MEDIT W 1192

IRRIGATION WITH TREATED

MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER
ATEF HAMDY (*)

T I Abstract
he potential of irrigation water for
increasing both food production
and the living standards of the rural The use of treated sewage water for irrigation ensures the reuse of water resources. Efforts
poor has long been recognized. Irrigated should be focused on maximizing the benefit and minimizing any detrimental effects on people or
environment. Sewage irrigation involves complex interactions and it is difficult to assess its long
agriculture represents only 13 % of the term impact. Appropriate management is of primary importance and requires experience for the
world's total arable land, but the value of accomplishment of its full benefits; routine monitoring is also essential. Further research should
crop production from irrigated land is 34 % be carried out by a mutidisciplinary team. No short-term research programme can provide the
of the world's total. This potential is more answers to questions on the effects of sewage irrigation on environment, and on agricultural
productivity.
pronounced in semi arid and arid areas. In this respect National and International Institutions, universities and research centres have an
The scarcity of water supplies to meet the important role in both research and training needed for a safe and efficient wastewater use for
needs of population growth and rapid de- agriculture.
velopment in agriculture as well as indus- The goal of such joint work should be also directed towards the establishment of successful
networks categorized according to their purposes which range from information exchange to
try have given cause for concern in for- collaborative planning, implementation and monitoring of research activities in the field of
mulating national development plans in unconventional water resources.
these countries towards the use of uncon-
ventional water resources in particular the
sewage effluent. I Resume
In arid and semi arid areas recycling of water L 'utilisation des eaux d'egout traitees dans le domaine de l'irrigation assure la reutillsation des
may have a greater impact on future usable ressources en eau. Les efforts devraient viser a maximiser les benefices et minimiser les effets defa-
water supply than any of the other technol- vorables sur la population et l'envlronnement. L 'irrigation par les eaux d'egout entraine des inte-
ogies aimed for increasing water supply. ractions complexes dont l'impact a long terme est difflclle a evaluer. Une gestion approprtee joue
un rolefondamental. Ilfaut une longue experience pour que l'on puisse reallser les meilleurs bene-
Such as water harvesting, desalting of sea fices. Un monitorage de routine est egalement essentiel. Le travail d'equlpes multidiscipllnaires est
water, weather modification of artificial une etape importante pour atteindre les objectifs envisages. Un programme de recbercbe a court
rainjets. terme ne suffit pas pour donner des reponses aux questions sur les effets de l'irrlgation avec les eaux
Treated sewage water can be used for irri- d 'egout sur l'envlronnement et sur la productivite agricole.
Les Etabllssements Nationaux et Internatlonaux, les unlversttes et les centres de recbercbe jouent
gation, industry, recharge of ground water un role important dans le domalne de la recbercbe et la formation requlses pour aboutir a une veri-
and, in special cases, properly treated table utilisation des eaux usees pour l'agrlculture.
wastewater can be used for municipal sup- Le travail d'une telle equipe multldlsclpllnalre devrait egalement vtser a la realisation de reseaux
ply. With careful planning various industri- classes suivant leurs objectifs: l 'ecbange d'information, la mise au point de plans communs, la rea-
lisation et le monitorage des activites de recbercbe dans le domalne des ressources en eau non con-
al and agricultural demands may be met by ventionnelles.
purified water thereby freeing fresh water
for municipal use.
In this respect, the reuse of sewage effluent phosphorus and potassium normally re-
constrained with consequent adverse effects
for irrigation purpose seems to be the most
on national economic development. quired for agricultural crop production
promising method.
As an example, a city with a population of would be supplied by the effluent. Further,
500,000 and water consumption of 200 lid other valuable micronutrients and the or-
per person would produce approximately ganic matter contained in the effluent will
Quantity and quality of 85 ,000 m 3/d (30 Mm3/year) of wastewater, provide additional benefits.
wastewater assuming 85% inflow to the public sewer-
age system. If treated wastewater effluent
Quantity is used in carefully controlled irrigation at Waste water constituents and
an application rate of 6000 m3/ha/year, an corn posi tions
Wastewater is composed of 99.9% water area of some 5000 ha could be irrigated. In
and 0.1 % of other materials (suspended. addition to this economic benefit, the fer- The physical properties and the chemical
colloidal and dissolved solids). In arid and tilizer value of the effluent is important. and biological constituents of wastewater
semi-arid areas water resources are so scarce Typical concentrations of nutrients in treat- are important parameter in the design and
that there is often a major conflict between ed waste water effluent from conventional operation of collection, treatment, and dis-
urban (domestic and industrial) and agricul- sewage treatment processes are given posal, and in the engineering management
tural demands for water. This conflict can below: of irrigation facilities. The constituents of
usually only be resolved by the agricultur- Nitrogen (N) - 50 mg/l concern in wastewater treatment and
al use of wastewater: the cities must use the Phosphorus (P) - 10 mg/l wastewater irrigation are listed in Table 1.
fresh water first , urban wastewater after Potassium (K) - 30 mg/l Composition refers to actual amount of
proper treatment-used for crop irrigation. Assuming an application rate of 5000 physical, chemical, and biological consti-
If such a sequance of water resource utili- m3/ha/year, the fertilizer contribution of tuents present in wastewater. The compo-
zation is not followed, both urban and the effluent would be: sition of untreated wastewater and the sub-
agricultural development may be seriously N - 250 kg/ha . year sequently treated effluent depends upon the
P - 50 kg/ha. year composition of the municipal water supply,
(') Director of Research, Mediterranean Agronomic ins· K - 150 kg/ha. year the number and type of commercial and in-
titute, Bari. Thus, all of the nitrogen and much of the dustrial establishments, and the nature of

