Small Scale Wastewater Treatment Plant Project Report On Project Criteria, Guidelines and Technologies
Small Scale Wastewater Treatment Plant Project Report On Project Criteria, Guidelines and Technologies
Small Scale Wastewater Treatment Plant Project Report On Project Criteria, Guidelines and Technologies
Phase 1
The Small Scale Wastewater Treatment Project is funded by NZAID through a cash grant to
the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission.
Table of Contents
1: INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................................................. 3
2: ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................................................... 5
5: WASTEWATER TREATMENT................................................................................................................................... 7
6.1 INTRODUCTION:..........................................................................................................................................................15
6.2 GENERAL A SSUMPTIONS...........................................................................................................................................15
6.3 EFFLUENT QUALITY...................................................................................................................................................15
6.4 W ATER SUPPLY ..........................................................................................................................................................15
6.5 LAND SPACE ...............................................................................................................................................................16
6.6 M AINTENANCE AND OPERATION .............................................................................................................................16
6.7 COST .............................................................................................................................................................................16
6.8 ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENT : ....................................................................................................................................17
6.9 TOPOGRAPHY ..............................................................................................................................................................17
6.10 TECHNOLOGY RATING SHEET .............................................................................................................................18
6.11 CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................................................20
8: REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................................................47
1: Introduction
1.1 General
In general, the sanitation field seems to live the life of an orphan in many Pacific Island
Countries. In many cases this important sector of public health has been left alone when
major upgrading projects improved the water supply systems in many countries and
provinces. This basically ignored the downstream effect of improved water supply, that of
increased discharges into rivers or aquifers. Two reasons appear to be the major cause for
that: firstly, wastewater collection and treatment is costly and their benefit often hard to show;
and secondly, even if low-cost solutions are being implemented many projects fail to deliver
the expected outcome.
Without pretending to reflect the complexity of sanitation projects three principal reasons may
be held accountable for the non-delivery problems:
• The responsibilities within government were not resolved to ensure the necessary
support.
During the last years many rural areas were provided with some kind of water supply system.
The availability of water leads to wider spread use of flush toilet systems. These systems
mainly use simple toilets to discard the waste water either directly into the porous
underground or into simple holes. At the same time many villages still supplement their water
supply from shallow wells which are often located in the direct neighbourhood of the toilets.
Even if landowners consider the possible contamination of their well through their own toilet
and locate them far apart they can not avoid the location of their neighbour’s toilet close to
their well. A similar risk of water body contamination occurs where villages situated on the
banks of a small estuary/lagoon discharge their wastewater without treatment. It is expected
that Small Scale Wastewater Treatment Plants (SSWTP), under certain circumstances, are
the solution for these problems. More specifically the SSWTP technology could be applied
where,
In July 1998 the New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs approved a regional project that
aimed at introducing SSWTP into three Pacific Countries. NZ$ 20,000 was allocated to
investigate the implications of implementing this important sanitation technology in Fiji,
Marshall Islands and Tonga. During the SOPAC 27th Annual Session Niue specially
requested to be included in the project.
While it is hard to resolve the problem of government responsibilities for practitioners in the
sanitation engineering field, the first and the second problem of non-delivery may be relieved
through ensuring certain procedures during project planning and implementation. However,
the aim of the SSWTP Project in its first phase is to contribute to technological discussion
and provide insight into government structures and procedures within the relevant countries.
The method used to achieve this challenging goal was to involve as many experts as
possible experts, be they scientists or practitioners, in the early phases of the project. The
use of Internet and Email facilities allowed for an extensive technology research and valuable
feedback from virtually anywhere in the world. Along with good contacts with government
officials at national and district level, project is ensured to reach its addressee during this
phase.
2: Acknowledgement
This project is funded by the New Zealand Official Development Assistance through an extra-
budgetary cash grant and the German Government through its funding of an United Nations
Associate Expert.
Special thanks should be given to the participants of the water and sanitation applied
research newsgroup who have provided very valuable information.
• To identify appropriate waste water treatment technologies for selected villages in Fiji,
Marshall Islands, Niue and Tonga (e.g. treatment by plants, high-loaded treatment
lagoons, community septic tanks).
• To identify conditions under which a certain number of toilets can be connected to a single
small-scale waste water treatment plant (economic, technical and social viability).
In the context of the project, these objectives mean that the project is not necessarily trying
to find the best sanitation technology for a given problem but to list the conditions where
SSWTP represents an efficient alternative to either conventional sewage or on-site
wastewater treatment/disposal technologies. To detail these points is within the scope of the
SSWTP project.
As the former point basically refers to technical points the project focuses also on non-
technical problems. Here it is anticipated that the planning and implementation framework for
sanitation projects will be described in a way that allows the future implementation of such
projects.
In order to achieve that, this report gives technical criteria for the selection of wastewater
treatment technologies and suggests a rating scheme to find a technology suitable for a
particular situation. As with all such rating systems it is unavoidable that some readers may
consider the suggested scheme arbitrary. The authors will be happy to discuss any
suggestions readers may have.
