Roman Military

Clothing (3)
AD 400-640
 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 3
THE SOLDIER ON CAMPAIGN 5
• The evidence for uniformity

CLOTHING DISTRIBUTION 6
DR RAFFAELE D'AMATO, • Taxation - requisition - looting
born in 1964, obtained a PhD
in Romano-Byzantine Law
in 1993 at the University of TUNICS 7
Turin. While practising as
• Outer tunics and under-tunics
a jurist he has pursued his
passion for early military • ew patterns
history, publishing a number • The Egyptian finds
of articles and booklets. He
is currently collaborating CLOAKS 12
with Professor Kolias of
Athens University on research • The chlamys, sagum and jJaenula
into the arms and armours • New garments - cloaks and riding coats
of the Eastern Roman army,
and is also studying with
Professor Ravegnani of the
FABRICS AND DECORATION 14
University of Venice to obtain • Linen, wool and silk
a second degree in Byzantine
History. This is his first book
• Decoration - patterns and symbols
for Osprey.
OTHER CLOTHING 17
• Belts - trousers - socks - shoes and boots - leggings
and gaiters
• Sashes - headgear
• Garments worn beneath armour

GUARD UNIFORMS 24
SELECT CATALOGUE OF EVIDENCE FOR 33
THE COLOUR OF MILITARY GARMENTS

GRAHAM SUMNER was born

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 42
in 1958. He has been involved
with the Ermine Street Guard THE PLATES 44
for nearly 20 years. He has
written a number of articles
INDEX 48
on the Roman Army for
Military Illustrated magazine
and was the author of the
popular Roman Army: Wars
of the Empire in Brassey's
History of Uniforms series. He
lives in Flintshire, UK. This
is his third book for Osprey.
 OSPREY
Men-at-Arms· 425 . PUBLISHING

Roman Military
Clothing (3)
AD 400-640

Raffaele D'Amato . Illustrated by Graham Sumner

Series editor Martin Windrow
First pUblished in Great Britain in 2005 by Osprey Publishing Dedication
Midland House, West Way, Batley, Oxford 0X2 OPH, UK
443 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10016, USA To Nikos Orphanodakis: his soul will live among us forever.
Email: [email protected]

© 2005 Osprey Publishing Ltd. Author's Note

All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, The contents of this book follow those of the companion titles MAA
research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and 374 & 390, written and illustrated by Graham Sumner. Despite the
Patents Act, 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in basic chronological divisions there are inevitable cross-references
a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, among the sources.
electrical, chemical, mechanical, optical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, A note on transliteration: Greek was the language of Roman
without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Enquiries should culture and government from the late 6th and 7th centuries, but
be addressed to the Publishers. both Greek and Latin words were used before and after that time.
Even after the collapse of the West, the Empire included at various
ISBN 1 84176843 X times considerable areas where Latin was the main or only
language, e.g. parts of Italy, the northern Balkans, and central
Page layouts by Alan Hamp and western North Africa. In this text many technical terms are
Drawings by Graham Sumner therefore presented both in their Latin and Greek forms, and Greek
Index by Fineline Editorial Services Ltd medieval words are transliterated as literally as possible.
Originated by PPS Grasmere Ltd, Leeds, UK
Printed in China through World Print Ltd. Acknowledgements
05 06 07 08 09 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 The author would like to express deep gratitude to the following,
for assisting my research or for permission to reproduce images:
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Prof Thomas Frohlich, of the Deutsches Archeologiches Institut
in Rome, and Prof Sylvia Diebner; Prof Taxiarchis Kolias of Athens
FOR A CATALOGUE OF ALL BOOKS PUBLISHED BY University, and Prof Giorgio Ravegnani of Venice University; Prof
OSPREY MILITARY AND AVIATION PLEASE CONTACT: Falko Daim, University of Vienna; Prof Marco Ricci of Pomezia;
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All other regions della Toscana, Florence; Ing Luigi Antolini; Drs Massimo Bizzarri
Osprey Direct UK, PO Box 140, Wellingborough, Northants, NN8 2FA, UK and Andrea Salimbeti, and Mr Claudio Antonucci; and to Graham
Email: [email protected] Sumner and to my wife lIenia Lombardo, for help in correction
of the English text.
Buy online at www.ospreypublishing.com The illustrator wishes to record his gratitude to the following
for their assistance: Aitor Iriarte Kortazer, Michael Angel Berj6n
Lobarto, Jose Angel Appellaniz Gonzalez, Eliseo Gil Zubillaga,
Carlos Crespo Beistegui, Aitor Filloy Nieva, Oskar Escibano Sanz,
Jose Manuel Tarrino, Robert Vermaat, Andres Baede, Peter
Johnson, David Alexander, Chris Jowett, Florian Himmler,
Josef Loeffl, Stefan Geis, Dominick Bauer, Arik Greenburg,
David Michaels, Gil Whitiey, Norman Morris, Julius Figelson, Jared
Fleury, Lesley-Ann Holmes, Derreck Forest, Kevin Hands, and
special thanks to Elaine Norbury.

Artist's Note
Readers may care to note that the original paintings from which
the colour plates in this book were prepared are available for
private sale. All reproduction copyright whatsoever is retained
by the Publishers. All enquiries should be addressed to:

[email protected]

The Publishers regret that they can enter into no correspondence

upon this matter.

OPPOSITE Fragment of Imperial Diptych, Constantinople,

AD 469-472, showing guardsman and consul. The soldier
shows round orbiculi on the shoulders of his tunic, and
torques decorated with bosses and a central gem.
Note the magnificent overall decorative pattern of the
consul's toga-like trabea triumphalis. Museo Civico,
Bologna. (Drawing by Graham Sumner)
 ROMAN MILITARY CLOTHING (3)
FROM HONORIUS TO HERACLIUS,
AD 400-640

INTRODUCTION
.. .Already pTesent [were} the formation of white-dressed guardsmen together with
the Palatine Tribunes, the Protectores under theiT Magister, the whole farce of the
Palatine personnel with their own decomtions, uniforms and distinctive signs.
The huge fO'rmation of the Excubitores, who looh after the Holy Palace, were
massed along the arcades... lihe a wall, with their joined golden shields under
their raised javelins. (Corippus, In laudemJustini, III, 159-168)

395 THE ROMAN EMPIRE was divided into two halves under the sons

I
N AD
of the Emperor Theodosius: Honorius (AD 395-423) ruled the We t
from his capital at Ravenna, and Arcadius (AD 395-402) the East from
Constantinople.
Since the 3rd century the Roman army had become a multi-ethnic
force, and soldiers of the Western army adopted Germanic fashions of
clothing. Even though a law of AD 416 forbade the wearing in Rome of
'barbarian and skin garments' and long hair (Cod. Theod.,rv, 10,4), the
habit was too deeply entrenched to be eradicated. Conversely, Roman
fashion also influenced the costume of the Germanic warrior, so a
colourful mixture of dress characterized the Western military world
for centuries.
In the Eastern Empire, too, costume saw a fusion of classical and
foreign, chiefly Persian influences. In the simplest terms, the 'long and
loose' classical style gave way to 'short and tight'; the draped effect of the
former was replaced by ready-made and sewn garments. The Sassanian
Persian influence was actually visible from the 3rd century, and such new
fashions were seen first in the military, due to campaigns in Eastern
territory or enlistment of Easterners in the Roman army.
The peoples of the Steppe and the Goths of the Black Sea region also
influenced Eastern Roman costume, especially at the turn of the 5th-6th
centuries. The members of the Circus faction which in the 6th century
formed a militia to defend the walls of Constantinople grew their beards
and mou taches like the Persians; they also cut the hair at the front
of their temples and let it grow long and disordered at the back, 'like
the Massagetae', i.e. following the 'Hunnic' fashion. Their tunic sleeves
were tightly gathered at the cuff, and they wore Hun-style cloaks, trousers
and footwear. At the beginning of the 6th centuryJohannes Lydu wrote,
'Today the soldiers copy the barbarians, who in their turn try to copy
them; the only exception are the Palace guardsmen, called in Latin
Excubitores' (De Mag., I, 12). 3
 GLOSSARY
Albus = off-white colour Orbieuli, ealliculae, sphera = circular terminal
Alhetinos = true purple colour embroidery of clavus, circular embroidered segm.enta
Anaxyrides = hose, 'tights' DIJUS IJhrygium = 'Phrygian work' embroidery
Armelausion = type of short tunic Paenula = travelling cloak, often hooded
Blati, Blation = plll-ple or red-purple colour Pallium = cloak for senior officers and other elites
Bracae = trousers Palutlarnentum = militall' cloak
CamlJagi raeticulati = shoes laced in place with thongs Paragauda, I){lmgaudis = silk- and gold-embroidered
Calceus = low military boot tunic; or, the silk embroidery of these
Calceus equestres = caval ryman's low boot Palagium = cenu-al vertical strip of tunic embroidery
Candidus = pure white colour Peetoraris = protective leather garment worn over
Chiton = tunic shoulders and upper torso
Chiton cheiridotos = long-sleeved tunic Perizoma = belt of trousers
Chitoniskos = long-sleeved under-tunic Phakeolis = low turban
Chlamys = military cloak Perislithidion = felt or leather garment worn under
Cingulum 1Ililitiae = mil itary bel t cuirass
Clavus, clavi = vertical decorative stripes Pteryges = protective hanging strips at shoulders and waist
Colobiu1ll = long tunic with short or no sleeves Pileus IJannonieus = pillbox-shaped military cap
Cothumi = calf-length boots with open lacing Pilos = felt cap of cylindrical or conical shape
Cucullus = hood Sagulu1ll = cavalryman's cloak
Dabnatica = sleeved tunic Sagum, sagion, sagia = rectangular military cloak
Divitision = Imperial military tunic Sarabara, saraballa = wide trousers of Persian origin
EIJilorikon = garment worn over mail armour SaraJan, seiarvari = embroidered Persian costume
EIJomis, scapulare = cloak or other garment covering Scutlala, strietoria = tight linen under-tunic
shoulders Segmenta, praesagmina, semeia = terms for embroidered
Fasciae, Jaseeolae = cloth leg-bindings, puttees elements of tunic
Femoralia, skeleai = short trousers Skaramangion = Asiatic long-sleeved cavalry tunic
Feminalia, ji1llinalia = see anaxyrides above Stieharion = short tunic, irrespective of sleeve length
Causape = heavy fabric proofed against weather Subligaculu1ll = pants or underpants
Counoberonikion = large cavalry cloak or hooded Superhumerale = richly decorative collar
mantle Tabula, tablion = squared embroidered panels on cloak
Himation, himatia = tunic, or generically, military Tibialia = Ieggi ngs
garment Thoraeomaeus = garment worn under cuirass
H)1Jo(lemata = military footwear Toubia = leggings, trousers; sometimes boots
Ka1llision = under-tunic or light linen tunic Tunica mililaris = military tunic
Kalikia armenika = Armenian high boots Tunica manicata = long-sleeved tunic
CmntJagus, ka1llpagion = low shoe leaving instep Tzaggia, tzanca = high boots
uncovered Vestis militaris = military clothing; or, taxation to pay
Kamelaukion = cap for it
Kenlouklon = padded material, felt Virronikion, byrrus = travelling garment, probably
Linea = linen under-tunic shaggy and hooded
Lineu1ll = linen slieharion (see below) Zona militaris = scarf/sash knotted at breast, mark
Lorum, lOTOS = military sash; sometimes worn shawl- of sen ior officer
fashion Zoni = military belt
Manlion = militall' cloak secured by brooch on Zoslarion, zoslaria = long-sleeved tunic of Germanic
the breast origin

Abbreviations for sources used in this text:

