Understanding Acoustic Emission Testing - Reading 1 Part A-A
Understanding Acoustic Emission Testing - Reading 1 Part A-A
Understanding Acoustic Emission Testing - Reading 1 Part A-A
2014-June
Facilitators: Fion Zhang/ Charliechong
http://wins-ndt.com/oil-chem/spherical-tanks/
http://www.smt.sandvik.com/en/search/?q=stress+corrosion+cracking
Speaker: Fion Zhang
2014/6/13
Contents:
1. AE Codes and Standards
■ ASTM
■ ASME V
2. Reading 01,
3. Reading 02,
4. Reading 03,
5. Others reading.
ASME V Article Numbers:
Gen Article 1
RT Article 2
Nil Article 3
UT Article 4 for welds
UT Article 5 for materials
PT Article 6
MT Article 7
ET Article 8
Visual Article 9
LT Article 10
AE Article 11 (FRP) /Article 12 (Metallic) / Article 13 (Continuous)
Qualif. Article 14
ACFM Article 15
ASTM Standards
1. ASTM E 1930 “Standard Practice for Examination of Liquid-Filled
Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Metal Storage Tanks Using Acoustic
Emission”
2. ASTM E 569 “Standard Practice for Acoustic Emission Monitoring of
Structures During Controlled Stimulation”
3. ASTM E 749-96 is a standard practice of AE monitoring of continuous
welding
4. ASTM F914 governs the procedures for examining insulated aerial
personnel devices.
5. ASTM E 1932 for the AE examination of small parts,
6. ASTM E1419-00 for the method of examining seamless, gas-filled,
pressure vessels.
Others Reading
http://www.globalspec.com/reference/63985/203279/Chapter-10-Acoustic-Emission-Testing
http://www.corrosionsource.com/(S(vf34kqncr0uklwzu0ioy5dz2))/FreeContent/3/Combatting+Liq
uid+Metal+Attack+by+Mercury+in+Ethylene+and+Cryogenic+Gas+PlantsTask+1+-+Non-
Destructive+Testing
http://www.ndt.net/ndtaz/index.php?id=2
Typical AET Signal
https://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/bitstream/1826/2196/1/Acoustic%20Emission%20Waveform%20Changes%202006.pdf
Typical AET Signal
Study Note 1:
http://www.geocities.ws/raobpc/AET.html
What is AE
Acoustic emission is the technical term for the noise emitted by materials and
structures when they are subjected to stress. Types of stresses can be
mechanical, thermal or chemical. This emission is caused by the rapid
release of energy within a material due to events such as crack initiation and
growth, crack opening and closure, dislocation movement, twinning, and
phase transformation in monolithic materials and fiber breakage and fiber-
matrix debonding in composites.
The subsequent extension occurring under an applied stress generates
transient elastic waves which propagate through the solid to the surface
where they can be detected by one or more sensors. The sensor is a
transducer that converts the mechanical wave into an electrical signal. In this
way information about the existence and location of possible sources is
obtained. Acoustic emission may be described as the "sound" emanating
from regions of localized deformation within a material.
Until about 1973, acoustic emission technology was primarily employed in the
non-destructive testing of such structures as pipelines, heat exchangers,
storage tanks, pressure vessels, and coolant circuits of nuclear reactor plants.
However, this technique was soon applied to the detection of defects in
rotating equipment bearings.
Acoustic Emission 声发射
Acoustic Emission (AE) refers to generation of transient elastic waves 瞬间弹
性波 during rapid release of energy from localized sources within a material.
The source of these emissions in metals is closely associated with the
dislocation movement accompanying plastic deformation and with the
initiation and extension of cracks in a structure under stress. 应力作用下, 结构
中的裂纹萌生/扩展(塑性变形)造成的位错运动. 这位错运动会引发瞬间的弹性
波.
其他会引起瞬间的弹性波 的因素:
熔化,相变,热应力冷却裂纹和应力建立,孪晶,在复合材料中的纤维断裂和纤维-
基体界面脱粘
http://www.geocities.ws/raobpc/AET.html
AE Technique
The AE technique (AET) is based on the detection and conversion of high
frequency elastic waves emanating from the source to electrical signals. This
is accomplished by directly coupling piezoelectric transducers on the surface
of the structure under test and loading the structure. The output of the
piezoelectric sensors (during stimulus) is amplified through a low-noise
preamplifier, filtered to remove any extraneous noise and further processed
by suitable electronics. AET can non-destructively predict early failure of
structures. Further, a whole structure can be monitored from a few locations
and while the structure is in operation. AET is widely used in industries for
detection of faults or leakage in pressure vessels, tanks, and piping systems
and also for on-line monitoring welding and corrosion. The difference
between AET and other non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques is that AET
detects activities inside materials, while other techniques attempt to examine
the internal structures of materials by sending and receiving some form of
energy.
Types of AET
Acoustic emissions are broadly classified into two major types namely;
continuous type and
burst type.
