Oracle 11 G (SQL) : Quality Thought Technologies

Oracle 11 g
(SQL)
Quality Thought Technologies

Database Introduction

DAY-1
1. Database Introduction
- Data
- Database
- Metadata
- Database Management System
2. Data types in Oracle
3. SQL statements
DDL, DML, DCL, TCL, Data retrieval
4. Create table statement
5. Populating data into tables
- Insert statement
6. Data retrieval using SELECT statement
7. Arithmetic operators, operator precedence
- Addition (+)
- subtraction (-)
- multiply (*)
- divide (/)
8. Handling null values
9. Working with aliases
- column aliases
- table aliases
10. Concatenation operator (||)
11. Suppressing duplicate rows
- distinct keyword
12. Filtering of records
- Where clause
13. Logical operators
- AND, OR, NOT
14. Comparison operators
=, <>/!=/^=, <, >, <=, >=
15. SQL * Plus operators
- BETWEEN … AND …
- IN
- IS NULL
- LIKE
16. Ordering information
ORDER BY
17. SQL functions
18. Working with dates
Data
The contents of a table are stored

in rows are referred as “Data”

Metadata:
It is data which describes the properties of end

users data.
Metadata properties can include the information
such as:
Table name,
Table owner,
details about the columns (Values allowed, length
or size) and the
physical storage size on disk.
Data Base
A database is an organized collection of data. Since

the data in a database is organized it makes data
management easy.

Database Management System (DBMS)
Database management system (DBMS) is a

Software (collection of programs) which enables
user to create, access database, provide controlled
access to user databases and manipulate data .

Data Types in Oracle:
when creating tables, each column must

be assigned a data type, which determines the
nature of the values that can be inserted into
the columns.

NUMBER data type
 It Stores zero, positive, and negative fixed and floating-

point numbers
 The general declaration is: NUMBER(P,S)
 P  it specifies the precision, i.e the total no of digits (1
to 38).
 S  it specifies the scale, the number of digits to the
right of decimal point, can range from -84 to 127
VARCHAR2 data type
 Specifies the Variable length Character string.

 Minimum size is 1 byte maximum size is 4000 bytes.
 It occupies only that space for which the data is supplied.
CHAR data type
It specifies Fixed length Character string.
The size should be specified.
If the data is less than the original specified size, blank
pads are applied.
The default length is 1 byte and maximum is 2000 bytes
DATE data type

It is used to store date and time information.
The information revealed by data is :

century, year, month, date, hour, minute, second.
Default Date format in oracle is DD-MON-YY.
The date Range provided by oracle is January 1, 4712 BC

to December 31, 9999 AD.
NVARCHAR2
RAW
FLOAT
INTEGER
TIMESTAMP
CLOB
NCLOB
BLOB
BFILE
LONG
LONG RAW
ROWID
SQL Statements

DDL - Data Definition Language
CREATE : to create a new data structure.
ALTER : to change an existing data structure.
DROP : to remove an entire data structure.
TRUNCATE : to remove all rows permanently from table
RENAME : to rename existing table
DML - Data Manipulation Language
INSERT : to add records into the table
UPDATE : to change column value in the table
DELETE : to remove rows from the table
Data Retrieval Language
SELECT : used to retrieve the data present in the database tables
DCL - Data Control Language
GRANT :Allow access privileges to users
REVOKE :Revoke or cancel access privileges
TCL-Transaction Control Language.
COMMIT :Save or enable DML changes to the database.
ROLLBACK : To undo DML changes till in a transaction
SAVEPOINT: To divide a transaction
DDL - Data Definition Language
CREATE : to create a new data structure.
ALTER : to change an existing data structure.
DROP : to remove an entire data structure.
TRUNCATE : to remove all rows permanently from table
RENAME : to rename existing table
The ALTER statement is used to add, drop and modify columns in an
existing table.
To add a column in a table:

ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD (column_name datatype)
Add Note: if the table contains records, before the
Alter Modify Column is added the new columns
drop NULL values.
To drop a column from a table
ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP COLUMN column_name
Note: only one column can be droped at a time

The column may or maynot contain data.
Once a column is droped it cannot be recovered.
Modify column:
Alter table <table_name>
Modify ( column datatype)
Description SYNTAX: Note:
if the table contains records,

before the
ALTER TABLE table_name Column is added the new
Adding a column to a ADD (column_name datatype) column contains NULL values.
table
Dropping a column ALTER TABLE table_name only one column can be
DROP COLUMN column_name droped at a time.
The column may or maynot
contain data.
Once a column is droped it
cannot be recovered.
Modify column: Alter table <table_name> We can decrease the width
Modify ( column datatype) of a column if contains only
Null values and if the table has
no data
We can chage the datatype if
the column contains NULL’s
Drop:
It removes the definition of the oracle table(including data) and

associated INDEXES
Syntax: drop table <table name>
Any views and synonyms will remain nut are kept in invalid state.
Drop table statement once executed is irreversible.

Changing the name of an object:
The rename command can be used to change the name of a

Table
View
Sequence
Synonym
Syntax:
Rename <oldname> to <newname>
Truncation a table:
It is used to remove all rows from a table and to release the storage space
Used by the specific table.
Syntax:
Truncate table <table_name>

Create table statement :
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE <table_name>

(
column_name 1<Data type> (width),
column_name 2<Data type> (width),
;;;;;;;;;
column_name N<Data type> (width)
Note: all data types may not have the width property.
no two columns in the same table can have the same
name
Filter data:
select ename, sal, deptno, job from emp

where deptno = 10 and
job='MANAGER' or
job='PRESIDENT' or
job = 'CLERK'
and
sal >=1300 and sal <=5000
/
SQL * PLUS OPERATORS:
1. Between … and … operator:
This operator is used to display rows based on range of values

The declared range is inclusive
The lower limit should be declared first
The negation of this operator is NOT between … and …
2. IN operator:
The operator is used for test for values in a specified list.

