlike Sharma, D.D. Kosambi has visualized two stages in the develop-
with the commentary of Kshirasvami and was published from Poona in ment of Indian feudalism (Introduction to the Study of Indian History,
1941. The Aryabhatiyam of Aryabhata, the first Indian mathematician, Bombay, 1956), though both agree that fmm the Gupta period onwards
was trans. by W.E. Clark (Chicago, 1930).The Brihajataka (trans. ;V. urban centres began to decline. The process of decay of towns forms the
Subramanya Sastri, Mysore, 1929) and Brihatsmhita (trans.V. Subramanya subject matter of Sharma's Urban Decay c. 300-1000(Delhi, 1987).The
Sastri and M. Ramakrishna Bhat, 2 vols, Bangalore, 1947) ofvarahamihira feudalism thesis has generated much heated debate which has been
contain references to social and economic life. For information about summed up by D.N. Jha in his introduction to Feudal Social Formation in
archaeological material found in the Gupta levels at various sites see the Early India, Delhi, 1987. K.M. Shrimali's Agrarian Structure in Central
excavation reports mentioned in the bibliographies of Chapters 4-7 as India and the Northern Deccan, Delhi, 1987, a study based on Vakataka
well as Ancient India; and Indian Archaeology--A Review; and A. Ghosh, inscriptions, supports the feudalism theory. Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya
ed, A n Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology, Delhi, 1989. (Social LiJk in Ancient India in the Background ofthe ypjnavalkyasmriti, Calcutta,
194 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY 195
1965) has compiled information on caste, education, marriage, none of them is devoted exclusively to the Gupta period. The following
occupations, women, untouchability,etc. A simdar exercise was undertaken works, however, may be of much value: R.G. Bhandarkar, ~aishnavism,
much earlier by H.C. Chakladar (Social L i j in Ancient India: Studies in Shaivism and Minor Religious Systems (Strassburg, 1913);Wendy Doniger
Vatsyayana'r Kamasutra, Calcutta, 1929) and B.S. Upadhyaya (India in O'Flaherty, Hindu Myths: A Sourcebook Translated from the Sanskrit,
Kalidasa, Delhi, 1968).The last two chapters of R.S. Sharma's Shudras in Baltimore, 1975; idem, Asceticism and Eroticism in the Mythology of Shiva;
Ancient India are devoted to the position of lower orders duringeGupta J. Gonda, Aspects $Early Vishnuism, 2nd edn, Delhi, 1969; idem, Vishnuism
times. R.N. Sharma's treatment of the position of brahmanas in his and Shivaism: A Comparison, Delhi, 1976; Sukumar Dutt, Buddhist Monks
Brahmins Through the Ages (Delhi, 1977) is inadequate. G.P. Upadhyay's and Monasteries of India, London, 1962; A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism,
Brahmanas in Ancient India (Delhi, 1979) is a competent study of the role Delhi, 1970;R.S. Sharma,'Material Milieu offantricism', in R.S. Sharma,
of brahmanas though it does not deal with them specifically in the ed, Indian Society: Historical Probings, Delhi, 1974; S. Jaiswal, The Origin
Gupta context. Chltrarekha Gupta, The Kayasthas:A Study in the Formation and Development ofVaishnavism, 2nd edn, Delhi, 1981. D.P. Chattopadhyaya,
and Early History o f a Caste (Calcutta, 1996) contains a brief discussion of Indian Philosophy: A Popular Introduction (Delhi, 1964) and A.K. Warder,
the relevant Gupta evidence and provides a useful bibliography on the Outline of lndian Philosophy (Delhi, 1971) are good introductory readings
history of kayasthas. Writings on the history of women do not deal on the development of philosophical ideas. For works devoted exclusively
separately with the Gupta period and A.S. Altekar's The Position ofwomen to the art and architecture of the Gupta period see: Prithvi Kumar
in Hindu Civilisation (Varanasi, 1956) still remains influential despite various Agrawala, Gupta Temple Architecture, Varanasi, 1968;VS. Agrawala, Gupta
articles written from a feminist point of view. Shalini Shah, The Making Art: A History 4 Indian Art in the Gupta Period (1st pub. in 1948, rpt,
of Womanhood: Gender Relations in the Mahabharata (Delhi, 1995) may be Calcutta, 1977; Pratapaditya Pal, The Ideal Image: The Gupta Sculptural
consulted for an interdisciplinary approach as well as for a bibliography Tradition and Its Influence, New York, 1978; J.C. Harle, Gupta Sculpture:
on women's history in ancient India. Education during the Gupta period Indian Sculpture 4 the Fourth to the Sixth Centuries AD, Oxford, 1974.