Since the authors believe that wastewater treatment knowledge is basically non-existent in
the South Pacific a general description that summarises the basics of wastewater treatment
has been included. It is hoped that this facilitates the 'digestion' of this report.
5: Wastewater Treatment
5.1 Introduction - what is wastewater and what is it made up of?
It is necessary to treat human waste or excreta for many reasons, but the most important
reason is to preserve health. Untreated human excrement contains a variety of pathogenic
organisms, which include protozoa, bacteria, viruses and eggs of helminthes that are
disease-causing organisms. The presence of these in the environment transmits various
types of diseases. They could be:
• Insect-vector borne where the pathogen is spread by insects that feed or breed in water
e.g. flies and mosquitoes.
• Faecal-oral transmission routes by which pathogens from faeces reach the mouth by
either hand, clothes food etc.
Once excrements have been produced, it is necessary to decide what to do with the waste
and determine the wastewater treatment option. There is a general distinction : Waste being
treated on-site via various treatment options e.g. VIP latrines, water seal toilets, composting
toilets etc. or by the use of water to carry the waste off-site to be treated some place else
either not too far from the compound as with septic tanks or to specialised treatment plants
through sewer lines. This form of waste often is reffered to as wastewater or sewerage.
• wastewater collection,
• wastewater treatment,
• sludge management.
“The term treatment means separation of solids and stabilisation of pollutants. In turn
stabilisation means the degradation of organic matter until the point at which chemical or
biological reactions stop. Treatment can also mean the removal of toxic or otherwise
dangerous substances (for e.g. heavy metals or phosphorous) which are likely to distort
sustainable biological cycles, even after stabilisation of the organic matter.”(Sasse, 1998)
COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) is said to be the most general parameter to measure
organic pollution. COD describes how much oxygen is required to oxidise all organic and
inorganic matter found in the wastewater sample. BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand)
describes what can be oxidised biologically, with the help of bacteria and is always a fraction
of COD. Usually BOD is measured as BOD5 meaning that it describes the amount of oxygen
consumed over a five-day measurement period. It is a direct measurement of the amount of
oxygen consumed by organisms removing the organic matter in the waste. SS (Suspended
Solids) describes how much of the organic or inorganic matter is not dissolved in water and
contains settleable solids that sink to the bottom in a short time and non-settleable
suspended solids. It is an important parameter because SS causes turbidity in the water
causing clogging of filters etc. The mentioned parameters are measured in 'mg/l'.
Wastewater treatment options may be classified into groups of processes according to the
function they perform and their complexity:
Preliminary Treatment – includes simple processes that deal with debris and solid material.
The purpose of preliminary treatment is to remove those easily separable components. This
is usually performed by screening (usually by bar screens) and grit removal. Their removal is
important in order to increase the effectiveness of the later treatment processes and prevent
damages to the pipes, pumps and fittings.
Primary Treatment – is mainly the removal of solids by settlement. Simple settlement of the
solid material in sewage can reduce the polluting load by significant amounts. It can reduce
BOD by up to 40%. Some examples of primary treatment is septic tanks, septic tanks with
upflow filters, Imhoff tanks.
Secondary Treatment – In secondary treatment the organic material that remains in the
wastewater is reduced biologically. Secondary treatment actually involves harnessing and
accelerating the natural process of waste disposal whereby bacteria convert organic matter
to stable forms. Both aerobic and anaerobic processes are employed in secondary
treatment. Some examples of secondary treatment are UASB, reed bed systems, trickling
filters and stabilisation ponds.
Tertiary treatment – is the polishing process whereby treated effluent is further purified to
acceptable levels for discharge. It is usually for the removal of specific pollutants e.g.
nitrogen or phosphorus or specific industrial pollutants. Tertiary treatment processes are
generally specialised processes. Some examples of tertiary treatment are bank’s clarifiers,
grass plots, etc.
[TR288 – Schölzel & Bower]
Small Scale Wastewater Treatment Project, Phase 1 Page 10
The majority of secondary treatment processes are biological in their nature – i.e. they use
the natural activity of the bacteria to break down polluting material. Biological treatment
processes can themselves be divided into two general sub-divisions – aerobic and anaerobic
processes.
Secondary Advanced
Primary treatment Tertiary Treatment
Treatment Treatment
Activated Sludge
Bar or Bow Screen Nitrification Chemical treatment
Extended aeration
Grit removal Denitrification reverse Osmosis
Aerated lagoon
Sedimentation Chem. Precipitation Electrodialysis
Trickling filter
Oil/ fat removal Disinfection Carbon adsorption
Rotation bio-discs
Flow equalisation Filtration Selective ion
unaerobic Sequence
pH neutralisation Chemical oxidation exchange
batch reactor
Imhoff tank Biological P reomval Hyperfiltration
Anaerobic filter
Constructed wetlands
Aquaculture
Wastewater treatment also relies on the separation of solids, both before and after
stabilisation. The choice of method of solid removal will depend on the size and specific
weight of pieces and particles of suspended solids.
