3 3 3 .2 Design Discharge .3 Stream/River Training Works: Improvement of Cross-Section Channel Rectification Dykes
3 3 3 .2 Design Discharge .3 Stream/River Training Works: Improvement of Cross-Section Channel Rectification Dykes
3 3 3 .2 Design Discharge .3 Stream/River Training Works: Improvement of Cross-Section Channel Rectification Dykes
Channel Rectification
Dykes
Floods are natural processes in which the river spills over its banks.
Consequences of Floods:
Inundate vast areas of fertile land,
Most human activities tends to increase flood risk, by reducing the interception
store and thus increasing the amount of surface run-off:-
Deforestation
Urbanisation
Others like climate changes
Whereas cultivation and afforestation reduces the flood risk by
encouraging infiltration.
Flood Plains
Positive Aspects:
Preferred places for socio-economic activity due to development potentials
Provide easy access to natural resources
Possess fertile land for agriculture
Give services provided by ecosystems
Negative Aspects:
Areas frequently affected by flooding.
Adoption of Flood Control and Protection Works
Flood control is a relative term as it is not economical to
provide protection for the largest flood that will occur.
Cont’d…
Flood control is required to reduce damage.
It is the protection of life and property as well as public benefits based on the
annual savings from flood control against construction and maintenance costs.
1. Direct losses such as crops and property due to physical contact with flood,
The effect of Small floods are often unnoticed but have much consequences
that can be seen many years after the event. E.g. erosion of fertile soils from
agricultural lands every after heavy rain.
Cont’d…
Possible Flood Alleviation/Mitigation Measures
1. Structural Measures:
Whose purpose is to Change the characteristics of flood.
i) Dams and Reservoirs:–
Store part of the flood waters resulting in moderation of flood stages and
discharges.
Regulated releases to ensure seasonal variability.
Usually employed on upper reach.
ii) Embankments/dykes/levees:–
Providing embankments on the banks of rivers,
Can be planned in conjunction with other structural measures like dam,
detention basins and non-structural measures.
iii) Detention/retention basins:–
Artificial wetlands or permanent ponds on new developments.
Cont’d…
iv) Bypass and diversion channels:–
Diverting part of the flood waters into old channels
Can be planned in conjunction with detention basin
v) Channelization (River training works):–
Modification of river channels – like slope, width, etc.
2. Non-structural Measures:
Whose objectives are in reduction of damage and loss of life.
i) Flood proofing:–
Includes:–
(a) Use of closures bunds and small walls to keep out floodwaters and
(b) Raising existing structures like levees in-place to reduce damage.
Appropriate for damage reduction for single-story, residential structures.
Does not reduce damage to utilities, infrastructure, lawns, and other exterior
property but used by individual owners to protect their property.
These measures are limited generally to property frequently flooded.
Cont’d…
ii) Relocation:–
It means moving property so it is less susceptible to damage.
This may be accomplished either by:
(a) relocating contents within an existing structure at its current location,
(b) permanently removing the contents or the structure and contents
from a flood hazard area.
iii) Flood forecasting and flood warning/ preparedness:–
A FW/P plan reduces flood damage by providing the public with an
opportunity to act before stages increase to damaging levels.
The savings due to a FW/P plan reduces:
Inundation damage and cleanup costs,
Costs due to reduction of health hazards,
Risk to life of floodplain occupants.
Flood damages cannot always be prevented but reduced by flood
forecasting & by using proper flood control measures.
3.2 Design Flood Discharge
Before adopting any flood control measures, it is necessary to know
the maximum flood likely to occur & select suitable design discharge.
The Design Flood Discharge for hydraulic structures may also be defined in a
number of ways, like:
The Maximum Flood that any hydraulic structure can safely pass.
The largest flood that may be selected for design as safety evaluation of a
structure.
Choice of Design Flood
Design Flood Discharge(DFD) of a hydraulic structure may be chosen from either
one of the following:
This is the flood resulting from the most severe combination of critical
meteorological and hydrological conditions that are reasonably possible in
the region.
This is the flood resulting from the most sever combination of meteorological
and hydrological conditions considered reasonably characteristic of the
region.
methods
a) Maximum Observed Flood Method
Some of the commonly used formulas are Dicken’s formula, Ryve’s formula,
and Inglis’ formula.
These formulas do not give reliable results b/s selection of the coefficients is
subjective.
Reading Assignment
C. Unit Hydrograph Method
More rational than the methods discussed above.