receives attention in A.S. Altekar, Education in Ancient India (Varanasi, Frederick M. Asher, The Art 4 Eastern India, 300-800, Minneapolis,
1965) and Radha Kumud Mookerji, Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical 1980 is a study of Gupta and post-Gupta sculptures from Bihar, West
and Buddhist (3rd edn, Delhi, 1969), though these works are useful for Bengal and Bangladesh. A detailed study ofAjanta is by Sheila L. Weiner
earlier periods as well. H.D. Sankalia's The University 4 Nalanda (Delhi, (Ajanta: Its Place in Buddhist Art, Berkley, 1977) and G.Yazdani, Ajanta,
1972) is a good study of a specific Buddhist centre of education. For 4 vols, London, 1930-55, is a prohsely illustrated study ofAjanta murals.
various aspects of economic and social history R.s.' Sharma, Perspectives For a cumprehensive treatment of the different facets of the Gupta art
in Social and Economic History 4 Early India (2nd revd edn, Delhi, 1995). Joanna G. Wilhams, The Art of Gupta India, Princeton, 1982 is recom-
D.N. Jha (Revenue System in Post-Maurya and Gupta Times, Calcutta, mended. Several works deal with literary history of ancient India and
1967) deals with agrarian system and taxation. For issues of polity, devote adequate space to the developments in the Gupta period. For
kingship and law see: V.R. Ramachandra Diksitar, The Gupta Polity. example see: A.B. Keith, A History of Sanskrit Literature, Oxford, 1920;
Madras, 1952; U.N. Ghoshal, A History of lndian Political Ideas, Bombay, Sushilkumar De, Histbry of Sanskrit Literature, Calcutta, 1947; S.N.
1959; R.S. Sharma, Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient Dasgupta, A History of Sanskrit Literature (Classical Period), Calcutta,
India; J.D.M. Derret, Religion, Law and the State in Ancient India (New 1962. D.M. Bose et al, eds, A Concise History of Science in India, New
York, 1968); Robert Lingat, The Classical Law of India, Berkley, 1973. Delhi, 1971, contains substantial material on scientific developnlents
Unlike the above mentioned works which deal with early India as a during the Gupta period.
whole, Madhukar M. Patkar's Narada, Brihaspati and Katyayana: A
Comparative Study in judicial Procedure (Delhi, 1978) seeks to analyse the
legal texts of the Gupta period.There are quite a few works dealing with
the evolution of early Indian mythology and religious sects, though
Index
Abdagases, 115
Abhidhamma Piraka, 62
. Ajatashatru, 82, 83, 84, 86
Ajita Keshakambalin, 69
Abhijnanashakrtntalam (Shakrmtala) Ajivika(s), 70, 104-5, 106, 107
of Kalidasa (also see Kalidasa), 18, 170 in the Maurya period, 104
Abhiras, 119 Ashoka's donation to, 106
acculturation, 53 akaradhyaksha, 100
Achaemenid empire, 80, 85 akasiyas, 87
Achyuta, 149 Akbar, 20
Aden, 123 Akshapada Gautama, 165
Adti, 52 alabaster, 37
Adraistai, 85 Alaka. 168
Afghanistan, 35, 37, 43, 80, 85, 92, 114, Al-Biruni. 116
125, 164 Alexander, 20, 65, 85, 86, 87, 93, 113,
Agalassoi (also see ArJunayanas),85 124
Agastya. 50 Alexander of Epirus, 95
Agastyas, 113 Alexandria, 86, 123, 124
agate, 37 A1 Sirajiyah, 18
Agathocles. 131 Allahabad, 44, 55, 63, 65, 81, 149, 150,
aghnya, 46 153, 158
Agni, 49, 51, 52, 53, 56 amachchha (amatya), 90
agriculture Amarakosha, 171.