Screening
For the larger pieces of solids for e.g. diapers, cloth, etc. in wastewater treatment. Screens
require cleaning at very short intervals. Materials captured through screening require a safe
place to be disposed of. Below is a diagram of waste stabilisation ponds showing screening
as the first stage.
Figure 4: Schematic drawing of a stabilisation ponds system, Source: Pickord J., 1991
Sedimentation
Flotation
Flotation is the predominant method to remove fat, grease and oil. Unwanted flotation occurs
in septic tanks and other anaerobic systems where floating layers of scum are easily formed.
Accumulated scum could be removed manually or left purposedly to seal the surface of
anaerobic ponds to prevent bad odour. Below is a diagram of a septic tank showing scum
floating on the surface.
Filtration
Filtration becomes necessary when suspended solid particles are to be removed that cannot
be forced to settle or float within a reasonable time. Most filters have a double function, they
provide a fixed surface for treatment of bacteria and they form a physical obstacle for the
smaller solid particles by creating adhesion of particles to their surfaces. Filtration can be
both on the upstream and the downstream. E.g. Upstream Anaerobic Sludge Blanket.
Anaerobic filters direct flow upwards through the filter material. Trickling filters allow the
wastewater to descend in a downward direction through the filter material. The speed at
which filtration occurs depends on the type of filter material used. Smaller grain sizes and
fine mesh sizes would cause filtration to be slower than larger, wider-spaced material, but
would cause the retention of many more solids and clog faster.
With aerobic processes, bacteria use oxygen to feed on the organic material (which is a food
source) to produce carbondioxide and water, with the production of quantities of extra
bacterial mass (sludge). Most aerobic processes require the mechanical addition of oxygen
and that can be expensive.
Anaerobic processes take place in the absence of oxygen and bacteria break down the
organic wastes to produce carbondioxide and methane. This mixture of gases, called Biogas,
can potentially be harnessed as an energy source. Anaerobic process produces much less
excess sludge than aerobic processes however the treatment efficiency is not as high as it is
for aerobic processes.
The aerobic process happens much faster than anaerobic digestion and for that reason
always dominates when free oxygen is available. The high speed at which decomposition
occurs is caused by the shorter reproduction cycles of aerobic bacteria as compared to
anaerobic bacteria. Anaerobic bacteria leave some of the energy unused and it is this
unused energy which is released in the form of biogas. Aerobic bacteria use a larger portion
of the pollution load for production of their own bacterial mass compared to anaerobic
bacteria, which is why the aerobic process produces twice as much sludge as the anaerobic
process. Aerobic treatment is highly efficient when there is enough oxygen available.
Sedimentation and particles that escape filtration lead to sludge accumulation at the bottom
of vessels. This sludge gets compacted over time, consequently older sludge occupies less
volume than fresh sludge. Sludge removal is important and removal should be performed as
specified for each technology.
Nitrogen is a nutrient that causes algal growth in receiving waters and needs to be removed
from wastewater before discharge. It is also poisonous to fish in the form of ammonia gases
and also may become poisonous in the form of nitrite. The basic process of nitrogen removal
occurs in two steps, namely, nitrification (aerobic conditions) followed by denitrification
(anaerobic conditions) with the result that pure nitrogen diffuses into the atmosphere. Nitrate
is the most stable form of nitrogen and its’ presence indicates complete oxidation
Phosphorus is a nutrient that is water soluble, often recycled and is required to support living
plants and organisms. Bacteria cannot transform phosphorus into a form in which it loses its
fertiliser quality permanently. This implies that no appropriate biological process either
aerobic or anaerobic can remove phosphorous from wastewater. Phosphorus removal from
water normally takes place by removal of bacterial mass (active sludge) or by removal of
phosphate fixing solids via sedimentation or flocculation. This process is normally performed
in the tertiary stage of treatment.
Most heavy metals are toxic or carcinogenic and therefore should not remain in the
wastewater because they harm the aquatic life of the receiving water or could enter the
human nutritious cycle when wastewater or sludge is used in agriculture. Since heavy metals
settle easy their removal is not difficult however soluble toxic substances may be difficult to
remove. There are numerous methods for converting toxins into non-toxic substances for
e.g. ion exchange procedures.
Pathogens are present in many forms in excreta e.g. bacteria, viruses and protozoa and
accumulate in the sediment sludge and are largely retained inside the treatment system
where they stay alive for several weeks. Most bacteria and viruses caught in the sludge die
after shorter periods. Those bacteria, which are not caught in the sludge but remain
suspended in the liquid portion, are hardly affected, meaning, these bacteria and viruses exit
the plant fully alive. Exposure to UV rays has a substantial hygienic effect. High pathogen
removal can also be experienced in shallow ponds with long retention times. Constructed
wetlands with their multifunctional bacterial life in the root zones can also be very effective.
Using chlorination to kill pathogens is only advisable for hospitals in the case of epidemics
and other such special circumstances as chlorine kills all forms of bacteria both beneficial
and non-beneficial. Apart from this chlorine has an adverse impact on the environment.
