Chapter 1

Opening Conversation: Studying Intercultural Communication

Intercultural communication is the process of transferring messages across cultures. It governs the
engagement of people with diversified cultural dimensions and the effective communication between
and among individuals amid cultural differences. In the wake of globalization, it had brought forth the
nations into an avenue of both great opportunities and challenges.

When we talk about culture, it is most likely linked to the set of beliefs, traditions, and practices that is
distinct to a particular group of people. However, it is further referred to as shared meaning, contested
meaning, and resource.

Anthropologically defined, culture is a site of shared meaning. People find and set meaning to a certain
people, object, image, sound, or even gesture which is passed on from generation to generation. These
symbolic forms are expressed, transmitted, and maintained in such a community. How a nod means yes
or agreeing and a shrug means you do not know or care about something are a wise example for
gestures with meaning. Usually, a three-year old can already understand such since meanings are being
shared.

Culture does not start and end in sharing the meaning, it is contested. Cultural studies define culture as a
site of contested meaning. It is not necessarily confined to one's own notion about culture, which is very
superficial, but is preferably considering the views out of the box. Rather viewed objectively, we are to
examine it in a deeper, broader, and more comprehensive perspective simply because we do not share a
single belief. What means right to you does not also mean right to them and vice versa. Thus, attesting,
comparing, contrasting, and perhaps changing our culture with others is a crucial thing in enriching
intercultural communication.

On the other hand, globalization describes culture as a resource. A rich or popular culture attracts
massive consumers through the field of media, tourism, and capitalism, to name few, and thus holds
great capital-generating potential. This is deemed to be a big opportunity across cultural dimensions as it
give way to highly influencial culture to be more likely embraced, if not resisted, by the surrounding
ones.

However, there are factors that affect effective intercultural communication and one of which is
ethnocentrism. It is the idea that one's own group's way of thinking, being, and acting in the world is
superior to others. But the problem about ethnocentric culture in the context of globalization is that it
blocks the opportunity of benefitting from broader points of view and perceptions. It nurtures the idea
that whatever is against or outside one's culture, in any means, is completely wrong and unacceptable.
People are getting contented and comfortable of their own culture when in fact there are cultural
diversities that are actually useful, ethical, and beneficial. Thus, it is more than important to contest
one's culture and standpoint to be open of new possibilities and opportunities.
To achieve intercultural harmony, six ports of entry of the intercultural praxis are embedded namely
inquiry, framing, positioning, dialogue, reflection, and action. The initial step toward intercultural
harmony is the inquiry of knowledge about the similarities and differences of cultures. It is like fitting
into other's shoes to be culturally aware of various points of views and perspective about life and its
meaning. To be able to prevent superficial perceptions and to take an overview of the situations, framing
is necessary. Framing is the perspective upon which cultural differences is viewed on either micro, meso,
or macro points of view. After getting in the consciousness of cultural variations, we have to be clear of
our positioning and standpoints about different situations and phenomena. Next we have to be involved
in dialogues, where communication transpires, continues, and discloses while delaying judgement and
accepting cultural differences. The stage of reflection where deep analysis of the previous stages is
concurred, converged, and concentrated will then lead to the last and meaningful step which is taking
the most weighted and socially responsible action.

Due to cultural differences, people experience both chances and challenges. The ability to effectively
communicate towards people of different intercultural dimensions is a useful tool to maximize
worldwide opportunities and to address global conflicts through having a deeper understanding about
intercultural communication and eyeing at a larger scope of the world.
 Chapter 2

Understanding the Context of Globalization

History and power are central to intercultural communication in the context of globalization. Both play
remarkable roles in the development of worldwide opportunities and crises of such communication
across cultural variations that affected the economic, political, and cultural aspects of the world.

Culture is anchored to history. Tracing back early centuries and civilizations alongside historical
evidences, series of empire-building and colonizations among lands are the famous scenes back then.
European conquest initiated in the 15th century is notorious for colonization which lead to massive
devastation of human lives, economies, and natural habitats. Invasions are not limited to territorial
saturation and exploitation of human and natural resources but also of cultural realm until most of the
people are exiled.

Consequently, it gave them power to rule over systems and the governance revolved around the hands
of the powerful colonizers. In the midst of ruins brought about by colonial era, the establishment of
economic and political governance made its way after the second world war namely the United Nations
(UN), International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank (WB) and World Trade Organization (WTO) which
aim to "improve the welfare of the people of the member countries." This called for the sustainability of
shared interests, needs, and resources, that also however lead to the uprising of tensions and conflicts.