The operator can be used upon any data type.
The negation of the operator is NOT IN.
3. Is null operator:
Test for null values

It is the only operator that can be used to test for NULL’s.
The negation is IS NOT NULL
Comparison operators:
The comparison operators are used in such conditions that compare

One expression to another expression.
Different comparison operators are:
=  equality operator
<>,!=, ^=  not equality operator
> Greater than operator
<  less than operator
<= , > =  less than or equal to operator , greater than or equal to
Applying logical operators to filters:
The logical operators combine the results of two component conditions

To produce a single result.
Following are the logical operators in oracle:
And:
It returns true if both or all component conditions are TRUE.
It returns false if either is False, else return unknown.
Or:
It returns TRUE if either of the component condition is TRUE.
Not:
It returns true if the following condition is False.
It returns False if the following condition is TRUE.
ALTER command:
ADD
MODIFY
DROP
 ALTER TABLE <table_name> ADD (Columnname Datatype,--,--)
 alter table <table_name> modify (ENAME varchar2(20))
 alter table <table_name> drop column column_name

DROP Command:
It removes the definition Of the table, data and
Associated indexes.
SYNTAX:
Drop table table_name
CASCADE CONSTRAINTS
> show recyclebin;

TRUNCATE
It is used to remove all rows from a table and
To release the storage space used by the
Specific Table.
Note: the action of the TRUNCATE command

Cannot be rolled back.
Syntax:Truncate table table_name;

RENAME:
It is used to change the name of a table.
Syntax:
Rename <oldtable_Name> to
<New_Table_name> ;

DML
DML - Data Manipulation Language

- We need to commit explicitly.
Commands :-
INSERT : to add records into the table
UPDATE : to change column value in the table
DELETE : to remove rows from the table

Example
 SQL> insert into Dept values (1,’Ramu’,’a’);

 SQL> insert into Dept (deptno,dname) values (2,’Gopi’);
 SQL> insert into Dept values(&deptno,’&Dname’,’&loc’);
Enter the Value for Deptno: 3
Enter the Value for Dname: Ravi
Enter the Value for Dname: Hyd
 SQL> insert into Dept (deptno,dname) values
(&deptno,’&Dname’);

UPDATE Command:
The UPDATE statement is used to change the

existing values in a table or in the
Base table of view.
Syntax:
UPDATE <table_name> SET <specification>
WHERE clause.

DELETE Statement:
It is used to remove rows from table.
Syntax: DELETE [from] <table_name>

[where condition];

DCL
DCL - Data Control Language

- Used to Control the information between Users.
GRANT :Allow access privileges to users

REVOKE :Revoke or cancel access privileges

DCL
 At a time we will give permission on One Table.

 If parent lost its privileges then Child will also loss the Privileges.
 Parent User can Revoke the Privileges from Childs and Grand Childs.

SQL Functions

SQRT
 SQL> select SQRT(4) from dual;
SQRT(4)
----------
2
 SQL> select SQRT(2) from dual;
SQRT(2)
----------
1.41421356

ROUND
 SQL> SELECT ROUND(19) FROM DUAL;
ROUND(19)
----------
19
 SQL> SELECT ROUND(19.4) FROM DUAL;
ROUND(19.4)
-----------
19
 SQL> SELECT ROUND(19.5) FROM DUAL;
ROUND(19.5)
-----------
20
Quality Thought Technologies Conti….

ROUND
 Conti….
 SQL> SELECT ROUND(19.254,2) FROM DUAL;
ROUND(19.254,2)
---------------
19.25
ROUND(19.255,2)
---------------
19.26
ROUND(19.256,2)
---------------
19.26
TRUNC
 SQL> SELECT TRUNC(19) FROM DUAL;
TRUNC(19)
----------
19
 SQL> SELECT TRUNC(19.4) FROM DUAL;
TRUNC(19.4)
-----------
19
 SQL> SELECT TRUNC(19.5) FROM DUAL;
TRUNC(19.5)
-----------
19
Conti…
TRUNC
Conti…
 SQL> SELECT TRUNC(19.124,2) FROM DUAL;
TRUNC(19.124,2)
---------------
19.12
TRUNC(19.125,2)
---------------
19.12
TRUNC(19.126,2)
---------------
19.12
Character Functions
1. UPPER ( )
2. LOWER ( )
3. INITCAP ( )
4. LENGTH ( )
5. REVERSE ( )
6. CONCAT ( )
7. LPAD( )
8. RPAD( )
9. TRIM( )
10. LTRIM( )
11. RTRIM ( )
12. ASCII( )
13. CHR ( )
14. VSIZE ( )
15. SUBSTR( )
16. INSTR ( )

Department Table
DEPT NO DNAME LOC

------------- -------------- -------------
10 ACCOUNTING NEWYORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON

Employee Table
ENO ENAME JOB MGR H-DATE SAL COMM DEPTNO
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800 20

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 1600 300 30
7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 1250 500 30
7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 2975 20
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81 1250 1400 30
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81 2850 30
7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-JUN-81 2450 10
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-APR-87 3000 20
7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81 5000 10
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08-SEP-81 1500 0 30
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100 20
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950 30
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 20
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300 10

