Chapter-1: Definition and Scope of Food Science
Chapter-1: Definition and Scope of Food Science
Chapter-1: Definition and Scope of Food Science
Q1 Define food science and what is its scope in the hospitality industry?
Q2. What other fields of study are related to food science and how are they related to it?
Food Science- Can be defined as the application of the basic sciences and engineering to the
Study of the fundamental physical, chemical and biochemical nature of foods and the
Food Technology- is the use of the information generated by food science in selection,
Food science is a broad discipline which contains within it many specializations such as –
Food Microbiology – is the study of the microbial ecology related to foods, the effect of
Environment on food spoilage and food manufacture, the physical, chemical and biological
Food Chemistry- Covers the basic composition, structure and properties of foods and the
Food Processing- Covers general characteristics of raw food materials, principles of food
Preservation, processing factors which influence quality, packaging, water and waste
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Management and sanitation procedures. It also outlines GMPs or Good Manufacturing
Practices.
Food Analysis- Deals with the principles, methods, and techniques necessary for
qualitative,
Physical and chemical analysis of food products and ingredients. The analysis should
Food Engineering- Involves the study of engineering concepts and unit operations
used in Food processing. These principles include material and energy balances,
is Choice of food as well as in areas where customs and taboos are sometimes
responsible for Malnutrition although there may not be any shortage of essential
nutrients.
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CHAPTER-2
CARBOHYDRATES
Q2. Classify carbohydrates based on their complexity. What are the properties and uses of?
It means to convert a starch into dextrins, which are any of various soluble
Polysaccharides obtained from starch by the application of heat or acids and used mainly as
Gelatinization is when starch grains (rice, flour, pasta) are mixed with a liquid and
Heated the starch then heats and explodes and eats the moisture, this results in the jumping
Of the liquid.
Retro gradation is a reaction that takes place in gelatinized starch when the amylose
And amylopectin chains realign themselves, causing the liquid to gel, generally an
Undesirable effect.
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CHAPTER-3
FATS
Based on degree of saturation there are three basic types of dietary fats
The fat molecule is composed mostly of hydrogen atoms attached to carbon atoms in
A carbon chain. On this molecule there are open spaces, like parking spaces. When all the
Available spots, or parking spaces, on the carbon atom are filled (i.e., saturated) with
Hydrogenated atoms, the fat is said to be saturated. If one or more places on the carbon are
Not filled with hydrogen, the fat is called unsaturated. A fat molecule with one empty space
Is called a monounsaturated fat and if two or more spots on the atom are empty, the fat is
Saturated fatty acids are firmer at room temperature. Each carbon atom has two hydrogen
Atoms attached making them very stable and those with 16 or more carbon atoms have a
Saturated fats are mainly the animal fats. They are found in meat, seafood (especially
The shell fish such as lobsters, crabs, etc.), whole-milk and milk products (cheese, pander,
And ice cream), and egg yolks. Some plant foods which are high in saturated fats are
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Trans - fatty acids are fats produced by heating liquid vegetable oils in the presence of
Hydrogen. This process is known as hydrogenation. The more hydrogenated an oil is, the
Most of the Trans fats in our diets are found in commercially prepared baked foods
Like maw cakes and patties, margarines, vanaspati ghee (dalda), snack foods (farsaan, like
French fries and onion rings, also contain a good deal of Tran’s fats. Trans fats are the worst
for cholesterol levels because they raise bad LDL and lower good HDL. While you should
Limit your intake of saturated fats, it is important to completely eliminate Trans fats or
Unsaturated fatty acids are fluid at room temperature. They have one hydrogen atom missing
Requiring the formation of a double bond. These are generally unstable as there are points in
The molecule where addition of hydrogen /oxygen or other reactive substances can take
Products derived from plant sources, such as vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds. There are two
Main types:-
B. Monounsaturated fats (present in rice bran, canola, peanut, and olive oils).
Studies on intake of these fats have shown to decrease LDL levels and increase HDL levels,
Common examples of cooking fats include olive oil, lard, canola oil, walnut oil, butter,
Margarine and shortening....Fats are generally trimesters of glycerol and vegetable oils.
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Margarine and vegetable shortening, which can be derived from the above oils, are used
RANCIDITY
The development of any disagreeable odor and flavor in fats and oils or fatty
A. Hydrolytic rancidity: - it is caused by lipases (substances that break down fats) which Break
down the fat into fatty acids and glycerol. The fatty acid are volatile at room Temperature and
cause off-flavor.
