➔CMU. J. Nat. Sci. (2009) Vol.

8(2) 131

Development of the Exercise Self-efficacy Scale for Chinese

Older Adults

Guo Hong1*, Sirirat Panuthai2, Wichit Srisuphan2

and Taweeluk Wannarit2

1School of Nursing of Shenyang Medical College, Shenyang, 110034, P.R. China

2Faculty of Nursing, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Exercise self-efficacy is one of the most important factors that influences
older person’s exercise behavior. In China, it was reported that less than half
of older people residing in urban areas engage in exercise regularly and lack
of perception was alleged to be a major reason. This study was designed to
develop and examine the psychometric properties of the Exercise Self-efficacy
Scale for Chinese Older Adults (ESES).
An instrument development design was used and convenient sampling
was employed to recruit 402 Chinese older adults to participate in this study.
Five steps of the instrument development process included identifying the
exercise self-efficacy concept, generating the items, determining the format,
reviewing the items by expert and testing of validity and reliability. The ESES
is a 30-item, 4-point Likert Scale. It comprises of six dimensions, namely, lack
of motivation, lack of support, health condition, time barriers, lack of facilities
and environmental barriers. The new scale demonstrates an acceptable content
validity index and construct validity. Its criterion-related validity in line with
the Physical Activity Questionnaire developed by Voorrips and colleagues was
also reported. The ESES developed in this study can be used as research and
clinical tools to measure exercise self-efficacy of Chinese older adults.

Key words: Scale development, Exercise self-efficacy scale, Chinese older

adults

INTRODUCTION
In China, the older adult population is increasing at a rate of 3.2%, thus
by 2020, the proportion of older adults will be increased to 16% (China Sustain-
able Development Institution, 2004). China, therefore has the largest older adult
population in the world. With an increase of older adults, there is also a significant
increase in chronic diseases, degenerative illness and co-morbidities. In China, a
national survey showed that 60% to 70% of older adults are living with at least 2
chronic diseases (Zhang, 2004). Chronic diseases contribute to disability, depen-
dence and diminished quality of life among older adults and ultimately increased
132 ➔ CMU. J. Nat. Sci. (2009) Vol. 8(2)

health and long-term care costs.

Physical activity has been found to be an independent risk factor for
various chronic diseases and conditions that threaten the health of the nation (King,
2001). The linkage between exercise, the prevention of chronic disease and health
promotion are also well established (Francis,1999; Ruchlin and Lachs, 1999;
Zhang, 2004). Exercise is defined as a type of intended, planned or structured
physical activity. It involves repetitive bodily movement that improves or main-
tains one or more of the components of physical fitness (American College of
Sports Medicine, 2001). Studies showed that exercise could slow or stop some
of the physical changes associated with aging (Fiatarone and Garnett, 1997).
Furthermore, exercise can reduce the severity of chronic conditions and prevent
complications of chronic diseases, such as in hypertension and diabetes (U.S.
Preventive Services Task Force, 1996). Additionally, exercise has been found to
help older adults enrich their spare time, enhance their social life, decrease loneli-
ness and improve their self-esteem (Zhang, 2004). Thus, exercise is essential and
a sufficient way to help older adults maintain and improve function and overall
quality of life (Ellingson and Conn, 2000).
Recently, self-efficacy has received considerable support as a predictor
of initiation and maintenance of health-related behaviors, including exercise
(Pender et al., 2002), and it is defined as people’s judgments of their capabilities
to execute a certain level of performance (Bandura, 1986). Exercise self-efficacy
refers to the judgment of an individual’s capabilities to exercise with moderate
intensity three or more times a week regularly in the face of identified obstacles to
participation (McAuley et al., 2003). It has been identified as one of the primary
psychological variables impacting exercise behavior among older adults (Glenn,
2002; Allison and Keller, 2004). However, appropriate instrument needs to be
developed for specific conditions, for a variety of developmental levels, and in
client’s native languages before an educational intervention can be implemented
and studied (McDermott and Palchanes, 1992; McAuley et al.,1999). Bandura
(1997) suggested that perceived efficacy should be measured against levels of
task demands that represent gradations of challenges or impediments to success-
ful performance. Perceived exercise self-efficacy is usually assessed in terms of
beliefs that one can mobilize the effort needed to perform exercise in the face of
various impediments such as fatigue, dysphoric mood, time constraints, competing
conditions and unfavorable environment conditions (Bandura, 2005).
From the literature, several self-efficacy measures have been used in
exercise researches (Bandura, 1997; U.S. Cancer Prevent Research Center, 2005).
However, the target populations for the majority of existing exercise self-efficacy
scales were not for older adults, and the items in existing exercise self-efficacy
scales developed for western people may not address the challenges and barriers
to exercise in Chinese older adults. For example, in Chinese culture, the role of
family is critically important; the sense of self is much more interconnected with
others, especially the significant family members (National Chronic Care Consor-
tium, 2005). Thus, lack of previous exercise experience and concern about social
desirable performance can also influence their perceived ability when participat-
 ➔CMU. J. Nat. Sci. (2009) Vol. 8(2) 133

