Stability Offers Unique Opportunity For Research: Latin America

science in latin america
In any conversation with scientists in
Stability offers unique almost any Latin American country, two

problems come up again and again: lack of
resources and slow access to materials. Both
opportunity for research may ease over time, with economic growth
and the lifting of customs barriers, respective
ly. But both are largely beyond the control of
either the scientists or the science ministries.
Colin Macilwain
Five problems to be confronted
n 13 January this year, Brazil suffered a much of this industry was essentially For the scientific community itself, there are
O shock which, if you listen to some

commentators abroad, shook it to its
very core. In São Paulo the following week,
uncompetitive, and when exposed to the
winds of international competition, it col
lapsed. Factories and enterprises have been
some more accessible problems that need to
be tackled. In ascending order of difficulty,
these are: a reluctance to accept outside peer
however, the locals were unfazed. By Latin sold to multinational corporations who are review; the lack of regional integration in sci
American standards, a devaluation of 25 per modernizing them with technology import ence; scientists’ grudging acceptance of the
cent (later 45 per cent) is not much to get ed from abroad. Home-grown science and free market; the pressing need for university
excited about. In the bustle of São Paulo’s technology has yet to establish its role in this reform; and a failure to acknowledge the
business district, in its universities and med new arrangement. importance of intellectual property rights in
ical schools, in the halls of Congress and gov At organizations such as the World Bank modern research.
ernment buildings across Latin America, and the Inter-American Development Bank, Peer review in the countries that account
and, most significantly of all, in the military which strongly influence science policy in for most scientific activity in the region is basi
barracks, life continues much as it did before. the region, economists have generally cally honest. However, in today’s world of
That new stability is the story of Latin responded to the change by advocating more intense specialization, most scientific sub
America at the approach of the millennium. emphasis on technology development, and disciplines in Brazil, never mind in the smaller
For the first time since the nations of the less on scientific research. Political leaders, countries in the region, are simply too small
region were founded by Spanish and Por from the science ministers of Brazil and and close-knit to allow for objective peer
tuguese colonists, most enjoy the political Argentina down, are lecturing scientists review from within.
and economic conditions that could enable about the importance of ‘applications’. Yet when it is suggested that experts based
science to prosper. Although some of the In a manner familiar to students of the his abroad should be involved in peer-reviewing
military governments that used to govern in tory of ‘development’ in the Third World, this grant proposals, some scientists respond as
the region were quite generous to science — idea is being dispensed several years after it has though their country’s sovereignty were being
the last Brazilian regime of the early 1980s, fallen out of fashion in the United States, impugned. In fact, international peer review is
for example — their hostility to free thought where basic research is the government’s top a valuable, inexpensive tool for improving the
in general and to universities in particular priority, and in Europe, where ‘applied quality of scientific programmes.
made it impossible for this to happen. research’ efforts such as the early Framework Most senior scientists in the region were
programmes have scored few notable success trained in the United States or Europe and it
Political transformation es in spawning industrial innovation. is there that they turn first to build scientific
Although concerned about money, dilapi Fortunately, there is a second strand run collaboration. “Usually our links are with
dated campuses and the slow delivery of ning through science policy in the region: the powerful institutions in the United States or
materials, scientists in the region have an advent of a more ruthless and élitist in Europe,” says José Maza, head of astrono
unrivalled opportunity to improve their sit approach to selecting scientists for support. my at the University of Chile, who points out
uation. The fall of the military dictatorships Whereas governments once sought to that collaboration between two developing
in Argentina, Brazil, Chile and elsewhere, expand their scientific communities by dis countries is more difficult to accomplish: “It
and the gradual unravelling of Mexico’s de tributing money as widely as possible, they is hard to coordinate things when you have
facto one-party state, have been followed by a are becoming more willing to upset the problems at both ends of the line.”
period of relative economic and political apple-cart and back the people who are really This lack of collaboration within the
stability. Notwithstanding the recent travails doing good work. Argentina, Chile and the region — which governments counter with
of the Brazilian réal, this stability gives long federal government in Brazil all have efforts words, but little action — is needlessly
term enterprises, such as scientific research, underway that provide fairly impressive constraining the development of better
a greater opportunity to prosper. resources to small numbers of investigators. human networks that could increase the
Yet among scientists in the region, there is The Howard Hughes Medical Institute, competence and confidence of the region’s
no universal recognition that such an oppor based in the United States, has singled out a best research groups, all of whom complain
tunity exists. Most of the larger nations there small group of 27 of the best life scientists in of their isolation.
have enjoyed impressive economic growth the region for substantial support for five Many scientists, as well as politicians,
over the past ten years, but intellectuals, years. A Chilean proposal for Millennium assume that more economic integration,
including scientists, tend to deride this Institutes would take the principle even predominately through the trade group
achievement. In particular, they regret the further, assuring long-term and generous Mercosur, has to come before greater scien
passing of the large, self-sufficient but support for a very small number of interna tific integration. But scientists could act now.
woefully uncompetitive industrial base that tionally selected groups. “We should look at the continent as a unit
existed behind the trade barriers of the old With governments pushing for applied scientifically,” says Francisco Claro, the dean
Latin American economy. science and taking a more selective approach of research at the Catholic University in
The role of science and technology was to basic research, some scientists are clearly Santiago, Chile, stressing the inclusion of
clear in that economy: science would sup feeling the squeeze. However, the total Mexico in such a strategy. “Science could be
port the technology which would build a investment in basic science, although diffi the success story for integration.”
domestic industrial base which would haul cult to measure and subject to short-term The free-market ideology that has,
the region into the developed world. But fluctuation, has been increasing gradually. depending on how you look at it, either been
A4 NATURE | VOL 398 | SUPP | 1 APRIL 1999 | www.nature.com
© 2002 Nature Publishing Group

SOURCE: INTERAMERICAN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY INDICATORS 1997 (1996 FIGURES EXCEPT MEXICO, 1995) science in latin america
Cuba 421
Cuba $87m
M exic o
$886m Mexico
3820
Costa Costa-
Ric a Rica Venezuela
249 886
$108m Ve ne z ue l a
$204m Panama
Pa n a m a 144
$31m
Columbia
Co l umbi a 459
$351 m
Ecuador
82 Brazil
E cuad or Per u 7401
$14 m Brazi l $5484m 180
Bol i vi a
$2 4 m Bolivia
60
Uruguay
245
Urug uay
$54m Chile
Costa
Rica 1739
Chile Panama Venezuela Guyana
Surinam
$457m Columbia
French Guyana
Argentina
Ecuador
3820
Arge nti na
$113 6 m Brazil
Peru
Bolivia
Paraguay
Chile
Uruguay
Argentina
Brazil, with its large industrial base, claims to spend far more . . . but in terms of scientific papers published in ISI
on R&D than the rest of the region combined . . . journals, other countries muster a strong presence.
imposed upon the region by the United extent to which they are surrounded by United States and are frustrated by the day
States since the end of the Cold War, or been people who do nothing but draw a salary. As to-day challenges they now face. But the
implemented by its newly democratic gov democracy solidifies, it will become possible opportunity that they have as a community is
ernments, has been no more warmly wel for university administrators to do some real and, despite Brazil’s devaluation, unpar
comed by academics in the region than it was thing about this without their actions being alleled in Latin America’s history. This is best
by dons at Oxford, when they famously equated with those of military thugs. In the grasped, perhaps, by those young enough to
refused to grant Margaret Thatcher the meantime, a steady increase in the methodi lack cynicism, or old enough to know how
honorary degree to which British prime cal evaluation of university departments much things have already improved.
ministers are accustomed. (being pioneered at both the University of Moyses Nussenzweig, a veteran physicist
It is understandable, and indeed neces São Paulo and Mexico’s National at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro,
sary, that academic scientists are resisting Autonomous University), and the encour has had extensive input into the country’s
free-market rhetoric to the effect that indus agement of a greater diversity of research uni science policy since returning there in 1975
try, and not government, should pay for versities, both public and private, will help to after 12 years in the United States. He never
university research. “This is nonsense,” as create a healthier research environment. regretted going back, and looks to the future
Leopoldo de Meis, a prominent biologist at Finally, that environment will require with determined optimism. Nussenzweig
the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, rapid progress towards a recognition of has witnessed the progress already made: he
points out. “Even MIT gets 85 per cent of its intellectual property rights and their impor has seen the physics community expand dra
research funds from the government.” How tance in modern research. Brazil produces matically, to perhaps 2,000 physicists, and
ever, there remains a truculent anti about 1 per cent of the science published in the percentage of Brazilian papers in Physical
commercial bias in the universities which, international journals — the same propor Review Letters double in the past ten years.
until it dissipates, is going to constrain their tion as Korea. But whereas Korea also gener Science in Brazil, he says, “has become much
relevance to the world beyond their gates. ates 1 per cent of all of the patents filed at the more professional.”
And it is not just anti-commercial senti United States patent office, Brazil files one His determination is shared by the young
ment that threatens the position of the fiftieth of 1 per cent. The biggest research men and women who will carry the banner
research universities of Latin America. Some university in Mexico has appointed a chief forward for science in the region. “It’s not so
of the institutions themselves are chiefly patent officer (see page A7), but he expects good here,” admits Diego Comerci, a gradu
dedicated not to research or to teaching, but scientists to fund patent applications from ate student at the Institute of Biotechnology
to self-preservation. their own pockets — even though the at the National University of General San
In countries that have never enjoyed patents will be held by the university. Martín in Buenos Aires. “There are great
genuine and stable democracy, it is of course Many scientists in Latin America will read difficulties in doing science, economic
necessary for the universities to jealously pro all this and say: fine and good, but none of it is problems and problems with national poli
tect their autonomy. But hard-working staff going to change. A lot of them were educated tics. But I think that things will change. We
at the universities themselves now resent the in the wealthy research universities of the will fight to change them.”
NATURE | VOL 398 | SUPP | 1 APRIL 1999 | www.nature.com A5
© 2002 Nature Publishing Group

Scientists see� support

fro� �e�ican public
Laura Garwin
L
ast year, Luis Herrera-Estrella thought neur. As one astronomer put it, “Here, to use says Miguel José Yacaman, the director of the
he saw an opportunity to use his your brain is respected; to use your hands is Ministry of Energy’s institute for nuclear
science to contribute to Mexico’s not.” For a university scientist to have links research. “Firms can’t wait for a scientist to
economy. Herrera-Estrella, a plant biotech with industry is to risk the charge of “prosti take two years to modernize a plant — so they
nologist at the Centre for Research and tution” from colleagues; traditionally, just buy technology from the United States.”
Advanced Studies of the National university contracts allow only minimal time
Polytechnic Institute (CINVESTAV), was for consulting or other outside work. Forging new links with industry
one of several scientists invited to a meeting Moreover, a large proportion (sometimes With increasingly widespread recognition of
with tequila producers. The subject: the over 50 per cent) of a scientist’s salary can the need for scientists to show that they can
country’s dwindling populations of agave, come from supplements — administered by solve practical problems, programmes are
the plant used to make tequila. Although research institutions and by CONACYT — emerging throughout the research establish
Mexican exports of tequila have soared, that are tied closely to the number of publica ment to facilitate closer ties with industry.
agaves have been succumbing to disease, and tions in international, refereed journals. For example, the rector of the National
the tequila producers decided to seek help Doing proprietary work for industry is often Autonomous University (UNAM), Francis
from scientists. incompatible with publication, and — as co Barnés, has established a university liaison
At the meeting, organized by Mexico’s one applied physicist put it — “not many office, to foster collaborative research on
research council, CONACYT, Herrera- international journals will accept papers on problems that are important for national
Estrella told the producers that for the problems of Mexican industry.” development. Barnés — who himself has
US$500,000 he could develop transgenic On the side of industry, there is no strong links with industry, having previously been
agave plants that would be resistant to tradition of investing in research and devel the director of the Ministry of Energy’s
disease. Moreover, CONACYT would pay opment (R&D), either in-house or in the petroleum research institute (IMP) — was
half the cost. The offer was a bargain: the universities. Until the early 1980s, Mexico also instrumental in setting up a new
producers had previously approached scien had an industrial policy of state ownership National Laboratory for Rheology and
tists at a well-known US agricultural and protectionism, giving Mexican industry Applied Mechanics, jointly funded by
biotechnology company, who had said that if little incentive to invest in innovation. Now UNAM and the IMP. This laboratory, which
they were interested in the project — which firms are interested in modernizing their will work on problems related to the
wasn’t certain — it would cost the producers technology, but are more likely to turn to exploitation of petroleum and underground
more than $20 million. foreign companies for assistance. water resources, is expected to inspire
But the producers rejected Herrera- “We haven’t been able to convince Mexi successors, addressing other problems of
Estrella’s offer — in his words, “they said I can industry that we can produce technology national importance.
was crazy to ask for half a million” — despite with the speed and quality that they need,” Meanwhile, CONACYT plans this year to
knowing that a US scientist would charge
CINVESTAV-IPN
much more for the same service, and despite
the fact that $200 million a year in exports
was at stake. “Industrialists think that
because we’re Mexicans, we should charge
what Mexican labourers charge,” says a
physicist who has found himself in a similar
situation. “They would rather pay more for
something ‘safe’, from abroad.”
A history of science in isolation