The waveform of continuous type AE signal is similar to Gaussian random
noise, but the amplitude varies with acoustic emission activity. In metals
and alloys, this form of emission is considered to be associated with the
motion of dislocations. Burst type emissions are short duration pulses and
are associated with discrete release of high amplitude strain energy. In
metals, the burst type emissions are generated by twinning, micro yielding,
development of cracks.
Continuos type (Gaussian random noise) → Motion of dislocation,
Burst type (discrete high amplitude strain energy) → twinning, micro
yielding, development of cracks
AET Set-up
Continuous type- Gaussian random noise
Continuous type
Discrete Burst Type
Discrete Burst Type
Kaiser Effect
Plastic deformation is the primary source of AE in loaded metallic structures.
An important feature affecting the AE during deformation of a material is
‘Kaiser Effect’, which states that additional AE occurs only when the stress
level exceeds previous stress level. A similar effect for composites is termed
as 'Falicity effect'.
Key words:
Kaiser effect
Falicity effect
Kaiser Effect- which states that additional AE occurs only when the stress
level exceeds previous stress level. A similar effect for composites is termed
as 'Falicity effect'.
http://www.ndt.net/ndtaz/content.php?id=476
AE Parameters
Various parameters used in AET include: AE burst, threshold, ring down
count, cumulative counts, event duration, peak amplitude, rise time, energy
and rms voltage etc. Typical AE system consists of signal detection,
amplification & enhancement, data acquisition, processing and analysis units.
Sensors / Source Location Identification
The most commonly used sensors are resonance type piezoelectric
transducers with proper couplants. In some applications where sensors
cannot be fixed directly, waveguides are used. Sensors are calibrated for
frequency response and sensitivity before any application. The AE
technique captures the parameters and correlates with the defect
formation and failures. When more than one sensors is used,
http://www.techcorr.com/services/Inspection-and-Testing/Acoustic-Emission-Testing.cfm
Acoustic Emission Testing Advantages
1. Compared to conventional inspection methods the advantages of the
Acoustic Emission Testing technique are:
2. Tank bottom Testing without removal of product.
3. Inspection of Insulated Piping & Vessels
4. Real time monitoring during cool-down & start-ups
5. Real Time Monitoring Saves Money
6. Real Time Monitoring Improves Safety
Tank AET
End of Reading
Study Note 2:
Sidney Mindess
University of British Columbia
Chapter 16: Acoustic Emission Methods
16
Acoustic Emission
Methods
http://unina.stidue.net/Politecnico%20di%20Milano/Inge
gneria%20Strutturale/Corsi/Felicetti%20-
%20Structural%20assessment%20and%20residual%20
bearing%20capacity/books/Handbook%20of%20NDT%
20of%20Concrete/1485_C16.pdf
Dam
http://www.boomsbeat.com/articles/116/20140118/tianzi-mountains-china.htm
Dam
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Historical Background
16.3 Theoretical Considerations
16.4 Evaluation of Acoustic Emission Signals
16.5 Instrumentation and Test Procedures
16.6 Parameters Affecting Acoustic Emissions from Concrete
The Kaiser Effect · Effect of Loading Devices · Signal
Attenuation · Specimen Geometry · Type of aggregate ·Concrete Strength
16.7 Laboratory Studies of Acoustic Emission
Fracture Mechanics Studies · Type of Cracks · Fracture Process
Zone (Crack Source) Location · Strength vs. Acoustic Emission
Relationships · Drying Shrinkage · Fiber Reinforced Cements
and Concretes · High Alumina Cement · Thermal Cracking ·
Bond in Reinforced Concrete · Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel
in Concrete
16.8 Field Studies of Acoustic Emission
16.9 Conclusions
Foreword:
Acoustic emission refers to the sounds, both audible and sub-audible, that are
generated when a material undergoes irreversible changes, such as those
due to cracking. Acoustic emissions (AE) from concrete have been studied for
the past 30 years, and can provide useful information on concrete properties.
This review deals with the parameters affecting acoustic emissions from
concrete, including discussions of the Kaiser effect, specimen geometry, and
concrete properties. There follows an extensive discussion of the use of AE to
monitor cracking in concrete, whether due to (1) externally applied loads, (2)
drying shrinkage, or (3) thermal stresses. AE studies on reinforced concrete
are also described. While AE is very useful laboratory technique for the study
of concrete properties, its use in the field remains problematic.
16.1 Introduction
It is common experience that the failure of a concrete specimen under load is
accompanied by a considerable amount of audible noise. In certain
circumstances, some audible noise is generated even before ultimate failure
occurs. With very simple equipment — a microphone placed against the
specimen, an amplifier, and an oscillograph — subaudible sounds can be
detected at stress levels of perhaps 50% of the ultimate strength; with the
sophisticated equipment available today, sound can be detected at much
lower loads, in some cases below 10% of the ultimate strength. These sounds,
both audible and subaudible, are referred to as acoustic emission. In general,
acoustic emissions are defined as “the class of phenomena whereby transient
elastic waves are generated by the rapid release of energy from localized
sources within a material.” These waves propagate through the material, and
their arrival at the surfaces can be detected by piezoelectric transducers.
