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UNIT – V

COMPUTER CONTROL OF
POWER SYSTEMS

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PART-A

1. Define state estimation.

2. Comparison between power system reliability and security.
3. List the factors that affect the power system security.
4. What is EMS? What are the major functions of it?
5…What are the functions of SCADA?
6…What are the different operating states of a power system?
7.What do you understand by network topology?
8.List out the conditions for normal operations of a power system.
9.What are the tasks of energy control centre?
10.Define system security.

PART-B
1. Briefly discuss the various functions of energy control centre
2. Explain the different operating states of power system with state transition diagram.
3. Explain the hardware components of SCADA with neat diagram and also mention the
functions of it.
4. Explain about power system security
5. What is EMS? What are its major functions in power system operation and control?

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UNIT – V
1.Define state estimation.
State estimation is the process of assigning a value to an unknown system state variable based on
measurements from that system according to some criteria.

2. Comparison between power system reliability and security.

Reliability is a probabilistic index defined as the long term average number of days on
which daily peak load exceeds the available generating capacity.

Security depends upon the reserve capacity available in a given situation and the
probability of disturbances.

It refers to robustness of the system in comparison to disturbances.

3.List the factors that affect the power system security.

Reliability and economic operation. An piece of equipment in the system can fail either
due to internal causes or due to external causes such as lightning stroke, object hitting
transmission towers, or human errors in settling relays. Thus, most power systems are
designed to have sufficient redundancy to withstand all major failure events.

4.What is EMS? What are the major functions of it?

EMS is the process of monitoring, coordinating & controlling the generation,
transmission & distribution of electrical energy. It is performed at the centre’s called
‘System Control Centre’s’, by a computer system called EMS.

The functions of energy management systems are:

1. System load forecasting – Hourly energy, 1 to 7 days.
2. Unit commitment – 1 to 7 days.
3. Fuel scheduling to plants.
4. Hydro-thermal scheduling – upto 7 days.
5. MW interchange evaluation – with neighboring system.
6. Transmission loss minimization.
7. Security constrained dispatch.
8. Maintenance scheduling.
9. Production cost calculation.

5. What are the functions of SCADA?

 Monitoring.
 Alarm.
 Control and indication of AGC.
 Data logging
 Data acquisition.
 ON/OFF control.
 RAISE/LOWER command to speed changer.
 Display.

6.What are the different operating states of a power system?

Normal state
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Alert state
Emergency state
Extremis state
Restorative state.

7.What do you understand by network topology?

In order to run the state estimation, we must know how the transmission lines are connected
to the load and generation buses. This information is called network topology.
8.List out the conditions for normal operations of a power system.
1. Corrective actions required to improve the load bus voltage,
2. Corrective actions required to eliminate the overloads
3. Load scheduling.
9.What are the tasks of energy control centre?
1. Monitoring
2. Data acquisition and control
3. Load forecasting, system planning, unit commitment, maintenance scheduling, security
monitoring, state estimation, economic dispatch, load frequency control.
10.Define system security
System security involves practice designed to keep the system operating when component
fails, System security can be broken down into three major function
1. System monitoring
2. Contingency analysis
3. Security – constrained optimal power flow.

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1.. ENERGY CONTROL CENTRE

The energy control center (ECC) has traditionally been the decision-center for the
electric transmission and generation interconnected system. The ECC provides the functions
necessary for monitoring and coordinating the minute-by-minute physical and economic
operation of the power system. In the continental U.S., there are only three interconnected
regions: Eastern, Western, and Texas, but there are many control areas, with each control area
having its own ECC.
Maintaining integrity and economy of an inter-connected power system requires
significant coordinated decision-making. So one of the primary functions of the ECC is to
monitor and regulate the physical operation of the interconnected grid.

Most areas today have a two-level hierarchy of ECCs with the Independent System
Operator (ISO) performing the high-level decision-making and the transmission owner ECC
performing the lower-level decision-making.

A high-level view of the ECC is illustrated.Where we can identify the substation, the
remote terminal unit (RTU), a communication link, and the ECC which contains the energy
management system (EMS). The EMS provides the capability of converting the data received
from the substations to the types of screens observed.
In these notes we will introduce the basic components and functionalities of the ECC. Note that
there is no chapter in your text which provides this information.

Functions of Control Centre:

 
 Load forecasting - very short, short, medium, long term
 
 Power system planning - generation, transmission & distribution.
 