This lack of confidence in the country’s own
scientists pervades Mexican industry and is
one of the many hurdles that Mexican
science must overcome if it is to be treated as
a tool for the country’s development, rather
than as an optional extra. Many scientists feel
that, despite President Ernesto Zedillo’s
repeated public assurances of the impor
tance of science and technology, there is no
real acceptance of this importance by those
in power, or by the wider public.
Part of the problem is cultural. Mexico
has inherited the European tradition of
scientist as academician, rather than the US This pilot fermentation plant for producing yeast from molasses was built at CINVESTAV in 1990 —
model of scientist as inventor and entrepre a time when, one physicist says, “the government wanted to transform universities into factories”.
remove the salary disincentive for doing Source� �O��

applied research, by broadening the qualifi ��
cation criteria for its salary supplement

��
scheme to include patents, contracts with
�ercenta�e chan�e fro� pre�ious year

industry, new software and the like, as well as
��
peer-reviewed publications.
CONACYT is also trying to promote
��
applied research through its system of 27
research centres, funded by the Ministry of
��
Education (SEP). “Our main concern is to
show society that science can be applied, so �
people will understand the power of science
and technology,” says Alfonso Serrano, an ��
astrophysicist who is CONACYT’s associate
director for the SEP–CONACYT centres. ��
Last year, scientists in the centres did work
for 9,000 companies, Serrano says, and ��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
��
30–40 per cent of the total budget of the
system came from external sources.
Serrano is proud that in 1997, one of the Funding for research projects from Mexico’s CONACYT has been subject to fluctuations.
SEP–CONACYT centres (the Applied
Chemistry Research Centre, in Saltillo) sub creation and strengthening of university built a production plant, and had started to
mitted seven Mexican patent applications — outreach units. develop processes to make human food from
as many as were generated by the 1,100 Traditionally, most Mexican scientists the yeast, when government policy changed.
research scientists of UNAM. This may say have been wary of government attempts to In 1991, the government and the unions sold
less about the inventiveness of UNAM scien direct research towards national needs — the sugar companies, and the new owners
tists than about the bureaucratic difficulties with only about 6,000 full-time researchers, were not interested in de la Torre’s plants, so
they have faced in trying to patent their work one argument goes, the community is too the technology went no further.
— one UNAM physicist tells of an applica small to focus on anything other than excel Furthermore, the government was no
tion that sat on a desk in the university patent lence in research, and training young scien longer interested in having scientists work
office for three years. tists. The reaction against targeted research with industry. Now, the pendulum has
CINVESTAV, Mexico’s other top research has probably been strengthened by some swung back again, in a process that de la
institution, with around 530 research rather heavy-handed government policies in Torre thinks is destructive to the research
scientists, has a similarly small number of the past. Julio Mendoza, a physicist at enterprise. “From 1991 to 1998, the govern
patents — only 30 Mexican ones granted CINVESTAV who works on optoelectronics, ment worried about excellence in research —
since 1970, and three applied for in 1997. But remembers when, in the 1980s, “the govern publications in international journals and the
the director of CINVESTAV’s planning ment wanted to transform universities into Science Citation Index,” she says. “Now they
office, Manuel Méndez, hopes to increase factories,” with pilot plants on university want academics and industry to work togeth
this activity and plans to create a “proper campuses. “People had trouble adjusting,” er again. We don’t have any equilibrium.”
technology transfer office”, to help the cen says Mendoza, “so they just put their heads
tre’s scientists in their dealings with industry. down until times got better.” Stabilizing the policy swings
Mayra de la Torre, a biotechnologist at One source of disequilibrium is the Mexican
Funding collaboration CINVESTAV, also remembers the time of the electoral system, which promotes disconti
All of these efforts to promote ties between pilot plants. In 1984, the centre’s director nuity by forbidding the re-election of presi
academia and industry will receive a sub recalled her to Mexico from a postdoctoral dents and members of Congress. Officials at
stantial boost from a $300 million loan to fellowship in Zürich, to design and build a CONACYT hope that the Knowledge and
Mexico from the World Bank, approved last fermentation pilot plant. Then, encouraged Innovation Project will lend some stability,
June. The loan, together with $210 million by the director to sign contracts with indus not only by the infusion of hard currency, but
from the Mexican government and $150 mil try, she undertook a project for the labour also because its span (1998–2003) bridges
lion from the Mexican private sector, will be unions of the sugar industry, to develop two presidential terms. CONACYT has also
used to finance a five-year Knowledge and alternative uses for sugar cane. Over five damped a potential pendulum swing
Innovation Project, which will constitute years, she developed a high-productivity between basic and applied science by resist
about one-third of CONACYT’s funding process for making yeast from molasses, ing pressure from the World Bank to devote a
during that period.
Mexican organizations Non-Mexican organizations
About 60 per cent of the project’s $660
million total cost will be spent on furthering
�atent applications in ��
�e�� etrol� �nst�
�on�u�e� �nc�
�nst� �lec� �es�
�ppl� �he�� es� �entre
��
�roctor � �a�ble
��
��S�
�i�berly �lar�
�ayer
the links between academia and industry, ��

and on technology support for firms; the rest
will fund academic research, but with a ��
portion reserved for fields of ‘high scientific,
economic and/or social relevance to Mexico’. ��
The component of linkage will include the
��
restructuring of most of the SEP–

CONACYT research centres, to encourage
�
them to raise more funds from the private
sector; the support of joint academic–
industrial applied research projects; and the Mexican patent applications from Mexican organizations are dwarfed by applications from abroad.
greater proportion of the project’s funds to

applied science. Centre fights fixation with basic research
Another force for stability comes from a

recently formed alliance among CONACYT The challenge of combining high-quality the greenhouse, but there have been
and two bodies representing the scientific basic research with a mission to address problems with their ecology, and their
community: the president’s Science the country’s wider needs is embodied in survival in the field.”
Advisory Council (CCC) and the Mexican the experience of UNAM’s Nitrogen But some plant biologists from other
Academy of Sciences. This alliance produced Fixation Research Centre, in Cuernavaca. Mexican institutes think that the centre’s
the text of legislation overhauling Mexico’s The centre was founded in 1980 with the scientists have been too consumed with
system of research funding (see Nature 397, aim of studying the molecular basis of striving for academic excellence to pay
553; 1999), and also helped to obtain a 1997 biological nitrogen fixation, and applying attention to applied research. “They had
presidential decree exempting research this knowledge to improve agriculture. the philosophy that applied research is not
materials from import taxes. For the Mexican farmer, fertilizer is good for science,” says one. Another, who is
CONACYT itself seems to have a pro expensive to buy and transport, and its disappointed that the centre has not done
gramme — often newly minted — to address overuse is a significant environmental more to help farmers, expresses a similar
almost any gripe that one hears from the problem. Fertilizer use could be greatly view: “They are excellent scientists. They
community. Do young scientists have reduced if the symbiosis between legumes could do better if they would just focus
difficulty setting up laboratories? Last year, and nitrogen-fixing bacteria could be their brilliant brains on applications.”
CONACYT set up a programme of infra improved or extended to crop plants other Hernández, who became the centre’s
structure grants for young scientists. Is peer than legumes. And ultimately, if genetic director two years ago, acknowledges that
review within Mexico inadequate? CONA- engineering could give plants their own most of its founding scientists had little or
CYT is considering increasing the number of nitrogen-fixing apparatus, the need for no experience of applied research. But she
reviews from Spanish-speaking scientists bacteria could be eliminated. insists that what others interpret as a lack
abroad. Do new fields have trouble gaining a In basic science, the centre has fulfilled of interest in applications was instead a
foothold? The Knowledge and Innovation its promise: its scientists have made reluctance to undertake applied projects
Project has a special programme of support important contributions to understanding that did not have a solid grounding in
for emerging fields. the dynamics of the bacterial genome, the fundamental research.
taxonomy of the bacterium Rhizobium and Whatever the reason for past
Escaping a vicious circle the carbon and nitrogen metabolism of reluctance, Hernández has been improving
But as well-intentioned and energetic as bacteria and their host plants. As of the the balance between basic and applied
CONACYT officials may be, they can do little end of 1997, the centre — which currently research by encouraging collaborations
in the short term about the problem that has 12 full professors and 14 assistant with agronomists and growers. For
surfaces in just about every conversation professors — had contributed 130 papers example, strains of Rhizobium etli that
with a Mexican scientist — the small size of to international journals, with about 2,200 have been genetically engineered to fix
the Mexican research community. In a coun citations. more nitrogen are being tested as
try of almost 100 million people, to have only So far, however, these discoveries have inoculants of different bean varieties
around 4,500 researchers in natural sciences not been accompanied by corresponding grown in Mexico, in field trials organized
and engineering is unfortunate, but to be improvements in Mexican agriculture. Part jointly with INIFAP, the Ministry of
producing only about 300 PhDs a year in of the problem, says the centre’s director, Agriculture’s research institute.
these fields is simply depressing. Many scien Georgina Hernández, is slow overall In another new project, scientists from
tists identify a vicious circle, comprising a progress in this area of research. “What the centre are studying free-living
research community that is too small to solve people thought would be possible 15 years nitrogen-fixing bacteria that associate with
national problems, leading to a lack of public ago turned out not to be so easy,” she says. non-leguminous plants, such as sugar
support for science, “Genetically cane. A group of sugar cane producers is
UNAM
which in turn pre engineered bacteria funding work to identify varieties that can
vents growth of the have performed better derive sufficient nitrogen from bacteria to
community. in the laboratory and grow with little or no applied fertilizer.
President Zedil
lo’s administration, two-thirds of R&D crisis of 1982–83, which led to an exodus of
and the World Bank, spending.) This would scientists that is still apparent today, as a ‘lost
are hoping that pri require a quintupling generation’ of researchers. Mexican politics
vate-sector invest of industrial spending, is more democratic and less corrupt than it
ment in R&D, relative to GDP, with has ever been — conditions that bode well
coaxed into life by A greater focus on farming is sought by only a 50 per cent for the stability that science needs to flourish.
the Knowledge and UNAM’s nitrogen fixation centre. increase in govern Ultimately, however, the success of the
Innovation Project, ment spending. R&D scientific enterprise in Mexico will depend
will provide the missing ingredient that spending figures are not yet available for the on the ability of Mexican scientists — by
turns the vicious circle into a virtuous one. years after 1995, but there is no sign that any words and deeds — to convince not just the
The administration’s six-year plan for sci such industrial kick-start has occurred. government, but also the Mexican public,
ence and technology made a commitment to If optimists foresee a virtuous circle, that scientific research is as important to the
increasing R&D spending from 0.32 per cent pessimists recall the roller-coaster of past country’s well-being as education, health or
of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 1995 economic crises, together with the unpre social justice. In the words of René Drucker-
to 0.7 per cent in 2000 — but it envisaged that dictable swings of government policy. But Colín, a neurophysiologist at UNAM, “the
additional spending by industry would there are reasons to hope that the future will Argentinian Nobel prizewinner Bernardo
account for two-thirds of this increase, rising be different. Although the economic crisis of Alberto Houssay said that Argentina was too
from 18 to 45 per cent of total R&D spending. 1994 is still taking its toll on R&D spending, poor to have the luxury of not investing in
(In the United States, industry accounts for the effects have been nothing like those of the science. The same applies here.”
greater proportion of the project’s funds to

applied science. Centre fights fixation with basic research
Another force for stability comes from a