It should be noted that the signal captured by the recording device may be
affected by:
Clearly, the information obtained using this method of analysis depends upon
both the gain and the threshold setting. Ring-down counting is affected
greatly by the characteristics of the transducer, and the geometry of the
test specimen (which may cause internal reflections) and may not be
indicative of the nature of the acoustic emission event. In addition, there is
no obvious way of determining the amount of energy released by a single
event, or the total number of separate acoustic events giving rise to the
counts.
Event counting — Circuitry is available which counts each acoustic emission
event only once, by recognizing the end of each burst emission in terms of a
predetermined length of time since the last count (i.e., since the most recent
crossing of the threshold). In Figure 16.4, for instance, the number of events
is three. This method records the number of events, which may be very
important, but provides no information about the amplitudes involved.
Rise time — This is the interval between the time of first occurrence of
signals above the level of the background noise and the time at which the
maximum amplitude is reached. This may assist in determining the type of
damage mechanism.
Signal duration — This is the duration of a single acoustic emission event;
this too may be related to the type of damage mechanism.
Amplitude distribution — This provides the distribution of peak amplitudes.
This may assist in identifying the sources of the emission events that are
occurring.
Frequency analysis — This refers to the frequency spectrum of individual
acoustic emission events. This technique, generally requiring a fast Fourier
transformation analysis of the acoustic emission waves, may help
discriminate between different types of events. Unfortunately, a frequency
analysis may sometimes simply be a function of the response of the
transducer, and thus reveal little of the true nature of the pulse.
Energy analysis — This is an indication of the energy released by an
acoustic emission event; it may be measured in a number of ways, depending
on the equipment, but it is essentially the area under the amplitude vs. time
curve (Figure 16.4) for each burst. Alternatively, the area under the envelope
of the amplitude vs. time curve may be measured for each burst.
Defect location — By using a number of transducers to monitor acoustic
emission events, and determining the time differences between the detection
of each event at different transducer positions, the location of the acoustic
emission event may be determined by using triangulation techniques. Work
by Maji and Shah, for instance, has indicated that this technique may be
accurate to within about 5 mm.
http://sirius.mtm.kuleuven.be/Research/NDT/AcousticEmissions/index.html
Signal Evaluation: Acoustic Emission Counting (ring-down counting)
Ring-down count= 13
Signal Evaluation: Raise Time/ Event Counts/ Signal Duration
Raise time
mV/μs
Signal duration μs
http://iopscience.iop.org/0964-1726/21/3/035009;jsessionid=DE0B79359A6ADDA1365CAC54ABA381A2.c2
Signal Evaluation: Frequency analysis
Signal Evaluation:
Energy analysis- it is essentially the area under the amplitude vs. time curve
Note: all areas under curves or only areas above threshold.
Signal Evaluation: Raise Time/ Event Counts/ Signal Duration
ring-down counting
Signal Evaluation: Raise Time/ Event Counts/ Signal Duration
16.5 Instrumentation and Test Procedures
Instrumentation (and, where necessary, the associated computer software) is
available, from a number of different manufacturers, to carry out all of the
methods of signal analysis described above. It might be added that advances
in instrumentation have outpaced our understanding of the nature of the
elastic waves resulting from microcracking in concrete. The main elements of
a modern acoustic emission detection system are shown schematically in
Figure 16.5.
FIGURE 16.5 The main elements of a modern acoustic emission detection system.
A brief description of the most important parts of this system is as follows:
1. Transducers: Piezoelectric transducers (generally made of lead zirconate
titanate, PZT) are used to convert the surface displacements into electric
signals. The voltage output from the transducers is directly proportional to
the strain in the PZT, which depends in turn on the amplitude of the
surface waves. Since these transducers are high impedance devices, they
yield relatively low signals, typically less than 100μV. There are basically
two types of transducers. (a) Wide-band transducers are sensitive to
acoustic events with frequency responses covering a wide range, often
several hundred kHz. (b) Narrow-band transducers are restricted to a
much narrower range of frequencies, using bandpass filters. Of course, the
transducers must be properly coupled to the specimen, often using some
form of silicone grease as the coupling medium.
PZT:- If the p.d or the stress is changing the resulting effect also changes. Therefore if
an alternating potential difference with a frequency equal to the resonant frequency of
the crystal is applied across it the crystal will oscillate. A number of crystalline
materials show this effect – examples of these are quartz, barium titanate, lithium
sulphate, lead metaniobate, lead zirconate titanate (PZT) and polyvinylidine difluoride.
Piezoelectric transducers can act as both as a transmitter and a detector of vibrations.
However there are certain conditions. The crystal must stop vibrating as soon as the
alternating potential difference is switched off so that they can detect the reflected
pulse. For this reason a piece of damping material with an acoustic impedance the
same as that of the crystal is mounted at the back of the crystal. (See Figure 2).The
transducer is made with a crystal that has a thickness of one half of the
wavelength of the ultrasound, resonating at its fundamental frequency. A layer of
gel is needed between the transducer and the body to get good acoustic coupling (see
acoustic impedance).
http://www.schoolphysics.co.uk/age16-19/Medical%20physics/text/Piezoelectric_transducer/index.html
The transducer is made with a crystal that has a thickness of one half of the
wavelength of the ultrasound, resonating at its fundamental frequency.