and iron technology, 53, 63, 64, 73 Amarasimha, 171
expansion of, 96-7, 100, 122, 156 Amaravati, 128, 138, 141, 158
irrigation and, 97 Ambala, 113
techniques of. 46-7 Ambapali (Amrapali), 64, 75
took relating to, 47 Ambasthas, 85
Ahar. 28 Ambhi (Omphis), 85
Ahichhatra, 62, 113, 149, 158 amra, 64
ahimsa, 70, 73 amethyst, 37
in Jainism, 73 amphorae, 85
in Buddhism, 73 Anathapindika. 68. 74
ahitakas, 103 Andhakovinda, 66
Aitareya Brahmana, 56, 118 Andhra, 25, 98, 172
Ajanta, 140. 166. 167, 170. 172 Andhra Pradesh, 28, 119, 128, 145
paintings at. 140 Andhras (also see Satavahanas), 109, 118
INDEX INDEX
Anga, 55, 70, 74, 78, 79, 82 Arthahasha of Kautdya (also see Kautilya), dllamma of, 105-7 Bahraich, 79
Angiras, 50 20, 22, 23, 92, 96-104 donation to Ajivikas by, 104. 105-6 Bahrain. 37
Antidkidas, 132 discovery and publication of, 22-3 influence on art, 108 bajm, 29
Antigonus Gonatus, 95 artisans, 87, 99, 100, 102, 128, 129, 130, monolithic pillan of, 98, 107, 108, 149 Balakot, 32
Antiochus I, 93, 95 143, 156. 159 responsibility for the decline of the Balbhuta, 50
Antiochus 111, 113 arts and crab empire, 110 bali, 48, 87, 99
Antiochus Theos, 95, 113 decline of, 158 Baluchistan, 28, 30, 37
antyawsayin, 102 in Chalcolithic period, 29 Ashvaghosha, 116, 146 Banabhatta, 111, 164
Anushachana P a m , 161 in Early historic period, 66 oslrvamedha, 59. 112, 150. 167 Banaras (also see Varanasi), 65, 68, 78,
Apala, 49 in Harappan period, mlrvarrha, 136 84, 116, 127, 129, 158
Apastamba. 74, 75.77 in Later Vedic period, 54-5 Asiatic Mode of Production. 23 Banawali, 34
apsaras, 51 in post-Vedic period, 66 Asiatic Researches, 18 Bandhula, 83
Apicius, 124 guilds of, 66, 68 Asiatic Society of Bengal, 18 Bannu, 164
Arabia, 37. 124 in Gupta period, 156 Asiatic Society of Great Britain, 18 Barabar hills, 106, 108
Arabian Sea, 32, 52, 123 Harappan, 35-7 Asikni river, 44 barley, 29. 34, 47, 54, 64
Arabic, 18 proliferation of, 128 Aspasioi, 85 Baudhayana. 74, 75
Aramaic script, 92 mralization of, 156 Assaka, 78, 81 Beas river. 44, 113
aranya, 63 Aryabhata. 171, 172 Assakenoi (Kshudrakas), 85 Belathal, 28
Aranyakas, 43 Aryabhatiyam, 171 Assam, 25, 172 Belattha, 65
architecture Aryadeva, 164 astangamarga (see also Buddham), 72 Bengal, 25, 94, 172
cave, 108, 138-39, 166 Aryan(s), 18, 19, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, astronomy Besant, Annie. 21
temple, Gupta, 165-6 49. 51. 53 works on, 171, 172 Bhadrabahu, 93
Arikamedu. 125. 128. 158 distinction between non-Aryans and, atavirajyas, 150 bhaga, 87, 99
Aristobulus, 65 18-19 A t h a m w d a , 43, 52. 54. 56, 58 bhagadrgha, 57, 87,
Arjunayanas, 85, 113 theory of invasion by, 41 Atranjikhera, 53, 59 Bhagalpur. 79, 65
army homeland of, 18-9, 42-3 atman, 59 Bhagavat, 170
Nanda, 88 opponents of, 44-5 atthakrrla, 79 Bhagavadgita (Cita), 17. 137. 161
Maurya, 95-6 pastoralism of, 46 Audumbaras, 113 Bhagwanpun, 46
Arra, 143 practice of beef-eating among, 46 Augustus, 124 Bhaja, 139
Arrah, 63 assimilation of non-Aryan elements by, Aurelian, 125 bhakri, 134, 136, 137, 161-2. 164. 165
Arretine Ware, 125 50 Avanti, 78, 81, 82, 83, 84 in Buddhism, 134
art eastward movement of, 53 avatam(s), 135, 162, 163 in brahmanical religion, 136
Buddhist, 138-9 Aryan race of Vishnu, 135, 162 exposition of the doctrine of, 137
Maurya, 107-8 myth of, 21 theory of, I62 social relevance of, 161-2