recently formed alliance among CONACYT The challenge of combining high-quality the greenhouse, but there have been
and two bodies representing the scientific basic research with a mission to address problems with their ecology, and their
community: the president’s Science the country’s wider needs is embodied in survival in the field.”
Advisory Council (CCC) and the Mexican the experience of UNAM’s Nitrogen But some plant biologists from other
Academy of Sciences. This alliance produced Fixation Research Centre, in Cuernavaca. Mexican institutes think that the centre’s
the text of legislation overhauling Mexico’s The centre was founded in 1980 with the scientists have been too consumed with
system of research funding (see Nature 397, aim of studying the molecular basis of striving for academic excellence to pay
553; 1999), and also helped to obtain a 1997 biological nitrogen fixation, and applying attention to applied research. “They had
presidential decree exempting research this knowledge to improve agriculture. the philosophy that applied research is not
materials from import taxes. For the Mexican farmer, fertilizer is good for science,” says one. Another, who is
CONACYT itself seems to have a pro expensive to buy and transport, and its disappointed that the centre has not done
gramme — often newly minted — to address overuse is a significant environmental more to help farmers, expresses a similar
almost any gripe that one hears from the problem. Fertilizer use could be greatly view: “They are excellent scientists. They
community. Do young scientists have reduced if the symbiosis between legumes could do better if they would just focus
difficulty setting up laboratories? Last year, and nitrogen-fixing bacteria could be their brilliant brains on applications.”
CONACYT set up a programme of infra improved or extended to crop plants other Hernández, who became the centre’s
structure grants for young scientists. Is peer than legumes. And ultimately, if genetic director two years ago, acknowledges that
review within Mexico inadequate? CONA- engineering could give plants their own most of its founding scientists had little or
CYT is considering increasing the number of nitrogen-fixing apparatus, the need for no experience of applied research. But she
reviews from Spanish-speaking scientists bacteria could be eliminated. insists that what others interpret as a lack
abroad. Do new fields have trouble gaining a In basic science, the centre has fulfilled of interest in applications was instead a
foothold? The Knowledge and Innovation its promise: its scientists have made reluctance to undertake applied projects
Project has a special programme of support important contributions to understanding that did not have a solid grounding in
for emerging fields. the dynamics of the bacterial genome, the fundamental research.
taxonomy of the bacterium Rhizobium and Whatever the reason for past
Escaping a vicious circle the carbon and nitrogen metabolism of reluctance, Hernández has been improving
But as well-intentioned and energetic as bacteria and their host plants. As of the the balance between basic and applied
CONACYT officials may be, they can do little end of 1997, the centre — which currently research by encouraging collaborations
in the short term about the problem that has 12 full professors and 14 assistant with agronomists and growers. For
surfaces in just about every conversation professors — had contributed 130 papers example, strains of Rhizobium etli that
with a Mexican scientist — the small size of to international journals, with about 2,200 have been genetically engineered to fix
the Mexican research community. In a coun citations. more nitrogen are being tested as
try of almost 100 million people, to have only So far, however, these discoveries have inoculants of different bean varieties
around 4,500 researchers in natural sciences not been accompanied by corresponding grown in Mexico, in field trials organized
and engineering is unfortunate, but to be improvements in Mexican agriculture. Part jointly with INIFAP, the Ministry of
producing only about 300 PhDs a year in of the problem, says the centre’s director, Agriculture’s research institute.
these fields is simply depressing. Many scien Georgina Hernández, is slow overall In another new project, scientists from
tists identify a vicious circle, comprising a progress in this area of research. “What the centre are studying free-living
research community that is too small to solve people thought would be possible 15 years nitrogen-fixing bacteria that associate with
national problems, leading to a lack of public ago turned out not to be so easy,” she says. non-leguminous plants, such as sugar
support for science, “Genetically cane. A group of sugar cane producers is
UNAM
which in turn pre engineered bacteria funding work to identify varieties that can
vents growth of the have performed better derive sufficient nitrogen from bacteria to
community. in the laboratory and grow with little or no applied fertilizer.
President Zedil
lo’s administration, two-thirds of R&D crisis of 1982–83, which led to an exodus of
and the World Bank, spending.) This would scientists that is still apparent today, as a ‘lost
are hoping that pri require a quintupling generation’ of researchers. Mexican politics
vate-sector invest of industrial spending, is more democratic and less corrupt than it
ment in R&D, relative to GDP, with has ever been — conditions that bode well
coaxed into life by A greater focus on farming is sought by only a 50 per cent for the stability that science needs to flourish.
the Knowledge and UNAM’s nitrogen fixation centre. increase in govern Ultimately, however, the success of the
Innovation Project, ment spending. R&D scientific enterprise in Mexico will depend
will provide the missing ingredient that spending figures are not yet available for the on the ability of Mexican scientists — by
turns the vicious circle into a virtuous one. years after 1995, but there is no sign that any words and deeds — to convince not just the
The administration’s six-year plan for sci such industrial kick-start has occurred. government, but also the Mexican public,
ence and technology made a commitment to If optimists foresee a virtuous circle, that scientific research is as important to the
increasing R&D spending from 0.32 per cent pessimists recall the roller-coaster of past country’s well-being as education, health or
of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 1995 economic crises, together with the unpre social justice. In the words of René Drucker-
to 0.7 per cent in 2000 — but it envisaged that dictable swings of government policy. But Colín, a neurophysiologist at UNAM, “the
additional spending by industry would there are reasons to hope that the future will Argentinian Nobel prizewinner Bernardo
account for two-thirds of this increase, rising be different. Although the economic crisis of Alberto Houssay said that Argentina was too
from 18 to 45 per cent of total R&D spending. 1994 is still taking its toll on R&D spending, poor to have the luxury of not investing in
(In the United States, industry accounts for the effects have been nothing like those of the science. The same applies here.”
mar Foundation in Buenos Aires, who
�� recently waited all of 18 months for delivery

of an incubator.
The two principal Chilean research uni
�� versities have each established beachheads in

the United States, to assist with the move-
ment of materials. Scientists at the Catholic
University often get colleagues in the United
Colin Macilwain
States to donate material to a company based
in Miami, which then arranges fast delivery
ven for those fortunate scientists in through a contract with the university.
ROBERT HARDING PICTURE LIBRARY

� Latin America who manage to obtain
adequate funding, have bright gradu
ate students to work with and fast Internet
The University of Chile, meanwhile, has
established an office of its own in Washing
ton, called University International
links connecting them to the world of sci Exchange, which although devoted chiefly to
ence, a major obstacle remains on the road to scientific exchange or collaboration, also
first-rate research: fast access to equipment helps some university scientists to receive
and materials. donated supplies and equipment from the
Scientists in all disciplines in most coun United States.
tries in the region complain about the time it In Mexico, some scientists envisaged the
takes to process major items of research situation improving after the country joined
equipment through customs. Often their the North American Free Trade Association
problem is persuading every level of the (NAFTA) in 1994. “We were all very happy
customs bureaucracy that the item to be about NAFTA and had high expectations,”
imported is duty free. Simply paying the duty says Carlos Arias of the National
is not usually an option, because funding Autonomous University’s Institute of
agencies refuse to cover the cost of taxes that Biotechnology, in Cuernavaca. “But things
should not have been paid. haven’t changed that much. Sometimes by
But it is biologists, who depend heavily the time items arrive, we forget what we
on perishable reagents, including cultures, wanted them for.”
bacteria and tissue samples, who are most
severely affected. Desperation often drives Office at airport
the region’s life scientists — not to mention CONACYT, the Mexican research council,
their colleagues at US or European universi has an office at Mexico City airport to help
ties, and even their family members on vaca ment. “What people are doing,” says one of expedite supplies, but some scientists are
tion — to hide materials in their luggage them, “is smuggling.” unaware of its existence. In addition to inflat
before making a trip south. Franklin Rumjanek, head of biochem ed prices and delays of weeks or even months
istry at the Federal University of Rio de for most imported reagents, Mexican scien
Supplies “always late” Janeiro (FURJ), says he feels defrauded by tists report particular problems obtaining
The extent of the problem varies across the representatives of supply companies who chemicals whose movement is restricted by
Latin America, but its underlying effect is bring reagents into the country and charge the US Drug Enforcement Agency.
fairly uniform. Imported supplies are always “at least twice” the price they would charge in Although most scientists in Latin Ameri
late, and, if supplied locally, their prices are the United States. Rumjanek does not pre ca believe that problems with obtaining
inflated to about twice US levels. Biologists dict any bureaucratic solution to the prob reagents are a significant hindrance, some of
learn to plan their work around the lem: the only way around it, he says, is for the the more experienced ones say that these
uncertain time delays. But their research reagents to be produced in Brazil. complaints are overblown. Ricardo Uauy, for
institutions can make a major difference: George dos Reis, a biophysicist at FURJ, example, director of the Institute of Nutri
many have specific offices dedicated to deal says that it can take six to nine months to tion and Food Technology (INTA) at the
ing with customs, and some have established order some supplies, and also complains University of Chile, says that researchers can
offices in the United States. Institutions keep about inflated prices of locally available get what they need. Ricardo Brentani,
as strong an inventory of reagents as they can reagents. “It has always been like that,” he director of the Ludwig Institute in São Paulo,
afford. says. “It’s a big limitation.” bluntly rejects the assertion that materials
“You just have to plan in advance,” says In Argentina, delays reported at customs supply is holding back Brazilian science: he
Igor Polikarpov, head of protein crystallog are a little less severe. “We can get items out of suggests that some researchers use it as an
raphy at Brazil’s national synchrotron light customs in two or three days,” says Carlos excuse for bad performance.
source at Campinas. The progress that a Frasch, director of the Institute of Biotech Whatever the true extent of the problem,
particular reagent will make on the route nology at the University of General San many different bureaucratic solutions have
through customs depends on the officer who Martín. “Or you can purchase it through a been proposed to deal with it. In Argentina,
deals with it, he says. Perishable enzymes can representative in Argentina — but that is for example, it has been suggested that scien
be destroyed by an unsympathetic inspec twice the price.” In all, it can take “15 or 20 tists simply pay duty on research materials
tion at customs, whereas chemicals such as days at the most” to order and receive and that customs redirects a lump sum of
acetones, which are used in cocaine process reagents, he says. money back to the science agency. But scien
ing, always attract unwanted attention. Ordering major equipment is, however, tists’ best chance of alleviating the problem is
Some other researchers in Brazil report another matter. In Argentina, securing its to have competent, specialized staff in their
that average delays for packages coming exemption from import duties can be a huge institution or university to do the tiresome
through customs from abroad have task. “Big pieces of equipment can take a legwork needed to expedite materials
increased recently, after a period of improve year,” says Armando Parodi of the Campo though customs.
��
��
Colin Macilwain
hichever way you look at it — by standards as anyone else in Latin America.
� the reputation of its leading

researchers abroad or the orderli
ness of its universities, by the amount its gov
For Chile’s scientific élite in Santiago,
however, the successes of the country’s
research base are less apparent than its
ernment spends on science or the number of failings. Perhaps it is the proximity of
papers its researchers publish each year in unfettered success — most were trained at
international journals — Chile’s small scien the best research universities in Europe or
tific community is one of the more perfectly the United States, and many still work with
formed in Latin America. these universities — but they continue to see
According to figures from the Institute the cup as half empty.
for Scientific Information (ISI), the For the past six years, the government of
Philadelphia-based institute that monitors President Eduardo Frei has taken a novel researchers in his country from those at the
scientific publishing trends, Chile produces approach to developing scientific excellence leading edge of science. “There is no way to
more international papers per head of popu in the country. With the guidance of Claudio cross it gradually. If we move too slowly, we
lation than Argentina, and three times as Teitelboim, a theoretical physicist of interna will not succeed. We need to jump to the
many as Brazil or Mexico. Its government tional repute who has served as his science other side.” The extra something that will
says that it spends 0.67 per cent of gross adviser, Frei has sought to raise standards in cross the divide is “a direct connection with
domestic product on research, far more than Chilean science by concentrating resources the world élite in science. It is not enough to
any other country in the region except Brazil, on a few of the best scientists, regardless of attend an occasional meeting. Researchers
whose claimed expenditure is artificially their discipline or institution. need to have a direct line to the heart of
inflated (see page A16). The main universi Most countries in Latin America have science in the world.”
ties of Chile were not targeted for disruption sought to mimic the advisory committees The millennium proposal has created
by the military dictatorship of General and other science policy structures of the intense excitement among groups of scien
Augusto Pinochet, nor have they been forced developed world, even if they lack funds to tists, such as neurobiologists and
by democratic governments to absorb implement them. But as a recent critique astronomers, who think they are best-placed
impossible numbers of undergraduates. And prepared by an invited group of Canadian to lead such an experiment. It has also drawn
according to at least one well-informed experts confirmed, Chile has no national criticism from those who favour a more
observer in the United States, Chilean neuro council of advisers on science and technolo broadly based approach. “I don’t see it as a
biologists come as close to top international gy, and no clear national science policy. priority,” says Jorge Allende, director of the
“One often hears the complaint that there Institute of Biomedical Sciences, a new
is no national policy for science, or that we institute which embraces much life sciences
need to coordinate our efforts,” explains research at the University of Chile, the
Teitelboim. “I don’t really agree. There are country’s largest research university. Allende
too many policy makers involved in science points out that Chile is producing only 50
worldwide — especially mid-level ones. Any PhDs a year in all disciplines, and has no
grand science policy here in Chile would just trained researchers in vital new fields of sci
be a collection of nice words.” ence, such as genomics and bioinformatics.
Instead, Frei has sought to do what many “Supporting more young people should be a
scientists in any country say they most higher priority,” he insists.
approve of — he has supported excellence, The sparsity of support for graduate
without strings. Forty “presidential chairs” students is certainly a major problem.
have been awarded, and their occupants Mauricio Sarrazin, the civil engineer
given around US$100,000 a year each to appointed by Frei to head Chile’s principal
support their research: a sum that probably science funding agency, the CONICYT, says
brings them closer to US levels of research that one of its main priorities is to increase
support than any other government scheme human resources in
RAÚL BRAVO
in Latin America. science and technolo