Example: Frequency= 519Hz, Wavelength λ = Speed/ frequency =
5890/519=11.35mm. The thickness of the transducer= 5.7mm approx.
s= 5890m/s
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/ndt-tutorials/thickness-gage/appendices-velocities/
AET
Transducer
In 0.1KHz~2.0KHz
UT Transducers 2.0~5.0 MHz
2. Preamplifier: Because of the low voltage output, the leads from the
transducer to the preamplifier must be as short as possible; often, the
preamplifier is integrated within the transducer itself. Typically, the gain in the
preamplifier is in the range 40 to 60 dB. (Note: The decibel scale measures
only relative amplitudes. Using this scale:
where Vis the output amplitude and Vi is the input amplitude. That is, a gain
of 40 dB will increase the input amplitude by a factor of 100; a gain of 60 dB
will increase the input amplitude by a factor of 1000, and so on.)
3. Passband filters are used to suppress the acoustic emission signals that
lie outside of the frequency range of interest.
4. The main amplifier further amplifies the signals, typically with a gain of an
additional 20 to 60 dB.
5. The discriminator is used to set the threshold voltage above which signals
are counted.
The remainder of the electronic equipment depends upon the way in which
the acoustic emission data are to be recorded, analyzed, and displayed.
Acoustic emission testing may be carried out in the laboratory or in the field.
Basically, one or more acoustic emission transducers are attached to the
specimen. The specimen is then loaded slowly, and the resulting acoustic
emissions are recorded.
There are generally two categories of tests:
1. To use the acoustic emission signals to learn something about the internal
structure of the material, and how structural changes (i.e., damage) occur
during the process of loading. In this case, the specimens are generally
loaded to failure.
2. To establish whether the material or the structure meet certain design or
fabrication criteria. In this case, the load is increased only to some
predetermined level (“proof ” loading). The amount and nature of the
acoustic emissions may be used to establish the integrity of the specimen
or structure, and may also sometimes be used to predict the service life.
16.6 Parameters Affecting Acoustic Emissions from Concrete
16.6.1 The Kaiser Effect
The earliest acoustic emission studies of concrete, such as the work of Rüsch,
indicated that a true Kaiser effect (see above) exists for concrete; that is,
acoustic emissions were found not to occur in concrete that had been
unloaded until the previously applied maximum stress had been exceeded on
reloading. This was true, however, only for stress levels below about 75 to
85% of the ultimate strength of the material; for higher stresses, acoustic
emissions began again at stresses somewhat lower than the previous
maximum stress. Subsequently, a number of other investigators have also
concluded that concrete exhibits a Kaiser effect, at least for stresses below
the peak stress of the material.
Key points:
For concrete This was true, however, only for stress levels below about 75 to
85% of the ultimate strength of the material
Spooner and Dougill confirmed that this effect did not occur beyond the peak
of the stress-strain curve (i.e., in the descending portion of the stress-strain
curve), where acoustic emissions occurred again before the previous
maximum strain was reached. It has also been suggested that a form of the
Kaiser effect occurs as well for cyclic thermal stresses in concrete, and for
drying and wetting cycles. On the other hand, Nielsen and Griffin have
reported that the Kaiser effect is only a very temporary effect in concrete; with
only a few hours of rest between loading cycles, acoustic emissions are again
recorded during reloading to the previous maximum stress. They therefore
concluded “that the Kaiser effect is not a reliable indicator of the loading
history for plain concrete.” Thus, it is unlikely that the Kaiser effect could be
used in practice to determine the previous maximum stress that a structural
member has been subjected to.
that this effect did not
Kaiser Effect- Concrete occur beyond the
peak of the stress-
strain curve (i.e., in
the descending
portion of the stress-
strain curve), where
acoustic emissions
occurred again
before the previous
For concrete This maximum strain was
reached.
was true, however,
only for stress
levels below about
75 to 85% of the
ultimate strength
of the material
Spooner and Dougill conclusion on Kaiser Effect- Concrete:
Where:
Fr is the rupture strength,
Fp is the stress corresponding to the first acoustic emission signal, and
a and b are constants for a given material and loading conditions.
Using this linear relationship, which they found to fit their data reasonably well,
they suggested that the observation of acoustic emissions at low stresses
would permit an estimation of strength, as well as providing some
characterization of porosity and critical flaw size.
Unfortunately, the routine use of
acoustic emissions as an
estimator of strength seems to be
an unlikely prospect, in large part
because of the scatter in the data,
as has been noted by Fertis.40 As
an example of the scatter in data.
