- structures

4. Port Maitenance and Information System in Korea Inspection and Maitenance System

Structural Performance and Field Applications of High Durable, Light Weight

Composite Bridge Deck Charac
(Times New Roman Font, Size 12pt, All Cap, Bold Face)
umbe r OneLee1,m Hoon Cho21, Sokhwan Choi3Author Number Two2 and 2, and Gyu Sang Jeong34
hn4
ABSTRACT:

Recent days composite bridge deck is considered one of the promising alternative to concrete
bridge deck due to many advantages. In this paper, structural performance of glass fiber
reinforced composite bridge deck for DB24 truck load of 3-cell trapezoidal profile, called
‘Delta Deck’, fabricated with pultrusion is presented. Extensive experiments including
flexural tests, fatigue tests, and field load tests for the pultruded deck were conducted. Some
field applications of developed composite deck are presented as well. IFinite element analysis
also performed and the results weralso proposes the next generation deck profile for vertical
snap-fit connections.
isteel and concrete des such as light weearch and development, appr the compost eck and and
analytical studies on the glass reinforced compost dgeicted with vacuung and
pultrusionscribel field t uced. In additgram for oncecoe are pres
KEYWORDS: glass fiber, fiber-reinforced composites, bridge composite deck, fiber-
reinforced composites, structural tests, analysis, field applications

1. INTRODUCTION

To cope with problems of deterioration and corrosion of conventional steel and concrete
materials, high durable, lightweight fiber reinforced composites are considered one of the
promising alternative construction materials for the civil infrastructures.Ialong with field
application-antro results ivolved in the devecks are described in the paper. Vacuum bag
molding, filament winding and pultrusion were incorporated for the fabrication of the deck.
Finite element analysis and various experiments were carried out for these decks.
axial-flexural tests, field di and proceor develament winding are pres

Due to considerable advantages of composite bridge deck, many studies were carried out and
increasing field applications were reported recently1),2). recently1),2). Composite bridge deck is
considered to have significant advantages compared with conventional concrete deck. Since it
is high durable, corrosion-free material, much longer service life and lower maintenance cost
is expected so that LCC(life cycle cost) can be much lower. Due to light weight
characteristics, it can save dead load as much as 80% compared with conventional concrete
deck and much slender substructures can be possible. When it is used for redecking, load
carrying capacity of the bridge is upgraded automatically without strengthening girder or
substructures. Due to fast installation it reduces construction period and traffic block time
significantly during the construction, considerable savings of direct and indirect costs are
1
Dean/College of Engineering, Professor/Dept. of Civil & Env. Eng., Kookmin University, eoul, Korea
(email: [email protected]) Deo
2
Deputy Manager, Kookmin Composite Infrastructure Inc., Seoul, Korea(email: [email protected])
34
Research Associate, Kookmin University, Seoul, Korea(email: [email protected]) University, Korea, A
4
Inc., Korea, PresidentPhD candidate

1
possible. Some recent research results along with field applications for the composite bridge
decks are described in the following.

2. DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF PULTRUDED COMPOSITE BRIDGE DECK

2.1 Profile Design

Pultrusion is considered to be most economical fabrication method and it assures uniform