Economies from around the world are dramatically impacted by existing power ruling over the global
market. WTO, IMF, and WB as the renowned global financial institutions back then are the keyplayers in
the universal market. It gave birth to free trades - policies that allows nations to make trades free of tariff
taxes - where agreements are often mandated by IMF, financed by WB, and negotiated and monitored
by the WTO. The mentioned has the control over the international fund, banking, and financing. From a
business perspective, individuals and companies must be effective in communicating interculturally in
order to participate and compete in global market since the members are from different nationality,
cultural backgrounds, languages, work and business ethics and marketing practices. Nonetheless, it had
resulted to magnified gap between the wealthy and the poor.

Likewise, in the rise of interdependence to the increasing power of such multinational corporations and
global financial institutions as well as the growth of inequities with regards to the control of wealth and
resources, people called for a revolt of existing authority or governance. A country's government is
based upon the ideology that is the set of ideas and beliefs reflecting the needs and aspirations of
individuals, groups, classes, or cultures. Culturally different, countries resist political globalization as it
caused ideological wars among them. Universalizing politics had lead to military uproar and embracing
western democratic principle increased the tension and violence across nations.

Since history plays a significant role in culture, whatever present beliefs, traditions, and practices are all
rooted to history that are expressed, shared, and preserved from across generations. However, due to
different influences from foreign forces, the native cultural dimensions are intruded, changed, and
redefined. This had manifested in the variation of language, food, clothing, media, lifestyle and practices
that people patronize. The most influential culture is the western culture or sometimes referred to as
"americanization". Non-american cultures struggle to survive the highly dominating american culture,
ideology, cultural products, and identity. Thus, it lead to the construction of hybrid cultural forms and
identities as various cultures collide and overlap. This "cultural imperialism" brought about by the
dominant american culture spread in countries all over the world.

In the context of globalization, history and power had open doors for possibilities and problems. It had
influenced the economic, political, and cultural views, among others. Hence, it is crucial to recognize,
challenge, and contest cultures that had been marked by difference historically to effectively
communicate in the rapidly globalizing world.
 Chapter 3

Globalizing Body Politics: Embodied Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

In a virtual or face-to-face interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication are all conveyed and
performed through our bodies. Language use, communication styles, hand gestures, facial expressions,
eye contacts, posture, physique, voice tone and even clothings, all of which are acted by the body, are
parameters in distinguishing and categorizing people. Among other things, physical differences in human
bodies are used to categorize people. The primary form of classifying individuals are by gender and race.

The two mutually exclusive gender categories are men and women. However, sociologists noted that
biological differences are not what distinguish the categories of masculine and feminine but rather
through communication on our bodies. The way we walk, our gestures, speech, touch, and eye contact
patterns, gender activities we participate in, our hairstyle, clothing, and smell among others, are
symbolically embodied in identifying differences between masculinity and femininity.

There is a conotation that men have the dominion over women who are subordinate. The norms tell us
who should speak and who should listen, who should work and who should be at home, who should
decide and who should follow, but it varies from across cultures. But oftentimes, men dominates women
in terms of decision-making and perhaps rights. Meanwhile, third gender, which in societies are
challenged today, refers to people whose gender identities differ from social norms and expectations
associated with their biological sex. The domination of man, subordination of women, and discrimination
of third gender are of usual scene in the society today which is why people cry for gender equality. Thus,
body politics is how power is written and performed symbolically on and through the body.

Aside from gender difference, our bodies and physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features,
hair, and body type, are used to separate people into categories as race or racial groups. Race is
frequently associated to a category of humankind that shares certain physical, mental, emotional or
attitudinal qualities, but evolutionary biolgists believe that it has no biological basis. It is considered as
socially constructed ideas. Social construction or social construct is an idea that was "created" by people
in a particular society through communication who agree to act like and think like they exist and are
guided by certain conventions and rules associated with the construct.

History plays pivotal role in cultural development. It is no secret that early colonizations in Africa lead to
massive slavery of Blacks, who are exiled from their country of origin to America within centuries. Blacks
are slaves to whites, and until present times, blacks or colored people are "modernly enslaved". In the
basis of the power of written texts or documents, the world bears the notion of the existence of White
supremacy where White race (European descent) were placed at the top of hierarchy of difference, in
the middle were Malay or the brown race (Malaysian descent), and Americans or the red race (American
descent), and at the bottom of the hierarchy were Mongolian or yellow race (Asian descent) and the
Ethiopian or Black race (African descent). Up until now, the society rings this view upon which the norms
favors the Whites and the Blacks were often deprived of rights. The power of these written codes allows
the constant denoralization of non-whites and the taking of advantage over the colored as these
"versions of truth" are unfolded.
Presently, to somewhat ease racial differences, race is resignified to "culture". It is claimed that there is
lack of "cultural development" or "progress" in non-White society. Hence, through education, the less
modern are capable of development and over time will be absorbed in the society. As people attempts
to pursue a raceless, color-blind society, it is of great evidence that Whiteness - White norms and ways of
thinking, knowing, being, and doing - as a standard for all is indeed prevalent. Part of privilege of being
White is the position to define, describe, and evaluate others in accordance to White standards.
Meanwhile, race is also rearticulated to "class" in the neoliberal context, in other words, about money.
The process of Whitening or meeting, accepting, performing, and supporting the set European standard
and norm will qualify people to be absorbed in the society. Yet, this does not provide complete
protection against racism. Thus, the clamour of anti-racial discrimination perpetuates year after year.