50
 MEDIT W 1192

I
Table 1 Constituents of concern in waste water and irrigation with reclaimed municipal waste water.
Constituents Measured parameters Reason for concern

Suspended solids Suspended solids, including volatile and fixed Suspended solids can lead to the development of sludge deposits and anaerobic conditions when
solids untreated wastewater in discharged in the aquatic environment.
Excessive amounts of suspended solids cause soil plugging in irrigation systems.
Biodegradable organics Biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen Composed principally of proteins, carbo hydrates, and fats. If discharged to the environment,
demand their biological decomposition can lead to the depletion of dissolved oxygen in receiving waters
and to the development of septic conditions.
Pathogens Indicator organisms, total and fecal coliform Communicable diseases can be transmitted by the pathogens in wastewater bacteria, virus, para-
bacteria. sites.
Nutrients Nitrogen, Phasphorus, Potassium Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are essential nutrients for plant growth, and their presence
normally enhances the value of the water for irrigation.
When discharged to the aquatic environment, nitrogen and phosphorus can lead to the growth
of undesirable aquatic life.
When discharged in excessive amounts on land, nitrogen can also lead to the pollution of ground-
water.
Stable (refractory) organics Specific compounds (e.g., phenois, pesticides, These organics tends to resist conventional methods of wastewater treatment. Some organic
chlorinated hydrocarbons) compounds are toxic in the environment, and their presence may limit the suitability of the
wastewater for irrigation.
Hydrogen ion activity pH The pH of wastewater affects metal solubility as well as alkalinity of soils. Normal pH range in
municipal wastewater is 6.5-8.5, but presence of industrial waste can alter pH significantly.
Heavy metals Specific elements (e.g., Cd, Zn, Ni, Hg) Some heavy metals accumulate in the environment and are toxic to plants and animals. Their
presence may limit the suitability of the wastewater for irrigation.
Dissolved inorganics Total dissolved solids, electrical conductivity, Excessive salinity may damage some crops. Specific ions such as chloride, sodium, boron are
specific elements (e.g., Na, Ca, Mg, Cl, B) toxic to some crops. Sodium may pose soil permeability problems.
Residual chlorine Free and combined chlorine Excessive amount of free available chlorine (> 0.05 mg/L. CL 2) may cause leaf-tip bum and
damage some sensitive crops. However, most chlorine in reclaimed wastewater is in a combined
form, which does not cause crop damage. Some concerns are expressed as to the toxic effects
of chlorinated organiCS in regard to ground water contamination