gy. “We’ve been able to
Millennium Institutes increase our scholar
Teitelboim is now working with the World ships to about 350, but
Bank to extend this approach to support a it’s still too few,” he
small number of so-called Millennium says.
Institutes, which will receive up to $2 million At the other end of the
a year each to perform internationally com age spectrum, Chile’s
petitive science (see Nature 396, 711; 1998). universities are full of
The Catholic University in Santiago: one of the Teitelboim has in his mind the analogy of Teitelboim: Chile has too many elderly
best in Latin America. a yawning gap — “an abyss” — that separates to cross “an abyss”. researchers. There is
no forced retirement, so many staff work on billion worth of international telescopes that
rather than retire on a meagre pension. For will be built on the Andes by 2010. “In that
example, in the 12 university departments sense astronomy is unique,” Quintana says.
that have been brought under Allende’s “It is the only field of science in which Chile is
institute, the average age of the 350 faculty able to be in the world’s top ten.” Quintana
was 52, until the institute provided some and José Maza, his counterpart at the Univer
retirement incentives and the money to hire sity of Chile, have contrasting views on how
35 new staff. the field should develop (see page A13), but
Allende says that the reorganization of they plan to bid jointly to host a Millennium
Chile’s largest biomedical research centre is, Institute.
like the French Revolution, guided by three Teitelboim believes that a few such
words: excellence, renewal and integration. islands of excellence should be established to
“The biomedical sciences have come to the serve as examples before the rest of Chile’s
point where there’s no real separation research system is reformed. “It is better to
between the disciplines,” he says. have a unit that is different set up as a proto
Researchers have arrived from as far afield as type,” he says. “The next step should be a
Italy and Switzerland to provide renewal. At major overhaul of the system as a whole.”
present, Allende has $4 million in annual But many Chilean scientists, faced with
research funding to support 250 staff. “We the obvious day-to-day problems of teaching
obviously need to do better than that.,” he and conducting research there, believe that
says. such an overhaul is long overdue. José Maza
Across Santiago at the University’s Insti says that the university system is ‘chaotic’
tute of Nutrition and Food Technology Renato Saavedra, a student at the Catholic Uni with a budgetary system that provides them
(INTA), another of the country’s best life sci versity, operates a laser in the plasma physics lab. with no incentive to do research.
entists, Ricardo Uauy, has been struggling Both the University of Chile and the
with the same set of problems for almost ten States. “The really important change would Catholic University used to fund almost all of
years, since returning home from the Uni be to have a good academic level at the their research themselves, and CONICYT,
versity of Texas Southwestern Medical Cen university, at all levels.” For now, he adds, too which was founded in 1965 as a national
ter to head up the multidisciplinary institute. many people see the university simply as a research council to give advice to the govern
“There’s always an interplay with politics place of employment. ment, started giving research grants only in
which makes trying to do science very diffi 1982. Now it supports almost 1,000 scientists
cult,” says Uauy. With leadership of places Good reputation developed at an average level of about $25,000 a year
such as INTA elected by faculty, “it is hard for This problem is less acute at the each — not too bad by Latin American stan
people with high academic standards to University of Chile’s great rival, the dards, but not enough for the internationally
survive,” although his own example shows Catholic University, a private institution competitive research that most of them
that this is not impos that has developed a reputation as one of aspire to perform.
sible. INTA has set up the best universities in Latin America. The fairness and
an impressive array of “This university is well organized, and consistency with
collaborations with very efficient in its use of resources,” says which grants are allo
scientists in Europe Francisco Claro, its dean of postgraduate cated attracts criti
and the United States, studies and research. Claro is a University cism from leading sci
and has re-aligned of Oregon-trained physicist and the entists. “The process
itself away from mal author of a recent book about science — allocates resources
nutrition, which is no A la Sombra del Asombra [In the Shadow with some degree of
longer such an issue of Astonishment] — the local popularity priority, but mostly to
in modern Chile, to a of which has surprised no one more than try to keep everybody
new agenda of food the author. Claro: “we cannot milk happy,” says Uauy.
Uauy: standards are safety, disease pre The university, which gets about $12 mil a calf ”. Some wish that Teitel
hard to maintain. vention and optimal lion in research grants out of its total budget boim, instead of just
nutrition. “Incorpo of $100 million, may be the best in the coun advising Frei on science policy, had taken the
rating change is a problem,” says Uauy. try, but Claro says it cannot compete with US presidency of CONICYT and tackled the
“There’s no accountability, and this institute research schools. “It is a matter of available business of reforming it, instead.
could have kept going with malnutrition, resources,” he says, contrasting his budget Teitelboim himself, after returning to
even though the problem had gone away.” with the 25 per cent of a far larger total Chile in 1984 from exile (his father was secre
Like many of the more experienced hands university budget which Stanford University tary of the Chilean communist party) to
in Latin American science, Uauy has seen in California spends on research. “The cow is eventually gain a position of influence with
plenty of genuine adversity in his time and is just a calf here, and we cannot milk a calf. I’d the government, professes disappointment
impatient with the suggestion that science in like my boss to declare that we are a research with the progress that science has made
the region is being held back simply by a lack university. But he says that with $12 million under President Frei. “We have achieved very
of resources. “We don’t have everything we to spend, we can’t compete with places such little really,” says Teitelboim, reflecting on the
want but we have everything we need,” he as Stanford.” past six years. “We are proud of the presiden
says. The challenge in developing countries If resources are indeed the question, tial chairs.” He continues, only half in jest:
is not bricks and mortar, he argues, but “the astronomy is the one branch of Chilean sci “I’d have hoped to see the astronomers agree
standard to which people work” — and the ence that has the answer. According to on something. I’d have liked to have a few
gap that separates that from the standard to Hernán Quintana, head of astronomy at the Millennium Institutes running by now —
which the same people would work, and Catholic University, Chile is set to obtain and some indication that talented young
indeed have worked, in Europe or the United around 10 per cent of the viewing time on $2 people were coming home to work in them.”
��
ROGER SMITH/CTIO
��
Roland Pease
any astronomers regard Chile as per cent of the available time at CTIO for its
M the best place on Earth for astrono

my. A stroll at night outside the
dome at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American
own astronomers, although access at ESO
has been agreed only from this year.
Observatory (CTIO) near La Serena in University held “monopoly”

northern Chile reveals why. The sky is crystal Hernán Quintana, head of astronomy at the The CTIO has helped enable breakthroughs in
clear, and so still that stable images of stars Catholic University in Santiago, says that lack our understanding of the Universe.
are a near certainty. Then there is the weath of access held back Chilean astronomy — but
er. During the summer months, from claims that an even more significant problem deadline, in 1997, he says. Astronomers were
January to March, cloudless skies are almost was the effective monopoly held on the not involved in the negotiations, and nor was
guaranteed — a priceless asset for a profes discipline by the University of Chile, the CONICYT, the main science funding agency.
sion that is at the mercy of the elements. country’s main public university, after it Help for Chilean astronomy is coming
Little wonder, then, that the world of absorbed the national observatory in 1964. from outside. The Andes Foundation, a trust
astronomy has beaten a path to Chile’s door: The Catholic University is now challeng fund based in New York that puts seed
up to 800 foreign astronomers visit each year. ing that monopoly, and Quintana believes money into Brazil, Argentina and Chile,
Besides the CTIO, with its seven telescopes, that a greater intake of undergraduate and regards astronomy as the key Chilean
there are the telescopes at Las Campanas, run graduate students in astronomy will enable science. And the Catholic University and the
by the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the country to develop excellence in the University of Chile have established links
and the European Southern Observatory discipline. (In common with most senior with Princeton and Yale universities, respec
(ESO) at La Silla, on the southern edge of the Chilean scientists in all disciplines, Quintana tively, to collaborate on research and
Atacama desert. And more are being built. himself was trained outside Chile.) graduate training.
The three main observatories have been But José Maza, head of astronomy at the The project manager for Gemini’s south
running since the early 1960s, and Chile had University of Chile, counters that training ern site, Oscar Riveros, who is also CONI-
a history of involvement in astronomy long more students will not necessarily lead to CYT’s coordinator for astronomy, sees it as
before then. A national observatory was better science. He remains unconvinced that an opportunity to build up an indigenous
established at Cerro Calán on the outskirts of funded positions will become available for astronomy infrastructure. The project’s
Santiago in 1852, fulfilling the usual many more astronomers than the 25 or so communications, for example, are being
maritime and timekeeping functions of which Chile has at the moment. developed by a consortium of Chilean uni
observatories at that time. Quintana also accuses the government of versities and the telephone company CTC.
Foreign involvement goes back a long indifference. Chile’s involvement in the new Four Chilean engineers have spent the past
way too: US astronomers came to Santiago as Gemini telescopes — giant eight-metre year working at Gemini’s northern site, in
early as 1847 and a southern-skies outpost instruments being placed in Hawaii and near Hawaii, and another will be visiting Britain
was established by California’s Lick La Serena — was nearly forfeited by the trea to learn about the optical-coating paint for
Observatory in 1902. For many years, this sury’s failure to pay the US$9 million Gemini South’s mirror.
was the largest telescope in the Southern subscription until almost the day of the The tables have turned since the days
Hemisphere. It was inherited by the when Chile made no demands for scientific
ESO
University of Chile when the Californians involvement in the ESO. If anything, Riveros
left, but closed in the 1940s. says, it has been too successful in negotiating
The rebirth of astronomy at the end of the with its guests. Chile now has access to
1950s was very much the result of efforts by 350–400 nights of observing time a year on
local astronomers, although the money and its soil — enough to keep over a hundred
technology came from abroad. It was the astronomers busy. And if Riveros thinks it is a
director of Chile’s national observatory, Fed challenge to find that number, Quintana is
erico Rutland, who, learning of US interest in more optimistic. “Because of the big obser
southern astronomy, persuaded Gerard vatories in Chile, we’re coming much more
Kuiper from the University of Chicago to into the public eye,” he says. “People realize
survey the coastal mountains of northern that there are going to be jobs in astronomy.”
Chile for suitable sites for a new observatory. The result is some enthusiasm for astron
The CTIO was the outcome of that omy among young Chileans. Chile has a
search: “one of the best observatories in the rigorous national schools testing system, in
world” says Nick Suntzeff, a staff astronomer which every high school graduate receives a
there. Its large four-metre telescope made a score of up to 815 points. The best student in
key contribution to the recent discovery of the country last year, according to Francisco
accelerating expansion over the history of Claro, dean of research at the Catholic Uni
the Universe (Garnovich et al. Astrophys. J. versity, scored 814 points, and has chosen to
493, L53–L57; 1998) . The European Southern Observatory offered no join the university’s new undergraduate
From the outset, Chile won access to 10 time to Chilean astronomers until this year. astronomy programme.
tists at 147 research centres across the
�� country, and which one of them brands

“sclerotic”.
Asked what he is doing for these people,
�� Rodríguez responds brusquely that they

“should know that there are opportunities to
work in the private sector, in pharmaceuti
cals or mining.” It’s an answer worthy of
Colin Macilwain
Carlos Del Bello, the government’s science
and technology minister, whose extensive
fter a hectic day fighting to save his reforms and direct manner has made him
A country from currency contagion —

it’s Monday on the week after the
Brazilian réal collapsed, and speculators
many enemies in the community. Scientists
feared that the Agency was designed by Del
Bello to place science under direct political
have the Argentinian peso in their sights — control, and that it would expand only at the
the Argentinian chef de cabinet, Jorge expense of the CONICET. Now that the
Rodríguez, is relaxed and relieved to be talk CONICET has received two years of reason
ing science, in spite of everything. “Most of able budgets, however, and the Agency is
the people in the scientific field aren’t fond of operational and distributing grants, its legit
our [Peronist] tradition,” he says wistfully. imacy has increased.
“We don’t like to talk: we prefer to do things.” “Policy has improved over the past couple
Rodríguez, who trained as a plant geneti of years, with the Agency,” says Armando
cist at the University of Nebraska, is right Parodi, a Howard Hughes scholar and glyco
about the intuitive hostility of many scien biologist at the Campomar Foundation in
tists and other intellectuals towards both the Buenos Aires. But he still argues that the gov
party and the government of President ernment is not supporting basic science, and
Carlos Menem. But as that government that neither CONICET nor the Agency is suf
comes to an end — Menem will probably ficiently independent from political control.
stand down, and his party is widely tipped to Some scientists continue to distrust the
lose this autumn’s presidential elections — Agency and Del Bello, its architect. “He
many scientists now accept that its attempts doesn’t believe in science, he is not an intel
to reform Argentina’s science and technolo viding incentives for collaboration with lectual, and he’s jeopardizing the future of
gy policy have been worthwhile, if belated. industry, and through agreements with the country,” says Enrico Stefani, a biophysi
foreign governments, Rodríguez says. It will cist at the University of California at Los
Neglect ended in 1996 support basic research “in the things that we Angeles, who spent a turbulent year in
Menem neglected research for the first term do well,” he says. He cites biotechnology as an Buenos Aires as president of the CONICET.
of his presidency, but since 1996 a fairly bold example of a field in which Argentina has the Stefani left last year after clashing with the
programme has been underway to renew potential to expand, building on the tradi government over the appointment of staff at
Argentina’s considerable scientific tradition. tion established by the three Argentinian a scientific institute that was being estab
The establishment of a specific national sci biochemists who have won the Nobel prize lished in President Menem’s home town. He
ence and technology plan, a science cabinet — Bernardo Alberto Houssay (medicine, now fires at the government from a distance,
chaired by Rodríguez, and a new National 1947), Luis Leloir (chemistry, 1970) and hoping to return from exile if a new govern
Agency for the Promotion of Science and César Milstein (medicine, 1984). ment is elected. “Science in Argentina is non
Technology (known as ‘the Agency’) have But the young biologists who aspire to competitive because the administration is
been widely maligned by a scientific replicate the Nobel successes work a long way corrupt,” he says flatly. “What’s tragic is that
community that still feels woefully under from Rodríguez’s magnificent office in Gov there is a fantastic young generation there,
resourced. But as the Agency, which has been ernment House, and see little evidence that and no way for them to develop.”
funded largely by a loan from the Inter- his government values their endeavours. “It
American Development Bank (see Nature is very difficult to make a postdoctoral career Grants at international levels
391, 525; 1997), gathers steam and reforms in Argentina,” says Diego Comerci, a gradu But the Agency continues to make progress.
are implemented, resistance is giving way to a ate student at the Institute of Biotechnology In this, its second year of operation, it has
recognition that things are finally beginning at the National University of General San raised the ceiling on the grants it will deliver
to improve. Martín in Buenos Aires (see box). from US$25,000 to US$50,000 a year, for
The government has sought new ways to “There’s money to train scientists, but three years. “We think that $50,000, on top of
promote science through the Agency, by pro then no money to support them,” adds salary, is a pretty good level,” says Mario
© THE NOBEL FOUNDATION
Guido Pollevick, a post Mariscotti, the physicist who directs the

doctoral researcher at Agency. “We believe it will bring us up to
the same institute. international standards.” He expects to make
Young scientists there about 600 such awards, on top of the 700
are critical of both the made last year. “We have the feeling that top
government and of the quality is limited to about 1,500 groups,” says
National Council for Mariscotti. “I’m aware that some people feel
Science and Technolo that the Agency has taken something away
gy (CONICET), the from CONICET, although this isn’t really
research council which true. I think there’s a ‘silent majority’ that
Argentina’s three Nobel prizewinners — Houssay, Milstein and Leloir — employs most Argen appreciate what the Agency is doing.”
stand as testament to its traditional strength in biochemistry. tinian research scien- CONICET itself, which spends three-
nology at the University of Quilmes in

Buenos Aires, of the people in charge of the
government’s nuclear policy.
92 Albornoz has prepared a science policy
224 document for the alliance of parties that
124 hopes to defeat the Peronists at the next
election, and is tipped to head the science
ministry in that event. The alliance, he says,
42 plans to develop a much stronger industrial
71
policy for Argentina, and, eventually, to dou
The Campomar Foundation in Buenos Aires. 31
ble spending on research and development, to
160 1 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP).
27
quarters of its $220 million budget on 110 But Albornoz supports the Agency and
researchers’ salaries, has been able to employ the other reforms of science policy which Del
600 new researchers this year — ending a Bello has undertaken, and was even involved
prolonged freeze on hiring — and is under in recent meetings with the Inter-American
CONICET INTA
taking a review of its institutes. Afterwards, (agriculture) Development Bank to discuss future funding
says Del Bello, “we will decide how many will The Agency for the Agency. Echoing Del Bello, Albornoz
INTI (industry)
stay and how many will close, or be merged.” accuses scientists of obstructing necessary
He predicts that four-fifths of the scientific ANLIS (health) reform. “The research system here is obso
Universities
ones will stay open, but that their manage CONAE (space) lete,” he says. “Many researchers have no
ment is likely to change, with more non Others funds or equipment. But leaders of the
Atomic Energy
scientists involved in management. Del Bello Commission
scientific community prefer that to a
is characteristically scathing about the track modern policy, because such a policy would
record of the CONICET under the manage Argentinian government spending (in US$ take away their powers.”
ment of scientists: “They were in charge million) on science and technology, 1998. This language of power struggle often
before, so why was there no evaluation of the permeates discussions of Argentinian sci
institutes, or of the researchers?” science agency. The commission has cut itself ence policy, reflecting the violations suffered
Argentina has also encouraged the loose from the science ministry and re by the academic community under the
growth of newer technology-orientated uni committed itself to the quest for viable country’s military dictatorship, which ended
versities, such as the National University of fission power, which retains strong Peronist in 1983. As Argentinians freely point out, the
General San Martín. The government, and support. country hasn’t come to terms with the
many researchers, view the old universities as “Del Bello had some peculiar ideas,” says dictatorship’s legacy; punishment of the
over-bureaucratic, distant from industry Dan Beninson, president of the commission. crimes committed under its name, rather
and commerce and impossible to reform. “He wanted us to be a second CONICET.” than economic or social issues, will be the
Beninson has different plans. “I came here to central issue in this autumn’s elections. In
Inequalities in reforms re-nuclearize the commission,” he declares such a climate, scientists and other acade
Large components of Argentina’s research robustly, suggesting that it will earn its keep mics value their intellectual independence
infrastructure remain untouched by the by developing small, intrinsically safe above all else, and attempts by the Peronist
reforms, however. The National Atomic fission-power reactors for export. “We see a government or foreign banks to steer science
Energy Commission, whose $100 million substantial market that can be developed in and technology policy have been treated
budget represents about 10 per cent of the Africa,” he says. with suspicion. This atmosphere of mutual
nation’s investment in research and develop “They are quite mad, but they have mistrust may have to lift before Argentina
ment, appears to be veering out of control power,” says Mario Albornoz, director of the can take the place in world science to which it
after Del Bello tried and failed to turn it into a Institute for the Study of Science and Tech aspires.
Biotechnology institute leans heavily on foreign funding

The space-age feel of the new Institute of its reputation as one of the most dynamic CONICET, the national research council.
Biotechnology at the National University places to do molecular biology in South The aim of the institute is to do basic
of General San Martín in Buenos Aires is America. research in molecular biology, applied
borne more of necessity than design — the Sixty researchers and students work at research in biotechnology and teaching at
former army hut was converted into a well the Institute. Frasch left the University of the university. Around 20 papers are
equipped research laboratory in 1996. Buenos Aires to come here, citing the published each year from the institute,
Conversions of another two buildings are freedom offered to the institute by the new mostly in international journals.
underway, and institute director Carlos university of which it is part. He has since Five of the six research groups are
Frasch hopes that their obtained an international scholarship working on basic science, including
completion will from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute projects on the molecular biology of
cement (HHMI) for his own work, and the plants, the biochemistry and genetics of
institute also attracts support from the parasites, and part of a WHO programme
World Health Organization (WHO), the to sequence the genome of Trypanosoma
World Bank and the United Nations cruzi, the agent that carries Chagas’ disease.
Development Programme. “We get 70 per A biotechnology group at the institute is
cent of our support from abroad, and the exploring the genetic modification of
rest from Argentina,” says Frasch. But staff potatoes and other vegetables with the aim
salaries are paid by the university and by of altering their starch content.

��

��
Colin Macilwain
ne of the least welcome tasks facing in the region. Polikarpov has trawled
O researchers at the Federal University

of Rio de Janeiro — the second
largest research university in Brazil — is to
Argentina and Brazil encouraging biologists
to use the new facility to solve molecular
structures. He believes that availability of the
review grant applications from their light source, together with FAPESP’s ambi
colleagues 300 miles inland in São Paulo. tious project to sequence the genome of the
“They ask for money for air-conditioning for microbe Xylella fastidiosa (see box), can rev
cows and sheep [used in agricultural olutionize molecular biology in the country.
research],” says one of them, glancing The laboratory’s operating budget has
around his sweltering laboratory. “‘Round been stable, at around R$12 million a year,
here, we’re lucky if we have air-conditioning since 1996. But despite its strong concentra edges that the global impact of the university
for people.” tion on materials science, it has obtained does not match that of such a US university,
The long-standing dichotomy between little support from industry. “Brazilian and admits that the bureaucratic structure of
the condition of scientists in industrial São industry doesn’t buy research in Brazil, they the university is an impediment to achieving
Paulo and those in the rest of Brazil has only get it from abroad,” says Ricardo Rodrigues, such an impact.
been exacerbated by the country’s latest associate director of the light source, sound “Out of 200 departments here, we have 10
economic crisis. The Foundation for the ing a refrain common to many Brazilian aca that are clearly of international class, and
Support of Research of the State of São Paulo demics. every one of them has had problems with the
(FAPESP), the state funding agency for sci “We hope the situation will change,” says university,” he says. Chaimovich contends
ence, will continue this year to invest in laboratory director Cylon Gonçalves da that “human contact and atmosphere” are
world-class equipment while supporting a Silva, noting that Brazil cannot expect to more important than resources in creating
sizeable scientific community at developed import all of its technology needs. “This an environment for world-class research,
world levels. The rest of the country, mean whole laboratory is a bet that things here will and plans to develop “research nuclei” at the
while, is witnessing the sharp retrenchment move in the right direction.” university, where researchers from different
of a system that was already manifestly At the University of São Paulo, the leading disciplines will operate outside the con
incapable of supporting the large and research university in Brazil, the same bet has straints of existing departments.
talented complement of qualified scientists been rolling since 1934. It was then that a
that Brazil’s universities have produced over group of refugees arrived from Europe’s Links forged with industry
the past 20 years. turmoil to help found the university on the The university has made some progress in
German model, around a cluster of existing developing its ties with industry. For
Scientific expansion in São Paulo colleges. “They brought a culture in their example, Marcelo Zuffo, a young computer
FAPESP spent around 320 million réals last pockets,” says Hernan Chaimovich, dean of scientist, helps to run a parallel-processing
year on grants and equipment. (The Brazil research at the university. unit at the electrical engineering depart
ian réal was worth nearly US$1 until January; The university has a budget of R$800 mil ment, which has attracted millions of dollars
since then, its value has fallen by almost half.) lion, 25,000 graduate students, several highly of support from Motorola. The centre is
Two-thirds of this sum came from a state rated departments and a publishing record developing inexpensive, massively parallel
government that is obliged, under its consti (2,600 papers in international journals last supercomputers which Elebra, a Brazilian
tution, to send 1 per cent of tax revenues to year) that compares favourably with a equipment manufacturer, hopes to sell to
the research agency. The remaining funds middle-ranking research university in the cable TV operators and other potential users
came from investment income on the United States. Yet Chaimovich acknowl of commodity supercomputers. “We’re
endowment that FAPESP has built up during 0.8 looking for the right model,” says Zuffo of his
Brazilian articles in international journals (%)
years when it spent less than the state govern centre, “light and flexible, with a high
ment provided — a valuable shelter from the turnover of people, strong links to the uni
economic storm now wracking Brazil. versity, and a managing board on which our
The 1.4-GeV national synchrotron light 0.7 industrial partners are represented.”
source, which was completed at Campinas in Brazil’s industrial base has been subjected
São Paulo state in 1997, is operated by the to a painful transformation over the past
federal government but has obtained equip decade: the publicly owned corporations
ment from FAPESP and reflects the relative 0.6 that were supposed to drive modernization
scientific opulence of its home state. Scien have been privatized and dismantled, while
tists there have ready access to international foreign corporations have poured invest
journals and instant Internet access through ment into plants that assemble computers
a FAPESP backbone. 0.5 and cars using technology from overseas.
86-90 87-91 88-92 89-93 90-94 91-95 92-96
Igor Polikarpov, head of protein crystal- Movable 5-year periods
But where some Brazilian scientists see
lography at the centre, exudes confidence only the ruins of the old industrial base,
about the impact that the R$70 million, Brazil’s portion of papers published in Zuffo senses opportunity. “Brazil will soon
state-of-the-art facility can have on science international journals has expanded steadily. be the fourth-largest car maker in the world,”
he points out. “There will be 200 chips in
MÁRIO BELLONI/NELSON CHINAGLIA

every car. Our feeling is that there is a huge
market for our ideas — when we have ideas
we go to industrial partners, and they fund
us.”
If Zuffo’s slick optimism resonates with
the modern bustle of São Paulo, it jars with
the day-to-day reality facing the rest of the
country. Rio de Janeiro is by no means the
poorest province in Brazil, but the condi
tions endured by researchers at the Federal
University of Rio de Janeiro (FURJ) reflect
the general problems afflicting science there.
University’s budget goes on salaries