OPPOSITE A mosaic from Kissoufim, Israel, dating from
AMG Annales du Muses Gulmet AD 576-578, depicts a cavalryman and this infantryman.
BG Bellum Gothicum
Both have long-sleeved tunics with T-shaped decorative
BP Bellum Persicum
trim, 'composite' belts with pendants, long trousers and
BV Bellum Vandalicum
DAI Deutsches Archaeologisches Institut boots. The main differences are the trim - chequered for
De Mag = De Magistratibus the rider, lozenge-pattern for this soldier; and the length
Just In laudem Justini of the tunics - thigh-length for the cavalryman, and below
MKB Museum fur Byzantinische Kunst the knees for this infantryman. We may be seeing
MIFAO Memoires de I'lnstitut Fran<;:ais d'arcMologie du Caire confirmation of the prescriptions in the Strategikon for
4 cavalry and infantry tunics. (Drawing by Graham Sumner)
 THE SOLDIER ON CAMPAIGN
'Uniform' in the modern sense was a concept unknown to ancient
armies. Regulations might designate certain items as part of the soldier's
kit, but not that these items should be identical. Roman military dress
varied regionally, in production, acquisition and appearance. However,
clothing did distinguish soldiers from civilians. Procopius mentions
sailors and Libyan volunteers 'clad in the tunics that Roman soldiers
are accustomed to wear' in order to deceive the Moors at Hadrumetum
(BV, IV, 23).
A certain degree of similarity was nevertheless attempted. Procopius
comments (BV IV, 17) that in the battle of Scalae Veteres the mutineers
of the tyrant Stotzas and the soldiers of the general Germanus 'differed
neither... in dress (schema) nor in any other thing'. Corippus
(Johannidos, VIII, 189-195) writes that Roman soldiers could be
distinguished from the Moors by tlleir 'habitus'. Degrees of uniformity
are implied in a passage in Scientia Politica (IV, 58), to the effect that
ABOVE Note the similarity officers dressed in a more free and elaborate way than simple soldiers.
between the lozenge-pattern trim Johannes Lydus wrote that in peacetime all soldiers wore skin garments
shown in the Kissoufim mosaic
(saraka) from the shoulders to the calves; this may refer to garments
below, and this part of a 4th-6th
century specimen, Such bands
made of leather, imitating armour.
were about 4in wide. (Museo Procopius, describing the soldiers of Belisarius camped at Europum
Egizio, Florence, inv,12602j in AD 542 (BP, II, 21), writes that they did not wear 'cloaks (chlamydes)
or any other garment to cover the shoulders
(epomides)', but 'linen tunics (chitones) and close-
fitting trousers (anaxyrides)'.
In tile 5th-6th centuries, irrespective of rank,
the milites wore (when not in battle) a cap, a long-
sleeved tunic, a belt, a cloak, trousers and boots,
sometimes with leggings. Their hair was probably
worn long, although the quoted passage in
Scientia Politica recommends short haircuts. One
of Belisarius' doriphoroi, Rufinus, is described with
very long hair (BV, IV, 10); and the Great Palace
mosaics and Consular Diptychs show hair curling
freely all over the head, gathered on the neck and
leaving the ears uncovered. ormaIly the soldiers
were unbearded, unlike their officers (BV, 11, 8,
17); but the latter was not invariable, since young
Imperial guardsmen were often close-shaven due
to their symbolic similarity to angels of the court
of Heaven.
The general costume of the 6th-7th century
soldier was a fairly short, long-sleeved tunic (chiton),
often decorated with embroidery or applique
work, and gathered at the waist by a military belt or
sash (cingulum militiae or zone); a cloak fastened by
a fibula brooch at the right shoulder; more or less
tight-fitting trousers, boots, and leggings. In many
of the figurative sources the tunic is thigh-length,
but may be tucked up for freedom of movement;
the cloak is also arranged so as to leave the right 5
 arm free. Horses were expensive, and were associated with high-ranking
officers and a military elite, whose dress reflected their high status.
Roman soldiers of foreign origin - Symmaeharii - are described by
Corippus and Procopius as retaining their u'aditional gear. In some cases
such fashions were gradually adopted by Roman troops, particularly
the colourful clothing of the Sassanian Persians. 'Soft armour' and/or
padded jackets seem to have been inherited from the Steppe peoples; in
The beard and hairstyles, long-
the form ofa kaftan, cut on the slant to overlap at the breast, this became
sleeved tunic with T-shaped widespread in the Eastern army in both protective and ceremonial
trim, loose 'elephant's feet' versions. Sometimes Slav warriors wore neither tunics nor cloaks, but
trousers also decorated with 'gathering their trousers up as far as their private parts, they enter into
lozenge-pattern trim, and short
the battle' (BG, VII, 14). Nevertheless, from Sidonius' Epistulaeabout the
boots, suggest that these are
Germanic troops in Roman
twilight of the Western Empire, we learn that tunics remained the usual
service - although this type of garment among the Gallo-Romans.
costume was adopted by the
entire army in the late 6th and
7th centuries. Carvings from
the 6th century Cathedra of
CLOTHING DISTRIBUTION
Maximianus, now in the Museo
Arcivescovile, Ravenna. Taxation specifically for the purchase of military garments - the vestis
(Drawings by Graham Sumner) militaris - was only one example of state provision for the army's clothing.
Factories (fabrieae) are recorded in the West;
the Notitia Dignitatum (PaTS Oecidentis, X, 12)
mentions Tournai for the manufacture of the
sag;um. Other state factories (gynaecea), under
the official termed the Comes SaeTaTUm
LaTgitionum, made and dyed the cloth to dress
u'oops and court officials; in Italy they were
located near the Imperial seats or in
traditional textile centres like Milan, Ravenna,
Rome and Syracuse (ND Oee. XI, 49-52, 63,
65, 67-68). Each factory was entrusted to a
pOeUTatOT and defended by guards.
During the collapse of the West, followers
of clerics and local duees were equipped at the
expense of these leaders of Gallo-Roman
society, like the aristocratic bishop Sidonius
Apollinaris (died c.480), who pointed out to
his retainers (I, 6) 'You are well supplied with
horses, armour, clothing'. However, tradition
remained strong in the army. In Gaul, at the
end of the 5th century, local troops (laeti),
even though of Germanic origin, preserved
their 'Roman' identity, carrying their own
standards in battle, and retaining Roman
dress in every particular, 'even as regards their
shoes' (BG, Y, 12).
The revenues of the Eastern Empire were
almost double those of the West, and a
considerable proportion was spent on the
army, producing better training, discipline,
efficiency, and especially equipment. Military
6 garments were produced at textile centres such
as Antinoopolis (Antinoe), Arsinoe, Panopolis and Alexandria in Egypt.
Laodicea, the main collecting point for the Eastern caravans, was famous
for the manufacture of richly decorated fabric (paragaudis Ladikhenou).
Procopius (BV, IV, 16, 13) wrote that rural recruits (tirones) arrived in
Constantinople with only a small tunic (chitoniskos). Recruits and serving
soldiers received gratis the clothing produced by state factories. Others
received a routine allowance to buy clothes from civilian sources; in AD
396 (Cod. Theod. VII, 6, 4 = CodJust. XII, 39-3) the soldiers of Illyricum
each received a solidus to buy their cloak. A second law, of 423 (Cod. Theod.
VII, 6, 2-5 = CodJustXII, 39, 1-4) records a tax collected in the provinces
for the Comes Sacrarum Largitionum; five-sixths of this revenue was
distributed among the soldiers for the purchase of uniforms, and the rest
went to the gynaecea for state production.
In AD 594 the Emperor Maurice planned to reduce cash payments
by off-setting against wages the cost of state provision of clothing and
equipment, cutting the yearly allowance of the Comitatenses troops
(Theoph.Sim. 7, 1, 2; Theophanes p.274). This provoked a mutiny,
settled only by generous concessions to demobilized soldiers and
war orphans.
Local populations, under Church administration, were expected
to contribute in kind. In AD 588 the Bishop of Antioch organized the
distribution offood, clothing and money to soldiers enrolled locally and
those passing through the city (Evagrius, 6,11). Allied Arab clans on the
Eastern borders were also subsidized with Roman clothing and weapons
as well as food and cash. The Emperor Tiberius II sent gifts for the
Ghassanid Phylarcha Mondir, including weapons, gold, silver, silver horse
harness and bits, and 'splendid garments'.
Material and clothing were often acquired as war booty. Theophanes
(p.179) describes a victory over Arabs: 'having occupied their camp they
captured a large number of Saracens, men, women and children, and
a lot of Roman prisoners ... herds ... silk and clothing'. The allied
Ghassanian troops who sacked Haurin captured linen and wool
garments Oohn of Ephesus, III, 42). War booty may account for the
large number of Sassanian silk garments found in 6th and 7th century
Egyptian graves. Clothing was also looted during internal Roman
disputes. John of Ephesus mentions, among others, Excubitores, Romans
(i.e. soldiers) and Scholastici .taking clothing and shoes from the
common people during ecclesiastical disputes. Spare army clothing
(himatia) was stored in the military baggage train, together with weapons
and supplies (BG, VII, 11).

TUNICS
The long-sleeved tunica manicata/chiton cheiridotos is often mentioned by
Procopius (BP, II, 21,6; BV, II, 23, 22; 26, 26; 28, 10). Usually of wool (or
linen for summer), it was confined by the cingulum militiae or zoni.
Corippus distinguishes Moorish tunics from the Roman sleeved type
(Johannidos, II, 130). The tunic (in the West, tunica militaris, in the East
chiton) was essentially a simple T-shaped garment of wool, linen, silk or
occasionally Egyptian cotton, with tight sleeves and usually reaching
to the knees. It was woven in standard sizes, for adjustment to fit 7
 4th-5th century linen tunica
manicata from Egypt, decorated
in purple with opus Phrygium
embroidery; it measures
45'f,in long by 32%in wide.
The archaeological evidence
from the dry desert cemeteries
of Egypt offers striking
confirmation of pictorial
sources from all over the Empire.
(ex Vollbach, Bertin Museum,
inv.2881, courtesy DAI)

individuals. It was not constructed of cut and sewn sections like modern
garments, but woven entire in a single piece like a giant cross, folded in
half and sewn up the sides, with a neck slit cut in the centre. This
required a very large loom, but allowed the passage of the weft threads
for decorations woven into the material (when these were not
applique), i.e. the narrow vertical bands (clavi) running from the top to
the bottom of the tunic.
The tunic was worn over trousers; and in cold weather a second was
worn. This inner tunic was called linea ('of linen') or kamision (St
Jeronymus, Ep. 64,11,2: 'the soldiers are accustomed to wearing lineae
that they call camisia, fitted to the limbs and very tight to their bodies').
This garment was also called scutlata in the Justinian period (Lydus, De
Mag., I, 10), as well as stnctona or stichoi. If the inner tunic had long
leeves it was called chitoniskos (idem, I, 17). The 5th century sources
mention other tunics specifically for soldiers: the dalmatica, and a tight,
8 richly embroidered tunic characteristic of senior officers, called either
 Representation of early 5th
century Pa/atini soldiers (1) of
the time of Honorius, wearing
the short off-white dalmatica
or linea decorated with vertical
clavi, and orbiculi at shoulder
and thigh. Their sagia cloaks are
orange-yellow and dark brown,
their tight anaxyrides off-white,
their campagi shoes black. Of
special interest are the different
numbers of segmenta stripes on
the tunic cuffs - two, and four.
Recalling the Dura Europos
frescoes and the mosaics of Sta
Maria Maggiore, these may be
indications of rank. Massacre of
the Innocents fresco, Sta Maria
in Stelle, Verona. (ex Ing Luigi
Antolini book, see Biblio)

sticharion or lineum. The colobium was another long tunic with short
sleeves or none (longum et sine manicis, Isid., Etim., 22-24), sometimes
provided for guardsmen.
Artistic sources sometimes show continued use of ancient styles,
and we cannot reject these simply as artistic conventions, since dress
traditions in the Graeco-Roman world were long-lasting. The
Theodosian columns, for instance, show soldiers of the factions dressed
in the exomis, a kind of ancient Greek chiton which left the arms and part
of the breast bare.
Tunics were often used to conceal weapons. Interestingly, during a
plot one Artasires, an Armenian officer of the African army, concealed
arrows up his tunic sleeve by binding them to his left wrist (BV, IV, 28)
- they were not for use, but for protection against blows. This implies
that the chitoniskos had fairly full sleeves.
The usual colour for ordinary soldiers' tunics was red, believed best
to hide bloodstains as well as dirt; Synesius uses the word blati to describe 9
 the purple or reddish-purple tunic. But in many figurative sources
soldiers are seen to be wearing white garments - either candidus, the
pure white reserved for the Emperor, high Imperial officers and
bodyguards; or albus (leukos), the usual unbleached off-white colour
worn by other ranks. The average size for tunics, judging from sources
and specimens, was 44in long by 35in wide in the 5th century, and
slightly larger in the 6th-7th centuries; however, this is simply an average
from a limited number of random survivals.

New tunic patterns

ew tunic patterns appeared in the 5til and 6th centuries. The
Strategikon of the Emperor Maurice (AD 582-602) mentions, for the
infantry, two types: either zostaria, or amlelausia (XII, B2), i.e. short and
slit up tile sides (XII B, I, Iff.), 'coming down to their knees'. Maurice
speaks here of tunics worn by soldiers over or under their armour. The
first type, zostaria (meaning 'closed by belts') were of Germanic origin
and are first visible on the fragments of Theodosian columns. The 5th
century Carrand Diptych in Florence shows an Eastern soldier of
Germanic origin wearing a zostarion togetller witll wide trousers and a
shaggy mantle with hanging sleeves.
After the 6th century tunics were characterized by tablet-woven
Encaustic painted wooden panel embroidery, often decorated with lozenges; together with trousers
from 6th century Egypt, showing similarly decorated, these were adopted from the Goths and Iranians.
a cavalryman leading his horse.
His white Persian-style tunic
is trimmed with aT-shape
of brownish-purple stripes
ornamented with white dots -
pearls? (Louvre, inv.E 14352;
drawing by Graham Sumner)

Kamision or himation from one

of the 7th century 'horsemen's
graves' at Antinoopolis. Of fine
linen, with tightly closed cuffs,
it has a triangular neck opening
and bands of silk embroidery
arranged in a T-shape. 'tYpically
the riding costume found in the
Egyptian graves consisted of
a coat, one or even two under-
tunics or shirts, trousers,
underpants, gaiters and boots.
(ex Vollbach, Berlin Museum,
10 inv.14243, courtesy DAI)
Examples are represented in the Barberini Diptych in the Louvre, and
on the Cathedra of Maximianus. A central, vertical band of embroidery
extended down the front from the decoration of the neck vent to the
waist or below, and a second band extended in a T-shape along the top
of the shoulders, sometimes to the elbow.
The Strategikon uses the word himation to describe a specific type of
cavalry tunic (though this also belonged to the category of belt-closed
zostaria). This was a barbarian fashion that evolved in Byzantium into a
new garment called the skaramangion, a variation on the Steppes kaftan
that came directly from Sassanian Iran (Theophanes, 319) and from the
Steppe peoples. The Strategikon prescribes, for the cavalry, a tunic made
of linen, goat's hajr or thick wool, cut broad and full according to the
Avar pattern, so it would cover the knees while riding and gave a neat
appearance (1,2,46 ff.). It was secured by a belt of flax, goatskin or
smooth leather, sometimes silk-eovered (imatia olosirika, Theophanes
322). In later times this became the distinctive dress of the Emperor and
senior officers. The Latin term scaramagnium may originally have meant
cover or protection, and have passed into Roman use - together with the
actual garment - from 6th/7th century Gothic joederati. We may
therefore suppose that originally this garment of Persian and/or
barbarian origin was worn over other clothing for warmth. Horsemen
from Dura Europos and Palmyra were already using such garments in
the 2nd/3rd centuries.
The contemporary Isidorus of Seville (Origines, XIX, xxii) describes a
second kind of tunic called arrnelausion, 'so called by the people, because
it is cut and open front and back, closed only on the arms, i.e. armiclausa, Fragment of a wool and linen
omitting the letter C'. The word could well come from a tunic worn in clavus once attached on a white
tunic, one of hundreds of such
the Roman army by Germanic infantry, which were seen by Isidorus with
finds from Antinoopolis, Egypt.
his own eyes. However, Reiske describes the armilausion as a kind of (Museo Egizio, Florence,
military surcoat extending over the lower abdomen, sleeveless and inv.12468)
having wide armholes; he, too, ascribes its Oligins to German troops. The
etymology should indeed mean a garment without arms, or perhaps
short-sleeved.
There exjsted two majn types of armilausion. The first was the so-called
epomis or scapulare, covering the shoulders to the elbows; epomis meant a
cloak or garment which covers the whole body, large enough to conceal
a sword (BV, IV, 28). It was sometimes worn over a cuirass, and was also
called epilorikon ('over the mailcoat'). The other was the sleeveless type,
worn over an under-tunic but under the cuirass. The first of these
garments compared to the military cloaks and, like them, was often of
red colour (Martyrium of St Bonifatius, 14: 'wearing a red armelausion';
Paulinus, Ep. 17: 'the armelausion was of shining red').

The Egyptian finds

Excavating at Antinoopolis between 1896 and 1912, the archaeologists
Schmidt and Gayet found in the so-called 'horsemen's graves' many
complete tunics and hundreds of fragments of decoration. Many of
these burials included objects such as swords or whips. The presence of
small crosses, inscriptions and figures of saints identify them as
Christians, while their Hellenized names (e.g. Pamio) indicate Romano-
Egyptian origin. These tunics are dated between the 5th and 8th
centuries. A typical example is of linen, made from several pieces sewn 11
 together, with a triangular neck opening, and sleeves tightly closed at the
cuffs. Silk brocade or wool-embroidered bands are sewn to the cuffs
and neck opening and extend out over the shoulders. This kind of
decoration is visible in many pictorial sources which confirm their
military use in the 6th century.