ing in exercise. Therefore, the cultural sensitive, reliable and valid instrument is
needed to measure the exercise self-efficacy among Chinese older adults. The
objectives of this study were to develop an instrument to measure exercise self-
efficacy among Chinese older adults, and to conduct a psychometric evaluation
of the newly-developed exercise self-efficacy instrument in terms of validity and
reliability.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study design and sample
The methodological study was employed to develop the Exercise Self-
efficacy Scale (ESES) for Chinese older adults. The study was divided into two
phases: (1) development and pre-testing of the instrument and (2) evaluation of
the psychometric properties of the ESES. Phase I composed of identification of
construct and content of ESES, generation of item pool, determination of content
validity, determination of clarity and readability and pre-testing for determina-
tion reliability. Phase II comprised of reliability testing for stability and internal
consistency, and testing for construct and criterion-related validity. The target
population was the Chinese older adults living in one of the five districts, namely,
Heping district, Shenhe district, Tiezi district, Dadong district and Yuhong district.
Convenient sampling was employed for both phases. In phase I, 15 Chinese older
adults were purposively employed by the inclusion criteria for an in-depth interview
and the determination of clarity and readability of the ESES. For pre-testing of
the ESES, 108 older Chinese participants were selected. In phase II, 50 Chinese
older adults were selected to test the stability of the ESES, and 402 Chinese older
adults were recruited to test internal consistency reliability, and 64 Chinese older
adults were purposively sampled to test for criterion-related validity.

Instruments
1. Demographic Data Form was developed by the researchers to gather
personal data of the participants. It was a self-report form on gender, age, level
of education, working situation, personal income and exercise behavior.
2. The Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) is a screening tool for
assessing cognitive impairment (Folstein et al., 1975). The MMSE examines five
areas of cognitive function: orientation, registration, attention and calculation,
recall and language and praxis. Correct answers are summed, score ranges from
0-30. At a cut-score of 23/24, impairment has been classified into three levels:
24-30 (no impairment), 18-23 (mild impairment) and 0-17 (severe impairment).
The internal consistency reliability of MMSE was reported as .96. It was trans-
lated into Chinese.
3. The Physical Activity Questionnaire (PAQ) developed by Voorrips and
colleagues contained domains of household activities, sports/exercise activities
and leisure time activities (Voorrips et al., 1991). Stability reliability of PAQ
with a time interval of 20 days was .89. The Spearman’s correlation coeffi-
cients between the PAQ and the two reference methods, physical activity recall
134 ➔ CMU. J. Nat. Sci. (2009) Vol. 8(2)

and use of a pedometer, were .78 and .72, respectively (Voorrips et al., 1991).
This study utilized only the sports/exercise activity sub-scale including type of
activity, frequency and duration of activity to test the criterion-related validity of
the newly-developed ESES scale.
4. Interview guidelines developed by the researchers were used to explore
older adults’ exercise behaviors and situations that inhibit their action. It contained
open-ended questions in which the participants were asked to express how they
define exercise, who or what may affect their participation in exercise and what
are the barriers that inhibit them from participating in exercise.

