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Origin and Structure of the Universe space.
This organization of matter in the
• Definition of Terms universe suggests that it is indeed clumpy at a A. Baryonic matter- "ordinary" matter consisting of certain scale. But at a large scale, it appears protons, electrons, and neutrons that comprises homogeneous and isotropic . atoms, planets, stars, galaxies, and other bodies • Based on recent data, the universe is 13.8 B. Dark matter- matter that has gravity but does not billion years old. The diameter of the universe emit light. is possibly infinite but should be at least 91 C.Dark Energy- a source of anti-gravity; a force that billion light-years (1 light-year = 9.4607 counteracts gravity and causes the universe to ×1012km). Its density is 4.5 x 10-31g/cm3. expand. D.Protostar - an early stage in the formation of a star Measuring Distances resulting from the gravitational collapse of gases. It is easy to make measurements on Earth. We use E. Thermonuclear reaction - a nuclear fusion reaction familiar systems such as the Metric System and responsible for the energy produced by Empirical System. stars. Some things are just so big , or just so far away, these F. Main Sequence Stars- stars that fuse hydrogen measuring systems will not work as the numbers atoms to form helium atoms in their cores; outward become too long to handle. pressure resulting from nuclear fusion is balanced by Astronomical Unit gravitational forces Light Years G.Light years- the distance light can travel in a year; a unit of length used to measure astronomical distance THE ANCIENT UNIVERSE • For 2000 years, the minds of astronomers were • Age of the Earth and the Universe shackled by a pair of ideas. Any explanation of the origin of the Universe should be • Plato’s student Aristotle argued that Earth was consistent with all information about its composition, imperfect and lay at the center of the universe. structure, accelerating expansion, cosmic microwave Such a model is known as geocentric universe. background radiation among others. • His model contained 55 spheres turning at Structure and Composition different rates and at different angles to carry • The universe as we currently know it the seven known planet (moon, Mercury, comprises all space and time, and all matter Venues, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn) across the and energy in it. sky. • Hydrogen, helium, and lithiumare the three • Ancient astronomers believed that Earth did most abundant elements. not move because they saw no parallax, The • Stars- the building block of galaxies-are born apparent motion of an object because of the out of clouds of gas and dust in galaxies. motion of the observer. Instabilities within the clouds eventually • To demonstrate parallax, close one eye and results into gravitational collapse, rotation, cover a distant object with your thumb held at heating up, and transformation into a arm’s length. Switch eyes and your thumb protostar-the hot core of a future star as appears to shift position as well. thermonuclear reactions set in. • If Earth moves, ancient astronomers reasoned, • Stellar interiors are like furnaces where you should see the sky from different locations elements are synthesized or combined/fused at different times of the year, and you should together. Most stars such as the Sun belong to see parallax distorting the shapes of the the so-called “main sequence stars.” In the constellations. cores of such stars, hydrogen atoms are fused • They saw no parallax, so they concluded Earth through thermonuclear reactions to make could not move. Actually, the parallax of the helium atoms. Massive main sequence stars stars is too small to see with unaided eye. burn up their hydrogen faster than smaller stars. Stars like our Sun burnup hydrogen in Non-Scientific Thoughts on the Origin of the about 10 billion years. Universe Ancient Egyptians believed in many gods and Birth, Evolution, Death, and Rebirth of Stars myths which narrate that the world arose from • The remaining dust and gas may end up as an infinite sea at the first rising of the sun. they are or as planets, asteroids, or other The Kuba people of Central Africa tell the bodies in the accompanying planetary system. story of a creator god Mbombo (or Bumba) • A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars and who, alone in a dark and water-covered Earth, clusters of galaxies for superclusters. In felt