The use of the old paenula was

still popular among 5th century MILITARY CLOAKS
soldiers. This was the last or
'baroque' type, with the front
The chlamys or paludamentum was the main cloak worn, being a symbol
part shorter and shaped in a
point or rounded, and the rear
of the militia armata (Cod. Theod. VIII, 4, 30 = CodJust. XII, 33, 4); note
long. Note the added decorative that militia simply signified public service, but militia armata the military
clavi stripes down each side calling. The most common was a hip-length, semi-circular cloak, limited
of the breast, and segmenta at from AD 382 to soldiers, officers, and officials charged with civil
the bottom. The long tunic worn
functions but formally part of the military. It distinguished the armati
beneath it also shows clavi and
segmenta. (Reconstruction by
from the officiales (Cod. Theod. XIV, 10, 1); military garments
Andrea Salimbeti from Sta were forbidden to civilians. The cloaks of senior military officials were
Sabina Rome) longer, being ankle-length, usually trapezoid in shape; they were orna-
mented on front and back with squared embroidered panels butted up
against the vertical edges, these tabula or tablion being of two
contrasting colours.
The cloak was pinned on the right shoulder by a large brooch.
The so called 'crossbow' fibula was widely used by both military and otl1er
state officers throughout the 5th-7th centuries, and finely decorated
specimens in precious metals are often shown worn by high officers.
However, circular brooches are also found in both halves of the Empire.
Even though the physical difference between it and the chlamys
would become minimal, the word sagion (Latin sa[fUm) always
described the rectangular campaign cloak, originally shorter than the
chlamys. Ifworn by a Magister Militum it was of purple (sagion alhetinofi,).
A special cavalry version was called the sa[fUlum. Another short
military cloak was the mantion (Chronicum Alexandrinum p.1 02),
thrown back over both shoulders and fastened at the centre of the
breast by a round brooch.
The usual colour for the military cloak was red or red-brown, as in
the 5th century Sta Maria Maggiore mosaics. The materials varied:
linen for summer, and wool - apparently sometimes coated with a
proofing substance (gausape) - for winter. The reddish- purple
paludamentum was reserved for senior officers. Purple
tablia or even complete cloaks were the symbol
of the Patrikioi: Lydus (De Mag., I, 17), states that their
chlamys was doubled, calf length, and the colour 'of a
dried vine leaf.
In Achmim-Panopolis cloaks of squared trapezoidal
shape were found, decorated on the four corners with rectangular,
squared or round segmenta, often woven in purple; the edges were
decorated with red or violet single, double or triple stripes. Their
length varied from 6ft 6in to just over 8ft, and the width from 3ft 4in to
just under 5 feet. Also still in use was the old paenula, the circular cloak
with a central neck opening and sometimes a hood. The paenulaeofthis
period were usually ornamented with clavi, and might be any length
12 from hip to ankle. Sometimes heavy versions were made of leather.
Fringed paenulae worn by officers are shown in drawings of the lost
column of Theodosius, as well as by soldiers on the Sta Sabina door.

New military garments This 6th century officer has a

The Strategilwn (I, 2, 50) mentions an extra large cloak or hooded kandys-style coat slung over
mantle for the cavalry called the gounoberonikion. It was made offelted or his shoulders, with long sleeves
hanging free. Under it his round-
padded material (kentouklon), with wide sleeves, and large enough to
necked tunic is trimmed with
protect the mail coat and even a bow from the rain; it usefully concealed the usual tablet-woven bands.
the reflections from armour, and was even thick enough to give St Menas pyx, British Museum.
protection against arrows. The origin of the word is Slavic: guna means (Drawing by Graham Sumner)
a hairy or fur garment.
A garment of this type could perhaps be
identified with that oflranian origin (kandys), worn
with the long sleeves hanging down behind. Such
coats, of fur or woven materials, are seen in late
Roman monuments representing mercenaries,
soldiers and senior officers of East Germanic or
Iranian stock in Imperial service, e.g. on the
Carrand Diptych and the St Menas pyx in Egypt;
they are also clearly visible on relief carvings of
Georgian and Armenian vassal princes. This type
of garment, adapted from the Iranian lambskin
coat with dangling sleeves, was probably intro-
duced via the Goths and Slavs. Asiatic influence on
late Roman clothing, especially in Egypt, is
explicable by the long (and sometimes peaceful)
co-existence of the Roman and Persian Empires in
the Near East, and Rome's employment of Persian
mercenaries (e.g. the Perso-Justiniani regiment
stationed at Grado, north Italy, in the 6th-7th
centuries). Several beautiful specimens of riding
coats were found in the Antinoopolis necropolis;
these were sturdily made, but lighter types may
have existed. One grave revealed a green-blue coat
ornamented with red silk brocade, worn over a
second linen garment with black and white
patterns. The horse harness and whips found with
the bodies indicated cavalrymen, although Gayet
assigned these coats to high-ranking officers.
Examples are preserved in the Berlin Museum, the
Lyon Textile Museum, the Louvre and several
other collections.
These riding coats are formed from sewn
sections, with very long sleeves narrowing towards
the cuff and then flaring out. All are made from a
woollen cloth whose combed fibres give a napped
appearance. The front is open, with the right side
cut so that it overlaps to the left, and silk brocade
bands decorate the edges, cuffs and neck. The (~'/ ~..
very long sleeves are sometimes extended by a
leather cuff; their ends are decorated with i3/f·.:·dt'
coloured wool embroidery or applied silk bands. 13
 7th century riding coat from
Antinoopolis, the only example
found which has underarm
openings in the side seams to
permit the arms to pass through,
leaving the overlong sleeves
hanging empty; the influence of
the Iranian horseman's clothing
traditions is clear. It is carefully
cut and sewn from a blue-green
cashmere wool fabric, and
trimmed with tablet-woven silk.
The right breast panel could be
fastened across, thus providing
warmth for the torso while
leaving the skirts open for ease
when riding. (ex Vollbach, Berlin
Museum inv.14232, today 9965
in MBK; courtesy DAI)

Cayet mentions that in two graves he found 'Byzantine gauntlets'

attached directly to the sleeve; fragments of silk sleeves associated with a
leather background are still visible in the Louvre. The average length of
the coats is 4ft 3in, and the sleeves often surpass 3ft 4 inches.
The problem of identifying such coats with the gounoberonikion
described in the Strategikon is the absence of the wide sleeves mentioned
there. However, one of th~ riding coat specimens preserved in Berlin
(inv. 9965) has underarm openings. Many of the new military garments,
tunics as well as coats, were characterized by these, which allowed the
arm to pass through, leaving the sleeves hanging decoratively from the
shoulders and allowing free movement. Such apertures are found with
reinforcing braids or cords, and two specimens have openings
approximately 9Y2in long - ample for the brawniest arm.

FABRICS AND DECORATION

The predominant fabric in the Eastern Empire was linen, from the spun
fibre of the flax plant. Egypt was the main producer, and Alexandria
manufactured and exported linen garments for centuries. The
linen, especially that used for the kamision worn under the main tunic,
14 shows a high quality; some shirts found by Cayet at Antinoopolis are of
true translucent chiffons, and the fineness of
embroidery is not inferior to silk brocade.
Wool appears to be the primary fabric used for
military tunics. It was woven and used in many
weights, from fine veils to winter tunics and heavy
winter cloaks. It was also felted for use in shoes
and hats.
The biggest difference since the 'classical'
period was the use of silk, which was purchased
from the Persians; a state monopoly restricted
its primary purchase to the commerciarii of the
Praetorian Prefecture, reserving what was neces-
sary for state manufacture and selling on the rest.
In the time of Justinian the merchants were
obliged to raise prices due both to the high costs demanded by the Recent excavations at
Persians and the tariffs extracted by the Imperial bureaucracy. In AD Antinoopolis by archaeologists
from Florence brought to light
540,Justinian fixed the official price; and proposed an agreement with
this fragment of a blue-green
the Ethiopians which would allow the purchase of silk directly from coat decorated with silk samite
India (BP, I, XX, HA, XXV). This plan never reached fruition; but a - a heavy, lustrous silk fabric.
little later Christian monks smuggled silk worms directly from China, (Museo Egizio, Florence,
and the cultivation of silk was diffused throughout the Empire (BG, VIII, inv.12700j

17), though remaining a state monopoly. Silk was so expensive that it

was often combined with other fibres to make more affordable fabrics.
Byzantium began its own silk industry, the tapestry-woven brocades in
various qualities being finished by needlework in multicoloured silk
and/or gold thread.

Decoration
During this era Egyptian weavers produced amazingly intricate textile Tunic decorations were woven
art, featuring Graeco-Roman designs and delicate interlaced motifs. or embroidered with geometrical
patterns, foliate and floral
The single wool colour used in most of the early pieces was a dark
arabesques, or animals - as on
brownish purple (the 'royal purple' of antiquity), set against the this 4th-6th century example
natural-coloured linen of tunics; the madder plant was also cultivated in from Antinoopolis. (Museo
Egypt to obtain a strong red. Egizio, Florence, inv. 12411)
All the preserved examples of tunicae are
ornamented, some very simply, others elaborately.
Usually the silk or wool decoration was distributed
around the neck opening, on wrists and hems,
and on the skirt in patches or inserts. Typical tunic
decoration of the early 'Coptic' period consisted
of narrow vertical bands from the shoulders, and
squared, oval or round 'loom-tapestry' inserts.
The neck opening was trimmed on both edges,
tile trim carried down on to the breast. Two stripes
or clavi ran straight down both front and back.
Seen on military garments since at least the
beginning of the 3rd century, clavi might be either
embroidered cloth stlips applied to the garment
(applique), or tapestry-woven into its fabric at
manufacture. Sometimes the vertical strips were
filled in with foliate patterns or arabesques of the
same pattern as the neck embroidery. Applied 15
 clavi might be re-used from another piece, cut
from embroidered cloth, or even purchased as
commercially-made trim. Clavi might extend to
the hem, or terminate part-way in roundels or
squared elements; similar patches or inserts were
seen at thigh height on the skirts. These patterned
elements were called vrbiculi, calliculae, segmenta,
or a number of different terms depending upon
their shape.
The cuffs were decorated with silk or wool
bands, multicoloured arabesques or other delicate
ornaments; usually the pattern of the cuffs
reproduced that around the neck. On the wrists
these segmenta were worn in different numbers,
perhaps as an indication of military rank. Purple
stripes indicating the rank of a tribunus are visible
on the 3rd century fresco at Dura Europos;
and the same pattern is still depicted on officers
from the 5th century, including those from Sta
Maria Maggiore in Rome and Sta Maria in Stelle
in Verona.
Frescoes and mosaics of the 6th and 7th
centuries showing military tunics with typical
decoration are confirmed by actual specimens.
Silk applique at the cuffs, neck and borders
characterized the finds from Antinoopolis, and a
pictorial example is the tunic worn by the
~:! \:
'/~ . executioner ofSt Menas on a British ivory casket.
.:;~.
Often this kind of trim featured tablet-woven
lozenges. They are visible on the garments of
soldiers probably representing men of Legio
A 5th century tubator wearing a Quinta Macedonica in Egypt, and Germanic Buccellarii on the ivory
red-orange sagum displays the Cathedra of Maximianus of AD 550 in Ravenna. This trimming was
ancient swastika sun symbol on
typical for soldiers in Egypt, as seen in 6th century Coptic carvings of
the comers of his white tunic;
this crux gammata passed from
David and Goliath (see Campaign 31, YarmukAD 636, page 10).
Mithraism to Christianity. Mosaic By the end of our period the embroidery was typically reduced, to a
of the Achilles legend, Tipasa; chevron-shaped trim round the edges of the neck opening, and narrow
National Museum of Antiquities, stripes on the edges and the breast. The ornamentation of such trim was
Algiers. (Drawing by Graham
reduced to simple interlaced foliage patterns, usually in blue and violet.
Sumner)

Patterns and symbols

On military clothing, bright multicoloured decoration offering a
profusion of infinitely varied images characterized the last centuries of
Roman domination in Egypt, Syria and orth Mrica. Still following the
Hellenistic tradition, geometric designs were filled in with fantastic
creatures, religious images or elaborate repeating floral motifs. The
usual features were flowers and plants, monochrome or sometimes
multicoloured like those on the 6-7th century kamisia found at Deir el
Keyr. In that instance the clavi are multicoloured, and filled with
patterns of embrasures, medallions, foliage, flowers, fishes, birds and
figures of children. We find the whole classical pagan repertory in
16 such decorative bands and panels: lions, dolphins, sea-horses, figures
Fragments of edge trim in
tendril-and-Ieaf pattern, and
crux gammata, from a 5th-6th
century tunic from Achmim-
Panopolis; black wool on linen
background. (ex Forrer, courtesy
DAI)

personifying royal power, and armed warriors. Christian subjects were

often used by officers, guardsmen and Emperors, or by devout Christian
soldiers, particularly figures of St George and St Michael as armoured
horsemen; and retained classical motifs - vines and palms, birds and
fish, baskets with bread, archways - were also interpreted according
to Christian symbolism. One of the most common subjects was the
horseman, and - from the 7th century onwards - the mounted image of
the victorious Emperor identified by a nimbus.
Interaction with Sassanid Persia gradually led to patterns becoming
more stylized, discarding Greek naturalism in favour of intricately
worked abstract motifs.

OTHER CLOTHING
Belts
The belt was the symbol of the militia armata, and depriving a soldier
of his belt signified expelling him from the army (CodJust. XII, 7).
The Roman belt was often bossed (cingula bullata, Cor.,jok., 11,131) and
used for weapons suspension. Like clothing, belts also followed the new
fashions inspired by barbarian styles.
At the turn of the 4th/5th centuries the typical leather belt was more
than 4in wide; it was furnished with bronze and iron fittings, both cast
and chiselled, ornamented with punched or carved work. Such belts
originated from the second half of the 4th century. They were mainly
produced in the Imperial factories along the Rhine and Danubian limes
mentioned in the Notitia, which supplied arms and clothing for the field
army and limitanei.
From the second quarter of the 6th century Roman soldiers appear
to wear so-called composite belts, with fittings and pendants of silver,
gold, bronze and gilded bronze. These probably showed the infl uence 17
 of Germanic, Iranian and Steppe peoples. Vandal warriors 111
Carthaginian mosaics of the beginning of the century have pendant
belts; and Procopius (BV, IV, 9) describes Belisarius' distribution of
'gold' belts as booty of the Vandal war. Silver-furnished belt sets from the
Crimea and the western Black Sea coast may confirm the earlier use of
composite belts by Roman soldiers stationed in the Bosphorus area.
Archaeology has confirmed the pictorial and literary sources, and
beautiful specimens have been found all over the Empire. The
craftsmen of centres such as Alexandria and Constantinople produced
the most precious fittings for Imperial and military elites; belt furniture
was also made by workshops in Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, North
Africa, Sicily, and even in the reconquered areas of southern Spain.

