Topic 1 A Level Biology
Topic 1 A Level Biology
Topic 1 A Level Biology
Contents (checklist)
1.1 Monomers and polymers ..................................................................................................................2
Monomers and polymers ....................................................................................................................... 2
Condensation and hydrolysis reactions ................................................................................................. 2
1.2 Carbohydrates ..................................................................................................................................3
Monosaccharides and disaccharides ..................................................................................................... 3
Isomers of glucose: - and -glucose .................................................................................................... 3
Polysaccharides ...................................................................................................................................... 4
Biochemical tests ................................................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Lipids ................................................................................................................................................6
Triglycerides ........................................................................................................................................... 6
Phospholipids ......................................................................................................................................... 6
Saturated & unsaturated fatty acids...................................................................................................... 6
Emulsion test for lipids .......................................................................................................................... 6
1.4.1 Proteins: general properties of proteins..........................................................................................7
Amino acids, dipeptides and polypeptides ............................................................................................ 7
Structural levels of proteins and the role of bonds ............................................................................... 7
Biuret test for protein ............................................................................................................................ 7
1.4.2 Proteins: many proteins are enzymes .............................................................................................8
Introduction to enzymes ........................................................................................................................ 8
Factors affecting rate of enzyme-controlled reactions ......................................................................... 8
1.5.1 Nucleic acids: structure of DNA & RNA..........................................................................................10
Function of DNA & RNA .......................................................................................................................10
Structure of DNA & RNA nucleotides and polymers............................................................................10
Maths ...................................................................................................................................................10
1.5.2 Nucleic acids: DNA replication ......................................................................................................12
Process of DNA replication ..................................................................................................................12
Evidence for semi-conservative replication (Meselson and Stahl) ......................................................12
1.6 ATP .................................................................................................................................................13
The structure of adenosine trisphosphate (ATP) .................................................................................13
ATP/ADP hydrolysis and condensation ................................................................................................13
The properties of ATP make it a suitable immediate source of energy ..............................................13
1.7 Water .............................................................................................................................................14
How hydrogen bonding occurs between water molecules .................................................................14
Properties of water that are important in biology ..............................................................................14
1.8 Inorganic ions .................................................................................................................................15
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A hydrolysis reaction:
• Separates 2 molecules
• Requires addition of a water molecule
• Breaks a chemical bond
Exam tip: to get full marks for a diagram of a condensation or hydrolysis reaction, you need to include the
H2O molecule that is added or removed
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1.2 Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates can be classified into 3 groups based on how many units they are made of (1, 2 or many)
The monomers from which Formed by the condensation Formed by the condensation
larger carbohydrates are made of 2 monosaccharides of many monosaccharides
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Polysaccharides
Examples: starch, glycogen and cellulose
Glycogen
• Function: energy store in animal cells
• Structure: polysaccharide of -glucose with C1-C4 and C1-C6
glycosidic bonds so branched
Starch
• Function: energy store in plant cells
• Structure: polysaccharide of -glucose. Mixture of
amylose and amylopectin; amylose has C1-C4
glycosidic bonds so is unbranched, while amylopectin
has C1-C4 and C1-C6 glycosidic bonds so is branched
Cellulose
• Function: provides strength and structural support to plant cell walls
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Biochemical tests
Benedict’s test for sugars
Reducing sugar Non-reducing sugars
• All monosaccharides e.g. glucose • No monosaccharides
• Some disaccharides e.g. maltose / lactose • Some disaccharides e.g. sucrose
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1.3 Lipids
Triglycerides and phospholipids are 2 groups of lipids
Triglycerides
Triglycerides are formed by the
condensation of 1 molecule of
glycerol and 3 fatty acids
Phospholipids
In phospholipids, one of the fatty acids of a triglyceride
is substituted by a phosphate-containing group
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H H
• Dipeptide – 2 amino acids joined H2O Dipeptide
• Polypeptide – many amino acids joined H R O H R O
H N C C N C C OH
• A functional protein may contain one or more polypeptides
H Peptide H
bond
Structural levels of proteins and the role of bonds
o
Primary (1 ) structure
• Sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain primary
structure
o
Secondary (2 ) structure
• Hydrogen bonding between amino acids (between
carbonyl O of one and amino H of another) secondary
• Causes polypeptide chain to fold into a repeating pattern structure
e.g. alpha helix or beta pleated sheet
o
Tertiary (3 ) structure
tertiary
• Overall 3D structure of a polypeptide held together by
structure
interactions between amino acid side chains:
• Ionic bonds / disulfide bridges / hydrogen bonds
o
Quaternary (4 ) structure quaternary
• Some proteins are made of 2+ polypeptide chains structure
• Held together by more hydrogen, ionic and disulfide
bonds
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Substrate concentration
• Increasing substrate conc. rate of reaction increases
• Substrate concentration = limiting factor (too few
enzyme molecules to occupy all active sites)
• More successful E-S collisions and E-S complexes
• At a certain point, rate of reaction plateaus
• Enzyme conc. = limiting factor (all active sites
saturated; excess substrate)
Temperature
• Increasing temp. up to optimum rate of reaction increases
• Increase in kinetic energy
• More successful E-S collisions and E-S complexes
• Increasing temp. above optimum rate of reaction falls
• Enzymes denature; tertiary structure and active site
change shape (hydrogen / ionic bonds break)
• Fewer E-S collisions and E-S complexes (substrate no
longer binds to active site)
• Rate of reaction 0 when all enzymes denatured
pH
• pH above / below optimum pH rate of reaction decreases
• Enzymes denature; tertiary structure and active site change
shape (hydrogen and ionic bonds break)
• Complementary substrate can no longer bind to active site
• Fewer E-S collisions and E-S complexes
• pH = - log10 [H+]
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Exam tip: examiners can be picky when it comes to comparison questions. To get the marks, try and
include ‘whereas’ to ensure you have covered both sides
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Maths
Use incomplete information about the frequency of bases on DNA strands to find the
frequency of other bases
Key idea…
• % of adenine in strand 1 = % of thymine in strand 2 (and vice versa)
• % of guanine in strand 1 = % of cytosine in strand 2 (and vice versa)
• Because of specific complementary base pairing between 2 strands
Worked example:
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1.5.2 Nucleic acids: DNA replication
Process of DNA replication
1. DNA Helicase breaks hydrogen bonds between bases, unwinds double helix
2. = two strands which both act as templates
3. Free floating DNA nucleotides attracted to exposed bases via specific complementary base
pairing, hydrogen bonds form (adenine-guanine; guanine-cytosine)
4. DNA polymerase joins adjacent nucleotides on new strand by condensation, forming
phosphodiester bonds (= sugar phosphate backbone)
5. Replication is semi-conservative – each new strand formed contains one original / template strand
and one new strand
6. Ensures genetic continuity between generations of cells
1.6 ATP
The structure of adenosine trisphosphate (ATP)
• Ribose, a molecule of adenine, 3 phosphate groups
• Nucleotide derivative (modified form of nucleotide)
• The structure of ADP (adenosine diphosphate) is the same as
ATP, minus a phosphate
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1.7 Water
How hydrogen bonding occurs between water molecules
• Water is a polar molecule (oxygen molecule has a partial negative
charge; hydrogen atoms have a partial positive charge)
• Slightly negatively charged oxygen atoms attract slightly positively
charged hydrogen atoms of other water molecules
• So hydrogen bonds (weak attractive force) form between water
molecules
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