DENTAL MATERIALS 6

Structure of Matter and Principles of Adhesion

STRUCTURE OF MATTER & PRINCIPLES OF  In contrast with primary bonds, secondary bonds

ADHESION do not share electrons.

 Instead, charge variations among molecules or
INTERATOMIC BONDS
atomic groups induce polar forces that attract the
 The forces that hold atoms together ale called
molecules.
cohesive forces (KCET-10)
 These inter atomic bonds may be classified as
1. Hydrogen Bonding
Primary or Secondary bonds
 Hydrogen bonding can be understood by
studying a water molecule
Primary Bonds
 Attached to the oxygen atom are two hydrogen
1. Ionic Bonds
atoms. These bonds are covalent because the
 Bond formed between two ions by the transfer
oxygen and hydrogen atoms share electrons.
of electrons
 As a consequence, the protons of the hydrogen
 Ionic bonds result from the mutual attraction of
atoms pointing away from the oxygen atom are
positive and negative charges.
not shielded efficiently by the electrons, and
 The classic example is sodium chloride (Na+Cl-
the proton side of the water molecule is
). Because the sodium atom contains one
positively charged
valence electron in its outer shell and the
 On the opposite side of the water molecule, the
chlorine atom has seven electrons in its outer
electrons that fill the outer orbit of the oxygen
shell, the transfer of the sodium valence
atom provide a negative charge. Thus a
electron to the chlorine atom results in the
permanent dipole exists that represents an
stable compound NaCl.
asymmetric molecule
 In dentistry, ionic bonding exists in certain
 When a water molecule intermingles with
crystalline phases of some dental materials,
other water molecules, the hydrogen (positive)
such as gypsum and phosphate-based cements.
portion of one molecule is attracted to the
oxygen (negative) portion of its neighboring
2. Covalent Bonds
molecule and hydrogen bridges are formed
 Bond formed by the sharing of electrons
 Polarity of this nature is important in
 The hydrogen molecule, H2 is an example of
accounting for the intermolecular reactions in
covalent bonding
many organic compounds, such as the sorption
 Covalent bonding occurs in many organic
of water by synthetic dental resins
compounds, such as dental resins in which the
compounds link to form the backbone
2. Van der Wall’s Forces
structure of hydrocarbon chains.
 Form the basis of a dipole attraction
 The carbon atom has four valence electrons
 Such inter atomic forces are quite weak
forming an sp3 hybrid configuration and can
be stabilized by combining with hydrogen.
CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE
 A typical characteristic of covalent bonds is
 Atoms are bonded to each other by either primary
their directional orientation.
or secondary forces
 In the solid state, they combine in a manner that
3. Metallic Bonds
ensures minimal internal energy
 Results from the increased spatial extension of
 A space lattice can be defined as any arrangement
valence-electron wave functions when an
of atoms in space in which every atom is situated
aggregate of metal atoms is brought close
similarly to every other atom (COMEDK-06)
together
 Space lattices may be the result of primary or
 Formed between atoms of metallic elements
secondary bonds
 Electron cloud around atoms
 There are 14 possible lattice types or forms, but
many of the metals used in dentistry belong to the
Secondary Bonds
cubic system

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 DENTAL MATERIALS 7
Structure of Matter and Principles of Adhesion

