Passive Design Strategies For The Modern Low-Rise Office Buildings PDF

Passive Design Strategies for the Modern Low-rise
Open Office Building in the New York Metro Area
Russell Rosicki
May 2013
Submitted towards the fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Architecture Degree.
School of Architecture
University of Hawai‘i
Doctorate Project Committee

David Rockwood, Chairperson
Gary Barnes
Steven Saraniero
1
Table of Contents
Research Project.................................................................................................................i
Introduction......................................................................................................................ii-v
Building Envelope Principles

Occupant Comfort ................................................................................................................2
Energy Use Reduction .......................................................................................................10

Climate Data
La Guardia Airport and New York Metro Area.................................................................15
Heating and Cooling Degree Days ....................................................................................15
Temperature Records .........................................................................................................17
Wind Data ..........................................................................................................................21
Solar Exposures .................................................................................................................22
Current and Projected Electricity Prices

Commercial Sector.............................................................................................................25
Region................................................................................................................................28
The Modern Low-rise Open Office Building Typology

By Definition: Low-rise, Modern ......................................................................................31
By Definition: Office, Open ..............................................................................................32

Passive Design Strategies
Basis of Study....................................................................................................................36
Solar Radiation, Shading, Daylighting and Views

Concepts .............................................................................................................................42
Basic Typologies ................................................................................................................46
3
Combined Typologies ........................................................................................................53

Material Properties of Aluminum ..................................................................................63
Natural Ventilation
Openings: Location, Type and Size ...................................................................................68
Glazing and Views

Properties ...........................................................................................................................81
Performance Values ...........................................................................................................81
Other Factors
Glazing and Daylighting Factors .......................................................................................86

Computer Aided Modeling and Analysis
Autodesk Ecotect, Revit Architecture and Vasari Wind Tunnel Analysis ........................88

Solutions
Economy, Efficiency and Occupant Comfort ....................................................................92
Research Project Findings

A Synergistic Retrofit Approach is Key ............................................................................95

Design Project Introduction ............................................................................................97

Existing Building Information: The Towers
Building Information Modeling Assumptions ...................................................................99
Site Analysis Photos

Site Maps, Satellite Imagery and Site Photographs .........................................................103
Existing Building Analysis

Type, Size, Function and Materiality...............................................................................107
4
Construction Plans and Building Photographs ................................................................108

Environmental Analysis of Climate: Sun, Wind, Light, Temperature Data
Sun Angles and Azimuth .................................................................................................115
Heating and Cooling Degree Days ..................................................................................116
Wind Rose and Tunnel Analysis......................................................................................118
Proposed Retrofit Design Strategy

Available Options ............................................................................................................131
Feasibility.........................................................................................................................134
Application and Methods .................................................................................................137
Other Factors to Consider ................................................................................................137

Shading Analysis
Shading Techniques .........................................................................................................141
Sun Paths, Butterfly Shading Diagrams and Perspectives ...............................................141
Application of Retrofit .....................................................................................................142
Daylighting Analysis
View Angle and Methodology .........................................................................................144
Process and Determination ..............................................................................................144
Daylighting Comparison ..................................................................................................150
Sky Factors.......................................................................................................................151
Sunrise-Sunset Study .......................................................................................................152

Solar Radiation Analysis
Availability ......................................................................................................................156
Incident, Overcast, Uniform Conditions and Comparisons .............................................158
Thermal Imaging ..............................................................................................................161

Thermal Comfort Analysis
Occupant Profiles.............................................................................................................168
Space Loads.................. ...................................................................................................169
5
Passive Gains Breakdown: Heat Loss and Gain ..............................................................170
Occupant Comfort and Energy Use Comparisons: Existing Building Versus Retrofit
Energy Savings from Natural Ventilation During Passive Zone .....................................174
Energy Saved from Increased Natural Daylight and Off-switching.............. ..................176
Energy Saved from Decrease in Heating and Cooling Loads..........................................181
Overall Energy Savings From Proposed Retrofit ............................................................183

Cost Factors and Payback Period
Economic Returns and Estimated Cost of Proposed Retrofit ..........................................186
Retrofit Costs by Design Strategy....................................................................................186
New York Tax Incentives and Rebate Programs for Great Neck, NY ............................195
Payback Periods and Design Fees by Type of Passive Design Retrofit ..........................195
Summary ..........................................................................................................................196

Research and Design Project Findings
Discussion ........................................................................................................................199
Conclusions ......................................................................................................................203
Design Project Rendering ................................................................................................209
Research and Design Project Combined Retrofit Strategy (Perspective) ........................209
List of Figures .................................................................................................................212
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................219
List of Equations ............................................................................................................220
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................222

6
Introduction
pp i‐v
7i
Introduction:
The modern low-rise (six stories or less) open office building envelope serves as a
divider that separates indoor and outdoor space and provides many practical functions.
Some of these functions include protecting one from the elements, maintaining a thermal
barrier, providing views, shading and day-lighting. The building envelope also has the
capacity to act as a sound buffer, withstand structural forces of wind, dead and live
loads.1 Overall, the building envelope is intended to promote the well-being of the indoor
occupants by considering micro and macro environmental conditions which are expressed
through form and function. This complexity is considered to be "a highly specialized
science and art" (Syed 2012).2 Therefore, the objective of this research is to determine if
some of these practical considerations can be done in a more sustainable way. Attention
will be given to existing office buildings
in the New York Metropolitan (Metro)
area as shown in Figure 1. Concepts of
day-lighting, shading, solar radiation and
promoting the use of natural ventilation
will be studied based on their typologies
in order to find the most effective solution
for a retrofit project. These passive design
strategies should be economical,
adaptable, and have an impact upon
reducing energy consumption for the
modern low-rise open office building Figure 1: New York Metropolitan Area Map
Source: http://www.selectleaders.com
(MLOOB) in a variable climate.
Additionally, these considerations must offer the opportunity to improve occupant
comfort which will also be discussed.
According to climate data, existing MLOOB envelopes in the New York Metro
1
Scott Murray, Contemporary Curtain Wall Architecture, (New York: Princeton, 2009), 1-10.
2
Asif Syed, Advanced Building Technologies for Sustainability, (Hoboken: Wiley, 2012), 115.
ii1
area encounter mixed climate conditions.3 Since the façade to floor area ratio is generally
high for this building type, substantial energy usage is affected by the building envelope.
Respectively, this project will define passive design strategies for the building façade.
The overall goal is to determine the
most efficient strategy to improve
occupant comfort while reducing
energy use. This approach is
considered to be "a fundamental
component of the integrated design
process" which is used to create net-
Figure 2: Integrated Passive Design Process as zero energy buildings (Hootman
Part of a Net Zero Energy Equation
(As Outlined by Dashed Lines) 2013).4 This practice is outlined by
Source: Hootman 2012. dashed areas in Figure 2. Climatic
subjects of solar radiation, prevailing wind direction/speed, heating and cooling degree
days, among other data will be collected. The efficiency of each passive design retrofit
typology will be analyzed for the basis of these environmental conditions. Although
energy use related to heating requirements is substantially more than cooling, it is well
understood that relatively few options exist to decrease heat loss without substantially
modifying an existing building envelope.5
When determining measures of improvement, an existing building without

passive techniques will be compared to the same building with a proposed facade retrofit.
This modification will consider adding exterior shading devices, light shelves and
operable windows as these are common passive design strategies. Each design typology
will be described by its merits so that the modern low-rise building designer can take an
intuitive approach when strategizing a proposed energy retrofit for similar office
buildings in the future. This step will occur prior to conducting computer aided
environmental analysis on the basis that software does not have the capability to find the
best combined passive design strategy. Environmental analysis is being undertaken in
3
Ibid., 120-121.
4
Tom Hootman, Net Zero Energy Design: A Guide for Commercial Architecture, (Hoboken: Wiley, 2012),
XVI-XIX.
5
Lisa Gelfand, and Chris Duncan, Sustainable Renovation Strategies for Commercial Building Systems and
Envelope, (Hoboken: Wiley, 2012), 86.
iii
2
order to quantify energy use reduction based on the most efficient retrofit. By
investigating and endorsing passive strategies as the ideal alternative, this research
promotes sustainability for the MLOOB envelope at a greater scale. This is especially
important if development of this building typology continues in the New York Metro
area.
By combining previously known passive building envelope strategies and further

researching how each of them relate, a composite passive design typology that reduces
energy use can be formulated. This research methodology will start with analyzing
thermal comfort criteria followed by existing climate data for the New York Metro area.
Next will be the objective of defining the typical MLOOB typology, specifically that
which is most common. After these foundational steps, passive design typologies for
shading devices, light shelves and operable windows will undergo examination. The
objective is then to narrow these down to the most efficient form that can be used for a
retrofit. Once this goal is accomplished, this form can then be modeled and tested for its
performance. Triangulation of existing building envelope information, passive design
typologies and climate data will facilitate the means for future environmental analysis.
By use of computer aided programs one can model the subject building and the
proposed retrofit. Of the limited qualified computer software available for combined
building and climate analysis, Autodesk Ecotect 2011 will be used. This program enables
analysis and visualization methods when applying strategies for shading, solar radiation,
day-lighting, natural ventilation, thermal comfort and occupant views. Optionally, the
retrofit may be altered at different stages based on the results of environmental analysis.
This last phase may be the most important, as tweaking the proposed retrofit will have
compounding effects. By comparing baseline energy use information for the commercial
sector one can calculate estimated energy savings based on the proposed retrofit.
Minimizing energy consumption related to these subjects will lessen electricity use,
preserve natural resources and lower greenhouse gas emissions. This is of importance as
the "United States commercial energy sector constitutes nearly 18% of US energy
iv
3
consumption" (Syed 2012).6
Modern low-rise open office building typologies built from 1970's through
present will be studied. By selecting a single symbolic building for analysis, one may
reduce the complexities of additional variables including building orientation, space
planning and landscape factors. Site surveying may be necessary in order to provide
relative research for the strategies associated with the existing building envelope. This
process will inevitably require review of construction drawings that may be on file with
appropriate city or state agencies.
Studies of how landscape and climate affect a building envelope will be relevant.
Calculating the impacts of heat loss/gain, day-lighting, natural ventilation and shading
can be done by computer applications and manually, as required. This will be included as
part of the research and design component to this project. Conditions of feasibility will
quantified as financial investments are limited. Payback periods based on initial
investments must be reasonable for an office building owner to consider. Since
practicality is a primary concern, this research topic is aimed to help those who specialize
in design services that use economical passive strategies to conserve energy. While this
project targets the modern low-rise open office building typology, the strategy for other
building types is similar.
6
Syed, Advanced Building Technologies, 2.
v4
Building
Envelope Principles
pp 1‐13
1
Occupant Comfort:
Modern commercial office building envelopes provide many practical functions.
The common assumption is that insulation is the primary component in maintaining the
building envelope thermal barrier. While the law of thermodynamics states that higher
material resistance values (R-values) take longer to transmit temperatures from hot to
cold, there are additional criteria for thermal conditions (Hinrichs et al. 2006).7
Alternatively, one will discover that material selection is only a small part of the overall
strategy in designing an efficient building envelope which promotes occupant comfort.
One must investigate environmental conditions and how they play a part in the
orchestration of reducing energy consumption while providing a comfortable workspace.
Thermal comfort correlates to the subject prepared by the American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) and the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) as Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human
Occupancy Standard 55-2004. This resource identifies "combinations of thermal,
environmental, and personal factors to provide acceptable standards for a majority of
occupants” (ASHRAE 2004).8 ASHRAE’s comprehensive approach is preferred rather
than strictly selecting building materials based on their finishes and thermal resistance
values. Section 55-2004 is divided into six subject areas including metabolic rate, air
temperature, radiant temperature, clothing insulation, air speed and humidity (ASHRAE
7
Roger Hinrichs, and Merlin Kleinbach, Energy, Its Use and the Environment: Fourth Edition, (Belmont,
CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2006), 106-109.
8
"ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-2004: Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy,"
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers Inc., last modified 2004,
http://www.ashrae.org.
2
2004).9 These subjects correlate to strategic selection of passive shading, day-lighting,
solar radiation and natural ventilation strategies in addition to personal measures for
adjusting thermal comfort. Moreover, these subjects provide grounds to study the effects
of heat loss and heat gain through the building envelope. This subject is part of the
equation in determining occupant comfort whereby British Thermal Units (Btu’s) can be
studied in terms of energy use and savings. ASHRAE promotes the use of graphical
methods to analyze thermal comfort for these subjects.10 They are prepared in regard to a
Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) as seen in Figure 3. This provides an index of an acceptable
thermal environment for general occupant comfort levels in a space. It uses heat balance
Figure 3: Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD)

as a Function of Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)
Source: ASHRAE Standard 55-2004, Table 5.2.1.2.
9
Ibid.
10
"ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-2004," ASHRAE Inc., last modified 2004.
3
principles which are correlated to the six subject areas of Section 55-2004 and estimates
occupant response based on how comfortable they feel. This index is indicated by a
seven-point scale, though truncated from -2.5 to +2.5 on the graph. It represents the
predicted percentage of people that would be dissatisfied (PPD) based on the key thermal
conditions discussed earlier. There are seven points of the scale by which people
categorize thermal comfort and by which ASHRAE determines this standard. ASHRAE’s
thermal sensation scale description ranges from +3 as Hot, 0 as the neutral ideal value
and -3 as Cold. This suggests that a PMV range of -0.5 to +0.5 is considered acceptable.11
This level of acceptability is represented by the PPD prediction of less than 10% of
people being dissatisfied. Additionally, when referencing Figure 3, the bottom area of the
curve (as indicated in green) represents the most ideal thermal conditions which
ASHRAE recommends.12
Based on ASHRAE's Acceptable Range of Operating Temperatures, Figure 4, it
has been interpreted that an indoor temperature between 67.5 degrees Fahrenheit (°F)
and 79 °F is within the realm of what is acceptable. This also shows a specific humidity
(SH) ratio of 0.012 or less, without a minimal limit. The SH, which is a ratio of the mass
of water vapor content to air content, correlates with operative temperatures and relative
humidity (RH) percentage curves as shown. Although the operative temperature span is
large, the “ideal temperature” would fall directly in the center of the rhombus-shaped
PMV hatched area. When found, this indicates the SH limit with respect to operative
temperature (OT). To pinpoint the ideal location on this chart, SH would be at a 0.006
vapor to air ratio whereby RH is between 30-35%. This also translates to an OT of 72.5
11
12
Ibid.
4
°F and a dewpoint temperature (DT) of 43.5 °F. Lastly, and more importantly, this graph
indicates that when RH percentages are higher, indoor operating temperatures should
decrease, and vice versa. While it is important to note that the subject of humidity will
not be of primary focus to this research project, it does share importance by which the
ideal RH percentage should not be grossly exceeded during any indoor environmental
condition. This key rule applies whether a building is passively and/or actively
conditioned to achieve thermal comfort.
Figure 4: Acceptable Range of Operative Temperature and Humidity

Source: ASHRAE Standard 55-2004, Table 5.2.1.1.
Subsequently it is then logical to question when to begin cooling and heating an
office space in the New York Metro area. Accordingly, an office air and radiant
temperature of 75 °F, 50% RH with an air speed of 40 feet per minute (FPM) or less, is a
5
common temperature to begin cooling (Lynch 2008).13 According to Brian Lynch, "to
offset the use of changing a thermostat by -1.0 °F saves approximately 2.0% of cooling
energy per 1.0 °F."14 The method of offsetting the use of a thermostat for cooling can be
achieved by introducing a higher rate of air movement through a space. Figure 5
illustrates this by a temperature rise of 5.4 °F being offset by an air speed of 165 FPM.
While it is suggested that with the use of operable windows one can help to achieve
increased air movement within a space, further studies are required. In view of this, one
should determine how this method can be used passively. This is rather than using
mechanically operated cooling devices; namely active air conditioning.
Note: Curved lines depict increased air temperature offsets (-°F) by increased air speeds (+fpm)
as this graph is truncated from 0°F to 8°F. Air speeds above 165 fpm are not considered practical
within office environments and is therefore shown without green shading.
Figure 5: Air Speed Required To Offset Increased Occupant Temperature

Source: ASHRAE Standard 55-2004, Figure 5.2.3.
13
Lynch, Brian and Michael O'Rourke. Big Ass Fans, Inc., "ANSI/ASHRAE 55-2004 Thermal
Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy," last modified April 14, 2008.
14
Ibid.
6
Even after the use of air speed to offset increased temperature is utilized, there are
still other strategies to passively control the temperature in an office environment. As
indicated in ASHRAE’s Table B1 (Figure 6), clothing insulation values are relative to
how much an occupant can control their own comfort before active air conditioning
should take place.15 For men, the clothing insulation factor (Icl) of 0.57; trousers, short
sleeve shirt versus the normal full attire factor of 1.01; trousers, short sleeve shirt, long
sleeve sweater has the potential for the human body to realize a difference of 6 °F in the
same environment (Lynch 2008).16 The Icl is slightly different for women who may wear
other types of attire in the office. From Figure 6, women who wear a knee length skirt
Figure 6: Clothing Insulation Values (Icl) for Typical Office Ensembles

Source: ASHRAE Standard 55-2004, Table B1.
and short sleeve shirt with sandals have a 0.54 Icl. In contrast, those who wear a knee
length skirt, long sleeve shirt, half-slip and suit jacket have a 1.04 Icl. This difference
offers the capacity to realize a 6.0 °F “real feel” temperature change. Solar radiation and
15
16
Lynch and O'Rourke, "ANSI/ASHRAE 55-2004," last modified 2008.
7
shading factors are not accounted for in these measures. This variation represents
occupant clothing and wind speed adjustment for temperature offset only.
For the basis of thermal comfort, an ideal temperature of 72°F (baseline) will be
used. According to air speed offset data, combined with clothing insulation factors, office
occupants are capable of manipulating their own thermal comfort by approximately
11.0°F. Adding 11.0°F to the 72°F baseline, equals 83 °F; indicating this warmth should
not be of major concern, as it can be offset. As mentioned earlier, this is possible with air
movement of 165 FPM, which equates to 1.63kts, or 1.8mph. According to wind rose and
average mean wind speed data for the New York Metro area, this amount occurs 100% of
the time between the hours of sunrise to sunset throughout warmer periods of the year.17
Using day-lighting, shading, solar radiation and natural ventilation strategies
together to passively moderate interior office temperatures is a difficult equilibrium to
achieve. "Local discomforts should be avoided when trying to maintain thermal comfort"
(Lynch 2008).18 Factors of heat absorption, air temperature rise, and floor/wall surface
temperatures will fluctuate based on environmental conditions and with time. Also, drafts
through building envelope seals, doors and windows will vary in pressure and
temperature, moving from hot to cold. The International Standards Organization (ISO)
Standard 7730 defines a draft as "unwanted localized cooling" (Lynch 2008).19 During
cooler seasons this is an important factor that needs to be minimized. Accordingly,
17
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "Mean Wind Speed (Kts) - New York La Guardia
Airport," Accessed February 22, 2012.
18
Lynch and O'Rourke, "ANSI/ASHRAE 55-2004," last modified 2008.
19
Ibid.
8
acceptable operating temperatures for naturally conditioned spaces are determined from
Equation 1.
Equation 1:
Toc = 66 + 0.255 (Tout - 32) °F. (ASHRAE 2004)20
Where; Toc is the acceptable operating temperature for occupant comfort, and;
Tout is the outdoor air temperature at a specific time of day.
Note: This equation considers occupants wearing appropriate clothing based on
temperature/ clothing insulation factors as well as cooling from natural
ventilation.
To summarize the concept of thermal comfort is to understand the effects of air
temperature, relative humidity, clothing insulation value, metabolic rates, and radiant
temperatures all with respect to the human
body’s relative level of comfort. It should
not be considered precisely comfortable
for all occupants, but intended to promote
a good level of comfort for a majority of
occupants.21 While there are many factors
to consider and perhaps this subject can

Figure 7: Measures of Thermal Comfort
Source: Passive Design Toolkit, 2008.
20
21
9
be further expanded by a physicist, it is with my understanding that this is a sufficient
knowledge base that an architect should have for office building design. This is because
"mechanical engineers, by themselves, cannot achieve the desired level of performance
without participation from architects and structural engineers" (Syed 2012).22 The
primary subjects of thermal comfort within a building are best represented by Figure 7.
Energy Use Reduction
This project will define building façade design strategies for harboring the effects
of varying climate conditions to reduce energy use while promoting occupant comfort
and views. This subject is also known as “regionally designing for energy conservation
which aims to minimize the use of conventionally powered heating, cooling and lighting
by supplementing natural energy available at the building site” (Bassler et al. 2000).23
With respect to the low-rise modern open office building, “conduction, radiation,
convection and vapor transfer are typically managed by building systems that require
electricity and the intention is to work with the environment whenever possible, rather
than against it to reduce this” (Bassler et al. 2000).24
Minimizing energy consumption related to passive design strategies will lessen
the office building’s utility costs and its dependency on natural resources. This is because
electricity is the sole source of energy used for building systems and it is the byproduct
22
23
Bruce Bassler, and John Hoke Jr., Architectural Graphics Standard: An Abridgement of the Ninth
Edition; Student Edition, (New York: Wiley, 2000), 416.
24
10
from burning fuel-oil at power plants which then transmit it. "There is a two-fold relation
though, the amount of energy used for occupants and systems whereby actions and
behaviors of the building users contribute to almost 50% of the overall energy
consumption in a building" (Syed 2012).25
As part of this project, the objective will be to quantify electricity costs for the
nearby region and commercial sector while understanding that future outlooks are only an
approximation. After the combined passive design strategy has been chosen, recalculation
of energy use reduction in regard to the proposed retrofit can take place. Accordingly,
one can document the amount of energy that is reduced in regard to a recommended
design strategy, thus proving its efficiency over a period of time. Energy cost reduction
will become a component in comparing whether or not each of the retrofit design
strategies are feasible using the simple payback period method based on the initial
investment versus energy cost savings. This method of energy cost savings analysis,
amongst more calculated versions, is used by the United States Department of Energy,
National Renewable Energy Laboratory and is considered to be an “over-estimation of
the actual payback period” (Eiffert et al. 2000).26
Like all other energy efficiency measures, they are not individual considerations.
All are part of a much larger understanding and should be looked at together with respect
to the users and their environment. The proposed passive design typologies discussed in
this research project revolve around this concept. The comprehensive study of thermal
25
26
Patrina Eiffert and Arlene Thompson. United States Department of Energy: National Renewable Energy
Laboratory, "U.S. Guidelines for the Economic Analysis of Building-Integrated Photovoltaic Power
Systems," last modified February, 2000.
11
comfort, climate and building typology offers the capacity to triangulate the most
effective solution whereby conserving energy and maintaining occupant comfort is key.
This research project is therefore particular to the building façade in effort to target the
primary scope for a feasible, yet comprehensive passive design retrofit for MLOOB
envelopes. Accordingly, "a high performance building envelope is defined as performing
better than mandatory energy code requirements by consuming less energy" (Syed
2012).27
The basis for energy cost savings reduction will compare differences of
incorporating a hypothetical retrofit to an actual existing MLOOB (as-is) that is typical in
the New York Metro Area. This process will occur in the design phase of this research
project and will be expanded upon later. The proposed retrofit, which I hypothesize
should have been included in the first place, can be compared with this baseline. The
difference between the two is the energy savings and will therefore amount to an
estimated cost. This estimate will then be compared to the retrofit cost estimate for
construction. The costs for design fees, purchasing equipment, a contractor’s installation
and temporary protection will be considered. The passive design strategy retrofit cost can
then be compared to energy cost savings to establish a simple payback period discussed
earlier. By using current and projected utility costs for the New York Metro area one can
more accurately estimate cost savings for this region. Additionally, these values will be
expanded upon by discussing improvements to a building's carbon footprint. The
footprint for an office building is considered to be "a measure of carbon dioxide (CO₂),
methane (CH4), nitric oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbon (HFC), perfluorocarbon (PFC),
27
12
sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) whereby CO2 is measured in tons released into the atmosphere
and the remaining gases are calculated as an equivalent baseline to it" (Syed, 2012).28
Carbon footprint reduction will be further emphasized in the design phase of this
research project as it relies upon energy use reduction information to quantify tons of
CO2 annually diverted with respect to the proposed retrofit. United States Energy
Information Administration (USEIA) conversion rates will be used for calculating these
improvements over the existing office building as a baseline and will be discussed further
in the design phase of this research project.
28
Ibid.
13
Climate Data
pp 14‐24
14
La Guardia Airport and New York Metro Area
Using climate data for building design promotes advantages for reducing energy
use. As an important variable, "it influences external thermal loads of a project and is a
gift of free energy of different forms and quantities when correctly used" (Hootman
2013).29 While this research aims to generalize climate data for the New York Metro
area, the representative climate station that will be studied is located at LaGuardia
Airport, New York. This primary local climatological data site (LCDS) is one of six in
the tri-state metro area of New York, New Jersey and Connecticut and is considered
centrally located within this region by the author.30
Heating and Cooling Degree Days
By use of the average daily outside air temperature “To” one can attribute the
respective amount of degree days which is equal to a 65°F baseline minus To. The 65°F is
a neutral baseline that corresponds to interior heating or cooling requirements. An
outdoor average temperature either above or below this constitutes degree days, in the
amount and type of the difference. Accordingly, a positive number correlates to a daily
amount of heating degree days (HDD) and vice versa. The reason one designs by using
the average temperature of a 24 hour day is for meeting energy demands during the
winter.31 Respectively, HDD’s and cooling degree days (CDD) are made available by
governmental weather data and can also be calculated.
29
Hootman, Net Zero Energy Design, 133.
30
"Multiple-year Wind Roses from NYSDEC Monitoring Sites and NWS Sites," New York State
Department of Environmental Conservation and National Weather Service, last modified April 21, 2011.
31
"Monthly Cooling and Heating Degree Day Data," New York State Energy Research and Development
Authority, last modified April 20th, 2012.
15
Example 1: If March 15th had a max temperature of 60°F and minimum temperature of
45°F (based on a 24 hour period) one should find the average between these temperatures
(52.5°F), then subtract this number from the baseline temperature (65°F) and obtain 12.5
HDD.
In mathematical form, this is written as;

Equation 2: HDD = 65- { (Tmax – Tmin)/ 2 } (Capehart et al. 2008)32
If we add all of the respective HDD values we can come up with an annual amount
of HDD’s for a given year. This same method of calculation also works for determining
CDD. The charts in Table 1 are helpful in estimating energy usage for the future and can
be used to forecast electricity costs for an office building. While this information has
been averaged for each month, it should be mentioned that a study from 7:00am-6:00pm
Table 1: Heating and Cooling Degree Days

Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2011.
32
Barney Capehart, Wayne Turner, and William Kennedy, Guide to Energy Management: Sixth Edition,
(Lilburn, GA: The Fairmont Press, 2008), 66.
16
would be more relevant as this is being considered a typical workday. This method will
be used at a later stage, during the design phase of this project. Based upon this and other
climate information, the modern low-rise open office building in the New York Metro
area can be said to encounter varying weather conditions. Temperature fluctuations of
nearly 60 °F between seasons are not uncommon. According to the climate data shown in
Table 1, the average amount of HDD and CDD per year at LaGuardia Airport are 4,777
and 1,141 respectively. This information is based on a 30 year average, between 1971
and 2000, and shows more than a fourfold difference between the requirements for
heating versus the smaller requirement of cooling. This is a concern for this design
project as future design research suggests it is a challenge to accommodate this measure
while maintaining occupant views and increasing daylighting.
Temperature Records
According to Table 2, there are five months where average temperatures are
within the range of 62 oF – 76.5 oF. Temperatures within this range suggest that passive
design strategies may be independently used to save energy. Highlighted months are the
Table 2: New York City Temperature Records (°F): Corrected Averages 10/02/11
Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
17
basis for where research of climate data began. These months, in particular, indicate
average temperatures that are acceptable and within the summer passive zone (SPZ) as
identified in Figure 8. When researching further, one finds that April and October also
share multiple days where there are maximum temperatures above 62oF. Based on 2011
temperature data for Central Park NY, April had 13 days where a max temperature was
above 62 °F and October had 18 days making up almost half the amount of days for each
month.33 This shows that there may be a possibility of 180 days, or approximately half
the calendar year, where passive design strategies may easily be used independent of
active air conditioning to conserve energy use. Now that this information is on hand, it is
fair to label passive design strategies as a substantial opportunity for the modern low-rise
open office building located in the New York Metro area.
In order to focus climate information with respect of the primary use of a space,
the start and end of a work day is an important factor. For the sake of simplicity, the
commercial office building shall be studied during the duration of sunrise to sunset,
throughout the calendar year. This is an ideal scenario as most passive design strategies
are based on the sun being out and when the building is occupied. Since the office
workday is generally from 7:00am to 6:00pm, this timeframe will be studied. With these
prescriptions in place, the Mean Hourly Temperature Graph (Figure 8) indicates the most
probable climate timeline of using passive design strategies to passively moderate the
cooling of a space, based on mean outdoor air temperatures.
33
"Temperature Records: Normals and Extremes Central Park, New York," National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, last modified November 26, 2011,
http://www.erh.noaa.gov/okx/climate/records/nycnormals.htm.
18
Summer Passive Zone
Embossed Area = Temperatures
Between 62° F and 80° F.
Line of Sunrise
Line of Sunset
Duration of Regular Work‐day
Figure 8: Mean Hourly Temperatures (Color and Solid Contours)

and Relative Humidity (Dashed Contours)
Areas contained within the two dotted boundaries of Figure 8 indicate the SPZ. It
is constrained within the lines of sunrise and sunset as daylighting, solar radiation, natural
ventilation and shading strategies can be used to moderate indoor air temperatures during
this time. The temperature range as shown is conservatively between 62°F and 80°F for
thermal comfort reasons presented earlier. It is based upon the variability of one’s
capacity to manipulate the “real feel” of temperature within an office and takes air speed,
plus clothing insulation factors into consideration. We can see that the time of sunrise and
sunset varies throughout the year and the SPZ is within a 6 month window. Specifically,
this is where passive wind, daylighting and shading studies may take place to cool the
office interior during warmer periods. Also noticeable is the average relative humidity
percentages shown as dashed contours. To make this information easier to interpret,
Figure 9 shows normal RH percentages for La Guardia Airport, NY during mornings and
19
afternoons of each month.34 Highlighted percentages represent values that are close to the
ideal humidity level recommended by ASHRAE (less than 60%).35
Figure 9: Annual Relative Humidity (%) Normals for

La Guardia Airport, NY During Mornings (M) and Afternoons
Highlighted Numbers Represent near 60% relative humidity as Ideal.
Source: Dellinger 2008. Table created by Author.
34
Dan Dellinger, "Average Relative Humidity (%)," National Climate Data Center, last modified August
20th, 2008. http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/online/ccd/avgrh.html.
35
"ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-2004" ASHRAE Inc., last modified 2004.
20
Wind Data
In respect to wind and how it could be used, the climate information of prevailing
wind directions and mean wind speed analysis will help. At this point, this information
shall only serve to be useful based upon proving wind will flow in all directions and that
the average wind speed is more than 1.63 knots (1.8mph). This is the amount of wind
required to offset the use of a thermostat by nearly 6 °F in an office environment on a
warmer day. The graphs in Figure 10 confirm this information. The mean wind speed
graph also suggests that during warmer periods of the year, from sunrise to sunset, higher
wind-speeds are more readily available.