Oxidative rancidity/Autoxidation- initially fats take up oxygen at a very slow rate However after
an induction phase rapid oxidation takes place resulting in off- flavors and Odors.
Example- oils
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Factors effecting autoxidation-
b) Hematic compounds catalyze oxidative reactions even during the frozen state.
c) Light accelerates the development of rancidity. U-V rays and short wave light
Blues are most harmful as the cause photolysis (break down) of peroxide of free
Radicals.
Prevention – The addition of antioxidants prevents auto oxidation as they inhibit the chain
Reaction of oxidation.
SMOKING OF FATS
Polymerization of the fatty acids, releasing glycerol eventually. The glycerol molecule then
Loses water forming a very irritating aldehyde called ACROLEIN. The release of volatile fatty
Acids and caroling results in the smoking of fat. The temperature at which this occurs is
FLAVOUR REVERSION
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It is characterized by the development of an objectionable flavor- before the onset
Of oxidative rancidity.
c) Heat
d) Oxygen
Flavor reversion is more prominent in some fats like-Soybean oil has a tendency to have ‘Beany’,
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Processing of fats
REFINING
These oils contain fat like substances such as phospholipids like lecithin (fat-protein
Complexes) to remove these they are wetted with water. The impurities become insoluble in
Further an alkali solution is added which settles additional impurities from the oil. These
Include free fatty acids – that combine with the alkali to form soaps which can be removed
By filtration or centrifugation.
WINTERIZATION
Fats and oils are made up of a mixture of various triglycerides. The triglycerides
Containing more saturated fatty acids and long chain fatty acids tend to crystallize and settle
Out when the oil is chilled. Since crystallization must be avoided in fats such as salad oils,
They should be pre-treated by cooling and removing crystals before the product is bottled.
The process of pre-treatment to remove crystals form the fat is known as WINTERIZATION
FRACTIONATION
Sometimes a solvent like acetone is used to dissolve the fat and then chilled to
Produce a crystalline fraction. The filtrate is recovered and chilled at lower temperature to
Get a second fraction and the process repeated again and again. This results in a purer
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HYDROGENATION
The addition of hydrogen to saturate fatty acid double bonds is HYDROGENATION. It is
Done to-
Process of hydrogenation-
The de-aerated hot oil is whipped with hydrogen gas with a nickel catalyst in a
Closed vessel known as a converter, when the desired degree of hardening is reached the
Unreacted hydrogen gas is removed from the vessel by vacuum and the nickel catalyst is
Filtered out.
However, hydrogenation changes the nutritional properties of some fats and some
Unsaturated fats lose essential fatty acids like linoleic acid making it less beneficial to health.
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CHAPTER-4
PROTEINS
Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sculpture and some contain phosphorus also. Proteins are
Made up of building blocks called “amino acids”. The amino acids contain a basic (amino-
NH2) group at one end and an acidic (carboxyl- COOH) Group at another end, in their
Molecules. Also there is also a third group referred to as the side denoted by the letter R.
NH2 C COOH
The proteins in their original state are known as ‘Native’ proteins. The protein
Molecules undergo a change in their structure when they are subjected to different
Conditions such as exposure to heat, light and change in temperature, beating or agitation.
DENATURATION-
The peptide chain of proteins unfolds itself to some extent but the linkage does not
Break, the properties of the denatured protein do not change to a large extent (the protein
Can come back to its original state if the conditions are mild and if the conditions are
Reversed particularly if the molecular weight of the of the native protein is large)
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COAGULATION
The unfolded parts of the protein molecules recombine in different ways. New bonds
Are formed within the molecule and a new molecular shape is produced. Many protein
Molecules collect together to form a solid mass or gel. These changes are known as
Coagulation of proteins.
Heat
If milk is boiled for a short time then denaturation of protein takes place. But in
Preparations such as basenji and boiled egg, exposure to host for a longer time causes
Coagulation. This also happens in case of meat, fish and eggs during cooking.
Beating
When egg is beaten for a short period, denaturation of protein takes place. If left for
Some time it becomes liquid again due to reversibility of denaturation. But when beaten
Excessively the egg fist forms soft peaks and on further beating forms stiff peaks. At this
Acid or alkali
In the preparation of pander if a little lemon juice is added the milk gets denatured.
