Biology Chapter 1 Federal Board PDF
Biology Chapter 1 Federal Board PDF
Biology Chapter 1 Federal Board PDF
BIOLOGY
11
National Curriculum 2006
A TEXTBOOK OF
BIOLOGY
11
Dr. Sarwat Jawaid
Prof. Wasiullah Khan
Prof. Jawaid Mohsin Malik
3. Shahnawaz Cheema
Professor, Department of Botany,
Forman Christian College University, Lahore
SECTION 2 Biodiversity
5 ACELLULAR LIFE 132
5.1 Viruses: Discovery and Structure 132
5.2 Parasitic Nature of Virus 138
5.3 Life cycle of Bacteriophage 141
5.4 Life cycle of Human Immunodeficiency
Virus 144
5.5 Viral Diseases 149
5.6 Prions and Viroids 153
6 PROKARYOTES 157
6.1 Taxonomy of Prokaryotes 157
6.2 Archaea 158
6.3 Bacteria: Ecology and Diversity 160
6.4 Structure; Shape and Size of Bacteria 163
6.5 Modes of Nutrition in Bacteria 169
6.6 Growth and Reproduction in Bacteria 171
6.7 Importance of Bacteria 175
6.8 The Bacterial Flora of Human 183
6.9 Control of Harmful Bacteria 184
7 PROTISTS AND FUNGI 190
7.1 Protists The Evolutionary
Relationships 190
7.2 Major groups of Protists 192
7.3 General characteristics of Fungi 201
7.4 Diversity among Fungi 203
7.5 Importance of Fungi 209
8 DIVERSITY AMONG PLANTS 220
8.1 Evolutionary Origin of Plants 220
8.2 Non-Vascular Plants 222
8.3 Seedless Vascular Plants 227
8.4 Seed Plants 236
9 DIVERSITY AMONG ANIMALS 251
9.1 Characteristics of Animals 251
9.2 Criteria of Animal Classification 253
9.3 Diversity in Animals 260
9.4 Chordates 278
12 CIRCULATION 366
12.1 Blood Circulatory System of Man 367
12.2 Blood Vessels 376
12.3 Blood Pressure and its Measurement 385
12.4 Cardiovascular Disorders 388
12.5 Lymphatic System of Man 394
13 IMMUNITY 405
13.1 First Line of Defence 406
13.2 Second Line of Defence -
The Non-specific Defence 408
13.3 Third Line of Defence -
The Specific Defences 414
SECTION 1
Cell Biology
CHAPTER 1
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
You are quite familiar with the word cell. A cell is the smallest unit
of living matter. According to German biologist Rudolf Virchow
(pronunciation: Firkoh) every cell comes from a pre-existing cell. By the
middle of the nineteenth century, biologists clearly recognized that all living
things are composed of cells. This is known as cell theory. The cell theory is
one of the unifying concepts of biology. A cell is also the functional unit of
the organism. Cells can take in nutrients, break them down to release energy,
and get rid of wastes. They can reproduce, react to stimuli, and maintain
internal environment different from their surroundings. This chapter will help
you to become familiar with the structure of cells and how they work.
Cell Fractionation
A common approach for studying functions of a cell is to isolate a
particular cell organelle from other cell components and try to make it
perform its normal functions in a test tube. Generally cells are broken apart as
gently as possible. A common procedure is to grind up i.e. to homogenize
cells in a suitable medium (with correct pH, ionic composition and
temperature). This is done with a homogenizer (food mixer). The mixture is
then centrifuged.
Centrifugation
Centrifugation is the process
to separate substances on the basis
of their densities. It is done by the
machine called centrifuge (fig. 1.1)
This machine can spin the tubes.
Contents are kept in tubes that are
much like the test tubes. Spinning
the tubes exerts a centrifugal force
on the contents. As the number of
revolutions per minute increase so
does the centrifugal force Fig: 1.1 A Centrifuge
(measured as G, which is equal to
the force of gravity) increase.
Differential Staining
Tissue Culture
Chromatography
Chromatography is a
procedure through which
various substances in a mixture
are separated from each other
and identified. Separation
involves the use of two phases,
one of which is stationary and
the other is mobile. Separation
depends upon the differential
movement of the test substances
between two phases. Can you
find out names of seven types of
chromatography? You may
consult books or search on the
internet. Paper chromatography
is a simple and most widely Fig: 1.2 Chromatography Chamber
used technique.