an intense stomach pain and then vomited between the clusters is practically an empty the stars, sun, and moon. In India, there is the narrative that gods energy froze into matter according to Albert sacrificed Purusha, the primal man whose Einstein’s equation. head, feet, eyes, and mind became the sky, This basically says that like snowflakes earth, sun, and moon respectively. freezing, energy forms matter into clumps that The monotheistic religions of Judaism, today we call protons, neutrons and electrons. Christianity, and Islam claim that a supreme These parts later form into atoms being created the universe, including man and Several hundred thousand years after Big Bang other living organisms. ATOMS form (specifically Hydrogen and its isotopes with a small amount of Helium.) Science-based Models of the Origin of the Universe The early Universe was about 75% Hydrogen Steady State Model and 25% Helium. It is still almost the same The now discredited steady state model of the today. universe was proposed in 1948 by Bondi and Gould From then on until 380,000 years, the cooling and by Hoyle. universe entered a matter-dominated period It maintains that new matter is created as the when photons decoupled from matter and universe expands thereby maintaining its density. light could travel freelyas still observed today Its predictions led to tests and its eventual rejection in the form of cosmic microwave background with the discovery of the cosmic microwave radiation. background. 200 to 400 million years after Big Bang Big Bang Theory 1st stars and galaxies are formed As the currently accepted theory of the origin and ~ 4.6 billion years ago evolution of the universe, the Big Bang Theory Our Solar system was formed postulates that 13.8 billion years ago, the universe Misconceptions about the Big Bang expanded from a tiny, dense and hot mass to its there was no explosion; there was (and present size and much cooler state. continues to be) an expansion The theory rests on two ideas: General Relativity Rather than imagining a balloon and the Cosmological Principle. popping and releasing its contents, General Relativity imagine a balloon expanding: a small General relativity, or the general theory of balloon expanding to the size of our relativity, is the geometric theory of gravitation current universe published by Albert Einstein in 1916 and the we tend to image the singularity as a little current description of gravitation in modern fireball appearing somewhere in space physics. space began inside of the singularity. General relativity generalizes special Prior to the singularity, nothing existed, relativity and Newton's law of universal not space, time, matter, or energy - gravitation, providing a unified description of nothing. gravity as a geometric property of space and time, Big Bang evidence or spacetime. 1. Universal expansion and Hubble’s Law Some predictions of general relativity differ a) Hubble observed the majority of galaxies are significantly from those of classical physics, moving away from us and each other especially concerning the passage of time, the b) The farther, the faster they move geometry of space, the motion of bodies in free fall, c) Red Shift and the propagation of light. 2. Quasars - super large (solar system size) galactic cores that put out more light than whole galaxies Evolution of the Universe according to the Big Bang Only found 10-15 billion light years away Theory Found nowhere else Time begins Nothing exists past them The universe begins ~13.7 Billion years ago The universe begins as the size of a single 3. Radioactive decay atom Radiometric dating – gives us the age of items The universe began as a violent expansion from the decay of radioactive materials found All matter and space were created from within the object a single point of pure energy in an Moon rocks have been dated and found to be instant older than Earth 3 minutes after the Big Bang Gives us an estimated time that Earth The universe has grown from the size of an and the Moon formed atom to larger than the size a grapefruit 4. Stellar formation and evolution E=mc 2 We observe the life cycles of stars across the higher densities, and lower contents of volatiles - universe using tools such as satellites and hydrogen, helium, and noble gases. telescopes 3. The outer four planets - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and we view stars form, burn and explode Neptune are called "gas giants" because