Figure 16.623 indicates the
variability in the strength vs. total
acoustic emission counts
relationship; the within-batch
variability is even more severe, as
shown in Figure 16.7.23
http://unina.stidue.net/Politecnico%20di%20Milano/Inge
gneria%20Strutturale/Corsi/Felicetti%20-
%20Structural%20assessment%20and%20residual%20
bearing%20capacity/books/Handbook%20of%20NDT%
20of%20Concrete/1485_C16.pdf
16.8 Field Studies of Acoustic Emission
As shown in the previous section, acoustic emission analysis has been used
in the laboratory to study a wide range of problems. Unfortunately, its use
in the field has been severely limited; only a very few papers on field
application have appeared, and these are largely speculation on future
possibilities. The way in which acoustic emission data might be used to
provide information about the condition of a specimen or a structure has
been described by Cole;54 his analysis may be summarized as follows:
Kaiser effect
Knowledge of the Kaiser Effect and Felicity Effect can be used to determine if
major structural defects are present. This can be achieved by applying
constant loads (relative to the design loads exerted on the material) and
“listening” to see if emissions continue to occur while the load is held. As
shown in the figure, if AE signals continue to be detected during the holding
of these loads (GH), it is likely that substantial structural defects are present.
In addition, a material may contain critical defects if an identical load is
reapplied and AE signals continue to be detected. Another guideline
governing AE’s is the Dunegan corollary, which states that if acoustic
emissions are observed prior to a previous maximum load, some type of new
damage must have occurred. (Note: Time dependent processes like corrosion
and hydrogen embrittlement tend to render the Kaiser Effect useless)
Dict:
Corollary: something that results from something else.
Emissions are observed prior to a previous maximum load;
Felicity effect,
Dunegan corollary
Keywords:
Kaiser effect,
Felicity effect,
Dunegan corollary
Noise
The sensitivity of an acoustic emission system is often limited by the amount
of background noise nearby. Noise in AE testing refers to any undesirable
signals detected by the sensors. Examples of these signals include frictional
sources (e.g. loose bolts or movable connectors that shift when exposed to
wind loads) and impact sources (e.g. rain, flying objects or wind-driven dust)
in bridges. Sources of noise may also be present in applications where the
area being tested may be disturbed by mechanical vibrations (e.g. pumps).
To compensate for the effects of background noise, various procedures can
be implemented. Some possible approaches involve fabricating special
sensors with electronic gates for noise blocking, taking precautions to place
sensors as far away as possible from noise sources, and electronic filtering
(either using signal arrival times or differences in the spectral content of true
AE signals and background noise).
Pseudo Sources
In addition to the AE source mechanisms described above, pseudo source
mechanisms produce AE signals that are detected by AE equipment.
Examples include liquefaction and solidification, friction in rotating bearings,
solid-solid phase transformations, leaks, cavitation, and the realignment or
growth of magnetic domains (See Barkhausen Effect).
Wave Propagation
A primitive wave released at the AE source
is illustrated in the figure right. The
displacement waveform is a step-like
function corresponding to the permanent
change associated with the source process.
The analogous velocity and stress
waveforms are essentially pulse-like. The
width and height of the primitive pulse
depend on the dynamics of the source
process. Source processes such as
microscopic crack jumps and precipitate
fractures are usually completed in a fraction
of a microsecond or a few microseconds,
which explains why the pulse is short in
duration. The amplitude and energy of the
primitive pulse vary over an enormous range
from submicroscopic dislocation movements
to gross crack jumps.
Primitive AE wave
released at a source. The
primitive wave is
essentially a stress pulse
corresponding to a
permanent displacement
of the material. The
ordinate quantities refer to
a point in the material.
Waves radiates from the
source in all directions, often
having a strong directionality
depending on the nature of the
source process, as shown in
the second figure. Rapid
movement is necessary if a
sizeable amount of the elastic
energy liberated during
deformation is to appear as an
acoustic emission.
Decay Time:
highly damped, nonmetallic material → order of 100 microseconds (s-6)
lightly damped metallic material → tens of milliseconds (s-3)
Decay time
Decay Time:
highly damped, nonmetallic material → order of 100 microseconds (s-6)
lightly damped metallic material → tens of milliseconds (s-3)
Attenuation
The intensity of an AE signal detected by a sensor is considerably lower than
the intensity that would have been observed in the close proximity of the
source. This is due to attenuation. There are three main causes of attenuation,
beginning with geometric spreading. As an AE spreads from its source in a
plate-like material, its amplitude decays by 30% every time it doubles its
distance from the source. In three-dimensional structures, the signal decays
on the order of 50%. This can be traced back to the simple conservation of
energy. Another cause of attenuation is material damping, as alluded to in the
previous paragraph. While an AE wave passes through a material, its elastic
and kinetic energies are absorbed and converted into heat. The third cause of
attenuation is wave scattering. Geometric discontinuities (e.g. twin
boundaries, nonmetallic inclusions, or grain boundaries) and structural
boundaries both reflect some of the wave energy that was initially transmitted.