Left: Arrows represent prevailing wind directions based on an 8-point compass at 15
knots. Frequencies are indicated by intensity of colors and contours. Right: Mean wind
speeds are annually represented by contours for 24 hour periods. Note: Dark black lines
indicate sunrise and sunset based on the time of day for both images and varies as shown.
Figure 10: Prevailing Wind Directions, Mean Wind

Speeds and Frequencies for New York La Guardia Airport
Opening percentages and locations of windows can manipulate how much wind
enters a space at a given time of day. Therefore, window operability is important on all
sides of the office building in the New York Metro area when this option is on hand.
21
Going back to Figure 9, the remaining area outside of the SPZ is where daylighting and
solar radiation studies may prove more useful than prevailing wind information shown in
Figure 10. This is true so long as the office interior requires heating, making wind speeds
and wind directions less useful.
Solar Exposures
While natural ventilation may be less useful during these cooler periods,
daylighting and solar insolation factors can thankfully be used to an advantage. In regard
to climate data for solar exposure, sun path and unobstructed sky, Figure 11 is helpful.
Figure 11: Total Monthly Solar Exposure and Percentage of

Unobstructed Sky for New York City, New York.
Source: Autodesk Ecotect Analysis 2011.
22
This compiled set of information shows average intervals of each month. In other words,
these data may be helpful to provide solar exposure information in W/m for the office
interior at any hour of the workday. It also indicates when and where shading devices
could be used and that cloudy skies decrease towards the middle of the day. Lastly, one
can comfortably say that available solar radiation measurably decreases during the winter
along with the sun's angle. Also, cloudy skies are more common.
Sun angle comparisons between seasons can be seen in Figure 12. This
information, in addition to the sun path for the New York Metro area is based upon the
latitude of 40.7° and longitude of -73.0° and has been derived from Autodesk Ecotect
Analysis 2011. Accordingly, it will help determine shading and daylighting criteria
throughout the year and will undergo further review in the design phase of this project.
23
Figure 12: Average Sun Angle on July 1st Versus
January 1st at 12:00pm for New York City, NY
Source: Autodesk Ecotect Analysis 2011.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Solar Position Calculator,
http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/grad/solcalc/azel.html, Accessed March 5th, 2013.
24

Current and Projected
Electricity Prices
pp 25‐29
25
Commercial Sector:
By reference to Table 3; Commercial Sector Key Indicators and Consumption as
prepared by the U.S. Energy Information Administration, national projections of energy
use for the commercial sector are available from 2009 through 2035. This information is
coded by end use, thereby narrowing the subjects of projected growth for electricity used
in lighting, ventilating and space heating/ cooling and can be considered a very bold
prediction.
Table 3: Commercial Sector Key Indicators and Consumption in Quadrillion Btu Per Year
Source: United States Energy Information Administration,
Annual Energy Outlook, 2012 Early Release Table A5.
As derived from Table 3, commercial spaces are analyzed by their floor area in
billions of square feet and are projected to increase by +1.0% annually. This implies that
more than ten million square feet of commercial sector floor area may be added each year
26
in the United States. Energy consumption, in thousand Btu per square foot, is expected to
decrease by -0.2% annually. This suggests that although there may be an increase in floor
area, there may also be a decrease in energy use per square foot of floor space (both
existing and new) by two hundred thousand Btu per year.
Also with reference to Table 3, electricity related losses are expected to increase
at an average of +0.7% each year. Additionally, electricity used for space heating and
space cooling are projected to decrease annually at an average rate of -0.2% and -0.3%,
respectively. Electricity used for ventilation and lighting is expected to increase annually
at an average rate of +0.8% and +0.3%, respectively.
In summary of these three projections; as more energy is provided, there will be
more energy loss through transmission. Also, while there will be a small decrease in
energy use per year for space heating and cooling there is a larger projected increase in
energy used for ventilation and lighting. Without going further into this, one may
speculate that with the current trend of increasing energy efficiency for space heating and
cooling equipment and displacing existing inefficient buildings with more efficient new
buildings, this projection may be plausible. For the matter of increased floor areas, this
will inevitably require more ventilation and lighting whereby energy efficiency measures
may be exceeded by additional energy used per unit of floor area. These are important
things for office building owners and designers to consider as there may be new energy
conservation goals and code requirements to abide by in future years.
27
Region: New England Vs. Nation
When relating energy usage to utility costs for the New England region
commercial sector, the United States Energy Information Administration (USEIA, 2012)
short term versus projected long term outlook charts is useful. From Table 4, short term
commercial electricity rates may increase through 2013, possibly to 14.59 cents per
Table 4: Short and Long Term Energy Prices by Sector and Source
For New England Region in 2010 Dollars Per Million Btu
Annual Energy Outlook, 2012 Early Release Table 7c, 11.
Note: The New England and Middle Atlantic regions are both part of the New York Metro area.
Since peak energy use cost escalation factors for large scale commercial buildings is not being considered,
higher rates between these two regions is used.
Table 5: National Energy Prices by Sector and Source in 2010 Dollars Per Million Btu
Annual Energy Outlook, 2012 Early Release Table A3.
28
Kilowatt Hour (KWh). Comparing long term data, with reference to Table 4, commercial
electricity prices are expected to decrease by about -1.0% each year. In comparison to the
national long term projected data (Table 5) commercial electricity costs in the New
England region are projected to have a larger decrease in price (-1.0% New England
versus -0.2% nationally). While this is not the ideal scenario for promoting passive
design strategies based on increasing utility costs alone, it should be mentioned that the
cost of electricity is already considered to be very high by the New England Energy
Alliance.36 Combined with the idea of conserving natural resources and minimizing
pollution there are other compounding effects that will be realized when minimizing
energy usage.
Going forward, this set of information will be quantified based on the analysis of
an existing symbolic modern low-rise open office building, including a proposed passive
design strategy retrofit. This will take place during the design aspect of this research
project which will use these data in order to formulate conclusions. The amount of 14.59
cents per Kilowatt hour (from Table 4) for year 2013 will be used for future simple
payback period analysis.
36
"A Review of Electricity Industry Restructuring in New England," New England Energy Alliance,
October 26, 2006, http://www.hks.harvard.edu/hepg/Papers/NEEA_0906.pdf.
29
The Modern Low‐rise
Open Office Building
Typology
pp 30‐34
30
Process Statement:
In order to continue with this study in a methodological approach, this research

intends to create a definition for the modern low-rise open office building which will be
investigated further in the design phase of this project. To do this, one must separate
each building design aspect individually and then recompose these characteristics to help
the selection process for the typical office building. Once selected, it will undergo a
proposed retrofit analysis and compared to the existing building as a baseline.
By Definition: Low-rise, Modern:
The term “low-rise” shall bring focus to a building six stories or less as there is no
universally established height requirement. In establishing what a “modern” building is
one must look to what the key features of modern architecture are. According to
Theodore Prudon (2008), "modern architecture is inspired by a collective optimism and a
sense of opportunity that embraces innovation and strives to use the achievements of the
Industrial Revolution to provide aesthetic and social benefits through functional buildings
for more and more people.37 Another good source to validate what a modern building
should be has been prepared by the Documentation and Conservation of the Modern
Movement in the United States. As categorized by their definitions, “It must first be
located upon a modern landscape” (Docomomo 2012).38 For the purposes of this
research, the suburb shall be considered a modern landscape. As urban centers expand
creating adjacent communities, a suburb can then be looked at as the byproduct of a city.
This is also known as the modern phenomenon called urban sprawl. For this reason, it is
37
Theodore Prudon, Preservation of Modern Architecture, (Hoboken: Wiley, 2008), 23.
38
"How to Evaluate Modern Buildings and Sites," Documentation of the Modern Architecture Movement:
New York, last modified 2012, http://www.docomomo-us.org/register/how_to_evaluate.
31
my belief that the suburb is a modern landscape as it responds to the urban context. Next,
in order to further describe the term “modern” with respect to what the building should
be, Docomomo US has described additional criteria. “A modern building is artistic and
unique in looking forward and to the future, without having overt references to historical
precedent. Modern design expresses functional, technical and spatial properties and
attempts to solve structural, programmatic and aesthetic issues with simplicity, thereby
creating an ornament. It also reflects the changing social patterns of the 20th century”
(Docomomo, 2012).39
It is important to note this research will not determine what successful modern
architecture is, rather it will use this information as a guide in selecting a typical office
building to be studied. To be more specific, the chosen symbolic office building must
lack the incorporation of basic passive design strategies in order for this research to be
more effective. These principles are based upon passive design typologies that respond to
the environment, particularly the subjects of wind, sun and air temperature. Lastly, this
building should have an entirely glass and metal curtain-wall envelope system and be
defined as new construction within the timeframe of 1970's to present, making it late-
modern.
By Definition: Office, Open:
The term “office” can be identified as any building that fits within an
appropriately zoned section, block and lot as identified by local authorities for the act of
39
"How to Evaluate Modern Buildings and Sites," Documentation of the Modern Architecture Movement:
New York, last modified 2012, http://www.docomomo-us.org/register/how_to_evaluate.
32
commerce. This information can be validated based on the placement of a building with
respect to an official zoning map and permitted use of an office space. The subject of an
“office building” varies, but is best categorized by the Whole Building Design Guide’s
(WBDG) by what spaces it contains. According to the WBDG (2009), "a typical office
space may include a lobby, office work spaces, integrated meeting spaces, core office
support spaces; work rooms, storage rooms, file rooms, mail rooms, copy areas,
telephone, mechanical and communication equipment rooms. Other spaces can include a
convenience store, cafeteria, private toilets, child care, physical fitness, interior or surface
parking."40
Combining this information with additional office building spaces that come to
mind one can also mention elevator lounges, hallways, corridors, egress stairwells,
delivery and receiving areas. All of these spaces represent the building core and help set
the criteria for selecting the symbolic office building for the proposed retrofit. To
minimize the subject matter and focus upon the primary target market whereby passive
strategies may have the most impact, this research will regard open office typologies.
"Such spaces can be identified as having 80% or more of the floor area as open" (WBDG
2009).41 These spaces are considered to be “more flexible, cost-effective, energy efficient
and aesthetically pleasing environments” (WBDG, 2009).42 Also to add, it will place
further emphasis on passive design strategies and how they can reduce energy usage at a
more uniform and larger scale. It will minimize the study of temperature gradients
between walls and floors and provide for a more precise analysis with simpler
40
"Office Overview," National Institute of Building Sciences: Whole Building Design Guide, last modified
June 2, 2009, http://www.wbdg.org/design/office_st.php.
41
Ibid.
42
Ibid.
33
conclusions. This ultimately helps minimize complexity and is appropriate as the “open
office typology is becoming increasingly more common” (Acitelli 2011).43 This subject is
reinforced by Patricia Roberts (2012) at Jones Lang LaSalle, a global commercial real
estate firm. She mentions that, “…in general, cubicle sizes are getting smaller, the panel
heights are getting lower and these environments are becoming more open. More and
more people are thinking about open environments supported by closed spaces.”44
43
"Offices With More Breathing Room," The New York Times, December 13, 2011,
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/14/realestate/commercial/in-manhattan-higher-ceilings-and-lots-of-light-
attract-businesses.html.
44
Acitelli 2011. "Offices With More Breathing Room," The New York Times, December 13, 2011.
34
Passive Design Strategies

pp 35‐40
35
Basis of Study:
Passive design strategies relating to wind, sun and air will be studied based on
conserving energy for the modern low-rise open office building. All of these climatic
conditions are "heavily cinematic with the fourth dimension of architectural space; time”
(Krishan et al. 2001).45 This synergistic study is intended to move the architectural
design, energy and facilities management professions towards a common goal. This is
based on the subject of sustainable design “which is with place; a more profound matrix
of building performance than programmatic or individual concerns” (Krishan et al.
2001).46 The objective is to prove that one can achieve a higher standard of energy
conservation without compromising the necessity of occupant comfort. As best
referenced, “passive design is an approach to building design that uses the building
architecture to minimize energy consumption and improve thermal and occupant comfort
and can greatly reduce building energy requirements before mechanical systems are
considered” (Cobalt Engineering 2008).47
It is important to note that while this study may be used for multiple building
typologies, this approach is considered to be atypical. Building construction, site
planning, space planning, orientation, construction materials and weather patterns vary at
even the most micro levels which could directly affect the choice between design
strategies. Therefore, this research shall only be used as an example and is not to be
considered prescriptive by any means. As pointed out by Cobalt Engineering and Hughes
Condon Marler Architects (2008) in preparing a study for the City of Vancouver,
45
Arvind Krishan, Nick Baker, Simos Yannas, and S V Szokolay, Climate Responsive Architecture: A
Design Handbook for Energy Efficient Buildings, (New Delhi: McGraw Hill, 2001), 4-6.
46
Ibid., vii.
47
"Passive Design Toolkit: Best Practices," Cobalt Engineering, and Hughes Condon Marler Architects,
last modified 2008, http://vancouver.ca/sustainability/documents/PassiveDesignToolKit.pdf.
36
“modeling results are useful and valid, but do not replace the value of project-specific
studies.”48 As summarized in their study, the following passive design strategies are
believed to pertain to a building retrofit project. While Vancouver is quite a bit away
from the New York Metro Area, it goes to mention that the strategies are similar. As
recommended, a building designer should:
"-Design each façade specific to its orientation.
-Minimize East and West exposures to minimize solar gains.
-Use an air tight envelope to minimize uncontrolled infiltration.
-Use either clear glass with effective external shading elements or dark reflective
glass. Both of which should be Low-e, having good insulating value.
-Incorporate overhangs and operable external shading on East, South, and West
facing windows.
-Design for cooling by use of natural ventilation.
-Optimize the effects of passive heating and cooling strategies by strategically
combining passive elements" (Cobalt Engineering et al. 2008).49
In the process of selecting the most appropriate passive design strategy one should
first define the terms of thermal comfort and study the climate of where the building is
located. Both steps have already been conducted in this research and promote
intuitiveness and factual data that can be used to formulate strategies. This goes hand in
hand with the recommendation to “understand and establish clear, realistic and
48
49
Ibid.
37
measurable energy performance targets” (Cobalt Engineering et al. 2008).50 Also, as
documented, by combining passive design strategies one can achieve compounding
effects of energy savings in addition to reduced costs relevant to initial investments.51
This is possible in the sense where a light-shelf may doubly function as a shading device.
During the summer it could afford deflection of solar radiation and in the winter could
afford daylighting and needed heat gain if located and used properly on a building façade.
It should also be mentioned that on the contrary, "by combining strategies that do not
help one another, or using them in isolation one could amount to a negative outcome"
(Cobalt Engineering et al. 2008).52 For instance, where one would appreciate solar
radiation on an east or west oriented curtain wall, they would also have to depreciate it
during summer months with the use of shading devices to control heat gains. For the open
office interior this is critical as most of the perimeter building floor areas share the same
space.
Since energy loss is attributed to the building envelope as a whole, it should be
mentioned that the roof and floor slab are also important with regard to heat loss and heat
gain. When not being used for renewable energy, the office building roof in the New
York Metro area should idealistically be designed to absorb solar radiation during colder
periods and insulate the office interior during warmer periods. The issue is that it is very
difficult to accomplish both design strategies for an existing building, without going
against each other and becoming expensive for a passive design retrofit of an MLOOB
envelope.
50
Ibid.
51
Krishan, Baker, Yannas, and Szokolay, Climate Responsive Architecture, 43-52.
52
38
Daylighting and natural ventilation modifications to an existing roof can also be
considered difficult since the adjustments may only be useful for the upper floor levels
unless openings are punched through the reinforced concrete floor slabs or masonry core
fire-walls (to bring them down and through). For existing buildings, this can be
considered a substantial modification for minimal improvement. Since the roof is
intended to provide the function of a shelter; offering shade, temperature moderation, as
well as protection from snow and water, focus will remain on solar radiation. This can be
especially said for the MLOOB which typically has a flat roof. In this instance, solar
radiation can either be reduced or increased on this horizontal plane by manipulating a
surface materials’ solar reflectivity index (SRI) in addition to roof cavity materials.
Insulating cavity materials may include the structure, batt or rigid insulation, the
waterproofing membrane and other smaller components. All of which should ideally
encapsulate each other at all four edges to minimize air convection between materials due
to voids.53
As discussed earlier, the amount of heating degree days for the New York Metro
area is, on average, more than four times than cooling degree days. This suggests a darker
and rougher surface material may be more appropriate. In this case, one would think the
lower SRI value is more ideal as it is closer towards black. This scenario intends to warm
the office interior during cooler periods which are experienced for longer durations of the
year. While this is the case, we do not want to minimize our efforts for maintaining
building envelope waterproofing and incorporating passive design strategies that aim to
cool the office in the summer. According to William Allen (1997), "a dark surface in a
53
Adrian Tuluca, Energy Efficient Design and Construction for Commercial Buildings, (New York:
McGraw Hill, 1997), 6.
39
temperate climate naturally increases solar warming of the roof slab which misbehaves
by enlargement and more complexly by swinging around and arching at anchorage points
of the roof structure."54 For these reasons the suggestion of a light color, well insulated
and ventilated roof that has the capacity to act as a thermal mass would be the ideal
scenario for the MLOOB roof in the New York Metro area. This understanding directly
correlates to Arvind Krishan’s et al. (2001) theoretical discussion of specific heat where
he states “…each material has one and when it comes to specific heat exchanges we are
concerned with this as well as the amount of mass a material has.”55 Based on the laws of
thermodynamics, heat flows from hot to cold and during the majority of the year we
should make an effort to balance this.
Since economics partly guides decision-making; it should be mentioned that in
the case of a poorly insulated roof that additional insulation may be proposed as part of
the retrofit project. This is rather than other substantial roof cavity or surface material
modifications that may be unpractical. Without looking to the landscape and site for
solutions, the analysis of existing passive design strategies including solar radiation and
shading for the common MLOOB is relevant. The criteria for studying existing passive
design strategies must be suitable for glass curtain wall systems that make up a majority
of the building facade.
54
William Allen, Envelope Design for Buildings, (Boston: Architectural Press, 1997), 189.
55
Krishan, Nick Baker, Simos Yannas, and S. V. Szokolay, Climate Responsive Architecture, 45.
40
Solar Radiation,
Shading, Daylighting and
Views
pp 41‐62
41
Concepts:
The term solar radiation is also known as radiative heat gain or solar heating. This
is a very important consideration when promoting passive design strategies "as a surface
can become heated thereby warming air and other surfaces" (Krishan et al. 2001).56 For
the modern low-rise open office building this subject is compounded by ample glazing
which in some cases extends to more than 90% of the façade area. Some of the glazing
may be spandrel, clerestory, or viewing components of a larger curtain wall system.
Depending upon surface textures, colors and opacities; "incident radiation can be
absorbed, reflected or stored and reradiated later" (Krishan et al. 2001).57 The question
then becomes whether one should absorb it, or deflect it based on the time of day, year,
occupancy criteria and weather conditions.
Part of the answer for the New York Metro area modern low-rise open office
building is that one should make every attempt to absorb solar radiation when there are
heating degree days. The data gathered from climate analysis provides the necessary
information to design a retrofit project in a certain manner. For instance, solar radiation is
averaged at its highest level on July 1st, whereby more than 840 w/m2 per hour will arrive
at an approximate angle of incidence of 72° (based on Figure 13). Subtract this angle
from 90° (vertical) and this creates an 18° angle. This solution could then be used to
determine the minimum depth of a horizontal shading device. Start from the lowest extent
which is in need of shading and project the 18° angle counterclockwise from vertical
towards the exterior. The triangle this creates can then be used with the mathematical
order of tangents to determine the depth (Equation 3). This methodology holds true for
56
57
Ibid., 11.
42
the New York Metro area and can be used for any low-rise open office building. The
reference point is taken from a horizontal plane whereby a vertical curtain wall can be
considered linear and is oriented perpendicular to the south compass direction.
The same methodology holds true for the maximum depth of a horizontal shading
device. First, find the lowest sun angle of the year which solar radiation should be
blocked. This will offer additional shading device criteria and therefore the most suitable
depth. It can also be found by referencing the climate data as shown in Figure 13. This
figure illustrates that a portion of May through the beginning of October are months
which solar radiation should be blocked. As depicted, minimizing radiative heat gain is
especially important for the months of June through September where average outdoor
temperatures reach well above 74 °F. For this matter, one should look at the approximate
start date where solar radiation becomes a thermal comfort issue and then use the solar
angle on this date. For instance, Figure 13 illustrates that at approximately 2:15pm on
June 6th all the way through September 10th at 2:15pm outdoor temperatures are above 74
°F. By comparing solar angles for both dates at 2:15pm, one should select the lower sun
angle to determine the best horizontal projection from the building façade. In this case, as
Figure 13 indicates September 10th as having a more obtuse angle (counterclockwise
from vertical) in comparison with the same time on June 6th. This angle is approximately
36° from vertical.
By using the previously explained methodology one would again solve for ‘x’ in
Equation 3. For purposes of simplicity, the following example has been provided using
this information as a reference case. Since solar angle/radiation information minimally
changes along near equal latitudes around the New York Metro area, this finding may be
43
180° (South)
180° (South)
Figure 13: Comparison of Sun Angles for June 6th and September 10th at 2:15pm
Source: Autodesk Ecotect Analysis 2011, United States Department of Energy
Weather File for New York City, NY.
used for any low-rise open office building with a south facing orientation.
Example 2: Office Building Requires Exterior Shading Device for Passive Cooling.
Assuming a south facing curtain wall glass façade (perpendicular to south
compass direction) with a 5’ high viewing window requires full shade; the appropriate
horizontal depth for a shading device ‘x’ can be determined using the lowest sun angle
when peak solar radiation is an issue. The objective would be to minimize solar radiation
which would otherwise enter through the viewing window glazing and therefore the
office interior.
44
Determining the Horizontal Projection Dimension of a Shading Device ‘x’:
Equation 3:
Tan (Sun angle degrees from vertical) = x / (5 ft. x 12 in./ft.)
Tan (36°)=x/(60in.), solving for x: 43.59 inches
Using the data previously described one can begin to solve the equation for x.
Since the viewing window height is converted into inches, and the sun angle is 36° from
vertical; one finds that “x” equals 43.59 inches. Therefore, the horizontal projection from
the top extent of the viewing window should be about 44 inches in order to fully shade
the viewing window glazing during the lowest sun angle event that solar radiation may
negatively affect thermal comfort. If we are to split the window up into two equal vertical
segments, then this shading device may be half the size.
On the other hand, increased solar radiation during the winter is not a concern. In
fact, the building should welcome as much solar radiation as possible. This is why
shading devices are less important and light shelves (projected horizontal reflective
surfaces) are more useful. Respectful of previous studies, one can again look to the
climate data to find the duration that solar radiation should be absorbed. In respect to
mean hourly temperatures (Figure 8) the ideal date/ time to welcome solar radiation is
from January to June and from parts of October through December. In other words; this
duration is where the mean annual temperature range drops below 62 °F. This means that
clear glass windows with low-e coatings are suitable so long as they are appropriately
shaded when the interior temperature increases above the recommended level of thermal
comfort. This type of coating "has the ability to minimize harmful ultraviolet rays; in
45
some cases by 98%" (Murray 2009).58 Therefore, a conclusion can be made that during
select winter, spring and fall months; increased solar radiation is necessary and should
not be blocked. This information also coincides with the best horizontal projection
dimension as described earlier.
Although this is useful in determining the most ideal solar angle based on average
outdoor temperatures and sun path, it is then logical to question how the shading device
should respond to a day, month, or a year that may be abnormally cold or warm. The
solution here could be an operable shading device that has the possibility to extend and
retract as required. Feasibility and costs become the issue when thinking along this
respect though, especially for a retrofit project. For this reason, fixed scenarios will be
discussed alongside operable design strategies. Careful consideration must be made as to
how something like this could be feasible.
Basic Typologies:
Common shading typologies aimed at reducing heat gains can be seen in Figure
14. These typologies have been gathered from multiple sources and then redrawn for
clarity. Accompanying each prototype shown in perspective is a plan or section view of
what each may look like in its simple form. Accordingly, outdoor viewing capacities of
building occupants are either maintained or reduced based on the viewing plane
obstructions due to each of the shading types. They have appropriately been labeled with
measurement fields ranging from zero percent (lowest) to 100% (highest) indicating the
amount of visibility from indoor to outdoor. This indication has been prepared with the
common assumption of sunlight and viewing occurring in multiple directions. The
58
Murray, Contemporary Curtain Wall, 75.
46
Figure 14: Passive Solar Radiation and Shading Device
Typologies for the Modern Office Building Glass Curtain Wall
Multiple Sources: Krishan et al. 2001, Brown et al. 2001, Bassler 2000. Drawings by Author.
47
following figures will undergo scrutiny in terms of how they attempt to solve the
objectives described earlier. This is a complex solution; therefore basic and synergistic
passive design strategies will be evaluated. Each will be discussed on their basis of their
advantages as well as shortcomings. This effort is being considered to prove the most
effective triangulation of combined passive design strategies for shading, solar radiation,
and daylighting in addition to maintaining occupant views. It is important to note that this
is only part of the consideration though as the subject of natural ventilation and glare will
still need to be discussed.
By comparing the suitability of typologies in Figure 14 for an existing low-rise
open office building one can attempt to narrow down to the best option. Starting with the
exterior planters (#12) resembling terrace gardens and actual plantings this concept
should be eliminated. It may require additional costly structural work and perhaps create
a dirtier window pane because of unwanted water marks or streaks from rainwater
draining through the soil. Planters on a sill may also obstruct views and become difficult
to maintain in the sense that it is a growing shading device, which may be difficult to
access. Snow loads may also compound the issue. Alternatively, planters mounted to the
façade can be considered feasible if they are accessible, do not obstruct views or create a
dirtier window or sill and the facade has the ability to handle heavy loads. The only
condition which this concept may still deviate from, even with all practical concerns
alleviated, is the term modern. This solution is clearly not the most simple; using a
planting as a shading device. However, it does go to mention that plants can be included
for building envelope designs to control solar heat gain while acting as a heat sink.59 It
59
48
may also be a more appropriate method for the new building designer to consider as they
can correct inadequacies during initial decision making processes.
When referencing Figure 14 (#1), one sees an attempt at offering solutions that do
not substantially minimize views. The fixed vertical straight fin has the capacity to defer
unwanted solar radiation, primarily for east and west low angle sunlight. It however fails
in the effort of offering ample daylighting solutions combined with shading. In effect,
lower angle sunlight conditions indirectly diffuse daylight through these windows
therefore suggesting less natural lighting from sunrise to sunset. Also, this typology does
not shade well against overhead sunlight during mid-day conditions and allows glare to
enter the office interior. In comparison to the vertical fin, the slanted vertical fin (#2) has
an additional capacity of shading while allowing daylight to enter the space depending
upon its rotation. It too fails with the occupant comfort objective of minimizing glare and
falls short of shading requirements when the sun is overhead. If it were solely used for
shading in a fixed position, the slanted vertical fin may also obstruct more views than the
vertical fin.
The egg-crate typology (#3) seems to have evolved from the vertical fin and the
horizontal plane of a solid surface. As determined by this review, the egg-crate passive
design strategy offers a preferred function. It maintains views, but has limited
possibilities when used as a fixed typology. For one, it may minimize the absorption of
solar radiation during colder periods of the year due to the additional panels projected in
the horizontal dimension. This is not an ideal scenario being there are more heating than
cooling degree days for the New York Metro area. However, it should be pointed out that
49
if the egg-crate design strategy were to be correctly situated along a glass curtain wall
façade in a tropical climate, the necessity of shading and daylighting may be achieved.
Similarly, the egg-crate with louvers (#5) may be more suitable for a consistently
warmer climate and offers further possibility for natural daylighting, depending upon the
angles of louvers. However, it still struggles to offer maximum daylighting as a fixed
device. Windows are adjacently setback within this typology thereby compounding the
shaded cupboard effect. This concept is similar to a bee hive’s honeycomb array, but in
this case it is squarely shaped. Consequently, these evolved horizontal and vertical plane
solutions only pay respect to the exterior and how a shading or daylighting device could
be used. This can literally be considered an “out-of-the-box” solution which strives to
simplify design complexities to conserve energy. While this is a step in the right
direction, it goes to mention that these strategies can be improved, especially with
consideration of the interior.
A more basic passive design typology for shading can also be seen in Figure 14
(#7). As identified, the horizontal plane offers the capacity of shading for east, west and
south exposures as qualified in the design phase of this project, but is limited by its
function when low sun angles are considered. Views are not at all sacrificed with this
option, but such solutions do not protect against low angles as well as side angles of solar
incidence during warmer periods. These solutions, along with the horizontal louvers in
horizontal plane are more commonly seen in the New York Metro area.60 Figure 15
represents one of the many ways this could work for an actual office building exterior.
While louvers offer additional possibilities for daylighting and are capable of sustaining
60
Author's judgment based on living within this region.
50
inclement weather conditions, they must be
suitably designed as part of an overall scheme to
become more effective. Louvers are lighter and
have voids for rainwater penetration in comparison
to the shading panel projected in horizontal
dimension. Louvers additionally allow snow to
pass and have the capacity to shade and offer
daylighting simultaneously. They are also
considered a more "economical solution that can Figure 15: Fixed Exterior
Louvered Shading Device
be added to an existing office building envelope as Source: Hunter Douglas
a retrofit" (Hunter Douglas 2012).61
The horizontal panel plus louvers in the vertical plane Figure 14 (#9) reduce
views due to the additional obstructions of sight. This obstruction will also minimize the
effort of absorbing solar radiation during colder periods and create a horizontally sliced
view looking outward. The vertical panel alone is possibly the worst solution for a
shading device that should also offer daylighting. It will also perform worse than the
horizontal plan in providing shading while maximizing views. This type of obstruction is
similar to the horizontal louvers in a vertical plane as it will also minimize solar radiation
during colder periods. This idea directly combats an important objective of passive
design in the New York Metro area.
Providing a fixed shading device to protect against solar radiation while
maintaining a maximum line of sight, the most effective typology would be the louvers
61
"Solar Control," Hunter Douglas, Inc., last modified 2012. Accessed March 3rd, 2012.
http://www.hunterdouglascontract.com/solarcontrol/index.jsp.
51
projected in the horizontal plane. "Deducting the concept of fixed and sorting through
each of the benefits, the function of each typology can be improved" (Bassler et al.
2000).62 On these same terms of operability and rotation, one can combine typologies to
become even more effective at shading. Specifically, an entirely louvered egg crate shape
which that rotates would perform much better than the fixed louvers projected in the
horizontal plane.63 Even this compounded typology can be improved, but it will be with
respect to daylighting concerns that one can evolve this subject even further.
Combined Typologies:
Typologies for combined daylighting and shading devices are shown in Figure 16.
Similar to the typologies prepared for shading, this information has been collected from
multiple sources and then reassembled for further investigation.64 It has been prepared in
section format where vertically filled shapes indicate façade partitions and horizontally
filled shapes represent the floor and roof slab. Light grey single lines indicate glazing and
black lines indicate shading device outlines which are based on each drawing description.
These combined typologies do not encounter every part of the equation in passive design.
Natural ventilation strategies have intentionally been omitted for purposes of clarity.
Natural ventilation, including window types and the effects of air flow will be discussed
later.
Starting from the upper left of Figure 16, typology A (clerestories), offer the
capacity for daylighting without glare. By itself, it falls short with respect of having a
62
63
Author’s judgment.
64
Bassler et al. 2000, Brown et al. 2001, Krishan et al. 2001.
52
Jalousie Glazing
Clerestory CG + Viewing CG + VW +
(JG)Or Metal
Glazing (CG) Window (VW) Spandrel Glass (SG)
Louvers (ML)
A B C D
CG + VW + Ext. CG + VW +
Light Shelf (ELS) CG + VW + CG + VW +
Int./ Ext.
+ Shading Device (SD) Louver ELS + SD Int./ Ext. LS
Louver LS
E F G H
CG + VW +
CG + VW + SG + Angled Vertical Fin
Vertical Fin + + SG
+ Int. / Ext. Upper + Offset Int. / Ext. LS
Int. / Ext. Upper + Operability
and Lower LS + Operability
and Lower LS
I J K L
Figure 16: Combined Passive Solar, Shading and

