Limesi Formule
Limesi Formule
Limesi Formule
2
Chapter 1
Introductory problems
For Tutorial 1
You will need to refer to courses from previous years including the 1st and
3rd year astrophysics short options.
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C1 Astrophysics problems 2018-2019
4
Tutorial 1: Introduction
1.4 Accretion
Explain what is meant by escape velocity and device an expression for the
escape velocity of a particle at distance R from a compact object of mass M .
By assuming that the maximum escape velocity is the speed of light, c, obtain
an expression for the radius, RS of a black hole of mass M . Evaluate this
radius for the cases M = 10M and M = 106 M .
What rate of matter infall (in units of M per year) would be needed to power
a quasar of luminosity 1039 W if a black hole of mass 106 M lay at the quasar
core? Assume conversion of gravitational potential energy into luminosity
with 100% efficiency. Does your answer support accretion of matter by a
black hole as a likely model for quasar energy generation?
dr2
" #
2 2 2 2
ds = −c dt + a(t) 2
+ r2 (dθ2 + sin2 θdφ2 )
1 − kr
where ds is the proper time interval between two events, t is the cosmic time,
k measures the spatial curvature, and r thea and φ are the radial, polar
and azimuthal co-ordinates respectively. Discuss the physical significance of
a(t), the scale factor, sketching its form for the three cases of a matter-only
universe with positive, zero, and negative spatial curvature.
Define the term luminosity distance. By considering the amount of radiation
which is received in a unit area located a co-moving distance away from a
source, show that the luminosity distance dlum is given by the formula
dlum = a0 r0 (1 + z)
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6
Chapter 2
Radiative Processes I
For Tutorial 2
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propriate form of n2 /n1 . Hence explain what is meant by the critical density.
Two such lines occur in an ion, from levels 3 and 2 to level 1. Assuming that
the wavelengths λ21 ' λ31 , show that their flux ratio is given by
(a) the values of F31 /F21 when (i) ne n∗e (2) and (ii) when ne n∗e (3)
(b) the value of ne at which F31 /F21 has its greatest dependence on ln(ne ),
and the corresponding value of F31 /F21 .
Show that if this value of F31 /F21 can be measured to within ±10% then
log10 (ne ) can be determined to within ±0.18.
exp(−hc/λij kB Te )
Cij ∝ ]
gi
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Tutorial 2: Radiative Processes I
2
D5/2 → 2 P3/2 21.9 9 6
2
D3/2 → 2 P1/2 21.1 10 5
2
D3/2 → 2 P3/2 22.0 1 1
Using the relative collisional excitation rate coefficients Cij and the relative
transition
probabilities Aji given in the table, derive an expression for the relative
intensities of the lines at wavelengths λ = 21.9 nm and λ = 21.1 nm in terms
of the population ratio N (2 P3/2 )/N (2 P1/2 ). What relative intensity would be
expected if the 2 P3/2 and 2 P1/2 level number densities were determined by
detailed balance at a temperature Te = 2 × 106 K?
In a solar active region the observed intensity ratio of the above lines is 0.15.
Use the collisional excitation rate coefficient Cij = 7 × 10−15 m3 s−1 and the
transition probability Aji = 60 s−1 for the 2 P3/2 → 2 P1/2 transition to show
that N (2 P3/2 )/N (2 P1/2 ) depends on Ne . Find the value of Ne .
[The relation between the collisional de-excitation and excitation rate coef-
ficients is Cji = (gi /gj )Cij exp (Wij /kB Te ) where gi and gj are the statistical
weights of the lower and upper levels respectively and Wij is the excitation
energy of level j above level i.]
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Show that
where C12 and C21 are rate coefficients for collision and excitation.
Intersystem lines of Si III and C III are observed in spectra of cool stars
with a range of surface gravities. Assuming that both lines are formed at
Te = 4.5 × 104 K, use the data in the table below to calculate the maximum
and minimum values of the ratio E(Si III)/E(C III).
In the spectrum of a planetary nebula, the ratio E(Si III)/E(C III) is ob-
served to be less than 0.1. Discuss the differences between the physical
conditions in planetary nebulae and cool star transition regions and suggest
the main cause of this small energy ratio.
Data for Si III and C III
Si III 3s2 1 S0 −3s3p 3 P◦1 189.2 2.8 1.5 × 104 3.5 × 10−5 0.79
C III 2s2 1 S0 −2s2p 3 P◦1 190.9 0.32 1.0 × 102 3.5 × 10−4 0.46
The ionization potentials of Si III and C III are 33.5eV and 47.9eV, respect-
ively.
