Spnish Civil War

Spanish Civil War
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For other civil wars in Spain, see Carlist Wars.
Spanish Civil War
Part of the Interwar Period
Infobox collage for Spanish Civil War.jpg
(clockwise from top-left)
Members of the XI International Brigade at the Battle of Belchite Bf 109 with
Nationalist markings Bombing of an airfield in Spanish West Africa Republican
soldiers at the Siege of the Alc�zar Nationalist soldiers operating an anti-
aircraft gun HMS Royal Oak in an incursion around Gibraltar
Date 17 July 1936 � 1 April 1939
(2 years, 8 months, 2 weeks and 1 day)
Location
Spain[show]
Result
Nationalist victory
End of the Second Spanish Republic

Establishment of the Spanish State under the rule of Francisco Franco
Belligerents
Republicans
Ej�rcito Popular
Popular Front
CNT-FAI
UGT
Generalitat de Catalunya
Euzko Gudarostea[a]
International Brigades
Supported by:
Soviet Union
Mexico
France (1936)
Foreign volunteers
Nationalists
FET y de las JONS[b]

FE de las JONS[c]
Requet�s[c]
CEDA[c]
Renovaci�n Espa�ola[c]
Army of Africa
Kingdom of Italy Italy
Nazi Germany Germany
Supported by:
Portugal
Vatican City (Diplomatic)
Foreign volunteers
Commanders and leaders
Republican leaders
Second Spanish Republic Manuel Aza�a
Second Spanish Republic Juli�n Besteiro
Second Spanish Republic Francisco Largo Caballero
Second Spanish Republic Juan Negr�n
Second Spanish Republic Indalecio Prieto
Second Spanish Republic Vicente Rojo Lluch
Second Spanish Republic Jos� Miaja
Second Spanish Republic Juan Modesto
Second Spanish Republic Juan Hern�ndez Saravia
Second Spanish Republic Carlos Romero Gim�nez
Second Spanish Republic Buenaventura Durruti �
Second Spanish Republic Llu�s Companys
Second Spanish RepublicBasque Country (autonomous community) Jos� Antonio Aguirre
Nationalist leaders
Spain Jos� Sanjurjo �
Spain Emilio Mola �
Spain Francisco Franco
Spain Gonzalo Queipo de Llano
Spain Juan Yag�e
Spain Miguel Cabanellas �
Spain Jos� Enrique Varela
Spain Fidel D�vila Arrondo
Spain Manuel Goded Llopis Executed
Spain Manuel Hedilla
Spain Manuel Fal Conde
Strength
1936 strength:[1]
800,000+ combatants[2]
31 ships
12 submarines
13,000 Sailors
1938 strength:[3]
450,000 infantry
350 aircraft
200 tanks
59,380 international volunteers
3,015 Soviet technicians
772 Soviet pilots 1936 strength:[4]
58,000 Army
68,500 Gendarmes
16 operational ships
7,000 Sailors[5]
1938 strength:[6]
600,000 infantry
600 aircraft
290 tanks
78,500 Italian troops
19,000 German troops[d]
8,000 Portuguese troops
Casualties and losses
175,000 killed in action[7]
100�130,000 civilians killed inside the Francoist zone[8] 110,000 killed in
action[7]
50,000 civilians killed inside the Republican zone[9]
149,213�2,000,000 total killed.[10]
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Spanish Civil War
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Events leading to World War II
The Spanish Civil War (Spanish: Guerra Civil Espa�ola)[nb 1] took place from 1936
to 1939. Republicans loyal to the left-leaning Second Spanish Republic, in alliance
with the Anarchists and Communists, fought against the Nationalists, an alliance of
Falangists, Monarchists, Carlists, and Catholics, led by a military clique among
whom General Francisco Franco soon achieved a preponderant role. Due to the
international political climate at the time, the war had many facets, and different
views saw it as class struggle, a war of religion, a struggle between dictatorship
and republican democracy, between revolution and counterrevolution, between fascism
and communism.[11] The Nationalists won the war in early 1939 and ruled Spain until
Franco's death in November 1975.
The war began after a pronunciamiento (a declaration of military opposition)

against the Republican government by a group of generals of the Spanish Republican
Armed Forces, originally under the leadership of Jos� Sanjurjo. The government at
the time was a moderate, liberal coalition of Republicans, supported in the Cortes
by communist and socialist parties, under the leadership of centre-left President
Manuel Aza�a.[12][13] The Nationalist group was supported by a number of
conservative groups, including the Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right-wing
Groups (Confederaci�n Espa�ola de Derechas Aut�nomas, or CEDA), monarchists,
including both the opposing sides of Alfonsists and the religious conservative
Carlists, and the Falange Espa�ola de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista
(FE y de las JONS), a fascist political party.[14] Sanjurjo was killed in an
aircraft accident while attempting to return from exile in Portugal, whereupon
Franco emerged as the leader of the Nationalists.
The coup was supported by military units in the Spanish protectorate in Morocco,
Pamplona, Burgos, Zaragoza, Valladolid, C�diz, C�rdoba, and Seville. However,
rebelling units in some important cities�such as Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia,
Bilbao, and M�laga�did not gain control, and those cities remained under the
control of the government. Spain was thus left militarily and politically divided.
The Nationalists and the Republican government fought for control of the country.
The Nationalist forces received munitions, soldiers, and air support from Nazi
Germany and Fascist Italy, while the Republican side received support from the
Soviet Union and Mexico. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom, France, and
the United States, continued to recognise the Republican government, but followed
an official policy of non-intervention. Notwithstanding this policy, tens of
thousands of citizens from non-interventionist countries directly participated in
the conflict. They fought mostly in the pro-Republican International Brigades,
which also included several thousand exiles from pro-Nationalist regimes.
The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in the south and west, capturing
most of Spain's northern coastline in 1937. They also besieged Madrid and the area
to its south and west for much of the war. After much of Catalonia was captured in
1938 and 1939, and Madrid cut off from Barcelona, the Republican military position
became hopeless. Madrid and Barcelona were occupied without resistance, Franco
declared victory and his regime received diplomatic recognition from all non-
interventionist governments. Thousands of leftist Spaniards fled to refugee camps
in southern France. Those associated with the losing Republicans were persecuted by
the victorious Nationalists. With the establishment of a dictatorship led by
General Franco in the aftermath of the war, all right-wing parties were fused into
the structure of the Franco regime.[14]
The war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired and for
the many atrocities that occurred, on both sides. Organised purges occurred in
territory captured by Franco's forces so they could consolidate their future
regime.[15] A significant number of killings also took place in areas controlled by
the Republicans.[16] The extent to which Republican authorities took part in
killings in Republican territory varied.[17][18]
Contents
1 Background
2 Military coup
2.1 Preparations
2.2 Beginning of the coup
2.3 Outcome
3 Combatants
3.1 Republicans
3.2 Nationalists
3.3 Other factions
4 Foreign involvement
4.1 Support for the Nationalists
4.1.1 Germany
4.1.2 Italy
4.1.3 Portugal
4.1.4 Others
4.2 Support for the Republicans
4.2.1 International Brigades
4.2.2 Soviet Union
4.2.3 Mexico
4.2.4 France
5 Course of the war
5.1 1936
5.2 1937
5.3 1938
5.4 1939
6 Evacuation of children
7 Death toll
8 Atrocities
8.1 Nationalists
8.2 Republicans
9 Social revolution
10 Art and propaganda
11 Consequences of the War
11.1 Economic
11.2 Victims of the Civil War
11.3 The Francoist repression after the War and the Republican exile
11.4 International Relations
12 Timeline
13 People
14 Political parties and organisations
15 See also
16 References
16.1 Notes
16.2 Citations
16.3 Bibliography
17 Further reading
18 External links
18.1 Films, images and sounds
18.2 Miscellaneous documents
18.3 Diverse references and citations
18.4 Academics and governments
18.5 Archives
Background
Main article: Background of the Spanish Civil War
The 19th century was a turbulent time for Spain. Those in favour of reforming
Spain's government vied for political power with conservatives, who tried to
prevent reforms from taking place. Some liberals, in a tradition that had started
with the Spanish Constitution of 1812, sought to limit the power of the monarchy of
Spain and to establish a liberal state. The reforms of 1812 did not last after King
Ferdinand VII dissolved the Constitution and ended the Trienio Liberal government.
[19] Twelve successful coups were carried out between 1814 and 1874.[19] Until the
1850s, the economy of Spain was primarily based on agriculture. There was little
development of a bourgeois industrial or commercial class. The land-based oligarchy
remained powerful; a small number of people held large estates called latifundia as
well as all the important government positions.[20]
In 1868 popular uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of
Bourbon. Two distinct factors led to the uprisings: a series of urban riots and a
liberal movement within the middle classes and the military (led by General Joan
Prim) concerned with the ultra-conservatism of the monarchy. In 1873 Isabella's
replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy, abdicated owing to increasing
political pressure, and the short-lived First Spanish Republic was proclaimed.[21]
[22] After the restoration of the Bourbons in December 1874,[23] Carlists and
Anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy.[24][25] Alejandro Lerroux,
Spanish politician and leader of the Radical Republican Party, helped bring
republicanism to the fore in Catalonia, where poverty was particularly acute.[26]
Growing resentment of conscription and of the military culminated in the Tragic
Week in Barcelona in 1909.[27]
On April 2, 1931, the Republicans won the elections and the Spanish Second Republic
was proclaimed. King Alfonso XIII resigned and went into exile.
Spain was neutral in World War I. Following the war, the working class, industrial
class, and military united in hopes of removing the corrupt central government, but
were unsuccessful.[28] Popular perception of communism as a major threat
significantly increased during this period.[29] In 1923 a military coup brought
Miguel Primo de Rivera to power; as a result, Spain transitioned to government by
military dictatorship.[30] Support for the Rivera regime gradually faded, and he
resigned in January 1930. He was replaced by General D�maso Berenguer, who was in
turn himself replaced by Admiral Juan Bautista Aznar-Caba�as; both men continued a
policy of rule by decree. There was little support for the monarchy in the major
cities. Consequently, King Alfonso XIII gave in to popular pressure for the
establishment of a republic in 1931 and called municipal elections for 12 April of
that year. The socialist and liberal republicans won almost all the provincial
capitals, and following the resignation of Aznar's government, King Alfonso XIII
fled the country.[31] At this time, the Second Spanish Republic was formed. It
remained in power until the culmination of the Spanish Civil War.[32]
The revolutionary committee headed by Niceto Alcal�-Zamora became the provisional

government, with Alcal�-Zamora as president and head of state.[33] The republic had
broad support from all segments of society.[34] In May, an incident where a taxi
driver was attacked outside a monarchist club sparked anti-clerical violence
throughout Madrid and south-west Spain. The government's slow response
disillusioned the right and reinforced their view that the Republic was determined
to persecute the church. In June and July the Confederaci�n Nacional del Trabajo,
known as the CNT, called several strikes, which led to a violent incident between
CNT members and the Civil Guard and a brutal crackdown by the Civil Guard and the
army against the CNT in Seville. This led many workers to believe the Spanish
Second Republic was just as oppressive as the monarchy and the CNT announced their
intention of overthrowing it via revolution.[35] Elections in June 1931 returned a
large majority of Republicans and Socialists.[36] With the onset of the Great
Depression, the government attempted to assist rural Spain by instituting an eight-
hour day and redistributing land tenure to farm workers.[37][38]
The Church was a frequent target of the revolutionary left in the Republic and in
the War. Only during the Civil War revolutionaries destroyed/burned some 20,000
churches -including several cathedrals-, also church ornamentation (artworks,
paintings, tombs), books, archives, and palaces.[39][40] Vast number of affected
buildings are today defunct.
Fascism remained a reactive threat, helped by controversial reforms to the
military.[41] In December a new reformist, liberal, and democratic constitution was
declared. It included strong provisions enforcing a broad secularisation of the
Catholic country, which included the abolishing of Catholic schools and charities,
which many moderate committed Catholics opposed.[42] Republican Manuel Aza�a became
prime minister of a minority government in October 1931.[43][44] In 1933 the
parties of the right won the general elections, largely owing to the anarchists'
abstention from the vote,[45] increased right-wing resentment of the incumbent
government caused by a controversial decree implementing land reform,[46] the Casas
Viejas incident,[47] and the formation of a right-wing alliance, Spanish
Confederation of Autonomous Right-wing Groups (CEDA). The recent enfranchisement of
women, most of whom voted for centre-right parties, was also a contributing factor.
[48]
Events in the period following November 1933, called the "black two years", seemed
to make a civil war more likely.[49] Alejandro Lerroux of the Radical Republican
Party (RRP) formed a government, reversing changes made under the previous
administration[50] and granting amnesty to the collaborators of the unsuccessful
uprising by General Jos� Sanjurjo in August 1932.[51][52] Some monarchists joined
with the then fascist-nationalist Falange Espa�ola y de las JONS ("Falange") to
help achieve their aims.[53] Open violence occurred in the streets of Spanish
cities, and militancy continued to increase,[54] reflecting a movement towards
radical upheaval, rather than peaceful democratic means as solutions.[55] On 5
October 1934, the Acci�n Republicana and the Socialists (PSOE) and Communists
attempted a general left-wing rebellion. The rebellion had a temporary success in
Asturias and Barcelona, but was over in two weeks. Aza�a was in Barcelona that day,
and the Lerroux-CEDA government tried to implicate him. He was arrested and charged
with complicity in the rebellion.[56]
In the last months of 1934, two government collapses brought members of the CEDA
into the government.[57][58] Farm workers' wages were cut in half, and the military
was purged of Republican members.[58] A popular front alliance was organised,[58]
which narrowly won the 1936 elections.[59] Aza�a led a weak minority government,
but soon replaced Zamora as president in April.[60] Prime Minister Santiago Casares
Quiroga ignored warnings of a military conspiracy involving several generals, who
decided that the government had to be replaced to prevent the dissolution of Spain.
[61]
Military coup
Main article: Spanish coup of July 1936
Preparations
Main article: Spanish Civil War, 1936
They shall not pass! Republican banner in Madrid reading "Fascism wants to conquer
Madrid. Madrid shall be fascism's grave." during the siege of 1936�39
The Republican government acted to remove suspect generals from influential posts.
Franco was sacked as chief of staff and transferred to command of the Canary
Islands.[62] Manuel Goded Llopis was removed as inspector general and was made
general of the Balearic Islands. Emilio Mola was moved from head of the Army of
Africa to military commander of Pamplona in Navarre.[62] This, however, allowed
Mola to direct the mainland uprising. General Jos� Sanjurjo became the figurehead
of the operation and helped reach an agreement with the Carlists.[62] Mola was
chief planner and second in command.[63] Jos� Antonio Primo de Rivera was put in
prison in mid-March in order to restrict the Falange.[62] However, government
actions were not as thorough as they might have been, and warnings by the Director
of Security and other figures were not acted upon.[64]
On 12 June, Prime Minister Casares Quiroga met General Juan Yag�e, who falsely
convinced Casares of his loyalty to the republic.[65] Mola began serious planning
in the spring.[63] Franco was a key player because of his prestige as a former
director of the military academy and as the man who suppressed the Asturian miners'
strike of 1934.[63] He was well respected in the Army of Africa, the Army's
toughest troops.[66] He wrote a cryptic letter to Casares on 23 June, suggesting
that the military was disloyal, but could be restrained if he were put in charge.
Casares did nothing, failing to arrest or buy off Franco.[66] With the help of the
British Secret Intelligence Service agents Cecil Bebb and Major Hugh Pollard, the
rebels chartered a Dragon Rapide aircraft to transport Franco from the Canary
Islands to Spanish Morocco.[67] The plane flew to the Canaries on 11 July, and
Franco arrived in Morocco on 19 July.[68]
On 12 July 1936, Falangists in Madrid murdered a police officer, Lieutenant Jos�

Castillo of the Guardia de Asalto (Assault Guard). Castillo was a Socialist party
member who, among other activities, was giving military training to the UGT youth.
Castillo had led the Assault Guards that violently suppressed the riots after the
funeral of Guardia Civil lieutenant Anastasio de los Reyes. (Los Reyes had been
shot by anarchists during the 14 April military parade commemorating the five years
of the Republic.)[68]
Assault Guard Captain Fernando Cond�s was a close personal friend of Castillo. The
next day, he led his squad to arrest Jos� Mar�a Gil-Robles y Qui�ones, founder of
CEDA, as a reprisal for Castillo's murder. But he was not at home, so they went to
the house of Jos� Calvo Sotelo, a leading Spanish monarchist and a prominent
parliamentary conservative.[69] Luis Cuenca, a member of the arresting group and a
Socialist who was known as the bodyguard of PSOE leader Indalecio Prieto, summarily
executed Calvo Sotelo by shooting him in the back of the neck.[69] Hugh Thomas
concludes that Cond�s intended to arrest Sotelo, and that Cuenca acted on his own
initiative, although he acknowledges other sources dispute this finding.[70]
Massive reprisals followed.[69] The killing of Calvo Sotelo with police involvement
aroused suspicions and strong reactions among the government's opponents on the
right.[71] Although the nationalist generals were already planning an uprising, the
event provided a catalyst and a public justification for their coup.[69] Stanley
Payne claims the idea of a rebellion by army officers against the government had
weakened before these events, but the kidnapping and murder of Calvo Sotelo had an
electrifying effect which provided a catalyst to transform what was a "limping
conspiracy" to a powerful revolt that could set off a civil war.". The involvement
of forces of public order in the plot and a lack of punishment or action against
the attackers hurt public opinion of the government. No effective action was taken,
Payne points towards possible veto by socialists within the government who shielded
the killers who had been drawn from their ranks. Within hours of learning of the
murder and the reaction Franco changed his mind on rebellion and dispatched a
message to Mola to display his firm commitment.[72]
The Socialists and Communists, led by Indalecio Prieto, demanded that arms be
distributed to the people before the military took over. The prime minister was
hesitant.[69]
Beginning of the coup