Water is made unstable as chlorine itself has a high chemical oxygen demand (COD).
5.13 Conclusion
The preliminary criteria of the small-scale wastewater project, given its objectives, was
determined by careful consideration of what was important when making wastewater
technological choices. Criteria were then prioritised, after which a table was set up rating
each technology against these criteria for better evaluation.
General assumptions need to be made to keep a clear focus on the project objectives. If
these assumptions were not made then the choice of technology would be restricted to a
selected few. The assumption is that there is enough sustainable water supply for the use of
waste disposal
The technology chosen should produce effluent quality that is up to standard with regards to
the various quality measurements: BOD, suspended solids, nitrogen, phosphates etc.
Different technologies provide different levels of waste treatment, removing contaminants by
various methods. All options must be carefully considered with respect to the treatment
quality that is provided for by the different technologies. This is an important criterion and is
the determining factor in the effectiveness of the different technologies chosen
Water is used in waste disposal mainly for the transportation of sewage from one place to the
next although it is used in the biological degradation of organic matter to a certain degree as
well. The assumption made by us is that there is enough water supplied for this use as well
as sustained for continuing future use for either purpose. Water is placed here in the criteria
because it is a key aspect in differentiating technologies. Without water, it would be difficult to
transport the sewerage to another site to be treated. This allows only one option for on-site
treatment, by the use of composting toilets. Locations that are not capable of providing this
water requirement would then be limited to on-site treatment options.
Water Supply: No
The reason for a limited land space requirement is that land issues are always a problem and
must be handled carefully. In a village, land may be owned by many families each claiming
their own piece. This family ownership does not only include the immediate family, but
encompasses the extended family as well, resulting in many people owning a piece of land.
Land secured for waste treatment would be difficult to obtain. This is also placed high on the
list because often there is limited land available and this needs to be taken into account
when choosing a technology. Although this would restrict our options, limited land availability
most often can’t be overcome.
It is assumed that a certain degree of maintenance is required and also a skilled workforce to
perform maintenance and operational duties when needed. The maintenance of a
wastewater treatment system is then left up to the villagers themselves after implementation
where it is assumed that at least one villager has the capability to oversee the operation and
maintenance of the system. Although the operation and maintenance of the system may be
reviewed from time to time by the relevant parties it is most often left to the villagers
themselves in the long run. The proper maintenance of the chosen system would be a
limiting factor in terms of the sustainability of the project at the village level, as it has been
seen from past experiences that most often maintenance has not been satisfactory. To
overcome this, proper maintenance and operation training should be made available to
certain people who are responsible for this duty. Sometimes mechanical equipment is
imported and when parts need repair or replacement they are not available locally so the
system becomes non-operational for a period of time.
This criteria is placed here because maintenance and operation are important and need to
be considered when making a technological choice because the sustainability of chosen
technology rely on the proper workings of the two. Some skill would be required for any
technology, choice made as there is no technology that does not require maintenance at all.
Choices should perhaps be directed towards relatively low maintenance systems.
6.7 Cost
Financial support may be supplied by many sources. On a village level, funding may be
provided by the villagers themselves with the assistance of local government departments
e.g. Department of Health etc. Apart from this, financial service may also be provided from
other sources like foreign aid programs and so forth. Initially there would be cost of
construction after which the running costs may come into effect e.g. cost of maintenance
etc.Cost is not to be placed first on the list because within the scope of this project it should
not be the determining factor in the type of treatment system chosen. However, people
sometimes take the option of a less-than-adequate system that does not perform
satisfactorily giving out poor quality effluent for the sake of cutting costs. The financial
resources of the local area under consideration may not be much, but there may often be
foreign donor support for well-presented projects etc.
Electrical power may be used in many different ways in the waste treatment system for e.g. it
may be used for pumps to transport the sewerage from one place to the next and also may
be used in technologies involving aeration etc. Those technologies that are dependent on
electrical power for operation can sometimes become non-operational due to power cuts.
The assumption made is that the requirement of electrical power for operation is not
essential because there are technologies that can be chosen which do not need electricity to
operate. If electricity can be provided this just broadens the options of technological choices.
This criteria is not placed high on the list as there are technological options available that
don’t require electricity and it is often not essential in the choices made. It is included in the
list of criteria because often the use of package plant type options requires electrical power
for operation.
Electrical Requirement – No
6.9 Topography
Topographic conditions e.g. the slope of an area etc. have an influence over the type of
technology chosen and these conditions change from one site to the next. Some areas have
a topography that allows easier implementation of wastewater technologies then others. The
types of wastewater technologies chosen with consideration of topographic conditions work
more efficiently as with these technical considerations in mind they become more effective,
producing better quality effluent. Topographic conditions should be considered as a criterion
however is not included in the rating sheet as it is very site specific.