Examples
 SQL> SELECT ENAME,LOWER(ENAME) LOWER,
UPPER(ENAME) UPPER,
INITCAP(ENAME) INIT
FROM EMP;
ENAME LOWER UPPER INIT

---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
SMITH smith SMITH Smith
ALLEN allen ALLEN Allen
WARD ward WARD Ward
JONES jones JONES Jones
MARTIN martin MARTIN Martin
BLAKE blake BLAKE Blake
CLARK clark CLARK Clark
SCOTT scott SCOTT Scott
KING king KING King
TURNER turner TURNER Turner
ADAMS adams ADAMS Adams
JAMES james JAMES James
FORD ford FORD Ford
MILLER miller MILLER Miller

REVERSE
 SQL> SELECT ENAME, REVERSE(ENAME) FROM EMP;
ENAME REVERSE(EN
---------- ----------
SMITH HTIMS
ALLEN NELLA
WARD DRAW
JONES SENOJ
MARTIN NITRAM
BLAKE EKALB
CLARK KRALC
SCOTT TTOCS
KING GNIK
TURNER RENRUT
ADAMS SMADA
JAMES SEMAJ
FORD DROF
MILLER RELLIM

SQL> SELECT ENAME, LENGTH(ENAME)LEN_ENAME,
DEPTNO, LENGTH(DEPTNO) LEN_DNO
FROM EMP;
ENAME LEN_ENAME DEPTNO LEN_DNO

---------- - ---------------- -------------
SMITH 5 20 2
ALLEN 5 30 2
WARD 4 30 2
JONES 5 20 2
MARTIN 6 30 2
BLAKE 5 30 2
CLARK 5 10 2
SCOTT 5 20 2
KING 4 10 2
TURNER 6 30 2
ADAMS 5 20 2
JAMES 5 30 2
FORD 4 20 2
MILLER 6 10 2

CONCAT
SQL> select ename,sal, concat(ename,sal) CONC from emp;
ENAME SAL CONC

---------- ---------- --------------------
SMITH 800 SMITH800
ALLEN 1600 ALLEN1600
WARD 1250 WARD1250
JONES 2975 JONES2975
MARTIN 1250 MARTIN1250
BLAKE 2850 BLAKE2850
CLARK 2450 CLARK2450
SCOTT 3000 SCOTT3000
KING 5000 KING5000
TURNER 1500 TURNER1500
ADAMS 1100 ADAMS1100
JAMES 950 JAMES950
FORD 3000 FORD3000
MILLER 1300 MILLER1300

PADDING
SQL> SELECT ENAME,LPAD (ENAME,15,'@') L_PAD ,
RPAD (ENAME,15,'@') R_PAD
FROM EMP;
ENAME L_PAD R_PAD

---------- ------------------------------------ ------------------------- -
SMITH @@@@@@@@@@SMITH SMITH@@@@@@@@@@
ALLEN @@@@@@@@@@ALLEN ALLEN@@@@@@@@@@
WARD @@@@@@@@@@@WARD WARD@@@@@@@@@@@
JONES @@@@@@@@@@JONES JONES@@@@@@@@@@
MARTIN @@@@@@@@@MARTIN MARTIN@@@@@@@@@
BLAKE @@@@@@@@@@BLAKE BLAKE@@@@@@@@@@
CLARK @@@@@@@@@@CLARK CLARK@@@@@@@@@@
SCOTT @@@@@@@@@@SCOTT SCOTT@@@@@@@@@@
KING @@@@@@@@@@@KING KING@@@@@@@@@@@
TURNER @@@@@@@@@TURNER TURNER@@@@@@@@@
ADAMS @@@@@@@@@@ADAMS ADAMS@@@@@@@@@@
JAMES @@@@@@@@@@JAMES JAMES@@@@@@@@@@

TRIM
SQL> select ename, trim(ename) from emp;
ENAME TRIM(ENAME
---------- ----------
SMITH SMITH
ALLEN ALLEN
WARD WARD
JONES JONES
MARTIN MARTIN
BLAKE BLAKE
CLARK CLARK
SCOTT SCOTT
KING KING
TURNER TURNER
ADAMS ADAMS
JAMES JAMES
FORD FORD
MILLER MILLER

Left and Right TRIM
Left Trim: Right Trim:
SQL> select ename, SQL> select

ltrim(ename) from emp; ename,rtrim(ename) from
emp;
ENAME LTRIM(ENAM ENAME RTRIM(ENAM

---------- ---------- ---------- - ---------
SMITH SMITH SMITH SMITH
ALLEN ALLEN ALLEN ALLEN
WARD WARD WARD WARD
JONES JONES JONES JONES
MARTIN MARTIN MARTIN MARTIN
BLAKE BLAKE BLAKE BLAKE
CLARK CLARK CLARK CLARK
SCOTT SCOTT SCOTT SCOTT
KING KING KING KING
TURNER TURNER TURNER TURNER
ADAMS ADAMS ADAMS ADAMS

Left and Right TRIM
Left trim: Right Trim:
 SQL> select ename SQL> select ename

,ltrim(ename,'S') from emp; ,rtrim(ename,'R') from emp;
ENAME LTRIM(ENAM ENAME RTRIM(ENAM