of the 5. Speed of light and stellar distances dominance of gases and their larger size. They rotate The speed of light is a universal constant of faster, have thick atmosphere, lower densities, and 300,000 km/s2 fluid interiors rich in hydrogen, helium and ices We observe stars millions/billions of light- (water, ammonia, methane). years away A light-year is the distance that light travels in Origin of the Solar System 1 year – the light we see today from a star 500 Any acceptable scientific thought on the origin of the light years away is 500 years old solar system has to be consistent with and supported The furthest stars away are 10-15 billion light by information about it (e.g. large and small scale years away features, composition). There will be a need to revise We have telescopes that can see further, but currently accepted ideas should data no longer there isn’t anything viewable support them. Rival Theories SOLAR SYSTEM Many theories have been proposed since about four centuries ago. Each has weaknesses in explaining all • The solar system is located in the Milky Way characteristics of the solar system. galaxya huge disc- and spiral-shaped aggregation of Nebular Hypothesis about at least 100 billion stars and other bodies; In the 1700s Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, • Its spiral arms rotate around a globular cluster or and Pierre-Simon Laplace independently thought of a bulge of many, many stars, at the center of which lies rotating gaseous cloud that cools and contractsin the a supermassive blackhole; middle to form the sun and the rest into a disc that • This galaxy is about 100 million light years across (1 become the planets. This nebular theory failed to light year = 9.4607 ×1012km) account for the distribution of angular momentum in • The solar system revolves around the galactic center the solar system. once in about 240 million years; Encounter Hypotheses: • The Milky Way is part of the so-called Local Group • Buffon’s (1749) Sun-comet encounter that sent of galaxies, which in turn is part of the Virgo matter to form planet; supercluster of galaxies; • James Jeans’ (1917) sun-star encounter that would • Based on on the assumption that they are remnants have drawn from the sun matter that would condense of the materials from which they were formed, to planets, radioactive dating of meteorites, suggests that the • T.C. Chamberlain and F. R. Moulton’s (1904) Earth and solar system are 4.6 billion years old.on the planetesimal hypothesis involving a star much bigger assumption that they are remnants of the materials than the Sun passing by the Sun and draws gaseous from which they were formed. filaments from both out which planetisimals were formed; Large Scale Features of the Solar System • Ray Lyttleton’s(1940) sun’s companion star colliding 1. Much of the mass of the Solar System is with another to form a proto-planetthat breaks up to concentrated at the center (Sun) while angular form Jupiter and Saturn. momentum is held by the outer planets. • Otto Schmidt’s accretion theory proposed that the 2. Orbits of the planets elliptical and are on the same Sun passed through a dense interstellar cloud and plane. emerged with a dusty, gaseous envelope that 3. All planets revolve around the sun. eventually became the planets. However, it cannot 4. The periods of revolution of the planets increase explain how the planets and satellites were formed. with increasing distance from the Sun; the innermost The time required to form the planets exceeds the age planet moves fastest, the outermost, the slowest; of the solar system. 5. All planets are located at regular intervals from the • M.M. Woolfson’s capture theory is a variation of Sun. James Jeans’ near-collision hypothesis. In this scenario, the Sun drags from a near proto-star a Small scale features of the Solar System filament of material which becomes the planets. 