If more lemon juice is added and the milk heated a solid mass of pander is formed due to
Coagulation. In preparation of curd once the solid mass is formed the process is irreversible.
Note-
Proteins can act as acid or alkali due to the presence of both acid and basic groups.
This amphoteric nature can allow proteins to withstand sudden changes in ph. and prevent
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Undesirable changes. They can bind +vet and –vet ions to maintain texture, volume and
Appearance of food. For example in mayonnaise the addition of egg yolk serves as an
Emulsifying agent and stabilizes the emulsion. Milk also contains protein which stabilizes
However at a specific pH (which differs for every protein) the electric charge on the
Protein is neutral (i.e. no positive or negative charge) this point is known as the ISOELECTRIC
POINT. At the isoelectric point the protein molecules are very unstable. Then they
Precipitate or form curds. (This is because the molecules become close enough to form
GEL FORMATION
Not only starches, even proteins have the property of forming gels.
When protein dispersion is heated and cooled, the viscosity (thickening) of the
Solution increases to a point at which some rigidity is obtained and a gel is formed. This is
Some of the proteins are fibrous while others form fibers during gel formation.
These fibrous proteins form a three dimensional network on cooling and water gets
Gelatin jelly
Bread pudding
The gel tends to shrink if the attractive forces between the protein molecules are
Increased, due to continuous standing or change in ph. The shrinkage results in expulsion
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Of some of the entrapped water. This is known as ‘synergizes’. Gel formation is affected by a
Temperature and time- a gradual decrease in temperature below 35-40˚C is required over
Concentration- the firmness of the gel depends on the percentage of gelatin as in ice-
Cream. The percentage of gelatin used is less than 1.5-2 per cent and a longer setting time
Is allowed. Excess gelatin in gelatin gels produces gumminess with longer storage.
Acid- the addition of acid produces softer gel. The acid gelatin dispersions take a longer
Time to set.
Salts- salts make the gel more firms. Milk contains some salts that are the reason why gel is
Enzymes- enzymes present in fruits effects gel formation. Certain enzymes like bromine
Present in pineapple do not allow gel to form as they digest the protein. To avoid this fruit is
Heated and then added, so that the enzyme is destroyed. This is the reason why raw
EGG
The egg is a nutrient-dense food, containing high quality protein and a wide range
Of essential vitamins, minerals and trace elements. Therefore eggs can make a significant
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Contribution to a healthy diet. Nutritional requirements vary considerably between men,
Women and children and can also vary in individuals from time to time.
The nutritional value of eggs and the contribution that they make to the diet is
Illustrated by the following table. The data on the nutritional content of a single egg is based
On a medium egg and all percentage composition figures relate to the contents, excluding
The shell.
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Dietary fiber G None - - None
Potassium Mg 67 3 3 130
Calcium Mg 29 4 4 57
Magnesium Mg 6.2 2 2 12
Iodine 27 19 19 53
Selenium 6 10 8 11
Chlorine Mg 83 3 3 160
Sculpture Mg 93 * * 180
VITAMINS
Vitamin A 98 16 14 190
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Niacin Mg 0.05 15 11 0.1
Folate 26 13 13 50
Biotin 10 * * 20
*No RNI **No RNI for recommendations on fat ***Beyond age 65 years
Energy value of eggs
A medium egg has an energy value of 78 kilocalories (324 kilojoules) and the Consumption
of one egg daily would contribute only around 3% of the average energy
With their significant protein, vitamin and mineral content and relatively low saturated fat
Protein
Eggs are an excellent source of protein. Egg protein is of high biological value as it
Contains all the essential amino acids needed by the human body. Eggs therefore
Complement other food proteins of lower biological value by providing the amino acids that
Are in short supply in those foods? 12.5% of the weight of the egg is protein and it is found
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In both the yolk and the albumen. Although protein is more concentrated around the yolk, There
is in fact more protein in the albumen.
On the evaluation scale most commonly used for assessing protein, egg is at the highest
Point, 100, and is used as the reference standard against which all other foods are assessed.