---------- - --------- ---------- ----------
SMITH MITH SMITH SMITH
ALLEN ALLEN ALLEN ALLEN
WARD WARD WARD WARD
JONES JONES JONES JONES
MARTIN MARTIN MARTIN MARTIN
BLAKE BLAKE
BLAKE BLAKE
CLARK CLARK
CLARK CLARK
SCOTT COTT
KING KING SCOTT SCOTT
TURNER TURNER KING KING
ADAMS ADAMS TURNER TURNE
JAMES JAMES ADAMS ADAMS
FORD FORD JAMES JAMES
MILLER MILLER FORD FORD
Quality Thought
MILLER Technologies
MILLE
SQL> select ASCII('a') from dual;
ASCII('A')
----------
97
SQL> select ASCII('A') from dual;
ASCII('A')
----------
65
SQL> select CHR(97) from dual;
C
-
a
SQL> select CHR(65) from dual;
C
-
A
SQL> desc emp;
Name Null? Type
------------------- -------- -------------
EMPNO NOT NULL NUMBER(4)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
JOB VARCHAR2(9)
MGR NUMBER(4)
HIREDATE DATE
SAL NUMBER(7,2)
COMM NUMBER(7,2)
DEPTNO NUMBER(2)

SUBSTR
 SQL> select SUBSTR('Rajesh',1,3) from dual;
SUB
---
Raj
 SQL> select SUBSTR('Rajesh',3) from dual;
SUBS
----
Jesh
 SQL> select SUBSTR('Rajesh',1) from dual;
SUBSTR
------
Rajesh

SUBSTR Conti….
SQL> select ename,substr(ename,1,4) from emp;
ENAME SUBS
---------- ----
SMITH SMIT
ALLEN ALLE
WARD WARD
JONES JONE
MARTIN MART
BLAKE BLAK
CLARK CLAR
SCOTT SCOT
KING KING
TURNER TURN
ADAMS ADAM
JAMES JAME
FORD FORD
MILLER MILL
SQL> select instr('Database','a',1,1) from dual;
INSTR('DATABASE','A',1,1)
-------------------------
2
SQL> select instr('Database','A',1,1) from dual;
-------------------------
0
-------------------------
4
SQL> select instr('Database','a',1) from dual;
INSTR('DATABASE','A',1)
-----------------------
2
SQL> select instr('Database','a',2) from dual;
INSTR('DATABASE','A',2)
-----------------------
2
-------------------------
4
-------------------------
6
Date Functions
Function Description
MONTHS_BETWEEN Number of months

between two dates
ADD_MONTHS Add calendar months to
date
NEXT_DAY Next day of the date
specified
LAST_DAY Last day of the month

Date Functions
2) Months_between( D1 , D2)
3) Add_Months( D ,+/- N )
3) Last_day (D)
4) Next_day ( D , ‘Day’)

SYSDATE
SQL> SELECT SYSDATE FROM DUAL;
SYSDATE
---------
14-JUL-07

Adding DAYS and MONTHS
ADDING DAYS ADD_MONTHS
SQL> SELECT SYSDATE FROM SQL> SELECT ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE,2)

DUAL; FROM DUAL;
ADD_MONTH
SYSDATE
---------
---------
14-SEP-07
14-JUL-07
SQL> SELECT ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE,-2)
FROM DUAL;
SQL> SELECT SYSDATE + 10 FROM
DUAL; ADD_MONTH
---------
SYSDATE+1 14-MAY-07
--------- SQL> SELECT ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE,1.9)
FROM DUAL;
24-JUL-07
ADD_MONTH
SQL> SELECT SYSDATE - 10 FROM
---------
DUAL;
14-AUG-07
SQL> SELECT ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE,0)
SYSDATE-1 FROM DUAL;
--------- ADD_MONTH
04-JUL-07 ---------
LAST_DAY
SQL> SELECT LAST_DAY(SYSDATE) FROM DUAL;
LAST_DAY(
---------
31-JUL-07
SQL> SELECT LAST_DAY(ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE,1)) FROM DUAL;
LAST_DAY(
---------
31-AUG-07

NEXT_DAY
SQL> SELECT SYSDATE FROM DUAL;
SYSDATE
---------
14-JUL-07
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DAY') FROM DUAL;
TO_CHAR(S
---------
SATURDAY
SQL> SELECT NEXT_DAY(SYSDATE,'MON') FROM DUAL;
NEXT_DAY(
---------
16-JUL-07
NEXT_DAY
SQL> SELECT NEXT_DAY(SYSDATE,2) FROM DUAL;
NEXT_DAY(
---------
16-JUL-07
NEXT_DAY( 1--SUNDAY
--------- 2-MONDAY
15-JUL-07

NEXT_DAY(
---------
20-JUL-07

Aggregate Functions

Aggregate Functions
1. MIN ( )
2. MAX ( )
3. SUM ( )
4. AVG ( )
5. COUNT ( * / Col )

Aggregate Functions
SQL> select * from emp;
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- -------------------- ---------- --------- ------
---- ---------
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800 20
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950 30
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100 20
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300 10
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 20

Aggregate Functions
SQL> select Min(sal) from emp;
MIN(SAL)
----------
800
SQL> Select Max(sal) from emp;
MAX(SAL)
----------
5000
SQL> Select Sum(sal) from emp;
SUM(SAL)
----------
29025
SQL> Select Sum(sal) from emp where deptno=10;
SUM(SAL)
----------
8750
Aggregate Functions
SQL> Select Avg(Sal) from emp;
AVG(SAL)
----------
2073.21429
SQL> select Avg(Sal) from emp where deptno=10;
AVG(SAL)
----------
2916.66667
SQL> select count(*) from emp;
COUNT(*)
----------
14
SQL> select count(comm) from emp;
COUNT(COMM)
---------------------
4
Aggregate Functions
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY DEPTNO;

