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Analogue Circuit Fundamentals

Revision on
Transistor Devices

Contents
•  BJT and FET
•  Characteristics
•  Operations

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What is a transistor?
Three-terminal device
i
whose voltage-current
relationship is controlled by a
ic +
third voltage or current
v
+
vc
–
We may regard a transistor as a
–
controlled voltage or current
source.

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Types of transistors
According to the physics of the device, we can
classify transistors into two main classes:

1. Bipolar junction transistors (BJT)

2. Field effect transistors (FET)
Diode-based device which
is usually blocked unless
the control terminals are
Conduction is controlled
forward-biased. So, the
by electric field which is
control is a current, and
produced by voltage
BJT is a current amplifier
applied to the control
by nature.
terminals. So, the control
draws no current and FET
is a voltage-controlled
device.
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 Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
a bit of physics…
2 types of BJT devices
Consider the npn BJT. The collector-base
collector collector junction is reverse-biased. So, no current can
flow down.
C C
B But if the base-emitter junction is forward-
base B
biased (≈0.6V), then the diode “contact
E E potential barrier” can be overcome. Electrons
can go to base — called base injection.
emitter emitter
npn transistor pnp transistor These electrons are minority carriers, which are
strongly attracted/captured by the collector.
Basic model Hence, current flows down from collector to
C C emitter.

THUS, we use a small base current to induce a

IC
B IC B large collector current.
IB IB
This large collector current is proportional to
E E
npn the base injection. IC =
β IB
pnp
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 Simple BJT model
Collector Consider npn transistor.

IC Collector is more positive than Emitter.

Base B-E and B-C junctions are pn junctions, like diodes.
In normal operation, B-E is forward biased and B-C is
IB reverse biased.

Emitter Main relation:

Collector
n IC IC = βI B
Base p
IB n β ≈ 100 typically
Emitter
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 Some properties
Collector VBE ≈ 0.6 V when the transistor turns on.
IC Never try to stick a large voltage across VBE
Base because it may produce enormous current or
may just kill the device!
IB
Emitter β is a “bad” parameter. Don’t trust the databook.
Its value can vary to ±50% or more.

IC IC = βIB holds only under some carefully set

IB conditions. We’ll look at it later.

IE = IB + IC
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Typical operations
1.  Cut-off

2.  Active operation

+10 V
3.  Saturation

RL IC
Determining factors:
IB
• How large is IB or VBE
• How large is RL +

VBE
–

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 Cut-off
When the B-E junction is not forward-biased, the
transistor is basically not doing anything.

This is called CUT-OFF. +10 V

0A

VBE = 0

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Active operation
When the following holds:

IC = βI B
+10 V
the BJT is said to be in active
operation. RL IC
This is the case of current IB
amplification.
+
But we need ICRL < 10V VBE
–

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 Condition for active operation: ICRL<VCC
Let β = 100.
+10 V +10 V +10 V

1kΩ IC=1mA 5kΩ IC=1mA 10kΩ IC=1mA

IB=10µA + IB=10µA + IB=10µA +

VCE = 9V VCE = 5V VCE = 0V

– – –

How about 11kΩ?

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Saturation
When VCE is reduced to 0, the BJT is saturated.

+10 V IC cannot be 1mA!!

In fact, it must drop in order to
15kΩ IC=0.6667mA
make up for the total voltage.

In this case,
IB=10µA +
IC = 10V/15kΩ = 0.6667mA
VCE = 0V

–
IC = βI B

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 What makes it saturate?

Large RL Large IB
+10 V +10 V

10kΩ IC=1mA 1kΩ IC=10mA

IB=10µA + IB=100µA +
VCE = 0V VCE = 0V
just saturate! just saturate!
– –

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 Application: BJT as switch

Saturation 10V
(10 − 0.7) V
IB = = 9.3mA
1kΩ Situation 1
10V
100Ω0.1A
IC = 100x9.3 = 0.93A which is lamp
too large and surely saturates
C
the BJT!!! So, IC ≈ 0.1A. 1kΩ B
Light bulb turns on.
Situation 2 E
Cut-off
IB = IC = 0. Light bulb turns off.