 Unit Commitment and maintenance Scheduling
 
 Security Monitoring
 
 State Estimation
 
 Economic Dispatch
 
Load Frequency Control

Regional load control centre:

It decides generation allocation to various generating stations within the region on the
basics of equal incremental operating cost considering line losses are equal and Frequency
control in the region.

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Plant load control room:

It decides the allocation of generation of various units in the plant on the basis of:
1. Equal incremented operating cost of various units
2. Minimize the reactive power flow through line so as to minimize line loss and maintain
voltage levels and Frequency control in the plant.

ECC Components
The system control function traditionally used in electric utility operation consists of three main
integrated subsystems: the energy management system (EMS), the supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA), and the communications interconnecting the EMS and the SCADA
(which is often thought of as part of the SCADA itself). Figure 3 provides a block diagram
illustration of these three integrated subsystems. The SCADA and communications subsystems
are indicated in the dotted ovals at the top left hand corner of the figure. The rest of the figure
indicates the EMS. We will describe each one in the following subsections.

Breaker/Switch Status System Model Description Display to Operator

Indications Network
Topology
Updated System Power flows,
program
Electrical Model State Voltages etc.,
Telemetry & Estimator
Communicatio Display to Operator
SCADA ns equipment Analog Measurements

Generation Generator Outputs Bad Measurement

Raise/Lower Signals Alarms
AGC
State Estimator
Output
Substation
RTUs Economic
Dispatch
Calculation

OPF

Security Contingency Analysis Contingency

Constrained OPF Selection

Overloads & Potential

Voltage Problems Overloads &
Voltage Problems

Display Alarms

System control subsystems: EMS, SCADA, and Communications

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We distinguish EMS from distribution management systems (DMS). Both utilize their own
SCADA, but for different functions. Whereas EMS/SCADA serves the high voltage bulk
transmission system from the ECC, the DMS/SCADA serves the low voltage, distribution
system from a distribution dispatch center. We are addressing in these notes the
EMS/SCADA.

Operation of control centre:

• Monitoring
• Data acquisition and Remote control

A. 3 level control
1. Turbine –governor to adjust generation to balance changing load-instantaneous
control.
2. AGC (called load frequency control (LFC)) maintains frequency and net power
interchange.
3. Economic Dispatch Control (EDC) distributes the load among the units such that fuel
cost is minimum.
B. Primary Voltage control
1. Excitation control
2. Transmission voltage control, SVC, Shunt capacitors, transformer taps…

------------------------------------------------------------

2. SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND DATA ACQUISITION (SCADA)

There are two parts to the term SCADA Supervisory control indicates that the
operator, residing in the energy control center (ECC), has the ability to control remote
equipment. Data acquisition indicates that information is gathered characterizing the state of
the remote equipment and sent to the ECC for monitoring purposes.

The monitoring equipment is normally located in the substations and is consolidated

in what is known as the remote terminal unit (RTU). Generally, the RTUs are equipped with
microprocessors having memory and logic capability. Older RTUs are equipped with
modems to provide the communication link back to the ECC, whereas newer RTUs generally
have intranet or internet capability.

Relays located within the RTU, on command from the ECC, open or close selected
control circuits to perform a supervisory action. Such actions may include, for example,
opening or closing of a circuit breaker or switch, modifying a transformer tap setting, raising

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or lowering generator MW output or terminal voltage, switching in or out a shunt capacitor

or inductor, and the starting or stopping of a synchronous condenser.

Information gathered by the RTU and communicated to the ECC includes both analog
information and status indicators. Analog information includes, for example, frequency,
voltages, currents, and real and reactive power flows. Status indicators include alarm signals
(over-temperature, low relay battery voltage, illegal entry) and whether switches and circuit
breakers are open or closed. Such information is provided to the ECC through a periodic scan
of all RTUs. A 2 second scan cycle is typical.

Functions of SCADA Systems

1. Data acquisition
2. Information display.
3. Supervisory Control(CBs:ON/OFF, Generator: stop/start, RAISE/LOWER command)
4. Information storage and result display.
5. Sequence of events acquisition.
6. Remote terminal unit processing.
7. General maintenance.
8. Runtime status verification.
9. Economic modeling.
10. Remote start/stop.
11. Load matching based on economics.
12. Load shedding.
 Control functions 

  and monitoring of switching devices, tapped transformers, auxiliary devices,
Control
etc.
 