product quality. Based on the previous studies on the composite deck, deck profile for
pultrusion was developed for full-scale composite deck3). To satisfy serviceability criteria of
local deflection and to improve fatigue characteristics of local behavior of top flange,
trapezoidal shape section of 200mm depth with 16 mm of top flange, 12 mm of bottom flange
and 10 mm of web was designed for Korean highway truck load DB24 truck (rear axle load of
94.1kN) for typical 2.5 m girder spacing as shown in Figure 1. The tube consists of 3
trapezoidal sections and it will be bonded together to make complete deck panel. Considering
local effect due to tire contact at the top surface, top flange was designed thicker than bottom
flange. Laminate design was done differently for top flange, bottom flange and web. For
pultrusion process, 60 % weight fraction of glass fiber was selected in the design. Figure 2
shows the laminate design of top flange of the deck. In the laminate, 8800 Tex E-glass roving
was used in the longitudinal direction and multi-axial stitched fabrics (90°/±45°) were used
for transverse direction. Unsaturated polyurethane was used as resin base of the composite
deck. Figure 3 shows graphic view of the composite deck installed on the girder
bridge.Pultrusion is considered to be most economical fabrication method and it assures
uniform product quality. Based on the previous study, dDeck profile for pultrusion was
developed for full-scale composite deck3). To satisfy serviceability criteria of local deflection
and to improve fatigue characteristics of local behavior of upper flange, trapezoidal shape
section of 200 mm depth with 16 mm of top flange, 12 mm of bottom flange and 10 mm of
web was designed for Korean highway truck load DB24 truck load(rear wheel load of 9.6
tonf) for typical 2.5 m girder spacing as shown in Fig. 10. The tube consists of 3 trapezoidal
sections and it will be bonded together to make complete deck panel. Considering local effect
due to tire contact at the top surface, top flange was designed thicker than bottom flange.
Laminate design was done differently for top, bottom and web. For pultrusion process, 60 %
weight fraction of glass fiber was selected in the design. Fig. 11 shows the laminate design of
upper flange of the deck. In the laminate, 8800 Tex E-glass roving was used in the
longitudinal direction and multi-axial stitched fabrics (90°/±45°) were used for transverse
direction. Unsaturated polyurethane was used as resin base of the composite deck. Fig 12
shows graphic view of the composite deck installed on the girder bridge. Fig. 14 Photo 6
shows fabrication process for the pultrusion and Fig. 15Photo 7 shows cutting figures of the
section when fabrication is completed.

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 403

70 333

CS M (Ra n d o m )

o o o
DB T ( 9 0 / +4 5 / - 4 5 )

200
o
R o vin g ( 0 )

o o
LT ( 0 / 9 0 )

Fig. 1 Profile of pultruded deck (Delta Deck) Fig. 2 Laminate design of top flange

Fig. 123 Graphic view of composite deck bridge

Fig Deflection contours after analysis

2.2 Sructural Analysis fod Fabrication

Finite element analysis was performed to examine serviceability and structural safety of the
‘Delta-Deck’ applied to the steel plate girder bridge. Deflection, stresses and failure indices of
the composite deck were checked, including buckling stability for the web due to DB24 truck
load. Figure 4 shows cross section of the bridge under consideration. The bridge in
consideration is 30m in length with simple supports and has 5 girders of 2.5m spacing. FE
analysis was carried out for this bridge using the material properties of composites obtained
by micromechanics. After verification by analysis, the deck was fabricated with pultrusion.
Then FE analysis was performed again using the actual material properties obtained from
coupon tests of the fabricated deck. In this paper, analysis results for the later case were
described. Figure 5 shows deflection contours after analysis.

Impact factor of 0.3 was applied to the live load. Two lane load model was considered in its
transverse direction. A serviceability criterion of deflection was taken L/425. Tsai-Wu failure
theory was adopted to examine the structural safety of the composite deck herein. The results
of analysis are tabulated in Table 1. As shown in the table, the designed composite deck
satisfies all the requirements of serviceability and structural safety. Photo 1 shows fabrication
process for the pultrusion and Photo 2 shows completed section after fabrication.

are .

3
 Composite Deck

Girder

Fig. 4 Cross section of bridge model for analysis Fig. 5 Deflection contours after analysis

Table 1 Analysis result for the bridge in consideration

Max. stress (MPa) Max.

Tsai-Wu Eigenvalue
Item Top flange Bottom flange deflection
failure index for buckling
σx σy σx σy ( mm )
Result -14.07 -15.69 17.36 7.20 0.096 2.32 14.22
Factor of safety 18.19 10.13 17.13 11.01 10.42 2.53 10.67

x : longitudinal direction of tube (perpendicular to bridge axis)  

y : transverse direction of tube (parallel to bridge axis)

Photo 1 Fabrication process for the pultrusion Photo 2 Completed section after fabrication
According to the analysis, compressive stresses σx=-143.5 kgf/cm2, σy=-160 kgf/cm2 occur at
the upper deck where the load is applied and tensile stress σx=-177.0 kgf/cm2, σy=73.4 kgf/cm2
at the lower deck. Compared with maximum failure strength (table 2) obtained through
specimen tests, both upper and lower deck have safety factors between 10 and 18 (table 2).
According to Tsai-Wu failure analysis, failure index at the upper deck is 0.096, meaning that
the deck has safety factor of 10.42. When the web is checked for buckling, due to its
eigenvalue of 14.22 and knock-down factor of 0.75, it has the safety factor of 10.67. The
results for safety factors of stresses, deflections and failure indices are arrangedanalysis are
tabulated in table 1. As is manifest from shown in the table, the designed composite deck
satisfieds all the requirements of serviceability and structural safety. Material properties used
in the analysis are from results of specimen test for the deck (table 3).