C12 = 1/2
m3 s−1 ,
g1 Te
where Ω is the collision strength given in the table, g1 is the statistical weight
of the lower level, λ21 is in nm and Te is in K. ]
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Tutorial 2: Radiative Processes I
J
2 5/2
3d D
3/2
2 3/2
3p P 1/2
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12
Chapter 3
Radiative Processes II
For Tutorial 3
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14
Tutorial 3: Radiative Processes
• mH = 1.673 10−24 g
• 1 pc = 3.086 1016 m
• 1 yr = 3.160 107 s
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16
Chapter 4
High-Energy Astrophysics I
For Tutorial 4
(b) You may be surprised that the temperature is not dramatically higher
than that of very hot stars. Why then is it so difficult to observe stars
at radio wavelengths?
(c) For enthusiasts only, and strictly non-examinable! If you’ve grasped the
essential point in part (b), consider this question: What magnitude is
the faintest astronomical object that can be seen by the human eye in
daylight? Google for quantities that you think are relevant.
4.2 Shocks
Using the ideal gas law and the strong shock jump conditions, show that the
temperature of gas downstream of a shock is given by
3 mvu2
Td =
16 kB
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18
Tutorial 4: High-Energy I
where m is the mean particle mass in the gas and vu2 is the bulk speed of the
gas upstream of the shock.
Why do the temperature and density of the upstream gas not appear in this
relation?
In the lectures we considered the blast wave of SN1993J, which had an ini-
tital expansion speed of 20 000 km s−1 . Assuming the interstellar medium
around the supernova to be hydrogen plasma, estimate the initial temperat-
ure behind the blast wave.
Hydrogen plasma falls radially onto a white dwarf, passing through a shock
very close to the surface. Show that the temperature behind the shock is
given by
kB T 3 mp RS
2
=
me c 32 me R∗
where R∗ is the radius of the star and RS is its Schwarzschild radius. What
is kB T if R∗ = 6000 km and M = M ?
N (E)dE ∝ E k dE
Sν ∝ ν −0.5
You may assume that a synchrotron electron emits almost all its radiation
γ 2 eB
at a characteristic frequency νcrit ∼ 2πm e
and that the power radiated is
4γ 2 β 2 cσT B 2
P = 3µ0
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Hence show that such an electron emits radiation whose spectrum is strongly
peaked at a characteristic frequency νcrit which is given by
γ 2 eB
νcrit ∼
2πme
The power radiated by the electron is given by
4γ 2 β 2 cσT B 2
P =
3µ0
where β is the speed of the electron relative to the speed of light and σT is
the Thomson cross section. Using these formulae for P and νcrit , calculate a
characteristic timescale for the synchrotron lifetime of the electron.
The powerful giant radiosource 3C236 is 6 Mpc across, with the host galaxy
at the centre. The radio spectrum of the lobes close to the host galaxy shows
a cut-off in emission, assumed to be due to radiative losses, at frequencies
above about 1 GHz. Taking the magnetic flux density in this region to be
0.3 nT, estimate the age of the synchrotron plasma near the host galaxy.
On the assumption that this plasma was left behind near the host galaxy by
the radiosource jets just as they began to expand into intergalactic space,
estimate the expansion speed of the radiosource. What factors may cause
these estimates of age and expansion speed to be unreliable?
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Tutorial 4: High-Energy I
Jν ∝ n1 γ1k γ 1−k B.
You may assume that each electron emits all its synchrotron radiation at a
frequency ν = γ 2 eB/2πme and that the power radiated by each electron is
P = 43 cσT um γ 2 where um is the energy density of the magnetic field and σT
is the Thomson scattering cross-section.
If the energy density stored in relativistic electrons, ue , is
n1 γ12 me c2
ue =
k−2
show that, for a given observed value of Jν , the total energy density in the
source in the form of relativistic electrons and magnetic field has a minimum
value which occurs when
4
ue = um .
3
The radio source Cygnus A is about 100 kpc across. The flux density of the
magnetic field in the radio source is thought to be about 6 nT. Estimate a
lower limit to the total energy content of the radio source and explain what
implications this has for how Cygnus A is powered.