Vitamins
Eggs contain most of the recognized vitamins with the exception of vitamin C. The
Egg is a source of all the B vitamins. It is a particularly rich source of vitamins B12 and B2
(Riboflavin) and a useful source of folate. The egg is also a good source of the fat-soluble
Minerals
Eggs contain many of the minerals that the human body requires for health. In
Particular eggs are an excellent source of iodine, required to make the thyroid hormone,
And phosphorus, required for bone health. The egg is a significant source of selenium, an
Important antioxidant and provides some zinc, important for wound healing, growth and
Fighting infection. Eggs also contain iron, the vital ingredient of red blood cells, although the
Fat
11.2% of the egg content is fat. The fat of an egg is found almost entirely in the yolk;
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Approximately 17% of an egg’s fatty acids are polyunsaturated, 44% monounsaturated and
Cholesterol
Eggs also contain cholesterol and lecithin, which are fat-like substances that are
Essential to the structure and function of all cells in the body. However these substances are
Not dietary essentials, as our bodies are able to synthesize them. Cholesterol helps to
Maintain the flexibility and permeability of cell membranes and is also a raw material for
The fatty lubricants that help to keep the skin supple. Cholesterol is essential for the
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CHAPTER-5
FOOD PROCESSING
A) Heat
B) Acid
C) Alkali
FOOD PROCESSING
Food processing covers general characteristics of raw food materials; principles of Food
preservation, processing factors which influence quality, packaging, water and waste
Management. It includes GMP’s (good manufacturing practices) and sanitation procedures. The
FOOD TREATMENTS-
The different treatments that are given to food during processing are carried out at
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1) MATERIALS HANDLING
Including storage under sanitary conditions at specific temperature and pressure which
2) CLEANING
Food must be cleaned before use in order to undo the harm done to them by the
Open environment.
It can be done with the help of washing, vacuum, magnetic attraction, mechanical
Separation etc. Depending upon the product and the nature of dirt. Cleaning of water,
Methods used:
Mild alkaline detergents are most commonly used as cleaning aids. Egg. Caustic soda,
3) SEPARATING
Separation may be solid from solid, solid from liquid, liquid from liquid, gas from
Filtration
Pressing
Centrifugation or
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A photocell is used to separate out discolored or moldy products such as nuts.
Screens, holed and slits are used to separate items of separate sizes.
An IYE peeler is used to peel skins of fruits and vegetables and removed by a jet of water.
Various porous and permeable membranes are used to separate acids and salts.
4) DISINTEGRATION
b) Grinding using heat produced from friction, dry ice or co2 is used later.
c) Pulping
d) Homogenization i.e. passing food through high pressure holes or using ultra sound
5) A) PUMPING
Moving of solids and liquids from one location or processing step to another by
b) MIXING
For mixing liquids a propeller type agitator mounted in a stainless steel vat is used.
Some mixers also beat air into the product while it is being mixed. Egg in ice creams.
6) HEAT EXCHANGE
a) Drive off moisture and develop flavors. Egg roasting of coffee and toasting of cereals.
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c) To inactivate toxic substances. Egg soybean.
Treatment, during which, the pathogenic and nonpathogenic bacteria are destroyed.
b) Nowadays high temperature short time method (HTST) is used for pasteurization.-
d) Holding method-milk is heated to 63˚C and held at that temperature for 30 minutes.
f) In all the methods milk is cooled rapidly to a temperature of 10˚Cor lower and
g) CANNING- It employs temperatures above 100˚C .steam under pressure are used to
h) C.ROASTING- Originally this term was meant to cook meat over an open fire on a
I) D.BAKING
j) E. FRYING
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Tasting, direct injection of steam, direct contact with flame or electronic energy are
Methods employed for heat exchange in food. The heat supplied can be through conduction,
However some foods owe their characteristics to their frozen state. (Stored below 12˚C)
Air blast freezers freeze and store at -26˚C .many food plants also use nitrogen for freezing
Which prevents even delicate foods like mushrooms from getting spoiled.
Undesirable elements that are volatile in nature. Different ways in which evaporation can be
Done are-
Heated kettle-like candy making from sugar syrup (if vacuum is used it is called vacuum
Pump evaporation)
Spray dryer uses subdivision of liquid by pumping it into the top of a tower at which
Point the liquid is atomized by a spray nozzle. Now hot air is introduced into the tower,
Which dries the droplets of food. The dehydrated particles fall to the bottom of the tower
In Vacuum freeze drying the food pieces are first frozen, and then dehydrated under
Vacuum in the frozen state, the ice does not melt but goes off as vapor –this is known as
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Sublimation. This method protects the color, flavor and texture of foods like juice
7. FORMING
Forming includes giving specific shape and appearance to foods.it can be done
Heat, this gelatinizes the starch and as the shaped food emerges from the extruder, boiling
Water is introduced in the cooker. The food gets puffed up and is then oven dried. ) Egg.
