A Viscometer is an instrument used to measure the viscosity of a fluid.

For liquids with viscosities which vary

with flow conditions a rheometer is used. Viscometers only measure under one flow condition. In general, either the fluid
remains stationary and an object moves through it, or the object is stationary and the fluid moves past it. The drag due to
relative motion between fluid layers is viscosity and the flow conditions should not be highly turbulent. Laminar flow is
needed for viscous nature to be observed. Generally there are six types of viscometers used in industry, namely: Orifice
viscometers, Capillary viscometers, Falling piston viscometers, Rotational viscometers, Falling Ball viscometers and
Vibrational viscometers. [1]
There are various factors that effect viscosity measurements while measuring it with various measurements. Some
of the main factors are temperature, viscometer glass (especially with capillary type viscometers), viscometer size, rinsing
between measurements. [2]
In our discussion we will be concentrating on Falling Ball viscometers, Capillary viscometers and Rotational
viscometers.
Falling Ball viscometers
 General Description and Principle of Operation.
These types of viscometers consist of a circular cylinder filled by the liquid that is to be analysed. A
standard ball is allowed to fall down this tube over a calibrated distance which is usually 100mm. The time taken
to fall through the afore mentioned distance is recorded and then utilized to determine the viscosity at a pre-set
temperature. The tube containing the fluid is surrounded concentrically by a tubular jacket for thermal control. The
accuracy of this type of viscometer is generally high and the result could be obtained in less time.
There are certain specifications for proper use of these types of viscometers. The optimum viscosity
range in which the obtained results are of high precision is 0.5 mPas-70000 mPa.s. The ball used is of standard
parameters. Boron Silicate Glass, Nickel-Iron and Steel are the materials of which the balls are made. Ball
diameter ranges from 11.0mm to 15.81mm. Operating temperature range is -600C to +1500C. Sample tube volume
is 40ml. [2]
The Falling Ball Viscometer is based on the measuring principle by Höppler and the Stoke’s Law for
simple precise and dynamic viscosity measurement of transparent Newtonian fluids. The basic concept is to
measure the elapsed time required for the ball to fall under gravity through the fluid under investigation. Here the
sample-filled tube is inclined at an angle (A certain model(KF30) has a fixed angle of 80 0). The tube is mounted
on a pivot bearing which quickly allows rotation of the tube 1800, and thereby allowing test runs quickly. Three
measurements are taken and the average time the ball takes to fall will be the result. Using a conversion formula
we could find the viscosity value.
 Mathematical Equations related to the Viscometer.
A falling ball viscometer has a sphere ball that falls down is assumed to be falling at its terminal velocity.
Hence the acceleration of the sphere is zero and therefore the resultant force is zero. Hence, the weight force is
compensated by the buoyant force and the viscous force acting on the sphere.

The drag force is expressed in the third term on the right side of the equal sign according to Stoke’s law, which is
valid in (1) and can be easily expressed in the following form.

Where ϒ is the specific weight, d is the diameter of

the sphere and Ut is the terminal velocity. The above equation is simplified as follows. Where ‘l’ is the length travelled
by sphere in time ‘t’.

 Industrial Applications
It is mainly used in Brewery, petroleum, polymer(for predicting the viscosity of rubber) and paint industries.
For example in the panit industry the viscous nature of paints used for emulsion and enamel types are different.
Hence in order to differentiate the types viscometers are used.

(Schematic Diagram of Falling Sphere Viscometer)

Capillary Viscometers.
 General Description and Principle of Operation.
Capillary instruments are of higher accuracy for measuring the viscosity of Newtonian fluids. During the measurement
the time for the fluid to flow by gravity from one mark in a capillary column to the second mark is measured. The time of
the flow of liquid under test is compared with the time required for the flow of known viscosity to pass between two marks.
Hence these capillary tubes produce relational results. Capillary Viscometers are divided into two types namely: The
Ostawald’s U-tube and the Ubbelohde Suspended Level. When considering the Ostawald’s U-tube viscometer, this
apparatus consists mainly of a U-tube. There are 3 distinctive markings in this instrument. One mark is near the bulb(which
is in the opposite arm of the capillary arm) and two other markings in the capillary side. The capillary arm consists of
another bulb and these two markings are marked above and below the bulb. Liquid is introduced in the viscometer using
the left arm opening until the level reaches the mark. The viscometer is fixed vertically in a thermostat. This is necessary to
avoid temperature fluctuations related to viscosity measurements. The sample volume is adjusted and the liquid is suck or
blown using a vacuum or blower into the right arm until its just above the mark B. The suction pressure is released and the
time taken from the bottom of the meniscus to fall from B to C is measured.
The Ubbelohde suspended level viscometer is a modified form of Ostawald’s viscometer. In this instrument there is a third
vertical arm attached to the bulb below the capillary part. When liquid is introduced into the viscometer through the left
arm in quantity sufficient to fill the bulb in left arm. The viscometer is fixed vertically in a thermostat.
There are certain specifications in which the capillary tube viscometers could be used for Viscosity measurements. The
Speed range (5-1000) rpm. The temperature range in which this Viscometer could be used is; (5-80)0C, Accuracy of
measurements are about 2% FSR.
 Mathematical Equations related to the Viscometer.
Q= V\t= (ΔPπr4)/8µl and therefore Q=(ρglπr4)/8µl

hence thereby re-arranging the equation;