Trousers
Trousers (bracae) were now an integral part of military uniform, derived
from both Easterners and northern Europeans. Although they were still
considered 'barbarian' at the end of the 4th century, as evidenced by
Imperial decrees of AD 397 and 399 (Cod. Theod. XIV, 10, 2-3), which
forbade their wear in Rome, their use by the army was already nearly
200 years old.
They could either be made like footed hose or tights, covering the
One of a pair of multicoloured whole leg including the foot; or like the Celtic model, looser and
socks in coarse wool, from reaching the ankle, and ecured by a waist belt (perizoma, Lydus, De Mag.
Egypt, 4th-6th centuries. The II, 13). The Grue mosaic from Carthage, of the Honorian period, shows
colours are red, green, orange
army officers in Africa wearing a new type, wider than the preceding
and blue; dimensions are 11 'loin
from heel to toe, 8'1, in from heel
kind and similar in shape to modern trousers; they have noticeable
to top. (Museo Egizio, Florence, pleats, parallel-sided legs, and the lower edge is cut obliquely from
inv.12920j instep to heel. Similar trouser are worn by three soldiers on the
Carrand Diptych. It is difficult to say if this so-called 'elephant' foot'
fashion was adopted from the Easterners, as Parthian and assanian
models suggest. It passed from the Romans to the Vandals, and through
them to the 6th century Eastern army. Straight-legged trousers, open in
the lower part and decorated with a wide band at the bottom, are worn
by barbarian kings in the Barberini Diptych, probably representing
the triumph of Justinian and Belisarius over the Africans, Vandals
and Persians.
Some 6th century ivories from Alexandria, probably representing
milites of the officium and soldiers of the numeri under the Dux Thebaidae,
show the transformation as complete: very wide trousers ending in a
flounce of different cloth. This was the general fashion for 6th and 7th
century Eastern troops in Egypt and the Near East. Sometimes they are
decorated with broad lozenge-pattern embroidery. The charging
Roman armoured cavalryman on the 6th century Isola Rizza silver dish
wears tubular trouser, though more fitted to the leg (see MAA 150,
page 6). His Germanic opponents are wearing highly embroidered
'elephant'S foot' trousers; they are probably Gothic warriors, wearing
the prototype of the trousers later widely distributed in the Roman army.
Suidas describes this costume as Persian, referring to the trousers,
like the rest of the costume, as sarabara (Persian = sarafan, sciarvari). In
the East, trouser and e pecially 'tights' were called anaxyrides; they were
of various colours, as attested in the 2nd century in the scolii of Dio
18 Chrisostomus: 'the anaxyrides, as the superior brakia of various colours
are called, began to be called this from the highly decorated leg bands ...
the anaxyrides [are] called in the popular language toubia'. In the 5th
century they were also called by Hesychios jiminalia, and defined as
'barbaric dress of the feet'. Hesychios (Lexicon I 19-190-896) calls the
wide trousers derived from Parthia and Persia sarabara or sarabaUa,
though Procopius does sometimes use the term anaxyrides. They could
be made of different cloths depending on the season, of different
colours and variously ornamented with checkered, rhomboidal,
flowered or circular patterns, often in a band running down to the feet.
Trousers could be more or less loose, extending to the instep or
tucked inside the footwear. In the latter cases it is difficult to tell if they
are tights or trousers, but normally vertical pleats indicate true trousers
folded to fit into the boots.
From the 5th century, trousers became more fitted to the leg, and
were laced below the stomach and secured at the sides by a strap
(Historia Arcana, 1,20: 'the strap ... which fastened the anaxyrides'). But
they could also be simple tubes: Gayet found a body with 'voluminous
linen trousers, which consisted ... of two single, unconnected tubes'. At
the bottom these trousers were covered by gaiters, but reached to the
ankle and were tied there by a string. We can assume that the anaxy·rides
were normally worn with the campagus (see below), as in the Ravenna
mosaics, while the wider trousers were worn over boots and shoes,
covering the instep (even though, towards the end of the 6th century,
Painting of the heel of a
they were worn inside short boots). campagus shoe from a 6th
A third type of garment still in use were the so-called jem(Jralia, short century grave at Achmim-
trousers used in combination with leggings or tibialia (StJeronymus, t:p. Panopolis. The black leather is
LXIV). In the Western army they were used particularly by infanu-ymen. partly covered with a second
layer in gold and red - on the
In the Sta Maria Maggiore mosaic a soldier of Herod is shown wearing
heel a red cross on a gold
short white breeches, dark blue leggings and caligae or campagi reticulati ground, on the sides a red leaf
on hi feet (see Plate A2). This seems to be a fashion that survived in the with gold detail. (ex Forrer,
West, as hown in the Ashburnham Pentateuch, probably produced in courtesy DAI)
Africa or Roman Spain at the beginning of the
7th century. Similar trousers covering the leg to
the knee, but of Persian type, are called skeleai
in the Hesychios Lexicon. A specimen from
Pan opolis was actually preserved in Dusseldorf
before World War II: they were knee- length bracae
of linen interwoven with red wool.
The column of Arcadius provides evidence for
the use by officers and infanu-ymen of jemoralia in
combination with tibialia, and an interesting figure
of a mounted official is seen in the Renaissance
'Freshfield' drawing n.37 of the Column of
Theodosius. In the 6th century Rossano Codex
officers wear short pants, but slightly larger and
Witllout eitller leggings or shoes.

Socks
The excavations at Antinoopolis and Achmim-
Pan opolis recovered socks for both milital-Y and
civilian use. From Antinoopolis, a fine rough wool
specimen was in bands of green, red, blue and 19
 orange. From Panopolis other preserved specimens are calf length, with
a string around the upper edge for fastening. Stockings of woven
material were found on a body at Antinoopolis, under linen u"ousers
and gaiters: they are quite rare, as socks made by single-needle knitting
are more common. Schmidt found black and green socks for
cavalrymen; and in the 'horsemen's graves' Gayet recovered calf-length
examples of wool, of linen with a green wool sole, and of green wool
with a yellow tip.

Shoes and boots

Closed calcei - ankle boots - were still used throughout the 5th-6th
centuries. Pointed, nailed calcei are attested for Germanic Equites Batavi
levies stationed in the Theodosian barrack at Arras during the 4th and
5th centuries, where 40 specimens were found. The e should be the
'hypodemata'mentioned by Procopius in the passage quoted above about
the hoes retained by sub-Roman laeti. A similar specimen comes from
Aquileia; and others from Panopolis show a highly decorated surface,
often with incised lines. Some sources similar show boots with lacing
across the open instep and ankle (see Plate B2).
A particular form was the calceus equestTes for cavalrymen. Examples
were found in the 'horsemen's graves' at Antinoopolis; of black leather
and reaching to the bottom of the calf, these had laces passing through
punched holes, though one specimen had a leather fastening su"ap
around the ankle (see Plate A3).
The Stmtegilwn (B, XII, 1) provides evidence for the use of Gothic
shoes; for the infantry the hypodemata had thick soles studded with a few
small nails, broad toes, plain stitching, and were fastened with no more
than two clasps. These campaign shoes are well represented in Egyptian
TlNo fragments of 5th century
ivories, e.g. the soldiers on the Cathedra of Maximianus. Longer boots
black leather ca/cei survived in or greaves were not considered advisable for footsoldiers on the march.
the Attila destruction level at The kampagion or campaf5US, a low military shoe made of wool or felt,
Aquileia; they still have the left the upper instep uncovered and enclosed the toes and heel only. It
holes for laces, and a part of
was fastened either with a buckled strap or leather thongs. Already in use
the nailed surface of the sole.
(Aquileia, Museo Nazionale
by the 4th century, it was produced in all qualities for use by anyone from
Romano, courtesy Dr Maselli the elite to common soldiers and civilians. It is described by Lydus (De
Scotti) Mag., 1,17): 'a black shoe, like a sandal, completely open but covering the
heel by means of a small tongue and the toes at the
front; laces are drawn from both sides of the
instep, down to the toes; they join over and fasten
the foot, in such a way that the shoe is hardly
visible'. These shoes were associated with leggings
of cloth or leather, and a low shoe attached by
lacing carried up around the ankle had been
called campagia reticulatasince the 3rd century. The
mo aics of Sta Maria Maggiore show that they were
still used by the 5th century Western army.
Higher boots were widely used by officers, and
black boots (melanpedila) may have been typical
for cavalrymen. A 5th century letter from Arsinoe
speaks of Armenian boots (kalikia armenika).
ormally officers wore far more elegant boots
20 than common soldiers, typically calf-length, open-
laced cothurni. We have a literary reference to the boots (ocreae) of a dux The 5th-7th century graves at
of the African army: they were of red-purple leather with gold laces and Achmim-Panopolis revealed,
as well as campagi and ca/cei,
ornamented with gold and gems (Corippus,Joh., IV, 491-500: 'he wears
these boots in ornamented
on the calves boots, of Parthian leather wrapped with much gold ... red- leather. "TYpically they have
purple ... with gems and artwork'). This type must be similar to the broad legs for easy fitting,
boots worn by the general in the Barberini Diptych, or in the upturned toes, soft leather soles
Hippolytus mosaic from Madaba; and such boots - although without and no built-up heel. The highly
ornamented red goatskin boot,
the gems - were recovered from Antinoopolis.
second left - with a yellow-on-
'Wearing purple boots' was synonymous with being an Emperor. white leather decorative section
Since the time of Claudius the Goth, the Emperors wore garments and at the top of the shaft, and
shoes ornamented with precious stones (Lydus, De Mag., II, 4). The transverse folds on the instep -
tzanca or tzaggia, red-purple leather footwear, were of oriental origin and is exceptional; it also has a
heavy cow-leather outer sole,
perhaps derived originally from boots worn by the Tzani people of the
and a reinforced heel. (ex
Caucasus. This type of boot was also worn in battle; in AD 625 the Frauberger-Forrer, courtesy DAI)
Emperor Heraclius was recognized by his 'true purple(alethina) boots'
while fighting against the Persians at the Saros bridge (Theophanes
p.314). Theophanes uses the word alhetinon to indicate boots in violet,
amethyst or hyacinth-purple colour - the most expensive dye.
Large leather boots were also discovered by Cledat on a Coptic
mummy in the desert necropolis of Bawit. They were formed of three
parts sewn together, two for the foot and one for the leg. The Liber
Pontificalis (cap. 70) confirms that goatskin was used for zancae. Another
version found at Antinoopolis were of a different type, almost covering
the calf. In addition Gayet mentions high boots of brown or red colour,
often finely decorated with ribbed leather on the instep, dyed edges,
small gilded iron ornaments and silk applique. In the Louvre is still
preserved a silk fragment once sewn to the edge of a very fine red-
coloured boot (inv. 29394). Of very tight shape, the boots still preserved
on the mummy of the 'Byzantine horseman' in Lyon Museum end below
the knee, with double seams forming a trimming. High boots decorated
with incised lines were recovered from the Panopolis necropolis.

Leggings and gaiters

From the Eastern peoples the Romans adopted the use of leggings,
which soon became a distinctive sign of military status. They were called
toubia in the East and tibialia or ocreae in the West (Isidorus, Orig. XIX,
34,5: 'ocreae are the leggings called tibialia, which cover the legs'). Their 21
 use by both cavalry and infantry is attested in
pictorial sources and confirmed by archaeology
from Antinoopolis. Toubion derives from the Latin
tuba; originally a simple trouser, it described
successively a kind of greave, leggings, or
stockings pulled up over trousers, sometimes
fastened by simple or more elaborate lacing at the
ankle and below the knee. (Toubion was also the
term sometimes used for a true leather boot,
lined with wool in winter.)
The cloth leggings were sewn to form a tube
like a trouser leg; in Vulgar Latin the term tubrugi
biTrei indicated red cloth leggings, which were later
copied by the Lombards (Paulus Diaconus, N,
22). John of Ephesus (III, 28) describes a
functionary of the Praeses of Edessa as wearing
leggings in combination with low shoes, called
ealeei viatorii - i.e. travel shoes. It is noteworthy that
these tibialia are described as jJellieeea, i.e. made of
fur, and that the man also wore a hooded garment
for travelling, a virronikion (from Latin, bYTrl.ls).
The surviving specimens from Antinoopolis
Leggings found by Carl Schmidt conform more to the type visible on Palmyrene and Sassanian
at Antinoopolis. This pair are of monuments, and specimens of two differing types survive in the Louvre
napped woollen fabric, solid red,
and Berlin, both reaching above the knee. One type was of coloured
with silk trim at the top edge,
and a small heart-shaped
wool with the lower part imitating ilk decoration; the Lyon specimen is
applique at the outside top (left). decorated with a probably Sassanian battle scene. The second type was
The tapering tubes are sewn in wool clOtll but the lower leg was ornamented witll a broad sewn-on
at the inside lower part only. silk band witll Sassanian motifs. Complete silk covering was probably
The average height of those
reserved for senior officers, and figurative sources show some leggings
recovered, from ankle to top,
was just under 28in, with a
highly decorated with human figures, real and mytllical animals and
circumference of between battle scenes, to match the rest of the costume. Examples of decorated
c.20in and 12 inches. (Staatliche leggings are visible on carved Coptic panels representing guardsmen
Museum, Berlin, but lost during surrounding the Virgin Mary.
World War II; inv.9925, courtesy
The preserved specimens allowed the German scholars to
MBK, Berlin)
reconstruct tlle fastening to tlle leg; the outside upper extension
allowed the legging to be hitched to a waist belt or cord under the tunic
by means of a loop. Sometimes the leggings were worn in combination
with low footwear or karnpagia (De Ger., I, 423) - see above - thu
forming the so-called karnjJotouba.

Sashes
Senior officer and Emperors are often represented still wearing on the
breast the scarlet zona rnilitaris, a scarf or ash of silk or fine linen tied
around the cuirass with the so-called knot of Hercules. The expression
secare zonarn Oohn of Ephesus, VI, 2) meant to degrade a senior
commander; in AD 573 the olJieialis Acacius cut the zona from the breast
of the Magister Militurn per Orientern Marcianus, signifying his removal
from command of the troops besieging isibis.
A sash of rank was also called a loros, this was a long embroidered cloth,
sometimes ornamented with precious stones. In special ceremonies some
22 guardsmen and senior officers wore the loros fan-folded and wrapped
around the body (Lydus, De Mag., II, 2) like a shawl, in the shape of the
trabea, the last survival of the ancient toga. Wide sashes were also worn in
the same way as protection against cold.