Globalizing body politics resulted to misunderstandings, abuse of power, and deprivation of rights.
Therefore, it is quite an important skill to effectively communicate interculturally as we "read" the
embodied symbolic forms in human beings. Body politics shall be critically assessed and evaluated to
uphold a meaningful interaction towards the world to address global conflicts and achieve social
harmony.
 Chapter 4

(Dis)Placing Culture and Cultural Space: Location of Nonverbal and Verbal Communication

To understand the place is to understand the culture, and vice versa. The more we explore about the
place, the more we discover and realize the richness of its culture.

Culture is concentrated in and is distinct to a particular place. Take for example the culture between
school, home, office, and church. School has its own academic culture as office has its workplace and
professionalism manners, while home has its inviting and comfortable atmosphere as church has its
religious, sacred culture. People behave differently in each institution. We cannot act, speak, dress, and
behave as much as the same as we do in school and in church nor at home and at work. Through shared
interaction across cultures, people agree about giving meaning to symbolic forms such as language,
gestures, clothing, architectural design, patterns of interactions, and histories, thus constructing cultural
space.

Human beings use communicative practices to construct, maintain, negotiate, reconstruct, and hybidize
cultural spaces. Today, culture is deterritorialized and reterritorialized meaning uprooted from original
location and is transferred to another in the context of globalization. Hiphop culture, for example,
originated in the economically and morally prejudiced and so called "bad" part of the town, South Bronx
in America. Although people try to make a living, South Bronx is often stereotyped and oppressed by the
society as it was marked by mainstream media as drug and crime infested, dangerous place. An obvious
discrimination against the poverty-stricken and morally-silenced community and the gap between the
"city" and the "valley" are clearly stretched out.

While the residents have very different versions of the story about the place called "home", people keep
on setting fences according to their norms. The way people talk about and make meaning about life can
be different as how they are labelled and seen by others. This perfectly illustrates the difference
between avowed identity, the way we see, label, and make meaning about ourselves, and ascribed
identity, the way others may view, name, and describe us and our group.

Due to disproportionate recognition of privilege, the residents called for a platform to express one's
voice of the cultural, economical, and political oppressions that continues. It had been an avenue for the
stifled to voice out the real events that transpire within the culture. Not only is Hiphop culture
manifested in the form of dance but also of music, grafitti art, and rap among others, which is now
widely spread, consumed, and patronized by other cultures across the globe. This is an illustration that
culture is not floating but is constantly replaced in new environment, from South Bronx reaching the rest
of the world. Indeed, culture is deterritorialized or unhinged from the point of origin, delivered to
various cultures, and is reterritorialized.

In the demand of globalization, collision and overlapping of cultural spaces propagated in different parts
of the world creating hybrid cultural space. Several cultures are "glocalized" which means localized while
globalized. Glocalization is infused globalization and localization where globalizing forces always operate
in relation to localizing forces. In the presence of highly influential western culture and norms, non-
western tends to resist full assimilation of western culture thus forming hybridized cultural form and
identity. After it is challenged, contested, and partially adapted in a sense that would keep one's own
culture surviving, it is similarly blended with one or more cultural dimensions.

Placing one culture from another takes critical intercultural contestation. It undergoes localizing of
foreign influence in such a way that would preserve one's own culture while adapting new one. Now,
hybrid cultural spaces are sites of intercultural negotiation, site of resistance against dominating culture,
and site of creative improvision of localizing foreign cultural form.
 Chapter 5

Crossing Borders: Migration and Intercultural Adaptation

Nowadays, the number of people who move across cultural boundaries and national borders
dramatically proliferated through the years. The number of people who for some reasons live outside
their country of origin constantly increaases, enjoying the benefits and suffering the consequences of
crossing borders.

Advances in transportation, communication technology, and economic opportunities are the inviting
portals that attracted people to cross multicultural boundaries. This pattern of migration drastically
changed over years as people from across nations took the risk of settling to a whole new place and
culture.