 All dental amalgams, cast alloys, wrought metals, phases are: (1) colloidal silica as a filler in resin
gold foil, and dental amalgam are crystalline. composites, (2) colloidal silica in water to be mixed
 Some pure ceramics, such as alumina and zirconia with high-strength dental stone to improve
ceramics are entirely crystalline. abrasion resistance, (3) droplets of oil in a water
 Other ceramics, such as dental porcelains, consist of base used to prevent rusting of dental instruments
non-crystalline glass matrix and crystalline during steam sterilization, (4) fillers used in rubber
inclusions impression materials to control such properties as
viscosity, and (5) agglomerates of detergent
NONCRYSTALLINE SOLIDS molecules in water that serve as wetting agents for
 Glass is also considered to be a noncrystalline solid wax patterns
 Composites have a noncrystalline matrix and may  Characteristic property of the dispersed phase is an
or may not contain crystalline filler particles enormous surface area
 Noncrystalline solids do not have a definite melting  A sol resembles a solution, but it is made up of
temperature, but rather they gradually soften as the colloidal particles dispersed in a liquid.
temperature is raised.  When a sol is chilled or caused to react by the
 The temperature at which there is an abrupt addition of suitable chemicals, it may be
increase in the thermal expansion coefficient, transformed into a gel.
indicating increased molecular mobility, is called  In the gel form the system takes on a semisolid, or
the glass transition temperature (Tg) and it is jellylike, quality.
characteristic of the particular glassy structure  The liquid phase of either a sol or a gel is usually
water, but may be some organic liquid such as
COLLOIDS alcohol. Systems having water as one component
 Colloids were first described by Thomas Graham are described as hydrosols or hydrogels. A more
(1861) as a result of his studies of diffusion in general term might be hydrocolloid, which is often
solutions. He observed that substances such as used in dentistry to describe the agar or alginate
starch, albumin, and other gelatinous materials did gels used as elastic impression materials.
not behave in the same manner as acids, bases, and  A general term to describe a system having an
salts. organic liquid as one component would be organosol
 Because these substances were glue like in nature, or organogel.
Graham described them as colloids, which was
derived from the Greek word kolla for "glue" and - Gels
oid- meaning "like."  Gels possess an entangled framework of solid
 The term colloid now is used to describe a state of colloidal particles in which liquid is trapped in the
matter rather than a kind of matter. interstices and held by capillarity. Such a gel has
some degree of rigidity, depending on the extent of
Nature of Colloids the structural solids present.
 Substances are called colloids when they consist of  Gels that are formed with water are hydrophilic
two or more phases, with the units of at least one of (water loving) in character and tend to imbibe large
the phases having a dimension slightly greater than quantities of water if allowed to stand immersed.
simple molecular size The imbibition is accompanied by swelling and a
 Colloidal systems can be fine dispersions, gels, change in physical dimensions.
films, emulsions, or foams  When allowed to stand in dry air, the gel loses
 Except for a dispersion of a gas in a gas, which is a water to the atmosphere, with an accompanying
true solution, each of the three forms of matter-gas, shrinkage. Such changes may be observed readily
liquid, and solid-may be dispersed as colloidal in agar or alginate gels
particles in the other and in itself as well.  A very common method for forming a gel is to add
 The dispersed phase, which may be in the form of a water to gelatin, agar, starch, or other substance
gas, liquid, or solid, may also exist in a variety of that develops a dispersed colloid of the sol type.
conditions. Some examples of these dispersed Such sols are often heated to aid the dispersion.

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 DENTAL MATERIALS 8
Structure of Matter and Principles of Adhesion