Attenuation:
Spread (30% for 2D, 50% for 3D for each doubling of distance from source),
Material damping,
Wave scattering at interfaces
Attenuation:
1. Spread (30% for 2D, 50% for 3D for each doubling of distance from
source),
2. Material damping,
3. Wave scattering at interfaces
3 1
3
Measurements of the effects of attenuation on an AE signal can be performed
with a simple apparatus known as a Hsu-Nielson Source. This consists of a
mechanical pencil with either 0.3 or 0.5 mm 2H lead that is passed through a
cone-shaped Teflon shoe designed to place the lead in contact with the
surface of a material at a 30 degree angle. When the pencil lead is pressed
and broken against the material, it creates a small, local deformation that is
relieved in the form of a stress wave, similar to the type of AE signal produced
by a crack. By using this method, simulated AE sources can be created at
various sites on a structure to determine the optimal position for the
placement of sensors and to ensure that all areas of interest are within the
detection range of the sensor or sensors.
http://www.ndt.net/ndtaz/content.php?id=474
Wave Mode and Velocity
As mentioned earlier, using AE inspection in conjunction with other NDE
techniques can be an effective method in gauging the location and nature of
defects. Since source locations are determined by the time required for the
wave to travel through the material to a sensor, it is important that the velocity
of the propagating waves be accurately calculated. This is not an easy task
since wave propagation depends on the material in question and the wave
mode being detected. For many applications, Lamb waves are of primary
concern because they are able to give the best indication of wave
propagation from a source whose distance from the sensor is larger than the
thickness of the material. For additional information on Lamb waves, see the
wave mode page in the Ultrasonic Inspection section.
Equipment- Probe
Case
Damping
materials Electrode
Piezoelectric element
Wear plate Couplants
Specimen
Equipment- Probe
Equipment
Acoustic emission testing can be performed in the field with portable
instruments or in a stationary laboratory setting. Typically, systems contain a
sensor, preamplifier, filter, and amplifier, along with measurement, display,
and storage equipment (e.g. oscilloscopes, voltmeters, and personal
computers). Acoustic emission sensors respond to dynamic motion that is
caused by an AE event. This is achieved through transducers which convert
mechanical movement into an electrical voltage signal. The transducer
element in an AE sensor is almost always a piezoelectric crystal, which is
commonly made from a ceramic such as Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT).
Transducers are selected based on operating frequency, sensitivity and
environmental characteristics, and are grouped into two classes: resonant
and broadband. The majority of AE equipment is responsive to movement in
its typical operating frequency range of 30 kHz to 1 MHz. For materials with
high attenuation (e.g. plastic composites), lower frequencies may be used to
better distinguish AE signals. The opposite holds true as well.
Key Points:
• Two classes: resonant and broadband.
• The majority of AE equipment is responsive to movement in its typical
operating frequency range of 30 kHz to 1 MHz.
• For materials with high attenuation (e.g. plastic composites), lower
frequencies may be used to better distinguish AE signals. The opposite
holds true as well.
Ideally, the AE signal that reaches the mainframe will be free of background
noise and electromagnetic interference. Unfortunately, this is not realistic.
However, sensors and preamplifiers are designed to help eliminate unwanted
signals. First, the preamplifier boosts the voltage to provide gain and cable
drive capability. To minimize interference, a preamplifier is placed close to the
transducer; in fact, many transducers today are equipped with integrated
preamplifiers. Next, the signal is relayed to a bandpass filter for elimination of
low frequencies (common to background noise) and high frequencies.
Following completion of this process, the signal travels to the acoustic system
mainframe and eventually to a computer or similar device for analysis and
storage. Depending on noise conditions, further filtering or amplification at the
mainframe may still be necessary.
Schematic Diagram of a Basic Four-channel Acoustic Emission Testing
System
FIGURE 16.5 The main elements of a modern acoustic emission detection system.
After passing the AE system mainframe, the signal comes to a
detection/measurement circuit as shown in the figure directly above. Note that
multiple-measurement circuits can be used in multiple sensor/channel
systems for source location purposes (to be described later). At the
measurement circuitry, the shape of the conditioned signal is compared with a
threshold voltage value that has been programmed by the operator. Signals
are either continuous (analogous to Gaussian, random noise with amplitudes
varying according to the magnitude of the AE events) or burst-type. Each time
the threshold voltage is exceeded, the measurement circuit releases a digital
pulse. The first pulse is used to signify the beginning of a hit. (A hit is used to
describe the AE event that is detected by a particular sensor. One AE event
can cause a system with numerous channels to record multiple hits.) Pulses
will continue to be generated while the signal exceeds the threshold voltage.
Once this process has stopped for a predetermined amount of time, the hit is
finished (as far as the circuitry is concerned). The data from the hit is then
read into a microcomputer and the measurement circuit is reset.
Hit Driven AE Systems and Measurement of Signal Features
Although several AE system designs are available (combining various options,
sensitivity, and cost), most AE systems use a hit-driven architecture. The hit-
driven design is able to efficiently measure all detected signals and record
digital descriptions for each individual feature (detailed later in this section).
During periods of inactivity, the system lies dormant. Once a new signal is
detected, the system records the hit or hits, and the data is logged for present
and/or future display.
Also common to most AE systems is the ability to perform routine tasks that
are valuable for AE inspection. These tasks include quantitative signal
measurements with corresponding time and/or load readings, discrimination
between real and false signals (noise), and the collection of statistical
information about the parameters of each signal.
AET
AET
AE Signal Features
With the equipment configured and setup complete, AE testing may begin.