Headgear
Caps used by the army are found in literary, artistic and archaeological
sources. Figurative sources of the 5th century still confirm the use by
soldiers on active service of the cylindrical 'Pannonian' cap, the so-
called pileus pannonicus mentioned by Vegetius (I, 20); derived from the
Persian tiara, this might be of felt or napped wool, smooth or shaggy, low
or tall. In the Eastern Empire various terms were used, including tiara,
and kamelaukion, which was used throughout the Byzantine period for
hats in general. The Phrygian-shaped cap is widely shown in figurative
sources. The 'horsemen's graves' at Antinoopolis yielded a felt 'helmet'
with plumes, together with a blue Iranian cloak decorated with silk
brocade, leather boots and a red and green wool coat, all associated with
a scabbarded sword. Gayet believed that this cap might be worn as
padding under a helmet; however, plumed caps are shown worn by the
factional militia on the now lost column of Theodosius (Freshfield
drawings, n.24-25). Caps were sometimes replaced by or wrapped with
a phakeolis: a kind of turban, usually of linen, wound around the cap and
head in complex folds with an end falling to the shoulders as protection
from the sun. This would also have allowed the use of other headgear -
perhaps helmets - on top.
The Pentateuch of Tours shows soldiers, officers, governors and even
the pharaoh with the round cap called pileus or pilos in antiquity. These
were of conical, cylindrical or 'sugarloaf shape, as used since the earliest
times in Greece and Rome, and were made of felt, wool or leather. The
graves of Achmim-Panopolis revealed the use of embroidered caps,
entirely white, red, or violet with yellow lining; a cord allowed size Another legging from
adjustment at the brow. Antinoopolis; the bottom of the
grey-green woollen leg is faced
all round with a silk samite
Garments worn beneath armour panel, patterned with white
An anonymous writer of Justinian's time (De Re Militari, XVI, 20 ff.) and blue palmettes on a dark
describes among other items of Roman equipment the garment worn red ground. See Plate 01 for
under the cuirass by infantrymen. He refers to felt and leather armour reconstruction of such leggings
in use. (inv.9926, courtesy MBK,
worn by soldiers instead of metal, or used underneath metal a~our. The
Berlin)
use of 'arming doublets', and combinations of metal and 'soft armour',
was commonplace in medieval times, to protect the body from the metal
and from blunt trauma; so such garments are entirely logical for our
period. The author writes that armour 'should not be worn directly over
ordinary clothing, as some do, to keep down the weight, but over a
himation at least a finger thick.' These garments were not worn under
metal armour alone, but also under leather lamellar defences, when their
protective function took on more importance. A passage of Procopius
(BV, III, 23) mentipns Roman bodyguards preparing to fight first putting
on their imatia, then taking up their weapons.
Padded undergarments of this kind (imatia or peristithidia) are often
represented in pictorial sources with hanging fringes of pteryges at the
shoulders and abdomen. Such garments are still visible on many
monuments, as under the muscled leather cuirass worn by Palatini
infantry in the surviving fragments of the Theodosius column. The 23
 mosaics of Sta Maria Maggiore also show them finished off with double
layers of pteryges, so thick that the under-tunic is not visible. The material
of such strapwork fringes (kremasmata in medieval Greek) might have
been silk and coarse cotton stitched in layers, as in later periods. A good
example of a peristithidion worn by an infantryman is visible on a
terracotta plaque from Vinicko Kale; and decorated fragments of similar
garments have been found in the Ballana graves, entirely in red leather,
including fragments of pteryges.

GUARD UNIFORMS
The splendid dress and equipment of Imperial guards and retinues had
The 6th-7th century Vinicko
Kale plaques represent the
a degree of true uniformity, characterized by white with gold
Danubian army of the Emperor ornamentation. For example, the 40 Candidati taken from the 6th Schola
Maurice. A general (left) wears a Palatina, who were always in close attendance on the Emperor (candidus
mantion fastened on the breast exercitus, Claudianus, De nuptiis Honarii, AD 398), wore white silk
by a round brooch, a sleeved
uniforms and a gold triple necklace (De Cer., I, 86, pp.391-392;
tunic reaching below the knee,
and perhaps cothurni boots like
Corippus,Just. 3, 161). The superior tunics of the Scholae Palatinaewere
those described by Corippus. of white linen (StJeronymus, np. 60, 9, 2) as a distinction from the red
The soldier seems to wear a or red-brown of other milites (Isid., Orig., XIX, 22,10); but Palatini
fabric or leather peristithidion as officers wore red or red-purple - StJeronymus writes of the noble young
mentioned in the anonymous De
officer Ausonius 'dressed in a red-purple tunic'.
Re Militari - see also Plate G3.
National Museum, Skopje,
The paragauda (Lydus, De Mag., I, 7) were applique cloth strips or sewn
inv.337-353-VI. (Drawing by borders in gold or silk thread, but the term was also used for complete
Graham Sumner) garments - a kind oflong-sleeved tunic (dalmatica manicata) of white silk,
ornamented with gold or
purple stripes worked with
decoration, and with gold
trim at the wrists and edges.
From the Histaria Augusta
(Probus, 4; Aurelianus, 15;
Claudius, 17) we know that
paragauda were decorated
with single, double or triple
lora or segmenta, and that
these indicated a graded
importance (Diocletian
edict XIX, 29). John of
Ephesus (II, IX) mentions
the use of paragaudis by
Imperial Cubicularii.
Guardsmen also wore
shorter versions with elbow-
length sleeves as over-tunics
or surcoats, e.g. those of
white linen worn by imp-
erial Candidati, and also by
the bodyguards of the
Magistri Militum (see Plate
A3). Gentiles (i.e. strangers,
24 (continued on fJage 33)
 THE FALL OF THE WEST, 5th CENTURY AD
1: Aetius, Magister Utriusque Militiae
2: Buccellarius, or miles of Placidi Valentiniani Felices
3: Hun of Aetius' bodyguard

3 2

.
 EASTERN ARMy' c.AD 425-475
-- 1: Biarchus of Cuneus Equitum
Scutariorum
2: Officer (Primikerios) in
Officium dress
3: Flammoularios of
Mattiarii luniores

B L _
IMPERIAL GUARDSMEN.
CONSTANTINOPLE. 6th CENTURY
1: Spatharios
2: Protector of Primoscutarii
3: Excubitor

c
 ,- ARMY IN EGYPT, c.AD 55D-BOO
1: Buccellarius of Dux Thebaidae's
bodyguard
2: Primikerios of Quinfa Macedonica
3: Flavius Macarius Isaccus,
adiutor of Justiniani

D
ARMY IN ITALY & AFRICA, 6th CENTURY
1: Eques of Primi Felices Justiniani
2: Papal guardsman
3: Officer of Ravenna Patrikios Obsequium

2 3

E
 ARMY IN SYRIA & PALESTINE, 6th-7th CENTURIES
1: Biarchus of Tertio Dalmatae Vexillatio Comitatensis
2: Soldier of Lykokranitai
3: Soldier of Vandali Justiniani

F
ARMY ON THE DANUBE, LATE 6th CENTURY
1 & 2: Soldier (phoideratos) and junior officer
(campidoctor) of Lanciarii Seniores
3: Senior officer (senator) of infantry

G
 THE TRIUMPH OF HERACLlUS, AD 629
1: Emperor Heraclius
2: Imperial somatofulax
3: Imperial doriphoros
2 3

H
 barbarians) served in some Scholae Palatinae of guard cavalry under the
Magister Officiomrn. Being Palatini, they had the rank of junior officers
(rnilites princitJales) and accordingly wore white surcoats as Candidati.
This surcoat is visible on the Madrid silver plate representing Theodosius
the Great.
The Scholae (scholarii-scholastici) are often referred to as chlarnydati and
palliati Oohn of Ephesus, II, XXXVII), i.e. wearers of the chlarnys or
pallium; the latter was a very rich court tabard. A precise reference to the
white cloaks worn by Domestikoi Protikt01-eS and members of the seven
Eastern Scholae Palatinae atJustinian 's triumphal ceremony of 11 August
559 is found in the Book of Ceremonies (I, pA9S). The reference to the
white cloak for the Tribunoi shows us that ancient traditions in the
Roman Army continued throughout this period.
The anaxarydes of guardsmen are shown as white in figurative
monuments. The Imperial Excubitores wore precious cothmni boots of the
old style (Cor., Just., III, 169). Shining carnpagi, sometimes adorned with
gems, were also distinctive symbols of the Imperial bodyguards (see
Plate CI).

SELECT CATALOGUE OF EVIDENCE FOR

THE COLOUR OF MILITARY GARMENTS
The range of iconographic and written sources from the late Empire is
vast, and precious artefacts recovered from desert graves confirm ome
of the artistic sources. However, shortage of space in a book of this ize
limits us to citing only a very small selection; a few others are identified
in the illustration captions and plate commentaries.

A mosaic in the Basilica of

Moses, Mt Nebo, Jordan, dating
from AD 530-531, includes this
cavalryman; he wears a light
brown tunic, red cloak, and
broad white trousers with yellow
trim at the bottom of the legs.
The figure can perhaps be
identified with the barbarian
foederati mentioned in Nov.lust.
103, 3, under the orders of the
Dux Pa/aestinae in AD 536.
(Studium Biblicum
Franciscanum) 33
 (1) Fresco, Church of Sts Paul and John, Rome; c.AD 395
Soldier in red cloak; others in white tunics and cloaks, red-purple
Pannonian caps. Probably represent Palatini garrisoned in Rome.

(2) Dome mosaics, the Rotunda, Thessaloniki, Greece; c.AD 400

oldiers wear belted tunics with tight-fitting sleeves, under chlamys cloaks
with broad purple tablia, and gold 'crossbow' brooches. One tunic is
off-white, tablia and orbiculi purple and gold. Two cloaks are brown, the
other white, with blue, gold, green and violet tablia. Black campagi, white
socks or anaxyrides.

(3) Mosaics, Argo and Thebes, Greece; 5th century

See flammoularios recon tructed as Plate B3. The ' ea ons' mo aic in
Argos Museum al 0 show hunters wearing short off-white or brown
Mosaic from the Church of
aliculae (hooded capes) decorated with red and blue clavi, but with
AI-Khadir, Madaba, Jordan, hanging sleeves in oriental style, over white tunics and red trousers.
c.AD 530. This soldier wears Footwear includes high black boots, and pointed brown boots exactly as
a red Phrygian cap, a natural- those from Panopolis, worn under or over bracae, campagi raeticulati, or
coloured tunic of Gothic shape,
brown laced cothurni.
and wide ochre trousers, both
the latter apparently with white
embroidered decoration. Note (4) Mosaics from North Africa, late 4th-6th centuries
the Christian cross on his (a) Grue mosaic, Carthage Officers hunting, in natural linen-colour
shield, and the sword slung tunics, seem to be distinguished from servants by grey-white trousers;
from a baldric. One of the caps
one rider wears light purple fernoralia; cloaks are light purple and red-
represented on other figures
has long fluttering ribbons.
orange. (b) idem, worship scene Six cavalrymen in orange, yellow, red
(Studium Biblicum and grey-brown tunics with dark purple clavi and orbiculi; grey-brown
Franciscanum) military neck scarves (rnaphora); high or calf-length brown boots. (c)
Great hunt mosaic, Djemila Among bestiarii
uniformly equipped with decorated red leather
pectoraris (e.g. see Plate E3), a cavalryman wears a
green tunic with red clavi and orbiculi, a red-brown
sagum, high leather (?) leggings, and brown calcei
over green socks. (d) Qsar Lybia Among 50
mosaics executed after the Justinian reconquest
of Africa from tile Vandals, one represents a
cavalryman of the Libyi Justiniani in red tunic,
yellow cloak, white anaxyrides and black cothurni.

(5) Mosaics, Church of Sta Maria Maggiore,

Rome; AD 432-440
Among hundreds of Biblical military subjects of
relevance for the 5th century Western army
are: (a) Commanders - white tunics with gold
embroidered elements, or scarlet tunics with gold
segrnenta; that of Joshua shows red and black
chequers on its lower hem. Large squared gold
tablia upon dark purple cloaks; red or purple
trousers, where seen. One wears white tzaggia with
red laces and decorated with red gems; another,
silver boots with gold laces. (b) Infantry - red
and white tunics (distinction between Palatini
34 and Comitatenses?), respectively witll two yellow or
purple stripes at wrist; only white tunics show dark purple orbiculi and
tabulae. Red belts. (c) Cloaks mainly red or red-brown, but some yellow-
brown, green, green-blue, sea-blue, dark blue. (d) Infantry anaxyrides
green-brown or sky blue, some with red vertical band down front. One
soldier has wide white sarabara of Persian type, with red-brown vertical
frontal band; but his companion wears close-fitting white anax)lrid.es
inside black campagi. Femoralia are shown white or green, legging dark
blue. (e) Blue or brown calcei; black campagi; old-fashioned brown caligae.
White or natural wool socks often shown inside red-brown campagia
reticulata or open shoes. One cavalryman wears high white (felt?) boots.

(6) Decorated shield, Egypt; c.AD 450-475

Besides that described in MAA 390 as item 28 (p.23), a second has come
to light, decorated with a battle scene. An Imperial functionary in
officium costume has a knee-length long-sleeved pink tunic, dark brown
anaxyrides, and a dark brown or black chlamyswith purple tablion. Roman
oldiers wear knee-length pink tunics, grey anaxyrides, and black boots
with white laces; an archer has a pink tunic and blue-grey cloak. The
scene may represen t Florius, Comes Aegypti and Praefectus A ugustalis
under the Emperor Marcian (AD 450-457).

Mosaic from the Hippolytus

Room, Church of the Holy Virgin,
Madaba, Jordan; c.mid-6th
century. The officer wears a long
light blue chlamys fastened with
a round gold and red brooch;
the tunic seems to be an ochre-
brown sticharion with white
and purple clavi, orbiculi at the
shoulder, and segmenta at the
wrists. His elegant red cothurni
boots are lined with white.
Three other figures in this
mosaic wear broadly similar
costume in various different
colours, with red belts. The
discovery of the ancient Kastron
Mefa near Madaba might
possibly identify these figures
with the Equites Promoti
Indigenae mentioned as
stationed there in the Notitia
Dignitatum. (Studium Biblicum
Franciscanum) 35
 (7) Mosaics, Great Palace of Constantinople; turn of 5th-6th centuries
Imperial doriphoroi or hypaspistai in hunting scenes wear garments in
colours associated with Circus factions - a known practice among
Praetorians centuries before, and in later Byzantine times; this supports
the thesis of use of red, white, blue and green by military elites. Here the
dominant colour is green, which may derive from the date of execution
in c.AD 500, when the Emperor Anastasius was mainly supported by the
green faction. Other images include: (a) Rider with red tunic with purple
and white cuff stripes, white-fringed green cloak, and rough green
trousers tucked into brown boots. (b) Officer wearing metal armour over
white peristithidion with pteryges, dark green tunic, and black leggings tied
with yellow strapping. (c) Short knee-breeches in yellow and white, worn
by two do'rip/wroi, bound at the thigh by broad green and red
bands/garters. They have loose sleeveless leather pectoraris, decorated
with tablia and orbiculi in same colours as garters, and brooched at both
shoulders; short-sleeved undergarments of ochre and white; small cloaks
or wide sashes, white and green, are wrapped around the waist.