 Bay-and a station-wide interlocking
 
 Dynamic Bus bar coloring according to their actual operational status.
 
 Automatic switching sequences


Automaticfunctions such as load shedding, power restoration, and high speed bus bar
transfer
 
Time synchronization by radio and satellite clock signal
 Monitoring functions: 

 Measurement and displaying ofcurrent, voltage, frequency, active and reactive
power, energy, temperature, etc.
 
 Alarm functions. Storage and evaluation of time stamped events.
 
 Trends and archiving of measurements
 
 Collection and evaluation of maintenance data
 
Disturbance recording and evaluation.
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 Protection functions: 

Substation protection functions includes the monitoring of events like start, trip
indication and relay operating time and setting and reading of relay parameters.
 
 Protection of bus bars. Line feeders, transformers, generators.
 
 Protection monitoring (status, events, measurements, parameters, recorders)
 
 Adaptive protection by switch-over of the active parameter set.

Communication technologies

The form of communication required for SCADA is telemetry. Telemetry is the

measurement of a quantity in such a way so as to allow interpretation of that measurement at
a distance from the primary detector. The distinctive feature of telemetry is the nature of the
translating means, which includes provision for converting the measure into a representative
quantity of another kind that can be transmitted conveniently for measurement at a distance.
The actual distance is irrelevant.

Telemetry may be analog or digital. In analog telemetry, a voltage, current, or

frequency proportional to the quantity being measured is developed and transmitted on a
communication channel to the receiving location, where the received signal is applied to a
meter calibrated to indicate the quantity being measured, or it is applied directly to a control
device such as a ECC computer.

Forms of analog telemetry include variable current, pulse-amplitude, pulse-length,

and pulse-rate, with the latter two being the most common. In digital telemetry, the quantity
being measured is converted to a code in which the sequence of pulses transmitted indicates
the quantity. One of the advantages to digital telemetering is the fact that accuracy of data is
not lost in transmitting the data from one location to another. Digital telemetry requires
analog to digital (A/D) and possible digital to analog (D/A) converters, as illustrated in

The earliest form of signal circuit used for SCADA telemetry consisted of twisted pair
wires; although simple and economic for short distances, it suffers from reliability problems
due to breakage, water ingress, and ground potential risk during faults

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Computer Indicating
Quantity meter
to Transducer A/D Telemeter Telemeter
be converter transmitter receiver
telemetere
d D/A Recording
converter meter
Signal circuit (wire line,
PLC, microwave, etc.)

Block Diagram of Telemetering System

Improvements over twisted pair wires came in the form of what is now the most
common, traditional type of telemetry mediums based on leased-wire, power-line carrier, or
microwave. These are voice grade forms of telemetry, meaning they represent
communication channels suitable for the transmission of speech, either digital or analog,
generally with a frequency range of about 300 to 3000 Hz.

SCADA requires communication between Master control station and Remote

control station:

Master and Remote station

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Leased-wire means use of a standard telephone circuit; this is a convenient and

straightforward means of telemetry when it is available, although it can be unreliable, and it
requires a continual outlay of leasing expenditures. In addition, it is not under user control
and requires careful coordination between the user and the telephone company. Power-line
carrier (PLC) offers an inexpensive and typically more reliable alternative to leased-wire.
Here, the transmission circuit itself is used to modulate a communication signal at a
frequency much greater than the 60 Hz power frequency. Most PLC occurs at frequencies in
the range of 30-500 kHz. The security of PLC is very high since the communication
equipment is located inside the substations. One disadvantage of PLC is that the
communication cannot be made through open disconnects, i.e., when the transmission line is
outaged. Often, this is precisely the time when the communication signal is needed most. In
addition, PLC is susceptible to line noise and requires careful signal-to-noise ratio analysis.
Most PLC is strictly analog although digital PLC has become available from a few suppliers
during the last few years.

Microwave radio refers to ultra-high-frequency (UHF) radio systems operating above

1 GHz. The earliest microwave telemetry was strictly analog, but digital microwave
communication is now quite common for EMS/SCADA applications. This form of
communication has obvious advantages over PLC and leased wire since it requires no
physical conducting medium and therefore no right-of-way. However, line of sight clearance
is required in order to ensure reliable communication, and therefore it is not applicable in
some cases.