the residental community. Consequently, and aquaculture, concluded that many stan- quality of wastewater for use in agriculture
the composition of waste water often varies darts previously recommended were un- (Mara and Cairncross , 1987). In the form
widely among different countries. justifiably restrictive and not supported by shown in Table 2 , these guidelines are ex-
currently available epidemilogical evidence pected to be included in a revision of the
(International Reference Centre for Wasets original WHO Technical Series Report No.
Disposal, 1985). It was recommended that 517. For the first time , a guideline for the
Wastewater quality for WHO should initiate revisions of its 1973 helminthic quality of treated wastewater is
irrigation use Technical Report No . 517 in collaboration introduced.
with other interested agencies, such as the The quality guideline for restricted irrigation
World Bank, the FAO and the UN Environ- is intended as production for the health of
Effluent quality criteria based on ment Programme (UNEP). On the basis of agricultural labourers but makes no al-
health requirements the tentative model for the health risks as- lowance for future improvements in the de-
1. Developments of standards and water sociated with the use of untreated waste- sign and control of irrigation system. Guide-
quality criteria for effluent reuse in irriga- water and excreta, the Engelberg Report in- lines for unrestricted irrigation are related
tion have mainly evolved from a consider- cluded recommendation for the microbio- to the need to protect the health of the con-
ation of health risks. In the United States, logical guality of treated wastewater to be sumers of crops (principally vegetables) .
state health departments or agencies respon- used for agricultural irrigation. 2. Apart from effluent quality criteria relat-
sible for reuse activities formulate policy or These recommendations were approved by ed to health, there is a need to be concerned
decide on specific projects primarily on the a subsequent meeting of experts and pro- about the quality of irrigation water in the
basis of concern about infectious agents, ac- posed as guidelines for the microbiological term of its effects on the soil and on crops.
cepting that most other constituents in
reclaimed water would pose no immediate
substantial harm in the rare case of acciden-
Table 21 Tentative microbiological quality guidelines for waste water use in agriculture(,).
tal ingestion. For example the State of Intestinal nematodes (2) Faecal coliforms
California has established standarts (Califor- Reuse process (arithmetic mean no. of viable (geometric mean no.
nia State Department of Public Health, 1968) eggs per litre) per 100 ml)
which require that the reclaimed water for
irrigating food crops at all times must be Restricted irrigation (3)
adequately disinfected and filtered,with me- Irrigation of trees, industrial crops, fodder, crops, fruits trees (4)
dian coliform count no more than 2.21100 and pasture (5) s1 not applicable (3)
m!. A World Health Organisation (WHO , Unrestricted irrigation
1973) Committee of Experts on the subject Irrigation of edible crops, sports field and public parks (6) s1 s1000(,)
recommended that crops eaten raw should
(') In specific cases. local epidemiological, socio·cultural and hydriogeological factors should be taken into account and these guidelines modified
be irrigated only with biologically treated accordingly.
effluent that had been disinfected to achieve (2) Ascaris, Trichuris and hookworms.
(3) A minimum degree of treatment equivalent to at least a 1-day anaerobic pond followed by a 5·day facultative pond and a5-day maturation pond
a coliform level of not more than 100/100 or its equivalent is required in all cases.
ml in 80 % of the samples. (') Irrigation should cease two weeks before fruit is picxed, and no fruit should be picked off the ground.
(5) Irrigation should cease two weeks before animals are allowed to graze.
However, a recent meeting in Engelberg, (s) Local epidemiological factors may require a more stringent standard (for example, < faecal coliforms/100 ml) for publics lawns, specially hotel
Switzerland, sponsored by the World Bank lawns in tourist areas.
(') When edible crops are always consumed well-cooked, this recommendation may be less stringent.
and WHO to review the health aspects of
Source: Intemational Reference Centre for Wastes Disposal (1985).
wastewater and excreta use in agriculture