The sensor is coupled to the test surface and held in place with tape or
adhesive. An operator then monitors the signals which are excited by the
induced stresses in the object. When a useful transient, or burst signal is
correctly obtained, parameters like amplitude, counts, measured area under
the rectified signal envelope (MARSE), duration, and rise time can be
gathered. Each of the AE signal feature shown in the image is described
below.
Abbreviation:
measured area under the rectified signal envelope (MARSE)
AET Signals
Amplitude, A, is the greatest measured voltage in a waveform and is
measured in decibels (dB). This is an important parameter in acoustic
emission inspection because it determines the detectability of the signal.
Signals with amplitudes below the operator-defined, minimum threshold will
not be recorded.
Rise time, R, is the time interval between the first threshold crossing and the
signal peak. This parameter is related to the propagation of the wave between
the source of the acoustic emission event and the sensor. Therefore, rise time
is used for qualification of signals and as a criterion for noise filter.
Duration, D, is the time difference between the first and last threshold
crossings. Duration can be used to identify different types of sources and to
filter out noise. Like counts (N), this parameter relies upon the magnitude of
the signal and the acoustics of the material.
MARSE, E, sometimes referred to as energy counts, is the measure of the
area under the envelope of the rectified linear voltage time signal from the
transducer. This can be thought of as the relative signal amplitude and is
useful because the energy of the emission can be determined. MARSE is
also sensitive to the duration and amplitude of the signal, but does not use
counts or user defined thresholds and operating frequencies. MARSE is
regularly used in the measurements of acoustic emissions.
■ location,
■ activity,
■ intensity, and
■ data quality (crossplots).
Location displays identify the origin of the detected AE events. These can be
graphed by X coordinates, X-Y coordinates, or by channel for linear
computed-source location, planar computed-source location, and zone
location techniques.
Examples of each graph are shown to the right.
Activity displays show AE activity as a function of time
on an X-Y plot (figure below left).
Keywords:
reflections and multiple wave modes
■ Linear Location Technique
Several source location techniques have
been developed based on this method.
One of the commonly used computed-
source location techniques is the linear
location principle shown to the right.
Linear location is often used to evaluate
struts on truss bridges. When the
source is located at the midpoint, the
time of arrival difference for the wave at
the two sensors is zero. If the source is
closer to one of the sensors, a
difference in arrival times is measured.
To calculate the distance of the source location from the midpoint, the arrival
time is multiplied by the wave velocity. Whether the location lies to the right
or left of the midpoint is determined by which sensor first records the hit.
This is a linear relationship and applies to any event sources between the
sensors.
Because the above scenario implicitly assumes that the source is on a line
passing through the two sensors, it is only valid for a linear problem. When
using AE to identify a source location in a planar material, three or more
sensors are used, and the optimal position of the source is between the
sensors. Two categories of source location analysis are used for this situation:
zonal location and point location.
■ Zonal Location Technique
As the name implies, zonal location aims to trace the
waves to a specific zone or region around a sensor.
This method is used in anisotropic materials or in
other structures where sensors are spaced relatively
far apart or when high material attenuation affects the
quality of signals at multiple sensors. Zones can be
lengths, areas or volumes depending on the
dimensions of the array. A planar sensor array with
detection by one sensor is shown in the upper right
figure. The source can be assumed to be within the
region and less than halfway between sensors.
When additional sensors are applied, (1) arrival times and (2) amplitudes help
pinpoint the source zone. The ordered pair in lower right figure represents the
two sensors detecting the signal in the zone and the order of signal arrival at
each sensor. When relating signal strength to peak amplitude, the largest
peak amplitude is assumed to come from the nearest sensor, second largest
from the next closest sensor and so forth.
■ Point Location
In order for point location to be justified, signals must be detected in a
minimum number of sensors: (1) two for linear, (2) three for planar, (3) four for
volumetric. Accurate arrival times must also be available. Arrival times are
often found by using peak amplitude or the first threshold crossing. The
velocity of wave propagation and exact position of the sensors are necessary
criteria as well. Equations can then be derived using sensor array geometry
or more complex algebra to locate more specific points of interest.
AE Barkhausen Techniques
The Barkhausen effect
The Barkhausen effect refers to the sudden
change in size of ferromagnetic domains
that occur during magnetization or
demagnetization. During magnetization,
favorably oriented domains develop at the
cost of less favorably oriented domains.
These two factors result in minute jumps of
magnetization when a ferromagnetic
sample (e.g. iron) is exposed to an
increasing magnetic field (see figure).
Domain wall motion itself is determined by
many factors like microstructure, grain
boundaries, inclusions, and stress and
strain. By the same token, the Barkhausen
effect is too a function of stress and strain.
Barkhausen Noise
Barkhausen noise can be heard if a coil of wire is wrapped around the sample
undergoing magnetization. Abrupt movements in the magnetic field produce
spiking current pulses in the coil. When amplified, the clicks can be compared
to Rice Krispies or the crumbling a candy wrapper. The amount of
Barkhausen noise is influenced by material imperfections and dislocations
and is likewise dependent on the mechanical properties of a material.
Currently, materials exposed to high energy particles (nuclear reactors) or
cyclic mechanical stresses (pipelines) are available for nondestructive
evaluation using Barkhausen noise, one of the many branches of AE testing.