(8) Procopius of Caesarea, De Bello Vandalico; 6th century

The dress given to military leaders of Libyan tribal Symmachmii (BV, Ill,
XXV, 5-8) is described as: ' ...a silvered cap (Pilos) not covering the whole
head, but held in place like a crown by bands of silver; a kind of white
cloak (tribon) gathered at the light shoulder by a golden fibula, like a
Thessalian cape; a white embroidered chiton, and gilded boots (arbuli) .. .'
The term pilos must refer to a cylindrical cap, tightened by laces like the
Imperial /wmelauhion. The arbulli were high, strong boots for travel or
hunting, made of untanned leather and fastening at the front.

6th-7th century wall painting

from Chapel 3 of the Apollo
Monastery, Bawit, Egypt,
showing Saul dressed like a
senior officer of the Eastern
Empire. His white tunic is
decorated with purple clavi,
roundels on the shoulders, and
cuff stripes; his purple chlamys
is also decorated, and he wears
a yellow waist sash. This
supports a description by Lydus
of the costume of Patrikioi.
36 (Drawing by Graham Sumner)
 A 6th-7th century wall painting
from Chapel 37 at Bawit shows
soldiers and servants hunting.
Right, a military servant in a
green tunic with prominent dark
green decoration at the neck,
shoulders, cuffs and hem;
patterned trousers, and
enclosed shoes. Left, the lower
part of an officer; note the
pferyges of a peristithidion
garment worn under his cuirass,
and below them a pinkish tunic,
edged white. Folds show that
his legs are not bare but clad in
tight-fitting pinkish anaxyrides
tucked into brown boots.
(ex Prof Falko Daim book,
see Biblio)

(9) Mosaic, Church of St Vitale, Ravenna; AD 532-547

The garments of two of the guardsmen escorting the Emperor Justinian
are visible. (a) Tunic and shield as Plate C2. (b) Similar, but green tunic,
ornamental bands and cuff stripes in gold. Both wear white anaxyrides
in black campagia; and display the jewelled gold collar of their ordo
(probably Protectores Primoscutarii). (c) In the same mosaic are two
Imperial officiales of Patrician rank in very similar but differently
ornamented costumes, the second possibly representing Belisarius. His
white chlamys, pinned by a gold 'crossbow' brooch, has a squared purple
tablia at the breast. His white paragauda displays at the shoulder a
squared dark purple and white panel; white trousers are worn inside
black campagia. The shoulder decorations could be an indication of
military rank; if this man can indeed be interpreted as Belisarius, then
the large squared applique could be the sign of a Magister Militum.

(10) Stobi frescoes, Vardar valley, Macedonia; 6th century

Fragmentary Justinian period frescoes from near Skopje. Tunics and
cloaks are white, the latter fastened on the breast by a round brooch.
Some figures are bareheaded; some have red Phrygian caps, one a low
turban of pinkish colour - perhaps the first representation of the
fJhakeolion mentioned in the sources. Segmenta on the cuffs may be marks
of rank. The garments represented suggest identification as soldiers of
the Magister Militum per Tllyricum.

(ll) Mosaics from Jordan:

(a) Church of the Deacon Thomas, Ayoun Mousa, Mt Nebo; c.AD
500-550 Limitanei of local garrison hunting. An archer wears a short off-
white tunic, tied up for shooting, cut diagonally on the front by a yellow
border and witl1 the left front overlapping the right. Tight yellow-orange 37
 From the same damaged
painting at Bawit, two soldiers
are represented with natural
linen and off-white tunics with
(probably) T-shaped trim and
red-purple clavi; the trousers are
green and ochre respectively,
and the shoes black. Note the
small black lines representing
the pendants of composite belts.
The painting may represent men
of the detachment of the Scytae
Justiniani detailed to protect the
convent of Baullos (Bawit) since
the time of Justinian (Papyrus
Grenf II, 95). (ex Prof Falko Daim
book, see Biblio)

anaxyrideswith white-black chequered decoration; light brown calceiwith

open 'fingers'. A spearman wearing a linen armilausion decorated with
red clavi and orbiculi shows an interesting detail: the back of the tunic is
knotted, emulating the old fashion of 'bunching' the neck. (b) The Old
Diakonikon, Mt Nebo; AD 530 Military figures hunting with spears and
shields. One has a Phrygian cap (orange with a red su'ipe), a Gothic
tunic (red with dark green embroidery at neck and cuffs only); wide
light red-brown trousers, edged at the bottom in black or dark green
decorated with mall white circles, over short red boots. One of two
cavalrymen shows evident Germanic origin, being similar to Vandal
mosaics at Carthage. He wears a white Gothic tunic, with wide gold
embroidery on the lower hem and light brown segrnenta on the sleeves;
a dark green sagion; wide orange trousers, embroidered at the bottom in
black and white, and red boots. (c) Martyr Theodore chapel, Madaba,
c.AD 562 A soldier hunting a lion shows an interesting detail: the skirt
of his sleeved white tunic is tied up with knots, for freedom of
movement, and under it a light kamision is tied up in the same way.
(d) Chapel of Suwayfiyah, c.AD 550-600 A partial image of an archer
shows a white tunic edged at neck and cuffs with red and white lozenge
decoration, strikingly similar to original specimens found in Egypt.

(12) Wall paintings and fr~scoes from Egypt; 6th-7th centuries

(a) Hunter or soldier, Chapel 18, Bawit Long-sleeved knee-length white
tunic with red T-shaped trim, white trousers, composite belt set,
enclosed shoes. (b) Two angels, Chapel 3, Bawit Represented as
Imperial guardsmen; long white paragauda decorated with gold clavi,
orbiculi on lower leg, segmenta on cuffs; gold taenia headband; off-white
anaxyrides tucked into ilver boots. (c) David armoured before Saul,
idem Under lamellar armour he wears a pinkish-red tunic, and high
yellow boots. (d) Goliath, idem Fully armoured; pink-red peristithidion
with attached !Jteryges visible under muscled cuirass; pink-red cloak,
linen anaxyrides, green boots. (e) Four cavalrymen, Chapel 26, Bawit All
have T-shaped tunic trim. (1) Green tunic, red-purple trim, lower edge
black/purple with pink roundels; white trousers; white cloak, red tablion.
(2) White tunic, grey (purple?) ornaments; white trousers, black
leggings, brown boots; cloak with red tablion and black spots. (3) Only
38 red toubia decorated in white, and white tunic with black Phrygian work,
are visible. (4) White garment embroidered in red and white, light
brown cloak; light green trousers (leggings ?) outlined red over second,
white pair; black boots identical to specimens found at Panopolis. (f)
Saints as two cavalrymen, panel from Bawit Tunics (off-white, ochre)
with T-shaped blue-green decoration showing roundels; cloaks (ochre,
brown); off-white trousers, black boots. The 'Byzantine horseman'
found by Gayet (Musee Guimet) was dressed in this way. (g) Herod's
soldiers, frescoes, Abu-Hennis sanctuary Long-sleeved white or red-
brown tunics with red-purple T-shaped trim; yellow-ochre trousers;
guards with helmets, executioners bare-headed - distinguishing Roman
guardsmen from Gothic or Asiatic mercenaries? (h) Military saints,
paintings, Kellia (modern Qocur el-Izeila) Three (Kom 14) have yellow
and brown tunics, muscled leather armour, thoracomacus with two or
three rows of pteryges; purple cloak, large brooch on right shoulder; high
black boots. St Menas (Kom 219) has natural linen cloak sprinkled with
white flowers; long-sleeved red-pink tunic with clavi, O'rbiculi, yellow cuffs;
pteryges below waist suggest rare example of thO'racomacus entirely of cloth
and decorated on the breast like the usual Coptic tunics.

(13) Mosaics, Church of St Demetrios, Thessaloniki; 5th-7th centuries

(a) Earliest mosaics destroyed 1917, but 1906 watercolours show
important details. Pattern visible on purple tablion continues in lighter
shadows on white surface of chlamys, indicating overall woven pattern.

A 6th-7th century painting

in Chapel 17 at Bawit shows
St Sisinnios as a Roman
cavalryman. Over an off-white
long-sleeved zostarion tunic
he seems to wear a short
arme/ausion with elbow-length
sleeves, heavily trimmed in the
usual T-shape with gold, pinkish-
red and white 'Phrygian work'
embroidery. The orbiculi on the
skirt are pinkish-purple edged
with gold. His white cloak has a
squared reddish-purple tablion
on the chest, and is pinned
at the right shoulder with a
'crossbow' brooch. A red belt
fastens the tunic. His linen
trousers in the shape of Persian
sarabara are decorated with
similar embroidery at the ankles,
over black boots. (Drawing by
Graham Sumner) 39
 Tunic similar, with red floral design, rhomboidal decoration on tablia
at shoulders and thighs, segmenta at wrists. (b) Other 5th century
survivals show simplified colours, including white chlamys lightly
decorated with dark flowers, blue tablion with lighter embroidery;
white tunic, rhomboidal white decoration on dark tablia, squared red
shoulder panel bearing double white circle surrounded by points; red
belt. (c) Mosaic of AD 629-634 shows white cloak patterned with small
flowers, dark blue tablion with red flowers; tunic has white
embroidered angel on squared red-purple shoulder panel, white
circles on cuff segmenta; detailed red leather belt, gold buckle.

(14) Clothing finds from Antinoopolis, Egypt; 6th-7th centuries

The inventory includes: (a) c.32 riding coats found by Gayet and
Schmidt, though hundreds of other fragments now dispersed point to
almost another 50. Main colours red-purple (10), blue-green (13) and
green. They are trimmed with silk brocade of various patterns and
colours, e.g. blue with yellow lions, blue with white and brown birds, etc.
(b) Cavalry tunics following Gothic and Persian fashion, with woollen
tablet-woven trim, or silk brocade stripes embroidered in blue, yellow
and red. (c) Linen Coptic tunics embroidered with orbiculi, clavi and
tablia; patterns of e.g. small monochrome flowers. (d) Cloaks in purple-
dyed linen with blue wool lining; brocades of small red-brown flowers.
(e) Leggings of grey-green felted cloth edged with silk brocade - red
tendrils and geometrical patterns on blue background. (f) Woollen
socks dyed black. (g) Officer's belt in yellow leather. (h) Officer's
cothumi in brown leather. (i) Men's caleei in brown leather. Various
metallic fittings were also found, e.g. buckles in gold/silver alloy and
bronze, and iron fibulae.

(15) Two Viennese papyri from Egypt; 7th century

Recently published, these attest to the use of 'Bulgarian' belts and
clothes of 'Hunnic' types, i.e. the Avar pattern tunics provided for the
cavalry in the Stmtegikon. Note that 'ounnikon' was employed as an
adjective for silk cloth (Evagrius, 6, 21), perhaps reflecting the
preference (BG VIII, 19, 16) of Huns in Roman service for fine
decorated clothes. The list of 'Hunnic' garments includes elbow-length,
pure silk with figurative motifs in nut-brown; elbow-length 'following the
Hun fashion'; and elbow-iength with purple appliques.

(16) Encaustic (wax) portraits on linen and icons on wood of military

saints, Egypt; 5th-7th centuries
Hundreds of these survive. Military icons were displayed in army camps.
The most striking example is one from the Sinai Monastery,
representing Sts Sergius and Bacchus as 6th/7th century Roman
officers. Each wears a white chlamys with dark brown tablion, and a red
chiton Witll gold shoulder bands; neck torques set with three gems classify
them as Imperial officers or guardsmen.

(17) Codex miniatures, 5th-7th centuries

(a) Quedlinburg Itala codex, AD 425, Italy Roughly contemporary with
Sta Maria Maggiore mosaic (item 5 above) and in similar artistic style.
40 Generals in red chlamys, red anaxyrida and cloth-lined boots; white
under-cuirass garment decorated with purple segmenta on the pteryges.
(b) Codex Vergilius Romanus, 5th century, Britain, Gaul or Italy?
Recently proposed theory of British origin would suggest a unique Mosaic from Church of St
representation of sub-Roman warriors of Arthurian times. Richly gold- Demetrios, Thessaloniki,
Greece, associated with the
embroidered white paragaudia worn by officers with yellow, orange and
third siege of the city by the
brown Phrygian caps (cf use of Phrygian caps by Romano-British Slavs at the beginning of the 7th
soldiers from 4th century mosaic at Low Ham Villa, Somerset - MAA century; the saint is depicted as
390, item 29, p.23). Brown tunics with red trim; sagula orange, red- a high Imperial officer. His white
purple, red-brown, red and green; all the brown and mauve anaxyrides chlamys is decorated overall
with gold rhomboids, and a
are decorated with small orbiculi and lines on the front - found
red-purple tablion bears white
elsewhere only on the Ravenna mosaics. (c) Codex Rossanus rhomboids; the inside of the
Purpureus, 6th century, Constantinople Among a rich variety of cloak is light blue with a bottom
military uniforms, the tunic colours of Imperial semeiophoroi follow edge band of the same pattern.
those of the Circus factions; moreover, the white tunic is linked with The light brown tunic has dark
blue or purple panels at
the blue, and the red with the green: in medieval Byzantium the white
shoulder and lower leg with
and blue factions were opposed to the red and green, and their militia white floral, Christian and
gave rise to two different regiments, the Teichistai and the Noumera, geometrical patterns. (Drawing
from the end of the 7th century. (d) Genesis of Vienna, 6th century, by Andrea Salimbeti)
Syria or Constantinople? The Melchisedec
image wears high red-purple boots with pearls
on the edges; these tzangia are the unique
representation of Imperial boots described by
Theophanes as worn in battle by Heraclius. (e)
Ashburnham Pentateuch, 6th-7th century
Perhaps a rare source from the orth Mrican
provincia reconquered by Justinian (though
some scholars disagree, so the identification of
figures with units listed in the sources after the
reconquest is problematical). Many types of
troops and commanders are illustrated, some
in armour, in tunics of many colours, and some
with cylindrical caps and legwear which can be
associated with other sources. Some tunics
have trim at the lower edge, and/or two
segmenta at the wrists; some trousers are of
Gothic style, with embroidery at the ankles.
Most striking is that very few tunics and cloaks
are decorated. (f) Rabula Gospel, 7th century,
Syria Preserved in Biblioteca Laurenziana,
Florence. Guardsmen wear pinkish paragauda
embroidered in gold; an executioner has a
red tunic, green trousers and off-white fasceolae
as mentioned by Paulus Diaconus, tucked into
brown calcei; a centenarius wears a red tunic,
white sarabara, light purple leggings and
black cothurni; other soldiers display typical
Persian costume; and a senior officer has a red
tunic, lamellar gold armour, violet chlamys,
white fasceolae and brown cothurni - as does
the general in the contemporaneous codex
of the Syrian Orthodox Church of MarJacques
de Sarug. 41
 A series of 7th century bronze
statuettes from Egypt and Asia
Minor depict typical late 6th
century tunics (though note
example with vertical fluted
effect), with broad T-shaped
trim around the neck, along the
shoulders and down the front to
the waist, and composite belts
with pendants. The hairstyle
is what used to be called a
'pageboy bob'. (ex Prof Falko
Daim book, see Biblio)