Hellenistic, 114. 145 theory of, 41-2 Awayar, 147 Bhandarkar, Ramakrishna Gopal. 22
Gandhara (Graeco-Buddhist) school of, Arya Samaj, 21, 41, 42 ayas, 45 Bharata, 146
114, 145 Aryavarta, 150 Ayodhya, 23.78, 112, 113, 158 Bharata tribe, 44, 45, 52
Gupta, 167 Asanga, 164 Azamgarh, 27 Bharhut, 112, 138, 140
Kushana. 116, 131 asceticism, 60, 72, 97 Bhartrihari, 170
Mathura school of, 141 Ashoka(n) Baburi Majid, demolition of, 23, 78 Bhasa, 84, 146
patronage of, 141, 151 appointment of dhammamahamartac by, Bactria, 85, 113, 114, 123, 151 Bhida, 164
post-Maurya terracotta. 145 107 Badakshan, 37 Bhilu, 151
regional idiom in, 25 ban on animal slaughter by, 106-7 Bahmi caves, 167 Bhimbetka. 27
Roman, 145 edicts, 92.96. 101, 104. 105, 106, 107, Badarayana, 165 Bhitargaon, 166
Sarnath school of, 143-5 108 Bagh caves, 167 bhogagama, 68
200 INDEX INDEX 20 1
land grants during the period of, 153- Herodotus, 80 growing interest in,78 Jivaka, 68, 82, 83
4 Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle) 'Indomania', 19 Jhansi, 166
Later, 152 growth of, 133 Indra, 45, 51, 52, 56, 131, 167 Jhelum rive< 44, 85, 86
origin and original home .of, 149 in the Gupta period, 164 Indragdata, 132 Jnatrikas (Jnatri), 70, 79
Gurjars, 159 'Hindu', Hindu(s), 24, 172 Indus (Sindhu) river, 37, 43, 93 Jones, Sir William
Hinduism, 19, 21 inheritance laws, 18, 131 and Indian studies, 18
Hakra, 40 Hindukush, 80, 85, 113, 115, 151 Iran, 37, 45, 114 Jonve, 28
hala, 46 'Hindu Rashtra', 23 Irila, 132 Jrimbhikagrama, 70
Hala, 145 Hindu revivalism, 23-4 iron, 45, 46, 86, 100, 118, 119, 128 Junar, 122, 132
Halhed, N.B., 17 'Hindutva', 23 iron technology Justin, 95
Hanxleden, Father, 17 Hippalus, 123, 124 and social change, 53, 69, 100
Harappa, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 39, 40 hiranya, 99 use of, in the later Vedic period, 63-4 Kabul. 44, 114. 116, 123
Harappa(n) culture (civilization),21, 30- Hissar, 113 iron tools, 53, 63, 69, 86 Kabul valley, 80
40, 43, 45, 136 historiography irrigation, 34, 64, 97, 115, 117 Kacha, 149
animal husbandry, 34 British, 20 tax on, 98 Kadambas, 119, 151
art, 36 communal, 20 Ishvarakrishna, 165 Kailashnath temple, 166
arts and crafts, 35-6 imperialist, 21 Islam, 25 Kakutsthavarman, 151
commodity production, 37 nationalist, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 173 ivory, 124, 126 Kailasha peak, 136
decline of, 39-40 Hitopadesha, 17 Kalibangan, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 39
discovery of, 21 horoscopy, 171 jade, 37 Kalidasa, 18, 111, 151, 158, 159, 168,
geographical extent of, 30 hone, 34, 45.64, 121, 152 Jaimini, 165 170; 172
irrigation, 34 Hsuan Tsang, 116, 158, 163 Jaina works of, 168-70
pottery, 35 Huna(s), 151, 152, 159, 172 doctrines and practices, 71 Kalinga, 84, 93, 94, 95, 98, 106, 110,
script, 33 hostility to brahmanas, 76 112, 117, 135
religious beliefs, 38-9 Ikshvakus, 81, 119, 121 Jaina councils, 71, 164 war of, 96, 106
state organization, 33 Ila, 52 Jainism, 70, 71, 72-3, 75, 76, 77, 93, kaliyuga
subsistence strategies, 33-5 Inamgaon, 28, 29 103, 104, 105, 117, 134-5, 140,141, early references to, 130
trade, 37-8 incarnations (also see avatara) 147, 152, 164 features of, 153
urban planning, 30-3 origin of the idea of, 135 image worship in, 135 Kaki, 162
use of metals, 35; theory of, 162 sects of, 164 Kalsi, 98