Electrophoresis
It is a laboratory procedure that separates molecules according to their
size, shape, molecular weight and surface charge whether (+) or ().
Macromolecules such as nucleic acids or proteins can be separated in a
mixture. Often the gel is sandwiched between glass or plastic plates to form a
viscous slab (fig. 1.3). The two ends of the slabs are suspended in two salt
solutions that are connected by electrodes to a power source. When voltage is
applied to the apparatus, the molecules present in the gel migrate through the
electric field according to their individual charge and they move away from
BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 5
Movement of proteins
negative pole. Later on the
Electrode
molecules can be pin pointed by
Glass tube or plates
staining the gel.
containing gel
Spectrophotometry Gel
Lower
buffer solution
Power supply
Electrode
Fig: 1.4 Spectrophotometer Fig: 1.3 Gel Electrophoresis
As this micrometre is put between the two lenses of the ocular so, it is
called ocular micrometre. The micrometre acts as ruler and its scale is used
for direct measurement of the object.
Stage Micrometre
As this scale is placed on the stage of the microscope, so it is called
stage micrometre. This is a plane slide. On the centre for the slide, a scale
has been produced photographically or engraving. This scale is usually 1 mm
having 100 divisions.
1 mm = 100 divisions
100 division = 1000 micrometres
1000
1 division = = 10 micrometres (0.01 mm)
100
20 Angstrom = 1 Nanometre.
Not in
most
plant
cell
Fig: 1.13 Some of the Functions Performed by Protein in the Plasma Membrane
Cell Organelles
The highly organized cellular bodies are called organelles. Specific
roles e.g., heat production, cellular maintenance, repair, storage and protein
synthesis are carried out within the organelles. The organelles in the
cytoplasmic matrix of a cell are: endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi
complex, peroxysomes and glyoxysomes, lysosomes, mitochondria,
chloroplast etc.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
It is the system of membranes running through the cytoplasm of all
eukaryotic cells. This network or reticulum of membrane is called
endoplasmic reticulum (ER). It can be seen only with an electron microscope.
The ER consists of membranous tubes, sacs and flattened channels called
cisternae. The ER forms a distinct compartment within the cytoplasm. It is
composed of double layer of lipids with various enzymes attached to its
surface. The ER is continuous with plasma membrane, nuclear membrane and
Golgi complex or apparatus. In terms of appearance and functions there are
two type of ER, rough ER and smooth ER. Most cells contain both types of
ER although the relative proportions vary considerably among different cells.
Rough ER has ribosomes attached to the sides facing the cytoplasm and has
rough appearance under electron microscope. Rough ER provides mechanical
support to the cell. RER is concerned with the transport of proteins. Proteins are
formed at ribosomes. A receptor in the membrane of the ER provides a channel
through which a protein can pass into the ER. For example, secretory proteins is an
antibody, a defensive molecule made and synthesized by white blood cells. Inside
the ER short chains of sugars are then linked to the polypeptide making the
Rough ER
Smooth ER
molecule a glycolprotein. The ER packages the glycolprotein into a tiny sac called
transport vesicle. Then the vesicles buds from the ER membrane. The secretory
proteins will now travel to the Golgi apparatus for further processing. From there a
transport vesicle containing the finished molecule will make its way to plasma
membrane and its contents from the cell. The enzymes in lysosomes also follow this
route. Other vesicles formed at RER function as storage vessels in the cytoplasm.
Some vesicles merge with the smooth ER.
Smooth ER is continuous with the RER and is a network of
interconnected tubules. Ribosomes are not attached to it. In muscle cells a
specialized form of smooth ER called sarcoplasmic reticulum is present.
One of the chief functions of smooth ER is lipid synthesis. For example in
the epithelium of the intestine the smooth ER makes lipids from the fatty acids
and glycerol absorbed from the gut and passes them to Golgi complex for export.