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Detailed BJT characteristics
Input characteristic (IB versus VBE)
Obviously, VBE and IB are related by diode characteristic.
# V BE / VT &
I B = I ss %$ e − 1('
IB

thermal voltage Boltzman’s constant

absolute temperature
kT
VT = ≈25 mV @room temp
q
VBE
0.6 electronic charge

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 Detailed BJT characteristics
Transfer characteristic (IC versus VBE)
Also, IC is just IB multiplied by β.
$ V BE / VT ' $ V BE / VT '
IC = βI ss &%e − 1( = I s &% e
) − 1)(
IC = β IB

thermal voltage Boltzman’s constant

absolute temperature
same shape as IB kT
VT = ≈25 mV @room temp
q
VBE
0.6 electronic charge

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Detailed BJT characteristics
Output characteristic (IC versus VCE)
IC is nearly flat unless near saturation.
IC
IC
+
for one particular
choice of IB or VBE VCE
–

Not Ohm’s law!!

VCE

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 Important small-signal characteristic
IB

Different IB (or VBE) has

different output characteristic.

A range of VBE corresponds to

a range of IC. VBE
0.6 V
Transconductance: IC IC1
slope = gm = Ω
–1 IC
saturation
ΔIC
0.025
VBE =0.68 V
gm = active VBE =0.65 V
ΔVBE IC1
VBE =0.60 V

= slope VBE =0 (cut-off)

VBE VCE
on the transfer char. 0.2 V
0.6 0.65 0.68 V

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What is gm?

ΔIC
gm =
ΔVBE A simple differentiation gives
dIC d $ '
gm = = & βI ss (e V BE / VT
− 1))
dVBE dVBE % (
1
= βI ss (e V BE
/ VT
)
VT
IC IC
≈ or at room temp
VT 25mV

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A bit more precise
At saturation, VCE is not really 0, it is about 0.2 V.

IC
+10 V

for one particular 10kΩ IC=0.98mA

choice of IB or VBE not 1mA!!
IB=10µA +
VCE = 0.2V

–
VCE
0.2V

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 A bit more precise
In active region, IC is not really flat. It goes up gently! This is
called Early Effect!

IC

IC
slope ≈ IC / VA
for one particular
choice of IB or VBE
Early voltage
typically 100V

VCE
0.2V

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 Field Effect Transistors (FET)
Drain

Gate channel Current goes down from D to S,

controlled by the gate voltage at G.

Source

Two kinds of channels: Two kinds of gate electrodes:

n-channel FET Junction FET (JFET)

p-channel FET Metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

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Terminology confusion
Before we move on, it is important to clarify some possible confusions
due to terminology difference.

BJT saturation region active region cut-off

FET triode region saturation region cut-off

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n-channel MOSFET
S G D

SiO2 insulator

n n The channel is not

conducting initially when
p
gate is zero volt.
When gate is +ve, electrons
are attracted to it and this
becomes n-type conducting
body or substrate channel.

This action is called channel

enhancement.

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 n-channel MOSFET characteristic
Drain Characteristics:

ID Gate current = 0 (always)

+ The channel conduction is determined by VGS
VDS
Gate ID
– triode
+ VGS=2V
VGS
– Source saturation VGS=1.9V
(like “active” in BJT)
VGS=1.8V

Threshold voltage VGS=1.7V

VDS
Vth = 1.7 V, for example.

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 Saturation region
Drain So, it looks like the npn BJT!! But if we look
closer, we find that the saturation current is
ID proportional to (VGS–Vth)2.
+

VDS ID = K (VGS–Vth)2 for saturation region

Gate ID
–
+ VGS=2V
VGS
– Source saturation VGS=1.9V
(like “active” in BJT)
VGS=1.8V

Threshold voltage VGS=1.7V

VDS
Vth = 1.7 V, for example.