Migrants are people who move from their primary cultural context changing their place of residence for
an extended period of time. The various types of migrants are voluntary migrants, involuntary migrants,
postcolonial migrants, and transmigrants. Voluntary migrants are migrants who choose to leave home to
travel or relocate while involuntary migrants are migrants who are forced to leave due to famine, war,
and political or religious persecution. Voluntary migrants can be classified as sojourners, who leave home
for limited periods of time and specific purposes such as international students, business travellers and
tourists, and as immigrants, who leave their country and settle permanently in another country.

On the other hand, in the context of globalization, new categories of migrants emerged. Migrants who
move across national boundaries to new locations for work and family reunification and yet maintain
cultural, social, economic, and political ties with their country of origin are called transmigrants.
Whereas, postcolonial migrants are migrants who settle to another country due to colonization. The
people from a colony migrated to the colonizing country.

Because migrants are outnumbered, all types faced conflicts as they risked to settle to remarkably
different environment. Institutional and informal racism and discrimination limit them to access fair
living in the oppressing hegemony of the receiving country. Deprivation of rights to economic, social, and
political domain among others set walls between migrants and the host country that is facilitated in
micro-level or individual level, macro-level or large scale national-economic level, and meso-level or the
bridging level between two mentioned levels.

However, through the significant stages of cultural adaptation process, migrants are able to cope up to
the challenges of the new environment. The three stages are described as anticipation, culture shock,
and adjustment. Anticipation is characterized by the excitement of the new culture. Since the migrants
are very clueless of the possible advantages and disadvantages of the unfamiliarized culture, a feeling of
enthusiasm and perhaps fear dominates the phsychological aspect of the migrant. Culture shock as the
second stage, is known as the transition shock that over time leads to growth, learning, and personal
change. Lastly, adjustment is noted for the negotiation of codes, values, norms, behaviours, and
assumptions of new culture. This process is very significant in adapting the new cultural forms existing in
the receiving country.
The four migrant-host mode of relationship namely assimilation, separation, marginalization, and
integration are important to understand cultural adaptation process. Assimilation occurs when a migrant
values the host's culture more than his or her own culture. Migrants tend to accept and support the
receiving country's culture over his own cultural context. On the other hand, separation describes the
migrant-host mode of relationship when the migrant values their own home culture more than the host
culture. This leads to separation or segregation across cultural differences. Meanwhile, marginalization
occurs when the migrants place little value on either his own culture or the host's. They lie on the
margins of both the home and host culture. Integration, on the other hand, describes the migrant-host
mode of relationship when the migrant values both the home and host culture. The latter two leads to
the construction of hybridized cultural form and identity.

What urges the promotion of multidirectional migration is noted by the "Push-and-pull theory". This
argues that the interests and needs that have to be filled is what pushes the migrants towards the
receiving country and the host country's "bunch" of opportunities is what pulls the migrants towards it.
However, the collision of the home and host culture is governed by two ideologies, the melting pot and
pluralism. The former is characterized by blending of home and host cultures whereas the latter is of
maintaining own culture. While acculturation promotes the gain and perhaps adaptation of new culture,
deculturation portrays the unlearning and disregarding of some aspects of home culture. This had
brought the migration patterns at the heightened economic, racial, social, political, and cultural conflicts
that exacerbated over years.

It takes enough courage to accept, reject, or hybridize various cultural forms. As multiple folds of
possibilities awaits people, conflicts and tensions across cultural diversities are also ahead. The strong
decision to face both chances and changes in the name of survival is what pushes people to cross
multicultural boundaries and national borders.
 Chapter 6

Jamming Media and Popular Culture: Analyzing Messages About Diverse Cultures

Just as how people are catapulted across many nations in the call of survival with respect to today's
migration patterns, so are various cultural products and forms. In a world where everybody seems to be
charmed by foreign way of thinking, living, and being, media and popular culture are the active
participants in the spread and integration of the influential cultural forms.

It is no secret that most people from different countries are "americanized" by the dominant U.S.
culture. Infact, it is clearly evident in the people's consumption of food, clothing, hairstyle, media, and
other foreign products and services. The role of media and popular culture in the context of globalization
apparently shapes intercultural communication and understanding about the similarities, relevances,
and differences of one's culture to another.

Media refers to the modes, means, or channels through which messages are communicated. Internet,
cellphones, televisions and computers are examples of digital media while newspapers, magazines, and
letters are examples of written media. People from all over the world, ranging from densely populated
and civilized places to peopleless conservative remote areas, are reached through these channels of
messages highlighting current events, significant issues, news and forecasts, and new trends.