Technology Criteria
(Primary Treatment)
Septic Tank Septic Tank to disposal field Low Yes Low Low Low No
Usage
Septic Tank with up -flow filter Moderate Yes Low Low Moderate No
Secondary Treatment
Technology Criteria
Activated Activated Sludge Treatment High Yes Low High High Yes
Sludge
Tertiary Treatment
Hybrid Hybrid Toilet Systems (HTS) High No Low Moderate Moderate Yes
Systems
Package N-DN Biofilter Treatment Plants High Yes Low High High Yes
Plant Types
Technology Criteria
6.11 Conclusion
The table ratings were done from the available information. It can be seen from the different
ratings that each technology has its strong and weak points and therefore an effective
combination of these treatment technologies together would maximise treatment options.
Due to the fact that not all information is presented in the table a conclusive result cannot be
made to totally represent all technologies present.
7: Small-Scale Technologies
7.1 General
The following pages provide an overview of the identified small-scale wastewater treatment
technologies. The list does not claim to be complete but comprehensive. The outline follows
the complexity of the different systems as well as the effluent quality that can be achieved by
the respective treatment technology.
The sheets do not contain designing criteria. A separate software will be designed and
distributed once this report has been approved by the NZODA and the participating Pacific
Island Countries.
GENERAL INFORMATION
O&M
• Simple construction
• Requires manual removal and disposal of finished composting material after a period of time.
• Need to keep toilet lid closed when not in use
• Some composting toilet systems require the addition of bulking material (wood chips, dried leaves, coconut
husks etc.) e.g. Soltran II to assist with the composting process while other systems don’t e.g. Enviroloo.
Some composting toilet systems do not require electricity however a few systems do to power ventilation fans.
Low land requirement
Does not require water for use.
Finished Compost can still be contaminated with pathogens and should always be handled with care.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Low land space requirement • Finished compost still contaminated with
• No electrical requirements pathogens
• Low operational and maintenance requirements • Low cost
• No water required • Problems with acceptability
Important Sources of Information –
Del Porto, D. The Soltran II Non-Polluting Biological Toilet and Wastewater Garden
Environment Equipment, Rotaloo Composting Toilet Brochure
Environment Equipment, Biolet Composting Toilet Brochure
Septic Tank Septic tanks are mainly designed for on-site treatment
of domestic sewage and are small, rectangular
Septic Tank, Longitudinal Section
chambers situated just below ground level where
sewage is retained for 1-3 days. They usually consist
of 2 compartments with the first larger then the
second. Solids settle to the bottom of the tank where
they are digested anaerobically. A thick crust of scum
is formed at the surface and helps maintain anaerobic
conditions. Some sludge accumulates at the bottom
of the tank that needs regular desludging. Biogas is
produced in a septic tank as sludge decomposes and
gas rises to the surface as bubbles. The gas then
accumulates on the surface above the liquid from
where it should allowed to escape into the air. Septic
Source: Flow Principle of the septic tank after Ludwig, S. tank effluent is then left to drain away in soakaways.
1998.
General Information
Effluent Quality
• This is rough primary treatment prior to secondary or tertiary treatment
• 25-50% COD removal
• 40% BOD reduction of raw sewage
• 65% Suspended Solids reduction
• Effluent still contains pathogenic bacteria, cysts and worm eggs.
Water Information
• Both greywater and blackwater can be flushed through the system
• Since only accepts liquid waste must be connected to a flush toilet. Not suitable where water supply scarce or
unreliable.
O&M
• Construction of septic tank requires skilled labour
• Little maintenance however requires regular desludging.
No electrical requirement.
Low land requirement
Advantages Disadvantages
• Low cost • Low effluent quality.
• Low land space required • Still heavily contaminated with pathogens,
• No electrical requirements cysts and worm eggs.
• Low operational and maintenance requirements
• Construction material locally available
Important Sources of Information –
Sasse, L. 1998. DEWATS Decentralised Wastewater Treatment in Developing Countries
Mara, D. Sewage Treatment in Hot Climates
Loetscher T., 1998. SANEX Sanitation Expert System
s
GENERAL INFORMATION
Effluent quality:
• Can affect 70% reduction in BOD
• Changes a malodorous highly turbid, grey to yellow influent to an odourless clear light yellow effluent.
Water Information
• Both greywater and blackwater can be flushed through the system.
• Since they only accept liquid waste must be connected to a flush toilet. Not suitable where water supply scarce
or unreliable.
O&M
• Construction of septic tank and upflow filter requires skilled labor
• Filter may be expected to operate without maintenance for 18-24 months. Need to then drain filter and wash it
with freshwater.
• Septic tank needs regular desludging. Filter and the septic tank can be cleaned together.
No electrical requirement
Low land requirement
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Low cost and low land space required • Needs skilled construction
• No electrical requirements
• Low operational and maintenance requirements
• Construction material locally available
GENERAL INFORMATION
Effluent quality:
• Treatment efficiency equivalent to primary treatment.
• 40% BOD reduction
• 65% Suspended solids reduction
• Poor pathogen removal Effluent still contaminated with pathogens.
Water Information
• Since they only accept liquid waste must be connected to a flush toilet. Not suitable where water supply scarce or
unreliable.