Data collection
The study was approved by the Research Ethics Review Committee of
Faculty of Nursing, Chiang Mai University. Participants were provided with a
detailed explanation of the study and promised confidentiality prior to signing
the study informed consent.

Phase I: Development and pre-testing of the instrument

Step 1, identification of construct and content of the ESES, was conducted
via an intensive review and in-depth interview with 15 Chinese older adults to
identify the forms of challenges and barriers to exercise which the Chinese older
adults are faced with and generate the item pool. Thirty-eight items were gener-
ated and tested for clarity and readability with the same 15 Chinese older adults.
The ESES was revised based on comments and suggestions from 5 experts and
Chinese older adults.

Phase II: Evaluation of the psychometric properties

Internal consistency and stability reliability testings were conducted
with 402 Chinese older adults who met the inclusion criteria. For the stability
reliability, 3-week interval was used to distribute the 1st and 2nd ESES. To evaluate
criterion-related validity of the ESES, both ESES and the sports/exercise sub-scale
of PAQ were distributed to 64 Chinese older adults.

Data Analysis
Phase I: Development and pre-testing of the instrument
For item pool development, content analysis was used to classify the
items based on the results from the in-depth interviews. The content validity was
analyzed by using inter-rater agreement and the index of content validity (CVI).
A CVI of .80 was acceptable. Cohen’s Kappa was used to test inter-rater reliabil-
ity in determining the valence (positive or negative) of each descriptor. A coef-
ficient value of .80 or higher was acceptable. Item analysis was used to confirm
reliability of the ESES with the criteria: (1) inter-item correlation matrix between
.30 and .70, (2) a corrected item-total correlation coefficient greater than .30
and (3) alpha estimate for internal consistency if an item was deleted. Pearson’s
product moment correlation was calculated to determine item-total, item-subscale
and subscale-subscale correlations. Additionally, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient
 ➔CMU. J. Nat. Sci. (2009) Vol. 8(2) 135

and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient were calculated to identify internal

consistency and stability reliability of ESES. For internal consistency reliability,
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient above .70 was considered satisfactory for the new
scale. An explanatory factor analysis with principal component, and orthogonal
rotation was used to explore the numbers of factor for determining the dimensions
underlying the set of items of ESES. Eigenvalues greater than 1 and screen-test
were considered to address the numbers of factor. Criterion-related validity was
analyzed by using Spearman’s rank correlation to examine the relationship between
the scores of ESES and sports/exercise sub-scale of PAQ.

RESULTS
Phase 1: Development of the ESES
Construct and content of exercise self-efficacy were identified from literature
review and in-depth interviews with Chinese older adults. From the comprehen-
sive literature review, exercise self-efficacy was defined as the judgment of an
individual’s capability to perform exercise. Exercise self-efficacy for Chinese
older adults means the judgment of the Chinese older adults’ capability to exer-
cise with moderate intensity three or more times a week regularly in the face of
identified obstacles to participation. The in-depth interview of 15 Chinese older
adults provided more specific information from the perspective of Chinese older
adults on factors influencing exercise participation. Seven factors influencing
participation in exercise were identified, including time conflict, health condition,
environmental barriers, lack of support, lack of facilities, lack of motivation and
economic constraint. The first draft of ESES comprised 40 items, 5-point Likert-
type scale ranging from “not at all confident” to “completely confident”.

