Anthropological Perspective On Culture and Society

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Anthropological Perspective on Culture and

Society
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Published: 23rd March, 2015 Last Edited: 30th June, 2017

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Keywords: psychological perspective on culture diversity

The three branches of human sciences (Social sciences), Sociology, Anthropology and
Psychology are interlinked in that they try to describe the different areas of human life
and their relationships to each other. They offer an explanation on human behavior and
in the society they live. Furthermore, these social sciences provide essential skills in
analyzing the intentions and behavior of individuals and groups they encounter.
Individual identity is forged by one's culture, groups, and by institutional influences.
Institutions such as families, schools and even churches greatly influence human beings
yet these institutions are merely organizations whose aim is to develop the core social
values of its constituents.

In discussing cultural diversity on the perspectives of the three social sciences there is a
need to understand the difference between culture and society. This is because the all
the three disciplines explore culture and society to understand human behavior in
depth. The term 'Culture' has many different meanings, for some it is the appreciation of
art, literature, music and food, while for others like biologists; they take it as a colony of
microorganisms growing in a nutrient medium in a laboratory. However for social
scientists, culture is the full range of learned human behavior patterns. Cultures are
traditions and customs, transmitted through learning and adaptations. Children obtain
such traditions by growing up in a certain society, through a process called
'enculturation'. A culture results into a degree of uniformity in behavior and thought
among the inhabitants of a particular society (Baugher et. al, 2000, p. 4). The terms
'culture' and 'society' are different as cultures are considered to be complexes of learned
behavior patterns and perceptions while society is a group of interacting organisms.
Therefore this paper will critically analyze cultural diversity based on the three social
sciences, evaluating the social sciences similarities and differences.

Discussion
Anthropological perspective of culture diversity
When it comes to understanding diversity in cultures, the anthropological view can help
humanity understand and appreciate the complexity of diverse cultures. This discipline
involves the study of biological and cultural origins of the humans. The subject matter of
anthropology is wide-ranging, including, fossil remains, non human primate anatomy
and behavior, artifacts from past cultures, past and present languages, and all the
prehistoric and contemporary cultures of the world.

The subfield of cultural anthropology is the most commonly studied and useful in
analyzing and interpreting the diverse cultures of the world. In recent years, recognition
of the need for multicultural awareness, understanding, and skills has grown in our
society. The aim is to achieve multicultural diversity competence, which is a term that
refers to the ability to demonstrate respect and understanding, to communicate
effectively, and to work with different cultural backgrounds (George & Fischer, 1999, p.
71). These diversities in culture encompass differences in gender, race, ethnicity, religion,
age, sexual orientation, social class and physical appearance. Misunderstandings and
conflicts in the society are two major consequences of lack of awareness in the ever
increasing cultural diversity. Cultural anthropology explains cultural diversity through
aspects of social life such as material culture, social organizations, politics, economics,
symbolism, change and development, ethnicity and modern nation-state formation.

In explaining and interpreting the diverse cultures, anthropology uses ethnography-


describing particular cultures; and ethnology- comparing two or more cultures. In
addition it incorporates the holistic approach in cultural studies by studying biological
and cultural aspects of human behavior; encompassing the broadest possible time
frame by looking at contemporary, historic and prehistoric societies; examining human
culture in every part of the world; and studies many different aspects of human culture
(George & Fischer, 1999, p.68).

Cultural diversity is relevant to a cultural approach in learning, in that learning and


motivational styles and cross cultural pedagogical strategies assume attention to
diversity in learner populations and pluralistic learning outcomes. The data, concepts
and insights derived from the study of other cultures helps us meet our professional
goals and lead more satisfying lives in a multicultural society (Herdman & Macmillan,
2010, p. 23). Moreover, the process of studying anthropology is also valuable because of
the skills and competencies that it helps to develop. Activities such as taking courses
about different cultures, participating in local internships and international
organizations, living in the university's international dormitory, and participating in study
abroad programs all combine to provide students with valuable skills in understanding
diverse cultures hence achieve multicultural diverse competence.