Daylighting Typologies for the Modern Office Building Glass Curtain Wall
Multiple Sources: Krishan, DeKay, Bassler. Drawings and Evaluation by Author.
small horizontal surface area to reflect light and typically minimizes occupant views
other than the sky plane. When one adds a viewing window (typology B), they have
partly responded to this interest by adding occupant views at both the seating and
standing level. The unfortunate circumstance from this simple response is the
53
introduction of glare and solar radiation assuming efforts for shading haven’t been made.
Compounding this effect, the next typology (C) offers even more views from indoor to
outdoor and has similar shortcomings, except in this case they are amplified. The
horizontal louvers in a vertical plane (typology D) are similar to horizontal window
blinds except the surface area is extended and there is additional space between surfaces.
If these louvers were able to rotate, they may offer the ability to shade as well as daylight
the office interior simultaneously. While this seems very beneficial, they substantially
obstruct views into horizontal slices when looking outward. Unfortunately they also pose
an issue for using window screens if they are incorporated into the window sash. This
information will be expanded upon later when determining the best type of glazing to
use. In the next typology (E) one sees the first respect of a light shelf which can also
double as a shading device if it were located at the lower mullion of a clerestory window.
One also notices the common condition of a framed sill and in some cases spandrel glass
in front of this. This combination typology makes an effort to maintain views while
shading and naturally daylighting the perimeter part of an office interior. Figure 17 shows
what this shelf may look like on the exterior of an office building. The issue that remains
with this is that it does not maximize lower angled morning and afternoon daylighting or
Figure 17: Interior Daylighting Shelf Figure 18: Shading and Daylighting Shelf
Source: ArchiExpo Source: ArchiExpo
54
shading throughout the year. Whether these typologies (E through I) are louvered, on the
exterior or interior or even solid panels they all share the same objective. The larger the
projection in the horizontal direction; the more daylighting and shading opportunity.
Thankfully economics, aesthetics and structural load capacities minimize the chance of
this becoming increasingly large and obnoxious to the human eye. Since passive design
efficiency is what the designer ought to aim for, there is a clear goal in mind and the
function is therefore the aesthetic.
By introducing light shelves on the exterior and extending them through the
interior (Figure 18) three main goals are achieved. First, is additional daylighting based
on the extended horizontal plane. Second, is the additional shading of a view or spandrel
window (view window shown in image). Third, is maintaining the line of sight outdoors
and therefore the promotion of views. This can occur at both the seated position and
when standing if appropriately designed. In comparison to other combined
daylighting/shading techniques, typology G and H are an improved concept. Apparently,
vertical fins, and a lower light shelf are still missing though.
The next combined typology (I) still falls short in achieving shading, daylighting
and solar radiation needs during the occurrence of low sun angles during certain times of
the day and year. This shortcoming is substantiated when one looks at the solar azimuth
beginning and ending a work day. In terms of timing, this is with respect to the early
morning and late afternoon. For instance, this typology would not be able to effectively
shade a low sun angle at 9:00am on July 1st when we would prefer to reduce solar
radiation, even during the early morning. Additionally, at 9:00am on January 1st, there is
additional opportunity for daylighting and solar radiation to warm the interior during the
winter.
55
The simple incorporation of a vertical fin can be added as shown in typologies J
and K. This inclusion could be a vertical panel on the exterior which extends through the
interior, similar to a horizontal light shelf. In this instance, lower angle sunlight and
therefore radiation could either be better reflected or deflected for shading purposes with
this additional surface. Typology K shows a similar setup to typology J, but promises
equal effectiveness at shading the additional spandrel glazing located below. This proves
that this typology could effectively be used where full height glazing is preferred. When
compared to the idealized operable and louvered egg crate this solution still falls short of
offering the same efficiency. With the incorporation of these additional passive design
strategies one might be able to increase daylighting during the morning and afternoon
when necessary while simultaneously offering the option to reduce solar radiation during
the summer and maximize it during the winter.
When researching climate data even further, one finds that there is additional
capacity to reduce the form to the purely functional shape of a rhombus (typology L). In
this evolved state the vertical fins are reduced to a surface that can effectively shade on
the exterior while offering the option to increase heat gain and daylighting in the interior
due to the increased “usable” vertical surface area. Since this bent square accounts for
most sun angles and solar azimuths from sunrise to sunset throughout the year in addition
to maintaining views this is the best solution (so long as we consider it operable). If it
were a fixed device, it would be less than ideal. Coincidently, if this typology excluded
louvers for the horizontal as well as vertical planes this would also be less than ideal.
Lastly, if this typology did not offer the flexibility of rotation about all of its axes, then
there would be a deficiency. Assuming all of these conditions are met, then this typology
can be summarized as a set of rotatable vertical and horizontal louvers that are
56
constrained within the form of a 3-dimensional rhombus that maintain views.
Discussion still remains with respect to the design features of the louvers and
operability of each plane. The rotatable components and moving parts can be described
after mentioning natural ventilation. Specifically, the criteria will be explained in a
conjunctive way whereby passive solar, shading, daylighting and natural ventilation
design strategies can work together. This of course is to achieve the overall goal of
finding the best typology. Best can be described as a combined strategy offering the
utmost passive design efficiency feasibly available for the modern low-rise open office
building in the New York Metro area.
The design features of a louver, its shape, rotation and finish directly correlate to
the amount, direction and type of light reflected. According to G.Z. Brown et al. (2001),
“the upper surface of a light shelf should be white, or if heat gain is not an issue, then
mirrored… a mirrored light shelf with a white ceiling performs better than a mirrored
ceiling with a white light shelf. This can be used on all orientations if skies are mostly
overcast and for reflecting sunlight on the South.”65
In Figure 19 we see an interior light shelf as
patented66 that has a capacity to reflect daylighting in
a multitude of directions towards the office interior
(see Figure 20). The concaved solution here offers
better surface reflectivity when compared with a flat
or symmetrically concaved louver system. Although
not categorized as a typology, the concaved light Figure 19: Concaved

Interior Light Shelf
Source: Google Patents; US8027092.
65
G.Z. Brown, and Mark DeKay, Sun, Wind & Light Architectural Design Strategies: Second Edition,
(New York: Wiley, 2001), 257.
66
Source: Google Patents; “Concaved Light Shelf”
57
Figure 20: Concaved Light Shelf Reflection Figure 21: Concaved Light Shelf Example
Source: Google Patents; US8027092. Source: http://www.lightfair.com
shelf shown in Figures 19 through 21 can “significantly increase daylighting levels in the
rear of the space. This possibly reduces the effectiveness at shading lower glazings
therefore this device should be lengthened or thickened” (Brown et al. 2001).67
It is also noted that “unless a building employs movable devices which can vary
the daylight factor in response to varying sky luminance, then the internal daylight
illuminance will also vary widely” (Krishan et al. 2001).68 This understanding suggests
even with the specific design of small components, there is still the possibility to affect
interior luminance variations. This also means that uncontrollable amounts of shading
may occur unless movable shading devices are used. It is clear that the feature of
operability is just as important as the overall passive design typology. After determining
what and where the light shelf should be used one can use the clear, overcast and
optimum light shelf distribution charts in Figure 22 to compare the effects of providing
daylighting to certain depths within an office interior.
67
Brown and Dekay, Sun, Wind & Light, 257.
68
58
Figure 22: Clear and Optimum Light Shelf Distribution Graphs
Source: Brown et al. 2001.
In the case of daylighting being admitted without causing glare, there are two
critical points of elevation that must be considered. As indicated by Figure 23, point A
(standing) is about 1.7m above the floor and point B (sitting) is about 1.2m above the
floor. Light transmitting between these two points shall be considered glare and shall be
avoided at all costs with the objectivity of increasing daylighting at the ceiling; therefore
indirectly lighting a space. Criteria regarding externally reflected components (other than
Figure 23: Critical Points for Glare Minimization

Source: Krishan et al. 2001.
59
the ground) is not included in this research. Such studies will intentionally be omitted as
they will substantially vary based on nearby structures, colors of work surfaces, fabrics,
floor coverings and the like. The concept of solar radiation is an extension of this subject.
The rate at which solar radiation strikes glazing is a function of reflection, absorption and
correlates to the angle of incident sunlight.69
The simplicity of the venetian blind as well as other window treatments, including
the opaqueness of glass, serve the purpose of shading and in some cases insulation, but
detract from occupant views. Since this research is based upon maintaining views,
daylighting and shading criteria simultaneously, window treatments can be considered
limiting and therefore unsuccessful based on the objectives of this research. Other
strategies that work for passive solar heating and cooling are the Trombe Michel Wall,
thermal mass, window shades, shutters , and window films including low-e coatings.70
All of which can help to manipulate thermal comfort and daylighting, but if used
incorrectly may adversely affect one’s level of comfort. According to Arvind Krishan et
al., “…window locations make a difference to the quality of light obtained indoors
whereby high windows can provide direct and diffuse light and introduce glare and low
windows allow ground reflected light. The middle window, in comparison, distributes
neither sky nor ground reflected light well” (2001).71 In summary, daylighting, shading
and solar radiation typologies regard three main principles including directness of
sunlight, light from the diffused sky and reflectance from the ground and other buildings.
Figure 24 illustrates these components which enter a room, particularly a work plane. All
69
70
71
Ibid., 40.
60
Figure 24: Daylighting Illumination; Directness, Diffused and Reflected
are part of the larger study regarding daylight factors and deal with the illuminance inside
the building versus the outside. This suggests that artificial lighting must respond to this
variation based on the most efficient passive design strategy that can be used as a retrofit.
"Once a late modern building has been improved to include as many daylit areas as
possible, we are ready for the next and sometimes forgotten step. Daylighting has no
sustainable energy benefit if the interior lights are left on" (Gelfand et al. 2012).72 This
step will not be forgetten and will be addressed by the overall retrofit strategy as
contained in the design phase of this project. The main purpose is to maintain a balanced
level of these conditions within the office interior while maintaining views.
As described earlier, the 3-dimensional louvered rhombus is the most successful
passive design typology for combined daylighting, shading and solar radiation while
maximizing views in both a seated and standing position. It is recommended that by
including automated devices which respond to variable environmental conditions this
retrofit typology may be able to operate on its own. Photometric sensors, anemometers
72
Gelfand and Duncan, Sustainable Renovation Strategies, 130.
61
and thermostats should be programmed to work in equilibrium with this unit in order for
it to be highly efficient at maintaining thermal comfort. While calculations are offered at
determining the best solar angle of these louvers at different times of the day, month and
year, it shall be assumed that an automated system would be able to control thermal
comfort if programmed correctly. For this reason, louver angle calculations will
intentionally be omitted from this research project as this feature is not easily determined
with computer simulation.
62
Material Properties
of Aluminum
pp 63‐66
63
Material Properties of Aluminum:
Anodized aluminum offers the flexibility of polishing to a reflective finish while
suitably holding up to the effects of the New York Metro area freezing, thawing, heat,
cold and rain. In addition to its durability, anodized aluminum allows for multiple
capacities of drilling, on-site cutting, welding, and is lightweight and recyclable. It is also
readily available and economical. G.Z. Brown et al. recommends that the "underside of
louver shading devices and light shelves to be light in color and drilled with tiny
perforations to reduce glare" (2001).73 In this condition, aluminum has the ability to
maintain its rigidity even with the inclusion of these perforations. This can be seen in the
shading device design strategy for the Middle School project located in Cowplain,
England (Figure 25).
Figure 25: Extruded Aluminum Louvered Shading Device With Perforations

(Cowplain, England Middle School Project)
Source: Brown et al. 2001.
73
64
Aluminum’s properties are naturally made up of a component of the Earth. Being
the most abundantly available of the metals, "aluminum makes up approximately 7‐8.2%
of the Earth’s crust" (ASM 2012).74 The element of aluminum is not found by itself as it
is typically combined with other natural elements. "The most common elements that
aluminum combines with are potassium aluminum sulfate and aluminum oxide" (IAI
2012).75 ALCOA Inc. (2012), a world producer of aluminum, categorizes this metal as
material number 6601; "having excellent joining characteristics, and a good acceptance
of applied coatings."76 Aerospace Specification Metals, Inc. also states that aluminum has
a relatively high value of strength, good workability, high resistance to corrosion and can
be made in many shapes and sizes (2012).77 See Figure 26 for examples of extruded
aluminum mullion formations and a microscope sampling.
The density of aluminum is found to
be ".0975 pounds/cubic inch and its modulus
of elasticity is 10,000 kips/square inch"
(Ophardt 2003).78 Aluminum has the symbol
“Al” and is derived from the Latin word

Figure 26: Extruded Aluminum Mullion
Formations and Fired Aluminum Oxide alumen meaning alum.79 Its atomic number is
(Al2O3) Microscope Sampling
Source: http://www.spie.org
74
“Aluminum,” Matweb LLC and Aerospace Specifications Metals, Inc., accessed April 7th, 2012,
http://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=MA6061t6.
75
“Story of Aluminum,” International Aluminum Institute, last modified 2012.
http://www.world‐aluminium.org/About+Aluminium/Story+of.
76
"Finishes; Anodized Finish Specifications," ALCOA, Inc., last modified 2012.
http://www.alcoa.com/kawneer/north_america/catalog/pdf/Finishes--A.pdf.
77
International Aluminum Institute. “Story of Aluminum,” last modified 2012.
78
“Virtual Chembook; Aluminum AL,” Ophardt, Charles, Elmhurst College, last modified 2003.
http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/102aluminum.html.
79
Ibid.
65
13 and atomic mass is 26.98.80 Aluminum is shiny, silvery white in color and is relatively
lightweight yet heavy enough to sink within water (Ophardt 2003).81 According to
research, aluminum is covered with a layer of oxide which blocks the exposure to air and
harmful elements (IAI 2012). If this layer is damaged for any reason then it would
become more vulnerable to the surrounding environment. The molten hot chemical
composition of aluminum oxide is Al2O3 and is processed electrolytically for means of
production.82
The potential for aluminum to meet modern sustainability trends is high. Research
suggests that most of the available aluminum products are currently made up of 50%
post‐consumer recycled content.83 According to International Aluminum Institute (IAI),
"aluminum is the second most used metal, behind steel" (2012).84 IAI also states that
aluminum is a unique metal; strong, durable, flexible, impermeable, lightweight and as
mentioned earlier, it does not rust.85 Most importantly it meets the demand for a
sustainable future by having the capacity to be 100% recyclable. Although these are very
respectable traits for a material to have it should be known that aluminum is not
renewable although it is available in large quantities. According to IAI, "there was
approximately 34 million tons of aluminum produced in 2006, whereas 16 million tons
were recycled" (2012).86 This statistic reinforces the 50% post‐consumer recycled content
value referenced earlier. Aluminum should be used in place of other materials that will
rust or potentially be less recyclable for exterior shading and daylighting.

80
Ibid.
81
Ophardt. “Virtual Chembook; Aluminum AL,” Elmhurst College, last modified 2003.
82
International Aluminum Institute. “Story of Aluminum,” last modified 2012.
83
Ibid.
84
Ibid.
85
Ibid.
86
Ibid.
66
Natural Ventilation
pp 67‐77

67
Openings: Location, Type and Size
Since "people spend almost 90% of their time inside of buildings" and open
spaces make up more than 80% of the open office building space plan, cross ventilation
criteria is an important factor to consider (Syed 2012).87 This research is particular to that
of large shared spaces rather than individualized areas. According to Arvind Krishan et
al., "the average internal wind speed can be determined as a percentage of external wind
and for the condition of cross ventilation is based on the area of openings" (2001).88
Wind velocities are expected to decrease across open areas as "natural ventilation that is
not assisted by fans requires a high pressure difference" (Gelfand et al. 2012).89 Also in
some cases this decrease in air pressure may be due to obstructions caused by furniture.
Since this is a complex variable it will be omitted for the purposes of presenting concise
research. Attention will therefore be based on the effects of natural ventilation for an
open space, rather than one with furniture (see Figure 27).
Overhang +
Mid + High Opening Mid Openings
"Late modern office buildings

can benefit from passive
ventilation by offsetting heating i iV
and cooling loads, but are Upward Angled Sash

heavily contingent upon Mid Openings
+ Mid Openings
reducing internal heat gains
prior" (Gelfand et al. 2012). 90
ii V
Downward Angled Sash

High + Low Opening
+ Mid Openings
Figure 27: Cross Ventilation Options
Based on Opening Location and Type
Multiple Sources: Krishan, Brown and
DeKay, Bassler. Drawings by Author. iii Vi
87
88
Krishan, Baker, Yannas, and Szokolay, Climate Responsive Architecture, 156.
89
Gelfand Duncan, Sustainable Renovation Strategies, 35.
90
Ibid., 128.
68
By determining cross-ventilation typologies (Figure 27) alongside the study of
shading, daylighting and solar radiation one can triangulate the most ideal passive design
strategy for a retrofit project. Window operation will be based on natural ventilation
strategies with respect to weather and other conditions affecting the building envelope.
The purpose of using natural ventilation when outdoor air temperatures are between 62°
and 80°F (summer passive zone) is to pass air across and over the human body to
produce a cooling affect while introducing fresh air. One must decide the best way to do
both of these during this time.
According to indoor air conditioning studies, "only 15-20% of the total air
circulating is typically outside air, 80-85% is recirculating air" (Syed 2012).91 The United
States Green Building Council has responded to this issue by encouraging more outdoor
air-flow for LEED Certified buildings; offering more points for an increase.92 Clearly,
bringing in fresh outdoor air is an important measure in buildings and it is gaining more
consideration. The most objective response to do this passively would be to facilitate the
use of window sashes in a way that air moves at a mid-lower level of the office interior.
During periods where thermal comfort has been achieved, airflow can be deferred toward
the upper volume of the space; above those who may be sitting or standing Figures 27
(V) and 29 (1). Accordingly, cross ventilation offers the ability to “distribute heat more
evenly throughout a structure” (Krishan et al. 2001).93
As mentioned earlier, the middle hung and awning window works best for
purposes of pitching rainwater (including lower angled rainwater) away from the building
91
92
USGBC, LEED for Commercial Interior Reference Guide Version 2.0: Third Edition, (District of
Columbia: United States Green Building Council, 2008), 283.
93
Krishan, Baker, Yannas, and Szokolay, Climate Responsive Architecture,, 159.
69
and likewise protects the interior during stronger wind events. Unfortunately, the middle
hung window does not offer the flexibility to include a window screen as it rotates at a
middle pivot point (hence middle-hung). This poses a potential issue for the low-rise
open office building in the New York Metro area. The influence of wind flow in a room
based on a buildings orientation and amount of window openings also shares relevance in
determining the best use of natural ventilation. In determining the most likely event for
the low-rise open office building with a central support core we can appropriate some of
the following conditions. Sample wind flow typologies with respect to prevailing winds
can be seen in Figure 28 and 29.94 Figure 30 shows that interior solar heat gain is less
X
1
Wind From
West, (3)
Openings
Y Figure 29: Air Flow Passing

Wind From
Southwest, Occupants Sitting and Standing
(3) Openings Source: Krishan, 161.
Wind From Z
Southwest,
(2) Openings B
North Note: Dark dots represent areas of

direct solar heat gain.
Figure 28: Plan Views of Figure 30: Distribution of Solar
Prevailing Wind and Cross Ventilation Heat Gain:Single Sided Ventilation
Strategies Based on Opening Location Vs. Cross Ventilation
Multiple Sources: Krishan, DeKay, Bassler. Source: Krishan, 161.
94
Brown and Dekay, Sun, Wind, Light, 20, 39, 163.
70
distributed in a compartmentalized space with glazing and single sided natural ventilation
(B) versus an open space with glazings and cross ventialation (A). It should also be
mentioned that the quantity and location of glazings and wall locations make a difference
for daylighting, natural ventilation, heat gain. heat loss, shading and views.95
Research shows that the "four primary means of natural ventilation can be
achieved using single sided ventilation, cross ventilation, the stack effect and reverse
stack effect" (Krishan et al. 2001).96 Since the building typology being studied is the
modern low-rise open office and particularly retrofits to passively improve them,
feasibility and economical considerations play an important role. Respectively, the stack
and reverse stack effects (Figure 31) will be dismissed as they shall be considered
uneconomical solutions for a
retrofit project, particularly an
open office building which
contains a central masonry core
and support spaces. However,
there is one condition that may be
feasible to some extent, but will
also be purposely omitted; the