Phase 2: Testing Psychometric Properties

The content validity of the ESES yielded the CVI of .87. According to item
analysis guideline, 5 items were deleted, 2 items were added and some items were
combined. Thus, the revised ESES scale comprised of 36 items.
To ascertain the clarity and readability, the English version of 36-item ESES
was translated into Chinese version and back translation technique was performed.
The researcher translated the original English version of 36-item ESES into
Chinese, and then a bilingual person who is an English language teacher in a
Foreign Language Department of Shenyang Medical College back translated the
Chinese version into English version. The two English versions were compared
by both the researchers and the back translator to identify the flaws in the Chinese
version. Then, the Chinese version of ESES was tested for clarity and readabi-
lity with 15 Chinese older adults and the readability and clarity were confirmed.
However, 2 items were added from the comments of the participants. In addition,
5-point scale structure was too difficult to differentiate the answer. Then, 38-item
ESES scale with 4-point rating scale was tested for reliability.
Reliability of the ESES was tested. The Cronbach’s alpha of the total
scale was determined. The item-item correlation ranged from 0.533-0.752 and 8
136 ➔ CMU. J. Nat. Sci. (2009) Vol. 8(2)

items with inter-item correlation higher than .70 were deleted. Then the internal
consistency reliability was tested with the 30-item ESES. The overall Cronbach’s
alpha coefficient was .97.
To determine the construct validity of ESES, explanatory factor analysis
with principle component was conducted. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and
the Bartlett’s test of spherity were conducted to test the sampling adequacy and
identity matrix, respectively. The KMO measure of sampling adequacy was .97,
and the Bartlett’s test of spherity was large and significant (χ2=.8787.94, p=.000).
This means that the variables were correlated high enough to provide a reasonable
basis for factor analysis. The results of explanatory factor analysis indicated that
all of the 31 items loaded in six components together accounted for 69.61% of
the total variance. Factor pattern and factor loading for the ESES are presented
in Table 1.
Factor 1 consisted of six items of confidence in conducting exercise
regularly even when lacking in motivation: under lots of stress, feel gloomy or
depressed or anxious, goal is not achieved, recovering from an injury, exercise is
too heavy, and recovering from chronic illness. Factor 2 contained eight items of
confidence in conducting exercise regularly although there was no support from
family members, friends and others. Those 8 items included: no exercise instruc-
tor, no one to give encouragement, someone made fun of them, discontinuation
of partner, dislike of family members, cannot access to exercise equipment, have
to pay for exercise fee, and exercise on your own. Factor 3 comprised of seven
items: have chronic illness, exercise causes pain or muscle ache, recovering from
injury, get sick, exhaustion, recovering from chronic illness, and exercise is too
heavy. These items presented the perception of Chinese older adults on their abil-
ity to perform exercise even though they had some health problems or chronic
illnesses. Factor 4 consisted of five items, namely, time conflicts: could not fit
between exercise schedule and free time, lots of work, someone visit at home,
busy with house work, and more interesting activities of appointments. This
factor was the perception of Chinese older adults on their ability to do exercise
even if there were time conflicts. Factor 5 included three items: no sport suits or
shoes, closed gymnasium, and inaccessibility to exercise equipment. These items
represented facilities to promote exercise behavior of Chinese older adults. Factor
6, environmental barriers, contained two items which represented the feeling of
Chinese older adults on their capability to act on exercise without environmental
support, i.e., no spacious place and bad weather.
 ➔CMU. J. Nat. Sci. (2009) Vol. 8(2) 137

Table 1. Factor pattern and factor loading for the exercise self-efficacy scale
(n=402).
Factors
No. ESES items
1 2 3 4 5 6
Lack of motivation
1 under lots of stress .76
2 feel gloomy or depressed or anxious .73
3 goal is not achieved .67
4 recover from an injury .54
5 exercise is too heavy .51
6 recover from chronic illness .43
Lack of support
7 no exercise instructor .65
8 no one to encourage .64
9 someone made fun of .64
10 discontinuation of partner .62
11 dislike of family members .59
12 cannot access to exercise equipment .56
13 have to pay for exercise fee .49
14 exercise on your own .43
Health condition
15 have chronic illness .70
16 exercise causes pain or muscle ache .67
17 recover from injury .60
18 get sick .59
19 exhausted .57
20 recover from chronic illness .54
21 too heavy .48
Time conflict
22 could not fit between exercise schedule and free time .67
23 lots of work .65
24 someone visit at home .61
25 busy with house work .54
26 more interesting activities of appointment .47
Lack of facility
27 no sport suits or shoes .80
28 closed gymnasium .58
29 cannot access to exercise equipment .48
Environmental barriers
30 no spacious place .56
31 bad weather .51
Eigenvalue 5.88 4.56 4.23 2.68 2.36 1.19
% of variance 19.56 15.20 14.09 8.94 7.86 3.96
Cumulative % of variance 19.56 34.76 48.85 57.79 65.65 69.61
138 ➔ CMU. J. Nat. Sci. (2009) Vol. 8(2)