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22
Chapter 5
High-Energy Astrophysics II
For Tutorial 5
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24
Tutorial 5: High-Energy II
P = cσT U
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n2 mv 2
!
jν dν ∝ e ln dν,
v 2hν
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Tutorial 5: High-Energy II
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28
Chapter 6
For Tutorial 6
a) Stating your assumptions, estimate the final spin and the strength of
the magnetic field of the neutron star that forms from the collapse of
such a core. Compare the spin period to the minimum spin period for
a neutron star.
During the collapse phase, the initial collapse stops when the central core
with a mass Mcore ' 0.7 M reaches a mass density ρ ' 3 × 1016 kg m−3 . At
this density the core bounces driving a shock with an energy Ebounce ∼ 1044 J
into the infalling outer core.
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30
Tutorial 6: Advanced Stellar I
∆M
e= ,
MA + MB
a0
aPSN = ,
1−e
0 ∆M MA
vsys = vorb ,
MA + MB MHe + MA
where MHe is the mass of the progenitor of Pulsar B just before the
0
supernova (i.e. MB +∆M ) and vorb is the pre-supernova orbital velocity.
Determine ∆M assuming that the post-supernova eccentricity was e '
0.1 and estimate vsys .
[Hint: You need to compare the energies and momenta of the system
before and after the supernova. The eccentricity e and semi-major axis
a of an eccentric orbit are related to the distance of closest approach,
the periastron separation, rp by rp = (1 − e) a, and the total energy of
an eccentric binary is
GM1 M2 GM1 M2 1 M1 M2 2
Ebinary = − =− + v ,
2a r 2 M1 + M2
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e? ) Show that in the limit, where there is no mass loss associated with
the second supernova but where Pulsar B received an asymmetric su-
pernova kick of magnitude vkick , the post-supernova system velocity is
given by
MB
vsys = vkick .
MA + MB
What is vsys in this case for a typical vkick ' 250 km s−1 ?
L2 1 E2
!
1 2 1 2GM
2
ṙ + 1− 2 + c = , (6.1)
2 2 cr r2 2 c2
where ṙ = dr/dt and L and E are the angular momentum per unit rest
mass and the energy per unit rest mass of the particle, respectively (the
particle is assumed to have non-zero rest mass). This equation resembles the
energy conservation equation in Newtonian dynamics, EN = 1/2 ṙ2 + Veff (r),
except for the additional term −GM L2 /c2 r3 in the effective potential Veff
that becomes dominant at small radii.
a) Treating the problem like a Newtonian one, sketch the effective po-
tential for a particle near a black hole as a function of radius, both
for a small and a large value of L. Characterize the possible types of
trajectories/orbits in both cases.
b) Show that for each value of L there are two possible circular orbits
1/2
L2 ± [L4 − 12G2 M 2 L2 /c2 ]
r± = , (6.2)
2GM
provided that L2 > 12G2 M 2 /c2 .
min
c) Show that the r+ solution has a minimum value of r+ = 6GM/c2 and
argue that this is a stable orbit (i.e. corresponds to a minimum of the
effective potential). What does this imply for the r− solution?
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Tutorial 6: Advanced Stellar I
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34
Chapter 7
For Tutorial 7
a) Show that the specific angular momentum of the infalling material has
to be larger than 2 × 1012 m2 s−1 , the specific angular momentum at
the last stable orbit for a 2 M black hole, so that an accretion disc
can form. Estimate the characteristic dynamical timescales both for
the inner disc and the collapsing helium star. How do these timescales
determine the observable characteristics of GRBs?
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C1 Astrophysics problems 2018-2019
thin to MeV gamma rays, i.e. the radius at which the optical depth to
) e+ +e− becomes less than 1. [You may assume that
pair creation γ γ *
the cross section for pair creation is given by the Thomson cross section
σT ' 6.6×10−29 m2 and that the typical photon energy is 1 MeV; argue
that the optical depth is then given by τγ ∼ nγ σT R.]
While massive stars are known to be rapidly rotating on the main sequence,
they are believed to be spun down efficiently during their evolution by hy-
drodynamical and magnetohydrodynamical effects and develop cores that are
not rotating sufficiently fast to be consistent with the collapsar model. One
way of spinning up a helium star is if it is a member of a close binary where
it can be spun up by the tidal interaction with a companion star.
d) Sketch briefly the evolutionary path that can lead to the formation of
such a system.