A more recent development has concerned the use of fiber optic cable, a technology capable
of extremely fast communication speeds. Although cost was originally prohibitive, it has now
decreased to the point where it is viable. Fiber optics may be either run inside underground
power cables or they may be fastened to overhead transmission line towers just below the
lines. They may also be run within the shield wire suspended above the transmission lines.

One easily sees that communication engineering is very important to power system
control. Students specializing in power and energy systems should strongly consider taking
communications courses to have this background. Students specializing in communication
should consider taking power systems courses as an application area.

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3. ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (EMS)

The EMS is a software system. Most utility companies purchase their EMS from one
or more EMS vendors. These EMS vendors are companies specializing in design,
development, installation, and maintenance of EMS within ECCs. There are a number of
EMS vendors in the U.S., and they hire many power system engineers with good software
development capabilities.

During the time period of the 1970s through about 2000, almost all EMS software
applications were developed for installation on the control centers computers. An attractive
alternative today is, however, the application service provider, where the software resides
on the vendor‟s computer and control center personnel access it from the Internet. Benefits
from this arrangement include application flexibility and reliability in the software system
and reduced installation cost.

One can observe from Figure 3 that the EMS consists of 4 major functions: network model
building (including topology processing and state estimation), security assessment,
automatic generation control, and dispatch. These functions are described in more detail in
the following subsections.

Energy management is the process of monitoring, coordinating, and controlling the

generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy. The physical plant to be
managed includes generating plants that produce energy fed through transformers to the
high-voltage transmission network (grid), interconnecting generating plants, and load
centers. Transmission lines terminate at substations that perform switching, voltage
transformation, measurement, and control. Substations at load centers transform to sub
transmission and distribution levels. These lower-voltage circuits typically operate radially,
i.e., no normally closed paths between substations through sub transmission or distribution
circuits.(Underground cable networks in large cities are an exception.)
Since transmission systems provide negligible energy storage, supply and demand
must be balanced by either generation or load. Production is controlled by turbine governors
at generating plants, and automatic generation control is performed by control center
computers remote from generating plants. Load management, sometimes called demand-
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side
management, extends remote supervision and control to subtransmission and distribution
circuits, including control of residential, commercial, and industrial loads.

Functionality Power EMS:

1. System Load Forecasting-Hourly energy, 1 to 7 days.

2. Unit commitment-1 to 7days.
3. Economic dispatch
4. Hydro-thermal scheduling- up to 7 days.
5. MW interchange evaluation- with neighboring system
6. Transmission loss minimization
7. Security constrained dispatch
8. Maintenance scheduling
9. Production cost calculation

Power System Data Acquisition and Control

A SCADA system consists of a master station that communicates with remote
terminal units (RTUs) for the purpose of allowing operators to observe and control physical
plants. Generating plants and transmission substations certainly justify RTUs, and their
installation is becoming more common in distribution substations as costs decrease. RTUs
transmit device status and measurements to, and receive control commands and setpoint
data from, the master station. Communication is generally via dedicated circuits operating in
the range of 600 to 4800 bits/s with the RTU responding to periodic requests initiated from
the master station (polling) every 2 to 10 s, depending on the criticality of the data.
The traditional functions of SCADA systems are summarized:
• Data acquisition: Provides telemetered measurements and status information to operator.
• Supervisory control: Allows operator to remotely control devices, e.g., open and close
circuit breakers. A “select before operate” procedure is used for greater safety.
• Tagging: Identifies a device as subject to specific operating restrictions and prevents
unauthorized operation.
• Alarms: Inform operator of unplanned events and undesirable operating conditions.
Alarms
are sorted by criticality, area of responsibility, and chronology. Acknowledgment may be
required

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• Logging: Logs all operator entry, all alarms, and selected information.
• Load shed: Provides both automatic and operator-initiated tripping of load in response to
system emergencies.
• Trending: Plots measurements on selected time scales.

Layers of a modern EMS.