The criterion-related validity was tested and is shown in Table 2. According

to the magnitude of correlation suggested by Cohen, the ESES strongly correlated
with the sports/exercise sub-scale of the Physical Activity Questionnaire (PAQ)
(ρ=.59).

Table 2. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient of the 30-item exercise self-

efficacy and sport/exercise sub-scale of PAQ.
Concurrent validity measure
New scale
Sport/exercise sub-scale of PAQ
ESES .59**
** p<.01

DISCUSSION
The ESES was developed to capture the judgment of the Chinese older adults’
ability to exercise with moderate intensity three or more times a week regularly in
the face of identified obstacles to participate. The scale addressed impediments and
challenges of exercise perceived by Chinese older adults which were derived from
in-depth interview. Those obstacles included lack of motivation, lack of support,
health conditions, time conflict, lack of facilities and environmental barriers. It
was found that obstacles found in the newly-developed scale were similar to the
existing measures. However, the differences between the existing scales and the
newly-developed scale were the obstacles of lack of facilities from community
and lack of supports. Since this study was conducted with Chinese older adults
residing in an urban area where there were not enough public facilities and more
crowded than rural areas, lack of facilities provided by the public community might
be considered as a significant factor to promote exercise. Additionally, support
from significant others such as family, friend or neighbors was considered as a
factor encouraging Chinese older adults to participate in exercise since they are
more likely to depend on others, especially their family members. In terms of the
format of ESES, 5-Likert-type scale was modified to 4-point responses because
it was easier and more practical for Chinese older adults due to the difficulty to
differentiate between very confident and completely confident.
Compared to other exercise self-efficacy scales developed based on self-
efficacy theory of Bandura, the Exercise Self-efficacy Scale of Bandura (Bandura,
2005), the Exercise Self-efficacy Scale of Resnick and Jenkin (Resnick and Jenkins,
2000), the proposed ESES may be more suitable for Chinese older adults since
it focuses on obstacles of exercise in the context of Chinese older adults.
The psychometric properties of the ESES were well demonstrated in this
study. The CVI and the Cohen’s Kappa were acceptable due to the triangulation of
data from literature review, in-depth interviews and expert review. Moreover, back
translation technique was conducted to verify for content validity of the Chinese
version of the ESES. The Chinese version was examined for clarity, readability
and appropriateness of length of the scale by Chinese older adults.
 ➔CMU. J. Nat. Sci. (2009) Vol. 8(2) 139