The greater the period of record the more accurate is the analysis.
Cont’d…
A simple optimization
procedure for a flood control
project is schematically shown
here.
1 is the project co
2 is the flood damage
Recommended
Return periods of 10,000 yrs Flood plain characteristics flood return
period (yrs)
and more are known to have 1. Extensive agriculture 6-7
2. Intensive agriculture 15-20
been chosen in many cases of 3. Thinly or medium 100-200
important population centers populated living areas
4. Densely populated living 200-1000
and industrial parks. areas and industrial
centers
5. Important urban centers >1000
Cont’d…
For a given natural waterco under consideration, if discharge
measurement over a representative time period of (25-30 yrs) are
available, flood frequency analysis can be carried out to obtain by
extrapolation probable discharge values for time periods greater than
the actual year-series measurements.
When no such measurements exist or are scarce, special hydrologic
methods can be applied to develop synthetic series to derive the
design discharge. Rainfall-runoff modeling(rational, SCS curve number,
regionalization etc...)
3.3 Stream/River Training Works
Flood Control By Structural Measures
Stream training and regulation
Flood reduction by levees and dikes
Reduction of flood peak by routing through reservoirs
Flood Abatement/Reduction
Reduction of the flood volume by land management
Reduction in stormflow and peak discharge levels achieved by
Afforestation or reforestation of upper catchment slopes
Comprehensive protection of vegetation
Terracing of farmland
Contour ploughing/farming
Behavioural Measures
Societies adopt different coping strategies (flood insurance etc.)
Stream/River Training and Regulation
These are methods that reduce flood hazard by increasing the
carrying capacity of a stream and, thus, lowering its water stages.
They can be used individually or in combination. Some of these are:
Cross-section improvement (Dykes, Channel widening etc.…)
Channel rectification (Cut-off etc…)
Reduction of river bed slopes (Drop structures, Check dams,
Bottom sills etc…)
River bank protection (Riprap protection, Gabions and mattress
etc…)
Artificial channel linings (Concrete lined channels etc…)
I. Dams and Reservoirs
The principal objective of dam and reservoir (Structural measure) is to
The base of the hydrograph, therefore, gets broadened, its peak gets
reduced & the time of peak delayed.
The extent by which the inflow hydrograph gets modified due to the
reservoir storage can be computed by a process known as flood
routing.
Cont’d…
Routing method employs th ntinuity equation:
I - O= ds/dt I t-O t= S
Where:
I = average inflow rate in time t
O = average outflow rate in time t
S = change in storage in time t
Data required:
Inflow hydrograph
Elevation capacity or elevation area curve
Elevation outflow curve
Methods to solve equations (to find maximum reservoir & spillway crest level):–
Trial and error
Pul’s method Reading Assignment
Goodrich method
III. Levees – Definition and Function
Levees are raised earthe ks along rivers that prevent the
water from overflowing & flooding the surrounding areas.
Levees are the oldest & the most extensively used method of
flood control.
They are often built a short way from the river's edge to stop the
river from undermining the embankment.
Fig. 3.4 Typical Levee and part of the river that has breached
its banks, spilling out into the surrounding area, Italy
Cont’d…
Traditionally, in areas of high property values, high land use, and good
foundation conditions, levees have been built with relatively steep
slopes using controlled compaction,
Detention/Dry Basin
Retention/Wet Basin
Cont’d…
Wet or Dry Detention Bas
The decision to provide wet or dry detention basin should be based
on the goal to be achieved and on-site constraints.
The primary costs of wet detention basins are the construction and
land acquisition costs. Maintenance costs vary depending on the
extent of landscaping and frequency of sediment removal.
Time (hrs)
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 1 2 3 4
Time (hrs)
Cont’d…
RATIONAL METHO MMETRICAL TRIANGLE
Base of 2.67*Tc
Tc=2 hours; Qp=200 cfs
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (hr)
2.67* 2 = 5.34 hr
Computing Storage Volumes
Elevation-Area Method
Contour lines are determined around the basin
Determine area of each contour
Volume between 2 contours = average area*depth between
the contours
Prepare a table showing elevation, area, incremental volume
and cumulative volume
Cont’d…
Example: Eleva Area Method
Elev (ft) Area (ft2) Incr. Vol (ft3) Cum. Vol (ft3)
230 0 0 0
1 2000
1 0000
8 000
6 000
4 000
2 000
0
230 231 232 233 234 235 236
Elev (ft)
Cont’d…
Discharge Rating
Calculate outflows based on water elevation in the
detention pond,
1. Single stage
2. Two stage
Orifice
When water flows through an orifice the water contracts with a smaller area
(vena contracta) than the original orifice opening.