The university spends about 95 per cent of its
R$500 million budget on salaries, leaving
little for the amenities necessary to
undertake research. There are
exceptions — the modern
and well equipped engi
neering school, for
example, which receives
substantial support
from industry
through a private
foundation set up for Scientists at Brazil’s national synchrotron light source use its beamlines for
the purpose. chemistry, biology, physics and materials science.
Internet access at
the university is, howev they’d do this in 1995, named minister of science and technology in
er, painfully slow, and the but it didn’t happen,” the government that took office in January,
library stopped paying for says Leopoldo de Meis, a after President Cardoso’s re-election. “Just
all journals last summer when prominent biochemist at spending money on science and technology
a grant from the federal govern the university. was not solving our problems.” The govern
ment to buy them was cut. The govern But researchers at FURJ are proud of ment sees the remoteness of academia from
ment of Brazilian President Fernando what they achieve under adverse circum industry as a fundamental problem,
Henrique Cardoso has recently appointed a stances. George dos Reis, another biophysi although many academics deny culpability.
new university president, but he was not cist at the university, points out that the “Innovative industry, if it ever existed, is dis
elected by faculty staff and has been subject university produces about half as much good appearing,” says Sérgio Ferreira, president of
to considerable animosity. science as the University of São Paulo with far the Brazilian Society for the Advancement of
The state of Rio de Janeiro has sought to less support from the state government. “It’s Science. “The budget for science has come to
outmatch São Paulo with a constitutional very difficult, but I think we are keeping up a halt, as if it was something that was not
requirement to spend not 1 but 2 per cent of with international standards,” he says. necessary for Brazil.”
tax revenues on science and technology, but “We’re doing a good job in a terrible situa Bresser is an accomplished reformer,
the requirement is not adhered to. “It’s not as tion,” says plant molecular biologist Paulo whose arrival was viewed with some trepida
if anyone is going to impeach a state govern Ferreira. tion by Brazilian scientists. At a recent meet
ment just because they don’t abide by the ing of scientists supported by the Howard
law,” as Fernando Perez, scientific director of Sharp realignment Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI) at Rio de
FAPESP, puts it. Last year, the state of Rio de The economic transition of the country over Janeiro in January, Bresser expressed con
Janeiro spent just 0.1 per cent of revenue — the past decade is now forcing an equally cern about over-supply of scientists and
R$9 million — on science. sharp realignment of Brazilian science poli seemed unconvinced by their pleas for more
This dismal performance could shortly cy. The country had spent 25 years planning resources. “We tend to import equipment
improve, however. The new president of the for self-sufficient industrial development, that is never used,” he said in response to one
state signed a pledge to reach the target of 2 underpinned by a large group of scientists such complaint. “I hope we’ll provide equip
per cent and appointed Wanderly de Souza, a and engineers trained in the country’s ment for scientists who know how to use it.”
popular biophysicist from the federal universities, or abroad (Brazilians usually Scientists are frustrated by government
university, as his science secretary. “Our idea return after studying overseas). This protec figures that put Brazil’s annual spending on
is to get to 2 per cent by the end of this gov tionist development strategy is now regarded research and development at US$5.5 billion
ernment [in four years time],” says de Souza. as a failure — Brazil has privatized the indus (Interamerican Science & Technology Indica
“By the middle of the year, I’ll know if things trial corporations that were at its core and tors 1997) while they struggle to maintain the
are going as well as planned.” opened itself up to multinational corpora meagre federal government programmes that
This year the Rio de Janeiro science tions who import technology. support scholarships and basic research. As
agency, FAPERJ, has a budget of R$48 mil In this brave new world, the role of sci another Sérgio Ferreira, a Howard Hughes
lion and has at least received its first two ence, technology and the universities is less scholar at FURJ, told Bresser, “In Brasilia you
monthly instalments of R$4 million each. clear. “In the early 1990s, the crisis became talk about billions of dollars, but at the other
Beyond that, scientists are not overly apparent,” says Carlos Bresser, the University end we’re lucky if we get cents!”
optimistic. “The last administration said of Chicago-trained economist who was Bresser wants science to move closer to
Brazil’s own needs. “We need to carry out

research that is relevant to society,” he says. Genomics could safeguard citrus crop
“We should develop solutions that are rele

vant to the weather, or to the soil — things As well as producing half of Brazil’s
MARCOS A. MACHADO
that the French and the Americans aren’t science, São Paulo state produces around
doing for us.” one-third of the world’s oranges, so it
However, his first move has been to seems only natural that the state’s scientific
embark on a reorganization of the Ministry leadership is seeking to jump-start its
of Science and Technology, disposing of the presence in molecular genetics through an
long-standing rivalry between the ministry ambitious programme to sequence the full
itself and its semi-autonomous research genome of a bacterium that endangers
council, the National Council for Scientific citrus crops.
and Technological Development (CNPq), by FAPESP, the state’s science funding
merging the two and naming himself as agency, decided two years ago that a special
president of the latter. The move alarmed project was needed to boost genetics in the
scientists, who were not consulted (see region. Today, 30 research groups across
Nature 397, 93; 1999). “There are certain the state are close to completing the full,
kinds of changes which you do at the begin 2.1-megabase genome sequence of Xylella
ning, or not at all,” explains Bresser. fastidiosa, a microbe that poses a The orange trees of São Paulo could be
He has asked Fernando Reinach, a significant threat to the region’s citrus crop protected against citrus variegated chlorosis.
biochemist and Howard Hughes scholar at by causing citrus variegated chlorosis, a
the University of São Paulo, to execute the disease that blocks the circulation of FAPESP wanted to get involved in
reorganization. Reinach says that the change nutrients in orange trees. genomics, Simpson explains, but decided
will promote the vice-presidents of CNPq to “It’s the first project of its type to be against issuing a normal call for proposals
the status and salary of under-secretaries in done outside the United States, Europe or from individuals, or setting up a centre —
the government, enabling it to attract top sci Japan,” boasts Fernando Perez, FAPESP’s “we’d still be arguing about where to put it”
entists to come to Brasilia for a few years and scientific director. By obtaining the — in favour of doing one, state-wide
run the ministry’s programmes. sequence of an organism whose biology has project. Observers of the project say that it
The idea is to merge the scientific credi scarcely been studied, and then trying to has brought the best out of its participants
bility of CNPq with the financial strength of establish gene functions and the workings — especially those who were previously
the ministry, and create a more effective of the disease, the project team hopes to isolated or underemployed — as well as
mechanism for supporting research and catapult itself to the forefront of genetics. attracting widespread public attention. The
graduate education in Brazil. The country Brazilian citrus growers have project has been noted in the international
already has more scientists than it is able to contributed US$500,000 towards the US$10 scientific and financial press, and will
support, and Bresser questions the CNPq’s million project, emphasizing its potential shortly be the subject of a four-part science
provision of so many student fellowships, relevance to their business. documentary to be shown on São Paulo TV.
especially at the masters level. “There was absolutely no biological Perez says that FAPESP has now
Instead, the ministry will try to muster its information [about Xylella],” says Andrew committed US$35–40 million to genomics
resources to support the best science through Simpson of the Ludwig Institute in São research and is looking beyond the
mechanisms such as the programme for Paulo, which together with two experienced sequencing of X. fastidiosa, towards
national excellence in science (Pronex), which groups at the University of São Paulo and projects that will sequence Xanthomas
was started in 1996 and currently supports Unicamp is coordinating the activities of all campestri — another bacterium that infects
208 multidisciplinary groups. Moyses the different sequencing groups. “We think orange trees — and obtain cDNA sequences
Nussenzveig, a physicist at FURJ who devel that this is a viable way to approach for sugar cane. But it is the functional
oped the Pronex concept, says that the biological problems, and I don’t think it has genomics work following the sequencing
programme has attracted only about R$40 ever been done before.” that most excites Brazilian biologists.
million a year in funding, compared with the
R$250 million originally envisaged. “The way refunds on non-existent research work, science and technology — a provision that
these projects are chosen is significantly better grossly distorting the figures. Also, agencies would be unthinkable in the United States,
than any other process in Brazil,” says Nussen often spend less than the amount budgeted. for example — itself speaks volumes to the
zveig, who fears that the programme will be “Money for grants is being reduced by a lot,” faith that this nation has placed in science as a
“destroyed” if support for it is cut any further. says Jacqueline Leta, an expert in research key to its progress. So does the impressive
statistics at FURJ. “No-one knows how much campus of the University of São Paulo, and
Experts doubt statistics they invest in science and they are always the way in which even the military govern
The true status of science funding in Brazil confusing us [with more statistics],” she says. ment chose, before its demise in 1985, to
was difficult to ascertain even before Janu The status of science in Brazilian society invest in an ambitious space programme (see
ary’s currency crisis, according to the experts is also subject to dispute. “Most of the people page A19) and in graduate education.
who compile the statistics. Although the have a very negative view of science,” says de Despite the inconsistencies of policy and the
government says that national investment in Meis at FURJ. Even when élites vow support chasm separating São Paulo state from the
research and development (R&D) has been for science, he says, “there’s a gap between rest of the country, a broad-based scientific
stable at around R$5 billion a year, one sci what they say and what they actually do. To community continues to build up strength.
ence studies group at the FURJ argues that it fill the gap, administrative solutions are “Brazil has been very dogged and persistent
has plummeted by half since 1996. “There’s a proposed.” But Nussenzveig, an equally sea in supporting science through good times
stable amount of money from the govern soned observer, contends that the country’s and bad,” says Andrew Simpson, an English
ment,” states Bresser, adding that industrial population loves science and technology. born cancer geneticist at the Ludwig Insti
R&D has grown. The fact that many Brazilian states have a tute in São Paulo. It can only be a matter of
Critics say that industry claims tax constitutional provision allocating money to time before this investment bears fruit.
The most recent addition to Brazil’s space
�� portfolio is microgravity research. Five

experiments have already flown on the US
space shuttle, and a research community is
�� “growing rapidly” to take advantage of the

country’s new role in the international space
station, says Bevilacqua.
The Brazilian government has pledged
Tony Reichhardt
about $150 million to become a partner in
the station. The first Brazilian astronaut has
his year, if schedules hold, Brazil will already been named, and another will
T finally realize its 20-year ambition to