On the other hand, popular culture is characterized by pervasiveness. It is the culture that is known or
noticeable to every part of the world. Additionally, it is produced by culture industries, and it serves
social functions. Hamburgers and fries, baggy jeans and blings, celebrities, music videos, and
pornography are all examples of popular culture. In a world where almost everything is commodified,
very little is outside popular culture.

People often perceive the acceptance of foreign culture dominion as a sense of being "in" yet they are
unknowingly taking themselves of their own cultural context "out". In the call of the fast-pacing and
globalizing world, media and popular culture are actors in the fragmentation and disruption of national
and cultural identities. Being exposed to various cultural forms may increase one's knowledge about the
differences of other culture from his own, but unaware that he misses his own cultural identity when
overexposed to overpowered by such. Domination of western cultures and norms lead to cultural
corruption, cultural homogenization, and cultural imperialism.

The dominance of the foreign cultures corrupts and alters one culture in negative and detrimental ways.
Sooner or later, as a result of global integration, cultural dimensions will converge into one common
cultural values and practices without noticing that extrinsic influences are "modernly colonizing"
countries in the form of enslaving cultural products and services that most people are hooked in,
consume, and patronize. This dominance may contribute to the loss, change, and undermining national
and local cultural practices, values, and identities. The ability to contest, negotiate, and resist western
hegemony is substantial in protecting, maintaing, and preserving one's cultural identity.
Media products that people consume bear messages. The production and consumption of popular
culture involves meaning-making process which constitute identities, establish social norms, disseminate
dominant ideologies, and provide a platform to accept, contest, and reject meanings. TV programs, films,
music, and other media products are packed of messages that are explicitly and implicitly expressed.

The three broad ways of analyzing and examining these messages are through dominant reading,
negotiated reading, and oppositional reading. The first type of reading is one where the reader or viewer
shares the encoded meanings that naturalize and reinforce dominant ideologies, making him accept the
reading. The second type is one where the viewer or the reader also shares the encoded meanings but
may also resist and modify such based on his positionality, interests, and experience, making him
contradict the reading. The third type is one where the viewer or the reader places himself in opposition
to the dominant code, making him resist and object such reading.

Though media also serves as source of entertaintment and information, viewers, readers, and
consumers, are unknowingly feeding on or receiving misinformed, stereotyped, and misinterpreted
media products and forms. In TV programs and films in the past decades for example, White always take
lead roles, while non-White are less exposed, and when otherwise, they always portray antagonists roles
such as criminals and terrorists. This message has tremendous impact on the heightened racial
discrimination, stereotyping, and hate crimes.

In resisting and recreating media and popular culture, the three-step process is designed to develop our
competence as "readers" or decoders and "producers" or encoders of media and popular culture text.
The initial step is increased awareness. We are expected to become conscious educated of the role
media and popular culture play in the society. Second is informed action. Upon being perfectly aware in
informed citizen, a responsible action is needed to bring about social justice and social change. Step
three is creative production. We as not just consumers of media but also producers of it can resist in
movement toward change.

People, in the age of advanced technology, can produce citizen media or media text created by average
citizens not affiliated with mainstream, corporate media outlets. One way to resist dominant mainstream
media and produce alternative popular culture text is through culture jamming. It is the altering and
transforming of mass media and popular culture forms into message and commentary about itself.

Media and popular culture played pivotal roles in how we make sense of and construct our own cultures
and identity. Both helped in shaping our communication with and understanding of cultures. Both also
bring cultural disruption as well as foreign supremacy over our own cultures, beliefs, and norms without
the wide analyzation of the messages they ring.
 Chapter 7

Privileging Relationships: Intercultural Communication in Interpersonal Context

Communication in the 21st century has dramatically improved, transformed, and changed over time.
Interaction among people of cultural variations escalated, frequented, and intensified as advances in
transportation and communication technology open doors for distant communication and virtual
interaction.

In this electronic age, where messages are sent and received through media like the internet, social
interactions exponentially increased through the years. Computer mediated communication that
connects people, places, and cultures together has a large impact in intercultural communication and
relationships today ranging from friendship to romantic relationship. This interaction, however, has
historically faced numerous problems in the early decades up until now, as cultural differences set
boundaries to people from all over the world.

Intercultural relationships that encompass interracial relationships, or relationships that cross socially
constructed racial groups have proliferated in the wake of modernization. Looking back, however,
interactions between different racial groups are historically discouraged, curtailed, and in some cases
prohibited by law. In U.S. for example, relationships between White and Black are forbidden and is
against the norm. Though this idea blurs today and interracial contact has increased, barriers and
challenges to interracial friendships and intimate relationships still continue.

