Electromagnetic Testing

Eddy Current in Brief

2014-December
My ASNT Level III Pre-Exam Preparatory Self Study Notes
外围学习中

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Eddy current testing is used to find surface and near surface
defects in conductive materials. It is used by the aviation industry for
detection of defects such as cracks, corrosion damage, thickness verification,
and for materials characterization such as metal sorting and heat treatment
verification. Applications range from fuselage and structural inspection,
engines, landing gear, and wheels. Eddy current inspection involves initial
setup and calibration procedures with known reference standards of the same
material as the part. Probes of appropriate design and frequency must be
used.

Eddy current inspection is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

An electric coil in which an alternating current is flowing is placed adjacent to
the part. Since the method is based on induction of electromagnetic fields,
electrical contact is not required.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Figure 1. Schematic of Eddy Current absolute probe

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 An alternating current flowing through the coil produces a primary magnetic
field that induces eddy currents in the part. Energy is needed to generate the
eddy currents, and this energy shows up as resistance losses in the coil.
Typical NDE application are designed to measure these resistance losses.
Eddy currents flow within closed loops in the part.

Figure 2. Diagram illustrating Eddy Currents created in a port

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 As a result of eddy currents, a second magnetic field is generated in the
material. The magnetic fields of the core interact with those in the part and
changes in the material being inspected affect the interaction of the magnetic
fields. The interaction, in turn, affects the electrical characteristics of the coil.
Resistance and inductive reactance add up to the total impedance of the coil.
Changes in the electrical impedance of the coil are measured by commercial
eddy current instruments. So, what does all of this have to do with
nondestructive testing?
The main method used in eddy current inspection is one in which the
response of the sensor depends on conductivity and permeability of the test
material and the frequency selected.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 How eddy currents are created and sensed:

An alternating current creates a magnetic field (Oersted's Law).

The magnetic field causes a resulting eddy current in a part, which creates an
induced magnetic field (Faraday's Law).
The magnetic field from the coil is opposed to the induced magnetic field from
the eddy current.
A defect (surface or near surface) modifies the eddy current and therefore the
magnetic field as well.
This change in the magnetic field is detected by a sensor and is indicative of
a flaw.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 How eddy currents are created and sensed:
 An alternating current creates a magnetic field (Oersted's Law).
 The magnetic field causes a resulting eddy current in a part, which creates
an induced magnetic field (Faraday's Law).
 The magnetic field from the coil is opposed to the induced magnetic field
from the eddy current.
 A defect (surface or near surface) modifies the eddy current and therefore
the magnetic field as well.
 This change in the magnetic field is detected by a sensor and is indicative
of a flaw.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 How far do the eddy currents penetrate into a test piece?
The strength of the response from a flaw is greatest at the surface of the
material being tested, and decreases with depth into the material. The
"Standard depth of penetration" is mathematically defined as the point when
the eddy current is 1/e or 37% of its surface value. The "effective depth of
penetration" is defined as three times the standard depth of penetration,
where the eddy current has fallen to about 3% of its surface value. At this
depth there is no effective impact on the eddy current and a valid inspection is
not feasible.

Penetration depth will:

- Decrease with an increase in conductivity
- Decrease with an increase in permeability
- Decrease with an increase in frequency

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Conductivity is sensitive to cracks and material in-homogeneities;
- Cracks
- Defects
- Voids
- Scattering of electrons

Magnetic permeability is much more sensitive to structural changes in

magnetic materials;
- Dislocations
- Residual stress
- Second phases
- Precipitates

Frequency selection will greatly affect eddy current response. Selection of

the proper frequency is the essential test factor under the control of the test
operator. The frequency selected affects not only the strength of the response
from flaws and the effective depth of penetration, but also the phase
relationship.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 The frequency selected affects not only:
(1) the strength of the response from flaws and
(2) the effective depth of penetration, but also
(3) the phase relationship.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 How do we measure eddy current response?
Eddy current response is viewed on an oscilloscope display, showing the
impedance response (Z) from the test material, which is affected by factors
depending on the specimen and testing conditions.
Specimen conditions affecting response:
 Electrical conductivity,
 Magnetic permeability (unmagnetized ferromagnetic materials can become
magnetized, resulting in large changes in impedance),
 Specimen thickness - thickness should be limited to less then three times
the standard depth of penetration.
Testing conditions affecting response:
 AC frequency,
 Electromagnetic coupling between the coil and the specimen - a small liftoff
has a pronounced effect,
 Inspection coil size,
 Number of turns within the coil itself,
 Coil type.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 On an impedance plane diagram the signal of the resistance (R) component
is displayed on the X axis and the inductive reactance (XL) component is
displayed on the Y axis.

Figure 3. Electrical Conductivity changes for typical materials.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Thickness changes in a sample can change the impedance response on an
oscilloscope. Defects such as corrosion are found in this fashion.

The thinner the part the greater is

the impedance (>R & >XL)

Figure 4. Changes in conductivity curve due to thinning of a part

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 Figure 5. Changes in conductivity curve due to corrosion damage

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 There are two basic types of coil probes used in eddy current inspection; the
absolute probe and the differential probe. An absolute probe consists of a
single pickup coil which can be fashioned in a variety of shapes. Absolute
probes are very good for sorting metals and detection of cracks in many
situations. Absolute coils can detect both sharp changes in impedance and
gradual changes. They are however, sensitive to material variations,
temperature changes, etc.

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Figure 6. Typical response for samples of different conductivity

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 A differential probe consists of two coils sensing different areas of the
material being tested, which are linked electrically in opposition. The circuit
will become unbalanced when one of the coils encounters a change in
impedance. The response to this change in impedance creates what is known
as a Lissajous figure. In general, the closer the element spacing the wider the
"loop" in the signal. Differential probes are relatively unaffected by lift-off as
long as the elements are balanced, and are suited for detection of small
defects.

Keywords:
Differential probes are relatively unaffected by lift-off as long as the elements
are balanced

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Figure 7. Diagram of response of a differential probe over a defect

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Lift Off
Lift-off from paint, coatings, etc. can cause variations that may mask the
defects of interest. Lift-off may also be useful in determining the thickness of
nonconductive coatings on a conductive component.

数字签名者：Fion
Zhang
DN：cn=Fion
Zhang,
o=Technical,
ou=Academic,
email=fion_zhang
@qq.com, c=CN
日期：2016.09.02
07:44:00 +08'00'

Figure 8. Response of a probe due to lift off.

http://www.cnde.iastate.edu/faa-casr/engineers/Supporting%20Info/Supporting%20Info%20Pages/Eddy%20Pages/Eddy-principles.html

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Birring NDE Center, Eddy Current Testing # 1 Basic Concept

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dxzsPzCnpVc

Eddy Current testing and impedance plane display. Birring NDE Center is a NDT school in Houston
that provides NDT training as per SNT-TC-1A. For training info see http://www.nde.com/training/

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

https://www.yumpu.com/en/browse/user/charliechong
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
 Good Luck!

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

 Good Luck!

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang