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Republic of the Philippines

SUPREME COURT
Manila
EN BANC
G.R. No. 168338             February 15, 2008
FRANCISCO CHAVEZ, petitioner,
vs.
RAUL M. GONZALES, in his capacity as the Secretary of the Department
of Justice; and NATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION
(NTC), respondents.
SEPARATE CONCURRING OPINION
CARPIO, J.:
The Case

This is a petition for the writs of certiorari and prohibition to set aside
"acts, issuances, and orders" of respondents Secretary of Justice Raul M.
Gonzalez (respondent Gonzales) and the National Telecommunications
Commission (NTC), particularly an NTC "press release" dated 11 June
2005, warning radio and television stations against airing taped
conversations allegedly between President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo and
Commission on Elections (COMELEC) Commissioner Virgilio Garcillano
(Garcillano)1 under pain of suspension or revocation of their airwave
licenses.

The Facts

On 24 June 2004, Congress, acting as national board of canvassers,

proclaimed President Arroyo winner in the 2004 presidential elections.2
President Arroyo received a total of 12,905,808 votes, 1,123,576 more
than the votes of her nearest rival, Fernando Poe, Jr. Sometime before 6
June 2005, the radio station dzMM aired the Garci Tapes where the
parties to the conversation discussed "rigging" the results of the 2004
elections to favor President Arroyo. On 6 June 2005, Presidential
spokesperson Ignacio Bunye (Bunye) held a press conference in
Malacañang Palace, where he played before the presidential press corps
two compact disc recordings of conversations between a woman and a
man. Bunye identified the woman in both recordings as President Arroyo
man. Bunye identified the woman in both recordings as President Arroyo
but claimed that the contents of the second compact disc had been
"spliced" to make it appear that President Arroyo was talking to
Garcillano.

However, on 9 June 2005, Bunye backtracked and stated that the

woman's voice in the compact discs was not President Arroyo’s after all.3
Meanwhile, other individuals went public, claiming possession of the
genuine copy of the Garci Tapes.4 Respondent Gonzalez ordered the
National Bureau of Investigation to investigate media organizations which
aired the Garci Tapes for possible violation of Republic Act No. 4200 or
the Anti-Wiretapping Law.

On 11 June 2005, the NTC issued a press release warning radio and
television stations that airing the Garci Tapes is a "cause for the
suspension, revocation and/or cancellation of the licenses or
authorizations" issued to them.5 On 14 June 2005, NTC officers met with
officers of the broadcasters group, Kapisanan ng mga Broadcasters sa
Pilipinas (KBP), to dispel fears of censorship. The NTC and KBP issued a
joint press statement expressing commitment to press freedom.6

On 21 June 2005, petitioner Francisco I. Chavez (petitioner), as citizen,

filed this petition to nullify the "acts, issuances, and orders" of the NTC
and respondent Gonzalez (respondents) on the following grounds: (1)
respondents’ conduct violated freedom of expression and the right of the
people to information on matters of public concern under Section 7,
Article III of the Constitution, and (2) the NTC acted ultra vires when it
warned radio and television stations against airing the Garci Tapes.

In their Comment to the petition, respondents raised threshold objections

that (1) petitioner has no standing to litigate and (2) the petition fails to
meet the case or controversy requirement in constitutional adjudication.
On the merits, respondents claim that (1) the NTC's press release of 11
June 2005 is a mere "fair warning," not censorship, cautioning radio and
television networks on the lack of authentication of the Garci Tapes and
of the consequences of airing false or fraudulent material, and (2) the
NTC did not act ultra vires in issuing the warning to radio and television
stations.

In his Reply, petitioner belied respondents' claim on his lack of standing to

litigate, contending that his status as a citizen asserting the enforcement
of a public right vested him with sufficient interest to maintain this suit.
Petitioner also contests respondents' claim that the NTC press release of
11 June 2005 is a mere warning as it already prejudged the Garci Tapes
as inauthentic and violative of the Anti-Wiretapping Law, making it a
"cleverly disguised x x x gag order."

ISSUE

The principal issue for resolution is whether the NTC warning embodied
in the press release of 11 June 2005 constitutes an impermissible prior
restraint on freedom of expression.

I vote to (1) grant the petition, (2) declare the NTC warning, embodied in
its press release dated 11 June 2005, an unconstitutional prior restraint
on protected expression, and (3) enjoin the NTC from enforcing the same.

1. Standing to File Petition

Petitioner has standing to file this petition. When the issue involves
freedom of expression, as in the present case, any citizen has the right to
bring suit to question the constitutionality of a government action in
violation of freedom of expression, whether or not the government action
is directed at such citizen. The government action may chill into silence
those to whom the action is directed. Any citizen must be allowed to take
up the cudgels for those who have been cowed into inaction because
freedom of expression is a vital public right that must be defended by
everyone and anyone.

Freedom of expression, being fundamental to the preservation of a free,

open and democratic society, is of transcendental importance that must
be defended by every patriotic citizen at the earliest opportunity. We have
held that any concerned citizen has standing to raise an issue of
transcendental importance to the nation,7 and petitioner in this present
petition raises such issue.

2. Overview of Freedom of Expression, Prior Restraint and Subsequent

Punishment

Freedom of expression is the foundation of a free, open and democratic

society. Freedom of expression is an indispensable condition8 to the
exercise of almost all other civil and political rights. No society can
remain free, open and democratic without freedom of expression.
Freedom of expression guarantees full, spirited, and even contentious
discussion of all social, economic and political issues. To survive, a free
and democratic society must zealously safeguard freedom of expression.

Freedom of expression allows citizens to expose and check abuses of

public officials. Freedom of expression allows citizens to make informed
choices of candidates for public office. Freedom of expression
crystallizes important public policy issues, and allows citizens to
participate in the discussion and resolution of such issues. Freedom of
expression allows the competition of ideas, the clash of claims and
counterclaims, from which the truth will likely emerge. Freedom of
expression allows the airing of social grievances, mitigating sudden
eruptions of violence from marginalized groups who otherwise would not
be heard by government. Freedom of expression provides a civilized way
of engagement among political, ideological, religious or ethnic opponents
for if one cannot use his tongue to argue, he might use his fist instead.

Freedom of expression is the freedom to disseminate ideas and beliefs,

whether competing, conforming or otherwise. It is the freedom to express
to others what one likes or dislikes, as it is the freedom of others to
express to one and all what they favor or disfavor. It is the free expression
for the ideas we love, as well as the free expression for the ideas we
hate.9 Indeed, the function of freedom of expression is to stir disputes:

[I]t may indeed best serve its high purpose when it induces a
condition of unrest, creates dissatisfaction with conditions as they
are, or even stirs people to anger. Speech is often provocative and
challenging. It may strike at prejudices and preconceptions and have
profound unsettling effects as it presses for acceptance of an idea.10

Section 4, Article III of the Constitution prohibits the enactment of any law
curtailing freedom of expression:

No law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, of

expression, or the press, or the right of the people peaceably to
assemble and petition the government for redress of grievances.

Thus, the rule is that expression is not subject to any prior restraint or
censorship because the Constitution commands that freedom of
expression shall not be abridged. Over time, however, courts have carved
out narrow and well defined exceptions to this rule out of necessity.

The exceptions, when expression may be subject to prior restraint, apply

in this jurisdiction to only four categories of expression, namely:
pornography,11 false or misleading advertisement,12 advocacy of
imminent lawless action,13 and danger to national security.14 All other
expression is not subject to prior restraint. As stated in Turner
Broadcasting System v. Federal Communication Commission, "[T]he First
Amendment (Free Speech Clause), subject only to narrow and well
understood exceptions, does not countenance governmental control over
the content of messages expressed by private individuals."15
Expression not subject to prior restraint is protected expression or high-
value expression. Any content-based prior restraint on protected
expression is unconstitutional without exception. A protected expression
means what it says – it is absolutely protected from censorship. Thus,
there can be no prior restraint on public debates on the amendment or
repeal of existing laws, on the ratification of treaties, on the imposition of
new tax measures, or on proposed amendments to the Constitution.

Prior restraint on expression is content-based if the restraint is aimed at

the message or idea of the expression. Courts will subject to strict
scrutiny content-based restraint. If the content-based prior restraint is
directed at protected expression, courts will strike down the restraint as
unconstitutional because there can be no content-based prior restraint on
protected expression. The analysis thus turns on whether the prior
restraint is content-based, and if so, whether such restraint is directed at
protected expression, that is, those not falling under any of the
recognized categories of unprotected expression.

If the prior restraint is not aimed at the message or idea of the

expression, it is content-neutral even if it burdens expression. A content-
neutral restraint is a restraint which regulates the time, place or manner
of the expression in public places16 without any restraint on the content
of the expression. Courts will subject content-neutral restraints to
intermediate scrutiny.17

An example of a content-neutral restraint is a permit specifying the date,

time and route of a rally passing through busy public streets. A content-
neutral prior restraint on protected expression which does not touch on
the content of the expression enjoys the presumption of validity and is
thus enforceable subject to appeal to the courts.18 Courts will uphold
time, place or manner restraints if they are content-neutral, narrowly
tailored to serve a significant government interest, and leave open ample
alternative channels of expression.19

In content-neutral prior restraint on protected speech, there should be no

prior restraint on the content of the expression itself. Thus, submission of
movies or pre-taped television programs to a government review board is
constitutional only if the review is for classification and not for censoring
any part of the content of the submitted materials.20 However, failure to
submit such materials to the review board may be penalized without
regard to the content of the materials.21 The review board has no power
to reject the airing of the submitted materials. The review board’s power
is only to classify the materials, whether for general patronage, for adults
only, or for some other classification. The power to classify expressions
applies only to movies and pre-taped television programs22 but not to live
television programs. Any classification of live television programs
necessarily entails prior restraint on expression.