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It is common that created stresses be compared with allowable ones. However, when the
stress field exists under 2 axes or multi-axes condition, appropriate failure theory needs to be
applied in order to check the safety of structural members. For isotropic materials such as
steel, maximum shear stress theory or strain energy theory is often used. However, for
composite material, which is neither isotropic nor yielding, existing failure theory does not
hold. Tsai-Wu failure theory iswas adopted to examine the structural safety of the composite
deck herein.
3. TESTS FOR EVALUATION OF STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE

3.1 Flexural Performance Test for Pultruded Deck

4.1.1 Test Summary

3 point flexural test was carried out in order to evaluate the structural performance of the
pultruded composite deck. At failure load, flexural capacity and deflection of the deck were
evaluated. Load was applied on the wheel load contact area of 580mm x 230mm. Test deck
was 2.25m long, 1.0m wide and was simply supported. The load was applied at the center of
the span. Photo 3 shows figures of the flexural test.

Vertical deflections of the deck was measured through LVDTs positioned at 3 locations in the
transverse direction at the middle of the span. Strains were measured at 16 points on the top
and bottom flange of the deck. Figure 6 shows the locations of strain gages attached to the
deck. L signifies longitudinal direction and T signifies transverse direction of the test deck.

Photo 3 Flexural test for pultruded composite deck Fig. 6 Location of the strain gages attached to
top and bottom flanges
tubes

At failure,
maximumthis was 411.9kN and maximum vdisplacemn was 35.6mm. Load-dispshows load-
deflection curves. Since the rear axle load of DB24 including impact factor 1.3, is 122.4kN,
factor of safety becomes 3.36 (411.9/122.4). However, if the effect of wheel load distribution
for 1.0m width is considered, it can be expected to have more safety margin. Photo 9 shows
local punching failure on the loaded pae of the deck occurring at the momenioad.

122.4kN corresponding DB24 is designated in Figure 7. Figure 8 shows load-strain curves in

L direction for the top flange. Stresses in L and T direction for top and bottom flange at DB24
load are tabulated in Table 2. Final failure mode of the flexural test turned out to be local
damage failure at the loaded part of the top flange (Photo 4). However, this type of failure
mode may not be anticipated to occur in real situation. If real situation of this kind is

5
considered, it is expected to have more margins. FE analysis was also carried out for the test
deck model. Though it is not included in the paper, the analytical results agreed well with
those from experiments3). In the analysis, Tsai-Wu failure index was also evaluated for the
failure load of 411.9kN. Figure 9 shows the distribution of failure indices according to Tsai-
Wu failure analysis. Tsai-Wu failure indices for each strain gage location are shown in Table 3.

450 450

400 400

350 350

300 300

Load (kN)
Load (kN)

250 LVDT1 250

LVDT2 200 TL1 TL2

200
LVDT3 150 TL3 TL4
150
100 TL5 TL6
100
TL7 TL8
50
50 TL9
0
0
0 -1000 -2000 -3000 -4000 -5000
0 10 20 30 40
Displacement (mm) Strain (με)

Fig. 7 Load-deflection curve Fig. 8 Load-strain curve for top flange in L direction

Table 2 Stresses at DB24 load for the test deck

Top L Bottom T Top L Bottom T

strain(με) -1,475 -1,235 1,950 870
stress(MPa) -24.7 -24.5 40.5 12.45
ultimate.
-256.0 -159.0 297.3 155.7
strength(MPa)
safety factor 10.35 6.48 7.34 12.50

Photo 4 Failure mode at maximum load

Table 3 shows results of the specimen test for the composite deck, which are used as input data for FE analysis.
composite deck for FE Analysis
k

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 ovement)Y : transverse to tube direction (parallel to vehicle
movement) failure dex