Hysterisis Loop- magnetization or demagnetization.
Barkhausen noise
generated if the magnetic
field was induced on the
areas with discontinuiies
(throughout the whole loop)
Applications
Acoustic emission is a very versatile, non-invasive way to gather information
about a material or structure. Acoustic Emission testing (AET) is be applied
to inspect and monitor pipelines, pressure vessels, storage tanks, bridges,
aircraft, and bucket trucks, and a variety of composite and ceramic
components. It is also used in process control applications such as
monitoring welding processes. A few examples of AET applications follow.
Weld Monitoring
During the welding process, temperature changes induce stresses between
the weld and the base metal. These stresses are often relieved by heat
treating the weld. However, in some cases tempering the weld is not possible
and minor cracking occurs. Amazingly, cracking can continue for up to 10
days after the weld has been completed. Using stainless steel welds with
known inclusions and accelerometers for detection purposes and background
noise monitoring, it was found by W. D. Jolly (1969) that low level signals and
more sizeable bursts were related to the growth of microfissures and larger
cracks respectively. ASTM E 749-96 is a standard practice of AE monitoring
of continuous welding.
Bucket Truck (Cherry Pickers) Integrity Evaluation
Accidents, overloads and fatigue can all occur when operating bucket trucks
or other aerial equipment. If a mechanical or structural defect is ignored,
serious injury or fatality can result. In 1976, the Georgia Power Company
pioneered the aerial manlift device inspection. Testing by independent labs
and electrical utilities followed. Although originally intended to examine only
the boom sections, the method is now used for inspecting the pedestal, pins,
and various other components. Normally, the AE tests are second in a chain
of inspections which start with visual checks. If necessary, follow-up tests
take the form of magnetic particle, dye penetrant, or ultrasonic inspections.
Experienced personnel can perform five to ten tests per day, saving valuable
time and money along the way. ASTM F914 governs the procedures for
examining insulated aerial personnel devices.
AET Application
Gas Trailer Tubes
Acoustic emission testing on pressurized jumbo tube trailers was authorized
by the Department of Transportation in 1983. Instead of using hydrostatic
retesting, where tubes must be removed from service and disassembled, AET
allows for in situ testing. A 10% over-pressurization is performed at a normal
filling station with AE sensors attached to the tubes at each end. A
multichannel acoustic system is used to detection and mapped source
locations. Suspect locations are further evaluated using ultrasonic inspection,
and when defects are confirmed the tube is removed from use. AET can
detect subcritical flaws whereas hydrostatic testing cannot detect cracks until
they cause rupture of the tube. Because of the high stresses in the
circumferential direction of the tubes, tests are geared toward finding
longitudinal fatigue cracks.
Bridges
Bridges contain many welds, joints and connections, and a combination of
load and environmental factors heavily influence damage mechanisms such
as fatigue cracking and metal thinning due to corrosion. Bridges receive a
visual inspection about every two years and when damage is detected, the
bridge is either shut down, its weight capacity is lowered, or it is singled out
for more frequent monitoring. Acoustic Emission is increasingly being used
for bridge monitoring applications because it can continuously gather data
and detect changes that may be due to damage without requiring lane
closures or bridge shutdown. In fact, traffic flow is commonly used to load or
stress the bridge for the AE testing.
Aerospace Structures
Most aerospace structures consist of complex assemblies of components that
have been design to carry significant loads while being as light as
possible. This combination of requirements leads to many parts that can
tolerate only a minor amount of damage before failing. This fact makes
detection of damage extremely important but components are often packed
tightly together making access for inspections difficult. AET has found
applications in monitoring the health of aerospace structures because
sensors can be attached in easily accessed areas that are remotely located
from damage prone sites. AET has been used in laboratory structural tests,
as well as in flight test applications. NASA's Wing Leading Edge Impact
Detection System is partially based on AE technology. The image to the right
(above) shows a technician applying AE transducers on the inside of the
Space Shuttle Discovery wing structure. The impact detection system was
developed to alert NASA officials to events such as the sprayed-on-foam
insulation impact that damaged the Space Shuttle Columbia's wing leading
edge during launch and lead to its breakup on reentry to the Earth's
atmosphere.
Others
Fiber-reinforced polymer-matrix composites, in particular glass-fiber
reinforced parts or structures (e.g. fan blades)
Material research (e.g. investigation of material properties, breakdown
mechanisms, and damage behavior)
Inspection and quality assurance, (e.g. wood drying processes, scratch
tests)
Real-time leakage test and location within various components (small
valves, steam lines, tank bottoms)
Detection and location of high-voltage partial discharges in transformers
Railroad tank car and rocket motor testing
There are a number of standards and guidelines that describe AE testing and
application procedures as supplied by the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM). Examples are ASTM E 1932 for the AE
examination of small parts and ASTM E1419-00 for the method of
examining seamless, gas-filled, pressure vessels.
数字签名者:Fion
Zhang
DN:cn=Fion
Zhang, o=Technical,
ou=Academic,
email=fion_zhang@
qq.com, c=CN
日期:2016.09.07
10:46:48 +08'00'