General map of the Spanish Civil War (1936�39). Key
Initial Nationalist zone � July 1936
Nationalist advance until September 1936
Nationalist advance until October 1937
Nationalist advance until November 1938
Nationalist advance until February 1939
Last area under Republican control
Solid blue.png Main Nationalist centres
Red-square.gif Main Republican centres
Panzer aus Zusatzzeichen 1049-12.svg Land battles
Vattenfall.svg Naval battles
Icon vojn new.png Bombed cities
City locator 4.svg Concentration camps
Gatunek trujacy.svg Massacres
Red dot.svg Refugee camps
The uprising's timing was fixed at 17 July, at 17:01, agreed to by the leader of
the Carlists, Manuel Fal Conde.[73] However, the timing was changed�the men in the
Spanish protectorate in Morocco were to rise up at 05:00 on 18 July and those in
Spain proper a day later so that control of Spanish Morocco could be achieved and
forces sent back to the Iberian Peninsula to coincide with the risings there.[74]
The rising was intended to be a swift coup d'�tat, but the government retained
control of most of the country.[75]
Control over Spanish Morocco was all but certain.[76] The plan was discovered in
Morocco on 17 July, which prompted the conspirators to enact it immediately. Little
resistance was encountered. In total, the rebels shot 189 people.[77] Goded and
Franco immediately took control of the islands to which they were assigned.[63] On
18 July, Casares Quiroga refused an offer of help from the CNT and Uni�n General de
Trabajadores (UGT), leading the groups to proclaim a general strike�in effect,
mobilising. They opened weapons caches, some buried since the 1934 risings.[76] The
paramilitary security forces often waited to see the outcome of militia action
before either joining or suppressing the rebellion. Quick action by either the
rebels or anarchist militias was often enough to decide the fate of a town.[78]
General Gonzalo Queipo de Llano managed to secure Seville for the rebels, arresting
a number of other officers.[79]
Outcome
The rebels failed to take any major cities with the critical exception of Seville,
which provided a landing point for Franco's African troops, and the primarily
conservative and Catholic areas of Old Castile and Le�n, which fell quickly.[75]
C�diz was taken for the rebels, with the help of the first troops from the Army of
Africa.[80]
The government retained control of M�laga, Ja�n, and Almer�a. In Madrid, the rebels
were hemmed into the Cuartel de la Monta�a siege, which fell with considerable
bloodshed. Republican leader Casares Quiroga was replaced by Jos� Giral, who
ordered the distribution of weapons among the civilian population.[81] This
facilitated the defeat of the army insurrection in the main industrial centres,
including Madrid, Barcelona, and Valencia, but it allowed anarchists to take
control of Barcelona along with large swathes of Arag�n and Catalonia.[82] General
Goded surrendered in Barcelona and was later condemned to death.[83] The Republican
government ended up controlling almost all of the east coast and central area
around Madrid, as well as most of Asturias, Cantabria and part of the Basque
Country in the north.[84]
The rebels termed themselves Nacionales, normally translated "Nationalists",

although the former implies "true Spaniards" rather than a nationalistic cause.[85]
The result of the coup was a nationalist area of control containing 11 million of
Spain's population of 25 million.[86] The Nationalists had secured the support of
around half of Spain's territorial army, some 60,000 men, joined by the Army of
Africa, made up of 35,000 men,[87] and a little under half of Spain's militaristic
police forces, the Assault Guards, the Civil Guards, and the Carabineers.[88]
Republicans controlled under half of the rifles and about a third of both machine
guns and artillery pieces.[87][89]
The Spanish Republican Army had just 18 tanks of a sufficiently modern design, and
the Nationalists took control of 10.[90] Naval capacity was uneven, with the
Republicans retaining a numerical advantage, but with the Navy's top commanders and
two of the most modern ships, heavy cruisers Canarias �captured at the Ferrol
shipyard�and Baleares, in Nationalist hands.[91] The Spanish Republican Navy
suffered from the same problems as the army�many officers had defected or had been
killed after trying to do so.[90] Two-thirds of air capability was retained by the
government�however, the whole of the Republican Air Force was very outdated.[92]
Combatants
The war was cast by Republican sympathisers as a struggle between tyranny and
freedom, and by Nationalist supporters as communist and anarchist "red hordes"
versus "Christian civilisation".[93] Nationalists also claimed they were bringing
security and direction to an ungoverned and lawless country.[93] Spanish politics,
especially on the left, was quite fragmented, since socialists and communists
supported the republic. During the republic, anarchists had mixed opinions, but
both major groups opposed the Nationalists during the Civil War. The Nationalists,
in contrast, were united by their fervent opposition to the Republican government
and presented a more unified front.[94]
Republican and Nationalist conscription age limits

The coup divided the armed forces fairly evenly. One historical estimate suggests
that there were some 87,000 troops loyal to the government and some 77,000 joining
the insurgency,[95] though some historians suggest that the Nationalist figure
should be revised upwards and that it probably amounted to some 95,000.[96]
During the first few months both armies were joined in high numbers by volunteers,
Nationalists by some 100,000 men and Republicans by some 120,000.[97] From August
both sides launched their own, similarly scaled conscription schemes, resulting in
further massive growth of their armies. Finally, the final months of 1936 saw the
arrival of foreign troops, International Brigades joining the Republicans and
Italian CTV, German Legion Condor and Portuguese Viriatos joining the Nationalists.
The result was that in April 1937 there were some 360,000 soldiers in the
Republican ranks and some 290,000 in the Nationalist ones.[98]
Republican forces during the battle of Ir�n in 1936

The armies kept growing. The principal source of manpower was conscription; both
sides continued and expanded their schemes, the Nationalists drafting somewhat more
aggressively, and there was little room left for volunteering. Foreigners
contributed little to further growth; on the Nationalist side the Italians scaled
down their engagement, while on the Republican side the influx of new
interbrigadistas did not cover losses suffered by these units on the front. At the
turn of 1937/1938 both armies achieved numerical parity and equalled about 700,000
each.[99]
Throughout 1938 the principal if not exclusive source of new men was a draft; at
this stage it was the Republicans who conscripted more aggressively. In the middle
of the year, just prior to the Battle of Ebro, the Republicans achieved their all-
time high, commanding an army of slightly above 800,000; this was already no match
for the Nationalists, who numbered 880,000.[100] The Battle of Ebro, fall of
Catalonia and collapsing discipline produced a massive shrinking of the Republican
troops. In late February 1939 their army was 400,000[101] compared to more than
double that number of Nationalists. In the moment of their final victory, the
latter commanded over 900,000 troops.[102]
The total number of Spaniards serving in the Republican forces was officially
stated as 917,000; later scholarly work estimated the number as "well over 1
million men",[103] though earlier studies claimed a Republican total of 1.75
million (including non-Spaniards).[104] The total number of Spaniards serving in
the Nationalist units is estimated at "nearly 1 million men",[103] though earlier
works claimed a total of 1.26 million Nationalists (including non-Spaniards).[105]
Republicans
Main article: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)
Flags of the Popular Front (left) and CNT/FAI (right). The slogan of the CNT/FAI
anarchists was "Ni dios, ni estado, ni patr�n" (Neither god, Nor state, Nor boss),
widespread by the Spanish anarchists since 1910.
Only two countries openly and fully supported the Republic: Mexico and the USSR.
From them, especially the USSR, the Republic received diplomatic support,
volunteers, weapons and vehicles. Other countries remained neutral, this neutrality
faced serious opposition from sympathizers in the United States and United Kingdom,
and to a lesser extent in other European countries and from Marxists worldwide.
This led to formation of the International Brigades, thousands of foreigners of all
nationalities who voluntarily went to Spain to aid the Republic in the fight; they
meant a great deal to morale but militarily were not very significant.
Manuel Aza�a was the intellectual leader of the Second Republic and headman of the
Republican-side during most of the Civil War.
The Republic's supporters within Spain ranged from centrists who supported a
moderately-capitalist liberal democracy to revolutionary anarchists who opposed the
Republic but sided with it against the coup forces. Their base was primarily
secular and urban but also included landless peasants and was particularly strong
in industrial regions like Asturias, the Basque country, and Catalonia.[106]
This faction was called variously leales "Loyalists" by supporters, "Republicans",

the "Popular Front", or "the government" by all parties; and/or los rojos "the
Reds" by their opponents.[107] Republicans were supported by urban workers,
agricultural labourers, and parts of the middle class.[108]
Republican volunteers at Teruel, 1936

The conservative, strongly Catholic Basque country, along with Catholic Galicia and
the more left-leaning Catalonia, sought autonomy or independence from the central
government of Madrid. The Republican government allowed for the possibility of
self-government for the two regions,[109] whose forces were gathered under the
People's Republican Army (Ej�rcito Popular Republicano, or EPR), which was
reorganised into mixed brigades after October 1936.[110]
A few well-known people fought on the Republican side, such as English novelist
George Orwell (who wrote Homage to Catalonia (1938), an account of his experiences
in the war)[111] and Canadian thoracic surgeon Norman Bethune, who developed a
mobile blood-transfusion service for front-line operations.[112] Simone Weil added
herself for a while to the anarchist columns of Buenaventura Durruti, though fellow
fighters feared she might inadvertently shoot them because she was short-sighted,
and tried to avoid taking her on missions. By the account of her biographer Simone
Petrement, Weil was evacuated from the front after a matter of weeks because of an
injury sustained in a cooking accident.[113]
Nationalists
Main article: Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)
Flags of the Falange Espa�ola Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional

Sindicalista (left) and the Carlist Requet�s (right)
The Nacionales or Nationalists, also called "insurgents", "rebels" or, by
opponents, Franquistas or "fascists" �feared national fragmentation and opposed the
separatist movements. They were chiefly defined by their anti-communism, which
galvanised diverse or opposed movements like Falangists and monarchists. Their
leaders had a generally wealthier, more conservative, monarchist, landowning
background.[107]
The Nationalist side included the Carlists and Alfonsists, Spanish nationalists,
the fascist Falange, and most conservatives and monarchist liberals. Virtually all
Nationalist groups had strong Catholic convictions and supported the native Spanish
clergy.[107] The Nationals included the majority of the Catholic clergy and
practitioners (outside of the Basque region), important elements of the army, most
large landowners, and many businessmen.[93]
Italian troops manning a 10 cm howitzer at Guadalajara, 1937

One of the rightists' principal motives was to confront the anti-clericalism of the
Republican regime and to defend the Catholic Church,[107] which had been targeted
by opponents, including Republicans, who blamed the institution for the country's
ills. The Church was against many of the Republicans' reforms, which were fortified
by the Spanish Constitution of 1931.[114] Articles 24 and 26 of the 1931
constitution had banned the Society of Jesus. This proscription deeply offended
many within the conservative fold. The revolution in the Republican zone at the
outset of the war, in which 7,000 clergy and thousands of lay people were killed,
deepened Catholic support for the Nationalists.[115][116]
Prior to the war, during the Asturian miners' strike of 1934, religious buildings
were burnt and at least 100 clergy, religious civilians, and pro-Catholic police
were killed by revolutionaries.[117][118] Franco had brought in Spain's colonial
Army of Africa (Spanish: Ej�rcito de �frica or Cuerpo de Ej�rcito Marroqu�) and
reduced the miners to submission by heavy artillery attacks and bombing raids. The
Spanish Legion committed atrocities and the army carried out summary executions of
leftists. The repression in the aftermath was brutal and prisoners were tortured.
[119]
The Moroccan Fuerzas Regulares Ind�genas joined the rebellion and played a
significant role in the civil war.[120]
Other factions
Catalan and Basque nationalists were not univocal. Left-wing Catalan nationalists
sided with the Republicans, while Conservative Catalan nationalists were far less
vocal in supporting the government due to anti-clericalism and confiscations
occurring in areas within its control. Basque nationalists, heralded by the
conservative Basque Nationalist Party, were mildly supportive of the Republican
government, although some in Navarre sided with the uprising for the same reasons
influencing conservative Catalans. Notwithstanding religious matters, Basque
nationalists, who were for the most part Catholic, generally sided with the
Republicans, although the PNV, Basque nationalist party, was reported passing the
plans of Bilbao defences to the nationalists, in an attempt to reduce the duration
and casualties of siege.[121]
Foreign involvement
Main articles: Foreign involvement in the Spanish Civil War and International
relations (1919�1939)
The Spanish Civil War exposed political divisions across Europe. The right and the
Catholics supported the Nationalists as a way to stop the expansion of Bolshevism.
On the left, including labor unions, students and intellectuals, the war
represented a necessary battle to stop the spread of fascism. Anti-war and pacifist
sentiment was strong in many countries, leading to warnings that the Civil War had
the potential of escalating into a second world war.[122] In this respect, the war
was an indicator of the growing instability across Europe.[123]
The Spanish Civil War involved large numbers of non-Spanish citizens who
participated in combat and advisory positions. Britain and France led a political
alliance of 27 nations that promised non-intervention in the Spanish Civil War,
including an embargo on all arms to Spain. The United States unofficially went
along. Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union signed on officially, but ignored the
embargo. The attempted suppression of imported material was largely ineffective,
however, and France especially was accused of allowing large shipments to
Republican troops.[124] The clandestine actions of the various European powers
were, at the time, considered to be risking another world war, alarming antiwar
elements across the world.[125]
The League of Nations' reaction to the war was influenced by a fear of communism,
[126] and was insufficient to contain the massive importation of arms and other war
resources by the fighting factions. Although a Non-Intervention Committee was
formed, its policies accomplished little and its directives were ineffective.[127]
Support for the Nationalists

Germany
Main articles: German involvement in the Spanish Civil War and Condor Legion
Members of the Condor Legion, a unit composed of volunteers from the German Air
Force (Luftwaffe) and from the German Army (Heer).
General Moscard� showing Heinrich Himmler the ruins of the Alc�zar

German involvement began days after fighting broke out in July 1936. Adolf Hitler
quickly sent in powerful air and armored units to assist the Nationalists. The war
provided combat experience with the latest technology for the German military.
However, the intervention also posed the risk of escalating into a world war for
which Hitler was not ready. He therefore limited his aid, and instead encouraged
Benito Mussolini to send in large Italian units.[128]
Nazi Germany's actions included the formation of the multitasking Condor Legion, a
unit composed of volunteers from the Luftwaffe and the German Army (Heer) from July
1936 to March 1939. The Condor Legion proved to be especially useful in the 1936
Battle of the Toledo. Germany moved the Army of Africa to mainland Spain in the
war's early stages.[129] German operations slowly expanded to include strike
targets, most notably � and controversially � the bombing of Guernica which, on 26
April 1937, killed 200 to 300 civilians.[130] Germany also used the war to test out
new weapons, such as the Luftwaffe Junkers Ju 87 Stukas and Junkers Ju-52 transport
Trimotors (used also as Bombers), which showed themselves to be effective.[131]
German involvement was further manifested through undertakings such as Operation