Smooth ER also makes steroids. Some smooth ER transport proteins from rough
ER. Also, enzymes within the smooth ER of liver cells inactivate or detoxify a
variety of chemicals. The function of some ER is to breakdown energy rich
glycogen or fat molecules.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are among the smallest structures suspended in the
cytoplasm found in large number of living cells both prokaryotic and
eukaryotic. They can be seen only under the electron microscope. They are
roughly spherical granular bodies about 17 to 21 nm in diameter in prokaryotic
cells of bacteria and about 20- to 24 nm in diameter in eukaryotic cells. They
remain attached with RER or freely dispersed in the cytoplasm. Ribosomes are
numerous in actively synthesizing cells e.g., endocrine cells and meristimatic
cells. A eukaryotic cell may contain about half a million ribosomes.
Ribosomes are made of almost an equal amount of RNA and protein so
they are ribonucleoprotein. Being so small they are the last organelle to be
sedimented in centrifuge. The 70S ribosomes are found in prokaryotes
chloroplasts and mitochondria.
All ribosomes in eukaryotes are
composed of two subunits
Science Titbits
(particles) of different sizes, the The S unit has been named after
large and the small. The larger Svedberg. When the speed of
one is 60S particles and the centrifugation is more than the speed of
smaller one is 40S particles. The gravity, it is called ultra centrifugation.
two subunits on attachment form The larger sedimentation unit S, the
80S particles. The attachment is larger are the particles.
BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 17
Large subunit
of ribosome
small subunit
of ribosome
(Outer surface)
complex
Golgi complex
(inner surface)
pancreatic juice into the pancreatic duct, which pass to the duodenum. After
concentration in the Golgi complex the protein is carried in Golgi vesicles to
the cell surface membrane. The final stage in the pathway is secretion of the
inactive enzyme by exocytosis.
In general, proteins received by the Golgi complex from the ER have
short carbohydrate chains added to make them glycolproteins. These
carbohydrate antennae can be remodelled in the Golgi complex, possibly to
become markers that direct the protein to correct their destination.
The Golgi complex is also sometimes involved in the secretion of
carbohydrates, an example being provided by the synthesis of new cell walls
by plants. The membrane of the vesicle becomes new cell surface membrane
of the daughter cells, while their contents contribute to the middle lamella and
new cell walls. Cellulose is added separately and involves microtubules, not
the Golgi complex. In addition to secretion, the second important function of the
Golgi apparatus is the formation of lysosomes.
Peroxisomes and Glyoxisomes
Microbodies are similar to lysosomes and are a single membrane
enclosed cytoplasmic organelle. Microbodies include peroxisomes and
glyoxisomes.
Peroxisomes
In 1965 De Duve and his coworkers isolated particles from liver cells
BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 19
and other tissues. These particles were enriched with some oxidative enzymes
such as peroxidase, catalase, glycolic acid oxidase and some other enzymes.
As this organelle is specifically involved in the formation and decomposition
of hydrogen peroxide so they were named peroxisomes. These are found both
in animal and plant cells. These are also present in protozoa, and yeast.
Peroxisomes are opproximetely 0.5 to 1 micrometre in diameter.
The enzymes oxidize certain organic substances with the formation of
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Hydrogen peroxide is a toxic molecule, which is
immediately broken down to water and oxygen by another enzyme called
catalase. Peroxisomes are abundant is cells that metabolise lipids and in liver
cells that metabolise alcohol. They help to detoxify alcohol, and convert fats
to carbohydrates.
Glyoxisomes
These organelles are found in plants. These have in addition to
glycolic acid oxidases and catalases, a number of enzymes that are not found
in animal cells.
These organelles are more abundant in plant seedlings, which rely
upon saturated fatty acids to provide them with energy and material to begin
the formation of a new plant. The germinating seedlings convert stored fatty
acids to carbohydrates. This is achieved through a cycle called glyoxylate
cycle, the enzymes of which are located in the glyoxisomes.
Lysosomes
Lyso means splitting and soma means body. So lysosomes are structures
that break down other major macromolecules in the cell. De Duve discovered it in
1949. Almost all animal cells contain lysosomes. The lysosomal enzymes are
manufactured on the RER. Then these enzymes are transported to Golgi
apparatus. Here the enzymes are enclosed in membrane. The enclosed enzymes
are pinched off as Golgi vesicles. These vesicles are called primary lysosomes.