Since the master station is critical to power system operations, its functions are
generally distributed among several computer systems depending on specific design. A dual
computer system configured in primary and standby modes is most common. SCADA
functions are listed below without stating which computer has specific responsibility.
• Manage communication circuit configuration
• Downline load RTU files
• Maintain scan tables and perform polling
• Check and correct message errors

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• Convert to engineering units

• Detect status and measurement changes
• Monitor abnormal and out-of-limit conditions
• Log and time-tag sequence of events
• Detect and annunciate alarms
• Respond to operator requests to:
– Display information
– Enter data
– Execute control action
– Acknowledge alarms Transmit
control action to RTUs
• Inhibit unauthorized actions
• Maintain historical files
• Log events and prepare reports
• Perform load shedding
Automatic Generation Control
Automatic generation control (AGC) consists of two major and several minor functions that
operate online in realtime to adjust the generation against load at minimum cost. The major
functions are load frequency control and economic dispatch, each of which is described
below. The minor functions are reserve monitoring, which assures enough reserve on the
system; interchange scheduling, which initiates and completes scheduled interchanges; and
other similar monitoring and recording functions.
Load Frequency Control
Load frequency control (LFC) has to achieve three primary objectives, which are stated
below in priority order:
1. To maintain frequency at the scheduled value
2. To maintain net power interchanges with neighboring control areas at the scheduled values
3. To maintain power allocation among units at economically desired values.

The first and second objectives are met by monitoring an error signal, called area
control error (ACE), which is a combination of net interchange error and frequency error and
represents the power imbalance between generation and load at any instant. This ACE must
be filtered or smoothed such that excessive and random changes in ACE are not translated
into control action. Since these excessive changes are different for different systems, the filter
parameters have to be tuned specifically for each control area.

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The filtered ACE is then used to obtain the proportional plus integral control signal.
This control signal is modified by limiters, deadbands, and gain constants that are tuned to
the particular system. This control signal is then divided among the generating units under
control by using participation factors to obtain unit control errors (UCE).

These participation factors may be proportional to the inverse of the second derivative
of the cost of unit generation so that the units would be loaded according to their costs, thus
meeting the third objective. However, cost may not be the only consideration because the
different units may have different response rates and it may be necessary to move the faster
generators more to obtain an acceptable response. The UCEs are then sent to the various units
under control and the generating units monitored to see that the corrections take place. This
control action is repeated every 2 to 6 s. In spite of the integral control, errors in frequency
and net interchange do tend to accumulate over time. These time errors and accumulated
interchange errors have to be corrected by adjusting the controller settings according to
procedures agreed upon by the whole interconnection. These accumulated errors as well as
ACE serve as performance measures for LFC.

The main philosophy in the design of LFC is that each system should follow its own
load very closely during normal operation, while during emergencies; each system should
contribute according to its relative size in the interconnection without regard to the locality of
the emergency. Thus, the most important factor in obtaining good control of a system is its
inherent capability of following its own load. This is guaranteed if the system has adequate
regulation margin as well as adequate response capability. Systems that have mainly thermal
generation often have difficulty in keeping up with the load because of the slow response of
the units.

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4. SECURITY ANALYSIS & CONTROL:

Security monitoring is the on line identification of the actual operating conditions of a

power system. It requires system wide instrumentation to gather the system data as well as a
means for the on line determination of network topology involving an open or closed
position of circuit breakers. A state estimation has been developed to get the best estimate of
the status
.the state estimation provides the database for security analysis shown in fig.5.6.

 Data acquisition: 
1. To process from RTU
2. To check status values against normal value
3. To send alarm conditions to alarm processor
4. To check analog measurements against limits.
 Alarm processor: 
1. To send alarm messages
2. To transmit messages according to priority
 Status processor: 

1. To determine status of each substation for proper connection.
 Reserve monitor: 
1. To check generator MW output on all units against unit limits

 State estimator: 
1. To determine system state variables
2. To detect the presence of bad measures values.
3. To identify the location of bad measurements
4. To initialize the network model for other programs

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Practical Security Monitoring System

Security Control Function:

 
 Network Topology processor-mode of the N/W
 
 State estimator.
 
 Power flow-V, δ,P,Q.

Optimal power flow.

 
 Contingency analysis.
 
 Optimal power flow.
 
 Security enhancement-existing overload using corrective control action.
 
 Preventive action.
 
 Short circuit analysis.

System Security
1. System monitoring.
2. Contingency analysis.
3. Security constrained optimal power flow
Security Assessment
Security assessment determines first, whether the system is currently residing in an
acceptable state and second, whether the system would respond in an acceptable manner and
reach an acceptable state following any one of a pre-defined contingency set. A contingency
is the unexpected failure of a transmission line, transformer, or generator.Usually,
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contingencies result from occurrence of a fault, or short-circuit, to one of these components.