Construct validity of the newly-developed scale was considered satisfac-

tory. Regarding the components of each factor, Factor 1 “Lack of motivation” and
Factor 3 “Health condition” addressed having chronic illness, negative emotional
feelings and previous experiences of exercise impacting on confidence of Chinese
older adults to do exercise; most Chinese older adults live with chronic illnesses
(Spector, 1992). Unsurprisingly, physical and psychological health conditions
were seen as major obstacles for Chinese older adults since the decline of health
status affected the perception of strength of exercise of an individual.
Factor 2, “Lack of support” and Factor 5, “Lack of facility” reflected
interpersonal relationship influencing perceived capability of Chinese older
adults to perform exercise. Support and facilities provided by the community and
family and all sources of support such as instrumental or economic, emotional
and informational support were perceived by Chinese older adults as essential fac-
tors influencing exercise performance. It can be explained that the role of family
and community is critically important in Chinese culture and the sense of self is
much more interconnected with others, especially the significant family members
(National Chronic Care Consortium, 2005).
Factor 4, “Time conflict” included conflicts among housework activities,
other activities and exercise. This is partly due to Chinese older adults having
more responsibilities even after their retirement, engaging in housework such as
looking after grandchildren, cleaning house, cooking food. This makes them busy
and with little or no time to participate in exercise.
Factor 6, “Environmental barrier” included bad weather and only few areas
for exercise. During the winter time in China, it is very cold with lots of snow,
therefore, older people have to keep themselves warm to prevent sickness. More-
over, some communities in China are overcrowded with buildings, and the public
parks are far away from the communities. Furthermore, most older adults prefer
to do exercise near their home or in their community. Therefore, it is difficult for
Chinese older adults who would like to exercise to do so outdoor.
Reliability estimate of the ESES revealed the reliable scale. For the inter-
nal consistency reliability of the ESES, this was highly reliable for a new scale.
However, all of the coefficient values were falling in the .90s, and this threatened
redundancy of items in the scale (DeVillis, 1991). Further research is needed to test
reliability of the ESES with different groups of sample. Additionally, the deletion
of items is needed to be considered. Beside internal consistency, stability of the
ESES was confirmed. This indicated that this scale is reliable enough to measure
exercise self-efficacy of Chinese older adults in different time intervals.
The concurrent criterion-related validity of the new scale was supported in
this study. The ESES was strongly correlated with the sports/exercise sub-scale of
PAQ, suggesting that the ESES related to some degree of exercise performance
among Chinese older adults. This may be because exercise self-efficacy can be
enhanced by exercise participation (Li et al., 2001) and exercise self-efficacy is
a significant predictor of exercise behavior (McAuley et al., 2002). Since about
half of the participants (51.6%) in this study exercise regularly, the concurrent
criterion-related validity was confirmed. However, the exercise behavior should
140 ➔ CMU. J. Nat. Sci. (2009) Vol. 8(2)

be considered to verify the evidence for predictive validity of ESES. Therefore,

further study is needed to confirm the predictive validity of the ESES. Also, the
more standard measure of exercise behavior will help to reinsure the criterion-
related validity of ESES.

CONCLUSION
An appropriate instrument developed to measure exercise self-efficacy of
Chinese older adults is needed before the educational intervention can be imple-
mented to promote exercise behavior of this specific group of elders. The 30-item
4-point Likert Exercise Self-efficacy Scale for Chinese older adults was developed
and tested for validity and reliability. It can be used by health care personnel to
classify the Chinese older adults into low and high self-efficacy groups in order
to establish the appropriate intervention program to enhance exercise self-efficacy.
Additionally, it is useful for measuring effectiveness of an intervention program
in terms of promoting exercise self-efficacy among Chinese older adults.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Deep appreciation goes to the research advisory committee. We would
like to thank all participants who participated in this study. Additionally, the first
author would like to express great acknowledgement to China Medical Board in
New York for the financial support.

REFERENCES
Allison, J.M., and G. Keller. 2004. Self-efficacy intervention effect on physical
activity in older adults. Western Journal of Nursing Research 26: 31-46.
American College of Sports Medicine. 2001. Guidelines for exercise testing and
prescription. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Bandura, A. 1986. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive
theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bandura, A. 1997. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Free-
man and Company.
Bandura, A. 2001. Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review
of Psychology 52: 1-26.
Bandura, A. 2005. Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales. Retrieved Novem-
ber 17, 2005, from http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/SE-BandGui.
html.
Burn, N., and S.K. Grove. 2001. The practice of nursing research conduct, critique,
& utilization. 4th ed. Philadelphia: W.B.Saunders.
China Sustainable Development Institution. 2004. The overview of aging people
and continue development situation. The News Letter of China Sustainable
Development Institution. Retrieved November 1, 2004, from http://www.
cssd.acca21.edu.cn.
 ➔CMU. J. Nat. Sci. (2009) Vol. 8(2) 141