There is a need to come up with a strategy to accept cultural diversity, for example, in
the United states of America the freedom to pursue ones individual dream and fortunes
in the united states has produced a widening gap between the 'haves' and 'have-nots'.
According to Herdman and Mcmillian, 2010, managing directors in United States of
America made forty times as much compared to the average worker in 1973 and three
hundred as much in 2004. At the same time, earnings of middle class were growing
slightly and those of lower class were actually shrinking. This situation to a European
means that the state is working against well being of the population, particularly in light
of tax cuts during this period. Another instance is when expressing feelings of affection
which is typical for all human. The manner in which the affection is expressed is cultural,
the kiss is not universally accepted as a symbol of affection; some societies consider it
suggestive of cannibalism.

A basic anthropological strategy for understanding other cultures is to look at a cultural


feature from within its original context rather than looking at it from the perspective of
one's own culture; being inquisitive, non-judgmental, and open to new ways of thinking
is vital in understanding other cultures; Balancing contradictory needs instead of trying
to eliminate them; emphasize global team work; develop a cognitive complex which is
made up of twin abilities of differentiating and integrating; and developing a personal
acuity (Naylor, 1997, p. 157). The strategy will not only help you personally in
understanding other cultures but assist you in integrating to any culture globally.

Sociological perspective on Cultural Diversity


Sociology is critical analysis of the society in which humans live. People who make sense
of the social world-past, present and future- are referred to as sociologists (Anderson &
Taylor, 2005, p. 8). Sociologists research on social structures such as class, family,
politics, social problems like drug abuse and crime all of which influence the society.
Social interaction amongst humans is the basic sociological concept, because all humans
and groups that make up a society socialize. Specialists who focus on particular details
of specific interactions as they occur daily are called micro sociologists and those that
focus on larger patterns of interactions amongst larger sections of the society such as
state and economy are called macro sociologists.
A society is rarely culturally uniform hence the result of different cultures. As societies
develop and become more complex, different cultural traditions appear. The more
complex the society, the more likely the culture will be internally varied and diverse. The
causes of cultural changes in a society are cultural diffusion, innovation, and imposition
of cultural change by outside world (Anderson & Taylor, 2005, p. 72).

Two concepts from sociology help in understanding complexity of culture in a given


society, dominant culture and subcultures. Dominant culture is the culture of the most
powerful group in the society. Although it is not the only culture in society, it is
commonly referred to be the culture of a society, despite other cultures present.
Subcultures on the other hand are cultures of groups whose values and norms of
behavior differ from those of the dominant culture. Members of subcultures tend to
interact frequently and share a common world view.

Sociology stipulates that culture consists of both material objects and abstract thoughts
and behavior. Several elements which sociologists consider in understanding culture
diversity are language, norms, beliefs and values (Kaufman, 2004, p. 7).

Language: Learning the language of a culture is essential to becoming part of a society.


Language shapes culture as it provides the categories through which social reality is
understood. This was proved by Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Worf in the
1950's through their theory called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. The hypothesis states, "it
is not that you perceive something first and then think of how to express it, but that
language itself determines what you think and perceive" (Anderson & Taylor, 2005, p.
83). In understanding cultural diversity language is seen to reflect the assumptions of a
culture. This is seen and exemplified by: language affecting people's perception of
reality; Language reflecting the social and political status of different groups in society;
Groups advocating changing language referring to them as a way of asserting positive
group identity; The implications of language emerging from specific historical and
cultural contexts; language distorting actual group experience; language shaping
people's perceptions of groups and events in society.