Intercultural relationships are undeniably facing difficulties as cultural diversities, nationality and
ethnicity differences, religious affiliations, sexual orientations, and racial and class categorization are
being challenged and negotiated among intercultural interaction. The said factors or barriers have great
impact on establishing intercultural friendships and intercultural romantic relationships.

Friendship is a unique type of interpersonal relationship. As we come in contact with people of different
culture, we are more likely to have friends who are basically different from us in terms of cultural
backgrounds. However, building intercultural friendships demands departure from our comfort and
familiarity zone as interpersonal norms, communication styles, values, expectations, language, and
meaning-making process are being negotiated. Otherwise, it may cause anxiety, uncertainty,
misunderstanding, and conflicts.

Unlike friendships between the same beliefs, norms, and practices, intercultural or interracial
relationships require cultural respect and acceptance. To help us effectively develop intercultural
relationships, people undergo the initial encounter phase where the initiators of establishing
intercultural relationships are drawn to each other based on proximity to each other, similarities in
interests, values, goals, and cultural, racial, and socioeconomic backgrounds, the ways they complement
and differ with one another, and the physical attraction to each other. The following are also important
things to consider: the racial or etnhic group involved in contact, the location of contact, the topic of
interaction, and the socioeconomic class.
In the second phase, exploratory interaction phase, intercultural relationships move toward greater
sharing of information, increased level of support, and growing connection and intimacy. The success of
continuing intercultural relationships often depend upon a willingness to value difference and affirm the
other person as a member of a culturally different group.

The third phase, the ongoing involvement phase is marked by a turning point that promotes greater
connection, intimacy, and involvement between the relational partners. It involves the constant and
ongoing negotiation of both the friendship relational identity while simultaneously maintaining divergent
cultural identities.

On the other hand, marriage between couples of diverse culture and nationality has become very
common today. Due to inviting immigration policies as well as media-facilitated interactions, interracial
or intercultural marriage heightened. Unlike intercultural friendships, intercultural romantic relationships
face greater challenges and thus demands greater cultural respect and acceptance as familial dimensions
are included.

The proposed four-stage model for understanding interracial romantic relationships and the role
communication plays in the relational development process. The first stage is racial or cultural awareness
where partners build consciousness upon similarities and differences of the cultural dimensions of their
own, their partner's, their group's perspective, and their partner's group's perspective. The next stage is
the coping stage where the couple develops proactive and reactive strategies to manage the challenges
from external forces. Communication is used to develop a shared understanding of situations, construct
various responses to environment, and seek out support. The third stage, identity emergence, occurs
when the pair take charge of the images of themselves, oppose negative societal force, and reframe their
relationship, especially so on their bicultural children's behalf. Lastly, the relational maintenance stage is
one where the couple's communication skills, strategies, and perspective in the earlier stages are used
to negotiate differences between themselves and with the society at large.

Clearly, advances in transportation and communication technology in the global context paved the way
for intercultural relationships allowing friends and intimate partners to meet, develop relationships, and
maintain contact particularly at great geographic distance. However, interracial relationships are not
spared of sociocultural barriers. Thus, intercultural communication has been a potential site to fight for
anti-discrimination rights, cultural oppression, social justice, and social change.
 Chapter 8

The Culture of Capitalism and the Business of Intercultural Communication

From products to places and media representations to occasions, culture now has been commodified.
The trade of commodities has brought people and things from different cultures into contact and
collision. Intercultural communication serves as a bridge that connects the gap across diverse culture in
the proliferation of goods and services exchange.

Today, culture is being produced and consumed for the market. Products and goods made out of culture
are being chased after. The "difference" of the culture from the producers and the consumers is what
makes the cultural product taste authentic and exotic. If something being sold or promoted is different,
unfamiliar, and is only found or available in such place, then it is what makes it more "cultural" and is
most likely purchased or accumulated. Cultural products, tourisms, traditions and celebrations are all
consumer-attracting and capital-generating. This is the essence of culture being commodified

Now that everything, even culture, is consumed, it turns out that life is all about consumption. We buy
what we cannot produce. To accumulate products and avail services, we transact and negotiate through
money. However, the purpose of exchange of commodities is not anymore for use but now for
generating money or capital. This is the simple concept of capitalism that promoted individualism,
competitiveness, and pursuit of personal goals and interests.

Drawing into historical accounts, capitalism was already evident in the European conquest. As India
became one of its colony and the exploitation of human and natural resources heightened, slavery
facilitated the extraction of raw materials to produce goods sold for profit. Also, it supported the idea of
mercantilism, to enhance and control economic prosperity, and to continue extraction of wealth around
the world. Locally produced products are replaced by imported goods. As a result, people have no choice
but to depend on this trade which consequently the loss of cultural knowledge.