1. Most planets rotate prograde Collisions between proto-planets close to the Sun 2. Inner terrestrial planets are made of materials with produced the terrestrial planets; condensations in the high melting points such as silicates, iron , and nickel. filament produced the giant planets and their They rotate slower, have thin or no atmosphere, satellites. Different ages for the Sun and planets is predicted by this theory. Sun - Star interaction successfully on comet (67P/Churyumov– Nobel Prize winner Harold Urey’s compositional Gerasimenko) on 12 November 2014. Analysis of the studies on meteorites in the 1950s and other scientists’ water (ice) from the comet suggest that its isotopic work on these objects led to the conclusion that composition is different from water from Earth. meteorite constituents have changed very little since Pluto Flyby the solar system’s early history and can give clues On 14 July 2015, NASA's New Horizon spacecraft about their formation. The currently accepted theory provided mankind the first close-up view of the on the origin of the solar system relies much on dwarf planet Pluto. Images captured from the flyby information from meteorites. revealed a complex terrain - ice mountains and vast Protoplanet Hypothesis - Current Hypothesis crater free plains. The presence of crater free • About 4.6 billion years ago, in the Orion arm of the plains suggests recent (last 100 millions of years) Milky Way galaxy, a slowly-rotating gas and dust of geologic activity. cloud dominated by hydrogen and helium starts to contract due to gravity MERCURY • As most of the mass move to the center to 57,910,000 km from Sun eventually become a proto-Sun, the remaining diameter: 4,880 km materials form a disc that will eventually become the mass: 3.30e23 kg planets and momentum is transferred outwards. It orbits the Sun once in about 88 Earth days • Due to collisions, fragments of dust and solid matter Mercury's thin atmosphere, or exosphere, is begin sticking to each other to form larger andlarger composed mostly of oxygen (O2), sodium bodies from meter to kilometer in size. These proto- (Na), hydrogen (H2), helium (He), and planetsare accretions of frozen water,ammonia, potassium (K). methane, silicon, aluminum, iron, and other metals in Mercury is difficult to see and study from rock and mineral grains enveloped in hydrogen and Earth because it is never far from the Sun’s helium. glare. • High-speed collisions with large objects destroys Mariner 10 – the only spaceprobe to visit it. much of the mantle of Mercury, puts Venus in It took photographs of nearly all of one side of retrograde rotation. it. • Collision of the Earth with large object produces the Surface moon. This is supported by the composition of the Mercury is covered with craters which were moon very similar to the Earth's Mantle formed when it was bombarded by meteorites. • When the proto-Sun is established as a star, its solar Mercury’s surface is also crossed by wrinkles wind blasts hydrogen, helium, and volatiles from the and ridges a few kilometers high. inner planets to beyond Mars to form the gas giants Mercury is a rocky planet with a particularly leaving behind a system we know today. large metal core and a very thin atmosphere. During sunrise to sunset the temperature on Recent advancement/information on the Solar the surface reaches 450ºC. System During the long night the temperature drops Exploration of Mars to about -170ºC. Since the 1960s, the Soviet Union and the U.S. have Orbit and Spin been sending unmanned probes to the planet Mars 70 million km – farthest with the primary purpose of testing the planet's 46 million km – nearest habitability. The early efforts in the exploration of Orbits 48 km/s. It takes only 88 days to Mars involved flybys through which spectacular complete one orbit. It takes 59 days to photographs of the Martian surface were taken. The complete one spin. first successful landing and operation on the surface VENUS of Mars occurred in 1975 under the Viking program of 108,200,000 km from Sun NASA. Recently, NASA, using high resolution diameter: 12,103.6 km imagery of the surface of Mars, presented evidence of mass: 4.869e24 kg seasonal flow liquid water (in the form of brine - salty thick and toxic atmosphere is made up mostly water) on the surface of Mars. of carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen (N2), Rosetta's Comet with clouds of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) droplets. Rosetta is a space probe built by the European Space probably once had large amounts of water like Agency and launched on 2 March 2004. One of its Earth but it all boiled away. mission is to rendezvous with and attempt to land a The hottest planet in the solar system. probe (Philae) on a comet in the Kuiper Belt. One of It appears as a bright star in the Earth’s sky. It the purpose of the mission is to better understand is bright because its cloud tops reflects most of comets and the early solar systems. Philae landed the light from the sun. Spins every 243 