8. PACKAGING
Food is packaged for different purposes like containment for shipping, dispensing,
And utilization, changing sizes and improving the usefulness of the product. Packaging also
Helps protect against microbial contamination, physical dust and dirt, insect attack, light,
Materials used for packaging- metal cans, glass/plastic bottles, paper, paperboard, plastic,
FOOD PRESERVATION
Apart from preservatives there are other factors that affect foods and help in food
Preservation,
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S.NO FACTOR EFFECT
2 Acids Acids reduce the ph. level of foods below the growth range and also
Acid, citric
Acid)
Cells.
Cells.
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CHAPTER-6
EVALUATION OF FOOD
Evaluation of food is done in order to judge the quality, value and acceptability of
Food.
When food is selected the use of all the physical senses is involved. These include
Sight, touch, smell, taste as well as hearing. Food factors detectable by our senses are called
Appearance factors
Textural factors
Flavor factors
Quality can be defined as degree of excellence and includes things such as taste,
Value is a composite of cost and quality. Highly priced goods have more value if
For research
The following chart represents the various factors to be judged when evaluating food-
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QUALITY FACTORS
SIZE&
SHAPE COMPRESSION
.
COLOUR
& GLOSS SHEARING TENSILE STRENGTH
CONSIST TASTE &SMELL
ENCY
NUTRITIVE SANITARY
KEEPING
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Methods of evaluation:-
I) Grading according to size using high speed automatic separating and grading
Machines
Methods of evaluation:-
I) If the food is a transparent liquid such as wine, beer or grape juice or if a colored
Extract can be obtained from the food, various types of calorimeters or spectrometers can
Be used for color measurement. - Taube of the liquid is placed in a slot and light of a
Selected wavelength is passed through the tube. The light is differently absorbed depending
On the color of the liquid and the intensity of the color. The difference in response to the
ii) If the food is solid or liquid, color is measured by comparing the reflected color
With closest color of tiles or chips. The color of the food is defined as the color of the
Identical tiles or falling between two nearest colored tiles. Egg. Grading of tomatoes from
Green to red.
iii) Light reflected from a colored object can be measured in terms of its three
Calorimeter. It uses instruments like hunter lab meter or color difference meter. Graphs
Can also be drawn for changes I color due to ripening, storage of food etc.
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Just like color, gloss can also be measured using light measuring instruments. Egg. Gelatin
TEXTURAL FACTORS
Texture refers to those qualities of food that we can feel with our fingers, tongue,
Palate and teeth. If the texture differs from the expected one it usually means a defect in
Methods of measurement-
ii) If the force is applied so that one part of the food slides over another it is called
Peas.
iii) A force applied away from the material results in tearing or pulling apart of the food.
iv) A universal testing machine can be used to measure the firmness, crispness and other
Textural parameters.
These instruments are connected to a moving recording chart that draws a time –
(Rheology is the study of the deformation and flow of matter. The rheological properties of a
Liquid are dominant features that can be quantified to characterize its behavior, and the
Response of a liquid to a forced shearing flow is the basis for determining the specific
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CONSISTENCY
(Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear
Stress or extensional stress. In everyday terms (and for fluids only), viscosity is "thickness."
Thus, water is "thin," having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick" having a higher
Viscosity. Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a
Methods of measurement-
I) Measure the time taken by the food to run through a small hole of a known
Diameter.
ii) Measure the time taken by more viscous fluids to flow down an inclined plane using
The Bootlick consist meter. Egg. For ketchup, honey, sugar syrup.
v) A penetrometer like a tender meter uses multiple needle probes to check the
vi) A bomb geometer measures the firmness of gels like gelatin desserts.
vii) Use of sonic energy also helps to know the firmness of the food depending on how
viii) Listening to the thumping sound as in cheese when hit. Egg. Swiss cheese.
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FLAVOUR FACTORS
Flavor is a combination of both taste and smells and is largely subjective, hence
Flavor is determined by the mixture of salt, sour, bitter and sweet taste and other
Methods of measurement-
ii) Salt concentration can be measured electrically by its effect on the conductivity of
iii) Sugar content in solution is measured by its effect on the refractive index of the
Food.
iv) Acid can be measured by titration (neutralizing) with an alkali or the ph. scale.