However, overproduction of goods emerged. To accommodate the excess production of goods, luxuries
or wants had to be transformed necessities or needs. Thus, it promoted the idea of consumerism and
disregarded the idea of frugality.

To rebuild war-torn economies and to insure economic stability, the following financial institution took
control over the post war economic crises: International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank (WB), and
World Trade Organization (WTO). Their primary roles are to make ease of currency exchange, provide
loans to face debt crises and support economic growth, and negotiate free trade agreements and
disputes among nations. This, ofcourse created a condition in which they could make money. However,
the socioeconomic and environmental impact of the imposed policies has been devastating.

Intercultural communication in the context of workplace has lead to vast uncertainty and likelihood of
misunderstanding as well as possibilities for learning and growth. Cultural dimensions in the workplace
were identified as individualism-collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity-
femininity, and confucian dynamism.
In individualism-collectivism dimension, individualistic culture places interests of the individual over the
interests of the group while collectivistic culture is the reciprocal. In power distance dimension, small
power distance culture tends to emphasize equality, self-initiative, and subordinates in decision-making
whilee high power distance respect and leave decision-making to higher status position and authorities.
In uncertainty avoidance dimension, high uncertainty avoidance culture tends to be more formal and
rule oriented where innovation is less acceptable and conflict is seen as a big threat while low
uncertainty avoidance culture tends to be more informal and less structured which tends to encourage
new and creative approaches. In masculinity-femininity dimension, masculinity emphasizes distinct
differences in gender roles while femininity acknowledges gender roles overlap and shared gender
characteristics. Lastly, in confucian dynamism, values of perseverance, hardwork, frugality, respect for
elders and hierarchical structures are embedded.

Cultural diversity that is manifested in perception, communication styles, and patterns is what challenges
the role of Intercultural communication. Nonetheless, greater cultural diversity can also increase
creativity and and can widen group's perspective thus promoting good reasoning and decision-making.
In a world where culture is commodified and is transacted and negotiated across the globe, intercultural
communication alongside with responsible action maneuvers a sound global trade and exchange.
 Chapter 9

Negotiating Intercultural Conflict and Social Justice: Strategies for Intercultural Relations

The creation of not only opportunities but also threats among nation is central to the global context.
Because of cultural differences that divide us, intercultural misunderstandings arise that eventually result
to social injustice.

Intercultural conflict is defined as the real or perceived incompatibility of values, norms, expectations,
goals, processes, or outcomes between two or more interdependent individuals or groups from different
cultures. What fuels conflicts are the following: greater proximity, increased competition, diminishing
resources, colonial history, exploitative conditions, and exacerbated social and econokic inequity.

In a micro-frame analysis of Intercultural conflict, cultural orientation, communication styles, facework,

and varying situations are factors that affect intercultural misunderstandings. Bounded by diverse
culture, we have sets of norms, practices, and beliefs in initiating, negotiating, responding, continuing,
and disclosing conversations. Different gestures, facial expressions, tone, and communication style can
be a cue to offend others in an intercultural discourse. Facework as referred to the communication
strategies used to negotiate face between the self and the other can trigger intercultural disharmony.
"Face" here is defined as favorable social self-worth in relation to the assessment of other-worth in
interpersonal relationships.

In a wider meso-frame analysis of Intercultural conflict, prejudice, ethnocenteism, racism, cultural

histories, cultural identities, and powee imbalance ignite intercultural warfare. Believing that one's
culture is superior to others causes categorization, discrimination, and violation to human rights. People
are branded according to a dominating foreign cultural standards that are socially constructed. This is
deeply rooted in the historic events that fueled prejudices, for example the dehumanization of Blacks
and the supremacy of Whites. This has remarkably changed and distorted cultural identity and national
dignity of people. Due to inequity in power and control, human and natural resources are exploited,
supporting the lavish lifestyles of the dominating culture while burying the interests of nondominant
culture.

In a largest scale macro-frame analysis of intercultural conflicts, media, economic, political, and
geopolitical inequities are the actors in stirring up intercultural division. Media are channels through
which messages are communicated. Media which is supposed to inform, tend to misinform, prejudice,
and cause misconceptions through their representations that reach billions of people. Due to power and
influence, dominant culture's interests are always being served. Biases towards and against cultures
impact the economic and political aspects of nations in the global context. Also, struggles over limited
resources such as money, jobs, or land, which are economic and political, are primary cause of conflicts
across diverse cultures. To efficiently nurture and allocate resources, governing bodies are established
which cultures tend to accept or resist. Revolt against the usually abusive and exploitative mode of
governance rooted in different ideologies has become a site of Intercultural conflicts.
However, intercultural conflicts can also yield positive outcomes as they stir the generation into personal
growth, lead people to creating alternative solutions, and bring about social change. Strategies for
addressing intercultural conflicts are entailed in intercultural praxis in order for us to raise awareness,
increase our critical analysis, and develop our socially responsible action. The six point of entries are
inquiry, framing, positioning, dialogue, reflection, and action.