days and the only planet to Pathfinder – 1997 turn clockwise. Mobile robots Opportunity and Spirit - 2004 Orbital period: 225 days. JUPITER Regarded as the Earth’s twin. 778,330,000 km from Sun The planet is very active volcanically. diameter: 142,984 km It has plateaus and mountains but less craters mass:1.900e27 kg and valleys. largest planet within the Solar System Soil composition is similar to composition of has a faint ring system, these rings appear to basalt rocks in Earth. be made of dust. Venus’ Atmosphere 90% hydrogen and 10% helium (by numbers of Venus’ dense atmosphere consists mainly of atoms, 75/25% by mass) with traces of carbon dioxide. methane, water, ammonia and "rock". It feels denser than water and its pressure is 90 Jupiter is the largest and most massive of all times greater than that of the Earth. the Solar System planets. It is a gas giant with Average temperature is 464 degrees Celsius a surface of colorful clouds, 63 moons and a EARTH thin ring system. referred to as the "Blue Planet" There is no solid surface on Jupiter. The outer 149,600,000 km from the sun edge that we can see is made of clouds. mass: 5.98 x 1024 kg Jupiter is so huge that 11 Earths would fit diameter: 12,800 km across its diameter and 1,300 would fill it. It is also known as watery planet, because 70% The outer part of Jupiter is gas, below this is of its surface is covered by water. liquid, and in the center is a solid core. MARS It takes 12 years for the Jupiter to complete one named after the Roman god of war revolution and 10 hours for a single turn. often described as the "Red Planet“ Jupiter’s Weather iron oxide on its surface gives it a reddish Jupiter’s rapid spin, combined with heat rising appearance from inside help create and drive the weather. atmosphere of Mars consists of about Different pressure systems, winds up to 650 95% carbon dioxide, 3% nitrogen,1.6% argon km/h result. and contains some oxygen and water Dark zones of falling gas and light zones of also has the largest dust storms rising gas, create storms on where it meets. Mars is the planet most similar to Earth. It is a Jupiter’s Moons dry, rocky, red world about half the size and Surrounding Jupiter is a thin ring system and a much colder. large varied family of moons. A little more than half the Earth’s size and is There are 63 moons, four large and 59 small. about 1/9 of the mass of the Earth. The four largest ones are Io, Europa, It has a thin atmosphere, about 100 times Ganymede and Callisto are known as Galilean thinner than Earth’s, comprising mainly of Moons. carbon dioxide gas. SATURN Mars has two irregularly shaped moons. The Saturn is classified as a gas giant planet Phobos, the larger and closer moon, and the rings are made up of ice Deimos. atmosphere is made up mostly of hydrogen Its temperature at the equator is from 30 (H2) and helium (He). degrees Celsius in the day and -130 degrees cannot support life as we know it. However, Celsius at night. some of Saturn's moons have conditions that Surface Features might support life. Volcanic activity, meteorite bombardment and Saturn appears to be a bright yellow star from running water have shaped the surface we see Earth. Spaceprobes have revealed a colorful today. planet with an amazing system of rings and a The surface of Mars is composed of large family of moons. mountains, valleys and craters. Saturn does not have a solid surface. Its outer Search for Life layer, a haze of ammonia crystals, is difficult to Less than a century ago, people believed that see through. Martians, a form of intelligent life, lived on The ring system dominates the sky. Mars. Three spaceprobes that taught us more of the Two American spaceprobes, Vikings 1 and 2 planet landed in Mars in 1976. It tested for life but Pioneer 11 (1979), Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 none were found. (1980-1981). Another craft, Cassini, went into the orbit of Uranus’ ring system is made of 11 major rings the Saturn in 2004 or more, seems to be almost upright around Due to its fast spin, Saturn is squashed in the planet. shape with a bulging middle. NEPTUNE A gap in the rings, known as the Cassini 4,504,000,000 km from Sun Division, contains ring pieces diameter: 49,532 km Saturn’s Rings mass: 1.0247e26 kg The broad but thin system appears to be first planet found by mathematical prediction. divided into several wide rings but each of Most windy planet these is made up of separate narrow ringlets. Most