When such a fault occurs, the protection systems sense the fault and remove the component,
and therefore also the fault, from the system.

Of course, with one less component, the overall system is weaker, and undesirable effects
may occur. For example, some remaining circuit may overload, or some bus may experience
an undervoltage condition. These are called static security problems.

Dynamic security problems may also occur, including uncontrollable voltage decline,
generator overspeed (loss of synchronism), or undamped oscillatory behavior.

Security Control
Power systems are designed to survive all probable contingencies. A contingency is defined
as an event that causes one or more important components such as transmission lines,
generators, and transformers to be unexpectedly removed from service. Survival means the
system stabilizes and continues to operate at acceptable voltage and frequency levels without
loss of load. Operations must deal with a vast number of possible conditions experienced by
the system, many of which are not anticipated in planning. Instead of dealing with the
impossible task of analyzing all possible system states, security control starts with a specific
state: the current state if executing the real-time network sequence; a postulated state if
executing a study sequence. Sequence means sequential execution of programs that perform
the following steps:
1. Determine the state of the system based on either current or postulated conditions.
2. Process a list of contingencies to determine the consequences of each contingency on the
system in its specified state.
3. Determine preventive or corrective action for those contingencies which represent
unacceptable risk.
Security control requires topological processing to build network models and uses large-scale
AC network analysis to determine system conditions. The required applications are grouped
as a network subsystem that typically includes the following functions:
• Topology processor: Processes real-time status measurements to determine an electrical
connectivity (bus) model of the power system network.
• State estimator: Uses real-time status and analog measurements to determine the „„best‟‟
estimate of the state of the power system. It uses a redundant set of measurements; calculates
voltages, phase angles, and power flows for all components in the system; and reports
overload conditions.
• Power flow: Determines the steady-state conditions of the power system network for a
specified generation and load pattern. Calculates voltages, phase angles, and flows across the
entire system.

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• Contingency analysis: Assesses the impact of a set of contingencies on the state of the
power system and identifies potentially harmful contingencies that cause operating limit
violations.
Optimal power flow: Recommends controller actions to optimize a specified objective
function (such as system operating cost or losses) subject to a set of power system operating
constraints.
• Security enhancement: Recommends corrective control actions to be taken to alleviate an
existing or potential overload in the system while ensuring minimal operational cost.
• Preventive action: Recommends control actions to be taken in a “preventive” mode before a
contingency occurs to preclude an overload situation if the contingency were to occur.
• Bus load forecasting: Uses real-time measurements to adaptively forecast loads for the
electrical connectivity (bus) model of the power system network

• Transmission loss factors: Determines incremental loss sensitivities for generating units;
calculates the impact on losses if the output of a unit were to be increased by 1 MW.
• Short-circuit analysis: Determines fault currents for single-phase and three-phase faults for
fault locations across the entire power system network.

Real-time and study network analysis sequences.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

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5.. VARIOUS OPERATING STATES:

Operating states

1. Normal state
2. Alert state
3. Emergency state
4. Extremis state
5. Restorative state

Normal state:
A system is said to be in normal if both load and operating constraints are satisfied .It is one
in which the total demand on the system is met by satisfying all the operating constraints.

Alert state:
A normal state of the system said to be in alert state if one or more of the postulated
contingency states, consists of the constraint limits violated. When the system security level
falls below a certain level or the probability of disturbance increases, the system may be in
alert state .All equalities and inequalities are satisfied, but on the event of a disturbance, the
system may not have all the inequality constraints satisfied. If severe disturbance occurs, the
system will push into emergency state. To bring back the system to secure state, preventive
control action is carried out.

Emergency state:
The system is said to be in emergency state if one or more operating constraints are violated,
but the load constraint is satisfied .In this state, the equality constraints are unchanged. The
system will return to the normal or alert state by means of corrective actions, disconnection
of faulted section or load sharing.

Extremis state:
When the system is in emergency, if no proper corrective action is taken in time, then it goes
to either emergency state or extremis state. In this regard neither the load or nor the operating
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constraint is satisfied, this result is islanding. Also the generating units are strained beyond
their capacity .So emergency control action is done to bring back the system state either to the
emergency state or normal state.

Restorative state:
From this state, the system may be brought back either to alert state or secure state .The latter
is a slow process. Hence, in certain cases, first the system is brought back to alert state and
then to the secure state .This is done using restorative control action.

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