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
Antolini, L., L'ipogeo di Santa Maria in Stelle (Verona, 1995)
Bielajev, .M., 'Decoration of late-Roman and early-Byzantine tunics',
in Seminanum Kondakovianum (Prague, 1926) - Russian text
Cledat,j., 'Le Monastere et la necropole de Baouit', in MIFAO XII
(Cairo, 1904)
Daim, E, Die Awaren am Rand der Byzantinische Welt (Innsbruck, 2000)
Daremberg-Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques et romaines (Paris).
Dawn Vukson-Van Beek, The Basics of Byzantine Dress c.1000 AD, website
created by Gryphon Design, http://www.gryph.com/byzantine/dress.htm
Emery, W.B., The Royal Tombs of Ballana and Qustul (Cairo, 1938)
Franchi de Cavalieri, P., 'I Santi Quaranta Martiri di Sebaste' - 'Come
andavano vestiti i milites dell'Adparitio', 'Dei SS Gioventino e
Massimino' - in Note agiografiche VII-IX (Rome, 1928, 1953)
Forrer, R., Achmim-Panopoli:J, Die Graeberund Textilfunde (Strasburg, 1891)
Frauberger-Forrer, Antiken und Fruhmittelaterlichen Bekleidungen aus
Achmim-Panopolis (Strasburg, 1898)
Fluck & Voglesang Eastwood, Riding costume in Egypt (Leiden-Boston,
2004)
Gayet, A., 'L'exploration des necropoles Greco-Byzantines d'Antinoe'
in AMGXXX (1902); 'Fouilles d'Antinoe, 1904-1905' in Catalogue
sommaire (Paris, 1905)
Hottenroth, E, Tmchten, Haus, Feld und Kriegsgeratschaften der Volker alter
und neuer Zeit (Stuttgart, 1887-1892)
Houston, M.G., Ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine Costume and
Decoration (London, 1977)
Piccirillo, M., I Mosaici di Giordania (Rome, 1988); The Mosaics ofJordan
(Amman, 1993)
Ravegnani, G., Soldati di Bisanzio in eta Giustinianea (Rome, 1988); &
42 La corte di Giustiniano (Rome, 1989)
Rutschowscaya, M.H., Tissus Coptes (Paris, 1990)
Sheridan, GA, The Vestis Militaris Codex (Atlanta, 1998)
Talbot, R, The Great Palace of the Byzantine Emperors (Edinburgh, 1958)
Vallet-Kazanski, L'Armee Romaine et les barbares du llle au VIIe siecle
(Paris, 1993)
Ville, G., 'Recherches sur Ie costume dans I'Afrique romaine - Ie
pantalon'; & Fendri, M., 'Un vetement islamique ancien au Musee
du Bardo', in Africa, II (1965-1966)
Vitelli Istituto Papirologico, Antinoe 100 anni dopo (Florence, 1998)
Wulff/Volbach, Spatantike und Koptische Stoffe (Berlin, 1926)

Principal ancient sources:

Agathias, The Histories; Agnellus, Liber Pontificalis Ecclesiae Ravennatis;
Codinus Curopalates, De Officialibus Palatii Constantinopolitani;
Costantinus Porphyrogenitus, De Cerimoniis Aulae Byzantinae; Chronicon
Paschale, AD 284-628; Evagrius, Historia Ecclesiastica; Flavius Cresconius
Corippus, In laudem justini; idem, johannidos seu de bellis libycis libri VIII;
Fredegarius Scholasticus, Chronicum; Gregory of Tours, Historia
Francorum; Hesychios, Lexicon; ]ohannis Ephesini, Historiae Ecclesiasticae;
Isidorus of Seville (Isidori Hispaniensis Episcopi), Etymologiarum sive
Originum libri XX; Miracula Demetrii; George of Pisidias, Panegirici Epici;
Anonymous, Peri Strategias; Maurikios, Strategikon; Menander the
Protector, fragmenta; Paulus Diaconus, Historia Langobardorum; One statuette from Asia Minor is
Procopius of Caesarea, de Bello Persico, de Bello Vandalico, de Bello clearly a rare representation of
an iron or leather knee defence
Gothico, Historia Arcana, De Aedificiis; Suidas, Lexicon; Theophanes,
strapped over loose trousers -
Chronographia; Theophylact Simocatta, History note the folds above it. Such
defences are mentioned in De
Re Militaris, 27, 17-18. (ex Prof
Falko Daim book, see Biblio)

Details of the statuettes - rear

shoulder and waist, and front
of leg. Short femoralla trousers
are worn with boots and perhaps
leggings, but the details shown
in (c) are hard to interpret.
d (ex Prof Falko Daim book,
see Biblio) 43
 THE PLATES embroidered in blue-purple wool. The knee-length red linen
kamision worn beneath it is similarly embroidered; Gayet
A: THE FALL OF THE WEST, 5th CENTURY AD excavated bodies wearing such pairs of tunics in Egypt, and
A 1: Aetius, Magister Utriusque Militiae the decoration conforms to 5th century specimens at
This reconstruction of 'the Last of the Romans' shows the Camposanto. The decorated cloak is basically the simple
basic elements of the costume of barbarian auxiliaries now Roman paenula of heavy wool; this one is copied from the
adapted into the luxurious dress of senior commanders. The Sta Sabina door. For such garments the sources speak of
cloak is pinned with a gem-encrusted gold 'crossbow' fibula; gausapa, a weatherproof material rough on one side but
the sword belt has gold plates and large gems. The compact on the other. The loose-fitting trousers are also of
sticharion tunic and paludamentum are richly patterned with heavy wool, tucked into ca/cei equestres.
circled busts of Emperors, and rows of arcades filled with
full-length figures. The tight-fitting anaxyrides show an B: EASTERN ARMY, c.AD 425-475
embroidered orbiculus low at the left knee. Blue leather 81: Biarchus of the Cuneus Equitum
campagi shoes have small points behind the toes and Scutariorum
narrow straps with silver buckles. This Ostrogothic cavalryman's equipment is from latrus in the
A2: Imperial buccellarius, or miles of the Balkans, destroyed by the Huns between these dates.
Placidi Valentiniani FeUces Paintings from Silistra show a sagion cloak of this colour with
From the Sta Maria Maggiore mosaics, this figure may two red-purple tablia on the back. The scarlet tunic, from the
represent a member of the Imperial Buccel/arii sent to Italy Hermitage Museum, is in a wool-and-Iinen fabric, with light
by the Eastern Emperor Theodosius II, with Galla Placidia purple applique decorations in net-pattern 'Phrygian work'.
and his son Valentinian III, the new Emperor of the West. The boots are after a specimen from Aquileia.
Among them are represented Palatini and Comitatenses 82: Military officer (Primikerios) in Officium
units of the Italian Diocesis, and the Numerus Placidi dress
Va/entiniani Fe/ices. The long-sleeved tunic of heavy wool is The tunica militaris linea auroc/avata paragaudata is the
gathered by a typical military belt; and the trousers are short main garment worn by this senior officer of the Syrian army,
femoralia worn with cloth leggings or gaiters. The footwear perhaps from Antioch. It is richly decorated with gold
are either a survival of the old caligae, or campagia reticulata, thread around the forerarms, neck and lower edge, from
with thongs carried up around the ankle. They are worn over which gold semeia and clavi extend on the shoulders,
wool socks, which have a separate big toe. breast and skirt sides; squared tablia are stitched to the
A3: Hun of Aetius' bodyguard thighs. Paragauda decoration was characterized by
This Hun, as a guardsman of the Magister Militum, wears a segmenta forming four Greek gamma letters reversed and
linen paragauda podheres Le. with short sleeves (Lydus), contraposed. The internal lower edge of the cloak shows a

Detail of tunic segmentum -

decorative bordering or patch -
from Egypt, 4th-5th centuries
(compare with Plate A3). It is
woven in red wool and natural-
coloured linen, with details in
black, purple and green.
Subjects associated with
military garments usually
represent military, heroic or
hunting scenes, since hunting
was the soldier's favourite
exercise; we have shown Plate
B2 holding a hunting spear. (ex
Vollbach, Berlin Museum,
inv.6922, courtesy OAI)

OPPOSITE Ways of wearing

the riding coats found at
Antinoopolis (see Plate 01). Left
to right: open, with sleeves full
length; closed, with sleeves full
leng1h; closed, with sleeves
pushed up, the decorative
extensions displayed on the
backs of the hands; and a coat
with armpit openings through
which the arms pass, leaving
the sleeves hanging. (ex Malk
in Knauer, 2002; drawing by
44 Graham Sumner)
sewn-on decorative lining (limbus - Hesychios Lexicon, 0, the cothumus, a short boot laced or buckled to calf height.
2042). The cothumi are worn over a cloth lining or socks. Theophilact (VI, 2-6, 10-4) describes an Imperial guardsman
83: Flammoularios of the Mattiarii luniores dressed in bright clothing, and Corippus has men in a
Based on the 'Seasons' mosaic from Argos museum, he consular procession wearing scarlet tunics; both mention
holds a small vexillum with swallow-tails (f1ammou/a - Lydus, gold-fitted belts, clearly this composite type.
De Mag., I, 4). Under the cuirass and over his tunic he wears
two other garments. The first is a leather thoracomacus D: ARMY IN EGYPT, c.AD 550-600
faced with quilted felt (kentouk/on); its upper edge is just 01: BucceUarius of the Dux Thebaidae's
visible at the neck. The second is a silk and cotton bodyguard
peristithidion, from which hang double layers of thick This cavalryman, from the Bawit frescoes, is detailed after
pteryges at the shoulders and waist. Gayet's finds. The riding coat edged with silk brocade bands
is cut to overlap on the breast; the overlength sleeves hang
C: IMPERIAL GUARDSMEN, free. Under it he wears a linen tunic trimmed with wool or silk
CONSTANTINOPLE, 6th CENTURY bands at the cuffs, and in a T-shape (although hidden here)
C1: Spatharios at the neck, breast and prolonged on the shoulders. His
The Palatine guardsmen's elaborate decorative uniforms leggings (toubia) are hitched to a belt under the tunic and
varied between individuals and regiments (Cor., Just., III, worn over white trousers; copied from the lost specimen
164). This man carrying a spatha sword wears a white linen inv.9925 from Berlin, they are of red wool embroidered in silk
tunica ta/aris linea auroc/avata paragaudata for ceremonial at the lower legs in Sassanian style.
duty, heavily decorated with gold embroidery at the neck, 02: Primikerios of the Quintani
shoulder, cuffs and skirt. The ch/amys displays rich tab/ion, From the Cathedra of Maximianus, he wears the typical
woven in pure gold thread, decorated with red circlets zostarion for infantrymen; note the richly embroidered
enclosing birds, and red ivy leaves (mosaic, Church of St T-shape of decoration. His cloak is fringed at the edges;
Apollinaris, Ravenna, AD 549). A reference to his careful Bawit paintings show a red-orange colour, and the remains
hairstyle, held in place by a silver circlet (taenia), is found in of the fringed edge of a linen-and-wool cloak were preserved
the description of Narses by Corippus (Just., III, 223). before World War II in the Berlin Museum. Gayet found a
C2: Protector of Primoscutarii yellow leather belt in an officer's grave; belt fittings from
This man, from the St Vitale mosaic at Ravenna, wears a Egypt identify the Quinta Macedonica (Quintani, in military
scarlet paragauda with purple and gold embroidery. Note the slang) as the main kata/ogos in the Thebaides. Note his
pattern of gold arrowheads on the shoulder pieces, the skirt, wide Persian saravara trousers and hypodemata boots,
and the two stripes on the sleeves. Neck ornaments varied corresponding to those described in the Strategikon.
according to the different ordines of guardsmen; a wide 03: Flavius Macarius Isaccus, military adiutor
range of such maniakia or torques were worn both as military of the Justiniani
decorations and symbols of rank by officers, standard- Gayet found '20 men's mantles with splendid silk
bearers and guardsmen collectively termed torquati (Lydus, embroidery, many pairs of high quality leggings with green
De Mag., I, 47). The shield displays a gem-studded Christian background sprinkled with red medallions each enclosing an
CHI-RHO monogram. His shoes are black campagia. animal figure, ten pairs of leather wristlets with silk appliques
C3: Excubitor (winged bulls and birds, in Sassanian style), and boots'. A
According to Lydus (De Mag., I, 5) the Excubitores unit was corpse was also found buried with his writing instruments -
still equipped in imitation of the old Roman tradition. Created a leather case engraved with a warrior figure, and a bronze
in AD 468 by Leon I, by Justinian's reign it consisted of 300 pot sealed with leather - and a red oriental coat. Perhaps he
men recruited among the ferocious Isaurians. Corippus and had held the post of adiutor in the Antinoopolis regiments, in
Lydus mention bronze helmets (cassides) , gilt javelins (pi/a), which this officer of a Justiniani kata/ogos at Panopolis is
axes (secures) and round c1ipei shields. Their footwear was mentioned? Holding his coat, he wears a superior white linen