distant gas planet. (made out of icy rocks) composed of and rock with about 15% The rings are thought to be younger than the hydrogen and a little helium. solar system and believed to be only a few Neptune is the most distant of the four gas hundred million years. giants. It is a blue, windy and cold world, with Saturn’s Moons a ring system and a family of 13 moons. Saturn has atleast 56 moons. Like Uranus, the first clear view of it was from Saturn’s largest moon, Titan, is the second the Voyager 2 spaceprobe. It reached Neptune largest moon in the solar system. in 1989, after its successful trip to Uranus in It is the only moon known to have an 1986. atmosphere made up mainly of nitrogen. Neptune’s Appearance URANUS Like Uranus, it is composed mainly of H and 2,870,990,000 km from Sun He as well as methane giving the planet a blue diameter: 51,118 km appearance. It is bluer because it has more mass: 8.683e25 kg methane gas It has at least ten thin uniform black rings White and dark features appear on the ,which are made of dust. Neptune’s surface. atmosphere is about 83% hydrogen, 15% Discovery helium and 2% methane. Early cosmologists observed that Uranus’ path composed primarily of rock and various ice is affected by an unknown body. Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun, and in 1845, John Couch Adams in England, and only just visible with the naked eye. It is a gas Urbain Le Verrierin France, worked out the giant with a ring system and large family of position of an unknown planet. moons. In 1846, Neptune was discovered, in the It is a cold and dark place. predicted position, by German astronomer The temperature at its cloud tops is around - Johann Galle. 200 degrees Celsius. Sky remains dark. Moons and Rings 84 years orbital period Neptune’s largest moon, Triton, was also The sky above Uranus is black. The Sun is only discovered in 1846, and a second moon, a distant, bright star. A thin system of rings Nereidin 1949. surrounds Uranus. Each is made of dark Six more moons were discovered by Voyager 2 chunks of rock. in 1989 and four faint narrow rings. Its surface is almost featureless. It consists PLUTO mainly of Hydrogen and Helium. Another gas, 5,913,520,000 km from the Sun methane, gives the planet its blue-green diameter: 2274 km coloring. mass: 1.27e22 kg Discovery atmosphere is consists primarily of nitrogen Discovered only in 1781 when the astronomer with some carbon monoxide and methane William Herschel observed it through his orbit crosses Neptune's, it really doesn't and telescope. they will never collide It was only until 1986, when spaceprobe Voyager 2 reached Uranus, that we got our METEOROIDS, COMETS, AND ASTEROIDS first good look. COMETS Moons and Rings “Dirty snowballs” By 2007, 27 moons were known. an icy small Solar System body that, when Most of Uranus’ moons are named after passing close to the Sun, heats up and begins characters from plays by William Shakespeare: to outgas, displaying a visible atmosphere or for example the largest moon is Titania, and coma, and sometimes also a tail. others are Miranda, Oberon and Puck. Formed beyond the frostline, comets are icy Hydrogen 92.1% counterparts to asteroids. Helium 7.8% ASTEROIDS Rest of the other 90 naturally occurring An irregularly shaped rocky object in space elements: 0.1% (like a space potato) • Energy is created in the core when hydrogen is May be the shattered remains of objects left fused to helium. This energy flows out from over from the time when the planets were the core by radiation through the radiative formed layer, by convection through the convective larger than the meteoroids (In fact, the main layer, and by radiation from the surface of the difference between meteoroids and asteroids is photosphere, which is the portion of the Sun their size.) we see. larger ones have also been called planetoids • The seasons occur because the tilt of the METEOROIDS Earth's axis keeps a constant orientation as the small rocky or metallic body travelling Earth revolves around the Sun. through space. Meteoroids are significantly • Sun does not rotate as a rigid sphere. The smaller than asteroids, and range in size from equator of the Sun rotates faster than the poles small grains to 1 meter-wide objects. of the Sun. This is called the differential rotation. Sunspots and many other solar STARS, GALAXIES, CONSTELLATIONS AND activities are due to this differential rotation. UNIVERSE • The most rapid changes to the Sun's