Ursula, a U-boat undertaking; and contributions from the Kriegsmarine. The Legion
spearheaded many Nationalist victories, particularly in aerial combat,[132] while
Spain further provided a proving ground for German tank tactics. The training which
German units provided to the Nationalist forces would prove valuable. By the War's
end, perhaps 56,000 Nationalist soldiers, encompassing infantry, artillery, aerial
and naval forces, had been trained by German detachments.[129]
A total of approximately 16,000 German citizens fought in the war, with
approximately 300 killed,[133] though no more than 10,000 participated at any one
time. German aid to the Nationalists amounted to approximately �43,000,000
($215,000,000) in 1939 prices,[133][nb 2] 15.5 percent of which was used for
salaries and expenses and 21.9 percent for direct delivery of supplies to Spain,
while 62.6 percent was expended on the Condor Legion.[133] In total, Germany
provided the Nationalists with 600 planes and 200 tanks.[134]
Italy
Further information: Corpo Truppe Volontarie
As the conquest of Ethiopia in the Second Italo-Ethiopian War made the Italian
government confident in its military power, Benito Mussolini joined the war to
secure Fascist control of the Mediterranean,[135]supporting the Nationalist to a
greater extent than National-Socialist did.[136] The Royal Italian Navy (Italian:
Regia Marina) played a substantial role in the Mediterranean blockade, and
ultimately Italy supplied machine guns, artillery, aircraft, tankettes, the
Aviazione Legionaria, and the Corpo Truppe Volontarie (CTV) to the Nationalist
cause.[137] The Italian CTV would, at its peak, supply the Nationalists with 50,000
men.[137] Italian warships took part in breaking the Republican navy's blockade of
Nationalist-held Spanish Morocco and took part in naval bombardment of Republican-
held M�laga, Valencia, and Barcelona.[138] In total, Italy provided the
Nationalists with 660 planes, 150 tanks, 800 artillery pieces, 10,000 machine guns,
and 240,000 rifles.[139]
Portugal
Further information: Viriatos
The Estado Novo regime of Portuguese Prime Minister Ant�nio de Oliveira Salazar
played an important role in supplying Franco's forces with ammunition and
logistical help.[140] Despite its discreet direct military involvement �
restrained to a somewhat "semi-official" endorsement, by its authoritarian regime,
of a volunteer force of up to 20,000,[141][142] so-called "Viriatos" � for the
whole duration of the conflict, Portugal was instrumental in providing the
Nationalists with organizational skills and reassurance from the Iberian neighbour
to Franco and his allies that no interference would hinder the supply traffic
directed to the Nationalist cause.[143]
Others
The Conservative government of the UK maintained a position of strong neutrality
and was supported by elites and the media, while the left mobilized aid to the
Republic.[144] The government refused to allow arms shipments and sent warships to
try to stop shipments. It was theoretically a crime to volunteer to fight in Spain,
but about 4,000 went anyway. Intellectuals strongly favoured the Republicans. Many
visited Spain, hoping to find authentic anti-fascism. They had little impact on the
government, and could not shake the strong public mood for peace.[145] The Labour
Party was split, with its Catholic element favouring the Nationalists. It
officially endorsed the boycott and expelled a faction that demanded support for
the Republican cause; but it finally voiced some support to Loyalists.[146]
Romanian volunteers were led by Ion Mo?a, deputy-leader of the Iron Guard ("Legion
of the Archangel Michael"), whose group of Seven Legionaries visited Spain in
December 1936 to ally their movement with the Nationalists.[147]
Despite the Irish government's prohibition against participating in the war, about
600 Irishmen, followers of the Irish political activist and co-founder of the
recently created political party of Fine Gael (unofficially called "The Blue
Shirts"), Eoin O'Duffy, known as the "Irish Brigade", went to Spain to fight
alongside Franco.[141] The majority of the volunteers were Catholics, and according
to O'Duffy had volunteered to help the Nationalists fight against communism.[148]
[149]
Support for the Republicans

International Brigades
Main article: International Brigades
The Etkar Andr� battalion of the International Brigades

Many non-Spaniards, often affiliated with radical communist or socialist entities,
joined the International Brigades, believing that the Spanish Republic was a front
line in the war against fascism. The units represented the largest foreign
contingent of those fighting for the Republicans. Roughly 40,000 foreign nationals
fought with the Brigades, though no more than 18,000 were in the conflict at any
given time. They claimed to represent 53 nations.[150]
Significant numbers of volunteers came from in the French Third Republic (10,000),
Nazi Germany, the Federal State of Austria (5,000) and the Kingdom of Italy
(3,350). More than 1000 each came from the Soviet Union, the United States, the
United Kingdom, the Second Polish Republic, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the Kingdom
of Hungary and Canada.[150] The Th�lmann Battalion, a group of Germans, and the
Garibaldi Battalion, a group of Italians, distinguished their units during the
Siege of Madrid. Americans fought in units such as the XV International Brigade
("Abraham Lincoln Brigade"), while Canadians joined the Mackenzie�Papineau
Battalion.[151]
Polish volunteers in the International Brigades

More than 500 Romanians fought on the Republican side, including Romanian Communist
Party members Petre Borila and Valter Roman.[152] About 145 men[153] from Ireland
formed the Connolly Column, which was immortalized by Irish folk musician Christy
Moore in the song "Viva la Quinta Brigada". Some Chinese joined the Brigades; the
majority of them eventually returned to China, but some went to prison or to French
refugee camps, and a handful remained in Spain.[154]
Soviet Union
Review of Soviet armored fighting vehicles used to equip the Republican People's
Army during the Spanish Civil War
Though General Secretary Joseph Stalin had signed the Non-Intervention Agreement,
the Soviet Union contravened the League of Nations embargo by providing material
assistance to the Republican forces, becoming their only source of major weapons.
Unlike Hitler and Mussolini, Stalin tried to do this covertly.[155] Estimates of
material provided by the USSR to the Republicans vary between 634 and 806 aircraft,
331 and 362 tanks and 1,034 to 1,895 artillery pieces.[156] Stalin also created
Section X of the Soviet Union military to head the weapons shipment operation,
called Operation X. Despite Stalin's interest in aiding the Republicans, the
quality of arms was inconsistent.[157][158] Many rifles and field guns provided
were old, obsolete or otherwise of limited use (some dated back to the 1860s) but
the T-26 and BT-5 tanks were modern and effective in combat.[157] The Soviet Union
supplied aircraft that were in current service with their own forces but the
aircraft provided by Germany to the Nationalists proved superior by the end of the
war.[158]
The process of shipping arms from Russia to Spain was extremely slow. Many
shipments were lost or arrived only partially matching what had been authorised.
[159] Stalin ordered shipbuilders to include false decks in the design of ships and
while at sea, Soviet captains employed deceptive flags and paint schemes to evade
detection by the Nationalists.[160]
The USSR sent 2,000�3,000 military advisers to Spain; while the Soviet commitment
of troops was fewer than 500 men at a time, Soviet volunteers often operated
Soviet-made tanks and aircraft, particularly at the beginning of the war.[161][162]
[163][150]
The Republic paid for Soviet arms with official Bank of Spain gold reserves, 176
tonnes of which was transferred through France and 510 directly to Russia,[164]
which was called Moscow gold.
Also, the Soviet Union directed Communist parties around the world to organise and
recruit the International Brigades.[165]
Another significant Soviet involvement was the activity of the People's

Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD) inside the Republican rearguard. Communist
figures including Vittorio Vidali ("Comandante Contreras"), Iosif Grigulevich,
Mikhail Koltsov and, most prominently, Aleksandr Mikhailovich Orlov led operations
that included the murders of Catalan anti-Stalinist Communist politician Andr�s
Nin, the socialist journalist Mark Rein, and the independent left-wing activist
Jos� Robles.[166] Another NKVD-led operation was the shooting down (in December
1936) of the French aircraft in which the delegate of the International Committee
of the Red Cross (ICRC), Georges Henny, carried extensive documentation on the
Paracuellos massacres to France.[167]
Mexico
Unlike the United States and major Latin American governments, such as the ABC
nations and Peru, Mexico supported the Republicans.[168][169] Mexico refused to
follow the French-British non-intervention proposals,[168] furnishing $2,000,000 in
aid and material assistance, which included 20,000 rifles and 20 million
cartridges.[168]
Mexico's most important contributions to the Spanish Republic was its diplomatic
help, as well as the sanctuary the nation arranged for Republican refugees,
including Spanish intellectuals and orphaned children from Republican families.
Some 50,000 took refuge, primarily in Mexico City and Morelia, accompanied by $300
million in various treasures still owned by the Left.[170]
France
Fearing it might spark a civil war inside France, the leftist "Popular Front"
government in France did not send direct support to the Republicans. French Prime
Minister L�on Blum was sympathetic to the republic,[171] fearing that the success
of Nationalist forces in Spain would result in the creation of an ally state of
Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, an alliance that would nearly encircle France.[171]
Right-wing politicians opposed any aid and attacked the Blum government.[172] In
July 1936, British officials convinced Blum not to send arms to the Republicans
and, on 27 July, the French government declared that it would not send military
aid, technology or forces to assist the Republican forces.[173] However, Blum made
clear that France reserved the right to provide aid should it wish to the Republic:
"We could have delivered arms to the Spanish Government [Republicans], a legitimate
government... We have not done so, in order not to give an excuse to those who
would be tempted to send arms to the rebels [Nationalists]."[174]
On 1 August 1936 a pro-Republican rally of 20,000 people confronted Blum, demanding

that he send aircraft to the Republicans, at the same time as right-wing
politicians attacked Blum for supporting the Republic and being responsible for
provoking Italian intervention on the side of Franco.[174] Germany informed the
French ambassador in Berlin that Germany would hold France responsible if it
supported "the manoeuvres of Moscow" by supporting the Republicans.[175] On 21
August 1936, France signed the Non-Intervention Agreement.[175] However, the Blum
government provided aircraft to the Republicans through covert means with Potez 540
bomber aircraft (nicknamed the "Flying Coffin" by Spanish Republican pilots),[176]
Dewoitine aircraft, and Loire 46 fighter aircraft being sent from 7 August 1936 to
December of that year to Republican forces.[177] The French also sent pilots and
engineers to the Republicans.[178] Also, until 8 September 1936, aircraft could
freely pass from France into Spain if they were bought in other countries.[179]
French novelist Andr� Malraux was a strong supporter of the republican cause; he
tried to organise a volunteer air force (Escadrile Espana) on the republican side
but as a practical organiser and squadron leader he was somewhat idealistic and
inefficient. The Regular Spanish Air force commander Andr�s Garc�a La Calle was
openly critical of Malraux's military efficiency but recognised his usefulness as a
propagandist. His novel L'Espoir and the film version he produced and directed
(Espoir: Sierra de Teruel) were a great help for the Republican cause in France.
Even after covert support by France to the Republicans ended in December 1936, the
possibility of French intervention against the Nationalists remained a serious
possibility throughout the war. German intelligence reported to Franco and the
Nationalists that the French military was engaging in open discussions about
intervention in the war through French military intervention in Catalonia and the
Balearic Islands.[180] In 1938 Franco feared an immediate French intervention
against a potential Nationalist victory in Spain through French occupation of
Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, and Spanish Morocco.[181]
Course of the war

1936
Map showing Spain in September 1936:

Area under Nationalist control
Area under Republican control
Surrender of Republican soldiers in the Somosierra area, 1936
Leonese anarchist Buenaventura Durruti died after he arrived in Madrid to reinforce

the morale of the Republicans during an unsuccessful Francoist siege in Madrid.
[182] His funeral, headed (in the image) by Llu�s Companys, president of the
Generalitat of Catalonia, and Joan Garc�a i Oliver, Minister of Justice of the
Spanish Republic, was in Barcelona.[183]
A large air and sealift of Nationalist troops in Spanish Morocco was organised to
the southwest of Spain.[184] Coup leader Sanjurjo was killed in a plane crash on 20
July,[185][186] leaving an effective command split between Mola in the North and
Franco in the South.[63] This period also saw the worst actions of the so-called
"Red" and "White Terrors" in Spain.[187][188] On 21 July, the fifth day of the
rebellion, the Nationalists captured the central Spanish naval base, located in
Ferrol, Galicia.[189]
A rebel force under Colonel Alfonso Beorlegui Canet, sent by General Mola and
Colonel Esteban Garc�a, undertook the Campaign of Gipuzkoa from July to September.
The capture of Gipuzkoa isolated the Republican provinces in the north. On 5
September, the Nationalists closed the French border to the Republicans in the
battle of Ir�n.[190] On 15 September San Sebasti�n, home to a divided Republican
force of anarchists and Basque nationalists, was taken by Nationalist soldiers.
[143]
The Republic proved ineffective militarily, relying on disorganised revolutionary

militias. The Republican government under Giral resigned on 4 September, unable to
cope with the situation, and was replaced by a mostly Socialist organisation under
Francisco Largo Caballero.[191] The new leadership began to unify central command
in the republican zone.[192]
On the Nationalist side, Franco was chosen as chief military commander at a meeting
of ranking generals at Salamanca on 21 September, now called by the title
General�simo.[63][193] Franco won another victory on 27 September when his troops
relieved the siege of the Alc�zar in Toledo,[193] which had been held by a
Nationalist garrison under Colonel Jos� Moscard� Ituarte since the beginning of the
rebellion, resisting thousands of Republican troops, who completely surrounded the
isolated building. Moroccans and elements of the Spanish Legion came to the rescue.
[194] Two days after relieving the siege, Franco proclaimed himself Caudillo
("chieftain", the Spanish equivalent of the Italian Duce and the German F�hrer
-meaning: 'director') while forcibly unifying the various and diverse Falangist,
Royalist and other elements within the Nationalist cause.[191] The diversion to
Toledo gave Madrid time to prepare a defense, but was hailed as a major propaganda
victory and personal success for Franco.[195] On 1 October 1936, General Franco was
confirmed head of state and armies in Burgos. A similar dramatic success for the
Nationalists occurred on 17 October, when troops coming from Galicia relieved the
besieged town of Oviedo, in Northern Spain.[196][197]
In October, the Francoist troops launched a major offensive toward Madrid,[198]

reaching it in early November and launching a major assault on the city on 8
November.[199] The Republican government was forced to shift from Madrid to
Valencia, outside the combat zone, on 6 November.[200] However, the Nationalists'
attack on the capital was repulsed in fierce fighting between 8 and 23 November. A
contributory factor in the successful Republican defense was the effectiveness of
the Fifth Regiment[201] and later the arrival of the International Brigades, though
only an approximate 3,000 foreign volunteers participated in the battle.[202]
Having failed to take the capital, Franco bombarded it from the air and, in the
following two years, mounted several offensives to try to encircle Madrid,
beginning the three-year Siege of Madrid. The Second Battle of the Corunna Road, a
Nationalist offensive to the northwest, pushed Republican forces back, but failed
to isolate Madrid. The battle lasted into January.[203]
1937
Map showing Spain in October 1937:

With his ranks swelled by Italian troops and Spanish colonial soldiers from
Morocco, Franco made another attempt to capture Madrid in January and February
1937, but was again unsuccessful. The Battle of M�laga started in mid-January, and
this Nationalist offensive in Spain's southeast would turn into a disaster for the
Republicans, who were poorly organised and armed. The city was taken by Franco on 8
February.[204] The consolidation of various militias into the Republican Army had
started in December 1936.[205] The main Nationalist advance to cross the Jarama and
cut the supply to Madrid by the Valencia road, termed the Battle of Jarama, led to
heavy casualties (6,000�20,000) on both sides. The operation's main objective was
not met, though Nationalists gained a modest amount of territory.[206]
A similar Nationalist offensive, the Battle of Guadalajara, was a more significant

defeat for Franco and his armies. This was the only publicised Republican victory
of the war. Franco used Italian troops and blitzkrieg tactics; while many
strategists blamed Franco for the rightists' defeat, the Germans believed it was
the former at fault for the Nationalists' 5,000 casualties and loss of valuable
equipment.[207] The German strategists successfully argued that the Nationalists
needed to concentrate on vulnerable areas first.[208]
Ruins of Guernica
The "War in the North" began in mid-March,[209] with the Biscay Campaign.[210] The
Basques suffered most from the lack of a suitable air force.[211] On 26 April, the
Condor Legion bombed the town of Guernica, killing 200�300 and causing significant
damage. The destruction had a significant effect on international opinion.[212] The
Basques retreated.[213]
April and May saw the May Days, infighting among Republican groups in Catalonia.
The dispute was between an ultimately victorious government �Communist forces and
the anarchist CNT. The disturbance pleased Nationalist command, but little was done
to exploit Republican divisions.[214] After the fall of Guernica, the Republican
government began to fight back with increasing effectiveness. In July, it made a
move to recapture Segovia, forcing Franco to delay his advance on the Bilbao front,
but for only two weeks. A similar Republican attack, the Huesca Offensive, failed
similarly.[215]
Mola, Franco's second-in-command, was killed on 3 June, in an airplane accident.