Gage Tsai-Wu Gage Tsai-Wu

No. failure index No. failure index
1 0.23 1 0.41
2 0.18 2 0.26
3 0.04 3 0.18
4 0.12 4 0.28
bottom top
5 0.02 5 0.06
flange flange
6 0.01 6 0.36
7 0.04 7 0.19
8 0.05 8 0.18
9 0.02 9 0.07

Fig. 9 Tsai-Wu failure index distribution

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As shown in Table 3,

nalytical result with the result from flexural performance test. Tsai-Wu failure analysis is
performed for the maximum failure load, 42tonf. mMaximum failure index at the partload
location of upper decktop flange of loading turned out to beis 0.41. This means1 so that the
composite deck iswas still safe analyticallyis not at the failure status under the load,
42tonf411.9kN. Considering this, fFlexural failure iswasis expectanticipated to occur at
102ton00.3kNf, which iswas 2.44 times 42tonf, meaning that the composite deck hads much
larger flexural capacity.

3.22 Shear Test for Girder-Deck Connection

A shearPush-down test wais carried out for the shear connection part between the girder and
the composite deck. Test specimen was made in such a way that tto evaluate allowable shear
force of the shear connector. Variables considered weare: diameter of shear connector,
compressive strength of mortar, and thickness of bedding. Connection part between the girder
and the composite deck to be tested wais fabricated with shear connectors and non-shrinkage
mortar with bedding thickness of 20mm. The test wais performed by applying forces to the
steel girder which wais connected to the lower flanges of the composite deck. wo deck panels
with 4 shear connectors were connected to the H-type girder in each side. Shear pockets
weare formed at two places per each deck andfilled with non-shrinkage mortar was injected to
complete the composite partgirder-deck connection. Four studs weare installed with its
interval being 33cm. 0, strain gages are a
Photo 3 Shear Test for Deck-Girder ConnectionTest ResultAccording to the test result,
iInterlaminar shear failure occurreds at the joint of the web and lower bottom
flange of the composite deck at the load of, 56tonf49.2kN. The shear
connectors were wasis already yielded when the failure of the composite deck
occurreds at the joint. Allowable Sshear force at failure can be estimated based
on the average yield strength of 4 shear connectors. Photo 5 shows shear test
set-up for deck-girder connection. Fig. 21ure 10 shows load-strain curves
measured from the strain gages attached to the shear connectors.

3.3 Ctigue Test for Coltruded Deck

Compression fatigue test was carried out to evaluate fatigue characteristics of composite deck
at girder support. 2million cycles of repetitive load corresponding to DB24 wheel load of
122.4kN including impact was loaded with 5Hz over the tire contact area of 23.0cmx57.7cm.

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 600

500

400

300

200

100

0
-2000 -1000 0 1000 2000 3000

Photo 5 Shear test for deck-girder connection Fig. 10 Load-strain curves for shear connectors
2
and the diameter 22mm for the shear connectors. According to design manuals for Korean
highway bridges, allowable shear force becomes 2.9tonf and yield shear force becomes
10.9tonf, which is yield stress multiplied by the cross section area of shear connector. Safety
factor of 4.0 is to be applied even though 3.7 is obtained through computation. According to
the design manual, yielding of shear connector is to occur at the strain 0.2%. On the safe side,
computation is based on the shear force (Fig. 21) measured at the yield strain (εy=
σy/Es=2,400/2,040,000=0.0012). ear force per shear connector is approximately 11.9tonf
when yielding occurs (εy=0.0012).ording to the yield strength criteria given in table 5.

4 shear connectors)
[tonf]

a
5. Structural Performance Test for connecting parts
between composite deck and guard wall
5.1 Test Summary
deck, anardized drawing in the specification.
Performance test for the guard wall is carried out
by loading the upper part of the guard wall at the
rate of 2mm/min under strain control. 2 and Fig.
23
Photo 4 Performance Test for connecting parts
n compe de
바닥판 상부면
평면도

바닥판
P3
P1 P2 (T)
(T) (T)

주형
9 방호벽
 Strain gage(L)
Strain gage(T)
LVDT

Photo 6 Compression fatigue test Fig. 11 Strain gage location for test deck

1 - BG1 2 - BG2
3 - BG3 4 - BG4
5 - BG5 6 - BG6
7 - BG7 8 - BG8
9 - BG9 10 - BG10
11 - BG11 12 - BG12
13 - BG13 14 - BG14
15 - BG15 16 - BG16
17 - BG17 18 - BG18
19 - BG19 20 - BG20
21 - BG21 22 - BG22
23 - BG23 24 - BG24
25 - BG25 26 - BG26