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ----------
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300 10

7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 20
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100 20
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800 20

7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950 30
Aggregate Functions
SQL> SELECT DEPTNO , SUM (SAL) FROM EMP;
SELECT DEPTNO , SUM (SAL) FROM EMP
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00937: not a single-group group function
SQL> SELECT DEPTNO , SUM (SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO;
DNO SUM(SAL)
---------- -------------------- ----------
10 8750
20 10875
30 9400

Aggregate Functions
SQL> SELECT DEPTNO , JOB , SUM (SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO;
SELECT DEPTNO , JOB , SUM (SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00979: not a GROUP BY expression
SQL> Select DEPTNO , JOB , SUM (SAL) From Emp

GROUP BY DEPTNO,job order by deptno;
DEPTNO JOB SUM(SAL)

---------- --------- --------------------
10 CLERK 1300
10 MANAGER 2450
10 PRESIDENT 5000
20 ANALYST 6000
20 CLERK 1900
20 MANAGER 2975
30 CLERK 950
30 MANAGER 2850
30 SALESMAN 5600
Aggregate Functions
SQL> SELECT DEPTNO , SUM (SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO;
DNO SUM(SAL)
---------- -------------------- ----------
10 8750
20 10875
30 9400
SQL> select DEPTNO , SUM(SAL) FROM EMP

WHERE DEPTNO IN (10,20) GROUP BY DEPTNO;
DEPTNO SUM(SAL)
---------- ----------
20 10875
10 8750

GROUP BY DEPTNO
HAVING SUM(SAL) < 10000;
DEPTNO SUM(SAL)
---------- ----------
30 9400
10 8750
Aggregate Functions
GROUP BY DEPTNO
HAVING SUM(SAL) < 10000 ORDER BY DEPTNO;
DEPTNO SUM(SAL)
---------- ----------
10 8750
30 9400
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

GROUP BY DEPTNO
HAVING SUM(SAL) < 10000
ORDER BY SUM(SAL);
DEPTNO SUM(SAL)
---------- ----------
10 8750
30 9400

Group by
SQL> select deptno,count(*) from emp group by deptno;
DEPTNO COUNT(*)
------------------- ---------------
10 3
20 5
30 6

Conversion functions
YY
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(TO_DATE('23-DEC-25','DD-MON-YY'),'DD-MON-YYYY') FROM DUAL;
DATE
23-DEC-2025

DATE
23-DEC-2049
DATE
23-DEC-2050
DATE
23-DEC-2077

SQL> select SYSDATE FROM DUAL;
DATE
20-JUL-07
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'D') FROM DUAL;

DATE
6
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD') FROM DUAL;

DATE
20
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DAY') FROM DUAL;

DATE
FRIDAY
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'Day') FROM DUAL;

DATE
Friday

SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'MM') FROM DUAL;
DATE
07
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'MON') FROM DUAL;

DATE
JUL
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'Mon') FROM DUAL;
TO_
---
Jul
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'MONTH') FROM DUAL;
TO_CHAR(S
---------
JULY

SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'YY') FROM DUAL;
DATE
07
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'YYYY') FROM DUAL;

DATE
2007
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,‘RR') FROM DUAL;

DATE
07
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,‘RRRR') FROM DUAL;

DATE
2007
SQL>SELECT HIREDATE,
TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,'DDD,DD/MM/YYYY HH:MI:SS') FROM EMP;
17-DEC-80 352,17/12/1980 12:00:00

20-FEB-81 051,20/02/1981 12:00:00

SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'HH : MI : SS') from dual;
TO_CHAR(SYSD
------------
04 : 13 : 53
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'HH12 : MI : SS') from dual;
TO_CHAR(SYSD
------------
04 : 14 : 08
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'HH24 : MI : SS') from dual;
TO_CHAR(SYSD
------------
16 : 14 : 19
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'HH12 : MI : SS AM ') from dual;
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,
----------------
04 : 15 : 06 PM
SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'HH24 : MI : SS AM ') from dual;
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,
----------------
16 : 15 : 16 PM
To_Date(String, Str_Format)

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY HIREDATE;

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ----------
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800 20
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950 30
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 20
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300 10
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100 20
14 rows selected.
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP

WHERE HIREDATE = '23-MAY-87';

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ----------
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100 20

WHERE HIREDATE = '23-MAY-87';

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- -------
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100 20

WHERE HIREDATE = TO_DATE('23-MAY-87');

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- -------
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100 20

WHERE HIREDATE = TO_DATE('05-23-87','MM-DD-RR');

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- -------
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100 20

WHERE HIREDATE = TO_DATE('05-23-1987','MM-DD-YYYY');

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- -------
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100 20

WHERE HIREDATE = TO_DATE('MAY-23-87','MON-DD-YY');
no rows selected
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR( TO_DATE('MAY-23-87','MON-DD-YY'),'YYYY')

FROM DUAL;
Date
2087
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR( TO_DATE('MAY-23-87','MON-DD-RR'),'YYYY')

FROM DUAL;
Date
1987
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE

HIREDATE = TO_DATE('MAY-23-87','MON-DD-RR');

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- -------
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100 20

Set Operators

Commands :-
 UNION
 UNION ALL
 INTERSEC
 MINUS

Set Operators
UNION
 Combines the results of two select statements into one result set.
 Wont allow the Duplicates Records.
UNION ALL
 Combines the results of two select statements into one result set
including the duplicates.
MINUS
Takes the result set of one SELECT statement, and removes
those rows that are also returned by a second SELECT statement.
INTERSECT
 Returns only those rows that are returned by each of two SELECT
statements.