Taste the food products. A typical tasting session has separate booths with colored
Light for the tasters and facilities like unsalted crackers are given to neutralize the
Taste after each sample tasting. The food sample is given through a window and
Samples are coded to avoid any influence of brands. The tasters give grading and
Comments on each sample of food .when all evaluation forms are filled the panel
Leader tabulates the results and a number ranking is scale for the flavor is made. It
vi) Often two samples of food are compared in a preference test. However if three
Samples are taken, two similar and one different, then there is better distinction of
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OTHER QUALITY FACTORS
Nutritive quality-
Feeding tests for measuring protein quality and biological testing is also used.
Sanitary quality-
Is measured through the count of bacteria, yeast, mound and insect fragments as well
As sediment levels of unwanted particles in food-rays can be used to detect impurities like
Keeping quality
QUALITY STANDARDS
These include
Standards of quality.
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CHAPTER-7
EMULSIONS
I) Temporary emulsions- these emulsions are formed when two liquids are shaken but
Separate on standing.
Added to stabilize the system and keep one liquid dispersed in another on a permanent basis.
The emulsifier reduces the interfacial tension between the particles of the two liquids.
Lipophilic
Hydrophobic Hydrophilic
Lip phobic
The emulsifier has amphiphillic properties i.e. Part of the emulsifier molecule is
Soluble in water (hydrophilic) while the other part is soluble in fat (lipophilic).Thus it keeps
Hydrophilic Lipophilic
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EMULSIFYING AGENT
Hydrophilic Lipophilic
EMULSIFYING AGENTS
Examples of emulsifiers-
Lecithin and polysorbate 60-in salad dressing to keep vegetable oil suspended in water.
Mon glycerides and triglycerides added to cake mixes and salad dressings.
In mayonnaise egg yolks act as emulsifiers of oil in acids i.e. Lemon juice or vinegar.
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MICELLE FORMATION.
When oil is mixed with water it normally separates out as oil is hydrophobic.
Cakes).the hydrophobic end of the emulsifier attach themselves to the fat molecules while
Their hydrophilic ends attach to the water. As a result spherical structures are formed, in
Which the lipid is enclosed and the emulsion does not separate out. In the micelle the oil
Enters the central core while water surrounds the core. The emulsifier molecules are
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CHAPTER-8
COLLOIDS
The material that forms the base of the system is called the dispersion medium or the
Continuous phase.
The material that forms the colloidal condition is called the dispersed medium or the
Discontinuous phase.
Since there are three states of matter-solid, liquid and gas-eight classes of colloids
Solid-liquid
Gas-liquid
Gas-solid
Solid –gas
Solid –solid
Liquid- solid
Liquid- gas
SUSPENSION
When the particles of solid are separated into large aggregates of particles and
Dispersed in a liquid the food system is referred to as a suspension. Egg- mixture of flour in
Water.
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Depending on the relative affinity of the dispersed phase and the dispersed medium
A. Lyophilic- solvent loving. For e.g. Water loving like skimmed milk, egg yolk, brewed
Coffee. These have high viscosity as there is more friction between the particles of the
Dispersed phase.
B. Lyophobic-solvent repelling. For e.g. Water hating like oil dispersed in water. These
SOLS
In a colloidal system, when solid particles are dispersed in a liquid and the colloid
Appears clear or opaque to the naked eye it is referred to as sol. However sols are not true
Solutions. Under the microscope, the dispersed particles are large enough to scatter and
Polarize the incident light to some extent. (This effect is called the TYNDALL EFFECT).for
Example-gelatin in water
Further when viewed under an ultra-microscope the colloidal particles are in a state
In a sol having water as the continuous phase, the colloidal particles have an
Electrically charged surface. With the addition of a small amount of electrolyte (like sodium
Chloride that separate in water into + vet Na and –vet Cal) the oppositely charged ions are
Absorbed on the surface of each particle creating a potential difference between the surface
Of the particles and the solution. This is known as ZETA POTENTIAL. This stabilizes the
System.
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If an acid is added to the colloidal dispersion the dispersed phase precipitates (settles
DISPERSION
Alkali Gluten
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CHAPTER-9
BROWNING
During cooking or processing, the color of the food darkens, this change is known
As browning.