51
 MEDIT W 1/92

It must be realised that it is not possible to

cover all local situations when preparing Table 3 Estimated costs for 379 ma/day waste water treatment facilities (In 1986 U.S. dollars)
water quality criteria and the approach has ('), (d).
been to present guidelines that stress the Annual energy
management needed to successfully use Capital costs Land area
System type requirement
water ofa certain quality. The exact choice $ 1,000 (b) (ha)
(1 ,000 kW.h/year) (C)
in pratice must be at the planning stage, tak-
ing account of the specific local conditions. 1. Low rate biological processes
Guidelines for evaluating irrigation water Stabilization pond
quality applicable to the local conditions en- Northern climate 531 2.0 0
countered are given by the FAO ('1\yers and Southern climate 238 1.2 0
Aerated lagoon 559 0.4 15
Westcot, 1985).
Bouwer and Idelovitch (1987) provide an 2. High rate biological processes
excellent and comprehensive coverage of Oxidation ditch 639 0.4 43
Rotating biological contactors 913 0.6 18
the quality requirements for irrigation with
sewage water. Issues other than pathogens (') After Reed and Hais with modifications.
are summarized as follows : (') Does not include raw wastewater pumping. disinfection or land cost.
- Sewage effluent usually has 200-400 mg/l (" Does not include raw wastewater pumping, preliminary treatment, disinfection or sludge treatment and disposal.
() Costs are adjusted for 1986 using the Engineering News Record Construction Cost Index.
(T.S.S.) more than the input water from the
municipal water supply.
Thus a certain amount of leaching is re-
quired. High field irrigation efficiencies as- Table 41 Effect of land value on different waste water treatment processes ('), (b).
sociated with small amounts of deep perco-
Total present value , in U.S. million dollars at given land value
lation are recommended. System type
$ 10,OOO/ha $ 50,OO/ha $ 100,OOO/ha
- Sodium and permeability hazard can be
assessed by the conventional or adjusted so- 1. Low rate biological processes
dium adsorption ratio (SAR) . However, an Stabilization pond 4.1 5.9 8.2
additional surface sealing effect and lower Aerated lagoon 6.4 8.3 10.8
infiltration rates can result from deposition 2. High rate biological processes
on the soil surface of excessive suspended Oxidation ditch 5.5 6.3 7.3
solids from waste water . Biological filter 7.4 8.4 9.9
- Nitrogen is an intriguing constituent of (Trickling filter)
municipal waste water because of its impor-
tance as a fertilizer , its adverse effect when (.) After Arthur with modifications.
(') Includes capital and operation and maintenance costs for average wastewater flow of 30,000 m'/day and present values at 12 percent discount.
too much is applied, and the various forms
in which it can be found in waste water ef-
fluent. and maintenance requirements (Arar,in reduce organic and suspended loads to limit
- Phosphorus concentration exceed crop press). pollution of the environment. Pathogen
needs when the sewage effluent is from con- The design of wastewater treatment plants removal has very rarely been an objective.
ventional treatment. has usually been based on the need to For reuse of effuents in agriculture , this must
Phosphorus leaching is then expected in
sandy soils with possible contamination of
underlying ground water.
- Trace elements in small concentration,
such as B, Cu, Fe and Zn, are essential
nutrients for plant growth but excessive
concentration of most trace elements may
have toxic effects.
- Little information is available on the be-
haviour of carcinogenic polynuclear aromat-
ic hydrocarbons (PAB) in soil, and on the
effcts of pesticides and surfactants (deter-
gents) is sewage effluent on crops and/or
soils. The European project SOVEUR and
International Conferances are presently ad-
dressing these issues.

Appropriate wastewater
treatment for agricultural use
The principal object sewage treatment is to
allow human and industrial effluents to be
disposed of without danger to human health
or unacceptable damage to the natural en-
vironment . Hence the most appropriate
wastewater treatment to be used for irriga-
tion is that which will produce an effluent
which meets the recommended microbio-
logical and chemical quality guidelines both
at low cost and with minimal operational