45
 hooded da/matica, heavily decorated with red and purple. specimen from Panopolis; hidden here, the upper shafts
The under-tunic is the usual linen kamision. The woollen were of white leather with yellow leather decoration.
leggings, copied from the Louvre specimen, are dark purple F3: Miles of the Vandali Justiniani
with silk facings on the lower legs. This Germanic soldier, stationed in Syria by Justinian after
the reconquest of North Africa, is based on a mosaic of AD
E: ARMY IN ITALY & AFRICA, 6th CENTURY 578-594 from Umm AI-Rasas, Jordan. The tunic is
E1: Eques of the Primi Felices Justiniani decorated with lozenge-pattern bands at the wrists and
Based on the Ashburnham Pentateuch, this cavalry trooper around the neck and shoulders, but lacks the T-shaped
wears a felt pi/os cap of 'sugarloaf' shape. His tunic has two decorative scheme usual at this period. The composite belt,
gold bands above the wrists; the knotted cloth belt is like with its several pendants, is worn at hip height. He wears
that of the Bawit frescoes. Over his red trousers he has linen bracae, and high boots with knee extensions, based on
tubrugi birrei - tubular gaiters of red woollen cloth, laced up an excavated example from Antinoopolis.
the back. Gayet also describes leggings or greaves made
of Morocco leather, with a broad silk band decorating the G: ARMY ON THE DANUBE, LATE 6th
lower edge. CENTURY
E2: Papal guardsman G1 & G2: Soldier (phoideratos) and junior
Based on the Judgement of Solomon fresco in Sta Maria officer (campidoctor) of Lanciarii Seniores
Lata, Rome. Germanic soldiers are mentioned in the Pope's From the Vinicko Kale terracottas and Stobi frescoes. The
retinue, and the references are confirmed by 6th century junior officer (G2) wears a red-brown Phrygian cap,
graves found in Rome. The main tunic is from an example of the soldier (G1) a phakeolion turban. Their kamisia and
a bell-shaped oriental type, in wool and linen, now preserved chitones have armpit openings for ease of movement, just
in the Vatican. Sewing is visible on the shoulder seam and visible on G1; they are variously decorated with embroidery
along the sleeve, and note that the inside surface of the at the wrist, breast, lower hem or skirt. The officer's cloak
sleeves is of silk of a contrasting darker shade. The leather is an attempt to reconstruct the so-called sagion
greaves are copied from African mosaics. Bou/garikon, which the Strategikon advises against for
E3: Officer of the Patrikios Obsequium; infantrymen, but which documents in Egypt confirm was
Ravenna, AD 568 provided. It is of heavy wool, rectangular, and bears large
A splendid mixture of Romano-Persian equipment includes wool and silk decorations on all four corners of a crux
a leather pectoraris protecting the breast and upper back. Of gammata in violet. Some authors interpret the word
pink, decorated in scarlet, it has semicircular shoulder Bou/garikon as 'common, vulgar', rather than as meaning
defences with pteryges of matching leather. It is worn over of Bulgar (Hunnic) origin.
the distinctive tunic of Imperial guardsmen, as described in G3: Senior officer (senator) of infantry
the sources for Candidati. The trousers are of cashmere Again based on the Vinicko Kale terracottas, he wears the
cloth trimmed with silk bands; and the campagia shoes are reconstructed peristithidion from Ballana. The leather is
from a specimen found at Panopolis. decorated with a pierced floral design and zig-zag
decoration between the heavier red lozenge-shaped
F: ARMY IN SYRIA & PALESTINE, elements, and the tongue-shaped pteryges at the shoulders
6th-7th CENTURIES are stamped with patterns. The edges of the Ballana
F1: Biarchus of the Tertio Da/matae garment were strengthened with an extra strip of leather
Vexillatio Comitatensis Biarchus through which passed thongs; note under his right arm,
The Equites Tertio Da/matae are listed in the protruding through holes in one of the lozenges, loops of this
Notitia Dignitatum with the field army plaited leather fastening cord.
stationed in Syria, and are also recorded in
Edict IV, 2 of Justinian as part of the H: THE TRIUMPH OF HERACLIUS, AD 629
Phoenician army. He wears a natural linen H1:' Emperor Heraclius
tunic decorated with clavi, orbiculi and Heraclius is dressed in the schima of a brave and victorious
callicu/ae. Knee-length trousers of heavy general, known as the 'Achilles' uniform; he has laid aside
dark brown cloth, with vertical sewn seams, the cuirass in 'heroic' style (thorakion heroikon), but wears
are copied from a unique example found at the helmet-crown with peacock feathers (toupha). The
Panopolis. Ca/cei reticu/ati are worn over white
fabric lining, copied from an example of a
Black calf-leather boot (see Plate F3) excavated at
composite boot from Achmim.
Antinoopolis by Carl Schmidt, 1896. The sole is
F2: Soldier of the Lykokranitai
9'/.in long, and the leg - extended to protect the
Copied from a mosaic at Mt Nebo, Jordan. The
knee - is just over 17in high. The top of the
Lykokranitai ('wolf heads') were a unit of Pisidian
instep is decorated with double and triple
limitanei from Asia Minor; Theophanes (p.178) writes that
embossed transverse lines. A vertical seam
they were sent against Samaritan rebels in AD 530. The
runs up the front, and a sewn-on
Phrygian cap has decorative bands. His zostarion of yellow-
piece of leather reinforces the
brown linen is decorated at the neck, breast, wrists and
back of the heel. (Courtesy
lower hem with applied tablet-weaving or silk bands. Under Museum fur Byzantinische
his 'elephant's foot' brakia, decorated with silk at the ends,
Kunst, Berlin, inv.9752)
46 he wears soft red goat's-Ieather boots copied from a superb
padded, riveted garment worn under the cuirass - called a
zoupa in later times - is copied from a sarchophagus in
Salona Museum; note the decorated pteryges. Under it
he wears the triumphal dress for Palatine ceremonial, the
divitision: a dark purple medium length long-sleeved chiton
decorated in gold, woven for the occasion of his triumph.
The belt, copied from the specimen given by Heraclius to the
Bulgarian Khan Kuvrat, displays gold fittings and gems (Cor.,
Just., II, 88, 114-116). The Imperial cloak was of glowing
violet-purple (ardens murex), with a tablion woven of gold
metallic thread and multi-coloured silks (id., II, 119).
His cothurni half-boots are of soft red leather decorated
with pearls.
H2: Imperial somatofulax
This Persian-style ornamental silk parade uniform dated
from the 4th century (Tertullianus, de Pallio, col. 1043 Migne).
The tunica superiore is entirely of gold thread, according to
John Crysostomus' description of Imperial guardsmen. The
orbiculi and other decorations were worked in so-called
'darned weaving': i.e. the weft is absent where semeia were
inserted, so that they were visible from both inside and
outside the cloth.
H3: Imperial doriphoros
This costume shows a close resemblance to that of ancient
Palmyra. At the time of Tiberius II (AD 578-582) the soldiers
of factions following Kedrenos wore 'tunics variegated
with silk segments and purple-red', with gold embroidery.
This armelausion sarafan is decorated with bands in
mesoporphyros (interwoven purple-red and gold), and
dark purple and gold semeia. Note the narrow sleeves
of the Persian style under-tunic. He wears highly decor-
ated Persian sarabara trousers and campagi of red and
gold leather.

Fragment of leather gannent,

with parts of lateral fastening,
from the 4th-6th century Ballana
graves in Nubia (see Plate G3); it
was probably made in Christian
Egypt. Associated tongue-
shaped fragments of brown
leather pteryges have incised
double borders, and a series
of double ankh symbols.
(Drawing by Graham Sumner)

Imperial guardsmen of the time

of Heraclius, from silver plates
now in the Metropolitan Museum
and the Hermitage. They are
dressed in a melange of Persian
and Roman costume, the torso
decorations apparently imitating
the shoulder pieces of annour;
see Plate H2. (Drawing by
Graham Sumner) 47
 INDEX

Figures in bold refer to illusulilions GI"cek n3lunliisIll 16-17,17 silk brocade 13, 15, 23, 40, 45, D I
orbirllii 3,9,34,35,35,38,39,39,40,41. silver, use of 17,18.44,45, AI, CI
'Achilles' uniform 46-7, HI 44,46,47, AI, FI, H2 socks 18, 19-20,34.35, '10, '14, 45, A2, B2
alirulae (hooded capcs) 34 roundels 36, 38, 39 strapping/straps 20,36,44, Al
(1I1f1.'y,idps 9, 18. 19,33.34,35,37-8.37.40.
41,44,AI felt, use of 13.20,23,35,40,45, B3 lablia 12,34,35,36.37.38, :>9, 39, 40, 41. 44.
armOllr 6.23,36,38.39,41,47 45,47. BI-2. CI, HI
gaitCl's 10, 19,20,44,46, A2, EI lamia (hcadbands) 38,45, CI
baldrics 34 gems. use of 3.21,33,34.40,44.45.47. AI, thongs 44.46, A2, G3
belts 5, 7, II, 17-18. 35, 38, 38, 39, 40, 42. 43, C2, HI la,-",m (neckwear) 3. '10, 45, C2
44.45.46,47. AI-2. DI. EI, F3, HI geometric pauerns 16,41 trousers (bmcae) 3.5,5.6.6. 10, 18-19,20.
boots 5,5, 10, 19.20,20.21. 21, 23, 34, 35. 36. lozeogcs 10. 16, 18, 38, 46. F3, G3 22,33,34,34,36,37,37.38,38.39,39,41.
37,38,39.39.40,43.44,45,46.46. BI. F2 rhom ooids 40, 41 43,44,45.46, A3, DI, EI, E3, F2-3
arbllii 36 goatskin, use of 11,21,21 jf/llomlia (shorltrollscrs) 19.34,35.43,44,
mlr,i 20,20,34.35,38,40,41 gold, use of 17,21,24,34,37,38,40,41,44, 46, A2, FI
mlrf'; 1'(/111'511"('$ 20,21,44, A3 45,47, B2, CI, C3, HI-3 .wmbflm (Persian trousers) 35,39.41,45,
mire; reticula/f' 46, Fl grea\'es 20, 22, 46, E2 47, D2, H3
mice; via/Olii 22 tunics (Iunim mililaris) 3,3,5,5,6,7-8,8,
rolllllmi 6, 20-I, 24, 33, 3'1, 35. 38. 40, 41, heimeL-crowns 47, HI 9-12,10,11,12,13,15-16,15,16,17,24,
45,47, B2, C3, HI 33,34-5,34,35.36,36.37.37,38,38,39.
h)'/'odmlflla 20. 45, D2 Iranian influellces 10,13,13,14,23 40,40,41,41,42,43,44-5,44,46.A2,
}wlikia armeuika 20 iron, use of 21. 40 BI-2. CI, C3, DI, EI-2, FI, F3
JIIflan!Jl'(lira 20 m'III,lallsioll 10, II. 38. 39, 47, H3
tulggia 21. 34, 35, 41, 46, 47, F3 knee defences 43 rhiloll 5. 7-8, 8. 9, 36. 40, 46. 47. G 1-2.
b"ceches/knce-breeches 19, 36 HI
brollze, lise of 17,40,45, C3 laces 20, 20, 21, 22, 34, 35, 36, 45, C3 colobil.lUl 9
brooches leather. use of II. 12, 13, 14, 19,20,20,21, d"IUI"lira. Ulfllliralfl 5. 8. 9, 9, 24, 45-6, D3
'crossbow' Jibllla, 5, 12,34, 36,37,39,39, 23,24,34,36,39,40,44,45,46.47,47,AI, divilijioll 47. HI
40,44, Al D2, E2-3, G3, HI, H3 l'xomi5 9
rOllnd 12, 24, 35, 37 leggings (Iibia!ia/lollbia) 5,19,20,21-2,22, himalion 10, 11,23
23,34.35,36, 38, 39, '10, 41,43,44.45,46, inner tunic 8,9,9
caps 5,23,34,34,36.37,38,41,46, EI. F2. GI A2, DI, D3, EI Iifllllisioll 8,9,10, 14-15, 16,38,44, '16, A3,
cashrnere, lise of 14.46, E3 lincn.use of 7.8.10, II. 11. 12. 14. 17, 19, D3. GI-2
mssidl's (helmeL') 23, 39, 45, C3 20,22,24,38,38,39,39, '10. 44, 44, 45, 46, o\'er-tunic 24
rtavi (stripes) II. 12.12.15.16.34.35,36, A3, BI. CI. DI-3, E2, F1-3 Immgallda 4.5,24, 37. ~~8, 41, 44, 45, B2,
37,38. 38. 39,40. 44,46. B2,FI loms (sashes of raok) 22-3.24 C2
cloaks 3,6,7, 12,12, 13, 15,23,33,33,34, /Jaragauda /JOl'heres 44, A3
35,36,37,38,39.39.40.41,41,44-5.47, mamles 10, 13, 14,45 Jhammallbrio1l 11
AI, B2, D2, HI ma/Jhora (neck scan'es) 3 11 slidlfllioll 8-9. 35. 44. Al
"'dam)'s/ /mllidami'II/IlUl 5-6. 12. 33, 34. 35, I""ira manirafa 5.6, 7. 8. 24, :l5, 38, 39,
35,36,37.39,40,41,41,44,45, AI, CI pearls. use of 10,41,47, HI 44,A2
gvullo!Jrronikiou 13,14 /Jerlom,-;" 34,36,46, E3 Illnira 511/J"1'io1'r 47. H2
l1uwl;on 12, 24 pendants 5.38,42,46, F3 IUlli((llalm'is 45. CI
I)(/{'","a 12-13,12.44, A3 Persian inflllences 3,6,10, II, 18, 19,23,35, under-tunic 10,14-15,16,38,44,46.47,
saKIIIII/sagia 6,9,12,16,34,38,41,44,46, 39,40, 'II, 45, 47, D2, H3 A3, D3, H3
BI, G2 /JIUlk,olis (turban) 23,37,46, GI ,osltllioll 10, I I. 39, 4.5, 46. D2, F2
I,ibon 36 /JIl'lygrs 36,37,38,39,41,4.5,46,47,47, B3,
cloth, use of 20, 22. 39. 44, 46. A2, FI E3. G3. HI under-ellirass garments 41, 47, HI
coats 10.13.13. 14.14,15,23.34.40.45.45. I",-islilhidioll 23,24,24,36.37,38.45,46,
DI, D3 saraha (skin garmellls) 3. 5 B3, G3
COllon, lise of 7.24,45. 83 si'/!;lIl1'lIla 9, 12,12. 16,24,34.35.35.37.38, IhomroUlanls 39. 45, 83
cllirass II. 22. 23. 37. 38. 45, 46, B3 40,41,44,45,B2,C2
shoes (rmll/mlt') 6,7.9, 15, 19, 19,20,33.34, v;rmll;k;ou (hooded garment) 22
dccorati,'c motifs 16-17. 16,46,47. EI. F2, 35,37,37, 38,38,44,45,46,47,AI,C2,
GI-2 E3, H3 wool. lise of 7, II. II. 12. 13, 15.
animals/birds 15, 16.40,45, CI {'filII/Jag'; mf'lir/llali (shoes, laced) 19, 20, 34, 16,17,18,19,20,22,22,23,35.
Christian symbols 11.17,19,34.41. 45, C2 35,44, A2 40,44,44,45,46, A2-3, BI,
nora 1.5,15,16.17. '10, 41, 4.5, '16. CI, G3 silk, lISC of 7,10, II, 14,14,15,15,16.21. 22, DI-3, E2, G2
crux gammala 16, 17,46, G2 22,23,24,45,46,47. B3, DI, D3, E2-3, F2,
48 Greek gamma letters 44, 82 HI-3 zrmi (sa~hes/scan'es) 5, 7, 22. 36. 36
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The uniforms, equipment, history and organization Roman Military
of the world's military forces, past and present
Clothing (3)
AD 400-640

This book concludes a rigorous

study of the literary, sculptural,
pictorial and archaeological
evidence for Roman military
clothing. It covers the last days
of the Western Empire,.and
the much longer record of the
Eastern Empire, in the 5th to
7th centuries. The evidence
from this enormously colourful
period - when Germanic and
Persian styles, first introduced
Full colour artwork by mercenaries, were widely
adopted by Roman armies -
is particularly rich. The text
is illustrated with many
photographs of rare textile
finds and mosaic artwork;
with careful drawings of
other figurative sources;
and with Granam Sumner's
meticulous and dazzling
Unrivalled detail Photographs colour reconstructions.

ISBN 1-84176-843-X
OSPREY
PUBLISHING
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