• Both greywater and blackwater can be flushed through the system
O&M
• Construction of Imhoff tanks requires skilled labor
• Require removal of scum and sludge at regular intervals.
• Apart from desludging and removal of scum no significant maintenance required.
No electrical requirement
Low land requirement
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Low cost • Needs skilled contractors for construction
• Low land space required • Poor effluent quality. Effluent still
• No electrical requirements contaminated with pathogens
• Low operational and maintenance requirements
• Construction material locally available
Important Sources of Information –
Sasse, L, 1998. DEWATS Decentralised Wastewater Treatment in Developing Countries
Loetscher,T. 1998. SANEX Sanitation Expert Systems
Moderate land requirements for both ponds with short HRT and long HRT as in comparison with other technologies
presented in this report however ponds with long HRT require significantly more land than short HRT ponds.
No electrical requirement
Moderate Costs
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• No electrical requirements • Poor effluent quality for low loaded ponds
• Low operational and maintenance requirements with short HRT or domestic water.
• Construction material locally available • Low effluent quality for small ponds treating
• High effluent quality for low loaded ponds with long HRT domestic wastewater
GENERAL INFORMATION
Effluent quality:
• Treatment Efficiency of low loaded tanks with short Hydraulic Retention Times 57% BOD removal, 53% COD
removal
• Treatment efficiency of low loaded tanks with long Hydraulic Retention Times 98% BOD removal, 96% COD
removal
Water Information
• Both greywater and blackwater can be flushed through the system
• Since they only accept liquid waste must be connected to a flush toilet. Not suitable where water supply scarce or
unreliable.
• Requires high volumes of water for transportation to treatment site.
O&M
• Sludge removal is important and must be done regularly
• Other then desludging no significant maintenance required.
No electrical requirement
Moderate land requirements for both ponds with short HRT and long HRT as in comparison with some technologies
presented in this report however ponds with long HRT require significantly more land than short HRT ponds.
Moderate Costs
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• No electrical requirements • Low effluent quality for low loaded tanks
• Low operational and maintenance requirements with short HRT
• Construction material locally available
• High effluent quality for low loaded tanks with long HRT
Important Sources of Information –
Sasse, L. 1998. DEWATS Decentralised Wastewater Treatment in Developing Countries
Mann, H.T., Williamson, D., 1982. Water Treatment and Sanitation
GENERAL INFORMATION
Effluent quality:
• Treatment Efficiency 70-95% BOD removal, 65-95% COD removal.
• Moderate Effluent Quality
Water Information
• Both greywater and blackwater can be flushed through the system
• Since they only accept liquid waste must be connected to a flush toilet. Not suitable where water supply scarce or
unreliable.
O&M
• Requires skilled labor for construction.
• Sludge removal is important and must be done regularly
• Flow regulation is also important as up-flow velocity should not exceed 2m/h.
• Moderate operation and maintenance requirements
No electrical requirement
Low land requirement
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Low cost • Needs skilled contractors for construction
• No electrical requirements
• Construction material locally available
• Low land space required
Important Sources of Information –
Sasse, L. 1998. DEWATS Decentralised Wastewater Treatment in Developing Countries
GENERAL INFORMATION
Water Information
• Both greywater and blackwater can be flushed through the system
• Since they only accept liquid waste must be connected to a flush toilet. Not suitable where water supply scarce
or unreliable.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Low cost • Needs time to stabilise process
• Low land space required • Requires operator intervention from time to
time to control and adjust treatment process
Important Sources of Information –
Sasse, L., 1998. DEW ATS Decentralised Wastewater Treatment in Developing Countries
GENERAL INFORMATION
Effluent quality:
• Treatment efficiency 95% BOD removed
• 90% Suspended Solids removed
Water Information
• Since they only accept liquid waste must be connected to a flush toilet. Not suitable where water supply scarce
or unreliable.
• Requires high volumes of water for transportation to treatment site.
• Both greywater and blackwater can be flushed through the system
O&M
• Implementation requires skilled labour and contractors
• Require expert staff for operation and maintenance.
• Process needs constant monitoring and control.
GENERAL INFORMATION
Effluent quality:
• No information available
Water Requirement
• Since they only receive liquid waste they are not suitable where water supply scarce or unreliable.
• Requires high volumes of water for transportation to treatment site.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Low operation and maintenance • High land space required
• No electrical requirement
• Construction material locally available
Important Sources of Information –
Khan, A.R. 1995. Appropriate Wastewater Treatment Processes for N-WFP, Pakistan
GENERAL INFORMATION
Effluent quality:
• No information available
Water Requirement
• Since receive liquid waste not suitable where water scarce or unreliable.
• Requires high volumes of water for transportation to treatment site
GENERAL INFORMATION
Effluent quality:
• 86-100% BOD removal
• 100% suspended solids removal dependent on several factors e.g. rest cycles, and/or cleaning
• 10-93% nitrogen removal
• 29-99% phosphorus removal
Water Requirement
• Since only receive liquid waste not suitable where water scarce or unreliable.