weights and measures, 37-8 Indian Ocean, 52, 126 split in, 134-5 Kalyana, 164
Harishena, 149, 153 Indian philosophy, 165 Jakhera, 53, 63 Kamasutra ofvatsyayana, 155, 158, 170
Hariyupiya, 40 Indika, 92 Jallundur, 112, 113 Kamboja, 78, 80
Harshacharita, 111 Indo-Aryan, 21, 40, 42, 45 Jamali, 70 Kampila, 80
Haryana, 28, 30, 39, 46 Indo-European, 42, 43, 52 Jamdagnya, 162 Kanauj, 152, 164
Hastinapur, 52, 55, 57, 62, 158 and the idea of a common homeland, Jammu, 39, 126 Kandahar, 95, 123, I
Hathigumpha inscription, 84, 117, 135 18 jana, 47, 48 Kanishka, 116, 117, 132, 133, 141, 146
Hazara, 98, 114 Indo-Greeks, 24, 114, 124, 126 Janaka, 57 Kanva, 50
Hazaribag, 35 Indo-Iranian, 45 janapadas, 47, 78, 86 Kanvas, 113, 145
Hebrew, 18 Indonesia, 126 Japan, 133 Kapilar. '147
Hedgewar, K.D., 23 Indo-Parthians (see Pahlavas) Jataka(s), 62, 65, 87, 91, 111 Kapilavastu, 98
Heliodorus, 132 Indology Jayaswal, K.P., 23 kara, 87. 99
Herakles (see also Krishna), 104 and the Enghsh East India Company, Jesuits, 17 Karachi, 32
Herat, 123 17, 18 Jetavana, 68 Karad, 118
Herder, 18 foundation of, 17 jetthaka, 66 Karayan, 83
206 INDEX INDEX 207
Karikala, 121 87, 89, 104 wage. 90 129, 149, 152, 158, 163
Karimnagar, 128 Kosambi, D.D., 25 Ladh Khan, 166 Madra, 82
Karle, 122, 131, 132, 133, 139 Koshala, 52, 57, '8, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, b ~ k u j a t a k a ,171 Madras, 115
karma, 60 87, 89, 104 land Madurai, 147
theory of, 161 Koshi river, 79 absence of ownership of, 47 Magadha(n), 57, 70, 74, 75, 78, 79, 80,
karmakaras, 77, 103 Kota, 149 agrarian expansion and grants of, 156 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 91,
Karnal, 113 krishi, 46 clearance of, 97, 98, 110 92, 94, 104, 113, 117, 135, 149,
Karnataka, 25, 28, 70, 98, 158, 172 Krishna, 80, 104, 122, 135, 136, 137, development of the idea of ownership 152
karshapana, 75 143, 161, 162 of, 54 expansion of, 82-5
Kasia, 65 as a demon and enemy of Indra, 135 features of grants of, 153-4 causes of the rise of, 86-8
Kashi, 57, 78, 80, 81, 82 Krishna river, 118 feudalism as a result of donations of, decline of the empire of, 108-10
Kashmir, 27, 39, 95, 116, 126, 133, 164 Krumu (Kurram) river, 43 154-5, 164 Magan, 37
Kanpur, 115 Kshaharata clan, 118 meaurement of, 47 Magas, 95
Kathaioi (Kathas), 85 kshaniya(s), 50, 55, 56, 60, 75, 90, 102, private possession of, 54 Magha, 80
Kathiawar, 115 103, 119, 159 Satavahana grants of, 122 Mahabharata, 24, 57, 80, 120, 131, 135,
Katyayana, 171 Kubha (Kabul) river, 43, 114, 116, 123 subinfeudation as a result of grants of, 137! 146, 160, 161, 171
Kaundinyapura, 158 kuddala, 63 155 interpolations in, 171
Kaushambi, 55, 62, 63, 65, 72, 81, 113, kuddalika, 63 land taxes (see also bhaga), 87 Mahabhashya, 111, 114, 146
127, 129, 158 Kujula Kadphises, 115, 116 latgala, 46 mahadandanayaka. 153
Kautilya (also see Arthashastra) kith, 48 lapis lazuli, 37 mahajanapada(s), 78, 81, 82, 84, 88
economic policies of, 96-101 kulapa, 48 Larkana, 30 the number of, 78
Kaveri delta, 128, 131 Kumaragupta, 151, 162 Later Guptas, 152 early history of, 78-81
Kaveripattanam (see Puhar), 121, 128, kumaramatyas, 153 later Vedic period Mahakala temple, 159
131 Kumarasambharn, 168 use of iron axe in, 53 mahamatta (mahamatra), 90, 96
kayasthas, 159 Kumrahar, 108 agriculture in, 54 Mahamaya, 71