Expression that may be subject to prior restraint is unprotected

expression or low-value expression. By definition, prior restraint on
unprotected expression is content-based23 since the restraint is imposed
because of the content itself. In this jurisdiction, there are currently only
four categories of unprotected expression that may be subject to prior
restraint. This Court recognized false or misleading advertisement as
unprotected expression only in October 2007.24

Only unprotected expression may be subject to prior restraint. However,

any such prior restraint on unprotected expression must hurdle a high
barrier. First, such prior restraint is presumed unconstitutional. Second,
the government bears a heavy burden of proving the constitutionality of
the prior restraint.25

Courts will subject to strict scrutiny any government action imposing prior
restraint on unprotected expression.26 The government action will be
sustained if there is a compelling State interest, and prior restraint is
necessary to protect such State interest. In such a case, the prior restraint
shall be narrowly drawn - only to the extent necessary to protect or attain
the compelling State interest.

Prior restraint is a more severe restriction on freedom of expression than

subsequent punishment. Although subsequent punishment also deters
expression, still the ideas are disseminated to the public. Prior restraint
prevents even the dissemination of ideas to the public.

While there can be no prior restraint on protected expression, such

expression may be subject to subsequent punishment,27 either civilly or
criminally. Thus, the publication of election surveys cannot be subject to
prior restraint,28 but an aggrieved person can sue for redress of injury if
the survey turns out to be fabricated. Also, while Article 201 (2)(b)(3) of
the Revised Penal Code punishing "shows which offend any race or
religion" cannot be used to justify prior restraint on religious expression,
this provision can be invoked to justify subsequent punishment of the
perpetrator of such offensive shows.29

Similarly, if the unprotected expression does not warrant prior restraint,

the same expression may still be subject to subsequent punishment,
civilly or criminally. Libel falls under this class of unprotected expression.
However, if the expression cannot be subject to the lesser restriction of
subsequent punishment, logically it cannot also be subject to the more
severe restriction of prior restraint. Thus, since profane language or "hate
speech" against a religious minority is not subject to subsequent
punishment in this jurisdiction,30 such expression cannot be subject to
prior restraint.

If the unprotected expression warrants prior restraint, necessarily the

same expression is subject to subsequent punishment. There must be a
law punishing criminally the unprotected expression before prior restraint
on such expression can be justified. The legislature must punish the
unprotected expression because it creates a substantive evil that the
State must prevent. Otherwise, there will be no legal basis for imposing a
prior restraint on such expression.

The prevailing test in this jurisdiction to determine the constitutionality of

government action imposing prior restraint on three categories of
unprotected expression – pornography,31 advocacy of imminent lawless
action, and danger to national security - is the clear and present danger
test.32 The expression restrained must present a clear and present
danger of bringing about a substantive evil that the State has a right and
duty to prevent, and such danger must be grave and imminent.33

Prior restraint on unprotected expression takes many forms - it may be a

law, administrative regulation, or impermissible pressures like threats of
revoking licenses or withholding of benefits.34 The impermissible
pressures need not be embodied in a government agency regulation, but
may emanate from policies, advisories or conduct of officials of
government agencies.

3. Government Action in the Present Case

The government action in the present case is a warning by the NTC that
the airing or broadcasting of the Garci Tapes by radio and television
stations is a "cause for the suspension, revocation and/or cancellation of
the licenses or authorizations" issued to radio and television stations. The
NTC warning, embodied in a press release, relies on two grounds. First,
the airing of the Garci Tapes "is a continuing violation of the Anti-
Wiretapping Law and the conditions of the Provisional Authority and/or
Certificate of Authority issued to radio and TV stations." Second, the Garci
Tapes have not been authenticated, and subsequent investigation may
establish that the tapes contain false information or willful
misrepresentation.

Specifically, the NTC press release contains the following categorical

warning:
 Taking into consideration the country’s unusual situation, and in order
not to unnecessarily aggravate the same, the NTC warns all radio
stations and television networks owners/operators that the
conditions of the authorizations and permits issued to them by
Government like the Provisional Authority and/or Certificate of
Authority explicitly provides that said companies shall not use its
stations for the broadcasting or telecasting of false information or
willful misrepresentation. Relative thereto, it has come to the
attention of the Commission that certain personalities are in
possession of alleged taped conversation which they claim, (sic)
involve the President of the Philippines and a Commissioner of the
COMELEC regarding their supposed violation of election laws. These
personalities have admitted that the taped conversations are product
of illegal wiretapping operations.

Considering that these taped conversations have not been duly

authenticated nor could it be said at this time that the tapes contain
an accurate or truthful representation of what was recorded therein,
(sic) it is the position of the Commission that the continuous airing
or broadcast of the said taped conversations by radio and television
stations is a continuing violation of the Anti-Wiretapping Law and
the conditions of the Provisional Authority and/or Certificate of
Authority issued to these radio and television stations. If it has been
(sic) subsequently established that the said tapes are false and/or
fraudulent after a prosecution or appropriate investigation, the
concerned radio and television companies are hereby warned that
their broadcast/airing of such false information and/or willful
misrepresentation shall be just cause for the suspension, revocation
and/or cancellation of the licenses or authorizations issued to the
said companies. (Boldfacing and underscoring supplied)

The NTC does not claim that the public airing of the Garci Tapes
constitutes unprotected expression that may be subject to prior restraint.
The NTC does not specify what substantive evil the State seeks to
prevent in imposing prior restraint on the airing of the Garci Tapes. The
NTC does not claim that the public airing of the Garci Tapes constitutes a
clear and present danger of a substantive evil, of grave and imminent
character, that the State has a right and duty to prevent.

The NTC did not conduct any hearing in reaching its conclusion that the
airing of the Garci Tapes constitutes a continuing violation of the Anti-
Wiretapping Law. At the time of issuance of the NTC press release, and
even up to now, the parties to the conversations in the Garci Tapes have
not complained that the wire-tapping was without their consent, an
essential element for violation of the Anti-Wiretapping Law.35 It was even
the Office of the President, through the Press Secretary, that played and
released to media the Garci Tapes containing the alleged "spliced"
conversation between President Arroyo and Commissioner Garcillano.
There is also the issue of whether a wireless cellular phone conversation
is covered by the Anti-Wiretapping Law.

Clearly, the NTC has no factual or legal basis in claiming that the airing of
the Garci Tapes constitutes a violation of the Anti-Wiretapping Law. The
radio and television stations were not even given an opportunity to be
heard by the NTC. The NTC did not observe basic due process as
mandated in Ang Tibay v. Court of Industrial Relations.36

The NTC claims that the Garci Tapes, "after a prosecution or the
appropriate investigation," may constitute "false information and/or willful
misrepresentation." However, the NTC does not claim that such possible
false information or willful misrepresentation constitutes misleading
commercial advertisement. In the United States, false or deceptive
commercial speech is categorized as unprotected expression that may be
subject to prior restraint. Recently, this Court upheld the constitutionality
of Section 6 of the Milk Code requiring the submission to a government
screening committee of advertising materials for infant formula milk to
prevent false or deceptive claims to the public.37 There is, however, no
claim here by respondents that the Garci Tapes constitute false or
misleading commercial advertisement.

The NTC concedes that the Garci Tapes have not been authenticated as
accurate or truthful. The NTC also concedes that only "after a prosecution
or appropriate investigation" can it be established that the Garci Tapes
constitute "false information and/or willful misrepresentation." Clearly,
the NTC admits that it does not even know if the Garci Tapes contain false
information or willful misrepresentation.

4. Nature of Prior Restraint in the Present Case

The NTC action restraining the airing of the Garci Tapes is a content-
based prior restraint because it is directed at the message of the Garci
Tapes. The NTC’s claim that the Garci Tapes might contain "false
information and/or willful misrepresentation," and thus should not be
publicly aired, is an admission that the restraint is content-based.

5. Nature of Expression in the Present Case

The public airing of the Garci Tapes is a protected expression because it

does not fall under any of the four existing categories of unprotected
expression recognized in this jurisdiction. The airing of the Garci Tapes is
essentially a political expression because it exposes that a presidential
candidate had allegedly improper conversations with a COMELEC
Commissioner right after the close of voting in the last presidential
elections.

Obviously, the content of the Garci Tapes affects gravely the sanctity of
the ballot. Public discussion on the sanctity of the ballot is indisputably a
protected expression that cannot be subject to prior restraint. Public
discussion on the credibility of the electoral process is one of the highest
political expressions of any electorate, and thus deserves the utmost
protection. If ever there is a hierarchy of protected expressions, political
expression would occupy the highest rank,38 and among different kinds
of political expression, the subject of fair and honest elections would be
at the top. In any event, public discussion on all political issues should
always remain uninhibited, robust and wide open.

The rule, which recognizes no exception, is that there can be no content-

based prior restraint on protected expression. On this ground alone, the
NTC press release is unconstitutional. Of course, if the courts determine
that the subject matter of a wiretapping, illegal or not, endangers the
security of the State, the public airing of the tape becomes unprotected
expression that may be subject to prior restraint. However, there is no
claim here by respondents that the subject matter of the Garci Tapes
involves national security and publicly airing the tapes would endanger
the security of the State.39

The alleged violation of the Anti-Wiretapping Law is not in itself a ground

to impose a prior restraint on the airing of the Garci Tapes because the
Constitution expressly prohibits the enactment of any law, and that
includes anti-wiretapping laws, curtailing freedom of expression.40 The
only exceptions to this rule are the four recognized categories of
unprotected expression. However, the content of the Garci Tapes does
not fall under any of these categories of unprotected expression.

The airing of the Garci Tapes does not violate the right to privacy because
the content of the Garci Tapes is a matter of important public concern.
The Constitution guarantees the people’s right to information on matters
of public concern.41 The remedy of any person aggrieved by the public
airing of the Garci Tapes is to file a complaint for violation of the Anti-
Wiretapping Law after the commission of the crime. Subsequent
punishment, absent a lawful defense, is the remedy available in case of
violation of the Anti-Wiretapping Law.

The present case involves a prior restraint on protected expression. Prior

restraint on protected expression differs significantly from subsequent
punishment of protected expression. While there can be no prior restraint
on protected expression, there can be subsequent punishment for
protected expression under libel, tort or other laws. In the present case,
the NTC action seeks prior restraint on the airing of the Garci Tapes, not
punishment of personnel of radio and television stations for actual
violation of the Anti-Wiretapping Law.

6. Only the Courts May Impose Content-Based Prior Restraint

The NTC has no power to impose content-based prior restraint on

expression. The charter of the NTC does not vest NTC with any content-
based censorship power over radio and television stations.

In the present case, the airing of the Garci Tapes is a protected

expression that can never be subject to prior restraint. However, even
assuming for the sake of argument that the airing of the Garci Tapes
constitutes unprotected expression, only the courts have the power to
adjudicate on the factual and legal issue of whether the airing of the Garci
Tapes presents a clear and present danger of bringing about a
substantive evil that the State has a right and duty to prevent, so as to
justify the prior restraint.

Any order imposing prior restraint on unprotected expression requires

prior adjudication by the courts on whether the prior restraint is
constitutional. This is a necessary consequence from the presumption of
invalidity of any prior restraint on unprotected expression. Unless ruled by
the courts as a valid prior restraint, government agencies cannot
implement outright such prior restraint because such restraint is
presumed unconstitutional at inception.

As an agency that allocates frequencies or airwaves, the NTC may

regulate the bandwidth position, transmitter wattage, and location of
radio and television stations, but not the content of the broadcasts. Such
content-neutral prior restraint may make operating radio and television
stations more costly. However, such content-neutral restraint does not
restrict the content of the broadcast.

7. Government Failed to Overcome Presumption of Invalidity

Assuming that the airing of the Garci Tapes constitutes unprotected

expression, the NTC action imposing prior restraint on the airing is
presumed unconstitutional. The Government bears a heavy burden to
prove that the NTC action is constitutional. The Government has failed to
meet this burden.
In their Comment, respondents did not invoke any compelling State
interest to impose prior restraint on the public airing of the Garci Tapes.
The respondents claim that they merely "fairly warned" radio and
television stations to observe the Anti-Wiretapping Law and pertinent NTC
circulars on program standards. Respondents have not explained how
and why the observance by radio and television stations of the Anti-
Wiretapping Law and pertinent NTC circulars constitutes a compelling
State interest justifying prior restraint on the public airing of the Garci
Tapes.

Violation of the Anti-Wiretapping Law, like the violation of any criminal

statute, can always be subject to criminal prosecution after the violation
is committed. Respondents have not explained why there is a need in the
present case to impose prior restraint just to prevent a possible future
violation of the Anti-Wiretapping Law. Respondents have not explained
how the violation of the Anti-Wiretapping Law, or of the pertinent NTC
circulars, can incite imminent lawless behavior or endanger the security
of the State. To allow such restraint is to allow prior restraint on all future
broadcasts that may possibly violate any of the existing criminal statutes.
That would be the dawn of sweeping and endless censorship on
broadcast media.

8. The NTC Warning is a Classic Form of Prior Restraint

The NTC press release threatening to suspend or cancel the airwave

permits of radio and television stations constitutes impermissible
pressure amounting to prior restraint on protected expression. Whether
the threat is made in an order, regulation, advisory or press release, the
chilling effect is the same: the threat freezes radio and television stations
into deafening silence. Radio and television stations that have invested
substantial sums in capital equipment and market development suddenly
face suspension or cancellation of their permits. The NTC threat is thus
real and potent.

In Burgos v. Chief of Staff,42 this Court ruled that the closure of the We
Forum newspapers under a general warrant "is in the nature of a previous
restraint or censorship abhorrent to the freedom of the press guaranteed
under the fundamental law." The NTC warning to radio and television
stations not to air the Garci Tapes or else their permits will be suspended
or cancelled has the same effect – a prior restraint on constitutionally
protected expression.

In the recent case of David v. Macapagal-Arroyo,43 this Court declared

unconstitutional government threats to close down mass media
establishments that refused to comply with government prescribed
"standards" on news reporting following the declaration of a State of
National Emergency by President Arroyo on 24 February 2006. The Court
described these threats in this manner:

Thereafter, a wave of warning[s] came from government officials.

Presidential Chief of Staff Michael Defensor was quoted as saying
that such raid was "meant to show a 'strong presence,' to tell media
outlets not to connive or do anything that would help the rebels in
bringing down this government." Director General Lomibao further
stated that "if they do not follow the standards — and the standards
are if they would contribute to instability in the government, or if they
do not subscribe to what is in General Order No. 5 and Proc. No. 1017
— we will recommend a 'takeover.'" National Telecommunications
Commissioner Ronald Solis urged television and radio networks to
"cooperate" with the government for the duration of the state of
national emergency. He warned that his agency will not hesitate to
recommend the closure of any broadcast outfit that violates rules
set out for media coverage during times when the national security
is threatened.44 (Emphasis supplied)

The Court struck down this "wave of warning[s]" as impermissible

restraint on freedom of expression. The Court ruled that "the imposition
of standards on media or any form of prior restraint on the press, as well
as the warrantless search of the Tribune offices and whimsical seizure of
its articles for publication and other materials, are declared
UNCONSTITUTIONAL."45

The history of press freedom has been a constant struggle against the
censor whose weapon is the suspension or cancellation of licenses to
publish or broadcast. The NTC warning resurrects the weapon of the
censor. The NTC warning is a classic form of prior restraint on protected
expression, which in the words of Near v. Minnesota is "the essence of
censorship."46 Long before the American Declaration of Independence in
1776, William Blackstone had already written in his Commentaries on the
Law of England, "The liberty of the press x x x consists in laying no
previous restraints upon publication x x x."47

Although couched in a press release and not in an administrative

regulation, the NTC threat to suspend or cancel permits remains real and
effective, for without airwaves or frequencies, radio and television
stations will fall silent and die. The NTC press release does not seek to
advance a legitimate regulatory objective, but to suppress through
coercion information on a matter of vital public concern.

9. Conclusion
In sum, the NTC press release constitutes an unconstitutional prior
restraint on protected expression. There can be no content-based prior
restraint on protected expression. This rule has no exception.

I therefore vote to (1) grant the petition, (2) declare the NTC warning,
embodied in its press release dated 11 June 2005, an unconstitutional
prior restraint on protected expression, and (3) enjoin the NTC from
enforcing the same.

ANTONIO T. CARPIO
Associate Justice

Footnotes

1 The taped conversations are referred to here as the "Garci Tapes."

2 Report of the Joint Committee on the Canvass of Votes for the

Presidential and Vice-Presidential Candidates in the May 10, 2004
Elections, dated 23 June 2004.

3 In their Comment to the petition, the NTC and respondent Gonzalez

only mentioned Bunye’s press conference of 6 June 2005. However,
respondents do not deny petitioner’s assertion that the 9 June 2005
press conference also took place.

4 On 7 June 2005, Atty. Alan Paguia, counsel of former President

Joseph Ejercito Estrada, gave to a radio station two tapes, including
the Garci Tapes, which he claimed to be authentic. On 10 June 2005,
Samuel Ong, a high ranking official of the National Bureau of
Investigation, presented to the media the alleged "master tape" of the
Garci Tapes.

5 The press release reads in its entirety:

NTC GIVES FAIR WARNING TO RADIO AND TELEVISION

OWNERS/

OPERATORS TO OBSERVE ANTI-WIRE TAPPING LAW AND

PERTINENT

NTC CIRCULARS ON PROGRAM STANDARDS

In view of the unusual situation the country is in today, The (sic)

National Telecommunications Commission (NTC) calls for
sobriety among the operators and management of all radio and
television stations in the country and reminds them, especially all
broadcasters, to be careful and circumspect in the handling of
news reportage, coverages [sic] of current affairs and discussion
of public issues, by strictly adhering to the pertinent laws of the
country, the current program standards embodied in radio and
television codes and the existing circulars of the NTC.