[216] In early July, despite the earlier loss at the Battle of Bilbao, the
government launched a strong counter-offensive to the west of Madrid, focusing on
Brunete. The Battle of Brunete, however, was a significant defeat for the Republic,
which lost many of its most accomplished troops. The offensive led to an advance of
50 square kilometres (19 sq mi), and left 25,000 Republican casualties.[217]
A Republican offensive against Zaragoza was also a failure. Despite having land and
aerial advantages, the Battle of Belchite, a place lacking any military interest,
resulted in an advance of only 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) and the loss of much
equipment.[218] Franco invaded Arag�n and took the city of Santander in Cantabria
in August.[219] With the surrender of the Republican army in the Basque territory
came the Santo�a Agreement.[220] Gij�n finally fell in late October in the Asturias
Offensive.[221] Franco had effectively won in the north. At November's end, with
Franco's troops closing in on Valencia, the government had to move again, this time
to Barcelona.[222]
1938
Main article: Spanish Civil War, 1938�39
Map showing Spain in July 1938:

The Battle of Teruel was an important confrontation. The city, which had formerly
belonged to the Nationalists, was conquered by Republicans in January. The
Francoist troops launched an offensive and recovered the city by 22 February, but
Franco was forced to rely heavily on German and Italian air support.[223]
On 7 March, Nationalists launched the Aragon Offensive, and by 14 April they had
pushed through to the Mediterranean, cutting the Republican-held portion of Spain
in two. The Republican government attempted to sue for peace in May,[224] but
Franco demanded unconditional surrender, and the war raged on. In July, the
Nationalist army pressed southward from Teruel and south along the coast toward the
capital of the Republic at Valencia, but was halted in heavy fighting along the XYZ
Line, a system of fortifications defending Valencia.[225]
The Republican government then launched an all-out campaign to reconnect their

territory in the Battle of the Ebro, from 24 July until 26 November, where Franco
personally took command.[226] The campaign was unsuccessful, and was undermined by
the Franco-British appeasement of Hitler in Munich. The agreement with Britain
effectively destroyed Republican morale by ending hope of an anti-fascist alliance
with Western powers.[227] The retreat from the Ebro all but determined the final
outcome of the war.[226] Eight days before the new year, Franco threw massive
forces into an invasion of Catalonia.[228]
1939
Main article: Spanish Civil War, 1938�39
Map showing Spain in February 1939:

Franco's troops conquered Catalonia in a whirlwind campaign during the first two
months of 1939. Tarragona fell on 15 January,[229] followed by Barcelona on 26
January[230] and Girona on 2 February.[231] On 27 February, the United Kingdom and
France recognized the Franco regime.[232]
Only Madrid and a few other strongholds remained for the Republican forces. On 5
March 1939 the Republican army, led by the Colonel Segismundo Casado and the
politician Juli�n Besteiro, rose against the prime minister Juan Negr�n and formed
the National Defence Council (Consejo Nacional de Defensa or CND) to negotiate a
peace deal.[233] Negr�n fled to France on 6 March,[234] but the Communist troops
around Madrid rose against the junta, starting a brief civil war within the civil
war.[235] Casado defeated them, and began peace negotiations with the Nationalists,
but Franco refused to accept anything less than unconditional surrender.[236]
On 26 March, the Nationalists started a general offensive, on 28 March the

Nationalists occupied Madrid and, by 31 March, they controlled all Spanish
territory.[237] Franco proclaimed victory in a radio speech aired on 1 April, when
the last of the Republican forces surrendered.[238]
Franco arriving in San Sebastian in 1939

After the end of the war, there were harsh reprisals against Franco's former
enemies.[239] Thousands of Republicans were imprisoned and at least 30,000
executed.[240] Other estimates of these deaths range from 50,000[241] to 200,000,
depending on which deaths are included. Many others were put to forced labour,
building railways, draining swamps, and digging canals.[241]
Franco declares the end of the war, though small pockets of Republicans fought on.
Hundreds of thousands of Republicans fled abroad, with some 500,000 fleeing to
France.[242] Refugees were confined in internment camps of the French Third
Republic, such as Camp Gurs or Camp Vernet, where 12,000 Republicans were housed in
squalid conditions. In his capacity as consul in Paris, Chilean poet and politician
Pablo Neruda organised the immigration to Chile of 2,200 Republican exiles in
France using the ship SS Winnipeg.[243]
Of the 17,000 refugees housed in Gurs, farmers and others who could not find
relations in France were encouraged by the Third Republic, in agreement with the
Francoist government, to return to Spain. The great majority did so and were turned
over to the Francoist authorities in Ir�n.[244] From there, they were transferred
to the Miranda de Ebro camp for "purification" according to the Law of Political
Responsibilities. After the proclamation by Marshal Philippe P�tain of the Vichy
regime, the refugees became political prisoners, and the French police attempted to
round up those who had been liberated from the camp. Along with other "undesirable"
people, the Spaniards were sent to the Drancy internment camp before being deported
to Nazi Germany. About 5,000 Spaniards died in the Mauthausen concentration camp.
[244]
After the official end of the war, guerrilla warfare was waged on an irregular
basis by the Spanish Maquis well into the 1950s, gradually reduced by military
defeats and scant support from the exhausted population. In 1944, a group of
republican veterans, who also fought in the French resistance against the Nazis,
invaded the Val d'Aran in northwest Catalonia, but were defeated after 10 days.
[245]
Evacuation of children
Main article: Evacuation of children in the Spanish Civil War
Children preparing for evacuation, some giving the Republican salute. The
Republicans showed a raised fist whereas the Nationalists gave the Roman salute.
[246]
The Republicans oversaw the evacuation of 30,000�35,000 children from their zone,
[247] starting with Basque areas, from which 20,000 were evacuated. Their
destinations included the United Kingdom[248] and the USSR, and many other
locations in Europe, along with Mexico.[247] On 21 May 1937, around 4,000 Basque
children were taken to the UK on the aging steamship SS Habana from the Spanish
port of Santurtzi. This was against initial opposition from both the government and
charitable groups, who saw the removal of children from their native country as
potentially harmful. On arrival two days later in Southampton, the children were
dispersed all over England, with over 200 children accommodated in Wales.[249] The
upper age limit was initially set at 12, but raised to 15.[250] By mid-September,
all of los ni�os, as they became known, had found homes with families. Most were
repatriated to Spain after the war, but some 250 still remained in Britain by the
end of the Second World War in 1945.[251]
Death toll
Civil War death toll
range estimate
+2m 2,000,000[252]
+1m 1,200,000,[253] 1,000,000[254]
+ 900,000 909,000,[255] 900,000[256]
+ 800,000 800,000[257]
+ 700,000 750,000,[258] 745,000,[259] 700,000[260]
+ 600,000 665.300,[261] 650,000,[262] 640,000,[263] 623,000,[264] 613,000,[265]
611,000,[266] 610,000,[267] 600,000[268]
+ 500,000 580,000,[269] 560,000,[270] 540,000,[271] 530,000,[272] 500,000[273]
+ 400,000 496,000,[274] 465,000,[275] 450,000,[276] 443,000,[277] 420,000,[278]
410,000,[279] 405,000,[280] 400,000[281]
+ 300,000 380,000,[282] 365,000,[283] 350,000,[284] 346,000,[285] 344,000,[286]
335,000,[287] 330,000,[288] 310,000,[289] 300,000[290]
+ 200,000 290,000,[291] 270,000,[292] 265,000,[293] 256,825,[294] 255,000,[295]
250,000,[296] 231,000[297]
+ 100,000 170,489,[298] 149,213[299]
The death toll of the Spanish Civil War is far from clarified and remains �
especially in part related to war and post-war repression � a very controversial
issue. Many general historiographic works � notably in Spain � refrain from
advancing any figures; massive historical series,[300] encyclopedias[301] or
dictionaries[302] might not provide any numbers or at best propose vague general
descriptions;[303] also more detailed general history accounts produced by expert
Spanish scholars often remain silent on the issue.[304] Foreign scholars,
especially Anglo-Saxon historians, are more eager to offer some general estimates,
though some have revised their projections, usually downwards,[305] and the figures
could vary from 1 million to 250,000. Apart from bias/ill will, incompetence or
changing access to sources, the differences result chiefly from categorisation and
methodology issues.
Women pleading with Nationalists for the lives of prisoners, Constantina, 1936
The totals advanced usually include or exclude various categories. Scholars who
focus on killings or "violent deaths" most typically list 1) combat and combat-
related deaths; figures in this rubric might range from 100,000[306] to 700,000;
[307] 2) rearguard terror, both judicial and extrajudicial, recorded until the end
of the Civil War: 103,000[308] to 235,000;[309] 3) civilian deaths from military
action, typically air raids: 10,000[309] to 15,000.[310] These 3 categories
combined might point to totals from 235,000[311] to 715,000.[312] Many authors opt
for a broader view and calculate "death toll" by adding also 4) above-the-norm
deaths caused by malnutrition, hygiene shortcomings, cold, illness, etc. recorded
until the end of the Civil War: 30,000[313] to 630,000.[314] It is not unusual to
encounter war statistics which include 5) post-war terror related to Civil War, at
times up to the year of 1961: 23,000[315] to 200,000.[309] Some authors might add
also 6) foreign combat and combat-related deaths: 3,000[316] to 25,000,[315] 7)
Spaniards killed in World War II: 6,000,[315] 8) deaths related to post-war
guerilla, typically the Valle de Ar�n invasion: 4,000,[315] 9) above-the-norm
deaths caused by malnutrition etc. recorded after the Civil War but related to the
Civil War sufferings: 160,000[315] to 300,000.[317]
Entirely different approach is pursued by demographers; instead of adding up deaths

from different categories, they try to gauge the difference between the total
number of deaths recorded during the war and the total which would have resulted
from applying annual death averages from the 1926�1935 period; this difference is
considered excess death resulting from the war. The figure they arrive at for the
1936�1939 period is 346,000; the figure for 1936�1942, covering also the years of
post-war deaths resulting from terror and war sufferings, is 540,000.[318] Finally,
there are scholars who go even further and calculate "population loss" or
"demographic impact" of the war; in this case they might include also 10) migration
abroad: 160,000[319] to 730,000[320] and 11) decrease in birth rate: 500,000[321]
to 570,000.[322]
Atrocities
Twenty-six republicans were assassinated by Franco's Nationalists at the beginning

of the Spanish Civil War, between August and September 1936. This mass grave is
located at the small town of Est�par, in Burgos Province. The excavation occurred
in July�August 2014.
Death totals remain debated. British historian Antony Beevor wrote in his history
of the Civil War that Franco's ensuing "white terror" resulted in the deaths of
200,000 people and that the "red terror" killed 38,000.[323] Julius Ruiz contends
that, "Although the figures remain disputed, a minimum of 37,843 executions were
carried out in the Republican zone, with a maximum of 150,000 executions (including
50,000 after the war) in Nationalist Spain".[324]
Spanish Civil War grave sites. Location of known burial places. Colors refer to the
type of intervention that has been carried out. Green: No Interventions Undertaken
so far. White: Missing grave. Yellow: Transferred to the Valle de los Ca�dos. Red:
Fully or Partially Exhumed. Blue star: Valle de los Ca�dos. Source: Ministry of
Justice of Spain
In 2008 a Spanish judge, Baltasar Garz�n, opened an investigation into the
executions and disappearances of 114,266 people between 17 July 1936 and December
1951. Among the executions investigated was that of the poet and dramatist Federico
Garc�a Lorca, whose body has never been found.[325] Mention of Garc�a Lorca's death
was forbidden during Franco's regime.[326]
Recent research has started to locate mass graves, using a combination of witness
testimony, remote sensing and forensic geophysics techniques.[327]
The view of historians, including Helen Graham,[328] Paul Preston,[329] Antony

Beevor,[330] Gabriel Jackson[331] and Hugh Thomas,[332] is that the mass executions
behind the Nationalists lines were organised and approved by the Nationalist rebel
authorities, while the executions behind the Republican lines were the result of
the breakdown of the Republican state and anarchy:
Though there was much wanton killing in rebel Spain, the idea of the limpieza, the
"cleaning up", of the country from the evils which had overtaken it, was a
disciplined policy of the new authorities and a part of their programme of
regeneration. In republican Spain, most of the killing was the consequence of
anarchy, the outcome of a national breakdown, and not the work of the state,
although some political parties in some cities abetted the enormities, and some of
those responsible ultimately rose to positions of authority.
�?Hugh Thomas[332]
Nationalists
See also: White Terror (Spain)
Nationalist SM.81 aircraft bomb Madrid in late November 1936.
Children take refuge during the Francoist bombing over Madrid (1936�1937). In spite
of that Republicans managed to repulse this siege.
Nationalist atrocities, which authorities frequently ordered so as to eradicate any
trace of "leftism" in Spain, were common. The notion of a limpieza (cleansing)
formed an essential part of the rebel strategy, and the process began immediately
after an area had been captured.[333] According to historian Paul Preston, the
minimum number of those executed by the rebels is 130,000,[334] and is likely to
have been far higher, with other historians placing the figure at 200,000 dead.
[335] The violence was carried out in the rebel zone by the military, the Civil
Guard and the Falange in the name of the regime.[336]
Many such acts were committed by reactionary groups during the first weeks of the
war.[336] This included the execution of schoolteachers,[337] because the efforts
of the Second Spanish Republic to promote laicism and displace the Church from
schools by closing religious educational institutions were considered by the
Nationalists as an attack on the Roman Catholic Church. Extensive killings of
civilians were carried out in the cities captured by the Nationalists,[338] along
with the execution of unwanted individuals. These included non-combatants such as
trade-unionists, Popular Front politicians, suspected Freemasons, Basque, Catalan,
Andalusian, and Galician Nationalists, Republican intellectuals, relatives of known
Republicans, and those suspected of voting for the Popular Front.[336][339][340]
[341][342]
Bombing in Barcelona, 1938

Nationalist forces massacred civilians in Seville, where some 8,000 people were
shot; 10,000 were killed in Cordoba; 6,000�12,000 were killed in Badajoz [343]
after more than one thousand of landowners and conservatives were killed by the
revolutionaries. In Granada, where working-class neighborhoods were hit with
artillery and right-wing squads were given free rein to kill government
sympathizers,[344] at least 2,000 people were murdered.[337] In February 1937, over
7,000 were killed after the capture of M�laga.[345] When Bilbao was conquered,
thousands of people were sent to prison. There were fewer executions than usual,
however, because of the effect Guernica left on Nationalists' reputations
internationally.[346] The numbers killed as the columns of the Army of Africa
devastated and pillaged their way between Seville and Madrid are particularly
difficult to calculate.[347]
Nationalists also murdered Catholic clerics. In one particular incident, following

the capture of Bilbao, they took hundreds of people, including 16 priests who had
served as chaplains for the Republican forces, to the countryside or graveyards and
murdered them.[348][349]
Franco's forces also persecuted Protestants, including murdering 20 Protestant

ministers.[350] Franco's forces were determined to remove the "Protestant heresy"
from Spain.[351] The Nationalists also persecuted Basques, as they strove to
eradicate Basque culture.[219] According to Basque sources, some 22,000 Basques
were murdered by Nationalists immediately after the Civil War.[352]
The Nationalist side conducted aerial bombing of cities in Republican territory,

carried out mainly by the Luftwaffe volunteers of the Condor Legion and the Italian
air force volunteers of the Corpo Truppe Volontarie: Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia,
Guernica, Durango, and other cities were attacked. The Bombing of Guernica was the
most controversial.[353]
Republicans
See also: Red Terror (Spain)
"Execution" of the Sacred Heart of Jesus by Communist militiamen. The photograph in

the London Daily Mail had the caption "Spanish Reds' war on religion".[354]
According to the Nationalists, an estimated 55,000 civilians died in Republican-
held territories. This is considered excessive by Antony Beevor. However, it was
much less than the half a million claimed during the war.[355] The deaths would
form the prevailing outside opinion of the republic up until the bombing of
Guernica.[355]
The Republican government was anticlerical, and supporters attacked and murdered
Roman Catholic clergy in reaction to the news of military revolt.[349] In his 1961
book, Spanish archbishop Antonio Montero Moreno, who at the time was director of
the journal Ecclesia, wrote that 6,832 were killed during the war, including 4,184
priests, 2,365 monks and friars, and 283 nuns, in addition to 13 bishops, a figure
accepted by historians, including Beevor.[350][356][357] Some sources claim that by
the conflict's end, 20 percent of the nation's clergy had been killed,[358][nb 3]
The "Execution" of the Sacred Heart of Jesus by Communist militiamen at Cerro de
los �ngeles near Madrid, on 7 August 1936, was the most infamous of widespread
desecration of religious property.[359] In dioceses where the Republicans had
general control, a large proportion � often a majority � of secular priests were
killed.[360]
Like clergy, civilians were executed in Republican territories. Some civilians were
executed as suspected Falangists.[361] Others died in acts of revenge after
Republicans heard of massacres carried out in the Nationalist zone.[362] Air raids
committed against Republican cities were another driving factor.[363] Shopkeepers
and industrialists were shot if they did not sympathise with the Republicans, and
were usually spared if they did.[364] Fake justice was sought through commissions,
named checas after the Soviet secret police organization.[361]
The Puente Nuevo bridge, Ronda. Both Nationalists and Republicans are claimed to
have thrown prisoners from the bridge to their deaths in the canyon.[365]
As pressure mounted with the increasing success of the Nationalists, many civilians
were executed by councils and tribunals controlled by competing Communist and
anarchist groups.[361] Some members of the latter were executed by Soviet-advised
communist functionaries in Catalonia,[365] as recounted by George Orwell's
description of the purges in Barcelona in 1937 in Homage to Catalonia, which
followed a period of increasing tension between competing elements of the Catalan
political scene. Some individuals fled to friendly embassies, which would house up
to 8,500 people during the war.[362]
In the Andalusian town of Ronda, 512 suspected Nationalists were executed in the
first month of the war.[365] Communist Santiago Carrillo Solares was accused of the
killing of Nationalists in the Paracuellos massacre near Paracuellos de Jarama.
[366] Pro-Soviet Communists committed numerous atrocities against fellow
Republicans, including other Marxists: Andr� Marty, known as the Butcher of
Albacete, was responsible for the deaths of some 500 members of the International
Brigades.[367] Andr�s Nin, leader of the POUM (Workers' Party of Marxist
Unification), and many other prominent POUM members, were murdered by the
Communists, with the help of the USSR's NKVD.[368]
Thirty-eight thousand people were killed in the Republican zone during the war,
17,000 of whom were killed in Madrid or Catalonia within a month of the coup.
Whilst the Communists were forthright in their support of extrajudicial killings,
much of the Republican side was appalled by the murders.[369] Aza�a came close to
resigning.[362] He, alongside other members of Parliament and a great number of
other local officials, attempted to prevent Nationalist supporters being lynched.
Some of those in positions of power intervened personally to stop the killings.
[369]
Social revolution
Main article: Spanish Revolution of 1936
Two women and a man at the Siege of the Alc�zar in Toledo, 1936
In the anarchist-controlled areas, Aragon and Catalonia, in addition to the
temporary military success, there was a vast social revolution in which the workers
and peasants collectivised land and industry and set up councils parallel to the
paralyzed Republican government.[370] This revolution was opposed by the Soviet-
supported communists who, perhaps surprisingly, campaigned against the loss of
civil property rights.[370]
As the war progressed, the government and the communists were able to exploit their
access to Soviet arms to restore government control over the war effort, through
diplomacy and force.[368] Anarchists and the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification
(Partido Obrero de Unificaci�n Marxista, POUM) were integrated into the regular
army, albeit with resistance. The POUM Trotskyists were outlawed and denounced by
the Soviet-aligned Communists as an instrument of the fascists.[368] In the May
Days of 1937, many thousands of anarchist and communist Republican soldiers fought
for control of strategic points in Barcelona.[214]
Women from FAI during the Spanish Social Revolution.