join the first rank of spacefaring
nations. The agenda for 1999 has all the
be chosen this year. Among the
country’s contributions will be a
high-optical-quality window for
ingredients of a mature space pro Earth observation, which can be used
gramme, from the debut of a new Brazil to test instruments that would later be
ian rocket to the selection of astronauts to fitted on remote-sensing satellites.
fly on the international space station. Reactions to Brazil’s participation in
Although the space programme dates the project have been mixed among
back to the 1960s, it was the 1979 approval of Brazilian scientists. Whereas some see it as a
the so-called Brazilian Complete Space threat, others say the commitment of funds is
Mission that set Brazil on the road to self Satellite images, such as this one from Landsat, relatively small. Most, however, agree that it
sufficiency. The goal of this plan has been to enable Brazil to keep track of forest burning. is too early to say whether the new focus on
develop the independent means to build and astronauts and microgravity research will
launch satellites, and Brazil has invested share data with outside researchers, but the divert funds away from other parts of the
more than a billion dollars to that end. situation is improving. A private industry is space programme.
This year the plan comes to fruition. The slowly developing in remote-sensing analy The threat of budget cuts is much on the
new VLS rocket, modest in size but 100 per sis, particularly for agricultural applications. mind of Brazil’s space scientists. José
cent Brazilian, should make its debut after a And Brazilian scientists have been striking Monserrat, editor of the Journal of Science,
failed attempt to reach orbit in 1997. The first their own relationships with foreign space which is published by the Brazilian Society
of two China–Brazil Earth Resource Satel agencies, independent of INPE. Roberto for the Advancement of Science, complains
lites (CBERS) will be launched in July on a Calheiros, an atmospheric scientist at São that “we have no clear priorities” in space,
Chinese rocket. Brazil paid for 30 per cent of Paulo State University, is scientific manager and that each project is left to fight for its own
the satellite’s US$100 million cost and built for a humidity sounder instrument sched interests in a time of cutbacks. Money is
one of its three cameras. The country hopes uled to fly on NASA’s PM-1 satellite. scarce not only because of the reeling nation
to reduce its dependence on US Landsat and A key question, however, is how much of a al economy, but also because funds appro
French SPOT images, and also to obtain more space programme Brazil can afford. In the priated by the government to INPE are often
frequent pictures of the Amazon region. early 1990s, when INPE’s budget was in siphoned off for some other purpose before
Largely owing to the vastness of its terri decline, institute director Marcio Barbosa they reach the institute. The INPE budget,
tory, remote sensing remains “very impor made a choice to cut back on space science in claims Monserrat, is a “fantasy,” a charge that
tant for this country,” says Luiz Bevilacqua, a order to fund higher-priority projects. Bevilacqua backs. Brazilian scientists in all
professor of mechanical engineering at the Bevilacqua believes Barbosa “did the right fields, not just space research, are angry
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, who thing” at the time. But the agency has that they are “not getting what’s written in
represents the scientific community on an accomplished little in space-based astrono the contract,” he says. He also worries that
advisory committee to the Brazilian space my or planetary science as a result. the agency is “not attracting good young
agency. Moreover, the government seems to But that may change with the launch of scientists,” because it cannot pay compet
recognize that importance. Several years ago, Brazil’s first science microsatellite, SACI-1, itive salaries.
President Fernando Henrique Cardoso on the same Chinese rocket carrying the Despite these problems, most scientists
ordered the National Space Research CBERS remote-sensing satellite in July. On inside and outside INPE believe that the
Institute (INPE), the lead agency for space board will be four small experiments programme will not only survive, but
science and applications, to improve the focused on space physics. Because of move forward. According to Calheiros,
timeliness of space data on Amazonian recent declines in the size and cost of satel the government and the Brazilian peo
deforestation. Now, says Thelma Krug, lites, SACI-1 will cost INPE less than $5 ple have come to understand the value
INPE’s head of Earth observation, Brazil has million. of the space programme, not just for
“the largest programme in the world” for Earth observation but for its ability to
monitoring forests from space. The Brazilian-made VLS rocket will be spur technology develop
INPE hopes to launch the first of a pair of launched this year. ment in Brazil.
small, $30 million Earth-observation satel
BRAZILIAN SPACE AGENCY
lites within the next two years. The satellites,

dubbed SSR, will be placed in an equatorial
orbit tailored to observing Brazil and other
tropical nations.
Historically INPE, which receives about
half of Brazil’s annual budget of $200 million
for space activities, has also been the nation’s
lead centre for interpreting remote-sensing
images. The institute used to be reluctant to
nomic gain, the future of the entire Amazon
�� ian biota will ultimately require its thorough

characterization and preservation.
This characterization of the region’s bio
�� diversity has scarcely begun, and it is difficult

to envisage the governments of the region
paying for it as they struggle to address the
more obviously pressing challenges of basic
Andrea Kauffmann-Zeh
health care and education. José Galizia
Tundisi of the University of São Carlos, who
BBC NATURAL HISTORY UNIT

he people of the Amazon basin are until January was president of Brazil’s
T among the poorest of South America,

but the region’s rainforests are home
to the richest diversity of life in the world.
National Council for Scientific and Techno
logical Development (CNPq), the country’s
main science funding agency, says that Brazil
The potential of that wealth for the region should invest in training more scientists. But
was recognized implicitly for the first time in Tundisi himself had to freeze CNPq’s schol
1992, when representatives of 150 nations arship programme in September 1998, as a
gathered in Rio de Janeiro to sign the Con result of “having to meet other agency com
vention on Biological Diversity. But seven mitments.”
years later, the region is still struggling to tap Although it is unclear how science will
any of that natural wealth, or even to plan for emerge from Brazil’s latest economic crisis,
its future exploitation. the country is better placed than any other in
The convention redefined biodiversity as the region to build a home-grown bio
the “common heritage of humankind” and prospecting enterprise. Brazil’s Programme
gave individual nations sovereign rights to it. of Molecular Ecology for the Sustainable
Although it has not been ratified by the Development of the Amazonian Region
United States, the largest likely importer of (PROBEM), for example, aims to encourage
biodiversity, the large pharmaceutical bioindustry, and is backed by the federal and
corporations are trying to work within its state governments, the scientific communi
terms. But the Amazonian nations have ty, and the private sector. Dr Wanderley
made little progress in exercising their rights Messias da Costa, the programme manager,
under the agreement. Instead, the use of the says that a US$60 million Amazonian
region’s biodiversity by forest inhabitants, Biotechnology Centre, which is being built
scientists and industrial groups remains a The world’s most varied biota — including this as part of PROBEM, will be strong enough to
major source of controversy. Bioprospecting ocelot — resides in the Amazon basin. attract top scientists from Brazil and abroad.
partnerships with foreign corporations raise PROBEM is also creating an endowment
even stronger feelings. resources without generating consistent fund for private, governmental and corpo
Supporters of the convention remain profits or technological progress,” Cavalcan rate donations, and may support venture
optimistic about its implementation, how ti says. The second option is to manage the capital funding of biotechnology start-ups,
ever. Roberto Cavalcanti, president of the biological resources and traditional knowl mechanisms for patent protection and a
Brazilian arm of the global conservation edge so as to provide conservation incentives range of other approaches designed to foster
group Conservation International, and an together with technological transfer, train the industry in Brazil.
ornithologist at the Federal University of Rio ing and education. Science funding in other Amazonian
de Janeiro, says that bioprospecting — if “One of the greatest potential benefits of countries has been limited and inconsistent,
done properly — will help to develop local bioprospecting is the transfer of scientific leaving sophisticated home-grown pro
scientific capacity, preserve and document and technological capacity,” says Adalberto grammes beyond their reach. But interna
indigenous knowledge, and provide incen Luís Val, a researcher at the Brazilian tional cooperation offers an alternative
tives for conservation. “It could help attach National Institute for Amazonian Research strategy. Political coordination across the
an economical value to preserving Amazon (INPA), who adds that it can therefore help region began back in 1978 with the creation
ian biodiversity,” he says. Amazonian countries develop beyond their of the Amazonian Cooperation Treaty
Walter Reid, a fellow at the Washington traditional role as exporters of raw materials. (ACT), set up to promote economic devel
based World Resources Institute (WRI), opment. The treaty has fostered studies and
believes it is still too early to say whether Major effort required discussions, created commissions for the
bioprospecting will become economically But considerable effort will be necessary to environment and for science and technolo
significant. “The chance of finding poten promote the process. Sérgio Ferreira, presi gy, and crafted bilateral agreements, all of
tially useful compounds is low, and develop dent of the Brazilian Society for the Advance which could, according to ACT officials, help
ing a marketable drug is time-consuming,” ment of Science, says that “a comprehensive with biodiversity management.
he says. “Some advocate up-front payments regional assessment [of biodiversity] is
to source countries, but these are generally needed urgently.” It should go beyond sam Academic efforts combined
rather small sums.” pling and building inventories, he suggests, The Association of Amazonian Universities
Amazonian countries interested in bio and add value to the biological resources (UNAMAZ) is an early initiative to combine
prospecting are currently considering one of before they leave the country. the academic resources of all eight countries
two options. The first is to use biodiversity as Major effort is also required to conserve in the region. But the UNAMAZ initiative
a simple money-making tool, like timber existing biodiversity for future generations. has been hampered by the lack of effective
and mining concessions. “The problem with Carlos Peres, a conservation biologist at the funding from the member states.
this option is that it may lead to uncontrolled University of East Anglia, notes that Partnerships with foreign pharmaceuti
exploitation, and depletion of natural although the current emphasis is on eco cal companies are another possibility for
countries in the region, who look to Costa the aim of PROBEM, is our answer.” liament’, founded by the ACT signatories,
Rica’s INBio and the US-funded Interna Amazonian countries are considering has sought to coordinate their legislative
tional Cooperative Biodiversity Group laws and administrative changes to ensure approaches.
(ICBG) programme as promising examples that the results of research and the benefits of
of such collaboration. The ICBG began its bioprospecting activities are shared. A legal Needs tough to anticipate
bioprospecting programme in 1994 in basis for asserting, monitoring and protect Whatever laws are in place, contracts
Suriname, on the northern edge of the Ama ing intellectual property rights is also being between parties are critical. “Our ICBG
zon region. The programme there — one of developed. experience indicates that it is very difficult to
four ICBG networks now established in For example, at least two bills are being anticipate all the needs and strengths of a
Latin America — is led by David Kingston of debated in the Brazilian Congress, one given agreement,” says Joshua Rosenthal of
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State proposed by Senator Marina Silva and the the Fogarty International Center at the
University, and supported by Conservation other by the government. Silva’s bill requires National Institutes of Health, who is general
International, the Missouri Botanical Gar that foreign investigators reach a formal manager of the ICGB programme. The
den, the local pharmaceutical company agreement with their Brazilian counterparts Peruvian ICBG agreement, for example, was
BGVS and Bristol Myers Squibb (BMS), the before they begin research on Brazilian soil set up before Decision 391 or any other Peru
US pharmaceutical corporation. “BMS will or receive Brazilian specimens. vian laws were in place, and its first phase was
be paying Suriname US$150,000 over five Scientists worry that bad laws will under criticized for its lack of transparency and
years [to reward the community],” Kingston mine future research, especially where it equity. The agreement was rewritten to bet
explains. “Moreover, the project is training involves collaboration with foreigners. ter meet the needs of local people and the
people, transferring technology to local “Restrictive legislation may be unable to dis other parties involved. “We have now
research institutions, and a share of royalties criminate between bioprospecting for prod learned from our past mistakes and try to
from any resulting products will be allocated uct development and genuine academic make our agreements more equitable,” says
to each contributing party.” research,” says Sir Ghillean Prance, director Rosenthal. “The key is flexibility and
Sarah Laird, a researcher who has studied of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, Lon communication among all parties.”
such programmes for the WRI and the don. It may also drive away desirable part In practice, however, the local communi
World Wildlife Foundation, says that the nerships between these countries and for ties, scientists and governmental representa
region can learn from foreign pharmaceuti eign corporations. Manolo Ruiz Muller, a tives involved in setting up bioprospecting
cal corporations. “They have extensive Peruvian lawyer currently working at Kew, agreements seldom have sufficient experi
scientific expertise and a lot of capital to says he has seen both outcomes as a result of ence to negotiate agreements, and are rarely
boost the technological and research capaci rushed legislation by members of the Andean in the financial or political position to
ties of host nations,” she says. Pact, the trading alliance between Bolivia, enforce the rights they do obtain. Moreover,
But scientists and government officials in Peru, Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela. the benefits of intellectual property rights
the region remain suspicious of these corpo Decision 391 of the Andean Pact places may be outweighed by the costs of gaining
rations, fearing that research partnerships minimum, binding regulations on access to and enforcing that protection. “It is almost
with them will be lop-sided. “Training genetic resources. Muller says that the unfair by default,” says Walter Reid. “Foreign
should extend beyond sample collection to problem with Decision 391 is not so much its corporations are often assisted by large teams
all levels of research, and scientific informa scope, but the inconsistency with which it is of experienced lawyers and have sufficient
tion should be freely shared by all parties — being implemented. Colombia and Bolivia financial means to deal with these situations.”
neither of which is always the case,” says have fully enacted it, Ecuador has enacted a To redress the balance, the World Bank
Braulio Dias, president of the Brazilian Bio short version of it, Peru has a drafted legisla has been encouraging developing countries
diversity Foundation. “A tion which will be reviewed soon, and a bill to take a firm line in intellectual property
more proactive part compatible with Decision 391 is being negotiations. So it is not surprising that some
nership, which is reviewed in Venezuela. An ‘Amazonian Par countries are still erecting barriers against
external exploitation of their biodiversity
despite the protections they obtained under
the Convention of Biological Diversity.
Seven years after the convention was
signed, the sensitivity and complexity of the
issues involved have intensified rather than
relaxed, and Amazonian countries are still
searching for solutions to the problems asso
ciated with the optimal use and protection of
BBC NATURAL HISTORY UNIT
biodiversity.
A balanced code of scientific conduct
allowing a free flow of knowledge, while
preserving national and regional strategic
interests, is badly needed and could be
produced and implemented by biologists’
professional societies. And although funds
such as the Global Environment Facility, a
$US2 billion financial mechanism imple
mented jointly by the United Nations and the
World Bank to fund environmental protec
tion, have provided some assistance in policy
making, resources are still lacking to develop
A white uakari monkey, habitant of the Brazilian rainforest, and sub-tropical forest in Ecuador: the scientific and technological expertise
nations of the region have sought to coordinate their approach to biodiversity conservation. needed in the Amazon basin.
��
��
Kimberly Carr
uba’s future must, by necessity, be gramme, although they won’t provide clinical trials, and by 1990 all infants over
“C a future of scientists,” Fidel