Kayatha, 28 Kunala, 108 arts and crafts in, 54 Mahameghavahanas, 117
Kerala, 25, 115, 146, 172 Kundagram, 70. further development of caste In, 55 Mahanama Shakya, 81
Keralapunas, 95, 120 Kunindas, 113 marriage rules in, 56 Mahananda, 79
kevalya, 70 Kuntala, 84, 119, 151 taxation in, 57 Mahapadma Nanda, 84, 85, 86
Khairigarh, 167 Kurma, 162 asceticism in, 60 Mahapajapati Gotami, 75, 128
Khanda, 90 Kuru(s), 52, 57, 78, 80, 135 ashrama system, 60 maharajadhiraja, 149, 152
Khandagiri hills, 140 Kurukshetra, 52, 57, 120 education in, 60-1 Maharashtra, 25, 28, 29, 37, 42, 81, 84,
Kharavela, 84, 117, 120, 135 Kushana(s), 24, 114, 116, 117, 121, 124, Latin, 42 118, 119, 125, 172
Kharoshthi, 92, 111, 131 126, 127, 129, 131, 132, 149, 150, lead, 128 Maharathis, 118, 121
Khema, 82 167 lentil, 29 Mahatma Gandhi, 23
Khetri, 35 features of their polity, 121 Lichchhavis, 70, 79, 80, 82, 83, 91, 149 mahattaras, 159
Khotan, 95, 164 land clearing under, 122-3 Lob-nor, 164 Mahavamsa, 84, 94
kingship Kushinara, 65, 72, 79 Lokayata school of philosophy, 69 Mahavastu, 111. 128
nature of, later Vedic 56-7, 58 kushidin, 55 Lokayatasutra, 69 Mahavijita, 73
I
deification of Kushana, 121-2 Kutch, 115 Lothal, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37 Mahavira, 65, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 79,
kinship, 48, 68 Kuvernaga, 151 Ludhiana, 113 83
Kish, 37 . Mahayana, Mahayanism (Greater Vehicle)
Kolhapur, 122, 125 labour Macaulay, Thomas Babington, 19 133, 134, 162
Kondapur, 128 forced, 102, 155 Macedonian empire, 93, 95 feature of, 133-4
Konkan, 115, 151 free, 129 Madhyamika, 128, 129 in the Gupta period, 164
Koshala, 52, 57, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, hired, 97, 103, 130 Madhya Pradesh, 28, 65, 81, 112, 128, origin of, 133
INDEX INDEX
Vajrayana and, 164 Megaliths, 118, 119 mustard, 34 nishka(see also coins), 55
Mahendra, 95 Megasthenes, 92, 93, 96, 98, 99, 102, Mylapur, 115 niyoga,49, 56
Maheshwar-NavdatoL. 128 103, 104, 120, 135 Mysore, 37, 70, 93, 95, 100 Noh, 158
Mahlshdal, 28 Meghadtrta, 168 Northern Black Polished Ware, 62, 64,
mahishi, 48 Meghavarna, 150 Nachna Kuttara, 163 65. 100
Mahishmati, 81, 129 Mehrauli, 156 Naga tribe, 81 Nyaya, 165
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INDEX
samiti, 47, 48, 58, 88 sculpture (see also art) Shri (Shri-Lakshmi), 104, 162, 163 Socotra, 123 ID: ,
Samkarshana, 104 Gupta, 167, 172 Shrigupta, 149 Sohagaura, 158
Samkhya, 70 Kushana, 131 Shrinagara, 95 Soma, 51
Sampnti, 108 Mathura school of, 141 shringara, 170 Sone river, 79, 83
sumrat, 59 Maurya, 108 shrotriya, 58 Songaon, 28
samskara, 103 Scythians (also see Shakas), 114 shudra(s), 42, 49, 50, 55, 56, 76, 84, 96, Sotka Koh, 32
santsthadhyaksha, 99 Seleukos Nikator, 93, 95, 113 102, 103, 130, 153, 159
Samudragupta, 149, 150, 152, 153, 167, senabhakta, 99 in the Maurya period, 103
173 Sen, Keshub Chandra, 18 in post-Maurya period, 130 Sparta, 55
conquests of, 149-50 senanayaka, 88 Shudraka, 161, 170 spices, 126
patronage of art and learning by, 150 senani, 48 shulkadhyaktha, 99 spikenard, 124
Sanch~,116, 133, 138, 140, 166 senapati, 90 Shungas, 112, 113, 118, 145 Sravana Belgola, 93
sandalwood, 126 serfdom, 154, 172, 173 Shurasena, 78, 80, 84 St. Thomas, 115
sandhivigrahika, 153 evidence of, 154 Shutudri (Satlej) river, 44 state formation, 56-8,112,117,118,119-