magnetic STAR field occur locally, in restricted regions of the massive, luminous sphere of plasma held magnetic field. together by its own gravity. • However, the entire structure of the Sun's nearest star to Earth is the Sun global magnetic field changes on an 11 year some other stars are visible from Earth during cycle. the night, appearing as a multitude of fixed • Every 11 years, the Sun moves through a luminous points due to their immense period of fewer, smaller sunspots, distance. prominences, and flares - called a "solar GALAXY minimum" - and a period of more, larger derived from the Greek galaxias, literally sunspots, prominences and flares - called a "milky", a reference to the Milky Way. "solar maximum.“ a massive, gravitationally bound system • After 11 years, when the next cycle starts, the consisting of stars, stellar remnants, an magnetic field poles are reversed. interstellar medium of gas and dust, and dark • The last solar minimum was in 2006 matter • Sunspots appear as dark spots on the surface contain varying numbers of planets, star of the Sun. Temperatures in the dark centers of systems, star clusters and types of interstellar sunspots drop to about 3700 K (compared to clouds 5700 K for the surrounding photosphere). CONSTELLATION They typically last for several days, although totally imaginary things that poets, farmers very large ones may live for several weeks. and astronomers have made up over the past 6,000 years Sun’s Interior The real purpose for the constellations is to • Inner parts of the Sun help us tell which stars are which, nothing • Core - where energy is produced more • Temperature ~ 15 million kelvin. used as mnemonics, or memory aids • Density ~ 160,000 kg/m3 ~ 14 times as dense as lead. SUN AND MOON • Pressure ~ 3.4 x 1011 atm ( 1atm = air pressure Sun Fact Sheet at sea level). The Sun is a normal G2 star, one of more than 100 • Sun’s energy is produced inside a region of billion stars in our galaxy. 200,000 km (or 1/4th of the radius). Diameter: 1,390,000 km (Earth 12,742 km or nearly 100 times smaller) • Radiative zone Mass: 1.1989 x 10 kg (333,000 times Earth’s mass) 30 • This region is comparatively Temperature: 5800 K (surface) 15,600,000 K (core) transparent to EM radiation. The Sun contains more than 99.8% of the total mass of • Energy is carried away from core as the Solar System (Jupiter contains most of the rest). electromagnetic radiation (photons) by Chemical composition: the radiative diffusion mechanism. • It takes light 170,000 years for the energy created at the core to travel Sunspots through the radiative zone (696,000 – These are irregular shape dark regions km) at a rate of 50cm per hour in the photosphere • Convective zone – Mostly found in groups. • In this region the temperature is low – Vary in size, typically of Earth size (few enough for nuclei to join with electrons ten thousands kilometers in diameter). and form hydrogen atoms, and these – These are not permanent feature, absorb light very efficiently. lasting anywhere between a few hours • material(gas) convects energy (heat) to to a few months. surface. Sunspots have two regions: • Hot gas goes up & cooler gas comes – Dark central core named the umbra down. – And brighter border called the • Methods of probing the interior of the Sun penumbra. • Helioseismology: measuring vibrations of the • Sunspots are NOT shadows but regions in the Sun as a whole. photosphere that are relatively low in temperature. ATMOSPHERE of the Sun – 3 layers • The average temp. of the photosphere is The Other Parts of the Sun:The Solar Atmosphere 5800K whereas the umbra of a sunspot is at a • Photosphere shines(emit radiation) at a “cool” 4300K and the penumbra is somewhat temperature of 5800K. hotter 5000K The photosphere is heated from below by the • Since these regions are cooler they emit less energy streaming out from the solar interior. light than the rest of the photosphere and thus Spectral studies show that the temperature look darker decreases to a “cool” 4800K. • Galileo was the first to study sunspots. • Photosphere consists of very low density gas, • He observed that he could determine the Sun’s primarily Hydrogen & Helium. rotation rate by tracking sunspots. – Density ~10-4 kg/m3(.01% of Earth’s • He discovered that the Sun rotates once about avg. density) every 4 weeks. • When observing with a telescope (fitted with a special filter) we can see a blotchy pattern in Solar Prominences the photosphere