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Tutorial 7: Advanced Stellar II
a) Show that the total angular momentum of the binary can be written
as
2π q
J = µ A2 = µ G (M1 + M2 ) A,
P
where µ ≡ M1 M2 /(M1 + M2 ) is the reduced mass of the system. Show
that for conservative mass transfer (where the total mass and the total
angular momentum of the system remains constant), the orbital sep-
aration is a minimum when M1 = M2 . Sketch the evolution of A as
a function of time assuming that M1 > M2 initially and that mass is
transferred from star 1 to star 2. How does this behaviour of A affect
the mass-transfer rate, assuming that star 1 attempts to expand at a
steady rate?
b) Even in the absence of mass transfer, the orbit of a binary will shrink
due to the emission of gravitational waves, which causes the loss of
orbital angular momentum at a rate
dJ 32 G7/2 µ2 M 5/2
=− ,
dt 5 c5 A7/2
where M = M1 + M2 is the total mass of the binary. Show that this
implies that the orbital period decreases as
1 dP 96 G3 M 2 µ
=− .
P dt 5 c5 A4
By setting the orbital period decay time (P/Ṗ ) equal to the age of
the Galaxy (∼ 1010 yr), determine the maximum separation and hence
maximum orbital period for which a binary consisting of (i) two low-
mass helium white dwarfs with M1 = M2 = 0.3 M , (ii) two massive
carbon/oxygen white dwarfs with M1 = M2 = 1 M and (iii) two
neutron stars with M1 = M2 = 1.4 M are driven into contact by
gravitational wave emission within the age of the Galaxy. Discuss the
likely/possible fate of the systems in the three cases.
c? ) Assume that star 1 loses mass in a stellar wind at a wind mass-loss rate
Ṁ = 10−10 M yr−1 and that the wind is magnetically coupled to the
spin of star 1 up to a radius 10 R away from the star (where R is the
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C1 Astrophysics problems 2018-2019
radius of the star). Assume further that due to the tidal interaction
with the companion star, the spin of star 1 is synchronized with the
orbital period (i.e. Pspin = Porb ). Estimate the orbital period decay
time (P/Ṗ ) due to this magnetic braking for a system with M1 = M2 =
1 M and A = 3R. [Hint: what is the specific angular momentum lost
in the stellar wind?]
b) Estimate the characteristic size of a disc that would form around the
neutron star in the absence of a magnetic field.
c? ) Now considering the actual magnetic field of the pulsar, estimate the
maximum orbital separation A for which a disc can form around the
pulsar (i.e. for which the accreted specific angular momentum is larger
than the Keplerian specific angular momentum at the Alfvén radius).
Determine the equilibrium spin period of the pulsar for this case.
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Tutorial 7: Advanced Stellar II
c2s 1
ρ= ,
4πG r2
and the mass enclosed within a radius r by
c2s
M (r) = r.
G
c3s
Ṁ =
G
and is independent of r. What is Ṁ for the cases (i) and (ii) in part
a)?
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40
Chapter 8
For Tutorial 8
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C1 Astrophysics problems 2018-2019
These correspond to an upper limit on the mass of the dark energy particle,
the inverse Hubble length, inverse approximate age.
Now do the same for the following quantities. Note that you will have to
look up the values of the fundamental constants and the conversions between
units.
• ρcrit = 3H02 /8πG into (a) g cm−3 , (b) GeV4 , (c) eV cm−3 , (d) protons
cm−3 , (e) M Mpc−3 . If the cosmological constant has ρΛ = 2ρcrit /3,
1/4
what is its energy scale in eV (i.e. ρΛ ). Compare to the Planck mass,
MP l = (8πG)−1/2
• The photon temperature, TCM B =2.728K to (a) eV4 . Assuming a black
body distribution, convert this to a number density, nγ in photons cm−3
and energy density, ργ in (a) eV, (b) g cm−3 and Ωγ = ργ /ρcrit .
• The neutrino temperature, Tν = (4/11)1/3 TCM B . Use this to express nν ,
ρν and Ων in the above units assuming that the neutrinos are relativistic
(and have three species).
• With the above relic number density, now consider the case where one
out of three neutrino species has a mass of 1 eV and the rest are mass-
less. What is the energy density of relic neutrinos in units of the critical
density, Ων,massive . For what mass is the energy density at the critical
value?
42
Tutorial 8: Early Universe / LSS
with a ∝ η 2 .
• Rewrite these equations in Fourier space by replacing ∇ by −i~k.
• Solve both of these equations in the long wavelength limit.
• Before recombination, there is a scale (let us call it kJ = 2π/λJ where
λJ is the Jeans length) that separates the large k behaviour from the
small k behaviour. What is it? How does it evolve with time? (Please
show the time evolution for the physical and conformal Jeans wave
number).