Browning is sometimes desirable (like in maple syrup, coffee, brown crust of bread,
Potato chips, baked goods, roasted nuts etc.) And sometimes undesirable (like in drying
Types of browning
1. Enzymatic browning
3. Caramelization
ENZYMATIC BROWNING
This browning takes place in the presence of oxygen when fruits or vegetable tissues
The fruits and vegetables classify-loose discolor when cut and are exposed to
Air. Further, tannin and other phenol compounds undergo oxidation, by enzymes present in
The tissues. This chemical reaction results in the formation of quinine which is responsible
For surface discoloration. This kind of browning reduces the overall acceptability of the
Food.
1. When cutting vegetables like potatoes, plunge them into water immediately after. If
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2. Cut all vegetables and fruits with a stainless steel knife.
3. When cutting fruits like apples apply a light ascorbic acid solution on the cut
Surface. Lemon juice or a light citric acid solution can also be used. (The coating of
The surface prevents oxidation of the phenol containing compounds by the enzymes.
NON-ENZYMATIC BROWNING
This type of browning can be both desirable as well as undesirable, and can take
Place during cooking, processing, or storage of food. The mail lard’s reaction takes place
Between the carbonyl group of a reducing sugar and the amino group of protein, amino
Acid or peptide. It need not involve oxygen and takes place in a series of steps involving
This browning occurs in coffee, maple syrup, brown crust of bread, potato chips,
However mail lard’s reaction can cause deterioration and off-colors in orange
CARAMELIZATION
When they are heated toe high temperature (160˚C-177˚C or 320-350˚F) when heated
Without water, the sucrose crystals melt and a chemical breakdown begins. Continued
Heating then creates many different chemical compounds as a result of the breaking of the
Ring structures of the monosaccharides. This further leads to the caramelization of organic
The browning takes place in vegetables with high sugar content like potatoes,
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Summary
FLAVOUR
Mainly by the chemical senses of taste and smell. The "trigeminal senses", which detect
Chemical irritants in the mouth and throat, may also occasionally determine flavor. The
Flavor of the food, as such, can be altered with natural or artificial flavorings, which affect
These senses.
The flavor and aroma of food usually declines when it is handled processed or
1. Salty
2. Bitter
3. Sour
4. Pungent
5. Sweet
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Metallic
Astringent
Hans Henning- a German physiologist has given a list of six fundamental kinds of aroma:
1. Spicy
2. Flowery
3. Fruity
4. Resinous
5. Foul
6. Burned
1. Tannin-
A mixture of strong astringent acids found in plants, particularly tea leaves, red Grape skins and
the bark of trees. It has the ability to coagulate proteins and is Responsible for the keeping
2. Tannic acid
One of the acids in tannin used for flavoring and as a clarifying agent in beer,
Wine, cider, and other brewed drinks.
3. Caffeine-
Coffee owes its characteristic flavor to caffeine although by itself caffeine without Its aroma
has a faint bitter taste. Coffee also contains alkaloids, volatile aromatic
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Products and substances belonging to the phenolic series. It stimulates the central
15.30%-nitrogenous substances
11.40%-fatty matter
70-2%-caffeine.
Substance insoluble in water. The heat of the chilly is measured in Sackville units.
7. Sin grin – is present in raw cabbage, which in the presence of heat is converted to
Compound. Therefore cabbage should be cooked for a short time, covered with a
Lid.
8. Alcohol- wine has alcohol which refers to potable liquid containing ethyl
9. Proteins- the basic chemistry of meat exploits the properties of proteins mainly
Actin and myosin which help in muscle movement by forming act myosin. The
Protein accounts for 18% of total weight of lean meat 75% is water, and 3% if fat.
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Collagen on heating becomes gelatin
Muscles from 7 to 5.5 causing denaturation of proteins along with the B Vitamins,
Nicotinic acid and meat bases. Therefore the change in the flavor and texture of
Meat on heating.
10. Sculpture compounds- the onion family has strong flavors in the raw state but
Reduce on heating. Onion contains many organic sculpture compounds like Trans-S,
Cycloallin the sculpture compound are converted into simpler forms by the enzyme
Alliance when the onion is crushed or cut. The lachrymation effect-i.e. tear
CONDIMENTS
The term “seasoning “is applied to substances which are added at the time of cooking
While “condiments” apply to those added at the table to food already prepared.
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Powders, prepared mustards, soy sauce etc.
SUMMARY
FOOD FLAVOUR
TEA TANNIN
COFFEE CAFFEINE
WINE ALCOHOL
VITAMIN D
SULPHIDE ON
OVERCOOKING
CUTTING
GARLIC ALLIN
CHILLIES CAPSACIN
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