Figure 31: Stack and Reverse Stack Effects
Source: http://www.trane.com/commercial/library/vol31_2/.
buoyancy driven ventilation stack
which would perform best during winter months whereby air would be preheated by a
perimeter element. This is similar to the concept of a continuously open chimney that
may help to increase air movement and changes across an open floor plan in addition to
95
96
71
the levels above it. It however uses a mechanical heating device in order to preheat
incoming natural ventilation.97 In effort to maintain a largely passive heating and cooling
solution, this typology will not be considered further.
The study of openings for increased ventilation show that window configurations
can have significant effects on the flow of air. Accordingly, the orientation, mounting
height and window typology makes all the difference. For instance, a sash which angles
air in and upward allows air to carry its velocity primarily towards the ceiling whereby a
sash angling down and inward does the opposite. This concept was shown in Figure 27
and is also of reference to Figure 32. Likewise, the mounting elevation of the window
shares a similar function. Windows located closer to the floor have a different effect
when compared with windows located at a higher elevation. According to multiple
sources, “The window fenestration height should be such that there is a good distribution
of airflow across the human body. Lower sill levels are preferable and in cold climates
window fenestrations should be large, unshaded, but sealed to prevent cool drafts”
(Krishan et. al 2001).98
97
Ibid., 48.
98
72
Casement Awning Awning + Reverse Sliding
Preferred Option
(Poor Rain Protection) (Good in‐flow of air, (Not fully functional) (Poor rain protection)

good rain protection)
Double Hung Security Jalousie
(Poor rain protection, less functional (Not necessary, viewing (Inability to prevent

for natural ventilation) capacity is obstructed) unwanted air infiltration
during heating season)
Note: All glazing in NY Metro Area should be Thermopane for increased thermal resistance value.
Figure 32: Metal Operable Window Types That Allow Insect Screens
Source: Architectural Graphics Standard, 2000.
The path of air and natural light travel can thus be considered somewhat
controllable based on the type of window, its orientation, elevation and dimensional
criteria. According to research, “Window cross-sections have the ability to affect fluid
flow velocities; increasing the cross-section can decrease the entering wind speed and
vice versa” (Krishan et al. 2001).99 These become important considerations in the case for
retrofit selection criteria and will be used as a key design component. As derived from
daylighting, shading, natural ventilation, water penetration and other environmental
studies the best windows as shown in Figure 32 for a comprehensive plug-in retrofit
99
73
Figure 33: Building Envelope as a Selective Filter
of Macro and Micro Environmental Factors
Source: Contemporary Curtain Wall Architecture, 2009.
solution would be the awning window with clear fiberglass bug screens. One can
therefore say that the middle hung window is no longer the best option even if it can be
controlled by automated devices. This is because the building needs to protect against the
“Macro-environmental conditions of dust, vermin, insects and pollens in addition to
microorganisms whereby the building envelope must perform as a selective filter of
them” (Murray 2009).100 Figure 33 demonstrates this additional complexity.
100
Murray, Contemporary Curtain Wall, 74-75.
74
For the New York Metro area office building bug screens come in handy and may
not suitably be used with other window types that allow air inflow at controlled angles.
Alternatively, this is where certain windows can provide a better function over others. A
small list to identify where and how one should use natural ventilation is bulleted below.
•"Window locations should be offset with respect to opposite and adjacent
facades, rather than aligned in plan, unless prevailing wind is at an angle.
•Partitions or walls should not be placed by windows.
•Windows on adjacent curtain walls should not be placed in a way to cause an
abrupt change in wind direction when opened simultaneously.
•Indoor air speeds are larger with outlet windows bigger than inlet windows.
•A window section has the ability to divert, deflect and increase/ decrease wind
speed" (Krishan et al. 2001).101
This information is also useful for core support spaces in buildings as well as
those with double loaded corridors. The natural ventilation opportunity that presents itself
here could be achieved with the use of louvered doors and openings acting as air inlets
and outlets rather than entirely closing these central spaces. On the same note, elevator
lobbies, corridors and hallways even have the option of using transom windows and
overhead vents for cross air flows even if security concerns arise. Figure 34 shows these
options with respect to the typological section through an open office building. With this
in mind, the core support spaces may also be improved with the opportunity of natural
101
75
ventilation and in a few cases, ambient daylighting. Air volumes of, by itself, has the
capacity to make indoor conditions more comfortable, so long as they move. Also,
Wind Through
4th Floor + Around
Building Core/
rd Above Transom
3 Floor Support Spaces
Opening
Below
2nd Floor
Above
1st Floor + Below
Wall/Obstruction Door Grille
Figure 34: Example of Cross Ventilation

Options Through Open Office Building Section (Including Core)
Multiple Sources: Krishan, 149. DeKay, Bassler. Drawing by Author.
interior fire separation criteria will also need to be evaluated at the time of locating
interior and exterior window openings. Such criteria involves maintaining fire rating
longevities between interior partitions, doors, windows and duct/pipe penetrations as
required by the size of open office areas. Since this research project pertains to a building
envelope retrofit, major interior improvements will not be considered. This information is
therefore made available to promote the passive design idea of being thorough. Figure 35
shows the preferred natural ventilation typology as previously discussed. Darkened lines
represent double awning windows placed in an existing building curtain wall system, as
part of the idealized retrofit strategy.
76
Figure 35: Axonometric of Awning
Windows Contained in Idealized Retrofit Typology
Source: Drawing by Author
77

Glazing and Views
pp 78‐84
78
Properties:
Glazing selection becomes another important subject to consider for the building
façade retrofit project. It has the ability to allow natural ventilation, reflect, absorb or
deflect solar radiation and daylighting in addition to reducing interior heat loss and gains
when needed. As contained in the idealized retrofit Figure 36, glazing is hatched in blue.
Figure 36: Axonometric of Idealized Retrofit Contained in Glass Curtain Wall System
Source: Drawing by Author
When establishing criteria for selecting the best type of glazing and framework
for a facade retrofit one should compare the cost difference between modifying the
existing glass and curtain wall framework and replacing it with new. This consideration
should be made in addition to analyzing the function of how each performs. As identified
79
from Table 6, a single pane clear glass window offers a higher solar gain factor (SGF)
when shaded than a reflective double pane 6mm glass window pane that is sealed and in
direct sunlight.102
Table 6: Solar Gain Factors for Windows
Table 7: Comparative U-values and

Light Transmittance Through Different Glazing Types
Source: Murray 2009.
102
80
The idea that this window will be shaded during the day and the building will
unoccupied during the night helps decision making. It’s clear that this is not only a matter
of reducing heat gain during the summer or maintaining indoor temperatures after
operating hours. More importantly, it is about the mediation between indoor and outdoor
environmental conditions combined with the optional phenomenological greenhouse
effect during cooler periods. In addition to the interest of increasing solar gains during the
winter, the opacity of clear glass also offers better viewing clarity, a higher solar heat
gain coefficient (SHGC), and more visible light transmittance (VLT) according to Table
7.
Performance Values:
Typical insulating glass performance values are supplied in Table 7 and are useful
for comparison. According to this figure uncoated single pane clear glass has a visible
light transmittance of 79%, but has a poor U-value of 0.47 (Murray 2009).103 The U-
value "measures heat transmission (thermal resistance) from one side of the glass to the
other and is the inverse of a resistance value (R-value=1/R), normally used for
determining insulation" (Syed 2012).104 In the case of U-values, a smaller number means
better insulation and thermal resistance capacity.
Also by adding a low-emissivity (low-e) coating to this glass, visible light
transmittance is minimally decreased (by -9.0%) while visible light reflectance is reduced
(by -3.0%) and the U-value is decreased by more than 35%. When comparing the
improved option with triple glazing plus low-e argon fill the U-value is decreased by
103
Murray, Contemporary Curtain Wall, 76.
104
Syed, Advanced Building Technologies,124-125.
81
more than 50% and allows similar visible light transmittance. This is the preferred option
for orientations which receive more shade and less direct sunlight. However, multi-pane
glazing requires special considerations "...they are unique to increasing cost, thermal
performance and acoustics. In the case of incorporating large windows or clear glass,
multi pane windows generally pay back the higher cost in very cold climates" (Syed
2012).105 Figure 37 provides a better understanding of these resistance values, and heat
flow principles, including air infiltration, through a sampling based on time. It can
therefore be used as background information for the important subjects of heat loss and
gain. Fortunately, Ecotect 2011 has the ability to calculate these forms of heat flow. This
affords speedier calculations for environmental analysis when adjusting building
envelope materials, finishes and times of the year.
Figure 37: Thermal Conductance,

Resistance, Transmission and Air Infiltration Diagrams
Source: Hootman, 2012.
105
82
Clear glass also creates less condensation when compared with reflective or tinted
glass as warmer glass means less condensation (Elsier 2007).106 For these reasons clear
glass windows could be considered uniquely efficient, although contrary to popular
belief. While this research is not aimed to suggest the single pane clear glass viewing
window over insulated glazing, it does show that the macro condition of using passive
design strategies may outweigh common assumptions. The concept of using tinted or
reflective film windows on glazing solely to prevent unwanted heat gains and losses goes
against our main goal. This goal should be based on increasing heat gain during winter
hours from sunrise to sunset. This would be one of those particular conditions that work
against passively moderating thermal comfort during colder periods.
For the matter of glazing considerations based on the previous tables it can be
concluded that insulated clear glass without reflective film, but with low-e coating is a
good balance. It affords heat loss reduction from insulating qualities while allowing
higher amounts of solar heat gain and minimizes harmful ultraviolet rays from entering
the office space. Lastly, this option also allows for more daylighting due to the increased
light transmittance. Also, similar to the recent retrofit of the Empire State Building in
New York, although admittedly not a low-rise office, Johnson Controls Inc. "...added
Mylar sheathes between glass window panes and resealed existing windows for energy
savings" (Gelfand et al. 2012).107 Accordingly, manipulating existing glazing may be a
viable option. This is the case so long as the glazing is properly shaded during the
summer. Surely there is a tradeoff here, but low-emissivity coatings work favorably for
106
"Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells," (Uppsala, Sweeden: Elsevier B.V., 2007)
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927024806004570 (accessed April 5, 2012).
107
83
the New York Metro area. This combined strategy is also recognized by architects who
specialize in modern facade retrofit projects. According to design professionals, "a better
understanding of the local climate offers improved thermal management and replacing
existing insulated glass panels with new high efficiency insulated glazing, combined with
approaches to sun-shading, passive heating, insulation and air infiltration can bring back
the original intent for daylighting in late modern buildings" (Gelfand et al. 2012).108
Considering this particular type of window would be more efficient on a primarily
southern exposure it also performs well for other exposures. For more northerly
exposures that receive little to no direct sunlight, low-e glazing becomes necessary at
minimizing heat loss. Also, for these exposures it is recommended that glazing also be
clear so long as privacy during the day is not of major concern. According to previously
discussed climate data, this should be the case in an effort to avail the largest daylighting
factor for overcast or diffuse sky conditions. This will also be proven in the design phase
of this project.
108
84
Other Factors
pp 85‐86
85
Glazing and Daylighting Factors:
The building envelope, including window frames and connections should be
sealed while allowing for passive and active air changes as required. Average estimates
of infiltration associated with heat loss per square foot (SF) is considered high for glass
curtain wall systems as they have more seals.109 "Office buildings typically experience a
loss of -0.09 Btu/Hour per SF and in some cases as much as -0.15 Btu/Hour per SF"
(Brown et al. 2001).110 A building’s construction, microclimate, weatherproofing in
addition to poor envelope seals can compound this deficiency. While air infiltration
reduction is important, it will not be of further study as the subject building will be
assumed tightly sealed. This will therefore alleviate another complex variable from this
research project. Focus will be respective of glazing factors for both heat absorbing glass,
non-heat absorbing glass, framing factors (ratio of glass to framing) and the consideration
of clean glass in a vertical orientation. Glazing dirt factors can be seen in Table 8.111 This
information will need to be considered for environmental analysis settings, which will be
discussed in the design phase of this project.
Table 8: Glazing Dirt Factors

Source: Krishan et al. 2001
109
110
Ibid.
111
86
Computer Aided
Modeling and Analysis
pp 87‐90
87
Autodesk Ecotect, Revit Architecture and Vasari Wind Tunnel
Analysis:
The computer aided modeling and environmental analysis software Autodesk
Ecotect 2011 (Ecotect) shall be used. The methodology of studying a singular open office
building without furniture promotes a stronger, more universal conclusion for
daylighting, solar radiation and wind-tunnel analysis. The appropriate studies of
daylighting protractors in addition to material reflectance and light diffusion principles
are already embedded into this program.112 This implys that illuminance and shading
levels can be determined for an
entire building, based on a users
input. According to a basic
understanding of how existing
building design analysis works, "it
Figure 38: Autodesk Ecotect Promotional Image requires an element of diagnostic

Source: Autodesk 2010.
thinking, often starting with figuring
out how the building was meant to work when it was originally built" (Gelfand et al.
2012).113
Solar radiation, angles of incidence, sun-path, percentages of unobstructed sky,
diffused light values, in addition to a multitude of other passive design subjects are also
included in the software. Ecotect gains its weather file information from the United States
Department of Energy (USDOE) and the Energy Information Administration (EIA). This
data can be considered current and reliable as weather files are loaded into the program
directly from governmental agencies. After conducting an environmental analysis, "one
112
"Ecotect Analysis Sky Illuminance," Autodesk, Inc., last modified January 15th, 2013
http://wiki.naturalfrequency.com/wiki/Sky_Illuminance.
113
88
can study the results in multiple ways as it can be used to generate and test passive design
and renewable energy strategies" (Hootman 2013).114
Computer aided analysis will be shown in axonometric, section, elevation, plan,
table, chart, graph and in the form of percentages of improvement over an analysis grid.
Ecotect also offers the ability to input projected utility costs and using its automated
calculation abilities one can also determine greenhouse gas emission reduction. It also
allows a designer to quickly hypothesize and then test a design scenario, over and over
again. This enables the designer to capture the effects from making minimal changes to
the building model. Lastly, Ecotect offers near actual environmental conditions based on
yearly, daily and hourly averages, as manipulated by the user. 115
Although this software has many advantages, it also has disadvantages as
recognized when using it for the design phase of this project. For instance, the software is
limited to how much detail the user can input to the building model. This is in the sense
where Ecotect slows down to considerably low speeds of analysis when it contains more
information. Therefore, building models need to be scaled down from their actual
intricacy so that more expedited calculations can take place. Common things like
applying many window mullions and overlaying wall materials in layers is not suggested.
This software platform seems to prefer 2-dimensional surface modeling measures that are
simple to understand whereby one surface represents the makeup of many. For instance, a
wall cavity made up of glazing with rigid foam insulation and interior steel furring with
gypsum board would be calculated as one combined material by using the combined
thermal resistance value. As a matter of fact, the building model that was used for final
114
Hootman, Net Zero Energy Design, XVI-XIX.
115
Autodesk Ecotect Analysis 2011 (Version 5) [Software]. Available from
http://usa.autodesk.com/adsk/servlet/download/item?id=13140033&siteID=123112.
89
simulation needed to be redrawn four times over before the software responded quicker
and more accurately. For these reasons, complex building models may be difficult to
study. It is therefore important to analyze a building with simplified geometries and have
material resistance, reflectance and conductance values on hand.
The input and modeling method used for wind tunnel analysis will be derived
from a compatible building information modeling (BIM) program, namely Autodesk
Revit Architecture 2011 (Revit). This software can be considered a horizontal platform
by which transitioning between Vasari wind tunnel modeling and Ecotect is made
easy116. Modeling will be done in zones which can later be recognized and analyzed by
Ecotect. These platforms allow existing buildings to be studied as well as the proposed
retrofit. If necessary, Revit is also suitable for photorealistic rendering production to
prove that aesthetics will not be hindered by incorporating the proposed retrofit.
Likewise, the combination of software and plug-ins shown in Figure 39 are complete for
environmental analysis and makes for a professional project display when finished. 117
Autodesk Ecotect 2011: Environmental Analysis
Desktop Radiance 2.0 Plug-in: Photometric Rendering
AutoCAD Architecture 2013: Details
Vasari Beta 2.0 2013: Wind Tunnel Analysis
Revit Architecture 2013- 3D Modeling
Figure 39: Combination of Software Programs Used for Environmental Analysis

Source: Autodesk 2010, Autodesk 2013, Radiance 2002.
116
Autodesk Vasari Beta 2, 2013 [Software]. Available from http://autodeskvasari.com/VasariBeta2.
117
Desktop Radiance 2.0, 2002 (Beta) [Software]. Available from
http://radsite.lbl.gov/deskrad/download.htm
90
Solutions
pp 91‐93
91
Economy, Efficiency and Occupant Comfort:
The overall goal is to provide an economical retrofit design strategy which cools
and daylights during warmer periods and vice versa. The solution must also be one that
simultaneously promotes passive ventilation and views that reduce or eliminate glare. A
comprehensive passive design technique is necessary to mediate these variations. The
building envelope retrofit strategy should be used as a moderator, similar to the task of a
referee, but in this case between the interior and exterior. For this reason, operable retrofit
devices will be compared by their ability to control thermal and occupant comfort. Only
after, should they be assessed for feasibility and cost.
Based on research and other self-studying methods, this project stands to suggest
an idealized operable passive design typology of a 3-dimensional rhombus (Figure 36).
This shape should incorporate the passive design strategies regarding ventilation,
shading, daylighting and solar radiation while maintaining views, eliminating glare and
responding to micro and macro environmental conditions. This can be achieved by using
an operable louver device with both horizontal and vertically slanted fins that can move
in and out of a building envelope. This offers the flexibility of rotation to respond to
varying climate conditions. The idealized retrofit should also operate by automated
motor/control devices; using indoor and outdoor measurements of wind velocity, air
temperature, illumination, and humidity and minimize infiltration. Lastly, the proposed
retrofit must be economical and feasible to install within an existing low-rise open office
building glass curtain wall framework as this will be the controlling factor to how this
retrofit may take place.
92
Recent remedies for replacing outdated and aging curtain wall systems stand to
suggest thermally broken aluminum frames and multi-pane glazing to eliminate thermal
bridging problems and condensation issues.118 This is aimed at breaking existing thermal
bridges which are "highly conductive building envelope construction elements that
bypass insulation and act as a short circuit" (Tuluca 1997).119 While this will minimize
conduction issues for late-modern aluminum curtain wall systems, it can be considered
uneconomical if an existing building facade framework is still in good condition. All
research previously conducted is regarding a best-case retrofit design scenario for the
MLOOB envelope in the New York Metro area. This will be further studied with
additional variations and comparisons in the design phase of this project.
118
119
Tuluca, Energy Efficient Design, 7.
93
Research Project Findings
pp 94‐96
94
A Synergistic Retrofit Approach is Key
Reduction in energy use, cost savings and pollution are all relevant to designing
an energy efficient building envelope retrofit. Findings on specific typologies were
discussed in the body of this research and collectively make up the thought process one
should take when proposing passive solar radiation, shading, daylighting and natural
ventilation strategies for the modern low-rise open office building. The overall process
should not be handled as an independent subject for each strategy, rather it should be
combined.
Building designers should focus more effort towards measures that have respect
to the climate. As provided, it is clear there are numerous energy conservation
opportunities for the designer to consider that promote energy cost savings while
positively affecting the environment. These measures require respect for the natural
elements of the sun, wind, water, air temperature and weather patterns that affect
buildings and ultimately occupant comfort. It is important to again emphasize that the
modern low-rise open office building facade may be redesigned for better efficiency.
When done correctly, it can also maintain the overall form and function of this building
typology.
To passively retrofit a low-rise open office building envelope in the NY Metro
area is to consider occupant comfort, weather, time of day/year, passive design typologies
as well as the environment, energy use, economics, feasibility, structures and aesthetics
simultaneously. According to design professionals, "Light and energy that passes (or lack
95
thereof) through the building envelope creates the need for artificial lighting and
mechanical systems and changes the performance of the building envelope; potentially
making it unnecessary to upgrade them. If the building envelope is part of the scope of
work of a renovation, it can create a major opportunity" (Gelfand et al. 2012).120 As a
direct result of such considerations, there may also be less maintenance, repair and
replacement of related building systems that would otherwise operate for longer
durations.
By triangulating all of these subjects one has the ability to promote energy
savings in a multitude of ways. Synergistic passive design approaches respecting climate
conditions as well as other micro and macro-environmental concerns provide the best
solution. As mentioned earlier, the ideal passive design retrofit strategy as determined
uses a set of rotatable vertical and horizontal louvers that are constrained within the form
of a 3-dimensional rhombus; maintaining views and natural ventilation through awning
windows (Figure 35 and 36).
120
96
Design Project Introduction

pp 97‐101
97
Existing Building Information: The Towers
The office building chosen for the design phase of this research project is located
in the northwestern portion of Long Island and is currently known as The Towers. It
resides within an upscale suburban community and was developed on Great Neck Road
in Great Neck Village, NY. It is part of a mixed-use commercial zoning district and is
adjacent to other office, condominium and apartment buildings. While the Towers was
initially designed as an open office, it has since been repurposed to have individualized
spaces for its tenants.121 For this design project, subdivided spaces have been
intentionally omitted for clarity and timely environmental analysis. Building core areas
have also been omitted from natural daylighting and ventilation studies (to follow) as
they are inner spaces and would provide nil analysis results. Despite these omissions, the
Towers serve as a prime candidate to study environmental analysis; fitting the criteria of
the symbolic modern low-rise open office building discussed in the research phase of this
project. This building will also be used to test my hypothesis; increased solar radiation
and natural ventilation will provide substantial energy use reduction.122 Additional
building and site information is bulleted below.
• Latitude: 40.8, longitude: -73.72.

• Section: 34, Block: 65, Lot: 7U.
• Building Fair Market Value (2013-2014): $23,598,000.
• Building orientation is approximately 45° clockwise from North.
121
Field verification by author.
122
Increased solar radiation may decrease energy use for heating during winter months and if the building
is properly shaded during the summer; this affect may be compounding by reducing cooling requirements.
98
• Deciduous trees are parallel to building and approximately 45 feet high on
Southeast and Northwest exposures.
Property Manager and Great Neck Village Building Department Application:
• Jones Lang LaSalle, David Hercman, [email protected]
(unable to provide plans at time of visit, recommended building department).
• Village of Great Neck Plaza Application filed for Public Access to Records on
July 7th, 2012 as Student, Representing the University of Hawaii at Manoa,
School of Architecture at 2 Gussack Plaza, Great Neck, NY 11021.
Building Information Modeling Assumptions
For a more realistic study, the following assumptions have been made.
Occupancy: The building is occupied from 7:00am-6:00pm, with occupant usage
ramping up and down based on the time of day and lunch hour. This information will
prove useful for establishing latent heat gain from occupants and their activity (sedentary,
70 Watts per hour) throughout the course of a weekday. It is being used to establish more
realistic heating and cooling loads in the building.
Human Clothing Factor: 1.0 used for purposes of simplicity, rather than calculating
varying clothing insulation factors for each season. See Figure 6 in research project for
more information.
99
Humidity (%): 60
HVAC Air Speed: 98.4 ft/min.
Artificial Lighting Level: 27.9 footcandles (fc), used for sensible heat gain assumption
and daylighting comparisons.
Number of Occupants: 129 Square Feet (sf) / occupant (12m2/occupant).
Internal Heat Gains: Sensible: 1.585 Btu/hr./ft.2 Latent: 0.634 Btu/hr./ft2
Air Infiltration Rate: 0.5 (assuming a well-sealed building, includes air exchange
between zones and outside environment, based upon a Monday-Friday 7:00am-6:00pm
occupant schedule).
Active Air Conditioning System: Mixed Mode, 95% Efficiency (providing heating and
cooling).
Comfort Band: Lower: 64.4°F Upper: 78.8°F
(Environmental Temperature Range for Comfort and System)
Hours of HVAC Operation: Weekdays 7:00am-6:00pm, Weekends: 8:00am-12:00pm
Zone Volume Calculation: Medium Precision
Calculated Information for Zones Receiving Retrofit:
Zone: 2nd-6th floors, Total Floor Area: 107296.86 ft2, Volume: 1288775.62 ft3
Solar Access Analysis (used for Solar Radiation Studies):
Solar radiation calculations use hourly recorded direct and diffuse radiation data from the
weather file and rely upon material specifications. Overshadowing and shading
calculations have been automatically calculated by Ecotect with medium precision and
are assumed to be correct. The time range as studied is between 7:00am-6:00pm from
June 6th-September 10th and represent cumulative averages upon surfaces that have been
modeled.
100
Daylighting Analysis:
Shows natural light levels at specific points in the model. "Natural light levels are not
date or time dependant - they represent worst-case design conditions based on an average
uniform sky distribution in mid-winter. Calculations are based on the BRE Split Flux
Method which uses daylight factors and the design sky illuminance value (603.9 fc,
derived from model latitude) to determine with medium ray-tracing precision, likely
natural light levels in the model across the analysis grid" (Autodesk 2013). 123 This
method is also taking into account an increased accuracy mode which considers the
transparency and refractive index of window glazing and actual surface reflectance of
external objects. This study assumes a window cleanliness factor of 0.9 (average) as
Autodesk Ecotect 2011 requires the user to select one and a regular buildup of dirt is
expected.
Specifications:
Light reflectance values for acoustical ceiling tiles and white light shelves are 0.9
(white/high) and pertain to specifications from each manufacturer. Carpeted floor light
reflectance values were chosen as 0.3 (dark/low) as they are assumed to be of darker
color for open office spaces with daily foot-traffic. A maximum of three reflections has
been set and pertains to daylighting studies. Daylight is expected to reflect off of the light
shelves, to the ceiling, then down to the floor and back up again with any remaining
reflection. Accordingly, natural lighting analysis decreases in this manner for the existing
building and with the proposed retrofit.
123
"Ecotect Analysis Sky Illuminance," Autodesk, Inc., last modified January 15th, 2013
101
Site Analysis Photos

pp 102‐105
102
Site Maps, Satellite Imagery and Site Photographs
The following maps and satellite imagery (Figure 40) show the building's location
as a series of images that zoom closer to the project site. Starting from the North America
(1), to the northeast region (2), to the northwest part of Long Island (3), to a portion of
the City of Great Neck (4), then to the street (5) and lastly the project site (6).
1 4 5
2
3 6
Figure 40: Site Map and Satellite Imagery

Sources: Yahoo Maps, Google Maps
103
The following bird’s eye-view (Figure 41) shows the building's location nearly
45° clockwise from North, placed south of the Long Island Railroad track. The project
location is within a mixed use zoning district and has a good buffer from other low-rise
office buildings, condominiums and apartment complexes. As depicted in this image,
most trees that surround the site appear to be tall and have large dark green leaf canopies
that cast shade which almost reaches the building envelope.124
Figure 41: North Axonometric Birds-eye View

Source: Google Maps 2012.
124
Google Maps Satellite View "100 Great Neck Rd., Great Neck, NY," accessed January 10th, 2013.
104
Figure 42 shows wide angle site photos taken on January 7th, 2013 at 9:15am.
Since the site is now surrounded by trees without leaves, we know they are deciduous.
Having this in mind, there will be minimal shading from the surrounding landscape
during the winter. This allows for more daylighting and potential for increased solar
radiation. These images also depict a workday hour when noticing the amount of cars
parked above grade.
Figure 42: Wide Angle Site Photos

Photos by Author, Taken January 7, 2013 at 9:15am
105
Existing Building Analysis

pp 106‐113
106
Type, Size, Function and Materiality
Type: Modern, 6 story (low-rise).
Architect of Record: Blum and Nerzig Architects, 1978.
Year Built: 1980.
Function: Office Building
Size: Approximately 107,000 Square Feet (floors 2-6). First floor purposely omitted due
to floor to ceiling frameless glass and masonry facade which is set back under 2nd floor
slab (fully shaded).
Structure: Reinforced concrete column and slab.
Façade: Curtain-wall glazing and limestone.
Primary Question for Purposes of Design Project Study: Can building energy
efficiency and occupant comfort be improved with a retrofit design strategy which is
more based on the climate?
Existing Building Design Strategies Called into Question:
Are there energy efficiency and occupant comfort issues related to having highly
reflective/ tinted glazing and the facade not being shaded? Substantial heat loss/gain is
assumed to be due to the large area of windows on all facades, can this be improved to
reduce energy loss? The building is not currently utilizing natural ventilation; could this
feature prove useful to conserve energy use and improve occupant comfort?
107
Construction Plans and Building Photographs
As gathered on July 25th, 2012 from the Village of Great Neck Building
Department, the following building plans in Figure 43 are shown. These images were
obtained by filling out a Freedom of Information File Application on July 23rd, 2012 and
represent the "Issued for Construction Set" dating back to 1978. Plans, elevations, cross-
sections and building envelope details are shown and will be used for future design
project analysis. To follow, Figures 44 through 48 depict existing building exterior and
interior photos taken in January and July.
108
Figure 43: Existing Building Plans
109
Figure 44: Lobby and Exterior Photos
Figure 45: Lobby and Exterior Photos
110
Figure 46: Interior Building Photographs 1 and 2 Viewing Southeast
Photos by Author, Taken July 22, 2012 at 2:00pm.
Permission Received from Property Manager.
Figure 47: Interior Building Photograph 3 Viewing Southeast