Castro declared in 1960, soon
after the Cuban revolution. Almost 40 years
details. Products are sold under government
control and the proceeds usually go to the
treasury. Agustin Lage, director of Havana’s
three months old were being immunized.
Export sales were not a primary objective
at the time of the vaccine’s development,
later, his prophesy is some way from fulfil Centre for Molecular Immunology (CIM), according to Orlando Gutiérrez of the Finlay
ment. But in one area of applied science — says: “Biotechnology is not yet a major Institute where it was developed. But Cuba
biotechnology — a concerted national effort exporter like the sugar cane or tobacco began to export the vaccine in 1989, when
instigated by Castro himself has made inde industries, but it could be an important part Brazil had an epidemic of meningitis and
pendent progress unmatched elsewhere in of the economy in the future.” sought help. Since then, about a dozen other
the developing world. countries have purchased and licensed it.
Until the 1960s, Cuba had no state Export of vaccines The vaccine is currently being tested in
sponsored science programme. “Before the Most of the fledgling industry’s income Britain, and SmithKline Beecham would like
revolution, there were scientists in Cuba, but comes from just two products. One is a to manufacture it in its Belgian vaccines divi
no science,” says Gustavo Kouri, director hepatitis B vaccine, now in the process of cer sion. Under its embargo policy, the United
general of the Pedro Kouri Institute of tification by the World Health Organization States is now trying to penalize companies
Tropical Medicine in Havana. Ismael Clark, (WHO), which is exported to more than 30 that trade with Cuba, but SmithKline is seek
president of the Cuban Academy of Sciences countries. The other is the world’s only ing an exemption from such penalties.
(which was founded in 1861, two years known vaccine against meningitis B. Vaccination is a major focus of the Cuban
before the US National Academy of Sciences) In Cuba in the 1980s, 150–200 children health system, whose childhood immuniza
points out, however, that Cuba has a 200 were dying of meningitis each year. Vaccina tion programme has led to the eradication of
year history of outstanding scientists. The tion was carried out, but there was no vaccine measles, mumps and polio, as well as a 30
most famous is probably Carlos Finlay, a against serogroup B. The A and C vaccines fold decrease in the incidence of meningitis.
Cuban physician who in 1881 suggested that are based on polysaccharides in the bacterial Vaccine development is therefore a natural
yellow fever and similar diseases could be capsule, but the polysaccharides of priority for Cuban biotechnology. A recom
transmitted by mosquitoes. This was the first meningococcus B do not confer immunity in binant subunit vaccine for human immun
suggestion of ‘vector-borne’ disease. humans. So Cuba developed a vaccine using odeficiency virus (HIV) (directed against the
After the revolution, the universities were outer membrane proteins of B, capsular viral protein gp120) is in clinical trials, with a
reformed to teach science, and throughout polysaccharides of C, and a structural DNA vaccine in development. Also on trial
the 1960s and 1970s thousands of students protein common to both. The vaccine are vaccines against hepatitis C, leptospirosis
were sent abroad for advanced scientific showed an efficacy of 83 per cent in phase II and cholera. There are projects to develop
training. The first Cuban multidisciplinary
research centre, the National Centre for Scien How Castro’s enthusiasm for biotech
tific Research (CNIC), was founded in 1965.
In 1981, biotechnology work began with the In 1980, when the world was talking about 1,080. The CIGB is now one of a cluster of
production of interferon-α (see box). interferon’s promise as a potential cure for 38 pharmaceutical and biotechnology
Daniel Codorniú, vice-minister of sci cancer, Fidel Castro made the decision establishments located on the west side of
ence at the Ministry of Science, Technology that Cuba should have it too. He sent six Havana.
and the Environment (CITMA), says that scientists, led by Manuel Limonta, abroad The CIGB has products registered in 34
Cuba has invested to learn how to produce countries and a total of 128 registrations
at least US$1 bil interferon. A small house worldwide. These range from diagnostic
lion in biotechnol in western Havana was systems, vaccines and transgenic plants
ogy over the past outfitted as a laboratory, and animals to products for use in
15 years. Of this and the scientists set to industrial processes. Like most of the units
year’s science bud work. They worked non in the cluster, the CIGB undertakes
get (officially stop, with Castro himself research, development and production
US$125 million), visiting daily to check on under one roof.
30 per cent is for their progress. On the Cuba’s hepatitis B vaccine was
biotechnology forty-second day, the developed here. Recombinant versions of
related projects. laboratory produced interferon-α2b, interferon-γ, interleukin-2,
Most of this is natural interferon-α, and epidermal growth factor, erythropoeitin
applied research ‘Protocol 149 house’ where
Cuban biotechnology was born. and streptokinase are other major exports,
directed at devel- interferon was first made.
In 1982, a Centre for Biological as is the world’s only effective vaccine
oping therapies for
Research (CIB) was founded near Havana, against cattle tick. Diagnostic systems for
Cuba’s public health problems.
and by 1986 Limonta was the director of HIV-1 and hepatitis C are exported to
Cuban officials claim that the fruits of this the Centre of Genetic Engineering and Latin America, China and India, and a
research already earn enough in exports to Biotechnology (CIGB), with a staff of recombinant product for use in cheese
sustain the biotechnology research pro-
claims that PPG is used by patients in Miami.

Of the major biotechnology institutes, it
is CIM that is doing the most basic research.
Its scientists are interested in the immune
system, especially its role in cancer and
autoimmune disease, and they are working
on developing immunotherapy for cancer.
Scientists highly favoured

The scientists in these programmes are
favoured by the Cuban state. They receive
about double the national average wage, and
a number of fringe benefits. At the Finlay
Institute, for example, senior staff are either
housed on the premises, or provided with
transport to and from work. Meals, clothing
and child care are provided, and employees
receive twice-yearly bonuses in US dollars.
“No system can advance science and tech
nology more than socialism,” Castro has
declared, “because no other system can look
for such integration and cooperation among
all scientists, all science research centres, all
Che Guevara (right) founded a laboratory in 1964 to research uses of sugar cane derivatives. professionals, all hospitals….” The country’s
political system certainly allows him to direct
vaccines against Haemophilus influenzae, PPG, or policosanol — is an 8-alcohol research in a way that would be impossible in
salmonella and dengue haemorrhagic fever extract of sugar cane wax. most other countries. The obvious draw
— the last is a particularly difficult project, as PPG is a cholesterol-lowering drug that is backs of the system include the fact that most
vaccines must be effective against all four safe and well tolerated even in elderly of Cuba’s research is very applied and becom
dengue viruses to prevent disease. patients. Even from the early stages of devel ing more so. There is little room for curiosity
opment, the chemists involved thought that driven research or individual research
New products successful this product looked promising: according to pursuits. No one complains about any aspect
The first scientific institute founded after the Rosa Más, who directed the project, that’s of the system to outsiders, and it is unclear if
revolution was the Cuban Institute for how it got its name. The acronym is taken they have the freedom to criticize it internally.
Research on Sugar Cane Derivatives (ICID- from ‘producto para ganar’ (money-making It is hard to say whether Cuba’s approach
CA), established in 1964 by Che Guevara . It product) — appropriately enough, as PPG is to science and technology has been a success.
was hoped then that these derivatives would now registered in 26 countries. Most of these If judged by citation statistics, the results are
some day become more important than the are developing countries, because of the com not particularly impressive. The impact fac
sugar itself, and so it is apposite that one of petition from cholesterol-lowering drugs tor of the average Cuban paper is 39 per cent
Cuba’s most promising new products — from first-world companies, but Castro of that of the world average, according to the
Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) in
spurred vaccine development Philadelphia, compared with an average of 55
per cent in the rest of
production is now being licensed in Spain. transfer technique that produced Dolly the Castro oversaw the Latin America. The
Vaccine projects include vaccines for sheep. More traditional transgenic establishment of the impact factor of
HIV-1 and hepatitis C (both now in trials) approaches have been used to produce CIB in person. Cuban papers has
as well as human papilloma virus (HPV), mice and rabbits that doubled over the past
dengue haemorrhagic fever, and a express human proteins 12 years, however,
recombinant version of the meningitis B such as tissue plasminogen and it is higher in
vaccine developed by the Finlay Institute. activator, growth hormone some areas: in phar
Plants including sugar cane, papaya, and erythropoeitin in their macology, for exam
potato, coffee, cabbage and tomato are milk. And transgenic fish ple, the impact factor
being genetically modified at the institute have left the laboratory for is a respectable 87 per
for increased resistance to pests and supermarket shelves: last cent of the global
disease, and transgenic sweet potatoes with year 30 tonnes of average.
an improved amino-acid balance are being transgenic tilapia were But despite a diffi
developed. Development of transgenic produced. cult situation, exac-
sugar cane with a lower lignin content and There has been no adverse public erbated by the US embargo, the scientists are
a higher sugar yield is under way, as sugar reaction to these genetically modified clearly doing good work. They have had
cane fibres are used widely for paper and foods, although it would be difficult some commercial success with their prod
animal feed, and a high lignin content for anyone with doubts to express them ucts, and have won the respect of those in the
reduces their suitability. Field trials take in Cuba. Science and biotechnology international community who collaborate
place following internationally recognized are, after all, priorities of the revolution. with them. Perhaps most impressively, life
safety guidelines, institute staff claim. “People trust science; they’ve seen scientists have succeeded in addressing sev
Staff are also working on cloning how it has improved their lives,” says eral important public health problems with
rabbits and cattle, using the nuclear Limonta. modest resources and little access to the ideas
or materials available in the rest of the world.

Stability Offers Unique Opportunity For Research: Latin America

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Stability Offers Unique Opportunity For Research: Latin America

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Stability Offers Unique Opportunity For Research: Latin America

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

science in latin america

In any conversation with scientists in

Stability offers unique almost any Latin American country, two

O shock which, if you listen to some

© 2002 Nature Publishing Group

© 2002 Nature Publishing Group

Scientists see� support

A history of science in isolation

remove the salary disincentive for doing Source� �O�����

cation criteria for its salary supplement

�ercenta�e chan�e fro� pre�ious year

�e�� �etrol� �nst�

�nst� �lec� �es�

�ppl� �he�� �es� �entre

the links between academia and industry, ���

greater proportion of the project’s funds to

Another force for stability comes from a

greater proportion of the project’s funds to

Another force for stability comes from a

mar Foundation in Buenos Aires, who

�������������������� recently waited all of 18 months for delivery

����������� ������������ versities have each established beachheads in

ROBERT HARDING PICTURE LIBRARY

hichever way you look at it — by standards as anyone else in Latin America.

� the reputation of its leading

in Latin America. science and technolo­

M the best place on Earth for astrono­

Observatory (CTIO) near La Serena in University held “monopoly”

tists at 147 research centres across the

������������������ country, and which one of them brands

���������������������� Rodríguez responds brusquely that they

A country from currency contagion —

Guido Pollevick, a post­ Mariscotti, the physicist who directs the

nology at the University of Quilmes in

Biotechnology institute leans heavily on foreign funding

NATURE | VOL 398 | SUPP | 1 APRIL 1999 | www.nature.com A15

�������� �� ���� ��������

O researchers at the Federal University

he points out. “There will be 200 chips in

MÁRIO BELLONI/NELSON CHINAGLIA

University’s budget goes on salaries

Brazil’s own needs. “We need to carry out

“We should develop solutions that are rele­

The most recent addition to Brazil’s space

�������� ��������������� portfolio is microgravity research. Five

������������ “growing rapidly” to take advantage of the

T finally realize its 20-year ambition to

lites within the next two years. The satellites,

nomic gain, the future of the entire Amazon­

�������������������� ian biota will ultimately require its thorough

���� ������������������� diversity has scarcely begun, and it is difficult

BBC NATURAL HISTORY UNIT

T among the poorest of South America,

“C a future of scientists,” Fidel

claims that PPG is used by patients in Miami.

Scientists highly favoured

You might also like

remove the salary disincentive for doing Source� �O��

�e�� etrol� �nst�

�ppl� �he�� es� �entre

the links between academia and industry, ��

�� recently waited all of 18 months for delivery

�� versities have each established beachheads in

in Latin America. science and technolo

M the best place on Earth for astrono

�� country, and which one of them brands

�� Rodríguez responds brusquely that they

Guido Pollevick, a post Mariscotti, the physicist who directs the

��

“We should develop solutions that are rele

�� portfolio is microgravity research. Five

�� “growing rapidly” to take advantage of the

nomic gain, the future of the entire Amazon

�� ian biota will ultimately require its thorough

�� diversity has scarcely begun, and it is difficult