52
 MEDIT W 1/92

now be of primary concern and treatment

processes should be selected and designed
accordingly (Hillman, in press). Important
issues in the selection of appropriate tech-
nologies for small communities and/or de-
veloping countries include:
a) Local health concerns;
b) Required effluent quality;
c) Required treatment plant capacity;
d) Initial capital cost;
e) Operation and maintenance cost;
f) Required energy for treatment.
The order of importance of the above fac-
tors will vary with each reuse application
and use area control.
For example, aerated lagoons and stabiliza-
tion ponds can be used to treat municipal
wastewater adequately for most irrigation
purposes. Pond system also have the advan-
tage of acting as a storage reservoir for non-
irrigating seasons. A major factor to consider
when deciding whether to construct stabili-
zation ponds is the amount of land they re-
quire . If little land is available near a waste-
water source, untreated or treated waste-
water will have to be pumped to stabiliza-
tion and/or storage ponds in the closest
agricultural area. Estimated construction
cost for a 379 m3/day pond system are
compared to other forms of biological
wastewater treatment in Table 3. The land
area required for each type of system are al-
so noted. The effect of land value on differ-
ent wastewater treatment processes is grove and Asano (1984) and Kay (1988) . of suspended and dissolved substances in-
presented in Table 4. As shown, although When using wastewater as a source of irri- side the basins and from basin to basin.
stabilization ponds are often the low-cost gation, the overriding health issue stems Thus localized concentration and deep per-
option, because they are land intensive, from the exposure risk (from direct or in- colation losses ultimately cause soil and
other wastewater treatment options may be direct contact) of effluent of lower quality. ground water contamination. Therefore
more attractive or necessary, particularly for Exposure or contact risk depens among careful levelling should be carried out to
land that carried higher values (Reed and other things on the irrigation scheme and avoid surface ponding or stagnant effluent.
Hais, 1979; Arthur, 1983). system. A code of practice for desing and Under precision grading or levelling (with
From the data and discussions presented, it installation should guide the whole scheme, laser controlled equipment) and with con-
can be concluded that low-rate biological starting from wastewater effluent source to trolled water application by siphons, lay-flat
processes offer significant economic advan- the storage system then to the distribution tubes, gated pipes or by automated cable-
tages, especially for small communities. network and the labelled outlets. gation or surgeflow system (Humpherys,
Furthermore, the operation of low-rate sys- The selection of irrigation system and the 1986), the irrigation application efficiency
tem is not dependent on the availability of management of the wastewater application and distribution uniformity can reach 90%
highly skilled personel. Also, because signifi- remain our major concern and deserve fur- (Erieand Dedrick, 1979; Wattenburger and
cant reductions in pathogenic organisms can ther attention. Clyma, 1989 and Aboukhaled et ai, 1989).
be achieved in pond systems, they are well This reduces both deep percolation risks
suited for many developing countries where and high localized concentration of
water is short and resources are limited. Irrigation methods and nutrients , chemicals, pathogens and heavy
Where higher levels of treatment are need- technologies metals in the soil. This advances in surface
ed, aquatic and soil aquifer treatment sys- irrigation technologies are still very limited
tems and other more energy intensive sys- in use in most develo ping countries.
tems maybe the feasible options. A - Conventional versus improved In all cases , with surfaces methods, agricul-
surface methods tural workers should wear protective
Surface irrigation systems account for 95% clothes (shoes and gloves) and irrigation
Wastewater application and of the world's irrigated area. Misuse of should be restricted to crops other than
those consumed raw . Fruit falling on the
irrigation methods water, whether conventional or waste-
ground should not be marketed nor con-
effluent, causes soil degradation and en-
Arid and semi-arid countries are attempting vironmental problems. The FAO Regional sumed and irrigation with wastewater
more and more to integrate Wastewater in Workshop held in Bangkok (FAO, 1990) fo- should be stopped about 3 weeks before
their national water policy and plans. The cused on «Improved Irrigation Systems Per- harvesting.
role of wastewater reuse in planning is dis- formance for Sustainable Agriculture". At
cussed by Biswas (1986 In: FAO, 1988 ). the farm level , waterlosses due to deep per- B - Sprinkler irrigation methods
Translation of the national water policy and colation, seepage, poor distribution efficien- Health risks from aerosol or small droplets
planning into operational and successful cy and tail water could be reduced by im- produced by sprinkler irrigation may have
project is the real challenge. Some changes proving land levelling and controlling water been exaggerated in the past (WHO, 1979
in irrigation system design and operation re- application. Unproper land levelling always and 1989). However, a practical safety meas-
quirements have been reported by Petty- leads to uneven distribution of the water, ure is to have a buffer strip of land (100 to