111
Figure 48: Interior Building Envelope Photographs 4 and 5
Descriptions of Photos 1-5 (Figures 46 through 48):
Photos 1-5 depict the office interior viewing southeast through the curtain-wall glazing
system at approximately 2:00pm on July 22nd, 2012.
In Photo 1 (Figure 46), notice the recessed 2'x4' fluorescent light fixtures are off and the
space is dimly lit by natural daylight. Horizontal blinds seem to be used to block glare as
privacy during the day is not a concern with dark tinted windows.
When compared with Photo 2 in Figure 46 we can see that these light fixtures are on and
are directly adjacent to the existing glass and aluminum mullion facade. In this instance,
artificial light is being used improperly as it should be shut-off with such ample diffuse
and direct daylight available.
112
Photo 3 (Figure 47) reinforces this concept and is a good representation of how tinted
glass windows skew the exterior colors of an outdoor environment (the colors should be
more vibrant in July). Also notice the reflection of artificial light back to the occupant
from the window reflections.
Photos 4 and 5 (Figure 48) show close-ups of typical window sill and head conditions.
Notice the design strategy of directly abutting the sill slab (at 30" above finished floor) to
the top of the lower window mullion face for an almost seamless, frameless glass appeal.
Similar conditions occur where acoustical ceiling tiles run flush into the bottom face of
the upper window mullions. These existing conditions are important to take note of and
make for the subjects of how one could economically move forward with a retrofit,
without having to redo ceilings or sills on every floor.
113
Environmental Analysis of
Climate: Sun, Wind, Light,
Temperature Data

pp 114‐129
114
Sun Angles and Azimuth
The annual sun-path in Figure 49 represents the existing building's orientation
with respect to a ground-plane compass. This figure illustrates the stark difference in sun
angles from summer to winter (72° versus 26°). It also shows the azimuth as arch-
bandings of lines indicating the suns' movements throughout the year. For instance, one
can notice that during the winter periods the sun is out for shorter durations each day
when compared with the summer. This can be determined by analyzing arch-band lengths
(in blue) between seasons. All future shading, daylighting and solar radiation calculations
will be based upon this sun path and the solar angles as determined from 7:00am-6:00pm
workday.
Figure 49: Annual Sun Path Perspective Viewing North

Source: Ecotect Analysis 2011, Diagram Generated by Author.
115
Heating and Cooling Degree Days
As shown in the standard Monthly Degree Day Graph, Figure 50, the blue bars
represent times of the year when heating is required whereas the red bars are when
cooling is required. The higher the quantity of degree days means the larger the intensity
of energy demands. The overall goal for the building designer is to neutralize these
fluctuations with the use of passive and/or active air conditioning systems. In this design
project, passive design strategies will move to the forefront with remaining differences to
be maintained by active mixed-mode (heating and cooling) HVAC systems.
Figure 50: Standard Monthly Heating (Blue) Figure 50.1: Adjusted Monthly Heating (Blue)
and Cooling (Red) Degree Days Chart and Cooling (Red) Degree Days Chart
Source: Ecotect Analysis 2011, Source: Ecotect Analysis 2011,
Diagram Generated by Author. Diagram Generated by Author.
As generated from Ecotect, Figure 50 is similar to the standard monthly heating
(HDD) and cooling degree days (CDD) calculations as noted in the research phase of this
project. This assumes a HDD and CDD baseline of 65° F when calculating totals.
Assuming building occupants are capable of maintaining their own thermal comfort when
outdoor air temperatures are between 62° F and 80° F (see research Figure 8), this chart
116
will adjust. This means the adjusted HDD calculation would use 62° F as a lower
baseline and the adjusted CDD calculation uses 80° F as an upper baseline (see Equation
2 for more information). This variation is captured when comparing Figure 50 (standard)
to Figure 50.1 (adjusted) degree day charts. Since both figures are solely based on the
climate they do not include internal office variables; heat gain, lighting, computer
equipment, the quantities of occupants and their activities. Although separate, it does go
to mention that these are still important factors to consider. In summary, heating
requirements demand far more energy than cooling requirements assuming the building
occupants can use the passive zone temperatures to their advantage. This can be
considered a general rule of thumb for this project and any modern low-rise open office
117
Wind Rose and Tunnel Analysis
Figure 51 shows the nearest weather station being used for Autodesk Ecotect
Vasari Wind Tunnel and Wind Rose analysis. Vasari is a separate platform created by
Autodesk, Inc. and is currently in the Beta (testing) stage of production.125 This weather
simulation software is useful to estimate interior wind velocities based on outdoor
prevailing winds and window opening (void) percentages.
Wind Intensity/
Frequency
Figure 51: Weather Station Location

and Prevailing Wind Intensity/ Frequency Compass
Source: Autodesk Vasari Beta 2.0, Diagram Generated by Author.
125
Autodesk Vasari Beta 2, 2013 [Software]. Available from http://autodeskvasari.com/VasariBeta2.
118
The Wind Rose Maps shown in Figure 52 indicate wind intensities and durations
with respect to the compass direction (North is up). This information can be used to
Figure 52: Workday Prevailing Wind Direction and

Intensity Overlays 1 and 2 from May Through September, 7:00am-6:00pm
Source: Autodesk Vasari Beta 2.0, Diagrams Generated by Author.
119
determine wind intensity data as indicated by the 24-hour period and months shown.
When referring back to previous research regarding temperature records one will find that
outdoor air temperatures within the passive zone fall between the months of May through
1
September. Including building operating hours (7:00am-6:00pm M-F, 8:00am-12:00noon
weekends), one can determine when natural ventilation can be used passively. In the case
of this subject building, the months of May-September may allow an enhanced
conservation of energy by using natural ventilation strategies. This is where the building
designer can use directional wind-flows to their advantage by carrying desired outdoor air
temperatures through the indoor air space. This strategy also allows for necessary fresh-
air changes to occur, as required for occupant comfort.
Since building envelopes moderate between indoor and outdoor spaces, micro-
environmental factors must also be accounted for. Bearing in mind the location of Great
Neck Village, and in particular this building, outdoor noise and pollution dynamics
should not be of major disadvantage. However, animals, insects and micro-organisms,
including pollens, may be of concern. This is especially true since tall tree canopies are
somewhat close (~30') to the exterior building facade. This is where window screens will
come in handy and will be a required component of the retrofit strategy. While window
screens and nearby tree canopies may have slight effects on fluid velocities, lowering
wind speeds and slightly shifting their direction, for the purposes of this design project
these components have been omitted (based on the limitations of Autodesk Vasari).
Therefore, windows will be studied as voids within the building model facades. This type
of study is only a "near approximation" of the consequences for the proposed retrofit in
order to include measures for natural ventilation.
120
The Wind Rose Map, while a great tool, is an incomplete picture in regard to
more accurate information available to the designer. One can further narrow the subject
of prevailing wind directions by analyzing average values as trends across work days
(Figure 53). This next step is an important component of this design project to see how
varying wind conditions may affect building occupants. By studying wind to this level of
detail helps bring this design project one step closer to reality. In doing so, one is able to
correlate the following.
-when the sun is out; wind velocities are stronger,

-when the sun is overhead, wind velocities are more intense.
Figure 53: Workday Averages for Weekly, Daily and Hourly

Wind Intensity (m/s) Durations from May Through September, 7:00am-6:00pm
121
Figure 53 substantiates this by higher prevailing wind velocities (lighter blue and
green colors) erratically occurring between the hours of 12:00pm and 3:00pm. These
findings also show that wind is working in our favor with respect to the time of the day;
during warmer periods, when we need it most. It also goes to show that while prevailing
winds are important to generalize wind conditions, this building will inevitably receive
prevailing winds from all angles of the compass. This being the case, one can conclude
that windows are necessary for all orientations, especially if one is to enable more user
flexibility to control natural ventilation. Windows are also needed on all orientations for
cross-ventilation because air pressures can build up, which may slow air flow. One
additional piece of climate data is missing. One should also have an awareness of relative
humidity during these same periods. This will help to estimate the quantities of days
where one could use natural ventilation and relative humidity levels are ideal (less than
60%). This information will be calculated into the energy savings and comparison
chapter to follow.
The proposed retrofit solution for natural ventilation will call for the addition of
window mechanisms to make select existing windows operational. Location, sizing and
quantities of windows have been included within the building model and are shown
below with respect to a strong prevailing wind from the south (~20 mph). This strength of
wind, although less common, gives a better understanding of fluid mechanics with
exaggerated results (showing more intensity for visual understanding).126 It has been
assumed, with reasonable estimation through multiple wind tunnel studies, that the
similar air movements will occur at slower wind speeds as all data are the same, without
126
According to mean wind speed climate data figure 2.3 presented in the research phase of this project.
122
variables (other than velocity). Considering this assumption, one can appropriate the
following conclusions in regard to Figure 54. The Tower's rectangular mass projection is
northeast and at a diagonal to most of the winds received during the summer passive zone
20 (mph) Note: White squares in building envelope represent
open window aperture sizes and locations in this (and
future) wind tunnel study figures.
Figure 54: Axonometric Wind Tunnel Study (In mph)

26'-0" Above Grade With Prevailing Wind From South)
Sources: Autodesk Vasari Beta 2.0, Diagram Generated by Author.
workday (Figure 8). From this illustration one can note the direction and width of a wind
shadow is slightly larger than the mass obstructing wind flow on the horizontal analysis
grid-plane. It appears that air velocities increase along planar edges of objects in further
downwind directions. As more wind is deflected and carried along this building's
surfaces, fluid velocities increase, similar to the concept of pouring liquid into a funnel.
In contrast to the previous note, lower air pressures may develop along immediate
obstructing exposures and along opposite non-visible faces of the building model. Based
on the fluid characteristics of this particular prevailing wind velocity (3 m/s), this image
also suggests that a positive/negative vortex effect occurs beyond the building envelope.
This can create a negative pressure that pulls wind through the office by cross ventilation.
123
These conditions may only be considered true in the horizontal plane at this
particular elevation (26'-0" above grade) and shall not be considered a complete wind
tunnel study by itself as it is only 2-dimensional. However, for the purposes of this design
project, the amount of information found from this wind tunnel/building mass study is
adequate to move forward. This information can now be used to correlate exterior wind
flow with respect to the most important consideration; how air moves through this
building's open office space, without furniture. Since south facade orientations are on the
windward side and northerly facing building surfaces are leeward, interior office air will
flow from high to low pressure in this same manner.127
Using similar conditions of southern prevailing winds, an interior wind tunnel
study is helpful. Accordingly, Interior Wind Tunnel Study #1 (Figure 55) uses the
window openings as shown in Figure 54 and below. This will serve as the primary
mechanism to allow exterior airflow through the building envelope and into the office.
A B
C D
Figure 55: Interior Wind Tunnel Study #1 (Outside ~15mph Prevailing Wind From South)
127
124
The location of each operable window was chosen with respect to the existing
curtain-wall system. The existing opportune locations are marked by the instance of a
framed window within the curtain wall frame (FWF).128 These subject window frames
are currently in a fixed position and are therefore non-functional. It is assumed that with
slight modification these existing FWF windows are capable of being removed and
replaced with (3) equal window segments, working within the constraints of the light
shelves to achieve natural ventilation. This process is also further substantiated as it is a
known solution to "...replace large fixed glazing with new operable sashes and in
buildings with energy management systems, windows can be controlled by small motors
based on weather conditions" (Gelfand et al. 2012).129 This can be done by adding
industrial grade hinge points to the existing curtain wall system (see previous building
interior photo #1 for condition), allowing crank-out operability from the facade.
As mentioned in the research phase of this project, window screens are required,
but will not impede on the functionality of the proposed retrofit. To minimize the
complexity of the interior wind tunnel study model these proposed window openings
have been reduced from a 3'-6" x 5'-9" aperture down to a 3'-0" x 3'-0" opening (near
50% of actual size) and do not take sash angles into account. In other words, this interior
wind tunnel study is only an approximation of the proposed retrofit strategy for natural
ventilation, but it is one step closer to reality. For that matter, it can be considered night
and day compared to studying prevailing wind directions without respect to the month of
the year, day of the week, time of the workday, building surfaces, aperture sizes and
opening percentages as this study aims to simplify. When correlating interior and exterior
128
Similar to how a window frame is installed into a framed opening of a residence.
129
125
wind tunnel studies, one can see that the direction of an exterior prevailing wind direction
is the same as the interior prevailing wind direction, assuming unobstructed openings.
The major difference becomes how this air travels once it enters the open office space.
Varying factors include interior wall locations; in this case the building core and adjacent
curtain walls. For one, we can see that wind will travel around them and try to take the
easiest way out. The path of highest office interior wind velocity occurs where fluid
velocities combine. This can occur at wall surfaces, ceilings, floors and possibly in
circulation aisles between furniture systems that have less points of air friction.
Similar to cross ventilation, this joining of air movements can work in the favor of
the occupants so long it is in a controlled manner. The idea of introducing light-breeze to
pass the occupants is the ideal scenario. From previous research, and as documented by
ASHRAE standards, nearly a 1.8 mph wind passing across an occupant is significant
enough to reduce a humans real-feel body temperature by nearly 5° F.130 Now that a
common goal is in mind, one should look to correct any conditions that may deviate from
it. For instance, "wind-shadows" or areas having low-air movements may pose an issue.
While this may be the case, these down-wind or more sheltered scenarios can be
improved by occupant control. By this meaning wall obstructions which would otherwise
defer interior air movements can be avoided by opening certain windows and closing
others (due to pressure effects). This is shown with respect to interior wind tunnel Figures
55 and 56 with winds from the south and southwest. Notably, the northwest sides of the
Building Core Area (A and B) represent areas where interior wind shadows occur. By
using intuition as well as trial and error methods this air movement issue can be solved.
130
126
0 (mph) 1.5+
A B
C D
Figure 56: Interior Wind Tunnel Study #2

(Outside ~15mph Prevailing Wind From Southwest)
When looking back to the building plan, with respect to prevailing winds, such
intuition strategies may include closing windows along the northeast facade and
selectively keeping windows open along the northwest facade (North Tower). This also
assumes that wind should travel to the next-closest down-wind outlet. At this point, this is
about as far as we can take our intuition without studying this with fluid mechanic
simulations or automated wind-tunnel analysis software like Autodesk Vasari. This
design project chooses the latter for the purpose of testing and verifying this theory.
Accordingly, the Interior Wind Tunnel Study in Figure 57 shows this condition. It
does however go to mention that the importance of trial and error pertains to this study.
This wind tunnel analysis was conducted multiple times to try and move air through areas
of wind shadows. While this test is useful to generalize possible scenarios, in order to get
this more accurate, the indoor occupants may have to adjust these windows manually and
on a daily basis. This becomes especially true if occupants want to control unwanted
127
interior wind-speeds, temperatures or directions. Loss of these control measures could
lead to occupants feeling warm, cold, and papers flying around the office. Taking notice
to the best chosen scenario, Interior Wind Tunnel Study #3 (Figure 57) considers closing
windows along areas of the facade as shaded along dashed white lines.
0 (mph) 1.5+
A B
C D
Figure 57: Interior Wind Tunnel Study #3

(Outside ~15mph Prevailing Wind From South)
Prevailing Interior Wind Tunnel Study Comparisons Between Figures 55 and 57:
 North Tower windows selectively closed on north and west facades in Figure 57.
 South Tower windows selectively closed on east and north facades in Figure 57.
 More interior air movements occur in previously identified wind-shadow areas,
comparing locations "A" and "B" to Interior Wind Tunnel Study #1, Figure 55.
 Average wind speed and circulation is preferred in South Tower area "C" in
Figure 57.
 Air movements in North Tower area "D" is further shared with surrounding open
office areas in Figure 57.
128
Now to examine the South Tower further with a 10 mph exterior prevailing wind
from south as opposed to 15 mph. For the purposes of Wind Tunnel Study #4 (Figure 58),
notice that one additional window has been closed along the southwest facade. This is
necessary due to the effect of slower air movements occurring through the office interior.
To counter this effect, it is recommended that this additional window be closed to further
air movements and allow better circulation for an increased pressure difference on the
leeward side. In conducting multiple interior and exterior wind tunnel studies for this
building, interior air speeds seem to be within the range of 1/10th of what an exterior
prevailing wind is. For example, an exterior wind speed of 10 miles per hour correlates to
an approximate maximum of 1mph interior wind speed for this building. Also, interior
wind directions are similar to an exterior wind direction. This is of course with the
exception to the effects created with the introduction of a wall, obstruction or
opening/closing of select windows (as mentioned earlier).
1+ (mph)
Windows Closed

0
A
Windows Closed
Figure 58: South Tower Interior Wind Tunnel Study #4
(Outside ~10mph Prevailing Wind From South)
129
Proposed Retrofit Design
Strategy

pp 130‐138
130
Available Options
There is a delicate balance among sun, wind, light and air temperature to naturally
moderate occupant comfort. The first step in analyzing any passive design retrofit
strategy for the modern low-rise open office building is to study the existing structure and
it's site. After which, one should redraw, with close accuracy, the building facade in
section (Figure 59). Special attention should be given to the detail of the curtain wall
cavity as this is the primary interface between indoor and outdoor environments.
Note: Dark horizontal lines represent optional interior/exterior shading/

daylighting devices. Dark hatched areas represent areas of new rigid foam behind
spandrel glazing. Light grey color represents existing building wall section.
Figure 59: Phasing of Proposed Retrofit Strategy Ideas

Drawing by Author. Note: Existing Facade Shown in Light Grey.
When strategizing a retrofit, the first phase should be to develop an overall
strategy. In this case it was to test the theory of removing existing tinted and highly
reflective window films to promote the passive strategies of solar radiation and
131
daylighting design as shown in Figure 59. When doing so, shading becomes an issue
during warmer periods of the year. Also, since we are in discussion of occupant
adaptability within an environment, climate studies become relevant. This is especially
true when one takes the passive strategy of natural ventilation into account. For this
reason, wind, and thermodynamics should be considered simultaneously with other
passive strategies. The best effort now is to triangulate a justifiable solution that caters
most effectively to all of these issues.
In retrofit projects, "it is critical to clearly identify what is to be removed, reused,
and the amount of protection required for materials, finishes, equipment, fittings, and
furniture that will remain" (Gelfand et al. 2012).131 Accordingly, Figure 59.1 and the
following methods shall apply to the proposed retrofit.
Indicates area of new exterior shading and interior daylighting device. Remove existing tinted
window film and clean prior to installation of apparatus.
Indicates area of new awning window installation on interior side of building envelope. All other
locations shall receive a new fixed pane window. Maintain existing windows as required.
Note: Remove & discard existing ceiling tiles and replace with new high‐reflective ceiling tiles within
boundary as shown. Provide rigid foam insulation on interior at all spandrel glazing. Remove tinted
window films from northerly facing facade and maintain elsewhere unless otherwise noted.
AREA OF NEW CEILING TILES AREA OF NEW CEILING TILES
AREA OF NEW CEILING TILES AREA OF NEW CEILING TILES
Figure 59.1: The Towers Retrofit Floor Plan

Drawing by Author. North
131
132
 Remove all existing fixed frame-within-frame (FWF) windows for direct
replacement with (3) equal segment quad cavity dual pane heat mirror technology
windows (R-value of 20) by Hurd Inc. Match elevation and dimensions of the
openings in conjunction with;
 Adding two segments (per window) of upper and lower light/shading shelves by
Wausau on the building exterior, in select locations, and;
 Adding two segments (per window) of upper and lower light/shading shelves by
Kawneer on the building interior, in select locations.
 Adding 3.5" rigid foam insulation (R-value of 15) behind spandrel glazing at sill
walls for each floor, secure with z-clips and silicone as required and;
 Adding 3.5" rigid foam insulation (R-value of 15) behind spandrel glazing above
acoustical ceiling tiles for each floor, secure with z-clips and silicone as required.
 Adding Hurd Inc. Ultra-R quad cavity dual pane glazing with heat mirror
technology on the interior side of the existing curtain wall facade. Effectively
creating a 4-pane/ 6-cavity (combined) existing/new window rated at an
approximate R-value of 25.*
 Remove existing reflective tint/film from all windows, on all floors.
 Provide NuHeat heating coil for use through exterior daylighting/shading shelves
as required to eliminate icicle formation and snow loads. Connect to existing
120V AC supply at perimeter sills and drill through facade framework as required
for connection.
 Add photo-sensors along building perimeter @ 40' O.C. and re-circuit existing
2'x4' CFL recessed light fixtures along building perimeter to include shut-off @
200 LUX.
 Repaint all interior perimeter walls/column build-outs (including window sill)
with White Gloss Paint for reflectivity purposes, all floors, at all windows.
 Replace existing Acoustical Ceiling Tiles along building perimeter and 8' inward
with Armstrong White Highly reflective ceiling tiles.
 Provide interior temporary protection and scissor lifts with watchman as required
for renovation.
133
*Assuming adequate waterproofing around original aluminum curtain wall frame
edges can be maintained with new window installation. Hurd Ultra-R windows
incorporate 3 suspended films between panes, effectively creating four air cavities
within the new window section which is approximately 3.5 inches thick and 3.0
lbs/sf (see figure 59.11).132 This is in addition to the existing double pane
insulated clear glass, low-emissivity window and the air space between the two;
hence an R value of 25 is assumed.
Figure 59.11: Hurd, Inc. Ultra-R Quad-Cavity Glazing Performance

Source: Hurd Inc. Ultra-R Product Manual.
132
Hurd, Inc. “Introducing the Absolute Best Performing Glass on the Planet,” Hurd Windows and Doors,
2013.
134
Feasibility
For feasibility studies, the next step is to research and identify readily available
and cost-effective products that meet the criteria for the passive design retrofit strategy.
Apogee Wausau Group Inc., a leading manufacturer of curtain wall systems and building
products, has a credible solution to an otherwise complex situation, "a combined shading
and daylighting device" (Wausau 2008).133 This extruded aluminum device (Figure 59.2)
installs directly to the exterior of a building's curtain wall system and comes in multiple
sizes. Similarly, Kawneer Inc. offers an interior light shelf (Figure 60) known as
InLighten and can be screwed to the interior side of a curtain wall system. Both will be
used together and considered for the proposed retrofit.
Figure 59.2: Wausau Exterior Shading/ Daylighting Device

Source: Wausau, Inc. 2013.
Both products product appear to be easy to install and are light-weight, having a
reflective panel and an extruded anodized aluminum mullion surround. Kawneer's and
Wausau's products can be easily utilized to fit this project and are available in varying
widths up to 6 feet and varying depths nearing 3.5 feet. They both have a low-profile,
133
"Architectural Products: Clearstory, Sun Shades & Light Shelves," Apogee Wausau Group, Inc., last
modified 2008.
135
sleek and modern design which makes it on par with the visual aesthetics of a modern
office building. Additionally, these shelves have the capacity to be drilled through in the
field for on-site installation of the NuHeat heating coil, as shown in Figure 60. Lastly, by
pulling the Kawneer unit up and out, it is adjustable to be in a downward/vertical or
upward/horizontal state. This allows the interior unit to rotate and minimize glare and
makes for easier cleaning. While it may look like a great fit for this retrofit design
project, it will need to be tested for its ability to shade and simultaneously reflect daylight
and solar radiation. More importantly, it should also be compared to the existing building
condition, as this is what a passive retrofit is all about, an improvement over existing
non-passive design methods.
Figure 60: Compilation of Combined Passive Design Strategy

Source: Autodesk Ecotect, Kawneer Inc., NuTone Inc., Diagram by Author.
136
Application and Methods
The application strategy of the InLighten interior light shelf is very well thought
out by Kawneer, Inc. As is the exterior combination light shelf/shading device by
Wausau, Inc. For this passive design retrofit, both will be secured to the extruded
aluminum mullions of the curtain wall facade on interior and exterior faces. In terms of
product profiles, Kawneer, Inc. recommends the 4 mm white fiberglass reinforced
composite panel for the highest level of reflectivity. Wausau's product is made of
aluminum and has a highly reflective white enamel coating. This retrofit design project
will move forward with these specifications and utilize them for daylighting and shading
analysis (to follow). Considering this method of application, there will be (4) shelves per
window. The dimensions of the interior and exterior shelves shall be specified as 4'-0"
width x 1'-9" depth. Exterior load capacities for snow and wind will need to be tested and
verified by a structural engineer as additional loads are being introduced to the building
envelope. These shelves shall be located at lower and upper levels, so that the window is
"split" into three equal parts in vertical dimension. Based on this criteria and the
associated surface area it can then be tested for reflection capabilities. As a result, the
reflections shown span nearly 25' into the office interior in the most ideal scenario as
tested, at 10:00am during the winter. This is due to the low sun elevation which reflects
solar rays at an obtuse angle off of exterior and interior daylighting shelves.
Other Factors to Consider
Icicle formation, snow loads, wind-loads, rainwater run-off, maintenance and life
cycle analysis considerations will also be important factors to consider. For this retrofit
137
design project, these measures have been taken into account in architectural terms, but
may be further elaborated by Wausau Inc., Kawneer Inc. or a structural engineer and/or
the contractor performing the work. Accordingly, this design project recommends the use
of Wausau's and Kawneer's products as a combined solution to achieve shading and
daylighting simultaneously. Figure 61 shows the extension of these horizontal planes on
the interior and exterior sides of the study model. It is important to note that the
formation of these units has been reduced to a flat plane for shading and daylighting
analysis (to follow).
Figure 61: Exterior Retrofit Rendering Showing

White Light Shelves Adjacent to an Aluminum Curtain Wall System
Source: Autodesk Ecotect 2011,
Radiance Photometric Rendering Plug-in, Rendering by Author.
138
Shading Analysis

pp 139‐142
139
Shading Techniques
Using the specifications of the InLighten Light Shelves by Kawneer and the
Wausau exterior shading device, shading strategies can also take place. For one, the
building must undergo shading analysis in its current existing state, prior to analyzing the
means of improvement and where the retrofit shall occur. Considering this, sun-paths,
butterfly shading diagrams and perspective images will help with decision-making.
Figure 62 illustrates the existing building mass and curtain-wall glazing shading
factors based on the time of year, sun angle and azimuth. The orientation of the Towers
happens to be at a near 45° clockwise angle from north. This creates a tricky scenario that
makes Autodesk Ecotect Analysis 2011 a great software to use, rather than manually
calculating this added complexity. The Butterfly Shading Diagrams in Figure 62, on
January 22nd versus July 22, show this stark difference that is useful for evaluating the
proposed retrofit design strategy. Accordingly, winter shadow ranges are wider and occur
in more northerly positions. Summer shading occurs in more of an east-west manner and
suggests the sun is more overhead during this time. Where areas of shading are darker,
more shading takes place and perhaps a different kind of passive design strategy is
necessary.
Also relevant to Figure 62 is how the building casts shade upon the site
throughout different times of the day and year. Although not included in this study, this
may be useful for evaluating heat island affects for paved areas at different times of the
day. This could also help a designer consider one landscape design material, over
another. In relation to this project, Figure 63 represents the proposed solution for shading
and daylighting devices as attached to the building interior and exterior. The illustration
140
is shown in perspective and in section, whereby the red lines indicate a slice of the
building at a particular location. Both images in Figure 63 were prepared with Ecotect
and will be studied even further.
Sun Paths, Butterfly Shading Diagrams and Perspectives
Figure 62: Sun Paths, Butterfly Shading Diagrams and

Perspectives on January 22nd and July 22nd at 1:00pm.
Source: Autodesk Ecotect 2011, Illustrations generated by Author.
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Application of Retrofit
Figure 63: Retrofit Perspective and Section-cut at South Tower

Source: Autodesk Ecotect 2011, Rendering generated by Author.
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Daylighting Analysis

pp 143‐154
143
View Angle and Methodology
Based on previous research and specification of the retrofit design strategy, one
can now test its effectiveness for daylighting. Using the presiding Viewing Angle for
Interior Daylight Comparison shown in Figure 64, one should create a common baseline
to compare the proposed retrofit solutions to. For this design project, the camera
elevation was chosen at 68" above the finished floor, viewing southeast similar to the
photos previously documented. This same location is where all future studies will be
tested for direct comparison to eliminate variables in photometric readings at different
elevations, view angles and position. The existing building condition with highly
reflective/tinted glazing will be rendered without shading or daylighting devices. This
daylighting analysis is made possible with the use of a third party photometric rendering
plug-in, Radiance 2.0, made available for use with the Autodesk Ecotect 2011 platform.
Figure 64: Camera View Angle for Daylighting Studies and Comparisons
Source: Autodesk Ecotect 2011, Illustration generated by Author.
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Process and Determination
Since the photometric plug-in is capable of preparing renderings based on
illumination intensity and uses Autodesk Ecotect material properties for evaluation, it is a
good candidate for environmental analysis. Expediting the process for daylighting
evaluation, this software's add-on capability is also an approximation to the real life
conditions. Ecotect and Radiance therefore offer the ability to use the sun's path and solar
angles, by selecting a date and time, to study daylight levels making them together a
perfect candidate for daylighting determination.
After rendering an interior image, one can click upon points within the building
model to evaluate Lux levels as shown in Figure 65. Accordingly, this average lux
reading illustration captures the existing building's daylighting potential at 11:15am on
Figure 65: Existing Building Interior Daylighting on September 10th at 11:15am

Source: Radiance Photometric Rendering Plug-in, Rendering by Author.
145
September 10th. Considering general offices should have, at minimum, 200 Lux at a
horizontal surface plain 30" above the floor, this illustration depicts the existing
daylighting condition falling well short in all aspects where light is reflecting and
analysis points are located. In this case, since daylighting is solely considered, artificial
lighting is absolutely required, even near the window line. Only at the direct point of
where the sun comes through is the level near the required 200 Lux reading. This existing
condition is primarily due to the window material properties being highly reflective and
dark in tint. Previous research indicates that this type of glazing scenario could reduce
daylight transmittance by as much as 88%. Figure 65 makes this understanding seem
quite apparent when compared with the proposed retrofit of removing this film. While
this may be the case, this film does however block unwanted solar radiation during the
summer and without the use of exterior daylighting/shading devices, this may be the next
best solution to control glare and heat gain. This is not a justifiable solution though; the
effort to design passively and with occupant comfort in mind means we need to allow for
more natural lighting, especially if it is readily available. In direct comparison, this
daylighting figure will be explored at the same time of day and year. Studies will use
previously conducted research as a guide to conduct trial and error experimentations.
To establish a basis for determining the best daylighting solution, a process for
evaluation is required. Respectively, Figure 66 shows a direct phasing and comparison of
the daylighting retrofit design option with previous research strategies in mind. First, it
makes sense to compare the existing condition, "existing/tint", to that of removing the
film and leaving the clear glass in an un-shaded state, "clear." Now that we can directly
correlate the colors in the image to Lux spot-metrics previously identified, one can move
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through this process rather quickly and begin to test multiple retrofit strategies for
daylighting design.
Having done this, the second phase of testing shows the existing tinted condition
with the addition of an upper combined shading/light shelf called "tint/up." We can see
little difference with exception to the removal of direct sunlight touching the floor, as this
has now become shaded. Comparing this option to the next test; removing tint, while
maintaining the same upper shading/daylight shelf, we notice a serious improvement on
the amount of daylight being brought into the space. So much so that glare at the upper
shelf may be an issue due to the increased surface area and the removal of
tinted/reflective window films. Next, by adding vertical fins between curtain wall
window frames and adding a lower reflective shelf resting upon the window sill, namely
"up/low/fin" we see increased and uncontrolled levels of glare, but do also have an
Figure 66: Interior Daylighting and Shading

Experimentations to Determine Proposed Retrofit
147
increased daylight factor based on the amount of brightness.
This being still unacceptable and possibly worse than the phase prior, it is fair to
say that reflective vertical fins create more uncontrollable glare from the viewer’s
perspective. This leads to the next phase (in blue) showing the first step of adding a
translucent light-box at the clerestory level. While this is a step in the right direction, the
thought comes to mind that perhaps blocking a view to the sky plane is not such a great
idea. Also, projecting a shading/daylighting shelf nearly 4'-0" from the facade is
somewhat impractical and not suitable for the Long Island climate having snowy winters
and strong winds. Lastly, the thought of the weight alone, and cantilevering this type of
device would be an unnecessary load-bearing burden to the existing curtain-wall mullion
structure.
These considerations make feasibility the grounding force, bringing the designer
back to reality in search for new ideas. Coincidently, the idea had come to mind to test
the use of two smaller depth shelves, leaving equal glass segments above and below on
the interior and exterior. This strategy allows for shading to take place without direct
sunlight upon floor, while daylighting the ceiling. It additionally provides natural light
reflections back to the floor and will bring light further into the space. The softness of
light also seemed more spread out in comparison to all previous options. Also, from the
viewer’s point of view, I was now able to see the sky plane, and considering the thought
of approaching the facade, the viewer would also be able to see the ground plane, which
is good. These sky and ground plane factors are very important to retain. No wonder why
they are a part of zoning and city planning codes throughout the country. Bearing all of
these considerations in mind, it was time to compare the best solution for daylighting and
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combined shading "up mid/low mid" to the baseline condition "existing/tint." The
differences are profound and are the primary reason for moving forward to determine the
newly improved daylighting levels. Similar to the existing Lux reading illustration
discussed earlier, the following daylighting retrofit illustration (Figure 67) is provided.
In summary of the improvements over the existing condition:
•Daylighting Lux levels in similar locations are increased by a factor of two.