Once a lysosome has fused with a vesicle containing material to be digested, the
structure is called secondary lysosomes. Lysosomes are roughly spherical
structures bounded by a single membrane. They vary in size, and usually 0.2-0.5
µm in diameter. In plant cells large central vacuole may act as lysosome.
Lysosomes are sacs or vesicles that contain various hydrolytic
enzymes. Such as proteases, nucleases and lipases. The content of the
lysosome is acidic. The enzymes have to be kept apart from the rest of the cell
or they would destroy it. These enzymes breakdown every major
macromolecule of cell, e.g. proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and carbohydrates.
20 BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
Functions of Lysosomes
The functions of lysosomes includes phagocytosis, autophagy,
autolysis, exocytosis (fig: 1.17). When the material taken in by endocytosis is
large, such as a food particle or another cell, the process is called
phagocytosis (Gk. Phagein, to eat, and kytos, cell). When the endocytic
vesicle fuses with a lysosome digestion occurs. This is how mammalian white
blood cells engulf and destroy bacteria and other cells. The process by which
unwanted structures within the cell are engulfed and digested within the
lysosomes is called autophagy and the structure in which it occurs is called
an autophagic vacuole or secondary lysosomes. This is the part of the
normal turnover of cytoplasmic organelles, old ones being replaced by new
ones e.g. digestion of mitochondria.
Mitochondrion
Mitochondrion (plural:
mitochondria) is present in all
eukaryotic cells. The number of
mitochondria per cell varies form
500 to 1000 in vertebrates and
depends on the type of the
organism and nature of cell. The
shape of mitochondria may be
spiral, spherical, elongated, cup
shaped even branched and are
usually larger in active cells than Fig: 1.18 Mitochondrion
in less active ones. Their length
ranges form 1.5 to 10 µm and width from 0.25-1.00µm, but their diameter
does not exceed 1 µm. Mitochondria are able to change shape and some are
able to move to area in the cell where a lot of activities are taking place.
Mitochondria are semiautonomous, colourless organelle. It is a double
membrane structure, the outer membrane and the inner membrane. The two
membranes are separated by a narrow space the intermembranal space,
which is homogeneous. Mitochondrial membranes are composed of lipids and
proteins. The outer membrane is smooth and somewhat like a sieve. Outer
membrane is rich in lipids but poor in proteins. The inner membrane is folded
inwards. The folds are called cristae (singular: crista). The region of the
mitochondrion enclosed by membrane is called matrix. Mitochondrial matrix
is a jelly like material that contains DNA, RNA, ribosomes and enzymes. In
1960, E. Rocker discovered that inner mtiochondrial membrane is provided
with lollipop like structures called mitochondrial particles or elementary
particles or oxysomes. The particles function in ATP synthesis, so it is called
ATP-ase complex. Enzymes, coenzymes, organic and inorganic salts present
in the mitochondrial matrix help in several processes like Krebs cycle,
aerobic respiration, fatty acid metabolism.
Science Titbits
Mitochondria divide and in this way their number doubles before cell
division. Lysosomes regulate the number of mitochondria. Excess of
mitochondria are digested by lysosomes. Because mitochondria are
contained within ova (egg cells) but not within the heads of sperm cells, all
the mitochondria in a fertilized egg are derived from mother.
BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 23
Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are green in colour and are found in green parts of the
plants. Chloroplasts vary greatly in shape and size. These may be spheroid,
ovoid or discoid. Generally their number ranges between 20-40 per cell. Their
average size is 4 to 10 micrometre in diameter and 1-3 micrometre in thickness.
A chloroplast consists of three parts i.e. envelope, matrix and thylakoids.
Each chloroplast is bounded by a smooth double membrane
(envelope). Between the two intermembrane space is 25-75 angstrom (Å)
wide. The outer membrane is smooth and permeable to small molecules.
The inner membrane is semipermeable and rich in protein. The matrix is
called stroma. It is the colourless proteinaceous ground substance that
fills the chloroplast. It contains, proteins, lipids, small (70S) ribosomes,
DNA, RNAs, ions and enzymes. The chloroplast is semiautonomous
because its DNA can replicate and transcribe to form RNA. With the help
of ribosomes chlorplast is able to synthesize most of its enzymes.