The pre-war Falange was a small party of some 3�40,000 members.[371] It also called
for a social revolution that would have seen Spanish society transformed by
National Syndicalism.[372] Following the execution of its leader, Jos� Antonio
Primo de Rivera, by the Republicans, the party swelled in size to several hundred
thousand members.[373] The leadership of the Falange suffered 60 percent casualties
in the early days of the civil war, and the party was transformed by new members
and rising new leaders, called camisas nuevas ("new shirts"), who were less
interested in the revolutionary aspects of National Syndicalism.[374] Subsequently,
Franco united all fighting groups into the Traditionalist Spanish Falange and the
National Syndicalist Offensive Juntas (Spanish: Falange Espa�ola Tradicionalista de
las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista, FET y de las JONS).[375]
The 1930s also saw Spain become a focus for pacifist organisations, including the
Fellowship of Reconciliation, the War Resisters League, and the War Resisters'
International. Many people including, as they are now called, the insumisos
("defiant ones", conscientious objectors) argued and worked for non-violent
strategies. Prominent Spanish pacifists, such as Amparo Poch y Gasc�n and Jos�
Brocca, supported the Republicans. Brocca argued that Spanish pacifists had no
alternative but to make a stand against fascism. He put this stand into practice by
various means, including organizing agricultural workers to maintain food supplies,
and through humanitarian work with war refugees.[nb 4]
Art and propaganda
In Catalonia, a square near the Barcelona waterfront named Pla�a George Orwell.
Throughout the course of the Spanish Civil War, people all over the world were
exposed to the goings-on and effects of it on its people not only through standard
art, but also through propaganda. Motion pictures, posters, books, radio programs,
and leaflets are a few examples of this media art that was so influential during
the war. Produced by both nationalists and republicans, propaganda allowed
Spaniards a way to spread awareness about their war all over the world. A film co-
produced by famous early-twentieth century authors such as Ernest Hemingway and
Lillian Hellman was used as a way to advertise Spain's need for military and
monetary aid. This film, The Spanish Earth, premiered in America in July 1937. In
1938, George Orwell's Homage to Catalonia, a personal account of his experiences
and observations in the war, was published in the United Kingdom. In 1939, Jean-
Paul Sartre published in France short story "The Wall" in which he describes the
last night of prisoners of war sentenced to death by shooting.
Leading works of sculpture include Alberto S�nchez P�rez's El pueblo espa�ol tiene
un camino que conduce a una estrella ("The Spanish People Have a Path that Leads to
a Star"), a 12.5 m monolith constructed out of plaster representing the struggle
for a socialist utopia;[376] Julio Gonz�lez's La Montserrat, an anti-war work which
shares its title with a mountain near Barcelona, is created from a sheet of iron
which has been hammered and welded to create a peasant mother carrying a small
child in one arm and a sickle in the other. and Alexander Calder's Fuente de
mercurio (Mercury Fountain) a protest work by the American against the Nationalist
forced control of Almad�n and the mercury mines there.[377]
Pablo Picasso painted Guernica in 1937, taking inspiration from the bombing of
Guernica, and in Leonardo da Vinci's Battle of Anghiari. Guernica, like many
important Republican masterpieces, was featured at the 1937 International
Exhibition in Paris. The work's size (11 ft by 25.6 ft) grabbed much attention and
cast the horrors of the mounting Spanish civil unrest into a global spotlight.[378]
The painting has since been heralded as an anti-war work and a symbol of peace in
the 20th century.[379]
Joan Mir� created El Segador (The Reaper), formally titled El campesino catal�n en
rebeld�a (Catalan peasant in revolt), which spans some 18 feet by 12 feet[380] and
depicted a peasant brandishing a sickle in the air, to which Mir� commented that
"The sickle is not a communist symbol. It is the reaper's symbol, the tool of his
work, and, when his freedom is threatened, his weapon."[381] This work, also
featured at the 1937 International Exhibition in Paris, was shipped back to the
Spanish Republic's capital in Valencia following the Exhibition, but has since gone
missing or has been destroyed.[380]
Consequences of the War
Tribute and plaque in memory of murdered or persecuted teachers, Navarre, 1936 and
later
Economic
Payment for the war on both sides was very high. Monetary resources on the
Republican side were completely drained from weapon acquisition. On the Nationalist
side, the biggest losses came after the conflict, when they had to let Germany
exploit the country's mining resources, so until the beginning of World War II they
barely had the chance to make any profit.[382] Spain was devastated in many areas,
with completely destroyed towns. The Spanish economy took decades to recover.
Victims of the Civil War

The number of civilian victims are still being discussed, with some estimating
approximately 500,000 victims, while others go as high as 1,000,000.[383] These
deaths were not only due to combat, but also executions, which were especially
well-organised and systematic on the Nationalist side, being more disorganised on
the Republican side (mainly caused by loss of control of the armed masses by the
government). [384] However, the 500,000 death toll does not include deaths by
malnutrition, hunger or diseases brought about by the war.
The Francoist repression after the War and the Republican exile
Main article: White Terror (Spain)
Spanish children in exile in Mexico

After the War, the Francoist regime initiated a repressive process against the
losing side, a "cleansing" of sorts against anything or anyone associated with the
Republic. This process led many to exile or death. Exile happened in three waves.
The first one was during the Northern Campaign (March�November 1937), followed by a
second wave after the fall of Catalonia (January�February 1939), in which about
400,000 people fled to France. The French authorities had to improvise
concentration camps, with such hard conditions that almost half of the exiled
Spaniards returned. The third wave occurred after the War, at the end of March
1939, when thousands of Republicans tried to board ships to exile, although few
succeeded.[385]
International Relations
The political and emotional repercussions of the War transcended the National
scale, becoming a precursor to World War II. [386]
After the War, Spanish policy leaned heavily towards Germany, Portugal and Italy,
since they had been the greatest Nationalist supporters and aligned with Spain
ideologically. However, the end of the Civil War and later the Second World War saw
the isolation of the country from most other nations until the 1950s, in which the
American anti-Communist international policy favoured having a far-right and
extremely anti-communist ally in Europe. [387]
Timeline
Date Event
1868 Overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon
1873 Isabella's replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy, abdicates throne
beginning the short-lived First Spanish Republic
1874 (December) Restoration of the Bourbons
1909 Tragic Week in Barcelona
1923 Military coup brings Miguel Primo de Rivera to power
1930 (January) Miguel Primo de Rivera resigns
1931 (12 April) Municipal elections, King Alfonso XIII abdicates.
1931 (14 April) Second Spanish Republic is formed with Niceto Alcala-Zamora as
President and Head of State
1931 (June) Elections return large majority of Republicans and Socialists
1931 (October) Republican Manuel Aza�a becomes prime minister of a minority
government
1931 (December) New reformist, liberal, and democratic constitution is declared
1932 (August) Unsuccessful uprising by General Jos� Sanjurjo
1933 Beginning of the "black two years"
1934 Asturias uprising
1936 (April) Popular Front alliance wins election and Aza�a replaces Zamora as
president
1936 (14 April) During a military parade commemorating the 5 years of the second
republic, Guardia Civil lieutenant Anastasio de los Reyes is shot in the back by
anarchist/socialist agitators. Riots break out at the funeral
1936 (12 June) Prime Minister Casares Quiroga meets General Joan Yague
1936 (5 July) Aircraft chartered to take Franco from the Canary Islands to Morocco
1936 (12 July) Assault Guard Lieutenant Jose Castillo is murdered after he
violently put down the riots that broke out at the funeral of Guardia Civil
lieutenant Anastasio de los Reyes
1936 (13 July) Opposition leader Jose Calvo Sotelo is arrested and murdered by the
socialist Assault Guards (Guardia de Asalto), freemason police officer Burillo also
blamed.
1936 (14 July) Franco arrives in Morocco
1936 (17 July) Military coup gains control over Spanish Morocco
1936 (17 July) Official beginning of the war
1936 (20 July) Coup leader Sanjurjo is killed in a plane crash
1936 (21 July) Nationalists capture the central Spanish naval base
1936 (7 August) "Execution" of the Sacred Heart of Jesus by Communist militiamen
at Cerro de los Angeles in Getafe
1936 (4 September) The Republican government under Giral resigns, and is replaced
by a mostly Socialist organization under Largo Caballero
1936 (5 September) Nationalists take Irun
1936 (15 September) Nationalists take San Sebastian
1936 (21 September) Franco chosen as chief military commander at Salamanca
1936 (27 September) Franco's troops relieve the Alcazar in Toledo
1936 (29 September) Franco proclaims himself Caudillo
1936 (17 October) Nationalists from Galicia relieve the besieged town of Oviedo
1936 (November) Bombing of Madrid
1936 (8 November) Franco launches major assault on Madrid that is unsuccessful
1936 (6 November) Republican government is forced to move to Valencia from Madrid
1937 Nationalists capture most of Spain's northern coastline
1937 (6 February) Battle of Jarama begins
1937 (8 February) Malaga falls to Franco's forces
1937 (March) War in the North begins
1937 (8 March) Battle of Guadalajara begins
1937 (26 April) Bombing of Guernica
1937 (21 May) 4,000 Basque children taken to the UK
1937 (3 June) Mola, Franco's second-in-command, is killed
1937 (July) Republicans move to recapture Segovia
1937 (6 July) Battle of Brunete begins
1937 (August) Franco invades Aragon and takes the city of Santander
1937 (24 August) Battle of Belchite begins
1937 (October) Gijon falls to Franco's troops
1937 (November) Republican government forced to move to Barcelona from Valencia
1938 Nationalists capture large parts of Catalonia
1938 (January) Battle of Teruel, conquered by Republicans
1938 (22 February) Franco recovers Teruel
1938 (7 March) Nationalists launch the Aragon Offensive
1938 (16 March) Bombing of Barcelona
1938 (May) Republican sue for peace, Franco demands unconditional surrender
1938 (24 July) Battle of the Ebro begins
1938 (24 December) Franco throws massive force into invasion of Catalonia
1939 Beginning of Franco's rule
1939 (15 January) Tarragona falls to Franco
1939 (26 January) Barcelona falls to Franco
1939 (2 February) Girona falls to Franco
1939 (27 February) UK and France recognize the Franco regime
1939 (6 March) Prime minister Juan Negrin flees to France
1939 (28 March) Nationalists occupy Madrid
1939 (31 March) Nationalists control all Spanish territory
1939 (1 April) Last Republican forces surrender in Alicante
1939 (1 April) Official ending of the war
1975 Ending of Franco's rule with his death on 20 November in La Paz hospital,
Madrid and Juan Carlos I of Spain becomes King
People
Jos� Antonio Primo de Rivera the founder of the Falange Espa�ola, executed by
Republicans in November 1936 in Alicante.
In pre-war climate, after moderate measures were produced, Francisco Largo

Caballero sentence "The working class must take over the political power, we must
go to the revolution".
In pre-war climate, Jos� Calvo Sotelo sentence "Would be crazy the militaryman who
was not willing to revolt against the anarchy if this were to occur", was killed by
Guardia Civil militiamen in 1936.
See also: List of people of the Spanish Civil War

Figures identified with the Republican side
Politicians or military
Manuel Aza�a (Republican)
Santiago Carrillo (Communist)
Julio �lvarez del Vayo (Socialist)
Valent�n Gonz�lez ("El Campesino") (Communist)
Dolores Ib�rruri ("La Pasionaria") (Communist)
Francisco Largo Caballero (Socialist)
Diego Mart�nez Barrio (Republican)
Llu�s Companys (Republican and federalist)
Juan Negr�n (Socialist)
Andr�s Nin (Communist)
Indalecio Prieto (Socialist)
Buenaventura Durruti (Anarchist)
Others identified with the Republican side (including volunteers)
W. H. Auden (poet)
Robert Capa (photojournalist)
Dezso R�vai (photojournalist)
Pablo Casals (cellist, conductor)
Federico Garc�a Lorca (poet, dramatist � assassinated)
Martha Gellhorn (writer, journalist)
Egon Erwin Kisch (writer, journalist)
Pablo Picasso (painter, sculptor)
Rafael Alberti (poet, communist)
Ernest Hemingway (author, journalist)
John Dos Passos (novelist)
Jos� Robles (academic, activist)
Laurie Lee (poet, novelist, screenwriter)
George Orwell (novelist, journalist)
Ksawery Pruszynski (novelist, journalist)
Luis Bu�uel (filmmaker)
Miguel Hern�ndez (poet)
Pablo Neruda (poet)
Adolfo S�nchez V�zquez (journalist, philosopher)
�ikica Jovanovic �panac (Socialist)
Figures identified with the Nationalist side
Military
Equestrian statue of Francisco Franco in Valencia

Mill�n Astray (Spain)
Francisco Franco (Spain)
Miguel Cabanellas (Spain)
Jos� Sanjurjo (Spain)
Emilio Mola (Spain)
Gonzalo Queipo de Llano (Spain, received money from UK embassy to lobby against
Spain joining the Axis in World War II)
Juan Yag�e (Spain)
Mario Roatta (Italy)
Ettore Bastico (Italy)
Mario Berti (Italy)
Gastone Gambara (Italy)
Amedeo Guillet (Italy)
Hugo Sperrle (Germany)
Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma (Germany)
Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen (Germany)
Non-military
Pedro Mu�oz Seca (playwright � assassinated)
Ram�n Serrano Su�er (politician, Franco's brother in law, favorable to Germans)
Roy Campbell (poet, South Africa)
Political parties and organisations
Political parties and organizations in the Spanish Civil War [hide]
The Popular Front (Republican) Supporters of the Popular Front (Republican)
Nationalists (Francoist)
The Popular Front was an electoral alliance formed between various left-wing and
centrist parties for elections to the Cortes in 1936, in which the alliance won a
majority of seats.
UR (Uni�n Republicana - Republican Union): Led by Diego Mart�nez Barrio, formed in