The initial step toward intercultural harmony is the inquiry of knowledge about the similarities and
differences of cultures. It is like fitting into other's shoes to be culturally aware of various points of views
and perspective about life and its meaning. To be able to prevent superficial perceptions and to take an
overview of the situations, framing is necessary. Framing is the perspective upon which cultural
differences is viewed on either micro, meso, or macro points of view. After getting in the consciousness
of cultural variations, we have to be clear of our positioning and standpoints about different situations
and phenomena. Next we have to be involved in dialogues, where communication transpires, continues,
and discloses while delaying judgement and accepting cultural differences. The stage of reflection where
deep analysis of the previous stages is concurred, converged, and concentrated will then lead to the last
and meaningful step which is taking the most weighted and socially responsible action.

Intercultural conflicts, threats, misunderstandings, and problems are inevitable but are resolvable
through meaningful strategies and effective communication. As we encounter various disputes across
cultures in individual, communal, and even national and global levels, the most important thing is we
contribute to the development of intercultural consonance and equilibrium as challenges are turned into
opportunities.
 Chapter 10

Engaging Intercultural Communication for Social Justice: Challenges and Possibilities for Global
Citizenship

After knowledge and skills are acquired, it is high time for the application of understanding which
involves bold engagement in the pursuit of social justice, equity, and change.

As the number of people from different culture coming in contact escalates, the vision of realizing a
society that accepts, respects, and unites has been magnified. Amid diverse culture, door of possibilities
are openned as people call for a socially just world. The consciousness in making actions not only for
serving one's own interests but taking a stand for interests of many have profoundly bloomed in the
wake of globalization.

Becoming a global citizen in the 21st century is quite challenging. In order to be globally concerned and
engaging citizen, three qualities are identified namely wisdom, courage, and compassion. To be wise is to
perceive the interconnectedness of life. No matter what country a person is from, what culture he has
been raised to, or what environment he has been immersed in, people are interconnected and
interdependent with each other as they interact in the global context. We should be knowledgeable
about the role of culture and communication in enriching the identity and diversity of people to be
equipped of the appropriate measures to take as we mobilize toward social change.

The second quality of global citizen is courage. It is not about the courage to remarkably separate and
parade one's culture to stifle, discourage, and depriciate the culture of others but the courage to respect
and acknowledge cultural differences and uniqueness. This courage is a powerful tool to foster creative,
diverse, and multicultural living and to stand against the opressing, dominating, and exploitative cultural
hegemony.

Thirdly, having compassion is one where a person extends a feeling of empathy towards the abused,
marginalized, discriminated, and silenced. It is the feeling that you understand and share another
person's feeling, situation, and suffering. This will lead to the activation of unified action intended to
fight for the rights that are usually deprived to nondominant people.

The capacities for global citizenship are capacities that reimagine citizenship based on human needs
rather than rights. Having the ability to perceive various perspectives, realities, experiences in life, the
capacity to validate and be aware of emotions and feelings, as well as the capability of engaging rather
than withdrawing into social conflicts and tensions are all necessary capacities to effective global
citizenship.

Global citizenship demands us to be interculturally competent to cope up to the uprising disputes of

interests across cultures. Intercultural competency is the knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to
engagein intercultural discussions and situations effectively. This includes the six entry points of
Intercultural praxis namely inquiry, framing, positioning, dialogue, reflection, and action. All of which
make us interculturally informed, ethical, and aware of the appropriate approaches and strategies to
address conflicts.

The hopes for a rational and reasonable community concentrate and heighten as the silence come into
sound, when stories are being heard, struggles are being told, abuses are being revealed, solutions are
being discussed, and problems are being discussed. We need to hear how the world has been
transformed by dreams, hopes, and actions toward social justice and peace.

Today, human empowerment is encouraged. Knowledge and understanding about cultural diversity is
accessed. Hopes for a better living is envisioned and is fuelled by the existing inequities. The only left
space unattended is the global engagement and social action to finally live in a world free from hatred,
judgment, and violence. Hence, it is indeed necessary to think with selflessness, talk for justice, and
change, and take responsible actions in the pursuit of common good regardless of all human divisions.