•The full color spectrum of light can enter the office space, excluding UV-rays.
•Maximization of diffuse daylight is possible with clear glass and light shelves.
•Office occupants can now view the outdoor environment in its true state.
•Natural light levels reach further into the open office space.
•Energy reductions related to perimeter light fixture off-switching is now possible
with the use of photometric sensors.
•Natural daylight levels exceed General Office 200 Lux reading requirement.
Office occupants may become more productive and have increased joy.
Figure 67: Proposed Retrofit Interior Daylighting on September 10th at 11:15am

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Daylighting Comparison
Existing Window (Typ) Upper Light Shelf
Line of Horizon
Tinted/Reflective
Eq.
Glazing
5'‐9"
4'‐0" Eq.
Clear Glazing
Eq.
Lower
Light Shelf
Direct Sunlight Indirect Sunlight
Figure 68: Office Daylight Rendering

Comparison Between Existing Building and Proposed Retrofit
To accompany the retrofit Lux reading shown in Figure 67, Figure 68 shows the
daylighting comparison between the existing base building daylighting condition versus
the proposed daylighting retrofit. Consideration was given to human line of site in both
150
the seated position as well as the standing position to prove a clear line of sight is
unobstructed with the inclusion of upper and lower interior/exterior light shelves. This
illustration also gives a clear depiction of how the window is being equally segmented by
the retrofit.
Sky Factors
Moving forward, one can further compare daylighting improvements by analyzing
sky illumination factors over an analysis grid within Autodesk Ecotect (Figure 69). By
manipulating Ecotect settings to show the "Uniform Sky Factor" conditions during the
winter, we are using the worst case as a base scenario for evaluation. Data gathering is
Figure 69: Daylighting Analysis Grid

Comparison Between Existing Building and Proposed Retrofit
Source: Autodesk Ecotect 2011, Illustrations Generated by Author.
151
conducted over the analysis grid as shown and represents variation by % of daylight
factor (100% = full sun exposure).
Overall, Figure 69 shows that the proposed retrofit increases the average daylight
factor percentage across the entire open office. When comparing analysis grid squares
one can see an average increase in daylight factor percentage, by almost double, over
existing conditions. In select instances, especially within the north area of the analysis
grid, there is a near 3:1 daylight factor improvement. These upgrades of daylighting are
solely due to removing the interior window tint/reflective film from all windows and
adding interior/exterior light shelves as previously shown. Where we see the major
differences; this is primarily due to increased diffuse daylight that lathers the northern
part of the open office, however there are no light shelves here (as there is no form of
direct sunlight). Having this in mind, it can be suggested that areas receiving diffuse
daylight only, should not have tinted or reflective windows if one is to design a building
passively. This criteria can be used as a rule of thumb for any low-rise open office
Sunrise-Sunset Study
Now that we have a proven daylighting retrofit design strategy in place, one must
further ensure we have made the best choice for daylighting design. The last remaining
step is to test the retrofit from sunrise to sunset. This will ensure unwanted occurrences
are being avoided throughout the workday. Particularly, glare and the inability to control
solar radiation are things to avoid. Based upon Figure 70, the sun path is documented
from 8:45am to 4:30pm, in 1.25 hour intervals on September 10th. Studies prior to
8:45am and after 4:30pm have been intentionally omitted as there are building structures
152
surrounding all orientations of The Towers. This includes structures that are in the
distance as well as those nearby as they will limit direct solar exposure when the sun is at
a low angle. This is estimated to occur during early morning hours (before 8:45am) and
late afternoon/evening hours (after 4:30pm). Since all near and far structures are elevated
above the line of the horizon, this study is somewhat of a realistic estimate for when
direct sunlight will penetrate the southeast and northwest facades.
Starting at 8:45am on September 10th, the sun is assumed to have cleared the sky
plane angle of nearby structures and will show slices of direct sunlight casting almost 15'
from the building facade, into the office interior. At this time there is also ample indirect
and diffuse daylight entering into the office farther. This is due to the low sun angle
reflection from light shelves and the white ceiling which then reflects to the floor. Notice
how the ceiling is day-lit less than the floor inward from the facade; this proves the
reflections have been calculated correctly and are not being exaggerated. By 10:00am,
nearly all of the direct sunlight is gone and the interior/exterior light-shelves begin to
work on reflecting indirect sunlight. At this point, glare is entirely controlled and since
September 10th marks the date of when heating needs to take place, a little solar radiation
is not an issue. By 11:15am the sun is further overhead without much difference from
10:00am, except that daylighting along the floor and ceiling has began a slight retreat
towards the facade. By 12:30pm the sun is near overhead and shows even more daylight
retreating back to the facade. This occurs primarily due to the higher sun angle which is
now offering more diffuse daylight reflections.
Since clear glass is in place for the retrofit, now is where diffuse daylight will
work mostly by itself. The light-shelves become less effective, but the clear glass does
153
make the most of what daylight is available. Between 1:45pm and 3:00pm there is no
direct sun angle being reflected, the sun is more overhead and only diffuse daylight is
being shown in this view. By 4:15pm the sun has begun to drop back to a low angle.
When looking closely, slight daylight is entering at the bottom right of the figure. This is
a correct depiction and illustrates the sun entering through the opposite facade at this
point. Moving to our last study, at 5:30pm is when most occupants are finishing their
workday. The sun does come porously through the opposite envelope and makes its way
across to the other side of the building as shown in Figure 70. In gathering all of this
information, there are two adjustments needed in early morning and early evening hours
that become necessary in order to control glare. Since the InLighten light shelves have the
ability of being manually rotated to a vertical position, this should not be an issue. It is
therefore recommended that the building occupants manipulate their own comfort levels
when direct sunlight or glare becomes an issue during these seldom conditions.

Figure 70: Interior Sunrise to Sunset Daylighting

Analysis for Proposed Retrofit in 1.25 Hour Intervals, Viewing southeast
Source: Autodesk Ecotect 2011, Illustrations Generated by Author.
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Solar Radiation Analysis

pp 155‐166
155
Availability
The first step in analyzing solar radiation for developing a passive design retrofit
strategy is to see what amount is available to the project site. We are in search of the data
that are regionally pertinent to determine when we are able to use direct and/or diffuse
solar radiation to our advantage. This is the case when heating becomes a requirement, as
opposed to the summer whereby most of the unwanted radiation during this time will be
blocked by shading devices. As a reference case scenario, Figure 71 shows hourly solar
exposures on December 31st for New York City’s latitude/longitude, as contained in the
Autodesk Ecotect weather file.
Figure 71: Hourly Solar Exposures and Solar Gain Comparisons

Source: Autodesk Ecotect 2011, Diagram Generated by Author.
According to Figure 71, most of the available solar radiation during the middle of
the winter, and particularly on December 31st, occurs from 10:00am through 2:00pm and
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is direct. This duration and intensity is also consistent with the sun being at a higher
elevation, at the highest angle of a day’s sun path. Having additional respect to annual
solar radiation, the following sun path in plan (Figure 72) best illustrates total direct and
diffuse solar radiation intensities throughout the entire year. April-September correlate to
the highest Btu/Hr/Sf solar availability, as shown in yellow, nearing 610 Btu/Sf. While
the winter is when we need solar radiation the most, these incident values unfortunately
prove the opportunity to be somewhat minimal. As noted, there is an approximate
maximum of 427 Btu/Sf available during this time and only for a short duration (notice
color gradation towards blue). Though this may be true, the important consideration is
that we should somehow entertain what is available.
Figure 72: Annual Sun Path Solar Radiation Intensity (Btu/hour) for New York, NY
Source: Autodesk Ecotect 2011, Diagram Generated by Author.
157
Since the passive design retrofit strategy for shading and daylighting has already
been proven and available solar radiation offers minimal intensity when we need it most;
it becomes clear that solar radiation should not have the most determining factor for the
retrofit typology. However, it should still undergo further analysis to compare the
existing building scenario to the proposed retrofit. This makes sure that we know what
the desired retrofit will change in terms of direct and diffuse solar radiation gains. We can
then see if this loss of opportunity is substantial and whether one should reconsider
previous decision making. On this note, Figure 73 provides a better understanding to
what happens during the heating season from September 10th- June 6th. These
comparative illustrations include incident, overcast and uniform conditions as averaged:
Incident, Overcast, Uniform Conditions and Comparisons134

Existing Direct Solar Radiation
Retrofit Direct Solar Radiation
Figure 73: Heating Season Solar Radiation Sky Factor

Comparison (Btu) from September 10-June 6th
Sources: Autodesk Ecotect 2011, Illustrations Generated by Author.
134
" Designing for Thermal Comfort," Ecotect Analysis, Autodesk BIM Curriculum Unit 3, Lesson 2,
Tutorial 2, July 9th, 2011, Web, www.youtube.com/watch?v=JxsOPbjjiHs.
158
The "Existing Direct Solar Radiation" amounts are apparently higher than the
proposed "Retrofit Direct Solar Radiation." This increase is evident along facades
receiving direct solar exposure and for the retrofit, where daylighting/shading devices are
located. An equal amount of solar gain seems to be occurring on the north façade for both
instances. This is primarily occurring near this facade as shading/light shelves are not
blocking the available solar radiation. The protruding shelves cast a shadow upon the
building, they also substantially minimize available solar radiation. This can only mean
one thing; incident solar radiation is being absorbed and/or reflected by the
daylighting/shading devices. To make sure this is the case, a study comparing externally
reflected solar radiation levels is useful. Figure 74 shows this direct comparison.
Existing Externally Reflected Solar Radiation
Existing Externally Reflected Solar Radiation
Retrofit Externally Reflected Solar Radiation
Figure 74: Heating Season Solar Radiation

Sky Factor (%) Comparison (Btu) from September 10-June 6th
159
This stark comparison indicates while there is solar radiation being reflected,
these values happen to be minimal (2.0%) compared to what is available (100%). Overall,
we can say that the shading and daylighting devices will minimize Total Solar Radiation
throughout the year. Accordingly, the next two perspective images in Figure 75 show the
primary difference in “Total Radiation” for better understanding.
Figure 75: Annual Total Solar Radiation

Existing Building and Proposed Retrofit Comparison
160
This is where a tradeoff needs to take place; slightly less solar radiation during the
winter and considerably more shading and daylighting during the rest of the year. One
should make the decision for the stronger of the two, which is in favor of other passive
design strategies. Fortunately enough this seems like an easy choice. Clear glazing allows
for ample daylighting and can be well protected during the summer (shading devices). It
also allows for better occupant views and helps to "remove the barrier" between indoor
and outdoor space. While the importance of having natural light enter a workspace is not
completely measurable, it can however be argued that increased daylighting offers
human/ psychological advantages. According to Frank Mahnke (1996), "humans may be
considered as having total color vision which means that the total spectrum is necessary
for our survival and psychology."135 It also well known that this concept allows the
building to conserve energy related to perimeter office lighting fixture off-switching. This
is considered on the basis that photo sensors and re-circuiting of light fixtures are
required. Estimated energy savings calculations related to off-switching will be described
later.
Thermal Imaging
As a supplementary study to this design project, a FLIR Inc. thermal imaging
device has been used to study the existing building envelope. The idea behind this
analysis was to develop relevant concepts regarding the subject of thermodynamics in a
hands-on manner. It will also provide an increased ability to determine areas of heat loss
and gain. Lastly, this type of analysis can unveil the differences of solar radiation's affect
upon a material’s conductivity. Using this subject, the thermal imaging device establishes
spot-temperature readings whereby material comparisons can be made. Particularly, this
135
Frank Mahnke, Color, Environment & Human Response, (New York: Wiley, 1996), 12.
161
analysis has been conducted with aluminum and glass types in the shade versus direct
sunlight.
Figure 76 illustrates FLIR interior thermal imaging scanner temperatures as taken
from The Towers Lobby, viewing southeast on January 5th, 2013 at 1:00pm. By this time
of the day, the sun is near maximum elevation and at its strongest level. When comparing
the thermal imaging photos, attention should be given to where the thermal imaging
cross-hair is as well as the temperature variation is indicated at the bottom of each screen-
shot. This series of images informs spot-temperatures at each cross-hair and is based on
what material is being evaluated.
Starting from the utmost image at 68.4° F reading, we see the interior side of the
existing building curtain wall glazing analyzed under complete shade. Moving left and
downward the series of images in Figure 76 shows an increased spot-temperature as
materials receive more direct sunlight. When comparing the same type of glazing in full
shade versus full sun we find a temperature difference of 21.6° F. This is also indicated
by the intensity of colors; orange and yellow having the higher spot-temperature values.
Also, we notice that as the thermal imaging camera screen-shots near aluminum window
mullions, glass temperatures start to increase. Comparably, the difference between
glazings in complete shade, versus aluminum mullions in direct sunlight can be as much
as 27.6° F.
When looking at a corner condition that appears to be receiving direct and
reflected solar radiation, possibly for longer periods of the day, we see the spot
temperature is very hot (103° F). the important things to remember is that these glass and
aluminum materials are along the same facade, yet we notice these stark differences. The
162
conclusion we can draw from this is that aluminum is a far better absorber of solar
radiation than is the tinted and reflective glazing. Now to compare clear glass, versus
tinted/reflective glass along the same orientation, the screen-shots at the bottom-left show
that clear glass will limit the amount of incident solar radiation upon the building
envelope. This can only be the case if one more condition is true; since solar radiation is
available, and incident levels are not as high for clear glass, it must be entering the space
and occurring elsewhere. This is a good thing, as these measurements have been taken
with respect to the heating season. This means that clear glass, when compared to tinted
glass along the same exposure, has the ability to allow more solar radiation to enter the
space during the winter. This can also be represented by the following Autodesk Ecotect
Average Hourly Planar Radiation illustrations in Figure 77 for September 10th-June 6th.
Figure 76: Spot Temperature Study with FLIR, Inc. Thermal Imaging Camera
Study and Illustration by Author.
163
When comparing Thermal Imaging Camera results to Ecotect's solar access analysis
diagram, we can further substantiate this difference by a 20% increase in Watts Per
Square Meter (W/m .
Existing Building with Tinted Glass
Proposed Retrofit: Clear Glass
Figure 77: Average Hourly Planar Solar Radiation (W/m2) for September 10-June 6th
164
The best passive design solar radiation retrofit strategy (for this type of building,
in this region) is one that will allow increased solar radiation for heating seasons and
minimized levels for cooling seasons. One response that comes to mind is to remove the
proposed daylight/shading shelves from the building exterior (as the proposed device
allows) and provide more conductive materials as the interior shelf surfaces. This strategy
creates a task for building maintenance personnel to manipulate, but will improve the
building envelope's ability to disperse natural warmth to the office interior while allowing
daylighting and having some control over glare in the winter. This must be done in a
controlled and comfortable manner though, as there are current measures in place for
managing views, glare and daylight, amongst thermal exchanges.
Another solution could be to cover the interior side of the lower window segment
(flipping down the lower interior light shelf) with a perforated metal panel at its
underside. Heating seasons should not use natural ventilation, therefore non-operability
of windows will not be a drawback to this option. Like other passive strategies
determined at this stage there is a tradeoff, increased
heat gain during the winter and less occupant views
during the winter. The last strategy that comes to mind
is to replace the interior light shelves with increased
depth shelves. While this is possible, and is more
desired for controlling glare, it becomes impractical as it
further protrudes into the interior office areas from the
facade. This concept creates walk-ability and wheel-

Figure 78: Maximum Interior
Projection from Wall
chair hazards and does not meet the Americans with
Source: International Building Code
165
Disabilities Act Code (Figure 78). The code that becomes relevant is the maximum
obstruction dimension below 6'-8". Accordingly, 4" is the maximum projection below
this elevation and constrains the designer from choosing a deeper interior daylighting
shelf according to Figure 78, with measurements in inches.
In the case of this passive design retrofit project, the most ideal scenario that
considers cost factors includes:
•Uses conductive aluminum panels on interior light shelves (attach/remove by

Velcro) and if possible, remove them from June 6th-September 10th, and
•If possible take away external shading/daylighting devices during the heating
season.
If these passive solar manipulations become difficult for maintenance staff to
handle, it is advised that the exterior shading/light shelves remain as previously designed
for daylighting and shading as there will be no major passive design failure here. Rather,
the subtle opportunity of accepting more winter solar heat gain will be lost.
166
Thermal Comfort Analysis

pp 167‐172
167
Occupant Profiles
Figure 79 represents occupant profiles throughout the workday. It has been
assumed that at 6:00am occupants begin to enter the office space and by 9:30am, the
building is fully occupied. Starting again from 10:30am, the occupant load will reduce by
50% at 12:30pm as this is during lunch hours. From 12:30pm to 2:30pm occupants are
assumed to come back to the office whereby the building is again fully occupied. Starting
from 4:00pm, people are assumed to start leaving the office and by 6:00pm there is less
than 10% of building occupants remaining. This hourly operational profile shall be used
for space heating and cooling load studies and will affect internal heat gains from
occupants. These assumptions make for a closer determination to an actual office
workday scenario.
Figure 79: Hourly Operational Profile for an Office

Source: Autodesk Ecotect 2011, Illustration Generated by Author.
168
Space Loads
Based on the hourly operational profile in Figure 79, space heating and cooling
loads can be determined for the existing building and the proposed retrofits. Accordingly,
Figure 80 shows the adjusted monthly heating and cooling load values as determined by
Ecotect in British thermal units (Btu). The existing building is the "as-is" scenario,
assuming no modifications are made. Retrofit #1 captures the changes from removing
existing tinted/reflective films from glazing to adding shading and daylighting devices as
136
Figure 80: Space Heating and Cooling Loads

Comparisons for Existing Building and Proposed Retrofits
Sources: Autodesk Ecotect 2011, Illustrations by Author.
136
"Southwall Technologies: Heat Mirror Insulating Glass," last modified 2013,
http://www.southwall.com/southwall/Home/Commercial/Products/HeatMirrorInsulatingGlass.html.
169
well as rigid insulation (+R15) behind spandrel glazing. The first retrofit constitutes a 3%
reduction in energy. Retrofit #2 includes the same as Retrofit #1, except Hurd Inc. Ultra-
R quad cavity dual pane windows are added on the interior side. This is a high
performance glazing with suspended heat mirror films that effectively create a 4-pane
glazing unit. By adding these units to all windows, heat loss from conductance is
substantially reduced and affords a new total energy savings near 31.7%. While this is
substantial, it should be mentioned that this reduction pertains to space heating and
cooling loads only.
Passive Gains Breakdown: Heat Loss and Gain
Once space heating and cooling loads have been determined, one can further
evaluate the heat losses and gains with a passive gains breakdown chart. Accordingly,
Figures 81 through 84 have been generated by Ecotect for comparison. Figures 81 and 83
illustrates the existing building during each season as labeled. Figure 82 represents
Retrofit #1 whereby peak loading during the summer has been reduced and is indicated
by the overlay/difference versus Figure 81. Retrofit #2 is represented by Figure 84 and
may be compared against the existing building space loads during the heating season
(Figure 83). Accordingly, the overlay/difference is substantial with proposed retrofit #2.
In summary, when passive design retrofits are made for office buildings they may reduce
peak heating and cooling loads. When this is true, the office building's adjusted energy
use will follow the existing building's energy trends. It will do this in upward and
downward swings unless peak loads are neutralized.
170
Figure 81: Existing Building
Heat Loss and Gain Chart
Source: Autodesk Ecotect 2011.
Figure 82: Retrofit #1 Heat Loss and Gain Chart

Including Light Shelves
Removing Tinted Glass
Adding Rigid Foam (R15) Behind Spandrel Glazing
Existing Overlay/Difference
(Shaded)
171
Figure 83: Existing Building Heating Season Space
Loads from September 10th-June 6th
Figure 84: Proposed Retrofit #2 Heating Season

Space Loads from Septeber 10th-June 6th
In addition to Retrofit #1;
Add Hurd Inc. Ultra-R (R20) Clear Glazing Heat
Mirror Technology on Interior Side of Curtain Wall
Existing
(Shaded)
Overlay/Difference
172
Occupant Comfort and
Energy Use Comparisons:
Existing Building Versus
Retrofit

pp 173‐184
173
Energy Savings from Natural Ventilation During Passive Zone
Figure 85 represents the natural ventilation zone that can be used to determine
energy savings for most office buildings in the New York Metro Area. While nearby
areas may slightly differ with monthly outdoor air temperatures and prevailing wind
directions, this figure can be used as a general rule of thumb to approximate the duration
of natural ventilation energy savings as shown in Figure 86. This figure also references
space load information from Figure 80.
Figure 85: Annual Sunrise to Sunset Natural Ventilation Zone Approximation (%) for
La Guardia Airport, NY Based on Mean Annual Air Temperature Information
Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
174
Natural Ventilation Zone*:
According to Figure 85, the natural ventilation zone is approximately 41% of the year,
between the hours of sunrise to sunset. Also, this zone makes up approximately 34% of
the year based on an annual, 24 hour period. Lastly and most importantly, the "passive
zone" is estimated as 75% of the workday duration from May 1st through October 15th,
7:00am-6:00pm.
*% of schedule where outdoor air temperature is between 62°F - 80°F. Assumes occupants wear
appropriate clothing and interior air movements are near 165 FPM (can offset occupant real feel
temperature by ~11°F). See Figure 6 for clothing insulation factors and related research.
Figure 86: Workday Heating and Cooling Space Loads from May 1st-Oct. 31st
Note: Workday space heating and cooling loads
account for increased shading from May 1st
through Oct. 31st as computed by Autodesk
Ecotect Analysis 2011.
total energy
x .75 = 915,322,242 Btu
Note: Passive zone duration extends
/2 through Oct. 15th (1/2 month).
Since "fans use approximately 1/3 of the energy required for active air conditioning
systems" and they will be used in supplement to natural ventilation (Brendel 2010)...137
The following total energy savings calculation (Figure 87) deducts fan energy, whereby
the energy offset in Btu's for mechanically heating and cooling air is the energy saved. 138
Figure 87: Annual Energy Saved Using Natural Ventilation and Appropriate
Occupant Attire
energy saved
total energy - fan energy
613,265,902 Btu
915,322,242 Btu - (915,322,242 x .33 ) = (Heating and Cooling Air Offset)
-OR-
50 Barrels of Oil 179,730.5 kWh
(1 Btu = 2.9307107 x 10¯⁴ kWh)
-OR-
$26,234.00
(2013 Rate: $0.146 / kWh)
Equivalent CO₂ Offset

127 Tons
(.00070555 Metric Tons CO2 / kWh)
Equivalent Oil Offset

55 Barrels
Source: http://www.heatingoil.com/category/blog/commodities-markets/
(0.43 Metric Tons CO2/Barrel)
137
Michael Brendel, "The Role of Fan Efficiency in Reducing HVAC Energy Consumption," Consulting-
Specifying Engineer, April 01, 2010.
138
"Clean Energy Calculations and References," USEPA, last modified December 6th, 2012.
175
Energy Saved from Increased Natural Daylight and Off-switching
The commercial open office sector, "consisting of deep floor plates and wide
expanses of undifferentiated space and a need for privacy creates tensions between overly
taxed HVAC systems and lighting" (Gelfand et al. 2012).139 This design project aims to
determine the energy demand differences associated with allowing more daylight. On
another note, it is recommended that a balance of privacy and daylighting be achieved by
using low-height furniture systems that allow for views, paper privacy and light to travel
further into the office space. Building core support spaces can then be used for more
private conversations and for increased acoustics, allowing higher decibels of sound to
take place during meetings or loud business functions.
Energy savings related to increased daylighting can be estimated by determining
design sky illuminance, daylight factor percentages (DF) and the areas of improvement
beyond a specific lighting level. Once completed, a study photoelectric off-switching of
light fixtures can be evaluated for a specific zone. Accordingly, the design sky
illuminance for New York City is based upon its location at 40.7° latitude, offering
approximately 7,700 Lux available to the project site as shown in Figure 88.
Figure 88: Design Sky Illuminance