1934 by members of the PRR, who had resigned in objection to Alejandro Lerroux's
coalition with the CEDA. It drew its main support from skilled workers and
progressive businessmen.
IR (Izquierda Republicana - Republican Left): Led by former Prime Minister Manuel
Aza�a after his Republican Action party merged with Santiago Casares Quiroga's
Galician independence party and the Radical Socialist Republican Party (PRRS). It
drew its support from skilled workers, small businessmen, and civil servants. Aza�a
led the Popular Front and became president of Spain. The IR formed the bulk of the
first government after the Popular Front victory with members of the UR and the
ERC.
ERC (Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya - Republican Left of Catalonia): Created
from the merging of the separatist Estat Catal� (Catalan State) and the Catalan
Republican Party in 1931. It controlled the autonomous government of Catalonia
during the republican period. Throughout the war it was led by Llu�s Companys, also
president of the Generalitat of Catalonia.
PSOE (Partido Socialista Obrero Espa�ol - Spanish Socialist Workers' Party): Formed
in 1879, its alliance with Acci�n Republicana in municipal elections in 1931 saw a
landslide victory that led to the King's abdication and the creation of the Second
Republic. The two parties won the subsequent general election, but the PSOE left
the coalition in 1933. At the time of the Civil War, the PSOE was split between a
right wing under Indalecio Prieto and Juan Negr�n, and a left wing under Largo
Caballero. Following the Popular Front victory, it was the second largest party in
the Cortes, after the CEDA. It supported the ministries of Aza�a and Quiroga, but
did not actively participate until the Civil War began. It had majority support
amongst urban manual workers.
UGT (Uni�n General de Trabajadores - General Union of Workers): The socialist trade
union. The UGT was formally linked to the PSOE, and the bulk of the union followed
Caballero.
Federacion de Juventudes Socialistas (Federation of Socialist Youth)
PSUC (Partit Socialista Unificat de Catalunya - Unified Socialist Party of
Catalonia): An alliance of various socialist parties in Catalonia, formed in the
summer of 1936, controlled by the PCE.
JSU (Juventudes Socialistas Unificadas - Unified Socialist Youth): Militant youth
group formed by the merger of the Socialist and the Communist youth groups. Its
leader, Santiago Carrillo, came from the Socialist Youth, but had secretly joined
the Communist Youth prior to merger, and the group was soon dominated by the PCE.
PCE (Partido Comunista de Espa�a - Communist Party of Spain): Led by Jos� D�az in
the Civil War, it had been a minor party during the early years of the Republic,
but grew in importance during the war.
POUM (Partido Obrero de Unificaci�n Marxista - Worker's Party of Marxist
Unification): An anti-Stalinist revolutionary communist party of former Trotskyists
formed in 1935 by Andreu Nin.
JCI (Juventud Comunista Ib�rica - Iberian Communist Youth): the POUM's youth
movement.
PS (Partido Sindicalista - Syndicalist Party): a moderate splinter group of CNT.
Uni�n Militar Republicana Antifascista (Republican Anti-fascist Military Union):
Formed by military officers in opposition to the Uni�n Militar Espa�ola.
Anarchist groups. The anarchists boycotted the 1936 Cortes election and initially
opposed the Popular Front government, but joined during the Civil War when Largo
Caballero became Prime Minister.
CNT (Confederaci�n Nacional del Trabajo - National Confederation of Labour): The
confederation of anarcho-syndicalist trade unions.
FAI (Federaci�n Anarquista Ib�rica - Iberian Anarchist Federation): The federation
of anarchist groups, very active in the Republican militias.
Mujeres Libres (Free Women): The anarchist feminist organisation.
FIJL (Federaci�n Ib�rica de Juventudes Libertarias - Iberian Federation of
Libertarian Youth)
Catalan nationalists.
Estat Catal� (Catalan State): Catalan separatist party created back in 1922.
Founding part of ERC in 1931, it sided with the Republican faction during the war.
Basque nationalists.
PNV (Partido Nacionalista Vasco - Basque Nationalist Party): A Catholic Christian
Democrat party under Jos� Antonio Aguirre, which campaigned for greater autonomy or
independence for the Basque region. Held seats in the Cortes and supported the
Popular Front government before and during the Civil War. Put its religious
disagreement with the Popular Front aside for a promised Basque autonomy.
ANV (Acci�n Nacionalista Vasca - Basque Nationalist Action): A leftist Socialist
party, which at the same time campaigned for independence of the Basque region.
STV (Solidaridad de Trabajadores Vascos - Basque Workers' Solidarity): A trade
union in the Basque region, with a Catholic clerical tradition combined with
moderate socialist tendencies.
SRI (Socorro Rojo Internacional - International Red Aid): Communist organization
allied with the Comintern that provided considerable aid to Republican civilians
and soldiers.
International Brigades: pro-Republican military units made up of anti-fascist
Socialist, Communist and anarchist volunteers from different countries.
Virtually all Nationalist groups had very strong Roman Catholic convictions and
supported the native Spanish clergy.
Uni�n Militar Espa�ola (Spanish Military Union) - a conservative political