Photo 7 Flexural fatigue test Fig. 12

Strain gage location at bottom

Photo 6 shows test set-up for compression fatigue test. Figure 11 shows strain gage location
for the test deck.
After 2 million cycle loading,

After the repetitive loading of initial, 0.5million, 1million, 1.5million, and 2million cycles,
static load test wais carried out. From the LVDT attached to the deck interior, relative
displacements of upper and lower flange weare read: 0.88mm at initial stage, converging from
1.13mm to 1.25mm until 2million cycles. According to strain gages it wais found that after 1
million cycles, increasing rate of strain sloweds down as number of cycles increaseds so that
overall fatigue behavior of the deck gotets stabilized.
anyrenot observedic load tests wereas carMultipMaximua1cf 13 shows load-strain relats at
gage 6 obtained from static load tests after loading of each cycle measuhown in the figure,

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sStrain after 2 million cycles of repetitive loading does t change too much compared with
those of the initial deck. The strains got very mized after 0.5million cycles, thus it is
demonstrated that composite deck at girder location showed satisfactory fatigue
characteristics(Sung Cmaring the strains at each gage location, maximum was found at gage 6.
The stress corresponding to this maximum strain after 2million cycles of loading was only
1/13.1 of the ultimate strength of the deck. Thus it can be concluded that the deck is
sufficiently safe as far as fatigue is concerned.

As well as compression fatigue test, f

tf . sh-up for flexurafatigue tesows stran gage location at bottange of the test dibutad of 7.8
tonf is ready for test deck of 1m width (Sunpart inside the deck panel. Photo 612 shows
flexural fatigue test and figure 16 shows strain gage location at bottom flange of the deck..

140 90

80
120

70
100
60
Load(kN)

80
Load (kN)

50

60 40
0 c y c le 0 c y c le
30
40 500,000 c yc le s 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 c y c le s
20
1,000,000 c yc le s 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 c y c le s
20 10 1 , 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 c y c le s
1,500,000 c yc le s
2,000,000 c yc le s 0
2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 c y c le s
0
0 200 400 600 800
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

S t ra i n ( μ ε ) S tr a in( μ ε )

Fig. 13 Load-strain curves at gage G6 Fig. 14 Load-strain curves at gage BG7

middl left)

After 2million cycles of repetitive loading, any type of damage for the deck at the center span
and girder location was not observed. Also at the deck and girder connection, any crack or
damage of the non-shrinkage mortar, which was filled around shear studs in the pocket of the
deck was not found. Figure 14 shows load-strain curves at gage BG7. As shown in the figure,
curves for each load cycle were almost identical. Thus it demonstrated that the deck possesses
excellent flexural fatigue characteristics.

3.4 Field Load Test

After extensive structural performance tests in the laboratory as described above, developed
pultruded deck was installed on the demonstration bridge of plate girder type at lane
enlargement project of Gyongbu highway. For this demonstration bridge, field load test was

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carried out as shown in Photo 8. Maximum deck deflection was measured 1.92mm for the test
truck. Permissible deflection for the 2.0m girder spacing was estimated 4.7mm when
deflection serviceability criterion of L/425(2000/425) was applied. Thus the safety margin of
2.4 was obtained for this test truck. When test truck load was converted to DB24 truck load,
serviceability safety margin can be estimated to 2.9. For the maximum stress obtained from
measured strain at the bottom flange of the deck in the direction of bridge axis, factor of
safety was evaluated as 39 compared with ultimate strength of the deck for the equivalent
DB24 truck load. From field load test, it is demonstrated that developed pultruded deck
possesses sufficient margin for deflection serviceability and strength.

4. SOME FIELD APPLICATIONS

Several field applications of ‘Delta Deck’ composite bridge deck are now underway in Korea.
Photo 9 shows installation of filament wound composite deck over another demonstration
Fig. 26 shows load-strain relationship measured from BG 7 attached in the transverse
direction to the vehicle movement or longitudinal direction of the deck tubes.