Cumulative Frequency Graph for New York, NY Latitude
Source: Square One Research, Dr. A.J. Marsh.
139
176
Once the design sky illuminance has been determined, daylight factors can then
be considered as a percentage of this total. As shown in Figure 89, the open office interior
has been studied as an annual workday average of natural daylight from 7:00am-6:00pm,
Monday-Friday (weekends omitted). The analysis grid has been elevated at 30" above the
3rd floor to represent what would be the illuminance at a common counter height. Notice
the color legend starting from +4% as these locations are, at minimum, an average of 300
Lux. When this level of daylighting is achieved, off-switching of artificial light fixtures
can take place.
N
Figure 89: Annual Average Open Office Daylight
Factor (%) Analysis from 7:00am-6:00pm, Monday-Friday (4% = 300+ Lux)
When evaluating the purple to yellow contours (4%-20% DF) in Figure 89 we
can notice this average is shown as a majority of the open office interior. Further studies
are required to better estimate square footages for each annual average DF percentage, so
that a correlation to how much light per area would otherwise be needed if this daylight
was unavailable. Accordingly, Figure 90 shows the associated areas whereby the green
color represents possible off-switching zones and the red areas are under recommended
177
lighting levels (<150 Lux). The grey area represents the building core and support spaces
while the white area represents the lobby, which is open to the floors below.
Figure 90: Open Office Annual Workday Average

Lighting (Lux) Levels by Areas Offering Potential Light Fixture Off-switching (Green)
Drawing by Author.
After determining the off-switching zone as 10,250 square feet (from Figure 90),
we can then determine what is the typical energy required to produce 300 Lux at a 30"
high task plane. Since fluorescent 2'-0" x 4'-0" light fixtures currently exist within this
building open office interior, these shall be used as the baseline to determine how much
energy input is required to achieve the desired output amount. When known, this value
can then be correlated to off-switching percentages during the working year to arrive at
the total energy saved. Representative of these data, Figure 91 shows annual average DF
versus percentage of working year lighting is off for each lighting level. Using Autodesk
Ecotect's Photometric Switching calculation for this project shows an illuminance level of
300 Lux and 2.68% DF average offers the ability to turn off light fixtures for 63% of the
year, as indicated by the green shaded region in Figure 91. This being the case, the next
step is to arrive at the overall energy in kWh being saved during these times (Equation 4).
178
Figure 91: Percentage of Working Year Lighting Off
Versus Increased Daylight Factor (%) and Office Light Level Set at 300 Lux
Lux to watts calculation with area in square feet:
"The power (P) in watts (W) is equal to the 0.09290304 times the illuminance (Ev) in lux
(lx) times the surface area (A) in square feet (ft2), divided by the luminous efficacy (η) in
lumens per watt (lm/W), in this case 63,140 as a T8 GE fluorescent lamp is assumed"
(RapidTables 2013 ).141
Equation 4:
P(W) = 0.09290304 × Ev(lx) × (A(ft2) / η(lm/W))
P(W) = 0.09290304 x 300 Lux x (10,250 sf / 63) = 4,535 W/hr
140
Myer, M, M Paget, and R Lingard, "Performance of T12 and T8 Fluorescent Lamps and Troffers and
LED Linear Replacement Lamps," Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Operated by Batelle, last
modified January, 2009.
141
"Lux to Watts (W) Conversion Calculator," AT RapidTables, last modified 2013,
http://www.rapidtables.com/calc/light/lux-to-watt-calculator.htm.
179
As estimated from Equation 4, nearly 4,535 Watts (w) are used for the entire floor
area where off-switching may occur. When applying duration to this unit of power one
can determine kilowatt hours (kWh). Since this study pertains to an office building, and
in particular when it is assumingly occupied, durations of a work day and year will need
to be determined in the sum of hours. Being a workday from Monday through Friday is
assumed as 7:00am-6:00pm, and weekends from 8am-12:00pm there are 11 hours per
weekday and 8 hours per weekend. When multiplied by 255 workdays per a 5-day/52
week year, assuming 5 holidays, there are nearly 2,805 hours whereby office lighting is
assumed used.
Watts to kWh calculation
"The energy (E) in kilowatt-hours (kWh) is equal to the power (P) in watts (W),
times the time period (t) in hours (hr) divided by 1000" (RapidTables 2013).142
Equation 5:
E(kWh) = P(W) × t(hr) / 1000
For weekends, 8 hours x 52 weeks equals 416 hours per year. Since this
determination discounts extended hours from sunrise to sunset, this number can be
considered somewhat conservative. Using 4,535 watts and 3,221 hours then dividing by
1,000 equates to kWh. From this equation, almost 14,607 kWh's (14,607,235 w) are
being used for lighting zones that may otherwise be off-switched 63% of the year for
each floor. When determining what 63% of this total is, we have a more accurate
estimation for how much energy can be saved with increased daylighting due to the
142
"Lux to Watts (W) Conversion Calculator," AT RapidTables, last modified 2013, http://
http://www.rapidtables.com/calc/electric/watt-to-kwh-calculator.htm.
180
proposed retrofit. Accordingly, nearly 9,495 kWh can be saved from off-switching on an
annual basis for each floor. This savings is about $6,931.00 in electricity costs per year as
there are five stacked floors undergoing the same retrofit and should have near similar
results. Also, annual office building electric costs may decrease due to lower peak loads
that utility companies base their billing cycles upon. For this reason, Figure 92 is clearly
a conservative estimate of energy saved from increased daylighting and off-switching.143
Figure 92: Annual Energy Saved Using Natural Daylighting and Off-switching
Annual zone x % Off-switching x floors energy saved
lighting energy per year
14,607,235 Wh x .65 x 5 = 47,473,514 Wh
(Artificial Lighting Offset)
-OR-
47,474 kWh
(1 Btu = 2.9307107 x 10¯⁴ kWh)
14 Barrels of Oil -OR-

$6,931.00
(2013 Rate: $0.146 / kWh)
+
33.5 Tons

14 Barrels
Energy Saved from Decrease in Heating and Cooling Loads
Since energy cannot be "doubly saved," careful consideration to the decrease in
energy used for heating and cooling associated to the proposed retrofit is necessary.
Specifically, months where natural ventilation take place during the passive zone will
need to be removed from energy savings for heating and cooling load improvements. The
comparisons that will be removed from this energy savings estimation are mostly from
May 1st through October 15th. The remaining months, October 16th through April 30th
143
"Clean Energy Calculations" USEPA, last modified December 6th, 2012.
181
and parts of July and August (17%) where the outside temperature is too hot, will serve
for heating and cooling load comparisons.
Accordingly, this has been outlined in red (existing) and blue (proposed retrofit)
with respect to Figure 93. These calculations have been determined through Autodesk
Ecotect 2011 for the existing building and the proposed retrofit. This is so the differences
are equally respective to user input, climate data, durations and intensities. Also, it should
be mentioned that during a normal case scenario off-switching of interior light fixtures
(due to increased daylighting) will minimize internal heat gains during the year. While
this is appreciated during the summer, this loss is a depreciation of heating during the
winter. This specific internal heat gain or lack-thereof, however minimal, is intentionally
omitted from this design project for simplicity, but might be important for larger office
buildings or complexes.
17% 17%
Note: 17% indicates the amount of cooling loads required for July and August; assuming the remaining
amount (83%) will be accounted for in natural ventilation energy savings during the summer passive zone
(SPZ). Grey arrows represent column Btu values for each month and are compared between the existing
building and proposed retrofit to determine energy savings related to thermal improvements.
Figure 93: Heating and Cooling Loads/Comparisons Considered for Annual Energy Savings
by Incorporating Thermal Improvements (Existing Building Versus Proposed Retrofit #2)
182
When adding Btu values for comparison of energy cost savings between the existing
building and the proposed retrofit, the following summations have been derived from
Figure 93.
Existing Building: 7,398,563,811 Btu/year
Existing Building with Proposed Retrofit: 5,318,654,067 Btu/year
Difference: 2,079,909,744 Btu/year
Energy Use Reduction: 609,561 kWh/year
Electricity Cost Savings: $88,996.00/year
Accordingly, Figure 94 shows energy use reduction in terms of British thermal units,
electricity, dollars, pollution and oil offset from the proposed retrofit thermal
improvements.144
Figure 94: Annual Energy Saved by Heating and Cooling Thermal Improvements
Existing Building - Retrofitted Building energy saved
HVAC Loads HVAC Loads 2,079,909,744 Btu
(Heating and Cooling Air Offset)
7,398,563,811 Btu - 5,318,654,067 Btu =
-OR-
185 Barrels of Oil 609,561 kWh

(1 Btu = 2.9307107 x 10¯⁴ kWh)
-OR-
$88,996.00
(2013 Rate: $0.146 / kWh)
+
33.5 Tons

185 Barrels
144
"Clean Energy Calculations" USEPA, last modified December 6th, 2012.
183
Overall Energy Savings From Proposed Retrofit
As determined in this design project, the following energy savings are
conservative estimates. Specifically, they focus upon the subject building end-use
differences and not the energy that will be saved from losses in power plant electrical
transmission. Additionally, if the office is used outside of normal workday hours or on
holidays more energy will be saved when compared to the existing building as the
baseline. Also, as readily available fossil fuels deplete, the cost for drilling oil from
difficult to access reserves will increase. Lastly, when there is less supply for a
commodity such as fuel-oil or gas to create electricity at power plants, demand will
increase and prices may rise. Although renewable energy systems are expected to
increase in the future, it has been well agreed by the committee of this project that
electricity prices have only gone up in previous years and are hypothesized to continue in
this trend for years to come. Respectively, Figure 95 represents 2013 values and will be
used to generate simple payback periods.
Figure 95: Overall Annual Energy Saved by Retrofit #2

Daylighting/Shading: 161,988,011 Btu Energy Saved
Thermal: 2,079,909,744 Btu
2,855,163,657 Btu
Natural Ventilation: 613,265,902 Btu (Total Energy Offset for Daylighting/Shading, Natural Ventilation, Thermal)
Energy Saved = Total -OR-
254 Barrels of Oil 836,766 kWh

(1 Btu = 2.9307107 x 10¯⁴ kWh)
-OR-
$122,168.00
(2013 Rate: $0.146 / kWh)

590.4 Tons

Source: http://www.heatingoil.com/category/blog/commodities-markets/ 254 Barrels
184 254 Barrels

Cost Factors and Payback
Period

pp 185‐197
185
Economic Returns and Estimated Cost of Proposed Retrofit
To the low-rise open office building owner, real estate is a financial investment. A
retrofit project should be "undertaken for economic benefit and be deeply rooted within
the structure of business as well as taxes" (Gelfand et al. 2012).145 Since building systems
typically lose value over time due to wear and tear, life cycle and cost analysis is
important for renovations. Based on this condition, "paper losses may offset income an
office building generates and expiration of tax write-offs for depreciation often triggers a
sale or major renovation" (Gelfand et al. 2012).146 This is an important thing to consider
since this type of retrofit project can be considered a major renovation. To start the
process for economic analysis, one should estimate the cost of the proposed retrofit.
Accordingly, the following product, equipment, installation, and assumptions have been
prepared for the combined passive design renovation. Equations are provided for better
understanding of cost estimating and can be reinterpreted for similar retrofit projects.
Products and Equipment Costs:
Daylighting/Shading Shelves:
Kawneer daylighting device: $100/linear foot (lf), per manufacturer.147
Wausau exterior shading device: $100/lf (estimated).
Windows:
Ultra-R fixed windows: $45/square foot (sf), per manufacturer.148
Ultra-R Operable Awning Windows (with screens): $65/sf, per manufacturer.149
145
Gelfand and Duncan, Sustainable Renovation Strategies, 12-13.
146
Ibid.
147
John M., E-mail Message to Author, Estimated Price for Kawneer InLighten Light Shelf Product and
Install, March 20th, 2012.
148
Anonymous, Phone Conversation, Hurd, Inc., Price of Ultra-R Fixed and Operable Glazing Per Square
Foot Estimate, March 20th, 2013.
149
Ibid.
186
Other:
Heat coils: $15/lf.150
Owens Corning 3" Rigid Insulation: $2.40/sf, including overhead and profit (O+P)151
Armstrong Optima 2'x4' light reflective acoustical ceiling tiles, 12' inward from
perimeter: $6.75/sf, per distributor.152
Photosensors: $85 each (ea), quantity of 10 assumed per floor.153
Installation Costs:
Selective Demolition:
Cost of tinted/reflective film removal and cleaning: $1.30/sf.154
Cost of removing existing fixed window sash for new operable window installation:
$39.50 ea, including O+P.155
Installation:
Cost for securing interior/exterior light shelves and shading devices: $50/lf.156
Operable awning window installation: $89 ea.157
Fixed window installation: $80 ea.158
Cost of electrical connection of heating coil into wall: 3/4" diameter conduit $5.90/lf
(assuming 120'), 4" box; $34 ea (assuming 7), switchbox: $29.50 ea. (assuming 7).159
Paint interior white, satin finish (2 coats): $1.41/sf, including O+P.160
Cost of drilling, screwing joints for each shelf heating coil: $25.50 ea.161
150
http://www.morelectricheating.com/products/ROOF AND GUTTER DEICING/NUHEAT
13PK08W1.aspx
151
Phillip Waier, RS Means Building Construction Cost Data: 71st Annual Edition, (Norwell, MA: Reed
Construction Data 2012) 218.
152
Nathan, Phone Conversation, AMS Inc., Pricing for Optima Lay in Tegular Acoustical Ceiling Tiles Per
Square Foot, Honolulu HI, March 21st, 2013.
153
http://compare.ebay.com/like/261133127976?var=lv&ltyp=AllFixedPriceItemTypes&var=sbar 1/3
154
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/window-tint-removal-cost.html
155
Waier, RS Means Building Cost, 218.
156
John M., E-mail Message to Author, Estimated Price for Kawneer InLighten Light Shelf Product and
Install, March 20th, 2012.
157
158
Ibid., 280.
159
Ibid., 551.
160
Ibid., 351.
161
Ibid., 277
187
Temporary Protection and Cleaning:
Temporary peel away film carpet protection: $0.26/sf.162
Interior cleaning after daily completion: $46/1,000 sf.163
Rental Costs:
Exterior scissor lift (50-60' high): $4,400.164
Other:
Post mounted warning construction zone sign: $24 ea, assuming 4.165
Warning tape barricades: $27.50, 500' per roll, assumed 2.166
Factored Costs:
Location Factor and Estimating Contingency:
City cost index: Queens NY, multiply by 1.29 (29% higher than US average).167
Contingency: 5% for unknown cost of re-circuiting existing light fixtures, constructing
before/after operating hours, installing new ceiling mounted photo-sensors as required for
off-switching. Note: The electrical estimate cannot be confidently made without a site
visit from a licensed electrician and has been provided for cost-estimating purposes only.
Assumptions:
Tasks Assumed to be Done by Maintenance and Building Manager (no added cost):
-Replace existing acoustical ceiling tiles with Armstrong Optima "Open Plan" tiles.
-Clean interior windows and interior dust control/cleaning.
-Cost of moving around furniture: To be done after hours, if required.
General Estimating Notes:

1) Costs for work crews are included in each items built-up and unit cost.
2) Continued maintenance of light shelves/shading units assumed to be offset with lower
costs for blub replacement (due to off-switching).
3) Estimate does not account for compounded interest from money saved on utility bills.
4) Since cleaning of interior/exterior glazing will be required for the existing building as
162
Ibid., 25.
163
Ibid.
164
Ibid., 669.
165
Ibid., 23.
166
Ibid.
167
188
well as the proposed retrofit, these costs should not be of substantial increase and have
been omitted from this cost estimate.
5) The office is intended to operate through construction during normal business hours (if
possible) and should not be affected by any continued work after hours or on weekends.
6) Nassau County, NY Sales Tax is currently 8.625% and has been omitted from the
project total as products are assumed to be purchase from out-of-state distributors.
7) Non-union Overhead and Profit estimated as 20% of construction cost (Waier 2012).
8) The total area for proposed new windows is approximately 17,000 sf (for 2nd-6th
floors) as determined by Autodesk Ecotect Analysis 2011.
9) Estimate assumes manufacturer suggested retail price for glazing is 20% more than
actual distributors price for such quantity.
10) There is minimal redundancy in overhead and profit calculations where sources did
not separate this figure from labor and materials (where noted). This results in a small
over-estimation of installation costs. The larger expense for this project is due to the price
of products, rather than the installation.
Equation Used for Calculating Estimate:
Equation 6:
Product Costs + Installation Costs + Factored Costs = Base Cost x Overhead and Profit
+ Design Fees = Total Estimated Cost
Using this equation the overall estimate for the retrofit is determined as follows:
Retrofit Costs Color Legend

Product Costs Per Floor:
Increased Thermal Performance
Equation 7: Increased Daylighting and Shading
Interior and Exterior,
Daylighting/ Shading Natural Ventilation and Occupant Comfort
Upper and Lower
Shelves
($400/lf x 500 lf)
Other Items Add Fixed Hurd Add Operable Hurd Add Nutone Add Owens Corning
+
Ultra-R Interior Windows Ultra-R Windows (26) Heating Coils Rigid Foam Insulation
($45/sf x~3,400sf) +($65/sf.x(26x22sf/ea)) +($30/lfx500lf) +($2.40/sf.x~2,800sf)
Ceiling Mount Armstrong Optima Reflective
Photo-sensors Acoustical Ceiling Tiles
($85ea.x10) + ($5 /sf. x 12'depth x 500lf) = $442,750 (Product Total/Floor)
189
Equation 8:
Location Factor and 20% Overhead
Solving for Combined Product Total, Contingency and Profit
Product Total/Floor. x 5 Floors = $2,213,750 x 1.34 = $2,966,425 x 1.2
= $3,559,710
Installation Costs Per Floor:

Equation 9:
Tinted Film Removal Existing Window Sash
Selective
From Existing Windows Removal for New Operable
+ Demolition
Awning Window Install
and Cleaning
($1.30/sf. x~3,400) + ($39.50 x 26 windows)
_________Assumptions_______
+ Installation Securing All Shelves to New Operable Awning Interior/Exterior Conduit Electrical and
Interior and Exterior Window Installation for Heating Coil Switchbox
($200/lf x 500lf) + ($89ea.x26 windows) + ($5.90/lf x120 lf) + ($34x7+$29.50x7)
________________Assumption__________________
Interior Painting: Screw/Drill Shelves for New Fixed
White, Satin Finish Heating Coil Install Window Installation
($1.41/sf x 2,480sf) + ($25.50ea. x (500lf/4'ea.)) + ($80ea.x (3,400sf/22sf))
+ Temporary Protection Peel Away Carpet Film Daily Interior

Adhered to Floor Cleaning After Completion
($0.26/sf x 6,200sf) + ($.046/sf x 6,200sf)
+ Rental Costs (1) Exterior Scissor

Lift Up To 60' High Per Floor
($4,400)
________________Assumption__________________
+ Other Costs (4) Post Mounted (2) Rolls Work Zone
Construction Zone Sign Caution Tape
($24ea. x 4) + ($27.50 x 2) = $134,410 (Install
Total/Floor)
Equation 10: Location Factor and 20% Overhead

Solving for Combined Install Total, Contingency and Profit
Install Total/Floor x 5 Floors = $ 672,050 x 1.34 = $900,547 x 1.2
= $1,080,656
Retrofit Costs by Design Strategy

This section is intended to differentiate between costs associated to each retrofit
design strategy for the 2nd-6th floors of the Towers. This will be useful for simple
payback period analysis to determine if a retrofit investment for energy savings is
worthwhile. When evaluating the proposed simple payback periods, multiple design
190
scenarios will be considered and compared. Estimated totals shown below represent
product costs, installation costs, increased costs due to location factor, a 5% contingency,
overhead and profit. Temporary protection and other costs are assumed to be equally
shared for each design strategy. Each window unit has been estimated at 22 square feet of
the total glazing area which is equivalent to a 4'-0" x 5'-6" glazing.
Equation 11:
Natural Ventilation and Occupant Comfort Measures*: 20% Overhead
Product Demo Install Temp. Protect. Other Costs Factors Floors and Profit
{ [(37,180) + (1,027) + (2,314) + (537.33+ 95.07) + (32 + 18.33)] x 1.34 } x 5 = $276,065 x 1.2
= $331,278
Equation 12:
Increased Daylighting and Shading Measures*:
Product Demo Install
{ [(200,000 + 15,000 + 850 + 30,000) + (4,420) + (100,000 + 708 + 444.50 + 3,496.80 + 3,187.50) +
20% Overhead
Rental Temp. Protect. Other Costs Factors Floors and Profit
(4,400) + (537.33+ 95.07) + (32 + 18.33)] x 1.34 } x 5 = $2,433,370 x 1.2 = $2,920,044
Equation 13:
Increased Thermal Performance Measures*:
20% Overhead
Product Install Temp. Protect. Other Costs Factors Floors and Profit
{ [(153,000+6,720) + (12,363.60) + (537.33 + 95.07) + (32 + 18.33)] x 1.34 } x 5 = $1,157,534 x 1.2
= $1,389,040
As a check, the calculations above should nearly equal the sum of the previous combined
total. A small difference is acceptable due to marginal rounding error:
Equation 14: Checking for Accuracy of Estimated Totals
$331,278 + $2,920,044 + $1,389,040 $3,559,710 + $1,080,656

͌
$4,640,362 $4,640,366 O.K.

͌
*See "Product and Installation Costs Per Floor" for descriptions and breakdown of subtotals as shown.
191
New York Tax Incentives and Rebate Programs for Great Neck, NY
As part of the United States 2030 challenge for energy use reduction and other
energy efficiency initiatives, the federal, state and local governments are starting to offer
financial assistance for building improvements that meet their requirements. The
Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency (DSIRE) as funded by the
Department of Energy "...lists all current State and Federal programs that are currently
providing funding for energy improvements" (Syed 2012).168 As verified, this site
includes property tax incentives and rebates for residential and commercial properties and
is updated on a regular basis. Of the many forms of assistance available for energy
improvements, the following funding options are available for commercial office
buildings that are located in NY and particularly the city of Great Neck. Each apply to
this retrofit project since the following energy improvements have been considered:
-High Performance Glazing
-Overall Building Performance
-Daylight Harvesting and Dimming (Syed 2012).169
Accordingly, the following pages illustrate currently available state, local, village
and utility incentives that pertain to this project. These criteria will be used to project
currently available tax incentives for this retrofit project and subsequently used for
calculating payback periods based on initial investments discussed earlier.
168
169
Ibid.
192
Figure 95.1: Long Island Power Authority - Commercial Energy Efficiency Rebate
Program
Program Overview:
State: New York
Incentive Utility Rebate Program

Type:
Eligible Efficiency Building Controls, Building Envelope

Technologies:
Applicable Commercial, Industrial, Nonprofit, Schools,

Sectors: Institutional
Amount: Custom: Varies Widely
Maximum Incentive: Whole Building: $400,000 per building annually
Equipment See program web site for full requirements

Requirements:
Ownership of Renewable LIPA retains ownership of all rights to existing and

Energy Credits: future emissions credits, renewable energy credits,
green tags, tradable renewable certificates and/or
any and all other environmental benefits associated
with the installation of the eligible equipment.
Web Site: http://www.lipower.org/efficiency/commercial.html
Summary:
Major renovations of existing buildings and new construction projects are both eligible for this program,
with new construction incentives being slightly reduced compared to existing building incentives. There are
several paths to choose from in the program, each one designed to fit the needs of a particular customer.
-The Custom Approach provides funding for more complex energy-saving measures, perhaps measures
unique to the building or business, which are not covered under the prescriptive approach.
-The Green Building Approach allows businesses to pursue options that fully integrate building envelope
and operating systems to produce a building as energy efficient as current technology and design allows.
Incentives will cover a portion of the additional design and equipment expenses required to create an
exemplary building. For customers exploring the custom approach or the whole building design approach
LIPA will provide
up to $10,000 in technical assistance services, including consultants to help businesses choose and
implement energy-efficient measures and equipment. For more complex projects, LIPA will provide 50
percent of any additional planning costs, up to $50,000. Follow all steps on rebate applications if pursuing
incentives.
Source: http://www.dsireusa.org, Last Modified July 2nd, 2012, Accessed 03/18/2013.
193
Figure 95.2: Federal Energy-Efficient Commercial Buildings Tax Deduction
State: Federal
Incentive Type: Corporate Deduction
Eligible Lighting Controls/Sensors,

Efficiency Building Insulation, Windows,
Technologies: Comprehensive Measures/Whole
Building
Applicable Sectors: Commercial, others
Amount: $0.30-$1.80 per square foot,

depending on technology and
amount of energy reduction
Maximum Incentive: $1.80 per square foot
Equipment Not specified, but building must

Requirements: be certified as meeting specific
energy reduction targets as a
result of improvements in interior
lighting; building envelope; or
heating, cooling, ventilation
Start Date: 1/1/2006
Expiration Date: 12/31/2013
Web Site: http://www.efficientbuildings.org
Authority 1: 26 USC § 179D

Date Enacted: 8/8/2005 (subsequently amended)
Date Effective: 1/1/2006
Expiration Date: 12/31/2013
The federal Energy Policy Act of 2005 established a tax deduction for energy-efficient commercial
buildings applicable to qualifying systems and buildings placed in service from January 1, 2006, through
December 31, 2007. This deduction was subsequently extended through 2008, and then again through 2013
by Section 303 of the federal Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008(H.R. 1424, Division B),
enacted in October 2008. Deductions of $0.60 per square foot are available to owners of buildings in which
individual lighting, building envelope, or heating and cooling systems meet target levels that would
reasonably contribute to an overall building savings of 50% if additional systems were installed.
Source: http://www.dsireusa.org, Last Modified October 1st, 2012, Accessed 03/18/2013.
194
Payback Periods and Design Fees by Type of Passive Design Retrofit
Natural Ventilation and Occupant Comfort Measures
7.5% Annual Payback Period
Retrofit Cost Design Fees Energy Savings (Years)
( $331,278 x 1.075 ) / $26,234.00 = 14 Equation 15
Increased Daylighting and Shading Measures

( $2,920,044 x 1.075 ) / $6,931.00 = 453 Equation 16
Increased Thermal Performance

( $1,389,040 x 1.075 ) / $88,996.00 = 17 Equation 17
Combined Retrofit Strategy (without any incentives)

Equation 18
Combined Combined Annual Payback Period
Retrofit Cost Energy Savings (Years)
$4,988,389 / $122,161 = 40.8
When evaluating combined payback periods, including the maximum amount of currently available NY
State, Federal and Utility incentives, the following approximations can be made:
Combined Retrofit Strategy (with 100% of available incentives)

Equation 19
Combined Federal Commercial Combined Annual Long Island Power Payback Period
Retrofit Cost Tax Incentive Energy Savings Authority (Years)
$4,988,389 - ($0.60/sf x 107,000sf) / ($122,161/yr + 400,000/yr) = 9

Equation 20
$4,988,389 - ($0.30/sf x 107,000sf) / ($122,161/yr + 200,000/yr) = 15
Note: Professional design fees have been assumed at 7.5% of construction cost. Payback periods
with a decimal have been rounded up or down to the next closest year. Electricity rates are
assumed to remain the same over the duration of the payback period. This is a conservative,
estimate since electricity rates are known to consecutively increase year over year.
195
Equation 21
$4,988,389 - ($0.15/sf x 107,000sf) / ($122,161/yr + 100,000/yr) = 22
Combined Retrofit Strategy (100% of Federal incentive only)