Set Operators :-
 You can combine multiple Select queries using the set operators
 If a SQL statement contains multiple set operators, then Oracle Database

evaluates them from the left to right unless parentheses explicitly specify
another order.
 The number of columns and there Data type should be match in all the
Queries.

Set Operators
UNION ALL
SQL> select * from dept

2 UNION ALL
3 select * from dept;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC

---------- -------------- -------------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
8 rows selected.

Set Operators
UNION
2 UNION
DEPTNO DNAME LOC

---------- -------------- -------------
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO

Set Operators
MINUS
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DEPTNO FROM EMP

2 MINUS
3 SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DEPTNO FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=10;
EMPNO ENAME SAL DEPTNO

---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
7369 SMITH 800 20
7902 FORD 3000 20
7876 ADAMS 1100 20
7566 JONES 2975 20
7788 SCOTT 3000 20
7844 TURNER 1500 30

7900 JAMES 950 30
7521 WARD 1250 30
7499 ALLEN 1600 30
7654 MARTIN 1250 30
7698 BLAKE 2850 30
11 rows selected.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Set Operators
INTERSECT
SQL> SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DEPTNO FROM EMP

2 INTERSECT
3 SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DEPTNO FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=10;
EMPNO ENAME SAL DEPTNO

---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
7782 CLARK 2450 10
7839 KING 5000 10
7934 MILLER 1300 10

Set Operators
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
ERROR – Data Type
SQL> select dname,deptno,loc from dept

2 UNION
3 select deptno,dname,loc from dept;
select dname,deptno,loc from dept
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01790: expression must have same datatype as corresponding expression
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
ERROR – Number of Columns

2 UNION
3 select dname,deptno FROM DEPT;
select dname,deptno,loc from dept
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01789: query block has incorrect number of result columns
Set Operators
COLUMN NAME
SQL> select deptno as D ,dname,loc from dept

2 UNION
D DNAME LOC
---------- -------------- -------------
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO

2 union
3 select deptno as D ,dname,loc from dept;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC

---------- -------------- -------------
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
Set Operators
Default Column

2 UNION
3 select dname,deptno,NULL FROM DEPT;
DNAME DEPTNO LOC

-------------- ---------- -------------
ACCOUNTING 10 NEW YORK
ACCOUNTING 10
OPERATIONS 40 BOSTON
OPERATIONS 40
RESEARCH 20 DALLAS
RESEARCH 20
SALES 30 CHICAGO
SALES 30
Set Operators
ERROR - ORDER BY
SQL> select * from dept order by deptno
2 UNION ALL
3 select * from dept order by deptno ;
ERROR at line 2:
ORA-00933: SQL command not properly ended
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
2 INTERSECT
3 SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=10 ORDER BY DEPTNO;
ERROR at line 3:
ORA-00904: "DEPTNO": invalid identifier
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
SQL> SELECT DEPTNO,TO_NUMBER(2) AS NU FROM DEPT
2 UNION
3 SELECT DEPTNO,SUM(SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY DEPTNO ORDER BY DEPTNO;
DEPTNO NU
---------- ----------
10 2
10 8750
20 2
CONSTRAINTS

Types of constraints
PRIMARY KEY
• Will not allow duplicate values and NULL’s are not allowed (NOT NULL & UNIQUE)
• Only one primary Kay can be defined in a table
UNIQUE
Will not allow duplicate values but allow NULL’s .
NOT NULL
• Will not allow NULL values but allow Duplicates values.
FOREIGN KEY
• A column value which is derived from PRIMARY KEY column of same/another
table.
CHECK
•Checks for the given condition before inserting the record into the Table

SQL> Alter Table Test ADD Constraint CPK Primary Key (eno);
SQL> Alter Table Test ADD Constraint CUK Unique (ename);
SQL> Alter Table Test ADD Constraint CCK Check (Sal > 1000);
SQL> Alter Table Test ADD Constraint CFK
FOREIGN KEY (DEPTNO) references DEPT(DEPTNO);
SQL> Alter Table Test MODIFY J_Date Varchar2(20) NOT NULL;

SQL> Alter Table Test MODIFY Deptno Number(8) Default 10;
SQL> Alter Table Test Drop Primary Key;

SQL> Alter Table Test Drop Unique (ename);
SQL> Alter Table Test Drop CONSTRAINT <C_NAME>;
SQL> Alter Table Test Drop CONSTRAINT CPK ;
SQL> Alter Table Test ENABLE Constraint <C_NAME>;

SQL> Alter Table Test DISABLE Constraint <C_NAME>;

JOINS

JOINS
JOINS:
JOINs are used to retrieve information from multiple tables.
TYPES OF JOINS:
1. EQUI-JOIN :
2. NON-EQUI JOIN :
3. OUTER JOIN
* LEFT OUTER JOIN
* RIGHT OUTER JOIN
* FULL OUTER JOIN
4. SELF JOIN

SELF JOIN
SQL> SELECT E.ENAME EMP_NAME,

2 M.ENAME MGR_NAME
3 FROM EMP E,EMP M
4 WHERE E.MGR=M.EMPNO;
EMP_NAME MGR_NAME
---------- ----------
SMITH FORD
ALLEN BLAKE
WARD BLAKE
JONES KING
MARTIN BLAKE
BLAKE KING
CLARK KING

JOIN SYNTAX
Equi Join
SQL> SELECT Empno,Ename,Sal,Comm,Emp.Deptno,Dept.Deptno from
Emp JOIN, DEPT
where EMP.deptno=DEPT.deptno;
Left Outer Join