Norms: They are specific cultural expectations for how to behave in a given situation.
Lack of norms in any society results in turmoil however, with established norms people
would be able to act, behave and interact in a society properly. In the early years of
sociology, William Graham Summer in 1906 identified two types of norms; folkways and
mores. Folkways are general standards of behavior adhered to by a group, example
wearing pants and not skirts for men. Mores are stricter mores which are seen to control
moral and ethical behaviors such as injunctions, legal and religious.
Beliefs: They are shared ideas people hold collectively within a given culture, and these
beliefs are also the basis of many cultural norms and values, example in USA there is a
widespread belief in God. Sociology study belief in a variety of ways, and each
theoretical mentation provides different insights into the significance of beliefs for
human society.

Values: They are abstract standards in a society or group that defines the ideal principles
of what is desirable and morally correct, for example in USA equality and freedom are
important values which provide a general outline for behavior. Values provide values for
behavior, but can also be sources of conflict like the political conflict over abortion.

Understanding the four elements of sociology enables proper integration in any society.
Integration into the society is achieved by respecting the diverse cultures that are found
in a society. Sociology studies culture in a variety of ways, asking numerous questions
about the relationship of culture to other social institutions and the role of culture in
modern life. The new cultural perspective on culture according to Naylor, 1997, is that it
is ephemeral, unpredictable and constantly changing; is a material manifestation of
consumer-oriented society; and is best understood by analyzing its artifacts- books,
films, television images.

Psychological Perspective on Culture Diversity


Social psychology a subfield of psychology has its origins in the early years of the
twentieth century. Its findings do not necessarily concern human thinking throughout
history but rather meet the requirements of our modern society. Social psychology
research aims to capture the interplay between social thinking and socio-historical
dynamics in order to understand how societies function and how culture is produced
(Xenia, 2004, p. 13). Psychology is distinguished from neighboring social sciences
through its emphasis on studying samples of organisms within controlled settings rather
than focusing upon larger groups, organizations or nations. Psychologists test the
specific results of changes in a controlled environment on the individual in that
environment, but there are strongly set procedures through which organisms are tested
psychometrically.

There is a big debate in psychology and more generally in social sciences how to define
culture. In some definitions the concept of culture includes behavior, in the sense that
our behaviors are expressions of our culture. Other definitions emphasize that
participating in a culture means having understanding of our world. However with trying
to find a consensual definition of this concept, the main argument of researchers in
psychology is to highlight how important it is to take into account the cultural context in
which psychological studies were conducted (Kerr & Tindale, 2011). They were right to
point out that humans are linked to the social context in which they live, proving that
psychological functioning and human behavior are universal and culture specific.

Sharing a culture means that people have a common way of viewing their relationship
with the social and physical environment; of communicating their thoughts and
emotions; of prioritizing their activities; of dividing tasks and resources; of attributing
values, honors, and power (Xenia, 2004, pp.17-18). When they do not share the above
listed elements then culture diversity occurs from a psychological point of view. The
people of diverse cultures are not like minded hence the question is, whether individuals
from diverse cultures can coexist harmoniously in time space and under the same
political and social organizations? The answer to this question provides the idea of how
to cope with culture diversity.

Various cultures flourish from the recognition that they represent a set of beliefs, modes
of thinking and practices that are peculiar to them and different from others. Some
cultures are more inclusive example western cultures, others refer to a small group of
people for instance the Basque culture, but each one of them is important for its
members because they represent the way they construct their social reality, and
provides them with action alternatives.

Conclusion
Culture Diversity has been discussed using the three social science disciplines of
Anthropology, Sociology and Psychology. Even though all of them have a similarity of
trying to understand culture diversity in humans, they are different in terms of how they
approach the study. Anthropology looks at culture diversity at the perspective of
humanity, his origin and through aspects of social life such as ethnicity, symbolism,
politics, race and so on. Anthropology explains that the origin of culture diversity is
through mankind hence the concentration a human perspective.

Sociology looks at the society which humans live so as to explain culture diversity. It
states that elements such as language, beliefs, norms, and values are what bring about
culture diversities. Psychology on the other hand analyses culture diversity with focus
entirely on internal factors that influence individuals. Therefore the three social sciences
provide an understanding of culture diversity and a basis of respecting other cultures.

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