Sangharaksha, 116 in the Gupta period, 172 shvetambara(s), 135, 164 20, 156
Sankhyakarika, 165 sesamum, 34, 54 Sibai (Sivis), 85 in Kalinga, 117
Sanskrit language and literature, 1, 21, setthis, 67, 68, 74 Siddhartha, 70, 71 in the Deccan, 118
145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 168, 171 settlements, expansion of village, 98, 100 Silapadikaram, 148 in Tamilnadu, 119-20
European languages and, 1.2 1 nav, 122, 126-7 silk, 124, 125, 128 sthanika, 96 Iw
ruling class association of, 146-7, 170 Shabarasvamin, 165 Silk Road, 124 steatite, 33, 35 E,
efflorescence of, 168-71 shaddanhana, 165 silver, 35, 37, 128 sthanika, 96
erotlc element in, 170 Shaivism, 161, 162, 163-4, 172 Simha, 90 Stfabo, 126
santhagara, 90 Shaka era, 116 Simuka, 118 Strato, 114
saptasitidhava, 44 Shakas, 24, 114, 115, 118, 119, 121, 124, Sindh, 30, 115, 116, 119 stridhana (also see women), 159
Saran, 63 146, 150, 151, 172 Sindhu, 44 sttcpafs), 107, 112, 115, 116, 132, 138,
Saraswati river, 30, 44 Shakti cult, 162-63 Sita, 78 139, 141, 145
Sargon of Akkad, 37 Shakyas, 71, 81, 83, 89, 91 sita, 97 cult of, 138
Sarnath, 72 Shangam literature (also see Tamil) sitadhyaktha, 97 destruction of, 112
SarpikdSyandika (Sai) river, 78 tradition about the origin of, 147 Sivalik hills, 113 Subhagasena, 113
Saryu river, 78 folk character of, 147 Skanda. 167, 170 subsistence economy, 46, 54, 59, 63, 64,
Sasaram, 98 Shankancharya, 165 Skandagupta, 151, 162 120
Sassanian dynasty, 117 Shanti P a m , 160, 171 Slav, 42 Sudarshana Lake, 115
Satan, 118 sharecroppers, 102, 154 slavery (slaves), 49, 68, 76, 77, 90, 97, Sudas, 44, 50
Satavahanas, 109, 115, 118, 119, 121, Shatapatlra Brahmana, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58 103-5, 129, 130, 154, 155 Suez, 123
122, 126, 128, 129, 139, 145, 147, shatrlkika, 87 in the Maurya period, 103 Sumatra, 126
149, 151, 153 Shesha, 135 in the Gupta period, 154, 155 Sumerian language, 33
grants of land by, 122 Shi Huang Ti, 114 Smith,Vincent A., 20-1 superintendent of salt, 100
sari (also see Women), 56, 59, 159 Shishunaga, 84 social formations, 46-7, 48-9, 50-1, 54- Surkotada, 30
in the Gupta period, 159 Shishupala, 80 6 surplus,,35, 48, 57, 65, 99 -
Satyaputns, 95, 120 Shiva, 38, 104, 135, 136, 162, 162, 163, social organization Surya, 52
Satlej, 44 167, 168 in the Maurya period, 102-3 Susa, 37, 123
Satya Shodhak Samaj, 42 antiquity of, 136 in the Rigvedic period, 48-9, 50-1 Sushmta, 146
Saundarananda, 146 incarnations of, 162 social tension Suta Lomaharshana, 171
Saurashtra, 37, 98, 135 temples of, 163 in the Maurya period, 103-5 Sutkagendor, 30, 32
Savltri, 52 Shravasti, 62, 65, 79 in the Gupta period, 173 Sutta Pitaka, 62
INDEX INDEX 215
Suvastu (Swat), 44 and urbanization, 65,66 Uijain, 62, 65, 81, 82, 84, 104, 112, Vakatakas, 119, 151, 153, 155
48
srrvirah, and use of money, 74 115. 135, 158, 159 Valabhi, 71, 152, 164
Svapaka, 102 and vaishyas, 55, 103 Uluka Kanada, 165 Vamadeva, 49
Svapnavasavadattam. 146 decline of, 156, 158 untouchables Vaman, 162
Swat valley, 114 growth of, 98, 123 increase in the number of. 159 vanaprastha, 60
Syria, 93, 95 Harappan, 32-3,37-8 degredation of, 173 Varaha, 152, 162
Syrian church, 164 in Chinese silk, 124, 125 untouchability Varahamihira, 160, 171, 172
syadavada, 71 items of, 124 (also see antyawsayin), 56.69, 76-7,102, Varanasi (Banaras), 57, 65, 68, 72, 78.