• Requires high volumes of water for transportation to treatment site
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Low operation and maintenance • High land requirement
• No electrical requirement
• Construction material locally available.
• High effluent quality
GENERAL INFORMATION
Effluent quality:
• 84% COD removal rates
• 86% BOD removal rate
Water Information
• Since only receive liquid waste not suitable where water scarce or unreliable.
• Requires high volumes of water for transportation to treatment site
O&M
• Low operation and maintenance required.
• Regular maintenance of erosion trenches
No electrical requirement.
Moderate land requirement
Moderate Costs
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Low operation and maintenance
• No electrical requirement
• Construction material locally available.
• High effluent quality
Important Sources of Information –
Sasse, L. 1998. DEWATS Decentralised Wastewater Treatment in Developing Countries
Khan, A.R. 1995. Appropriate Wastewater Treatment Processes for N-WFP, Pakistan
No electrical requirement
Moderate land requirement, although if aeration provided land required even less.
Moderate Costs
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Low operation and maintenance
• No electrical requirement
• Construction material locally available.
• High Effluent quality
Important Sources of Information –
Sasse, L. 1998. DEWATS Decentralised Wastewater Treatment in Developing Countries
Mann,H.T., Williamson, D., 1982. Water Treatment and Sanitation
GENERAL INFORMATION
Effluent quality:
• Produce very clear effluent equivalent to activated sludge treatment.
• 95% BOD removal
• 90% Suspended Solids removal
Water Requirement
• Since only receive liquid waste not suitable where water scarce or unreliable.
• Requires high volumes of water for transportation to treatment site.
O&M
• Low operation and maintenance required
• Grass around ponds need to cut regularly.
• Regular desludging is required
No electrical requirement.
High Land requirement
Moderate Costs
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Low operation and maintenance • High land space required
• No electrical requirement
• Construction material locally available.
• High effluent quality
Important Sources of Information –
Khan, A.R. 1995. Appropriate Wastewater Treatment Processes for N-WFP, Pakistan
Pickford, J., 1991. The Worth of Water. Southampton Row, London, UK.
Loetscher T., 1998. SANEX Sanitation Expert Systems
GENERAL INFORMATION
Effluent quality:
• 70-90% BOD removal in a well operated anaerobic filter.
• Moderate effluent quality
Water Requirement
• Since only receive liquid waste not suitable where water scarce or unreliable.
• Both greywater and blackwater can be flushed through the system
O&M
• High operation and maintenance
• Desludging required at regular intervals
• Cleaning of filter material required
GENERAL INFORMATION
Effluent quality:
• 80% BOD removal with organic loading rates of 1kg BOD/m3 x d
Water Requirement
• Since only receive liquid waste not suitable where water scarce or unreliable.
• Requires a high volume of water.
O&M
• High operation and maintenance
• Bacterial film has to be flushed away regularly to prevent clogging and to remove dead sludge.
GENERAL INFORMATION
Effluent quality:
• Treatment quality performed on secondary treated effluent
• 40% BOD removed
• 40% Suspended solids removed
Water Requirement
• Since only receive liquid waste not suitable where water scarce or unreliable.
• High volume of water required
O&M
• Low operation and maintenance
• Requires maintenance of lagoon banks and control of mosquito breeding.
No electrical requirement.
High land requirement
Moderate Cost
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Low operation and maintenance • High land space required
• Construction material available locally
• No electrical requirement
• High Effluent Quality
Important Sources of Information –
Mann, H. T., Williamson, D., 1982. Water Treatment and Sanitation
GENERAL INFORMATION
Effluent quality:
• Treatment quality performed on secondary treated effluent
• 30% BOD removed
• 50% Suspended solids removed
• 25% E. Coli removed
Water Requirement
• Since only receive liquid waste not suitable where water scarce or unreliable.
• High volume of water required
O&M
• Low operation and maintenance
• Requires removal of solids, which accumulate on the upper surface of the gravel bed layer.
No electrical requirement.
High land requirement
Moderate Costs
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Low operation and maintenance • High land space required
• Construction material available locally
• No electrical requirement.
• High Effluent Quality
Important Sources of Information –
Mann, H. T., Williamson, D., 1982. Water Treatment and Sanitation
GENERAL INFORMATION
Effluent quality:
• Treatment quality performed on secondary treated effluent
• 50% BOD removed
• 70% Suspended solids removed
• 90% E. Coli removed
Water Requirement
• Since only receive liquid waste not suitable where water scarce or unreliable.
• High volumes of water required
O&M
• Simple to construct.
• Low operation and maintenance
• Requires removal of solids but only when they are seen to physically prevent the flow
• Surplus grass needs to be removed
No electrical requirement.
High land requirement
Moderate Costs
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Low operation and maintenance • High land space required
• Construction material available locally
• No electrical requirement.