The NTC said that now, more than ever, the profession of
broadcasting demands a high sense of responsibility and
discerning judgment of fairness and honesty at all times among
broadcasters amidst all these rumors of unrest, destabilization
attempts and controversies surrounding the alleged wiretapping
of President GMA (sic) telephone conversations.

Taking into consideration the country’s unusual situation, and in

order not to unnecessarily aggravate the same, the NTC warns all
radio stations and television networks owners/operators that the
conditions of the authorizations and permits issued to them by
Government like the Provisional Authority and/or Certificate of
Authority explicitly provides that said companies shall not use its
stations for the broadcasting or telecasting of false information
or willful misrepresentation. Relative thereto, it has come to the
attention of the Commission that certain personalities are in
possession of alleged taped conversation which they claim, (sic)
involve the President of the Philippines and a Commissioner of
the COMELEC regarding their supposed violation of election laws.
These personalities have admitted that the taped conversations
are product of illegal wiretapping operations.

Considering that these taped conversations have not been duly

authenticated nor could it be said at this time that the tapes
contain an accurate or truthful representation of what was
recorded therein, (sic) it is the position of the Commission that
the continuous airing or broadcast of the said taped
conversations by radio and television stations is a continuing
violation of the Anti-Wiretapping Law and the conditions of the
Provisional Authority and/or Certificate of Authority issued to
these radio and television stations. If it has been (sic)
subsequently established that the said tapes are false and/or
fraudulent after a prosecution or appropriate investigation, the
concerned radio and television companies are hereby warned
that their broadcast/airing of such false information and/or
willful misrepresentation shall be just cause for the suspension,
revocation and/or cancellation of the licenses or authorizations
 issued to the said companies.

In addition to the above, the Commission reiterates the pertinent

NTC circulars on program standards to be observed by radio and
television stations. NTC Memorandum Circular No. 111-12-85
explicitly states, among others, that "all radio broadcasting and
television stations shall, during any broadcast or telecast, cut off
from the air the speech play, act or scene or other matters being
broadcast and/or telecast if the tendency thereof" is to
disseminate false information or such other willful
misrepresentation, or to propose and/or incite treason, rebellion
or sedition. The foregoing directive had been reiterated in NTC
Memorandum Circular No. 22-89 which, in addition thereto,
prohibited radio, broadcasting and television stations from using
their stations to broadcast or telecast any speech, language or
scene disseminating false information or willful
misrepresentation, or inciting, encouraging or assisting in
subversive or treasonable acts.

The Commission will not hesitate, after observing the

requirements of due process, to apply with full force the
provisions of the said Circulars and their accompanying
sanctions or erring radio and television stations and their
owners/operators.

6 The joint press statement reads (Rollo, pp. 62-63):

JOINT PRESS STATEMENT: THE NTC AND KBP

1. Call for sobriety, responsible journalism, and of law, and the

radio and television Codes.

2. NTC respects and will not hinder freedom of the press and the
right to information on matters of public concern. KBP & its
members have always been committed to the exercise of press
freedom with high sense of responsibility and discerning
judgment of fairness and honesty.

3. NTC did not issue any MC [Memorandum Circular] or Order

constituting a restraint of press freedom or censorship. The NTC
further denies and does not intend to limit or restrict the interview
of members of the opposition or free expression of views.

4. What is being asked by NTC is that the exercise of press

freedom is done responsibly.
 5. KBP has program standards that KBP members will observe in
the treatment of news and public affairs programs. These include
verification of sources, non-airing of materials that would
constitute inciting to sedition and/or rebellion.

6. The KBP Codes also require that no false statement or willful

misrepresentation is made in the treatment of news or
commentaries.

7. The supposed wiretapped tapes should be treated with

sensitivity and handled responsibly giving due consideration to
the process being undertaken to verify and validate the
authenticity and actual content of the same.

7 David v. Macapagal-Arroyo, G.R. No. 1713396, 3 May 2006, 489

SCRA 160.

8 In Palko v. Connecticut, 302 U.S. 319 (1937), Justice Benjamin

Cardozo wrote that freedom of expression is "the matrix, the
indispensable condition, of nearly every other form of freedom."

9 See dissenting opinion of Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes in United

States v. Schwimmer, 279 U.S. 644 (1929).

10 Terminiello v. Chicago, 337 U.S. 1, 4 (1949).

11 Gonzales v. Kalaw-Katigbak, No. L-69500, 22 July 1985, 137 SCRA

717.

12 Pharmaceutical and Health Care Association of the Philippines v.

Health Secretary Francisco T. Duque III, G.R. No. 173034, 9 October
2007. Another fundamental ground for regulating false or misleading
advertisement is Section 11(2), Article XVI of the Constitution which
states: "The advertising industry is impressed with public interest, and
shall be regulated by law for the protection of consumers and the
promotion of the general welfare."