53
 MEDIT W 1/92

300 meters) between the sprinkler-irrigated mostly organic parliculate (algae) were problem that must be carefully considered.
fields receving treated wastewater and the studied by Adin and Alon (1986). They con- The clogging risk remains high with waste
nearby communities, houses and roads. clude that a detachment process ofiarger par- water and therefore regular inspection and
Conventional hand operated or portable ticle aggregates leaving the filter screen maintainance are part of good management
sprinkler systems should be designed, oper- results in further clogging of drippers. and operation.
ated and managed to achieve high storage
and application efficiencies and good water
When wastewater is used as a source of water
supply the screen filtration itself should be
•
distribution uniformity . However, they are efficient (200-mesh or 75-micron filters) and
relatively labour-intensive. In certain coun- should be coupled with media-filtration References
tries sprinkler lines are moved by tractors. (gravel and sand filters) . In addition more fre-
AbukhaIed A., Fletcher E.W., Kayssi A. , M.H-AL-Assady
This reduces the number of workers in- quent back-washing and maintenance are re- and G. Abboud (1989): Introduction oJ Precision Land-
volved. Operations during low wind speed quired to remove the algae, organic and Levelling with Laser-Controlled Equipment Jor Improv-
is essential to avoid pattern distorsion, un- mineral substances. Chlorination and or ap- ing Su rJace Irrigation in Syria. UNDP/FAO/SYR/86/0 15
necessary air drifts and evaporation losses. plication of copper sulphate products will be Technical Report No-2.
Arar. A. (in press): Introduction to the Subject oJ the
This condition becomes more critical for required more than for conventional ground- Seminar. Treatment and use oJ Sewage Effluent Jor Ir-
wastewater-sprinkler application . Side-roll, waters. Adjustment of the pH by acid treat- rigation. (Ed. Pescod. M.B. and Arar. A.) Butterworths,
center-pivots, LEP A systems (low energy pre- ment is only required when chemical precipi- London.
Arthur J.P. (1983): Notes on the design and operation
cision application), linear move system, self- tat ions are expected. In all cases suspended oJ waste stabilization ponds in warm climates oJ de-
propelled giant sprinklers and other automat- solids (SS) should be removed as much as veloping countries. Washington , DC: The World Bank,
ed sprinkler system reduce significantly the possible before sewage effluenf is used, as Technical Paper No: 7.
number of operators directly involved and high concentration of SS may interfere with Asano T., Smith R.G. and Tchobanglous G. (1985):
Municipal wastewater: Treatment and reclaimed water .
thus protection measures can be enforced the flow of water in pipes , sprinklers, characteristics. In : Pettygreve , G.S. and Asson T., (ed)
and controlled more easily. The pathogen hydraulic structures particularly drip emit- Irrigation with reclained municipal wastewater - A
types in wastewater and their survival time ters. The plugging potential in drip systems Guidance Manual Chelsea, Michigan: Levis Publisher ,
Inc .
should guide the management of the system is slight to moderate with 50 to 100mg/litre Ayers R.S. and Wescot D.W. (1985): WaterqualityJor
entire soil surface and full crop canopy are of suspended solids and becomes very severe agriculture. Irrigation and Drainage Paper No-29, Rev.l,
wetted by the wastewater effluent. In arid for concentrations higher than 100 mg/litre . M.N. Food and Agriculture Organization , Roma.
regions, the «sterilization» or «purification» Biswas A. K. (1986): Role oJ wastewater reuse in plan-
ning and management. FAO (1988): 3-17.
effect of the hot, dry air is expected to be D - Sub-surface irrigation Bouwer H. and Idelovitch E. (1987): Quality require-
rapid. LEPA systems reduce direct contact, mentsJor irrigation with sewagewater. Journal of Irri-
nevertheless the risk is there and consequent- Subsurface irrigation can be achieved either gation and Drainage Engineering, vo!. 11 3: 516-535.
1y it should be assessed and safety measures by controlling the depth of an existing water Bucks D.A., Nakayama F.S. and Gilbert R.G. (1979):
table or by sub-surface irrigation system. In- Trickle irrigation, water quality and preventive main-
taken as required. tenance. Agricultural Water Management, 2: 149-162.
both cases, water is supplied to the root zone California State Department of Public Health (1968):
C - Drip and bubbler systems with minimum, if any, contact risk to agri- Statewide Standards Jor the saJe direct use oJ reclaimed
cultural workers as well as to crop foliage or wastewater Jor irrigation and recreational impound-
Under wastewater application, micro-jet and aereal organs. As such, sub-surface irrigation ments. Califo rnia Administrative Code, Title 17- Public
micro-sprinklers do produce sprays that wet Health , Berkeley.