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 Saturation region
Drain ID = K (VGS–Vth)2 for saturation region

ID If we plot the saturation ID versus VGS, we have a

+ quadratic (parabolic) curve.

VDS ID
Gate
–
+
VGS
– Source

VGS
Vth

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 Triode region
Triode region — like a quadratic (parabolic) function
ID
So, the equation is:
y = a x (2M – x)
K (VGS–Vth)2

ID = a VDS (2M – VDS)

Obviously, M = VGS – Vth , a = K,

VDS ID = K VDS [2 (VGS – Vth) – VDS]

M 2M
= VGS–Vth for triode region

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 n-channel MOSFET characteristic
Complete model summary:
triode region (quadratic in VDS)

ID = K VDS [2 (VGS – Vth) – VDS]

ID

saturation region (flat)

K (VGS–Vth)2
ID = K (VGS–Vth)2

VDS
VGS–Vth
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 Example (biasing in saturation)
10V Vth = 3V By using load line
K = 0.5 mAV–2
2kΩ
ID load line
5V
ID slope = –1/2k
ID = 0.5x22
= 2mA

5–3 = 2V 6V 10V VDS

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 Example (biasing in saturation)
10V Vth = 3V By analysis
K = 0.5 mAV–2
2kΩ
ID
ID
5V ID = 0.5x22
= 2mA

VDS = 10 – 2x2
= 6V
which is > 2
OKAY!

What happen if a 4.5kΩ is used? VDS

5–3 = 2V 6V
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 Example (biasing in triode)
10V Vth = 3V
K = 0.5 mAV–2
4.5kΩ ID ID
ID = 0.5x22 ?
5V = 2mA
VDS = 10 – 4.5x2
= 1V ID = 1.88mA
Oops!! VDS = 1.54V

So, it is in the triode region.

ID = K VDS [2 (VGS – Vth) – VDS] VDS
= 0.5 VDS (4 – VDS) 5–3 = 2V
= 0.5 (10–4.5 ID)(4–10+ 4.5 ID)
i.e., 10.125 ID2 – 35ID + 30 = 0
ID = 1.8845 mA or 1.5722 mA And 1.88mA gives VDS = 10–4.5x1.88=1.54V.
But 1.57mA gives VDS = 10–4.5x1.57=2.95V!!
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 Enhancement and depletion MOSFET
What we have just studied is the enhancement MOSFET. ID
Enhancement — the channel is originally not Enhancement mode
conducting when gate voltage is 0, and we have to
apply a positive gate voltage (bigger than a threshold
Vth) to make it conduct (enhance it). Depletion mode

Depletion — In fact, we also have another kind of

MOSFET, in which the channel can conduct even when
gate voltage is not applied. Then, we need to apply
reverse gate voltage to cut it off. This is called
depletion MOSFET. VGS
Vth Vth

NOTE THAT DUE TO A SEMICONDUCTOR DOPING PROPERTY,

For n-channel MOSFET, both enhancement and depletion types
can be made.
For p-channel MOSFET, only enhancement type can be made.

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 Junction FET (JFET)
Drain
Current can flow initially because plenty
of electrons are available in the channel.

Gate : Apply negative voltage to increase

Gate p p
the depletion width, so as to reduce the
n current. When the gate voltage is
negative enough, current will stop.