organisation of officers in the armed forces, including outspoken critics of the
Republic like Francisco Franco. Formed in 1934, the UME secretly courted fascist
Italy from its inception. Already conspiring against the Republic in January 1936,
after the electoral victory of the Popular Front in February it plotted a coup with
monarchist and fascist groups in Spain. In the run-up to the Civil War, it was led
by Emilio Mola and Jos� Sanjurjo, and latterly Franco.
Alfonsist Monarchist - supported the restoration of Alfonso XIII. Many army
officers, aristocrats, and landowners were Alfonsine, but there was little popular
support.
Renovaci�n Espa�ola (Spanish Restoration) - the main Alfonsine political party.
Acci�n Espa�ola (Spanish Action) - an integral nationalist party led by Jos� Calvo
Sotelo, formed in 1933 around a journal of the same name edited by political
theorist and journalist Ramiro de Maeztu.
Bloque Nacional (National Block) - the militia movement founded by Calvo Sotelo.
Carlist Monarchist - supported Alfonso Carlos I de Borb�n y Austria-Este's claim to
the Spanish throne and saw the Alfonsine line as having been weakened by
Liberalism. After Alfonso Carlos died without issue, the Carlists split - some
supporting Carlos' appointed regent, Francisco-Xavier de Borb�n-Parma, others
supporting Alfonso XIII or the Falange. The Carlists were clerical hard-liners led
by the aristocracy, with a populist base amongst the farmers and rural workers of
Navarre providing the militia.
Comuni�n Tradicionalista (Traditionalist Communion) - the Carlist political party
Requet�s (Volunteers) - militia movement.
Pelayos - militant youth movement, named after Pelayo of Asturias.
Margaritas - women's movement, named after Margarita de Borb�n-Parma, wife of
Carlist pretender Charles VII (1868-1909).
Falange (Phalanx):
FE (Falange Espa�ola de las JONS) - created by a merger in 1934 of two fascist
organisations, Primo de Rivera's Falange (Phalanx), founded in 1933, and Ramiro
Ledesma's Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista (Assemblies of National-
Syndicalist Offensive), founded in 1931. It became a mass movement when it was
joined by members of Acci�n Popular and by Acci�n Cat�lica, led by Ram�n Serrano
S��er.
OJE (Organizaci�n Juvenil Espa�ola) - militant youth movement.
Secci�n Femenina (Feminine Section) - women's movement in labour of Social Aid.
Falange Espa�ola Tradicionalista y de las JONS - created by a merger in 1937 of the
FE and the Carlist party, bringing the remaining political and militia components
of the Nationalist side under Franco's ultimate authority.
CEDA - coalition party founded by Jos� Mar�a Gil-Robles y Qui�ones whose ideology
ranged from Christian democracy to conservative. Although they supported Franco's
rebellion, the party was dissolved in 1937, after most members and militants joined
FE and Gil-Robles went to exile.
Juventudes de Acci�n Popular, also known as the JAP. The fascistised youth wing of
the CEDA. In 1936 they suffered a drain of militants, who joined the Falange.
See also
List of foreign ships wrecked or lost in the Spanish Civil War
Catholicism in the Second Spanish Republic
The Falling Soldier
Foreign involvement in the Spanish Civil War
List of war films and TV specials#Spanish Civil War (1936�1939)
List of foreign correspondents in the Spanish Civil War
List of surviving veterans of the Spanish Civil War
Martyrs of the Spanish Civil War
Polish volunteers in the Spanish Civil War
Jewish volunteers in the Spanish Civil War
European Civil War
Spain in World War II
SS Cantabria (1919)
Pacifism in Spain
Spanish Republican Armed Forces
Art and culture in Francoist Spain
Revisionism (Spain)
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flag waving.svgLiberalism portalRed flag II.svgSocialism portal
References
Notes
Also known as The Crusade (Spanish: La Cruzada) among Nationalists, the Fourth
Carlist War (Spanish: Cuarta Guerra Carlista) among Carlists, and The Rebellion
(Spanish: La Rebeli�n) or Uprising (Spanish: Sublevaci�n) among Republicans.
Westwell (2004) gives a figure of 500 million Reichmarks.
Since Beevor (2006). p. 82. suggests 7,000 members of some 115,000 clergy were
killed, the proportion could well be lower.
See variously: Bennett, Scott, Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and
Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915�1963, Syracuse NY, Syracuse University Press,
2003; Prasad, Devi, War is A Crime Against Humanity: The Story of War Resisters'
International, London, WRI, 2005. Also see Hunter, Allan, White Corpsucles in
Europe, Chicago, Willett, Clark & Co., 1939; and Brown, H. Runham, Spain: A
Challenge to Pacifism, London, The Finsbury Press, 1937.
From 1936 until it surrendered in 1937 to the Italian Corpo Truppe Volontarie in
the Santo�a Agreement
The only party under Francisco Franco from 1937 onward, a merger of the other
factions on the Nationalist side
1936�1937, then merged into FET y de las JONS
Around 19,000 German military men rotated in service in Spain during the war, but
seldom exceeded 100 aircraft and 6,000 men at any one time
Citations
http://spartacus-educational.com/SParmyP.htm
Larraz�hal, R. Salas. "Aspectos militares de la Guerra Civil espa�ola".
Thomas (1961). p. 491.
The Nationalist Army
Warships of the Spanish Civil War (1936�1939)
Thomas (1961). p. 488.
Sandler, Stanley (2002). Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO.
p. 160.
Manuel �lvaro Due�as, 2009, p. 126.
Casanova 1999
see Death toll section
Juli�, Santos (1999). Un siglo de Espa�a. Pol�tica y sociedad. Madrid: Marcial
Pons. ISBN 84-9537903-1. �Fue desde luego lucha de clases por las armas, en la que
alguien pod�a morir por cubrirse la cabeza con un sombrero o calzarse con
alpargatas los pies, pero no fue en menor medida guerra de religi�n, de
nacionalismos enfrentados, guerra entre dictadura militar y democracia republicana,
entre revoluci�n y contrarrevoluci�n, entre fascismo y comunismo�
Beevor (2006). p. 43
Preston (2006). p. 84.
Payne (1973). pp. 200�203.
Beevor (2006). p. 88.
Beevor (2006). pp. 86�87.
Beevor (2006). pp. 260�271.
Julius Ruiz. El Terror Rojo (2011). pp. 200�211.
Beevor (2006). p. 7.
Preston (2006). p. 19.
Thomas (1961). p. 13.
Preston (2006). p. 21.
Preston (2006). p. 22.
Preston (2006). p. 24.
Fraser (1979). pp. 38�39.
Preston (2006). pp. 24�26.
Thomas (1961). p. 15.
Preston (2006). pp. 32�33.
Beevor (2006). p. 15.
Thomas (1961). p. 16.
Beevor (2006) p. 20-22.
Beevor (2006). p. 20.
Beevor (2006) p. 23.
Preston (2006). pp. 38�39.
Beevor (2006) p.26.
Preston (2006). p. 50.
Preston (2006). p. 42.
Beevor (2006). p. 22.
Mariano boza Puerta, Miguel �ngel S�nchez Herrador, El martirio de los libros: Una
aproximaci�n a la destrucci�n bibliogr�fica durante la Guerra Civil (PDF)
Juan Garc�a Dur�n, Sobre la Guerra Civil, su gran producci�n bibliograf�a y sus
peque�as lagunas de investigaci�n., archived from the original on 21 September 2006
Preston (2006). pp. 45�48.
Preston (2006). p. 53.
Thomas (1961). p. 47.
Preston (2006). p. 61.
Casanova (2010). p. 90.
Preston (2006). pp. 54�55.
Hansen, Edward C. (2 January 1984). "The Anarchists of Casas Viejas (Book
Review)". Ethnohistory. 31 (3): 235�236. doi:10.2307/482644. Retrieved 13 August
2015.
Beevor (2006). p. 27.
Preston (2006). pp. 66�67.
Preston (2006). pp. 67�68.
Preston (2006). pp. 63�65.
Thomas (1961). p. 62.
Preston (2006). pp. 69�70.
Preston (2006). p. 70.
Preston (2006). p. 83.
Beevor, Antony (2006). The Battle for Spain: the Spanish Civil War, 1936�1939. New
York: Penguin Books. pp. 27�30.
Thomas (1961). p. 78.
Preston (2006). p. 81.
Preston (2006). pp. 82�83.
Payne (1973). p. 642.
Preston (2006). p. 93.
Preston (2006). p. 94.
Preston (1983). pp. 4�10.
Preston (2006). pp. 94�95.
Preston (2006). p. 95.
Preston (2006). p. 96.
Alpert, Michael BBC History Magazine April 2002
Preston (2006). p. 98.
Preston (2006), p. 99.
Thomas (2001). pp. 196�198, 309
Thomas (2001). pp. 196�198, 309.
G., Payne, Stanley. The Spanish Civil War. New York. ISBN 9781107002265. OCLC
782994187.
Thomas (1961). p. 126.
Beevor (2006). pp. 55�56.
Preston (2006). p. 102.
Beevor (2006). p. 56.
Beevor (2006). pp. 56�57.
Beevor (2006). pp. 58�59.
Beevor (2006). p. 59.
Beevor (2006). pp. 60�61.
Beevor (2006). p. 62.
Chomsky (1969).
Beevor (2006). p. 69.
Beevor (2001) pp. 55�61
Preston (2006). pp. 102�3.
Westwell (2004). p. 9.
Howson (1998). p. 28.
Westwell (2004). p. 10.
Howson (1998). p. 20.
Howson (1998). p. 21.
Alpert, Michael (2008). La guerra civil espa�ola en el mar. Barcelona: Cr�tica.
ISBN 978-84-8432-975-6.
Howson (1998). pp. 21�22.
Beevor (2006). Chapter 21.
Beevor (1982). pp. 42�43.
Payne, Stanley G. (1970), The Spanish Revolution, OCLC 54588, p. 315
Payne (1970), p. 315
James Matthews, Our Red Soldiers': The Nationalist Army's Management of its Left-
Wing Conscripts in the Spanish Civil War 1936-9, [in:] Journal of Contemporary
History 45/2 (2010), p. 342
Payne (1970), pp. 329�330
Payne (2012), p. 188
Payne (2012), p. 299
Payne (1970), p. 360
Payne (1987), p. 244
Payne (1970), p. 343
Salas Larraz�bal, Ram�n (1980), Datos exactos de la Guerra civil, ISBN
9788430026944, pp. 288�289, also Matthews 2010, p. 346
Larraz�bal (1980), pp. 288�289, also Matthews 2010, p. 346
Beevor (2006). pp. 30�33.
Howson (1998). pp.1�2.
Cohen (2012). pp. 164�165.
Thomas (1987). pp. 86�90.
Orden, circular, creando un Comisariado general de Guerra con la misi�n que se
indica [Order, circular, creating a general comisariat of war with the indicated
mission] (PDF) (in Spanish). IV. Gaceta de Madrid: diario oficial de la Rep�blica.
16 October 1936. p. 355.
Dawson (2013). p. 85.
Alpert (2013). p. 167.
P�trement, Simone (1988). Simone Weil: A Life. Schocken Books. pp. 271�278. ISBN
978-0-8052-0862-7.
Werstein (1969) p. 44
Payne (2008). p. 13.
Rooney, Nicola. "The role of the Catholic hierarchy in the rise to power of
General Franco" (PDF). Queen's University, Belfast.
Payne (1973) p. 637.
Coverdale (2002). p. 148.
Preston (2006). p. 79.
"Morocco tackles painful role in Spain's past," Reuters 14 January 2009.
Peers, E. Allison; Hogan, James (December 1936). "The Basques and the Spanish
Civil War" (PDF). Studies: an Irish Quarterly Review. Irish Province of the Society
of Jesus. 25 (100): 540�542. ISSN 0039-3495. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5
December 2011.
Zara Steiner, The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933�1939
(Oxford History of Modern Europe) (2013), pp 181�251.
Emanuel Adler and Vincent Pouliot (2011). International Practices. Cambridge
University Press. pp. 184�85. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511862373. ISBN 978-1-139-50158-3.
Stone (1997). p. 133.
"Spain:Business & Blood". Time. 19 April 1937. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
Jackson (1974). p. 194.
Stoff (2004). p. 194.
Zara Steiner, The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933�1939
(2013) pp 181�251
Westwell (2004). p. 87.
"The legacy of Guernica". BBC website. BBC. 26 April 2007. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
Musciano, Walter. "Spanish Civil War: German Condor Legion's Tactical Air Power",
History Net, 2004. Retrieved on 2 July 2015.
Westwell (2004). p. 88.
Thomas (1961). p. 634.
Thomas, Hugh. (2001). The Spanish Civil War. Penguin Books. London. p. 937
Beevor (2006). pp. 135�6.
Neulen 2000, p. 25.
Beevor (2006). p. 199.
Balfour, Sebastian; Preston, Paul (2009). Spain and the great powers in the
twentieth century. London, UK; New York, USA: Routledge. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-415-
18078-8.
Thomas (2001). pp. 938�939.
Beevor (2006). pp. 116, 133, 143, 148, 174, 427.
Thomas (1961). p. 635.
Beevor (2006). p. 198.
Beevor (2006). p. 116.
David Deacon, British News Media and the Spanish Civil War (2008) p 171
Richard Overy, The Twilight Years: The Paradox of Britain Between the Wars (2009)
pp 319�40
A. J. P. Taylor, English History 1914�1945 (1965) pp 393�98
Othen (2008). p. 102.
Casanova (2010). p. 225.
Mittermaier (2010). p. 195.
Thomas (1961). p. 637.
Thomas (1961). pp. 638�639.
Deletant (1999). p. 20.
"Review of O'Riordan's memoir".
Benton, Pieke (1998). p. 215.
Howson (1998). p. 125.
Payne (2004). p. 156.
Payne (2004). pp. 156�157.
Beevor (2006). pp. 152�153.
Howson (1998). pp. 126�129.
Howson (1998). p. 134.
Beevor (2006). p. 163.
Graham (2005). p. 92.
Thomas (2003). p. 944.
Beevor (2006). pp. 153�154.
Richardson (2015). pp. 31�40
Beevor (2006). pp. 273, 246.
VIDAL, Cesar. La guerra que gano Franco. Madrid, 2008. p.256
Beevor (2006). pp. 139�14.
Beevor (2006). p. 291.
Beevor (2006). pp. 412�413.
Alpert (1994). p. 14.
Alpert (1994). pp. 14�15.
Alpert (1994). pp. 20, 23.
Alpert (1994). p. 41.
Alpert (1994). p. 43.
"Potez 540/542". Archived from the original on 11 August 2011.
Alpert (1994). pp. 46�47.
Werstein (1969). p. 139.
Alpert (1994). p. 47.
Payne (2008). p. 28.
Luke�, Goldstein (1999). p. 176.
Abel Paz (1996). Durruti en la revoluci�n espa�ola. Madrid: Fundaci�n de Estudios
Libertarios Anselmo Lorenzo. ISBN 84-86864-21-6.
Abel Paz (2004). Durruti en la revoluci�n espa�ola. Madrid: La Esfera de los
Libros.
Beevor (2006). p. 71.
Beevor (2006). p. 96.
Thomas (1961). p. 162.
Red: Beevor (2006). pp. 81�87.
White: Beevor (2006). pp. 88�94.
Beevor (2006). pp. 73�74.
Beevor (2006). pp. 116�117.
Beevor (2006). p. 144
Beevor (2006). pp. 146�147.
Beevor (2006). p. 143
Timmermans, Rodolphe. 1937. Heroes of the Alcazar. Charles Scribner's Sons, New
York
Beevor (2006). p. 121
Casanova (2010). p. 109.
Cleugh (1962). p. 90.
Beevor (2006). p. 150
Beevor (2006). p. 177
Beevor (2006). p. 171.
Com�n Colomer, Eduardo (1973); El 5� Regimiento de Milicias Populares. Madrid.
Beevor (2006). pp. 177�183.
Beevor (2006). pp. 191�192.
Beevor (2006). pp. 200�201.
Beevor (2006). p. 202.
Beevor (2006). pp. 208�215.
Beevor (2006). pp. 216�221.
Beevor (2006). p. 222.
Beevor (2006). pp. 223�226.
Beevor (2006). p. 228.
Beevor (2006). p. 229.
Beevor (2006). pp. 231�232.
Beevor (2006). p. 233.
Beevor (2006). pp. 263�273.
Beevor (2006). p. 277.
Beevor (2006). p. 235.
Beevor (2006). pp. 277�284.
Beevor (2006). pp. 296�299.
Beevor (2006). p. 237.
Beevor (2006). pp. 237�238.
Beevor (2006). p. 302.
Payne (1973).
Beevor (2006). pp. 315�322.
Thomas (2003). pp. 820�821.
Beevor (2006). pp. 346�7.
Beevor (2006). pp. 349�359.
Beevor (2006). p. 362.
Beevor (2006). p. 374.
Beevor (2006). p. 376.
Beevor (2006). p. 378.
Beevor (2006). p. 380.
Beevor (2006). p. 386.
Beevor (2006). pp. 391�392.
Thomas (2003), pp. 879�882.
Beevor (2001). p. 256
Beevor (2006). pp. 394�395.
Beevor (2006). pp. 396�397.
Derby (2009). p. 28.
Professor Hilton (27 October 2005). "Spain: Repression under Franco after the
Civil War". Cgi.stanford.edu. Archived from the original on 7 December 2008.
Retrieved 24 June 2009.
Tremlett, Giles (1 December 2003). "Spain torn on tribute to victims of Franco".
London: Guardian. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
Beevor (2006). p. 405.
Caistor, Nick (28 February 2003). "Spanish Civil War fighters look back". BBC
News. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
Winnipeg, el poema que cruz� el Atl�ntico (in Spanish)
Film documentary on the website of the Cit� nationale de l'histoire de
l'immigration (in French)
Beevor (2006). pp. 421�422.
"The Roman salute characteristic of Italian fascism was first adopted by the PNE
and the JONS, later spreading to the Falange and other extreme right groups, before
it became the official salute in Franco's Spain. The JAP salute, which consisted of
stretching the right arm horizontally to touch the left shoulder enjoyed only
relatively little acceptance. The gesture of the raised fist, so widespread among
left-wing workers' groups, gave rise to more regimented variations, such as the
salute with the fist on one's temple, characteristic of the German Rotfront, which
was adopted by the republican Popular Army". The Splintering of Spain, p. 36�37
Daniel Kowalsky. "The Evacuation of Spanish Children to the Soviet Union".
Gutenburg E. Columbia University Press. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
"History of the arrival of the Basque Children to England in 1937".
BasqueChildren.org. Basque Children of '37 Association. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
"Wales and the refugee children of the Basque country". BBC Wales. 3 December
2012. Retrieved 27 May 2016.
Buchanan (1997). pp. 109�110.
"Los Ni�os of Southampton". The Dustbin of History. Retrieved 29 May 2016.
highest considered estimate; "la guerra civil fue una espantosa calamidad en la
que todas las clases y todos los partidos perdieron. Adem�s del milli�n o dos
milliones de muertos, la salud del pueblo se ha visto minada por su secuela de
hambre y enfermedades", Brennan, Gerald (1978), El laberinto espa�ol. Antecedentes
sociales y pol�ticos de la guerra civil, ISBN 9788485361038, p. 20
allegedly "according to semi-official data", Dyskant, J�zef Wieslaw (1975),
Konflikty i zbrojenia morskie 1918�1939, ISBN 9788321532431, p. 381
quoted as "usual estimate", Lee, Stephen J. (2000), European Dictatorships,
1918�1945, ISBN 9780415230452, p. 248; "a reasonable estimate, and a rather
conservative one", Howard Griffin, John, Simon, Yves Ren� (1974), Jacques Maritain:
Homage in Words and Pictures, ISBN 9780873430463, p. 11; military casualties only,
Ash, Russell (2003), The Top 10 of Everything 2004, ISBN 9780789496591, p. 68;
lowest considered estimate, Brennan (1978), p. 20. The phrase of "one million dead"
became a cliche since the 1960s, and many older Spaniards might repeat that "yo
siempre hab�a escuchado lo del millon de muertos", compare burbuja service,
available here. This is so due to extreme popularity of a 1961 novel Un mill�n de
muertos by Jos� Mar�a Gironella, even though the author many times declared that he
had in mind those "muerto espiritualmente", referred after Diez Nicolas, Juan
(1985), La mortalidad en la Guerra Civil Espa�ola, [in:] Bolet�n de la Asociaci�n
de Demograf�a Hist�rica III/1, p. 42. Scholars claim also that the figure of "one
million deaths" was continuously repeated by Francoist authorities "to drive home
the point of having saved the country form ruin", Encarnaci�n, Omar G. (2008),
Spanish Politics: Democracy After Dictatorship, ISBN 9780745639925, p. 24, and
became one of the "mitos principales del franquismo", referred as "myth no. 9" in
Reig Tapia, Alberto (2017), La cr�tica de la cr�tica: Inconsecuentes,
insustanciales, impotentes, prepotentes y equidistantes, ISBN 9788432318658
145,000 KIA, 134,000 executed, 630,000 due to sickness, cold etc., Guerre civile
d'Espagne, [in:] Encyclopedie Larousse online, available here
Nadeau, Jean-Benoit, Barlow, Julie (2013), The Story of Spanish, ISBN
9781250023162, p. 283
maximum considered estimate, Griffin, Julia Ortiz, Griffin, William D. (2007),
Spain and Portugal: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present, ISBN
9780816074761, p. 49, "[war] generated around 800,000 deaths", Laia Balcells
(2011), Death is in the Air: Bombings in Catalonia, 1936�1939, [in:] Reis 136, p.
199
"the war cost about 750,000 Spanish lives", A Dictionary of World History (2006),
ISBN 9780192807007, p. 602
Coatsworth, John, Cole, Juan, Hanagan, Michael P., Perdue, Peter C., Tilly,
Charles, Tilly, Louise (2015), Global Connections, ISBN 9780521761062, p. 379;
divided into 700,000 died "in battle", 30,000 executed and 15,000 of air raids,
Dupuy, R. Ernest, Dupuy, Trevor N. (1977), The Encyclopedia of Military History,
ISBN 0060111399, p. 1032, the same breakdown in The Encyclopedia of World History
(2001), ISBN 9780395652374, p. 692, and in Teed, Peter (1992),A Dictionary of
Twentieth-Century History, ISBN 0192852078, p. 439
600,000 killed during the war + 100,000 executed afterwards, Tucker, Spencer C.
(2016), World War II: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection, ISBN
9781851099696, p. 1563; Georges Soria, Guerra y Revolucion en Espana (1936�1939),
vol. 5, Barcelona 1978, p. 87
Jeanes, Ike (1996), Forecast and Solution: Grappling with the Nuclear, a Trilogy
for Everyone, ISBN 9780936015620, p. 131
Del Amo, Maria (2006), Cuando La Higuera Este Brotando..., ISBN 9781597541657, p.
28
when referring reported calculations of Hugh Thomas and divided into 320,000 KIA,
100,000 executed and 220,000 of malnutrition etc., Crow, John Armstrong (1985),
Spain: The Root and the Flower : an Interpretation of Spain and the Spanish People,
ISBN 9780520051331, p. 342
including war-related executions until 1961, death above average due to illness
etc., Salas Larrazabal, Ram�n (1977), P�rdidas de la guerra, ISBN 8432002852, pp.
428�429
including 285,000 KIA, 125,000 civilians "due to war directed causes", 200,000
malnutrition., Sandler, Stanley (2002), Ground Warfare: An International
Encyclopedia, vol. 1, ISBN 9781576073445, p. 160
Nash, Jay Robert (1976), Darkest Hours, ISBN 9781590775264, p. 775
285,000 in combat, 125,000 executed, 200,000 of malnutrition, Thomas, Hugh (1961),
The Spanish Civil War (and other initial editions), referred after Clodfelter,
Micheal (2017), Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty
and Other Figures, 1492�2015, ISBN 9780786474707, p. 339
"at least" and "between 1936 and 1945", includes 300,000 "combatants", Salvad�,
Francisco Romero (2013), Historical Dictionary of the Spanish Civil War, ISBN
9780810880092, p. 21
100,000 in combat, 220,000 rearguard terror, 10,000 in air raids, 200,000 after-
war terror, 50,000 malnutrition etc.; Jackson, Gabriel (1965), The Spanish Republic
and the Civil War, 1931�1939, ISBN 9780691007571, referred after Clodfelter (2017),
p. 338
Gallo, Max (1974), Spain under Franco: a history, ISBN 9780525207504, p. 70;
divided into 345,000 during the war and 215,000 in 1939�1942, Diez Nicolas (1985),
pp. 52�53
delta between the total number of deaths recorded in 1936�1942 and the total which
would have resulted from extrapolating average annual death total from the
1926�1935 period, Ortega, Jos� Antonio, Silvestre, Javier (2006), Las consecuencias
demogr�ficas, [in:] Acena, Pablo Mart�n (ed.), La econom�a de la guerra civil, ISBN
9788496467330, p. 76
excluding "50,000 more fatalities in Franco's prison camps during the immediate
postwar period", Smele, Jonathan D. (2015), Historical Dictionary of the Russian
Civil Wars, 1916�1926, ISBN 9781442252813, p. 253
approximate, excluding post-war terror; Hepworth, Andrea (2017), Site of memory
and dismemory: the Valley of the Fallen in Spain, [in:] Gigliotti, Simone, The
Memorialization of Genocide, ISBN 9781317394167, p. 77; highest considered
estimate, Seidman, Michael (2011), The Victorious Counterrevolution: The
Nationalist Effort in the Spanish Civil War, ISBN 9780299249632, p. 172; Britannica
Concise Encyclopedia (2008), ISBN 9781593394929, p. 1795; 200,000 in combat,
125,000 executed, 175,000 of malnutrition, Thomas, Hugh (1977), The Spanish Civil
War (and later editions), referred after Clodfelter (2017), p. 339; Nowa
encyklopedia powszechna PWN (1995), vol. 2, ISBN 830111097X, p. 778; "probably
over.." and including 300,000 KIA, Palmer, Alan (1990), Penguin Dictionary of
Twentieth-Century History, ISBN 0140511881, p. 371; KIA + victims of terror only,
Lowe, Norman (2013), Mastering modern history, London 2013, ISBN 9781137276940, p.
345; at least, "lost their lives", Palmowski, Jan (2008), The Dictionary of
Contemporary World History, ISBN 9780199295678, p. 643
215,000 in combat, 200,000 killed in rearguard, 70,000 due to wartime hardships,
11,000 civilian victims of military operations; the author later rounds up the
total to 0,5m, Alonso Mill�n, Jes�s (2015), La guerra total en Espa�a (1936�1939),
ISBN 9781512174137, pp. 403�404
at most 300,000 "violent deaths" + 165,000 above average deaths, Payne, Stanley G.
(1987), The Franco Regime, ISBN 9780299110741, pp. 219�220
highest considered estimate, Du Souich, Felipe (2011), Apuntes de Historia de
Espana Para Los Amigos, ISBN 9781447527336, p. 62; "at least", "killed", Quigley,
Caroll (2004), Tragedy and Hope. A History of the World in our Time, ISBN
094500110X, p. 604
De Miguel, Amando (1987), Significaci�n demogr�fica de la guerra civil, [in:]
Santos Juli� D�az (ed.), Socialismo y guerra civil, ISBN 8485691350, p. 193
200,000 KIA, 200,000 executed, 20,000 executed after the war, excluding "unknown
numbers" of civilians killed in military action and "many more" died of
malnutrition etc., Preston, Paul (2012), The Spanish holocaust, ISBN 9780393239669,
p. xi
Batchelor, Dawho hn (2011), The Mystery on Highway 599, ISBN 9781456734756, p. 57
highest considered estimate, Jackson, Gabriel (2005), La Republica Espanola y la
Guerra Civil, ISBN 8447336336, p. 14
Chislett, William (2013), Spain: What Everyone Needs to Know?, ISBN 9780199936458,
p. 42; "probably", Spielvogel, Jackon J. (2013), Western Civilization: A Brief
History, ISBN 9781133606765, p. 603; Mourre, Michel (1978), Dictionaire
Encyclopedique d'Histoire, vol. 3, ISBN 204006513X, p. 1636; broken down into
200,000 KIA and 200,000 executed, Bradford, James. C (2006), International
Encyclopedia of Military History, vol. 2, ISBN 0415936616, p. 1209
highest considered estimate, Bowen, Wayne H. (2006), Spain During World War II,
ISBN 9780826265159, p. 113
White, Matthew (2011), Atrocitology: Humanity's 100 Deadliest Achievements, ISBN
9780857861252, p. LXIX; broken down into 200,000 KIA, 130,000 executed, 25,000 of
malnutrition and 10,000 of air raids, Johnson, Paul (1984), A History of the Modern
World, ISBN 0297784757, p. 339
Julia, Santos, (1999), Victimas de la guerra, ISBN 9788478809837, referred after
Richards, Michael (2006), El r�gimen de Franco y la pol�tica de memoria de la
guerra civil espa�ola, [in:] Ar�stegui, Julio, Godicheau, Fran�ois (eds.), Guerra
Civil: mito y memoria, ISBN 9788496467125, p. 173; Richards, Michael (2013), After
the Civil War: Making Memory and Re-Making Spain Since 1936, ISBN 9780521899345, p.
6; Renshaw, Layla (2016), Exhuming Loss: Memory, Materiality and Mass Graves of the
Spanish Civil War, ISBN 9781315428680, p. 22
delta between the total number of deaths recorded in 1936�1939 and the total which
would have resulted from extrapolating average annual death total from the
1926�1935 period, Ortega, Silvestre (2006), p. 76
does not include post-war losses, Payne, Stanley G. (2012), The Spanish Civil War,
ISBN 9780521174701, p. 245
lowest considered estimate, includes 150,000 KIA and 185,000 victims of rearguard
repression, Bernecker, Walter L. (ed., 2008), Spanien heute: Politik, Wirtschaft,
Kultur, ISBN 9783865274182, p. 109
lowest considered estimate, Du Souich (2011), p. 62; lowest considered estimate,
Jackson (2005), p. 14; 1943 estimate of the Spanish Direccion General de
Estadistica, referred after Puche, Javier (2017), Economia, mercado y bienestar
humano durante la Guerra Civil Espanola, [in:] Contenciosa V/7, p. 13
Pedro Montoli� Camps (1998), Madrid en la guerra civil: La historia, ISBN
9788477370727, p. 324
"at least", Hart, Stephen M. (1998), "!No Pasar�n!": Art, Literature and the
Spanish Civil War, ISBN 9780729302869, p. 16, Preston, Paul (2003), The Politics of
Revenge: Fascism and the Military in 20th-century Spain, ISBN 9781134811137, p. 40;
lowest considered estimate, Seidman, Michael (2011), The Victorious
Counterrevolution: The Nationalist Effort in the Spanish Civil War, ISBN
9780299249632, p. 172; Camps, Pedro Montoli� (2005), Madrid en la Posguerra, ISBN
9788477371595, p. 375, 'at most", excluding deaths from malnutrition etc., The New
Encyclop�dia Britannica (2017), vol. 11, ISBN 9781593392925, p. 69; of which
140,000 in combat, ??????? ?????????? ????????????, (2008), vol. 12, ISBN
9785852703439, p. 76
highest considered estimate, 150,000 in combat and 140,000 executed, Moa, Pio
(2015), Los mitos del franquismo, ISBN 9788490603741, p. 44
"at least", Hitchcock, William L. (2008), The Struggle for Europe: The Turbulent
History of a Divided Continent 1945 to the Present, ISBN 9780307491404, p. 271
100,000 in combat, 135,000 executed, 30,000 other causes,. Mu�oz, Miguel A.
(2009), Reflexiones en torno a nuestro pasado, ISBN 9788499231464, p. 375
"muertos a causa de la Guerra", includes victims of post-war terror. The figure is
based on totals reported as "violent deaths" in the official statistics for
1936�1942 and calculated by Ram�n Tamames, Breve historia de la Guerra Civil
espanola, Barcelona 2011, ISBN 9788466650359, chapter "Impactos demograficos" (page
unavailable). Tamames suggests that the actual number of victims is probably much
higher than this given by official statistics
lowest considered estimate, 145,000 in combat and 110,000 executed, Moa (2015), p.
44
lowest considered estimate, Bowen (2006), p. 113
103,000 executed during the war, 28,000 executed afterwards, around 100,000 KIA,
Mart�nez de Ba�os Carrillo, Fernando, Szafran, Agnieszka (2011), El general Walter,
ISBN 9788492888061, p. 324
the total reported as "muerte violenta o casual" for 1936�1939 in official
statistics released by Instituto Nacional de Estadistica in 1943, might include
accidental deaths (car accidents etc.) and covers all months of 1936 and 1939,
excludes "homicidio" category (39,028 for 1936�1939), referred after Diez Nicolas
(1985), p. 54
the number which emerges from the official statistics as provided during the early
Francoist era and calculated later by Ram�n Tamames, who analyses the figures
released in 1951 by Instituto Nacional de Estadistica. Tamames added figures
reported in the "violent deaths" rubric for 1936, 1937 and 1938 and 25% of the same
category for 1939; then he deducted annual averages for "violent deaths" reported
by INE in the mid-1930s to arrive at 149,213. Tamames suggests that the actual
figure is probably "mucho mayor", Tamames (2011)
see e.g. the monumental Historia de Espa�a Men�ndez Pidal, (2005), vol. XL, ISBN
8467013060
Encyclopedia de Historia de Espa�a (1991), vol. 5, ISBN 8420652415
Diccionario Espasa Historia de Espa�a y Am�rica (2002), ISBN 8467003162
"provoc� un n�mero de caid�s en combate sin precedentes, casi tantos como los
muertos y desaparecidos en la retaguardia", Diccionario de historia y pol�tica del
siglo XX (2001), ISBN 843093703X, p. 316, "habia comportado centenares de miles de
muertos", Mar�n, Jos� Mar�a, Ys�s, Carme Molinero (2001), Historia pol�tica de
Espa�a, 1939�2000, vol. 2, ISBN 9788470903199, p. 17
Tusell, Javier, Mart�n, Jos� Luis, Shaw, Carlos (2001), Historia de Espa�a: La
edad contempor�nea, vol. 2, ISBN 9788430604357, P�rez, Joseph (1999), Historia de
Espa�a, ISBN 9788474238655, Tusell, Javier (2007), Historia de Espa�a en el siglo
XX, vol. 2, ISBN 9788430606306
e.g. Stanley G. Payne reduced his earlier estimate of 465,000 (at most 300,000
"violent deaths" with 165,000 deaths from malnutrition which "must be added", Payne
(1987), p. 220) to 344,000 (also "violent deaths" and malnutrition victims, Payne
(2012), p. 245); Hugh Thomas in The Spanish Civil War editions from the 1960s opted
for 600,000 (285,000 KIA, 125,000 executed, 200,000 malnutrition), in editions from
the 1970s he reduced the figure to 500,000 (200,000 KIA, 125,000 executed, 175,000
malnutrition), referred after Clodfeler (2017), p. 383 and with slight revisions
kept reproducing the figure also in last editions published before his death,
compare Thomas, Hugh (2003), La Guerra Civil Espa�ola, vol. 2, ISBN 8497598229, p.
993; Gabriel Jackson went down from 580,000 (including 420,000 victims of war and
post-war terror), see Jackson (1965) to a range of 405,000�330,000 (including
220,000 to 170,000 victims of war and post-war terror), Jackson (2005), p. 14
Jackson (1965), p. 412, Mu�oz (2009), p. 375
Dupuy, Dupuy (1977), p. 1032, Teed (1992), 439
Mart�nez de Ba�os, Szafran (2011), p. 324
Jackson (1965), p. 412
Dupuy, Dupuy (1977), p. 1032
Moa (2015), p. 44
Tucker (2016), p. 1563,
Mu�oz (2009), p. 375
Guerre civile d'Espagne, [in:] Encyclopedie Larousse online, available here
Larrazabal (1977), pp. 428�429
Sandler (2002), p. 160
highest considered estimate, Payne (2012), p. 245
Ortega, Silvestre (2006), p. 76; slightly different figures, 344,000 and 558,000,
in earlier study completed using the same method, see Diez Nicolas (1985), p. 48
only those who did not return to Spain, Payne (1987), p. 220
Ortega, Silvestre (2006), p. 80; the number of migrants usually quoted is 450,000,
which refers only to these who crossed to France in the first months of 1939,
L�pez, Fernando Mart�nez (2010), Par�s, ciudad de acogida: el exilio espa�ol
durante los siglos XIX y XX, ISBN 9788492820122, p. 252
"a deficit of approximately a half million births resulted", Payne (1987), p. 218
delta between actual birth totals for 1936�1942 and birth totals which would have
resulted from extrapolating average annual birth totals from the 1926�1935 period,
Ortega, Silvestre (2006), p. 67
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Thomas, Hugh (2003) [1961, 1987, 2001]. The Spanish Civil War. London: Penguin.
ISBN 0-14-101161-0. OCLC 248799351.
Werstein, Irving (1969). The Cruel Years: The Story of the Spanish Civil War. New
York: Julian Messner.
Westwell, Ian (2004). Condor Legion: The Wehrmacht's Training Ground. Ian Allan.
Further reading
Brou�, Pierre (1988). The Revolution and the Civil War in Spain. Chicago:
Haymarket. OCLC 1931859515.
Carr, Sir Raymond (2001) [1977]. The Spanish Tragedy: The Civil War in Perspective.
Phoenix Press. ISBN 1-84212-203-7.
Doyle, Bob (2006). Brigadista: an Irishman's fight against fascism. Dublin: Currach
Press. ISBN 1-85607-939-2. OCLC 71752897.
Francis, Hywel (2006). Miners against Fascism: Wales and the Spanish Civil War.
Pontypool, Wales (NP4 7AG): Warren and Pell.
Graham, Helen (2002). The Spanish republic at war, 1936�1939. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-45932-X. OCLC 231983673.
Graham, Helen (1988). "The Spanish Socialist Party in Power and the Government of
Juan Negr�n, 1937�9". European History Quarterly. 18 (2): 175�206.
doi:10.1177/026569148801800203..
Hill, Alexander (2017), The Red Army and the Second World War, Cambridge University
Press, ISBN 978-1-1070-2079-5.
Ibarruri, Dolores (1976). They Shall Not Pass: the Autobiography of La Pasionaria
(translated from El Unico Camino). New York: International Publishers. ISBN 0-7178-
0468-2. OCLC 9369478.
Jellinek, Frank (1938). The Civil War in Spain. London: Victor Gollanz (Left Book
Club).
Kowalsky, Daniel (2004). La Union Sovietica y la Guerra Civil Espanola. Barcelona:
Critica. ISBN 84-8432-490-7. OCLC 255243139.
Low, Mary; Juan Bre� (1979) [1937]. Red Spanish Notebook. San Francisco: City
Lights Books (originally by Martin Secker & Warburg). ISBN 0-87286-132-5. OCLC
4832126.
Monteath, Peter (1994). The Spanish Civil War in literature, film, and art: an
international Bibliography of secondary literature. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
ISBN 0-313-29262-0.
P�rez de Urbel, Justo (1993). Catholic Martyrs of the Spanish Civil War, 1936�1939,
trans. by Michael F. Ingrams. Kansas City, MO: Angelus Press. ISBN 0-935952-96-9
Preston, Paul (2012) [2012]. The Spanish Holocaust: Inquisition and Extermination
in Twentieth-Century Spain. London: Harper Press. ISBN 978-0-00-255634-7.
Puzzo, Dante Anthony (1962). Spain and the Great Powers, 1936�1941. Freeport, NY:
Books for Libraries Press (originally Columbia University Press, N.Y.). ISBN 0-
8369-6868-9. OCLC 308726.
Southworth, Herbert Rutledge (1963). El mito de la cruzada de Franco [The Myth of
Franco's crusade] (in Spanish). Paris: Ruedo Ib�rico. ISBN 84-8346-574-4.
Wheeler, George; Jack Jones (2003). Leach, David (ed.). To Make the People Smile
Again: a Memoir of the Spanish Civil War. Newcastle upon Tyne: Zymurgy Publishing.
ISBN 1-903506-07-7. OCLC 231998540.
Wilson, Ann (1986). Images of the Civil War. London: Allen & Unwin.
De Meneses, Filipe Ribeiro Franco and the Spanish Civil War, Routledge, London,
2001
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Spanish Civil War
Films, images and sounds
Films
The Spanish Civil War