Equation 22
Combined Federal Commercial Combined Annual Payback Period

Retrofit Cost Tax Incentive Energy Savings (Years)
$4,988,389 - ($0.60/sf x 107,000sf) / ($122,161/yr) = 40
Summary:
According to the payback periods previously shown in Equations 15 through 22,
it is hopeful that this custom retrofit project can at least take advantage of 50% of
available incentives. As previously determined, the energy savings in kWh is projected to
be near 32% annually for reduced heating, cooling and lighting loads combined. In my
own opinion, this 50% rebate goal is therefore a realistic expectation for this amount of
energy savings.
At the local level, the utility provider offers an incentive as annual electricity cost
reduction (Figure 96). At the federal level, reimbursements are available as a tax rebate
per floor area (Figure 97). This retrofit in particular would have to go through verification
and approval by United States Energy Information Agency as well as the Long Island
Power Authority to see what their custom energy savings rebate would amount to.
As indicated by previous calculations, the federal incentive is miniscule compared
to the local utilities incentive. On this note, there are no state incentives currently
196
available, however there are programs currently underway for existing buildings that
achieve LEED certification. The economic incentive that has recently been approved with
legislation, but not adopted by any local village or town, allows for substantial annual
property tax deductions which annually depreciate according to a proposed schedule. It is
with my understanding as a LEED Accredited Professional that the proposed retrofit will
likely achieve LEED Certification for Existing Buildings if plumbing fixtures are
upgraded and prerequisite requirements are met.
197
Research and Design Project
Findings

pp 198‐210

198
Discussion:
Researching climate data and passive design principles are vital to determining an
effective passive design retrofit strategy for an existing low-rise open office building.
This is particularly true for buildings located in a variable climate as discussed in this
research and design project. By evaluating existing passive design retrofit typologies and
mixing and matching design ideas, triangulation of an idealized retrofit scenario was
made and called the "movable rhombus." Based upon this foundational research I was
able to move to the design phase of this project and select a typical office building to
propose a combined passive retrofit to. I then evaluated retrofit strategies based on
feasibility, function, cost, environmental impact, and annual energy savings. This was in
part done with Ecotect Analysis 2011 software and with cost estimating strategies from
RS Means and the United States Department of Energy to develop simple payback
periods relating to available tax rebates and incentives.
This project illustrates that a modern low-rise open office building in the NY
Metro area may simply use passive design strategies to conserve energy. This design
project also indicates that this type of building lacks respect to the climate, which makes
passive design retrofit strategies more practical to consider. This type of building
envelope upgrade is based on the climate subjects of sun, wind, light and air temperature.
It is very specific to passive design strategies that improve the building envelope by
considering energy use reduction alongside improvements in occupant comfort. The
Towers in Great Neck N.Y., as studied, has an entirely fixed curtain wall envelope and
tinted/reflective insulated double-glazing, is well sealed, has insulated walls and still
offers room for improvement. When compared with similar buildings that may have
lower thermal performance, leaky window seals, un-insulated windows and walls, or
199
even wear and tear that requires replacement, this building is a conservative
demonstration of energy reduction for this building type. The proposed retrofit, as
designed and evaluated in this research project, amounted to a custom design for the
Towers, located in Great Neck, NY. The findings and strategies may also be re-evaluated
for other existing and new office buildings sharing similar location, construction, climate
and orientation. Additionally, the methodology for determining a combined passive
design strategy may be reapplied to any type of building design so long as micro-climate
information has been reconsidered.
From a practical approach, the best type of passive design strategy for The
Towers has measures for energy savings, increased daylighting, increased shading,
natural ventilation, solar radiation and reduced heating and cooling loads simultaneously.
The retrofit, as proposed in this design and research project, is capable of doing all this
while maintaining a substantial amount of occupant views to the outdoors. Regarding the
proposed changes to the existing subject building envelope it appears that aesthetics and
structural integrities have not changed by much, according to Figure 96. Alternatively,
load capacities will still need to be reviewed by a professional structural engineer.
The costs for the proposed retrofit products, installation, location factor,
contingency and a contractor's overhead and profit were more than I initially suspected.
The overall estimated cost of the combined retrofit strategy was determined to be
$4,988,389. This type of retrofit offered an annual electricity cost savings of $122,161,
which seemed minimal, compared to the initial investment an owner would make. When
evaluated for payback period durations I established a method to determining whether
each strategy was a worthwhile. Accordingly, payback periods that are less than 10 years
200
are considered well worth it. Periods between 10-15 years are considered acceptable, and
between 15-20 years are debatably worth it.
The proposed combined retrofit strategy is considered to have an acceptable
payback period of 15 years, so long as 50% of available tax and utility cost rebates are
available after construction completion. When evaluating each passive design retrofit
strategy individually, and without rebate, the following outcomes have been determined.
Retrofitting an office building for thermal improvements of rigid foam insulation (R-15)
and adding high-performance (R-20) windows is debatably worth it. On the other hand,
utilizing natural ventilation during appropriate outdoor air temperatures and asking
occupants to wear the right type of clothing has an acceptable payback period of 14 years.
This is with consideration of simultaneously using active air conditioning for air
circulation only. Effectively, retrofitting an existing office building for daylighting is
clearly not worth it financially, but it does go to mention that occupant comfort and
improved productivity that is well associated to improved daylighting is not scientifically
measurable. It is with my recommendation that this retrofit be considered as a combined
strategy, rather than individually for the sole purposes of payback periods. My proposal is
grounded upon improving office environments while saving energy. As proven, the
proposed retrofit can economically do both if annual rebate incentives are in the range of
+4% of the total construction cost.
If the combined passive retrofit strategy was considered without rebates, it would
be a bad investment decision, having nearly a 40 year payback period. This does not
mean that this should not be considered at all though, as the subject building is nearing 32
years old today. Accordingly, this type of combined strategy is extremely worthwhile for
201
new construction since a new office building estimate would compare cost differences
between product and installation only. This initial added cost difference for incorporating
a combined passive design strategy is minimal and would be overwhelmed by energy
cost savings in the amount this design project has indicated.
Assuming this passive design retrofit were to take place and construction can be
completed in one month's time, the following estimations are made. Almost 837,000
kWh's and more than $122,000 can be saved by May, 2014. This is in addition to more
than 590 Tons of CO2 diverted and is equivalent to offsetting the use of fossil fuels by an
amount of 254 barrels of fuel-oil used to create the same quantity of electricity.
202
Conclusions:
Ultimately, the proposed retrofit will improve occupant comfort by minimizing
the boundary between indoor and outdoor environments when achievable. This is
possible with the use of clear glazing for increased and accurate color depiction of the
outdoor environment as viewed through the building envelope. Also respective is the
introduction of the sun into the office in the form of diffuse and indirect daylight while
minimizing glare and ultra-violet rays. This is possible with the inclusion of shading
devices, light shelves and low-emissivity coatings that have been studied from sunrise to
sunset. Lastly, desired winds and air temperatures are now welcomed into the office from
May through October by incorporating natural ventilation. This additional feature did not
exist for The Towers and makes a great difference in mitigating the indoor and outdoor
boundary. When heating loads increase and natural ventilation isn’t possible, the addition
of quad-cavity heat mirror film windows improve thermal performance of the building
envelope. This is related to minimizing heat loss from conduction (through glass) during
the winter. Figure 97 shows how these components can work side-by-side to achieve
occupant comfort and increased energy efficiency.
Also as proven, occupants have the ability to better respond to the weather by
wearing the right clothes and manipulating their workspace. As a direct result, they will
also help to save energy and our environment when doing so. Since existing modern
buildings are a majority of 1970's to present open office environments in the New York
Metro area, there is a substantial opportunity to reduce energy use by incorporating
passive design strategies into these building envelopes. This is particularly true for the
modern low-rise open office building (MLOOB) as promoted in this research project. If
203
we are to lessen the environmental effects of existing, current and future modern office
buildings in an economical manner, one must start from knowing how to economically
retrofit an existing building in a variable climate. Only then can they make energy
reduction goals worthwhile to a corporation or building owner in this region. While it
may seem like a substantial complexity, there are simple rules of thumb that can be
followed and certain things a building designer should keep in mind.
In general, glass curtain wall low-rise office buildings with an east-west
orientation offer better passive design retrofit payback periods compared to those with an
angular orientation. This is because the amount of linear footage for daylighting and
shading devices can be reduced. Respectively, exterior devices may only be needed for
southern orientations and can utilize interior control mechanisms for the east and west
facades. This is because the sun angle duration affecting east and west exposures will be
minimal, making exteriorized devices less essential. The entire north-facing facade can
virtually be left alone or peeled of its window tint for increased diffuse daylighting. This
substantial reduction in the quantity of apparatus means the initial investment will be
much less and payback periods will be shortened. In the case of office buildings with
oddly shaped, or irregular curtain-wall systems this notion may need to be reconsidered.
Also in general, if a MLOOB envelope has leaky window seals or lacks insulation
behind spandrel glazing, these are additional opportunities that can be easily remedied.
By adding rigid foam insulation and resealing windows with caulk, this is a quick fix to a
big problem. It should not take much effort for this type of installation though, as rigid
foam is very lightweight and is available in 3" thickness which equates to a resistance
value of R-15. Since modernized office buildings typically have suspended acoustical
204
ceiling tiles that are removable, insulating spandrel glazing above the ceiling is usually an
easy task. Re-caulking windows is even easier undertaking and can be done fairly
quickly. Ensuring a complete seal of these building products to the existing building is
critical though, as air gaps and inconsistencies will lead to convective air loops between
materials and therefore more energy loss if these products are not installed correctly.
If a MLOOB envelope is found without operable windows, replacing such
windows with multi-cavity high-performance operable windows is a worthwhile
investment. For one, the open office building designer can achieve increased thermal
performance from higher resistance values that reduce heat loss from conduction during
the winter. Secondly, these windows can then be used to bring in outdoor air
temperatures between 62ºF and 80ºF from May through October and help circulate
outdoor air through the open office interior. Awning windows are highly recommended
for this purpose and can be used to control wind inflow and help protect the office
interior from rainfall events. This window type is even further recommended for the
New York Metro area when shading and daylighting measures are being considered.
Awning windows can work with horizontal shading and daylighting devices, even when
fully open. Awning windows concurrently allow for bug screens to be used and is
therefore the most suitable window typology for a modern low-rise open office in this
region. This is especially true for MLOOB envelopes that are adjacent to trees,
shrubbery, grass, flowers and other pollen-producing plants. These factors are deemed
micro-environmental and are very important considerations that a passive building
envelope retrofit designer should have in mind. The recommendation is not to replace all
existing fixed windows with operable windows, rather a small quantity of 20% is
205
considered sufficient, so long as they are staggered with respect to their locations in a
floor plan.
Solar radiation is another important consideration in the New York Metro area
and can be of advantage for MLOOB envelopes that have clear glass curtain wall
systems. Not only will daylight transmittance be increased, but more solar radiation can
be absorbed into the office interior during the winter when it is needed most. Although
this is true, one will notice that during the winter solar radiation is minimal in comparison
to the summer and is available for much shorter durations of the workday. This being the
case, it should not be a determining factor in the decision to incorporate passive design
strategies into the building envelope. It should rather be used as a passive design strategy
to keep in mind and not deviate from when possible. With any passive design strategy,
glare should be of concern and can be simply controlled by mechanisms that allow user
adjustment. Such considerations of interior rotatable light shelves or other interiorized
mechanisms may come in handy during such conditions.
In description of the most opportune passive design retrofit for the MLOOB
envelope in the New York Metro area, the following issues can be used to identify which
building is a better target. If the subject building has broken windows, leaky window
seals, single pane or tinted glass (or a combination thereof) and has an east-west
orientation, there is a major opportunity. If the building lacks operable windows, this
condition is the next biggest prospect for payback periods and energy efficiency
improvements. If the building has a large open-office floor plan, and an extruded
aluminum curtain wall system a compounding opportunity is presented. This is because
the interiorized office spaces share the building envelope as a moderating boundary
206
between the indoor and outdoor environment. This is where heat losses and gains, as well
as daylighting, shading, views, occupant well-being and comfort also come into question.
Since the building envelope is made of a very long-lasting and easily drillable rigid
material, the proposed retrofit can be considered more practical and less of a hinder to an
existing building facade both structurally and for longevity.
To be clear of any misconception, a building that uses shading or daylighting
devices by itself, does not mean that the facade is energy efficient. It could actually mean
the opposite if the exteriorized units were ill-considered in the first place. More attention
should therefore be focused on the glazing and curtain wall system. However, if one
knows a thermal break exists in a aluminum curtain wall framework, this does not by
itself mean that the building envelope is high performance. It may actually mean there is
an even larger opportunity available to correct the next weakest thermal link. If multi-
cavity glazing is added to the interior or exterior side of this modernized framework, no
longer will the weakest link for heat loss and gain be the windows. In this case, the
weakest thermal link can be improved by high-performance building products which
afford combined resistance values that are higher than most walls (R-25). This storm
window strategy can work together with adjacent building envelope systems for an
overall solution. This method can directly reduce the highest amount of energy loss for
this building type, which is due to the conduction of glass temperature from hot to cold.
This type of retrofit also has the ability to reduce air infiltration due to increased air
cavities and double-sealing of window sashes within the existing curtain wall framework.
Likewise, less conduction will occur for the aluminum framework as the surface area is
being further encapsulated with additional storm windows in place. This can be compared
to a sandwich of windows between an otherwise voided aluminum framework. After the
207
additional storm window is added on the interior side of the building envelope, there will
be less interior surface area of aluminum. One must pay close attention to condensation
issues when making these decisions though. It is therefore recommended that the existing
windows be fully sealed and cleaned before new windows are installed.
Inevitably, there will be some modern low-rise open office building envelopes in
the New York Metro area that are more economical to retrofit with passive design
strategies than others. As we move towards a more sustainable future with hopes that
incentives continue to grow at the local, state and federal levels there is still hope for
building envelope retrofit projects that may be less practical. Either way, a major
improvement can still be achieved without economics and it pertains to the reason we
make buildings in the first place; for the sheltering and comfort of people. If this was not
the case for office buildings, we would otherwise work outside on a cloudy, windy or
sunny day of the winter or summer with rain, snow, sleet or hail. Respectively, a retrofit
that has the human factor as its foundation shall be considered successful by itself and
only more purposeful based on economics.
208
Design Project Rendering
Operable Clear Daylighting and

Windows Glazings Shading Devices
Figure 96: Proposed Combined Passive Design Strategy as Augmented Reality

Original Photo and Rendering by Author
209
Research and Design Project Combined Retrofit Strategy (Perspective)
Figure 97: Combined Strategy for Increased Daylighting, Shading, Natural

Ventilation, Thermal Performance, Acoustical Performance and Occupant Views.
Source: Drawing and Design by Author
210

List of Figures, Tables and
Equations

pp 211‐220
211
List of Figures:
Figure 1: New York Metropolitan Area Map ..................................................................... ii

Figure 2: Integrated Passive Design Process as Part of a Net Zero Energy Equation ...... iii

Figure 3: Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD) as a Function of Predicted
Mean Vote (PMV) ...............................................................................................................3

Figure 4: Acceptable Range of Operative Temperature and Humidity ...............................5

Figure 5: Air Speed Required To Offset Increased Occupant Temperature ........................6

Figure 6: Clothing Insulation Values (Icl) for Typical Office Ensembles............................7

Figure 7: Measures of Thermal Comfort. ............................................................................9

Figure 8: Mean Hourly Temperatures (Color and Solid Contours) and Relative Humidity
(Dashed Contours) .............................................................................................................19

Figure 9: Annual Relative Humidity (%) Normals for La Guardia Airport, NY During
Mornings (M) and Afternoons ...........................................................................................20

Figure 10: Prevailing Wind Directions, Mean Wind Speeds and Frequencies for New
York La Guardia Airport ...................................................................................................21

Figure 11: Total Monthly Solar Exposure and Percentage of Unobstructed Sky for New
York City, New York.........................................................................................................22

Figure 12: Average Sun Angle on July 1st Versus January 1st at 12:00pm
for New York City, NY. ....................................................................................................24

Figure 13: Comparison of Sun Angles for June 6th and September 10th at 2:15pm .........44

Figure 14: Passive Solar Radiation and Shading Device Typologies for the Modern
Office Building Glass Curtain Wall ...................................................................................47

212
Figure 15: Fixed Exterior Louvered Shading Device .......................................................51

Figure 16: Combined Passive Solar, Shading and Daylighting Typologies for the
Modern Office Building Glass Curtain Wall. ....................................................................53

Figure 17: Interior Daylighting Shelf ................................................................................54
Figure 18: Shading and Daylighting Shelf.........................................................................54
Figure 19: Concaved Interior Light Shelf ..........................................................................57
Figure 20: Concaved Light Shelf Reflection.....................................................................58
Figure 21: Concaved Light Shelf Example........................................................................58
Figure 22: Clear, Overcast and Optimum Light Shelf Distribution Graphs......................59
Figure 23: Critical Points for Glare Minimization.............................................................59
Figure 24: Daylighting Illumination; Directness, Diffused and Reflected........................61
Figure 25: Extruded Aluminum Louvered Shading Device With Perforations

(Cowplain, England Middle School Project).....................................................................64

Figure 26: Extruded Aluminum Mullion Formations and Fired Aluminum Oxide
(Al2O3) Microscope Sampling ...........................................................................................65

Figure 27: Cross Ventilation Options Based on Opening Location and Type ..................68

Figure 28: Plan Views of Prevailing Wind and Cross Ventilation Strategies Based on
Opening Location...............................................................................................................70

Figure 29: Air Flow Passing Occupants Sitting and Standing. ..........................................70

Figure 30: Distribution of Solar Heat Gain: Single Sided Ventilation Vs. Cross
Ventilation..........................................................................................................................70

Figure 31: Stack and Reverse Stack Effects ......................................................................71

Figure 32: Metal Operable Window Types That Allow Insect Screens ............................73

213
Figure 33: Building Envelope as a Selective Filter of Macro and Micro
Environmental Factors.... ...................................................................................................74

Figure 34: Example of Cross Ventilation Options Through Open Office Building
Section (Including Core). ...................................................................................................76

Figure 35: Axonometric of Awning Windows Contained in Idealized Retrofit
Typology ............................................................................................................................77

Figure 36: Axonometric of Idealized Retrofit Contained in Glass Curtain
Wall System .......................................................................................................................79

Figure 37: Thermal Conductance, Resistance, Transmission and
Air Infiltration Diagrams ...................................................................................................82

Figure 38: Autodesk Ecotect Promotional Image. .............................................................88

Figure 39: Combination of Software Programs Used for Environmental Analysis .........90

Figure 40: Site Map and Satellite Imagery ......................................................................103

Figure 41: North Axonometric Birds-eye View ..............................................................104

Figure 42: Wide Angle Site Photos .................................................................................105

Figure 43: Existing Building Plans ..................................................................................109

Figure 44: Lobby and Exterior Photos .............................................................................110

Figure 45: Lobby and Exterior Photos. ............................................................................110

Figure 46: Interior Building Photographs 1 and 2 Viewing Southeast ............................111

Figure 47: Interior Building Photograph 3 Viewing Southeast. ......................................111

Figure 48: Interior Building Envelope Photographs 4 and 5 ...........................................112

Figure 49: Annual Sun Path Perspective Viewing North ................................................115

Figure 50: Standard Monthly Heating (Blue) and Cooling (Red) Degree Days Chart ....116
214
Figure 50.1: Adjusted Monthly Heating (Blue) and Cooling (Red)
Degree Days Chart ...........................................................................................................116

Figure 51: Weather Station Location and Prevailing Wind Intensity/
Frequency Compass .........................................................................................................118

Figure 52: Workday Prevailing Wind Direction and Intensity Overlays 1 and 2
from May Through September, 7:00am-6:00pm .............................................................119

Figure 53: Workday Averages for Weekly, Daily and Hourly Wind Intensity (m/s)
Durations from May Through September, 7:00am-6:00pm ............................................121

Figure 54: Axonometric Wind Tunnel Study (In mph) 26'-0" Above Grade With
Prevailing Wind From South). .........................................................................................123
Figure 55: Interior Wind Tunnel Study #1 (Outside ~15mph Prevailing Wind From
South). ..............................................................................................................................124

Figure 56: Interior Wind Tunnel Study #2 (Outside ~15mph Prevailing
Wind From Southwest). ...................................................................................................127

Figure 57: Interior Wind Tunnel Study #3 (Outside ~15mph Prevailing Wind From
South).... ...........................................................................................................................128

Figure 58: South Tower Interior Wind Tunnel Study #4 (Outside ~10mph Prevailing
Wind From South). ..........................................................................................................129

Figure 59: Phasing of Proposed Retrofit Strategy Ideas ..................................................131

Figure 59.1: The Towers Retrofit Floor Plan ...................................................................132
Figure 59.11: Hurd, Inc. Ultra-R Quad-Cavity Glazing Performance……................….134

Figure 59.2: Wausau Exterior Shading/ Daylighting Device ..........................................138
Figure 60: Compilation of Combined Passive Design Strategy ......................................136
Figure 61: Exterior Retrofit Rendering Showing White Light

Shelves Adjacent to an Aluminum Curtain Wall System................................................138
215
Figure 62: Sun Paths, Butterfly Shading Diagrams and Perspectives on January 22nd and
July 22nd at 1:00pm. ........................................................................................................141

Figure 63: Retrofit Perspective and Section-cut at South Tower ....................................142

Figure 64: Camera View Angle for Daylighting Studies and Comparisons ....................144

Figure 65: Existing Building Interior Daylighting on September 10th at 11:15am ........145

Figure 66: Interior Daylighting and Shading Experimentations to Determine
Proposed Retrofit. ............................................................................................................147

Figure 67: Proposed Retrofit Interior Daylighting on September 10th at 11:15am ........149

Figure 68: Office Daylight Rendering Comparison Between Existing Building and
Proposed Retrofit .............................................................................................................150

Figure 69: Daylighting Analysis Grid Comparison Between Existing Building and
Proposed Retrofit .............................................................................................................151

Figure 70: Interior Sunrise to Sunset Daylighting Analysis for Proposed Retrofit
in 1.25 Hour Intervals, Viewing Southeast ......................................................................154

Figure 71: Hourly Solar Exposures and Solar Gain Comparisons ..................................156

Figure 72: Annual Sun Path Solar Radiation Intensity (Btu/hour) for
New York, NY .................................................................................................................157

Figure 73: Heating Season Solar Radiation Sky Factor Comparison (Btu)
from September 10-June 6th. ...........................................................................................158

Figure 74: Heating Season Solar Radiation Sky Factor (%) Comparison (Btu) from
September 10-June 6th .....................................................................................................159

Figure 75: Annual Total Solar Radiation Existing Building and Proposed
Retrofit Comparison.........................................................................................................160

Figure 76: Spot Temperature Study with FLIR, Inc. Thermal Imaging Camera .............163
Figure 77: Average Hourly Planar Solar Radiation (W/m2) for

September 10-June 6th .....................................................................................................164
216
Figure 78: Maximum Interior Projection from Wall ......................................................165

Figure 79: Hourly Operational Profile for an Office .......................................................168

Figure 80: Space Heating and Cooling Loads Comparisons for Existing
Building and Proposed Retrofits ......................................................................................169

Figure 81: Existing Building Heat Loss and Gain Chart. ................................................171

Figure 82: Retrofit #1 Heat Loss and Gain Chart ............................................................171

Figure 83: Existing Building Heating Season Space Loads from September
10th-June 6th. ...................................................................................................................172

Figure 84: Proposed Retrofit #2 Heating Season Space Loads from
Septeber 10th-June 6th .....................................................................................................172

Figure 85: Annual Sunrise to Sunset Natural Ventilation Zone Approximation (%)
for La Guardia Airport, NY Based on Mean Annual Air Temperature Information .......174

Figure 86: Workday Heating and Cooling Space Loads from May 1st-Oct. 31st ...........175

Figure 87: Annual Energy Saved Using Natural Ventilation and Appropriate
Occupant Attire. ...............................................................................................................175

Figure 88: Design Sky Illuminance Cumulative Frequency Graph for
New York, NY Latitude...................................................................................................176

Figure 89: Annual Average Open Office Daylight Factor (%) Analysis from
7:00am-6:00pm, Monday-Friday (4% = 300+ Lux) ........................................................177

Figure 90: Open Office Annual Workday Average Lighting (Lux) Levels by Areas
Offering Potential Light Fixture Off-switching (Green) .................................................178

Figure 91: Percentage of Working Year Lighting Off Versus Increased Daylight
Factor (%) and Office Light Level Set at 300 Lux ..........................................................179

Figure 92: Annual Energy Saved Using Natural Daylighting and Off-switching ...........181
217
Figure 93: Heating and Cooling Space Loads/Comparisons Considered for Annual
Energy Savings by Incorporating Thermal Improvements (Existing Building Versus
Proposed Retrofit #2)......................................................................................................182

Figure 94: Annual Energy Saved by Heating and Cooling Thermal Improvements......183

Figure 95: Overall Annual Energy Saved by Retrofit #2................................................184

Figure 95.1: Long Island Power Authority - Commercial Energy Efficiency
Rebate Program................................................................................................................184
Figure 95.2: Federal Energy-Efficient Commercial Buildings Tax Deduction..............194
Figure 96: Proposed Combined Passive Design Strategy as Augmented Reality...........209
Figure 97: Combined Strategy for Increased Daylighting, Shading, Natural

Ventilation, Thermal Performance, Acoustical Performance and Occupant Views........210
218
List of Tables:
Table 1: Heating and Cooling Degree Days ...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 2: New York City Temperature Records (°F): Corrected Averages 10/02/11 ........17

Table 3: Commercial Sector Key Indicators and Consumption in
Quadrillion Btu Per Year ...................................................................................................26
Table 4: Long Term Energy Prices by Sector and Source For

New England Region in 2010 Dollars Per Million Btu .....................................................28

Table 5: National Energy Prices by Sector and Source in 2010
Dollars Per Million Btu......................................................................................................28

Table 6: Solar Gain Factors for Windows. ........................................................................80

Table 7: Comparative U-values and Light Transmittance
Through Different Glazing Types ......................................................................................80

Table 8: Glazing, Framing and Dirt Factors. .....................................................................86
219
List of Equations:
Equation 1: Acceptable Operating Temperatures for Naturally

Conditioned Spaces............................................................................................................9

Equation 2: Heating Degree Days....................................................................................16
Equation 3: Horizontal Projection Dimension of a Shading Device................................45

Equation 4: Lux to Watts Calculation.............................................................................179
Equation 5: Watts to kWh Calculation............................................................................180

Equation 6: Total Estimated Cost....................................................................................189
Equation 7: Product Costs Per Floor................................................................................189
Equation 8: Combined Product Total..............................................................................190
Equation 9: Installation Costs Per Floor..........................................................................190
Equation 10: Combined Install Total...............................................................................190
Equation 11: Natural Ventilation and Occupant Comfort Measures...............................191
Equation 12: Increased Daylighting and Shading Measures...........................................191
Equation 13: Increased Thermal Performance Measures................................................191
Equation 14: Checking for Accuracy of Estimated Totals..............................................191
Equations 15-22: Payback Period Analysis by Type of Passive Design Retrofit,

Combined Strategies With and Without Incentives.................................................195-196

220
Bibliography
pp 221‐232
221
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Passive Design Strategies for the Modern Low-rise

Open Office Building in the New York Metro Area

Doctorate Project Committee

Building Envelope Principles

Current and Projected Electricity Prices

The Modern Low-rise Open Office Building Typology

Solar Radiation, Shading, Daylighting and Views

Glazing and Views

Research Project Findings

Site Analysis Photos

Existing Building Analysis

Proposed Retrofit Design Strategy

List of Figures .................................................................................................................212

List of Tables ..................................................................................................................219

List of Equations ............................................................................................................220

When determining measures of improvement, an existing building without

By combining previously known passive building envelope strategies and further

Modern commercial office building envelopes provide many practical functions.

strategy in designing an efficient building envelope which promotes occupant comfort.

orchestration of reducing energy consumption while providing a comfortable workspace.

Thermal comfort correlates to the subject prepared by the American Society of

National Standards Institute (ANSI) as Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human

Occupancy Standard 55-2004. This resource identifies "combinations of thermal,

environmental, and personal factors to provide acceptable standards for a majority of

occupants” (ASHRAE 2004).8 ASHRAE’s comprehensive approach is preferred rather

Figure 3: Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied (PPD)

Based on ASHRAE's Acceptable Range of Operating Temperatures, Figure 4, it

conditioned to achieve thermal comfort.

Figure 4: Acceptable Range of Operative Temperature and Humidity

Subsequently it is then logical to question when to begin cooling and heating an

achieved by introducing a higher rate of air movement through a space. Figure 5

mechanically operated cooling devices; namely active air conditioning.

Figure 5: Air Speed Required To Offset Increased Occupant Temperature

still other strategies to passively control the temperature in an office environment. As

Figure 6: Clothing Insulation Values (Icl) for Typical Office Ensembles

occupants are capable of manipulating their own thermal comfort by approximately

Using day-lighting, shading, solar radiation and natural ventilation strategies

together to passively moderate interior office temperatures is a difficult equilibrium to

cooler seasons this is an important factor that needs to be minimized. Accordingly,

Tout is the outdoor air temperature at a specific time of day.

Note: This equation considers occupants wearing appropriate clothing based on

temperature/ clothing insulation factors as well as cooling from natural

To summarize the concept of thermal comfort is to understand the effects of air

temperatures all with respect to the human

body’s relative level of comfort. It should

not be considered precisely comfortable

for all occupants, but intended to promote

a good level of comfort for a majority of

occupants.21 While there are many factors

to consider and perhaps this subject can

"mechanical engineers, by themselves, cannot achieve the desired level of performance

Energy Use Reduction

than against it to reduce this” (Bassler et al. 2000).24

Minimizing energy consumption related to passive design strategies will lessen

consumption in a building" (Syed 2012).25

National Renewable Energy Laboratory and is considered to be an “over-estimation of

the actual payback period” (Eiffert et al. 2000).26

envelopes. Accordingly, "a high performance building envelope is defined as performing