Q=ca(2gh)0.5
Area=0.785 sq ft
Assume c=0.62
Repairing erosion early can save significant costs, both in the erosion
and the resulting sedimentation that can end up needing to be
removed from the basin.
When the main channel discharge exceeds the target, the excess is
diverted, limiting main-channel discharge to the target.
Objectives of IFM:
Maximizing net benefits from flood plains
Reducing loss of life from flooding
Reducing flood vulnerability and risks
Preserving ecosystems and their associated biodiversity
Consequences of Structural Measures
Natural environment of the rivers is altered :
River shape is fixed
River channels are separated from their flood plains
Natural morphological and ecological processes are impeded.
Resulting in:
Maximizing net benefits from flood plains
Reducing loss of life from flooding
Reducing flood vulnerability and risks
Preserving ecosystems and their associated biodiversity
Loss of habitat
Loss of biological diversity
Loss of ecosystem productivity
Loss of services provided by such ecosystems
Understanding Ecosystems
It requires knowledge on:
1. Basic concepts of river morphology (seen in the first chapter)
2. Flood processes and ecosystem services: interrelationship
3. Impact of flood management interventions on ecosystems
4. Mitigation Measures
Flood Management Interventions and
Their Impact on Ecosystems
Reservoirs and Dams:
Store flood waters and sediment
Submerge large areas u/s
Destroy forests and other vegetation.
Destroy or disturb habitat of terrestrial fauna and flora.
Prevent seasonal fish migration.
Modify flow regime in the d/s and reduce sediment discharge.
Changes in morphologic features
Drastic changes in habitat for flora and fauna
Water quality changes
Toxic algal growth
Adverse impact on d/s food web
Cont’d…
Flood Embankments/ Dyke ees:
Reduction in flood plain inundation
Disrupt lateral hydrological connectivity
Increased flow velocities
Changes in sediment transport
Reduction in habitat heterogeneity
Detention & Retention Basins
Reduce peak floods d/s
These basins can act as wetlands or permanent ponds
Create habitat for aquatic & semi-aquatic species
Cont’d…
Bypass & Diversion Channel
Reduce flood discharge in bypassed reach.
Drastic change in habitat for flora & fauna.
Change in morphologic features
Channelization
Simplifies channel form and flood plain
Disconnects the channel from side channel features
Changes sediments transport & deposition process
Reduces habitat diversity
Flood in Ethiopia
Ethiopia is endowed with many rivers.
12 major river basins with annual flow of 122 Bm3.
Lowland floods:– Little settlement & Flood spates in these areas are
welcome by the population as such floods improve grazing and
water supply for livestock and people.
Cont’d…
Large scale flooding is rare mited to the lowland areas where
major rivers cross to neighboring countries.
The most serious flood problems are found in:
The Awash River basin (inundated surface area 200,000-
250,000 ha during high flows).
More than 70% of large scale irrigation of the country.
Irrigation development on flood-plains on both sides of a river
Thus, high economic damage during flooding.
The Wabi-Shebelle River near the Somali border (inundation
area 100,000 ha)
Baro-Akobo/Sobat River near the Sudanese border
(inundation area 300,000 -350,000ha)
Cont’d…
Others:
The level of the waters of two main lakes in the rift valley (Awassa
and Besseka):– their levels gradually increasing & causing damage
to infrastructure in adjoining areas.
The main flood control & management activity being carried out in the
country is in the Awash River Basin.
Before the construction of the Koka Dam on the Awash River in the late
fifties, widespread flooding along the river was common.
The Awash River in the Lower Plains has a very unstable course and
reduced slope, tending to change its direction with the raising of its bed
due to silt deposition.
The Unit also constructs & maintains flood protection dykes along
the river to protect the farms.
Root cause for sediment - soil erosion & land degradation on the u/s
due to deforestation and expansion of farmlands.
Cont’d…
With most of the sediment lo ought in by the river inflow to the
Koka reservoir being deposited there, its capacity has gradually been
reduced over more than forty years of its existence.
At this time estimates are that the reservoir volume, having lost more
than 40% of its capacity, does not have a remaining capacity of more
than about 1.0 billion m3, which is incapable of withholding a major
flood.
6. Define a levee.