A very rough approximation to the solution of the evolution equations before
recombination on small wavelengths is
! !
1 1
δ = C1 cos √ kη + C2 sin √ kη
3 3
where C1 and C2 are constants.
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Tutorial 8: Early Universe / LSS
Now consider a critical density universe which has a mixture of massive neut-
rinos (with fractional density Ων ) and non-relativistic matter (with fractional
density ΩM ) so that Ων + ΩM = 1. It will expand at the same rate as in
the case considered above. On large scales δ will evolve as above but on
scales smaller than about 40h−1 Mpc, the evolution of perturbations in the
nonrelativistic matter is set by
2
ȧ 3 ȧ
δ̈ + 2 δ̇ − ΩM 0 δ = 0.
a 2 a
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C1 Astrophysics problems 2018-2019
We are now able to measure the angular positions and redshifts, z of millions
of galaxies in the universe. In some cases we are even able to measure their
distances from us. At low redshifts, a measurement of the distance, d and
the redshift of a galaxy can be used to determine its peculiar velocity away
from us, v, through
cz = H0 d + v
where H0 is the Hubble constant today and c is the speed of light. From
conservation of energy we have that the peculiar velocity and the density
contrast at a given point are related through:
~ · ~v = −δ̇
∇
Show that, in regions of equal δ, galaxies will have on average lower peculiar
velocities in a universe with massive neutrinos as compared to a universe
with only non-relativistic matter.
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Chapter 9
Galaxies I
For Tutorial 9
GMP
ΦP (r) = − q , (9.1)
r2 + a2P
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C1 Astrophysics problems 2018-2019
approaches that of a point mass when r aP . Show that its density is given:
3a2P MP
ρP (r) = . (9.2)
4π(r2 + a2P )5/2
and calculate UP , its potential energy. What is the mass M (< R) enclosed
within a Plummer sphere of radius R? When viewed from a great distance
along the z-axis, what is its surface density ΣP (R) at a distance R from the
center? Check that the core radius rc , where ΣP (R) drops to half its central
value, is rc ≈ 0.644 aP .
GMK
ΦK (R, z) = − q . (9.3)
R2 + (aK + |z|)2
Note the cusp in the center where the density diverges like 1/r and the rapid
fall off in r−3 at large radii. Calculate the associated gravitational potential,
as a function of aN and the characteristic velocity dispersion σN = 4πGρN a2N .
Use this result to obtain the speed V (r) of a test particle on a circular orbit
at radius r in this potential.
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Tutorial 9: Galaxies I
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50
Chapter 10
Galaxies II
For Tutorial 10
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C1 Astrophysics problems 2018-2019
from this exercise? Show that the Milky Way and M31 will again come close
to each other in about 3 Gyr.
where Vmax is the maximum of the rotation curve of the disk and hR its scale
length (see formula for surface brightness profile I(R) below). Show that if
the surface brightness (averaged over features like spiral arms) in a spiral
galaxy follows the exponential profile:
then its luminosity is given by L = 2πI(0)h2R and hence that if the ratio
4
M/L and central surface brightness are constants then L ∝ Vmax . In fact,
I(0) is lower in low-surface-brightness galaxies: show that if these objects are
to follow the same Tully-Fisher relationq they must have higher mass-to-light
ratios, with approximately M/L ∝ 1/ I(0)
What is the fraction of oblate elliptical galaxies with true axis ratio B/A that
appear more flattened than axis ratio q? If these galaxies have B/A = 0.8,
show that the number seen in the range 0.95 < q < 1 should be about one
third that of those with 0.8 < q < 0.85. Finally, show that for smaller values
of B/A, an even higher proportion of the images will be nearly circular, with
0.95 < q < 1.
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Tutorial 10: Galaxies II
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C1 Astrophysics problems 2018-2019
Suppose that these clouds are uniform spheres of radius r with density nH
hydrogen atoms cm−3 . Their mass is given by M = (4/3)πr3 nH µmH where
the mean mass per hydrogen atom is µmH (µ ≈ 1.3 for a 75 % hydrogen 25
% helium mix by weight), and the average column density N (HI) ≈ rnH .
Show that, for neutral clouds, M ≈ σµmH N (HI). What is the density ρg of
neutral gas at redshift z? If this gas survived unchanged to the present day,
what fraction Ωg of the critical density ρcrit = 3H02 /(8πG) would it represent
now if N (HI) = 1021 cm−2 on average?
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