Puhar as centre of, 121 159, 160, 173 84, 116, 127, 129, 143, 158, 159
Tamil language an# literature, 24,93,lll, state control of, 98.99 growth of, 69 Vardhanas, 152
120, 121, 131, 147,148 use of monsoon in, 123 intense practice of, 160 vama (see also caste), 49, 55, 56, 69,75,
adaptations of Sanskrit in, 147 with the Mediterranean, 122 rrpattayana, 60, 104 76, 79, 88, 89, 102, 103, 119, 130,
Prakit words in, 147 with the Roman empire, 124-6 Upanishads, 43, 52, 59, 60,71 131, 153, 159, 160, 161, 163, 173
Tamilnadu, 27, 119, 128, 147, 172 with South-East Asia, 126, 156 Ur, 37 distinctions among, 160
Tamralipti (Tamluk), 123, 127 with Ceylon, 126 Umiyur, 128 conflict among, 160-1
Tantric religion, 163, 164 with the Western world, 11 1,120,123, urban centres, 65, 66, 78-9,80, 81, 86, Varuna, '50,51, 56
Taranatha. 93 124, 125, 156 100, 121, 126-8,129, 131, 145 Vasabhakhattiya, 81
Taruksha, 50 trade routes (see also Silk Road). 65,66, and Jainism, 73 Vasantasena, 170
Tattvopalavasimha, 69 86, 98, 123, 133 decay of, 158 Vasavadatta, 84
taxation, 55, 57, 58, 83,87,89,99, 150, improvement of, 98 in the post-Maurya period, 126-8 Vasishtha, 50
153, 154, 155 in post-Maurya period, 123-4 Satavahana, 158 Vasishthiputra, 119
in pre-Maurya period, 87 traders, 83, 87, 99, 100, 120, 123, 156 urbanization Vassakara, 83, 87
in the Maurya period, 99-100 tree cults, 136 trade and, 65, 126 Vasubandhu. 150, 164
Taxila, 65, 80, 83, 85, 108, 115, 123, tribal beginning of, 55 Vasudeva. 117
126, 129, 130, 158 assemblies, 47, 83, 88 in the post-Maurya period. 126 Vasumitra, 116
Ter, 125 chiefships, 23, 47, 48, 49, 83, 89 Urvashi, 50, 51 Vatsa, 78, 79, 81, 84
terracotta(s), 36, 38, 131, 145 states, 113, 150 Ushas. 52 Vatsyayana, 155, 170
textiles, 128 wars, 44 usury, 74 Vedanta (Uttaramimamsa), 165
Thaneswar. 152 tribes Utilitarians, 19 Vedavyasa, 162
Tigawa, 166 undermining of, 120 Uttarapatha, 66 Vedic assemblies, weakening of, 88-9
Tilak, B.G.,21 tribute, 48, 57, 58, 80, 83, 89, 121, 150 Uttar Pradesh, 28, 30, 39, 43, 52, 53, Vedic deities, 51-2
tin, 35, 128 Trigartas, 113 63, 79, 98, 127, 149, 152, 167 Vedic texts, 43
tinai, 120 Tripuri, 128, 129 RigVeda. geographical horizon of. 43-
Tirhut, 18 Trishala, 70, 76 Vadpon-Madhavpur, 158 4
tirthankaras, 71, 141 tulasi, 1'36 Vaikuntha, 135, 136 agricultural knowledge in, 46-7
tirthas, 96 trrndiyas, 87 rwirqya, 120 women in, 48-9
Tinrkkrrral, 147 Turfan monastery, 146 Vaishali, 62, 63, 64, 70, 75, 82, 83, 86, incest in, 49
Tiruvalluvar, 147 Tushita heaven, 167 89,91,98, 149, 158 gods and goddesses in, 51-2
Tissa, 95 Tvashtri, 51 Vaisheshika school.69, 165 Vidarbha, 112, 119
Tolkappiyam. 147 vidatha, 48, 58
Toramana, 152 Uchchhakalpa, 152 Videha, 52, 53, 57, 78, 79, 89
Tosali, 117 rrchchhedavada, 69 Vaishnavism, 161, 162, 163, 172 Videha Mathava, 53
trade, 120 Udayagiri hi,117, 140, 167 vaishyas, 50, 55, 56, 60, 74, 76, 102, Vidisha, 112, 129, 158, 167
and Buddhism, 73 Udayan, 81,84 103, 130 Vidudabha, 81. 82
and growth of money economy, 126 Ugrasena, 87 vajapeya, 59 vidrrshaka, 170
and Jainism, 73 Ugrashrava, 171 vaji (Vrijji). 78, 79, 81, 82 vihara(s), 116, 133, 145
216 INDEX