Emp left OUTER JOIN DEPT
ON EMP.deptno=DEPT.deptno;
Right Outer Join

Emp right OUTER JOIN DEPT
Full Outer Join

Emp FULL OUTER JOIN DEPT
SUB QUERY

Sub Query :-
 A query within a query called sub query.
 These subqueries are also called Nested subqueries.
 A subquery can also be found in the FROM clause. These are
called inline views.
TYPES OF SUB QUERY :-
1. Single Row Sub Query
2. Multi Row Sub Query
Sub Query
 These subqueries can reside in the following Clauses
 1) SELECT
 2) FROM -----( In-line Query )
 3) WHERE
 4) HAVING BY
 5) ORDER BY
 6) INSERT
 7) UPDATE
 Most often, the subquery will be found in the WHERE clause.

 Oracle allows up to 255 levels of subqueries in the WHERE clause.
 Oracle allows an unlimited number of subqueries in the FROM clause.
Sub Query
 SQL> select * from emp;


 ENO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO

 ---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ----------
 7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800 20
 7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 1600 300 30
 7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 1250 500 30
 7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 2975 20
 7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81 1250 1400 30
 7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81 2850 30
 7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-JUN-81 2450 10
 7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-APR-87 3000 20
 7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81 5000 10
 7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08-SEP-81 1500 0 30
 7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100 20
 7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950 30
 7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 20
 7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300 10
Single Row Sub Query
 SQL> select Min(sal) from emp;
 MIN
 800
 SQL> select * from emp where sal = (select Min(sal) from emp);

 ---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ----------
 7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800 20
 (select Max(sal) from emp);
 SQL> select * from emp where sal =

 ---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ----------
 7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81 5000 10

 SQL> select * from emp where sal <= (select Avg(sal) from emp);

 ---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- -------------------- ---------- ----------
 7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800 20
 7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 1600 300 30
 7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 1250 500 30
 7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81 1250 1400 30
 7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08-SEP-81 1500 0 30
 7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100 20
 7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950 30
 7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300 10
Multi Row Sub Query
SQL> select * from emp where deptno in ( select deptno from dept);
ENO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ----------
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800 20
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100 20
7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950 30
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000 20
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300 10
14 rows selected.
SQL> select * from dept where deptno in ( select Distinct(deptno) from emp );
DEPTNO DNAME LOC

---------- -------------- -------------
INDEX
INDEX:-
 An index is a performance-tuning method of allowing faster retrieval of records.

 An index creates an entry for each value that appears in the indexed columns.
 By default, Oracle creates B-tree indexes.
 You should have INDEX privilege on the table to be indexed.
 You should have CREATE ANY INDEX system privilege to create a Index.
The syntax for creating a index is:
SQL> Create [UNIQUE] index I_Name ON T_Name ( C1 , C2 , C3 )

INDEX
Types Of INDEX
1) UNIQUE INDEX
2) BEE TREE INDEX
3) BIT MAP INDEX
4) FUNCTIONED INDEX
5) REVERSE INDEX
VIEW
 A view is a logical table based on one or more tables.

 A view derives its data from the tables on which it is defined.
 A view does not hold any data.
 You can perform all DML ( Insert , Update , Delete , Select ) on View.
 All operations performed on a view actually affect the base table of the
view.
 You can use views in almost the same way as tables.
 You can query, update, insert into, and delete from views, just as you can
standard tables.
Note: Data can be added through a view unless it contains:
(Group by clause, rownum pseudo column, distinct keyword, Group
function)
VIEW
SQL> Create View V1
AS
Select * from Emp ;
SQL> Create View V2
AS
Select * from Emp Where Deptno=10 ;
SQL> Create View V3
AS
Select Deptno , sum(sal) as SL from Emp Group By Deptno
SQL> Create View V4
AS
Select Eno ,Ename from Emp ;
SQL> Create View V5
AS
Select Eno, Substr(Ename,1,3) AS NAME from Emp ;
VIEW
View With Check Option ;-
SQL> Create View V1

AS
Select * from Emp
Where Deptno=10 WITH CHECK OPTION
 If you select the data from emp table you can see all the Dept values.
 If you select the data from V1 View you can see only Deptno =10 data.
 SPECIFIES THAT ONLY ROWS THAT WOULD BE RETRIVED BY THE
QUERY CAN ONLY BE INSERTED , UPDATED OR DELETED.
VIEW
View With read only Option ;-
SQL> Create View V1 (Eno, sal )

AS
Select Deptno,Comm from Emp with READ ONLY ;
 You can only Read the Data.

 You can not Apply DML’s on the VIEW.
 You can Apply DML’s on the Base TABLE.
ORA-01733: virtual column not allowed here

WHY USE VIEWS AT ALL
VIEWS TO ENFORCE SECURITY:
IT MAY BE THAT USERS SHOULD ONLY SEE CERTAIN ROWS OR
COLUMNS OF A TABLE.
CONSIDER THE EMPLOYEE TABLE:

EMPLOYEE_ID
FIRST_NAME
LAST_NAME
EMAIL
PHONE_NUMBER
HIRE_ DATE
JOB_ID
SALARY
COMMISSION_PCT
MANAGER_ID
DEPARTMENT_ID
WHICH INCLUDES PERSONAL DETAILS THAT SHOULD NOT BE
VISIBLE TO STAFF. BUT FINANCE STAFF WILL NEED TO BE ABLE
TO SEE THE COSTING INFRMATION. BY USING VIEWS WE WILL
DEPERSONALIZE THE DATA.
CREATE VIEW EMP_FIN