called granulation. • Solar prominences are sheets or loops of – Light colored granules surrounded by glowing gas ejected from an active region in dark colored boundaries. the Sun. • Instabilities in the intense magnetic field near Chromosphere sunspots causes these. • The Chromosphere has a density 1/10,000th • These loops are 10 times larger than the Earth that of the Photosphere • They last for weeks. • It can only be seen during a total Solar Eclipse, or by using special filters, where the Solar Flares Photosphere is blocked from view. • Solar flares occur in complex sunspot groups. • Unlike in the Photosphere the temperature • Observed low in the Sun’s atmosphere in the rises with altitude in the Chromosphere, from active region. 4000K - 25,000K. • These are also due to instabilities in the magnetic field. Corona • Most energetic of these flares are equal to 1014 • Outer most region of the Sun’s atmosphere. nuclear bombs going off simultaneously. • Extends to several million kilometers and one millionth as bright as the Photosphere Coronal mass ejections are much bigger than • Can be seen only if we block the Photosphere flares – Using filters or during a total solar • Blasts a billion tons of hot coronal gas into eclipse space • Corona is not a spherical shell of gas but • Seems to be related to large-scale changes in numerous streamers extending in different the Sun’s magnetic field. directions. • Solar wind consists mainly of electrons, Solar Activity Hydrogen ions, and Helium ions. • When solar flares & coronal mass ejections are • Solar wind causes the Aurora on Earth.. aimed towards Earth – A stream of high energy electrons & • Known maria, highlads and craters nuclei reaches us few days latter. – These interfere with satellite. The formation of the moon – Disrupt electronics & communication • Born from the earth - broke off from the earth equipment. by centrifugal forces, and left the pacific ocean behind Moon, Moon Phases & Eclipses • Captured by the earth’s gravity The Moon • Co-formation with the earth • Moon – our closest natural neighbor • Giant impact hypothesis • The earth’s only natural satellite • An impact of a Mars-sized body collide w/ the • Orbit around the earth is an eclipse proto-Earth and ejected materials to orbit • Average distance from the earth to the moon is around the earth – the Moon 384,403 kilometers (238,857 miles) – 30 times Explorations of the moon the diameter of the earth • Ancient people observed the moon by naked • Diameter of 3,474 km, ¼ of the earth eyes, and wrote poems and essays, and told • Gravity 1/6 of the earth myths Moon’s orbit • Galileo first observed the moon using an • The orbit period around the earth – 27.3 days telescope • The spin period is exactly the same! • The only celestial body the human being has • We always see the same side of the moon! orbited and landed ( precisely speaking 59% of the surface during • First impact: Luna 2 of Soviet Union in 1959 the whole period of the moon revolution. • First far side picture: Luna 3 in 1959 • The period of Lunar Phase – 29.5 days • First soft landing: Luna 9 in 1966 • Because of the earth’s revolution in the space • First men’s step on the moon: Apollo 11 in • The orbit plane of the moon is tilted by ~5 1969 degree with respect to the earth’s orbit around Moon Phases the sun, unlike other planets • Why does the moon change phases? • The orbit plane of the moon is tilted by ~5 • Lunar phases are the result of our eyes seeing degree with respect to the earth’s orbit around the illuminated half of the Moon from the sun, unlike other planets different viewing geometries Moon’s surface • Due to the Moon’s orbital positions Maria (sigular mare, ‘sea’ in Latin) • The Moon’s Orbit around the earth • Dark areas and were thought to be seas • Cover 31% of the near side, but only 2% of the far side • No water but vast pools of solidified lava that flowed into basins formed by comets/metors colliding • Nomenclature: Latin terms describing the weather and abstract concepts • Smaller dark regions • Lacus (Lake) • Palus (marsh) • Sinus" (bay) Craters • Formed when asteroids/comets hit the lunar surface • Half a million craters with diameters larger than 1km • Crater counting – to estimate the age of the lunar surface • The largest crater is South Pole-Aitken basin, with 2,240 kms in diameter and 13 kms in depth • Nomenclature: • Large craters, deceased famous scientists, artists • Small craters, common first names