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton (Gk: Kytos,
cell and skeleton, dried body) is a
network of interconnected
filaments and tubules that extends
from the nucleus to the plasma
membrane in eukaryotic cell. The
cytoskeleton maintains cell shape
and causes the cell and its
organelles to move. There are three
types of cytoskeleton elements of
proteinous fibres.
Microfilaments: Presently
microfilaments are known as Fig: 1.21 Cytoskeleton
actin filaments. These are
extremely thin fibres about 7 nm in diameter that occur in bundles or mesh
like networks. The actin filament contains two chains of globular actin
monomers twisted about one another in a helical manner. Threads of
tropomyosin wind about an actin filament and troponin occur at intervals
along the thread. Actin filaments play a structural role when they form a
dense complex web just under the plasma membrane to which they are
anchored by special proteins. In plant cells, they apparently form the tracks
along which chloroplasts circulate in a particular direction.
Microtubules (Gk: micros, small, little and L. tubus, pipe): These are
small hollow cylinders about 25nm in diameter and 0.2-25µm in length. Its
basic protein subunit is tubulin, which occurs as alpha and beta tubule. The
two form tubulin dimer. Microtubules have 13 rows of tubulin dimer
surrounding what appear in electron micrograph to be an empty central case.
Microtubules radiate from centrosome, helping to maintain the shape of the
cell and acting as tracks along which organelles can move.
Intermediate Filaments: The protein fibres are wrapped around one
another. They are 8 to 10 nanometers in diameter, intermediate in size
between actin filaments and microtubules, this is why they are called
intermediate filaments. The basic protein subunit of the filament is vimentin.
Some intermediate filaments support nuclear envelope, and others support
plasma membrane.
between cilia and flagella except that of size. Flagella are few in number i.e. 1, 2
or 4 and longer, exhibit undulating motion and beat independently.
Cilia are numerous and relatively short and beat perpendicularly in
metachronous (cilia of a row beating one after the other) or in synchronous
rhythm (all cilia of a row beating simultaneously). Cilia and flagella originate
from their basal bodies embedded in the cytoplasm. Each cilium and flagellum
consists of a longitudinal axoneme enclosed in a spiral sheath of cytoplasm and a
plasma membrane continuous with the cell membrane. Axoneme is made up of a
bundle of eleven longitudinal fibrils or microtubules. Of them 9 are peripheral
microfibrils and the two are central microfibrils. These are arranged in 9 + 2
pattern. The central fibrils are enclosed in a central sheath. The nine peripheral
microfibrils form a ring around the central sheath. Each peripheral microfibrils is
composed of two subfibres forming a doublet. The inner subfiber of the doublet
is complete and the outer subfiber is C-shaped.
Each inner subfibre has two arms composed of Critical Thinking
dynein protein and a radial spoke extends from it
What will happen if all
to the central sheath. Each cilium and a flagellum
dynein of a cilium is
has a basal body lying in the cytoplasm at its base.
removed?
Basal bodies have the same circular arrangement
of microtubule triplets as centrioles.
Mechanism of Movement: Figure 1.23 shows the position of two
microtubule doublets in a flagellum that is stationary (left) and in the process
of bending (right). Bending involves protein knobs attached to each
microtubule doublet --- the dynein arms. Using energy from ATP, the dynein
arms grab an adjacent doublet and exert a sliding force as they start to walk
along it. The doublets are held together by cross-links (not illustrated), if they
were not held in place, the walking action would make one doublet slide past
the other. Instead, the microtubules (and consequently the flagellum or
cilium) bend.
In 1955 Bradford suggested that the movement of cilia is due to
sliding of double fibrils in two groups one after the other. Five out of nine
double fibrils contract simultaneously. As a result cilium bends or shortens. It
is called effective stroke. Four out of nine double fibrils contract and cilium
becomes straight. It is called recovery stroke. A flagellum causes movement
by the passage of rapid successive waves of bending from the attached to the
free end. Flagellar movement of human sperms propel them forward within
the fluid medium of the female reproductive tract.