Hence, this is a depletion device.

depletion region width depends on the

Source magnitude of the gate reverse bias

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 Junction FET (JFET)
Drain Drain

Gate p p Gate p p
n n
–ve voltage more
applied to
reduce –ve voltage
current Channel
becomes
Source narrower Source

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 Pinch off in JFET
Drain
ID

Gate p p Channel
n
more pinch off;
–ve voltage Current stops

Pinch-off
VGS voltage
Vp Source Vp
surely depletion type

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 n-channel JFET characteristics
Drain The characteristics are very similar to those of MOSFET. But,
now the threshold is a negative value, which is called the
ID pinch-off voltage Vp instead of threshold voltage.
+

VDS ID
Gate triode VGS=2V
+ –
VGS saturation
– VGS=1V
Source (like “active” in BJT)
Pinch-off voltage of this VGS=0V
JFET is Vp = –2 V
VGS=–2V
VDS

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 n-channel JFET characteristics
Drain Everything is almost the same!!
ID +
triode region (quadratic in VDS)
VDS ID = K VDS [2 (VGS – Vp) – VDS]
Gate ID
+ –
VGS
K (VGS–Vp)2
– Source saturation region (flat)
Pinch-off voltage of this ID = K (VGS–Vp)2
JFET is Vp = –2 V

Be careful about sign!

VGS can be negative or positive, VDS
but Vp is negative. VGS–Vp
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 Example (biasing in saturation)
10V ID
ID = K (VGS–Vp)2
10kΩ = 0.2(2)2
= 0.8mA
ID +

VDS VDS = 10 – 10x0.8

= 2V
– just okay in saturation!

But if the resistor is VDS

Vp = –2 V more than 10kΩ, it will
K = 0.2mA/V2 0–(–2)=2V
be in triode region!

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 Example (biasing in triode)
10V ID
ID = K (VGS–Vp)2
12kΩ = 0.2(2)2
= 0.8mA
ID +
VDS = 10 – 12x0.8
VDS = 0.4V
< 2V
So, it can’t be in saturation!
–

Recalculate ID: VDS

Vp = –2 V ID = K VDS [2 (VGS – Vp) – VDS]
K = 0.2mA/V2 = 0.2 (10–12 ID)[2x2–(10–12 ID)] 0–(–2)=2V
i.e., 28.8 ID2 – 37.4 ID + 12 = 0
ID = 0.7195mA or 0.5791mA
And, ID = 0.7195mA gives VDS = 1.366V ---okay
ID = 0.7195mA
But, ID = 0.5791mA gives VDS = 3.051V --- reject! VDS = 1.366V
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 Example (biasing in triode)
10V ID
ID = K (VGS–Vp)2
12kΩ = 0.2(2)2
= 0.8mA
ID +
Load line
VDS

–
Of course, you
may also solve VDS
Vp = –2 V
K = 0.2mA/V2 it by using load 0–(–2)=2V 10V
line.
ID = 0.7195mA
VDS = 1.366V
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 Important small-signal characteristic
Similar to BJT!!! Consider only the saturation region.
ID
If we change VGS in a small range, then
VGS=2V ID also changes in a range. The ratio of
the change in ID to the change in VGS is
called transconductance.
VGS=1.9V
ΔID
gm =
ΔVGS
VGS=1.8V
which is the slope of the curve ID
VGS=1.7V versus VGS , or analytically,
VDS
dID d
gm = = K (VGS − Vth ) 2
dVGS dVGS
= 2K (VGS − Vth )
= 2 K K (VGS − Vth )
= 2 K ID
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 Other FETs
So far, we have only talked about
1.  n-channel MOSFET (enhancement type)
similar to npn BJT
2.  n-channel JFET (depletion type)

Other FETs: enhancement

n-channel MOSFET
depletion
MOSFET
p-channel MOSFET enhancement
FET
n-channel JFET depletion
JFET
p-channel JFET depletion

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 p-channel FETs
Operation is almost the same as n-channel FETs.

Voltage polarity and current direction reversed.

BUT… for p-channel devices,

the carriers are holes (not electrons). So, mobility is lower

and minority carrier lifetime shorter.

Consequence: p-channel devices are usually POORER!

higher threshold voltage, higher resistance, and lower
current capability.

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