AS
SELECT HIRE_DATE,
JOB_ID,
SALARY,
COMMOSSION_PCT,
DEPARTMENT_ID
FROM EMPLOYEE
VIEWS TO SIMPLIFY USER SQL
IT WILL BE MUCH EASIER FOR USER TO QUERY DATA IF THE
HARD WORK (SUCH AS JOINS OR AGGREGATIONS) IS DONE FOR
THEM BY THE CODE THAT DEFINES THE VIEW.
SELECT
E.Ename Employee,
E.Sal "Employee's Salary",
SE.Grade EmpGrade,
M.Sal "Manager's Salary",
SM.Grade MGRGrade,
Dname
FROM Emp E JOIN Dept D
ON E.Deptno = D.Deptno JOIN Emp M ON
E.MGR = M.Empno JOIN SalGrade SE ON
E.Sal BETWEEN SE.LoSal AND SE.HiSal JOIN SalGrade SM ON
M.Sal BETWEEN SM.LoSal AND SM.HiSal
CREATE VIEW EMP_MGR_SALGRADE_INFO
AS
SELECT
E.Ename Employee,
E.Sal "Employee's Salary",
SE.Grade EmpGrade,
M.Sal "Manager's Salary",
SM.Grade MGRGrade,
Dname
FROM Emp E JOIN Dept D
ON E.Deptno = D.Deptno JOIN Emp M ON
E.MGR = M.Empno JOIN SalGrade SE ON
E.Sal BETWEEN SE.LoSal AND SE.HiSal JOIN SalGrade SM ON
M.Sal BETWEEN SM.LoSal AND SM.HiSal
TYPES OF VIEWS:
SIMPLE VIEWS:
A SIMPLE VIEW RETRIVES DATA FROM ONE DETAIL TABLE ,

USES NO FUNCTIONS, AND DOES NO AGGREGATIONS.
COMPLEX VIEW:
A COMPLEX VIEW CAN JOIN DETAIL TABLES,
USE FUNCTIONS, AND PERFORM AGGREGATIONS.

Materialized Views
Materialized Views ;-
 It is Static View, means it will hold the data.

 Used for Analyzing and Reporting.
 We need to have Create Materialized View Privilege for creating of it.
SQL FUNCTIONS:
*********************
SQL functions can be used to ..

perform calculations on data
modify individuals on data
manipulate output for groups of rows
format dates and numbers for display.
convert column data type.
SQL functions types:

***********************
single row functions
multiple row functions
single row functions:

***********************
These functions return a single result for every row of a queried table.
multiple row functions:

*************************
These functions manipulate groups of rows and return one result per
Group of rows.
Single row functions can appear in
SELECT List.
WHERE clause and order by clause.
Categories of single row functions:

***************************************
Character functions
Number functions
Date functions
Conversion functions
Single row functions are used to manipulate data items.
Syntax:
********
FunctionName(column/expression, [arg1, arg2, ..])
Single row functions can be nested.

Specification behavior of functions:
*******************************************
Character functions:
accepts character input and return both character and number values.
the functions are categorized as:

1. case conversion functions
2. character manipulation functions
1. case conversion functions:

**********************************
Lower function
Syntax: lower(column/expression)
Upper function
Syntax: Upper (column/expression)
Initcap function
Syntax:initcap (column/expression)
Concat Function
Concat(column1/expression1, column2/expression2)

Oracle 11 G (SQL) : Quality Thought Technologies

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Oracle 11 G (SQL) : Quality Thought Technologies

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Oracle 11 g

Quality Thought Technologies

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The contents of a table are stored

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It is data which describes the properties of end

A database is an organized collection of data. Since

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Database management system (DBMS) is a

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when creating tables, each column must

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 It Stores zero, positive, and negative fixed and floating-

VARCHAR2 data type

 Specifies the Variable length Character string.

It specifies Fixed length Character string.

The size should be specified.

The default length is 1 byte and maximum is 2000 bytes

DATE data type

The information revealed by data is :

Default Date format in oracle is DD-MON-YY.

The date Range provided by oracle is January 1, 4712 BC

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To add a column in a table:

To drop a column from a table

ALTER TABLE table_name

Note: only one column can be droped at a time

if the table contains records,

It removes the definition of the oracle table(including data) and

Syntax: drop table <table name>

Drop table statement once executed is irreversible.

The rename command can be used to change the name of a

Used by the specific table.

Truncate table <table_name>

CREATE TABLE <table_name>

select ename, sal, deptno, job from emp

1. Between … and … operator:

This operator is used to display rows based on range of values

The operator is used for test for values in a specified list.

Test for null values

The comparison operators are used in such conditions that compare

Different comparison operators are:

The logical operators combine the results of two component conditions

Following are the logical operators in oracle:

 alter table <table_name> modify (ENAME varchar2(20))

 alter table <table_name> drop column column_name

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> show recyclebin;

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Note: the action of the TRUNCATE command

Syntax:Truncate table table_name;

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It is used to change the name of a table.

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DML - Data Manipulation Language

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 SQL> insert into Dept values (1,’Ramu’,’a’);

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The UPDATE statement is used to change the

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It is used to remove rows from table.

Syntax: DELETE [from] <table_name>

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DCL - Data Control Language

GRANT :Allow access privileges to users

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 At a time we will give permission on One Table.

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 SQL> select SQRT(4) from dual;

 SQL> select SQRT(2) from dual;

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