• High Effluent Quality
Important Sources of Information –
Mann, H. T., Williamson, D., 1982. Water Treatment and Sanitation
Hybrid Toilet Systems (HTS) The Hybrid Toilet System consists of a non-flushing,
drop toilet which feeds directly into a septic tank filled
with water (primary tank), which then delivers via
displacement, clarified effluent to the secondary
treatment unit. On completion of treatment the effluent
is then dispersed to the ground via a gravel bed. Due to
the small volumes entering the primary tank there is a
long detention period which allows for effective
breakdown of solids and efficient settling and
clarification to occur with the remaining of the
undigested solids settling to the bottom of the unit
forming a sludge layer. In the secondary tank the
effluent entering from the primary tank is directed
along very specific ascending and descending flow
paths. The majority of the secondary tank and its in
built baffling system are filled with a polyethylene
media. As the effluent flows up and down through
Source: Hybrid Toilet Systems, Gough Plastics Brochure these zones it is subjected to aerobic, facultative, and
anaerobic treatment on four separate occasions which
continues to kill pathogens. The treated effluent then
exits the system and is sent to ground via a gravel bed.
GENERAL INFORMATION
Effluent quality:
• BOD5 1mg/m2 , Non-Filtrable Residue (NFR) ,<1mg/l,
• Total N 1.2mg /l, Total P 0.89 mg/l. (Depending on primary loads)
• Faecal Colifrom <2 organisms/100ml.
• The holding time in the system was increased to include the life period of most pathogens, and decrease water
borne diseases by using the Hybrid as a sanitation barrier in more remote communities.
Water Information
• The system is a wet system, whereby upon installation the tanks are filled with water. The system works through
displacement where if 10L went into the system, approximately 10L would be displaced through the unit.
• The system is designed to operate around volumes generated by the population using the system as a toilet only.
Waste from hand washing facilities may be introduced at the at the effluent exit point of the system.
O&M
• Construction of septic tank and upflow filter requires skilled labor
• Requires sludge removal on a regular basis, and disposal at a proper disposal site.
Requires electricity
Low land requirement
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Low cost and low land space requirement. • Accommodates blackwater only
• Low operational and ma intenance requirements • Electricity required
• High Effluent Quality
Important Sources of Information –
Gough Plastics, The Hybrid Toilet System Brochure
Gough I., Langford M., Gough A., The Hybrid Toilet System: General Princip les And System Design Drivers
GENERAL INFORMATION
Effluent quality:
• Effluent contains BOD5 5-15 g/m3
• Suspended Solids 10-20 g/m3
• Ammonia Nitrogen 0.5-5 g/m3
• Total Nitrogen 15-25 g/m3
• Total Phosphorus Standard Plant –4-10g/m3 , Enhanced P removal 1-2g/m3
Water Requirement
• Since only receive liquid waste not suitable where water scarce or unreliable.
• High volumes of water required.
Land Requirement
• The unit is 3.8m long, 1.3m wide and 2.1m deep with a total area of 5.07m2 .
• The disposal field requires an area of 200m2
GENERAL INFORMATION
Effluent quality:
• Expected effluent quality Total Nitrogen less than 10mg/l and often as low as 5mg/l.
• Normal sewage has 8-10mg/l of phosphorus. Effluent Contains 6-8mg/l.
Water Requirement
• Since only receive liquid waste not suitable where water scarce or unreliable.
• High volumes of water required because the IDEA plant operates with wastewater being continually being
introduced into first reaction tank.
O&M
• High maintenance and Operation
• High technology requiring Skilled operation and Maintenance.
• Daily removal of sludge.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• High effluent quality • High operation and maintenance.
• Requires electricity
• High cost
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Low land space required • High operation and maintenance.
• High effluent quality • Requires electricity
• High cost
8: REFERENCES
1. Aqua Milieu Pty Ltd. Trading as Enviroflow, Enviroflow Biofilter Wastewater Treatment Plant
Brochure.
2. Del Porto D., SPC Workshop on The Soltran II Non Polluting Biological Toilet and Wastewater
garden, Suva, Fiji, 25 November 1996.
6. Gough I., Langford M., and Gough A. 1999. The Hybrid Toilet System: General Principles and
System Design Drivers. Published by Lanfax Laboratories, Armidale NSW.
8. Khan, A.R. 1995. Appropriate Wastewater Treatment Processes for N-WFP, Pakistan, Master of
Science Research of Loughborough University of Technology.
11. Mann, H.T., Williamson, D., 1982. Water Treatment and Sanitation, Intermediate Technology
Publications 1973, 1979, 1982., Printed in England by The Russell Press Ltd., Nottingham.
12. Mara, D. Sewage Treatment in Hot Climates, A Wiley Interscience Publication, John Wiley and
Sons.
13. Neptune Pacific Ltd., On-site and Small Community Sewage Management with the N-DN
Biofilter Treatment Plant
14. Pickford, J., 1991. The Worth of Water. Technical Briefs on health, water and sanitation.
Intermediate Technology Publications 1991.103-105 Southampton Row, London, Printed by
Russell Press Ltd., Nottingham.
15. Sinclair, Knight, Merz, 1997 Review of Effluent Management Systems Castaway Resort