28 BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
Power stroke
or Effective stroke or Recovery stroke
Fig: 1.24 Characteristic Movement Patterns of Cilia and Flagella. (a) Cilia usually row
along, providing a force of movement parallel to the plasma membrane, just as oars provide
movement parallel to sides of a rowboat. (b) Flagella often move in a wave like motion with
a continuous bending that starts at the base and move up to the tip. This motion provides
a force of movements perpendicular to the plasma membrane. In this way a flagellum
attached to a sperm can move the sperm straight ahead.
BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 29
Nucleus
The largest and most
easily seen of all the
organelleles within a
eukaryotic cell is the
nucleus. A cell may be
mononucleate, binucleate or
multinucleate. In animal
cells the nucleus is typically
located in the central region.
It controls all the activities
of the cell. Nucleus consists
of nuclear membrance,
nucleoplasm, nucleolus and Fig: 1.25 Nucleus
chromosomes. A double
membrane called nuclear
envelope or nuclear membrane, bounds the surface of the nucleus. The two
membranes are separated by a fluid-filled perinuclear space. These are
connected at nuclear pores. It consists of protein and lipid bilayer. The outer
membrane is covered with ribosomes and is connected with the membranes
of ER. The perinuclear space is continuous with the lumen of ER. The inner
membrane is smooth. The nuclear membrane is perforated by numerous
pores. The pores regulate the nucleo-cytoplasmic exchange of materials.
Science Titbits
The structures and molecules which can cross the nuclear envelops are
ions, micromolecules, macromolecules, tRNA, mRNA, ribosomal RNA,
proteins, nucleotides, and some hormones for regulation of DNA.
wall. The flagellum is a structure for movement. Pili (singular: pilus) are
hollow protein filaments that are anchored in the membrane and project
through the cell wall. They can be observed only by electron microscope and
are found only on certain species of Gram negative bacteria. Pili are used to
transfer genetic material during conjugation. The other function of pili is
attachment on the surface of tissues of an infected person. Pili are also known
as fimbriae.
The glycocalyx (slime layer) is a polysaccharide coating that is secreted
by many bacteria. In some bacteria there is an infolding of the cell membrane into
the cytoplasm. This is called mesosome. Mesosomes are in the form of vesicles,
tubules or lamellae. The functions of mesosomes are: (a) increase membrane
surface area, allowing the cell greater activity in respiration and active transport
(b) the formation of new cross wall occurs with the help of mesosomes during
cell division (c) photosynthesis.
Science Titbits
Plasmids are important vectors in modern genetic engineering techniques.
Plasmids also occur in lower eukaryotes e.g. yeast. Several different types of
plasmids can exist in one cell. Transmissible plasmids can be transferred from
cell to cell by conjugation. Nontrasmissible plasmids are small, they are
frequently present in many copies per cell.
2. Which technique provided the primary evidence for the fluid mosaic model
of the cell membrane?
A) cell fractionation B) chemical analysis of membrane proteins
C) freeze-fracture D) chemical analysis, microscopic staining
3. Some cellular organelles are bound by a single membrane, while other
organelles have two membranes (envelopes) around them. Which one of
the folowing is correct?
single membrane two membranes
A. peroxysomes lysosome nucleus chloroplast
B. chloroplast lysosome nucleus peroxysomes
C. nucleus chloroplast lysosome peroxysomes
D. nucleus lysosome chloroplast peroxysomes
4. Which of the following cell structures contains the highest concentration
of RNA?
A) centriole B) lysosome
C) chromosome D) nucleolus
5. A tadpoles tail is grdually broken down during metaporphosis into an
adult frog. Which organelle increases in number in the cells of the tail at
this time?
A) centriole B) endoplasmic reticulum
C) Golgi complex D) lysosomes
6. The diagram shows the fluid-mosaic model of membrane structure?
What are X, Y and Z?
X Y Z
X Y
BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 35
1) Why are the following scientists famous for? : (a) Rudolf Virchow,
36 BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
ANSWER MCQS
1. C 2. D 3. A 4. D 5. D 6. D 7. D 8. B 9. D 10. A 11. B
1. Campbell N.A. Mhchell, L.G. & Reece J.B., Biology Concepts and
connections, 2nd edition Benjamin/Cummings Company California, 2003
USEFUL WEBSITES