Davis, L. 1992. Instrument review: Getting the most from your panel of experts.
Applied Nursing Research 5: 104-107.
DeVillis, F.R. 1991. Scale development: Theory and application. Newbury Park:
SAGE.
Ellingson, T., and V.S. Conn. 2000. Exercise and quality of life in elderly indi-
viduals. Journal of Gerontological Nursing 26: 17-25.
Ferketich, S. 1991. Focus on psychometrics aspects of item analysis. Research
in Nursing & Health 14: 165-168.
Fiatarone, M.A., and L.R. Garnett. 1997. Aging athletes: Keep on keeping on.
Harvard Health Letter 22: 4-5.
Field, A. 2000. Discovering statistics using SPSS for windows. London:SAGE.
Folstein, M.F., S. Folstein, and P.R. McHugh. 1975. Mini-mental state: A practical
method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. Journal
of Psychiatric Research 12: 189-198.
Francis, K.T. 1999. Status of the year 2000 health goals for physical activity and
fitness. Physical Therapy 79: 405.
Glenn, S.B. 2002. Fitness, benefits of exercise lead to further activity in elderly.
Medical Letter on the CDC & FDA. 18: 5.
King, A.C. 2001. Interventions to promote physical activity by older adults.
The Journal of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical
Sciences 56: 36- 46.
Li, F.Z., P. Harmer, E. McAuley, J.K. Fisher, E.T. Duncan, and S.C. Duncan.
2001. Tai Chi, self-efficacy, and physical function in the elderly. Prevention
Science 2: 229-239.
McAuley, E., J. Katula, S.L. Mihalko, B. Blissmer, T.E. Duncan, M. Pena, and E.
Dunn. 1999. Mode of physical activity and self-efficacy in older adults: A
latent growth curve analysis. Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences
54B: 283-293.
McAuley, E., J.G. Jerome, X.D. Marques, S. Elavsdky, and B. Blissmer. 2003.
Exercise self-efficacy in older adults: social, affective, and behavioral
influences. Annual Behavioral Medicine 25: 1-7.
McDermott, A.N., and K. Palchanes. 1992. A process for translating and testing
a quantitative measure for cross-cultural nursing research. Journal of the
New York State Nurses Association 23: 12-15.
National Chronic Care Consortium. 2005. Self-efficacy/self-health care among
older adults: A literature Review. Retrieved November 20, 2005, from http://
www.nccconline.org/products/M28099.pdf.
Norusis, M.J. 1993. Professional Statistics Release 5.0. SPSS: Chicago.
Oettingen, G. 1995. Cross-cultural perspectives on self-efficacy. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Pender, J.N., C.L. Murdaugh, and M.A. Parsons. 2002. Health promotion in
nursing practice. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Polit, D.F., and C.T. Beck. 2004. Nursing research: Principles and methods.
7th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
142 ➔ CMU. J. Nat. Sci. (2009) Vol. 8(2)

Resnick, B., and L.S. Jenkins. 2000. Testing the reliability and validity of the
Self-efficacy for Exercise Scale. Nursing Research 49: 154-159.
Ruchlin, H.S., and M.S. Lachs. 1999. Prevalence and correlated of exercise among
older adults. Journal of Applied Gerontology 18: 341-358.
Spector, P.E. 1992. Summated rating scale construction: An introduction. Newbury
Park, California: SAGE.
U.S. Cancer Prevent Research Center. 2005. Exercise: Self-efficacy. Retrieved
January 12, 2005, from http://www.uri.edu/research/cprc/measures.htm.
U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. 1996. Guide to Clinical Rreventive Services.
2nd ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
Voorrips, L.E., A.C. Ravelli, P.C. Dongelmans, D. Deurenberg, and W.A. Van
Staveren. 1991. A physical activity questionnaire for the elderly. Medical
Science Sports Exercise 23: 974-979.
Wang, F.X. 2004. The needs of older adults: the trends of support older adults,
problems and improving strategies in community. Retrieved November 22,
2004, from http://www.china.popin.com.
Zhang, A.D. 2004. Encourage the older adults to participate exercise activities
and outdoor activities. Retrieved November 22, 2004, from http://www.
mans.com.cn.