Battleground for Idealists
Tierra Espa�ola (The Spanish Earth) by Joris Ivens, 1937
Images
Guernica by Pablo Picasso

The Spanish Civil War by Robert Capa, Magnum Photos
Aircraft of the Spanish Civil War
Imperial War Museum Collection of Spanish Civil War Posters hosted online by
Libcom.org
Posters of the Spanish Civil War from UCSD's Southworth collection
About the Spanish Civil War � Illinois English Department at the University of
Illinois
Sounds
Valley of Jarama � song by Woody Guthrie (see: Jarama)

Anthems and songs
11 Songs of the Spanish Civil War
Spanish Bombs � song by The Clash
Viva la Quinta Brigada � song by Christy Moore
Miscellaneous documents
About the Spanish Civil War � Illinois English Department at the University of
Illinois
Diverse references and citations
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Spanish Civil War.
Spanish Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Condecoraciones otorgadas por Francisco Franco a Benito Mussolini y a Adolf Hitler
Spanish Civil War History Project at the University of South Florida
�No Pasar�n! Speech Dolores Ib�rruri's famous rousing address for the defense of
the Second Republic
"Trabajadores: The Spanish Civil War through the eyes of organised labour", a
digitised collection of more than 13,000 pages of documents from the archives of
the British Trades Union Congress held in the Modern Records Centre, University of
Warwick
Hilton, Ronald. Spain, 1931�36, From Monarchy to Civil War, An Eyewitness Account.
Historical text A36rchive. Archived from the original on 6 April 2016..
Low, Mary; Bre�, Juan. "Red Spanish Book". Benjamin Peret.. A testimony by two
surrealists and trotskytes
Lunn, Arnold (1937). Spanish Rehearsal..
Peers, Allison (1936). The Spanish Tragedy..
Weisbord, Albert; Weisbord, Vera. "A collection of essays". with about a dozen
essays written during and about the Spanish Civil War.
"Magazines and journals published during the war" (online exhibit). The University
of Illinois at Urbana�Champaign..
"Revistas y guerra" [Magazines & war] (in Spanish). Urbana-Champaign: The
University of Illinois..
Roy, Pinaki (January 2013). "Escritores Apasionados del Combate: English and
American Novelists of the Spanish Civil War". Labyrinth. 4 (1): 44�53. ISSN 0976-
0814..
"La Cucaracha, The Spanish Civil War Diary". Archived from the original on 8
February 2005., a detailed chronicle of the events of the war
"Spanish Civil War and Revolution" (text archive). The libcom library..
"Southworth Spanish Civil War Collection". Mandeville Special Collection Library
(books and other literature). University of California, San Diego..
"The Spanish Civil War", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Paul Preston, Helen Graham and
Mary Vincent (In Our Time, Apr. 3, 2003)
Academics and governments
A History of the Spanish Civil War, excerpted from a U.S. government country study.
"The Spanish Civil War � causes and legacy" on BBC Radio 4's In Our Time featuring
Paul Preston, Helen Graham and Dr Mary Vincent (audio)
Spanish Civil War information at Spartacus Educational
Interview with Agust�n Guillam�n, historian of the Spanish Revolution
The Anarcho-Statists of Spain (the anarchists in the Spanish Civil War), George
Mason University
Fanny, Queen of the Machine Gun (Dutch volunteers) at The Volunteer
Jews In The Spanish Civil War � by Martin Sugarman, assistant archivist at the
Jewish Military Museum
Franco and the Spanish Civil War, paper by Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses, Routledge,
London, 2001
Full text in translation of the Collective Letter of the Spanish Bishops, 1937, a
pastoral letter of the Spanish bishops which justified Franco's uprising
New Zealand and the Spanish Civil War
Warships of the Spanish Civil War
Archives
Robert E. Burke Collection. 1892�1994. 60.43 cubic feet (68 boxes plus two oversize
folders and one oversize vertical file). At the Labor Archives of Washington,
University of Washington Libraries Special Collections. Contains materials
collected by Burke on the Spanish Civil War.
Anarchy Archives
The role of anarchism in the Spanish Revolution
Private Collection about German Exile and Spanish Civil War
The Archives of Ontario Remembers Children's Art from the Spanish Civil War, online
exhibit on Archives of Ontario website
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Categories: Spanish Civil WarCarlismCivil wars involving the states and peoples of
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What were the main factions involved in the Spanish Civil War?

What were the main factions involved in the Spanish Civil War?

What were the main events of the Spanish Civil War?

What were the main events of the Spanish Civil War?

Spanish Civil War

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

End of the Second Spanish Republic

FET y de las JONS[b]

The war began after a pronunciamiento (a declaration of military opposition)

The revolutionary committee headed by Niceto Alcal�-Zamora became the provisional

On 12 July 1936, Falangists in Madrid murdered a police officer, Lieutenant Jos�

Beginning of the coup

The rebels termed themselves Nacionales, normally translated "Nationalists",

Republican and Nationalist conscription age limits

Republican forces during the battle of Ir�n in 1936

This faction was called variously leales "Loyalists" by supporters, "Republicans",

Republican volunteers at Teruel, 1936

Flags of the Falange Espa�ola Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional

Italian troops manning a 10 cm howitzer at Guadalajara, 1937

Support for the Nationalists

General Moscard� showing Heinrich Himmler the ruins of the Alc�zar

German involvement was further manifested through undertakings such as Operation

Support for the Republicans

The Etkar Andr� battalion of the International Brigades

Polish volunteers in the International Brigades

Another significant Soviet involvement was the activity of the People's

On 1 August 1936 a pro-Republican rally of 20,000 people confronted Blum, demanding

Course of the war

Map showing Spain in September 1936:

Surrender of Republican soldiers in the Somosierra area, 1936

Leonese anarchist Buenaventura Durruti died after he arrived in Madrid to reinforce

The Republic proved ineffective militarily, relying on disorganised revolutionary

In October, the Francoist troops launched a major offensive toward Madrid,[198]

Map showing Spain in October 1937:

A similar Nationalist offensive, the Battle of Guadalajara, was a more significant

Mola, Franco's second-in-command, was killed on 3 June, in an airplane accident.

Map showing Spain in July 1938:

The Republican government then launched an all-out campaign to reconnect their

Map showing Spain in February 1939:

On 26 March, the Nationalists started a general offensive, on 28 March the

Franco arriving in San Sebastian in 1939

Entirely different approach is pursued by demographers; instead of adding up deaths

Twenty-six republicans were assassinated by Franco's Nationalists at the beginning

The view of historians, including Helen Graham,[328] Paul Preston,[329] Antony

Nationalist SM.81 aircraft bomb Madrid in late November 1936.

Bombing in Barcelona, 1938

Nationalists also murdered Catholic clerics. In one particular incident, following

Franco's forces also persecuted Protestants, including murdering 20 Protestant

The Nationalist side conducted aerial bombing of cities in Republican territory,

"Execution" of the Sacred Heart of Jesus by Communist militiamen. The photograph in

Women from FAI during the Spanish Social Revolution.

Consequences of the War

Victims of the Civil War

Spanish children in exile in Mexico

In pre-war climate, after moderate measures were produced, Francisco Largo

See also: List of people of the Spanish Civil War

Equestrian statue of Francisco Franco in Valencia

UR (Uni�n Republicana - Republican Union): Led by Diego Mart�nez Barrio, formed in

Uni�n Militar Espa�ola (Spanish Military Union) - a conservative political