µ=(πr4gρt)/8V

Here; V is the velocity of the flow, t- Time taken, ΔP- Pressure Difference, r-radius of the capillary, r- Radius of the
Capillary, l- Length of the Liquid column
 Industrial Applications.
Mainly used in the medical field for testing the Viscosity of blood. Here a scanning capillary viscometer is used for
analysis. This kind of capillary viscometers(Ostawalds) is different from the normal Ostawalds tube. Scanning Capillary
tube measures many shear rates at different points along the fluid(blood). Here Blood is assumed to be a Newtonian fluid.
These types of Viscometers are mainly used for determination of viscosity of fluids of known density.[3]
The main application could be found in Sugar cane industries.To determine the concentrations of the usual clarification
flocculant in water and in juices; to compare the viscosities of limed juice, clear juice and of diluted syrup.[4]

(Schematic Diagrams of Ostawalds Capillary Viscometer (left) and Ubbelohde Viscometer (right))

Rotational Viscometers
These types of viscometers are really useful for the rheological analysis of non-Newtonian fluid behaviour. This topic will
be discussed under two topics.
  General Description and Principle of Operation
The Concentric Cylinder Geometry (For Newtonian Fluids): This was the first practical rotational rheometer. Here the
sample is contained in a narrow gap between two concentric cylinders. The outer cylinder is rotating while the inner
cylinder is stationary. Due to the rotation of the outer cylinder there acts a torque “T” on the inner cylinder which is usually
suspended from a torsion wire or bar. By measuring this torque by attaching a torsion spring to the inner cylinder and
designing an appropriate scale, with the aid of other mathematical formulae Viscosity could be measured. There are certain
drawbacks related to the instrument. The determination of Shear stress and Shear rate is valid for a narrow range of values.
Several design has been put forward to overcome the end-effects due to the shear flow at the bottom of the concentric
cylinder geometry. A good example is the “Mooney-Ewart” design which features a conical bottom. To minimise the end-
effects the lower end of the inner cylinder is a truncated cone. The main sources of error related to these types viscometers
are wall slips, inertia and secondary flows, viscous heating effects and eccentricities due to misalignment of geometry.
The Wide-Gap rotational Viscometer (For Non-Newtonian Fluids): The narrow gap between the cylinders is the factor
that doesn’t allow above type of Rotational Viscometers to measure viscosity of Non-Newtonian fluids. Many of the fluids
which are encountered in the industry require large gap size to ensure constant shear rate within the gap (Shear rates can
only be made if the shear rate is constant throughout the shearing gap).
 Mathematical Equations related to the Viscometer
The viscous force acting on the inner cylinder would give us a reading through a scale attached to it. This could be
modelled as shear stress acting on a rotating disc (this could be thought of like this; the cylinder itself is made up of many
discs aligned on top of the other.)
The F in the above proof gives the force acting on the unit length or the height of the cylinder. For the Wide gap rotational
viscometer the angular velocity has to be determined through integration since it deals with Non-Newtonian fluids. (The
above proof was hand-written by me).
For Non-Newtonian Fluids the Angular velocity has to be integrated(w.r.t radius) as shown below and to be substituted in
the Unit force equation.

 Industrial Applications
These types of viscometers are mainly used for the measurement of viscosity in fluids that are of industrial interests such as
pastes, suspensions and foods(normally fluids that have aggregates of particles). The main application is related to Food
processing industry.

(A Schematic Diagram of a Rotational Viscometer)

REFERENCES:

[1] “Viscometer”.[Online]. Availabe: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscometer [Accessed Date:27-Mar-2019]

[2] “Anatomy of a Viscometer”.[Online]. Available:

https://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/29451/anatomy-of-viscometer [Accessed Date: 27-Mar-
2019]

[3] “RHEOVECTOR – Scanning Capillary Viscometry”.[Online]. Available:

http://www.rheovector.com/blood-viscosity/our-methodology/scanning-capillary-viscometry [Accessed
Date: 27-Mar-2019]

[4] “Research Gate- Application of Capillary Viscometer in Sugar Cane Industries.”[Online]. Available:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267224006_APPLICATIONS_OF_CAPILLARY_VISCOMETRY_I
N_CANE_SUGAR_FACTORIES [Accessed Date: 27-Mar-2019]