system are most suited to wastewater irrigation. FAO (1988): Proceedings Regional Workshop on Treat-
the soil surface and the crops. The workers However, these system have their limitation. ment and Reuse oJ wastewater, Amman, Jordan , August
are exposed to contact risks during their nor- 1986. Editted by Biswas A.K. and Arar. Butterworths,
mal agricultural practices. This is less the case London.
with drip and bubbler systems, except dur-
E - Localized sub-surface irrigation FAO (1990): Regional Workshop on improved Irriga-
ing maintanance of the emitter. Bubblers are systems tion Systems PerJormance Jor Sustainable Agriculture,
Bangkok, 22-26 october.
much less sensetive to clogging than drippers Instead of being placed on the surface, Hilman P.H. (in press): Health aspects oJ reuse oJ treat-
and therefore require less maintanance. The porous seeping tubes (Viaflow), perforated ed wastewater Jor irrigation (Ed). Arar A. and Descod
M.B., Butterworths, London.
soil wetted area and direct contact risks are tube (Bi-wall) or drip laterals with slits , Humpherys A.S. (1986): AutomatedJarm surJace irri-
greatly reduced in comparison with sprinkler orifices or emitters (Geoflow systems) are gation system worldwide. International Standard Book
and surface irrigation methods. Wastewater placed below ground surface in the root No: 81-5086-13-5(ICID).
International Reference Center Wastes Disposal (1985):
is conveyed through a closed system of tubes zone . They are located at the depth of most Health aspect oJ wastewater and excreta use in agricul-
and polyethylene laterals from the source of active water uptake by the crops . Evapora- ture and aquaculture The Engelberg report , IRCWD
the effluent to the individual plants. tion losses are reduced to minimum and with News, 23, 11 -18.
However, the high concentration of suspend- proper management, deep percolation be- Maru D.D . and Cairmcross A. (1987): GuidelinesJor the
saJe use oJ Wastewater and Excretain Agriculture and
ed solids may interfere with the flow of water yond the root zone may also be controlled. Aquaculture. Measures Jor public health protection,
in pipes and emitter. Clogging of emitters be- The high potential of efficient application Un ited Nations Environment ProgrammeIWorld Health
cames a major concern. On the other hand, and uniform water distribution makes these Organization, Geneva.
Reed e.S. and Hais A.B. (1979): Cost effective use oJ
laminar flow-types are more sensitive to clog- systems attractive and appealing for the safe municipal wastewater treatment ponds. In: Gummer-
ging than turbulant flow-type emitters. use of wastewater. Underground systems are son e.G. and KalbermuttenJ.M. (eds) Appropriate tech-
A tentative water classification system was vandal proof, less exposed to direct damage nology in water supply and waste disposal. New York:
developed to establish criteria by evaluating during plant protection spraying, harvesting American Society of Civil Engineers.
WHO (1973): Reuse oJ eJfluents: Methods oJwastewater
the clogging potential of a trickle irrigation and controlled shallow soil cultivation oper- treatment and health saJeguards. Technical Report Ser-
water source (Bucks et aI. , 1979). Contribu- ations. In addition, the rolling-up of driplines ies No: 517,Geneva.
tors to clogging were classified in physical , each season is avoided. These advantages are WHO (1989): Health guidelines Jor the use oJ
chemical and biological parameters to reflect wastewater in agriculture and aquaculture. Technical
essential for waste water application as the Report Series 778,74P.
the effects of suspended solids, chemical contact risk is particularly nil. However the WHO and UNDP (1987): List oJ basic publications on
precipitation, bacteria and algae. It was stat- management aspect remains a critical issue. Community water supply and sanitation. Prepared by:
ed that: «generally, municipal waters that The operator does not «see» the emitters and International Reference Center for Community Water
Supply and Sanitation. The Hague , Netherlands.
have been filtered and chlorinated for con- therefore cannot easily provide maintenance World Health Organization (1987): Wastewater Stabili-
trolling disease-causing bacteria are the least when necessary. Double filtration and selec- zation Ponds: principles oJ planning and practice,
troublesome , but treatment of agricultural tion ofiarge orifice and/or self-flushing emit- Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office, Alexandria.
Wattenburger P.L. and Clyma (1989): Land basin design
water to this quality can be impractical and ters reduces the problem but does not and management in the absence oJ water control part
uneconomical». The clogging mechanisms of guarantee a maintenance-free operation. I.: Evaluation of Completion of advance irrigation. Trans.
filter screens caused by water containing Root intrution into the emitters is other ASAE:838-843.

54