13 Eastern Broadcasting Corporation v. Dans, No. L-59329, 19 July

1985, 137 SCRA 628.

14 Id.

15 512 U.S. 622, 640 (1994).

16 Bayan, Karapatan, Kilusang Magbubukid ng Pilipinas (KMP) v.

Ermita, G.R. Nos. 169838, 169848 and 156881, 25 April 2006, 488
SCRA 2260.

17 Constitutional Law, Erwin Chemerinsky, pp. 902, 936 (2nd Edition).

18 Ruiz v. Gordon, 211 Phil. 411 (1983).

19 United States v. Grace, 461 U.S. 171 (1983).

20 Gonzalez v. Kalaw-Katigbak, see Note 11. The Court declared, "It is

the opinion of this Court, therefore, that to avoid an unconstitutional
taint on its creation, the power of respondent Board is limited to the
classification of films."

21 Movie and Television Review and Classification Board v. ABS-CBN

Broadcasting Corporation, G.R. No. 155282, 17 January 2005, 448
SCRA 5750.

22 A case may be made that only television programs akin to motion

pictures, like tele-novelas, are subject to the power of review and
classification by a government review board, and such power cannot
extend to other pre-taped programs like political shows.

23 Constitutional Law, Chemerinsky, see Note 17, p. 903.

24 See Note 12.

25 Iglesia ni Cristo (INC) v. Court of Appeals, Board of Review for

Motion Pictures and Television, G.R. No. 119673, 26 July 1996, 259
SCRA 529; New York Times v. United States, 403 U.S. 713 (1971).

26 Id.

27 Ayer Productions Pty. Ltd. v. Capulong, G.R. No. L-82380, 29 April

1988, 160 SCRA 861.

28 Social Weather Station, et al. v. COMELEC, 409 Phil. 571 (2001).

29 See Note 25.

30 VRS Publications, Inc. v. Islamic Da’wah Council of the Philippines,

Inc., 444 Phil. 230 (2003). In effect, this makes "hate speech" against
a religious or ethnic minority a protected expression.

31 In pornography or obscenity cases, the ancillary test is the

contemporary community standards test enunciated in Roth v. United
States (354 U.S. 476 [1957]), which asks: whether to the average
person, applying contemporary community standards, the dominant
theme of the material taken as a whole appeals to prurient interest.
See Gonzalez v. Kalaw-Katigbak, Note 11.

32 See notes 12 and 13. In false or misleading advertisement cases,

no test was enunciated in Pharmaceutical and Health Care
Association of the Philippines v. Health Secretary (see Note 12)
although the Concurring and Separate Opinion of Chief Justice
Reynato S. Puno advocated the four-part analysis in Central Hudson
Gas & Electric v. Public Service Commission (447 U.S. 557 [1980]), to
wit: (1) the advertisement must concern lawful activity and not be
misleading; (2) the asserted governmental interest must be
substantial; (3) the state regulation directly advances the
governmental interest asserted; and (4) the restriction is no more
extensive than is necessary to serve that interest.

33 Bayan v. Ermita, see Note 16. In the United States, the prevailing
test is the Brandenburg standard (Brandenburg v. Ohio, [395 U.S. 444
1969]) which refined the clear and present danger rule articulated by
Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes in Schenck v. United States (249 U.S.
47 [1919]) by limiting its application to expressions where there is
"imminent lawless action." See American Constitutional Law, Otis H.
Stephen, Jr. and John M. Scheb II, Vol. II, p. 133 (4th Edition).

34 Federal Communications Commission v. League of Women Voters,

468 U.S. 364 (1984).

35 Section 1, Republic Act No. 4200.

36 69 Phil. 635 (1940).

37 See Note 12.

38 Some commentators, including Prof. Robert Bork, argue that

political expression is the only expression protected by the Free
Speech Clause. The U.S. Supreme Court has rejected this view.
Constitutional Law, Chemerinsky, see Note 17, p. 897.

39 See Commonwealth Act No. 616 and Article 117 of the Revised
Penal Code.

40 See Bartnicki v. Vopper, 532 U.S. 514 (2001). In this case, the U.S.
 Supreme Court held that an anti-wiretapping law violates the First
Amendment if it prohibits disclosure of intercepted information that
is of significant public concern.

41 Section 7, Article III, Constitution.

42 218 Phil. 754 (1984).

43 See Note 7.

44 Id. at 268.

45 Id. at 275.

46 283 U.S. 697 (1931).

47 American Constitutional Law, Ralph A. Rossum and G. Alan Tass,

vol. II, p. 183 (7th Edition).

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