Photo 8 Field load test for demonstration bridge Photo 9 Installation of filament wound
composite deck

Photo 10 Installation of composite deck Photo 11 Heavy loaded traffic over composite
at Gwangyang deck bridge at Gwangyang

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 Photo 12 Installation of composite Photo 13 Installation of composite
deck at Jangsoo(I) deck at Jangsoo(II)

Photo 14 Installation of composite Photo 15 Installation of composite

deck at Pyungtaek(I) deck at Pyungtaek(II)

Photo 16 Installation of composite Photo 17 Installation of composite

deck at Seoul(I) deck at Seoul(II)

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plate girder bridge at Gwangju. After field verification for the previous two demonstration
composite girder bridges, 150m-long, 12m-wide pultruded composite deck plate girder bridge
was constructed at Gwangyang in October, 2004. Photo 10 shows installation of composite
deck at Gwangyang bridge. Photo 11 shows heavily loaded traffic over the completed bridge
at Gwangyang. As an another case, Photo 12 and 13 show installation of 25m-long, 12m-wide
pultruded composite deck steel plate girder bridge at Jangsoo in October, 2004. Photo 14 and
15 show other case of installation of 70m-long, 12m-wide pultruded composite deck PSC
girder bridge at Pyungtaek in November 2004. Photo 16 and 17 show 45m-long, 9m-wide
pultruded composite deck arch bridge at Seoul in June, 2004. In addition to above, several
more composite deck bridges are expected to be constructed in 2005. After successful
implementation of composite bridge deck, a large project of 300m-long and 35m-wide wharf
type girder bridge in Busan new port area is currently under design and planned to be installed
in 2006.
Finite element analysis was carried out to verify strength and serviceability criteria for the
designed deck. Simply supported plate girder bridge of 30 m span of 5 girders with 2.5m
spacing was considered. Analysis was performed with COSMOS/M for the finite element
meshes with SHELL4L element for the composite deck and girders. At the location of load,
refined meshes were incorporated. DB24 truck load was applied for the analysis and the
deflection contours are shown in Fig. 13 after analysis. From the analysis results, designed
deck is considered to possess factor of safety of 2.53 for deflection(L/425 criteria), 10.4 for
Tsai-Wu failure criteria and 10.7 for web buckling for the DB24 truck load.
Fig. 14. Pultrusion process of deck fabrication Fig. 1

7 Compression fatigue tet

19Photo 7 Field load test for composite deck brdg 0

Fig. 21 Result of flexural igue tes
Photo 7 ld load test. Several field applians elta e underway in Korea. Fig. 22 and Fig 23
show recent installation photos for arch bridge in Seoul. Fig. 24 shows profile of 150m long,
11m wide plate girder bridge in Kwangyang for composite deck installation. Fig. 25 shows
storage of deck panels for installation of the bridge in Fig. 24.
Photo 89 Long-
  PPoto10 of paneln (Times Roman Font, Size 10pt, justified).uEYWORDS: (Times New
Romant, format, proceedings, conference, appearace, (Times Roman Font, Size 10pt,
justified).FRP, GFRP, glass fiber, compression member, composite material, P-M diagram.

RESEARCH DESCRIBED IN THIS PAPER DEALS WITH THE BEHAVIOR OF

CONCRETE FILLED COMPOSITE TUBES, WHICH ARE USED AS FOUNDATION
PILES OR COLUMNS. SEVERAL RESEARCHERS HAVE INTRODUCED
FRP(FIBER REINFORCED PLASTICS) COMPOSITE TUBES TO OVERCOME
THE CORROSION AND DETERIORATION OF STEEL TUBES [1,2]. OTHER
BENEFITS OF COMPOSITE PILSTUDY SEVERAL CONCRETE FILLED
GFRP(GLASS FIBER REINFORCED PLASTICS) TUBES WERE FABRICATED

14
AND TESTED UNDER UNI-AXIAL COMPRESSION, BENDING, AND
AECHANICAL AND GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES, CONSTRUCT P-M
DIAGRAMS THAT C2.

. 2 n new port project (‘9 – 2011)

2. Ps 3a

P Capacity

u
m

–1

Gravity type(Fig. 4)

(Fig. 5 Fig. 6)
Suction pile foundation(Fig. 8
Japan- aseismic design,

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