 Simple cooling of this sol results in the gel DIFFUSION & OSMOTIC PRESSURE
formation. Gels produced in this manner are  Osmotic pressure is the pressure developed by
usually reversible in nature because they can be diffusion of a liquid or solvent through a
reconverted to a sol by heating and again to a gel by membrane.
cooling. A common example of such a gel is agar.  The solvent passes from the dilute to the more
 Another common method of forming gels is by a concentrated solution through the membrane
reaction of two chemicals. The best-known example separating the two solutions.
in dentistry is alginate gel, which results from the  The development of osmotic pressure has been
reaction of soluble potassium alginate with calcium used to explain the hypersensitivity of dentin.
ions to form an insoluble calcium alginate gel. This  It has been considered that the change in pressure
gel is thermally nonreversible, in contrast to the (as the result of contact with saliva or concentrated
agar gel. Silicate-bonded dental investments set as a solutions) of solutions present in natural tooth
result of the formation of silica gel, which results dentin in exposed carious teeth gives rise to
from the reaction of sodium silicate and diffusion throughout the structure to increase or
hydrochloric acid. This gel is an example of an decrease the pressure on the nerve system.
inorganic non reversible gel.
ADSORPTION, ABSORPTION & SORPTION
Syneresis  It is common for liquids and solids to adsorb gases
 A characteristic of many gels is to contract on or other liquids on their surfaces; this process is
standing in closed containers and to exude or always exothermic.
squeeze out some of the liquid phase. This process  In the adsorption process, a liquid or gas adheres
of accumulating an exudate on the surface is known firmly by the attachment of molecules to the surface
as syneresis. of the solid or liquid, thus reducing their surface
free energy.
Emulsions  In the process of absorption, the substance absorbed
 A uniform dispersion of minute droplets of one diffuses into the solid material by a diffusion
liquid within another constitutes an emulsion. process and the process is not noted for
 The two liquids are highly insoluble and concentration of molecules at the surface.
immiscible, but by mechanical means a colloidal  In instances in which both adsorption and
dispersion of one liquid is produced in the other. absorption are known to exist and it is not clear
 Mechanical blenders, homogenizers, or grinders are which process predominates, the whole process is
used to prepare emulsions. known as sorption.
 Most emulsions are either oil dispersed in water or  High-energy surfaces such as metals will adsorb
water dispersed in oil. molecules more readily than low-energy surfaces
 Usually an emulsion developed by the mechanical such as waxes; oxides have intermediate surface
dispersion of pure liquids is unstable and soon energies
breaks, with the droplets coalescing and separating
into layers. SURFACE TENSION & WETTING
 The emulsion may be stabilized by the addition of a  Surface tension is measured in terms of force
small quantity of a third substance known as an (dynes) per centimeter of the surface of liquid.
emulsifier.  In the case of water at 20°C, the value is 72.8
 The emulsifier enters into the interface between the dynes/cm.
droplet and the dispersing liquid to give stability to  There is a reduction in surface tension of all liquids
the system. The action of the emulsifier is to lower as the temperature is increased
the interfacial tension between the two liquids.  The surface tension of liquids is also reduced by the
presence of impurities, some of which are
exceedingly effective. Detergents, such as sodium
lauryl sulfate, or the ingredients of soaps, including
sodium stearate or sodium oleate, which have long

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 DENTAL MATERIALS 9
Structure of Matter and Principles of Adhesion

hydrocarbon chains attached to hydrophilic groups

(such as-COONa), are particularly effective in
reducing the surface tension of water.
 The wetting power of a liquid is represented by its
tendency to spread on the surface of the solid.
 The wetting of an adherent surface by an adhesive
is related to surface energy of the adherent (AIPG-
01)
 Much can be learned about the spreading of liquids
on solids, or the tendency for wetting surfaces, by
measuring the angle of contact between the liquid
and the solid surface
 The contact angle results from a balance of surface
and interfacial energies.
 The greater the tendency to wet the surface, the
lower the contact angle, until complete wetting
occurs at an angle equal to zero (AIPG-93, AIIMS-
07, APPG-08)

CAPILLARY RISE
 The penetration of liquids into narrow crevices is
known as capillary action.
 The following equation relates the differential
capillary pressure developed when a small tube of
radius r is inserted in a liquid of surface tension Υ
(usually expressed in dynes/cm) and with a contact
angle θ
∆P = 2Υcosθ/r
 It follows that, if the contact angle of the liquid on
the solid is less than 90 degrees, ∆P will be positive,
and the liquid will penetrate. If the contact angle is
greater than 90 degrees, ∆P will be negative, and
the liquid will be depressed.

FORCES INVOLVED IN DENTURE RETENTION

 Factors include: (1) capillary forces involving the
liquid film between the oral tissues and the denture
base; (2) surface forces controlling the wetting of the
plastic denture base by the saliva; (3) the seating
force applied to the denture, which, for the most
part, determines the thickness of the saliva film
between the denture and the oral tissues; (4) the
surface tension of the saliva; (5) the viscosity of the
saliva; and (6) the atmospheric pressure.

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